: a ~~ i? *
; : a roe =} a si .- bo
ow 32° without freezing, | bat t a lit : agitation, pro-
of ie of the water in long & faminated ° ey
o*
278 | Miscellaneous Intelligence.
The stream of water is cooled to the freezing point, and by the cold
of the night its temperature is still more reduced. In this state the
onion is more than Brine ae and the stenes and wood under the
ind the ice a vine them.
_ The quantity of anchor-ice formed would be small for an obvious
reason. Every pound of water frozen would evolve 142° of caloric,
which would raise 142 pounds of water one degree, or 71 pounds two
degrees. Allowing the temperature of the stream to be reduced to
31° or 30°, the ee of a relatively = quantity would thus
»
&
"2
B
=
is)
tae
a
a
>
tas)
n
S.
oe
im
1]
=
Oo
n
id
$s)
D
=
i=)
°
a
a
i )
wD
ae
ue
because they sites aia the same ines sinha as the water.
Rochester, July, 1
P. S. Rocks sometimes pass from a frozen me ae: oo with
which their temperature may be as low as 20°, and under water,
which congeals on them because they are so cold, noe thus ford s solid
‘~ have never seen it in solid masses, but of a spongy appearance.
the anchor-ice retains after it has risen to the surface of the water.
P Discovery of the Great Lake ** Ngami,” of South Af ca ; (Let-
a. from the Rev. David Livingston, addressed to the, Rev.”
o, main nat Poreipth Secretary, London Missionary Society ; dated,
the. River Zonga, 3rd September, 1849; cited from Jameson’s Jour-
Ju , 1850, vol. ie Ke 156.)- —Dear Sir,—I left my station, Ko
Sh ear on: the Ist of June last,
. ee formed you, viz., too
ees
‘great obstacle to our progress, cae the
' nort » has hitherto present ted an
thirty waggons, ate many @
Two gel eaitoeipns, to: whon I had communicated my faten tion: of pr:
ceeding to the. ofi-reported lake beyond the desert, came me from m Englan¢
for the ¢ pul thee oa present at the disc nd ta
3 e0;0pe we are Sonepe ya
objects have been
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 279
ute living on the banks of the lake, with an earnest request from a
for a visit. But the path by which they had come to Kolobe
was Reegagcricable for waggons; so, declining their guidance I pte:
the more circuitous route, by which the Bermangueato usually pass,
and, having Bakwains for ee: their self-i interest in our. success was
secured by my promising to carry any ivory they might procure for
toeir chiefs in my waggon ; me Hah faithfully performed ee
tas
n Sekhomi, the Bermangueato chief, became aware of our in- 3
iitions to pass into the regions beyond him, with true native inhuman-
ity he sent men before us to drive away all bushmen and Bakalihari-
from our route, in order that, being deprived of their assistance in the:
: search for water, we might, like the Griquas above mentioned, be com-
j pelled to return _This measure deprived me of the opportunity o of hold-
ey
“ee
gg
-_
a
@
S
oO
=
i)
°
Sc
=
Dn
1°)
-.
a
—
=
i”)
2)
oO
a]
°
2)
_
°
=
ie)
i]
ns
n
—_
S
aq"
ra
—
ie)
-
a
oO
|
Be
a
oO
=
Qe
<
“O
-O,
e- 3
.
~
God, after travelling about
300 miles from Kolobeng, we struck on a magnificent river on the 4th
of July, and without farther difficulty, in so far as water was concerne ed,
by winding along its banks nearly 300 miles more, we reached the Ba. cme
tavana, on the lake Ngami, by the beginning of August. *
pepions to leaving this beautiful river on aed return —_ and coms !
ba or Bayeiye. They area i distinct race from echuanas,
_ They call themselves Bayeiye (or men), while the term Bakoba (the — _
name has somewhat of the meaning of “slaves,’’) is applied to them
by the Bechuanas. Their c complexion is darker than that of the Bech-
uanas ; and of 300 words I collected of their language, only 21 bear
any resemblance to Sitchuana. They paddle along the rivers and lake,
in canoes hollowed out of the trunks of single trees; take fish 1 tiets aes
made of a weed which emia on the banks; and kill hippopdtaimi - | ae
with harpoons attached to ropes. We greatly ace ye frank marily * >
bearing of these inland, lace: any of t oke. S site :
ently, and, stile the waggon went along the hanks ‘Tar re
following lod ‘ ‘ ae i
among the reed. . The banks ul ¢ * ..
ever seen, except perhaps : some: parts of the. i
— ar,
eae
lyde. They are covered, in general, with gigantic trees, some o
ae | bearing fruit, andal quite new. ‘Two of the Boabab varie
ie ured 70 t to 76 feet in clfcumfapgnce The hi her we Beooe
HS
rete
$c oe which make oe discovery « of the lake ‘dwindle out of sight. it 3 : af
. he. a highway, capable of being giek “traversed
section of well-peopled territory.4,
feature in this river is its péri
feef in height since our a
280 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
dry season. That the rise is not caused by rains is evident from the
water being s so pure. Its purity and softness increased as we ascended
came from a mountainous en oe the conclusion that the in-
must be derived from melting sn
~. All the rivers reported, to the al of this, —_ Bayeiye upon, thal
a ae and. there are other tribes on their banks. To one of these, after visit-
* Yng the Batavana, and taking a peep at the miei part of the Jake, we
directed our course; but the Batavana chief managed to obstruct us,
by keeping all the Bay yeiye near the ford on the opposite bank of the
Zonga. African chiefs. invariably dislike to see strangers passing them
r years “saved
f the
gratitude. This
-but the wood, though
+ hiothes kind. would not
= sf ress
™. The sakoba listened. to the statements im
Divine Word with great attention, andif; I am pot mistaken, see me
understand the message of mercy delivexed, bene tha:
whom I have preached for the first time. «,, They ha
not, however, take these for certain,
it language. ira d are found «
the. banks: of all
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 281
that a chief, who lives in a part of the country in the north, called Maz-
zekiva, kills a man ene sig throws his body into the stream, after
which the water begins to
The sketch which I enclose i is ——— to ee an idea of the river
Zonga and the lake Ngami. The n of the latter is pronounced as
if written with the Spanish fi, the e ag sete to show that the
ringing sound is required. The meaning is “Great Water.” The lat-
_ taken by a Sextant on which I can fully depend, was 20° 20/
south, at the oa —* where it is joined by the Zonga; lon-
Fiude about 24° We do not, however, know it with certainty.
in the south-southwest presents a large horizon of water. Jt ts report-
ed to be about 70 miles in length, bends round to the northwest, and
there receives another river similar to the Zonga. The Zonga runs to
the northeast. The thorns were so thickly planted near the upper part
of this river, that we left all our waggons standing about 180 miles
from the lake, except that of Mr. Oswell, in which we traveled the re-
maining distance but:for this precaution our oxen would have been un-
able to return. I am now sta ascii at a tribe of Bakurutse, and shall a
_ina ay or io re- -enter the deser pr
The breadth marked-is inte paded to show the difference betecen shee Fy
size of thé Zonga, after its junction with the Tamunakle and before it.
The farther ‘it t runs east, the narrower it becomes. The course is —
shown by the arrow-heads. The rivers not seen, but reported by the*”
ives, are. put down in dotted lines. The dotted lines running north”
“ofthe the riverand lake, show the probable course of the Tam ia
= and:another river which falls into ‘Be lake at its northwest extrem
The arrow:heads show also the direction of its ow. Atthe part m
ed by the-name eee Mosing it a. Hot srs than 50 or 60;
rds
oe oe
( ig
* Conon i “nebageelal ane entigr
No, - 854, Abad: ., Paris.) —
282 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
100° of Centigrade ; but in France the height of the barometer for
graduation is 760 millimeters, while in England it is 30 inches, equiva-
lent to 761:9862 millimeters. The Centigrade scale corresponding to
212° Fahrenheit is therefore 100-0727 degrees.
To this — there is still another, (for instruments made at
London and Paris,) amounting to y’yth of the preceding, which depends
aris.
Representing by G the force of gravity at Paris, and by g that at
London, and deducing G and g from the observed length of the
G
25 nia we have, Log. — Peas 1:998797. We hence obtain 759: 7185
‘. ~.., mnillimeters for the height of the barometer at zero in Pevissce The dif-
pee " Sfenke nce is equal to 0°215 millimeters or 0:0079 de
. These two corrections being applied, the Pusiciat “ical should stand
at 100: 08066 degrees, when the London scale marks 212 degrees. The
(F — 32°) x 100: 08066
:: fortents then aaneies C=
180
The correction is small; but in exact observations, the thermometer
is read to 0-08 degrees ; and it is Saairahin that even a slight error should
; not be added to errors of observa
4. 6. Discovery of an Infusorial "Sitetin in Florida; by Prof. J. ee
Bauer, —While on a visit to Tampa (Fort Brooke), Florida, I noti
on the shores of Hillsborough Bay, between the mouth o f Hillsborough
River and Ballast Point, a white crumbling rock, which = its lightness,
friability and other characters, somewhat resembled the Infusorial Marls
es of ‘Virginia. An examination made upon the spot with a common
Co dington ‘lens enabled me to see small circular discs upon the freshly
r Reiored surfaces, which subsequent examinations proved to. belong to
oscin ate umerous other marine species of Navicula,
ether with numerous spicules of ponges were
va : it is pot improbable that he esos near Tampa may be a a porti
rb of a deposit as a s those discovered by Prof. W. B. Rogers
* et ies ame and Mar
“6 te oaiatetick have. beeti made to apply electro- -magneti
co rte ayy and: Spariculaaly described the a
. , De Negros
‘that although we He, not perhaps s arrived at the best
‘3. The force belt 1,000, the zinc consum
; y ee lifted ne » Si 12,672
4 “Se ssby. ‘te
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 283
construction of machines, the public are not in possession of si Pe elec
magnetic machine which is capable of exerting power economic-
ally; and finding that, ee the aid given to faces by the
ussian Government, t e experimentalist has abandoned his ex-
perimental trials, —the aie has been induced to devote much atten-
tion t
a satisfactory basis. ‘The phenomenon of electro-magnetic peer
was explained, and phase given of the magnetization of so
by means of a voltaic current made to circle around it. lhe er
of electro-magnets was ae gher the author stated his belief that this — ~~ :
power could in ace without limitation. A voltaic current pro ja ®
duced by the chemical disturbance of the elements of any batiery, no
matter what its form may be, is capable of producing by induction a
magnetic force, this magnetic force being always in an exact ratio to
the amount of matter (zinc, iron, or otherwise) consumed inthe battery, .< |
Several forms of the voltaic battery were explained, particularly those
of Daniell, Grove, Bunsen, and Reinsch, the latter being constructed
fluids, slowly combini he author had, however, proved, by an
tensive series of Se eek that the greatest amo t of i Sot et
Power is produced when the chemical action is most rapid. Hence, “*
intense action, than one in which the chemical action is slow.
been proved by Mr. Joule, and most satisfactorily confirmed by ‘the =
author, that ‘one-horse power is obtainable in an ele teetro oe en- >
cost of 45 |b. of zinc, in a Grove’s battery, in = et
while 75 Ib. are consume in the same time to produce vacate ow
ome ities resistance Pthich the molecular forces off Teel on. eae 2 ees
rturbations, on which the magnolia force depends. © It was of oli +s
ing preersd to 78, the number of Pte of zine ne desttoye per hour was aa 6%,
he
and the cmap obigined by
y and
284 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
Liga only 80 lbs. The cost of 1 cwt. of coal is under 9d. ; the cost of
1 cwt. of zinc is 216d. ‘Therefore, under the most perfect coo
atl power must be nearly 25 times more expensive than
e author proceeded to show that it was almost gn
to be an impossibility ever to reach even this, owing, in the first place,
os we rate with which the force diminishes through space. As t
n of a great many experiments on a large variety of magnets, -
diferent Aa and modes of construction, the following result W
given
Magnet and armature in contact, lifting force . . 220 |b.
Sg lg ia nt sty of an inch. . 90°6
pas 5 [74 tis ‘ i 50°7
Z5 ‘ ‘
» 66 6s oe 6 : 7" 50°1
6s oe
=e . 40°5
Thos at -onesfifieth of an inch distance four-Gfths of the power are
his
r rather
ricily, acting in oeeetiee to me. bencai current by which ihe
induc
‘ Biehie de is nat all these. results, MP.
ta iis disposed to. regard clectromugnetio ef as immpeaction
ny account , he conceives, U0
than ae am power; a
Vv ae Atheneum.)
ante, Jr ( of the
dinary pum r.. Varl rley has a conti :
dfe, and one puble-actingy barrel. he piston-
‘the « motion eet ae the cy linder oscillates from it
Da Maxine Biv
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 285
the top and the bottom of the barrel at each stroke, by which the rare-
faction of the air is doubled. He has obtained, with this pump, a
vacuum of >; of an inch of mercury.
” Photography on Glass; by T. A. Matone, (Atheneum, No.
1179, p. 589.)—In repeating the experiment of M. Niepce de Saint-
Victor on photography on albumen (published in the Technologiste for
1848,) 1 was led to devise a plan of my own for making * glass nega-
tives.” I proceeded as follows :—To the white of an egg its own bulk
a strainer made of letter-paper so twisted as to form a cone, having a
small aperture at its apex; pinned near the base to hold the paper to A
its shape. The clear diluted albumen soon passed through intoawide- © *
remove dust and fibres, cotton wool was used. Unless this latter and
every other precaution is taken to prevent dust, the picture will be full
of spots produced by a greater absorption of iodine (in a subsequent
Process) in those than in the surrounding parts.
Now pour the albumen on the glass, inclining the plate from side to
side until it is covered ; allow the excess a of the corners,
keeping the plate nearly vertical. As soon as the albumen ceases
drop rapidly, breathe on, or warm the lower half of the plate; the
double-ring gas-burner of some eighty jets. A common fire answers ae
as well, save now and then it imparts a little dust. ed:
en ; hoe a
transparent that thé brilliancy of the glass is unimpaired. It is almost » a *
necessary to mark it to know which side has'been coated. Se ’ +3
rhe next operation is to iodize the plate. Dilute pure iodine with 90°,
dry white-sand in a mortar, using about equal parts of each. Putt Te ay
- Mixture into a square g h, and’ place the albumin
a. late; as soon as the latter has. become yellow in color, resemb :
beautiful stained glass, remove it into a room lighted only by a candle, g
A or through any yellow translucent substance—yellow calico; for in- Ao
plunge it vertically and rapidly into a deep nar
SIX y ounces of distilled water. Allow it to remain until” . 24
ent. yellow tint disappears, to b succeeded by a milky-)
if jodid-of silver. Washing with distilled BF com- + @?
We te
res
vy
286 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
\
But where is the novelty? Let us go back astep. While the gallic
acid is developing its reddish-brown image, pour upon the surface a
present ;
% ances which may depend solely on molecular arrangement :—an intri-
‘cate subject, to which I hope this communication may prove a slight
contribution ;
Prof.
7
hat
doubt not
$ occas to confirm, as a practica
\d-as a substitute for all such works of a
ecuted in bronze or marble; and to add |
oS
mely, by the em-
k, which yle
gor
laster of Paris, anc out
t Id, be the int
sharp and perfect in-all the integrity 0
me the origindles 2043 ce
about five per cent. of ant
Wap
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 287
most delicate details of the work. As to the durability of the lead for
Sof art, any one who has observed the next to no waste
which has taken place in lead exposed on the roofs of ancient buildings,
will have in this way most abundant and satisfactory proof that it is in
every sense of use as durable a material as bronze when subject sim-
ply to atmospheric action.
t would give me pleasure to enumerate several practical details in
or any of your readers think such information worthy of your atten-
tion. am, &ec. James NasmyTH. «% «4 “«
11. British Association —The British Association commenced its -°’
twentieth Meeting at Edinburgh on Wednesday, July 31. By Wednes:
day night 900 names had been recorded, and the receipts amounted to
£814. At the first meeting, Wednesday night, Sir David Brewster, the °°
President for the session, addressed the Association. eae
12. Sun and Moon; (L’lostitut, No. 857.)—M. Nrerce be Sr. Victor
has obtained images of the sun and moon on beds of albumen ren-
dered sensible by an accelerative process peculiar to it. These photo-
taphic experiments confirm the opinion before stated by MM. Fizeau
and Foucault, that the centre of the sun gives out rays of a greater
examination brought to light 49 animal forms, soft portions of plants,
a
| few crystals, a morpholite and some sand. is powder is disse *
tinguished from that of the trade winds by some prominent forms,» +” a.
Ehrenberg believes that there is reason for concluding that this meteoric, oe -.
’ powder is neither a terrestrial powder nor simple volcanic cinders. 3 °° 2°"
14. American Zoological Journal.—We take pleasure in announci te ae
the sp i ae
Setts), under the direction and edito "ecg ¢
will hail it with great bo
Joiced that it is in ha ix
s
ied
of he
was -
288 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
gust and was continued through the week with great zeal and interest:
Prof. A. D. Bache, Superintendent of the U.S S. Coast Survey, was pres-
ident of the meeting. ‘The number in seine api was lareee ever
at which time addresses and discussions were heard. Prof. enry,
ees - Secretary of the Smithsonian — and President of the Cambri
es es seen delivered his address on Thursday evening. As thi
>that it contained a most admirable review of ethics for esa and w:
“peculnly fitted for the present period of scientific progres The nex
nnual meeting of the Association will be held at Albany on the
Ma arch
NATURAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. :
the Car-
On the position and character of the Reptilian Footprints in
boniferous Red Shale formation of Eastern Pennsylvania. By Prof.
H. D. Rogers, oe.
. On the coal fortgation of the United States, and eapecially in Penne
lvania. By Prof, Henny D. Rocer
On the a ape of the deposits " common salt with cli
. HENRY ERS.
On the decomposition of Rocks and Minerals by water impregnated
_L -with carbonic acid. By Profs. H. D. Rogers.
os? Tert ossils of ‘Marsh eld ~ By Dr. C. "'T. Jackson.
c <> «x On ancient Pot-holes in y Dr. C. T. Jackson. :
eee,” *" The genus Amia, a ee iv repr ntative of the old family of
es s+ Cevlacanthi. By L. Acas oe
: ie phic ‘rotks of Eastern Massachusetts. By oe
mate. By
SIZ
n between the young caterpillars of Lepidoptera and the
gmata.
wadult Late of Mosapiost> and on the mode of formation of Sti
ASS
. ee upon the care which certain fines take of their young:
y Prof.
L. Acass i
On the development of compound organs from single cells. PY :
rof. L. Aca é
nent of the liver, alr Diadiet and isan e° silu-2",
me
AGASSIZ. -
ie t of aa a aa Artic
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289
On some ae in the structure of Scleroderms and Gymodonts. By
Prof. L. Aca
On the Sica of the mouth in Crustacea. By Prof. L. Agassiz.
On the differences of Structure of sph in Animals and correspond- ~
ing differences in their functions. By . AGAssiz.
é singe rison of the face of sine ih that of Fovneed Vertebrata and
~ On the relation ph aa eclisiatidn and structure in the higher ani-
mals. By Prof. L. Acass “4
On the patie al the pee prior to the development of the vie icy *
By Prof. L. A oo
- On a new mi of scales j in Fishes. By Prof. L. Acas ;
On a fossil species rg Walrus so by Prof, Fraser on he shores of
New Jersey. By Prof. L. Acass
On the probable age of the Moa ‘Bone Beds of New Zealand, “By”
Recinatp N. Manret, « K.
Notice of the discovery of a portion of the upper jaw of the Iguan
odon with teeth in their natural position. vi Recinatp N. Mante
Relations of terrestrial Mollusca in Jam ica—gradation of specie
into each other. By Prof. C. B. Apams, Koiberi Jollege
- On the patie and origin of the species of terrestrial Mollusca, in
the Island of Jamaica. By Prof. C, B. Apams.
. Suggestion | ‘on changes of dexel in North America, during the drift
period. By Prof. C. B. Ap ae
On the value of Sth! ‘Mollusca as furnishing distinctive charac- -
ters. By Prof. C. B. Apa ; et ta
Curious growth ‘of a Polnig.. By S. Wes Pa
Essay on the classification of Nemertes sae Planar by. Pixs
Girarp, Cambridge. sds 4 a ore
new Generic Type i in the class of worms. By Cas. Grragb.
On a new American Saurian Reptile. By Cus. peren
On the early uses of the metals as a medium of e ee
H. Gisgon, = af
Ou the Volcanoes of central ange , with observations ‘onthe se x.
Saige and Be gate e of Nica caragua. By E. Go, ~ .*?
x PY i
Me fortiation of Maryland, Virginia (ge
N. Carolina. By Prof. W, Cote Not Washington.
On the coal formation of Cen h Se agra By, Pet Ns ie a
Some observation’ op B e
JOHNSON
e Re esearches on the origi development atihdietare of th he. spe
Particles throughout the Vertebrata. By Dr. W. J. Bur
Pe in ntl Seal of Ebvctbers, nat Animals, but Pepe
UR
On Uiicles ve the primordial forms of. all animal ation By De
Bur a
ee ae
— hee
erent Faune. & 5
0 the sdaiice’ of the distribution of Lice P
“ By Bde We J. Borner
—
ie.
habits iS Ploiaria brevipennis. = By
rvations on drift Strie in New B:
on, N. B..
290 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
On the Taconic system. By T. S. Hunt, Montreal.
On some localities - Magnesite with remarks on its connection with
the origin of Serpentine. By T. 8S. Hunt
On the i Srrapiare observed in Potsdam Sandstone. “By
SHEPA
dl
Remarks on the seventeen year rp ‘er ‘Miss Mor
On the theories the Deluge in reference to the Ethnogenphie dise
tribution of the human race. . P. Les.ey.
On $ optical arectei of "American Micas. By Prof. B. Sina
N,
On in origin of a curious pd gy “he are in certain sedimen=
tary rocks.. By Professor B. Sittim
On the analogy between the mode “of nop taboetiens in plants and he
ahereping generations of some Radiata, By Prof. James D. Dan
ale.
‘DeScription of the new genera of Plants found by Col. Fremont in
California. By Dr. Torrey
Fossil Coniferous Wood from the Devonian strata of Lebanon, Ma-
Brass Co., Be. By Prof. Georce C. Scuaerrer. Read b y Dr. W. J
URN ;
PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS.
ae the origin and classification of Mechanical Powers. By Prof.
. Josern Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
? Analysis of the Dynamic Phenomena of the Leyden ‘Jar. By Prof.
a the ple principles of Dynamics. By Prof, BensaMIN
‘ ee o ER E
tha probable period of ihe fundamental star a Virginis. By P rof.
.. PEIRC
: ae alvantl wave time. By R. Cutmann, Bava
4 ‘Description of an ab ine a exhibiting the dinade of vibration in
* < “s 3 + molctl of unpolarized light. By Prof. E. 8. Snett, Amherst.
‘ig ee ye On et distances. By Prof. W. N Cu AUVENET, of the U. 8. Na-
‘ : t Cat ‘hand in the Gulf f of —
5 = sa t U.S. Coast Survey.
f Current :
STED.
ats of Sogtiont theery: By Prof. D.
> pro perties es sompconds re) 5
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291
Notice of a powerful Magnet. By Prof. B. Situman, Jr.
n the dae moving of figures. By Prof Exias Loomis, New
York Univers
Be Retrical phenomena observed in certain houses. By Prof. Loomis.
On the continuance of the Magnetic vn pe As Observations
at the Toronto Observatory. By Prof.
ome remarks on the theory of the solar spots. By Prof. H. D.
- Rogers, Boston.
On the theory of Storms. By Dr.
On the use of zenith telescope in er determination of Latitude.
By Prof. Lewis R. Gisses, Charleston, S. C. ek
Description of a new eneinecie for measuring the angle contained + ©
between the optic axes of crystals, and for goniometrical purposes, —
} Accompanied by the ange contained between ~ case: axes of some
American Micas. By W. P. Brake, Yale Labo
On the extension of Bode’s Law. By Prof. Dees Avexannen,
Princeton.
On the law of oo of an electrical current upon itself. By
Mr. J. H. Lane, Patent Office
On a Whirlwind aféduiied by the cite of a Cane-brake in Alaba-
ma. By ALexanper FisHer OLMsteD, aven.
On Monsoons on the shores of the North Atantid By Prof. J. H.
OFFIN.
On the nen se 5 for giteriad rg received bite of Dy-
namical Meteor ogy. . Revrietp, New Yor -
Pousianicatae on the "Solar Betipse “of daly, 1881. By Lieut. Cc. ae a
H. Davis, Supt. of the Nautical Alm 2
On the numerical a of i -co-citiohaats of the perturbato- mye
Zh function of Planetary motion. BySgars C. WALKER
On Barometrical viaeacibcatinies and the distance to whieh correspond=
ing observations = be used for that purpose. ee Beet. ‘*
with, and according to the Jiegatid
Prof. ARNoup Guyvor,
reps imoget of ae proposed 2 adtial Exhibit
1851. By W. R. Jos
292 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
On the variation in the proper motion of the fundamental star @ Vir-
ginis. By Mr. cHuBERT of Cambridge.
On a new method of observing and recording ss R. A. and
N. P. distances. By Prof. O. M. Mitcu HEL, Cincinnati.
On the Laws “ Perfect oe Intonation, sod their application to
: the Church Organ. By H. W. Poote.
ve! A plan for Oe Catalogues of Libraries by ~_—s titlenche
* and for forming a general stereotype Catalogue of public Libraries of
the United States. By a C, Jewett, Assistant Sec. a Librarian of
_. the Sp Agee Institut
2 SF the Nautical Alans By Cuartes H. Davis, Superintendent
i sae bs Mastica! Alm
a Elliptical Tables of the Planet Neptune. By Prof. Grorcs We
_ Coax LEY, St. James College, Maryland. a
CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
a Account of six new Mineral species. By Prof. Cuarzes U.
Notice of For reign Meteorites and of a large stone lately found, of
gt the Linn Co. fall, Missouri, Feb. 7, 1847. By Prof. C. U. SHeparp.
_ Some notices of American Minerals. By Prof. Cuarues U. SHEPARD.
~ On the absorption of Lathoric Acid by.acids and saline pew.
+ Profs. W. B. Rogers and R. E. Rogers.
in a new method of detomipslag silicates in the process of apaly-
_ 2 ‘analysis of the Pink Scapolite of Bolton. By F BY
UBT
On the availability of the. Green Sand of New Jersey, as a source of
potash agd its compounds. By Henry Wurrz.
On the Troostite of New Jersey. By Henry Wurrz.
On Canadian localities of Ilmenite and Chromic Iron, with remarks
ssociation of these minerals with the Gold of Canada and
tT, Canada Geol. Commission.
ils and the ashes of Peat. By T. S. Hunt.
ae
a aibiyen, Prof. of Chem-
comments, by T.S. Hunt.
Mm in the general atmosphere» xe
wet the State. of Massachusetts.
_e
resente; yr. C, bt
,,” Allanite- Fr aaklio, Nd “By Dr. C _ T. Jackson
‘> Telluret of Bismuth and Gold. - By Dr. Cae FiGksoN.
On the manufacture of Zine and Zine white. By Dr. C. Fe Jack
N.
Analysis. of red marl of Springfield, Mass. By. Dr. C. T. J.
con, Sodalite ncrinite, Ps. Litchfield, Mee ioe
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 293
Be: the relation of the chemical constitution of bodies to taste. By
Prof. E. N. Horsrorp, Harvard.
On the connection between the chemical constitution of bodies and
color. By Prof. E. N. Horsrorp.
On the Spheroidal State. By Prof. Horsrorp
_ On the adulteration of Vermilion. By Henry Brown, Cambridge
boratory.
~ Ammonia in Atmospheric Air. By Prof. E. N. Horsrorp.
Analysis of Phlogopite from St. Lawrence Co. +» New York. By Wm. ba
J. Craw, Yale Laborator oe Regge:
Determinations of Nitrogen in two varieties of Indian Corn. By “3 ae
Wm. H. Brewer, Yale Laborato ,
Analysis of en ash of Sweet Cutts By Wm. H. Brewer *
“8 account of some experiments upon the cause of feriiondiatds ;
7 Dr. Henry Ern
On American A pedcrtat, By Grorce J. Brus
On some peculiar properties of a compound of Tard and Rosin.
By Prof. D. Oumstep, Yale College.
Notice of two American Meteoric Irons. By Prof. B. Srtuman, Jr,
Proper Bpigke of Lightning Rods. By Prof. Ex1as Loomis, New
ys Unive
n Ru tile i in Quartz ase other Migopan; By Prof. O. P. Hupparp, ,
Dartmouth College
ma ba 7 a
aD roceedings of the’ American Association fg r fs ¢ Advancement
rr Sint Tuirp Meerine, held at Charleston, 1850.
he oe of Plants inhabiting the vicil _*
By H. W. Ravenet, E or. 3
i i the isorery or he Gulf Stream epone -
y Lieut. M. F. Maury.
4 ‘ie ; of Voge By Prot,
Esrrlicarors of Natur
<3 Dr. J. H. Gisso.
294 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
Results of observations on the direction and force of Wind at the
Coast Survey Stations. By Prof. A. D. Bacu
On the application of the Electro- Chronograph in determining the
figure-and density of the earth. By Lieut. M. P. age
Remarks on preceding paper by Prof. L. R. Gina ; fitness of Stone
Mountain, Ga., for such observations ; smallest atin appreciable |
the ear between the beats of two chronometers
On the existence in some psi of two - Insensible spots on th
Retina. By Prof. Lewis R. Gis
= Researches on the generation a development of the Opossum. By
“©. Dr. Myopetron Micae.
¥ Remarks of Prof. L. om on preceding paper ; necessity of fur-
ther details.
Remarks of Rev. Dr. Bacuman on the same paper; vigor and power
sof suction of young opossum, just taken from the uterus.
On the Paleozoic Rochis of Alabama. By Prof. M. Tuomey.*
oe he peculiar sensations produced by a damp atmosphere. By
Dr. W. L. Jones.
On the age Equus. By Dr. Ropert W. GipBE
_ Remarks on the preceding a, By F.S. oust No fossil
SS inatini scot except cetacean, in the Eocene marl of So So. Ca.
_ On the Northern Elephas, and on Mainhdod angustidens. By ‘Dr. R.
ow. GiBBES.
On Fossils common to several Fodeiaetde: By Dr. R. W
Remarks on*the, preceding paper by. Prof. Acassiz and Pro
MEY; the se ommon to two or more strata are very we
. On the ‘dir bladder of the Drum-fish, Pogonias fasciatus, and the
~~ mecha nis ism by which the sound is produced. By Dr. J. E. Hous
asi a on the preceding paper by Prof. Agassiz; development of
air bladder
= BRomarkr: on the paper of Prof. Tuomey, of yesterday, by Dr. E.
:n Eevanct and Lieut, Maury; importance of the coal fields of Alabama
or * to the navigation and competes of the Pacific.
" ae: : emarks on the p . Gibbes, of yesterday, by Fro Prof.
Es | “Agassiz ; the species common to > different formations are very few,
J », mistakes in this respect are geological erro
< . ss Paci of a fossil ica +to the genus Leistot By
a aie Pr rof. TuoMEY. a
, By Lieut. M. F. Mav
n.
ks on the preceding , Prof. epee or the anced E
eof the name aoF the first Pe of a —
baa a i Ma ciee Flora of the Aflantic. By Prof. HL
On'the ‘comparative reflecting or) of the Planets, Mare
and. Saturn. By Prof. Lewis R. Gipse
Distribution of the Foraminifera on the Coast of New Jersey. By _
F. ps Pourtaes. #
one on this paper, by Prof. AGASSIZ ; ; the aid: mloree ha Nate
lists, by the Coast Survey. Po
f Succession of —_ in Foramin
Jupiter
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295
On - American species of the genus Putorius. By the Rey. Dr.
Ronn
ee ~ the alleged subsidence of the Coast of South Carolina. By Prof.
a= of Prof. (ome ate vn reading of this sofia ; zoolog-
Races
Icroscopic examination of the Pile of the Head of Albinos. By
. Browne, Esq.
“On an easy mode of illustrating the orice in the Velocity of
Sound i in Gases. By Prof. Lewis ‘R. Gi
On the Morphology of the Meduse. By Prof. AGassiz.
_ Recent sg of the ay one Operations of the United States
; Prof. Bac
Coast Surve : ;
ad the dicaned! Giecilletioe of + ‘Atmosphere. By Lieut. M. F:;
AU
: Measurement of the Base Line on Edisto Island, S.C. By Prof. A.
Bacue.
aout of three new American Meteorites, and geographical distri-
bution of such bodies generally. rof. C. U.
a Structure of the Bones of Siren lacertina. By Dr. e JoLien
es a tae
anes
, a new oe of Menobranchus, from South Carolinas By Prof. a?
‘ ea R. GIBBEs. ee
On the eal Squalide of the Coast of South Carolina; seal Cata- er:
logue of the — an Fossil Echinoderms of South Carolina, By = ©
t. Epmunp Rave . ain
On the Becrcoots Formation of Alabama, ole the Artesian Wells ‘
in that State. By Prof. Tuomey.* Sag ae
On the Resistance of Timber By H. Hav ; 4 =
On the Carcinological Gollectinag of the United pie 3c and descrip. ~
tions of new species, rof. Lewis R. Gizses.
On the Morphological Differences of Organs. By P Prof. L. Acassiz.* ’ &
De cca and Mortuary Chart o' New Orleans, for 1849. at “ : ?
H. Barr : i.
a Observations on ‘the Geol sy of Astley River, Ss. Carolina., By ag
= Reniesks on the o prea pape’
: =< of ons in the Fossil Be th :
Prox a Composition " ieee e ' Plowere of Plants, @
Plants moni ves. By Dr. J. H. Satis *.
re by Prot pi meting the ¢ large num." ‘¢
of se
as 2 ,
Sas apes portions escaped’
on passed through the ore
tp
utes Poa ge
296
ject in alluding to the subject at this late day, (late because our atten-
inville for some years of his
an ardent imagination and
rent branches of literature
) he was still undec
aied Professor, he bai ing with: the reso
tural science and become a Professor. From t
were changed; in three years he went through courses: ©
‘tomy and two years afierward (in 1810) he-became a doct
having for some time assisted Cuvier at thet
he um, he was pinted | e
at
Ne Si be td ae ar eee
4
Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297
the only person fitted to be his successor in the department of Compar-
air Anatomy. us 28 years from the period when his resolve was
ma ad sufficed to place a" through his own efforts alone, in this
supreme position in “gael
Say of Sir C. Logi, Qeartcdour, Geol. Assoc., No. 22, 1850. ) “Christian
VII, King of Denmark was enrolled a Fellow of this Society in 18:
Two years before that time, when travelling in Italy, he had witnessed
an eruption of Vesuvius, and ha read a elim of it to the Acad-
ciences at Naples; a communication published in their
Transactions, and afterwards thei in Leonhard’s Journal for 1822, er
From an early age he had taken a lively interest in the progress of |
- hatural history, and when Crown Prince, formed at Copenhagen, at-his %
_ Own expense, a magnificent collection of shells, the number of species ° :
being estimated at not less than 12,000, exclusive of fossils, When I r
visited the Danish capital in 1835, he placed this museum and his —
library at my disposal, and I had then an opportunity of yeaa, a
i rom
all zoologists or was he inattentive to the points of controversy then
agitated respecting the geology of Denmar e questioned me
closely as io my opinion, whether the strata of Faxoe, containing cer-
tain species of Cyprea, Oliva, Mitra, and other. genera puall:
garded as characteristic of the tertiary period, really belonged to that
€poch, or to the cretaceous rocks. That the latter concl,Sion was cor- .
rect I had satisfied myself, after exploring the cliffs of Moén and See-
land, as I have explained in your Transactions; and bee roe
at 7
a a
hen Christian VII. sae to the throne, the « cares end re ties gf
of an abs olute monarch did not make him forge ful of his former love...
for natural history. He was ak aa ible to: se wages foreigners . Bae
: : Mications: ich may oo
Mention the ‘ Gaea Danica’ of islet Steenstrup Sad Porehharpeacr- > > is
He also gave his patronage to a rp id botanical work onite palms” ¢ 7 8.
of Mexico, by Professo. r Liebma: in nd promoted liberally the geolog- —
. = i expedition of Baron von Ww. ersh n and Professor Bunsen to lee Ky
aie he
the » he alwitee *
ived as king, taking his oes pag as a member, -
= President u Alter a reign of nine igs he died in.
