O° x, 3 WS bog SS ae est AMERICAN JOURNA . (MAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jn., X.—NOVEMBE R, 1850. | TO VOLS. I—xX, PY oe f Peleg. * NEW HAVEN: HED BY THE EDITORS, CONTENTS OF VOLUME X. ” NUMBER: XxVIII. Axr I. Review of the Geological Report on, the Chippewa Land — District of Wisconsin and part of lowa, made in the mene 1847, under the direction of D. D. Owen n, M.D., | TI. On Rutilated Quartz Crystals from Vermont, and De chcuean connected with them; by Francis. Arcer,A.M.,_ - 12 Il. Examination of Risk wood’s Analogy ; by Szars C. Wau = 49 ~. IV. On Kirkwood’s ‘Analogy ; by Dr. B. A, Goutp, Jr., - 26 i ue 2 Y. On the Natural Terraces and Ridges of the country bordering gk Lake Erie; by Cuarves WuiTTLEsEY, - 31 = iy I. On the Qusalie of Heat evolved from aeomidcs Air - - oe Mechanical Compression; by Jonn Gorriz,* M.D., - - = 39 - On the Computation of the Sun’s Daily Intensity at the ex- , terior su of the Earth, and Secuiey. eanee® of Heat; EOH, 49 VIII. Notice of Fossil Bose from the nei of Memphis, Tennessee; by Jeprrigs Wyman, M.D 56 TX. On the Geological Structure of Keweena’ Poin % tiv . C. T. Jackson, - - 65 ae Analysis of Algerite; by Ridkees aii : v7 2 XI On a? Telluric Bismuth of Virginia ; by Dr. C. T. oe 78 j ae. On up ew Mineral Species; by Henry Wurtz, 80 . ie Err: tie Phenomena about Lake Bisbee: wd Prof. Aca - 83 XIV. “Oneal Gold tom California o Piscon Mis, - 101 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Clexinery and Physics—On the Diffusion of Liquids, by Professor Grau ae S.,106.—On the Occurrence of Formic Acid in Stinging Nettles, 2 ‘Dr G sANEZ, 108.—Method of Preparing “Theine, b by H. Hernsrvus : Test ee of Sugar, 109.—On Iodine in fresh. ‘water Plants, by Ap. Cua- 110.—A Rsalyae of certain gold-colored Bronze Antiquities found at Dowris, r ge ote Cooxe: Mannite, its atomic Weight and Compounds, by *111.2On Daleose, a Homologue of Grape Sugar, by A. Lav in the Liver, 112.—Sugars of Honey: Sugar in the flowers of * Incorrectly spelt Garric. TZ iv : CONTENTS. rals and their uses, in a Series of Letters to a Lady, b Rhododendron ponticum : Sugar of milk in “ Ble of seeds: Production of Sugar in the urine by wounding the brain, ee ea and Geology.—Notice of Trilobites in the Cabinet of Dr. Julius Ss. Taylor, 113.—Observations on the Mica Family, by J. D. Dawa, 114.—Spodu- ah ‘is mene, 119.—Anhydrous Prehnite: On a new aeadins form of Staurotide, Ps aE ee Isomorphism of Staurotide with Andalusite and Toe Mids ie D: Dawa: Plati- 7 num of California: Fowlerite; 121. Zoology.—Remark on the Genus Meiseain of J. V, Thompson, by J. D. Dana: Observations on some Crustacea, a the collections of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, by Prof. L. R. Greszs, 122.—Conspectus Crustaceo- rum que in Orbis Terra : dircumnavigatione, Caroito Wi.x«es e Classe Rei- f publice Federate Duce, lexit et descripsit J. D. Dawa: Oithona plumifera of W. Baird : On the eireulation and digestion in the lower animals, by Professor ei 123.—Low State of Development of Mammals and Birds in Australia d New Zealand, 124. —New Species from. “Lake Superior described by M. Ageosiz, 125 . agen Intelligence Bile C. U. Shepard on: eee 127.—On the in- '§ crease of the Nail and the Hair in Man, by M. Berruorpr : On the Extinction = of Light i in the Atmosphere, by W. S. Jacoz, ne .; H.E.I.C., 129.—Climate of © e “0 4 ee by Jonn Gou.p, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., &c., 131. Oia the Resascita-- ie ew of Frozen Fish, by Prof. O. P. Hossazp, 132. Geology: in the State ) Mississippi: On th a Puribestion of Coal-Gas, by R. Lamazne, 133:—Analysis of Water from a Hot Spring in the region of the G: reat Salt Lake, by C.T. Jack- a son: Wild Animals of Africa: Tin in Plumbaginous Slat 3, 134.—On Fossil * Rain Drops, 135 FE se in a of Sir John Fr sued Di e Advancement of § cience, ions de snes h: an = 138. + Bibliography. —A ‘ oe James D. Dawa, A.M., etc., 138.—The Unity of the Human Races proved ie Fe be the Doctrine of Scripture, Reason and Science, with a Review of the — position and theory of Prof. Agassiz, by the Rev. Txos. ‘Suyru, E .D.: of Prof. ALexanper D. Bacue, Superintendent of the (U. 8.) Coast ac showing = progress of that work for the year ending Oct., 1849, 143.—An Ele- men urse of Geology, Mineralogy and Physical Geogragie by Davip TT.“ ANSTED, M. A., F.R.S., &c., 144.—The Natural History of the British Ento- mostraca, by w. Barrp, MD., F.L.S., etc. : Index Paleontologicus, oder ther- sicht der bis jetzt bekannten Fossilen Ceguiioments unter Mitwirkung der HH. Prof. H. R. Gérrertr und Herm. von Marx, bearbeitet von Dr. H. G. Brown, 145.—Elements of Scientific Agriculture, or the connection between Science and the Art of Practical Farming, by Prof. Joun P. Norro. on, M.A., A Treatise on Algebra, for the use of Schools and —_ by S.Caase: | Bins 7%. Jackson, F.R. Third Annual Report of the Regents of the University, of the eondition of the State Cabinet of Natural History and the Historical ax Antiquarian Collection annexed , 147.— logy of the ibe 32 of H. M. 8. under the . g the years ie eitee w ARTHUR = Peg “ ~ Commercial Biitin : Astronomical emer Cambridge, 148.—Seientific An- “ie ere _—. Encyclopedia, by G. Hécx, translated by Professor 8. F, Ye Ne AIR List of = 149. we APPENDIX. Report on the Experience of the Coast Survey in regard to Tele- graph Operations, for determination of Longitude, &c., 151. NUMBER XXIK, Art. XV. Observations on the ae oe in thes Physi cal Be and Resources between the Old World and the New World; —__ by Prof. Arnoup Guyor 161 XVI. On the relation of the This of MAisaica’s to Perpetual Motion; by Jeremiah Day, -~ - 174 ad Il. Bonicibutions to the Mycology of North ace, ; rm 7 Rev. M. J. eat of — and Rev. M. A. Curtis, of South C Carolina, - 185 Ex ental ‘Researches i in Electricity. sh eeaty: third. HAEL Farapay, Esq., D.C.L., F.B.S., etc, 188 the Grass-cloth of China is manufactured. — 2 ates by Dr. D. J. Maccowan, in a letter to” ‘Sir Jame Hume, Hon. Sec. of the Agric. Society of India, - _ XX. On the Quantity of Heat evolved from , Se Air by ee _ Mechanical Compression ; ; by Joun Gorrie, M.D., - -. 214 Ce x cL: Notice of Remains of. Vertebrated Animals bond, at Rich- — mond, Virginia ; by JerFrigEs Wyman, M.D., 228 “xXIL. On the Poicanic Eruptions of Hawaii ; 4 ee D. Dax, 235 Sie ici a, - - 245 Ms <= ie “SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. ysics.—On the P; fM i d, by Dr. F. Kex- R; On the Amid Compounds of Tungsten, by Prof. eo ad 256.—On the of lodid of Potassium, by Prof. Scuéspzix: On Furfurol, by ar the action of Chlorine upon Lactic Acid, by G. Srarpe- Oxychlorid of Carbon, by A. W. Hormann : On the Prep- n of pure oxyd.of Cobalt, by P. Lovynr: On the action of heat upon the ate of Lime, ‘ . GucKELBERGER, 258.—On the determination of Ni- NoELLNER : Examination of Castoreum, by F. Wornter: On the _and Metamorphoses of Conine, by J. BuytH, 259.—On the Com- Metathorphoses of Piperine, by Tu. Wexruem ; On a New Gun- = &, ' CONTENTS. : Lge he Rode 4,92 ‘i ane oie vi CONTENTS. : 6. ene and Geology.—On a new Spodumene poets at Norwich, Mass., by sel by M. Aveeypre, 260.—Purification and properties of Chloroform, f. Wu. Grecory, M.D., 261.—On the preparation of Chlorate of Potash: _ lee Acid from Biwalate of Ammonia, by M. Dessaiengs, 262 -—Stibethyle, by C. Lowie and E. Scuweitzer : Action of Nitric Acid on Rhubarb, 263.— On the Atomic Weight of Molybdenum, by N. J. Beruiy, 264. RTWELL, and E. Hircucock, Jr., 264.—Age of the Nomihnlits tic forma- tion of the Alps, 265.—On the Geographical Limits - the Chalk Formation, by Leorotp von Buc, 268. Zoology. —Contributions to the Natural History of the Tiseske of sige a ica, by L. Acassiz —On the Structure of Sysmolina, by W. B. Carpen- rer, M.D., FRS.,275. sa Miscellaneous Intélligence—On. the Seer. Races of Oriental Adice, by M. Srr- res: Fabrication of Zine. compounds not injurious to health, 276.—Anchor-Ice, by Prof. C. Dewey, 277.—Discove very of the Great Lake “Ngami,” of South _ Africa, 278.—Comparison of Fahrenheit and Centigrade Thermometers, 231.— “Discovery of an Infusorial Stratum i in Florida, by Prof. J. W. Bamey: On the _ by p A. Matong, 285. steed Statuary, 286,—British Association: Sun and - Moon: Ona cloud of dust which obscured the sun for two days in oe on com 2 and 30th of April, 1840, during a clear sky and quiet weather, by Eu : : American Zoological Journal : Discovery of the Antarctic Conia Mecting of the American Association for the Advancement of Bei cience at New _ Haven, 7,287 Proceeding of the American Association for th “| Science; thitd Mee: eeting, held at Charleston, 8.C., M eee esrb —Editorial - notice with reference to edn, on the Electro-Chronograph, in Volume III, de | e, 296.—Christian VIII. King of Denmark, 297. Bibliograph 1y—Tabule Mage Chemical Tables for the Caleultion of Quan- titative cape of H. Rose, 298.—First Biennial Report on the Geology of ~ Alabama; by M. Tuomey, 299.—A Treatise of Plane aid Spherical Trigonome- try; by Wiirram Cuauvenet, A.M.,300.—A descriptive account of the. Fresh- water Sponges of the Island of Bombey with observations hei and development; by H. J. Carrer, Esq., 301.—Recherches ‘Anato Zoologiques faites pendant un Vous sur les cotes de m bp et sur iad divers — du littoral de la France; par MM. Mintye Epwar av s,and Emrie Buancuarv: Les Alpes, Journal des ‘Sciences gs am isis, Medicales, Physiques et Astronomiques, 303. NUMBER XXX. . XXVI. On the Practica Phenomena of tieitets Houses by whe Extas Loomis - os ee 2 - CONTENTS. Vii Pag - XXVIL On a new method of vate ae Silicates in the as _ eess of Analysis; by Henry Wurrz 323 ~ XXVIIL On the availability of the es of New derkan as oF a source of Potash and its Compounds; by Henry Wurtz, 326 ~ ~ XXIX. On the Diurnal and Annual Variations in the Declination of the Magnetic Needle, and in the Horizontal and Vertical Magnetic Intensities ; by Prof. W. A. Norron, “+ 330 XXX. On the Analogy between the mode of Reprodactibiy tin in Plants and the “ Alternation of Generations” observed in some Radiata; by James D. Dana, ., = - 341 XXXI. On Becta: a see as a Moving. Power: by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace, <=, 4 ; XXXII. Singular asi ‘nd extraordinagh size Sena ioaih of the Secondary Spark ; by Prof. Caas. G. Pacz, M,D., - 349 » XXXII. On Rutile and Chlorite in — : oy Professor 0. P. ; = Husgarp, M.D.,. - - 350 s XXXIV, Oatllixedes. of Crystallized Oxyd of Cheocitnie in fur- | , . or the manufacture of Chromate of Potash ; a “4 . P.- Braxn, 2°* 352 . @ er Memoir on Emery ; + J. Evens Sicerie M. p= * “et First part—On 1 the Geology and Meeey of aA from Bee wee observatigns: made in Asia Minor, - . On American Spodumene ; by Gxoi J. Bevsn, - aA ea pa _ XXXVI Optical Examination of several : Ame Micas ; y. j B. Sittiman, Jr., A.M., M.D., &c.,_ - 372 . >» XXXVIIL mes of ease from St Lawsenee Counts, a . Y.5 by W 383 Fiteacts front the Piickediis of the Twentieth Meeting of the Brit. sh Association. tion, iation, held. at Edinburgh, July, 1850 :-— On Atlantic Waves: their Magnitude, Velocity, and Phenomena, by Dr. Scoressy, > 386.—On. Metallic Reflection, by Prof. G. G. Stoxes, 391.—On a Fictitious ___. Displacement of Fringés of Interference ; by Prof. G. G. Sroxrs : On the Re- . stive Indices of several Substances, by the Rev . Prof. Powe, 392.—On the Hemisphere, by Mr. 'T. Hopkins, 397.—On the Argument for the Physical nection of Double = — from the Theory of Probabilities, by ; —On Cometary Physics, by Prof. Sayru, 399.—On a new i rage Ps eitalline Lens, by Sir D. Brewster: On some Phe- Viii ' CONTENTS. nomena of the Polarization of the Atmosphere, by Sir D. Brewster, 400.—O1 r. C present State of our Pmsgees of the Chemical Action of the purifying agents, by Dr. pores: 409.—On the Air and Water in ws and the action of Porous Strata on Water and Organic Matter, by Dr. R Surrx, 411.—On the Pronto: of Phosphoric Acid in some Natural iy by Prof. VoELcKER, 412.:—The Phosphorescence of Potassium; by Mr. W. Petriz: On the presence of Fluorine in Blood and Milk, by Dr. G. ivi 413.—Another New Planet: Supposed Staurotide of Norwich, Mass.: General Index: Errata, 414. General Index of Vols. I—X, Second Series, 415. _ APPENDIX. ‘cet on Prof. Page’s Electro-magnetic Engine; by Professor Ware. TER R. Jonnson, 473. : ERRATA. © 39, line 13 from bottom, for “‘ Joun Cisate. MD read: lous Gor aD.” myo. ix, Pp- ts, ring line from bottom; for™* B csrgecn read “ carburets. # “» 4 - 7 zinc,” read “ lime,” “6 «339° 3d. - read we, "aad at top of next pages for 3: 2,7 aa 2: 1, and for - oneal Hin 8 Ai ea sam Vol. ix, p. 422, 5th line from top, for * volume,” toed “4 he aang at. 409, oe fine from top, apr. eae 72 and fies eS ae or ¢ oxene,” ‘pyr Vo. x, p- 138, and Secick, for Souyet, read Louyet. . i | ae Published the first day of every second month, price 85 fer year. os go i z ae on, * _ SCIENCE AND ARTS. (| . 2 S CONDUCTED BY ede eens es sh Ss pessors B. SILLIMAN ann B. SILLIMAN, Jn., AND me JAMES D. DANA. ' ~No. 28.—JULY, 1850. fe * +> January, 1846, is p + illustrated by ay ey = _ Boston, Mass, + = ae to be, on ceoies also in other Journals, “@, 8t once designate what-we want, if any, and the price in cash whic n pay - cage Taz AMERICc lished .on November, of aa ears in” Nos. ‘of 152. Engravin Albany, N. Y, Lirtret & C mw. C.C. Lirtneand2? WN _ Hectfnde ton la ‘onn., Germany, pian - Loui. ak e Middlet R. Moreis. McM of Mongomery, Alabama, i is our General Srvaliag Agent for = ed by 8. B. Brert. = Israrw E. Janeen. sie ‘Saath Tenth —% yee ope “ our General Trav- elling Sg es for the S rs K. Wutpr “ei Ww. H. p, O, H. P. Stem, Joun Couns, Jases ee z ne Weuuixaro%, CHARLES S. ‘Hau = A. Evans, James Cia Mr. C. W. James, No. go naa street, Se ee an i Agent ae st behing? States, assisted. b y Baw ERRIN Locke, - Ramsa fueron ‘hoa se of the above will be TQ CORRESPONDENTS. y original communication, published in this Jouinal are if reqnest-— ed att the di wt 8 of the author. Any larger number of copies will be furnished at cost. Authors should always specify at the head of their MSS. the i of extra copies they may wish to have printed ; it is too late after the forms are broken up. who will” forward all works of which notice may be desired in this ae It is nfs desired that” ] persons who may have works in progress, will, send a netite of them, that t he inserted among the accounts of new publications. a pt * a2 * Persons having old numbers to sell, will please aa us a list. of = ra anc Current numbers of Second Series wijl in some exis be gi = in cxchange for | bers “ either Series. April, 1849. iat SCIENCE AND: ARTS. = i “sncoxn : SERIES. 1, . cal Shs on the Chipnrn | Cerheie a part of Iowa, made in the ) *. er the direction of D. 1). Owen, M.D., it for Wisconsin and Iowa. iia os : » aided by Dr. J. G. itheeg as Assistant Geol- , and by the poe gentlemen who conducted the opera- of the-stib-corps: Dr. A. Litton, Dr. B. F. Shumard, Mr. -, Mr..John Evans and Mr. A. Randall. the present number to give a further brief re- setting forth the general and most important dose’ nof 1847, ina portion of aus lying t of the Opie Mississippi above Lake Pepin, and ex- * ‘ Lake Superior. "There was, however, also in-_ ion. of Iowa, oot north from the norte pet No. sae x 1 a “Geological Raitt the Chippewa Lond District * boundary of the gpological survey of 1839, as far as. : the: St. Pe: _, ° « ter’s river; and also a tract of country north of the. Wisconsin i Pe Tivers The pring streams which water it are Black pret pe e & ie ier i) 4! Qu 77) DM oe =| = ie) > ° =, - og @ Q ae Me — 4 te) 2 S jor Se 1A or “g oO La 2 m2) 2 ere. Bo oe a oO Pg part of the country bordering on the I a -~ 2. the chief part of the Winnebago reserve, the half = a strip of the Sioux country west of, and adjacent ta, the oem sippl, and reaching north to the St.- Peter t lies between 43° and 47° north sare and hit tween 89° and 94° of longitude west of Greenwich, pad mbraces. goat a forty-six thousand square miles of surface.” — ; * In addition to the general reconnoissance wade of the Shave Te- _ gion of country, a detailed survey was made of about thirty town- ships, west of the 4th P. M. on Black river’ in latitude 44° 30%, and about sixty townships on the St. Croix river in latitude 45°. _ other gentlemen of the corps at the most important points ote th Mississippi, and six on the St. Croix arranged in such a as to form a diagram of comparative heights, not only of the’ outline of the country, but also of the principal members of prevailing geological formations. One continuous section exte nds © from the mouth of the Wisconsin, where the survey of 1839 ter- minated, to the Falls of St. A nthon ny; one from the Mississippi . to the Falls of the St. Fie se one from the mouth of the St. © Croix to the Falls of St.sAnthony on a more extended scale than that appended to the general Mississippi section; one from Lake — Superior to Portage Lake ; one from the head waters of Wiston- sin river to the Dalles of that river; one from Lake Superior to the Falls of the St. Louis river ; one from Lake Superior along ‘the 4th P. M. to Black river, and thence to the Mississippi; one ites. Croix. Also a particular section at the Falls of St. Anthony. - Diagrams of summit levels show the relative elevation of ground protwecn the Mississippi and Lake Superior in three different di- » Beearal of the above sections are so contrived with ladecape back ground, as to present not sat the natural exposure of eee - but also the general outline and appearance of “Eee untry se , ei which the sections run, = ‘The report i is also, ioanied by a pravisional geological chart ~.. showing the. approximate boundaries of formatio lons; and b The ‘ology pf the district is described under the following ad es ‘Kaliskions of the Upper Mississippi. * OBE ‘Formations: of Red Cedar river and the eae reserve. “wiper to: Jeatding results. “Tee appears that the Upper Mississippi country north of the Wis. consin Tiver’to within a short distance of the mouth of the St. - Peter’s, ‘is based on the magnesian limestones and sandstones older han: the lowest of the formations of the valley of the Ohio; a and Potsdam sandstone of the New York survey. = The: portion of the report relating to these formations, which’ “ ‘read with peculiar interest, is that which relates to the fos- © siliferous beds of these formations, since hitherto they have ae” oe regarded as almost barren of organic r ’ The results of this survey seem to mast that it is to this por- j a tion of the United States ae we must look to throw most light ; on the earliest organic form this subject we find on | page 14 the following he a *, ei we except the white sandstone the terminating mass of F’. Mveak: - : eo ae ~ - charged with the same genera of shells, but of different species. 4 * ig nt Se y ey , é ~ : S- . Geological Report on the Chippe 1 Ping District ‘ “ On the brink of the gorge, near Fort: Suelfing: no “fhiviatile: i remains have been yet found at a height where the. waters may “be supposed to have flowed in former times; but Dr. Shumard; - _ who was instructed to collect evidence of any ancient river. de- posits at a higher level, observed over the limestone at the he falls. a bed of drift of about eleven feet in thickness sting on. that, a bed of sand containing species of Cyclas, ‘Limnea, Physa and "Planorbis, and this deposit he traced on to the same: ‘level, for -nearky ~ a mile below the present position of the falls. h e gentleman also observed, half a mile below the falls, and rte a quarter of a mile east of the gorge, -on--rising ground over which runs the trail to St. Paul’s, a white marl ’ tance at least above the gorge; the latter seems to be a lacustrine deposit, the bottom of some drained lake, of which vege are nu- — merous instances in the Chippewa land district. “If we except these beds and the underlying drift, no forma- ~ - tions of more recent date than the shell limestones of St. Pete r’s were observed along the Mississippi from the Wisconsin river to the Falls of St. Anthony. This statement will apply also to the country east of the Mississippi, as far as the water-shed between _ that stream and Lake Superior, Highs along the valley of the St. Croix above the falls.”—pp. 31, The 2d Chapter contains a description of the geological fotenae: fens of the Winnebago Reserve, a tract of country in Iowa lying between lat. 43° and 43° 30’, extending on the west side of the Mississippi as far as long. 93° 30’ Until the autumn of 1848 the Winnebago Indians occupied this neutral gaat between the white settlements and the Sank and Foxes; when the former ~ tribe igs removed to the T'wo River country eve the Sank Rapi o The principal streams which water the Winnebago Reserve are: Turkey, Upper Iowa, and Red Cedar. It was along one might be tempted to attribute to them an artificial origin. 4 + The lower. strata are more schistose, being chiefly marlites with ‘alternations of calcareous layers. e€ most conspicuous fossils are: Leptena Madisoniensis, L. sericea, L. alternata, Orthis .. formosa, Pleurotomaria bilex, and Isotelus megistos. Others less *. abundant, are: Alrypa capaz, A. exigua, Spirifer lynx, Trochus | ee Lage Several trilobites probably of undescribed species allied to the rock exposure near the confluence of that stream with the Mississippi. — '. There are many fine examples on this river of those remarka- ble castellated forms which the lower as well as upper magnesian _. limestone often assumes. Several sketches illustrating the fea- tures of the country, accompany the report. _On the Upper Iowa, about longitude 91° 50’, the following fos- sils were found in the lower 150 feet of rock: Leptena sericea, tena rugosa, L. Madisoniensis, L. deltoidea, L. alternata, Pleurotomaria lenticularis, Cyathophyllum ceratites, Coscinopora suleata, Bellerophon bilobatus, Isotelus megistos, Orthis testudi- naria ? O. formosa, Illenus crassicauda, Murchisonia belli- - etnctu, M. subfusiformis, Atrypa capax, Orthis subequata, Atrypa hemiplicata, Orbitulites? reticulatus ? ? In this part of the Reserve the formation is evidently of the ‘Same age as that near the Agency on Turkey river, which lies eee wranty miles to the south. Both appear to represent the Hong the Red Cedar river we extract the following : iF “On Red Cedar there is a change in the geological formation — fthe country. Either this is the western limit of the formations - of Upper Iowa and Turkey rivers, or else the southwest dip car- lies the formations before reaching the Red Cedar beneath the _ water courses; for on crossing the Red Cedar, the first ledges that — under my observation, only a few hundred yards to the of it, were found to be charged with the large variety of prisca and a Spirifer, very abundant in the shell beds of — the Ohio, and allied to the S. ostiolata of the Devo- mies, Vol. X, No. 28.—July, 1850, 2 igi i Geological Padi on the éhibpis Land Disiriet nian system of the Hifel, if not identical with it. Hinds strata appear to be the equivalent of the rocks described in my report of 1839, as occurring lower down on the same stream in the Du-. | buque district, so that the line of bearing between these two form- - ations, Silurian and Devonian, seems to run nearly: Barallel. with: that stream a “The Red Cedar limestone pies up its west ivnch as far as. 3 I penetrated, i.e., to near the north line of the Winnebago’ Re- | serve ; it also stretches away si “the west as far as the limits-of » my observations, viz.: to Willow river. On Shell Rock, the east branch of Otter, I found i in it, besides Atrypa prisca, casts of — Lucina proavia, and an undetermined species of Leptena. But. the fossil which is most abundant, and most universally distribu- ted through the rocks of this western portion of t inne ebago Reserve, is a very fine structured coral, composed of concentric layers, like the genus Stromatopora, but so close together that aS Jong . eae strata are so full of this close grained coral that it might with. propriety be called a coralloid limestone. ‘ee * ** Some of the beds of this formation consist of very close tex- tured and smooth calcareous beds, like the lithographic limestones, splitting with a flat conchoidal fracture. In it I did not observe any fossils; but I had not many Ducat nia of examining ex- posures either of it, or, indeed, of any of the other members of the formation in question, along the line of my route. The geol-— | ogist who undertakes to investigate the vast prairie countries of the Mississippi valley must be provided with no common share of © patience aud perseverafice. He must be content to travel for. ~. half a day together without seeing aught but a rich black soil, covered, as far as the eye can reach, even down to the very edge of the small streams, with a thick and high growth of prairie grass, with, perhaps, a faint outline of timber cutting the distant - horizon. He must be prepared to wade swamps, to ‘ford streams waist deep, or, in times of freshets, to plunge in and breast the . current. He must not shrink beneath a broiling sun, without —~ * even a bush to cast a faint shadow over an occasional resting place. __ He must think himself fortunate, if he can reach, at night, afew _ “scattered oaks to plenish his fire, and boil his camp-kettle ; and" — the may consider it a special inieenes of good luck, if, in return, he can catch a glimpse of a rock exposure once or twice a day. . He may travel for days together without lighting on any object » more interesting than the hillock of the prairie dog, or the broad lair of the bison.”—pp. 36, 37 _._ The western portion of the Reserve is said to present no indi- = | _ ¢ation of being a mineral country. Some portions of the ey river — Upper Iowa country afford a ~ lead ore. eee ee . ees a “we Bape . . 5 ee a. x es ~~ of Wisconsin and part of Iowa.’ ee 11 ices The third — of the report is devoted toa description of -» © the formations of the interior . the Chippewa Land District. In ie our notice of it we must be brief. we: The protozoie strata which en been described as forming the . Seetions on the ississippi, extend on the east’side of the Missis- sippt for an average distance in a direct line into the interior of fifty _ to seventy-five miles; that is, to the falls of the principal eastern tributaries of that river. Here the crystalline rocks first appear above the water courses forming low falls and rapids. ‘These igne- ous ranges do not rise abruptly in this part of the United States into _ elevated mouutains; on the contrary they are seldom seen except in the immediate cuts of the streams, being covered for the most — + part with drift. The character of the country generally towards = ~_ the summit Jevels leading to Lake Superior, is a succession of terracés of moderate elevation, chiefly composed of drift, often having a nucleus no doubt of granite, syenite or hornblende rocks ; but. these: protrude only occasionally. At intervals the stre reams are ruffled into rapids, being filled with boulders which obstruct materially their navigation. A portion of these boulders may have been transported from great distances; the greater part how- €ver appear to be not far removed from the e parent rock. __ It is matter of surprise that so large an area of the interior of ° this district, and indeed of the sources ; of the Mississippi generally, should be level tamarack and cedar swamps, since in approaching & great water shed that gives rise to one of the largest rivers in the world, one is led to ere a country with physical features ' of quite a different characte ' _ Interposed between the susie and igneous rocks of the __. Interior of the district and the lowest sadstones, some green and -- red schistose beds have been observed at different localities. hese appear to have been derived from the decomposition and detritus of the more easily decomposing felspathic granites. The lower beds of sandstone adjacent to the igneous outburst, - are not unfrequently changed to a hard quartzite. The red pipe- stone so highly prized by the northern tribes of Indians, is found a also near the junctions of these formations, associated with rtzite. y ne tose ay. : a. te other. Over a large portion of this area the solid rocky beds. are covered by comparatively recent deposits of drift sand, ted ee aeé AQ , Rutilated Quartz Crystals from Vermont, - . oe duced by pees of the surface during the more recent, Pee riods of u At various points along the range By outburst of. he igneous- rocks, mineral veins have been observ The examinations had — not been sufficiently minute to prononnes on i productiveness, The hypogene rocks observe this region of country are: granites, iekiies "hed greenstone, and various kinds of t T rap. he highest ridges of the south shore of Lake Superior, situ- ae ated in the Chippewa Land District, are represented as formed os hornblende rocks, ae ee slates, syenite and trap. ‘These are estimated to be over a thousand feet above the lake, a ane: situated from ten to sixteen miles from its shore. ° 0 organic remains had so far been fourid-in the. format ions.of © Lake Superior by which to establish their age. Neither had any’. localities been discovered, where beds of known geological posi- tion might solve the question by indicating the relative. order ty) superposition The principal mass of sandstone — the oauaiti shiore - and west end of Lake Superior in nsin, appears to have a * different lithological character from ie "enridutile beneath the lower magnesian = on the pega described in the Ist. chapter of the report. So far as this ev on, it militates Saini the supposition of ‘their geological par- allelism On the west side of the Mississippi, north of the Winnebago Reserve, as far as the St. Peter’s river, the lower magnesian lime- stone and pail ete -_ prevail as far as the examina- tions had exten 1. Ory out half a degree of longitude, . The former of tiBee ale occupies the greatest area. Arr. I1.—On Rutilated Quartz Crystals from igi,” and Phenomena connected with them; by Francis ALGER Member of the American Academy, and of the Society ‘of Nat. ural History, Boston. in Cambridge, in August, 1849 =’ ay the Proceedings . the American Association for the Advancement of Science, eld i ) Mr. Atcer presented a paper on the quartz crystals from Wa- _terbury, Vermont, containing acicular or capillary Rutile, and ex- ited illustrative specimens of great perfection and beauty. ‘He . compared them with other specimens from the Alps and Brazil, and pointed out some important phenomena in which they dif- ab endic rocks, : et Ms . eS . eo =i Ber i ee rea ee ae. ‘ al. - : + “they: tied even been picked up in New Hampshire ; but their ge- ological eg or the character of the rock from which they originated, h d not been well understood until recently. Mr. Al- ger had ately visited a remarkable locality of this mineral, where a true vein, two feet or more in width, had been brought to light _.. in making a deép cut through a hill in Waterbury, on the line of . the Vermont eral Railroad. ‘The rock is a very tenacious tal- _, cose slate, sometimes passing into mica slate, and prevails to a eg ‘stent snout in this part of Vermont. Metalliferous veins are ).). Tarely, contained in it, ak veins of quartz are common. he vein here referred to, consisted principally of common amorphous quartz, presenting internal cavities or druses, lined or studded Se with. projecting’ prismatic crystals, sometimes colorless and trans- _ parerit, hut more frequently of a smoky color, or brownish yellow . tint, (Cairngorm m.) he pure glassy white crystals, are but rarely penetrated by the acicular rutile, while the colored varieties abound ‘with it, and seem in fact to owe the intensity of their color to the very prevalence of it through their substance. ‘The rutile is sometimes grouped i in tufts of radiating — proceeding from a common point, rats shooting through the qua this being also the ordinary manner of its occurrence in the Bra. zilian specimens. ‘The direction of many of these diffused crys- tals in the position cate now occupy, would seem to show that they esi been subjected to some airless or P sped inmate, by a eee Bie se Pee Ownwards in the cavity of the vein at the time of their forma- tion; and thus the rutile, from its greater specific gravity, would Rae have a tendency to crystallize and extend itself downwards, rather in any other direction. Mr. Alger could not state from * Rutilated Quartz - Crystals Srom Vermont. 13 - a = observation at the locality, whether such was the fact.* * The- ‘appearance referred to is most marked in those crystals in Fe a rt aa ii * That mineral veins may owe their origin in many cases to ) electrical or electro- _ chemical muical agencies, has been wg Mat ce oem of Fox, Beequer : who by ingenious contrivances imitat ing thee » epend trp ch w ouand toe exist Bab in nature, have produced precisely similar results, even the Savaativn of various ies; but the gbiect has n with that direct application e of crystals, in their para repositories, as en sai ) with regard to Pe position of —. , especially in granite and allied rocks, may prove that the i tant circulation rig the earth have been yori agents in in which the ax she Sar lie, and the ¢ of cleay- , second eile aoe Ye i Te. ? € A . 14 Rutilated Quartz Ciysiats fiom Vermont. which the rutile exists in the most delicate baled “atid a nbpdle. shaped forms, ( Venus hairstone ;) and, in some instances, thesé — delicate prisms are bent towards the ends most.remote from the’ apex of the quartz crystals. They are sometimes-four inches. in — length.* By transmitted light, their color is teddish brown ;. lus- tre like that of polished copper. Some few of- the needles are entirely black, and closely resemble schorl. It was the opinion: _ of Mr. Kennedy, a scientific engineer, and a very close observer, who was present at the opening of the vein, that the crystals.of quartz enclosing rutile, were confined to one side only of the vein, thus indicating two periods in its formation, in one of which aa no rutile was present to intererystallize with the mass. All the rezently obtained crystals are very much discolored by iron rust, and the vein appears to be “run out.” But its loss wit undoubt- A edly be soon supplied by other source Prof. Hubbard, of Daanats College, in whine: possession is 2 the finest specimen of this mineral found in the United States, first noticed a must interesting fact in regard to these i § ti namely, that the needles of rutile i in some cases, had s m: ’ pletely through the quartz crystals, and stood out in relict acta their surfaces, as if protruded by the sudden effort of their crys- tallization. ‘The same appearances were presented to a small extent, by one of Mr. Alger’s specimens. If produced in the manner supposed, the quartz must have been in a liquid state; if not produced in that manner, the crystallization of the rutile must have continued after that of the quartz had ceased. he latter e most reasonable supposition, and is favored by analo- gous anaes in other crystallized minerals. Imitative forms of mica contained in the Quariz.—The sur-. faces of two of the large crystals exhibited by Mr. Alger, as well - as several smaller fragments of crystals, were covered by mung but very brilliant scales of gold-colored mica; and t som times penetrated the quartz iu company with the rutile, pie in the same manner, seemed confined mostly to the darkest ‘colored va- rieties of the quartz. But the appearance presented by this mica, is curious and altogether unique, for in the substance of the crystals, it has assumed the most fantastic forms, appearing in tortuous and vermicular ramifications, some of them bearing such a strik- 4 ing resemblance to organized bodies, as to give the first impres- - sion that they are actually the remains of insects or worms. The of them, fn found wh to be ¢ omposed eutirely of small plates of mica more or less closely united parallel with the one _* The polished g-gn in isan these prisms are re exhibited (known jewelry sei tae “raga nears rarely surpassed in n foreign co f , ma eal Pe ee,” iat sis rt st bi So irs “gga! + 16 “Rutilated ncaa Cr s Stale ‘atin Vermont. , planes of the mineral. In fact, they are cantata ecaginal a crystals of mica, twisted or distorted into every imaginable shape.” ” heir laminated micaceous structure is shown perfectly by the. — microscope, and is represented by the transverse‘liniés in ‘the fig- ures. The resemblance of the third figure on the fourth row, to some species of Araneides, is not too remote to suggest them in- stantly to the mind; and the general resemblance of several of the figures to the blood leech and commo n worms is still more ~ striking—these being produced by the successively diminishing: diameters of the little plates of mica until they terminate nearly — ina point. But the origin of these resemblances was evidently’ organic matter. They are interesting principally as furnishing a new fact in the department of imitative mineralogy, and they a propriately suggest the term vermiform mica as most characteristic _ of their general appearance. Vermiform should therefore be inclu- ‘ad among the imitative shapes assumed by mineyals. The strik- ing resemblance between several of these figures and the worm- like projections thrown out by the separating folia of perrntle when exposed to a red heat, will occur to every one who has experimented on the mineral. The following examples of them were obtained by heating a fragment of the pure mineral broken % from a specimen lately analyzed in si uk s Laboratory. They are of natural s The straight lines seen passing tidal several of these figures, are intended to show the needles of rutile that actually intersect these concretions of mica in the body of the stone. In some of them the rutile passes through the circular space left by the fold- ing over of the mica, and its crystallization does not seem to be interrupted by the mica in any case. A characteristic feature of rutile, but never shown in any of the specimens from this locality, (i. e., the geniculated forms,) seems to be imitated by the mica, and is best shown by the second figure in the lower row.* The color of this mica by transmitted light, is a pale green, and the mineral seems to agree in external characters with the substance from other localities. Considerable quantity of it — was found loose in the vein, mixed with broken crystals of rutile.t The only appearances at all analogous to those just described, * Prof. Hubbard’s za | sige bse eee in so marked a manner, as to lead to the impression hey were ru + A portion . ne: car fly se parted was found to lose nearly 15 per cent. of water when heated to the melting point of glass, A peculiar empyreumatic odo was at the same lows piv - but there was no reaction of fluorine. Ex a pets Lo to a white heat‘for twenty minute ; it became grayish sed into a state it was slig! magnetic Laake sia of “a ms to ally it with pe . a with hydro-mica from the fe ter see Alps— Wasserglimmer of M. Morin ;—while its crystalline form, an oblique rh gs apo ose ded figure by the ‘ecallan oF its acute lateral ei mee » Rutilated Quartz Crystals from Vermont: _ ca _which had ¢ come: to the knowledge of Mr. Alger, were those men- “tioned and figured by Dr. McCulloch, and described in vol. ii, " 4 of the Geo ological Transactions of London. But in this case, the ¥ substance. was chalcedony, 3. as and. the imbedded masses which. appear on the acumi- STRIATED QUARTZ CRYSTALS. ‘nating planes of the crystals, and are parallel with their edges of combination with the adjoining planes, as shown in the figure be- low. They are usually mere superficial ee lines so slightly impressed as to be visible only when held in a par rticular position in regard to the light ; but in a few cases, these configurations, com- “mencing at a small point before the — had attained its full size, continue to widen with ev- crystal, until they produce cav- ities of considerable depth. That they were formed in this man- ner, is indicated by shi step-like 5 appearance of the sides of these appeared. No substance having such form, has been found at- tached to any of the crystals from this place, and although the angles at which the sides meet each other, (about 7 72° and 108°, )* are nearly those of calc spar, or carbonate of iron, it is evident from the enlargement of the cavity towards the surface of the crystal, or the hopper-like appearance“assumed by it, that neither mage These angles were incorrectly a in the published — of the Amer- = its Association. ey have now — sbtalbed: by measuring the casts taken from = cavity, instead of the cavit y itse Szcoxp Sznies, Vol. X, No. 28 = 1850. 3 ’ anne ttn as 2 % ve hie ea ae 18: Rutilated Quartz Cry wisill from ¥ Vermont. of these substances could have produced it. The. ssi while ‘ied p Pee | spn itself around either of them, would have taken the ex-° - ct form of either, precisely.as we see such impress of their forms. in bi crystals of subsequent formation, as for exariple, in the quartz crystals from Herkimer, New York. So it is.evident, that if any substance ever occupied the cavity, it must have received its form from the cavity, without communicating any to pi and — thus a anne tag crystal may have been produced in a man-' ner somewhat different from usual: viz., by filling up a pera, 4 which had never been occupied by any crystallized substance, — ‘ whatever. Should such pseudo-crystals of infiltration or deposition, S be met with in similar cavities of the quartz from this locality, it will become an interesting enquiry to determine whether they have the same composition, or are various depending upon acci dental circumstances. If the view here taken of them be correct, they cannot come under the desieciallia of any of the pseudo- morphs hitherto described, (as they do not eo the form of any other crystal which has disappeared,) and we must accept such explanation of them as is afforded by be quartz itself. It is not easy to trace in these cavities, as it is in those before spo- ken of, any certain relation between them and the crystalline structure of the quartz whose surfaces they impress; their sides are not parallel with any of the striz as seen upon the faces of the crystals; they indicate an interruption in the process of crys- tallization, and we have only to. suppose a successive retrocession or withdrawal of particles in such parallel directions, thus enlarg- ing the cavity outwardly, as the crystal itself inereased in size. They do not appear to have been produced by the irregular com- bination of two or more crystals or by the union of different crystalline planes leaving spaces between them, because the stria- tions which mark the faces of the crystal, and which have been intercepted by the eavity, appear opposite to each other on both sides of the cavity. This is shown by the figure. It therefore appears to belong to one crystal. The cavity intended to be rep- resented by the large figure measures one inch on a side, an half an inch in depth; the striations at bottom are parallel with those upon the face of the crystal. It is more accurately shown by the following drawings taken from a cast of it in wax, which presents it in opposite positions.* The crystal itself, has a rhom- 5. . " * The deep bevelment on the broadest surface of these casts, (not shown in n the euts,) gives the true angle at which the plane r of the erystal sat an? ee Sy a ge ee ‘ * ae. ie * Pn ee 1 om Eo = pare es Bop ¥ S asiminaiion of K ——e Analogy. 19 bs | Sa boidal stine on each of the adjacent lateral angles of the prism, and not as is‘usual, on the alternate angles. It is permeated in ever part: by. acicular: rutile. ‘This rutile, in one or two instances, has % shot through:similar cavities in other crystals, its delicate hair-like needles remaining unbroken while their opposite extremities are deeply imbedded in the quartz. In one of these cavities the depth _Is more than twice that of the transverse diameter, but the same ___, Step-like succession of layers is observed as in the large one, di- i. minishing i in their descending order, until they nearly ri ina point towards the centre “of the crystal. Compared with t ‘large cavity, there is greater evenness of outline in these little Hidgee ws a nearer approach to parallelism between them. ie, a of Kirkwood’s Analogy; by Sears C. Wak (From the Proceedings of the American oe 2nd meeting, held at Cambridge, 1849, p. 212.) In order that Kirkwood’s Analogy should apply to all the plan- ets of the Solar System, including the interpolated planet between ts and Jupiter, four fundamental conditions must prevail for each planet considered as the middle of a consecutive series of five; namely: __ (a,+6,)e,+(a’—b')e’ Ry c+ I. ......m=[(a —a,—),)c,]? Til. .....m=[(a/—a —b’)c’]? 2 2 SES 6=—.* Where G,, @,, a, a’, a’ =the five mean distances of*the pla m=the mass in parts of the sun’s a aia accente T’=the sidereal year, in amet mean solar days. oe 6=the sidereal rotation in the es k=Gauss’s ssenclation constant: "from Kepler’s third x=a similar rotation constant from Kirkwood’s hatogy-. r,=the inner radius pe = sphere of attraction for the third plan r’ =the outer radius of the sphere of attraction for the third plan r,,=the outer radius of the sphere of attraction fai =the inner radius of on sphere of attraction for the fourth planet. = 99 Ritiieebictian of Kirkwood’s Analogy. D=r,+r'= Kirkwood’s diameter of ape third planets sphere of attraction. e—e= From these definitions the value of D is thus derived: _ r,,7 r,? m wl m pia” pll2 1,=a—-a,-T7, 7’ =a'—a-—r' m mM, r,? (a—a,—7T,) m m/ r/2 (a’—a-?r’) r,f/ m,=(4a —a,—T7,)f/m rf m'=(a’—a-— r’)/m ravm( See) /M+-/mM, ~@ is «(Geral D=(r,+r’) a—a, a’-a — "(Fmt Vm, + Taree -(3) Gi)"* aa , »— (=) (5) id oo Secs) | va (%)! (Lever ee) | PR Aan! , b, & as vam, (Tapia) YE Gare ra) oes. . fm +4/m=(al — a)c’ Be ye mf (a! be]? ee (a, +b,)c,+(a’ — b’)c oe a tS s ; Computation of the Value of the Constant called x. “If we use Leverrier’s* mean distances and masses in his theory of Mercury, with the exception of Adams’st value 355 for the ; mass of Uranns, and Hansen’s{ periods of rotation, we find by | condition (IV.) the following values of Qn 3 = a? - ' . Namely: * =15.179 by Venus. =14.811 by Earth. A =15.593 by Saturn. Whence, with double weight for Saturn: * =15.300= mean value adopted. x“ F If we form another constant k’= = we find By Venus, k’ = 1.9377 Earth, =1.9054 Saturn, =1.9772 _ From which it appears that an approximate value for the rota- tion times might be obtained from tole a 1=(55) But the other formula is preferable ; and we have 0 2x 2 2 3 1 3 ae ike 765" With this value of «, using the data above mentioned, interpo- ing the a, m, and 9 of the fifth or hypothetical planet, called Kirkwood, and three masses, viz. : of Mercury, Mars, and Uranus, the following normal elements of the primary system are obtain- ed, in which all of the above four fundamental conditions are fulfilled for each middle planet of five. For Neptune, Mr. W. had his own value of the mean distance, and Prof. Peirce’s mass from Bond’s measures of the elongation of the satellite. : The interpolated values are enclosed in parentheses. Saige || eR 3 * Additions 4 la Connoissance des Temps, 1848, 17-26. i Proceedings R. A. Soc., vol. ix, pp. 159, 160. Schumacher’s Jahrbuch, 1837 -°.. Eltamination of Kirkwood’s Analogy. 21° ae | Table of Planetary Elements, conforming rigorously with Kirkwood Hialigy. _ iteanithetion of Kirkwood’s Analegy. Planet. Ment diatanaes |. ef eee Sire reraie|D yer logy sun’s mass, mean solar days.) attraction. ¢ | he is Se? OR AR Mereury* 0.387.099 ( cance] 1.003.478 | (0.198.122)) 4 Venus pe ens 0.723.333 aie rr 0.972.917 | 0.377.908 Earth + + | 1.000.000 | , sea55g | 0997-270 0.513.934 : Mow oe S's 1.523.691 (siaraua) 1.025.986 | 0.768.429. Kirkwood (2.908.511)| (595) (2.406.104), (0.830.951) Jpiler . << sv 5 5.202.800 = 0.385.907 | 5.035.373 ae 9.598.852 | srry | 0.487.003 8.497.477 Uranus. ..... 19.182.730 (aaa (1.896.779), (7.875.342) Neptune. .... 30.039.500 ae An interpolated lanet with a mean distance a=0.20 and a mass of the above soil harmonize wit e system. Teas + This interpolated mass of Mercury compares with — thus :-— Encke's value, . «© + « »/s + And for Mars: Burckhardt’s mass, . . . . = Walker's interpolated do, ‘ § And for Uranus: BORE Ss HEM eg ke Walker's interpolated mass, ienonen mae Leverrier’s first mass,. . Walker's interpolated mass, . Leverrier’s second mass, . . . 1 wi 700 : amen 1 1 3.000.000 1 4.865.771 ve an 637 =a ee 7 EA “ss, Examination of Kirkwood’s Analogy. = “e a : oe _ Conclusions from the above table. - From. this comparison of authorities, it appears that with a constant value of «= 15.300,t and with assumed masses of Mer- _-eury, Mars, and Uranus, equally plausible with those heretofore _ employed, the a, m, and 9, of the fifth or hypothetical planet a,’ may be thus interpolated : tages . *a=2.908.611 1 a * | gel Sia Vn dee: 240 Meg ret 6= 2.239.035 ) _ And then the system of nine values of a, m, and 0, will be ‘Normal with reference to Kirkwood’s analogy, and each of the _ four fandamental conditions (I.) (II.) (III.) and (IV.) will be rig- - orously fulfilled for every middle planet of five. Mr. Kirkwood had remarked in his letter,t that his analogy required the assumption of a fifth planet between Mars and Jupi- ter. If the Geological Section was allowed the privilege of re- storing fishes, lizards, and elephants, there was no reason why the Physical Section should not be permitted to restore a planet. Remarks on the Degree of Constancy of «. ‘The limits within which it is possible to vary the value of ~, without making some of the interpolated elements inadmissible, are about one-twentieth of the adopted mean value of 15.300. We may therefore conclude that, wHeTHER Kirkwoop’s ANALOGY THAT OF A PHYSICAL FACT IN THE MECHANISM OF THE UNIVERSE. The quantity D, on which the analogy is based, has such imme- diate dependence upon the nebular hypothesis, that it lends Strength to the latter, and gives new plausibility to the presump- tion that this, also, is a fact in the past history of the solar system. uch, then, is the present state of the question. Thirty-six elements of nine planets, (four being hypothetical, ) appear to har- Mouize with Kirkwood’s analogy in all the four fundamental equations of condition for each planet. ‘lo suppose that so many independent variable quantities should harmonize together by accident, is a more strained construction of the premises than the frank admission that they follow a law of nature. , light on the internal organization of the planets, in their present, in any more primitive state, through which they may have * The mean di i that of the asteroids, except Hygeia, whi i a=8.18, anes is greater than of the asteroids, except Hygeia, which t This Journal [2], ix, 395. - 24 - Examination of Kirkwood’s Analogy. + For instance, we may compute the distance p; from the cone at which any planet must have received its projectile force, in order to produce at the same time its double movement of trans- — lation and rotation. Now let v= the planet’s preseht angular rotatory velocity. The en, K=pmv, will be a-constant quane denoting its momentum of rotation. If the planet, in a more primitive _ existed i in the form obs: a ring revolving round the sun, having its present orbit for that of the centre of gravity of the ring, the momentum K of rota- ae must, by virtue of pen principle " — of move- ent, have existed in so orm in the . It is easy to per- send that this crapeanea °K: is precisely ihe amount which must be distributed among the particles of the ring, in order to preserve to all the condition of dynamical equilibrium, while those of each generating surface of the ring were wheeling round with the same angular velocity. It is also clear that this mean angu- lar velocity must be that of the primary planet in its orbit, and accenting the quantities p and v for the case of the ring, we ‘have the equations, =pmv=p' mv’ ee 7. Fes ee p=7-D -p But on the hypothesis that the law of decrease of density from — centre to surface in the primitive shape was the same as at present, Let r= the present radius of the planet; A= that of the generating figure of the primitive ring; Then, ee: P r x 3 And, R=;.D*.r The value of R from this formula, comes out a very small fraction of D for the small planets, and near! y equal to D in the j case of Jupiter, Uranus, and Saturn. If any inference can be _ drawn from this result, it is unfavorable to the hypothesis that — the — law of decrease of density was the same as the ~ at If ae planets have really passed from the shape of a revolving — ring to their present state, the prevalence of Kirkwood’s analogy ows a nice adaptation of parts in every stage of the transition. _ ei the primitive quantity of caloric (free and latent) had un- rgone a very great change beyond that now indicated in the cooling of their crusts; if the primitive quantity of movement of | Examination of Kirkwood’s Analogy. 25 bee ot AES, had been different from its actual value for any planet ; if the law of elasticity of particles for a given temperature and: distance ftom each other varied from one planet to another in the’ primitive or présent states; in either of these cases, the analogy of Kirkwood might have fa iled. Asit is, no such failure is noticed ; - > We are authorized, therefore, to conclude, that the Pres ayer ~ tity of calorie,—the law of elasticity, —the quantity of mo ef rotation,—the past and present radii of percussion, ihe nae tive diameter of the generating surface of the rings, and the pres- _ ent dimensions and density of the planets, have been regulated by a general law, which has fulfilled for all of them the four fun- damental conditions of Kirkwood’s hypothesis. é é wa Mr. Walker had concluded, Mr. George P. Bond inquired x &> t. W. as to the applicability of his remarks on ‘abe rings to the case of the secondary ring in the system of Satur os Mr. W. replied, that in the case of the breaking up of a primary a ring, the day of the new planet would be equal to the year of * the ring, provided the new diameter was the same as that of the generating figure, and the same Jaw of decrease of density from centre to surface was preserved. In this case we should have K=rmv=r'mv' v=v and therefore p=p' Such, however, is not the case in fact with the primary plan- ets, The new diameter is sconivacied by the more immediate action of the central mass, more than it is expanded by the in- crease of free caloric. The ti new diameter is, therefore, so much _ Staller than the primitive D, that p’ is changed into p, and v’, or _ yearly mean angular velocity, is changed into v for the daily ue. Pe" 4 _ We may extend the nebular hypothesis, and Kirkwood’s anal- “ogy to the secondary systems. If they are laws of nature, they must apply to both. In the secondary systems the day and month are the same. his fact Hfas remained hitherto unexplained. Lagrange showed that if these values were once nearly equal, a hs libration sets in round a state of perfect equality ; but he offered NO conjecture as to the cause of the primitive equality. On the nebular and Kirkwood’s hypothesis, it would only be necessary that upon the breaking up of the ring, the primitive diameter of the generating figure and law of relative density of layers, should preserved, in artes to maintain aconstant valueof p=p’, and i. couseqnently of v= => Prof. gong has pi that the moon, and probably the other” 26 On Kirkwood’s Analogy. Perhaps this is the very condition required to ‘ maintain p=p'y and consequently v=v’. In this case we may conclude sil Pp Ss had exceeded p’ immediately after the breaking of the ring, and ~_ only arrived at a state of equality by the loss of oe from + Prof. Peirce remarked that Kirkwood’s analogy was the ani a discovery of the kind since Kepler’s time, that approached near __ to the character of his three physical laws. e’s law, so. call- ed, was at best only an imperfect analogy. Kirkwood’s analogy was more comprehensive and more in harmony with the known elements of the system. ‘The diameter of the sphere of attrac- tion, a fundamental element in this analogy, now for the first . time gave an appearance of reality to Laplace’s nebular hypothe- sis, which it never had before. The positive testimony in its favor would now outweigh the former negative evidence in the case, however strong it may have been. It follows at least from Kirkwood’s analogy, that the planets were dependent upon each other, and therefore connected together in their origin, whatever may have been the form of the connection, whether that of the nebular hypothesis, or some other not yet imagined. Arr. IV.—On Kirkwood’s Analogy ; by Dr. B. A. Gouxp, Jr. (From the Proceedings of the American Association, 2nd meeting, held at Cambridge, 3.) Tue subject which Mr. Walker brought to the notice of this Section on Saturday, is one of far more than ordinary interest. Besides the elegant es ig of Mr. Kirkwood’s formula, his theory must, if it be confirmed, materially influence our views of cosmogony and of rhe theory of the Universe. I have devoted . all of the time which my duties have allowed since Mr. Walker _ made his communication, to the numerical examination of the — Analogy to which he referred and which prompted his beautiful investigations. I will state the results, though not in the fullness ea which they deserve, and with which I at first hoped to be able to give them; for although the subject is large, and one which we cannot expect to exhaust for many years, yet the time of the Sec- tion is so precious at this late hour, that I shall limit myself to as brief a ee as possible. rk wood’s eae as regards the rotation of the plas ¢: bate in support of the nebular hypothesis. ‘The “minds of many have been wavering of late with regard to this hypothesis ; Gheif doubts have been strengthened by the unquali- fied assertions that all nebulas are resolvable ; but this analogy of ~ On Kirkwood’s Analogy. : 27 "ich ihed tends ao strikingly to confirm it—so much, indeed, that if his latter be true, I do not know how any one can resist the argument which it furnishes in favor of the former, in so far as it applies to our solar system. It is then no longer a hypothe- sis, but becomes a probable theo I will give‘a very short actly of the quantities I have used in ae “repeating Mr. Walker’s computation Dr. Gould then gave upon the blackboard the masses of the planets, and the periods of rotation which he had used, differing from those used by Mr. Walker. ] "These are the masses which I have used; and these are the _ times of rotation as given in the books. I do not know how ac- curate ~ —_ may be considered ; perhaps to minutes, perhaps even less I believe they have all been determined by the ob- servation of spots. If so, what proof have we that the spots do not move, no matter what the number of rotations used in deter- mining the period? I have marked the period of Uranus as doubtful, because I do not know upon what authority it rests, having only found it in a table of a popular work by Sir J. Her- schel, with a mark of doubt prefixed. . does not agree at all with this theory. n considering a question of this kind, we must remember the nature of our investigations. The subject i is to a certain extent, necessarily general, and the appearance of precise harmony could not be expected even were our data exact, which they are not. The nature of the problem requires a general, not a special agree- ment between observation and theory. When we are consider- ing the evolution of order from chaos, we cannot pretend to a knowledge of all the physical forces which exerted an influence. € go back to a supposed time when the planetary spaces were filled with nebular matter; we assume the existence of certain nuclei or centres of attraction ; and, from our knowledge of the Solar system, as it now is, infer the relative foree which these Sea centres of attraction must have exerted, and assign to its proportionate realm. If now we find that the spheres of Seine belonging to the several nuclei are harmoniously con- hected, by a simple formula, with the periods of rotation as ob- Served to-day, —an element before omitted in our investigations— We discover a remarkable corroboration of the probability of our hypothesis. This is what Kirkwood’s formula professes to be— asimple relation between the time of rotation and the diameter the sphere of attraction ranted in demanding that exactness of numerical agreement quisite- for the verification of theories of a more special. natu » 88 circumstances appear to indicate, more careful investigation should lead to the general adoption of the theory of Kirkw wood, The subject being then a strictly general one, we are not 2 28 , On Kirkwood’s Analogy. I should not desire that this should be denominated a La W. ‘Na- ture’s laws must be precise and complete. The relation which _ we are considering claims only to be approximate—an analogy. And in speaking of it, . shall call it by this name, Kirkwood’s Analogy. And where we have by hypothesis a right to expect analogy and not perfect accordance, the want of perfect accord- ance must not be considered to cast doubt upon the theory. sides, if Kirkwood’s Analogy were the result of a general law, _ would not the action of the law be modified in all probability by circumstances which would prevent us from perceiving any strict mathematical precision? The considerations which w strong arguments against bgpintheat of other kinds, do at peal to me weighty when applied to any thing so rude as the motion of chaotic matter. There is a formula known as “ Bode’s law”—an empirical for- mula—expressing a supposed analogy, for which no reason was ever assigned and which, even before it was broken by the new lanet Neptune, was found utterly devoid of that universality and precision which must characterize all laws of nature. Thoug was considered a remarkable coincidence, and perhaps as capa- ble of suggesting some law of nature, no true mathematician could ever have regarded it asa real raw. Moreover, Gauss shown long since that it did not hold for Mercury. ; This ‘Law of Bode” was analogous to the theory of Kepler, that as there were but five regular solids, there could be but five ponchay intervals, and therefore no planet between Jupiter and Kepler s theory was totally overthrown by ii discovery of Uranus, as the other has been by the discovery of Neptune. Bo erly given, would make the distance of Neptune beyond the orbit of Uranus nineteen times the distance of the Earth from the Sun, while it is in fact less than eleven times this distance beyond it, so that the fallacy of At formula must now be so evident as to require no demonstratior Discordances such as ae which, exist in the application of this law to the planetary system, would afford sufficient reason for rejecting the analogy of Kirkwood; but, with even these dis- cordances, the fact, that a single formula would approximately =. represent the truth to so great an extent, would justify us in be- stowing much time upon its consideration. [Dr. Gould then gave a brief sketch of the points of connec- tion between the nebular hypothesis and the new analogy,— ywing how the one would lead to the other. ] It will be remarked that in the Seda “sphere of attraction,” the word sphere is not used in its geometrical sense. Nor is a _ planet necessarily in the centre of its sphere of attraction, for + i. On Kirkwood’s Analogy. 29 Apis Waka act S : , upon the. one side, as is the case with the earth, may be a planet comparatively near, and upon the other a smaller planet at a _ greater distance; whence it is evident that the extent of the sphere of attraction will be much less upon the former side than ~ upon the latier. In Mr. Walker’s theory he assumes «, in the equation 2 Qn § O=— ‘Wen to be a constant and equal to a+ asETsTaTE the term n ; (k) «ke being nearly 2. In the following formulas [I shall denote the 3 quantities which refer to the Earth by a single accent, those re- ferring to Mars by two, to Jupiter by four, and to Saturn by five, reserving three accents for the hypothetical planet between Mars and Jupiter. I make use of Mr. Walker’s formula for the sphere : _ of attraction as follows:—D being the diameter of the sphere, a — being the mean distance of the planet, and m being its mass. | For Jupiter we have Dv= Jf/miv ( * So for Mars ; aiv—q/’ aY— aiv mitt ml * Smet Jem if convenience, Din | avy — aiv ¥ mv + f/m De — (Fearn) VB and then we have, : i Nie an"! ; 3 —— aga see kaart ~A, . # wee es aiv—a’’—(A+B) i Sm” = eee? B vans tani! 30 ; On Kirkwood’s Analogy: ' Here all the quantities on one side are known, and we'use the mass of the new planet thus obtained for the solution of the problem. This being substituted in either of ane fae 238 equa- tions, will give us the mean regs of the plan s Or, if for convenience we make BY gn = = —A-+( a +B) C 14+C w the only question is as to the value to be sopted 1 for Mr. Walker’ s constant, which it seems to me should be deduced from observation only. n computing the value of k, I obtain for we shall have— a= Venus, . 19374 Earth, 9) ia er arama, . ws a se oe ee The mean of this, . . . “1.939 is the quantity assumed for 4, in Shain tie results of which I shall speak ; these three planets being the only ones to which the - formula can be applied. It will be seen that the values obtained are most con temhaeag'e of Mr. Walker’s results. Unless we suppose the nebular matter to have been equally distributed through the solar system, we could not expect to find & absolutely constant, ‘ even if it were an approximation to the number 2. alker here remarked that the constant used by Dr. Gould answered better than the constant 2. Dr. Gould continued,—We do not know the extent of Mercury’s | influence inside its orbit, and hence cannot know the diameter of — its sphere of attraction. Nor can we apply the formula to Mars or | to Jupiter, for we do not know what planet may have been be- — tween them. We cannot apply it to Uranus, for we do not know — its period of rotation. ‘There remain but the three planets men- — tioned above iy Calculating, from the equations thus developed, the m distance which: would belong to a planet between Mars and Jupi- > ter, and thence, by Kirkwood’s analogy, the corresponding time ; of rotation, we do not find it so great, that, by mere centrifugal Pe force, the planet could _ been exploded, and its mass scattered in the form of asteroi From a very rough sciiouastite of the place and size of the ypothetical planet, I obtain a mean distance 3. 12, a z'saz- _ This mass is very much smaller than the mass of our — h, and would agree with the supposition of a small planet, smaller even than Venus, but would be at least equal in size t0 — twelve or fifteen Asteroids. a a aa aol lil Ree ni an in fig rh sae ee MPPs a Akg eee ee e. ie : Charles Whittlesey of Cleveland, on Natural Terraces, §c. 31 _-» _ “This gives rise to a great many speculations, most interesting only element which is really well known, is the distance of the _ primary planets from the sun. Then there is the difficulty to _— which [ also alluded, in ascertaining the magnitude of spheres of attraction, that we catinot assume the nebulous matter to be equally dense; so that it cannot be demanded that the analogy should be very acéurately expressed by any given data. It is now extremely important that observations should be made upon the periods of the rotation of several planetary bodies, and it is much to be desired, as bearing upof this problem, that those who occupy themselves with what may be called the natu- ral history of astronomy should determine the times of rotation the position to which Mr. Kirkwood will be entitled, should his theory be found true. The Section seemed surprised at this re- mark. I do not wish to express myself strongly, but certainly when we look back upon the labors of Kepler, who strove so many years with results so unpromising, until he discovered the laws which underlie the whole fabric of our solar system, and then turn to Mr. Kirkwood, a teacher in the interior of Pennsyl- vania—who without the sympathies of kindred minds, or the use of any library of magnitude—without calling even upon the aid of strict mathematical analysis—has fixed his attention upon this one problem, and investigated it in all its bearings, until after _ ten years of patient thought and labor, he has arrived at such a result as this—we cannot but be struck with the similarity of the ‘wo cases; nor can we consider it as very derogatory to the for- Mer to speak hereafter of Kepler and Kirkwood together as the Scoverers of great planetary harmonies. at Arr. V.—On the Natural Terraces and Ridges of the country _ bordering Lake Erie; by Cuartes Wurrttesey, of Cleve- 10. land, Oh _ Turoven the assistance of the engineers, engaged at various times, in surveys for railroads and canals in Northern Ohio, I have been enabled to determine the elevation of our “ Lake ridges” a numerous points, between the Pennsylvania line and Sandus Bay, a distance of 130 miles. I am more particularly indebt for these levels to J. H. Sergeant, Esq., who has run several lin ‘west Of Cleveland, and to Messrs. Harback and Smith, engineers for the Cleveland, Painesville and Ashtabula Railroad Company. ~ in S ee A ." _—_ 2 Bee = 3 32) » Charles Whittlesey of Cleveland, on i. : When these surveys do not cross the ridges and terracés*” hey have still been the basis upon which by short cross levels, taken with a pocket instrument, I have obtained the elevations ; and ~* the results I think, cannot be wide of the truth. ¢ ere may be an extreme discrepancy of three’ feet among them, however, arising from changes in the surface of the a which is the common plane of reference. My opinion has been for many years, that the « rideds* are not “ancient beaches” of the Lake, although some of the terraces may be. It is indispensable to a beach, that it should at its foot or waterline be perfectly horizontal. The Lake ridges are not soy. this fact, taken with the external form which they. as- suriie; dpeatly, gives them the character of submarine deposits. are points on this coast where there are four ridges ris- ing in sticcession from the Lake, as in the township of Ridge- ville, Lorain County. In other places there are three, as from Geneva to Ashtabula; from Euclid through Painesville to Ge- neva, two; and from Cleveland to Euclid, one. ‘There are places where it is difficult to trace any; and in others as at the city of Cleveland, where there are two: or three branches or divisions of one ridge for short distances, all about the same level and liable to terminate suddenly. ‘The ridges are sometimes upon the crest of a terrace, and sometimes lie, like a highway of water-washed sand, on the gently inclined surface of a plain, that descends to- wards the Lake. “From a regular and beautiful elevated road- way, the ridge occasionally breaks into sand knolls, as at Avon Centre, Lorain County; at Ohio City near Cleveland, and at Painesviile, Lake County. ) Where nothing to the contrary is stated, the height given is that of the summit of the ridge, terrace or knoll. The first ridge, _ or that nearest the Lake, is known in the county as the “North Ridge.” The others have different names at different places; as the “ Middle Ridge,” ‘Chesnut Ridge,” “ Butternut Ridge,” and “ South Ridge.” Elevation of the North Ridge, beginning at the Eastern partaf a the Western Reserve. ‘ z Conneaut, Ashtabula Co., above Lake Erie, . -. 120 feet. a One mile west, . : » (14S eB Four miles east of Ashtabula village, ; : ee es Base of same for several miles, 85 to 95. County line between Lake arid Ashtabula Co., a 107 « a northern slope of North Ridge, Eight miles west in Lake County, po -b = aeee ntreville, 1 mile north of village, —. . S106 18: ‘Painesville, v1 ees Te Mentor well defined for 2 miles level, . pe AOR CF K : > ‘Natural “Terraces and Ridges on Lake Erie. « e -’ Willdughby, ; : Peo atety : é - 85 feet. Seven miles east of Cleveland, . os 112tolls « aw Dhreg, 1 oe ay i) 308 oT Gabde dg. « [wo | ‘ ¢ at crossing of 2 * 198 « ~ Cleveland and Pittsburg Railroad, —. : Cleveland city, 4 ‘ j Ohio Cit ‘ ““ ‘ , 96tol08 “ ‘ . 114 Rockport, Rocky River, ie net oie. ae One mile west, . 7 , ; 105, 107 and 126 “ Avon, Lorain Co., east of Centre one mile, Bl #4 * * =“ Centre sand knolls, . ’ lO“ ‘Russelton, Lyme, Huron Co., i . ; é 12. My This table embraces a distance of one hundred and twenty (120) miles, where it appears the lowest summit is 85 feet,“ and the highest 145, showing a difference in longitudinal direction of 0 feet. I have not visited all the positions here given, but the greater part of them, and for the rest am informed by the engin- eers that there is no higher ground between the ridge and the Lake. In all cases there is a smooth uninterrupted plain, on the Lake side, over which the water of the Lake is everywhere visi- ble, when the forest timber, which is heavy, is cleared away. It 1S variously composed of blue marly clay, of coarse drift called “blue” and “yellow hardpan,” and of coarse sandy and gravelly drift; but the soil is for the most part clayey, and wet between and below the ridges. The streams, little and great, cut deep and steep gullies through the superficial deposits, and also into the rocks below. From the cliff limestone at Sandusky, eastward and to the state line, the superficial matter rests on slates, sand- Stones and shales, corresponding to the Hamilton, Chemung and Portage groups, of the New York Reports. Elevation of the second Ridge, called the “ South” and “ Middle” Ri Ridge. _ Near Kingsville, Ashtabula County, (south ridge,) 152 feet. Centreville, . ‘ ; : ‘ * a Ak Two miles gast of Cleveland, 1 § eee Two miles southwest of Ohio City, middle “ . 149 “ Dover Centre, 12 miles W. of Cleveland, “ EC loa _ frocKport, 7 miles 3 ci ‘cs ée 130 * Ridgeville, Lorain County, abt Madd igen Ble tht e is more broken and less continuous than the first, or “north ridge,” and is in general heavier. In Rockport, Dover and Ridgeville, on the northern or Lake slope, it is from 16 to: feet above the base at its foot, and on the rear 5 to 10 feet. = hind it, as with all the ridges, is flat, swampy land, and small Fivulets that drain the low ground, running parallel with the Szconp Szrms, Vol. X, No. 28—July, 1850. 5 34 ‘Charles Whittlesey of Cleveland, on swell, ~ some creek, or occasionally breaking through ‘asunite Lake. the These lands are very rich, and with a thoderate ex- pense are drained by ditches cut through the ridges, ‘The slo of the flat lands between and before the ridges is sufficient o : carry off all the water in ditches that have a free curtént. Most _ of this land is coming under the plough in this manner, although it is equally well calculated for grass. No country can possess more rural beauty than that along these “ridge roads.” The land in a longitudinal view, is apparently level, as far as the eye can reach ; and the buildings congregated along the line of the road appear to be arrayed in. curved lines, genty waving to the right and left as you proceed. ' Looking from one of the interior ridges, which are haa perceptibly higher nae the next one towards the if the timber is not standing, another, and rudely parallel row of farm houses, barns, orchards, &c., is seen at the distance of one, two or three miles; the intermediate space perfectly smooth and cultivated, and beyond lies the blue water, and the horizon. he composition of one ridge does not materially differ from another. It is formed of coarse, water-washed, yellowish sand, adjacent rocks.- The rocky fragments are not generally worn perfectly round, or oblong, as beach shingle is, but are more flat, with worn edges. There are mingled with the sandstones and shales that compose this gravel, seattered pieces of que flint, also granite, and trappean rocks, limestone and ironston The basis of the ridge corresponding with x Giparvibek clayey soil between, gives rise to a great many springs on the Lake or lower side; and this water frequently deposits bog iron ore, that has been used extensively in furnaces along the lake shore. From near Dover Centre, west to Elyria, and even to Vermill- ion River, the second or ‘“ middle ridge,” rests on a coarse grained sandstone or “ grindstone grit,” which farther east in Cuyahoga County rises above the level of the Lake ridges. Between the Black and Vermillion rivers, I have not succeeded in procuring the elevations. Here they are well developed, and show more branches or collateral lines, extending from one ridge to another, than is observed farther east. By digging shallow wells, the inhabitants find water in abund- ance, and generally good. In these wells from 12 to 18 feet deep, there are thrown ont as a common occurrence, sticks, timber and “dies in a decaying state. I have in my cabinet some pieces of is wood, furnished by Dr. Moore of Dover, who took it from a d of car rbonaceous matter in a well of his, twelve feet below the surface. The well is sitnated on the middle ridges ve feet above the Lake. Pieces of timber six inches through ees 3 “= i Natural Terraces and Ridges on Lake Erie. 35 found, represented as being water-worn like’ drift-wood. Those in my possession are solid, with a very fine grain resembling the willow, +3 -_ Dr. Moore, an intelligent physician of my acquaintance, says he has séen shells thrown from the bottom of wells, resembling ‘periwinkles,” a common name for Lymnea. Similar shells in fragments are said to have been thrown from a pit two miles west of Cleveland, on the north ridge. In the ‘blue marly clay” be- neath this ridge, I have found a Helicina, and a Planorbis, shells characteristic of the loess of the Rhine, and of St. Louis, and the Wabash in Indiana. The paleontological evidence is there- fore, as far as it goes, in favor of the idea of very recent and fresh water deposits. ; twenty feet; and consequently the base has an equal rise in a longitudinal direction. ‘I'wo miles west of Ridgeville Centre, the top of the middle ridge has descended from 168 to 149 feet. The foot of the north, or first ridge, and of the terrace on which il is frequently situated, approaches nearer to a horizontal line than the ridge itself, but still differs from a perfect level. It is at Conneaut Creek, : : : : ; . 75 feet. Four miles east of Ashtabula, ee ae 6c SP ae ene” Several miles west of . . , Fie oe | Painesville, ; ‘ . . . : ee Ee , East of Willoughby. several miles, - 60t065 © 2 " : 1 ce . Three miles west of Willoughby, . . . 60 P Euclid Creek, 12 miles east of Cleveland, . 75to85 “ : Seven miles east of igre: ‘ Sipe ius dt v4 tc cs . . Fa 102 ” hes > A ae a tdi tad <- den Rockport, . * ° . . * 2 z 70 Avon, ‘ f s fe - iy . e 70 - “cc It is not easy to determine with precision where the base or foot of a ridge graduates into the plain; and consequently there '$ not that accuracy in the elevations for the base, just given, that Wwe attain when measuring the summit or crest. But they are a -. close approximation, and although remarkably uniform, are b; » _- NO Means equal, as they should be if the base of the ridge i] ___ Sented an ancient coast-line; the greatest difference being forty: ae feet, or about the same as the variation along the top of the second ridge. 36 - Charles Whittlesey of Cleveland, on : a There are but few measurements in my reach of the third and pete: ridges. In Huron County, south of Russelion, there are o low swells of land parallel with the shore, apparently about on a level with each other, and not much above the main ridge at vernal, which is reported at 120 feet. e third ridge, in Ridgeville, Cuyahoga — is =~ mile Seite from the second or “middle ridge,” and is not very prominent, rising six to ten feet ‘above the low vans “ this place it is 186 feet above the lake, or eighteen feet above the middle ridge, and eighty-one above the highest part of the north ridge in Avon, five miles north, The fourth or last and highest well defined Ridge. 24 miles southwest of Ohio City, i . 178 feet. 14 miles southeast of Ridgeville Centre ae ‘ee: alate West bank of west fork of Black ee Elyria, a Distance embraced, twenty-five miles The materials of the most southerly or interior ridge, are in general coarser than in des others, showing a more violent or less lasting aqueous action. This is observed everywhere at the west. The more acne the drift, the more does it exhibit the effects of strong currents in the transportation of large pieces of rock, in the sha ape of coarse gravel. The lower portions, espe- cially those that lie near the surface of the great Lakes, not only on Lake Erie, but on Michigan and Superior, are fine, argillaceous or marly, laminated, and with few pebbles. The terraces have not been as much noticed as the ridges, and consequently their height is not as well known. From Rock- port to Avon, the north ridge is upon the edge of a terrace, the foot from seventy feet above the lake, down to sixty feet; its crest from one hundred and five down to eighty-five. Directly opposite this, about five miles more inland, a considerable portion of the fourth or south ridge, (known as the “ Butternut ,’”) is also on a terrace of about twenty feet, on its northern face; in fact all the ridges partake of the nature of terraces, in places; the north- ern slope being generally the longest. But the geological com- position of the terrace on which the ridge rests is different, and either a rock or a drift of more compact and resisting kind. Between Newburg and Euclid, nine miles, the northern face of the terrace is very bold, its base from 120 to 150 feet, and its crest 200 to 225 feet. It is here composed of fine grained sandstone ’ Waverly), and blue and red shales. East of Euclid, the terrace Gees times divides into two, the lower one supporting the north idge. It is the same for several miles east of Willoughby, the the first or lowest terrace being about one hundred feet g and its base seventy to eighty feet, and formed of blue hardpan — say heed eae ae jeans efit ee he Natural Terraces and Ridges on Lake Erie. 37 ‘resting’on shales. In Erie County, on the line of the Mansfield railroad, it is composed of cliff limestone supporting black slate ; its base about 130, and its summit 180 feet. It will be interesting now to compare the elevations above given, for ridges in Western Ohio, with those of the great lakes _ in other states. In Michigan, at the east line of Washington couity east of Ann Arbor, is a well-defined ridge running nearly north and south, whose summit is 140 feet above Detroit River, De at Detroit. Around Monroe, in Wayne county, Michigan, are some irregular sand ridges, not more than thirty feet. They are also visible on the north shore of Lake Erie, in the flat coun- try between Erie and Huron; their elevation is not known, but they are apparently as high as 200 feet. Mr. Roy, a Canadian engineer, has made a section across the ridges back of ‘Toronto to Lake Simcoe, as reported by Mr. Lyell, and has given their respective elevations as follows: No. 1.—one mile north of Toronto, 20 to 30 feet high— base above Lake Ontario, . P : . 108 feet. No. 2,—24 miles from Toronto, 50 to 70 feet high— base above Lake Ontario, . ; ; . 208 No. 3.—5 miles from lake—10 feet high—summit, 288 “ Five other ridges or terraces are given by Mr. Hall, in the ge- ology of the 4th district of New York ; also on the authority of Mr. Roy, referring apparently to the elevation of their base. “ No. 4.—above Lake Ontario, Cee No. 5. 66 6 é : : - : ec. tye No. 6. tc 6 tc : : : spit >: sides Bere re apr Gere wench hed dot tiggg ta No. 8. 6 e te ; ‘ . 762 * Mr. Lyell observed eleven ridges between the Lake and the summit for Lake Simcoe, the elevation of the eleventh, or last and highest, corresponding with No. 7, of the New York Report. The elevation of Lake Erie above Ontario is generally stated at 332 feet, so that the three first ridges or terraces, in rear of 'To- Tonto, are below the surface of Lake Erie. _ Mr. Barrett, a New York engineer, furnished Mr. Hall with the height of some points on the Lockport ridge, south of Lake On- tatio and opposite Toronto. They are as follows: See Ota jC orctool ip Georgy ety 7-968 feet. Middleport, 10 miles east, . 8... ts 185 Albion, Orleans county, : : : ‘ . 188 “g Broce. port, Monroe county, . : ; 3 . 188 44 None of these correspond in height with those on the north Shore, as they should do if they were the result of littoral action 38 Charles Whittlesey of Cleveland, on Natural Terraces, Gee ata beach, for the surface of the water would be level. If we suppose them to have been formed in that manner, when the water stood at the base of a ridge, the rivers must have ‘discharged é at the same level. Here should, on that ind be found del- tas, and evidence of bays or lagoons. The s having settled away, at the present period the streams aiachadee at a lower level, their channels being worn deeper and larger, ree through the ridges and terraces that lie between the present and the ancient level. If the ancient mouth was at a point different from that- where the present channel cuts a nidge, it should be visible in the present form of the ridge. If it was at the same point, there should be marks of such action as always accompanies the meet- ing of running currents with dead water. But our streams a pear to cut the ridges as though they were barriers preéxisting, and — through by the current. races composed of the rocks or other general deposits of a ccunaa appear to be much stronger proof of ancient shores than limited sand ridges. When we rise above 240 feet from Lake Erie, the well defined terraces disappear; and from that line to 6v0 to 650 feet, the general elevation of the table land in North- eastern Ohio, the surface presents a confused arrangement of heavy drift, covering the rocks at various depths, in long massive knolls, without ranges or parallelism. 'Towards the west, the summits of the lake streams are lower, and the present surface of North- western Ohio and Northern Indiana, of Illinois, Michigan, New | York and Canada West, with much of Wisconsin and Jowa, would be submerged by a sea ring 250 feat above Lake Erie, or 815 above the ocean. The Wabash and Maumee summit, at Fort Wayne, Indiana, is 246 feet above Lake Erie. The summit between the waters 0 Saginaw Bay, and of Lake Michigan, . 108 ft.above L. Ere. — Summit between Pishtaka and Rock River pin: 918 « ‘i ; in Illinois, : : Lake Winnebago 1 is a Summit between ’ Lake Ontario and Lake 197. « = Simcoe, Canada, Mouth ne nt Peter’s River, Fort Snelling, Mine 179 [7 74 Missouri Rives ait Fort ‘Leavenworth, went isl « ds line of state of Missouri, If, therefore, the relative level of the land was the same as now, = when the diluvial sea existed at high levels, its extent must have € very sek, at the supposed stage of 250 feet above Lake i one: rie. At this or any other supposable stage, if it remained sta- onary long enough to form cliffs and banks at one place, it would produce the same effects, in kind if not in degree, at an- poh and we should be able to trace beaches or shores over all Dr. John Garric on the Quantity of Heat, Se. 39 the vast.west, for such cliffs are due to the action of winds and waves, always in operation on bodies of water. But under-sur- __. face currents are not universal, or in such general operation as to _ form “everywhere, bars and longitudinal banks or spits. he Atlantic Ocean should suddenly settle one hundred feet, or any other distance, would there not remain a distinct shore, well de- fined and traceable its entire length? At the mouth of some rivers and bays or inlets, would be seen limited sand ridges, their ses upon an exact level. On the ancient bed of the sea oppo- site sandy coasts, like North Carolina and New Jersey, would a ‘pear long, narrow and rudely parallel ridges, of such materials as are easily moved by currents, that would mot be level longi- tudinally. The evidence of the existence of ancient currents acting upon the drift, regularly and irregularly, is abundant. They have act- ed at all elevations, as well on the highest lands in Ohio at 135 feet above the tide, as at the sources of the Mississippi, 1680 feet. The evidence is that they were powerful, and in general erratic or irregular and fitful. Such currents would not leave ridges, but rounded elevations. For this discussion it is immaterial whether It is to this wide-spread power that we must resort, to explain Most of the diluvial phenomena which are observed. What can be reasonably assigned to the wearing action of waves along a Coast line, is limited and not pervading; not an universal, but a local, tardy and inefficient geological agent. _ Arr. VL—On the Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air by Mechanical Compression ; by Joun Garric, M.D. with a few apparent exceptions, an invariable source of heat. Atmospheric air, subjected to mechanical compression, evolves it Hantities of heat furnished by given volumes, under given pres- sures, have b ined. I indeed bei s hever been accurately ascertamed. it may, In eed, aid that there is scarcely a subject in the whole range of nateue _ philoso vy, which has elicited more discordant results. e Well €ry phenomenon of nature possesses in itself an interest ei calculated to excite the mind to an investigation of its cause. x 2% AO : Dr. John Garric on the In acquiring a right understanding of the part it plays i in-the gen- eral system and economy of nature there is a gratification inde- in t solution of the question, “ what is ote —, of heat given-out the condensation of air 2” there is a more immediate interest arising from the practical to wohsink the fact may be applied. It is favorable to the intered’s of science that the prospective value of the knowledge has justified- experiments on this subject, as objects of commercial speculation ; for otherwise its full elucida- tion would require an outlay of money too heavy to be expende by the mere lover of nature. The atmosphere, from any thing we can observe ‘taking place — in it, affords but a remote and insignificant idea of the extensive relation existing between it and heat. Our sensations may indi- cate suffering from diminution, or inconvenience from exaltation of temperatire, and the thermometer may mark the extent of its that it contains more of the principle of heat, in proportion to its absolute quantity of matter, than any other body found in a natu- ough not experimentally demonstrable, it cannot be doubted that the aerial form of the atmosphere, like that of ial is caused by the presence of a definite amount of heat. be condensed and dilated any number of times, and inte: will be with each change, a simultaneous and proportional diffusion and absorption of heat. The determination of the quantities of caloric thus alternately set free and rendered latent, is, apparently, a simple problem, which it is generally thought can be easily solved. But to furnish precise results not only is science and experimental skill demanded, but quantities of — facilities for manipulation, such as private philosophers can command. It is true that if “instruments be exceedingke ex- act, a n experimenter be fully equal to the task of using them properly,” the error upon moderate, may be quite as small in proportion as upon large quantities of most substances. but in this assumption, qualifications are implied to which few ex- perimenters can lay claim; nor when possessed, would they be adequate to insure perfect accuracy in operating upon so attenu- ated a fluid as air which larger apparatus might attain. In the attempts to determine the quantities of heat set free or absorbed by changes in the volume of air, these principles are well * According to t are considered the most accurate experiments hail: peers tions on this su aoa ct, age absolute heat of ‘atmenyherie air, satire ah from the standard of kg absolute heat of water, viz, 1,000—is 18. 000. on the air, page 1 BOSS foam | Siler» os Ni aaa Silt 5, Rarer ere RS aoe ee Mey gee? : tt? ? << Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air. Al __ ments'on this subject, have been in — of using very small ame and fortune, but they save much labor by forming a con- stant for any number of calculations, or any modification of ex- periments. In regard to air, the change in its sensible tempera- ture, under an increase of density, is known to be great from the fact that by its sudden compression we may inflame tinder, and many other substances immersed in it. This trivial experi- ment, although in itself too indeterminate to found a valuable conclusion upon, has formed the basis of many chemical re- Searches, having for their object the solution of the question lew. Inv i Stconp Seis, Vol. X, No. 28.—July, 1850. , a : Dr. John Garric on the exact limitation of the heat set free from air by compression. a4 He states that to ignite sulphur, it is necessary to reduce‘atmos- pherie air to one- -eighteenth of its volume, and to set fire to sigigh, to one-thirtieth.* Philosophers, in their experiments on air, have been: in the practice of dividing it into certain proportions—as the half, the fourth, the eighth of the volume experimented upon—and of: am considering each division as affording an oned measure of heat N as the result of condensation. Now, the number of such divis- jons in reducing air to one-eighteenth of its ns eh is a little more than four, and to one-thirtieth, nearly five; while the tem- peratures at which the above named substances burn, may be stated respectively, at nearly 500° F. and 600° F. Here we have data, which if correct, would at once solve the question in- volved. By dividing these numbers by each other we shall have reduction of it to half its previous volume. If these data could be relied upon, the subject would need no further investigation ; but so different have been the conclusions from analogous experi- ments in the hands of the other philosophers, that new and more satisfactory ones are demande or while, as we have seen, M. Colladon says it requires a ‘condensation of eign air equal to one-thirtieth of its volume to ignite tinder, M. L sac, who made similar experiments on a larger Siti ics that a reduction to one-fifth is sufficient. Nor have other experiments and processes of reasoning, for deducing a precise solution of this apparently simple question, though conducted by the most eminent chemists and mathema- ticians of the past and present ages, been more uniform or more show a similar variance, of from one to five and upwards, a in their deductions. und, in experimenting with the common air-pump © alton fo of the lebaedony, that if the density of air be suddenly doubled by compression, its temperature rises 5U° F. This experiment is among the earliest we find on the subject, and comes, if we can. regard the 50° LE". as computed at the standard of the specific heat of water, nearer the truth, for the first reduction of air from its ordinary temperature and pressure, to half its volume, than any subsequently recorde According to some "experiments of Leslie, condueted upon a somewhat different plan, 2t would appar that atmospheric air Journal of Science [I], vol. xx, cPd fort it will be ot ec in the coutse of this co phe AO how this very great dif- in apparent t, may arise from ccidhiarats ively small errors of the ex- ~ $7. 