298 Bibliography.
21. Darius Larnam.—Mr. La pham, at the time of his death (August
of the present year), was Canal Collector at Cincinnati, and member
of the State Board of Agriculture. He had charge of i pieierathoh
of - grounds for the State Fair, to be held in Septem |
In the death of Mr. Lapham the State Board of Agriculture has lost BL
f its most valuable members, and the State one of its best citizens. |
portment. It is but a few days ago that we received a letter from him,
_ giving quite an encouraging account of the progress he was making in
“the extensive preparations for the State Agricultural Fair. To-day he
is eae ne the dead.— Ohio Statesman.
ost.—Gerard Troost, M.D., Professor of Chemistry, Ge-
“gee aod Mineralogy i in the University of: Nashville, after a protractiy
illness, departed this life on the 14th of August, at lo *cloc
Born and liberally educated in Holland, ‘he early vocnifeated a zeal-
ous devotion to Natural History and Chemistry, and more especially to
the then infant sciences of Geology and Mineralogy. Witha view to
_ the more successful pipe cates of his favorite studies, he visited Paris, .
and, for several years, was a pupil of the celebrated Hatty. He Te- ‘
SE Mmoved to the United’ States about forty years ago; and, in due time,
~ became an American citizen. His éntire life was consecrated to Ge-
ology and the kindred sciences. With what ability and. success, his
_ published writings and his well- earned réputation at home and abroad, BES.
eo, ae! pine 4 testify. ¢
Seat as the State Gdilenia'o st of Tennessee rie most part of that sori6d;
he won the eho enee and Feaiedt “of the community, by invaluable
services in bo acitiés, as well as by the _—. modesty, kind-
= and Gite courtesy of his deportment towards all men. In the
‘Various stations and relations of life, public and- Riise, he was without
ae” nasi honored, venerated,
ssociated with him, he could
rom the Proceedings of the
hville.)
“ the meletioner of Quan-
for the more re es deter-
ther alieradions ‘sad a bee A
e & Brown. 1850.
n to chem-
‘a large amount of rec
. og numbers for the compou )
umbers — en redprecaiine®s a8
Bibliography. . 299 :
and the columns of multiples were computed separately by himself
and another. From the care thus taken, and the thorough knowledge
ness of the work. Those atomic weights have been taken that were
med most trustworthy, the determinations of Berzelius, being al-
aaa as by Rose, the greatest weight; some recent determinations
have been ard for want of confirmation. A column of logarithms
has been added to the tables by Mr. Dexter. A large part of the com-
pounds given in Rose’s work under chlorine and sulphur have been
5 eg as they were “of comparatively little practical use.” The
volume commences with an introduction of a dozen pages, iy
by different experimenters, and observes that in some cases he has de-
tected a small error of computation. The number determined for tita-
nium by oe from Rose’s analyses is 301°55, while it should be
301304. Ina similar manner the number for osmium was found to
be 1243-624, abn of 1242-624; that of Pngr'a shows be 1183-36,
instead of 1188:36; that of phosphorus as computed by Berzelius is
1, while it showy be make iy The tables are 7 printed ina air 5
see type and are easy of refer
2. First Biennial te on ie Guoiiey ap “Alabainae by M. Tvo-
Y, Geclogist of the State; Professor of Geology, er in the Uni-.
MEY
versity of Alabama, 176 pp. 8vo. Tuscaloosa, 1850. D. J. Slade.
’s
—Prof. Tuomey presents 4 this Report the results of a gen netal recon-
Noissance of the State, mentioning its great geological features and its
resources, in order to show what is required ee future éxplorations
: ortance which attaches to the surv The results ob-
tained exhibit the state as rich in various min ord products as as well as
n facts of geological inlereaie and we shall look for much profit and
sigalg from its full survey by one so capable and so exact in ob-
servati ‘The fallowlog facts are from this first Veoh. Report
Matar hi phic Rocks enter Alabama from the upperco ner of Carroll i
300 Bibliography.
in the same manner at the Lookout Mountain, whence they extend to
separating the Warrior coal field on the west from that of the Cahawba
n the east; a in this direction they are confined to a series of con-
tinuous valle They constitute a range of hills known as the “ Red
bly enlarge this extent of Silurian beds e iron ore consists of
. grains mostly flattened, like the lenticular argillaceous ore f New
ork. In some places it passes into a conglomerate containing siliceous
‘pebbles. A bed of brown hematite occurs on Shultz Creek, “also near
‘the headwaters of Hurricane and Rockcastle Creeks twenty-four miles |
. . from ‘Tuscaloosa, and at Bucksville. :
. Heavy spar occurs in a vein a foot or two thick, near Pratt’s Ferry
~~ on the Cahawba, and in another similar above Elyton. It is ground
The carboniferous rocks cover all that part of the state above the
lower falls of the riyers, not already described as belonging to the
Red Mountain .group. The greatest development of the calcareous
~ from which nitrate of potash is obtaine e coal measures eve
- where rest“on. millstone grit. The mountains of Madison and Jackson
~ counties andsiue bills of Morgan and Marshall counties are ‘often cap-
’ ped with syndstones an and shales containing beds of coal. The Raccoon
ead eowsnt rts ken have coal beds of considerable extent. These
S
=
©
nm
cS
<=.
19°]
Q
_
; °
ba .
wm
=)
i
oO
was
Q
Ee
-
i.
gQ
(=)
Ss
o
=
pS
|
be]
oO
n
=]
oO
2.
=
=
~
S
m
what better for purposes of reference, if the author had added tables
n the customary way, giving a synoptical view.of the more useful
trigonometric formule. ‘4 :
. A descriptive account of the Freshwater Sponges:of the Island of =
Bombay with observations on their structure and development; by H. ~ ree
J. Carrer, Esq., Assistant Surgeon, Bombay Establishment, 22 pages, 4
+
: 8vo, with 3 plates, (from the Jour. Bombay Branéh of us Roy. Asiat. © = 5
? Soc., No. xii, 1849.)—The author in this paper describes 5 species of — ee
Spongilla—the S. cinerea, alba, Meyeni, plumosa, new, and the 8. fe
- h = -
¢
acterized by any particular form. The memoir -
a respecting the structure and development of the sponge, many ae
which
of whic are.exceedingly curious. The memoir is illustrated by good =
e varying forms of the bey
engravings showin
nge cell.
i es
e sponge cell, which are ex-.-"~"
e-protean cells devel . s
hen forcibly expelled.
302 Bibliography.
position of the sponge-cell and its intercellular mucilage are for the
| most part effected so imperceptibly, that they may be likened to those
which take place inacloud. Its granules however are more active,
but there appea otion in any part of the cell, excepting
among the molecules within the hyaline vesicle, which in any way ap- ®
proaches to that characteristic of the presence of cilia.
‘It should be understood however, that these remarks are not appli-
cable to every sponge-cell, although fully developed, which appears 1n
it and remain stationarily attached to it. The changes in shape and
the field of the microscope, but they are rather a statement of what a |
77)
°
=
oO
.
part of the cell to which they are attached is entrained in one direction
_ “or another ;- while their hyaline vesicle or vesicles (in progression) ap- ~
: e cell, but ;
sar occasionally in every part, not only of the body of the,
anterior or
fected
; if complete, a dark ;
pc ‘do ion, some of the large proteans developed in the way ;
"+ just mentioned appear to be conscious of the nature of certain objects 3
=*, which they in their cours d surround :
as #, ay -Fuly 1
_ * gutbody of a
on ich
a
| 4 . . . fe .
ass, When contraction takes place, it Is ellee :
SP itien’|
ish or-dead 0 :
ing lengthened itself out so as to encit®
rit from both sides, which uniting:
nd int
the proteal
rround s
ee eee es ee tee hs ae
th in A oe
%,
Bibliography. 303 :
its dentiform processes with much 5g eig It took about three quar-
ters of an hour to perform these tw
9. Recherches Anatomiques et es 5 faites pendant un Voy-
age sur les cotes de la Sicile et sur divers points du littoral de la
France ; par MM. Mitne Epwarps, A. dE QuaTreFacEes and Em1Le
Biancuarp. 3 volumes, 4to, with numerous plates.—These volumes
consist of a series of memoirs on the structure, development and physi-
ology of various animals in different departments of zoology. The
profound, and exact, and the illustrations unsurpassed for fullness and
beauty. The First volume, by Mitwe Epw
e general subject of circulation; the Second
E Qu ae ee treats of the nervous system and Histoty of the
dous Molluscs, and o
y M.
Beaphioxus of the Pycnogonide, Phlebenterisma, Plana the Ne-
i i evie
2
Ville. my of ia memoirs have appeared invades ot the later: ‘
es des Sciences Nature
ae concernent la sui et la Savoie et de. tous aor Bee! patties
@. Hage Iconographic < Greydopaia 9
translated and edited | Adin ogg
York. ma 10, oat text
NoLD. Guyor: The Earth Man, |
: tap Duzer eau ‘Cours Risiosaing
ARDS, contains memoirs on ~~
the development of seep ene on the classification of the Gasteropo-
= ay
-
ry, 1 te
brid Obsornato te in 1848, 1849, 1
304 Bibliography.
EAKIN: Florigraphia Brittanica, or Engravings and Descriptions of the flower-
ing plants and Ferns of Britain. 4 vols. 8vo. Vols. 1-3 each 30s. or colored 57s. 6d.
vol. 4 14s., ee 16s.
exautt: Elements of Chemistry, in course of translation from the French
and to be published by Hogan & Thompson, Philadelphia
L. Acassiz: The Clas sificati¢n of Insects from Embryologicl data. From Vol. I,
i Kno
P. SorawEavx: La Chimie ae Cultivateur. 1 va is mo. Paris. 2fr.
Lresie and Korr: Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry for 1847-48.
Part V, contain ~m Chemis e ac ng to = ‘Arts and Manufactures, Agricultural
Lon
THE a atin : ae Aral . “NO 11, June 27, 1850.—On the 5th
Comet of 1847; B. A. Gould, Jr—lst i pags of 1850.—On the employmen nt of the
theorem, “ small angles are oe to ee sines:” Prof. W. Chauvenet—Ne
;Planet.—From letters of Prof. Se Resithiee o the Editor—Colors of Stars; Prof.
Sestini, 2, Jul ini. — ents
IT
—Piruary 1850. p. 241. Comparatite value of
: The Walrus eo - to ae a hy fps spr
3 on he a. ion of the alluv of the
\nalysis of Vermiculite by R. Oriedey and ‘destin
ksonite identi cal with Prehnite; @. Z: Jac —p. 24
jew Jersey; H. D. Rogers, March— ee "New ou
isetts ; Girard. —p. 252. New Shells of se Explor-
rycina, 6 of Tellina, 1 Psamm mobia, 8 Don ) f
On
é th pass lime
R 259. Capacity of the Cranium of the Troglodytes
alt lakes; H. D. Rogers—p. 260. a a
Sd ta 5
bo
F
ere
aS
24
i]
a sp’ cre ees assortment of Nexethe —— MENTS, na ee by M. Caan,
of Pari view, at moderate pri¢. ; es ae
Ca atalan age Leatig} on, apaliaeten: bi a
cal
‘ ae
a ot ‘Catalogues, Propecia. &c., of Books aul: Sotgt Tatras, may be"
RAS: ad (grati is) on applicé
ane se A an discount allowed to does . is
Bit ae Boos, Ses &c., imp rted for Collages, en free f duty. ye :
Te fo longi is a list 9
Publica and 4 . a. all lis of HB where ai
prices ee Fecil reduced to ike same as t
RES Prineci E lish and French »
have arr in ead howrakl >
». LIBRARY OF IL
WEE is, a
CHEMISTRY, PHYSICS, MINERALOGY; ae &c,
CAMPBELL.—A Practical Text-Book of Inorganic Chemistry. By Dugald )
jm mpbell, gaa of Practical Chemistry to the , staan. College, |
ondoen 50.
CHAPMAN cE. J.)—A Brief Description of the Characters of Minerals; form-
ing a aoe as. paetacion to the Science of Mineralogy. 12mo., with 3
lates, $1 25
DUMAS ‘AND + saga ag Aca Chemical and Physiological Balance
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KAMTZ (L. F. aa "Caan Course of Meteorology. Translated, with Ad-
ditions, by C. 7 “dees Editor of “The Electrical Magazine.” Post 8vo.,
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LEON, (J.C. si Art of iestet ghd and Refining Sugar, including the
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LIEBIG (Baron).—Chemistry iy Engaion, in relation to Poveisloas and Pa-
~~ tholo Ey edition, 8vo., 7
- MITCHELL (J.)—Mamual of Practical E Aseeyings ney a the use of Metal-
agg "apectas of ee. and Ass: o With a copious Table,
aining in yee Gad and Silver the precise
and aig of noble Metal cortained in
J).
aoe employed to detest W
Cream, Beer, Cider. , Wines, pirituous Uwor Coffee, "Pea, Choe Su «
» Vine
ae By? ek
‘ Olive (salad). ustard. London, 1848.
;QUA TE ) Gorn of the Chemical Society of London, a. Vol. 1,
1848 os. 1 to 3, each 75 a
THOMSON (Shans Thomson, “a —Ghientistry of Organic Bodies
—Vegetables. 1 ad Bk vol. 8vo., pp. ea
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at “aa my Woodcut
MY; MEDICINE, AND NATURAL HISTORY. 7 ;
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— th ae ot] pent er nie Pie ae toc
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R: aD BONAMY.-aAths of the Descriptive Anatomy of the
jContaning apo Quscleay, Se ogy, and yology,,
Histological Bote in the Mt
Vol. 1. Hlementary .
beautifully: excented 1
9 3
GRANT (R., M.D., F.R.S.)\—Ge yr Pal mal the Distribution br pin,
Animals. In the “ British Annual,” o. London, 18
| ; On the Principles of Clasaibestions? as vrprlied the Prhiny Divisions
of the Animal Kingdom. In the “ Britis . an ” 1838. 18mo., illustrated
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Agricoes, Me
CONTENTS.
Agr. XV. Observations on the Contrast in the Physical Features
and Resources between the Old World and the New World;
by Prof. Arnoup Guyot, -
XVI. On the relation of the Laws of Mechittice + to Penpetol
Motion; by Jeremtan Day, - :
XVII. Contributions to the Mycology of North Aine: by
Rev, M. J. Berxezey, of Be ipsa and Rev. M. es Curtis,
of South Carolina, - :
XVIII. Experimental Résonrciee in Electricity: =n -third
Seri eries ; : oy Micuary Fanapay, Esgq.; D:C.L.; ERS, ete,
: ae aes Béticty of India, :
On i Quantity. of Heat evolved from Kingophdle ’Air by
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Noti of Reinga of: Vertebrate Animals fiyse at Rich:
~M.
age.
161
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JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[SECOND SERIES.]
cage ie of the British Apeieraitee at amps “toe
#** Ty hestien the custom of some of rede
chair to give a brief account of the progress i
the preceding year; but however ?
Be, it would be beyond the pow
‘this Association—a subject, too, possessing a charm
af ocibjecs, and, more connected ‘than ae other with
: ta the interior too—from the inner life’ of the earth that
es the materials of civilizatio—his coal, his iron, and
nd de i er still, as geologists have eb ableaa none
3 ie XXIV. ait of Sir David Brew heftirdithe Twen-
306 Sir David Brewster’s Address
with more power than the geologists around me—we find in the
bosom of the earth written on blocks of marble—the history
of primeval times, of worlds of life created, aud worlds of life
destroyed. We find there, in hierogly phic®¥as intelligible as
those which Major Rawlinson has decipher on the slabs of
Nineveh, the remains of forests which waved in luxuriance over
its plains—the very bones of huge once that. took shelter un-
der their foliage, and of gigantic ile gs poh that trod uncon-
trolled its plains, the law-givers and the executioners of that
Inysterious community with which it pleased the Almighty to
people his epee world;. But though man is but a recent occu-
nt of the earth, an upstart in the vast chronology of animal
life, his jai in the Paradise so spray prepared for him is
not less exciting and. profound. For him it was made, he was
to be the lord of the new creation, and to him it especially be-
longs to investigate the wonders it displays apd to learn the
“lesson which. it réads. But while our interests are thus closely
‘connected with ‘a surface and the interior of the earth, interests
of a higher kind are associated with it as a body of the ‘solar sys-
tem to- whieh w belong.
The object “of “Gelgy is to unfold the history and explain
all the the system—perhaps of all the other
planets of the net ota The laws of matter must be the same
wherever el . The heat which warms our globe
radiates distant of the planets, and. the light
which twinkles in the Temotest star is, in its faa ie
science which its truths inspire, they would see in every planet
around them, and in every star above them, the home of immor-
tal natures—of beings that suffer and of beings that rejoice—of
souls that are saved and of souls that aré lost. Geology is, there-
pos the first chapter of astronomy. It describes that galtion of
solar system which is nearest_and dearest to us,—the cosmo-
atta observatory, so to speak, from which the astronomer is to
survey the sidereal universe; where revolving worlds and systems
of worlds summon him to investigate and adore. There, too,
_~he obtains the great base lines of the earth’s radius to measure
the distances and magnitudes of the starry host, and thus to pene- —
trate by the force of reason into those infinitely distant regions
But
where the si ah oe not follow him Astronomy, big -
though thus s sprung fro e earth, seeks and, finds, like Astrea, —
@ More congenial Gere fle: Whatever cheers and enlivens
- our terrestrial pare th-
radise is derived from the orbs around us. Wi
Sai eee
before the British Association. 307
_ out the light or heat of our sun, and without the uniform move-
.
the study of our own globe we learn that it has been rent and
they see the liquid fire rushing upon them from the volcano, or
Stand above the yawning crevice in which the earthquake threat-
ens to overwhelm them. Who can say that there is a limit to
agencies like these ?
the law of planetary distances,
planet would be fo
. - Ceres,
in 1801; Pallas, the
?
om.
ered a ninth fragment called Metis. Ar. G
Of Naples, discovered another, which he calls Hygeia; and
Within the last two months, the same astronomer has discovered
the eleventh fragment, to which he has given the name of Par-
Who could dare to assert that they may ig
Ae
308 Sir David Brewster’s Address
_ thenope.* If these eleven small planets are really the remains of a
larger one, the size of the original planet must have been consider-
able. / What its size was, would seem to bea problem beyond
the grasp‘of reason. But human genius has been permitted to
triumph over greater difficulties. 'The planet Neptune was discov-
ered before a ray of its light had entered the amen eye; an
a law of the solar system just discovered, we can determine the
original magnitude of the broken planet isu after it has been
shivered into fragments,—and we might have determined it even
after a single fragment bad proved its existence. This law we
-owe to Mr. Daniel Kirkwood, of Pottsville, a humble American,
who, like the dlustdibhs Ss olui struggled to find something new
among the arithmetical relations of the planetary elements. - Be-
tween every two adjacent planets there is a point where their at-
tractions are equal. If we call the distance of this point on one
side of a planet to that on the other, the diameter of its sphere of
attraction, then Mr. Kirkwood’s law is, that ih every planet the
‘Square of the length of its year, reckoned in days, varies as the
cube of the diameter of its sphere of attraction. .This law has
been verified by more than one American astronomer, and there
can be no doubt, as one of them expresses it, that-it is at wie
a little liter than. Mars, or about. 5,000 mites in Faiaineter a
of i ust have been about 574 hours. The
e
hypothesis of Laplace ;, but we venture
to say that this opinion will not be adopted by the astronomers
of England. Among the more recent ceptor within —
ds of our own Syeibel et te ion th
our inguished pacited becniey r. La
* Ceres 1801, Januaty 1 i, .c.seccececsee
Pallas 1802, March $
uno 1804, Septemberl ......
Vesta 1807, March
Astrea ...5%,.2%--ss-++ 1845, December 8
ss A OS OS SOOT SUNT co caent s 04
i 1847, August 13
Flora 1847, October 18
otis He April 25
~M . :
Hygeia .. 849, April 12
Parthehope............ 1850, May 11
i before i British Association. 309
~ able est the atmosphere, observed the very minute, but ex
tremely black, shadow of the ring of Saturn upon the body of
the planet. Hé® observed the line of shadow to be® notched,
as it were, and almost. broken up into a line of dots; thus in-
dicating mountains upon the plane of the ring—mountains doubt-
less raised by the same internal forces and : pce the same
ends as those of our own globe. » In’ passing from our solar
system to the frontier of the sidereal . universe around us, we
traverse a gulf of inconceivable extent. > If we represent the
radius of the solar system, or of Neptuine’s ’s orbit (which is 2,900 -
millions of miles) by a line two miles long, the interval be-
.. earth’s orbit, or 13,746 times that of De pte which is thitele
times ’as far from the sun as the earth. And yet to that distant.
_ Zone has the Thiele of man traced the Creator’s arm working the’
“sical and intellectual life. It is by means of the. gigantic teles-
: ee. that we have be ome | ac quainted with the
_ the presence of Sytamaica! laws almost within our me The
ibe oe. aia so cn developed in some of the nebule=
Lis ioe is of opinion that those nebulz are systems of a very
- Similar nature, seen more or less perfectly, and variously placed
with reference to the line of sight. In re-examining the more re-
¢ of these objects, Lord Rosse intends to view- them with
| light of his six feet speculum, und iminished by the second
n of the small mirror. By thus adopting what is called
the front view, he Will doubtless, as he himself expects, discover
Many new features in those interesting objects. It is to the in-
r. Lassels has still mare recently, and under’ a singularly favor-
310 Sir David Brewster's Address
fluence of Lord Rosse’s example that we are indebted for the fine
Reflecting Telescope of Mr. Lassels, of which I have already
spoken ; and it is to it, also, that we owe another telescope, which, {
though yet unknown to science, 1am bound in this*place espe-
cially to notice. I allude to the reflector recently constructed by
Mr. James Nasmyth, a native of this city, already distinguished J
by his mechanical inventions, and one of a family well knownto |
us all, and occupying a high place among the artists of Scotland.
This instrument has its great speculum twenty feet in focal length, :
and. twenty inches in-diameter ; but it differs from all other teles- ,
“copes in the remarkable facility with which it can be used. its
tube moves vertically upon hollow trunnions, through which the
astronomer, seated in a little observatory, with only a horizontal
motion, can view at his ease every part of the heavens. Hither-
to, the astronomer has been obliged to seat himself at the upper
end of his Newtonian telescope; and if no other observer will
» acknowledge the awkwardness and insecurity of his position, I
' ean. myself vouch for its danger, having fallen from the very top —
of Mr. Ramage’s twenty-feet telescope when it was directed to
‘a point-not far from the zenith. Se ae =
Seep but slightly connected with astronomy, Teannot omit
éalling your attention to the great improvements—I may call them =
te:
a distinguished member of this Association. The superiority of
_ the Talbotype to the uerreotype is well.
the pictures are reverted, and incapable of being multiplied; while
_ in the Talbotype there is no reversion, and a single negative will
supply a thousand copies, so that books may now be illu strated
with pictures drawn by the sun. The difficulty of proetiring good
paper for the negative is so great, that a better material has been —
eagerly sought for; and M. Niepce, an accomplished officer in the
French service, has successfully substituted for‘paper a film of albu-
“men, or the white of an egg, spread upon glass. Thisnew process
has been brought to such perfection in this city by Messrs"Ross &
Thompson, that Talbotypes taken by them and lately exhibited By
by myself to the National Institute of France, and to M. Niepee,
were universally regarded as the finest that had yet been execul-
ed. Another process, in which gelatine is substituted for albu-
men, has been invented, and successfully practised by M. Poite-
vin, a French officer of engineers; and by an ingenious method
which has been minutely described in the weekly proceedings of
the Institute of France, M. Edmund Becquerel has succeeded 12
transferring to a daguerreotype plate the prismatic spectrum, with :
all its brilliant.colors, and also though in an inferior degree, the
colors of the landscape. These colors, however, are very fuga-
before the. British Association. 311
_ ceous: yet, though no method of fixing them has hitherto been
_- discovered, we cannot doubt that the difficulty will be surmount-
ed, and that we shall yet see all the colors of the natural world
transferred by their own rays to surfaces both of silverand paper.
_ But the most important fact in photography which I have now to
_ Mention, is the singular-acceleration of the process discovered by
- Niepce, which enables him to take the picture of a landscape
illuminated by diffused light, in a single second, or at most in two
seconds. By this process he obtained a picture of the sun on al-
previously made by M. Arago, by means of a silver plate, that
the rays which proceed from the.central’ parts of the sun’s disc
have a higher photogenic. action than those which issue from its
~ margin. This interesting discovery of M. Arago is one of a se-
Ties on photometry which that distinguished philosopher is now
* Civilized world will deplore—the loss of that sight which has de-
_ tected. so many brilliant phenomena and penetrated so deeply
ek
ae
ot into the mysteries of the material world, he is now completing,
With the aid of other eyes than his own, those splendid research-
glory of his country.
_ From these brief notices of the progress of science I must now
call yonr attention to two important objects with which the Brit-
ish Association has been occupied since their last meeting. It
has been long known both from theory and in practice, that the
‘MMperfect transparency of the earth’s atmosphere, and the unequal
retraction which arises from differences of temperature combine
to set a limit to the use of high magnifying powers in our tele-
~ Hitherto, however, the application of such high powers
sco
and it is only since the construction of Lord Rosse’s telescope that
astronomers have found that, in our damp and variable climate, it
_ 1s only during a few days of the year that telescopes of such mag
- nitude can use successfully the high magnifying powers which they -
are capable of bearing. Even ina-cloudless sky, when the stars are
Sparkling in the firmament, the astronomer is baftled by influences
Which are invisible; and while new planets and new satellites are
being discovered by instruments comparatively small, the gigantic
Polyphemus lies slumbering in his cave, blinded by thermal cur-
Tents more irresistible than the firebrand of Ulysses. As the as-
tronomer, however, cannot command a tempest to clear his atmos-
phere nor a thunder-storm to purify it, his only alternative 1s to
Temove his telescope to some southern climate, where no clonds
-@isturb the serenity of the firmament, and no changes of temper-
ature distract the emanations of the stars. A fact has been re-
cently mentioned, which entitles us to anticipate gréat results
‘bumen so instantaneously, as to confirm the remarkable discovery ,
- occupied in publishing. Threatened with a calamity which the-
ay
es which will immortalize his own name and add to the scientifig
Rae ‘te; :
5 _ Was checked by: the imperfections of the instruments themselves ; —
’
B12 Sir David Brewster's. Address
3 from such a measure. The Mar rquess: of Ormonde is said to have
seen from Mount Etna, with his naked eye, the satellites of Ju-
piter. If this be true, what discoveries may we not expect, even |
in Europe, from a large reflector working above the grosser strata
; of our atmosphere? This noble experiment of sending a large
~, reflectot to-a southern climate has been but once made in the
“history ef science. Sir John Herschel waged his telescopes
and his family to the south of Africa, and during a voluntary ex-
» ile of four years’ duration he enriched astronomy with many
~_- splendid discoveries. Such a sacrifice, however, is not likely to -
be made again ; and ‘we must,- therefore, look to the aid of gov- |
ernment for the realization of a project which every civilized
people will applaud, aud which,*by, adding to the conguests of
science, will add to the glory of ottr country. At the Birming- — j
ham meeting of the Association, their attention was called to this 5
subject ; and being convinced that great advantages would accrue
to science from the active use of a large reflecting telescope 1 ha
a ‘the southern hemisphere, they resolved to petition government for | .
“a grant of money for that purpose. The Royal Society readily.
agreed to second this application; and as no request from
wer, we have every reason to expect a favorable answer to @ soe
mcuaeial from the pen of Dr. Robinson, which has just been
submitted to,the Minister. - “A recent and noble act of liberality is
Russell has granted 1) 00
moting scientific hjeetes The ase -of that diet nosy
body has been very solicitous to make this grant effective in pro- j
moting scientific objects, and Lam persuaded that the measures g&
_ they have adopted are well fitted to justify the liberality of the ~~
government. One of the most important of these has been to
place 100/. at the disposal of the committee of the Kew Obser-
vatory. This establishment, which has for —_ years been
epaee by the British Association, was given tous by the Gov-
ernment as a depository for our books and inosine and asa
ren ‘well fitted for carrying on electrical, magnetical and me-
teorological observations. During the last six years the Observa-
tory has been under the honorary superintendence of Mr. Ro-
nalds, who is well known to the scientific world for his ingenious. ©
photographic methods of constructing self-registering magnetical
and meteorological apparatus. On the joint application of he Z
Marquess of Northampton and Sir John Forechal, Her Majesty's —
government have granted to Mr. Ronalds a peeuniary recompense
of am for these inventions; and I am glad to be able to state-
ir. Brooke has also received from them a suitable reware
ins inventions of a similar kind. Under the fostering care ofthe ;
before the British Association. 313
_ British Association the most valuable electrical observations have
been made at Kew, and Mr. Ronalds has continued from year to
ha
been published in our Annual Reports. I trust, however, that
With no common pleasure, that the Government of this coun-
try has, during the last twenty years, been extending their pat-
ronage of Science and the Arts. That this change was effect-
ed by the interference of the British Association, and by the
_ Writings and personal exertions ‘of its members, could, were it
necessary, be easily proved... But though men of all shades of
ae ih : :
Political feeling have applauded the growing wisdom and liberal-
and too painfully torn from the affections of his country, whom
the science of England must ever regard as its warmest friend
and its greatest benefactor. To him we owe new institutions for
advanei ienee, |
and hadProvidence permitted him to follow out, in the serene
evening of life and in the maturity of his powerful intellect, the
_ Views which he had cherished amidst the distractions of political
Strife, he would have rivalled the Colbert of another age, and
would have completed the systematic organization of Science
and Literature and Art which has been the pride and the glory of
another land. ‘These are not the words of idle eulogy, or the ex-
_ Pressions of a groundless expectation. Sir Robert Peel had en-
_ tertained the idea of attaching to the Royal Society a number of
_ active members, who should devote themselves wholly to scien-
_tifie pursuits ; and I had the satisfaction of communicating to him,
through a mutual friend, the remarkable fact, that I had found
_ Stconp Series, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850. 40
ity of the State, and though various individuals are entitled to —
'’ Share in the applause, yet there is one statesman, alas! too early —
scienée, and new colleges for extending education e.
. ‘Sy.
oe
‘we
ai
- to the objects of science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a
314 Sir David Brewster's ‘Address
the legislation of Great Britain ; and though some of their more —
‘obnoxious provisions have since that time been modified or re+
expense, and spending years of anxiety and labor, he is ready to
Scene crime—the printing press.
among the mss. of Sir Isaac Newtow a written scheme of im-
proving the Royal Society precisely similar to that which he
contemplated. Had this idea been realized, it would have been
but the first-installment of a debt long due to science and the na-
tion, and it would have fallen to the lot of some more fortunate
statesman to achieve a glorious name by its complete discharge.
t has. always been one of the leading objects of the British
Association, and it is now the only one of them which has not
been wholly accomplished, “to obtain a more general attention
public kind which impede its ahbers Although this object is
not very definitely expressed, * . Harcourt, in moving its
adoption, included under it the re Niston ‘of the law of patents and
the direct national encouragement of ‘science, two subjects to
which I shall briefly direct your attention. In 1 1831, when the
Association ‘commenced its labors, our patent laws were a blot on
*
moved, they are a blot still, less deep in its dye, but equally a stain
upon the character of the nation. The protection which is s given
by statute to every other property in Literature ‘and the fine Arts,
is not accorded to property in scientific inventionsand liscoveries.
man of genius completes an invention, and after i incurring great
give the ea agy of it to the: public. Perhaps it is an invention to
save life—the life- ‘shorten space and lengthen time—the
aay, guide the commerce of the world through the track-
an—the mariner’s compass; to extend the industry, in-
crease ithe power, and fill the coffers of the State—the steam-en-
varying beats: 2004. to 500/,, are demanded from the Saeetitor ;
e gift thus so highly estimated by the giver, bears the
pe 9: of England. The inventor must now describe his in-
vention with legal precision. If he errs in the slightest point—
if his description is not sufficiently intelligible—if the smallest
portion of his invention has been used before—or if he has in-
cautiously allowed his secret to be made known ‘ two, or even
to one individual,—he will lose in a court of law his money and
his privilege. Should his patent escape unscathed from the fiery
ordeal, it often happens that the patentee has not been remune-—
rated during the fourteen years of his term. In ‘this ease the”
State is willing to — his right for five or seven years more ;
obtain extension only by the expences un
certain process of an Act of Pariament,—a boon whieh i |
= before the British Association. 315
asked, and which through: rival influence has
be
of the British Association, mentioned by
Harcourt, the Organization of Science asa National Insti-
Truth secular cannot be separated from truth
d if a priesthood has in all ages been organized to track
2mplify the one, and to maintain, in ages of darkness and
iid
316 Sir David Brewster's Address
corruption the Pental fire upon the satied altar, shall not an intel-
lectnal priesthood be organized to develop the so truths
which time and space embosom,—to cast the glan reason
into the dark interior of our globe, teeming with whe was once
-life—to make the dull eye of man sensitive to the planet which
twinkles from afar, as well as to the luminary. which shines above,
—and to incorporate with our inner life those wonders of the ex-
‘ternal world which appeal with equal power to the affections and
to the reason of immortal natures. If the God of Love is most
appropriately worshiped in the Christian temple, the God of Na-
ture may be equally honored in the Temple: of Science. Even
from its lofty minarets the philogopher may’ summon. the faithful
to prayer; and the priést and the sage may exchange altars with-
out the compromise of faith or of knowledge. Influenced, no
doubt, by views like these, Mr. Harcourt has cited the opinions of
a philosopher whose memory is dear to Scotland, ie whose ge’
ment on any great Beye ee be everywhere rec ived w
spect and attention; I refer to Prof. Playfair, the ap siecle ;
successor in our si caaeeel ies University of the Gregorys, t
Maclaurins, and Stewarts of former days, who in his: able .dis-
‘sertation ‘On the Progress of the Mathematical and Physical
Sciences,’ thus speaks of the National Institute. of ‘Fratce : —
«This ee has been considerable advantage to science.
To detach a number of ingenious men from every thing but sci-
entific ae ea deliver them alike from the embarrassments
of poverty and the temptations of wealth—to give them a place
and station in society the most respectable and independent, is to
remove every impediment, and to add every stimulus to exertion.
To this Institution, accordingly, operating upon a people of great
genius and indefatigable activity of mind, we are to ascribe that
“
superiority in the aera oe ae which, ;in the last seroma ae
years, has been so conspicuou
This just eulogy on the — Institute of Pregee; in ference
‘to abstract mathematics, may be safely extended oe every branch
of theoretical and practical science; and I have’ no hesiistion in
saying, after having recently seen the Academy of Sciences at its
weekly labors, that it is the noblest and most effective satin
that ever was organized for the promotion of Science. Owin
the prevalence of scientific knowledge among all classes of ie
French population, and to their admirable system of elementary
instruction, the adyancement of science, the diffusion of know-
ledge, and the extension of education are objects dear to every
class of the people. The soldier as well as the citizen—the So-
cialist\—the Republican and the Royalist—all look up 0 the
National Institute as a mighty obelisk erected to science, to be
* Diss, 3rd, Sec. V, p. 500.
before the British Association. 317 _
respected and loved and defended by all. We have seen it stand-
ing unshaken and active amid all the revolutions and convulsions
4;
oe
shed.
cally conducted,
Societi on
318 Sir David Brewster's Address *
lands. Their President and Councilar are necessarily resident in
London, and the talent and the genius of the provinces are ex-
cluded from their administration. From this ee we must
except the distinguished philosophers of Cambridge and Oxford,
who, from their proximity to the capital, have been the brightest
ornaments of our metropolitan institutions, and without whose aid
they could never sah attained their present pre-eminence. It is,
gs therefore, in-the more remote parts of the empire that the influ-
ence of a national oan would be more immediately felt,
and nowhere more powerfully.than in this its northern portion.