7 Rt " Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air. 43 , ‘rarefied until its density was three-fifths of its natural density, . when suddenly restored acquired about 48° F’, of temperature. Professor Espy states as the result of experiment, that if air have: its density doubled or be reduced to half its volume, its temperature will be increased about 90° F., and that air expanded to half its density, or double its volume, generates a cold of about 90° F. That accurate and profound mathematician, the late Mr. Ivary, has attempted to deduce from calculation, upon data to which I have been unable to get access, the precise quantity of caloric given out by the condensation of atmospheric air. According to his estimate one degree of heat is evolved from it, when under a condensation equal to ;1, of its volume; and consequently, if a volume of air be reduced to half its bulk the heat given out will be equal to 180° F. Both Laplace and Leslie, in attempts to reconcile the calculated velocity of sound, with that which is de- duced from experiment, made similar calculations; but the theo- rems by which they are expressed are both abstruse and inaccu- rate, for though they regard the quantity of heat evolved from air by condensation as “ profuse and powerful,” the amount the lat- ter assigns is less than that mentioned by Mr. Ivary; and his estimate, it will be seen, does not equal the truth. e researches of M. Gay Lussac, to whom science is more indebted for an extensive and profound investigation of this sub- ject than to any other philosopher, led him to consider a conden- sation of air into one-fifth of its volume as sufficient to ignite tinder—a degree of heat which he states is almost 580° F. This estimate, applied to volume, according to what has been mentioned as the custom of experimenters, would give about 280° EF’. for every time the density of air was doubled. pon a subject on which so many scientific men have directed their attention and tasked their ingenuity to discover methods of accurate observation, it would seem presumptuous to attempt to devise processes more exact than have been already employed. Yet the diversity in the results furnished by such able experi- -Menters renders questionable the truth of any of them, and shows that their modes were defective, or, at least, that fresh investiga- tion is necessary to enable us to confirm or reject their data with certainty. That in the general economy of nature the relation of caloric to air is of high importance, and that the investigation of the laws of their action is worth the labor they may require, and is indeed one of the most interesting enquiries, in both a sci- entific and practical point of view, to which the attention of Mankind can be turned, are apparent from considerations already, alluded to, To improve our knowledge of these relations, so as to deduce laws by which they are governed, we must study the subject Es 44 : a ek Dr. John Garric on the ona larger scale than it has _ heretofore examined ; anda an object in view sufficiently valuable to justify the nek - of money for adequate machinery, and of time for a long series of careful and precise observations. Experiments on a sme Bg ee) rat) ra) co o ay 2, b ° ~ = oO | S ro) oo o OQ. $ rae) mM ra) — Rs re) © =] n ie) rot) Lar | O Oo ie o wm ' what is the actual result of large operations. And besides being a scale of suitable magnitude, they cannot be made accu- on rately by rude iad unskillful hands; they must be performed by. persons qualified by knowledge and practice to conduct them — through all the circumstances which a great range of ana ture, and a variety of degrees of condensation may prese By conjoining expectations of pecuniary profit with iilaeath at views, it — been placed in my power to fulfill these conditions, an ong course of expensive experiments, amidst much embarranaiient of many kinds, to elicit a near approach to truth. A portion of the money expended in conducting these experi- ments, was furnished by some commercial gentlemen of the city of New Orléhns. As the object of these gentlemen, in advancing sheit. ee was pecuniary gain, and this depended upon the quantity of hea absorbed, or in other words, the quantity of cold produced, st its applicability to the manufacture of ice, from the expansion of r its condensation, I was constrained to pay as much, per- tap more attention to the evolution of this effect a to the quantity of heat disengaged by the condensation. Two series of experiments were thus carried on at the same time, and each was made to act as a check upon the accuracy of the other; while no labor or care was spared to render both accurate. ‘To se experiments, a large and powerful machine has been constructed, planned for measuring alike the heat developed by condensation, and the heat absorbed by rarefaction of any volume of air—from two cubic feet to two thousand cubic yards or more, and under any degree of condensation from two to eight atmos- pheres. By operating with such masses o of air, the errors into which a experimenters had fallen, have been, in a grea measure a d. In the aaiee article I propose to give an account of the quan- tity of heat evolved by the condensation of air under a compress- ing force of from two up to eight atmospheres consecutively ; and in a succeeding number of this Journal to show the quan- tity absorbed by the expansion of the same air from a tension of two, four, and eight atmospheres, to the ordinary atmospheric . pressure. The machine, already mentioned as constructed, was intended for iensseg alike the heat evolved by the condensation of ait, e heat absorbed by its subsequent expansion. ‘The portion he “cui of Heat evolved frou Aimoapherie dire 45 “employed for the former purpose ‘is represented in the figure be- low, which is an end view of the whole machine, and consists essentially of a large double acting force pump,A; a smaller force aie B; and a reservoir or air magazine, C. \\ The larger pump, A, is constructed on the common riage well known to mechanics, of the double acting force pump for e pipes e,e, which lead to the reservoir. The pump is thittien inches in diameter with a twenty-four inch stroke of pis- ton; and consequently, has a capacity, exclusive of the space oc- | cupied by ~e piston rod, of 3144 cubic inches. is large pump there was a smaller condensing pump, (not seen | in the figure,) four inches in diameter, seventeen 4s, ORS Dp John Garric on the inches stroke, and, after —— the average space scene by the piston rod, of 206 cubic inches capacity. is pump was’ fitted with valves#ind communicated with the reservoir, in coy same manner as the larger pump. Its object was to charge the reservoir with air to any required tension before setting the larger pump and its antagonistic engine in operation, and thus save the enormous consum@#@#on of power which, it was supposed, would be required to work the larger pump so as to obtain the same ee ~~ ect. ‘Though theoretically necessary, it was found in practice that it could be advantageously dispensed with, and will not be introduced into any future construction of the machine. But as it was attached to it, and in most of the experiments to be here- after.detailed, its measure of air was condensed at every stroke of its own and the larger piston, its operation must be taken into ac- count in estimating the heat evolved by the condensation of a given volume of air. Added to the capacity of the larger pub (31444206 =) it made the whole quantity of air condensed b every stroke of the pumps or every half revolution of the engine, 3350 cubic inches. The smaller pump, B, is also double acting, and of 56 cubic inches or one quart capacity. nds is designed to inject that quan- tity of cold water through the s F, F, and a sieve-like plate, or “rose”? placed in the upper lid, nae several perforations in the lower lid of the larger pump, and thence distribute it, in a finely divided shower into the interior of that pump. Its ‘object is to absorb the heat of elasticity set free from air by its condensa- tion, and at the moment of its generation, so as to lessen mate- rially the mechanical power that would otherwise be consumed. As it effects this object by mixing intimately the water and air, and causing the former to absorb the free heat, it renders the wa- ter an excellent approximate measurer of the heat evolved. After — -performing this office the water passes out of the pump, withthe _ condensed air, into the reservoir. he reservoir, or air magazine, C, employed in these experi- ments, is cylindrical in form, eleven feet in length, thirty-two inches in diameter, and has a capacity of about sixty-two cubic feet. It is made of sheet iron, with hemispherical heads, in the manner of a steam boiler. It is furnished with a safety valve about three inches in diameter, and loaded with a weight, through — the intervention of a lever. At one end it has a man-hole afford- ing admittance into its interior; and it is provided with a stop- cock, E, inserted into its most dependant part, through which the water of injection, received from the pumps, and precipitat ated . from the air by its greater specific gravity, may be dise into — the open atmosphere, or returned again to the pump, B, for bal pean of its duty. It is ot ag by three vineehe iron fi ich is represented at - bP Se Tag Se a ee ak ~~ <. Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air. A7 _. When the air attains*a certain pressure in this reservoir, it is allowed to discharge itself, by means of a communicating pipe,.into an- engine which works expansively through a valve so constructed, as to permit of being arranged to cut off pte _.. There were several appendages to the machinery employed in so would not be used in a practical application of the principle. Among them is the vessel, I. This was a reservoir of a former ex- periment, and was used, in this instance, to separate the water of injection from the condensed air, the former of which | through the cock, K, while the latter proceeded through the pipe, | L, into the reservoir, C. It is mentioned, and represented in the 4 drawing, in order that all the circumstances attending the experi- . ments may be understood. | As a means of measuring with precision the pressure of air in the reservoir, a gauge consisting of a glass tube, closed at the up- | per end, having a length of twelve inches, and an internal diam- i eter of a quarter of an inch, was used. After filling this tube | with dry air, and inserting it through the upper surface of the reservoir, into a cup of mercury, in communication with the air _ within the reservoir, it was found to act as a convenient manom- Bae ane 2 : , | distegarding these sources of error, and probably some in charg- ing the tube with mercury, it was found to be a valuable instru- Ment; its indications were not only more easily attained, but Were more accurate than those of the steam indicator, or common __ +e standard which I have relied upon, in conducting the ex- Petiments of this research, for determining a measure of heat, is the assumed quantity required for the conversion of a pound of 1ce into water. In the absence of any experiments of my own - 48 | oy John Garric on the Quantity Ka Heal; a tg ‘ upon the subject, I have fe ave the quantity” ‘at the generally te ceived one of 140° F'., though some observations incline me t consider it as several degrees less. With the foregoing apparatus numerous experiments have been. made; but as asmall number, conducted on proper scientific prin- ciples—more particularly if they agree with each other, and have been, as in these instances, checked by the observations of two persons—are as aalecwore as any greater number, I have de- taited, and given the calculations in full of only a few. These — will serve as examples for any one who is disposed to com- pute from the observed data, the resulting quantity of heat ob- tained, and thus prove the truth, or error of the reported result. - Finding that observations were made with more accuracy in pro- portion as experience familiarized me with them, I considered that the later ones were more to be trusted than the earlier, and fa) = te 3 oO < o ig oe = oD 5 o oO i “5 fee) i = 9 = @ Set fo D a Qu fas) 72) iz) jen ca f. i 7 and that the temperature of the atmosphere at the time, was very different and much lower than at any of the later ex- periments. It is proper to remark that in conducting these delicate experi- ments many causes of error have been either unavoidable, uncor- rected, or overlooked. Owing to defects of mechanical contriv- ance and unskillful workmanship, incidental perhaps to every new 4 device, and a noviciate intercourse with practical mechanies, th machine was not capable of performing all its duties with the ac- curacy the natural laws involved called for. And notwithstand- — ing a great desire to avoid and correct errors from the leakage or irregular working of the machine, by compensating for them, I cannot in all cases rely upon the correctness of the allowances made therefor. e thermometers used in these experiments were manufac- tured in New Orleans, and their indications differed so much from each other that they could not be fully relied upon. The nature of the investigation required instruments that should mark, if possible, the tenth part of a degree of Fahrenheit; but none that I could obtain was of sufficient sensibility to be "read accurately within half a degree; and, therefore, all indications set down as more minute, must be regarded as conjectures, or interpolated calculations. As I found that no two ther- . mometers agreed with each other, I was aware that it was desir- able one or more should be verified by a comparison with the in- * See continuation, in next number of this Journal. sie r . pi a A sei ; a . t % @ -"* ss. W. Meech on the Sun’s Daily Intensity. 49 .. dications of an unquestionable standard, but this was not attain- able. One common source of error, however, in the observations two or more persons, and in no instance, where there was a dif- Bk: ference of opinion, was the observation recorded. Still, it is pos- _ sible that the conclusions arrived at may in some instances be in- accurate ; for I found that when observations were made by two ' persons on the same thermometer, they often differed from each other as much as a degree, and there is reason for supposing that even when alike they might be erroneous. I have dwelt upon the possibility of error from the imperfection of both thermome- ters and observers, because from the mode of experimenting adopted, a slight difference between the actual heat evolved and that observed, would present a very considerable difference in the proportion in the air itself. . The want of a barometer prevented any modifications in the | eHealation’ of results, on account of variations in the density of | the air ae (To be continued.) = Art. VIL—On the Computation of the Sun's Daily Intensity at the exterior surface of the Eurth, and Secular Changes of Heat; by L. W. Mercu, A.B., Preston, Ct. _ Tuer are reasons for believing that the phenomena of solar heat may be as completely interpreted by analysis as are the tides Of the ocean. The subjoined contribution is offered in pursuance of this object. __ - Before proceeding to the general investigation, Jet it be pro- decrease of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit: in conse- quence of which, the orbit approaches to the form of a circle, and the earth is constantly removing to a greater distance from f the sun, between the apses; the transverse axis remaining inva- niable. Let then e represent the eccentricity, regarded as con- Stant for one year; 9, the radius-vector; 7, the mean anomaly ; and 6, the true anomaly, for any given time. Also it is known that 4/1 —¢2 expresses the whole area of the ellipse ; and f30°d4, that of the elliptic sector corresponding to 6. Whence by Kep- TS law of equal areas, [ an/1—e? : f5092d0:: 24:9, or | ‘a0 dgn/1—e? ; ¢. Srcoxn Senres, Vol. X, No. 28.—July, 1850. 1 50. —-L. W. Meech on the Sun’s Daily Intensity: Since heat varies “inversely as the square of the I ire this equation evidently measures it intensity. ‘T’o ain the.» ° sum of the intensities in a year, the equation must be rind through by the unifagn dy, and integrated between the limits 0° and 27: then rejecting thé constant factor Pie there remains the falative Annual amount of heat = “7s 1) Again, let the slight decrement of ¢ in one or more centuries be denoted by h; writing e-h in place of e and developing for the first power of h by. Taylor’s Theorem; there results the proportional aed o-oo On January 1, 1801, the value of e was 0-01678357, with a centurial decrement of —0-00004163, the centurial value of h. And at this rate the orbit would become a circle in 40,300 years, though it is improbable that it will reach this limit. The dim- inution in a century is readily ascertained by substituting the values of ¢, h, in the last formula, which gives — 0:000 000 69; and it will be shown hereafter in the computation for Mendon, that such numbers are nearly or quite proportional to the corres- ponding degrees of Fahrenheit’s scale. Hence the secular de- crease of the annual quantity of heat, arising from secular change of the sun’s distance alone, is too small to be sensible to the ther- mometer ina hundred years, in a thousand, or in ten thousand years, and scarcely so, at the utmost yao when the orbit be- comes a circle. For even then, the mean temperature on the equator, which is now 82°, would not fall. more than 0-025 of a degree of Fahrenheit. ~ Jt is thus demonstrated that the mean annual heat received by the earth as a whole, is virtually constant during a sidereal year, so far as secular change of the sun’s distance alone is concerned ; and by reason of the nearly constant excess, the same may concluded of the tropical or civil year. II. Again, let it be proposed to ascertain the sun’s relative estan at any given instant during the day. For this purpose Foe L= the ‘ apparent? Latitude of the ‘ais D= the sun’s meridian Declinat j= the sun’s semi-diameter, = the sun’s Altitude, and H= the Hour-angle from noon. Secular diminution = The horizontal projection of the sun’s disc on a plane at the exterior surface of the earth is well known to be an ellipse ; ee *s “L. “W. Meech on the Sun’s Daily Intensity. 51 tir 1 denote“ the sun’s radius, 1 will likewise denote the semi- _ conjugate axis of this projected ellipse ; while the horizontal pro- "jection of 1, which is Sn A’ will be the semi-transverse axis. ans at pe 1 Thesarea of the elliptic projection is therefore 1 Xana X™ But the intensity of the same quantity of heat being inversely as the Space it covers; the ene of this area ——, or rejecting the constant divisor 2, sin A will measure the esi s sntenaty at the altitude A, supposing the distance to be constan But the sun’s intensity further Varies pases as the square of the distance, that is, directly as the et of the apparent diam- eter or semi-diameter of the disc. en 4° sin A measures the sun’s intensity at any given instant dur- ing the da ri To assign the value of sin A, by spherical trizonometry, the sun’s tenes from the pole or co-deelination, and from the pole to the zenith or co-latitude, and the in neluded hout-a ngle from oon H, are given to find the third side, or co-altitude. The well-known formula for this case becomes, by writing sines in- stead of the cosines of their complements, sin A= sin D sin L+cos D cos L cos H, and 4? sinA= 4?sinD sinL+44? cosDcosLeosH. (3.) At the time of the equinoxes, D becomes °, Pee the expression of the sun’s intensity reduces to 4? cosL cosH. That is, the degree of heat at different places, then, peepinay from the equator toward each pole, proportional to the cosines of the respective lati- tudes. At other times of the year, however, a different law of distribution 5 ey as indicated above. e sun’s intensity at a fixed distance being as the sine of the altitude, it follows that the sun shining for sixteen hours at an "altitude of 30°, would raise the temperature of a plain as high, as if it shone for eight hours from an altitude of 90°, or from the zenith, since sin 30° is -5, and sin 90° is 1. III. ‘Proceeding now to the general problem, it is required to determine the quantity of heat radiated upon a given place at the exterior of the earth on any given day. The quantity radiated at any instant, has already been made known, as 4? sin A: hence multiplying the last equation above by the uniform dH, and J#? sinA dH =4? sinD sinL.H+4? cosDcosL sinH. (4.) Regarding H as a semi-diurnal arc, the second member will express the daily quantity of heat for a half day, and so for the whole day. Also by integrating between the limits of any two hour-angles H’, H”, the quantity of heat will be found for any 52s L. W. Meech on the Sun’s Daily Intensity. 2 assigned part of the day. The sun’s declination has” sa. Pe taken as constant, and it might easily be shown that what the » ’ sun radiates by rising earlier than the implied time, is compensa- ted ee a uniform change of declination producing an earlier set- ting su For teiting this frien, the intensities were computed foi the 15th day of each month, on the latitude of Mendon, Mass.; ‘an the results were found to agree very —— with those observed: at that place about one month later,* as follows: the observed values are taken from the American Ansan for 1849, and are derived from fifteen years’ observations. Computed values. Observed values. | | Difference. seer aaa 0 | 28°38 24°.3, Feb 15,..; +190 February-15,:...... 7142 33°.1 $3°.5, March 15,.< + A March 15, 9764 45°.2 45°.8, April 15,732.24 6 April ie ek 12574 58°.3 557.0, May 16) 325s « 6° May lias 14482 67°.1 64°.5, June 15, . 34 2°65 dune Mi vaccines se 15346 | 71°1 | 71°98, July 15,...... +4 SUT oo oars Gees 15085 69°.9 68°.9, August 15, Lp anf) A SIG. esis 134387 62°.3 61°.0, September 15,. pe September 1G) eacis « 10860 50°.3 48°.5, October 15,...| ~—19.8 Qetober 25... 0... 8080 B7c5 38°.9, November 15,./ -+1°4 November 15, ..... 5638 26°.1 27°.7, December gh -| $19.6 December 15, ..... 4510 20°.9 26°.0, January 1 +591 It may be proper to observe that the preceding formula was divided by sin L, a constant factor ; and the numbers in the second column were then successively computed : their sum divided by twelve, gave 10163 as the mean, to be compared with 479.1, the observed mean at Mendon. Then as 10163: 479.1 :: 5040: 23°.3, Jan. 15, ete. Let it also be observed, that the Mendon values are the monthly means, which do not always fall on the 15th day, but nearly so. Before applying the formula further, let it be er by means of the astronomic equation, —cos H=tan nD. Dividing and multiplying the above intensity 7 sin D sin L, and at the same time substituting —cosH for its equal; and tan H, Daily intensity = 4? sin L sin D (H —tan H). (5.) This expression is much simpler than the one before employed, and by thus computing the temperatures for different places, and comparing the results with those actually observed, the extent of local causes will be disclo ste The ease with which daily and monthly temperatures ma w be computed, it is believed will render this formula Vitoable i in meteorological researches. It is * Since writing the above, I find it grgheg A — that the observed epochs of _ Maximum and minimum tempera rature in the th Temperate Zone fall about a assigned for this Besos The reason is, that for about a month after the summer solstice, the eaten con- rag Saga t tinues to receive feng y more heat than it loses at night; and conversely after the winter sol » it loses mo td the day. Be a ern hemisphere 4? is as © LW. Meech on the Sun’s Daily Intensity. 53 to be, mentioned here, that H is an are of a circle whose radius is ‘1, which will readily be found by reducing the degrees and min- Aites, to minutes, and multiplying them by sin 1’, or by multiply- ing the minutes in time by sin 15’; also using the natural tangent _ of H, with its trigonometric sign. When the computation is for _ one place only, sinL being a constant factor may be rejected, ‘leaving, Daily intensity =? sin D(H —tan H.) (6.) For example, the results are subjoined for Calcutta, in latitude 2° 35’ N.; the observed temperatures follow the computed, in order :-— January, 59°.2; 65°.1 | July, 92°.3; 829.6 February, 69°.2; 70°.0 August, 88°.9 ; 82.9: March 197,63: 780.4 September, 82°.5; 82°.4 April, 88°.0; 839.3. | October, 72°.6; 81°.0 May, 92°.0; 85°.5 | November, 61°.8; 73°.4 June, 93°.1; 849.7 | December, 56°.2; 66°.6 From this it appears, that at midsummer about one-tenth of the heat received is carried away by those upward currents which produce the trade-winds, by sea-breezes, and the conducting power of the soil; also a less quantity of heat is restored by the ground, and by winds in mid-winter. IV, Is the temperature of summer and of winter in the south- ern hemisphere, the same as with us, at equal latitudes? On this point, the formula cos H=—tan L tan D, clearly shows that the length of the day there is the same as in the northern hemi- Sphere six mouths later. The difference of temperature is there- fore limited to the values of 4?. Now the earth being nearest the sun at the northern mid-winter or on January Ist, 4? is at a = ; while at mid-winter in the south- that time measured by : . : de (The The difference is ne) or the proportional difference, taking our mid-winter’s tempera- bed = de — 8e? +.,.=0:06 nearly. 1+e)? - The southern mid-winter is therefore from 1° to 2° colder; and per year, which in time will return to the southern hemisphere the advantage Wwe now possess. The summer season of the southern temperate zone being hotter, is also shorter by about eight days than in the northern hemisphere ; which difference is ascribed to the more rapid motion of the earth about the perigee. Yat Meech on the Sun’ s Daily intensity. AS * V. Are the winters now, as cold as at the first settlement of: New England : ? The impression generally prevails that the win- » ters are growing milder, and the spring is later than formerly... norma the snows have not been so deep as in the days of Cot- ather; neither has Boston bay nor the Chesapeake of late hime been frozen over, as far as the eye could reach. So far as this ehange is astronomic, and not the result of local cha it may be determined by means of the formula Dai ily intensity = 4? sin D (H—tan nae i In the first place, let it be proposed to ascertain the change of each factor, for the last two centuries, which will refer the form- ula to the epoch of A. D. 1650, the period of our colonial history. The first factor 4°, depends for its value on the anom maly 6, whic has an annual change of 11.8, and on the eccentricity e, which has a secular variation of 0.000041. Accordingly, introducing these increments into the analytic expression for the inverse square of the radius-vector, which is the value of 4?, and devel- oping by Taylor’s Theorem, it is found that both sources of vari- ation cannot affect the present values of 4 within the fourth sig- nificant figure, in two centuries: hence these sources of change may be safely neglected in the present calculation. The second factor, sinD=sinw sin’; where » denotes the obliquity of the ecliptic, and 'T' the sun’s Tongitdds: Since the tropical or civil year is the interval between two successive re- turns to the same longitude, sin T ought in the present case to be regarded as constant. But in referring back, » has a secular in- crease of 45.7, or 91.4 in two centuries. Let this increment be denoted by w’’, and the contemporary increment of D by D” Then developing for the first power of each in the above equa- tion, by Taylor’s Theorem, cosD.D”=cosm sinT.”. Here substituting the value of sin T from the preceding equation, and dividing by cos D, “=coto» tan D. w” For the third factor involving the Gest icrial arc H, astrono- my gives —cos H=tan L tan a en developing as before, by Taylor’s Theorem, sin H.H”=tan L. D’~cos?D. Substituting for D” its value found above, sek dividing by the preceding equa- tion, ~ cos H=tan Coto. oo! tan H.H”= atD Recurring now to the formula of daily intensity, let it be de- noted by S, at the same time developing for the first power 0 2 increments of the two variables, D, H; the resulting incre- ent is tt or gars) sin D °° D- ee - a L. W. Meech on the Sun’s Daily Intensity. 55 ee Séot D .D”—S tan? H .H”—(H — tan H). © : ae i‘ . And substituting the values of D”, and H”, it becomes ah mi g » Scotw.o”+S tan H cot. o’”~+(H —tan H) cos? D, * which may further be reduced, and dividing by 8, the propor- - tonal secular r _ Increment of heat =coto.w (H +tan H tan? D)—(H -tan H). (7.) Lastly; restoring the value of §, there results the absolute lar ~ secula Increment of heat = 4? sin D cot ». «(H+ tan H tan? D). _ At the time of the equinoxes, D, and with it this increment becomes zero: the greatest values may hence be inferred to pre- vail near the solstices when D equals ». For example, comput- ing by formula (7) the proportional increment for December 15, on the latitude of Mendon, and multiplying into the observed number of degrees, it appears that two centuries ago, the mid- Winter was colder by 0°.035 F., and the mid-summer hotter by -025 F'.: that is, the temperature of the year is growing more equable by slight gradations. It has already been shown in IV, that the year is remarkably so, compared with that in the south- ern hemisphere. That the spring is now later, may be accounted for, by the fact that less snow falls, and the ground being uncovered, has, during the winter, radiated more heat into space, and so at the Opening of spring is colder than when covered through the win- ter by a deep stratum of non-conducting snow. And in general, change of seasons, winds, evaporation, etc., these laws, especially the formulas in III, may yet serve as a basis for computing a prioré the dew-point, monthly humidity, and range of the barometer. Lastly, among other secondary causes which tend with striking ; ‘Uniformity to counteract extremes of heat and cold, is the vast Size of the sun. Were the same amount of light and heat radi- ated from a body smaller than the earth, the effects would be re- Stricted to a smaller portion of the earth’s surface. But as it is, the sun constantly illuminates half the earth’s surface and a belt around the earth sixteen miles wide besides, which may be termed ‘the zone of differential radiation ;’ and this is yet very much Widened by atmospheric refraction. The effect of this arrange- ment is evidently to maintain a warmer temperature, besides ren- ting the transitions more mild and gradual. In conclusion, the evidences of stability of temperature demonstrated in the present article, it is proper to observe, strikingly accord with the authori- tative declaration, that, ‘‘ while the earth remaineth, seed-time and harvest, and cold and heat, and 1 winter, shall not cease.” Art. VIII.—WNotice of Fossil Bones from the eee oc femphis, Tennessee ; by, Jerrries Wyman :M. Dr ville, and, as is supposed, from the diluvium of the Mississippi. y are repregentatives of the following genera of mammals, viz.*Mastodon, Megalonyx, Castor, Castoroides. They all present points of interest, especially the last three, which belong to gen- era whose remains are either quite rare or but very impertect y sie s yet, our knowledge of the osteology of Megalonyx is far behing that of the allied genera Megatherium and wed ae its dentition likewise is but very imperfectly understood, any fragments of bones and teeth of Megalonyx doubtless exist in public and private collections in this country, which are yetun-— described. Any notices of individual specimens, especially of the teeth, which may be published, will be of great value to the pa- leontologist i in enabling him to form more complete ideas of the organization of this most interesting race of extinct animals as well as of its geographical distribution. ‘he remains of Castoroides are exceedingly rare and are known only from a lower jaw and some of the bones of the entrees discovered in Ohio, and described for the first time by Mr. Foster from fragments of bones discovered by Dr. Dickerson in the neighborhood of Natchez, Miss., and ; cranium nearly entire found in the town of ae in New Yor Although the Cas- — toroides has so wide a ographical Pde: 2 sox the above con- — stitute the only rec aliticn | excepting the one noticed in this com- — munication, references to which have fallen under my observation. e remains of beavers in a fossil condition would seem from the absence of published reports, to be quite as rare as those of the preceding genus. Doubtless many of them exist in cabinets, — with the American species,) have been found in England, gen- erally in peat bogs,* in the ‘cade “of Perthshire and Berwickshire in Scotland,t and on the continent in the valley of the Somme British Fossil Mam. and Birds, Pi a: ; Tpall Principles of Geology, vol. iii, p. 3 ‘Dr. I . Wyman on Fossil Bones from Memphis, Tonks mys 4 in Picafdy,* in the Peat ‘of Flanders, and on the shores of Lake % ‘In this country Prof. Spencer F*. Baird, in an interesting com- amiinication to the American Aésociation for the Advancement of ‘Science, states that in one of the caves in Pennsylvania, he has f the remains of recent beavers associated gvith bones of re- i . cent. of the whole, of extinct species.t I have mot been able to find any notice of remains of beavers found in the United States in a fossil condition. At present, beavers are confined to, the more northern districts, extending as far as the Mackenzie river, a lat. 67° or 68°, thot ugh w e have occasional notices of their exist- —. Ing as far south as the mountains of North Carolina, (S. B. Buck- — Teysin Am. Journ. a vol. iui, [2], p. 434,) and in several places i (Prof. R. T. Bru umley in Am. Jour. Sc., vol. iv, mar. wo “maven b] | po Ala., and Flanders county, Ky. De Bachman thinks | th formerly existed over the whole continent as a3. sbuith as | the tropic Cancer.{ | No. 1. Mastodon giganteum.—This was one of the earlier teeth ofa young Mastodon ; the longest diameter of the crown 18 inch ; its transverse diameter at the posterior edge was 16 ffich:. -and at the anterior 1-2 inch, allowance being made for the enamel which is in part deficient. The points of the crown ee been entirely worn off, the come ne surface is quite oblique, highest on its outer edge, somewhat excavated, and very beauti- fally polished. At the posterior inner aigle the crown is worn low the level of the enamel, but on its outer face remains of ‘the bases of three ridges are still visible, invested with their coat- ing of enamel. he remains of two roots or fangs still exist, one of which _ had been almost wholly absorbed, and the other had the length = of an inch, although absorption of its extremity had obviously taken place. The small size of this tooth, together with the ex- _ istence of but three ridges on the crown, indicate that it was the third tooth i in the series. than the Sseniling: wn was more worn, its su less oblique and more deeply excavated Nig one of its margins, vestiges of three ridges remain, and in addition a vestige of a rudimentary fourth ridge. ‘The longest easniee of the grinding lace was 2-7 inches; its larger transverse diameter 2:1, and its Foss., tome bry P. 108, 4th edit., of Science " Cambridge, 1849, p. 352. . Quad. of America, vol. i, p. 356. 8 58 Dr. Ss Bwindi on Fossil Bones from Memphis, Tenn. smaller 1‘8 inch. This, from its greater size, as well as from tin existence of a radimentary fourth ridge, was probably the fourth tooth in the se ¢ : “The sPaeotita sf the fangs, as well as the grinding down: of the crown have een carried so far, that it seems quite probable that it actually had been, or was just upon the point of being shed. “No. 3. Tooth of Megalonyr laqueatus Harlan. —This t ott which is represented of its natural size in the adjoining figures, (figs, 1 and 2,) has the grinding surface perfect, but the opposite extremity is broken off. ‘The form of the grinding portion is elongated oval, has an excavation in the middle, which is continu- 1-6 inch, anal its transverse 0-8 tooth there exists a strongly pro- jecting ridge, vee extends from the crown tot On the ground surface, thee distinct por- tions may be discovered, viz., Ist, a central one (fig. 2 a), con sisting of ossified pulp, osteo-dentine, 2d, a middle portion (b) of dentine, and 3d, an outer incrustation of crusta petrosa, (c). ‘The outer edge of the dentinal portion formsa sharp and prominent ridge around the circumference of the At the broken end, the ale cav- ity is quite large, having walls of _ Figs.1, 2 Upper Toath of Megalonyx—nat- only about (2 inch in thickness, “"Fig 1" inner faee. eb i Fig. 2, crown.—a. Osteo-dentine, 5. De 7 with a compact ,# 3 tows perrose. | 4 S| * With regard to the succession of the teeth of the lower jaw of the Mastodon, ~ the soggeb B rule holds good: the Ist and 2d molars have each two transverse ; 3 a with an anterior = Bape basal ridge; 4th, has three | ble ri ridges ° wi be , larger ; 6th, a ou ri rapier s “Aili ith, five ridges and a talon. See Owen's tography, p. 620; a J. B.S. Jackson, M.D., Proceedings of Bost. + ‘ * ee * ) Dr. J. Wyman on Fossil Bones from Memphis, Tenn. 59 ( ‘This tooth resembles that of M. Jeffersonii, figured by Cuvier in “% the Ossemens Fossiles, in the existence of the lateral ridge, but in __ * its proportions does not materially differ from that of M. laqueatus, : Harlan, described and figured in his Med. and Phys. Researches. No. 4. An ungueal phalanx of Megalonyrs—This is imper- fect.and was from a young animal, as is indicated by the fact the epiphysis forming the articulating surface was not céossified with the body of the bone, and has been detached. (Fig. 3.) Its general resemblance to the corresponding part of one of the Carnivora is sufficiently strong to render excusable the error of President Jef- erson, who referred some remains of Megalonyx to this group of animals. . 3. Ungueal phalanx of Megalonyx. Two-thirds natural size. An ungueal phalanx of Megalonyx is distinguished from that of either Mylodon or Megatherium, by its greater lateral com- pression, by its more trenchant upper edge, as well as by the ab- Sence of a marked flattening or indentation of this last near the key It does not appear that the osteology of the foot of egalonyx has as yet been much more definitely made out than is its dentition. Je * a ec ec eee -_ Soc. Nat, Hist., vol. ii, pp. 60 and 140. Dr. Jackson has shown by actual examina- tion that the molar took described by Prof. Owen as replacing the first and second milk teeth, and developed in the jaw beneath them in Mastodon angustidens, does not exist in the Mastodon giganteum. * Owen's Memoir on the Mylodon, p. 106. son ae 60 Dr. J. Wyman on Fossil Bones from Memphis, Tenn. flattened and is divided by a prominent ridge, which forming: the base of the tuberosity in front, becomes gradually thicker. » ~. and stronger as it merges into the latter. Laterally near the point . 7” and at the base are numerous vascular channels and openings; ~ one orifice of much greater size than the rest, exists on each side’ just above the tuberosity, and from it several deeply im pressed channels extend towards ve cen of the bone. ‘The tuber- as osity projects from each s the bone, the upper surface of © this projection being Pedveted into a deep and narrow channel. be ngonsequence of the absence of a part of this bone, the pro- portional measurements of the whole cannot be given. ‘Its great- est height from the tuberosity vertically upwards is 3 inches, its greatest thickness is one inch; from the apex to the middle of its greatest vertical diameter 3°5 inches. aa . . . Bibliography of the genus Megalonyx :— Jefferson, President. Memoir on the discovery of certain quad- rupeds of the clawed kind, in the western parts of Virginia: Am. Philosoph. Trans., Ist series, vol. iv, 6. Wistar, Caspar, Dr. Description of the bones deposited by President — in the Museum of the ae With plates. hilos. Soc., Ist series, vol. iv, p. 5 Cuvier. Ossemens. Fossiles. Tom. viii, Hs “30d Pl. 216. Fourth edition. 1836. Harlan, Richard. Medical and Phys. Researches, pp. 319, 271, 331 “« American Jour. Science, vol. xliii, p. 141; vol. xliv, p. 69; xlv, p. 209. ¢ Journal Acad. Nat. Sciences, vol. vi, p. 269. This pa- per contains a description of numerous parts of the skeleton. Troo Remains of Megalonyx in Tennessee. Trans. Geolog. "bad Penn., vol. i, p. 144, . Owen, Richard. Memoir on the Mylodon. See his numerous of families, genera and species of this group. p. 168. «Letter to the editors on Dr. Harlan’s notice of new fossil ammalia, Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xliv, p. 341. “' Odontography, p. 333, pl. 80, fig. “Fossil co Nanmmaaea of the Beagle. Pt. I. pp. 63, Sails, ates a 99. PL'x Dekay. Nat. Hist. N. Y. Pel Z oology of Mammalia, p. 99. Blainviile. Recherches sur l’ancienneté des Edentés terrestres au ocacad = la terre. Comptes Rendus, Jan. 1839, pp. 39. “ Osteogra ie. ’ Fascic. Gravi Lund, Dr. Extrait d’une sities pia Lunde ecri itée a Lagoa Santa, (Brezil.) Comptes Rendus—Seance, Avril 15, 1839, p. 570. = | 3 ‘Dr. J. Warman on Fossil Bones from Memphis, Tenn. eet *- . p.167. This contains an enumeration of all the bones of Mega- ». lonyx discovered previous to that date (1833), with accurate ana- tomical observations. Am. Monthly Magazine, vol. i, p. 157. Penny Cyclopedia. Article Megatheride. Doellinger. Spix and Martius—Reise in Brazil, Band. II, p. 5. Lund, Dr. Blik paa Brasilens, &c. View of ‘the Fauna of Brazil prior to the last geological revolution. Quarto. Kjében- havn, 1838, p. 21. » E ; Cooper, William. Annals Lyceum Nat. Hist. N. York, vol. iii, ‘ezIs [RINIeNY ‘snuRdJeuIU ‘aqYy ‘g Jo Mer IOMO'T ISIY No. 5. Lower Jaw of a Beaver.—This is the jaw of the right side, (fig. 4,) is deficient in a portion of the coronoid process which is ken obliquely across from the condyle to near its base in ow de Atom of the “angle” of the bone is likewise de- stroyed, and the first and fourth molar teeth are lost. In its general 62 Dr. s Wyman on Fossil Bones from Memphis, Tem, conformation it a very nearly with that of a ‘epelatann or fiber, americanus), from the neigh- . borhood of Moose-head eo except that the impressions for the: attachments of the temporal and masseter muscles are more of a common beaver strongly marked in the fossil than in the recent specimen. ‘Fhe form of the condyle is somewhat different in the two; that of | the fossil specimen being longer in its antero-posterior diame- ter and resting offa much broader neck; the whole jaw when viewed from above is also more curved, ‘having the form of an ~ italic f —e strongly marke Th ond and third molars alone exist, and on close compari- son pallens: some peculiarities not found in the recent jaw. The anterior fold of enamel in each tooth which is directed across nearly the whole breadth of the crown from the inner to -the outer edge, is slightly involuted (fig. 4 a,) at the point where it approaches the outer surface, “hy that of the recent specimen forms a simple rounded terminatio } The oe dimensions of ‘the fossil and recent specimens are as follow Length ae tip of incisor to mae of eer: 3°9 inches. The same in the recent specime 35% Length of the alveolar process fo the molars, ». The same in the recent specime : 3 Bees No. 5. This is an yee niiiline only, of a left lower jaw, and contains the 2d, 3d and 4th molars, which gradually become smaller from the second me the fourth. The teeth of this speci- men present the same complication of the folds of enamel as in the preceding on No. 7. Isa fegusti of the left incisor tooth of a beaver, but both extremities are broken off. In its dimensions it corresponds with the same tooth in No. 5, but is of much darker color and appears to have come from a different locality. Remar he differences between the teeth of the fossil and recent eaciteai above referred to, would, in the minds o many naturalists, be sufficient grounds for the establishment of an additional species. I have made comparisons with only two recent specimens, and do not pacer myself justifiable in form- ing a new species, until by a careful examination of several jaws, the limit of natural variations be determined. It is not improba~’ ble that the above differences come within that natural limit, or may be a sexual peculiarity. It is certainly a matter of some interest and importance to determine if the fossil and recent spe- cies are identical. No. 8. Castoroides Ohioensis, Foster.—The most interesting specimen from the Memphis collection is a large fragment of the right half of the lower jaw of this recently discovered species, 4 species not only interesting for some of its osteological peculiari- coy tes te “hh > j ¥ : i : a Dr. J. Wyman on Fossil Bones from Memphis, Tenn. 63 ties, but for the fact of its being the most gigantic member of the _-order of Rodents hitherto discovered, whether recent or fossil.* _; ‘The present fragment is 7-3 inches in length, though the con- dyle, coronoid process, “angle” and the whole of the under por- tion of the jaw have been broken off—a portion of the notch (sig- moid ) between the condyle and coronoid process remains. The four molar teeth with their alveolar dependencies are entire, and a large fragment of an incisor tooth is still preserved lodged in its _ partly destroyed alveolus. The jaw is larger and somewhat more massive that the one described by Mr. Foster, but in other re- spects does not appear to differ materially from it. An approxima- tion to the proportional dimensions of the three jaws which have been noticed may be deduced from the following measurements. Length of the grinding surface of the molars in ae ern lg | The specimen from New York, 2:74 inches. | 66 pepe ‘“c Ohio, 2:8 “c | ease Rhy «© Memphis, 3-1 %, In some other measurements the Memphis specimen ‘Be largest, has four lamine, the first quite small and the third the longest and the most oblique. On a o*e © 64 “Dr. J. Woman on Fossil Bones jrom Memphis, 7 Tenn, tooth. The outer groove is situated between: ats saleul and. third plates and the inner between the second a rst, but in» consequence of. the obliquity of the third plate, are ee Oppo- . . site. The fourth tooth is the smallest, the lamine are all nearly parallel to each other and the Tateral grooves are much less deep than in sa preceding teeth. It not appear from any examination which I have made . pe of the laexal teeth, that the different lamine are united togeth- _ er at their bases by a continuous layer of enamel passing from — one plate to the other, as is the case in the teeth of the elephant. — Each tooth appears to be made up of a series of flattened denti- nal sohucties invested with enamel and simply cemented together by crusta petrosa The incisor tooth in a transverse section is of a triangular form, with rounded angles; its inner face smooth and concave, its an- terior convex and fluted with well a ea parallel grooves, and its posterior convex and smooth. ouble curvature of this tooth is quite remarkable ; when od laterally its curve is that of the segment of a cirele : when viewed from below it has a curv- ature in a plane at right angles to the preceding, which curve as is shown very distinctly in the cast of Mr. Foster’s specimen is in the form of an./, as is,the case in the beaver and many other Rodents. If both of these: curves were continued they would produce a spiral. It is well known that the incisor teeth of Rodents are constantly wearing away at the apex, and are as constantly replaced at the base, so that if we would suppose the growth continued through life, and that no abrasion took place, there would be lies produced a spiral of several revolutions in the form of a cork-screw. We have an approximation to this in Rodents which have lost one of their incisors, and in whom the opposite one no longer worn off, has continued - increase in length sometimes forming more than one revolution. The remains of the Castoroides though they have edo been found, have nevertheless as already stated, a wide geographical distribution, having been discovered in New York k, Ohio, Tennes- see and Louisiana, and in all these localities except New York, have been associated with the remains of the Mastodon; and Mr. — ; Hall refers the deposit in which the New York specimen waS found to the same period as the deposits in which the Mastodon has been discovered in the neighboring portions of that state.t It is also interesting to notice the existence of the remains of Castor and Castoroides in the same localities, one of which con- tinues to the present period, and the other, the gigantic representa- tive of the Rodents, has disappeared with the corresponding oné of the Pachyderms. ens 637 and 838. | act i soa i etme Castoroides Ohioensis—By James Hall, Esq., and Dr. J. Wyman. Boston Jour nal of Nat. Hist, vol. v, p. 884. , Lee . + Pg *.©. *. Sky. % . ‘ Dr. C. T. Jackson on the Geological Structure, §c. 65 Art. IX.—On the Geological Structure of Keweenaw Point; oe by Dr. C. T. Jackson, U. S. Geologist. (From the Proceedings of the American Association, 2nd meeting, held at Cambridge, 1849, p. 288.) Tuts remarkable promontory extends from the south side of . Lake Superior nearly into the middle of the Lake, from 46° 40’ to 47° 2% north latitude, and is comprised between 87° 55’ and cal interest. On the immediate coast, excepting at a few points, the first rocks that meet the eye of the geologist are a coarse Con- glomerate, made up of large rounded and smobth pebbles of red porphyry quartz, altered slate and sandstone, masses of epidote rock, syenite and hard greenstone trap, fnostly of the porphyritic variety, and regular strata of fine grained red and grey or mottled sandstone, devoid of any fossil contents.’ ‘ The direction of the strata of sandstone and conglomerate is parallel to the line of uplift of the trap rocks, or E.N.E., W.S.W. Its dip is toward the W.N.W., at various angles, being greatest hear the trap rocks, which come between their strata and divide the great masses of sandstone throughout the whole length of the promontory. The strata remote from the trap on Keweenaw Bay, and the opposite side of the point, at the ‘portage, are hori- zontal or but slightly waving, while near the trap rocks the dip of the strata is generally as high as 30°, and sometimes more. € conglomerate rock is limited to the borders of the trap range, and is of the same geological age as the finer grained sandstones, and alternates with them. __ : _ At the line of junction of the trap rocks and sandstones, the sandstone and trap are interfused, producing that singular an very important metamorphic rock amygdaloid, a rock closely re- sembling the vesicular lava of volcanoes, but having its cavities filled with a great variety of curious and interesting minerals. In the memoir published by Mr. Alger and myself on the min- eralogy and geology of Nova Scotia, in the American Journal of Science, vols. xiv, xv, 1828, will be found an account of the ori- gin of amygdaloidal rocks, like those of Keweenaw Point, and it May not be uninteresting to compare the trappean ranges on € Superior with those of Nova Scotiaa On inspection of the map it will be seen that the great trappean band on Keweenaw Szconp Sznres, Vol. X, No. 28.—July, 1850. = Aer os OMe ag 2 Se as. if oy : Fe le — «66 Dro’, x. Jackson on the. Pee - Point is parallel with that on the borders of the Bay of Fundy in Nova Scotia, and it will be further noticed on examination of _ the geology of these distant regions, the conditions of the rocks are similar, if not identical. The trap of Nova Scotia, like that n Lake Superior, protrudes from below the red sandstone, sup- posed to be the new red, and passes between the strata in the line — = of least resistance. Amyedaloid, with species of minerals simi- lar to those of Lake Superior, excepting Prehnite, which is rarely — found in Nova Scotia, exist also at the line of junction of the © ey trap rocks and sandstones of Nova Scotia. Native copper occurs in the che deton of Lake tai Heulandite is rare in the ke Superior trap rocks, while it is extremely abundant in Nova Scotia, but the other minerals are of the same species in both laces. It will be observed on examination of the geological maps, that the same gentle crescentic curving of the trap bands towards the northwest was noticed in both countries, a fact also recorded by Dr. Percival and Prof. Rogers, in their reports on the geology of Connecticut and New Jersey. eneral geological laws seem to have prevailed in all the re- gions where trap rocks have burst through sandstone, the effeets of heat being recognizable, and proportional to the relative mass- es of intruded rocks. It cannot fail to 7 every geologist familiar with rocks of igneous origin, and their effects on sedimentary strata, that the history of the origin of ve rocks is indelibly recorded, and that they are really lavas that have risen from the interior of the globe through fractures in its crust, taking the line of least resistance by passing between the strata, By the influence of heat the sedimentary strata were interfused with the igneous rocks, and it is a singular fact that amygdaloid is most abundantly produced by the action of trap rocks on sand- stone, and that copper is the most usual metal found in the fis- sures, amygdules, and pockets of the resulting amygdaloid. True workable veins of native copper in this class of rocks had not been described, so far as I know, anterior to my researches on Lake Superior, and it was regarded as contrary to all experience that this metal should thus occur in quantities sufficient for prof- itable mining. The only locality where native copper has been mined to any extent, is in Siberia, but the metal is not in trap. Having satisfied myself of the fact that adequate quantities of the metal did exist in veins in the amygdaloid trap of Lake Su- perior, I ventured to recommend the opening of mines on Ke- weenaw Point, on and near Eagle River, and the result has proved that native copper veins can be profitably wrought. I mention Sewer Gs >: . al < Geological Structure of Keweenaw Point. 67 this fact now in order to recall to your minds the objections that were made to my views on this subject at our meeting in Haven, in 1845. The predictions I then made are now fully verified. - Nature of the Veins in the Trap rocks.—There are two class- es of veins known to miners on Lake Superior, viz.: Ist. Those running with the “country,” or parallel to the course of stratified rocks through which the trap rocks pass—veins that are sometimes -. called beds, or interstratified masses. And 2nd. Those which cross the “country,” or cut transversely at various angles the line of di- rection of the strata. These last are called true veins, and are the only ones on which miners have thus far placed reliance as to their continuing rich to any considerable depth. [ do not regard the question as fully set- tled by experience in this district, that mining should be confined to the transverse veins, for there is reason to believe that both classes of veins are of the same origin, and no facts have yet been adduced to prove that veins running with the “country” cannot be advantageously wrought. On the contrary, it is known that large quantities of native copper are raised from this class of veins on the Ontonagon River, and it is probable that some on Isle Royale will ultimately prove valnable. A few good practi- cal experiments in mining will settle this mooted point in practi- eal geology. It is obvious, since the trap rocks are not reall stratified, that this class of veins cannot be correctly denominated interstratified, though they may be imbedded. The first class of veins run, as will be understood by what I have previously said, nearly E.N.E., W.S.W., varying with the flexures of the line of junction of the trap and sandstone, and are included between the two rocks in amygdaloid or in epidote, this mineral being the most usual gangue or matrix of the copper. Regular walls of solid copper of some inches in thickness, have en observed in one of the new mines opened in the Ontonagon River, and sheets of considerable size have been found in the east and west veins on Isle Royale. Mining operations are now in progress to test the permanency of these veins; we shall know in a year or two the results. The second class or tranverse veins run generally in a course N. 26° to 30° W., S. 26° to 30° E., and consequently cut across the line of direction of the trap rocks and adjacent strata, They rap. following species of minerals: prehnite, calc spar, laumonite, dite, quartz, datholite, chabasite, mesotype, apophyllite, , analcime, and wollastonite. * 68 Rie De Al Jackson on tua i : The most common veinstone is Gaaiiies which oceurs in reg- ular symmetrical veins, the prehnite encrusting the sides of the. ~ fissures and closing in the middle of it by sul da wogenip botryoidal surfaces. At the surface these veins are rarely more than six’ r, the presence of which in decomposed veins is most read- co ily detected by spots of green carbonate of copper, derived from exposure of the metal to the air and water. These narrow and .~ rock, until at last the prehnite gives way to copper and its space is entirely occupied by it, a thick vein of solid copper filling the ssure, while the prehnite was either absorbed by the _ or the épuditian of the rock was such that it could not be form At the Cliff Mine of the Boston and Pittsburg Minis Gouna ny, the vein at the top of the cliff consisted of prehnite, contain- ing only minute scales of copper, and was only six inches wide, but it was found on descending that this vein widened, about two hundred feet lower down, to ‘eighteen inches, and lower still it had widened to two feet, and was charged with from five to thirty per cent. of metallic copper, and some particles of silver. The average yield of a large sample of the vein at the surface was found to be 5,°;th per cent. of copper, and it was estimated that the ore could be practically “ bucked” or picked up to 15 per cent. The width of the vein was estimated to be three feet at the base of the hill, where it was still concealed from view by the soil. On driving a level into the cliff and one at the base of the hill, the vein was proved to be much richer than at the surface, and on sinking a shaft to the depth of 226 feet below the base of the hill, it exposed sheets of copper varying in thickness from a few inches to three feet. These masses of copper filled the vein, and the prehnite and other zeolitic minerals disappeared. By earrying forward levels at the proper points, sixty feet below each other, and by stoping out the backs of the levels, large flattened ellipsoidal masses of copper were exposed, and removed by heavy blasts of gunpowder. ‘These masses were then cut up by mor- tising out channels through them by means of steel chisels, driven by a heavy sledge hammer. Some idea may be formed of the rapid increase in srs of this lode by comparing the poor prehnite vein at the top of the hill with the ponderous masses of pure copper ion are now cut up in the mine below. Oue mass of pure copper extracted while I was on the survey, weighed eighty tons, and other masses prob- ably of equal magnitude were in process of being uncovered. ‘Taking into accouut the height of the cliff in which the vein is seen, and the depth of the shafts at its base, we have the vein proved 526 feet deep, and thus far it has been steadily enriching, and has surpassed the most sanguine expectations of all the miners and geologists who had examined it. - wu _ | Geological Structure of Keweenaw Point. 69 © alfeady this: mine sends to market nearly a thousand tons of - copper ore per annum, the ore being estimated to contain sixty per cent. of pure copper after it is cleansed of the adhering rock. . ‘This mine, it is understood, has paid for itself and made a divi- — dend of ten dollars per share to its owners. It is highly probable that other mines on Keweenaw Point, if _ Wrought with the same energy and skill, would prove equally ~. valuable, but thus far no mining equivalent to that of the Boston and Pittsburg Mining Company has been attempted, and it is dif- ficult to find a miner so competent to the task as Capt. om the Cornish miner, who has had charge of this remarkable m T exhibit to you a profile and plan of the mine, in which all ihe preg are fully delineated. ong other promising mines are the North American, the Ginaee Falls, the Northwest, and the Phenix, all of which have en sufficiently proved to warrant the belief that they can be advantageously wrought, but still it must be remembered that even in the best known mineral districts, mines frequently fail to prove profitable from causes that are not at once foreseen. he North American Compan y’s mines are situated very near the Cliff mine, on the west branch of Eagle River, and are now wrought with energy, and give promise of success nearly equal to that of the Cliff mine before described. The veins are similar in their nature and in their contents, so that I need not describe them. e Copper Falls mines have been opened to a considerable €xtent, and from one of the veins a single mass of copper was taken that weighed eight tons. It was sawed into pieces and sent | to market. [ exhibit to the section a specimen sawed from this ' _Mass. It is perfectly pure copper, and as dense as the purest ham- mered copper of commerce, showing its perfect fineness. ‘There isa rae proportion of native silver mixed with the cop- per of this mine, and in the green veinstone, a specimen of which I lay before you. Silver is found also in most of the copper ines of the lake, and frequently in suflicient quantities to be of commercial value. It is most curiously united with the copper, and in some of the pieces I lay before you, the metallic copper is actually porphyritic with masses of silver, and yet the silver is utely pure, and the copper is also pure, there being no alloy- ing or chemical union, but a mere metallic cementation at the line of contact. This phenomenon is seen in all the localities on the lake where native copper and silver occur together, and this State of the metals must have arisen from a common cause acting | in every one of the veins. It is not capable of being explained in the present state of chemical and geological knowledge, and is 4 subject for experimental research. ‘The solution of this ques- tion will lead to an explanation of the origin of the native cop- per Schott silver veins, the rationale of which we have not yet : P : : . %y 2 oe By . 70 Dr. C. T. Jackson on | the Wr es re ~~ , All the experiments I have devised and éxiibdned: to discover: :3 the cause of the separation of the copper and silver, as seen in» these specimens, have given negative results. ‘The experiments were made on fused alloys of silver and copper. The metals did not separate by galvanic aha Little has yet been a to- s extensive working of the Northwest Company’s copper. Alvin: It is situated a few et from Eagle Harbor, = several « ~ rich veins of native copper, with some native silver, have been.- | discovered and wrought to a pare epth. The want of confi- {°. dence in this new kind of mining onvealy the investment of sufficient capital and the employment of a sufficient mining force to Iam confident, that, with capital and skill, this company’s mine might soon be rendered profitable. The old Lake Superior Company, the first organized for min- ing on Lake Superior, was unsuccessful in its first operations from several causes, among which the want of miners capable of carrying on the work in a proper manner was the chief; and it aes from districts wholly unlike “ce one ets were sent to = There was also an erroneous opinion prevalent among mat the original stockholders that mining could be made pictidabas from the outset,—a most fallacious ‘idea. The company soon closed up its mining operations, and I have heard that a new or- ganization has been since adopted, and it is hoped, if mining op- erations are again begun, a regular system will be pursued, mod- elled after the plan of the Boston and Pittsburg Company’s work- ings. ‘The Lake Superior or Phenix Company’s veins are rich in native copper and silver, — although the leader or prehnite vein — is but a few inches wide, it will doubtless lead to a solid copper vein, like those heretofore prise tae Masses of pure copper, of large size, weighing some thousands of pounds, were obtained from an ancient ravine or excavation that had been worn out by the river running over the vein, and large pieces of silver were also found. ‘These show the contents of the lode in the true vein. Most of the work heretofore executed at this mine has been done in the western wall of the vein and not in the vein itself. ‘To the company owning the Lake Superior mine is due the credit of the earliest mining enterprise on the Lake, and those who have followed after them should remember that they opened the way and introduced the business of mining into the then un- broken wilderness of Lake Superiar. Pa. eee pa te ee a a eve: -.. Geological Structure of Keweenaw Point. 71 It is still a question among geologists and miners whether veins ‘were filled by igneous injection or sublimation, or by aqueous _ and galvanic deposition. ‘This question is one of very great sci- entific and practical interest, and is exceedingly difficult to an- La -Swer so far as relates to the native copper and native silver of ‘Lake Superior. The objections to the igneous origin of native copper are, Ist, - that the metal bears the imprint of crystals of prehnite, as seen _. in the specimen I lay before the section, and we cannot account for the fact that this zeolite was not rendered anhydrous by the _ Molten copper. 2dly, that if the copper was melted, since its - fusing poiut is much higher than that of silver, that the silver is not alloyed with the copper, but is separate from even a trace of it in chemical combination, though small particles and large lumps of silver are mixed and united with the metallic copper. These objections are equally strong against the theory of sub- limation of the copper, and since silver is not volatile at the highest temperature of our furnaces, we could not account for the presence of that metal by a simultaneous sublimation of the metals Against the theory of its aqueous deposition, or its origin from any solution of copper, it may be urged that if the metal was in chemical solution, no material capable of causing its decomposi- tion with the deposition of the copper in a metallic state exists in the vein, and no salt, if any supposed acid solvent, which would result from the decomposition of its combination, exists in the vein, Again, it would be impossible for the chasm to contain a Sufficiency of any copper solution, however concentrated, to pro- duce the solid metallic copper filling the fissure, for, as before observed, the masses of copper are from a foot to three feet in thickness, and occupy the whole space of the sundered rock. Galvanic segregation it has been supposed would explain the _ Origin of these copper veins. But we may ask, from what was the copper segregated? It is impossible for galvanism to create the metal from the ingredients of trap rocks, or sandstone ; and We can hardly imagine any arrangement of the rocks that would produce a galvanic battery with its poles so arranged as to effect the deposition of a vein of solid copper two or three feet in thickness. {t is well known that the trap rocks are magnetic, and that they possess polarity at the surfaces of disjunction. This has been fully substantiated by the researches of Dr. Locke and oth- ts on the Lake Superior mineral lands, but this magnetism is ce. Viously the effect of the earth’s inductive magnetism exerted on the very large proportion of magnetic iron ore entering into se the composition of the trap rocks, a quantity so large that I have Seen pig iron made directly from those rocks by fusion in a blast furnace, about ‘twelve per cent. of iron sede sednced fom: is k and we know, from the experiments of Dr. Locke, that e fragments of the trap rock are both magnetic and polar. It eo mains to be proved that there are any electric currents in the native copper veins, for such currents are by no means proved by devia- ae * eo" OF. Lanes on ae ane = ee ly tions of the magnetic needle, which are iit produced by. the magnetic polarity of the trap rock its The occurrence of bright scales and natlact crystals of native * per in —— erystals of prehnite, datholite, cale spar, and cop quartz, would seem to indicate a simultaneous deposition of the copper and i cigatallined minerals including it, or that they re impregnated with native copper by sublimation immediately before the injection of the principal copper vein took place. we could admit the igneous formation of zeolites, and of cale spar, there would be less difficulty in accounting for the veins by sublimation or injection, or by both methods, but this chemists will not readily admit, for the zeolitic minerals are generally hydrous. It is also a question whether the native copper in the: amygda- loid was derived from the interfused sandstone, or was mechanic- ically brought up with the trap rock. It has been imagined, that rocks which might have contained copper ores, that the copper ore being deposited with the sand was reduced by the action of the trap. This idea would be plausible, if it could be shown that the sandstone in the vicinity of the trap contained copper in a sufficiency to account for that in the amygdaloid; but such is not the case. It has been said that local deposits of the ore might have taken place in portions of the sandstone strata, and that the trap rocks came up and reduced it. This would be imputing a most remarkable degree of intelligence to the trap rocks, that they should know exactly where the copper ore was deposited, and come up at those places expressly to smelt it! I must con- fess that I cannot attribute the origin of the copper to any other causes than those which produced the trap rocks themselves, and that the copper came from the molten interior of the earth seems, at least from what we know of igneous agencies, to be most prob- able. There are veins in the conglomerate rocks which are filled with calcareous spar, containing crystals of copper, some of which will weigh half a pound, and are generally in the rhombic dode- cahedral form. One of the calc spar veins at Agate Harbor has yielded masses of copper weighing several hundred pounds. At Copper Harbor, a large vein of solid black oxyd of copper was found in the conglomerate rock. This ore is not known to exist in any considerable quantity elsewhere. The ore in the vein was fourteen inches wide, and for a short se the mine fur- nished a good supply of copper ore, yielding abo sixty or sev- ’ ba tan ee “ 73 + 8 e masses of black oxyd of copper brought from the mine at Copper Har- : bor, Mr. J. E: Teschemacher discovered regular cubic crystals of “some have supposed. A pure specimen analyzed in my labora- _ tory yielded 79-86 per cent. of copper. _ or hydrous green silicate of copper, and the black silicate, whigh contains a less proportion of water. These ores, we can easil conceive, might be produced by the decomposition of a solution of copper by the action of a hot solution of lime. The black oxyd may have been derived either from a solution, or from igne- ous sublimation. We know that black oxyd of copper is sub- limed from the crater of Vesuvius, and is deposited in fine splend- ent scales like specular iron ore in the lavas. Chlorid of copper is very volatile, and is sublimed in the crater of Vesuvius. It is also known to be volatilized in the blast fur- nace. The experiments of Mr. Frederick W. Davis, at the Point Shirley copper works, have fully demonstrated the fact that a considerable proportion of copper is lost by sublimation from cop- per ore, containing the chlorid of that metal. These facts may at some future day serve to explain some of the phenomena relating to the formation of metallic veins. At _ present there is no part of geological science so little understood as the theory of veins, and on this account I am desifous of call- ing the attention of the Section to this subject. With respect to the age of the red sandstone of Lake Superior, I would remark that there have been and still are differences of opinion. No distinct fossils having been found in it, the usual _ index for fixing the geological age of stratified rocks is wanting. _ #rom the mineralogical character and the geological associa- tions of the rocks, their parallelism to those of Nova Scotia, an their mineral contents, I was led in 1844, to suggest the identity of the two formations, as contemporaneous, and regarded the e Superior sandstone as the new red, or at least as of the same . age with that of Nova Scotia, New Jersey and Connecticut. This } idea I still favor. : _ During the last year the linear surveyors, who were engaged F In subdividing townships on the southern portion of Keweenaw Point, discovered a large protruding mass of Silurian limestone, aro which the sandstone strata are horizontal. y assist- ant was sent to examine this limestone, and states that its Strata lines dip about 30°. .A fragment of a fossil, probably a Pen rus, was also found in the limestone. *’ These facts would Seconp Serres, Vol. X, No. 28.—July, 1850. 10 * i * be 29 rae hae ie es i : te z ae There are also found at the Copper Harbor mine, chrysocolla, : i ihe 74 . Dr. C. T. Jackson on the f _seem to prove that the sandstone is above the Silurion limeatalas ‘and consequently that it is either the old or the new red. The | absence of fossil shells in the sandstone would lead us to con- . - elude that it does not belong to the old red, and consequently we are led back to my original opinion, as published i in the American | Journal of Science, in 1845, that the Lake Superior sandstone is — of a later date, and is probably the new red. This opinion was also expressed by Monsieur De Verneuil, dur- , ing his visit to the Lake in 1846, but I do not know from what ** data his opinion was formed. It has been asserted that the Lake . Superior sandstones pass beneath the Silurian rocks, but Ido not think the fact has ever been observed. Isle Royale.—This island is situated on the north side of Lake Superior, in latitude 48° North, longitude 89° West. It is about forty miles in length, and five or six miles wide. It presents a broken and rugged outline on its coast and is deeply indented by long and narrow inlets and bays, all of which are parallel to the ranges of the trap rocks which constitute the ridges traversing the island throughout its length. Several small lakes are also seen lying between the trappean hills and coinciding with their line of bearing. The general direction of this island is parallel to that of Ke- weenaw Point, and the trap rocks are of the same geological age and have uplifted the sandstones of the same epoch. On the southwestern end of the island the fine red sandstone strata are seeu near Card’s Point, and they extend along the coast of Siskawit Bay to Epidote Cove, forming gently sloping sheets extending out into the lake toa considerable distance. Conglom- erate rocks border the coast nearly to Rock Harbor and lie next to the trap. The inland boundary of the sandstone was ascer- tained by my sub-agents to be parallel to the coast line where it is exposed. About one-fourth the area of the island is sandstone and conglomerate rock. All the rest of it consists of trap, which forms ridges attaining an elevation of from three hundred to five hundred feet above the lake, and extending in a saps line throughout the whole extent of the island. In some places iso- lated masses of trap rocks form tall towers minding like high chimneys on the hill sides; in others, picturesque islands covered with dark spruce trees are seen jutting out on the coast, or stand- ing like watch towers at the entrance of the harbors. sle Royale was better known to the Indians as a good place for catching Siskawit than asa mining region ; and it is probable that the name Menung, signitying a good place, re refers to the fisheries, but it is certain from the “ Relacions” of the Jesuit fath- ers, that they were aware of pe existence of an abundance of copper boulders upon its shores. . = | aw * e Pe. ey » Sass . bs 2 Geological Structure of Keweenaw Point. 75 Numerous explorers had visited Isle Royale anterior to my sur- _ Vey, but mining operations had not been entered upon to any ex- . ° _ tent on account of the difficulties arising from some official mis- _. understanding as to permits for leases. Dr. Locke had selected - Some veins and beds of copper for the Ohio and Isle Royale Com- pany, and explorations were going on to determine the probable value of several veins. There are two kinds of veins on this island, as before men- tioned. The widest are those near Rock Harbor. ‘They are thick beds of solid epidote rock filled with small spicule of cop- ’ per, there being from eight to ten per cent. of the metal in the gangue. These beds dip but slightly from the horizon, rarely more than 15 or 20°, and crop out on the south side of the island a few feet above the surface of the Lake. Beneath the copper- bearing bed of epidote, which is a foot in thickness, is a large bed of barren epidote rock, six feet thick, and very hard. Trap rocks overlie the whole, forming bold precipitous shores. No mining Operations have yet proved the extent of these cupriferous epi- dote rocks, but they are exposed to a sufficient extent to render it probable that they will prove of value. Another set of true veins occur, cutting the trap rocks nearly at right angles, and traversing the country. These veins are gen- erally narrow, and are filled with datholite, prehnite, and native copper. The datholite is very abundant, and may prove of eco- homical importance either as a flux for copper ores, or as a material Suitable for the manufacture of borax. One of the locations of the Ohio and Isle Royale Company was named, by Mr. J. H. Blake, Datholite, on account of the abundance of that mineral in the veins of copper. At Todd’s Harbor, mines have been opened, and a considera- ble quantity of native copper has been obtained by Mr. McCul- loch. Other veins have been opened at Scovill’s Point, but as yet none of the veins on the island have been sufficiently proved to authorize the erection of permanent works for mining and Smelting. One vein of each kind, opened to a considerable depth, would give much valuable information concerning the perma- nency of the veins, and determine whether they widen and en- tich or not. _ It is extremely difficult for any one to decide absolutely on the Value of a metalliferous vein, and it is only possible to form an approximate estimate where all the conditions of the problem are Capable of being determined, and it is rarely the case that we have any thing more than a superficial view of the contents of a vein. It has been proved by a writer in the French Annales des Mines, that in Germany and France only one-twentieth of the Mines surveyed and recommended by the Royal Engineers of mines have paid a profit to the stockholders, heuce we should re- 76 a C. T. Jackson on the Geological Stritvure, ge. pee persons about to engage in an adventures that shir chances of success are only about five per c When a mine is well proved it gaeenlig holds good veins, rarely running out in i unless the rock changes, and then the vein also*generally alte ms How far the native ane of the Lake Superior mines con= tinues in depth is yet unknown, but the veins if they traverse sand-. stone strata will certainly change i in that rock, and experience has th thus far shown that the copper diminishes in that portion of the *--. vein which traverses the sandstone. ‘This has been fully proved _ at the Copper Falls mines, where a bed of sandstone, seventy-two ~~" ~ feet in thickness, has changed the character of the’ lode where the vein passed through it, calc spar filling the chasm and. the ©. — copper big id disappearing in the veinstone. It was hoped that the vein would enrich after it had passed Brough the sandstone into the nether bed of trap rock, but it was found to be diffused into string veins of little practical impor- tance. Owing to the limited extent of the amygdaloidal trap, the true or transverse veins are not of great length, two thousand feet being perhaps an approximation to their linear extent, though it is possible that some may be longer. The idea of tracing a vein by its course over an extensive tract of country has proved fallacious on Lake Superior, and only the geological character of the country can be relied upon asa tolerably correct guide. The river beds, Gapescminiiag in the soil, corresponding to the usual di- rection of the veins, afford t e best facilities for finding veins, and by means of the solar si and magnetic needle, lines of contact of the sandstone and trap may be readily found, and = amygdaloid is formed at those junctions. It was o observed in first visit to the Lake, that the productive copper veins occur where there are the greatest number of alternations of sandstone and trap rocks, as shown by the diagram exhibited to the Section. No less than six alternations of these rocks were observed near Copper Falls and Lake Superior mine in my surveys during the summers of 1844 and 1845. Subsequent researches have con- firmed this observation. From these data we should expect copper veins at the line of contact of the sandstone and trap on Isle Royale, but thus far in only a few places have the rocks been uncovered in the vicinity of the junction—some loose masses of native copper found on the shore of Siskawit Lake and the veins at raerneg Cove being the only facts obtained in confirmation of this o In the hard columnar and compact trap Horsf is 5 little hope of finding valuable Mena for only narrow and tightly pinched seams of copper have t hus far been found in these rocks. On the Ontonagon river there are several veins of copper that run with the “ ounce - They are now in course of trial, and Sees a * ; ap 2: oe a Analysis of Algerite. “ 17 it will soon be ascertained whether they can be profitably worked - ornot. The opinion of a practical miner, on whom I place reli- ance, is favorable to some of these mines. It was my intention to have examined them myself, this summer, before drawing up “omy report, but it has been ordered otherwise. 7 - « Rich ores of iron have been found in inexhaustible quantities _ inthe district of country extending from the Menomonee River e ad River. I have not had an opportunity of examining the -+ localities myself, but I had obtained rich specimens of the ore _ from the Menomonee river, in 1844, through the agency of M. Barbeau, who obtained them from the Indians, and in 1845, the In- » dian chief who furnished those specimens, guided Mr. Pray to the on Mountain\near the Menomonee River. During the past sum- mer this locality has been also examined by one of my assistants. ae Arr. X.— Analysis of Algerite; by Ricuarp Crosstey. Read before the Bost. Soc. Natural History, by C. T. Jackson, April 17, 1850. Tus mineral having been already described in this Journal for July, 1849, vol. viii, No. 22, renders it unnecessary to say much more on this'head. I have in addition, however, to remark that many of the crystals are encrusted with idocrase, and in some instances are penetrated, so much so that it required great caution © secure such portions as were free from that mineral. The ‘crystals being cleared of decomposed parts were broken to coarse fragments, and the honey-yellow pieces reserved for examination. Before the blowpipe, alone, it readily fuses with intumescence to a white blebby glass: with soda it gives a dirty-white slag : with borax and phosphorus salt it gives a clear bead faintly tinged by iron and leaves a siliceous skeleton. Heated in a closed tube It gives off water which reacts feebly alkaline, and the powder, at first of a light buff color, darkens and assumes a brownish tinge. About 1 gramme of the coarse fragments gave a spec. grav. of 2-78. It isa little harder than cale spar, from 3 to 3-5. _ Nearly 2 grammes of the mineral were very finely powdered, intimately mixed and divided into two portions. One was ap- propriated to the determination of the water and the other for the estimation of the carbonic acid. This latter portion was then attacked by a mixture of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. The sah mode of analysis was afterwards pursued, and there re- Suited :— Silica, : : : : 51-27 Alumina, . ° ‘ ; 23°10 Peroxyd of iron, . , ; 1-48 Magnesia, . : : : 5°18 Carbonate of lime, . ; ; A2L Potash, ; : i . 9-97 78 | On the Tellurie Bismuth oy Ving To ascertain the purity of the silica it was fused with carbon- © ate of soda and was found to contain 1:31 per cent of alumina. A second attack by acids would doubtless effectually decompose - this mingral. Correcting the silica and alumina and adding the _ water determined on the first portion, the composition of thes se- lection made will be thus :— oe, Silica, . ‘ : ; 49:96 ee Alamina, : ‘ : ‘ 24-41 Soa “ea of iron, j é ‘ 1-48 : Magnes ; ; ‘ 5-18 ; Cicbowas of lame ; ; : A421 sh, ‘ ‘ i 9:97 Water, ; ; ‘ ; 5:06 The amount of carbonic acid directly estimated agreeing so nearly with that in the carbonate of lime obtained, evidently shews that the lime is not a constituent of the mine eral. Deduct- ing, therefore, the carbonate of lime and reducing the renee members to per-centage PeaPereons they will stand th US 3 Silica, : ; 52-00 27-01 7 Alumina, . . 25°42 11°88 7 Peroxyd of iron, 1:54 “AT ‘ Magnesia, . 5:3 2-08 _ Potashi-*. 10°38 1-75 : Water, °° ey 4-68 1 or 1 100-00 ‘The above composition is very well represented by the formula, ; (Mg, K)3 Si+3 Si2+3 Boston, April 18, 1850. sonoma Arr. XL—On the Telluric — oe Virginia; by Dr. C. T. Jac I piscoverep this ore in May, 1848, among some specimens of — native gold given me by Mr. Knowles ‘Taylor. At that time f had not a sufficient quantity of the mineral to enable me to make a complete analysis of it, but having made a blowpipe assay and satisfied myself that it was an ore of Tellurium, I communicated my results to the American Journal of Science o Arts, and my note was published in vol. vi, No. 17, 1848, My only object then was to announce the Seo of Tellu- | rium, and I intended at the earliest moment in my power to pro- cure a larger supply of the ore and to complete my analysis. Subsequently, Mr. Fisher* of Philadelphia made an anplyemt * This Journal, [2] vii, 282. oe ee q ie “On the Telluric Bismuth of Vinyasa ; i ae a specimen whic he obtained from the mint, and discovered that the metal which I had supposed to be lead in my cupel- “lation process was bismuth. This fact I am enabled to con- Say by my own analysis. Mr. Fisher states that selenium takes the place of sulphur. This is not the case in my speci- S iisns, all of which yield sulphur when treated by nitric acid or aL, the blowpipe, and selenium exists only in minute traces. Last spring I made a hasty visit to the gold mines of Spottsyl- “vania County, Va., and nn apes at Whitehall a few pieces of the tellurium ore. ese cimens were in mica slate in nod- ules, and were incrusted ase yellow oxyd of bismuth. The “gold found in these specimens is not chemically united with the tellurium ore, but exists in small scales between the folia in its metallic state and varies in proportions from 2 to 5 percent. The tellurium ore is found incrusting masses of native gold, and the edges of the laminz of tellurium ore impress the metallic gold with well marked strize and indentations indicating that the tellurium ore was deposited first in the cavities or veins, and the gold was then deposited upo tice This is the order of deposition in many spe- cimens I have The Medion J ore is found both in the quartz beds or veins and in the mica slate, and is always mixed with native go orm, thin scales gor aol oe each other; no regu- lar crystals observed. Occurs in lamellar masses readily cleava- ble, the locninl splitting like salphapeet of molybdena, a - much resembles in appearance. It is flexible and not elas Sectile and not brittle. Color and lustre like flexible foliated graphite. Its hardness =1. Lustre splendent metallic. Color of streak like that of lead. Analysis on one gramme of the es scales :— Bismuth, 58°80 Tellurium, : : 35°05 Gold, ox. iron and earthy matter, 3 , 2-70 Sulphur, : : : 3°65 100-20 This gives the formula of Heed yn 2Bi Te? + Bi S* = Bis- muth 59-6, sulphur 4°5, tellurium 35-9. The tellurium after it was ct aie by sulphurous acid, was attacked by means of zt and nitrate of potash by fusion, and the contents of the crucible being dissolved and acidulated by means of nitric acid and treated with nitrate of baryta, did not give a weighable quantity of seleniate of baryta. ‘The selenium exists only in minute proportions and is a mere trace. In addition to the above, I would observe that the yellow oxyd of bismuth occurring investing the nodules of tellurium ore, is not carbonate of bismuth, for it does not effervesce with a ‘ ¥ ee t : ie ee to ih, eae ony 4 . 80 _ Hf. Wurtz on a supposed New Mineral. fe “og acids. Dr. Chilton had observed carbonate of Bébinuth with thie: * - Quarry,” the well-known locality of prehnite. It occurs as an gold rock of South Carolina, some time before I found this, and’ sent me a specimen of itv This o e, (bismutite,) from the gold district of Chesterfield, S. C., has ‘ben analyzed by Rammell a berg, (Pogg. Ann. , Ixxvi, 569, 1849, ) who obtained Bi90-00, 6658... . 3-44, whence he tias deduced the formula 3(Bi 6+)+Bi 4, — x = alent to 4Bi, 3G, 4H. es Arr. XIJ.—On a supposed New he Be eel by Henry urTz, of New Yor Tis mineral was found near Cambridge, Mass., at “ Milk Row incrustation upon the surface of the syenitic rock, coating the sides of fissures, and presenting the appearance of brilliant plates pie one another like the scales of a fish. Its color is black; lustre, resinous; streak, dark olive green; jeertae alistinetiy fibrous, somewhat like that of tremolite ; feel, soapy. Har dness, about 2; slightly translucent in thin laminees The fibres are brittle. No cleavage was found. Under the lens it exhibits white crystalline specks, which the analysis proved to be calcareous spar. It is easily decomposed with effervescence by hydrochloric = which is thereby colored deep green, silica being left behind a white powdef. Its fusibility is Secs that of natrolite, or 2 fe Kobell’s scale. he fuses to a dull black opaque globule which is slightly magne Two aelerevaane of the specific gravity, made upon two different specimens, gave the same number, 2°69, which being about the specific gravity of calcareous spar, no correction due to the 12 e v ~ cent. of this mineral which the analyses indicate, need be Guslitesive analysis indicated the presence of carbonic acid, water, lime, soda, silica, oxyd of iron and alumina For the quantitative analysis, a portion of the mineral was finely elutriated, and then dried at 212° in a steam-bath until it lost no — more weight. Attempts to separate the cale spar by means of very dilute acetic acid were unsuccessful. The _— became im- mediately colored red by dissolving some of the When the dark-green powder of this pach oar is fanned to red- ness in the air, it assumes upon cooling a red color, indicating peroxydation of the iron. The water desartninations were there- fore made in small bent tubes, which were sealed up immediately after the expulsion of the water, and the mass thus an rg out of contact with the air. The eaiines after the expulsion of the HO, had, in this case, a black color 81 “The carboute acid was determined by the ‘well known method. 08 the weighed flask and Ca Cl tube. The other constituents were determined in the weed manner, se dissolving the mineral in HCl, etc. In making the two fol- lowing analyses, the most extreme precautions were used to en- su Ber being weighed. Thus, the silica, after being weighed at: left i in it by the HCl separated, weighed, and added to the HCl solution, their weight being deducted from that of the silica. In one case, this weight amounted to half a per cent. of the sub- stance used. Difficulty being found in separating the Al and Fe, by means of KO, in one experiment the #e and 41 were weighed together, and the x aig by deducting the amount of Be af- terwards found in _ ma IL. Mean. Oxygen Si 7 27°32 27-51 14-29 Al 10°30 10°17 10°23 4°78 Fe 2T-99 97°55 2777 617 Na 1:23 ea 1:23 39 8°69 8-73 8-71 14 Ga 12-25 12-98 12°61 ; | é 10°32 10°09 10-29 98°35 The first thing to be observed bere. is that the quantity | * : found i is just sufficient to form Ca€ w b.the Ga found, 12°61 ¢ rally supposed that all the iron contained i in minerals which give Pp green powders is in vn form of FeO. This error of which so many examples may b e found in mineralogical works, has Its origin in the great difficulties always met with in the separa- tion of the two oxyds of iron from one another, and also in the small difference between the equivalents of the two oxyds,—9 per went. of protoxyd making only 10 per cent. of peroxyd. The suggestion of a scientific friend that the mineral might still soo both oxyds, led to a renewal of my resear The stock of elutriated material, originally prepared, being Sie, it was necessary to repeat the analysis from the be- ela on another specimen, which was accordingly done, in manner and water, 5: 30: American Journal of Science for March, 185v, have given 82 i. Wurtz on a supposed New Minéral.: ‘ina stoppered bottle, which was kept, during the Sperntiol in © boiling water. The ratio of the loss sustained by the tai to the #e present, is that. of per agen, e I. Oxygen Si 30°86 “ 30-98 16°05 16:05 Al 3:92 ies? 1:83 Fe 20:25 20-17 6-06 789 Fe 21:97 ae 4°88 f a x 5°30 Na 1°62 42 6a G 12°77 any sf 8°94 Ser 795 1-95 100°33 The ratio for the oxygen of the protoxyds, perasyons silica 789: 16°05: 7-95=1: 1-49 : 3-03: 1:50 or quite _ 1h. This gives the general formula R2 Si+# Si+3H closely 1: 14:3 or the special formula, (1.) (Feé$t + Na gy)? Si+ (Aldg 4 Pe P9)Si+ 3H. An attempt to bring the first two analyses under this formula — gave the following result. -If we suppose that a portion of the iron, whose oxygen, when in the form of ¥e, is equal to one-half of the oxygen of the Al present, was actually sk ig in the form of #e, the following numbers present themselve bas Mean. a Si : f 2751 14-29 14:29 : 10-23 4°78 } ai Fe 7-97 2°39 Fe 20°60 458 ) 9 Na 1-23 32 § = H 8°71 TI4 144 Cad 22°90 99°15 The ratio 4:90: 7:17: 14-29: nearly 1: 14:3: 13, as before. Thus, upon this hypothesis, the general formula R2 Si+ #Si+3H represents these analyses also very well. The special formula for this variety wou (2.) (Fet$+Na7'5)2 Si+ (A13-+¥e 4) Si+ 3H (or 347). The composition is near that of groppite, for which Rammels- berg writes the formula R2 Si+#Si+2H. But groppite is a rose- red species, containing little iron and lime and much magnesia with potash, and moreover Svanberg’s formula for it is very dif- ferent. There is sufficient reason therefore, for believing the spe- cies here described as distinct, and I therefore propose for it the name Melanolite. As the recent investigations of Mr. J. D. Dana, published in the increased 7'74=1: 1-46 : 2-92: 1:58 of Pi bs Z, eee We = ee ; i to Be RE : * Repti Phenomena about Lake Bigpond 83. * interest to the subject of atomic volume among minerals, I have’ eee calculated the atomic volume of these varieties. wi (1.) iy " 2.) Siz = 115462 Siz et 1154-62 Ald$ = 149-26 Az = 427-87 Fe? 767-45 Fet _ 833-338 : Feig3+ = 828-68 Fe1$% = 840-00 — Natt = 61°36 Na}? = 5163: 3 = 337°50 1134 - 365°62 3298'87 8173-07 hese two numbers, which are the atomic weights of the two varieties, divided by the specific gravity 2°69, give for (1), the atomic volume 1226°35, and for (2), 1L80-, the difference be- tween which is about th. If we go farther, and divide these numbers by the number of atoms of the elements in each variety, we shall obtain the C atomic volume, as this term is used by Mr. na. In one case we get 53°32 and in the other 50-21. If ref- erence is now made to the tables of atomic volumes given by Mr. Dana in the American Journal for March, 1850, p. 242, it will be seen that these numbers are nearly identical with those given by him for three varieties of talc, a mineral which the one now under consideration resembles in many important characters. On the contrary, chlorite, a mineral to which this one is so inti- mately connected as to have been mistaken for it by an eminent mineralogist, gives altogether a different number. ‘T have calcu- lated the C atomic volume of chlorite from one of Kobell’s anal- yses which gives the forme la §i2+-Al+Me4#4 Pet He and obtained 43-6. "The hisingerite from Ridderhyttan also re- Sembles this mineral very closely. Its formula, according to Hisin- ger and Kobell, is Fe Sit+¥e Si+6H; and specific gravity 3-045. Its ordinary atomic volume is 1077-05 5, and its C atomic volume ae ne approaching that of chloeles: instead of that of this min bas: of the Coll. of Phys., Crosby st.. New York, April 1, 1850. Arr, XIII.— The Bak es Phenomena about Lake Superior ; y Prof. Acassiz. [We cannot —— notice the very valuable and interesting work of Prof. Agassiz and his associates upon the e Superior Region,* than by siting one of its chapters. ‘The following ob- servations on the Erratic Phenomena of the region constitute Chapter X, of the work, pages 395-416. ] Pg ith, f£ at, 1 Pe. 4 The title of t ueenere vcd ie last number, p. 455, 84. ¥ Erratic Pilintionanin about Lake Supérior. 