Our English friends are, we believe, little.aware of the obstruc-
~~ * tions which oppose the progress of sciencg. ie Scotland. In our
‘five universities there is not a single Fellowship to stimulate the
genius and rouse the ambition of the student. The church, the
law and the medical proféssion hold out no rewards to the culti-
“-vators of mathematical and physical science ; and were a youth-
vie oe
ful Newton or Laplace to issue from any of our universities, his:
best friends would advise him to renounce the divine gift and to“
seek in professional toil the well-earned competeney which can
alone secure him a just position in the social scale and an énvi-
able felicity in the domestic circle. Did this truth fequire any
evidence in its support, we find it in the notorious faet that our
colleges cannot furnish professors to fill their: own important
offices ; and the time is not distant when all our chairs in Mathe-
matics, ’ Natural Philosophy, and even Natural History, will be oc-
cupied by professors educated in the English universities. But
were a Royal Academy or 3 like that of France, estab-
lished on the basis of our - existing institutions, and a class of resi-
ent members enabled to devote themselves wholly to science,
the youth of Scotland would instantly start for the prize, and.
would speedily achieve their full.share in the liberality of t
ate. Our universities would then breathe a more vital air. Our.
science would put forth new energies, and our literature might
rise to the high level at which it minale in our sister land, But
At is to the nation that the greatest advantages would accrue. With
ships on every sea,—with a system of agriculture leaning upon
science as its mainstay —with a net-work of railways demanding
moning to the service of the ro all the theoretical and practi-
cal wisdom of the country,—for rousing what is dormant, com-
bining what is insulated, and uniting in one great institution the
living talent which is in active but undirected unsupported.
exercise around us.
x.
—s*
%
In thus pleading for the most important of the objects of the
British Association, I feel that I am not pleading for a cause that
is hopeless. The change has not only commenced but has made
considerable progress. Our scientific institutions have already to
a certain extent become national ones. Apartinents belonging to
the nation have been liberally granted to them. Royal medals
have been founded, and large sums fromthe publie purse devoted ©
to the objects which they contemplate. The Museum of Eco=
homic Geology, indeed, is. itself a complete section of a Royal
lustitute, giving a scientific position to six eminent philosophers,
all of whom are distinguished members of this Association. And
in every branch of* science and literature the liberality of the
Crown has been extended to numerous individuals whose names
_ would have been enrolled among the members of a National In-
‘Stitution. The cause, therefore, is far advanced ; and every act
of liberality to eminent men, and every grant of money for sci-
_ Gntific and literary purposes, is a distinct step towards its triumph.
ee “must be taken up by the minutest capillaries before it can
‘Hourish and purify society. Knowledge is at once the manna
knowledge is the antidote. Society may escape from the pesti- ~
lence aud may survive the famine; but the demon of Ignorance,
With its grim adjutants of vice and riot, will pursue her into her
Most peaceful haunts, destroying our institutions, and converting
Into a wilderness the paradise of social and domestic life. ‘The
ate has, therefore, a great duty to perform. As it punishes
Crime, it is bound to prevent it. As it subjects us to laws, it must
‘teach us to read them; and while it thus teaches, it must teach
also the ennobling truths which display the power and the wis-
Gom of the great Lawgiver,—thus diffusing knowledge while it
1S extendiag education,—and thus making men contented and
happy and humble while it makes them quiet and obedient sub-
jects. It is a great problem yet to be solved, to determine what
i
y yy % before the British. Association. 319
ie
320 On the Height of Laghining Rods.
will be the state of society when man’s physical powers are highly
“exalted, and his physical condition highly ameliorated, with-
out any slab cabin change in his moral habits and position.
There is much reason to fear that every great advance in material
civilization aay some moral and compensatory antagonism ;
but however this may be, the very indeterminate character of the
problem is a warning to the rulers of nations to prepare for the
contingency by a system of national instruction which shall
either reconcile or disregard those hostile influences under which —
the people are now prnshibe 2 lack of be oes
; Art. XXV.—On the proper Height of ‘Lightning Rods ;
‘3 Exu1as Loomis, Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philso
phy in New York University.
Nein. Read before the American Renae for the Advancement of Science at New :
n, August, 1850.
Tue rule prescribed by the French Academy of Science (and
. copied into almost all works on electricity,) for determining the
proper height of a lightning rod is that a rod will ponies a a é
whose radius is equal to twice the height of the rod. A case re
‘cently occurred in Tallmadge, Summit CONT. Ohio, whale
appears to demonstrate that this rule is unsafe
On the afternoon of July 27th, about six o'clock, there was a
nied by a few flashes: ‘of: lightning.
: nd was succeeded almost instant-
ly by a loud report. In an ‘instant afterwards, a large pile of shav-_
ings ying on the west side of a carriage shop was found in full
and were quite diy: and as no fire had bens used i in that vicinity
for several. weeks, and no other mode is known in — which the — :
shavings could have been ignited, it is inferred to nie: been
cattsed by the electric discharge. The carriage \shop was fur-
~nished with a lightning rod, and it was a matter sof. surprise that
the fluid should have struck the ground so near#o'the rod. The
top of the rod was fifty-nine feet high above the shavings; and
the shavings were one hundred feet distant from a point cortical
under the top of the rod. According to the rule above quoted,
this rod should have afforded complete protection to a distance of
one hundred and eighteen feet from its base; whereas the shav-
ings were struck at a distance of one hundred feet, and that too
where, being elevated only a few inches above the general level of
the ground, they might be presumed to afford no poenliet attrac-
= for the lightning.
his
=
+
ate an
pia ie =
. aie
O_O im
rod appears to have been constructed in accordance with —
the usual rules. It is terminated by three points which are gilded a oe
Electrical Phenomena in certain houses. . 321
and appear to be in tolerably good condition. About ten feet
d
from the top is a break in the rod and the two: portions are
looped together. From this point the rod is continuous to the
bottom and enters the ground to the depth of about three feet
where the earth at the time referred to was quite moist. The rod
is about five-eighths of an inch in diameter.
Se)
The preceding caseedemonstrates to my mind that itis unsafe =
to rely upon a rod to protect a circle whose radius is more than ~
once and a half the height of the .rod,’at least upon’ the west
side, being that’ from which yeti showers generally come in
this latitude.
APE. XXVI.— On the Electrical Phenomena of Certain Houses ; =
of M
- by Extas Loomrs, Prof. athematics and Natural Philoso-
» phy in New York University. :
san
aven, August, 1
aay -
- -‘Wiruin the past few years, several en in the city of New
York have exhibited electrical phenomena in a very remarkable
rr ree, For months i in succession they have emitted sparks o
_ considerable intensity, accompanied by a loud snap. A stranger
on entering one of. these electrical houses, in attempting to shake
~ hands with the hes apes receives a shock which is quite notice-
able and somew hat un os Ladies in seeping, to eau each
e mouth, and was ‘very much pion j ag ae
kia ee ‘she epee first to touch the tube with her finger.
passing from”one parlor to. the other, if she chanced to step
Upon the brass plate which served as a slide for the folding doors,
she received an unpleasant shock in the foot. When she touched
her finger to the chandelier (the room was lighted with gas by a
chandelier suspended from the caling) there appeared a brilliant
and a snap as in the discharge of a Leyden Jar of good size.
Tn many houses the phenomena have ‘heen so remarkable as to
Occasion ‘general surprise and almost alarm
After a careful examination of several cases of this kind, I have
- come to the “eager ee that the electricity is excited by the fric-
_ tion of the shoes of the inmates upon the arene of the house,
Sxconp Szares, Vol. X, No. 30—Nov., 1850.
“2 i
ey Read before the American Aare for the rice: ae: of Science at i pee
«it “¥2
Byte Sp
~ 322 Electrical Phenomena in.certain houses.
I have proved by direct experiment that electricity is excited by
the friction of leather upon woolen cloth. For this purpose I
stood upon an insulating stool, and spreading a small piece of ecar-
peting upon a table before me, rubbed a piece of leather vigor-
ously upon it, and then bringing the leather near the cap of a
Sell leaf electrometer, the leaves were repelled with great vio-
The electricity of the leather wat» of the resinous kind.
Teter therefore must necessarily be excited whenever a
person walks with a shuffling motion across a carpet; but it
may be thought remarkable that the electricity should be intense
enough to give a bright ‘spark. In order to produce this effect
‘there must be a combination of some favorable circumstances.
The carpet, or at least its upper surface, must be entirely of
iz
wool, and of a close texture, in order to Sonniah an abundance of
electricity. So far.as I have had opportunity to judge, I infer:
that heavy velvet carpets answer this purpose best. ‘I'wo thick-
nésses of Ingrain carpeting answer very well. A drugget spread
upon an Ingrain carpet yields a good supply of the fluid. ‘The
effect of the increased thickness is obviously to improve the insu-
lation of the carpet,
he carpet must be quite dry, and also the floor of the
room, so that the fluid may not be conveyed aw way as soon as it
is excited. This will not generally be the case. except in winter,
and in rooms which are habitually kept. quite ywarm.- The most
remarkable cases which I have heard of in New York have i
of close, aa houses, kept ey ‘warm by "farsa, and t
electricity was most abundant in very cold weather. In Pins: oe
weather, Gite feeble signs of Bhectiicity are obtained.
3. The rubber, that is the shoe, must also be dry, like the om
and it must be rubbed upon the carpet somewhat vigorou Ok
By skipping once or twice across a room with a a motion
the feet, a person becomes highly charged, and then bri ¢
the knuckle near to any metallic body, particularly it it have goc d
communication with the earth, a bright spark passes. In almost
any room which is furnished ‘with a woolen carpet, and is kept
tolerably warm, a spark may thus be obtained in winter—but in
some rooms, the insulation is so good and the carpets are so elec-
trical, that it is impossible to walk across the floor, without excit-
ing sufficient electricity to give as
It may be said that in this case thet can be but very little
friction between the shoe and carpet. But it must be remembered
that the rubber is applied to the eta? with considerable force, _
being aided by the whole bhi i a Be e ts so that a slight
shuffling of the feet acts with great
In the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine for Feb-
ruary, 1839, is given an account of a leather strap connecting on
drum of a Worsted Mill, which gave sparks two inches in
New method i pegimiptsing Silicates. 323
and charged a battery ina ‘short time. The strap was twe enty-
four feet | long, six inches broad, and one eighth of an.inch thick.
It crossed in the middle between the two drums, the’strap form-
ing a figure eight. Here then was considerable friction, since
the strap made one hundred revolutions in a minute.
In the American Journal of est for July, 1840, is mention-
'. . ed an instance of a lesher band in a cotton. factory, which: ex-
} hibited strong electrical: alieceregtien -
C ese e examples show that leather ‘when subjected to “consid
able friction yields an abundant supply of, electrici
In the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society for |.
fees December, 1840, are mentioned several cases of individuals who
b drew sparks of electricity from a coal stove, and from a common
i a
ss XXVIL Soe a new method of decomposing NSilicates in the
pr acest of A nalysis ; by Henry Wurtz, of New York.
Read being the ae Associaton for the De naam of pn at New
ee August, 1
, H avine had occasion in ee course a some researches u
| ¥ the greensand of New Jersey, which will be presented to at
Associat ation hereafter, to observe vi facility with which that sub-
could be ee wens by hydrochloric acid. The use of
chlorid of iain is however obviously attended with several
inconveniences, such as its deliquescent properties, and the un-
4 avoidable inteedaetiod of a large quantity of =" salts
. into the solution, in the separation of the lime fr
Chlorid of barium was therefore substituted, add the results of
324 New method of decomposing Silicates. '
off the water of oe The pure chlorid of barium
thus obtained is pulverized and is then ready to be used for
the purpose here sadonsth
Chlorid of barium>may be pan in a platinum crucible by a
blast lamp, or by an alcohol blowpipe la amp. A mixte ire of chlo-
‘ rid of -batium and chlorid of strontium: in atomic proportions
_ fuses however far more easily than eitker of its ingredients.
Such a mixture is fused by the heat of an ordinary Berzelius
lamp, and more easily, I think, than.carbonate of soda. This is
analogous to the well known fact. that’a mixture of carbonate of
although sulphate of strontia when precipitated by itself, appears
_ ina form somewhat gelatinous, tedious to wash and difficult to -
a - filter, yet when precipitated in the presence of sulphate of ba-
~ rytay it takes on the finely granular form of the latter, and the —
~ combined sulphates are as easily washed as the sulphate of baryta *
e when precipitated alone. 7
. . "The atomic proportions of a mixture of chlorid of barium and
* . chlorid of strontium,, suitable for the fusion “« silicates, are about
four parts of the former to three of the latte
The best mode of proceeding was found 6 be-as follows :—
The mineral in fine powder is intimately mixed with four or
five times its weight of chlorid of barium, or of the mixture of
chlorid of barium and ehlorid of strontium, ina platinum eruci-
. ble; which is then covered, and exposed to a heat sufficient to
fus mass for twenty or thirty minutes. When cool, the mass
is iiepued by bending the crucible, and allowed to fall intoa «
beaker glass. Water is then poured on ‘it in’ sufficient ewcmek
to dissolve the excess of chlorid of barium, oF ee of strontium,
Gaal teh hees toe tecooemeneatey
evidently remain with the silica in the form of sulphate of ba-
contains ‘dete lime, on account of the insolubility of its sulphate.
This last difficulty is however obviated, in some degree, by the
very considerable solubility of sulphate of lime. in. hydrochloric
- acid, a fact which must havé been noticed by many chemists:
Po 8 an
fete Se Satie, ES
colorless transparent orthéclase from New York island. This
feldspar was fused with chlorid_of barium, sous to the above
et ee soda, to be perfectly pure.
h
S hornblende, from Franconia, New Hampshire. e silica
tained from this was found to contain ,considerable more than’a
_ trace of iron. Ido not therefore venture to recommend this pro-
_ oxyd of iron. Many more experiments which time has not per
Initted me to make, will soon be me to settle this question,
which I do not consider, yet determined.
To test the chlorid of barium reel quantitatively, the min-
eral called pink scapolite, of Bolton, Mass., long ago analyzed by
Dr. Jackson, was selected. My results agree entirely with his,
except as regards the presence of lithia and oxyd of cerium,
which careful Sri examination did not enable me to
aie
cal. w s found, contrary. to recorded statements, bid
a be ee ee ph sed by concentrated acids, even w
finely elutriated. -A determination of the silica, made by i
composition with hydrochloric acid, gave the per-centage 5025 ;
- @Mother, made by fusion with carbonate of soda, gave 47:
...T'wo determinations of the specific gravity, made u upon the
coarse powder, gave the numbers 2:7002 and 27046
The results ‘9 fa fusion with chlorid of barium were as follows:
ee Oxygen.
MIR 0c 4 xh Sk MEDS 24-78 24-78
Alumina, é , pon COTE st = 40-71
Peroxyd of iron, . ey 68 §
CaaS i ar bs AS2 on
NN i secs. wsins opty ROM 2-26
Protoxyd of manganese, race.
100°77
Agreeing nearly with the received formula of scapolite—
Ga Na)* Si?+-2Al Si,
which requires for the oxygen of the protoxyds, peroxyds and
New method of decomposing Silicates. 325
When the mineral thus iniated contains sulphurie acid, it will :
ryta. culty would also seem to occur when the mineral ©
e first qualitative experiment was made with a specimen of
process, and the silica thus obtained was found, upon fusion with”
xt experiment was made upon a black crystallized.
af
ye
326 On the Greensand of New Jersey as a source of Potash.
silica, the ratio 1: 2:4, while the above analysis gives the ratio
kek 52°06: Ass sins “é
This method -appears to possess advantages for decomposing
silicates which contain both the alkalies, over the ordinary meth-
+. ods of fusion with the hydrate or with the carbonate of baryta.
_. Hydrate of -baryta: generally acts upon the-crucible, causing the
~~ mass to adhere to it ; and upon the affusion of hydrochloric acid,
any potash which the mineral may contain, consequently enters
into combination as bichlorid.of. platirfum and potassium, and re-
_ mains with the silica. "The carbonate of baryta process requires
an intense heat, and is difficult of- execution. —
-. .~4. The chlorid of barium process proposed in this paper is prob-
Fe ably not*more laborious than an ordinary carbonate of soda fu-
nr Sion, and is applicable in cases in which the silicate contains both —__
“potash soda ee es
T=
P3 - Art. XXVIIL—On the availability of the Greensand of New
~—-) Jersey as a source of Potash and its Compounds ; by Henry
Wortz, of New York City. 3 ,
important end, but owing to the peculiar chemical and physical _
properties of feldspar, the success of these researches has been
doubtful. . i me Maer
It is true that the feeble affinities exerted by mineral waters
per to show that this substance is far superior to feldspar in ifs
adaptation to this purpose.
On the Greensand of New Jersey as a source of Potash. 327
existence and common attributes of the greensand are
miss. It exists in greater or less quantity in several States, but
has its greatest development, I believe, in the State of New Jer-
sey, where it forms a stratum of variable thickness, covering a
terand Salem. Wheréyer.it occurs,, itis spread upon the land
farmers, to whom it is known. by the name of Marl. Its proper
ties as a fertilizeryare undoubtedly owing to the ease with which
upon the Geology of New Jersey, in which he has devoted about
a hundred pages to the greensand, and has given many. analyses
Ww
No analyst has, to my knowledge, found potash in the English
Of greensand, others contain variable proportions of a red or
_. brown earth and of quartz. A few contain more or less earbon-
ate of lime in such a form that it is not acted upon by dilate
_ acids in the cold, although upon the application of heat a violent
_ @ffervescence. appears... Many contain iron pyrites and some a
trace of sulphate of iron. No variety which I have ined
_ has yielded any phosphoric acid. . Z
ee The greensand grains themselves contain, besides potash, silica,
alumina, one or the other or both of the oxyds of iron, and water,
With sometimes a little magnesia. _ aealia!
» The invariable development of a smell of formic acid by the
ction of strong sulphuric acid upon them, seems to indieate the
tesence of a little organic matter. Analyses of two varieties of
the marl from the estate of the late Alfred Bishop of Bridgeport,
at Shrewsbury, Monmouth County, yielded the following results -
i TI.
Rilitapc dae. ; ‘ ek ae ica el ee ied
_ Alumin incipal xyd, 3289 34:
& wag eo 9 of iron, ses aied erg y' sere art
nesia, : ‘ .
Hydroscopic water, . ‘ . : ; eet : 11:50
Combined water, . ‘ : ‘ ' ~ iced sais
| 10061 99-25
It may be remarked here that Prof. Rogers's results were ob-
tained upon the greensand grains separated as much as possible
tom intermixed earth and sand, while the above were made upon
_ the impure marl itself.
~ The
generally known, but a few words on this subject will not be »
i
great portion of the counties of Monmouth, Burlington, Glonces-
the potash which it contains is abstracted from it by atmospheric*
agencies, as is suggested by Prof. Henry D. Rogers, in his Report’.
lich indicate the presence of from 10 to 13 per cent. of potash,
Various. Some varieties are almost entirely composed of grains».
cd
greensand, the‘fertilizing properties of which appear to be due to ae
* See
Pe a a i
328 On the Greensand of New sergey as a source of Potash.
For more detailed information I wink refer to the elaborate re-
: _port: of Prof. Rogers before mentioned. I will only state further
“that the greensand grains are easily pulverized, having only about
the hardness of gypsum, and that they are decomposed by dilute
acids, and we then come to the imnediate subject of this paper.
“Considering thatthe greensand contains the constituents of
~ alum, with the exception of the sulphurig: acid, it seemed proba-
ble that by the action of sulphuric acid eee it, a solution would
be formed containing more, or -less any experiments
ef the marl, and also that the organic matter interfered in some
“way. The. solutions. obtained had generally a dark brown color
s vand a smell resembling “that of formic acid. They contained:
“mThuch sulphate of protoxyd of iron, and gave a few impure crys-_
: ee
tals. of alum. A portion of the- -greensand was next gently igni-
:. i which served the purpose of destroying the organic matter,
_ if any jas present, and also of peroxydizing the iron, thus ren-
- dering it less soluble in acids. The pulverized and ignited marl
presented the appearance of a brownish red pow wder. It was
easily decomposed by dilute salahvaric acid, yielding a solution, | — ‘
the contents of which, upon analysis, proved to be principally
common alum, together with small quantities of iron-alum and
of the persulphates of alumina and iron. The first erystals of
most perfectly pure, and upon the addition of a small wpoity of =,
chlorid of potassium to the solution, it was found, as might have
been predicted, that all the iron was converted into the uncrys- —
tallizable perchlorid, the sulphate of potash thus: formed ‘by _
double decomposition combining with the free sulphate of alu-
mina to form common alum; and even in the last. c crops of ¢ :
tals now obtained little or no iron could be detected. The man-
ufacture of alum, therefore, by the action of sulphuric acid upon
previously ignited greensand marl, promises to be suecessful be-
yond all anticipation. It. is obvious that it will be necessary to
select varieties of the marl as free as pombe from lime and mag-
nesia, which would cause a waste o
My perpen were next directed pee 3 the poe of
chlorid of potassium. Attempts to form this substance by the
direct action of I acid upon the ignited marl were
raises A very large quantity of perchlorid of iron was
, which would give rise to too great a loss of ac
Tt was next found that by fusing together greensand and chlo-
rid of sodium at a red heat, a hard mass was formed, which Uges
ed with water a solution containing potash ; but chlonid of| o the
difficulty of separating chlorid of ee from chlor. of 1088
Ss ge Ren ae ee eee
On the Greensand of New Jersey as a source of Potash. 329
um when the latter is present in greater quantity than the former,
this observation was considered of little value. — Sr anes
P A widely different conclusion was arrived at; when chlorid of
Le calcium was substituted for chlorid of sodium. The’ pulverized
c and ignited marl was mixed with a sufficient quantity of chlorid
of calcium to form updén the fusionsof the latter,’ a pasty mass. .
he decomposition of: the greensand takes place in this case at a
low temperature, and is so complete that I’ have founded upon
this circumstance a method of decomposing minerals in the pro-
cess of analysis, which I have had the honor of presenting to the
_ Association before. . : a ; Se
It is evident that the combined water of the greensand must '
be expelled by ignition~ previous to fusing it with chlorid of cal-
ar
_. ¢ium, otherwise a quahitity of the fused chlorid of calcium will —
y also be performed in close vessels to avoid the decomposition
which chlorid of calcium undergoes when fiised in contact with
th The mass, after fusion, falls to pieces in water, yielding .
to this solvent, in most cases, all the potash which was contained
in the greensand employed in the form of chlorid of potassium.
The separation of this from the excess of chlorid of calcium is an
easy problem, owing to the difference between their solubilities.
This application of the chlorid of calcium will open a market
for the large quantities of this substance which are thrown away
in some manufactories of soda-ash.
All attempts to procure sulphate of potash by the fusion of
_. Various sulphates “with the greensatid were unsuccessful. In
fact, the greensand ‘itself, at a temperature below the fusing points
_ of the sulphates of lime and magnesia, fuses to a black glass
which is no longer decomposable by acids.
» A great number of other experiments were made upon the
Tee ut no ‘results were arrived at, which promise to be of
any practical value except the above.
A very great number of experiments were also made, having
for their object to obtain sulphate of potash by fusing together
chlorid of potassium with alum and with various sulphates, such
as those of iron, magnesia and-zine, which gave results o |
practical value, but as these researches had but a fortuitous con-
nection with those upon the greensand, I shall not introduce an
account of them here. i
I will merely remark that if sulphate of potash can be obtained
by fusing together alum and chlorid of potassium, both of these
being obtained economically from the greensand by the above
processes, it is evident that this sulphate of potash may be treated
Inthe same manner for the production of potash as sulphate of
_ Soda is in the manufacture of soda-ash, and it seems to me that
the desideratum of another source of potash is thus supplied.
Szconp Serres, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850. 42
inevitably be decomposed by the steam evolved. Thé fusion” ye
330 = =©Prof. W. A. Norton on the Diurnal and Annual
“Arr. XXIX.—On the Diurnal and Annual dyes in the
Declination of the Magnetic Needle, and in the Horizontal
and eee oawate Intensities ; by Prof. W. A. Norton.
In my: paper on’ the heaped Fariaticng of the Magnetic ele-
ments, published in a former No. of this Journal,* I showed that
the variations of the heriaeritih magnetic intensity which lie
between the hours of 10 p. m. and 10° a.m. of the,following day
proce eed pari passu, and are undoubtedly in some way physically
3 connected with the variations that take place during the same
~. Interval of time in nk quantity of moistute immediately at the
: ‘éarth’s surface :—or at all events that the deviations from the
~ eneral law of spominionalicy to temperature that oceur during
this interval are effects, direct or indirect, of the deposition of
dew ‘during the night, and evaporation of moisture during Mec
morning hours: re ‘agcounted for the connection subsisting bey
4 tween such dissimilar phenomena by assuming that particles: -
water in Gontact with the earth’s surface, (and possibly in t
~ vaporous state,) hada direct magnetic action upon the needle, in
accordance with the general theo ory that I had advanced. This”
1s bi simplest assumption that can be made in the case, but It.
to be observed that the connection in question may possibly be -
sd
A cae
x
as is well known, is. eittandant upon : |
varying conduction. of electrical currents, or ‘some other cause.
For the present, however, it is most» philosophical to abide by |
that view which gives us the: highest generalization—which rep-—
resents, at the same time, ‘the nor rmal state of the earth's DA
netism and its periodical variations.
It is true that we have no authority, » derived: Sonik exec
for st su Ipposing water to have a Sects action, as. Ee te rm gay
0
the earth, has what is called a diamagnetic action:’ But our first
aim in such ~~ should be to obtain the highest generaliza-
om the discussion of the phenomena mere ve
the same great truth. I would also remark, with regard to the
bate discussion, incidentally entered into in the paper
rred to, —. the thermal effect of dew, that this
peste mae perhaps ha ve been overrated, and that the law of the
pee oe Lee es
* See this Journal, ii ser., vol. viii, p. 35.
variations of the Magnetic Forces. 331
nocturnal diminution of temperature may be partially attributable
to the unequal cooling action of ascending currents of air
sa law obtains in the calmest nights, andthe assertion so often
repeated by meteorologists. that in clear calm nights the tempera-
ture of the soil falls many degrees below that of the air a few feet
above it, would seem to render such a supposition inadmissible.
But, whatever view may be taken of the relative part performed
by the dew in determining the law of the nocturnal loss of tem-
perature, it is to be observed that it suffices for the explanation
of the connection .subsisting between this law and. that of the
nocturnal variations, of the horizontal magnetic intensity ; singe |
it must be admitted that the tendency of the thermal influence of: .
same kind with that which actually obtains. However, i
may possibly also coéperate magnetically with it in determining
e the law of the nocturnal variations of the horizontal force.
te _ Having made these ex planations and qualifying statements with
be “Uy ference to my former memoir, I propose now to show, from
another point of view, the high probability of the truth of the
eaPlanation ich | i have, there given of the diurnal variations of
the hor torce ; and subsequently to discuss the annual vari-
b*
short time Reavions to the date of the publication of that
_ Memoir, [was led, to make a comparison between the curves
showing the - Gina « variations of the horizontal force, (as given
in the Report of. the Meteorological and Magnetical Observations,
made at the » Girard College Observatory, 1840 to 1845,) with the
furves veal the diurnal variations of the height of the barom-
peter ; an Rngnient that the following remarkable relations subsist-
ed bet them... T'hey each have two maxima and two min-
ima, nate Migynts of the one set nd curves occur at very nearly
the same hours as the minima of the other. ‘The same relations
may be observed in the following se sana statement.
a
and Barometer, at Philadelphia, for the year 1844.
i Sa | Horizontal Foree. | Barometer. |
— Perens | te
See, peep 5 f M. Midnight.
NN ae ae eee | 11 p.a. to Midnight. 4a
It will be seen that i the hours of maxima and minima of the
barometer differ by not more than one hour from the hours of
con 4
tinuing during a portion of the night. ' Although the fact that.
dew is to produce an inequality of loss of par ere oe a
Hours of Daily Maxima and Minima of Horizontal Force —
332 Prof. W. A. Norton on the Diurnal and Annual
minima and maxima of the horizontal force. If we make the
comparison for other years, and also for the quarters of years, we
find a rat ae eee ne correspondence.
If end to a minute Copa RATED, we find that the inter-
vals beets ‘the: recise hours of maxinga and minima in some
instances amount to as much‘as two hours ; in fact that the sec-
ondary or morning minimum of the barom eter sometimes pre-
variations of the horizontal force, it is to be observed that the
Fs Variations both of barometer and horizontal force are compara-
tively small during the night, and also in general about the times
“of maxima and: minima ; see therefore that such comparatively i
smail differences may be expected to subsist, unless the two pie-
nomena be supposed to be identical in their origin. If the times
force are in some way directly qepuiide nt upon the-diurnal varia~ ad
tions of the pressure of the air; as it is, the more probable con-
clusion is, that these two different phenomena are two different
effects or consequences of the same meteorological p enomenon.
hen I had arrived at this point in the progress of my inves-
tigations, it at once occurred to me that, as the diurnal variations
of the horizontal: force had been explained by referring them to
the daily changes in the temperature and humidity of the earth’s
surface, the diurnal variations of the barometer ‘were probably at-
tributable to daily changes in the temperature and humidity of -
the air. It was seen that the same evaporation by day which _
tended to diminish the horizontal force, would tend, by adding
to the quantity of vapor in the air, to augment the height of the
barometer, and that che same condensation of vapor at the earth’s
surface at night, which tended to increase the horizontal force,
would, by diminishing the quantity of vapor in the air, tend to
make the barometer fall: also that if these as ce in conjunc-
tion with those due to variations of temperature, are the ‘actual
producing causes of the diurnal variations of the barometer an
horizontal force, there would doubtless be an approximate corres-
pondence between the maxima of the one element and the minima
It is somewhat curious that I should have been
condueted in this indirect manner, to the explanation of the daily
oo of the barometer, which, as I have since found, has
n conclusively established, to be the true explanation of this
jheisadibnibe, by direct observation. This is known to meteor-
_
variations of the Magnetic Forces. 333
ologists as Dove’s theory of the diurnal variations of the barom-
eter. This theory, as stated by Kaemtz, is that the pressure of
the atmosphere is equal to the sum of the pressures of dry air
and aqueous vapor, and thus the barometric column is composed,
so to speak, of two part. ; ene of which crresponds to the air ;
the other to the aqueous vapor. Now when the temperature
rises the density of the air diminishes, but the tension of the
vapor augments, and vice versa. ‘To bring his theory to the test
of figures, “he analyzed a set of observations:made by Neuber
at Apenrade with a Daniell’s hygrometer. He calculated the
tension of the vapor for each hour of the day, and subtracted .it °
tom the barometric column; he thus obtained the pressure ¢
‘dry air, and found that it had but one maximum and one min-
‘sult was obtained from a discussion of the meteorological observ-
_____ ations made at the Toronto Observatory, during the years 1841
and 1842. “ The diurnal pressure of the gaseous atmosphere has
- One maximum which occurs about the coldest hour of the day, and
_ one minimum which occurs about the warmest hour of the day.
The elastic force of the vapor has also one maximum which oc-
curs at 2p. m., and one minimum at 4 a.m. The sum of these
two pressures however exhibits two daily maxima, viz., at 10
A.M. and P.m., and two daily minima, viz., about 3 or 4 4. ™. an
?.M. “Thus this knotty question respecting’ the diurnal oscilla-
ions of the’ barometer has been beautifully resolved by simply
interrogating natnre.”” A similar conclusion may be drawn
tom the hourly meteorological observations made during the
Year 1842 at the following places in Russia, viz., St. Petersburg,
uraoul, Catharinenburg, and Sitka.* It is true that small irreg-
ulatities are noticed, but as the same general law appears to exist
everywhere, it is to be supposed that such irregularities super-
vene ‘upon it at particular localities by reason of certain local
peculiarities.
|
forms over-compensates this effect, and thus the barometer rises.
This continues until about 9a. m. After this the diminution in
the pressure of dry air prevails over the increase due to the aug-
eS ee Or i et Se iN ree ts Ca
* See this Journal for January, 1846, pp. 138, 139, 140.
Sd +
334 Prof. W. A. Norton on the Diurnal and Annual
“mented quantity of vapor, and the barometer falls until 3 or 4
_p.m. When the temperature begins to fall the barometer also
~ descends by reasan of the increase in the density of the air: bs
in the evening, when a portion of the atmospheric vapor begin
to fall in dew, -a tendency to a diminution of the sal
pressure‘arises,. but it is not until-about midnight that this ten-
dency begins to prevail over the tendency to an increase. From 4
that time the barometer son from this cause, until towards the |
hour of minimum temperatu |
KS The explanation which i hee before given of the diurnal
Ea ‘variations of the Pode force is, in wera en as follows. In
the morning as the temperature rises the molecular magnetic
force increases,’and therefore the hor condita force tends to in-
crease, but the diminution arising from the evaporation going on
~at the earth’s surface over-compensates this tendency, and hence
the-horizontal force, on the whole, decreases. This continues
‘until about 10 4.°%. After this the increase, from the risé of
ee Somat prevails: over the diminution produced by the con-
ee nued:evaporation* until about 4 p.m. From that time the’ hori-
5 tones force decreases with ss temperature anil about 11 P.M. ;
when?the tendency to ‘increase resulting from the deposition ' of:
dew begins to prevail over the opposite tendency resulting from
the falling of the temperature. ‘This secon pecentation CORE
tinues until about 5.4. M.
In view of what»has now been stated it ‘will, eS think, be be ad-
mitted that the diutt al,variations bath of the hérizontal magnetic
fi of. ‘baréiieter are in all: ‘probability: certain . —_
resulting from the joint-operation, of the same two geneval.antag-
onistic causes—viz., variations of temperature. is ‘variations of ~
humidity. ‘The theory of the variations of the horizontal force
which I have advanced js ‘n'a accordance with: the faét of the ap--
- Parent connection subsisting between these phenomena. Other -
theories may perhaps be devised, equally in accordangg with. this
singular fact ; and indeed it must be conceded. that. it is eed
sr of the idea that the cause of the variations of the
izontal force, like that of the variations of the. barometric
en must achane in the atmosphere. In fact if it be: admit-
ted that the particles of the atmosphere and of the atmospheric
vapor have a magnetic action upon the needle, like those of the
solid mass of the earth, then it is a simple consequence of the
ee of the general theory under consideration that the hori-
ontal force will vary, by reason of this papi after the manner
in which it is observed to do. For, the greater portion of the
amigas being posited above the saan: “the tendency of its
Rn ee
_ * It is to be observed that we are here —— of the average state of things in
the course of a year, or quarters of a year. a
aa we F
variations of the Magnetic Forces. 335
Th
action will be to diminish the horizontal force; and therefore
when the number of particles of humid air increases immediately
above the needle and the barometer falls, the horizontal force
will diminish. Whether the atmosphere has really any effect,
=
ion ad
rt)
-
ee
io)
oe
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temperature and hiimidity—seems to favor the idea of atmose
_ pheric magnetic action : but, if it be conceded that, as is generally
Supposed, electrical currents flow along the auroral columns, we
magiietic action of the aurora, and have therefore no good ground
; for Supposing that the atmosphere has a magnetic action in its
_ hormal state. We may, however, still conjecturally connect the
_ aurora with the diurnal variations of the horizontal magnetic m-
_ tensity by imagining that'the daily changes of temperature and
Ich traverse the atmosphere without producing any percepti-
tee luminosity, “or perhaps any other perceptible eflects, except
_ Upon the magnetic needle. = Page
~The philosophical’ course for the present, however, is to abide
by the theory which furnishes.the most direct representation po
sible of the connection subsisting between the barometric and
_ Magnetic-variations, and at.the same time accords with a general
_ theory’thaty'satisfies‘the conditions. imposed by the normal state
figm. Pee A cee
of the e “th mack i :
Annual Variations ‘of the Horizontal. Magnetic Intensity.
a degree * wrobable) that the diurnal variations of the horizontal
_. Magitetic intensity ‘are due to changes in the temperature and
humidity of-the earth’s surface (or atmosphere ), we naturally seek
| for the explanation of the annual variations of the horizontal
force in ‘annual changes of, temperature and humidity.
Moreover seen that the ditirnal variations of the horizontal force
and barometer are linked together, and due to. the same two gen-
eral causes. It is therefore to be inferred that a similar connec-
on must subsist between the annual variations of the horizontal
oree and barometer, and that the two phenomena must be other
Parallel effects of changes of temperature and humidity. Now
if We compare the curve showing the variations of the horizontal
force om month to month with the corresponding curve for the
meter, we in fact find an approximate correspondence be-
dependent upon. the same two meteorological elements, VAZ5-
ave in these currents apparently a sufficient explanation of the .
midity of the atmosphere are attended ‘with electrical. currents
os uhaiag ben established (or at least rendered in the highest »
wifot
336 Prof. W. A. Norton on the Diurnal and Annual
tween the maxima of the one and the minima of the other.* In
the midst ofsirregular variations the following general law is very
another maximum about August, and another less decided mini-
mum in the fall. This law has also been revealed by the
servations made in Europe. It is stated as follows by Raatoes,
(Cours. Complet de Meteorologie, p. 282,) “Setting out from
winter the pressure” (of the air) ‘ediminishes until the equinox,
then it augments:in summer without attaining nevertheless to the
winter mean; we afterwards find in autumn traces of the second
minimum, then the curvétises again until winter.’? The same law
is‘also manifest in the curve for the horizontal force, substituting
‘maximum for minimum and minimum for maximum. Before
“noticing this connection between the annual variations of the hori-
- zontal force and of the height of the barometer, I inferred from
my previous investigations that the following was probably the
eye papiapation of the annual seers of the horizontal force. |
rom the winter.to the summer this force tends to increase by
reason of the increase of pesitoahewire and to diminish by reason of
he loss of moisture from the earth’s surface (or increase of vapor
in the air). Fora time the first cause prevails over the second and xs
_ thus the force augments. But the formation of vapor will be pro- ~
ra thus it happens that some time during the spring the ten-
toa beahsna, of. the horizontal force tomes | to prevail
pee r the ten increase This state. ‘of ‘things | contin-
tae Giasil thet aedEMioacicnom ‘temperature’ (July or August),
After ~ for a certain’ iain the temp apres ‘will fall without a
nate diminution in the quantity of vapor in the air ; and
thus a horizontal force will contin 4 to decrease for a certain
ts
time beyond the time of maximum temperature. But we may
which will continue until the effect of the average daily
r (being proportionally less from day to day) comes to be
_ overbalanced by the opposite effect of the diminution of temper-
ature. Thus there may be a second maximum in the fall, follow-
ed by a minimum in the winter. While this would be the gen
eral course of things, - would be room for material irregular-
ities in individual yea
is explanation of the annual variatiens of the horizontal
magnetic intensity I find to be substantially the same, mutatis
mutandis, as that given by Professor Dove of the corresponding
variations of the height of the barometer. He has established
* See Plates in Report of Observations at Girard College Observatory:
variations of the Magnetic Forces. 337
that the pressure of dry air has but°one ‘maximum’ and one mine
imum during the year,—the former in the wiuter-and the, latter
in the summer. The tension of the at mospheric vapor, ou the
other hand, attains its minimum in the winter and maximum in
the summer. From the combination of these two pressures there
results two maxima and two minima of actual pressure, as pre= —
camped stated. There i Isa minimum i in the spring because that
tity of vapor is not yet very consi etabl e. We find traces of. a
second minimum in autumn because the quantity of aqueous
— diminishes rapidly, while the prageure of ‘dry air increases
8
It must accordingly be admitted to be. highly probable that
: the annual variations of horizontal magnetic intensity are attribu-
| table to the combined operation of the same two general antag
Pe onistic causes as the diurnal variations, "iF Race of tem-
Perature and variations of humidity. It must also be admitted
that the existenice of such a connection a these diarnal and
a ‘nnual maguetie and meteorological phenomena is a-necessary
anlerence from the Thermal Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism ;
anc this theory finishes a rational’and consistent explana-
on of t the laws of the magnetic variations.
t Variations of the Vertical Magnetic Intensity.
urve showing the annual variations of the
magne imvansity vat Phila delphia for the years [541 to
1815, we ese thes the general law is that the intensity Is greatest
or July, and least about. December or January. To
this geen law. anfexce tion occu “a the year 1841—1he force
hg, instead of rom the first of the year until
and then j wacreaeing until Rorember after which there is a
- accordance with the general law. Now it will be
hat agreenbly to the theory under consideration, the
= magnetic*force is dependent upon the differences of tem-
perature between the station of the needle and all places situated
to the north or south of this station, within the circle of sensible
‘Magnetic ac action. We have therefore to enquire whether these
erences obaatve the same law of variation as the vertical mag-
hetic intensity ; and also whether there is any exception to the
_«:Seneral law, corresponding with that above mentioned, during the
—-Year 1841, The observations which I have obtained snited to
_ this inquiry, (viz., the mean monthly temperatures at Wash-
ington, Newtown, Port Carbon, and Silver Lake, for 1841 and a
of 1842, and at Trenton for 1842) furnish results which ac-
_ for the most part, with the theory. ut as these results
‘ate confined to one or two years, no certain conclusion can be
os ‘Sram, Vol. X, No. 30,—Nov., 1859. 48
ee
ze.
ee aly, a
bad
- tions of declination are attributable to the annual variations in
be
ing that the law of the variation is the same whatever place so
“ sitnated with regard to Philadelphia be taken. The following »
_ than that at Philadelphia at the beginning He: yea
oa to it, or greater, toward the middle of ‘the year, sed less
have moved towards the north during the first part of the year,
4 #%
338 Prof. W. A. Norton on the Diurnal and Annual
drawn from them; I anni accordingly reserve this discussion for
a future occasion. ©
Annial Variations of Declination.
Ascordive to the theory under consideration the annual varia-
the position of the isothermal line—or ‘ra ther, to be ‘precise, of
en line of equal molecular magnetic intensity, Bs must ap-
ximate more or less to the isotherm al line. w the annual
peavermies of the isothermal line may be nated by diseuss-
ing the annual LY set ‘that take place in the differences be-
tween the» mean monthly temperature at Philadelphia and at
some place to the. baat or west of Philadelphia ;—that is, suppos- _
table’ shows the méan monthly differences of temperature for
1841, = de Piialclphia and several dese to the west of
Philad elphi
son ‘Melis Differences of: Péiiérature for 1841.
————
oo ie ae Jan, Feb. ee April.| May. |June. | July.|A’g.! Sept — ee ~-
Phila. and Lancaster, _../3°38/1°59| 0-06 | 0-23| 0°38| 0911...) 0-931 1-501 41
~*~ and Gettysb’g,|....|5-23/3-44| os 0-09] 1°89} 2:18..,. 1 eihae 5-0914°70)
“— aiid Gaile, mee ry 19 |-15} so eeeh. . «pp 280.159
“and Harrisb’g,|... 19 ba2l-ovo vee [28 ELT boa F 45 | a [47
sy: and .Chest’r oo 22 13 + lace sent ee eleeeer nceneieese
will be. observ sabe 5 5 the mean monthly differences. of. tem-
cates for all these places are greater at the beginning and end
of the year than: toward the m iddle ¢ the yea r. .The minus
sign a a the temperate at iladel pia is less. than at
the other p § um
It a ots these results that during the yet aft, the
temperature at places to the west of Philade ng I
at the ‘close of the year. The isothermal line through
and towards the south during the latter part of the year. The >
tendency of these movements would be to make the declination .
least toward the middle of the year and greatest at the beginning —
and end of the year. Now, as a matter of fact, on axe
the curve given in the Report of the Observations at the
College Observatory, showing the annual variations of deatitms
tion at Philadelphia, we find that in 1841 the declination was
—— in January and February, and again in November
I ee ay. On inspecting the
¢
variations of the Magnetic Forces. - 339
given above, it will also be seen that an irregularity occurs in the
month of October. In the curve of the declination there is a
ats. corresponding irregularity; the declination was less in October
4 oe! September, and much greater. in ‘November than in
to
_ shows that the same general law obtained during the eutire pe-
4 riod of the observations comprised between June, 1840, and the
beginning of 1844. The following ‘table shows ‘that the varia-
tions of the difference of temperature between sige and
Lancaster followed the same law during t this peri
; Mean on Differences of Temperature between Philadelphia
d Lancaster, Pa.
t ‘given in the Report of the Girard College observations, ex-
- Cept in the case of the year 1841, for which the temperatures
published. ‘in the Journal of the Franklin Institute i used.
“The e tempeiatn res for-Lancaster were obtained ri: J
of the Franklin os and from the origina manuseri
- W.-M. Atlee’s Reports to the Franklin ii. hen be bed
the ‘indy ess to Shae in my hands. .The’ obse rvations for Get-
tysbur ilisle, Harrisburg, and W. Chester were also abtained
from the ‘published repotts to the, Franklin Institute, under the
general. system of: meteordlogical | ‘observation established by this
mise » Phe. ar. observations were made at 7 aA. M., 2 P.M.,
| The temperatures at Philadelphia used in the calculations are
Tt is*ton obi that the comparatively large plus differen-
“dot be tiperail that occur in the year 1841, as given in the
above table, are to be attributed to the fact that ‘the temperatures
at Philadelphia as reported to the Franklin Institute are higher
The curve of annual variations of declination above referred to,
- | Feb. arch April. {| May, | June.|-July..| Aug. | Sept.) Oct. | Nov. | — |: s
° Oe
“yh ae _ ; > 41-19 123], [08 |-07 ts
3°38] 150] 0:06} 023] 038) O91K.... | 0°93) 150) 416 4°71
e2 —0) —2°3 4 08 12) 17 -09 |-0O7 | 1 49 (518
-15 |-O4 1-13 Pl -0'6 | 04: | OO -02
as given in the Girard College observations. Making use of oe
the latter we ‘obtain for the
Diff erences of Temperature between Philadelphia and Lancaster
for 1841.
Nov. Dec.
Feb,
March,| April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug, { Sept. ; Oct,
10
° ° ° ° °
-13|~051-18 | -01 06
3 °
-18)} ~ —~30 |
_ The Sata which we have Re leave little room to doubt
ncipal annual movements of the needle are connected
iain corresponding movements of the isothermal line ;
340 Prof. Wie sah aga on the Diurnal and Annual variations, §c
and that the sania ditbi is such as our theory calls for. The
question of this connection cannot however be definitively settled
until we have’ obtained a ar series of observations, and at a
Beater number of places. ;
= te Moats wale oti General Results. .
Tt may be well to ‘recapitulate here’ ie brain important results
arrived at in this and‘the previous memo ,
1. The diurnal and aniual variations of the horizontal _mag-
hetic intensity are’due to the joint operation‘of two general an-
: sp rermiatis causes, V1Z., variations of temperature and variations of
ae
The’ diurnal and® annual variations of the‘height of the
: Seltin (or pressure of the air) are attributable to a Sang:
ie * general causes ;—with this probable ditference, that in ASE
the effects result. directly from changes in the teapereaatl “and
‘humidity of-the air, and in the other from changes: in the tem
eer and humidity of the earth’s surface
Sta Sieben of horizontal mate intensity and of bar
thie t
#6), be heared: variate of the jioctaaal magnetic oe
es ae gonsequences of the thermal theory of t
ial-maghe hting that moisture has a magnetic ion;
ons the Variations of the horizontal force,
e get
fications ae deed: ‘by the. deposition of vapor aye
ages “evaporation of the ‘same {from the-eart a
0 thee ease a the diurnal variations the : effiécis: ee ‘the mean
of three months’ variations) are confined chiefly ‘to th ag
between sundown and the hour of: 10 a.m. on the: tolls '
e 6. Taking the mean for three’ months, bees au
erease of the horizontal force during the
iefly upon the quantity of rain that falls. ‘The “easpination the
¥ station of - needle and the temperature af. a place. to the nee
k or south of i
The al variations of ‘vertical force and “ietene of. sone 2
* perature also appear to proceed pari passu with each’ other; but
» . the observations hitherto discussed are too lithited to settle defini-
tively the question of natural dependence. ©
9. There is an undoubted connection bagween the diurnal
variations of the declination and those. of the horizontal force. .
his connection may be described as: follows # ‘when: the curve
iar oy l ‘variations ‘of the horizontal ‘force is concave
be
cotemporaneous vie the points of inflexi ion. of the curve of
[ 3 horizontal force.*
ae 0.
. hich the declination varies with the shifting’ posit “the
ual molecular magnetic intensity ;—which tie. wii Beret
aly coincident with-the line of equal horizontal” mag
ce. ‘The line in question differs from wee true ithe ut |
; Teason. of the oe of the horizontal fore
“thon in Planis and tie Alternation of Generations” observ
“tn gome. Radiata ; by, Janes. D. Dan NA.
af Boat etre the Airican Ascovation for we Advancement of Science at New
n, August, 1
: Tur very ‘eoiplikable fact that a Polyp and a Medusa may be
N some instances different states of one and the same species,
} been well established of late by the researches of Sars,
yell, Steenat trap, and others; and recent important observa-
* See this Journal, 2nd ser., viii, 360, 361.
ion ( westerly) is increasing; and when the
This connection accords with.our theory, agreeably to 7
aa, the. (edu 5 between the mode of Rep: epreditt
Ria
s eeation repeating the form of the original paren e"
‘Yet bgunouen seemingly so mysterious, is er this a of de-
se. Alternation of Generations in Radiata.
tions have been made on ~~ subject by Professor Agassiz. 'The
alternations are as follow
. The Medusa ciate eggs ;—
2. The eggs, after passing through an infusorial state, fix
‘themselves am become polyps, like Coryne, Tubularie, or Cam-
* panulariee ;—
3..' The, ia produce a kind of bud that finally drops off
and: becomes a Med
‘Thus the’ egg of 4 a Me -dusa, in such cases, does not produce
a Medusa, Bae after going through the intermediate state of a Ms
‘Or if we commence duith the polyp, the series is thus :—
“1. The polyp produces bulbs that become Meduse ;
2. The Meduse produce eggs;
3. ‘The eggs produce
This i is what.is called by Steenstrup slegsintion of Geter
= tions ;’ ’ and he considers the earlier generation as preparing the
: he for the latter. ‘It certainly seems to be a most mysterious
ssa. parent ‘producing eggs which afford a progeny, of
a Wholly different form,. (even so different; that. rete have
_ arranged the progeny.in another grand division of the R La dia ee
velo opme mon in the vegetable kingdom ?, Is it not the
prevalen "process in. ae en of « our + gardens | and fields, with
which we
| well ki : howh is us, that in tost Genie, our trees an
shrubs for example,gr rowth from the’ seed brings out a bud “
leaves ; from this bud after. elongation, other teaf-buds are often
developed, each consisting like the first of a number of leaves.
It is an admitted fact (as ony be found i in T reatises on? ial
ra copra: To some cases the plant forms but a single leaf-bud ;
in others, where there is successive gemmation for a period, the
number is gradually multipled, and more or less according to the
habit of the species. So among polyps, there is the simple and
compound Tubularia, Campanularia, and the like.
After the plant has sufficiently matured by the production and
growth of its number of leaf-buds, there is a new development—
a flower-bud y—consisting of the .~ ee as the leaf- bud,
but ge unlike it in general ap nece—as much so, as th
usa is unlike the polyp. The Rower-indvetiei starts as a
) from the leaf-individual, or the group of leaf-individuals,
s in every respect to the bulbs from the ee
On Electro-magnetism as a Moving Power. 343
} larize and allied species; and when it has fully matured, it pro-
_. duces, like the Medusa, ovules or seed—these seed to begin the
_ _ found again of successive or alternating developments. a
ye Thus among plants the seed produce leaf-individuals; these
Me yield bulbs or buds becoming flower-individuals; and these pro-
duce seeds; precisely, as the egg produces polyps, the polyps,
bulbs that develop into Meduse, and the Meduse, eggs."
When we follow out this subject minutely, we find the -anal-
ogy completely sustained even in minor points of structure and
. growth. .The leaf-bud consists of leaves developed in a spiral
order; and in the polyp, as some species-show beyond doubt, the ~
tentacles and corresponding parts are spiral. in development. The. —
same spiral character is found in the flower, but the volutions are ~
the
t
Cy
so close as not to be distinguished readily from circles. In
Meduse referred to, the regularly circular form is far more neatly
Med
: and perfectly developed than among the poly ps—as is clearly seen
ia comparison of the polyp Coryna, with the elegant Sarsia, a
ws
___ fessor Agassiz’s ‘recent memoir, published by the Ameriean
-. emy.of Arts and Sciences at Boston. The relations in structure
etween plants and polyps might be farther dwelt upon ;.but for
ther observations the writer would refer to his’ volume* on
tae .
Avr. XXXL—On Electro-magnetism as a Moving Power ; by
Lae ~~ Prof. Caras. . Pace.
Na Sa
+¢.
G
cted with the poles of a battery in action, that an iron bar
a
: species of which is described and beautifully delineated .in Pro-
a? : fie Ament
pees
a ari
cl
43
.
ae
344 On Electro-magnetism as a Moving Power.’
be partly drawn ont of the helix by the hand, it goes back with
a spring when the hand lets go its hold. This power—the
action of the helix upon the metallic bar within it,—is the power
used in his engine. ‘The power, when a single coil is used, has
its points of greatest and weakest force, and in this condition is
objectionable« But by making the coil to consist of a series of
short independent helices, which are.to be brought in action suc-
cessively, the metallic rod is made to pass through the coil ~
back again with great eee ty and an equable motion. In all t
engines hitherto used, t ere isa loss of power at the instant of i
_ change of current, owing to the production of a secondary current
_Moving in the opposite direction, and to this loss is owing the fact
that these engines cannot be rendered available. Prof. Page had
in view the obviating of this difficulty when he commenced his
“recent investigations, and has: full success in his new invention.
The report below, is an outline only of his experiments on:the
appiration, of Electro-magnetism, and is dated, Aug. 3d, 1850.
er atte aaa from the National Intelligenodt of Sepien
r Ans Hi
Fadi i ive brief time-allowed, it seill be imppentila for. me aig
"more in’ Anis respect than to give an outline of the experim
which I have repeated and recorded during the past year. heir —
full detail and sabi esi will form a volume, replete 1 with inter :
esting sc matter, and require much time and lab
e firs pene experiments ‘were made with a sual iad
emulate, build expressly | for the purpose, and with the utmost care
n reference ‘to’ mec rical accuracy. ; Attached to this. was a dy-
nanometer of new onstruction, and: ‘admirably. adapted to- the
gine, at any given velocity—a great desideratum..in a,
this new power. With this trial engine the Sollevei eT
questions were tested : a :
1, The dynamic values of different quadisies of; soft iron. a 4
2. The dynamic values of steel, hard and soft: » - 3
3. The dynamic value of cast iron
The statical values of all these variéljes were tested by: a sepa-
rate apparatus, constructed for the purpose, called the axial galva-_
nometer. ‘Twelve .warieties in all were tested, and were in bars of —
uniform size, one foot-in length, and one inch in diameter, and it,
was found that the statical and dynamic properties corresponded.”
€ proportions of the helices were approximately tested,
though much remains unsettled yet upon this important poe:
5. The advantages of keeping up the magnetism in 2 axial
bar was coast satisfactorily tested.
6. Various modes were tried of —- saat motion of the
engine, and with success
ge
Ft . ag
2 * eye ae
- On Electro-magnetism as a Moving Power. (845
7. Various kinds of cut-off (which i is the most critical ae ims
portant point in the construction of the engine) were tried. ,
he operation of closed circuits and secondary currents was
a by a number of experiments, requiring great care and ac-
Facy.
a The best working velocity of this engine, aid its absolute ‘
power with a given battery, was fully tested
0. The ratio baci increase of power, vith an iticrease in the
rapreg, Sie the c
he a ti of different binds of metal i in forming the cut-off.
12. Various mechanical points of construction, supposed to”
have been — with the exhibition of; this power, were
put to a practical tes
_ Various other’ minor points also — the subject of experiment,
which will be communicated herea
- A-second model, of small size te somewhat rude cotistruc-
tion, was also. made, with a view of ate a new prrengcgiees
of the axial bars
Experiments were then commenced upon a 1 larger scale; with: a
view ‘to determine whether ‘the same proportion of pawer oe
obtained from large as from small engines, this being the
ce een in: view: at the time of the ao of the ih
a
d by the most flattering results.
- sn Sat Vol. X, No. 30—Nov., 1850. 44
e
346 On Ellectro-magnetism as a Moving Power.
The experiments here were not such as could be performed
upon the laboratory table; but were with large masses of iron,
: weighed six hundred pounds. When this engine was first tried,
iL >
with the same battery which had before given me one-fifth of as
ticularly to the cut-off, which was a very different thing now
from what it. had been in smaller engines, the engine soon yielded
one horse power. . Here was a gain of eighty per cent. as meas-
ured merely by the size of the battery. But it was much more ;
for the cost was found to be less for one horse power than it had
been before for one-fifth of a’horse power, ina smaller, engine ;
how much less has not yet been ascertained. 2 eee
A great variety of experiments were continued with this engine,
to be hereafter detailed, each having a ans “objegt; and, t .
am happy to say, each resulting advantageousfy, .so that finally,
by little daily increments, I obtained from this engine, by a tri-
fling addition of battery, a full two horse power. ce
way of giving a practical character to the engine, it was
geared toa circular ‘saw ten inches diameter, the turning-lathe
and grindstone of the workshop, all of: which it worked simulta-
neously, as witnessed by a number of visitors, and, if I mistake
not, by your ecessor in office, in company with Lieut. Maury, —
of the National Observatory.
After many satisfactory trials with this engine, it was taken
down, and all its available parts used in the construction of the
single horizontal engine which I had the honor lately to exhibit
‘ore the Smithsonian Institution. This change was © 10K
the purpose of dispensing with the dead weight of one of the
driving bars, and more particularly for introducing the important
.
four-horse. Further addition of battery would still augment the
power, and I see no reason why ten horse power might not be
obtained from this engine, by the addition of more-battery ; but
Whether it would be economical to increase. power by this means
alone, and to ascertain the point, for this and every other engine,
beyond which economy would cease by increasing the battery, —
alone, are matters to be determined by experiment. 2 Te
The next most important point to .be determined was the ex-
the expense was found to be less than the most expensive s
engines, although recently, in Europe, it has been decided by ex-_
petimenters and men of science, and generally conceded, that it
was fifty times the cost of the dearest steam*engines; but this is
no obstacle to its introduction, considering its immense advanta-
Ses in other respects. Moreover, if thus much has been done in
le Very inception of this undertaking, what may we reasonably
__.€Xpect from its further prosecution ?* A eS
i aged it can be rendered available in practice, much remains
to be done with the galvanic battery, to render its action regular
abd durable, and in other ways to establish a certainty of action,
__ 80 that the engines ‘may be managed by persons not thoroughly
Skilled in the subjects of electricity and magnetism.
__ It remains yet also tobe proved whether the power will in-
Crease in proportion to thé size of the engines. ‘This principle
Seems tobe strongly indicated by ‘past experiments; but yet it
cannot be established by caleulation or process of reasoning. Ex-
periment upon ai extensive scale can alone determine this point.
A part of the work preparatory to building a locomotive engine
has none; but it seems necessary to try further experiments
* Prof. Page, a8 mentioned in our last’ nuniber, statéd in his remarks before the
American Association, that one horse power for twenty-four hours, would cost about
f. W. R. Jo that his estimate was based upon too
2 cost for the zinc, and that 10 cents would be a nearer estimate. In either case, a
aot advance is made upon’all previous experiments. '
f. age also observed, that the cost of electro-magnetic power was not to be
reckoned in this comparison by the mere cost of zinc, nor the cost of steam by the
ds of coal consumed. The cost of human life, the sacrifice of millions of m4
and risk of many millions more, and all the contingent advantages and
0 account.
: mode of me
plained tas follows after drawing a diagra 1 2
load lbs. The power required to barely keep the engine in motion under this
min nt 126 Ibs. The full power being on, the engine made eighty revolutions per
348 On Electro-magnetism as a Moving Power.
yet been tested, although it possesses Soaps el not to be found
in auy form of the reciprocating engine. re are some ob-
vious disadvantages attending its construction ; cn it is hoped
that they will be “outweighed, more especially as this form of the
engine will. oocuny less than one-half the room required for the
% reciprocating fo
It wonld teemee desirable that the investigation thus begun,
and so far stigcessfully eonducted, should be carried at least be-
yond an uncertain issue, and that every important point should
be settled, and particularly that of its availability on an extensive
scale. The power is peculiarly fitted for’ purposes of navigation,
ake itcan be made subservient; and atrial npon a scale of oue
7, wing ‘notice of Prof, Page’ 8 experiments is from the Daily National In-
tel'i rencer of September 11,
~ Since the first announcement by Prof. Page of the resu ults of his discoveries, I
have seen pa gee: public journals accounts of inventions for the same purpose, b
-_ other persons, and in mést.of them claims to novelty and great superiority. I had
“ some candy e refer té Professor P. an article of this kind, fom aJate number of
the St. L perey in which it was stated that Mr. Bl t.city, ha
new faveution, “far in ce,” as was sho culation, “ of that adopted by
snaking the reference, my attention was ca
sh th vole an'’s Journal, page 352; published in 1839, in which Pro
explained and fig ed an electro-zmagne
Babe 3 ios is peculiar and entirely new
eter hitherto tried ; ‘and ther the bering: of his s
beaten: oy whi ch; ‘though seemingly. fair, he _Wwas pers
the ES daicod end, he marked out an entirely new oie.*
his and ot other plans as I understand it to be, is*this: In
i Laat at pa eberstery st Dr. Page, a the awial en
owhi o@fhink:
de really. a curio 13>. @achi
peor at this, iilstaad alt) I his woud feele “it “appears” 2 at
upon a ne ew e era ‘in ‘seience an art, promisit rev
pursuits as miractlous to the people of the day ‘
steam eye and the magnetic telegraph. *
In order to show ‘that there was somethi power, he Joaded down m thé. saat é
laced "tke crank at half stroke, and then a hook over the’ end ‘of. * bg crank, to which
wai
k was attached a long rope. Three of the strongest m th then’
hold of the rope, two ving their feet b. The three men could not
the engine a hair’s br Four of the men the k and they moved
the crank two inches, where it stuck fast. The power was then let on, and the
~ started, and e & speed of ninety vovahwioat nute taking off
fourteen pounds from: the end of his friction brake the engine made one hundred {
and rn Pars tis per minute. Professor Page stated that this was not testing the
power of the engine, but it showed that what four men could but just move days
i i ied of a mi t, t
tw hes, the earried through pip mile, and that, too, in
ute. Und that, from t ge e posi t power of
four men could go no further than two inches, gate
‘essor @ expects to make a ne I upon a railroad soon. ‘He has sufficient
power now to make a demonstration ; but is not satistied with it, He-would be
: to
make the first trip with psig arsaonel horse power, It is, however,
that A invention, and
_ navigation he ets the test. benefits from this :
oie toss the project carried toto of = engine and magnate bot [ne
rio
; of fam et we n eharcoa
= eae fn mber | of the
On the Secondary Spark. . 349
hundred horse power seems to be the only mode of arriving at a
definite conclusion upon this point. It is obvious that, prelimi-
nary to such an undertaking, a great many experiments will be
absolutely necessary ; and such only as one quite familiar with
the difficulties of entering upon an entirely new. eld, of opera-
tion can pepe appreciate. |
Arr. XXXII.—Singular property, and sehinordtieete size and
length of the Secondary Spark ; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace, M.D.,
Washington, D.C
In experimenting with my great maghet a new property of the’
secondary spark has been discovered’ and some. very interesting
facts elicited. I will. premise that the helix nearly a foot in diame- _
tereach way, when charged by the battery, draws up within it ©
" a Vertical position a huge bar of iron weighing 300 pounds,
through a distance of ten inches, presenting by far the most power- »
ful Magnet ever ‘known. When the circuit with the helix: is sud-
y broken a secondary spark is produced; eight inches in length.
eae he most Reranteng feature of this a is the modification
én th
merican Journal:
Washington, D, ©, Aug. 27, 1850.
World to enter oe ‘the benefits of the - iat fi kind past ae power
cannot ry, or satis Ly Tea a er
ther be — available for “locomotion or navigation,”
Sacrifice of mind and mea ar ph rege to find that which eg py it tad be
Secured by the: pr plan) d ‘ge exist... A point has been arrived
his ae investigation which indiaten, to use the language of Professor Page, in
4 “a sah to Congress, the import sce “1 carrying the thing “ beyond an un-
T ave no doubt of the applicability and rape e04 (especially if we
ife) of pcg
* age purposes
mak Congress in providing for the experiments DY tt the world may not yet be
pc aq, and many vil be real have still to be made, and peoemlion — , expended
am
_power for ships, or that to his zeal and intelligence we are not in-
introduction of what we now enjoy in the “— of steam na —
350 On Rutile and Chiorite in Quartz.
Art. XXXII.—On Rutile and Chlorite in Quartz; by O. P.
Husearp, M.D., Prof. Chem., Min. and Geol., Dart. Coll., N. H.
From the Lepeondinae of the fea es egeperg for the Advancement of Science,
New Haven, 1850.
Spiess of rutile in quartz have for twenty years past, been
found.in boulders in several towns in the vicinity of Dartmouth
College, none of which ee ever been traced to their sources.
Localities. have been mentioned, but none have furnished spe-
cimens resembling these boulders, excepting a single one. This
-. Central Railroad. It was described by Mr. Alger in the Proceed-
ings of the American Association for 1849, and also in.the pres-
ent volume of this Journal, page
~~. Ina cut of sixty feet perpendicular through solid talcose slate,
and thirty feet from the surface, a vein or pocket of quartz
‘was met, and a considerable number of specimens soniaumaae
rutile were obtained. The locality is now exhausted. F
its position, it never could have furnished the scattered ‘cialis
heretofore known, and we have yet to discover their origin. .”
Some of the specimens from this region have comparatively.
but little beauty; the rutile is in very fine capillary crystals of
dark color, two or three inches in length, and the quartz is of
stele quality. But others are exceedingly fine, both in the rich-
ss of the quartz and the abundant long needJes of the rutile.
“There are three known American specimeng of a remarkable
character, one of which is from this Waterbury locality. The other
two were found as boulders and are even of superior quality.
One of these has been in the Cabinet of Dr. J..R. Chilton,
New York City, for many years, and is réported to have been
found in Northern New England. It has the rutile in long acicu-
lar crystals and one series of prisms united into a crystal a kcal
-. fer of an inch wide.
. The other is a mass in the writer’s cabinet, described. by Mr.
_ Alger as “the finest specimen of this mineral found in the Uni-
ted States.” _ It was picked up in this region nearly twenty years
ago, but in what town is not known. Specimens _— Roches-
ter and Bethel, Vt,, resemble it more than any other
It is about six inches long and three inches in its otha dimen-
sions, being of irregular shape, and only a fragment of a larger
mass. ‘T'wo sides have been cut ons polished by the lapidary,
one retains its polished plane boulder surface, and the remaining
e exterior is irregular, presenting a conchoidal fractured
surface. There are indications of smooth cleavage faces in
ferent ea inclined to each other.
uartz in mass is transparent and slightly smoky—while
the slices cut off r are almost colorless. It is questionable w whether
i
|
|
2. P-Series treet ine le
#
On Rutile and Chlorite in Quartz. 351
the color is proper to the quartz, or occasioned by the reflection
from the rutile crystals. Mr. Alger finds almost no rutile in the
white quartz crystals from Waterbury, “ while the colored varieties
abound with it,” and probably, he suggests, owe their color to it.
The rutile crystals are from the size of the finest hair and al-
Most invisible, up to a twelfth of an inch in diaméter and five
inches long; they are uniformly distributed through ‘the quartz,
and intersect and cross each other in all directions. ‘There is no
radiation from a centre, but in many instances the crystals have
one or more large graceful curves, and sometimes two in opposite
directions, and some are bent at an angle either right or oblique.
any are broken at the surface of the quartz, while others are
Wholly included in it, terminating in a single plane or tapering
to a point.
They are all of a uniform bright reddish brown color, and of |»
the lustre of polished copper. Where the ends are seen on the
polished faces they have the color and lustre of polished steel.
nN humerous cases the surface of the crystals is covered here
and there with a brilliant, silver white mineral, sometimes limited —
to the lateral edges, and again investing parts of the prism at in-
tervals, or with frequent ‘interruptions, giving it the appearance of
eing made up of numerous short white and brown prisms, the
orm remaining unchanged. In some éases this mineral occurs
like a thin disk, through the centre of which the rutile appears
to penetrate. I have not been able to determine with certainty
the nature of pa _and can only conjecture that it is the
same with the cufyed crystals described below.
In the writer’s specimen, a8in those described by Mr. Alger, there
are humerous vermiform, tortuous and convoluted crystals. By
transmitted light, theyare sometimes of the color of copper, thought
faintly so, or,of a bronze yellow, or of greenish and yellow shades
oreven very dark, and by direct light they are almost'black.’ These
ir nsversely finely striated, —
crystals are regular hexagonal prisms, tra
s
Pte
and appear to be made up of thin plates of slightly varying size,
8iving thé érystals a varying diameter. They occur either singly
or in groups of several laterally joined, and united in all their
convolntions, and having a single terminal plane, highly lustrous,
which often presents a silver white color. ‘The above figures, en-
352 On Crystallized Oryd of Chromium.
larged views of two of them, give a perfect idea of the originals,
the prismatic form of which is obvious to the eye and perfeetly
distinct with a glass. If we judge from the figures in Mr. Alger’s
paper in this volume, (p. 14,) the prismatic preci of his crys-
tals is much less strikin
Mr. Alger has described the mineral in his specimens, as mica.
I have been able to obtain only a very small pag of the min-
eral from one’ or two protruding curves on m cimen. It
readily cleaves parallel to the terminal plane, is reais softer
than mica, and is easily reduced by the pressure of a knife on
_ white paper, into a fine, coherent powder, of a greenish tint. It
has no elasticity, and before the blowpipe gives off an abundance
of water. From these decided characters, and the rarity of such
an association of mica, and the quite frequent one of chlorite and
quartz, it seems altogether probable that this mineral is chlorite.
If these several minerals were at one time in solution in, the
fluid quartz, they-must have crystallized previous to. it. The rutile
prisms are so straight or so gracefully curved and bent, that they
~ would seem to have experienced but slight resistance. They in-
tersect- and cross each other, and pass through the loops in the
chlorite crystals or touch them on the outside, and they peo
cae first. Around most of these convolutions of chlorite
ere is a burr, or a minute spot of imperfectly radiating fractures,
Ssmictlly iridescent, which suggests that they were formed
before me: solidification of the quartz, and that’ they had occa-
e pressure or disturbance and a sligh racture. But as
the: Sahlcrite: uniformly, and ‘the rutile in very many cases, must
have: been ‘without any attachment,’ the ee of eit fluid
quartz to have sustained them was probably gre
On removal of the rutile. and chlorite: rig the gang gue the
vertical strie of the former.and the transverse strie of the latter
are found figured on the quartz, making it eertain that the latter
was last solidified.