4 oe So much has been said and written within the last fifteen veers, -4 upon the dispersion of erratic boulders and drift, both in Europe and America, that I should not venture to introduce this subject - > again, if I were not conscious of having essential additions to present to those sore in the investigation of these subjects.: who have followed the discussions’. respecting the transpor a of loose materials over great distan- ces from the spot where they occurred primitively, that t eae minute and the most careful investigations have been made by those geologists who have attempted 0 establish a new theory of their eraseporaee by the agency of ice. TI those who claim pha as the cause of this Aiea Te has been more generally negative, inasmuch as, satisfied with their views, they have generally been contented simply to deny the new theory and its consequences, rather than — investigate anew the field upon which they had founded their opinions. Without Seng taxed with partiality, I may, at the outset, insist upon this difference in the part taken by the two contending parties. . since the publication of Sefstroem’s paper upon the drift of Esrolen, in which very valuable inform- ation 1s given respecting the henomena observed in that penin- sula, and the additional roe furnished by de Verneuil and Mur- chison upon the same country and the plains of Russia, the clas- sical ground for erratic phenomena has been left almost untouched ae SE eager Le GT 5 Martins, James Forbes and others, to justify my assertion that no important fact respecting the loose materials spread all over Swilt- zerland has been added by the advocates of currents since the days of Saussure, de Liic, neha? and Von Buch; whilst Prof. Guyot has most conclusively shown that the different erratic ba- sins in Switzerland are not only distinct from each other, as was already known before, but that in each the loose materials are arranged in well- determined regular order, showing precise rela- tions to the centres of distribution, from which these materials originated ; an arrangement which agrees in every particular with the arrangement of loose fragments upon the surface of any glacier, but which no cause acting, convulsively could have produced.* about to r piabl of the distribution of the erratic boulders i ebeaetans: will show seep faity the identity of the two phenomena. es it "Erratic Phenomena about Lake Superior. ‘85 “The t fesuits “of these ca shane are plainly that the bould- ' ers found at a distance from the central Alps, sir rele Her their - higher summits and valleys, mak were, carried down at different successive periods in a regular manner, forming so Ae walls and ridges, which can be traced from their starting point to -_ their extreme peripheric distribution. I have myself shown that there are such — of distribution .in Scotland and England and Ireland. Ao been since traced in detail in various parts of a British Islands" _ by Dr. Buckland, Sir Ch, Lyell, Mr. Darwin, Mr. McLachlan and ~ Professor James D. Forbes, pointing clearly to the main mountain groups as to so many distinct centres of dispersion of these loose materials. Similar phenomena have been shown in the Pyrenees, in the . lack Forest, and in the Vosges, seg es question, that whatever might have been the cause of the ersion of erratic boulders, there are — ae seine of hess distributionsto be distinguished i in Europe. But there is another question con- nected with this local daoeiaigien of boulders which requires par- ticular investigation, the confusion of which with the former has no doubt greatly contributed to retard our real progress in under- standing the general question of the distribution of erratics. 0 is well known that Northern sn is strewed with bould- Their arrangement, however, is such that they cannot be referred to one single point of origin, but only in a general way to the northern tracts of land which rise above the ‘level of the sea in the Arctic regions. Whether these boulders were transported by the same agency as those arising from distinct centres, on the esent positions, has been the chief objection ms the view that To ane the whole question it should be as- First, ‘Whe ther the northern erratics were transported at the Same time as the local Alpine boulders, and if not, which of the pwr Mile i) Say, - bi ~ sae ; sa . E ae Me 7" . ¥ ei Fs * i ae rie sa Erratic Phenieuviie about Lake Superior. ie phenomena preceded the other; and again, if the same éatise . ‘s acted in both cases, or if one of ‘the causes can be applied to one series of these phenomena, and the other cause to the other series. *: An investigation of the erratic phenomena in North America . Seems to me likely to settle this question, as the northern erratics ~ occur here in an undisturbed continuation over tracts of land far more extensive than those in which they have been observed in Europe. For my own part, I have already traced them from the eastern shores of Nova Scotia through New England and the © North Western States of North America and the Canadas as far’ - as the western extremity of Lake Superior, a region embracing .’ about thirty degrees of longitude. Here, as in Northern Europe, the beulders evidently originated farther north than their present + location, and have been moved universally in a main direction from north to sout From data which are, however, rather incomplete, it can be further admitted that similar phenomena occur further west across whole continent, everywhere presenting the same relations. eae: "That j is to say, everywhere pointing to the north as to the region / 3 of the boulders, which generally disappear about latitude 38°. Without entering at present into a full discussion of any theo- retical views of the subject, it is plain that any theory, to be sat- isfactory, should embrace both the extensive northern phenomena in Europe and North America, and settle the relation of these phenomena to the well- authenticated local phenomena of Central Wheth her America itself has its special we: circumscribed cen- tres of distribution or not, remains to be see It seems, how- ever, from a few facts observed in the White cntaite, that this chain, as well as the mountains of northeastern New York, has not been exclusively—and for the whole duration of the trans- portation of these materials—under the influence of the cause which has aistribated the erratics through such wide space over the continent of North America. But whether this be the case or not, (and I trust local investigations will soon settle the ques- tion, ) 'E maintain that the cause which has transported these boulders in the American continent must have acted simultane- ously over the whole ground which these boulders cover, as they sent throughout the continent an uninterrupted sheet of loose . materials, of the same general nature, connected in aa same gen- eral manner, and evidently or a at the same tim Northern America. So that the cause which transported them, whatever it may be, must have acted simultaneously — the whole tract of land west of the Ural Mountains, and east of the :ky Mountains, without assuming any thing a ee North- 2 ioe eo} Erratic Phenomena about Lake Sauer | 87 aS ern “Asia; hich has not yet been studied in this respect; that is’ _. tosay, at the same time, over a space embracing two hundred ' degrees of longitude. Again, the action of this cause must have been such, and I insist strongly upon this as a fundamental point, the momentum with which it acted must have been such, that after being set in otic on in the north, with a power sufficient to carry the large boulders which are found everywhere over this vast extent of, st _ land, it vanished or was stopped after reaching the thirty-fifth _: “degree of northern latitude. Now it is my spe —— that natural philosophy — : -mathematics may settle the question, whether a body of w of sufficient extent to a such phenomena can be set ga mo-" tion with sufficient velocity to move all these boulders, and nev~ + — ertheless stop before having io over the whole surface of the institute a comparison, it will be seen that there is nowhere a” current running from the poles towards the lower latitudes, either in the northern or southern hemisphere, covering a space equal to one-tenth of the currents which should have existed to carry t the etratics into their present position. ‘The widest current is west of the Pacific, which runs parallel to the aries across the of which is scarcely fifty degrees. This aa as a matter of — establishes a regular rotation between the waters flowing” and carrying floods of water in that direction, is maintained even when ae extend over hundreds of degrees of latitude, as the Gulf Stream does in its oe sidmoens are deflected where they cannot follow a straight cou ow without appealing a more detail to the mechanical conditions involved in this inquiry, I ask every unprejudiced mind acquainted with the distribution of the northern boulders, whether there was any geographical limitation to the supposed northern culrent to cause it to Jeave the northern erratics of Europe in . 88. Erratic Phenomena about Lake Superior. | es. é sre’ of latitude, before it had reached the great barrier off ‘hie : ask whether there was such a barrier in the unlimitéd ’- plains which stretch from the Arctic seas uninterrupted over thes — whole northern continent of America as far down as the Gulf of — sk, again, why the erratics are circumscribed within the Ia : northern limits of the temperate se if their transportation is. ~ ‘,owing to the action of water currents? Does not, on the con- trary, this fhost surprising limit within the arctic and northern temperate zones, and in the same manner within the antarctic. and southern temperate zones, distinctly show that the cause of transportation is connected with the temperature .or climate ofe .. the countries over which the phenomena were produced. If it ~~ were otherwise, why are there no systems of erratics with an east and west bearing, or in the main direction of the most ex- sow peenseote flowing at present over the surface of our globe? matter of fact, of undeniable fact, for which the theory has i debut that in the two hemispheres the erratics have di- rect reference to the polar regions, and are circumscribed within This: fact the arctics and the colder part of the temperate zone. is: is as plain as the other fact, that the local distribution of boulders has reference to high mountain ranges, to groups of land raised above the level of the sea into heights, the temperature of which is lower than the Rn plains. And what is still more as- tonishing, the extent of the local boulders, from their centre of distribution reaches levels, the mean annual temperature of which corresponds in a surprising manner with the mean annual temper- ature of the southern limit of the northern erraties. We have, therefore, in this agreement a strong evidence in fa- vor of the view that both the phenomena of local mountain er- ratics in Europe and of northern erratics in — and America have probably been produced by the same The chief difficulty is in conceiving the possibility of the formation of a sheet of ice sufficiently large to carry the northern erratics into their present limits of distribution ; but this difficulty is greatly removed when we can trace, as in ‘the Alps, the pro- gress of the boulders under the same aspect from the glaciers now existing, down into regions where they no longer exist, but where the boulders and other phetiomena os their trans- portation show distinetly that they once ex Without extending further this Meet eos I would call the attention of the unprejudiced observer to the fact, that those who advocate currents as the cause of the transportation of erratics, have, up to this day, failed to show, ina siugle instance, that cur- rents can produce all the different t phenomena connected with the . a 4 . UF atic Phenomena about Lake Superior. | 89. s* glaciers yet in existence. Never do we find that water leaves the boulders which it carries along in regular walls of mixed ma- te terials; nor do currents any where produce upon the hard rocks tn situ the peculiar grooves and scratches which we see every- Where under the glacier and within the limits of their ordinary oscillations, Water may polish the rocks, but it nowhere leaves straight . scratches upon their surface; it may furrow them, but these fur-.% rows are sinuous, acting more powerfully upon the soft parts of the rocks or fissures already existing ; whilst glaciers smooth and ~. level uniformly, the hardest parts equally with the softest, and, like a hard file, rub to uniform continuous surfaces the rocks upon which they move. ; i But now let us return to our special subject, the erratics of ©. ' North America. ' The phenomena of drift are more complicated about Lake Su- perior than I have seen them any where else; for, besides the general phenomena which occur everywhere, there are some pe- culiarities noticed which are to be. ascribed to the lake as such, => Which we do not find in places where no large sheet of wa- =~ gent geologists, to perceive the facts as they are, whenever they bear upon the question of drift, I cannot but repeat, what I have already mentioned more than once, but what I have observed again here over a tract of some fifteen hundred miles, that the rocks are everywhere smoothed, rounded, grooved and furrowed ma uniform direction. The heterogeneous materials of which the rocks consist are cut to one continuous uniform level, show- ing plainly that no difference in the polish and abrasion can be attributed to the greater or less resistance on the part of the rocks, but that a continuous rasp cut down every thing, adapting itself, however, to the general undulations of the country, but never- theless showing, in this close adaptation, a most remarkable con- tinnity in its action. That the power which produced these phenomena moved in the main from north to south, is distinctly shown by the form of the hills, which present abrupt slopes, rough and sharp corners towards the south, while they are all smoothed off towards the north Indeed, here, as in Norway and Sweden, there is on all the hills a lee-side and a strike-side. As has been observed in Nor- way and Sweden, the polishing is very perfect in many places, times strictly as brilliant as a polished metallic surface, and Series, Vol. X, No. 28.—July, 1850. is eee - ky , ee tgew. 90 Erratic Phenomena about Lake Sup oie everywhere these surfaces are more or less scratched and furrow- ed, and both scratches and furrows are rectilinear, crossing each - other under various angles: however, never mre many points” of the compass on the same spot, but in general showing that where there are deviations from the most iominall direction, . they are influenced by the undulations of the soil. It has been said, that the main direction of these striae was from northwest #to southeast, but I have found it as often strictly from north to south, or even from northeast to southwest; and if we are to express a general result, we should say that the direction, assigned that they have been formed under the influence of a movement - from north to south, varying more or less to the east and west, according to logal, influences in the undulations of the soil. It is, indeed, a vety important fact, that scratches which seem to have been produced at no great intervals from each other, are not absolutely parallel, but may diverge for ten, fifteen, or more egrees, ees is one feature in these phenomena, however, in which we never observe any variation. The continuity of these lines is abesinisly the same everywhere. They are rectilinear and 2 pomp and capnot be better compared than with the effects stones or other hard materials dragged in the same direction ‘san flat or rolling surfaces; they form simple scratches extend- ing for yards in straight lines, or breaking off for a short space to continue again ina straight line in the same me _ as if interrupted by a jerk. There are also deeper sc of the same kind, presenting the same phenomena, only, Peers trace- able for a greater distance than the finer ones. These scratches, instead of appearing like the tracing of diamonds upon glass, as the paige do, would rather assume the appearance of a deeper roove, made by the point of a graver, or perhaps still more par resemble the scratches which a cart-wheel would produce upon polished marble, if the wheel were chained, and coarse sand spread over the floor, the wheel continuing to move onward but without revolving. ‘The appearance of the surface, crushed by the moving mass, is especially distinct in limestone rocks, where grooves are seldom nicely cut, but present the appearance: of a Violent pressure combined with the grooving power, thus giving . to the groove a character which is quite peculiar, and which at once strikes an observer who has been familiar with its charac- teristic aspect. Now, I do not know upon what the assertions of some geologists rest, that gravel moved by water under strong heavy currents will produce et effects. Wherever I have gone since studying these phenomena, I have looked for such cases, and have never yet found ‘mame gravel currents produce any thing more than a smooth surface with undulating furrows se a me i * Erratic Phenomena about Lake Superior. a) eS following the cracks in the rocks, or hollowing their softer parts ; ? ei - ‘but continuous straight lines, especially such crushed lines and straight furrows, | have never seen. is en we know how extensive the action of water carrying © mud and gravel is on every shore and in every water current,— when we can trace this action almost everywhere, and no where find it similar to the phenomena just described, I cannot imagine upon what ground these phenomena are still attributed to thes agency of currents. This is the less rational as we have at pres- ent, in all high mountain chains of the temperate zone, other agents, the glaciers, producing these very same phenomena, with .precisely the same characters, to which, therefore, a sound phi- losophy should ascribe, at least conditionally, the northern and Alpine polished surfaces, and scratched and groowed rocks, or at least acknowledge that the effect produced by the action of gla- ciers more nearly resembles these erratic phenomena than does that which results from the action of currents. But such is the prejudice of many geologists, that. those keen faculties of distinc- tion and generalization, that power of superior perception and discrimination which have led them to make such brilliant dis- coveries in geology in general, seem to abandon them at once as soon as they look at the erratics. The objection made by a ven- erable geologist, that the cold required to form and preserve such glaciers, for any length of time, would freeze him to death, is as childish as the apprehension that the heavy ocean currents, the action of which he sees everywhere, might have swept him ay. : Now that these phenomena have been observed extensively, We may derive also some instruction from the limits of their geo- graphical extent. Let us see, therefore, where these polished, Scratched and furrowed rocks have been observed. biel In the first place they occur everywhere in the north within certain limits of the arctics, and through the colder parts of the temperate zone. They occur also in the southern hemisphere, within parallel limits, but in the plains of the tropics, and even in he warmer parts of the temperate zone we find no trace of these Feofomens, and nevertheless the action of currents could not be ess there, and could not at any time have been less than in the colder climates. It is true, similar phenomena occur in Central Europe and have been noticed in Central Asia, and even in the Andes of South America, but these always in higher regions, at definite levels above the surface of the sea, every where indicating @ connection between their extent and the colder temperature of the places over which they are traced. * Berlin Academy, 1846. ve’ ae ok 92 Erratic Phenomena about Lake Superior. Pe tke More recently, a step towards the views I entertain of this sub- — _ ject, has been made by those geologists who would ascribe them ~ to the agency of icebergs. Here, as in my glacial theory, ice “ me: made the agent; floating ice is supposed to have ground and pol-. | ished the surfaces of rocks, while I consider them to have been ~ Bs. acted upon by terrestrial glaciers. To settle this difference we have a test which is as irresistible as the other arguments already ; introduced. Let us investigate the mode of action, the mode of transport- ation of icebergs, and let us examine whether this cause is ade- e. 1 hills, and in depressions of the soil, and the scratches whic over such undulating surfaces are nevertheless continuous in straight lines. If we imagine icebergs moving upon shoals, no doubt they would scratch and polish the rocks in a way similar to moving glaciers. But upon such localities they would sooner or later be stranded, and if they remained loose enough to move, they would, in their gyratory movements, produce curved lines, and mark the spots where they had been stranded with particular ; indications “i their prolonged action. But nowhere upon arctic, - round do we find such indications. Everywhere the polished | and oie surfaces are continuous in straight juxtaposition. Phenomena analogous to those produced by icebergs would only be seen along the sea-shores; and if the theory of drifted icebergs were correct, we should have, all over those continents where erratic phenomena occur, indications of retreating shores as far as the erratic phenomena are found. But there is no such thing to be observed over the whole extent of the North Ameri- can continent, nor over Northern Europe and Asia, as far as the northern erratics extend. From the arctics to the southernmost limit of the erratic distribution, we find nowhere the indications of the action of the sea as directly connected with the production of the erratic phenomena. And wherever the marine deposits rest upon the — —— of ground and scratched rocks, they can be shown to be deposits formed since the grooving and polishing of the sii in saunas of ee ee of those tracts of land upon which such deposits oc Again, if we take for a moment into ccusidaletien the immense _ extent of land covered by erratic phenomena, and view them as produced by drifted icebergs, we must acknowledge that the ice- rgs of the present period at least, are insufficient to account for them, as they are limited to a narrower zone. And to bring ice- bergs in any way within the extent which would answer for the extent of the distribution of erratics, we must assume that the northern ice fields, from which these icebergs could be detached and float southwards, were much larger at the time they prod > _» © Erratic Phenomena about Lake Superior. 98 - such extensive phenomena than they are now. That is to say, _*We must assume an ice period; and if we look into the circum- _ Stances we shall find that this ice period, to answer to the phe- ~homena, should be nothing less than an extensive cap of ice upon both poles. This is the very theory which I advocate; and un- less the advocates of an iceberg theory go to that length in their premises, I venture to say, without fear of contradiction, that site conditions which they must assume, upon due consideration, _¢to account for the whole phenomena as they have really been observed. _ But without discussing any farther the theoretical views of the question, let me describe more minutely the facts as observed on the northern shores of Lake Superior. 'The polished surfaces, as such, are even, undulating, and terminate always above the rough lee-side turned to the south, unless upon gentle declivities, where the polished surfaces extend in unbroken continuity upon the southern surfaces of the hills, as well as upon their northern slopes. On their eastern and western flanks, shallow valleys run- --Horth and south; and this fact is more and more evident, wher- seen everywhere in those narrow inlets, with shallow waters in- tersecting the innumerable highlands along the northern shores of Lake Superior, where the scratches and furrows can under water from one shore to the other, and where they at times ascend steep hills, which they cross at right angles along their Northern slope, even when the southern slope, not steeper in it- self, faces the south with rough escarpments. e scratches and furrows, though generally running north and south, and deviating slightly to the east and west, present in Various places remarkable anomalies, even in their general course Ong the eastern shore of the lake. Between Michipicotin and Sault St. Marie we more frequently see a deflection to the west than a due north and south course, which is rather normal along the northern shore proper, between Michipicotin and other isl- » and from the Pic to Fort William; the deep depression of the lake being no doubt the cause of such a deviation, as large Masses of ice could accumulate in this extensive hollow cavity k they will find the source of their icebergs fall short of the requi- ~ wt _ ea, 94 © Erratic Phenomena about Lake Superior. © me, before spreading again more. uniformly beyond its limits. To the: oscillations of the whole mass in its southerly movement, ac-)_ cording to the inequalities of the surfaces, we must ascribe the — crossfng of the straight lines at acute angles, as we observe also at the present day under the glaciers, as they swell and subside, and hence meet with higher aud lower obstacles in their irregular course between the Alpine valleys. n deep? narrow chasms, however, we find now and then great- er deviatioys fr6m the normal direction of the striae, where con- siderable masseg of ice could accumulate, and move between score i walls under a lateral pressure of the masses moving onwards from the north. Such a chasm is seen between Spar jsland and the main land opposite Prince’s Location, south of Fort William, .. where the furrows and scratches run nearly east and west. But here also, there is no tumultuous disturbance in the continuation of the phenomena, such as would occur if icebergs were floate and stranded against the southern barrier. he same continuity of even, polished surfaces, with their scratches and furrows, pre- vails here as elsewhere. The angles which these scratches form with each other are very acute, generally not exceeding 10°; but at times they diverge more, forming angles of 15°, 20° and. 25°. In a few instances, I have even found localities where they cross- ed each other at angles of no less than 30°; but these are rare exceptions. It may sometimes be noticed that the lines running in one direction form a system by themselves, varying very little with each other. At ot r times, a sy ster of lines, strongly marked and diverging sim catighalys seem to pass over another system, in which the lines form various angles with each other. Again, there are places,—and this is the most common case,— where the lines diverge slightly, following, however, generally one main direction, which is crossed by fewer lines, forming more open angles, These. differences, no doubt, indicate various oscil- lations in the movement of the mass which produced the lines, and show probably its successive action, with more or less in- tensity, upon the same point at successive periods, in accordance with the direction of the moving force at each interval. The same variations within precisely the same limits may be noticed in our day on the margin of the glaciers produced by the increase or diminution of the —_ of their mass, and the changes in the rate of their moveme The loose aiaerate which produced, in their onward move- ment under the pressure force, such polishing and grooving, con- sisted of various sized boulders, pebbles and gravels, down to the most minute sand and loamy powder. Accumulations of such are found everywhere upon these smooth surfaces, and “ aaa hae’ = ‘ ; rae . - / . : Fl i , * > Erratic Phenomena about Lake Superior. a in:their arrangement they present everywhere the most striking --@ontrast when compared with deposits: accumulated ‘under the agency of water. Indeed, we nowhere find this glacial drift reg- ularly stratified, being everywhere irregular accumulations of ~- - loose materials, scattered at random without selection, the eears- “ est and most minute particles being piled irregularly in larger or smaller heaps, the greatest boulders standing sometimes upper- most, or in the centre, or in any position among smallér pebbles - , and impalpable powder. Oo _ «) And these materials themselves are scratched, pglished and fur- ~ rowed, and the scratches and furrows are rectilinear as upon the rocks tn situ underneath, not bruised simply, as the loose materi- _als carried onward by currents or driven against the shores by the tides, but regularly scratched, as fragments of hard materials would be if they had been fastened during their friction against each other, just as we observe them upon the lower surface of glaciers where all the loose materials set in ice, as stones in their setting, are pressed and rubbed against underlying rocks. But the setting here being simply ice, these loose materials, fast at one time’and movable another, and fixed and loosened again, have Tubbed against the rock below in all possible positions ; and hence not only their rounded form, but also their rectilinear grooving. How such grooves could be produced under the action of cur- rents, I leave to the advocates of such a theory to show, as soon as they shall be prepared for it. te I should not omit here to mention a fact which, in my opinion, has a great theoretical importance, namely, that im the northern erratics, even the largest boulders, as far as I know, are rounded, and scratched and polished, at least, all those which are found beyond the immediate vicinity of the higher mountain ranges; showing that the accumulations of ice which moved the northern _ €rratics covered the whole country; and this view is sustained by another set of facts equally important, namely, that the high- est ridges, the highest rugged mountains, at least, in this conti- nent and north of the Alps in Europe, are as completely polished and smoothed as the lower lands, and only a very few peaks seem to have risen above the sheet of ice; whilst, in the Alps, the ~ < nee ‘ 4 : bn al aa SMe ~~ : = : si % 7 ae = : * ai et ge? ; 96 Erratic Phenomena aout Lake Superior.“ + _ tween them adheres to all the little roughnesses of the pe _ fills them gut, and has the peculiar adhesive:character of the m ‘ground under the glaciers, and differing entirely in that respe els and pebbles and sands washed by water currents, which leave each pebble ‘clean, and never form adhering masses, unless penetrated by an infiltration of limestone. ' . Another important fact respecting this glacial drift consists im the universal absence of marine as well as freshwater fossils in i interior, a fact which strengthens the view that they have bee accumulated by the agency of strictly terrestrial glaciers ; such is, js at least, the case everywhere far from the sea-shore. But we- may conclu points, the se as they do at that therefor of marine fossil remains, and afso the influence of the tidal moye- ments upon them. And now swWch is really the case. Nearer the sea-shores we observe distinctly, in some accumulations of the drift, faint indications of the action of the tide reaching the lower surface of glaciers, and the remodeling, to some extent, of the ° materials which there poured into the sea. A beautiful example of the kind may be observed near Cambridge, along Charles River, not far from Mount Auburn, where the unstratified glacial oe ty, oO o cal Oo ~ ia) Qu. = wn v2) o _~2 9 w i] ‘= [om a oO | Be ie*] - > ia) So ie) 39 ee ia) = is) oS =) 3 ia) =| is] would only corroborate the induction derived from more general geological facts Arr. XIV. oy te Gold Md meer = by s Aucer, Bosto I wave lately had an opportunity of examining some gm x California gold, which have afforbled s specimens worthy of e be notice. Those which I purpose to describe in this Saver ; ined from the collections brought home by Mr. George E. Tyler, of this city, and Mr. H. B. Platt, of New York. They consist of well characterized octahedral crystals, simple and modi- » the surfaces of which have been but slightly disfigured by * Read, in part, before the Boston Society of Natural History, April, 1850. +) ips ‘ a 508 >. FF Alger on fa) ystallized Gold from California _+ attrition, or the oe of transported action usually observed | in ae er specimens. I cannot say that I have ever before seen what unquestionably a genuine crystal from this new land ‘of golden irregular crystalline plane could only occasionally be traced ou in’ former specimens; but here we have examples of erystallizatiii, 2 isi as perfect among the small ones especially, as are to be seen in mag- +." netic iron ore or in spinelle. The most striking examples on a ep uy large scale, are three octahedrons of the dimensions of the accOM= 4am a3 panying ficures. They are isolated crystals, and the smallest one, ,*” by which is the most perfect, is so entirely free from any adhering por- : tion of the matrix to which it must have been attached, as to lead quartz in connection with which the gold is usually found. Al- though its exact locality is not known, it is probable, as indicated by its slightly worn appearance, that it has been but recently dis- lodged from its original resting place. This crystal presents four pretty regular i and has three of its solid angles perfectly form- ed toa point. It exhibits no modifications; but two of its faces are depressed—one of them by a very deep cavity which extends not quite to the edges of the plane, but so near to them as to leave a narrow ridge, or border, all around the cavity and parallel with the edges, thus giving the same triangular outline to each. It appears as if the crystal had been in a liquid state, and that soon after the outside had congealed, the inner portion, or a part of it, had run out, leaving the Gnatnting consolidated edge just re- ferred to. I have seen something similar to this formed among artificial crystals, as for instance, metallic lead (which takes the form of an octahedron) and lead ore partially desulphurized, when the metal was allowed to flow off slowly, just as the outer crust had formed over the surface of the crystals. The large crystal presents only one half of the octahedron, hie base blending with the massive gol or only ig ep the cipient planes of the lower pyram Three of its planes fe perfectly smooth surfaces, cvoaca along their tee which are prominently marked by the same projecting border or ridge al- y described on the smaller crystal. This border may have been produced in the same manner by the shrinking away of the ais . =f ae (| pridg s ‘3 Kae OF "Alger on Crystallized Goll fiom Califia - 103 . . pendent on a greater intensity of molecnlar attraction in one tion, or axis, than another. It would seem in this case, as m crystalline face within the cavity of the larger one. This is Swering to the natural size of the crysta reat size of these crystals, and “ti fact that some of the , gene contained portions of oxyd of iron probably produced by _ the decomposition of pyrites, have led some to regard them as " Radoriorehe of sulphuret of iron. Iam not disposed to ascribe any such forced and unnatural origin to these beautiful produc- tions. I believe them to have been formed under the ordinary circumstances of crystallization, either in an open space, or while surrounded by a matrix so soft and accommodating, as to allow them full Pio ot to take the form it was intended they should take. Were the crystals cubes, there might be some reason for regarding them in the light of pseudomorphs of iron pyrites, be- cause this is the most common form of pyrites, and, moreover, all the pyrites that I have seen from California, has been in that form. But, we may well ask, who has ever seen even a cubic pseudomorph of gold? Crystals of gold are rare, cubes particu- larly so, and yet this form, on account of its simplicity, is made the primary form ; whereas it would seem as reasonable in cases of the regular system, to select that form as the primary which is most commonly and perfectly presented by the mineral, pro- vided there is no cleavage to guide us in the determination; and there does not appear to be any, well made out, among most of the native metals. By assuming those which most commonly occur in nature, we seem to recognize a sort of inherent disposi- tion, a preference, as it were, which is shown by the mineral it- self: and we avoid what seems to be a palpable inconsistency, Bet a ie * The two large crystals above described were obtained from the very choice and eertited collection of specimens, made with great care, and at no small expense, by Platt. This gen i hourly conta ns returning m the mines, has evinced his good taste by bee ben the bo eesti btained by them. He has erie finest amateur r collection hitherto brought from California t comprises great varie of ra here and and there ns by ig ‘all = er being sometimes most fantas- tically joined He informs me that in obtaining this collection, he b enced ed to am sidiieis oll wine than, Sour wnillicis'ot daltaee. 4 bs ‘or it may be the result af that kind of erianiinnion which . beautifully shown in the third figure on ihe last page, also an- 5 ‘of cubic gold, while he cites examples of the octahedron; andy * . the contrary, for he says (Min. Ed. by Haidinger) they are ofter 3 Se z oh . = te | 104 .. B Alger’ on » Critic 4 Collie. viz., the eutablishiing of | a cube as ‘the primary forts of mineré which have never been known to occur under such form si which even present a‘distinct octahedral cleavage... “This i is “eH case with two at least.’ If we take the simple rm, the. cv es should be made the primary of native iron, copper, lead, silvery and mercury; aud so of some others, which ocdur. in octa hei drons. and are not determined ‘ any certain cle e. In the case of copper, some authors have made the cee primary. Haiiy (Traité, 1808) even expressed his doubts as to the existence! Beudant, (Min., 1832,) says they are very rare.t Mohs implies hollow, while the octahedrons are smooth. Cleaveland describes’ the crystals in general as small and imperfect, and Nicol, im his ~ late work, in the like manner, observes, “ they are small and very © small.” I hope we may yet say of our California gold crystals, they are large and very large, as much for the benefit of miner- * alogists, as a reward to the industry and hard toil of the diggers. — Crystals of rare modifications.—Among the specimens col- lected by Mr. Tyler, I have found several: rare thodifieationsaieg this metal, such as come to us in their most perfect forms from + Brazil. I here give oon. of two of them. One, fig. 1, (a, b,é,) al represents a compound form produced by the union of two op- , - posite sections, or segments, of an emarginated octahedron; 4 form not unfrequently presented by octahedral spinelle. ‘The other, fig. 2, has the apparent form of irregular six-sided tables, with truncated edges, and isa modification of the same form. They are tolerably well represented by the figures referred to, but the planes of the dodecahedron (e) are less conspicuously de- fined on the real crystals, owing to their extreme thinness, and — edges being rounded off, or otherwise disfigured. For this J ee * They differ in cee to silver and iron, some adopting the cube, and*bthers the wt Gros as the Lprans Cronstedt, in A sirarslonrs. says, “I have procured in Transylvania a specimen of cubic native gold, but I have never seen it any where else.” In ore enumer- ation of ps splendid Turner collection formed by of the Heuland, examples are given of the regular octahedron, and only two of cube, one these being from the very locality Cronstedt speaks of. ak on Crist ai from. pat ornia, ~ 105 ed form of six-sided tablés, but; they are the result of ‘ind of modification, and are*tiot macles. Dufrénoy lave each given a figire of a very perfect example tion as fig. e by inequalities, while the primary faces P, are perfectly smooth _ and brilliant.+ ome of the unmodified macles, as shown in different positions bs fig. 1, a, b, c, are very enon I ee the edges between ee, “Uniting the two segments of the ahedron, being well defined. ron with emarginated edges. Dafeétioy has described a macle of gold quite similar to fig. 1, and it may be seen figured in the volume of elegant and copious crystallographic illustrations which accompany his treatise.§ It came from Matto-Grosso, in Brazil, and is in the collection of the School of Saag: Paris. It differs from the example here described, in ex 5 figure, but oouniite the octahedron as the primar ary form of gold, I have, besides con- forming his lettering to the notation of Phil- lips, made primary planes of ak aoe he Bites only as secondaries of the uld be observed that as ney ‘ll of these crystals show he effects of more or less abraded action, it is often difficult to * Fig 7 576, plate 144, of Dufrénoy’s, and fig. 3, plate 47, of Levy's Atlas of Plates, + In the Taruer collection there is a a single macle ¢ rystal — ering almost exactly ee aan has figured it in his Atlas, plate 4, fig. 4 { Th i group prepress the figures as magnified to about twice their natural size, 3 Atlae plate 145, fig. 581 Srconp Serms, Vol. X, No. 28. —July, 1850. 14 “fig Naa have besif brought. feomn Brazil hind Siberia: Shey had the. a Solid angles a, as lettered by Dufrénoy. Further ex- - amination “However, proved them to be the same macled combina-. — ‘ i +. * ‘ ‘ oe ‘e 7 F9 ae : « . ; Pg es See Ec ia 8 : - gas 106 ‘Scientif Imtelllgert as ‘. ‘itingilan elivsen confined within such narrow limits, and which now scattered over the plains and valleys. We may then, fro the indications already afforded, look for crystals of gigantic di- , -.. mensions, and possessing all their native unaltered beauty. Boston, May 17, 1850. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry AND Puysics. 1. On the Diffusion of Liquids; by Professor Grauam, F.R.S., (Proc. Roy. Soc., Phil. Mag., Feb., 1850, vol. xxxvi, p. 189.)—The ap- water was very simple. 7 consisted of an open phial to contain the . jar the “ water-jar,” the pair meee form a * diffasion cell.” diffusion was stopped, generally after seven or eight days, by Bates by ae to dryness. e characters _ fap diffusion were first examined in detail with ais to comm It. It was found, ai: that with solutions containing 1, 2, 3 and 4 per cent. of salt, the quantities which diffused out of the phials into the wa- ter of the jars, and were obtained by evaporating the latter, in a con- stant pone of eight GYM were as nearly in proportion to these num- bers, as ‘99, 3°01 and 4:00; and that in repetitions of the experi- . ments, os ois did n ot ary more than ;4th part. The proportion of salt much diffused out in such experiments amounted to about th of the whol snihy,. that the propery of salt diffused increases with the tem- perature ; an elevation of 80° F. doubling the quantity of chlorid of so- . dium diffused in the same time. The diffusibility of a variety of substances was next compared, solution of 20 parts of the substance in 100 ae being always used. ees ORs wid a Physics. a 107 It, su ur men under diffusion, diffused away fa the latter as readil , dees solutions. Urea itself is as highly diffusible as ‘chignid . <> -.O * ee. In comparing the diffusion of salts dissolved in 10 times s their weight ~ i ® of water, it was found tha at isomorphous compounds generally bad an “is. equal diffusibility, chlorid of potassium corresponding with chlorid of <= amm monium, nitrate of potash with nitrate of ammonia, and sulphate of 2 . ae cies rochloric acids appearing to be equally diffusive ; so cetic and sulphuric acids, Soluble sub-salts mmoni of the metals present a surprisingly low diffusibility ; the ib scot diffused i -Sitilar circumstances of the three salts, sulphate of ammonia, sulphate of copper, and the blue ammonio- sulphate of So iper being very nearly as o salts are mixed in the solution- ite they diffuse out into the water sew osphere separately and indepe ently of each other, ac- cording to shai individual diffusibilities. This i is quite analogous to what appens when mixed gases are diffused into air. An important con- Sequence is, that in liquid diffusion we have a new method of separation or analysis for many soluble bodies, quite analogous in principle to the _ Separation of unequally volatile substances in the process of distillation. “Aa it was shown that chlorids diffuse out coven sulphates and — Salts diffusing up into the sheet of fresh water, with which the lake is Periodically covered, with unequal velocity. t was further shown that chemical decompositions may be produced by — patie the constituents of a double salt of so much sta- bility as common alum being separated, and the hella of potash difasing i in be largest proportion. In fact the diffusive force is one of great energy, and quite as capable of breaking up compounds as the unequal volatility of their constituents. Many empirical operations in the chemical . = ter; the salts appearing mutually diffusible, as gases are known to be. Lastly, the diffusibilities of the salts into water, like those of the geses into air, appear to be connected by simple numerical relations. ‘. _» ash, chlorate of potash, nitrate of ammonia, chlorid of potassium me ae —— 4 ne. 108 .— cae “Scientific Intcthensthe These relations are bth observed when dilute noma of the salts are diffused from the solution-cell, such as 4, 2 or even 1 per cent. of salt. :* . The ee diffused in the same time from 41 per coli soiakonehinal A the three salts, carbonate of potash, sulphate of potash, and sulphate ‘of ammonia, were 10-25, 10°57, and 10°51 grains respectively ; and a sim-. ; ilar approach to equality was observed in the 1, 2, and 62 per cent. so- * lutions of the same salts. It also held at different temperatures. 2 acetate of potash appeared to coincide in diffusibility with the same an ~ group, and so did the ferrocyanid of potassium. ‘The nitrate of pot- s ch Brae and chlorid of ammonium formed another equi-diffusive group. Cn. times in which an equal amount of diffusion took place in these two groups appear to be as 1 for the second to 1:4142 for the first, oras 1. to the square root:o ow in gases, the squares of the times of ~-; — equal diffusion are the ‘densities of the gases. The relation between the sulphate of potash and nitrate of pa groups would therefore fall, | to be referred to the diffusion molecule or diffusion vapor of the first. - . | = al group having a density represented by 2, while that of the second group ~ is represented by 1. The corresponding salts of soda appeared to fall into a nitrate and _ sulphate group also, which have the same relation to each other as the ’ potash salts The relation of the salts of potash to those of soda, in times of equal. diffusibility, appeared to be as the square root of 2 to the square root of 3; which gives the relation in density of their diffusion molecules, as 2to 3. Hydrate of potash and sulphate of magnesia were less fully é f thene times are all. uared, the following remarkable ratios ent salts, each of which is the type of a class of salts, hydrate of pot- ee 1, nitrate of potash 2, sulphate of potash 4, sulphate of magnesia 16, with nitrate of soda 3, and sulphate of soda 6. In conclusion, it was observed, that it is these diffusion molecules of the salts which are concerned in solubility, and not the Daltonian atoms er equivalents of chemical combination; and the application was indi- cated of the sip lice of the diffusibilities of different substances to proper study of endos 2. On the pate ae of Formic Acid in Stinging Nettles ; by Dr. Gorvur-Besanez, (Journ. fiir Prakt. Chem., xlviii, p. 191; Chem. Gaz., Jan. 1, 1850, p. 8.—Some time ago, F. Will showed, by microghemi- cal and microscopical experiments, that the fluid in the hairs of the so { called nope g -caterpillar (Bombyx processionaria), which causes an in = mation of the skin, as well as the liquid in the poisonous or- of some insects, is nothing else than formic acid. It became highly salads therefore that formic acid would also occur in the veg- etable kingdom already formed; and the first class of plants which bout a pound of the collected plants Urtica urens and dioica, was cut small and pressed, and submitted ps ‘istillation with about four times the quantity of water and a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid. Chemistry and Physics. ‘3 4 109 eee -bath, it furnished a brownish mass, a very small portion of which was - + deliquescent, the greater part consisting of the excess of carbonate -’ of soda, centrated sulphuric acid; and it was possible that in the present case the formic acid might have been produced by decomposition towards cap. he temperature is now cautiously and gradually raised, when a sufficient quantity of pure theine will be found to have collected on the r. aper. 4. Test of the Presence of Sugar; (L’Institut, No. 846.)