There must be somewhere in this region north, ‘a rich deposit,
for which mineralogists will earnestly seek, until it is Sse and
- its treasures are transferred to appt cabinets.
Arr. XXXIV.— Occurrence of Crystallized Oxyd of Chromium
in furnaces Ped the manufacture of Chromate of Potash ; by
W. P. Brak
Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, New
Haven, August, 185
i reice of the sesquioxyd of specie have been obtained
in small quantities by Wohler, by passing the vapor of cio?
—— acid through a tube heated to nF
|
'
}
q
On Crystallized Oxyd of Chromiwm. 353
_ The crystals which I have examined with the following re-
sults, were obtained from a furnace which had been long in ope-
ration for the production of chromate of potassa from the mineral
chromic iron. A portion of the furnace having been taken down
for repairs, I found small but exceedingly brilliant:erystals lining
isseminated
the cracks and fissures between the fire bricks an
- @: ab=141° 38’ 24” (mean of 5 measurements.)
Calculating from a:R, the angle a: a} =141° 15, and R: as
= 96° 50’; and.gs the plane. a} is exceedingly small, this result is
More probably ids than that given above from measurement.
he angle a: R gives for the angle of the rhombohedron 85° 22’,
which is but little less than that given for specular. iron. The
axis = 1-39045, The crystal according to Naumann’s notation
has the descriptive, expression, OR, R,-4R, R®.
The crystals have the hardness of sapphire, equal to 9 on the
Scale of Mohs. Lustre metallic. Color black ; opaque ee
ite plates, which are green by transmitted light. The powder
ort als
_ The mass of the bricks and the portions on which the sesqui-
oxyd has crystallized, is charged with soluble yellow chromate of
Potash, and in many or all of the specimens the green color of
the uncrystallized oxyd can be seen.
Srconp Series, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov,, 1850. 45
354 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery.
My frequent ‘daily examinations of the furnaces in operation
made me familiar with the condition in which the contents were
at differeut times, and considering the facts before stated, I ac-
count for the production of the crystals in the. following way.
When the furnace, newly constructed or lined with fire- brick,
is fired and. charged with alkali and chrome: ore, much of the
fused chromate of potash formed, is absorbed by the porous bricks,
and I-observed that it had penetrated througts three or four
courses of bricks and mortar
_ After the-furnace has been long i in operation the bricks become
saturated, and vitrified, to a certain depth; and the floor and
sides of the furnace become incrusted with a vitreous. coating,
which is constantly increasing. The parts more remote from the
_ fire are consequently better protected from changes and variations
- of temperature, and are exempt from the inne of: more fused
material.
The chromate of potash i is thus kept for a ae time at a uni-
form high-temperature, and gradually losing its potash from vola-
~~ tilization, the chromic¢-acid (Gr) in combiriation with it loses ony
“Se es — saat (#) and eeynaiiiaes.
Cae Penn
Art. XXXV.—Memoir on Emery; by J. Lawrence Smrrs,
M.D.—F'rst part—On the Geology — beepers of. Emery,
— from. observati tons made in Asia "Mino 4
Read before ihe. “heademny” of. Sciences of the Fre ench Institute, Jay 15th, 1850,
and commiunicat ted by the author for this Journal.
Or all the mineral substances employed i in the arts, ie have
offered so little opportunity for. geological examination as emery,
aad ee our knowledge of it in this er is very
imit
J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 355
Prior to 1846, the existence of emery was rot remarked in
Asia Minor or any of the contiguous islands except that of Samos,
which fact is alluded to in Tournefort’s travels in the seventeenth
century. In the latter part of 1846, I arrived in Smyrma, and
was shown specimens which I recognized as emery: that came
from a place about twenty miles north of Smyrna; they had
been first discovered through the agency of a knife grinder of the
ish government as well as to the arts emery being at that time ~
posed locality of this mineral. On this second visit other local-
ities were made know to me that an English merchant by the
name of Healy had succeeded in bringing to light.
acd
The first locality towards which I directed my examination —
was that of Gumuch-dagh, a mountain about twelve miles east
of the ruins of Ephesus. Before, however, arriving there, ‘I
discovered this mineral imbedded in a calcareous rock in a-valley:
twenty miles south of: Smyrna, called Allahman-Bourgs.; the —
Position not being very favorable for the ‘study of the geology of —
this substance, my route. was continued to the place originally
‘Bixed upon. Obtaining guides at the village of Gumuch, | com-
Menced the.examination of the mountain, which is composed of
bluish. marble resting on mica slate and gneiss. On-the very
summit of the mouutain, the emery was found. scattered about
and projecting above the surface of the soil. After examining
the extent of the formation and satisfying myself that it was there
M. Smith and some of the officers of the imperial powder works,
to examine thoroughly into the importance of this mine, a bd
cording to the report that will be made the government will de-
cide on the steps to be taken with reference to it, &c.
This circumstance, unimportant in itself, has subsequently be-
come of great value to secure to me the priority of the discovery
and examination of emery in situ in Asia Minor ;* and also to
show that I have been instrumental in the development which has
oem ees ONO aac ere Miah te Sn Ale a ea
* See Am. Jour. Sci., 2nd ser., vol. vii, 283.
356 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery.
been subsequently given to this emery in a commercial point of
view. Since the first discovery other localities have been ascer-
tained by me, all of which will be alluded to in this memoir.
Localities'of Emery in Asia Minor and the neighboring islands.
Gumuch-dagh.—In going from Ephesus east to Gouzel-Hissar
(the ancient 7'ralles) we pass by the ruins of the ancient city o
agnes on the Miandre and near to this latter is a beautiful valley,
celebrated for its figs, in which is situated the village of Gumuch
at the foot of a mountain bearing the same name, It was here
that the emery formation was first examined. ~All the rocks of
the surrounding country appear to belong to ‘the old series; the
limestone is entirely devoid of fossils and’metamorphic in its
~ character; it rests on the older schists of which mica schist ap-
pears the most abundant, and this again farther to the north was
traced in contact: with gneiss. The Jimestone is of alight blue -
passing into a coarse grained marble; and on the south side, the
_ roek by its decay leaves in many places precipices of considera-
ble elevation, that add much to the picturesque appearance of the
region. . cade
The emery is found in different places in the Gumuch moun-
_ tain; the place, however, to which it is traced in greatest abun- |
dance, is on a part of the summit about three miles from the
village of Gumuch, and some fifteen hundred or two thousand
feet above the level of the valley; it overlooks the magnificent
plain of the Miandre, whose curiously tortuous course is seen as
if traced on a map. The emery lies scattered on the surface in
the greatest profusion, in angular fragments of a dark color, and
large masses of several tons weight are seen projecting above the
surface ; in penetrating the soil, the emery is found imbedded in
it and a little farther down it'is come ‘to inthe rock. In fact by
breaking the marble that projects above the’ surface‘at this spot
we are sure to find nodules of the mineral. - ;
~ Sometimes the emery forms:almdst a solid mass several yards
in length and breadth. One’ of thesé places, opened’for the pur-
of exploring, is about ten’ of twelve yards square and all the.
_ rock taken out is emery ; the spaces between the blocks are filled
with an earth highly charged with oxyd of iron. In some places
the masses are consolidated by éarbonate of lime of infiltration,
which must not be confounded with the emery in its original
gangue (the marble) in which it is found in nodules sometimes
round and at other times fissured so as to represent angular frag-
ments. In no place does it present anything like a vein, nor has
it signs of stratification. The largest mass at this locality that
J saw unbroken must weigh from thirty to forty tons.
Attached to this mineral, more especially in the fissures and on
the surface, are several minerals that will be alluded to hereafter.
ce
ws
J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 357
Kulah.—Phis locality of emery is the second in importance in
Asia Minor, it is a town situated about a hundred an fifty miles
delphia (one of the seven churches). It is near the river Hermes,
and on that interesting volcanic district of Asia called Catacecau-
mene or the burnt country, resembling in many respects the vol-
canic region of Auvergne. The rocks forming the base of this
region are of the older metamorphic series, covered to a greater
or less. depth. by lava. of different volcanic periods, which has
flowed from the numerous craters that form the prominent feature
of this region, 'T’he most common rocks in the mountain ranges
about Kulah aré white granular limestone, mica slate, hornblende
schist, gneiss and, granite ; the last four are séen more conspicu-
ously in the mountain two or three. miles to the south, which
ave not been subjected to volcanic action ; the limestone. over-
rock
lies these rocks.
Before arriving at the place where I examined the emery, (about
two miles to the northeast of Kulah,) an outcropping of gneiss ?
Was seen and subjected to the closest scrutiny, without discover-
ing the slightest trace of corundum; and I will here remark that
although I have found several thin layers of mica schist engaged in
_ the marble, in no instance was there any trace of corundum in it.
. The marble in this region is very compact, of great hardness
and I may also add of great purity. I cannot say whether this’
hardness is traceable to a greater depth than that to which it has
felt the influence of the superimposed lava. Here again the em-
ery was found on the surface, but not in‘sueh abundance as at
Gumuch-dagh, and moreover the soil is not as deep as in the
latter place. The emery as seen in the marble at Kulah is ca-
pable of being studied with the greatest satisfaction, particularly
as two or three places in the rock have been quarr
aarrie
Adula.—Not far from this town which is about twelve or fif--
teen miles east of Kulah, 1 have also discovered emery, only,
d.
Island of Nicaria, Grecian, Archipelago.—I have also been
able to examine thoroughly the emery of this island, which prom-
attached to the surface.
=
pir
Fl eos
hee
358 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery.
and of Naxos.—This old and well known>lo@ality is here
a ae to, simply because it has furnished me with: specimens,
the examination of which forms a part of this memoir. It is
found in large blocks mixed with a red soil and also imbedded in
white marble. It is taken principally from the north and east side
of the island—the best comes from Vothrie, nine miles fromthe
_ Shore, and is embarked at Sulionos. ‘Another good locality is at
Apperanthes, seven miles from the shore, and it is embarked at a
small port called Moutzona. In the south of the island it is found
near Yasso. It is in such abundance on this island, that notwith-
standing the immense quantity carried. off it is not sie ‘foun d
necessary to quarry it from the roc
Conclusions sath reference to the Geology o + Emery.
The localities at Gumuch-dagh and Kulah are those which
afforded me the best means of studying the geology of emery,
although in-every instance I have ems it associated with ce
old limestoue overlying mica slate, gnei
Cc.
‘It is imbedded either in the earth eae covers the limestone a
in the rock itself; and exists in masses from the size of a
that of. several tons Weight, generally angular, sometimes Lass
ed, and when in the latter form they do. not appear to have be-
come so by attrition.
The masses in the soil possess but little interest for the weil
gist, as they may have been left there by the decomposition of
the rock, or been transported from other positiogs ; still, the latter
is difficult of supposition, in reference to what is found at Gu-
much-dagh, for here it is only on the summit and not on the sides
of the mountain that the emery has. been, traced. _ But having
had the means of studying the emery and rock in contact, I have
come to the firm conclusion, that the emery has been formed and
consolidated in the limestone in which it is found, and that it has
not been detached from older rocks as granite, gneiss, 62, and
lodged in the limestone at. the pees of its formation..* My reasons
for s so thinking are the following—
Ist. In no instance could the closest investigation of the older
rocks of these localities, that are below the limestone, furnish
the slightest indication of the existence of emery there ; 20
moreover the masses of emery in the limestone never had ‘frag
ments of another rock attached to them. A few thin layers of
mica slate were found in the limestone, but they were not in con-
tact with the emery, nor contained any traces of corundum.
dwell thus much on this point, because in my specimens the
careous rock in connection with the emery is under two forms;
that of the original rock, and that formed by the intl of
calcareous water in the fissures which exist near the
J. Lawrence Smith on E mery. 359
2d. The limestone immediately in contact with the emery
differs almost invariably in color and composition from the mass
of the rock; and.at Kwdah, where the marble forming the rock
is remarkably pure:-(as evinced by analysis), the part in contact
and contains a large portion of alumina and oxyd of. iron.
thickness of this interposing coat between the emery and the
marble is variable ; but what is certain, it passes gradually into
white marble, so that their crystalline structures run into eac
other, showing that they are one and the same rock. Had the
Masses of emery been broken from an older rock and imbedded in
_the marble at ‘its:formation, there is no reason why the contact
‘Should not always be direct and immediate without this transition
from ferro-aluminous limestone to pure marble. What we see is
_ just what should be expected in ferruginous and aluminons min-
_ erals forming and separating themselves from a limestone not yet
- consolidated
ed for exploring this mineral. It has been stated that at all
the localities under consideration, but principally at Gumuch and
axos, the emery exists in great abundance detached from the
rock in a red earth; now this earth is simply the result of the
decomposition of this heterogeneous calcareous envelope, which
from its nature is easy of disaggregation by the influence of at-
mospheric agents. Had the emery been in immediate contact
with the marble we could -hardly have expectéd this spontaneous
“Separation in so great a quantity.
I have in some iristances seen small nodules of emery in small
cavities in the-rock but perfectly detached. :
e-immensé mass- alluded to as covering several square
yards of surface is another evidence of the emery. having been
formed in the limestone ; for this mass does not consist of a single
piece, but of a number of different sizes, not lying together
_ irregularly, but with their contiguous surfaces more or less paral-
lel, although removed a little distance from each other; in fact, it
1s just what we would expect in a large mass that for some cause
or other had been fissured in various directions.
4th. Yet another circumstance to be remarked in connection
A
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value of this argument is better understood on examining the
Specimens in my possession
é
with the emery is of a dark yellow-color resembling ‘spathic iron,
4 2
‘ _
BP a
; ot TD hts kind of separation between the emery and the marble
has been highly useful in the facility that it has indirectly afford-
360 J. Eewrence Smith on Emery.
Enough having been said to prove that the. emery under con-
sideration was formed within the limestone. in which it is found,
I will allude to process of segregation which has given rise
to this formatio
It would. sane that the substances. pfininated fines the calea-
reous rani were silica, alumina, and oxyd of iron, and that these
three in the exercise of homogeneous - and chemical attractions
have given rise to the minerals which consti itute an are assocla-
isa j
ted with emery. In my collection, there is
ing this. fact in a remarkable manner. dt is a
emery in the center, with two concentric. yer the inner of
chloritoid and pa outer of emerylite ; the. tter was in nh contact
with the limest
Em ery ~inixtie of corundum (lumina ale bydrated) and
oxyd of ir
Chlorioit—sle 24, alumina AO, oxyd of, iron 28,, water Io
- Eme 30, 0, lime 13, water
Ati in ae caine in commencing from the external. cop .
thick direction we must regard the consolidation of the:no
that the larger portion of silica eliminated as combined witl “a
Jargé portion of alumina and some lime to tome a pecuhar mine
t, the remainder of the silica ‘combines. with an aditional
hex
quantity of alumina and considerable oxyd of iron to form another
‘mineral ; and finally the remaining alumina and oxyd of iron
crystallize separately.. Facts of this kind in geology are not un-
frequent, but they are always highly a and worthy of
remark.
In coneluding the geological considerationsof emery with ref-
erence to the localities in Asia Minor and the. mh islands,
I would remark, that at some Jour time when the observations
become extended, it will doubtless. be found that the emery forms
the geognostic mark of extensive calcareous,formations in that
part of the world, just as the flints do in the chalk of Europe.
Mineralogical position of E'mery.
Emery has been considered by some as corundum, others sup-
it represente some rock or other, not always the same,
in which corundum is disseminated in greater or less quantity ;
others again consider it a mixture of corundum and oxyd of iron.
I am of opinion that the latter is the most correct manner of re-
garding this substance.
Emery properly speaking is not a simple mineral, but a me-
chanical mixture of granular corundum and oxyd of iron in which
the former usually predominates. It has not the aspect of corun~
dum disseminated in a rock, for it is found in ns — of
different dimensions and of great hardness; and when broket
giving way in the directions Sf fissures, which oxy co
in the mass. : ~ Most frequently there is no other ee of the.
presence of corundum i in emery but its hardness. The oxyd of
Iron present. 1s always’ under the form of magnetic oxy h ‘ies or
less mixed with oligiste ;: sometimes it is titaniferons. There are
aes minerals associated with the emery, all of which will ake
destribed hereafter.
The as aspect of this Eritice differs more than is supposed, for
by. which to judge others, ~ ‘The localities that I have discovered
furnish me with specimens showing considerable ditfereuce not
i “only ¢ as Meatie ie: but also in the structure.
‘he. os emery is of a dark grey with a mottled surface,
and ebb “points of a micaceous mineral disseminated in th
‘Inass. © Tt t frequently contains bluish specks or streaks which are
easily: recognized as being pure corundum.
The Gumuch-dazh emery is commonly of a fine grain did
oR dark. blue’ bérdering on black, not unlike certain varieties of mag-.
. perce) iron ores. With this variety we frequently find pieces of
-coruridum of some size. The interior of the mass is tolerably
‘pes from the micaceous specks found in that of Naxos
The Kulah emery is usually coarse grained, and much’ darker
than that of Gumuch-dagh, ‘its external surface resembling some-
times that of chromate'of iron.
The Nicaria emery in many instances presents a schistose or
lamellated structure to a very remarkable degree, so much so that
certain specimerg might pass for gneiss. ‘T’ he color is dark blue
and somewhat mottled like that of Naxos. ‘There is also much
that is quite compact found in the same locality. The jamella-
ted variety contains.an abundance of a micaceous ara which
in this instance appears to*have determined its struc
he Samos emery, as yet found only in small sahonitien, and
in the form of nodules, is uniformly of a dark blue color, some-
~ times of a coarse grained and at other times of a fine grained
a ‘Hot unlike. certain varieties of very compact blue lime-
ne.
Fracture.—The fracture of emery is tolerably er. — the
surface exposed is granular of an adamantine aspect ; it is exceed-
ingly difficult to break when not traversed by fissures or het of a
lamellated structure as much of that from Nicaria. When re-
duced to powder it varies in color from that of a dark grey to
black. babes color of its powder affords no indication of its com-
mercial v
The aly examined under the microscope shows the distinct
sia of the two minerals, corundum and oxyd of iron,
94 inseparable as the smallest fragment contains the
Vol. X, No. 80.—Nov., 1850. 46
£. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 361
%*
ett lately, the emery brought from Naxos has been the criterion — :
362 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery.
- Magnetism.—As‘itis natural to suppose all: specimens of em- |
ery affect more or less the magnetic needle; in some the magnet- |
ism is barely perceptible, in others it amounts to strong polarity.
Odor.—Emery when moistened always affords a\.very. strong
argillaceous odor; even the most compact varieties. = . °°
Specific gravity.—T he different varieties do. not vary much in
__ their specific gravity, it béing always in the neighborhood of 4.
The specific gravity of various specimens will-be given-on a
following page. . " a Poe
Hardness.—The hardness of emery is its most important
property, as to it is due the value of this substance in the arts. For
this reason I have devoted much time and attention to the deter-
mination of it. ‘Ina mineralogical sense its hardxess is not diffi-
enlt to determine; for if we try different’ varieties of emery by
scratching agate or other hard substance, the effect will naturally
be very nearly the same ; for in every case, it will be some point of —
corundum that has produced the scratch. If, however, we hap-
fy),
> 3
CN
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Q
Pu
ae
Pp
a
ir]
&.
ro)
=
fs]
5
2
a
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ro)
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-*
oo
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=
=:
~~
e-
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°
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Law |
—
om as
o
ia?)
=
oO
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a
°
sen
ba)
sieve; the operation is repeated until all the emery has passed
through the sieve. ‘The object of giving but two or three blows
at a time is to avoid crushing any of the emery to too fine a
powder. Ss
Thus pulverized it is intimately mixed and acertain portion of
it is weighed, (as I operated with a balance ‘sensible’to a milli-
gramme, the quantity used never exceeded a gramme.) ‘To test
the effective hardness of this, a circular piece of glass about four
inches in diameter and a small agate mortar are used. The glass
is first weighed and placed ona piece of glazed paper; the pul-
verized emery is then thrown on it little by little, at each time
rubbing it against the glass with the bottom of the agate mortar.
The emery is brushed off the glass from time to time with a
feather, and when all the emery has been made to pass once over
the glass, it is collected from the paper and made to pass through
she same operation which is repeated three or four times. e
glass is then weighed, after which it is subjected to the same Op-
ration as before, the emery being by this time reduced to an im-
palpable powder. This series of operations is continued unt
-_ fe
fF te
jae
Stay
J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 363
by repeated weighing the loss sustained bythe glass is reduced “ae a
to a few milligrammes, The total loss in the glass is then noted, >
and when all the ‘specimens of emery are submitted to this opera-
tion under'the same circumstances, we get an exact idea of their
relative hardness. = ¢
The blue sapphire of Ceylon was pulverized and experimented
with in:this.way; it furnished me‘with a unit of comparison by
which to compare the results obtained. This operation is long —
but certain, and for the harder varieties of emery it is necessary
to repeat the rubbing six or séven times and it requires nearly two
hours for completion, =>
The results that I have obtained are interesting and have fur-
nished me with the means of forming conelusions that I could
or Tt.
not have otherwise-come at. &
Glass and dgate-have uot been chosen for this experiment with-
pieces of agate, with two pieces of glass, and with metal and
“glass. The agates were found too hard, as they crushed the
emery without producing hardly any abrasive effect; the-others
were found not to crush the emery sufficiently, making the ex-
timent tedious and long. With the glassand agate we have a
ard substance which crushes the emery, and in a certain space of
time reduces it to such an impalpable state that it has no longer
any sensible effect on the glass, and on the other hand, the glass
is soft enough to lose during this time sufficient of its substance
to allow of accurate comparative results. In the employment of
this method in the arts, it would not be necessary to go to the
sapphire for a standard of comparison; any good emery would
answer the purpose quite as well. a
t must be understood that this method of coming at the abra-
sive effects of emery does not furnish the mineralogical harduess
of this substance, by which we understand the harduess of any
individual particle, as evinced by its effect on a substance of less
hardness,.without regard to the molecular structure of the mineral.
Two minerals possessing the same hardness but differing in strne-
ture, one being friable, and the other resisting, will be found very
different in their abrasive effects; for instance, break a piece of
quartz in two, subject one of the pieces to a white heat, and after
cooling, compare the two by rubbing the point against some hard
substance ; both will be found to scratch equally well: then try
the two ina state of powder, by rubbing them between two
pieces of glass that have been weighed, and the difference of their
abrasive effects will be found very great; because, the one snb-
Jected to the fire is exceedingly friable, and becomes readily
crushed to an impalpable powder. This fact is eminently true
With reference to emery, many specimens of which containing
the same amount of corundum differ somewhat in their effective
“e
364 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery.
rR av hardness owing to the more or less Somapact: structure of the co-
3
ig
ce a
“rundum.
By the method with the agate and glass:'I hae found the best
emery capable of wearing away about one-half its weight of the
glass (that used was the common Freneh window glass). The
sapphire under the same circumstances :wearsaway more than
four-fifths of its weight. A tabular view of ce will: be
given a little farther on a Sa
Chemical fenpbetetiie of Hiainy.° be Pe
This substance consisting of a mixture of. corundum dnd oxyd
of iron in various: proportions, it is easy tosee: what its composi-
tion must be. “Yet the chemical examination of this mineral
taken in connection with other properties is not devoid of interest.
‘For the purpose of analysis, the emery was —— to a state
of powder, in the manner alluded to in speaking of its hardness, —
with a diamond mortar and sieve. This powder was dried for
twenty-four hours over sulphuric acid ; a gramme was then weigh-
‘ed in a small platinum crucible of about one-fourth of a cubic inch
in Sapecitys fitted with é a cover that sagan itself well to it; this
Thus arranged the crucibles were heated tg satanic for
: r. After c g, thes pore:
crucible was carefully withdrawn and weig bed “Th
nished me with thé amount of water in the emery. °*"
t requires a continued red heat to drive out all the Water, &
circumstance which is true for a number of minerals, particularly
or those containing a large amount of alumina as diaspore an
the micas which will be spoken of in this
wder, of which the water has been estimated, was next
suilieniated to levigation in a large agate mortar placed on a sur-
ace of glazed paper; and when completed, it was carefully de-
tached from the mortar, placed in a platinum capsule, heated gently
to drive off any hygrometric moisture and weighed ; the increase
of weight furnished the amount of silica taken from the mortar.
The levigation of one gramme was accomplished in two ope-
rations, each requiring about twenty minutes; and by using @
mortar of convenient size and the extremity ‘of a feather or a
small brush, it is possible to lose but an insensible quantity of the
mineral and to with sufficient precision the amount of
silica ot from the mortar.
a ee
J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 365
Another method by which I accomplished the levigation in ~ :
some of the analyses, was in a steel mortar of the same formas
the agate mortar; and when completed the powder was placed
in a glass with nitric acid diluted with thirty times its weight of
water and left in it for one hour agitating it occasionally. The
iron taken from the mortar was. dissolved, and no part of the
mineral attached. : The’ next thing was to filter and continue
‘the analysis with the substance thus freed from the iron of the
mortar,.without any second weighing.
Of these two methods I preferréd to employ the first for the
emery, a8 it is more expeditious and almost if not quite as exact
as the second.-. There are, however, occasions in-which the steel
mgstar should be resorted to. » eae
The substance once reduced to an impalpable powder, it was
necessary to render it completely soluble, and my researches to
- afrive at.this were long and tedious. In trying the various known
~ Methods the most successful was found to be that with a mix-
- ture of carbonate of soda and caustic soda heated to whiteness _
for one hour; nevertheless I could not obtain a complete decom- .
position, The decomposition might probably be completed if
the levigation was made more thoroughly, but it is easy to. under-
Stand, that with a large number of analyses of the same substance
to make, it was a desideratum on my part not to consume the
best part of a day in the levigation of a single gramme ; particu-
, a8 I did not wish to confide this operation to another, as much
Care was requir ose nothing during the levigation. Mixed
with carbonate’@f baryta and heated in a forge, the decomposition
of the mineral wagfar fronrbeing complete ; the same may be said
: ISL Of potash. decomposes it almost entirely by a
Single operation, but unfortunately, a double salt of potash and
alumina is formed*which is almost insoluble in water or in the
acids, and it is only by a solution of potash that it is first decom-
posed and afterwards redissolved. I will not stop to detail all
the disadvantages attending this method, but will at once speak
of the method which gave me very easily the most accurate
results.
It is by means of the bisulphate of soda that all my analyses
of emery, of corundum, and of several aluminates were made.
I believe that I am the first who has shown the great advantage
that I will say is, that the former in giving a decomposition at
st as complete as the latter, furnishes a melted mass quite solu-
Hi
F
—
366 J. Lawrence Smith on Eimery.
— ble in water, and in the future operations of the analyses there is
eno embarrassment from a deposit of alum.
The bisulphate of soda was prepared by adding an excess of
pure sulphuric acid to the pure carbonate or neutral sulphate of
soda and heating it in a capsule until all: the water had been ex-
pelled and sufticient of the acid to allow of the mass becoming
solid on cooling. ‘That obtained 1 in commerce is not sufficiently
The: pulverized emery is placed in a large platinum exuciblés
with six or eight times its weight-of bisulphate of soda, and the
mixture is-heated over a lamp in the same manner and with the
same precatifions.as are employed when using the bisulphate of
potash. From ‘fifteen to thirty minutes suffice for the operatten
The mass is allowed. to cool, ee water with a few drops of. éul-
alien ane are 6 added to it and the whole heated, when it solr
tion: and when treated with water and a Joke or two of eee’
ric acid all except the silica is dissolved. ‘The liquid which passes
ov filter in this case is added to the first and the analysis contin-
ed. The silica obtained is diminished by the quantity taken up
from the mortar in order to arrive at what is actually contained
in the mineral. The filtered solution i is heated with a little nitric
alkali ; this redissolves the alumina first precipitated and thus sep-
arates it from the oxyd of iron and a trace of lime. The iron
and lime are separated in the ordinary way; the alkaline solution
of alumina was poe and the alumina precipitated with car-
bonate of amm
Thus analyzed, dee emery from different places gave the fol-
lowing results :—
oe aes i is Speci Chemical composition,
| en Ts eo ee | Water (Alumina. Pion, Lime. | Silica. | ‘Total.
1 {kK 57 =e “190 | 6350 | 33-25 | 0-92 | 1°61 | 10118
2 56 3:98 | 210 | 70°10 | 29°21 | 0°62 | 400 | 99°03
3 56 3°75 | 2°53 | 71-06 | 20°32 | 1:40 | 41
4 53 4-02 | 2°36 | 68°00 | 30°12 | 050 | 236 | 98°34
5 47 382 | 311 | 77°82 62 | 1:80 | 81
6 46 8-75 | 472 | 68:53 | 2410 | 086 | $10 | 10131
aah 46 3-74 75°12 | 13°06 | O72 | 688 |
8 44 | $87 | 547 | 69-46 | 19:08 | 281 | 241 | 9928
a 42 4°31 | 5°62 | 60°10 | 33°20 | 0-48 | 180 eee
10 3-89 | 200 | 61-05 | 27-15 | 1:30 | 9°63 | 10113 |
J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 367
- T ought to mention that the analysis afforded other substances’
in small quantities in some of the emeries ; as titanic acid, oxydof
manganese, oxyd of zirconium, and sulphur (existing in pyrites) ;
but these substances are unimportant in the composition of“emery,
and are in such minute quantities, that it is necessary to operate
on a considerable quantity of the mineral to obtain satisfactory
results concerning them. a .
+ The analyses marked 6 and 8 were made by decomposing the
emery as it. came from the sieve, without pulverization in the
agate mortar. It was by accident that it occurred and I was not
aware of the neglect until it was fused with the bisulphate of
soda, but not wishing to lose the analysis, the operations were
coutinuied as in the other cases, only using a little more of the
bisitphate in the second decomposition ; aud somewhat to my sur-
prise, the decomposition was quite as perfect as in the other cases.
I had nearly completed all my analyses in the manner detailed,
_ when*his fact became known, so that I have but these two cases
to report. It will simplify the analysis of corundum if pulver-
ization in a diamond mortar be found sufficient, and I propose
examining specially into this question.
The water which was found in the emery comes from the
corundum, a fact which will be shown when the analysis of pure
corundum is given, which will be in the second part of the
memoir. A very minute quantity of what has been estimated as
water might bea little oxygen lost by the oligiste which is some-
times found in emery. Those emeries which contain the least
water, every thing else alike, are the hardest, as instanced by that
from Kulah, notwithstanding the quantity of iron it contains.
The silica existing in emery is most often in. combination with
alumina or the oxyd of iron or with both, for this reason we mus
not always regard the quantity of alumina as an indication of the
quantity of corundum in the emery.
which differs from these ores of iron, and besides the surface
exposed is of a lighter color. From the numerous observations
ade, I may set it down as a general rule, that any blackish
oe or dark blue rock of a strong argillaceous smell, that scratches
agate easily, with a specific gravity in the neigborhood of 4, is
Sure to be emery.
The mining of Emery.
The mining of this substance is of the simplest character.
= The natural decomposition of the rock in which it occurs facili-
Se - J. Lawrence Smith on Emery.
oe tates its extraction. As has already been mentioned, the rock de-
4 composes into an earth in which the emery is found imbedded.
he quantity found, under these ‘favorable cireumstances is so
great that it is rarely necessary to explore the rock. The earth
in the neighborhood of the blocks of emery is almost always
a red color, and serves.as an indication té those who are in
search of the mineral. Sometimes before beginning to excavate,
the spots are sounded by an iron rod with a steel point, and when
any resistance is met with, the rod is rubbed'in contact with the
resistin m4 body, and the effect produced on the “point enables a
seh to decide — it has been done by emery or not.
The blocks -whtch of aconvenient size are transported in
their rai state, ae Antes frequently they are required te
broken by means-of large hammers; when they resist the
mer, they are subjected to the action ‘of fire for several hours, and
on cooling they most commonly yield to blows. It, however,
appens sometimes that large masses are abandoned from the im-
possibility of breaking them into pieces of a convenient size;
as the transportation either on camels or horses requires that the
pieces do not exceed one hundred pounds.
At Kulah, the quantity of emery detached from the rock was
not very considerable, as it had been aera from decomposi-
tion by the beds of lava that cover it. Here the marble was
quarried to get atthe emery: which was done in the early part of
1847 with profit, although; the transportation from Kulah to
Smyrna is over a distance 6f one hundred and ten miles on the |
backs of camels. Since the diminution of the price of emery, i
this mine has been abandoned, for the quarrying into the marble
is attended with the greatest difficulty as the tools used for boring, |
&ec., are thrown out of use in a very short time, by the pieces of 4
emery which are encountered at every instant. At present all
the emery sent from Asia Minor comes from the mine at Gumuch-
dagh, twelve miles from the ruins of E'phesus.
ate ee ee
Commercial consideration of Emery.
The use of emery in-the arts is of very ancient date, a fact
proved by works on hard:stones that could not have been execu-
ted except by emery or minerals of that nature. It is very prob-
able that emery coming from the localities which have been men-
tioned, was used in former ages by the Greeks and Romans. For
example, the — of Gumuch-dagh is immediately by the —
ancient Magnesia on the Meandre, and between Ephesus and
Tralles, twelve ies from each of these cities, and the same dis-
tance from I'yria;'in all of these cities the arts flourished, and
none more than that of cutting hard stones, if we are allowed
to judge from 798 specimens of their skill in this art that have
come down to u
(J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 369
_ Nevertheless, the quantity of emery formerly employed wa ‘
Insignificant in comparison to the quantity now required, more —
particularly within the last twenty years, since the use of plate
lass has been-extended. The annual consumption at the pres-
ent time is about fifteen hundred tons.
or various: reasons, the island of Naxos furnished for several
centuries almost exclusively the emery used in the arts, as much
for the facility with which it was obtained as for the uniformity
of its quality. The emery exists in very great abundance ov this
island, and notwithstanding the quantity already extracted there
still remain immense deposits of it. . |. = eds
The price of this substance at the end of the last century was
from 40 to 50 dollars the ton, and between 1820 atid 1835 it was
at times even less. About this period, the ménopoly of the Naxos
«
hearer the sea, of Gumuch-dagh commenced in 1847 and worked
largely, and of Niearia commenced in 1850. From all these
different places the emery goes to Smyrna, and from there, prin-
Cipally to England, the vessels taking it at a very low price as it
serves for ballast. ‘ ai +e
The various mines belong to the Turkish and to the Greek
government. The Greek government now sells its emery in lots
of several tons. The Turkish government sells the entire monop-
oly of its mines, aud consequently its operations are controlled
by a single interest ; but in all probability, this monopoly will be
done away with, in virtue of a commercial treaty existing be-
tween Turkey and the other powers. If this takes place the price
of emery will be still farther diminished.
Of the different varieties of emery employed in the arts that
of Nazos is still preferred, and with reason, as it is more uniform
1n its quality than that coming from Kulah and Gumuch ; never-
theless, if the best qualities of that from the island of N icaria are
ound in abundance and that only sent into market, it will prove
at least equal if not superior to that of Naxos.
Stconp Serres, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850.
370. On American Spodumene.
ae
* Arr. XXXVIL—On American Spodumene ; by Geo. J. Brusu,
of the Yale Analytical Laboratory.
Read before the American Association for the Avlvancement of Science at Naw
Haven, August, 1850.
Owrne to the want of a complete anal ysis of an American Spod- .
umene, I was induced at the suggestion of Prof. Silliman, Jr., to
undertake this researc
The Spodumene from Uté has often been the subject of chem-
ical investigation and has been analyzed by Arfvedson,* Stro-
meyer,t Regnault,f and Hagen.¢ That from the Killiney local-
_ ity has been analyzed by Thomson. |
These are all the complete sac recorded of this species.