—M. Mav- mené has mentioned a new reagent for ascertaining the presence of Sugar in certain liquids. It is the bichlorid of tin. He announces his having observed, contrary to the statement of Liebig, that the chlorid acts On sugar even in the state. A temperature of only 100° C., is necessary for determining the reaction; and even in the cold it is pro- duced after some time. In either case it forms a brown matter partly x. ” 7 110 . ¥ _ Scientific Intelligence. soluble in watelcntoapinliieh is brilliant black when. dried. . If the solution of sugar and bichlorid of tin are left to spontaneous evap- oration at the ordinary temperature, the color soon becomes brown, and. gradually deepens; and at the end of a year or eighteen months, 1t Is_ changed to a uniform jelly of a lustrous black color. The same result heat. A test cloth of some woollen fabric, such as white merino, is to be applied Pe three or four minutes in a solution of one pint bichlorid of tin and two pints of water, the liquid allowed to drain off and the merino dried in a water-bath, For testing ron a drop of the urine is to be put on a strip of the stuff, and held over a red ~ charcoal ora candies not be used in place (s a Ordinary urine and its constituents are not darkened by this Bichlorid of seiciny, chlori d > So and other chlorids may compounds, as ligneous fibre, cotton, pape rch. The author also suggests that the reaction of sugar and sajacinrtidd of tin _— produce a brown paint that will become very important in the a i] ‘es = PR ne FEA day Fe soo ‘On Iodine in fresh water Plants ; by Av. Cuatiy, (L’Institut, 847.)—It is known that iodine has been detected by Maller in the cress, occurrence. e examined with success ei cress about Paris, and on extending his researches, found it in the following species. Iodine reaction. Fotamogeton —- stagnant waters “3 Gentilly, ces. ect pectinatum, the Seine, ne t. Cloud, strong. Arndo phragmites, — near aan, ‘ , traces s of St Quentin, . é . strong. Scins dncustr a, aise. : ; : , . traces. nentin, ‘ ‘ ‘ . strong. Typha latifolia, St. Quentin, : ‘ ‘ é . Littorella lacustris, St Que “ ‘eon ee aquatilis var. iteropiylas, pools of water. of ory, Sagittaria sagittifolia, the Seine, near Neuilly, Chara fetida, turfy waters, Gentilly, ; ; - traces. Conferva crispata, Seine, near St. Cloud, . ‘ Pontinalis antipyretica, pond near Charenton, . asturtium amphibium, Meudon, . * . es 2 eS a & 20a s 58 oO n Gratiola officinalis of comme : : . ree, ‘ _ Menyanthes trifoliata, Meudon, . ee ; 4 & : ve" . Chemistry and Physics i ‘lil Olisma plantago, Meudon, ‘ . otis traces. Stratiotes aloides, pond, Marl Ys ‘ ‘ , ‘ ‘ a Acorus Calamus of commerce, ‘ ‘ é é “ Vehonion ‘becca abunga of commerce ‘ ‘ ff Phellandrium aquaticum of oemmerse, ‘the fruit, sz 6 Inula helenium of commerce, eo edie " Symphytum officinale of commerce a. Rumex nemo orosus, swainp on the Seine, near Neuilly, Potentilla anserina, Potentilla supina, rnvehs St. Quentin, aye ° Polygonum hydropiper of commerce, Mr. Chatin concludes :— (1.) That those Pen growing in running waters, or on the borders of large bodies of water which may be strongly agitated by the winds, contain more iodine ion those of stagnant waters (2.) That the a is very small in species that are imperfectly submerged or only at intervals. (3.) That the nic of iodine appears to be independent of the nature of the plant or its place in the natural system he anti-scrofulous effects - the ia Veronica, Phellandrium, &c., “are explained by the presence of iodin 6. Analysis of certain gold-colored Bronze Antiquities found at Dowris, near Parsonstown, in the King’s Co age Ch — by Tuos. L. Cooxe, (Royal Irish Acad. ; Chem. ns No. 1 76.)—The arti- cles were part of a celt and a portion of a oem ne golden hue of these ancient bronzes tt to some the idea of an admixture of zine, an ingredient never yet observed in ancient bronzes. Such was not the fact, as may. bo.scon from niie analysis. The specific gravity copper, tin and lead, whisk it is unnecessary to repeat | at presen nt. ted of The celt consisted of Copper, “ 85-232 ° a 79° 345 Oat ‘ 13-112 . “ 10°873 Lead, ‘ 1°142 s . 9-115 Sulphur and PEPIN, 0°150 ‘ . — Loss 0°364—100. , 0-667=100. roar a nia solution in small Woulf’s bottles. He al the very fine qualities of toughness and of hardening acquired by this alloy when hammered, enabling it to cut not only flesh but even bone. - Mannite, its atomic Weight and Compounds; by Dr. W. Kyor, (Pharm-Cent. Sa Nov., 1849, and Jan., 1850; Chem. Gaz., Mar. Ist, avre are mere si atede: of basic lead salts with uncombined mannite, and therefore give no aid in determining the atomic weight. No combi- nations with acids seem to give a favorable result—but at last a com- nd of formic acid was obtained, curious for the manner of its for- mation. Crystallized owalic acid and mannite fused together at 230°, *"s roy eS - Soientif re ntellienci. and then allowed ‘to remain for several hours at about 212°, gave off large quantities of formic and carbonic acids. The nearly colorless - syrup cooled to a transparent mass, soluble in alcohol of 0:83, in which mannite is a insoluble. The solution soon decomposes into formic acid and mannite. No true salts would be formed, but the compound was found . be one equiv. of formic acid and one ‘of mannite estima- - ~ ted at C, cusses the analysis of Strecker, and agrees with him that it is sex-ni- trated, its formula will then be C,, H, O,.+6NO,. The reduction by metals and by sulphuret of ammonium is so unlike that of ordinary nitric compounds, that Dr. Knop brings it as a proof, that nitric acid is - contained as such, and not as hyponitric acid. It must be remembered ~ however, that chemists do not generally consider that hyponitric acid _ as such, is contained in these compounds. ‘ or the — of explosive mannite the process of Stenhouse is said to be est. annite is to be dissolved in very cold fu- ming nitric ma in the proportion of half an ounce to 2 ounces of acid— cold | sulphuric acid is then added, until white grains cease to deposite. The mixture to be poured into a large quantity of water—the crude product dissolved in boiling alcohol and again poured into a quantity of cold water—after some time the mannit and may be filtered and © washed. G. C. ScHaEFFER. On Dulcose, a Sage oa of Grape Sugar; by A. Laurent, (Comptes Rendus, Ja -)—This is a new sugar from Madagascar, of uncertain origin. ae fusion its formula is C,, H,, O24; differing from grape sugar by C, H,. When dissolved, it takes up 3 equiva- lents of water. A vrphitinied compound has been obtained with 4 the action:of nitric ecid on dulcose, mucic acid is formed. This sugar, which has but a slightly sweetish taste, is said to be without ac- house, from certain lichen, may, on the supposition of a slight error in the analysis, be considered as a sai ue of mannite, which it re- sembles in its properties. This view however, would make the com- pounds with nitric acid, eh saw of quinqui- met as stated by Dr. meee: Since the disvovery of Strecker that e mannite is ry, while it gives sAditiousd ciabaintien n, if any were needed, to the views of MM. Gerhardt and Laurent on this subject. It is possible that some of the known varieties of sugar, may, on more careful emia tion, prove additional examples of homologues. - C. Ss Among other recent aint pt in connection with the sities of sugar we may mention the follow ing :— . Sugar in the Liver.—Bequarp and BarrEswILt have demonstra- ted the presence of sugar in the liver of animals, even where saccharine Cr amylseeous food forme ne no partof their diet. It is found in no other organ. a @: ©. S. H, : e author in his first paper points out the nitric mannite as most saints for determining the atomic weight. In his second paper he dis- ©. 2: => ~ * 8 oe e . * 4 i. - dieatey of sugar in solution. The blood also contains a ae quantity of sugar. The portion of the fourth ventricle in which a wound produces e, this effect, is poe to a small space a little above the origin of the 7 = Bh pair of nerv The results of this curious discovery promise to throw new light upon the process of digestion. Il. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. otice of ba ead in the Cabinet of Dr. Julius S. Taylor, (in a ees addressed by Dr. Taytor to the Editors.) —Believing that any information upon i subject of trilobites is at all times acceptable to the a ae world, I venture to tell you of a remarkable portion of — fi a few days past by me. It is an “ Isotelus megistos,” and It Sressae the most remarkable evidence of their gigantic size, of i Specimen now extant. It was found in our blue limestone strata, and presents the tail or * gee we and seven of the segments across in 1 Tengah and 94 in breadth I see that Mr. Barrande of Prague is of the opinion that trilobites change songs fesdag rs: to age. Of the eg te of that opinion me doubts, as I shor e Mineraney 0 and Gey. 113 . oh s * _ ve A ys 114 < - Sbientife ye ntelligence _ of several other varieties, I have ‘wiany portions of different ages, all of - which have exact resemblance. Of the Calymene Blumenbachii, I : perfect, and in them I find no change in appearance. Thus it would appear that in our varieties, at least, we have no metamorphosis of the earliest of the moving animals. However, I have not seen his work, and “ hc of it may be too short to give a correct idea of what he m eo Genelia Montgomery Co., Ohio, April 18, 1850. oe _ 2. Observations on the Mica Family ; by J. D.Dana.—The Mica fam- oe for a trimetric mica, Margar odite ae a-second coat or oblique mica, etc.; and it is probable that several other species besides those now . known, are yet to be distinguished. . The following observations on the different kinds of mica are. -main- : ly from the volume just referred to. : Rammelsberg in his 4th Supplement (p. 76) has calculated anew the sean > = ifm nia several analyses of muscovite, and lays down the formulas of the va- f rieties. But by some oversight, he makes the ratio for the oxygen of the Sg protoxyds, poroxyds and silica, L : 12: 15 equal to $: 9: 12,a sif 4: : 4; and the formula deduced is that he on the aigici ratio. As the point is of some importance, we give here the ratios from ‘a ¢ his calculations, making the oxygen of the alumina 12, for better com- ac ratio to the other ingredients: while the ratio between the perox- and silica, since it is much nearer oe is not liable to such iocicaaka The results are as follow R 8 “Bi 63 : 18-622: 24-68 — 1:05: 12: 15°91. 42: 17°76 + 23°95 — 0°96 : 12 : 16°18. 39 : 18:56 : 24-01 — 0-90 : 12: 15°52. 56: 18-54 924-09 — 1:07: 12 : 15°59. 44 : 17°89 : 24°52 — 0-97 : 12: 16°45. Tels P2E97 = 4 STS? 6871. ai Rose - i Fahlun, Rose, 7 mua I: ¥ i Ochotsk, R Zsidovacz, Kussin, Mean, excluding the last, 0-98 : 12 : 15-93 Mean, including ee last, 1-005: 12 : 16-06 : Corrected. ¥ ean therefore of the ‘dea analyses from which Rammelsberg ; deduces | his ratio is very close 16, an ene analysis be yses co more nearly with Fl : 12 : igthan 1 = i e.10. formula Si, adopted By is ght is not therefore sustained _ by the analyses. Mineralogy and Geology. : 5 * Neither does Kussin’s analysis correspond to the ratio 14: 12: 15, ~ _. whence Rammelsberg derives incorrectly (but correctly from 1:9: 12)» _ the formula K Si+341 Si, but more nearly to 14: 12: 164, though prob- mica from Unionville, Pa., occurring iw aealy granular masses, af- ry J. D. Darrack, in the Laboratory of J. C. Booth, (Min., 1850, p. ? Si 46-75, £1 39-20, Fe trace, Mg 1:02, K 656, Ca 0:39, Ff 4-90 = 98°82, This gives for the ratio 1-61 : 18°32 : 24:29 = 1:05: 12: 15:91 or ei itd 12: 16. he Albbarfiives mica (Svaaberg) and ae ue hautl) nets petra 3°27 : 15°06 : 20-61 — 2°60 : 12 : 16-42 — 22: : Fuchsite, 2-33 : 17-88 : 2491 = 1°53: 12: 16 ie = dg: 12 16. ‘sn The first t corresponds to the ratio2: 9: 12, and formula R2 Si+-34 Si. Taking the Fuchsite at 14 : 12: 16, it gives the formula R Si+3A1 Si. Maza RODITE, Schaf héutl.—This pearly white biaxial mica and others - allied have afforded the following analytical pesHps VOM 1, Schafhautl ; 2, Delesse, (Ann. d. Mines, [4], xvi, 202, 1849); 3, 4, Br rewer, of dus Vain Laboratory, (Min., 1850, 359) ; 5, Rammelsberg, (4th Supp., 75): Si Al #e Mn Mg Na K Ft 3 Zillerthal 47°05 34°90 1:50 195 407 796 1:45—98°88, sy lng 2. St. Etienne, 46:23 33°08 — Game 210 145 887 4:12, F trace=99°33, D. 8. Monroe, Ct, 49-96 82 85 trace — 1 08 2 289 791 4-460, ot OTs 90-29, B 4. = “60 = 1 undetermined 446 5. Loe, doubtful, - . ve 36 3-06 06 — ‘ nd 155 10°25 «2°43, Gabe 29-90 06, R. «A mean of 4 determinations. The ratios are as follows, £; 317 : 16°35 : 2445 = 2°33 2 12:1795 =116:6: 897 2, 2°65 : 16°46 : bide = Ne 742 > PSL e= 090: 6 + S46 3,4, 2°63 : 15°35 : 25°96 = 2:05 : 12: 2029 = 1:02 : 6: 1014 > 2°71 : 16:08 : ms 86 = mers 12:1861 =.1:01:6: 9380 Rammelsberg and Delesse agree nearly in giving the ratio 1 : : 9 Schafhiutl’s has the protoxyds a little in excess, and Brewer obtained an excess of silica. But it is probable that all come under the formula, R Si+2# Si, The mica of Monroe, Ct., occurs with aay spit and topaz in large scales, aggregated into wedge shapes. G—=2-79— 281. The St. Etienne mica has G—=2-817; Rammelsberg’s 2°83] ; Schaf hautl’s 2872. In this species the oxygen te of ov" peroxyds xg ; : he Gilberti mson appears to be altered muscovite, or margarodite.* * The mineral Gilbertite has the aspect of a pearly white mica, occurring in scales often partly aggregated. The following are the analyses given; 1, Lehunt, of true hg from Co: cakes om. Min., i, 235); 2, Thomson, rnwall, different local- ity, Si i Mg Ga Fe Na P ‘lL 45°15 4011 190 417 243 — =98-01, Lehun Rey 4780 32°62 160 —— 518 9:23 £00=100" 48, Catal el ves for th en of the protoxyds, peroxyds and silica, 2-48 : 1876 2545, a te tie 159) 12 : 15°01. Dufrenoy deduces 2: 12: 16. Like a . * : 2a | Scientific Inlelligence, fz ‘PutocorirE, (or Rhombic Miéa) according to Meiseindelll apanipee variety of the brown, The optical character of these micas has been observed by the writer in connection with B. Silliman, Jr. , Biorrre (Hexagonal or Magnesia Mica) has the ratio 1: 1: 2, an nd Ghante RaSi+(zl, Fe) Si, which is essentially the formula of garnet. A chrome meguiene are gives the ratio 3 : 1 ; 2, but whether uniaxial or not is not certain. A Pargas biotite gives, 3 : 1: 2, and the formu- ‘la R2 Si HBS: (Rammelsberg) ; anda Rosendal, 1: 1:25, or the for- mula 382 Si+28 LEPIDOLITE or hits mica,.—The Lithia micas have been the subject of study by Rammelsberg, and he concludes that in them as we topaz, the fluorine replaces oxygen, or is in the same state of composi- tion as the oxygen. ‘There are several distinct chemical compou unis ° included, and it is not definitely known that they are all biaxial. Brewster observes that in one lithia mica part of the specimen was bi- axial and part uniaxial. The ratios given by Rammelsberg are, 1:3: 6=R8i+# Si—mica of Ural, Chursdorf, Utd, Rozena, Altenberg (Stein). | a, &. 2:9: 15=2R Si+38 Si—mica of Zinnwald. c 1:2: 5=3R Sit 2% Si—mica of Juschakow d. 1:6: 7=R2 Si+6# Si—mica of Altenberg sent to Turner. In the Ural, grains Uté, and Rozena micas, the fluorine is to the Tagen as 1 : 20 ; the Altenberg, (Stein), 1:60; in the Zinnwald, 1:14, orl: 11; in ie Juschakowa, 1:8; in the Altenberg, (Turner), The > Ural mica (Turner) affords then the formula,—writing for RSi +BEi, (R O+-Si 0?)-+-(R? 03-+Si 03), 20[(R O+Si 03)+(R? 0%+Si O2)]+[(RF+Si F*)+(R? F2+SiF*)] 5 and in the same way the other 8 ser be written out. Making O and F isomorphous, this formula becomes [R (0, F)+8i (0, F)>]4[R2(0, F)*+Si(0, F)>]. EMERYLITE and Euruytuire.—These species have Doe oy recent oon ey and the ee now stand as follow Emervuirte, J. Lawrence Smith. Corundellite ay Clingmanite, Sil- liman, Jr. =< oliated like 1 mica ; folia easily separable. Either in coarse plates or in masses consisting of aggregated — G.—2°995, Silliman, Jr. Lustre pearly. Color white. Translucent, to ane opaque. Folia brittle or nt set flexible. muscovite the protoxyds bear a small poeertos to the peroxyds, and the ratio is very near that derived fom some analyses of this species. The specimens look like a slightly altered mica, Including the a. the oxygen ratio is 159: 12: 15-01; he oxygen ratio for the second analysis is 4°16 : 15-24 6: 9°78, ‘margarodite, excepting in the | : Lj Seem PP P ee eae Sivaiont } t; yet ther ly are di able “ phe the ratio 1: $: 1 and formula 3&3 Si+28 Si, which is the formula fer oe OR gy Mineralogy and Geology. 7 Com mg dion. nt Si+sAl2 Sif+s cpm 30:58, alumina 50: 99," . lime 13: 965 water 4°47. Analyses : 1, J. Lawrence Smith, (Am. J. drs hea. a Sei. (21, viii, 379) ; 5, 6, ibid, (private communica wand 3 7, C. Hartshorne, in Laboratory of J. C. Booth, (private communication from Prof. J. C. Booth) ; 8, Silliman, Jr., (private communication) : Si 2% Ga Mg Na K — i Asin Mise or, 380° 50° 13 Mn, a ple =100,8. 2. Village Green, 32°31 49°24 10°66 0°30 _ (loss) % pai=i00, Cra 3. 31:06 51°50 9°24 0-28 100, Garw. 4, “ 31:26 51°60 10°15 050 et “ read pn Craw. 5. 30°18 51:40 10°87 0-92 “ 0-54 eel Cou 6. Unionville at ‘50°57 11°31 0°62 0°85 5°14=100, Cra 3 ‘15 54°28 11°36 vee adetermined oh0 Fe trace, Hartshe orne 8. North Carolina, na 17 4840 9871 99,HF 2:03=100°80, S. Jr. Analyses 6, Tyare of the Corundellite, and 8, of the Clingmanite. oa following are the oxygen ratios for the protoxyds, peroxyds, and si 1 420 .<¢>? 24403) 1669 ise 108 626 : 4 2. 287.3: 38:01: : .16-19. =. 999 648 : 4 3 3°43 23°93 1@14 -== (85 693 : 4 4 3°40 24°12 16°24 = 085 594 : 4 5 4:03 24-02 1666 °“S=" *1US (is) 6 4°01 23°64 1609: = 1-17 608 : 4 7 365% 5°37 1658 =, O03 608 : 4 8 3°99 23°92 ne =... 4°08 604 : 4 Mean =o 6307 S'S @ Supposing the alkalies equivalent to the loss. € mean result is quite closely 1: 6: 4, and the same is afforded by several of the particular results. As Dr. Smith found no water, and Hartshorne only 0-5 per cent., the species is primarily age - cluding the water found by Craw in his meee ye ratio is 1; 6: Commonly yields water in a matrass, with s trace of nd orine. B.B. exfoliates and emits a bright light aad finally fuses on the Asia Minot, and leg at Naxia and Niconia. Also found with corun- dum at Corundeli Green, Delaware Co., Pa.; at Unionville, Chester Co., ie Silliman, Jr.—Structure as in common mica, but lami- nz not as easily separable. Biaxial; angle between the optical axes 713°, ee Jr. H.=3-5—4-5. G.—2-963—3-008. Lustre of cleavage surface bright pearly, inclining to adamantine. Color white to colorless ; sides faint grayish sea-green or whitish. ee to translucent ; at times opaque or nearly so. Laminz rather brittle Composition.—Analyses: 1, 2, H. Erni, in the Yale Laboratory, ‘iv communication) ; 3 3, 4, T. Garrett, in J. C. Booth’s Laboratory, n): iiladelphia, (private communicatio os af = * m 4 * ; aS * P ‘ * *% 118 a Iniellige sence. ere Bi AL Pe Ge Me it : - Birionite, 43°69 44:69 —— 898 O75 0°98 0:82 5-60=100:41, Eri : ——— @ 8 —- 434-069 maceprpeenns i Pas 3. ~ 45°93 48:23 0°60 353 2-44 —= 10078, Canveth a “ (dif. loc.) 45°33 4647 236 trace —— sande Garret The following are the oxygen ratios for the analyses : : aaa 2088 : 2265 = 098 : 1106 : 12 2 910s 3° 2267. == ae tT Ts: 12 ie 3. $964: 2288 25 2o87 ce 008 s 147 2: 12 Mee ae 4, uate ise Oh ae Sa ee LO + 18 Be | » Mean" 098 Y4i49 : 12 are ratio 1 : 11 : 12 appears therefore to be that authorized by the ? ses, As no water was found in the 3d and 4th analyses, the spe- be is essentially eohyoge. Including the water found by Erni, the ratio becomes 1 : 11: 12 : 3, and the formula Rs Si+11A1 Si+ oft. It is still possible that 1 : 12 :,12 will prove to be the true ratio; and in that case the ratios for margarite, emerylite, euphyllite, and musco- vite, have an obvious simple relation, they being respectively 1: 12:8: 2:19. 58¢ bees 12812 Bs ih: atrass, often yields water. B.B. exfoliates, emits a strong light, and in = forceps fuses on the edges. Gives traces of fluorine, but none o ia. Bocdie associated with tourmaline and corundum at Unionville, Del- _ « aware Co., Pennsylvania. The impression of the crystals of tourma- , line on the lateral see of the mica, leaves a very smooth, hard looking surface. . Also in the same vicinity in es Aaa laminz, or scales; this variety afforded the analysis No. 4 abov Recapitulation. —The following are the oxygen ratios observed amo LR the ss and the formulas correspond ng :— ies mically as*much alumina silica, or a larger am i ese micas are ie yeas those of the ‘following di division, and brittle or but slightly oo pm of 1. iaaiiarted si 12. : 8§= 1 Sede Tene able * Rs Si2+6Al2 Si : 2. Emerylite, 2 : 12 : ‘es er a ee R32 Si+3Al2 Si. ree 8. Euphyllite, 1 : 12(#11): ?R3 Si+-118 Si. me Micas having atomically % alumina than silica +2125 16 Muscovite, a. = 1:12 :16 3R,12A1,165i. f b. Fuchsite, i 12:16 =1: 8 : 108% | c. Abborforss, 23:12:16 =1: 44: 6 R28i+3A158i a 2, Margarodite, 2212/18 1: 6 9 RSi+eA1 Si. iy 3. Lepidoli 4° 31973 2 =): § 6 RSi+#Si 7 2:12:20 = 1: 44+ %4 2RSi+3# Si | é 6 2:12:30 =1: 2» 86 sRSi+eh we d. 2:12:14 =1: 6: 7 ReB5iteRSI | 4, Phlogopite, 18:12:30 =1: g: 1g sReSi+28 Si 5. Biotite, a, 12 2:12:24 =—bt61 2 Rs Sit#Si _ 6, Pargas, 8 :12:24 =1: 144: 8 R26i+8Si , Chrome, =1: 2: 4 RsBi2+oKSi. d. Rosendal, (#12 :12:30 =1: 1: 2 SR2S8i+2R6i 6. Chamouni, Delesse, (#) 4¢:12: 1931: 23: 4 3R25i+5 q. , 112116 =1: 8: 4 ——— ‘ . ~tte . aos eS . = => a . 7 oye « “~ “ae Po 3 . ae = a ‘ y «> “. : a Miticralogy and, Geology. 119 The nigral Diphanite, rese mbles magarite and leapt, accordin to _Breithaupt. It has the ratio 10. og Ve have not written a Bike pe the muscovite.» It is evident from a survey of the compounds, that there must be some more satisfactor mode of exhibiting the .relations of subs stances, than by the formulas often made out. They frequently make seeming diversity instead o quainted wi e wide variation of formula pape ier 8 on a slight The amount of water which. analyses afford varies from 0 to 5 per cent.; and as it exists variously or not at all, in micas in which the oxy- gen ratio is the sam rere is reason for believing it the result of a par- tial alteration of the ‘mica, like that which takes place in iolite. | ydrous varieties are pmmonly f more or aoe wanting in trans- 7 3. Spodumene, (Dana’s Min., 1850, p 1. 693. \—The annexed figure of a crystal of Spodumene, from orwiel Mass., has been made ‘by the p fj He s - - o 7] Los | - +f rt) + T! a=) ° a S 5 ie) S oO a 9 a os Ss dl 7 ee r vertical plane b® on the right and the cor- responding one on the left wanting, and also with the two planes o” and o! unmated ; figured are smooth, oooee f oe ee ina direction of the intersections as Vertical view are shown in hiiaé 2; the ea between o/ and a? has a parallel direction with that between a and t?, but that between 2. and o” is doubtful. The crystal is a M Petes long, 13 inches wide, and 1 inch thic color is grayish, with a tinge of pee? Besides the usual cleava the orthodiag- pyramid a—a direction pointed out on the figure by the dotted line on plan ne surface of plane M moreover is very ‘finely crossed by lines vip a ing to this cleavage direction. The c stal is bisected along its orth “pee and on holding one of the halves up to the light it is seen to be translucent, and marked throughout with the same lines as surface. a * ee ; ae ee a ie f i: . a 3 120 : Scientific ok The following are the angles). as observed with the common. goni- Bis ometer i Mr. Hartwell and © by the author. #s 3 x Hartwell. Author, = oT. ‘gt N: a 87° Mita BF aes N:; N (att onl 93° 93° N:M 188835 133° 30’ Rati? 137° 136° 30' N tnt 153° 154° M : b® Ly Ms t? 106°-+107° M:P 9°.40° M:a 100° 30’ 100° 30’ Mesa? 116° *,+ 116° M : o! e eRr M : o” 140° t2.: t? (over P) © 79° 30’ eb 140° 139° 45’ ER 140° 30’ a : a (front) 117° 117° The crystallographic wins dancin for the planes are indicated in the sm i except for the planes o’, o”, which are not ages: minable “with In certainty. Naumann’s system of notation they are oP @Pma wPo oP P 2P “ig “3Pa2 oe N M b a Other crystals have since been obtained by Mr. Harwell, one % which is six inches long and nearly half this in breadth. The plane P, o' and o” are wanting, and the back edge of the plane t? is a ie there being no plane—m e complete description of the crystal is hence © P, m Po ora. @ P’3, P, 2P, 2P’'@. a plane o P'S is seen only on the left side of plane M, as in the figu The specimens afforded B. Silliman, sa -» ast Sag ‘iihia react These facts set aside an idea adopted by Dufrénoy and Pelou e, and (Kobell). And if we consider the protoxyds and peroxyds as replacing one another, we find 15 of oxygen in the oxyds to 30 in the silica, which is the relation in pyroxene. With the above formula, and Bie he B 5 over 2852 is about three times the corresponding number for bh blende, four to four and a half times that of pyroxene and its varieties, and twice that of borax. » oh x! * : 4. 7 Prehnite. _—The Anh fidrous Prehnite of J. D. bees E Jour. Nat. Hist., v, 487,) has beet examined by Dr. C. T. tig und. to contain the same per-centage of a as prehni in ie ifials, he found 4°7 and 4°15 per cent. of ae and iinete, 4:18, 4:45, 4:50, 4:41 per cent. Other specimens examined b Mr. Gi. Brush in the Yale Laboratory, afforded 4 4: 913, 4817, 4°864 per nt. This mineral appears therefore to be identical with ordinary prehnite... The existence of water in this variety was first ascertained ina blowpipe experiment by Mr, J. E. Teschemacher of Boston. n a new crystalline form of Staurotide, and SevibPehiom of rateesip ns with Andalusite and Topaz; by J. D. Dana.—The accompa- nying figure, soviet crystals of staurotide from the spodumene locality, Norwich, Mass ter are as follows :—— N ce} oN oz . = aren N) =93° N :b ae (129° — 182°) The crystals are black and semi-metallic in lustre. The largest are 14 inches in breadth. The isomorphism of this species and andalusite is sufficiently close to merit attention - Calculating from N : N=129° 20’, the prism b?=93° 8’. In Andal- usite, the prism oe ek to the latter is 91° 20’, and this gives for the former 127° 57’. P: Staurotide =131°, in andalusite 144° 50’; and the planes have chetetles the axial relation o For the relation of topaz and andalusite, see last vali of this Jour- nal, p. 407. The atomic volume of the St. Gothard staurotide, calculated from one of Ja to (4414+1¥e)? Si, and specific gravity 3°74, gives for. the A atomic solaias 536, and for the C atomic volume 38-3: for a St. Airolo staurotide, with the formula (44l+ $¥e)?Si?, and specific gravity 3°7, we obtain the A atomic volume 890-5, the C value 38-7. Andalusite afforded (last volume of this Jour- nal, P. 235) A = 962°5, C—=41°85; and topaz (loc. cit., p. 240) A= 6. =4 6. Platinun of California.—In a letter from J. E. Teschemacher, we are informed that he has detected a oe of platinum among - Fowlerite—This name, applied to a variety. anganese spar or thodonite, was not originally eA by Prof. Gaetan, as stated on p- 410 of last volume of this Jou See fen, Vol. X, No. 28. — 1850. 16 “% Priests, and isdéey: 121 (122 Scien tific di ntelligence. ; III. “Zooroey. 1. Remark on the Genus Noctitula of J.V. Thompson ; by J J.D. Dan —The genus Nocticula established by Thompson in his Zoological Re. “f searches, No. 2, p. 52 and plate 5, (Cork, 1829,) is closely related to the Euphauside.* The general form of the animal, its thoracic and abdominal appendages, and the antennz, eyes, and short beak, are as in Thysanopoda and Euphausia ; and the last abdominal segment has the acuminate a with the naked barb either side near apex, which _in the suggestion of this error we make the ‘due allowance for draw- made at sea of such minute objects” which Thompson asks of ’ chis readers. ) The number of thoracic legs is stated at sixteen, but this " includes, as the drawing shows, a pair of maxillipeds. Excluding these, there will then be 7 pairs, which is the number in Thysanopoda ; ‘an it seems probable that Nocticula and Thysanopoda are identical, and if so, the former name has the prece ‘ The species described and figuied by Thompson, was taken in the Atlantic, between latitudes 5° 25’ S., and 29° 30’ N., and longitude 17° 18 W., and 32° 55’ W., on the 6th, 12th, and 25th of September. It was brilliantly phosphorescent. It is called the Nocticula Banksii, as it is supposed by Thompson, and with apparent good reason, to be identical with the Cancer fulgens of Sir Joseph Banks, a species ob- served between Madeira and Brazil, and published with a drawing by Macartney in the Philosophical Transactions for 1810. This drawing, mpson has copied, and in it 7 pairs of thoracic legs are represented. 2. Observations on some Crustacea, in the collections of the Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia; by Prof. L. R. Ginpes ct Charles- ‘ton, 8. C., (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., Mash $800. v, 25.)—The Chorinus armatus of Randall (Memoir in Jour. t. Sci. Philad., viii, 106,) is a Pericera, and agrees with Padane forwain of Edwards (Crust., i, 335. The Cancer mercenaria of Say, is a Pseudocarcinus. It is referred by Edwards with some doubt to the genus Xantho of Leach (M. Edw le i, 399); but his description of Pseud. ocellatus applies in every particular to the mercenari Me Grapsus Lonaipes, Randall, is Grapsus cruentatus, according to Gibbes, and the statement that Surinam is its locality, is considered a istake. Grapsus HIRTUS, Randall, is G. rudis, M. Edw., the latter name having the priority. Guat ornata, Randall, is an Ilia, and a distinct species. To the above, the Committee of the Society add—that Macrophthal- mus seainarsinars Randall, (published in 1840,) is Gelasimus telescopi- » Owen, bo of Blossom (1839), and M. podophthalmus, Voyage of Bonite, (1841. Pacuranarsvs PARALLELUS, Randall, is Grapsus Thukujar, Owen, loc. cit. ; and Pagurus pecorus, Randall, is P. pictus, Owen. ; Tee this ~Ftcwrape fe deg ix, 130. ‘to by Edwards, either in his Memoir, or in his Hist, Nat. des in the name of his this character Thysanopoda, 7: tri- — Ao. des Si Nat, sn, 1850, ee cea wat des Oconiaal not re- + 4 . ‘ool. : 123 In iiieat ‘of these cases in which Dr. Randall has been forestalled, ‘it.has been by erences ware <— not through the ion when his ‘memoir was in course of pre on. 3. Conspe clus Crustaccorem fea in Orbis Terrarum circumnaviga- tione, CaRoLo Wixxes eé Classe Reipublice Faderate Duce, leit et de- scripsit J. D. Pebscis “AMPHIPODA, No, I. (Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, ii, 201). —The following are the names of the sixty-two new species Nar in this paper Familia 1. Orchesti Genus I. Tatirrvus: ae novi- zelandie, grecili, ornatus. Genus II. Tarirronus, (Dana): species, insculpt Genus III. Oxcnestia: species, sylvico la, en ‘reotimanus, spi- asus es an dispar, quadrimanus, Genus LV. Aut Ss, (Dana): species, compioine verticillata, hir ‘ivelana. grac cilia, Qe a humilis, australis, brevicornis, novi- zelandiz, in nirepida, orientalis, graminea. . Familia 2, — da, Sub-familia 1, i esi — Genus I. Lyst ASSA: asamp braslien Genus II. Gece (Dana) : » gi aoe Genus II. Srenia, (Dana) : rit erlinio Familia 2. Gammarida, Sub-familia 2, Gamm Genus [. Gammarus: species, asper, suluensis, ~albids, hirsuticornis, emissitius, —s furcicornis, tenellus, orientalis, quadrimanus, validus, = fn pilos us II, penne TO : species, peculans, fissicauda, pubescens, in- dbeitinty ins peruviana, tenuicornis, indica, rubella, fucorum, tongensis, peregrina, brevipes, simplex, nodosa. (Enicerus: species, novi-zelandi Genus 1V. Exicuruonius: species, = seamer pugnax. Familia 3. Corophide Genus I. Coropnium: ‘species, quadrice ceps. Genus II. pace (Dana) : species, gracilis, longipes. pereilia & Icilid Genus cits, (Dana) : species, ovalis. 4. Oithona plumifera of W. Baird.—The genus Scribella described in this Journal, 2nd ser., i, 227, 1846, and also viii, 279, is identical with Oithona of Baird, published in 1843 in the Zoologist, sind the Scribella scriba appears to be the same species with the event plu- — era. On the circulation and digestion in “i lower Antiialss Prof. Fs hae (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist, 1850, p. 206.)—Prof. Agassiz a paper on the greet e and gases i in the lower animals, showing that the ns ge in the Invertebrata cannot be compared to that of the Verteb Instead of the ore ‘conditions of chyme, chyle, and blood, which the circulating fluid of the Vertebrata undergoes, the blood of that class of the Invertebrata, which he had particularly studied, the Annelida, is, accord- ing to Wagner, simple chyle, colored chyle; the receptacles of. chyle in different p of the body are true lymphatic hearts like those found in the Ve et ; this kind of circulation is found in the Articulata and Preuishng function. "He also examin ao Scientific Intelligence. - Mollusks with few exceptions, some Echinoderms, &c. Inthe Meduse _ water is bese og. * and Polyps, Maga of chyle, chyme mixed with u may | . be seen sae in Beroé. Prof. Agassiz thinks that the ite development of the higher animals oe a similar succession in the connection of respiration on by the respiration ; the gills of fishes, then, cannot be oo to the gills: * Crustacea; Articulata and Mollusks. No gills are connected - with the chymiferous Horeca ; animals having this circulation have * no true respiration; they have only tubes to distribute freely aérated accordingly, if we contrast the fauna of the old continents of geogra- phers with the zoology of Australia and New Zealand, we find a wide difference in the degree of organization which creation has reached in not yet been sent to ree country, the most highly soa anima hitherto discovered, either fossil or recent, is a bird; in Australia, if and which are perhaps the lowest rep- resentations of their class,* while the low organization of its botany is indi icated by the remarkable absence of fruit bearing trees, the Ce- realia, &c. * The genera, Talegalla, Leipoa, and Mega — rt of a great family of birds inhabiting Australia, New Guinea, ghey ces the Phillippin e Islands, whose —— ions orate are most sin and differ sag ps a suas other group ist most nearl allied to the linacece, while in some of their actions, in their mode of fight, they much mble the lide; the small size of their brain, coupled wi i means ed for - —— Neeret ie te of organization. rfor a ae three species of _pieliing Amira, Laie erable to three distinct genera, have many | 1, p of nidifica- ” a : ee Zoology. 125 : . New inte From Lake Superior described by M. Agass The ne and valuable volume lately issued by Prof. renee his associates, ~aneetiai desestikts of numerous new forms of. sisal € now enumerate the preter. soa of fish described for the first time by Prof. Agassiz in this volume otpenser levis, Agass., p. afi 2 ‘Agass., Pp 271, (Plate ! rs Se. 1.) cheus, Agass., p. 276. Pimelodus "lie a p- 281. Percopsis, Agass., new genus. We quote the remarks of Prof. Agassiz in full pasacsed the very remarkable new genus of fish to - which he has assigned the name Percopsis. ‘In order fully to understand and porieally to appreciate the charac- ters of this genus, and the interest grees in its discovery, it is neces- sary to remember various relations of the different types of the whole class, which however do not aaa generic distinctions, although they bear 7 ie the peculiarities of this new type. ent, as they belong to older geological deposits. The differences are even so great, that out of the four orders of this class, there are only ~eoids and Ganoids. Moreover, the types are peculiar in all epochs. For instance, the sharks of former days, especially those of oo epochs, Tesemble solely that curious genus of Port Jackson, New and, the in the present creation, such as the gar-pike (Lepidosteus) . this con- tinent, are not less peculiar, and in connection with those ancient Pla- tion, each and ting their mounds of earth and sighing yepat xa neated ee te the fermentation of the vegetable matter, or of the rays, forma kind of natural hatching apparatus, from which the pike at Jength emerge fully feathered, and capable of iomabatiba life by their own unaided eff a Scientific Intelligence. ** This ancient character of some of the American fishes ied most “remarkably with the pecalae of the vegetation of this continent, - which, as I have shown on fagmey occasions, resembles also ‘he fossil —— of prior ages. ** The geographical ranges these peculiar, old-fashioned beige is also very remarkable, they. living in temperate, or rather me, climates, ee? their earlier representatives lived in warmer epoc he it striking features of the fishes ‘of the thintiary period and . ur time consist in their belonging to two groups of the class only 5 on i the Ctenoids, with rough, combed scales, in which the re- spective representatives ve aiso prominent serratures on prominent i - Spines upon the head, in the o Pi Sine in particular, ae in the fins 5 be The cont form of this genus reminds ‘us of the common perches, a but it is easily distinguished from them, by the fact that its head and ‘e the opercular apparatus are smooth and unprovided with dealin aa ig as also by the presence of a small adipose fin, as in the salmons. ‘The anterior dorsalis: also a small fin, composed of soft branched articula- : ted rays, as in the salmons. The ventral fins are placed at the middle +a of the abdominal cavity, as in the Abdominales in eral. i scales, however, are truly serrated as in the Percoids, a structure whic! 7 as far as oes not occur in any of the Abdominales. Th conformation of. the mouth is also as in the Perches, that is to say, t intermaxillaries form alone the upper margin of the mouth, and the™ i: maxillaries stand behind as a second arch, but the vomer and palate are eatirely destitute of teeth. _“ This fish, of which I shall publish a full anatom: ees ee Shomdeare as the type of a distinct family, under wi Spévies Percopsis guttatus. The other new species described are :— 5. Cottus Franklini, p. 303. oleosoma maculatum, p. 305, plate iv, fig. 3. ‘tleoma zebra, p. Gasterosteus nebulosus, p- 310, pl. iv, fig. We Gasterosteus pemee p. 314, i iv, 7a iy - nr pe 4 usa, ae ae =! . - ha Ae ses = ie oe : ee * res " Zoology.—Re a the Geis Noct = aet oe Pf T bain n, by J.D. Dana: Observations on some Crustac: ue ections of fhe Reade 2 res oe i ‘iences at Philadelphia, by Pr wR ‘Geinasyt 122.—C rum que in’ bis T errarum hat CarRoLo orga e > Classe yr Cc Baird + pro - Agassiz, 123.—Low State of: Development of Mammals and Bir ae in soa and New eevengs es Spee from Lake Superior. described b Agassi oes, ey isdllancous Intellijenilg— Prot Cc. U. Shepard. oe: » Meteorites, 127—On the in- f the Nail and the Hair in Man, by M. BerrHoupr: On thé Extinction of Light in the Atmosphere, by: W. S. ‘Tkcan, Ea H.E.L.C., 129.—Climate of — ustralia, by Jonn Goun, Esq., ¥.R.S., F.G.8., &c., 131.—On the Resuscita- toe én Fish,~ r “5 is ane 32.—Geology in the pute of y Re ed) Sore an Analysis : M ssac, 137 7M. Kunth : Dr. Prout, 138 Bil ibliograph y.—AS stem of Minedleg : comprising the most recent discoveries ; “including full itetptons of Species and their Localities, ar ape ares é the Determination of Minerals, and a Treatise pe er =e sc D.. Dawa, A.M., et e., 138.—The Unity of the. Been Races proved to : be the Doctrin s ience, with a Caan et she —— ent oft gre 8) Cian artes Base y arte "Ele 4 18 ive 2 J 4 sical Seder: y, by TD he ied Pi History of th "British Ento- nn y Prof. P. Norton, M.A., 146.—A use of Schools et Colleges by 8! Cuase: Mine- eries of Lett J. R. Jackson, F.R.S. the Regents ete Loin aig of the condition of the ory and ie Historical and Antiquarian Collection 147.— Zoology of the Voyage of H. M. S: Samarang under the ie : APPENDIX. : Expe =~ nee of the Coast Sey in a to ol Langitede, te.» 151, ll SS tall Ni Sin mega ~ Mathematical tbe ap ia Sed and the Drawing of “peatng Sf ‘Gera stale by. . The next No. of this Journal will be published on the first of Sept. a -.CONTENTS. =e" re I. Fai ‘of the Geological esse on the Chippewa Lace Disttict of Wisconsin and.part of Iowa, made in the ss 1847, under the direction-of D. D. Owen, M.D., : II. On Rutilated Quartz Crystals from Vermont, and Phenomena , connected with them; by Francis Aucer, A:M., _ == 124) Il. Examination of Kirkwood’s Analogy ; by Ssars C. Wine, SASS Iv. On Kirkwood’s Analogy ; by Dr. B.- -A. Gout, Jr., 26: the. Natura é Ere ;: | WHITTLESEY, -- On the! uantity of Feat evolved from Aa bosphane Ai by Mechanical Compression ; by Jonn Garric, M.D.; = -- VIL On the sles eg of the Sun’s Nas Intensity at the exe t rior i - eI 2 ; Erratic Phenomena about Lake ee : * Prof. 2 pete Gold ee Cater Pm ees Ancen, SCIENTIFIC. ee haigie ar, ig’ 112-Sopare of Hor gar in ontieum : Soest, of res a ag 1 ony Iedons of —" en. be > 4 “SEPTEMBER, 1850. _ "No. 29: blished the Jirst day of every second month, price $5 per year. & ; m _ 4q ) > * AMERICAN JOURNAL = oa . SCIENCE AND ARTS. | CONDUCTED EY Proressons B. SILLIMAN) B. SILLIMAN, we % ° ee JAMES D. 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Armstrone, Perrin Locke, w. ghee and 4 Sreswma NMAN. Receip ts from either of the above wil will be good. & ad u¥ es = PO CORRESPONDENTS. + Twelve copies of every original commun published ed at the-dispdsal of the author. Any ony eer ear ae “should always specify’at at the head | of their MSS:the n y wish to have — it is too late a after the forms eee ons and of ae must be fully given. = ns sent to “i AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ANDLARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] . inte | Arr. XV.— Obsetirations o ont the Coatrast in the Php B ea oe World ; by Prof. ARNoLp Guxor.* tures and Resolurces between..the “Old World and the New ee wt" THE appearance of Professor Guyot’s work’on Physical Bees, The pleas ae | 162 Guyot on the Contrast in the Physical Features Prof. Guyot commences by explaining Physical Geography as a description of the earth and of its relation to the life upon it. He says, in the course of his illustrations of the subject, “If the Rocky Mountains bordered the eastern coast of North America, and closed against the nations of the East and of Europe the entrance to the rich valley of the Mississippi; or if this immense chain extended from east to west across the northern part of this continent and barred the passage of the polar winds which now rush unobstructed over these vast plains; let us say even less— if, preserving all the great present features of this continent, we suppose only that the interior plains were more slightly inclined towards the north, and that the Te emptied into the zen Ocean -—who does not see that in these various cases, a st lations of warmth and moisture, jhe pia in a word, and with it, the vegetation and the animal world would undergo the most important modifications, and that these changes of form and of relative position would have an influence greater still upon the destinies of human societies, both in the present and in the fu- ture?” This paragraph exhibits the aim of the work, which the author afterwards more explicitly states as follows—after men- tioning the gréat- problems which physical geography offers for ie investigation: He says, “‘ We shall endeavor to solve these prob- ems, sey studying first, the characteristic forms of the continents, > Vee tae C ds That the cca the siechigdenant and the distribution of — fthe terrestrial masses on the surface of the globe, accidental in V appearance, yet reveala ota whic h we ate. enabled to understand ) ore wel atignmot history. ss, 2.-Thatthe continents are iii for ae societies, as ihe am “boa jade for the’ sgul. ee Fhat each of the a or Bianranal cons ne a ality adapted. by its nature, tp perform a gpecial spark: - 2 cress! the wants of,: cumies in one. o “g eit . » aw its Histo = 7 %, -«'Phus nagiteng hina the, earth ate | pea oe gg: ‘to each other, and hee 0 se D of the Old World and the New World. 163 from the work with enlarged views of the earth and its fitness for man’s mental and moral de evelopment. ‘There are many por- _tions of the volume which we should be glad to transfer to our pages. ‘The chapter on the Relief of the Continents contains views of high importance, which show that the author has studied the world, and not merely a ledge of rocks or an isolated terri- tory. He does not, with the prevalent a, school, regard the elevation of mountain chains as the great events in the phys- ical history of our globe, and the rising of the vast plateaus and plains of the continents as a mere accompaniment ; but considers, q t a mountains but the accidents wiotding the vast changes that have been in progress. Passing by this and other chapters (or lectures) we cite a por- tion of Professor Guyot’s observations on the Contrast in Physi- cal Features and Resources of the Old World and the New World,* referring to the work for the continuation of the oe - and the many conclusions deduced. *& “Phe most prominent feature of the arrangement of the conti- _ So .™ nents is the grouping of the two Americas in one hemisphere, and ~ that of the four others in another hemisphere. - This division of the continents into two worlds is so evident from the first eee : and is at the same time. so convenient in practice, that it Has passed into common speech as one of those observations admits, i ting no contradiction. a But to bring ont prominently the contrast of these two world: they must be studied mire i in detail than we-have thus far;done. M ce mee effects in the ors % each of the two 1 seem sm,.by, their_very orfn toge the er a singe nepal, a. st, Pg | % dt the Trae im iow P ae 9 ee saat th — “" 164 Guyot on the Contrast in the Physical Features world, centuries ago; and not the New World of history, of which we shall have to speak later, that has come to plant itself on that soil. A general comparison of the two groups of continents, will call to mind some of the leading features we have already become oa Smt with, ~~ eiee still others. orld and the New World differ in the groupings, and in ihe number as extent of the continents composing them ; in their astronomical situation, with respect to the climatic zones ; in the general direction of their lands; in their interior structure. This assemblage of opposite "eit secures to.each of them a climate, a vegetation, and an animal kingdom, peculiarly their own ‘uF I say first, in their groupings :— . The Old World is composed of four oo Setting aside Australia, which is only an island in the midst of the oceanic hemisphere, it numbers three, all very near Dae other, aggrega- -. . extent of land, the most vast, the most unbroken, the least ac- “a cessible in its centre to the influences of the ocean. ‘The 4 orld is preéminently the continental world. See The New World has only two continents, North America and “¢ South America, America and Columbia, as I should like to call '. thetm—to render justice where right belongs—if it were not for- bidden to change names consecrated by long usage. These two cottinents ‘are not grouped in one mass, nor placed side by side, but separatéd”from each other, not touching upon their long sides, — put by their exterior angles, standing i in lime, rather than grouped. ; They are situated.in two opposite hemispheres, and thus more ae, : fheneinbied slénder form we see in the New. World. “No portion Ta" +. of the interilor-is very remote from the sea-eoasts ; eta zs ~s- e mtidst : - it is placed, ikea long island. This form with that of t 1d World, ‘Bives to Jt its" charact “World is essentially oceanic. e oe. The ‘astronomical position, ‘rela vel to the 4 also not the sam e ip the twogw be i of the Old World and the New World. 165 we take in the last two continents, more than two-thirds of the lands are situated in the temperate regions, one-third only in the equatorial regions. The Old World is then essentially temperate. | In the New World the lands are distributed in a manner nearly . equal in the two zones and in the two hemispheres. We find that of the countries it includes, those which are the most richly endowed, are situated under the sun of the tropics. Compared " with the Old World, the New World is thus essentially tropical. The general direction of the lands, or the direction in which their length extends, is the inverse in the two worlds. The Old World has its greatest prolongation from east to west, in the line of the parallels ; the New World from north to south, in the di- : rection of the meridians. Both have a length of about 7,500 ; miles, but the breadth of the Old World is nearly double that of the New. This disposition is of the ae consequence for the distribution of the climates in each of them, since this fee lands. From one end to the other of the Old World, overaspace *.., of several thousand miles, the migratory tribes are able to pursue their adventurous roaming course, by following, according to their ss custom, the great features of relief of the soil, without witness- ~ ing any change in the vegetation or the annals that surround ‘_ * | them. They c ange place, but not climate, nor ways of life... ,- This similarity of climates over long spaces is, then, a hed palek + : 5 of the Old World, and must have singularly favored. sin dis #, 1" sion of the primitive tribes. : -In the New World, on the contrary, the zones of Sinilat ch- mates are short and nurflerous ; and if we travel over the.whok ie length of the two Americas, we pass twice in stcéession, through” re 1 all the temperatures, from the frozen climate of the pole , to that, “~~ : a of ‘the equator, and from the burning climate of the sequator to ~~ | ’ that of the poles. ° This diversity of climate gives ‘their character * é : i e Americas. ~ «3 leatitime,@the interior structtre#modifies oma two Nerds a L0HIS, in such a ee ner as tor t the e Old b ym ope oe y of the ae aby gepiler and be di hall see,this ce ay a close Minas * "+ I will particularly "i ae oft HE New World?" ee! piety of, the. Old World, * ‘ee each y ce 166 Guyot on the Contrast in the Physical Features turned to the south, one situated northwest of the other; the long cord of the Rocky Mountains and of’the Andes, running the length of the extreme western coast, and binding the two continents together; great plains on the east, forming the larger part of their surface ; a slight elevated chain along the Atlantic coast of both, the Alleghanies in North America, the Serra do Espinhago and the Serra do Mar of Brazil, in South America ; finally, in the centre, three short, transverse chains, that of Parime, in the Guyanas, that of Venezuela, and that of the great Antilles, broken into a number of islands these, in a few words, are all the essential features of this vast division of the world. That which constitutes the richness of organization in the con- tinents, is the number and abundance of internal contrasts calling out at once the activity of nature and that of man. The Old World is full of them; America has only a small number, all tending to disappear by reason of the structure itse Thus in Asia and Europe, the line of the highest lands, the *». continental axis, extending from the Himalaya to the Alps and the ~ « Pyrenees, divides these two continents into two unequal parts, “s+ one north and one south, opposite in climate, in vegetation, and % -even in races. Scarcely anywhere is the transition from one to the other gradual; almost everywhere it is abrupt and sudden. '* . The table lands of Tubet and frigid Mongolia touch the tropical lains of China and of the Indies; the traveller who passes the Adios, abandons the severe landscapes and the firs of the North, descend, by a single day’s journey, into the ever verdant gar- ens and the orange groves of fair Italy ; he exchanges the cold Ds ists of the North for the sun of the South, and’ often leaves on .- one side, the Festina and frosts of winterfito find on se orliary the “warm breath of spring, its verdure and its flower - This strikifig contrast between the North ant ‘the South re i? eMctade in*the, “character and history of all the: nations’ ‘of ee py Ja nd Europe, is doubtless found in America; pede 6 ee rd “4 “bétter known than in: this county. a im nature : sheets. sae doe ’ r Oi OF continaed plains.of thé con eae of the ‘North gradually’tx ee i e ‘shores of the, F « +? 5 ok rées, to. the Say aaelhy (pret Ss 2 eae fs De of the Old World and.the New World. 167 herald the air of the tropics and the neighborhood of the Gulf of Mexico. 'T'wo thousand four hundred miles separate the extremes of this scale of vegetation which almost touch each other in the Himalaya. It is, moreover, to these vast plains, which offer no obstacles to the dissemination of the species, and to the absence of great chains from east to west, that we undoubtedly owe the appear- ance at the North, of plants and animals that seem to belong only to the tropical regions. It is not without surprise that the Euro- 4 pean landing on these shores sees the humming bird, that diamond J of the tropics, glancing in the sun in a countr which winter | 4 clothes, during long months, in a thick mantle of snow and ice. e same towards the South, where we see the palm trees and the parrots of the tropics, here and there, as far as the Pampas of Buenos Ayres, much beyond their natural limits Thus the contrast between the North and the South is soften- ed, reduced ; but it is not annihilated; it exists on a great scale from one of ‘the continents to the other: for North America is . .# temperate, and South America is tropical. “wip America is cut by the Andes into two parts, east and west, as -,.. Asia and Europe are cut into two parts, north and south. But. ge an contrast also is almost neutralized, as we shall soon under- and. The inequallae” is ive aed to the extreme, to such a ae z; tion of one of the parts, that it loses its importance, anya . < speak, its power of reaction. The western coast, dry an bare “* -has not extent and influence enough to enter upon an effective? % rivalry with the vast countries of the East. - Moreover, the dies ie ches of communicationstenders the mutual action*and the inte = urse between the countries situated at the foot ‘of«the two in- 3 * elinatigne sult more. rare. Finally, the two sides Bf the Aides. “7 ing"u differ in the degree of moisture or ZF fall- ‘nly ait The West of 4 two America to"Pe Compared “with the eae he entire continent, ant os tee, intemal conte tibia the’ ei i ‘ ésimple., “Un-"*® 168 Guyot on the Contrast in the Physical Features a, The climate of the New World, compared. with that of the ee bat is distinguished by the abundance of pluvial waters, in gen- é , by a greater humidity. We have seen in what manner this are se riareencid is the consequence of its narrow and lengthened form; of the opening of the great plains—that is, of the two * continents almost entire—to the winds of the sea ; of the absence of high mountains in the East; in a word, of the configuration and general* exposure of this part of the globe. While the Old World, with its compact figure, its vast plateaus, its high lands in the East, receives only an average of 77 inches of water by the year under the tropics, America receives 115 inches. The temperate regions of Europe have 34 inches; North America, 39 inches. Add to this abundance of water, the extent of plains which permit the development of vast systems of water courses, an you will understand the existence of that innumerable multitude of rivers and lakes, which are one of the most characteristic fea- | * 2s tutes of the two Americas. Notwithstanding a much smaller ex- | “a *tent ‘than’ that of the Old World, the New possesses the largest oe TE rivers ‘on the earth; the richest in waters, those whose basins cot ae eee 4 ‘the vastest spaces, Where can we find, on the soothes of eT lobe, a river equal to the mighty Marafion, ‘that giant among ae thé rivers of the earth, gathering its waters from a surface of a mill- * . ion and-a half square miles, and bearing them to the ocean, after * “Bico urse af 3,000 miles® This mighty monarch receives in his | . ogress thie i cueines of: tributaries, each. of which, by its great- ‘ a ss and the abundance of its waters, wou ‘suffice for the wants a whole vast country. Such are the: ieayale,. the Rio Purus, zs ne e Rio Negré,. above all, the Madera, ‘rivalling in importance the . river to whichtit yields the honor of giving a name to their united aterg. isn ‘farther it advances in its majestic 5 a ice the more — | its propo Hieys. increase; and before man ¥ i. Relation of the Laws of Mechanics to Perpetual Motion. 179 3. No combination of machinery produces any real increase of force. ‘This is the fact with respect to each of the instruments called mechanical powers taken singly ; and it is equally true, in whatever way they may be combined with each other. The use of all apparatus of this kind is not to create force, nor to increase it, but merely to apply it. It is true, indeed, that a mechanical power may be so contrived, that a small wel ht may raise avery. great one. But it will raise it a very short distance only. Ifone is a thousand times as large as the other, the latter must descend |. a thousand feet to raise the former one foot. So that the mo- — mentum of the large body is no greater than that of the smaller one. There is, therefore, no increase of force obtained. é or two cautions are necessary, however, in estimating the wotthilin of the power and the weight. In the first place, the velocity is to be reckoned ¢n that direction in which the moving force of the body acts. Thus if a body moves down an inclined plane, the moving force is gravitation, which acts towards the .. center of the earth. The velocity, when we are calculating the . equilibrium, must be estimated in this direction.’ In the second © place, there must be brought into the account, that part.only of - the power which is concerned in producing the effect. Ifa weight - act obliquely on the arm of a lever, a part of its force vie lost. -This must be thrown out of the estimate. With these qualifications, we shall find, that apne oe li-” | cated may be the apparatus, the power will be to ee of force oh NW AS WES & equilibrio, as the velocity of the weight. to tn wd : ‘power. As their momenta are equal, there i is no increase « + Lari . = bepress - This is a proposition, which one in pursuit of perpetual ead 07 brought fally ra belive till he has learhed it b tifyin — He expe s, by some ‘peculiar ahiainperient of, his ers, a Aes ad ‘and eelined planes, to 1 appear a. t i onl'y-A" cor maxim, intended to: eee é 3: ar a: ch wade Richy He seeks after mod nuch:as possible, from those 2 nm the grand secret, th some. i “> ppsition : Uy peg bithero escaped. ob _ Bthe effeoge Sicompnly to ese the % Pk Re mechanics; no’ co to pons | ed, te mens . 7 % = eed oem motion in a} hough heemy acknowledge, - peth ne neha sitself poate force, yet he far considers that ga l + i , and. that, if he can 8 Ravenel,) and Society Hill, ‘S. Car. : Pilei very white becoming pale:tawny, subimbiendl 3-6 int. broad, 2~3 long, 1-2 thick, of a’soft spongy co onsiste » clothed a W age, * bf SO ee PP — é - fu leis” Sthracdis. ram. a ae “et cort.) ia a aie feng d Cu rh tesppitiatam orbicularé © § Belo ee cgmpressis floced is0-! 4 lign. et cor ee et hance xs y. ‘Hill. se 188 Dr. Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity. : Formirg small orbicular patches, an mch or two in diameter, . nearly white with a pale singe iy tint, thin, margm minutely | byssoid, sometimes slightly ra Teeth short, minutely cilia- ted with fine flocci, afiotabiie ‘a the very margin where they are merely little downy fascicles.—Resembling resupinate forms of dl rea but differing widely in the nature of the teeth. Be 130. H. ptumosum, Duby.—In rimis cort. crassee Pini. Hieme. bho Society Hill. e third Series ; by Micuar. Farapay, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc.* $29. On the polar or other condition of diamagnetic bodies. 2640.. Four years ago I suggested that all the phenomena pre- sented by diamagnetic “bodies, when subjected to the forces in the . Magnetic field,, might be accounted for by assuming that they . then possessed a-polarity the same in kind as, but the reverse in Tiitecticik of, that acquired by iron, nickel and ae, magnetic . bodies under the same circumstances (2429. 2430.). This view * was received so favorably by Plticker, Reich and others, and above =< all by W. Weber,t that*L:had® I ., ed;4and though certain, €Xpériments of my own (2497.) did not 4 —. that hope, suf a my desire and expectation were in that ect 2641. Whether pana copper, phosphorus, &c., when in the agnetic fidid, are polar or not, is however an exceedingly im- aes fu: : » Agr, XVUL—E cperimental Researches in Electricity.— Twe enty- . s. this iy Bod point, that,I determined, if possiagl Sateen enti proof ei either one way aieth as the rho ful, bedause of the co: . tive.to hich We er had eome vin his’ vé — ns) nportando.Lshi KG forth Aihara and 14,1850" | % ~ aga, p- aria * 2s. a, Supposed Polarity of Diamagnetic Bodies. 189 2642. It appeared to me that many of the results which had been supposed to indicate a polar condition, wete only conse- quences of the law that diamagnetic bodies tend to go ftom stronger to Roca places of action (2418.); others again appear- ed to have their origin in induced currents (26. 2 38.) ; ; and fur- ther consideration seemed to indicate that the differences between these modes of action and that of a real polarity, whether mag- netic or diamagnetic, might serve as a foundation on which to base a mode of investigation, and also to construct an apparatus . that might give useful conclusions and results in respect of this ~ °} inquiry. For, if the polarity exists it must be in the particles and for the time permanent, and therefore distinguishable from | d the momentary polarity of the mass due to induced temporary 7 oe currents ; and it must also be distinguishable from ordinary mag- netic polarity by its contrary direction. 2643. A straight wooden lever, 2 feet in length, was fixed by. an axis at one end, and by means of a crank and wheel made to, vibrate in a horizontal plane, so that its free extremity passed to’ ~ and fro through about 2 inches. Cylinders or.cores of metal or. other substances, 54 inches long and three-quarters of an inch di- * ameter, were e fixed in succession: to the end of a brass rod 2 feet + long, which itself was attached at: the ‘other end to the moving - extremity of the lever, so that the.cyhinders could be moved to and fro in the direction of their length. through the space. Of Ay inches. A large cylinder electro-magnet was,also pre a3. 3 the iron core of which was 21 inches long and 1:7-inch in diam- es eter; but one end of this core was made smaller for. the ee : whet in its setae 1 inch of the contrel space was,0 ecup : the reduced end of the apo aa core which cz Fed if: ; . the hei e both placed concentric with t ) ned, and at such a aoe Pa it aighon, oly maapiet in Seen. a bBeqrteqponding wider! We: % & ;), ae 4 % 190 Dr. Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity. 2645. The extremities of the experimental helix wire were connected witha very delicate galvanometer, placed 18 or 20 feet from the machine, so as to be unaffected directly by the electro- magnet; but a commutator was interposed between them. is commutator was moved by the wooden lever (2643.), and as the electric currents which would arrive at it from the experimental helix, in a complete cycle of motion or to and fro action of the metal cylinder (2643.), would consist of two contrary portions, et so the office of this commutator Mrs sometimes to take up these “portions it succession and send them on in one consistent current _ =, to the galvanometer, and at tee chiak to oppose them and to 4 ~ neutralize their result; and therefore it was made adjustible, so ee as to change at any period o the time or part of the motion. ~~ 2646. With such an arrangement as this, it is known that, ‘however powerful the magnet, and however delicate the other parts of the apparatus, no effect will be produced at the galvan-. ometer as long as the magnet does not change in force, or in its ae ion upon ueigheores rie or in its distance from, or rela- * Ree ee : . Should imagine, indeed, a be ‘alinost the same in principle and __srattice as that.of. wo See » — that it gives me Ad * contrary results. rig 7 ch at firsemayseet ee All parts of the apparatus ld have perfect stead and be fixed almost with the care if ere then ete . ‘ alt “a « va ane and thus, without care, _errors m mighty ak +e eal ail iei3, results. ‘Therefore ' me *.*> machine &c.), th Be ter stood*u 5 ee ste" ta ~_daid upon’th bs ta «,” fully strutted, a] 7 a sa gain 4 » sho uld be* port ‘the end of oe ad fro: journ ¥ "bt ‘should be of hammered brass-br,copper. a ct oo It is pbaclte “4 neces eet Supposed Polarity of Diamagnetic Bodies. 191 imental helix and the magnet. Such a shake may easily take place, and yet (without much experience) not be* perceived. It is important to have the cores of such bodies as bismuth, phos- phorus, copper, &c., as large as may be, but I have not found it o have less than one-eighth of an inch of space between b them and the interior of the experimental helix. In order to | float, as it were, the core in the air, it is convenient to suspend it in the bight or turn of a fine copper wire passing once round it, the ends of which rise up, and are made fast to two fixed points at equal heights but wide apart, so that the wire hasa V form. — This a A gy keeps the core parallel to itself in every part ~ | +4 | of its motio ty 4 650. The magnet, when excited, is urgéd by an electric curs - rent from five pairs of Grove’s plates, and is then very powerful.’ When the battery is not connected with it, it still remains a mag- net of feeble power, and when thus employed may be referred to as in the residual state. If employed in the residual state,’ its 3 ometer without any current appearing there. But if theypnaa agnet © be employed in the excited state, certain important preeautions + ‘ 2 are necessary ; for upon connecting. the magnet with the battery - and then connecting the experimental helix with the galyanome-" "-ter, a current will appear at the latter, which will, in certain cases, continue for a minute or more, and which has s tt e appearance of: being derived at once from that of bape: At is not.so pro- : duced, however, but is due to the. time ocou the irén cor ot ninety seconds, or more. On si an " sly renewing it, the effect will be repeated, oat socobdayy pone third intermission < Sig eat fi copa a petiod; | op ploy a was made he 2a : e ‘eels hp es aes in their le vibration to the whose pilents were to be observed and compared. : *% 2653, “A thin glass tube, of the given size (2643.), 54 by # * inches, was filled with a saturated solution of ene of | * iron, and employed as the experimental core: the velocity given : a to. the macline at this and all average times o experiment was + tion atthe Mvancmmlahs| , A piece of magnetic glass tube (2354.), 192 Dr. Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity. _right or the left occupied from sixteen to twenty seconds. en “experimenting with such bodies as bismuth or phosphorus, the place of the needle was observed through a lens. ‘he perfect communication in all parts of the circuit was continually ascer- tained by a feeble thermo-electric pair, warmed by the fingers. This was done also for every position of the commutator, where the film of oxyd formed on any part by two or three days’ rest was quite sufficient to intercept a feeble current. 2652. In order to’ bring the phenomena afforded by magnetic and diamagnetic bodies into direct relation, I have not so much “noted the currents*produced in the experimental helix, as the ef- fects obtained at the galvanometer. It is to be understood, that the standard of deviation, as to direction, has always been that —— by an iron wire moving in the same direction at the ex- mental helix, and with the same condition of the commuta- tor Nand connecting wires, as the piece of bismuth or other body Sag as to ‘cause five or six approaches and withdrawals of the “core in 6ne second ; yet thé solution produced no sensible indica- a a ger. of foolscap paper, magnetic between the poles of the net, were equally inefficient. A tube filled with small F renioxs phate of iron caused the needle to move about rie farge eaeten , 2954. Whenever the needle moved, it was consistent in its dir pects the, ane of a magnetic me , but in, many cases, tpl Washi nove. This . | Supposed Polarity of Diamagnetic Bodies. 193 e machine continued to work. But the deflection was not the greatest for the most diamagnetic substances, as bismuth, or anti- mony, or phosphorus; on the contrary, I have not been able to -assure myself, up to this time, that these three bodies can pro- duce any effect. Thus far the effect has been proportionate to the conducting power of the substance for Beppe Gold, sil- ver and copper have produced large deflec pee a and tin less. Platina very little. Bismuth and shane’ no 2 ence there was every reason to believe that the effects were produced by the currents induced in the mass of the move — + ing metals, and not by any polarity of their particles. I proceeded 3 therefore to test this idea by different conditions of the cores and, the apparatus. : 2657. In the first place, if produced by induced.currents, the great proportion of these would exist in the part of the core near to the dominant magnet, and but little in the more distant parts ; whereas in a substance like iron, the polarity which the: whole assumes makes length a more important element. L.therefore ~ shortened the core of copper from 54 inches (2643.) to 2 itches, » and found the effect not sensibly diminished ; even when 1 inch ~ long it was little less than before. On the contrary, when a fine” iron wire, 54 inches in length, was used as core, its effects were, _ Strong ; when the length was reduced to 2 inches, t hey were, ° greatly diminished ; and again, with’a length of 1 ings ey fixe ther greatly re educed. It is not difficult to construct a, per, with a fine iron wire in its axis, so that when -- cers . (x tain length it should produce the effects of iron, and beneath that « - length the effects of co pper: ee Ria 2658. In the next place, if: Feffect were proditced by Ni ed’ currents in the mass (2642.), division of the mass would® “Sto a these currents and so alter the effect; whereas if produced by: a. true diamagnetic polarity, division of the mass would BER the polarity seriously, or in its essential nature (2480.). : le. Copper filings. were therefore digested for a few days in dilute sul’ a x me acid.to remove BBY, adhering i iron, 2 n well ¥ an ned and stirred in. the air, ‘antil it was is t filrt sc is prepared by ae : é, three-quarters of 7 as 28", 194 Dr. Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity. an inch in diameter, and this affected the galvanometer, holding its needle 25° or 30° from zero. ~ 2660. I made a solid helix cylinder, ———_ of an inch in diameter and 2 inches long, of covered copper wire, one-six- teenth of an inch thick, and employed this as the experimental core. When the two ends of its wire were unconnected, there was no effect upon the experimental helix, and consequently none at the galvanometer; but when the ends were soldered together, the needle was well affected. In the first condition, the currents, which tended to be formed in the mass of moving metal, could - ‘hot exist because the metal circuit was interrupted ; in the second they could, because the circuit was not interrupted ; and such di+ vision as remained did not interfere to prevent the currents. 2661. The same results were obtained with other metals. A core cylinder of gold, made of er in was very power- ~ ful in its effect on the galvanometer. A cylinder of silver, made - of sixpenny pieces, was very effectual ; bat a cylinder made of mR, hy art silver, pressed into a glass tube as closely as possible; ve no indications of action whatever. The same results were ae tained with disc cylinders of tin and lead, the effects being pcuytonate, to the condition of .. cud and lead as bad conductors. (265 =¥ ie When iron was dixéded: jie effects were exactly the re- in ie It was ne ometerjarid: air gh op oa in its diaubion to that of i of? i ‘thted place (2656. ), on) ‘a * a distinctiog? m™m the a ctions*of a diamaghetic © #*menta wy es stablished accor cording as hey eg true rity, or meré; vtoshagn 4 pets; ans for‘ th onsidér: E magn uc ‘polarity are the. Sal ) ‘eat present; in relation't toxirdn. : v. | 2665. ge. ‘of any ‘kinds ant mand and withdrawn tie ty) then a mar a bes be a3 Supposed Polarity of Diamagnetic Bodies. 195 r divided into four er the fo, the stop after it; the Jrom, and the stop succeeding that. a core of iron make this journey, _ its end towards the dominant magnet becomes a pole, rising in force until at the nearest distance, and falling in force until at the greatest distance. Both this effect and its progression inw * ; the iron does not travel with a constant velocity ; for, bese of = : the communication of motion from a revolving crank at the ma- *, chine (2643.), it, in the to part of the journey, gradually rises | from a state of rest toa maximum velocity, which is half-way, and then as gradually sinks to rest again near the magnet :—and the from part of the journey undergoes the same variations. Now as the maximum effect upon the surrounding experimental helix depends upon the velocity pi nt with the intensity of the =. magnetic force in the end of the core, it is evident that it will” ‘sp not occur. with the maximum velocity, which is in the middle of. . the ¢o or from motion; nor at the stop nearest to the dominant | i where between the two. | Nevertheless, during the whole of the; advance, the core will cause a-current in the experimental helix... in one diteétion; and during the whole of the recession it gl * cause a current in the other direc tion.” ioe het nly ference being, that the two currents. peodtiged would Be i in thre’ rem = verse direction to those produced by iron, : Lae - 2667. Tt a commutator, therefore, were to be the'effects’ with a @f ot. bis Bie sore if ‘they de yee toa, , waver to act, j iced for the “tifne" may fhe’, ” of those suspected (2642.).” ee moved oa the exist 10 _ a de —— A Tae Aes Supposed Polarity of Diamagnetic Bodies. 197 and these would be at their maximum force just before = a after the fo or inner stop, for then the copper would be in the most intense parts of the magnetic field. ‘The rising neti of the copper core for the tm portion of the journey woul produce a current in one direction in the experimental helix, the stopping of the copper and consequent falling of its current would pro- duce in the experimental helix a current contrary to the former ; the first instant of motion outwards in the core would produce a maximum current in it contrary to its former current, and produc- ing in the experimental helix its inductive result, being a current the same as the last there produced ; and-then, as the core re- stop, would produce a fourth current in the experimental helix, i in the same direction as the 2672. The four currents produced in the experimental helix” “ alternate by twos, 7. e. those produced by the falling of the first. current in the core and the rising of the second and centrary cur-" rent, are in one direction. They occur at the instant before and after the stop at the magnet, @. e. from the momentof ‘maximum current (in the core) before, to ke moment of maximum current *. ., after, the stop; and if that stop is momentary, they exist only fors, that moment; and should during that brief time be gathered ap bye: ) the commutator. ‘Those produced in the experimental helix dur-.-- * ing the falling of the second current in the core and the ri hee rof + 2 9 a ae a Q. ‘e pie ar Loe} oS = — ae jo ae) 3S eet fe 2, 2 - ~~ ~- a oO Sh - a oo 4 me ie) - i Oo od o -- S = je S* oF ewer es Pca *o. of = 2% whole of the core e journey ; at Pic, by .its change at the maxi 6 mum moments, the commutator —* tale ae and a on toy ve the. galvanometer. te 2673. The motion however of the core is not upiforn-in ve- |. locity, and so, sudden in its change of direction, but, as before . SS . “Said (2665.), is at a maximum as = velocity in the, middle ee ofits pe to eed apireat from the d mt, mggnet ; ‘ ence 9) g » Por: its hs may | tbe th the “oe a ‘of erent if ough the ve- it niyisties, “a 1e *eo lence is, Pnaeuahe! maximui = : ~ current j in It he ithe “dce the’ place aed velocity, nor ; “fof greatest force, bat’ At g ; tw two. This is trey” ‘ _the approadh, -and ve pecker of the core, the.‘ 4 at, points yequidistant from: % 198 Dr. Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity. 2674. It is therefore at these two points that the commutator should change, if adjusted to produce the greatest effect at the galvanometer by the currents excited in the experimental helix, through the influence of, or in connection with, currents of in- duction produced in the core; and experiment fully justifies this conclusion. If the length of the journey from the stop out to the stop in, which is 2 inches (2643. 2644.), be divided in 100 parts, and the dominant magnet be supposed to be on the right hand, then such an expression as the following, 50/50, may rep- . Yesent the place where the commutator changes, which i in this , ~ jilustration would be rida in the to and from motion, or at *.~ .the a of rg velocity. io 26 ial of various = porte of the eocknon aaa I *_ eopper core. On the whole, and hak many experiments, I con- clude that with the given strength of ae er 58 distance aA of the + hago core when at the nearest from the magnet, as ; cS change. 2676. From what has been said befor (2667.), it will a seen ~ oat both:in theory and experiment these are the points in which anny thé effect of any polarity, magnetic or diamagnetic, would be ab- os “solutely nothing. Hence the power of submitting by this ma- “\° * ‘chine metals and other bodies to experiment, and of eliminating . we e eflects’of magnetic polarity, of ane 2 polarity, and of iductive action, the one from the others: for either by the com- at BE Thu itator or by the direction of the Piothy: they can be separated ; Pooke a furthey, they can also’ be combined in various ways for the =" : tery pose of elucidating sae Jonas a action. Be) mi. 2677, ; For let the arr ee rns, 2 % + ‘ On 8 é a : ~ 4a deflection of the needle always: ii’ Sie direction ; - when the ends a and 6 have pst aud d, ‘ake ~ fe preg te’ lirect at i. : ee ee a 3 Supposed Polarity of Diamagnetic Bodies: 199 for iron. But the line a, b indicates those points for the commu- tator with which no eflect will be produced on the galvanometer by the induction of currents in the mass of the core. If the line be inclined in one direction, as 7, #, then these currents will produce a deflection at the galvanometer on one side; if it be in- clined in the other direction, as J, m, then the deflection will be _ on the other side. Therefore the effects of these induced curs rents may be either combined with, or opposed to, the effects of a polarity, whether it be magnetic or diamagnetic. 2678. All the metals before mentioned (2655.), namely, gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, platina, antimony and bismuth, were sub- mitted to the power of the electro-magnet under the best adjust-_ ment (2675.) of the commutator. The effects were seouner than before, being now at a maximum, but in the same order; as regarded antimony and bismuth, they were very small, amount- __» ing to not more than half a degree, and may very probably have, | * been due to a remainder of irregular action in some part of the * . apparatus.: All the experiments with the divided cores (2658, &c.) _. « were repeated with the same results as before. Phosphorus, stile *. phur and gutta percha did not, either in this o or in the former states, of the commutator, give any indication of effect at the sgalvane; , ometer. ‘ 2679. As an illustration of the manner in which-this Spero hos of the commutator caused a separation of the effects of opper =. . and iron, I had prepared a copper cylinder core 2 inches i Tength — having an iron wire in its axis, and this being employed ifthe 2 apparatus gave the pure effect of the Beonper with its induced cur-, = * . rents. Yet this core, as a Ww or © = dinary test-needle ; and when t Ula ge tor were not equidistant from the one s stop or the other (2670. **s 2677.), the iron effect came out powerfully, overmuligg te former e and producing = srong contrary deflectionsa de: 'T _ platinum. core which I have used is an iiperoak pe er Binchesia’ “long and 0 62: of an inch thick: it points reap we the Poles of a,hor e electro-magnet-( a “but with the é or be m4 Mich the bismuth, + # Shy & ducting power = f currents by induction in; | 0 f es its mass oom e effects were so minute and uncertain as s - to oblige me ay pi rimentally, it is without either po-. fore 200 Dr. Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity. — ‘ ~ 2681. There is another distinction which may usefully be es- tablished between the effects of a = sustainable _— either magnetic or diamagnetic, and those of the transient induc rents dependent upon time. If we ssuisiaoe the iaddacab in the circuit, which includes the experimental helix and the galvanom- eter coil, as nothing, then a magnetic pole of constant strength passed a certain distance into the helix, would produce the same amount of current aging in it, whether the pole were moved -.-Into its place by a quick or slow motion. Or if the iron core be " _ used (2668.) the same result is produced, provided, in any alter- ee “ nating action, the core is left long enough at the extremities of ne ie its journey to acquire, either in its quick or slow alternation, the . - .game-state. This I found to be the fact when no commutator _ hor dominant magnet was used; a single insertion of a wea 4 Magnetic pole. gave the: same deflection, whether introduced =<. quickly or slowly ; and when the residual dominant magnet, an aa . ‘iron wire core, and the commutator in its position, a, b were (2677.) Pas“ SE od, four. journeys to and from produced the same effect.at the gal- “val ter when the velocities were as 1: 5 or even as 1: 0. ‘ 2682. Whew a copper, — or gold core is employed i in place mer) =, iron, the effect is very different. There is no a to oubt, tl a regards the core itself the same amoun of elec- | » ¥ rapid we: ae st: The extre ti, this, ex -1:6; the dine; in the longést ‘case siderably I at of one vibration of a ocr { resieeoe that beliewd all, force in the hog edle is very eer 7 tae Fa eget of i pacts, because é fe + er = ; is ‘ : cs : a *& 4s % = ¥, A . tad * 2519.). Both it and bismuth can be made to nee evide e ms ae » the induced currents “produced in them when the used ‘ir # ith in er ' ® quarter ofan. in oe sind whilst at an ah fi * oy Pi a : ‘ ai es ‘. r ee Supposed Polarity of Diamagnetic Bodies. 201 of the deadening effect of the copper plate beneath it, and, ex- cept to return to zero, moves very little after the motion of the apparatus ceases. A silver core produced the same results. 2684. These effects of induced currents have, a relation to the ( Pp trate each other. That the revulsive phenomena are a d by induced currents, has been shown before (2327. 2329. 2336. 2339.) ; the only difference i is, that with them the induced cur- rents were produced by exalting the force of a magnet placed at a fixed distance from the affected metal; whilst in the present * * phenomena, the force of the eee does not change, but its dis- tance from the piece of metal doe 2685. So also the same oitenmatagiie which — the eee course of the induced currents it is not then affected (252 e ring helix of copper wire, if the extremities be unconn fe : not exhibit the Foto but if they be connested then it pi nie es sents them (26 2686. On —— the revulsive phenomena are a a be bett Se test and indication of these currents than the present ene ot it immediately ad~ about. tie or ae asl the arigle-was or 50°, and No. 29.—Sept, 1850. metal. ‘This bitck. vas » 202 Dr. Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity. stood stjll.. Upon the interruption of the electric current at the magnet tke revulsion came on very strongly, and the block turned back again, passed the equatorial line, and proceeded on until it formed an angle of 50° or 60° on the other side; but instead of : Continuing to revolve in that direction as before (2315. ), it then ; » Teturned on its course, again passed the equatorial line, aud almost reached the axial position before it stood still. In fact, as a mass, , it vibrated .to and fro about the equatorial line. 2688. This however is a simple result of the principles of ac- tion formerly developed (2329. 2336.). The revulsion is due to “the production of induced currents in the suspended mass during 2 the falling of the magnetism of the electro-magnet ; and the el- |... fect of the action is to bring the axis of these induced currents ese - parallel to the axis of force in the magnetic field. Consequently, . if the time of the fall of magnetic force, and therefore. of the _/". , currents dependent thereon, be greater than the time occupied by the revulsion of the copper block as far as the equatorial line, any ‘ a partes Motion of it by momentum will be counteracted by a con- Se an occur. before the force of the electro-magnet has ceased to fall poh The effect of time, both in the rising and falling r, has been referred to on many former occasions (2170. 0) and as Vgty beautifully seen here. q° Returning to the subject of the assumed polarity of bis- : th, I may and ought to refer to an experiment made by Reich, ! “wand describ ‘by Weber, * which, if I understand the instruction ollows: a strong horseshoe magnet is laid upon @ pavreri ul magnetic Beets suSpel by cocoon x Fe sido of it, the pole o ar, eae as “exactly” to counterget | igt,an ping a needle t td poin awvay pi es of fe ijbrseah ti J ar direc- net needfedusing it i oF a. Hay cg ey this is supposéd 40 ‘the om r the clagienatances, as at ape suc sa he 3 "* are away. A piece of iron in. ee of at bismuth produc the contrary pee of the ne eedlé. 2690. I have repeated this experiment most anxiously and care- fully, but have never obtained the slightest trace of: action with the bismuth. I have obtained action with the iron; but in those cases the action was far less than if the iron were applied outside between the horseshoe magnet and the needle,: or to the needle ' alone, the magnets being entirely away. On using a garnet, or - | a weak magnetic substance of any kind, I cannot find that the arrangement is at all comparable for readiness of ‘indication or » delicacy, with the use of a common or an astatic needle, and Supposed Polarity of Diamagnetic Bodies. 203 « polarity of bismuth when these fail to show it. Still I may have made some mistake; but neither by close reference to the de- « - es nor to the principles of polar action, can I discover wh 2691. There is an experiment which Pliicker described to me ‘ cs and: Which at first seems to indicate strongly the polarity of bis-_ muth: If a bar of bismuth (or phosphorus) be suspended hori- : zontally between the poles of the electro-magnet, it will go to. cm the equatorial position with a certain force, passing, as I have said, > from stronger to weaker places of action (2267.), Ifa bar’ off iron of the same size be fixed in the equatorial position a little: below the plane in which the diamagnetic bar is moving, the lat-* | ter will proceed to the equatorial position with much greater force." than before, and this is considered as due to the circumstance es that, on the side where the iron has N polarity, the diamagnetic body has § polarity, and that on the other side the $ aes m5 the iron and the N polarity of the bismuth also coincide. 2692. It is however very evident that the lines of 1 force have been altered sufficiently i in their intensity of dire “. fect. For, consider the b as just le going to the hs our positions at a “ » # ” . 4 z Z = » 4 cage” ‘ers z3 208 On the fibrous plants yielding the Grass-cloth of China. “from which “ grass-cloth” is manufactured, embrace more than “ean be satisfactorily answered at the present time. The subjoin- ed account, though meagre, and in several ae incomplete, will be found to contain much of the infor t is cultivated in this vicinity, but as it is rs an inferior quality, and does not flower until autumn, my description is less complete than if written a a more favored locality, or at a more advanced season of the yea Description oat History.—Grass-cloth is manufactured from the fibres of a plant, sailed by the Chinese Ma ; it is a generic +... term, under which several varieties, if not species, are included, - % amongst these the Tung Ma, Pi Ma, Sing Ma, Tien Ma, and ae others are used only as therapeutic agents. “Cloth is manufactur- “s. ed from the Chi Ma, Ta Ma, Kin Ma, Luh Ma, Sec. _ There ‘ F ; e : * have likewise a place in the pharmacopeeia of China. In imita- - tion of the native botanists from whose works this account has been mainly derived, I shall principally limit my remarks to a de- co scription of the Chis Ma, which belongs to the natural order of *i°-* Orticee—it is a Cannabis or hemp, but differing from oo “sativa, sufficiently to. oe another designation. Perhaps *~ til it becomes better known, it may be called Cannabis sensi / . It has an irregular cellular ‘ado of a:yellowish white color, which : ‘, “+ ‘sends up annually ten to fifteen, or more stems, to the height of from, 7 to 10 feet. The stems are upright, slightly fluted, pilous, and herbaceous: its leaves are on. long petioles, alternate, ovate, i. Bee dish, serrate, simple; the upper surface pilous and dark green, 7 Romar of a silvery-grey. ‘The flowers are described as minute, * » numerous, -of a i Sa green color, on a catkin-like receptacle or . “spike. «It is feund at the base’of hills and on dry soils, from Co- T. © chin China to e Yellow ‘iver, and from raters to the —- ; y ur Sy, Chuen, Kongnain, Chikiang, Fuchkien, and Can- . 5% peeneotan! Native .w riters do not include the’ latter prov- — ~. mee assits sey It as kis ions thes there is no no- M tice of the J ai y mpl them 3 \d. years ia . tis meriti ned in the, S he hb, Ki ngias = 4 of- nit 4 1e central 1 the ss it came inet nse “in, fa A faremgrey aces Le “The ee Then Herbal says, “its origin is’ bidhs we, Be ‘Medical properties. —The rect issdeseribed by writers on ma- _. teria medicg-as innocuous, sweet to the’ taste, of a cold natures d of cathartic i¢ properties, poet: geee. gad lea oS On the fibrous plants yielding the Grass-cloth of China. 209 are all officinal. A long list of diseases are enumerated in which. the plant is efficacious, but these throw no other light on its prop-. erties than to suggest it. is comparatively inert. i is partly be-. — therefore more suitable. This may be owing either to the fact of the former being hot-pressed in a calender, (by which it is ren- dered compact and smooth, whilst the process to which the other ‘ is subjected for the same purpose, but partially affects it,) or to #° original differences in the fibres of European and Chinese linen. . Planting the seeds.—This takes place in May. Great care is first taken in the selection of seeds, and in the preparation of the E soil. The seed should be gathered on the appearance of frost, those produced from a recent root are the best. After being dried they are stowed away in a basket or jar mixed with sand, or dry earth, others say moist earth. The jar is then covered with straw to protect the seeds from the cold, as if exposed to its influence -...:. they yield an imperfect plant. Before planting, the seeds are ~ tested by immersion in water, those which float are to be reject- » _ those at the bottom plante . A loose dry soil is to be select- | , if near a canal or rivulet it is preferable. The ground isto be. He, m ail ploughed, and broken finely, manured, and then divided i in- * to beds about eight yards long, and one w wide ; the beds are: ‘to be. raked, and afterwards made compact witha hoe: After this’ it at a watered and left fora night: on the bac day tp and! he ¢ pressing down i is repeated. Pes bene pel o or three, > g se S © EB 3 “ eo = oO ~” © oO a " = sans to sprout, and then ae in eis high ‘ar filled up. . ‘Just before the blades appear, a fi constructed over the beds, on which mats s protect them fro the: heat of ae nd - must be kept} and h ell w thenigb ld ‘be t Sart shin aor OL” 1 . ina. field’ Wed from eiry trees, about +o t:* It midy forks axborder to the ceralia and vegetables,» ing them “from the’ deprédations of domestic ayimals, al OE ae the Ma. ’ “ary. weather, ei field is i watered until. the seco 210 On the fibrous plants yielding the Grass-cloth of China. be watered every tenth day.. In November and December ma- hure it with horse or buffaloe dung, earth, straw or any rubbish, a foot or more thick, to protect it from cold. In March rake it away and expose the plant, watering it in dry weather, and using rubbish of any kind for manure. A caution is given never to use swines’ dung, as it is “saltish” and hurtful to the Ma. In the third or fourth year, some say in the second, the plant may be d. nting the roots—The roots are to be cut into pieces of _three or four fingers’ length, and are to be planted in May, half a yard apart, and watered « every three or four days. On the ap- . pearance of the blades use the hoe and water them; they will be mature for cutting in the second year. In the course of ten years the roots become unfruitful, the shoots may then be cut off, and if enveloped i in earth, and covered with matting, can be trans- :_ planted in places 30 or 40 inches distant. The ground should ms well prepared with manure, and freely manured after- | Solr wards: the manure being half water. Here, as before, the plants should be hoed from time to _ In many cases fresh earth, ' pulverized bricks, ashes, &c., are used for manure. Some years the husbandman has his crop thjued by worms, he needs there- *fore to seek for and destroy them as they appear by picking them My wr : “off. It not-unfrequently happens, that the crop is in some places = “om temarkably: ‘small, and sometimes the produce is very great with- “ out dss assignable cause. ' Cutting the Ma.—tt yields three crops every year. ‘The first a ieutting takes place in June. Care is to be taken not to cut the 3 ‘ young shoots, keep therefore an inch from the ground. Inamonth wo, ‘thesshoots are seven or eight feet high, when the second patting Sake s place: do not cut the original stem. During t the VE part ors rey ih or in October, the last cutting is per- } weet a hich the finest cloth is made : the first being infe- Ea ef a ith t Ht = * year, from w Just described. ard. After each cutting, the plant is to be cov- , and watered ; but not day by day unless it be nton the. plant. is pulled up by the roots every fit is e ident. that it differs wide ly:from the Ma, Perh, eyo ‘anton is Pa n the middle, by which: the fibrous Pa “7 “from the. stall ; Sore the ng awe thus test operator, gene ] Pe Ba a wo oman or a child, thru Ser nails, and se on ibre from shes centre, to” one ‘song and. — to the othe - aoe a On the fibrous plants yielding the Grass-cloth of China. 211 The striping process is very easy. It appears to be difficult to re- move the fibres from the Canton Ma, as it is soaked in water for more than 48 hours before peeling, which is done by men. They first cut off the roots, and then separating the fibre from the stalk, strip it off by drawing it over a pin, fixed ina plank. In either t process half of the fibre is taken off at one stroke. The next process is scraping the hemp, to facilitate which the fibre is first soaked in water. The knife or scraper is about two inches long ; its back inserted in a handle of twice the length. This rude im- plement is held in the left hand, its edge which is dull, is raised_ a line above the index finger. Strips of hemp are then drawn over the blade from within: outwards, and being pressed upon by the thumb, the pilous portions of one surface, and the mucilagi- nous part of the other are thus taken off. ‘The nae then “rolls j up like boiled tendon :” after being wiped dry, it is exposed to the sun for a day, and then assorted, the whitest itn oclected for fine cloth. = . x erations.are in some rae repeated. After being ‘ried in the sun, an important operation then succeeds by women and children, to whom i is entrusted the ‘tedious process of splitting the fibres, ~ which they do with their finger nails. Expert hands are able to. — carry this division very far. When,this process has been precéd-* ed by hatcheling, the shreds are finer and softer. Th le threads are formed into balls, and subjected to frequent soaking ee 7 ings. The ashes of the mulberry leaf are recommended to a Dt put in the water with the hemp, others use lime, fora whole night:*** - a Some simply expose it to dew and sun. In r Ye “ang cloud .