Partial analyses, however, exist of specimens from the Tyrol
mountains, and from Sterling, Mass. ., the former by Hagen and
the latter by both Hagen and Bowen.{
The constitution of this mineral was not wet th ee
prior to Hagen’s analysis, until which time it had been consid- 4
ered as essentially a silicate of alumina and lithia. Sige how- |
ever found a portion of the so-called lithia to be soda, which dis-
covery being confirmed renders the formulas derived from former | {
analyses incorrect, owing to the great difference in the atomic
weights of lithia ar nd:soda. * Hagen’s analysis of a specimen from
the Ut6 locality gave, °
Silica; 66136 — 3456 3436 1226 12
Peay fen 321 ae iene he ae
pee eee
100-000
from which he deduced the formula, Na Sitahi Sito! Siz.
My aualyses agree with Hagen’s in the soda, but lead to a
different formula. The specimens selected for analysis were
from the Norwich and Sterling (Mass ) localities. A qualitative
examination of each, showed the sees of silica, alumina, per-
oxyd of iron (trace), lime, lithia, and so
In the quantitative examination the alkalies were obtained by
decomposition by hydrofluoric acid and determined as sulphates ;
the other constituents were obtained by fusion with carbonate of
soda. That from Norwich in two analyses yielded,
icc
M cwape gS Jour., xxii,
+ U baa yar i, 426.
SE og tit ser mies) 1839, 580. q ice xlviii, 371.
iL Am. Jour., viii, 121.
On American Spodumene. _ 871
ia Il. Mean. Oxygen, Rattle
Silica, 63:06 6272 6239 3267 3267 804
Alumina, 28-00 2885 28-42 1328: 1328" -327
95 ‘.
ime, 1-43 104 29
Lithia, 5°67 567, 5-67 3:12 4:06 1
Soda, 251 251 251 65
10019 10088
And that from the ee locality of which also. two analy-
ses were made, gave
L Il. ‘Mean. _ Oxygen. - Ratio.
Silica, . 6286 62°67 62:76 32 6L. 3261 780
ae: 2883. 2983 29:33 13-75 1375 328
a ma : ie
71 6 18)
Lithia, | 648 648 648 3566 419 1.
Soda, - 1-76 1-76 1-76 A5 :
100-49 101-45
The mean of the ratios calculated from the four analyses is
L 3 27 : 7-92 or quite nearly 1: 3:8, which gives the general
ormula
Rs Si2+341 Si2
and the special formula
(0570 Sek 1388 Na+-8097 Li)s Si2-++3Al Si2
which requires,
8 atoms of silica, 461848 = pr. ct. 64:14
3 ‘* alumina, 1925 40 26°76
2:4291 “ ~~ lithia, 441-27 6-12
“3999 “ — Roda, 15484 2-15
a. “ilane, 60°10 ‘83
| 7200-09 100-00
This fortiula corresponds quite bis with the analyses, espec-
ially in the protoxyd bases, the mean of which is almost pre-
cisely that required by the formula.
With the specific gravity 3:18 we obtain from the above the
atomic volume 2264. The B atomic volume (see Mr. Dana’s
memoir, in this Journal, ix, 220) will be 161:7, and the C atomic
volume 42:7. The isomorphism of this species with pyroxene
is pointed out by Mr. Dana on page 120 of this volume.*
Scene ee
372 Optical Examination of several American Micas.
i ae
‘en
Arr. XXXVIL—Optical Examination of several American
Micas ; by B. Sttumay, Jr., A.M., M.D., &c.
Read before the American i for the Advancement of Science, at aay
n, August, 1850
Prior to the publication of the second edition of Dana’s Min-
eralogy, little had been done in distinguishing the séveral species
among American micas, and in allotting them to the various locali-
ties. In connection with Professor Dana, the writer, during the
liane of the Mineralogy through the press, made a number of
observations respecting the optical properties of such micas: as
Were at that time’ accessible. A summary of these observations
will be found in that volume.* Since that work was published,
the writer has continued and multiplied his observations as far as
the whole research as far as they are complete are exhibited in
the following tables
uch yet remains 3 to be done, not only in confirming and ex-
tending the present measurements and adding new ones from,
unexamined localities, but still more in reference to the chemical |, —
character of the several compounds, which from their great re- My j
the Beant, of the several varieties in differeuit directions,
the effects of heat and magnetism in varying the angle of the
optic axes, and the value of “the latter under So hiokiaet light
in all parts of the spectrum ;—and investigations on these points
would well reward the observer.t 3) had proposed the subject
Jast-mentioned, to my frieud, Mr. W. P. Blake, before my own
observations were made, and he has recently ssalibed and con-
structed for himself an instrument for observations and measure-
—_— of this sort. This instrument appears to me particularly
ne
ae Mineralogy, p.
ek A a experiments ag ee by the author, aided “PY Mr. W. P. —_ with
M: apparatus, to determine whether ay ee relation e :
x 1 Steen various micas 1S 0 ee at all to the diferent Bef ate optic
_ @xes. In these trials the mica reas net the same of
Jeteniaeel they wots placed v0 thot the ws at py = ‘bundle of roy®
-
Optical Examination of several American Micas. 373
‘well adapted for this purpose, and with its aid we, may hope for ~ “ag
nt x advances in our knowledge of the physical relations: *
of the
The instrument which I have used for the measurements given
in this paper is a modification of the goniometer of Charles and
} Malus. It has a horizontal circle of about eight inches diameter
reading to minutes, with a tangent screw and double readings.
. To the centréof the instrument has been adapted a simple con-
‘ trivance for holding two tourmalines, and at the same time for se-
curing the mica plate in the proper position. The tourmalines have
both a horizontal and rotary movement, and are so arranged that
the mica plate can be conveniently held between. them in an unva-—
rying position while the arm of the goniometer. makes its revolu-
| tion. The instrument is adjusted for use by bringing the specimen
. into such a position that the line connecting the optic axes shall
be horizontal ; and by turning the arm of the instrument through
pe requisite number of degrees, the two series of colored rings
a com
€ arrangement; the instrument is so adjusted, that the cord
accurately intersects the black dots of the inner colored circle
~. about one axis; a revolution is then made, till the cord intersects
heat. The instrament was so pag a the Locatelli lamp deflected the —
ted ’ of time 30° of the scale. arrange ed, the following results w
ained ;
os wera toes os Needle rercent.
Mica examined. Optic angle, Color. : anes | rays te
a ee cael
Muscovite of Grafton, ...69° 80’ - light brown, -........ 19°-20° |57-60
“es pite, Po ope’s 5s Mills, 4? nag white glassy, .....s4..| 18°- atiee 86-345
“ brownish yalow, setvla 15° 45
oD Edwards, ... 13° 30’ _lyellow brown,........ 15 45
erie (2) To Me, deep reddish brown, .. 132-1 2° (39-36
( proba hlogopite. .
Biotite, witidg ¥ aa dead green alinoit black |] 1° 33
Muscovite, Royalston, Ms, 57° 30’ dark brown, . y
weeple oO? nearly colorless clear, . .|21°-21°30’ 63-645
- ounliewd Me, 72° 30/ light brown,.........- 5 12-21230 63-645
ey Jones Falls,Md.,)67° dark Qre@hi-is 2s vss ewe 18°=19? Sed
“Philadelphia, . .|60° 30’-61° casi inhexag’l figures,| 21936'-229|64°5-66 |
When the crystal was placed so that the dye of heat passed ee to the optic
axis, (thus the ~arigo mica was placed at an pegs of 34° 30’, the
remaining otherwise as before) the needle was on repeated trials eflected 24°,
€qual to 72 per cent. of all the rays a ¢ while i in the other bis "ton with the
0° pass
to
From these few trials (which are regarded as only preliminary and approxima
tive,) i t will be oor. that — interesting relation stale 2 subsists ott the sort Sechied
fr, ‘and this last experiment is particularly worthy of confirmation by exte nding it
arleties
—~ Blake presented his instrument and a series es of measurements made with it
the Physical Section of the Am. Assoc., at the New ing sapetion:
sit, Optical Examination of several American Micas.
-. in the same manner the other axis; the amount or angle of this
4 ~~ revolution is. the angle between the axes. With this arrange-
‘ment there is no difficulty after a little practice in obtaining a
series of measurements on the same specimen, varying from
each other but a few minutes at most,:without having recourse
to lenses or other means of more accurately defining, the field of
observation or reducing the area of the colored circles. Such
modes of greater accuracy are important for the more delicate
physical questions previously suggested; but for the purpose.of
mineralogical determination, the means just described are quite
sufficient, since it is shown that in a series of specimens from the
“same locali ity there is generally a difference of angle greater than
any error of. eee rerion arising from the imperfection of the in-
= ApeEM name
mo A
corresponding differences in optical characters. For this reason
we briefly recapitulate the divisions which are adopted by Prof.
Dana in the late edition of his system, and which are also given
Ser eeniietion of the chemical formulas on p. 118 0 this vol-
cies of mica now recognized are muscovite, mar-
arodite, emerylite, euphyllite, margarite, lepidolite, agit
and biotite. Of these, all but the last are binaxial. Our obser-
vations will be confined ainly to muscovite, lepidolite, hice
pite, and biotite.
1, Muscovite. —Thts name has been proposed by Dana to em-
brace those binaxial. micas whose angle of polarization is between
55° and pail excepting however the ‘lithia micas which, having @
liar composition and a very high angle, are included under
He yapecies celia. The terms “ oblique ica” “ common mi-
“ binaxial mica” formerly applied tothis species now fail
e Ms distinctive, since we have other oblique and binaxial micas
which belong to different species. The optic axes in this species
lay in the direction of the longer diagonal of the prism. It is
much the most abundant variety and is commonly found in gran-
itic rocks.
2. elite. —This species embraces all the lithia micas,
group peeseiting however varied chemical characters which vil
probably be subdivided by future research. ‘They are all bin-
axial and as far as observed they yield a higher angle than any
other of the species of this family, being 75°-76°. The blow-
pipe reaction for lithia as well as its high polarization angle, en-
able this species to be very readily distinguished. Many of the
0 gm are easily recognized by their rosy or peach-blossom
color.
3, Phlogopite—-This name was first proposed by Breithaupt
for the — brown mica associated with serpentine which
ee ee a.)
oe
Optical Examination of several American Micas. 375
York. This species is distinguished by a polarization angle be-
13°-16°; it rarely falls below 10°; in all cases the two axes are so
teemed a uniaxial mica. lhe crystalline form is trimetric, and it
occurs often in elongated and tapering hexagonal prisms, some-
: r red, some-
times greenish yellow and rarely white. Its cleavage resembles —
__ that of muscovite, but the lamin are not generally so elastic. In
chemica! constitution it is a distinct compound although but few
analyses have yet been made of this species. Like the biotite it
is remarkable for the amount of protoxyd bases which it contains
and the small quantity of alumina—giving for the ratio of the
oxygen of its protoxyds, alumina and silica, as deduced by Rose,
18:12:30 =1: 3:13, (more exactly 7:4:11, according to
Craw,) while in the muscovites it is generally 1:12:16. Its
localities are much more numerous than was at first supposed ;
~~ they abound particularly in northern New: York, in Canada, and
in Morris and Sussex counties in New Jersey. One of the
Most noted localities of this species is Edwards in St. Lawrence
county, N. Y., where it is found both colorless, of an eminently
Silvery luster, and also of a rich brownish yellow color. :
4. Biotite.—This species includes the uniaxial or hexagonal mi-
cas. Most of the vagieties of this species are of a dark color—often
black or greenish black and transparent only in very thin lamine.
Owing to this prevaléht dark color it is often difficult or quite impos-
sible to obtain satisfactory evidence of the optical character, and
there is little doubt that some localities quoted in this article as fur-
nishing uniaxial micas, should be in fact.elassed among the phlo-
gopites. Only one American variety of this species has yet been
analyzed—viz., that from Monroe, N. Y., by von Kobell. | "hey
are generally magnesian micas and have for the oxygen ratio of
their protoxyds, alumina, and silica, the ratio 1: 1:2 = +
#Si. This species and those anomalous specimens which are
classed under it in the present article, but which probably belong
elsewhere, offer interesting subjects for chemical examination.
Beside the phlogopites and biotites, properly so called, there are
Several micas which have fallen under my observation in this re-
Search which are anomalous in character. These present under
the influence of polarized light an elliptical colored image, in which
however it is not possible to bring out clearly the two poles of a
Wey: ;
ree
-a@ uniaxial cr
376 Optical Examination of several American Micas.
binaxial mica, nor, on the other hand, the symmetrical cross of
1 he divergence is too constant and too
regular to allow the supposition that the ellipticity is due toa
mal-position of the lamine or to a separation between the thin
plates (remarked on as a cause of irregularity in certain crystals
very large rhombic’erystals oblique from an obtuse edge. P:M=
112° — 1154°, M: M= 122°~ 125°, the angle of the basal edges Is
119° 30’. Plane angle of P 119°. It hasa cleavage parallel to the
longer axis. The obliquity of the optic axes appears to be nearly
as great as that seen in some phlogopites of equal thickness, but
the dark color of the mineral prevents a satisfactory examina-
tion. Should the character ofthis mica be confirmed by a set ©
good analyses, it must in all probability form a distinct species a8
suggested by Dana.* This variety is not to be confounded with
the well crystallized: mica of Greenwood furnace which, as seet
in ordinary specimenis, is oblique from the acute edge (sections of
distorted acute rhombohedrons) and which is regarded as a unl
axial mica.
Enphyllite, margarodite and emerylite have hitherto been
found in quantities too ineonsiderable and in specimens generally
too poorly crystallized to furnish many measurements.
* Mineralogy,
SY, Pp. 690. eer
+ For the soe Son of these species, see Dana’s Mineralogy, and also this v0
4-118. se
ume, pages 114-118.
-
a “AO x08 ‘ON ‘X TOA ‘Saraag 7
ae |
a Locality of Mica, From whom received, ~ Color, Form and Remarks. Angles of axes,”
New Yor York Island, 4m. from pec ¥, . ew ire bie ae Hist., eg gray, with black grains disseminated in it,-......-'56° 20'-56° 40/
Royalston. — Seuss ede awe’ Ben ark Sa own, sage meet Brag of the Beryls,........'57° 30’
ib, RC gr Ae. 5a Ad ae anoth CUNO oe hin. 0s ev» «| BBO-59°
eer ; Es oes cie| ke, BOMOY Pee ies sox es ky brown. euaet wes in blotches, ....... ; Oyo
Philadelp Penn, .. Sever ys seeeeee riko ‘Cabinet, T. Conrad, . eons ish gray, banded ; — bars 2 ‘color, ate abe e's 60° 307-61°
ib, near Fairmount, .../T. Seale, ........... ea da a brown; resembles Penn BEY TNC a esas vip so j82°-62
Oxford Maine, . ps RIM a hess eau see e ees light browns perfect deystata baepabins in pransiere 62° 42'~ 63° -
Mirection,: 5.26: ..¢.
Monroe, Conn., Lederer Cabinet, 03.005. 3 brown with patches, of dark brown mottled, . pveaene s 64° 30-659 30’
Royalston, Mass., ae Cabinet, by Prof. violet brown; in thick — i vettanceuubital were e oa s\G0
cig hE fee eee ore ore C.M. Wheatley’ s Cabinet, . a ish gray ; in perfect crystals, ........ cece eeees 65° 80’-66°
Falls 3 d, 24 m. from 1 Baltimore, en Me ERS oats Siatrre sine be nsparent brown — scales OF RS uae asc scents 65° 30’-65° 40/
Near Ellicott's Mills, ib, ib eates pe © b. ore and Ohio Railroad, ....... 66° 80’
“Jones’ Falls,” near per ++ eal. Gibbes and W. 8. Vink, mcs Pash eros ‘y mametically ccvveag hans es grains 60 15’-66° 80’
AD, OOD, cca tidiees i ‘ale College Cabinet, ....... greenish yellow, . Signage nae ans 66° 30/-67°
Hasta, Gon (cian Bi) file cower. Bure, sae. clear : Bieeen sh wtp Ar six peas Roe vb ok’ OT?
Gra es SONG, see ‘ye sssilight brown, ru aeinaced tori ; Ans . oat Bes 67° 807
Unonvie P eo soeereeeell, Seale, .., wwe - Feat wee Bes sek Subs 679-67 28°
Ackworth, N. H.,. ++++++++/Yale College Cabinet, .......\greenish gray, i 67° 15’-67° 80?
Grafton, N. i“ another specimen, PES secs ae 03s AON light tee with th flattened ‘quartz and tourmaline, ...... 68° 5!-68° 20/
® |Templ ve seeere ee «(Ey Hitchcock, br, at ae tegnapatent WEWA 5 ..5570% +) lage o Peruaio enh rcs «0 699 30’-69° 40’
Orange, ypesrla teas ee ST yr ee ib. ib. t beaut crystals, “a5 169° 30’-69° 40’
Willimantic fat Conn, a brownish green, tran ent, I PTAmite ac ea e's i690 30’-69° 50’
Pennsbury, Pen gat an ais rown crystals ; ee er ocalit ty)» 27'-
Royalston, an, peaiey E. Hitchcock Jr, .. .(dark brown ; 2d locali ity, » ie 40’— et
¥ ‘“: Rass
Taste L.—American Meaney ee Lepidolite Atveas, Polarization angle from 5° to 76°,
S
V jpdaaas fo uoyouuosr gy yooudg
UDIVAIUL
"S020
Ah6
‘~~ 2
Fable continued. Ie
a
SS
‘ From ws received Color, Form and Remarks. —s-. .. . * Angles of axes.
Peeks A care” Ore, feces oe Nag Gown 8d speci MMS Oi 5. ents cu atee res oe ne to 5 9°_69° 30
seeeee D, Dan vee i ae feldspar AREY, es rads pote Sere k ers «tea 0/1070 BOF
ede Vale Oallage Onibinet, -|greenish in separ 0°-70° 3807
pels cles ibis aie eel E. are Jr., +see++ (greenish yellow epodumene locality, : es a 0° 30/
Hawes. ae een; in coarse g Lea S Eee eae boa Sw ES Tee TO OO
ein « e¥ieneente ‘lYale oto ‘Cabinet, . +s, 4 jatar yellow ; with spodumene, .......+...+00 es O47 0° 30!
..+|Mr. Po ....+.{brownish; chrysoberyl lo Sp RN Reece ips aha Ae 6° 40°11"
iS Serre (beans Mr, Burr, rownish ; in large plates,,........ ea ee ea Grastbee
DENS ola sigth tins xp oe a O% B. FH feeees iene eer oe 1 MORHOEE Ss Sahin hcune case ees tant
Templeton, Mass,, (2d spec.,) ... ty Bitches, a r, era EN .[transparent brown, ..... 66. eee cece cece eee teen ee ees
e, Del. eyvedyess WRG, 5 avec enscsedcurs faint greenish pitino WME AS Soave ce ceca essswewen ° 30/-71°
Onc ae cece ees Dr in Rr, Hough, ...........{greenis :* ina - Be ge pr ciaiig arg gt thas ataleigigsalntatn 1°=71°. 80!
onsets LEMOS ee aH eR Kee .+++++-flight bro nsparent, in t thick masses, .......seceeeees [EP 40/719 50’
2, Se eee eee ete i Hiteheod, Ir, ee teeseeees VO eliawa o green transparent; = specimen, Retry iene ent bs
ae i, eae rg ib. ib, ; calumbite locality, ...cs 0.0. ceseedes fie ave a
E. pea, "W edichaotee Oe. ¥ > ‘ly Aim Gollese Cabinet, 5 aaa ib. ib.: : Gore cs tee si COW CINE ie oes ce SET ER Cee’ dw tes ere Sea
Lye. Nat. Hist., N. Y, from in lind estone vein with fibrolite, &ec.; rich yellowish brown,
Dr. Torrey, like Nat OG; iver as 14°
Dr. Hough, light yellowish, with ¢ of magnetic iron? ..........
r. Ora ey. brownish yellow hexagonal “eryata al 8 inch, Masiets rs . ‘plate
xamined 4 incl thick 5 axis in the line of the shorter|/156°
diagonal,
eee twee Cray ees
PORE. wi
+ »|b6° 7-16
in}
16°
15° 80’-16° 30/
° 15’
ry Meites n 15°
another s spéc we n,
white x pag Oh curved yal often opake,
“oh ye llo Own ; ve bly the same as Gouve eur, ..,
in Timeston one in beautifi hoopla not over ¢ to $ inch
ameter; hexagonal ; vd own Geet ss
VF 70.ads fo uoynunuor ry yooydg
16° 30’
17° 30’a18° -
GLE “SPOLT unonwow
a ie Table ohtinual
The following are probably of the > same odes but are generally too dark in color si admit the pescage of light j in plates of sufficient thickness
define well the two sets of ellipses. Nevertheless in several -cases the angle’ may be approximately | oe and in others the mica may be
more properly arranged with the anomalous varieties which present equivocal evidence af a Dita character.
re of specimen. Whence obtained. ‘olor, Form and Rima x ; : Angles? .
Moriah, F Essex C ee a SEAT LP a Ra Seer Cabinet, +. 90. 2Wery dark smoky red, in thin plates b y transparent Tight , «+|Estimat’d 16°-17°
prouvernour, N. Y.,.....scccsicecs sie Hough, ..... rE eros ot P brownish copper red; yellowish; in hex: oe plates li like ;
PTR ee 6 bp Gas 665 ah ose ss Uoulg Cale wie tare oe -
Somerville, N. Y., ..... Dr. Hine, pW isa. eee rhevenich, with blood red epots, which magnified are Thee
bie seen to be Bar PT ai ialek ae wie Estimated 5°-7°
Burgess, Canada West,.,.........;:/T. 8, Hunt, . ../bronzy, alm tallic luster; a very brownish yellow,
semi- Resa t if thin; opake in ap a line thick ;
slightly elastic sly : found with apatite in sandstone, ... Angle very low.
Lederer Cabinet, .........../bronzy yellow, distinct from the red mica of same place, ..|About 14°
Be Ts SES Fh alk on sos th .../whitish yellow; imperfect ee with particles of for
eign matter, resembling specimen from Natural Br ides ; ‘About 10°
...|Dr. Hough, .... very dark bake brown ; opake in plates over a line ick;
clea early binaxial, 20. ..6. sc se ce ete ee esse tence reders Estimat’d 10°-12°
ib, ibs keen des teaeeeee opake avery pe resembles in general character arranie .
DM a sate k at reiein oie dks s 54x aie lace eldin al sw ge Gers e' o's J LQP—12
ling Mine, Morris ese 45 J.,.....{H. Canfield, rich willows brown, in inclining to red; in limestone. ......
Suckasunny Mine, Bein veteeeenns ib. : deep olive brown, inclining to ye et eae
wto de ees HA Sis ccs an aciees panes st @UO WS dle orbeek d very small; in limestone. ...-.
‘ d, Sussex Co, NJ, ek d PO teas ng wa bs ‘Rep oven ite icra Fine, N.Y.: in limestone.
ur be added the anomalous micas before described — Monmouth (2) 'N. ret omg dik from Franklin furn N.J., and nevieal
ries ‘aur has found in various cabinets, but which being without labels unable -as 7% to ge to the proper
aa from Oxbow, N. Y., has —— received while i ve are in ‘the ye press, +
ad
ar
VY JoJaaas fo uoynuwuns sy yooudg oge
UDILLIUL
.
“S001
Optical Examination of several American Micas. 381
the accompanying-tables we have given for each specimen: Ee
In
measured, its locality, color, the source whence. received, the
angle bate the optic axes, and other observations bearing on
their history. It may afford a more correct impression of the pres-
ent state of this investigation to remark that specimens from over
one hundred American localities of mica have been examined be-
sides a considerable number of uncertain locality ; and from many”
of these localities very numerous specimens have been measured.
Thus there have been measured of muscovite specimens from
about 50 localities; of phlogopite over 30; of euphyllite 2; of
fort Bs of biotite about 12, and: ‘of doubtful species :
: —The number of localities in the toiled States fitke :
tihng aman mica (biotite) has been constantly diminishing
since the commencement of these- investigations, as increased
skill in observation and improved’ means of examination have
shown one after another of the reddish and yellow or brown.
colored micas to have more or less decidedly the characters of
phlogopite.' <2
Thus the dark brown mica of Fine, the red micas of M -
of Sterling, of Franklin, and of Gouverneur, have successis ly
_ been thrown out of the list of biotites into the binaxial species.
Others remain in doubt as those of Topsham, Me., and a Pa.
reenwood Furnace, comet wig Orange County, N, Y., is the
oe nates to this variety also. It is opake in plates over
malin of an inch thick, but of rich olive green in thin
plat
ay
hai but not so much so a as to require any ba
a
new analysis of this variety in progress the results of which he
will present on a future occasion. The chemical constitution of
_ Very few American biotites has been cua: indeed the local-
ity just referred to is the only one cited. Von Kobell’s result
Corresponds with the formula given on page 375.
ss Mica of Monroe, N. ¥.—This mica from the same town as
= last is also uniaxial and gives a figure almost entirely cir-
* in, ¥. P. 81. + Min. (1850), 360.
a ae
382 Optical Examination of several American Micas.
cular. It is distinguished by its bronzy lustre and dark greenish
olive color inclining to gray or black. It is imperfectly transpar-
ent, having by tansmitted light a dusky or hazy appearance. It
occurs in plates of immense size, which are marked on the cleav-
age surfaces with rhombic, and triangular figures, (no distinct lat-
eral planes have however been fo tind, s well as with transverse
cleavage lines. It is slightly elastit bat very tough. One speci-
men which the author has seen in the cabinet of Mr. C. M.
Wheatley in New York is nearly two feet in diameter: Mr.
_ Horton of Monroe has also furnished the writer with numerous
very large specimens. No analysis of it has been published, but
_. the author hopes to present one at a future time.
The white mica fot Easton, Pa., which is very silvery ed
slightly elastic and opake in thick — is probably a biotite,
and, excepting the very similar white mica of Amity, N. Y., 1s
the only white uniaxial variety yet sth in this country.
Black micas are almost universally referable to the species
3. he
2 biotite, although many micas usually called black in collections
are :
reality dark brown and olive green and are frequently refer-
phlogopite. Unfortunately very few of the: localities of
ariety of color found in cabinets are labelled... I have one
ym. Moors Slide on the Ottawa in Canada, furnished me by Mr.
Hint of the Canada Geological Commission. Another black mica
is found in St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., of which specimens were ob-
tained by the author from. the cabinets of Mr. Wheatley and of
the N. Y. Lyceum in New York. Two black micas from the
Cambridge cabinet are unaxial, locality not know
Geological relations.—It is worthy of notice thot the species
muscovite is found almost entirely in granitic rocks ; in no instance
as far as I have seen, has a specimen of this species been found in
alime rock. On the other hand, the phlogopites, with a single
exception, so far as has been ascertained, are found in limestone
and often in dolomitic beds. _ The biotite is less well pare
chondrodite ~~ fibrolite, an interesting confirmation of the sug-
gestion here put forth. Can this distribution be unco rhe
with ed chen il composition of the several compounds?
é
character of the phlogopites would seem to
: the doloweiee position of the species, while the absence < this
element i in Be muscovites is a negative fact of equal signmiiean
:
|
Analyses of Phlogopite. 383
The writer cannot close this paper ibis beige his thanks
to numerous correspondents who have in the.-kindest man ner
responded to his persevering enquiries “for spore ens. It is in-
een of those who wish to examine them
. ies :
so labelled as to avoid.error, and they are.at all times open to the
Laboratory
_ Read before the American a paneer for the oe of Science, at "jes
n, August, 18
Tu mica called Phlogopite has been ened by oa
dorff, in Poggendorff’s Annalen, volume viii, page 157. gin
| analysis has likewise been published by Svanberg, in the
- actions of the Royal Swedish Academy for 1839, of a miga
which has been supposed to be phlogopite, but as it does not
agree in atomic proportions with that ong New York, it my
probably may not come under this s
Meitzendorff gives the following as the ‘composition of the
Specimen which he analyzed: it was from Jefferson Co., N. Y.;
3 and probably from Natal Bridge
Nadsomeli Fl i
ae seat ea oti & O65 $80 02810114
- Oxygen, 2146 «= 717 «053 «1131 =—-1'65 017
The specimens ee by me were all from Edwards, St.
Lawrence Co., N.Y. No. 1, had a deep yellonemns brown color,
in broad plates.
many exam
that the Aaa ? and da Line
: Yale College, Oe cae vansin alaerars ia
. ¥ Traité de Minéralogie, iii, p. 647, 1847, also Danssfp 359.
Fad
Ans, XXXVIII.— Analyses of Phlogopite from St. Tera a |
County, N. Y.; by Wm. me of the Yale Sieh ;
m a
384 Analyses of Phlogopite.
No. 2, was a. paeeverent and colorless crystal of a silvery lus-
we; an
No. 3, was a. part of the same aryl rendered quite opaque
and silvery by the absorption of w The crystal which fur-
nished Nos. 2 and 3 was ie 6 by 8 inches in surface
dimensions.
No. 1, gave reactions for silica, alumina, magnesia, potash and
fluorine, with small quantities of peroxyd of iron and soda, and
a 8 doubtful trace of lithia.
Nos. 2 and 3 gave silica, oe magnesia, potash and ee
- with traces of water and fluorin
_ The following are the results of analysis : sae
No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.
Pets. a 40145 40°358 4036
.. with a little 2. oS LF8BB- >. 16°450 16084
Mg 28099 29°554 30247
; 10-564 7-226 6:066
Na i 0°63 4:938 4:39
Fl 4202 loss byign. 0-952 265
FS 100-996 99'478 Bee i eee
« Oxygen Ratios. ae
ie No. 1 No. 2 No. 3.
Si 20°86 20°97 20:97
Al 1 16
Mg. lites." 11°61 11°89
Kk 1-79 12:99 1:28 1411 1:03 14:05
Na 016 1:27 4
The ratios are respectively 16:23366; 183252 2735
1:87: 1:2-78; the mean of these is 1: 17:1: 269, which
equals very nearly 7: 4: 11, and corresponds with the "formula
TR* §it441 8i, The equality between the oxygen of the silica and
that of the bases will be observed; and if &* and 41 may replace
one another, the formula becomes (Re, Ay) Si, acommon type among
the silicates.
per-centage corresponding to this formula is as oo
online the fluorine, which is not found in analyses 2 an
Si Al Mg K
41°60 16°82 3001 11°57=100-00
In No. 1, the 41 contains a small proportion of ¥e, which in-—
creases the amount of oxygen from the peroxyds so as to make
the ape he, silica appear smaller in proportion than they
really are, and the determination of the silica is also, probably,
too low
somewhat
Mage ’s Hise ysis affords the ratio 13:13 : 7-70: 21 AG ; =
lals 1-7:
1: 2:78, and corresponds quite closely with the
ch eqt
peg 7:4 sie the same which is afforded Mes. the analyses above. _
= 2.
TE
Analyses of Phlogopite. 385
The fluorine, however, comes in as an important element, and
one which it is somewhat difficult to dispose > Bt: in a perfectly
satisfactory manner.
. Rose considers the fluorine to exist as ioctl of potassium,
and gives the formula K FI+(3R* Si+28 $i) This corresponds” to -
the ratio 3 ; 2 : 5—the potash being removed from the other aii
eve as a fluo
rid. ane
bedlatiors remarks that the fluorine may be considered as ©
Rilicotiuorid of potassium ; but Rose is opposed to this view, on.
the ground that it would. ‘change the ratio of the oxygen in the _
several oxyds. This it would do, if it were considered simply-as
silicofluorid of potassium, but if, in accordance with the recent — %
views of aarerneiiet published in his last supplement, it is.
taken as replacing oxygen in the several compounds, the ratio.
will remain tind ened In this view, the formula 7R* Si+-4a1 Si,
represents correctly the constitution of the mineral, if we supp
the oxygen partly replaced by fluorine
€ apportionment of the fluorine and oxygen to the several ty
eee is as follows :—
1. Meitzendorff’s Mica
Oxyg'
ee es Fluorine 2 en in sha Sum.
Combined with Si 165 Si 20°68 22:33"
¥ ¥
Al 060 Als 6-92) 148 8-05
a ape He 0535
Mg 0°90 Mg 10-94
K 015 ‘ 158 12°68 13°73
Na 016
Ratio Lf 22: 278.
Eee 2. Mica from Edwards. Analysis 1,
Fluorine a ore in residues. Sum.
Combined with si 2-101 Si 997 22-071
0764 Al pi 8554
ie 1146 Mg 1056
K ot91 K 1-71 + 12°43 18-767
Na = 016
Ratio =1:6: 1 : 2:58.
The ratio of the silico-fluorids to the silicates is 1: 30 in Meit-
zendorff’s analysis, and about 1: 24 in the mica oft 3
according to the first, the detailed formula is— .
30(7R? Si+41 Si]+1[7(3R F-+Si F*)44(Al F*+Si F?)]
and according to the second—
o4[7R? Bi444l Si]4-1[7(3R F-+Si F*)+4(Al F*-+48i FS)],
Analyses 2 and 3 correspond closely with Meitzendorff’s
the ratio, if this view of the fluorine be taken, and the aids
3 with fluorine and those without, which are alike _o
come range one general Sere a.
Srconp Serres, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850. © 49
results dedu
“from theory. They form but a contribution to this interesting branch
386 Proceedings of the British Association
Extracts from the Proceedings of the Twentieth Meeting of the British
’ Association, held at Edinburgh, July, 1850.*
Section A.—MaTHemaTicaL aND Puysicat Scrence.
‘On Atlantic Waves, their Magnitude, Velocity, and Phenomena; by
oo 4 Dr. Scoressy.
Durine two passages across the Atlantic in 1847-8, I had opportuni-
i c
advaniageous agreement or accordance for observations on their width
and velocity. ‘These observations | shall extract, in their order, from
my journal kept during the homeward passage. rst observation
h reco:ding is under the date of March.5, 1848, when the ship was
in latiiude about 51°, and longitude (at noon) 38° 50’ W.—the wind
then being about W S.W., and the ship’s course, true, N. 52° E. At sun-
"set of the 4th the wind blew a hard gale, which, with heavy squalls, had
sail forward. ‘The barometer stood at 29°50 at 8 p. m., but fell so
rapidly as to be at 28-30 by 10 the next morning. In the afternoon of this
day I stood some time on the saloon deck or cuddy roof,—a height, with
continued during the night; so that all sail was taken in but the storme
¥
masses of water possessed a height of considerably more than twenly-
four feet (including depression as well as.altitude,) or, reckoning from
osed e
ee
a
for the Advancement of Science. ‘ney
wave was, I believe, fully equal to that of my sight on the paddle-box, —
or more,—that is, 29 = 15 feet, or upwards; and the mean highest
loaves, not including the broken or acuminated crests, about forty three
above 1
feet a ove the level of the hollow occupied at the mo the ship.
iluminat the general expanse not unfrequently was by the tran-
Stent sunbeam breaking through the heavy masse the storm-cloud,
Wild and partial glare, the mighty hills of waters rolling and foaming as
they pursued us, whilst the gallant and buoyant ship—a charming “ sea-
boat”—rose abaft as by intelligent anticipation of their attack, as she
_Were harmlessly spent beneath her and on her outward sides,—the
Storm, falling fiercely on the scanty and almost denuded spars and
Steam chimney raised aloft, still indicated its vast, but as to us innoxious,
Scene as I ever witnessed, and a magnificent example of ** the works of
the Lord,” specially exhibited to sea-going men, ‘and his wanders in
the deep.” In
the aerial wings in a perfect drift of spray! But during the period of
these most vehement operations of nature, I was fortunately enabled,
388 Proceedings of the British Association
ing a total continuance of the storm, in its ies of about thirty-six
urs.* I renewed my observations»on the waves at ten A. M.—
storm having been then subdued for several a and the height of the
-wayes having perceptibly subsided. Soon | observed, when standing
on the saloon-deck, that ten waves, in one case, came in succession,
whieh all rdse above the apparent horizon,—consequently they must
is have been more than twenty-three feet, probably the average might be
s about pe sel six from-ridge to hollow. At this period I also found that
i oceasio nally (that is, once in about four or five minutes,) three or four
: waves in gaccession, as seen from the paddle-box, rose above the visible
} —hene e they must, like those of the preceding day, have been
elke feet ' waves. But one important difference should be noted—viz.,
_ that they were of no great extent on the ridge, pega. though more
7 mere conical peaks, but a moderate elongation
Another subject of consideration and investigation, on this occasion, |
eg was the period of the regular waves overtaking the ship, and the de- |
3 _ termination, proximately, of the actual width or intervals, and their ve-
_- “Tocity.. 1. The ‘ship was then going nine knots only, the free action of
»< the engines being greatly interfered with by the heavy sea rapeing and
the lines of direétion of the waves and the ship’s course differed about
224 degrees, the sea being two ‘points on the larboard quarter ae other. ee
words, the true course of. the ship was east; the direction from, whe nee
the sea came was W.N.W. 2. The period of regular waves in inci-
, dental series, overtaking the ship, were observed as ; follows
Wa Min. Sec. Mean.
20 occupied . § 5." ¢ ; 165
10 at rs 2 $8 55 - 15-5
10 % yen 2 50 Big s 17 0
10 “ : 2:46 8S . 16%
8 ss 2 16 : ye ae
‘Boesezel : avenge, , s eS aif
obliquity of the direction of the waves to the course of
the ship, i is Rend to be elongated about 45 feet, reducing the probable
mean distance of the waves to five hundred and fifty-nine feet. Inde-
1s comparison ‘frequently re-considered and re epeated, subseque: tly
Fielded, in si accordance with the former, a total width, inthe lime
__* The barome eee: at 8 P.M, was at 29°50; at 6 aM. of Sanday iat
tn 30, 12 inches in ten hours, At 6 p.m. of the latter day it had risen
Sor the Advancement of Science. 389
no means indicates, it is obvious, the real velocity of the wave, as the; —
ship meanwhile was advancing nearly in the same direction at the rate —
a
-! obliquity: of two points we have 231°5 feet to be added to the former.
measure, five hundred and fifty nine feet, which gives 730:5 feet for the:
actual distance traversed by the wave in 16°5 seconds of:time, being at.
yen
hee
the rate of ae =) 17,251°7 feet, or 32°67 English state
a
hour. To know how far this result is but proximate, it»
Known magnitudes, to estimate certain distances with all but perfect ac-
cy hus, as to a circumstance in which we were most deeply in-
0
390 Proceedings of the British Association
o the amount of one-twelfih of the whole, or forty-nine feet—the effect
os the calculated velocity of the wave would have been only about
a sixteenth, gr 2:16 miles per hour. The form and character of these
deep-sea waves became at the same time interesting subjects of obser-
* Yation and consideration. In respect to. form, we have perpetual modi-
fications and varieties, from the circumstance of - ae ask of op-
eration. of the power by which the waves are form Vere the wind
- portcealy uniform in, direction and force, and of os continuance,
we might have in wide: and deep seas, waves of perfectly regular form-
tion. - But no such: ‘equality i in the wind ever exists. It is pe erpetually °
anging its’ direction. within certain limits, and its force too, both in the
ace-atd in proximate quarters Tnnum erable disturbing, "ge
regard
“the actual forms of waves, nothing particularly new could be expected
ee from ¢ an inquiry of this kind ingregard to phenomena falling within the
es perpetual observation of sea-going persons; yet, at the risk of stating
~ what might be deemed common, Twill venture to transcribe from my
_ holes made with ‘the phenomen a before me, the leading characteristics
which engaged my attention. Dating the height of the gale (
6th) the Jorm of the waves was less regular than after the. wi ae,
was highest the succession of the primary waves was perfectly
, it was rather difficult to trace an "entice! ridge for Hoenn a quarter
toa third of a mile. ‘The grand elevation in such case sometimes eX-
tended by a straight ridge or was sometimes bent as of a crescent form,
with the central mass of water higher than the rest, and, not unfrequentlys
_ with two or three semi-elliptical mounds in diminishing series, on either
side of iB highest peak. These principal waves, too, it should eh
, Were not continuously regular, but had embodied in their gene
mass many minor, secondary and inferior waves. Neither did
great waves go very prevalently in long parallel series like those ag
tarded by shallow water on approaching the shore; but every now and
then changed into a bent cuneiform crest with breaking acuminating
peaks. On the Sey hen spowitg (March 7,) after a aécond stormy
ight, wind 5.S.W. (fine), w a heavy and somewhat cross sea
unabated magnitude of the more westerly waves indicated a continu-
ance of the original wind at some distance astern of us. The gale had
moderated a t daylight, and the weather became fine ; but t as the sea still
kept high, its undulations became more obvious and easily analyzed.
At three in the afiernoon, when about a third part of the greater undu-
lations averaged about twenty-four feet from crest to hollow, in height,
these higher v waves could be traced right and left as they approached
the ship t to the extent of a quarter of a mile on an average, more 0
- Traced through their extent the ridge was an irregular slik
backed hill, precipitous often on the leeward side. The undula-
tions, indeed, as to primary waves, consisted mainly of thes e a
icked masses, broken into or modified by innumerable secondary yee
for the Advancement of Science. 391
the ship’s speed being increased from nine to eleven. _knots, and the ob-
liquity of the ship’s course to the direction vo y the waves was
three points. On the 9th, two days after the abo¥e* condition of the -
the same ridge. ‘The crests often curled over, but.none ag
the height of a thirty feet wave, and broke fora wide space, estimated
at fifty to one hundred yards in continuity. aS
Miscellaneous Notes and Sug gestions. — “The ‘Bide adopted i in. 1 these’
: researches of finding the height ‘of waves is, I believe, quite satisfa r¥y
"and, observed with care and with relation to: numbers or proportion OF 53
depression of 3’ 49”, the distance of the visible horizon, as seen “es aS
this en, would 'be 4-45 statute miles, and the actual depreacail
feet due to the distance of the summit’f the wave when the ship Was #
in the nsidet of the hollow, could one be id is foot or 2°16 ine =
Other modes of determining the width of a wave—or the extent betwixt, :
summit and summit—much | veata rable to that descsibed ihe only availa aa
_ able one I could devise) might easily be adopted - eel the manage-
; of the ‘ship was in the hands of the obser ver. In steam ships the
the ship w whet going in the direction of the wave or against the wave ;
the ratios of the time of transit of wave-crests, Giles different rates of «
sailing of the ship might yen results very close to the buy n mod-
~
—
5
n
—
S
-
=
=
a
"
9°)
ay
bs |
oO
-
Poe
i]
2 =.
2.
=
u
D
oO
@
ai
a
t
be |
bes: fal
a
-
‘i ail. e,
or The uthor referred, in conclusion, to the forms of wave crests, and
heights, modified by crossings, interferences, and reflections.
On Metallic Reflection ; by Prof. G. G. Stoxes.
The effect which is produced on plane-polarized light by reflex-
ion at the surface ofa metal shows that if the incident light be supposed
Fah glass plate. Mr. Airy’s paper is published im the Cambridge
Philosophical Transactions. M. Jamin has since been led to the same
a: in observing the phenomenon. The object of the present
tion was to point out an extremely easy mode of deciding
B92 Spa itt of the British Association
A cane experimentally. Laat ACh at an azimuth of about
r of th
i
aye ene
© Fase se of. vibration of light polarized in the plane of inciden
» dare ded ands to that voles? | in a plane lie oe a to the npn
Barer
wheres ke d
- apfoash to symmetry, in the system of displaced: ‘ingens i is a abated in
advance ofthe position calculated in the ordinary way for rays of mean
: wefrangibitity. - . Since an observer has no other guide than the symme-
try of the’ bands in fixing’on the center of ‘the sy stem, he would thus be
ea led to, attribute to the plate a refractive index which is slightly too ae
"The author r has‘illustrated this subject by the following experim i)
Be ae. ee to a theoretical error, depending oe
‘- dispersive power.of the plat t is an extremely simple ©
{as-the author showed) of the circumstance that the ne §
4
ae,
viewing the whole through a prism of moderate angle, held in front of
the eye-piece with its edge parallel, to the fringes, an indistinct pris-
matic image of the wires was seen, together with a distinct set of
fringes, which lay quite at one side of the cross wires, the dispersion
ictaaae ‘by the prism having thus occasioned an apparent displace-
of the fringes in the direction of the general deviation.
On é Refractive Indices #5 — Substances ; by the Rey. Prof.
Sivicp on former occasions choise toextend the list of observed
indices for the standard rays of the solar spectrum given by prisms
different media, by means of an apparatus described, alon with the
aban of the results, in my report to the British Association, 1839,
I now beg to offer to the Association the indices in like manner obtaine
for the four following. The rare of spikenard | received through @
: hett, h te ee
perfectly pure; for the other eee i am indebted to Mr. N. 8. 5 * fe
i The ts in each case are the mean of several repetitions. of 5
‘ (the oils of lavender and sandal wood) the absorption ©
,
ee
for the Advancement of Raience 393
the violet rays (as in so many other oils) was rch’ as to render the line |
H very, ind iinet its index ts therefore marked*agdoubt fal. —
: aes for the the Standard rd Raya
or >
ase a — 1:4899 | “14868
15034} 1 sone 15091
167 | 5151 rs 525
5. 20 ides Cai 14641 ts 14658 SE 14728
ie my report ers I stated the impossibility of obibinin measur
yo gd of lead from the absence ofall appearance of lines,an
entire absorption of the blue and violet: portion of the spectrum. E
ine eoroent that in the absence of any determin ations” ‘of the kind it Be
t-not be-useless to give the very rough estimates: which my former Se
soliscipia enable me to obtain by means of the ta of blue glass, —
which gave a poi et to D, and
; exire fy reen space visible might be about e most refracte
Of the two spectra (given by the double acts ee the mibatniis)
“was the: ent. defined, and in this the oh corresponding to D is ex-
tremely uncertain. The mean of two sets of observation was as fol;
lows :—Prism of chroinate of Yaad: axis of prism. perpendicular to Q axis -
of crystal, mean atigle guajeed by: ‘reflexion and_ a) measurement - es
ist mao ; -. 2nd Sp ven
af. Ray. A pee leas
_ | * >. Extreme red, eet
about B 229 | 858. 26° 30’ 2°84
about D 23° 10! 2°55 29°? 300?
about E 24° 30/ 2°70 30° 30° 310
While upon the subject, I may be allowed to remark, that. as attempts
are now making, with so much promise, for procuring optical glass
superior quality, it would be highly snteaaiind if specimens were cut
Into prisms (portions of half an inch cube, or even less, will a and
two sides only need be polished, containing an angle o
in Fraunhofer’ s glass nearly six hundred were Tibi
On the Magneto-optic Properties of Crystals, and the Relation of
etism and Diamagnetism to con gi Arrangement ; by
Messrs. J. Pepsacs and Hermann sein ka0
During the joint net carried on more aa one hundred natural
had been examined. The results were thus briefly summed
_ Seconp Serres, aah X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850, 0
394 Proceedings of the British Association
up :—We have on the one side four new forces assumed,—the optic at-
tractive force and the optic repulsive force, the magno- -crysiallic force and
-the magneto-crystallic force ; and on the other side no new force what-
ever, but simply that modification of exislitg forces which we have named
. ero any By at tention to the compression of amor Weitis ye
ape:
oe A
ia! per gave rise to a very animated discussion.—The Presiden
= id, pave Ree he was ready to admit that Mr. Tyndall’s rob was
; & _ most ingenions,, and the arguments and experiments by whic
* tained. his views.were apparently well conceived and sound, yet time
» ‘must be given to weigh them, well before, a -satisfactory conclusion
could be reached.—Prof. _Themson thought that Mr. Tyndall’s views
would be found -jo:be omens consonant with Dr. Faraday’s and the
ae theory of Poissgn. ‘
On the Polarizing Sirueture of the Eye; by Sir D. Brewster.
The author said that when he sat down to in paper he was
Prof. S a
the polarizing structure of the eye for the p
ereshee, which would be referred to them, immediately by. Mr. Stokes.
He would, therefore, confine himself to showing, that the eye contained
within itself amply sufficient to account for the. phenomenon, because
constituting the eye itself an ever ready pelerecope
oY
o.
5
<
-
Ss
o
=
oO
Oo
°
5
Qa.
oO
i]
wn
Ps)
pnd
°
3B
°
=
oad
a
<
bo)
Saee]
°
ban 7
»
i]
>
5
°
-~
os
o
ed
=
oO
—_—
ie condensation on the’: fof; the former, whilst there is much
about the latter. Indeed, ests we know, condensation of vapor is
_ the only influenc that operates: ‘exclusively on the eastern coasts of the
ee chemical action which converts sucacritaeel ‘su berenée into a
Tiquid, and Comegucniy changes the heat from a latent to an active
state. The greatest irregular rise in the, isothermal lines is found in the
: “winter of she bsthern hemisphere, - just at ibe time that the condensa- _
on of vapor produces the greatest effect. ‘on the» temperature hae
the same temp i
densation of wae is, S the. cause’ of. the rise of the isothermal: pe
the parts, Pe ite
On the Argunen for the P huiatoal i ection of Double a deaieed
easy. of, Probabilities ; ; by Prof. For
“The oe read'a passage fr from Herschel’s ‘ Outlines of Astronomy,’
-where thi is argument is set forth. ‘Mitchell, in the year 1767, in a pa-
per in the Philosophical Transactions, was the first who advanced this
“argument. He calculates the odds as 500,000 to 1 against the stars
which compose the group of the Pleiades. being foniaincuby concentra-
i ‘i the space they occupy, ahd thence infers the probability of
3
i
=
®
—
=)
_
n.
Se.
=
R
2.
a
Q
™
“yy
=)
°
=
o.
3}
oS
=a
®
2
i)
af
-
®
=
a
C
a=)
and more have since been added to the list. Again, he calculates the
against any two stars of a number fortuitously scattered, falling
Sor the Advancement of Science, 399 —
within 32” of a third, so.as to form a-triple star, as not less than
173,000 to 1, while four such triple stars were known to exist. The
conclusion, adds Sir John Herschel, of a physical connection of some
ind or other is, therefore, unavoidable. “ Against the principle of this.
argument, Prof. Forbes, though with much diffidence, felt himself cal- |
led on to protest. He owned he could not attach any idea to what
would be the distribution of stars, or of any thing else if “ fortui- 32,
tously scattered,” and therefore he must regard with hesitation, if not.
doubt, an attempt to assign a numerical value to.the’ antecedent proba- -
peared that an equable spacing of the stars over the ould
t far more inconsistent with a total absence of law. or'princip!
the existence of spaces of comparative condensation, including bin
or even more s, as well ‘as regions of great paucity of
Stars. an illustration of this, he‘adduced the representation
Stars and their grouping by sprinkling viscid white paint from a coa
ru : r 4 are ; ; eee Oe ilkeagt it was impossible t
conceive a nearer a proach to * random'scattering,” yet he had witnes-
~ foo
Pa
~ 8. There is also a quicker rotation round ‘its longer axis. 9. A comet
Shines by reflected light, and shows a’ sensible ‘phase. 10. In propor-
tion 1 rie. ; ; Bi mh hey : id
bility of any given arrangement or grouping whatever. To him-it.ap-"
: sky would seem
ngevery variety
Ya
y
mate * 400 _.. Proceedings of the British Association |
ae
e
straight from the sun at perihelion, must be turned straight towards the
‘sun at aphelion; and at other parts of the orbit must have intermediate
positions. This he proceeded: to illustrate by a diagram, in which@ =~
_ number of ellipses with the same major axis were so arranged, respect-
_- the comet, iitiorthe. contrary took place by the Sitesion of these sev-
eral orbits towards aphelion, The author exemplified these principles
by reference to the great comet of 1845, which, though visible to the
ke
-- sun:parallel to the ecliptic, having approached within about 60,000 a
fete miles of the sun :—the nearest approach to that luminary ever actually id
tory of comets no fact was ale established than that their tails were :
always turned, though with a slight curvature, directly from the sun; ;
. that this fact was well known to Sir J. Rereng and” was one basis of 4
“his induction, "
: On a new Membrane eos ie. Ghyatatin Mass by Sir ie ;
—
2 and at length the capsule burst. ee it kas burst, however, he ,
~~ showing that a perihelion the several parabolic paths of the parts te
of the comet, by becoming crowded together, caused the condensation of ;
n eye for about three. weeks, and to the telescope for more than /
five, yet in the very short: time of less than twenty-four hours swept
through that part of its perihelion path cut off by a plane,through the =~
d,.
Ma kcecchecrved, that if the 12th axiom (attributed to Sir J.
) ‘were a correct representation of facts, e conceived that it
il of a comet, which was eter to be turned
ing the sun occupying.a focus common to all, as that their ‘perihelia x
i pypht all be ranged in one line, embracing the sun also.—Prof. Smyth = |
did not concur in Mr. — argument; though time would not |
now admit of his going farther into it than to remark, that inthe his-
“The author drew a diagram represcliag the crystalline lens of an ox
with its inverted capsule ; and said that having lately had occasion #0.
examine the crystalline lens of an ox, which had been killed the day
before, he had put it into water,—by imbibing which it had soon swell-
ent plane; and he had Sacetie in this instrument observe
the hey exerted on the light, which were quite imperceptib ble to
by it.
ar Jor the Advancement of Srience ee 401 hae
Prof. Stokes observed. that’ heretofore it had Lestiinlagrllyaiat
posed that the clouds always exerted a aegolenning: action on the Tight
On the Danselite by) a ‘nantes
4 Be
portance of distin siahinig n the optical. foci of the lenses used
in photographic cameras and the foci of the photogenic rays.» He
said that ignorance of this distinction, or inattention to it, the
had invented a simple instrument, which was exhibited and: exple
ed, for accurately distancing the object to be depicted and: determi
the corresponding foci of the photogenic rays in any given camera.
s
proper
for exposing an sph on a given day, aint un 3 r given ae
are camera; and that a longer or shorter time than this was
injurious to the effect... To ascertain readily this proper cal he had
Invented dynactinometer, which he now exhibited. . It consisted of
a square frame of card, Bho a circle of card capable of being turned
round either by hand or by clock-work ; in one position of this circle, the, .
whole surface of the rit exposed to the camera at the proper p
genic distance was black.;. but as the circle turned, a. neatly divided“:
Sector of white card was eX] d, and by causing the circle to turn so
as to expose a given number of i tins each successive equal num-
t of seconds, the part of the sector whose image was most clearly
_ @efined on examination of the photogenic ee gave the number of
~ Seconds best for exposing the object to the camera. © But as the several
photogenic plates were not equally sensitive, thie sensitiveness of the plates
was determined by placing them in a small frame, and allowing them to
descend along an inclined plane, during a Simp de of which descent
i i rest being
ete
melee.
ct means of comparing the sensitiveness of the several plates.
Attempt to eicsate the occasional distinct vision if ie revolving
ored sectors; by Prof. Steve
He exhibited an instrument for whirling cards with coletedaes sectors
on them, devise d by Mr. ee of Belfast, to teach his children jetta
ads
Proportion to apes e the exact bron whieh they Sociol This
apparatus he had lent to Prof. Stevelly to show his class; and while
doin, ng so, he was surprised to observe that while the cards were revolvin
Tapidly, if he suddenly turned away his head he caught a distinct view
of the individual colored sectors at the instant he was losing sight of
‘Srconp Serres, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850. 51
which they reflected or transmitted to the eye. eight ss a
sts Re: Proceedings of the British Association
ee ~ the’ em by a side view. A few weeks before this, he had attended the
ae — lectures of Prof. Carlile, of the Queen’ s Cole “hee on the anat-
Fen ome acquainted
a pase on the side next the bye % which they went; these, after accom-
aS. eee it in its passage into the eyeball. ‘These portions of the re-
tina of the different eygs were also united into one nervous action by
e “commissure of the retina.” So that, the retina of each eye was
‘divided into two portions,—the portion next the nose, and the outer
and larger portion ; and these two portions of each eye were supplied
by nerves springing from opposite sides of the brain, and not a in’
their action by any commissure or connecting nerve. . Now, the con-
“sequen ce of the sudden turn of the head was, to throw the ace from
its usual place ye n the portion of the’ retina next the nose, affecting a
* new and fresh of the retina for an inStant only,—for the motion —
af the head instantly interposed the socket of the eye and shut off the
ors therefore became distinct at that instant, for a sim: _
les reason sed in the beautiful experiment of Prof. Wheatsto ot
electric spark showed them distinct,—namely, the instantaneousne’
the impression.
The following are the titles of other memoirs presented to the Sec-
tion ‘of Mathematical | and Physical Science.—
Report on the observations and experiments at the Kew Observatory; by F.
Rowatps.
Report on Luminous Meteors the Rev. a ft:
On the’Laws of ara § of TF igohide ; by W.J
d ted of sg working of the new aia one ago rig the past year;
OLLET OSLER.
On Magnetic sama by Mr. J. A
On the ris ig ‘of the Silk rac. Threads for the Declination Magne-
tometer; by M ROUN.
_ On the the Mechanical ‘Compeneations = the effect of cher sean on the Bifilar
A. Br
of
za
on tie ® Expansion of Glass, Woods, and Metals from por Tem-
— “7 wake
monet tyg Pecearroe on the Instruments for the measurement of earthq!
on ‘on the Meteorology of the Azores; by Mr. J. C. Hunt.
tet
>
a
3
hs “a Sor the Adgancameny of Science. i. #4. Meee
rf 2 Report on the effect of a stroke of hing on’ a tree near’ ‘Rainborgh; bys see ° #
Pay: HILLIPS,
te x
On the climate of the: “valley of the Nile; by Mr. aR
On the means of computing the wantities of ao vapor in i tbe Liman Biss
at various emg an pa of by MrT pee 4
‘On the daily form of Gloads at Iakorstotats MrT: Hormms, -* 7% Bis;
the passage of t aeccing across the very Islands by Mr. R. Russe
remarkable yy sia eee near the Moon's first quarter, ota *
a 1839 to 1850; by :
<) in some extraordinary electrical appearances observed at Manchester on thé Loth. .
- of July, 1850 ; by Mr. P.O ge
-Meteorological Phenomena ae Hggate, Yorkshire ; s by a a Rani gees ae
I ate
On cigpenan: Magnetic Lines in Yorkshire ; by. Prof. P: Capel oe
estion of Probabilities obra occur’ in mri use ar a fixe collimator fpr: of
the verification of the constancy of Position of an Azimuth Circle ; by Prof. Airy. Fae
On the Lunar Surface, and its ae to that of the fai by Mr. Llergees es eas
3; by
me
dee
On Polygons inscribed on a Surface of the Second order; by Sir W. R. Hasuzox,
On the Theory of Magnetic Induction; by-Prof. Tomson.
3 7 Pee the reduced observations for six years of, e Winds i in the regions of Glasgow;
of.
On n some powerful Magnets made by a process adesiaid by:M. Elias, and manufac- =~
ou M. Logeman, optician, at Haerlem ; by Sir DaBrewster.
e Optical Properties of Cyanure et of Magnesia and Platina; by Sir. D.
a Geometrical Rotation between Ten Points, ona surface of the second order
sir W. R.
', On the de of Cs cae of Newton’s Rings in passing the Angle of total
G. G. Sroxes.
io nthe Distribution of Shooting Stars in the Interplanetary Spaces; by Mr. H.
a, On E Electr Figures of Dust ou Plate one: by Mr. J. A. Brown.
a Magnetic a exhibited by Mr Bicews
Section B.—Cusussray, INCLUDING ITS ArPLicarions TO Acnicut-
Ps AND THE TS,
n the per-centage ov Nitrogen as an Index to are nutritive Value of
; by r. A. VoELCKE
The object of ae paper was = show, that t i usual estimation of
the nutritive qualities of an article food is frequently attended with
inaccuracies s, which renders it destiable to modify our present me
plants. In order to prove experimentally the presence of am
salts in larger quantities than hitherto suspected, and to afeid f the objec
u 3, was found to be 0-204 per cent. for the fresh fangi, or
182 per cent. for the dry fungi. The whole amount of nitrogen in
" Procealings of i fie British Association
€ Sgkine agarics, collected at ihe same time, determined by combustion,
_was found to be’0-74 per cent. for the fresh fungi, or 6°61 per cent. for
he fungi dried at 212° F, Deducting-from the’ last stated numbers the
rl aed y of nitrogen found to exist in the juice in the form of ammonia, we
“find that only 0-536 per cent. of nitrogen’in the fresh, or 4°799 per cent.
of. nitrogen in the dry fungi, e xists in the state of proteine compounds,
and that nearly one third of the nitrogen obtained by direct combustion
~ exists in the form of ammonia in the juice, or at all events i
-..,. whieh the nitrogen adds nothing to the nutritive value of see fungi.
ae & The nutritive value of the fungi has thus been overrated considerably ; ;
prea many vege:
r ele ker’s communication yan give in-
ifection—Dr. Daubeny made some ob-
aving been engaged in examining the dietaries of a large number at
“exfensive establishments, he should lay the: sabia before the Meeting. . |
On a peculiar Sore: produced in a Diamond shee mere the influence a ae
e Voltaic Arc; by J. P. Gas
M. Jaquelin was SS first to show that when ae diamond is subiiie |
to hats high temperature and influence of the , are, 1 it quickly bar |
a
peara coke :—the diamond when in a native eats is an insulator
or Sach eatoctor of electricity, but vhs 8 changed into coke it be- |
; comes an excellent conductor. At the Chemical Section of the British
: M
Jaquelin, and subsequently, on the 16th of June, 1848, he publicly
—— the experiment in London, in the theatre of the Royal Institu®
On repeating the experiment a short time since before a few |
fends, [ obtained a . product so totally different from that of M. — 4
m induced to bring the subject before this Section, in thes=
positive or platinum end of the onto or being formed in
small cup or crucible, in which the diamond was placed ;
jor the wma vi Science. “3 § 405
Me 3
tive or zinc end of the battery, a nice of the. same charcoal ( but Wavlane:
ed) was attached, The experiment was then made. ib iene ‘form © ~~
as described by M. Jaquelin, by first making ee eet the two char et
coal terminals, then bringing the flame in such a Position as to cau
O surrou ott
ctrode
which was in a state of intense ignition, remained attached to the neg-.- °
: ¢
ative terminal. When cool it exhi ited the same state: as it now pre- mee
te : e ; a sida
of becoming a black capnenacec re a good conductor, it
has a vitreous white o appearance, and remains a non-conductor.
It has also a deep, sironlée: sau on thas. portion | which was oppositeand =|
box-wood charcoal remaining attached to it... The centre of the cavity © *”
“appears to be still brilliant, as if that portion of the diamond_ had not
complete state of fusion. In-one or two reg peeing
F gs *y
. Rise on the iptisent State of our Knowledge o ied ig Action
of the Solar Radiations ; by Mr.
In this’ report the mig gave an historical sketch of ‘he progress of
inquiry on this subject, from the period when Scheele first observed
that the chlorid of aie was blackened much more speedily by the
_ ays at the blue = of the spectrum than by those at the least refran-
|. oad r red end, to the announcement of the discovery of the sensi-
ility of the iodized. tablets to the solar influences by Daguerre and the
the least refrangible end, and lecontleeshts sae ma at the a re-
appear to be influenced by light—the luminous power—as distinguished
from the purely chemical or calorific powers. The vitality of plants
is stimulated by light; and although many functions are performed in
the absence of luminous radiations, they all appear to be pages e by
I i sam se e to tha
_ Proceedings of the British Association
hence that'.the formation. of wood in plants is a function of their
xiality spcshs ‘by, Light :—that the development of the flower is due
cate. balance of the tek Actinism and Light, since we find
Ps tie
St bath, the luminous and’ chemical agencies are very active during
_. the process, and that the: egny p3 fruit and the perfecting of the
_ - healthful conditions of the seed are due toa * combiniation of the calorific
~. influence of the solar rays ‘hie inorganic ‘bodies, ‘the author peter it
: eee ened -beyond a doubt—Ist. That the maximum of chemical
~ (ac | phe peeone | was to be found where there was the least quan-
“tity of light and. heat.-2. That as the luminous power: increased—
__. power) diminished, until it came to its minimum, where light—luminous
“ power—existed at its maximum,-~3d. That although Be chemical influ-
ence extended to the red or heat-giving rays, its operations were mate-
rially modified, and to all appearance changed, by the combined opera-
tion of the calorific power, and that results standing in direct opposi-
tion to those obtained by the pure chemical rays were given’ by the
chemico-calorific rays. In conclusion, the author pointed out the wide
field for investigation which was opening to the experimentalist, and
he showed. that, although much had bene achieved» by. the experi-
ments already undertaken, there yet remained an extensive: ground
fl Ace
yet want the researches which shall satinfgotorily show whether these |
phe nomena are due to one great principle modifie a] the matter on
which it acts, or whether they result from the operation of forces com-
bined in action, although very different in their Palteog effects.
New Researches on the Condcdt tality of the Earth; by. Prof.
Although the good oe power a the earth is at present gen-
erally admitted and is advantageously applied to the construction of elec-
tric telegraphs, i it must be confessed that nothing has been hitherto known
of the laws and theory of this singular phenom menon. In England,
ee Germany, and Russia, it has been found advisable, for several years
past, to form the telegraphic circuit partly with the earth and partly
with the metallic wire, instead of forming the whole circuit with me
tallic wire oy: I was, f believe, the first to show, by exact see
pence between the electrodes plunged in the earth has attained a certain
length. Having laterally renewed my studies on this subject, nari
confirmed and extended in a complete and ean manner t
sions drawn from my former researches; I have also piesa ote
| result, given above, by different wi cineutil processes. T
F “hits?
Sor the Advancement a: Science. .
have compared the resistance of a eenabadl 4 legraphie ren with the
of an entirely metallic. es raat B a lengthvof wire twice as
great as that employed. in a mixed c Thave also! formed metallic
circuits of very fine biznes: ‘wires, heii the. same ‘Tesistance at .
that of a mixed circuit, in which the:metallic portion remained*con- _ 3
stantly the same, and to which were added different lengths of ebrths sos
The following are the principal conclusions drawn from experiments
sco a
——according to the specific gravity of that earth ,——according to its depth
beneath the surface,—according to the nature of the electrodes and ex-
tent of their surface. This resistance,does not increase with the ins.
ear a cae see sam youre power; different portions of the
a eo the: vlodiiadeh we may find og an increase or diminution in
the resistance of the earth. Likew in operating ona long mixed
telegraphic circuit, which is not petfectly isolated, owing to the effect
sof the different derived circuits formed between the posts ‘and the earth,
electric current is stronger near the piles than at a distance, and
s
results which I had obtained from my former bm experiments.
The resistance of a layer of earth appears to diminish as its: length in-
creases only in cases where we meet with other layers of better conduct-
ing power. In every layer of earth of a certain constant a
power, the resistance which at first increases very feebly with the in
creased length of the layer. , becomes
same for all the spp lengths, however great, on which experiments
have been made. Now, it is evident that as the increase of resistance
ina long eg circuit i is ey perceptible when we add to the
circuit, by means of two e electrodes, a thin stratum of water; so
we ought to find j in the ae pion telegraphic circuits that the resist-
ance of the earth is rig or ‘pearly sO, since it is equal to that of a thin.
stratum of water of a very large section. The law of the conducting
_ power of the’ earth edad established, it remains to give the theory of
his phenomenon. ‘The opinion of the scientific world is divided on
point. Some explain the good counleesitg power of the earth by
the almost Shake. section of the earth compared with the distance of
‘ 408 - Pirgeecdinis TL the British Association
r ee
wes veléet rodes ; others, again. suppose that the electricities at the ex-
_,tremities of the. pile are dissipated in the earth, in the same manner as
the, electricity of the conductor of an electrical enhine: This second
es Sihepian nation, will not bear the slightest examination, norcan it be made to ~
~ tally with the results of the. most elementary pie aioe relative to the
Finally, according to this explanation, the resistance of the metallic part
of a mixed circuit ought t to di isappear,—a thing: which ne ever happens. I
- think that | may be of the good con-
: Ss ducting power of the ‘earth, founding my assertions on very simple ex-
periments and on theoretical views already known. As. long ago. as. 1837,
proved in a memoir published in the Annales de Physique et.de Chimie,
that in operating on a certain liquid mass, very co onsidérable compared
‘ with the distance of the electrodes plunged in it, theilength of the inter-
mediate liquid stratum has no sensible influence. on the. intensity of the
ent. 1 have recently verified this result on a very large scale.
had a wooden case made seven metres in the side. I keep this case —
isolated from the earth, and filled with water. Operati ing on this mass
of
of water, we find that the resistance of a certain stratum water,
variable within certain limits, is independent of its length. . In like
pote: in diameter from 2°™ to 30 or 40°™, I have found that the
of these spherical masses of water wa s the same, and inde-
pee of their diameter. I have already said that this result may be
de duced from the e theory, and this is done as follows :—From the same
ductor of an electrical machine in action, and at the other extremity with
the earth, than to the case of the electrical current defined by its electro-
chemical, and electro-magnetical action ; it is no less true that a certain
number of the phenomena of the electrical circuit are explained by
representing the propagation of the hesrseagy current by the same equa-
tion given by Fourier in his theory of heat. Among these phenomena, ;
may be placed lectricity —
the fundamental law of the propagation of e ity
in Germany, and in Itaby by my friends Ridolfi and Felici.
“-¥ersation on the various methods employed | by the Electric Telegraph
continent prior to these investigations of M. Ma
of the earth to conduct _electricity.—Mr.
“
derstood that the water contained. in the superficial stratum is the con-
ucting medium; since he has proved that non-metalliferous i and
dry earth will not conduct an electric current.
the employment of the ae oe Lead we Eorhares Acid as pu-
rifying agents ; by Dr. Scor
On‘ the southern coast of stn, in a region limited by Almeria on
the east ilaga on the west, bounded on the north by mountain
-Tanges’ ‘and onthe: ante by the Mediter erranean, is a tract of land which,
so fareas its cliniate. and productions are conc erwed: may be aptly des
re-
»@ circumstance which een) Spain itself seems to be very
little voowe. There is perhaps no example on record of any operati
tion of materials as the operation of extracting sugar from the cane.
One portion of this loss is due to mechanical, another to chemical
causes. The sugar-cane has been ‘ete’ by most writers who have
found opportunities = practically examining the subject to contain no
more than 10 per cent. of solid non-saccharine matter, leaving 90 per
cent. of juice to be pice OF this 90 per cent., most writers con-
cur in testifying that in practice scarcely 50 per cent. are actually ob-
tained ; at least in the British West India possessions. Cane juice itself
has usually been stated to contain pe to 23 per cent. of crystalline
ugar, of which scarcely 7 per cent. in practice is actually extracted.
ny of other experimente ers. Having operated on canes from v: ie
parts of this district, by slicing them, exhausting first by hot ay
and then by hot ne and finally drying, I obtained as my mea
sult about. 10 per cent. of woody or insoluble matter; whilst the suger
Qu eore etal inet ranged from 17 to 23 per — as had previ-
zCOND Sertss, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850.
; Sor the Adelincctents sey ‘Societal. | 409°
in metallic wires according to their. Section “atid length. and the thee.
more general cases of the propagation of the electrical current, and i
4 of derivation, in large metallic plates, or in spherical masses andin
oe earth, such as they have been found by MM. Kirchhoff and Smaaeen
" - The reading of the Se from Prof. Matteucci led to a con-
On the Sugar Produce of the South of Spain, chiefly i in connection with mee
Daly bab stated. It would consequently appent, that 40 per cent. of
juice i is actually lost in the ‘practice of ou t India workings ; and
RP Sak thling ground ot whereas the West “India cane col | is repre-
sen
of very inferior construction. e cane, however, is. passed between
oppe rollers of the mill four times, until the reftise or’ megass, as the
‘many cases by hydrostatic force. By the latter method, I have seen 13
410 Proceedings of the British Association
WwW arises, as a most important “ebkeideentioi “be question as to what
. this loss | is Travia and to what extent it. might have been ob-
ange by altered machinery ‘or improved manipulation. Instead of 50
ent. of j ae extracted, '70 ‘percent. is much nearer the average
aan yielded by the suga arémills of this coast, although occasionally
the result is as high as 75 per cent., and this, in some cases, with mills
ssed cane is called, has been reduced to a state of disaggregation
Sieralion of pressing, sometimes by the agency oft a . screw, but in
per cent. of juice e extradt from megass which had already yielded up
73 per cent. of juice to ‘mill, thus ete the total quantity extent
per cent. out of te original 90, an sseapasent as a manu
— operation leavir very little more to be desire eats hydrostatic
ora
contents caf which are finally exposed to the operation of claying.
one manufactory, however, witnessed by me at Almunecar, lime is no
longer used on account of its well-known i injurious effects on sugar :—
no oie agent having been substituted in its stead, but sole reliance
bei aced on the pip ryt by heat of albuminows matters —.
lized Ger de ocaling the other 60 per cent. sibs in the sonaee
: ‘0
operat is Montril, about forty-five miles saath 2 G ae
mangetboiory furnished with apparatus of the rudest charelae: "Up ©
ee
a 5
bit eon
nape
for the Advancement of Science. . All
ae period (July 9) our own vacuum apparatus has not been cudhaleni:
ya
vanced to enable us to pursue our operations by its aid; neverthe-
of ‘ “i
ai owing to the superior.defecating power of the subacetate e of lead, —
we have, even with the old and rude machinery, obtained a result of
cess. Hitherto only. one-sixth per cent. on tei juice of sub-acet
been used,—but bimagine the quantity may be advantageously i Sa oe
ed. As filtration: is indispensable for the conducting of this process, —.
considerable fear was antortait a fermentation might supervene.
his fear, however, agate as dem purine to be groundless, inas-.
much as we possess in sulphurous Gold & agent most pi recat «3 dint.
fermentation. Another speculative fear Sen lest danger might a
from the lead employed : this fear, too, practice ante el tes to fat en-
~~ ine without foundation, for not only is the s»'phite of lead most easily
1oved,—~bu t even were it to remain no injus" could supervene, inas-
‘much as this. agent is as harmless as chalk.
“Tn continuation. ——Observations on the Sulphite of re? were made
Dr. Grecoky;—who stated that he had made experiments on the
sulphite of lead formed in this process. He admitted ‘els an infinitely
small portion niet still remain in the sugar, but that he considered it
guile innocuous. He had indeed fed rabbits and dogs with food which
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with the hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, iron was often mistaken for the
former metal.
Dr. Curistison contended that we had no evidence that the Pet ie
of lead was innocuous. It was true that in case of poisoning by car-
bonate of lead sulphuric acid was administered to convert it into the
comparatively insoluble sulphate ; but this was a case widely eae
from the slow accumulation of lead upon the system. Dr. Christison
adduced some examples of exceedingly small doses of lead bathe taken
in water for more than twelve months before its evil effects became ap-
they were not affected by many poiso Dogs and cats were the “ity
animals which could, from their iatecbal structure, be regarded as the
Tepresentatives of the human system in these investigations.
‘On the Air and Water in Towns, and the action of Porous Strata on
Water and Organic Matter ; by Dr. R. A. Surru.
is a matter of great importance to find from what source it is best
“to obtain water for sis towns, and how it is to be collected. To these
AL. : Proceedings of the British Association
points Dr. Smith particularly directs attention. Regarding the condi-
tions of many springs, which never become muddy, but possess a con-
‘stant brilliancy and a very fae! temperature: at all Soiteins of the year,
the author thinks that there is a purifying and cooling action going on
beneath. The surface water.from the same place, even if filtered, has
not the same brilliancy ; it has-not the same freedom from organic mat-
ter, neither is it equally charged with carbonic acid or oxygen gas,—
there are other influences therefore at work. The rain which falls has
not the purity, although it comes directly from the: clouds ; 3; it may even
salts; and it is shown by Dr. Smith that their purity is due entirely to
_, the power of the soil to separate all-organic matter, and: at the same
time to compel the mixture of cae acid.and oxygen. The amount
is remarkably pure, and the drainage of the soil is’ such” that there: is
very little of any salts of nitric acid in it. If the soil,:says Dr. Smith,
has such a power to decompose by oxydation, we ‘want to know how it.
gets so much of its oxygen. We must, see look to the air as the *
only source, and see how it can come tro When water become:
deprived of oxygen, it very soon takes it ai siete may be prov
by experiment. This shows us that as fast as the oxygen is: consumed
by the organic matter, it receives a fresh portion, conveyed to it by the
' porous soil. Several experiments of the following character were giv-
best, according to Dr. Smith, as far as clearing the water is con-
being of steel filings,—oxyd of iron, oxyd of manganese, and
wdered bricks all answering equally use This shows that the sep-
aration of the organic matter is due to some peculiar attraction of the
orous mass presented to the uid. This paper was a
continuation of Dr. pmb Monet published last year,——and he pro-
poses continuing the inqui
On the Proportion of P spor Spotl in some Natural Waters 3 .
be ake object of this wii was to riche siteiition toa ces ts rce
; many of our fields may be economically supplied with
Pi
a
b for the Advancement re Science. 3 et e
phosphoric acid. Prof. oe has shown that: traces of phosphori ae
acid are met with in many rocks of igneous origin, but-also in sated ye
rocks, particularly in imbeicne rocks, the presence of phosphoric acid
has been indicated by several chemists. The author found the propor
tion of phosphoric acid in graptolite, from the neighborhood of Ciren- °
cester, amounting to 0°124 per cent., equakto:0-260 of bone-earth, and —
in Stonesfield slate from the same locality amounting to 0-117, equal to.
244 per cent. of bone-earth. As water, charged with carbonic acid, is ¢
capable of seeoOe bone-earth, this important, fertilizing substance is Ss
found in many natural waters, phosphoric
acid. _ Such ister, therefore, may be applied with advantage for irriga-
tio » often neglected naturalsource,.
are strikingly enbiie? in the irrigated meadows in the neighborhood Pa.
of Cirencester ; and it is the.opinion of the author that one of the chief
causes of the bouskeial effecia which follow the application of the water: -.
for irrigation in this locality, isto be found in the phosphate of lime
it contains.. .In a tea-kettle incrustation formed in a short period by
this water, the proportion of phosphoric acid.was found to amount to
1:25 per cent., Showing’a considerable quantitysof this acid present in
he water. A very hard water from Edinburgh. Rice, proved —
tain phosphoric acid, but its proportion was not so large as that int
Cirencester water, ‘the quantity of phosphoric acid: in a boiler ane
a-
en
EST
es
et contains phosphoric acid, but the open amounts to
~~ mere tra _A quantitative determination of phosphoric acid in the .
: goler cepa of a Canada steamer gave only 0-0306 per cent., and
ain i i i in a
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The a ae of Potassium; by Mr. W, Perriz.
While speculating on the consequences of the dynamical theory of
heat, I was led to the conclusion that cold potassium ought to be found
luminous ; and farther, that it ought to be only about a tenth part as lu-
minous as phosphorus. On testing this experimentally, with the precau-
tions for sensitive vision which the anticipated feebleness of the light
indicated to be necessary, the result was, that on diving a bit of po-
tassium, (which was quite dry, being protected only by coating of
bees’ wax,) the halves showed two distinctly aes Ee 2 sections the
light being about a tenth of that from a similar surface of phosp orus,
as far as the eye could make the pa pe The light diminished,
naturally, as a protecting coating of oxyd was formed, but remained
just perceptible to the most sensitive sight, as long as half an hour.
On the presence of Fluorine in Blood and Milk; by Dr. G. Witson. 4
In 1846 I announced to the Royal Society of Edinburgh that after
ding that sea spar was soluble in water, and occurred in many nat-
waters, I thought it well to seek for it in milk and blood, and found
net evidence of its presence in both. The proofs however were
‘so decisive as I could have wished. This summer, however, I have
!
_ Vol. v, p. 337, 8 L from top, for Ga o read Ca 8.
414 News Planet. —Staurotide. 4
ES Siaitved the fresh drawn blood of the ox. About 26 imperial pints
or 3 gallons of aneera were made use of. From the large scale on
mination. Milk was examined ina similar. way, with nine. imperial
pints of rich milk from a country farm. The vapor which they evolved
etched glass distinctly. The ashes of twelve pound of new skim-milk
cheese made this spring treated in the same way occasioned deep etch-
5
pon
ie)
07)
2.
o
oS
99
=
=
taal
>
oO
iv)
i)
2
e
So
oO
my
ie
1s
a
S&S
ei
“Ss
-
®
-&
-
=
ao
7
at = By
oO
=
i)
QoQ.
o
'
peated the inquiry into.the. solubility of fluorid of calcium in water, re- _
ported to the Association at its Southampton meéting, and with the same
result, viz., that 16 fluid’ Paaces, or 7,000 gr. of WaUets at 60°, dissolve
0:26 gr. of fluor spar.
Another New Planet.—On the 13th of Sept, isco sveetiat” new 3
a was discovered ‘by Mr. J. R. Hind, agers ‘Its place,Sept. >
11h 29m 3s Gr. m. t. was R. A. 23) 44m 45s-( e and N. decl.
* 149 Gm i> 9. Itis Seaiahly, one of the Asterdidet roup. a
pposed Staurotide of Norwich, Mass.—Notwithstanding the .
“semblance to Staurotide in these crystals, and the ‘identity: fete
baie in the prismatic angles, cat A are found by Mr. W. J. Cra |
i
General Index.—We close this volume with a general Index to the
first ten velumes of this series of the Journal, intending to continue the
plan with every a. tenth volume, believing that the value of
the Journal will be thus enhanced, as well as its convenience to our
readers. Some articles now on ‘and, are consequently deferred to
olume.— Eds.
“Errata— The Errata of the ten eee ee this series are to be found on page
vill 7 each ee also in volume iii, p. 464; also for additional errata of vol 1, vit of
and ii Oe thle
vols i i, p. viii; of vol. iii, see vol. i og p. viii; of vol. v, see vol. vi,
vol. vi, see vol. vii e — ; of voL ig see vol. ix, p. vill.
not mentioned, are ollows :—
Vol. i Iv, p. 278, ior Tautolite, cd in ig
356, in a. r vol. i, r vol. ii.
Vol. vii, p. 114, aby hon ok - Ma arbury, read Marburg.
sous BE eas or 44183, read sais ¥ ind for’
Vili, p. 428, 7 _ me hae Ephipphora, read Ephippi ino aaa
Mag “Mag. N OP, se
ea oy for Journal, read Proceedings.
CATALOGUE
w LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS,
JULY, 1850.
LYNCH’S DEAD SEA.
CONDENSED AND CHEAPER EDITION.--Now Ready.
_ PRICE ONE DOLLAR BY M. MAIL, FREE OF POSTAGE.
NARRATIVE OF THE UNITED STATES’ EXPEDITION
DEAD SEA ie RIVER JORDAN.
BY W. F. LYNCH, U.S. N.,
_ Commander of the pice Ailen,
IN ONE NEAT ROYAL 12M0. VOLUME, EXTRA CLOTH.
exzeditio, has induced the author to prepare a condensed edition for popular use,
__ which is now furnished at a very low price. In preparing the former editions the
~~ object was 40 produce a work worthy in every respect of the national character which
it d no pains or expense was spared in bringing out a volume as hand-
some as anything of the kind as yet prepared in this country. The great demand,
which has rapidly exhausted many large i he: of this edition, ree
its pri oe icient proof of the intrinsic value and interest of the work, and in
Stain al the is new and cheaper edition, rm Peal ee Resa ‘tute that it
of the former volume, from the time the expedition reached
Lake Ti as till: its departure from Jerusulem, n, embracing ail the explorations upon
the river i oie and the Dead Sea. Some matter in the preliminary and concluding
chapters has been ont or condensed, and the two maps of the Siiaal edition
have been reduced in reserving however, all the more important _—— of the
country descri
» price of ‘the tere costly issue, in a neat and handsome volume, admirab y adapted
parlor or fireside reading, or for district schools, sabbath schools, and other libra-
‘ies, it should find a place in every house and cottage in the land where there isa
eopy of the Bible, or w: mpere there is any interest felt for the sacred regions now first
accurately surveyed and escribed.
__, To facilitate its nein by those who live at a distance from bookstores, or from
_ the larger towns, the publishers have prepared an edition in paper covers, suitable
for mailing, which they’ will forward through the Post-office, FREE OF POSTAGE, on
the as of LLAR, by mail
Fidei condensed and cheap, yet very handsome edition of Lieut. Lynch’s admirable Narrative of the
Expedition to the Dead Sea. e in which was excited and gratified by the first publication of this
work, demanded that it should iy placed in a form for more ups neral circulation, and this demand is met inthe
we have noloee us. Reg “7 wom: itself nothing need be :
“ag S$ @ narrative that
eo In one very large and handsome octavo volume,
a lars Twenty-cieht beautiful Plates, and Two Maps.
Jong and
expected, fully sustains the hopes of the most sanguine and
. ‘The type, paper, bindin oe ot _ pet cee are all at the best ant eee
a ane engravings. It wi € to elevate the character of our national
$a poarrs | for years. Thei parcgategh bree g of the subject will give it popu-
at must be Pog to = appreciated ; and it will be read extensively, and
New and condensed edition; witha Map, from actual Surveys. © :
ex
The universal curiosity excited by the interesting narrative of this veinsseali }
ie. ‘ 5 4
2 LEA & BLANCHARD’S NEW PUBLICATIONS. ... ~
JOHNSTON'S PHYSICAL ATLAS. __ ae
THE PHYSICAL ATLAS
OF NATURAL PHENOMENA. ii
POR THE USE OF COLLEGES, ACADBMIES, AND FAMILIES. =
Y ALEXANDER KEITH JOHNSTON, F.R.G.S,F.G.8.
In one large volume, imperial quarto, handsomely betta ae oS
With Twenty-six Plates, Engraved and Colored in the best style, .
Together with 112 pages of Descriptive Letterpress, and’a very copious Index.
his splendid volume will fill a void long om in this country, where
hq attai oes presenbng | a results of the important science of Physical ‘Geograf
a distinct and tangible The list of dishes subjoined will show both the design _
of the work an tthe satis tachi its carrying out has been attempted. The repu- *
tation of the author, and the universal * aporpanin aah which his Atlas has been
_ Teceived, are su wriro a Ripe arantees that no care has spared to render the book
~ eomplete and trustworthy. The e engraving, rittingd, und elon will all be found
_of the best and so enaaie description
» As but a small edition has been prepare ed, the publishers request all who may desire
to Riptsre copies of the work to send orders throu gh their booksellers without delay.
LIST OF PLATES.
GEOLOGY Y.
i. Geologie f the Glob 1. Humboldt’s System of Isothermal Lines. ees es
2. Mountain Chains of Europe and Asia. 2. Geographical Distribution of the Currents of Airs
‘ 3. Mountain Chains of Ameriea 3. Hy etographie or Rain ba ee ca rid.
4. Aupatresion of the Glacier a chen of the Alps, | 4. Hyetographie or Rain Map of.
= sosthw ook Woltiais: Action NATURAL Se
Paleontological and Geolo am Map of the | 1. Geographical Dist a of Plants.
British Islands. (A are t.) 2. Geogra phic al ig of the Cultivated Plants»
RAPHY. 3. Geographical skin | of Quadrumana, Eden-
_ au Miarsupiatia, and , op er,
eogT. arniv
5. Geographical Dintabaue n of Rodentia and Rumi-
‘ antia. i
Geographical Distribution of Birds.
7. Geographical Distribution of ag
8. Eihnographie Map of the world. a.
9. Ethnographic Map of Great “Britain and —
, in apopular gpererectve form, the re ai
sper of naturalists and Philosopher * - the most ng rtant ee a
of Ne tural Science. Its study requires no pre aining; for while facts +
hyena are stated heaton of 2 to the ie rales of Ligte 2 manate sey are
.
ee
For the first time, in this a“ siiey, the pri inotnlen of coamie reppecnensation ation are ere
i i fa. : . ‘
; ec
pa f inf gard oa nt kingd » ome:
depositories of information regarding the different kingdoms of na c
co) eg met ae Pe &@ conciseness, preci cision, completeness, and prompt
itude 0: appl ication — er unattainable by any other agency.
_ Thee elegant substitute of igen delineation sters the most ot compat ao
, gress vi
The Physical Atlas is the result Pepe m hte pitas ae eee a
only have the writings and researches of mere ers and trovellersof
been ree _ oe but — of — a n of the age, in the different depart
densed description of e Sys subject Mosc ah with conétade reference _ '
of the maps, and the colors and signs rte syed are uniformly ¢ :
the plates. But while eiulaane ring to make ayailable to erp
knowledge otherwise nearly ra senanilae it has ever been bo:
@ work, aceuracy and truth are the first r tes, in order
more p! (
/
i d
ae geal will, we hope, be rewarded an extensive
enterpr
x Sr a this host admirable wo ae ‘No chool-reom and no family should be witheng the Physical
ie hands of a judicious teacher, or head of a a family, information of the most se nature
-- in all departments of science 2 and-natural history can be introduced and commented on, in refer-
A ie ny desired extent. Such works give attractiveness to knowledge, and stimulate to energy
: : 5 :
exhibited, the faculties of imagination and judgment find room for equal exercise and renewed
delight. It is the lively picture and alee 5 our planet.—N. Y. Lit. World, Maes h 9, 1850.
a The book before us is, in short, a graphic qneyelopedis of the sciences—an atlas of human
de ge done into maps. It exemplifies the truth which it expresses—that he who runs may
er (rea her
e mal Laws of Leslie it enunciates by a bent li g across a map of Europe;
the abstract researches of Gauss it embodies in a few parallel curves winding over a section of the =.
globe; a formula of Laplace it melts down to a little path of mezzotint sh oa ; a problem of the. (~
tT endental analysis, which covers pages with definite integrals, it makes plain to the eye bya ©
little stippling and hatching on a given degree of longitade! A f time and”
Space, heat and cold, wet and dry, frost and snow, volcano and storm, current and tide, plant and ~~
, Gerstood—are brought together by a marvellous microcosm, — planted on these little sheets of
Paper, thus making themselves clear to every eye. In short, we have a summary of all the cross-
questions o — ature for twenty c cen nturies—and all the answers of Nature herself set Bs dtee
~ Speaking to s un mot. or Johnston is well known as a geo-
ey Bn of sth nonuiaey and. aie and it is certain that this work will add to his erie tation
= lly e: pand
pher
- is beautifull ce ompanied with we we and tabular leitorpiae of wreak
"Te ‘the to’ the stu ent, and to the already ine Bat daily i aes acitroeg of inqui-
rers who ee natura panes, the Physical Atias is of incaleu value. i brings
i; more ne™ anorami and in Rg
Prehensible, : all ‘ie pF ue eoraeat known relative to the great subjects of 2h it sone ly and
may be regarded as a lucid epitome of a pp scattered volumes, ——— or less intrinsi cally
w
_ We possess, indeed, the valuable Physical Atla: var Mr. Keith Johnston, whieh may well be asso-
_. Clated with Mrs. Somerville’s book, for their eetiet ill tion. But this s is ee a oes
undertaking, and by no means yet known or studied cr. with its ei its.
S are as essential i
' Inone Feet eotigat 12mo. hog ae ser
interesting. — North American.
NMEW AND CHEAPER EDITION Now Rindye
KENNEDY’S rE oF WIRT.
MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE OF WILLIAM pk e) i
BY JOHN P. KENNEDY. ;
NEW EDITION, REVISED. gai Seg gs < oa
In two large vols., royal 12mo., with a Portrait and fac-simile letter fran pa Adams: ‘
The whole of Mr, Wirt’s Papers, Correspondence, pear bia &¢,; having been placed inthe hands *
of Mr. Kennedy, to be used in this work, it will be found t o comme in much that is new and inter- é
esting relating to the political history of the times, as oot as to P
ig ; :
t
per dete m its former cost was an objection, _ In its present neat and conv venient form, the.
work is emtwen tly fitted to assume the position which it merits as a book for every parlor-table and
for every fire-side where there is an eee etion of the kindliness and manliness, oe intellect and
i nder i
fs
wh
professi racing sketches pit siuorvulired on all the most chat ngu rage . a
the yer of that brilliant parley as well as notices of the many h Mr. beac
was =e
Av id f bi uch as we had admired Mr. Wirt, we did
not kiow me snk he rine eee pies and how Seay ig was of imitation, until we read these pages. _
To a young lawyer, we could hardly suggest more usefu Ir eading. No American has $ purs rsued the law, through
a long and illustrious care er, with more single hearted devecion than William Wirt. His hers
the Pirie stagae this peek a. all neta thi eum fervent a 5 To his fa amy and ot Atos
= is con a oung men, t desert the aes oa
2 eae we iia to enrich our ag
af
on allure ap as high ae examples. When space permits
pages wi yal extracts from these © eligi inks _ ‘Wester n Law Journal, Mareh, 1! h
remember to hav be ay Emon “ae ertainly none of biography, with more pleasure than the
pe ke wer in:
gg Aye e las yerespecially, we commend
“the | rechingtis tracing aretie OF one who, springing from an
gh peepe ses arn Srethnet hie pose trymen. No class pe pen ae
ie ake no sign. ty a thanks of the profession at large a to ii 4
ing so much for us to respect tand admire in the character of the subject of his jahors £
$s tg ‘speak . Spe ‘style in ‘which the book i is ene up; the reputation of the publishers is sufficient B
is ne
guarantee f for a a telligencer. 4 x
ro eg pait, as all life-like “ Lives” are, auto-biographie. Wirt stands tiltsede eee
ogT
seg by his own Pen n, either ie eeiterts from his ow rsonal memoirs, or from his publie- addresse: :
the frank and carel self e of his. private vistors is. ae =! val Ee s passes befo} Seis
: S struggice and | apprehensions, his trials, ses and sorrows; een ;
stakes, his amiable crac nd his innocent eunity at oan it themsel¥es so naively and 5
ens > You, that y athize with all. The book thas faseina ting your interest and opp
cat its rap ced. Sete
~ One of the most valuable books of the season, and certain! pone of the most entertaining works ever siyent
- lished in this coun Mr. Kennedy is admirably qualified for the preparation of such @ work, and h oa oan
dently eae access toa pote variety of useful material. The work is one whi ‘be in the han Coal 7
every soune _ int untry. Its intrinsic interest will secure it a very ge neral populari ty.—N. =
rier and Enguir
The fascinating letters of Mr. Wirt, one of the most brilliant and. agreeable men of the day, in themselves:
furnish a rich fund of instruction and enjoyment.— Rich mond In
This work Bes — are a for with much interest by the pu ite te id will not disappoint the high me
eobhet end le need he f the author, and the — nt materials left by the
Ae ja a to which he has had free access.—. Philadel-
SiThe « style is at once vigorous and fascinating, and the interest of the eran absorbing charaeter.—
Pp
Mr. Kennedy i is one of br e very finest of American writers. He never touches a subject that e does m “
adorn— s fortunate for the memory of Mr. Wirt that the espn of his life has fallen into such han
The pabbahors hone performed their task in excellent style. The paper and the type are good, a
getting up is admirable. RE poninrny Whi, ctations of
Mr, Kennedy has made a couple of very interesting volumes. He has not disappointed the ¢ expe He has
who know his powers, pa had enjoyed the nm Pape! and humor of his ie wious Write eS have,
properly adopted the plan of makin, Me Wane T speak himse saat hoe as possible. ry period
yo pee gg a large bi of his letters, showing him in pues arin nest or enliness of
is life, and rare; in a manner to satisfy us of the equal godess vor his heart and the clear art
hisint ile. econo oe nt will be apt oF hr these p i a a sensible nade or veseligs
encaey ee Drograae © usands, throu al painal strug veresting
and, finally, into renown oom excellence chs urnish many eS oo examp! well os int
history. —Charleston Mercury
DAVID © ERFIELD by Dickens. Chap peep os ery Fart t, contain Lea oa
feet: half; Sak aE Hed Price 25 cents. To be com = Pag in Bets
Blanchard’s complete edition of Dickens Novels har oe. pe shing in
ly Numbers, with plates, price fiv ts each. pe
LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. 5
. PAGETS. TRAVELS IN HUNGARY.—4Just Ready. ,
HUNGARY AND TRANSYLVANIA.
H REMARKS ON THEIR CONDITION, SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMICAL.
BY JOHN P
ESQ
= ia a picnic ae es extra cloth.
mn d ith Mr. Paget for our guide. It would
tbe wel pe postble « choo: if inte a to flag, and appears to have made
el cefatmted, a my pci the cheng and traditions oe country, but with its whole
ot ag —_ nd, as really to invest the
ely &
history andi inasitaions ast B Drepenss so many points of analogy t
eet t with a new and peculiar inigpest for an anahean, ae i Bo de sie
MACFARLANE’ 5 TU rani mea —Just Ready.
THE RESULT OF june = IN 1847 AND 1848 TO EXAMINE INTO THE
F THAT COUNTRY.
BY CHARLES MACFA ARLANE, ESQ.,
r of * ‘Constantinople. in. 1828.
‘In two oat ears royal 12mo., extra cloth.
Mr. Macfarlane was fp pe eleven nce nel in ie 2 durr
period a — erforming a country e sion bo ipally i) the Roe
a after another residen
a halik
ufacturing operations in places semov iF ital are sau te rat resdiee:
0 hom ‘es travel scopent him in contact, by
€ aits 0 wit
x details not seldom telling against his own views, a1 I epartments avi State, and saan
Sa g Ministers, which we are yet at all disposed to ‘think jnaecurate rl overcharged. ‘The abuses a. the
oe Ha m are described generally as in no respeet reformed, melancholy criptions are given of the ma nha
§ morals of women of station, aa Mr. Macfarlane i with ill- dis se contempt and sarcasm oft
“Ss private character and pursuits of the Sultan. Ezamin
eas 4
eo ee Ee ay * SIBERIA: —JTusi Ready.
naa
Pa te &; IN STBERIA.
: INC CEG Ae. EXCURSIONS NORTHWARD
‘Down the Obi to the Polar Circle, on Boutiedan to the Chinese Frontier.
“= BY ADOLPH Bees :
= te TRANSLATED FROM THE GE
_ BY WILLIAM DESBOROUGH COOLEY.
In two large volumes, royal 12mo., extra ¢
mplete and suthesiie account which we
Much inter rest attaches to this work as the only co pos-
i e ral Mountains to Be ~ ing’s St eg of which less
hi . Erman deveuss
zd 2 rel info
wap iarting 7 R, TRAVELS
Exhibiting them in their ae hake Social, Pahoa and Industrial.
INCLUDING A CHAPTER ON CALIFORNIA.
<, ANDER MACKAY,
e From the Second and Enlarged London Edition.
= in two veny neat volumes, royal 12mo. (Just Issued.)
This is not the raveller in ove — who adopts all his ideas of the “ Model Re-
public” from the ite Wieden in stea i , railroad cars, and hotels. Mr. Mackay spent some saat in the
hited States, made If thorou ae conversa wis our national genius and character, and with our
These he describes oh the s the t_and vivacity of a
‘10 exp disap-
nt
Pec u.trities, politfeal, social, moral, and religious.
nt man, but with the ne ness ofa friend ; and while he does not hesitate to. ress
‘ Probation ~ ln he considers it deserved, he is totally and Ee eertesinasina censure
Of the Trollene 8 and Basil Hails.
JUST ISSUED,
—1RISH MELODIES,
PLATES,
MMEDIATE ND r MR. EDWARD FINDEN.
Peclune te Bee pages, handsomely bound in extra cloth, with gilt edges.
RINTED ON SUPERIOR PAPER.
a
6 LEA & BLANCHARD’S NEW PUBLICATIONS 7
AUMBOLDT’S ASPECTS OF | VATURE-New Edition, ow Rea
: ¥
ASPECTS OF NATURE, pr
IN DIFFERENT LANDS AND DIFFERENT CLIMATES, (|.
WITH SCIENTIFIC ELUCIDATIONS. oa
BY ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. ok
TRANSLATED te MRS. SABINE. kee di
SECOND AMERICAN EDITION. Lie a Se
In one very neat seit royal 12mo., extra cloth. — ares
A remarkable work; combining in a rare manner the lofty and all- -comprehensive peeeeeeeeon of the poet = 5
with ess — knowledge and minute nee oreey i the Nang of ry Law ot lone Spec ‘
bla si¢ Inte f this publication must e for wide and rapi a pepalerigg ‘Tt is at once 3
learn puts fa ecinatie: eck ing the mos na wonderful ‘nana ws natural history in the charms of a simple, '
an and picturesque style. oe Miscellan ‘
a phe hole book yomtaic ra the riking evidence of genius. Every page teems with information, and
at it
is
SOMERVILLE’S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ee
New Edition, much Improved—Now Ready,”
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. =
¥ MARY SOMERVILLE, '
AUTHOR OF ‘‘ THE CONNECTIO TENCES, °? ETC. ETC.
Ss OND AMERICAN EDIT! ON,
From the Second and Revised London Edition.
AMERICAN NOTES, GLOSSARY, &c
In one neat a 12mo. yol., extra cloth, of over 550 pages
The great suecess of this work, and its introduction into many of the higher schools an aa academies, have
induced jee Lactate to prepare apr and much improved edition. In addition to the on. and ©
improve nts of the author bestowed on the work in its Pes: — bs © press asecond time in London,
bye his country; and 2 commrebennses
pho Naa Been n added, rendering the volume more par tg educational purposes. The
amount of these additions may be understood from the fatt that on mite has the size of the page been increased, -
pack “~ value itself ‘enlarged by over one hundred and fifty pages. At pene - the price has not been
ine
raise comes lagging i in the rear, and is well But wi ous to eg eggs ern be
bse! “youth the enlarged method of st : Pp a whith en penedit i diecnsrates 10
ting as itis instructive. Nowhere, except in her own n previous work, The meseenee | 4 Pes Physical
Sciences, is there tobe found so large as well- selected information so lucidly set forth. In surveying -
mp ine y the ey
e than w
Ay:
x
@
D
ro}
Z
3
i)
mn
&
cu
log
mS
&.
i
oe
ahs
=
-
oO
Hui
5
oe
a
ow
nD
oe
2
fs)
6
'
ence itself involves her in ; no dissertations which are feltto i oe or delay. She strings her beads dis-
net and close together. With quiet eepeviceaity = seizes at once whatever is most interesting and —
S ore the book; and we hold such pr rs
ville has bestowed upon the public to be of incaleu lable value, disseminating more sound information than
all the bee Se and scientific institutions will accom piel in a whole cycle of their existenc — Blackwood’s
HERSCHEL’S OUTLINES OF OF ASTRONOMY.—Now Ready. me
BY SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, F. R. 5. “he ;
In one am volmine, Crows Sy0., — six plates and numerous wants
With this, we take which we hold to be, beyond a doubt, ie greatest and
most remarkable of the works in which the ‘nes of astronomy phe the appearance of wn heavens are e
-Scribed to those , and recalled to Pines wh oare. Itis the rewar
of men who op descend from the advancement of poleene to eare for bi seem ee hele works are
essential t th ks ofthe learner.—Ath 'm.-
Probab! ly n 0 book.e science, b — eae mer a compass ¢ -*
entire € epitome of every a Pa hon within all its various depariments practical, theoretical, and physic
iner
‘tet f Pring wind Silliman’s Tournad. i
é LJ +2
NEW AMERICAN WORK ON SHOOTING.—Nearly Ready.
a i SHOOTING ; OR HINTS TO SPORTSMEN.
In one a hands 5: rena oth) oe is ag
THE WaR IN HUN GARY. Now Ready.
“MEMOIRS: OF AN HUNGARIAN LADY,
BY THERESA PULSZKY.
INTRODUCTION
FRANCIS PULSZKY
op In one wun crops ine volume, extra clo th.
“ We sg aban i inform o eader: f this s wor rk is the accomplished wife of the —
man whi nally Guededized to the h Cabi a
Testy te ilaeeag pee to pn recital of e events which ae become so famous would insure a wide
ay! for B sibagerers Pulszky’s book. But we should very m ie nder- vencinaatie its value if we so Htenived | oor
Memoirs, indee > Matin pie ches of oun sg which are worthy of a place ve = side of
fila By Stael De Launay, and Madame Campan. cig t pat pe: rich in — avant and 10} aphical
‘information of the first, character Madame Puls zky wes 5 teh of direct intercou = bo) for amet
<
°
m as civen a ec sa 9
um.
en events in ~ sl y; Pi the arrival of a Hungarian esatation in 1648, to thee fe ease n of Ger
Georgey on 13th fietetnr 1849. M. Pulszky has also prefixed a valuable ee ion, which giv
of Hungary that has ever issued from the English press.— Glob
MISS KAVANAGH’S WOMAN _.IN FRANCE.—NOW READY.
WOMAN IN FRANCE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY,
Y JUL ANAGH,
Author of “ I a Tale of Auvergne,” &c.
In one very neat volume, royal 12mo., extra cloth.
Intreating other subjects wa her gallery—as for ‘ceniale those paca ong personages, Mdlle Aissé
. Madame Roland— —_ Kavanagh puts forth a pee athetic power ———* s depth and repose to a book
Be in other hands might have pecuaig¢s wearying from its unmitigated sp ckle.
q sane € critic, dealing with = bas eneyelopiedia o of —— sinoars, vicissitudes, sufferings, and repent-
F es as the history of “« W n Fra ust pes 1 ae is fain to content himself with peed
bei merely a + general character like the | hove ‘su = is the Faseing of the subject—such is the ee bic ye ma!
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“APPENDIX.
Prof. Page’s ecto “magnetic Engine by P Professor Wt
ENSON, 473.~ a
0” ae
ma Ca
: age
CONTENTS.
Arr. XXIV. Address of Sir David Brewster ‘Before the Twen
tieth Meeting of the British Asapciion at ee Jay,
31,1850, - 305 §
XXV. On rs a Height of Lighting Rods by Prof. ra
320°
XXVI. On my "Blestrical Pecan of Coie Houses by 2
Prof. Evias Loomis, — - a
XXVII. On a-new method of decotiposing Silicates in sha pro-
cess of Analysis; by Henry Wurtz, - - 823 5
XXVUE On the availability of ihe Greensand of hee ate as te
a source of Potash and its Compounds; by, Henry Wurtz, 926 _
XXiX. On the Diurnal and Annual Variations in the Declination
of the Magnetic Needle, and in the Horizontal and Vertical.’ =
Magnetic Intensities ; by Prof. W. A. Norton, . 330
XXX. On the Analogy between the mede of hepichakn Woo
Plants and the “ Alternation of Generations” observed in
some Radiata; by James D. Dana, | 341 ‘a
On Plectee mance as~a Moving Power by, Prof. a> =
‘ E:
=
is: aa
Bs ;
Ss adinats size ‘ead length of, F
; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pacr, M.D., - 349
On Rutile and Chleniss in ee ; me Eee 0. “a
. 302
XXXV.. Sitesi on Emery; “y I es Sail 1D.
- First part—On the Geology and peornicer of nai from
park it
XXXVI ‘On American Seoduseue 4 by Gro. I. Hide is ee 27 |
| XXXVII. Optical Bay of several American Micas ; és .
B. Sin LLIMAN, Jr., A.M., @.1).,"é&c. Fe e $72 | -
ta
XXXVI Analyses of Ele from St. Lawrence County,
N.Y.; by Wu. J.C |
Extracts from: the Premcediags of the Twentieth |
ish Association, held at Edinburgh, July, 1850
Oi tlantic —— their Mosnitnde, Malte eee
386.—On talli lie Reflection, by Prof. G. G.
of A ceteeteais hind 1