*. ‘ , n ouse: = moisture darkens it. The threads are now read ys fo rs i work of women and children, the labors of the. ult concluded. when the threads:are rolled into bale or stiffened with rice-water. ~ Before’ the. thread sfeady forthe. * ee weaver, the es are dicamed over. the, syapor 0 ging water in a: a closed ¢ utet9. _ The subse- ey ty 2 3 Comm ‘ibelu , ~ HA : 7 epttin nd rede for matches. Its. flowers are yéllo bs - Very ‘coarse’ cloth and Bsandals are, made from its, fibre. The neat -) thread of this Mam n. Kongsi, is said to be ag fine as a .3 s likega* a Ma or Han (ays 2 aoe and also called - 8 re ey ~ ae ® = _ 212 On the fibrous plants yielding the Grass-cloth of China. wise employed for making cloth and for ropes; its fibre is used as asupport to the pith employed as candle wicks. Luh Ma pro- duces the hemp of which rice bags are manufactured, and also ropes. The Tung Ma and the Pi Mé are used for making pig- ments, one serving for cakes, the other for paper. The only oth- i er Mé that need be named in this list is the Chi Ma, Sesamum indicum. It was brought from India in the reign of Kingti, B. C. 156. It is now found in all parts of the empire. Its seeds are used in cakes,.and like almost every kind of Ma, it yields oil. oS, Plar.—lt would seem from various English and Chinese — vig aries, that flax is found in China, but of the existence of um “i “ usitatissimum, I cannot discover the slightest evidence. It aan _ to have been confounded ‘with the last named plant. The above are all the facts respecting the Ma which I have been able to glean from native authors; the deficiency can only be supplied by i‘ personal observation. The Chi Ma of this place can be inspect- ed and described when in flower. This imperfect account of the plants: producing the fibre from which the grass-cloth of com- meree is.manufactured (evidently a misnomer), would be yet mona eects e were the K6h plant to be wholly omitted. It is “a creeper,” which every year springs from an im- méensé: root, and grdws from ten to thirty feet in length, clinging . to trees whet Sr iheiie reach. ‘The root is purple on the outside, y,and white within; it is made into flour like arrow-root. I have "found it an useful. substitute.for the Maranta arundinacea. Its leaves have three points, they are long, green on the face, and gptehty ‘below. In August it. as. blended purple flowers. The ee . * = = pon rg time to riees water; and beaten with mailets. *". At snidersate’ > same processes as the Ma, but seems to require « “more beating’ and boiling :. wooden utensils make it dark. The ad Koh, like the Ma, has been. manufactured from high antiquity, ‘* andis found throughout the same extensive region in which the all : latter abounds. x rhe. den made from it is 4 yellow, and as fine as ordinary grass-oloth ; it car ‘gente be 2 bleached, ‘white ; in summer it is he best .b a * 5 ‘ “SI the™Ku ot the catalogue | at ae lich, which ¢on- *_ om re of Urticée; incl og Ma, the Koh, a. : i abstitute ? The observ of Dr. Bosbarehy 2 4 8 ae x ie 4 A On the fibrous plants yielding the Grass-cloth of China. 213 the various specimens of fibrous vegetables, the produce of India, may perhaps be consulted with advantage in connection with the Chinese account of the Ma. Besides the enclosed, I shall only be able to send you some seeds of the Chi Ma. There can be Canton workmen. Foreigners have referred that fibre to two ons plants, Cannabis sativa, and Sida tilefolia (Dr. Abel).* From Shanghai is exported the fine strong fibre you have referred to, the Urtica nivea. It was through the efforts of the H. re I. ‘ * this plant, the experiments of the gentlemen, named in the above paper would probably have been more: sugséssful..” Should the “ ¥ Som. Pk eee if. 4 na. The result of his observations have, I believe,*béeti p he | in Paris, containing a notice of y reste sue as pe A a . : . . ’ a pe pupil and countryman of Linneeus, an Lt 7 meridhlaet é ral Society of Bengal, pila? ‘the indusffial-resoutces ». of a great-empire, and thereby’ rove its is ~ claim upon the'services _— e* . } Faas 4.04 - ye at png ee mag ¥ ty" ‘al > es ee git iy Be ‘ there aré' i specimens, @ctompa- ‘ r ott the.grass-cloth of China, it igum- =e vee 2 * € 3 +f his Wanderings “ %, : ie Pi Be 4 ‘ Re t oréhorus ‘copsularia. Vide Benn: dstof Jour. of Agric. and Hort. Socie ¥ 3 \ Me + ge SE Cea bs 5 . 214 Dr. John Gorrie on the possible to decide as to the accuracy of his statement that the fibre is produced by a species of Cannabis, which he provisionally calls Cannabis sinensis. ‘This point cannot be determined with- out an examination of the flowers ;* and Dr. Macgowan does = appear to have seen them. But the description given by him é entirely that of the species of Baehmeria (formerly Urtien), cal ed B..nivea or tenacissima by botanists, or of a nearly allie cies; and I am not aware of any evidence to support the 8 that the China grass-cloth (Chi Ma) is derived from a species of Cannabis. One of the other kinds mentioned by Dr. Macgowan, King Ma, was forwarded to Mr. Roxburgh, from Canton, by Mr. ~~ Kerr, in 1812. een me ee hoe XX.—On the Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air by Mechanical Compression ; by Joun Gorrie, M.D. (Concluded from p. 49.) wp “4 Tur pisivowios of the following tables is — sufficiently . ee . (clear to render their bi intelligible ; the first column represents ". the date of the experiments, and the second the hours at which ob- S _. servations were ads and the duration of the experiment. ‘The 4 ae hext three eolumns represent a series of observed temperatures: the Ls oe gives the temperature of the atmosphere ; the second shows , he temperature of the water used for absorbing the heat of the con- eS dese ir before i injection ; 3 the third shows. the temperature of the .: ter the process.of injection has enabled it to absorb oe yi ik the ale it-can take t ) from the condensed air; it also repre- - . sents the sensible temperature of the air after admixture with the 2 eas of He Following these, are two columns; the first . howing apparent. tension of: "ie air in the reservoir, in at- * “ost j e num i: oe oe £ wei revol Pi - gerd ye tee Ay é Jour. of Agr 0 the Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air. 215 quantity of water in pounds, injected into the condensing pumps, at each stroke of the piston; and the last the quantity of the same water injected per minute. TABLE I. Experiment made at Cincinnati. cmperare of the 3 4 am ' Quantities of the ¢ 3a s : 4 3 |e | ao | Se Oa TR eae = 13 les) # | £2) G8.| 8B [S28] Ae. © a fas] s a2 A= 153 |es| 38 s/38 [5 |8 =| #2 | 22 |38| 32 - Z oS Bs os ome Date. | Hour. 5 = é 23 ; % B 5 33 2s Ze s Bent, © * + S s ‘ # [z¢|s |22|3 | 2) gs | 22 (se | £2 :. § |ss|¢é = sa | £5 | 28 |sel]s = |= b je |e ia |e <_/|5 = 1848. A. M. eo Nov. 21, | 11. 42} 465 a ae 11.30] “ « | 51 | 54) 18 3144 47 ae 3627) 2 | 52... : 12. 44| “ | 58-| 6 | 16 54°583| 4210) **" | 60°] | “ me f M. F 7: ty 12.30] « ‘ 64 i “| 4210 f, 60 14. a & 1, : sy ee 1.80 Ps 2. i 2.30 3. 3.30 4. -” Average cable to an explanation of thé heating Operation of airinthecen-. — .. dition referred to, we are prepared to examine the extenof ifs ~ # influence. Before, however, this can be determined, we amiust ; phe form an estimate of the whole amount of heat evolved b the specific heat of air, under a. gl pounds or, that. one pound of. air heats * one, po As the s ‘$peciti heat of rat oto 3 is 2669; on one pound of it volving. heat eflong uan 218 Dr. John Gorrie on the condensation) is, nearly, as 1 to 21; and, therefore, the relation of the heat retained by the air, after ‘admixture with the water of injection, is equal to about one twenty-first part of the 8° F., which the water of injection absorbs, or is about the ,% of a degree of Fahrenheit at the specific heat of water. 2. Another correction of the table is necessary on account of the heat of condensation, which the water of injection is unable to absorb, imparting an increased elasticity to the air in the reser- voir... This air being confined within fixed bounds, the effect of the heat is to increase its pressure on the surface by which it is e7, confined, instead of the natural one of enlarging its dimensions. wale The consequence is that the gauge of the reservoir marks a higher tension than it would have if all the free heat of the air 7 were absorbed. The actual changes of elasticity which are pro- duced by. mechanical condensation, without allowing the com- pressed air'to lose any heat after compression, and for. all propor- . ae} tions inawhich that heat is retained, have been mathematically in- Se. - Present attained, to find a place in this communication. Posses- _ "sing a more important bearing upon the quantity of cooling effect rd “reduced by the expansion of condensed air, and still more ina 3 _ relation with the quantity of mechanical power consumed in the —n condensation of air, they will be examined more minutely when s+ . Lcome to consider these portions of my subject. At present I eh deem it sufficient,to say that, from the partial calculation I have : pee “male, T feel authorized to:consider. that 8° F. of unabsorbed heat | yi * "add to the ie a a - re under a tension of six atmospheres, ere 9 ressure na Poe the, Afeenee between the temperature wd tha Fea girrounding medium. . As this us,.is. but’8° F., the rate” “at which Pie sonnel newest by e charedier im iat ‘bermade for the of the piston-and ‘plston rod of the a .the’ ‘eburse is and other ex- Cc bu th hoy. ee faly es, of the® " Phan Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air. 219 proves that heat is generated by friction ; and Rumford has shown that the quantity is very considerable. According to an experi- this cause, he found that a mechanical force of one horse power evolved heat enough to raise the temperature of 263 pounds of water 90° EF’. in 24 hours; which, it may be easily calculated, is sufficient to melt 63 pounds of ice per hour. I consider that upon the principle on which the friction of the steam engine and simi- ar machines is usually calculated, the condensing pump, used in this experiment, consumed nearly one-half of a horse power. If this assumption be correct, and Rumford’s experiment be consid- ered a standard formula for such calculations, the heat generated by the piston and piston rod must have been equivalent to the fusion of about eighty pounds of ice per day; or was equal to an increase of temperature of (80—5000 = 8°-—-625) -125 of a degree. Applied to the data of the preceding table, these’ corrections will make the whole amount of heat evolved by air, compressed with a force of six atmospheres, as follows: Heat as shown by the water of injection,. . . 8° added, for correction 1, _ . : ; : ‘ge Neti hs 6c ce ce “ec 2 r 125 “ pe we 3 : estimated at ‘ hes og 3 vi 8°-500 “deducted, for correction 4, eg Set gO dee ss : : ¢ x # x cf 80875 es ae i ~ . re + x g the heat evolved: by the .co it ari@eorrét, 8 220 Dr. John Gorrie on the TABLE II. Experiments made in New Orleans. se Temperatures of the] 5.6 es Quantities of "ae : S813 lescpee le: [ee 8 $i § 13. & \85,/2.|82¢| 23. [#3 |2s [ss ss rs ae) = soa 2S; = . ~ pac, pow] 2 | 2 | €8 [228] Fe | S22] 223 [See | SE slees [ee] e¢ lifes €5 |8e2| See | S82 | yelsee Bef) a7 la5 |2 |2oe] = 8B | LEB |EESIS EE ea 3 = SP mwas | Gao | Gee |e Oe oF 1849. ja. June 23}; 10 82 79 84 2 22 |3144 t 85°300 | 6093 | 2 88 20 720 82 49 82 18 69°791 | 4985; 2 42 “ “ 7 30 “ "9 “ “ “ rs “ “ q 83 49 84 “ “c “ “ “ “ “ ‘1A. M. sat July 25 | 7.30 79 16 80 si 17 4 65°914 | 4708 | 2 68 4 | Hs Ht : 82 19 84 “ “ “ ‘“ &“ “ “ ca eo ia 9. « 49 g4 |] « “ « “ “ ad he “. 961 8. 84 44 82 «“ “ “ ‘“ “ “ ql ha — and difference, 5° — 2 18 | 3350 | 69°791 } 4985 | 2 | 72 * . hal ; —TIn these Pc Sagat both pumps were used, The observation on t experiment o a June 2 while the reservoir was being rapidly heey a atmospheres. In the oiliee’s experiment the tension in the reservoir was steadily ieee tained at 2 atmospheres. This t ‘sa is drawn up from experiments made on four different under’ some s yapeanions of circumstances, in regar ard to “inches of air, compressed ti pounds’of. water 5° F. Thisisa ‘er correct to consider ae amount “FH » o tron occu heat "& ofover-,) ; fen of air, reat ). ot ied “5175 ay ae é - is, sos ; * nw 9S, el ei yo! F operations ‘of th their nature Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air. 221 it cannot be expected a few experiments should be deemed sufli- cient to settle them with mathematical precision ; yet, we cannot err on the side of too great a quantity in assuming that fully 5¢° is the action of the aforementioned quantity of air, condense double its density, eS its atmospheric condition, upon the speci- fied quantity of wate TABLE III. Experiments made in New Orleans. . J . [ha och of the; E> pt. + Quantities of Pe Tg tenes = ieee Sa. | ae cee) ae é|€ 15 |$2 |e [82s] fe. | 2s [Be | 38 5 Date. |Hour| £ |.°3| = |e=al 8. /s22| S23 | s2_leeu}e2. & | 2] #2 )/es£| 8 /sSe0] Say | S23| esl ces Z BS) S28 /s8s| sEloss| oF2 | s&s gs 55 § | se] 8 | Sse Fe lecc| £3 | oS8/e5S/ ese ‘ a | B2/ BS [45% 85 [S55] S55 | Zeal seek . 1849. | al. 3144 “a i June 23/1010, 82} 79 | 85} 4 | 18] 206; 69°791} 4985) 2 fF 72 Ps 1 P.M. Ode: “ 95/12.80| 84] 78| 84| “ | 15] « | 58015] 4144) « | 60) TO g 291-4. 80 80-| 86 . 17 e 65°914| 4708) “ BEr? | “ “ 4 15 49 9 86 “ “ “ “ “ “ A.M, ; : July 25/1130] 84) 79 | 854+| “ | 15] “ | 58015) 4144) * | 60 . ar “ «lho: “ 49 86 - 18 24 69°791 | 4°985 * 72 : e # “4 P.M, . Pad “ «11945 “ 49 86 “ 16. Bo |, 62:087 | 4481 an 64 “sn ? AM. tune wre) eee one, ¥ ’ 4, ; 82 7 84 * 15°] * "| 58:015 f 4144 | “ 60 “= Si “| oT) sge-¢ | 17 | “."h:65-014) 4708) © [68 +% “l oso] 86] 78 | 844l—* : 62087; 4431| « | 64; * 4 “ 110.80] 84 78 | 84+ as 58015 4144 bi 24 . “ «119. 48 85 “ : ae 62:037 4431 . REY oe ce ET EE cen — ‘ _ [Average and difference, ol 4 ere 50! 62037 | 4-431 Remaris—The tension in the reservoir, as tharked by t exietly 4 4 <5 mete it was some etiines: a ate above and ow t . The ittarcesss - temperature between thew water before: sider as fu ze 222 Dr. John Gorrie on the TABLE IV. Experiments made in New Orleans. Temperatures of the, Ba o to of a a as ° Voe| SS res 3a | US s |S |] |83 |e |#88| Be, |Ze | 82 | #3 Date. |Hour| $ | 22 |}@. [28 | 8. /342) 323 | S2.|Feal fea - | .2| £2 leet] 22 | eae] gee | S22 | 52S] gee S 18s | ge | See Oa | Feel Soe 1.8 | Se slaee g en | 88 | Sue] Fa fous] 2 OS undo |/aeoo]| 308 m |e@ | Em 1 oes ae fees) aoe | 2e6 | eee ee 1849. | P.M. 3144 & |June 18} 1.15} .80 | 79 | 87 8 20 | 206) 77-542 | 5538) 2 80 33 “ “) 9. “ "9 88 ‘ “ “ “ “ “ “ aiduly 26] 1. 74 | U7 | 86 4 15 ig 58015 | 4154) “ 60 Ee a “«! 1380) 78 vid 8s “ “ oe “ «“ “ « .. fee “| 280) “82 | NT. 86.4" « 16 {| “ | 62:037| 4431] “ | 64 . i. ago) « | o# [8B « | 15) “ | 58015 | 4144) “ | 60 ae “ “ 5.80: “ “ 85 “ “ “ “ “ “ “ *. | exjies0o] « | 78} 864, « | 16] « | 620387] 4481| « | 64 ae «*«! 130] 84{ 811/89 | « | 15] “ | 58015] 4144) “ | 60 “9 | « 981140] 82] 78 | 864| « a | 4 «“ «“ oan % % P “ «| 315 “ “ 86 “ 164 “ 63-975 | 4569 “ 66 " « «1 5.30)°°86 | 79 | 874) « 16} “ | 62087| 4431] “ | 64 J <3 «| 7.465) 82 78 | 864+) « “ al “ “ < “ Pa Difference and average, 84° Fi 8 16} « | 620387! 4431) 2 | 64 | 6 ee See ee awe oe et 8 ~< we scr at —On July 26, at 1°.30’ it will be observed the Eres of of tempers . e water of ‘injection, bates and after npn ag sual % 7 pail y of. heat, as in the st experiment, was suppose e owl vine vy songs feet “.*. Seine ve the ng pump, thereby causing a less than oe moma te qnantity of water ted. As i in the former tables, the data for table IV. are taken from experiments made on ae days, It appears from a compari bees 9° F., but chee eter searly a full 8° F., I hot thought advisable to take 8° -5 for the mean of observa- ed ruse ean be no Pritam - pipe See eee : ty 135 ae § 786 . 2. #126 ~ . 'g 660 ding \g, tables, I } Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air. 223 , | I have deemed it necessary, for a full elucidation of the subject before us, to append a table of deductions, drawn up from some of the data furnished by the preceding tables. In explanation of this table it may be stated that the first column is intended to the 3d is designed to show the difference, in the same water, and the 5th the same tension as corrected for excess of temper- ature, su To enable us to compute the effects without great and undue labor, it is necessary to reduce both the air and the water, used in the experiments, to some common measure or weight. The ais pound weight as the most convenient standard, has been adopted. fey By reducing columns ten and twelve, of the preceding tables, to” the common rate, we have obtained column 6 of the following able. ; : The 7th column shows the quantity of heat set free by the © ¢ A condensation of one pound of air at the specific heat of air. The . figures in the column are ascertained by assuming that the specific. - eat of air—assigned by Delaroche and Berard, viz., 2669 aid water being 1:0000—is correct, and then multiplying the quantity %? by the number of degrees, F.; one d of air heats oné pound re of water, under a given degree of compression, as shown in ot jmn six. It is in truth a mere representation of the intensi of -heat evolved by the simple condensation of air. * bi Olumns 8 and 9 show the quantity of heat—expressed in #* the number of pounds of ice it would melt a, capable of producing in twenty- nd The LOth and 11th columns sh of heat, fic héats of: yer close appro: jmatio Efor all tensions : a oor. 3 P cae a » 2 + 224 Dr. John Gorrie on the greater delicacy and accuracy than I could obtain, and some mod- ifications of the mode of experimenting pursued. It is, there- a fore, desirable on both scientific and practical grounds, that a more extended series of experiments on air, similar to those above detailed, should be made, with such improved and superior apparatus, as experience has demonstrated is necessary, and with the care and skill which none but those practised in such matters ‘are competent to exercise. In the mean time, the following table _may be regarded as sufficiently near to truth to present a plain ‘view of the objects for which it was drawn up; and any one -., who is so disposed may test its general correctness by particular , examples. » . f a. “ TABLE V. ‘ “ ; ah Deductions from Tables 1, 2, 8, 4. es a Mean Temperature 6 | 6 {Quantity of heat set free) 3 ..|3 aii Za ¢ Pe ge of _» |@ | | by the condensation of | oO" 5 = 4, Be igh ie |* |& fee ee | 518% Re fico od g 3 Ss no ag Sy, let . gS 03 2 |. [2 |8 [EE [ES |selse " 1 and | os | es g35/s ¢ ig |z [82 |&m | sSiss oe - oe a°ey Ss jae ls jfegi seg) seise Remarks. e~ 2/35 Boel |s |ss leslSoul ere eoes * | BLES Cees 18. os ealg28 228/526 “ g | SEE Ses eel SP | ss [SSIES S ESS cece ‘ & SsoRre slob) 35 4-5 SSrae Shee ots ola = ey & | S2EB8552|/" 2] As legis sa So! oeice “| 2 | sES/EZE S582] 82 ge-85).8S Sess | » 83+| 52.— |5.125) 2 1 74. 277| 3112 422074, 277 By observation. -fr@ | 6-5 3 ae ai - * calculation. de hy 7.2" 4.838) at 105. |395) 4474) 5966'31. 118 | “ observatio Wes, 7 5+ 5 Be. : j * calculation : re eee % 5.666 | | 5150, 6866 “ observation. 8 500 ae, “ calculation. “ | 2.258.666) 8 |7.500/125, |472| 5343] 7125/20. | 80' “ observation, —_| articular object for which the fore- ), I may mention that the question of sd by air, under a tension of eight at- other and very simple test, which Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air, 225 oe ee In corroboration of the general accuracy of the experiments it may be further mentioned, that the converse of the result,here sought, viz., the quantity of. heat which the condensed air in its . 7 expansion is capable of absorbing, or, in other words, the quantity . of ice it is capable of ‘edi was, after making due allow- ances, sufficiently nearly equal to the quantities as set down in columns eight and nine, to prove ‘that there has been no material error of observation or calculation ; The chief object of Table V. is to present in a form obvious at | a glance, the changes of temperature which correspond to propor-: tional changes in the density of air. Philosophers have so often found the phenomena of nature conforming, in all their cireum- | stances, to uniform laws, that they seem to have supposed the evolution of heat, from the mechanical condensation of air, must follow some course of regular progression. The convenience to “ experimenters which has resahted from the establishment of that aw by which aerial bodies adjust their volume and pressure ex- ..- actly a each other, has induced them to hope that one equally «© | simple would be discovered for measuring the proportion of heat | set free from air by condensation. And, under the impression that such a law must exist, equal proportions of heat have been » ;. considered to be set free, under regular diminutions of volume, or increase in pcan of air. Thus, Dalton, finding, on experi ft E 226 Dr. John Gorrie on the signing 1° F. as the quantity of heat evolved from air, under a reduction of ;1, of a volume, no matter of what density. The preceding tables of experiments, however inexact they may be, are sufficiently extended and precise to prove that all the above formule are erroneous. ~ But so probable, at the outset of my experiments, did it appear that the relation between the condensation of air and the disen- gagement of heat, followed some law of arithmetical or geomet- - neal proportion; and so firmly was the probability impressed on © my mind, that observations of a different tendency produced only doubts of their accuracy. The quantity of heat obtained by re- _ ducing air from its atmospheric state to half its volume, I as- ~ sumed as the basis of a calculation for every subsequent similar _réduction, until frequent repetition of the experiment taught me be ‘ t, >) sae error and the necessity of a different conclusion. » An inspection of columns 6, 7, 10, 11, of Table V, will wy _. prove that all previous estimates of the heat set free by a =? change.in the density of air, as well as all supposed natural laws ents, as reco he ex pee eee . re res, loyed idications , ald th of the thermometer, The | v_of pro- “ ; I oO ture’of. an a 7 degrees -* - Be and whet ‘ BM } Quantity of Heat evolved from Atmospheric Air. 227 | According to these yngicog and deductions, while the densities of air increased in the geometrical progression 2, 4, 8, the heats evolved corresponded, nearly, to the arithmetical series } , 5. But the ratio in the differences of temperature between the assigned densities followed a very different rate of progression from either; thus for the densities 2, 4, 8 atmospheric pressures, — the corresponding differences of heat evolved were in the d ; creasing numbers, nearly, (277, 118, 80) 3:5, 1:5 I deem it highly probable that the foregoing deductions are . | very near to true expositions of the relations between the con densation of atmospheric air, and the evolution of its latent heat: -The discrepancies between the actual observations and the num- bers which should belong to a law of progression, are more rea sonably to be referred to error in the former than in the latter. — : A slight examination of the tables will shew how very important =. it is in such experiments, that the instruments for making obser- vations should be both delicate and accurate. It has been men- — tioned that the thermometers used could not - relied upon within | alf a degree of their indications ; while an error to this extent would produce a difference in the deductiouié*of the first line of _ . Table V, of one-tenth part and, of course, materially affect the. . value of the experiment. Besides the necessity of proper philo- | sophical ee the series of observations on both densities & and temperature ought to have been more extended to justify, the _ attempt to establish a natural law from their deductions. So well aware was I of the importance of an extended succession of observations, that in drawing up the design of the machine, I endeavored to adjust its proportions so that it ee Pe capable of working to a tension of sixteen atmosphe res; b nel trial, many portions of it were found too weak to sustain suclta pres- . sure. I will, however, repeat that such exper ts ast he ma- chine admitted of bein ng made, have been ents Viction of their importance, and with a SR fet that ie ing should be noted which my own senses set down but as the result of re and, Gar thstanding, pee im rfectic n| | chiner am o tae hes siderable le"extent, nor can a hia recom m . contidence. i ae Apalachico ola, March 7 1850. 228 J. Wyman on Remains of Vertebrated Animals | oe: gat at Richmond, Virginia; by Jerrries Wyman, M. Ann, XX1.—Notice of Remains of Vertebrated Animals found Tue remains which are the subject of this notice were dis- f covered. in the tertiary beds which form the foundation of the city of Richmond, and which extend beyond its limits over a vast area. Mr.-Conrad regarded these beds as identical with the Eing- lish crag under the name of “medial pliocene,” and Professors -. ...W. B. and H. D. Rogers describe them under the name of Mio- © cene.* The opinion of these last geologists is confirmed by the observations of Sir Charles Lyell.t Prof. W. B. Rogers informs -. me in addition that in the bottom of some of the ravines, a stratum ~ , 4 exists containing Eocene fossils. -.._ A large proportion of the bones and teeth here described were ~ 25. ‘discovered:and exhumed by Dr. Martin Burton of Richmond, in _ *. the various ravines which intersect this city and its vicinity, but - «9° more especially those at its eastern and western extremity. The _ = Jargest*ravine, the one through which Shockoe creek makes its ¢ gin great abundance, and above uite numerous, and are Ise for recent removal of a portion of sharine mud: was expose od, still preserving their | pic tructure, though ; ht Pessute ; , from the difficult tore © hey. were ¢ ‘ } found at Richmond, Virginia. __ 229 ap ATS perforated with canals similar to those made by the Teredo. If the wood thus discovered were allowed to dry in the open air, as its moisture evaporated, it became more and more solid, and soon ©. assumed the constitution of lignite, having the density, brittle . fracture and shining surface of coal. The progress of this change’ I had an opportunity of noticing in a piece of wood which lay on my table from the time it was exhumed until it was completely ; converted into lignite. Fruits well preserved were occasionally found, and in one instance a nut which was recognized by Prof. Agassiz as belonging to the genus Carya or hickory. I have as | yet seen but very few unequivocal remains of reptiles. ‘These consist of a few teeth which will be noticed in a subsequent por- tion of this paper. Coprolites have also been found in great num- ~ bers some of them of unusual large size. care nes Remains or Mammats.—Sea/s. Among the most interesting cerebral convolutions on the parietal bones, the form of th praimal P cavity, the deep fossa above the internal auditory foramen, the vascular canals opening on the occiput, and the inflated tympanic f ies of seals which, * “marked d mor€ ro above ft i bové-describ ckoe creek ra ar the base,of Chure le eastern extr y, ofthe, city and in t ear : 4 he, une ‘ Ped ah "3 aft, . ay ee. te wm Fee “> oe bo e. - * ~ 4 230 J. Wyman on Remains of Vertebrated Animals the penitentiary, Dr. Burton obtained several other portions of the skeleton of another seal. These consisted of an imperfect cervical vertebra, a lumbar vertebra nearly entire, a fragment of the sacrum, coccygeal vertebra, fragments of ribs and the lower extremity of a fibula. Their generic characters have been satisfactorily made out by comparisons with recent bones.* In figure 1, page 232, I have carota the coccygeal ver- tebra which corresponds in its general characters very accu- rately with recent bones of P. Groenlandica from the same region of the vertebral column. The small size of the vertebral canal and the imperfect transverse process, the wide spread ar- ticulating processes and the blunted spinous process indicate its affinity to the seals. The anes of a left fibula (figs. 2 and 3) presents at its lower extremit “(fig. 3), an oblique regularly patie artic nae surface, on its inner face, and on its outer (figs. 2 and 3,) an elevated ridge or crest on either side of which is a groove for the passing. of a tendon. , Agassiz.—Of this interesting genus, (which is so hea allied with Squalodon of Grateloup, Basilosaurus of Harlan, Zeuglodon of Owen and J. Miiller, Dorudon of Gibbes, and the ‘yemains from which the empirical Hydrarchos of Koch was made, I have received from Dr. Burton only a single tooth, which was identified by Prof, Agassiz.t e 7 g only other locality for fossil bones of seals which I have seen noticed as U. States, is the one mentioned by Dr, C. T. Jackson (in his final = nthe eh og oi “a ew Seagal! at South Berwick, Maine, in paw whi Eo. the last edition of the Ossein mens Fossiles . 454) after having set" cea dre 3 pretended discoveries, says: “en effet rien n ne AP rare que des os tins pa = fossiles.” “Je n obtenir d’ossemens foie ie piss bien’ constatés seuls environs d’ Angers.” ibed by Deeker as belonging to two individuals, w “aint Sorel by Blainville to_ to one and the same — and were shown ‘ofa Manatee instead Gf Seal a covery on which M. de. B. dwells with phie, Ger ca, p. 40.) sie of fossil seals, Blainville cites the jed with those. of sharks, Boué,:Journ. de : or) nko oe - el kg 1s cain, diel in: 1 Westin. Hermann +n Meyer, , es io fron ority, teeth yéry similar to those of seals and of FF to, dese es bree es Robert, ep i found at Richmond, Virginia. 231 This tooth (fig. 4,)is 12 o. in length, having a small portion broken from the end of its root. ‘The crown is conical, com- pressed on its inner pore: vil slightly trenchant edges, the pos- terior of which is provided with a slightly projecting tubercle. The enamel over its hice surface is roughened by small irregu- lar ridges, the general direction of which is from the base towards the apex of the crown, those at the apex being the most minute. This tooth must have been placed at the anterior part of the ~ all those of the posterior lateral portions being deeply in- ented. Dr. Burton has also found a petrous bone with its convoluted appendage, which has all the Cetacean oo and which rof. Agassiz likewise refers to the genus Phoco elphin nus.—F rom the same locality and in pes immediate neighborhood of the spot in which the vertebree and other bones of the seal were found, Dr. Burton obtained four vertebra all ee apparently to one individual and nearly of the size of =~ those of the common porpoise, (D. delphis. ‘, 3 fragment of a lower jaw represented in figures 5 and 6, eT the indications of the teeth are followed, is Cetacean, ‘though t jaw itself issomewhat unusual. ‘The crowns proiee ‘but Bois above their alveoli, and are small when compared with the roots — which are long, bulging near the middle and deeply imbedded in their sockets. The t to which they peuetrate into the jaw is made obvious by ‘he fractures, which intersect way ek, near their termination. A reptilian age in the j * recognized in the depressions or grooves which exist on it sides i in- ‘ the intervals between the teeth, as if for the cree 2 of ae by teeth of the upper maxillary bone, a condition which , *s Gibbes has shown to exist in the Basilosaurus. Each fot is sur- ~ rounded by a distinct circular ridge. The teet lid the 4 4 pulp cavity Phsing wholly filled up. By refere neeigy re. ; be seen that the two halves of the lower j jaw arg iitited through * “4 the whole extent of this fragment (t poympiyse by a flat s sur + face as is the case in the sperm whale: am Crocodiles. It differs however from 1e lattel an enlargement of the jaw at its extremity, ing toa a poi nt as in Cetaceans,) as well as in teeth of larger dimensions:which in Gayidls co corr Were it not for the prolonged: sym phys garded as belonging to the genus ns PI nT resembles-that,of some s Lot the oat he 1 fi : he Ss J. Wyman on Remains of Vertebrated Animals, §c. 233 This fragment I found in one of te a ravines on the western side of the Shockoe Creek Ravi In one of the species of Zeuglodon ins by Miller, ris exists a lower jaw with a prolonged symphysis as in thea specimen, though the teeth of the first are less numerous. ‘He also figures a portion of an upper jaw which is turned up, pre- senting a convexity corresponding with the concavity of the outline : be lower fragment here described. Fig. 6. : n addition to the above, there have been found from. time to time for Bir years, fragments of bones of the larger Cetaceans,. of which I have numerous specimens, but have seen none of the — dimensious of those of the largest existing whales. Their spe-- cific characters have not been recognized. I have a single im-— _ perfect tooth nearly five inches in length, the crown of which is quite small compared with the root, and its surface is irregularly - Striated or reticulated as in the figures of the teeth of Zeuglodon, given by Johannes Miller in his memoir on this last animal, . * Reptites.—The only remains which represent this tager Bre” a8 teeth, one of which is id agree in figure 8a of pee oH sit i i ( Cro ite an nae on pi: side a a aegell and well defined rid; its upper extremity and terminating below in as te | The surface of the tooth is markets with minute | tudinal stria. The lateral ridges divide the* tooth into two se por; tions as shown in the section, figure © Some of the teeth of one other species of reptile allied to the” Crocodiles was found in company with the preceding, bat which differ from the described forms in having the whole surface = covered with well defined longitudinal flutings extending ffm * . the to the apex—similar he those of Mosasaurtis; but “the na tooth is without an enlarged base aed . The precise locality from which these Reptilian teeth were ob-,. tained, lam unable to state ; they were te es tertiary deposit: nd i “Ba calibys thd8e-of » fishes are by far the most n f. tion belong to the Plagioaibine | Gand and willghe ne mna compressa, ada L. acuminata. L, crassidens, Lgassr +s Rig tg aia , Aeclegans, BOM sete ee at All. . ve tind in the Edcene beds of S. by.Dr, Gabi © Th ns abové entimé: ‘ m = = Ne . : io P " , yy * m ® ; - 234 J. Wyman on Remains of Vertebrated Animals, &§c. found in digging wells in Richmond, but whether from Eocene or Miocene beds I am unable to state. odus uppendiculatus, Agass. Carcharodon angustidens, Agass. Galeocerdo contortus, Gibbes. G. Eigertonti, Agass Sphyrna lata, Agas Glyphis subulata, Gibbes. : Notidanus primigenius. This species is quite rare. The spe- : cimen here referred to is the only one which I have seen men- ye tioned as coming from the U. States. . This was described by Dr. oa R. W. Gibbes i in ae memoir on the fossil Squalide * . Gen atis.—After the genus Lamna, Myliobatis may he. one which: cgylenc the largest maieaber my) : Ne we BP - —8 an peti or pharyngeal plates, fig. 9a on ‘aud as ve as far as any et to ite Pres: e first con in the U. States. ier or the rkable genus first de&cribed by Agassiz, nothing has overed but the plates similar to those repre sented 3 hae, and I have recently receive gO KEN oven of large | size. : oi | b—These exis in great numbers, bit almost ed. ave se means of determinitig them. odie ies of. t ihe Scomberoids. Volcanic Eruptions of Hawaii. 235 Coprolites.—Of numerous specimens of these remains, there is one of unusual dimensions. It is six anda half inches in length and three inches in diameter. It presents indications of having been moulded upon a spiral membrane; its fractured surface ex- hibits fragments of bone and something resembling the scales of fishes. The color of the fractured surface is of a reddish brown. Arr. XXII.—On the Volcanic Eruptions of Hawaii ; by James D, Dana—.Continued from vol. ix, p. 364. n a former article, a historical account was given of the erup- tions of Kilauea, the great pit-crater on the flanks ps Mount Loa, situated at a height of about 4000 feet above the sea. ‘The fol- Jowing pages contain what information we have olla respect- . ing the summit eruptions of Mount Loa.* The crater isa deep pit in the very summit of the mountain dome, and is called b the natives Mokua-weo-weo.t It has nearly an ellipueal: Peure, ‘ as shown in the annexed cut, with — its - andlor 13,000. and 8000 feet respectively, the longer lying . Za in a north-by-west and..sduth-.4-~§ —_ = by-east direction. . But the. dee on part of the crater is nearly circa rt, lar, and has the breadth. of- es, Te smaller diameter, the nee re. and southern portions being shal ow. he walls, through a con- ~~ a4 —— siderable portion of their eireuit, =< —*) ae To are abrupt or even vertical, and are : 4, aaRee x as 4 stratified in structure like the eee “ of Kilanea; on the west side the ; * a height was ‘found by Henry Eld, “we ges +; to be seven hundred and eigh- - ‘s ie ae ' 4 a % p a examingde by Captain. Wilkes abd: i dee” A the officers of the Vincennes, consisted of solid da 1a vat throtigh which there were severe fissures and fumarolég ,emittin stéam and doit Vapors ‘in. [atge. vi : Xu s wore UB ia . e iroin Wilke ‘of it if given in n olen ; ray Pet tpi 236 Volcanic Eruptions of Hawatt. with clinkers, while in others, smoother tracts of solid lava constituted the surface. The fissures had in general a north- northwest and south-southeast direction, and one near the west bank had ejected lavas at no distant period. Two cinder cones at the bottom, consisting of light scoria, were remarkably per- fect in form, and 0 ne was two hundred feet high. About many of the fumaroles there were the same salts that occur at the sul- phur banks of Kilauea. Besides the large pit there were two others, one on the north, and another (called Pohakuo-hanalei) on the south, both of which _ may be looked upon as subordinate to the central crater, as they ~are enclosed within the same general rim or outline. "I'here is also pipottier small pit, distinct from these, a short distance to the south. “Into Pohakuo-hanalei, a stream of lava had run from Mokua- ‘weo-w weo, and Capt. Wilkes remarks that it a wee a caseade of Tl e © plastered on the edges in clots, which seemed of the consistency of tar lelted ‘sealing-wax of various colors, the most predomi- "* man 4 @are br ss vik RE were ‘several small cones aotit the summit, both to the ee Sea ae at ya of Mokua-weo-weo. . » eee. of the summit, where there was evidence in their ns is known witle regard to the eruptions of the summit Yet there is abundant evidence that, even at the present any vents, that the fires were seen on every d* were ie as as fab as gece upwards of a fo eigner Volcanic Eruptions of Hawaii. 237 passing Kilauea in sublimity and violent activity. Mr. Douglass’s observations are, however, received with incredulity by the resi- dents. The crater, if thus active, would, like Kilauea, have shown evidence of it in an illuminated cloud at night. But neither this nor any other proofs of its action were prs at the time by the Hawaiians or by the whites residing among them.* An eruption took place in January, 1843, which is described by Messrs. Andrews and Coan.+ It broke out at the summit, on the 10th of January, and continued down the slopes of Mount Loa in two streams ; one flowed to the westward towards Kona; the other flowed northward to the foot of Mount Kea, and then di- . viding, one part continued on towards Waimea northeastward, ? and the other towards Hilo, eastward. We cite here the account given by the Rev. Mr. Coan of the American Mission at Hilo on the eastern shore, who has spent no time in his many explorations of Mount Loa. n the morning of January 10th, before ‘ang, we discovered : a hai beacon fire near the summit ‘of M Mauna Le irectly. in a the rear of our station, about thirty miles aay his: wassoon. » * found to be a new volcano, bursting out on the slope of the mountain, at an élevation of near 13,000 2 this time, the eruption increased in magnitude and in day to day, till it presented a scene of sublime sple oe _ Ing vast columns of fiery fluid which rolled in a broad, burning river down the side of the mountain. Subsequently fk ap-. - peared to burst out at several different points lower down the mountain, from whence it flowed off in the direction of Mauna ; Kea, filling the great valley between the mountains with a sea a3 of fire, and throwing a broad sheen of light upon the heavens, ‘+++ A comparison of the oe in the ar - oan Mr. Do flicers be sserrtns the o’ the Vin how that this il oF probaly no valaplaned The r ountain (wy (tat Loa), with an ele * eet, is maf the most interesting in thé world. z enteen days. he-st — is & beers ference, and at’ present in ~% Situated ‘on the of 2 Roly and reo ua the flank: Mauna Byron, and which 1 visited also. +It is difficult to Place. The s ier fom is lost in terror and a nee en ine are it all 0 ur notions of volcanoes as = ‘five miles : 238 Volcanic Eruptions of Hawai. rising of brilliant pillars—like burning brass—the irregular shoot- ing of coruscations, and the fearful flow of the molten sea—all tend to excite a wakeful spirit, and incline us sometimes to keep vigils for most of the night. For about four weeks, this scene continued without much abatement. At the present time, after -. “We did not take the usual route—that pursued by Captain & Volcanic Eruptions of Hawati. 239 eascade, or the mighty rush and the deep thunder tones Of the mountain torrent, and, I should add, by the enchanting strains of the ten thousand songsters whose notes seemed to fill every leaf and shrub and tree with animated joy—we pursued our quiet way till the outstretching shades of evening admonished us to prepare for pose, [The night was passed in a booth of boughs and ferns, erected for the emergency on the bank of the river. Early the next morning, we pursued our way up the stream, and at noon found ourselves fairly out of the forest with the lofty summit of Mauna Kea rising in hoary grandeur before us. We were now at its base, and in the high, open country occupied . by herds of wild cattle. We bent our course south-south-west, ern side of the mountain to the plains below, some part of which — y burning at our feet, at the distance of four or five miles. ~ We.- Were now seven or eight thousand feet above the level of thé-sea ; and we could see the dark clouds gather, and the lightnings blaze low us, while the deep toned thunder rolled at our feet, Atthe + °°. Same time, a storm of hail spread along the shore and felluppn =, the station at Hilo. This was the first hail seen at our, Station ” since our arrival at the Islands. At twilight a smart shpgk of an earthquake, which lasted thirty seconds, added to thea limity € scene; while a blazing comet hung over us in tI sky. As darkness 3 * 4 = %>, :§ 240 Volcanic Eruptions of Hawaii. and shrubbery to itssummit. It was surrounded at its base, hows ever, by a vast field of naked scoria of the most jagged character, the deposit of some former eruption which had flowed around the little fertile hill, and left it like an island in the ocean, or like an oasis in the desert. Leaving our natives to prepare our encamp- ment and collect fuel, water, etc., we set off for the nearest stream of active lava, distant about two miles. Our road was over sharp . jagged lava, thrown up in tumultuous confusion ; but we soon << made our way to the molten stream, and, thrusting our staffs into “the viscid mass, took out and cooled specimens which we carried home with us. You will understand that we were now on the wg on which it rested, and forming a barrier so indescribably jagged a of earthy and rocky fusion had been suddenly solidified, ile. ic state of the most tumultuous action. Besides these hand » ed of lustrous black, and in a vitrescent state, forming the superin- *, cumbent.crust of a deep molten river which rolled beneath, and yee betrayed its burning course at innumerable cracks and * ams" aud_ blow-holes, in which the fiery fluid was seen, OF 1 hich it was expelled in gory jets. ay Fs nt the whole day in exploring this vast sea of lava, and piiished at its inimense area. In rolling down the side of ly direc- rthward divided rowards os 7 which e Volcanic Eruptions of Hawaii. 241 regions where the face of the country declines rapidly towards me sea, the descent will then be quick and easy to the coast, both o the eastern and western shores. This may take faa though 1 am rather of the i age that the fires will have spent their force before they reach the s Besides the three ane branches described, there are numerous smaller ones, shooting out laterally and irregularly from the main streams, both on the side and at the base of the mountain. These form together an indescribable labyrint ‘After travelling hard all day, withows being able to reach tha’ ; extreme ends of the two great western branches of the eruption, we returned at evening to our tent, weary, but gratified nearly to oppression by the vastness and the terribleness of the scenes we had witnessed. {During the night, a dense, dark cloud invested the eviine nence on which the travellers had encamped ; this was doa terrific thun felt that they were “in a.sea ‘at. electricity,” : pd. ee: the sublimity of the expression; . “The God o * Glory thundereth.” At length the storm passed awa , and the ’ volcanic fires which had been concealed by the tem their merry dance, spouting forth their gory masses in “fantastic and ever varying forms, at different points, from motintaitt to mountain, along the whole line of eruption.” Se Tria Ascent to the Crater.—The next morning we rose. ay don made our preparations for visiting the summit of the mountain, , distant about twenty miles. As we did not suppose it possible to... -4o¥, reach the summit and return to our camp the same day, We ‘pro- a vided ourselves with caps, flannels, mittens, cloaks, comfortables, etc., for sleeping upon the lava on ‘the side of the mountain; and. taking alittle food and a ealabash of water, we comm reo our luggage to two: strong natives, leaving the rest of be company, | where we had encamped during the night. Thus "prepa red’ w set off, expecting to ‘Spend two days upon the mountail war at fest lay over a field. of scoria of an indescribably and jagged characte 242 Volcanic Eruptions of Hawait. more compact and smooth lava, lying along the borders of the , - new stream. Here we moved on rapidly, at the rate of three and a half or four miles an hour. As we had left most of our cloth- ing and food, with all our water, behind, and as we clung to the hope of reaching the original point of eruption—a vast, active crater, within a few hundred feet of the highest part of the mountain—we felt it necessary to press hard and improve every moment, as we must return the same day, or probably perish with 3, t noon ' of our native attendants, who were una- to keep up with us in our rapid and forced march, and we = -preath- The lava on which we were treading gave indubitable evidenge of powerful igneous action below, as it was hot eo full t we ooked, ‘| Suen RN nEy thankful Spit. felt untold: lag in Volcanic Eruptions of Hawaii. 243 mountain, we found several similar openings into this canal, through which we cast large stones; these instead of sinking into the viscid mass, were borne instantly out of our sight upon its burning bosom. Mounds, ridges, and cones were also thrown up along the line of the lava stream, from the latter of which, steam, gases, and hot stones, were ejected into the air with terrible hiss- ings - belchings. ad proposed to commence our return at one o’clock in the sfiernoon ; but the hour came and we were still far from the sum- adding half hour to half hour till three o’clock, at which time we reached the verge of the great crater where the eruption first took place, near the highest point of the mountain. ‘This was in me region of perpetual snow ; and to reach it we had passed pai. w for the last three miles. Here we found two immense cra in ip i to each other, of vast depth and in terrific action ; hat we had not a moment left to stay and survey them minutely. é Kneeling, therefore, among these awful scenes to.bless the Hand =, which had led us thus far, and to ask protect i on/our. return, eo we turned our faces down the mountai ad. Though weary and way-worn, ie to thé’ Iss st degree, we — felt that we must regain our tent, long lost 1 in the distance, : orrun® * trace the distant outlines of the ti hill on which our cttage of ‘. s could hot now ‘exes our course, as we could not see our compass,: ae We wandered some, but not far from the task. Stull Wl pk little hope that we should reach our camp. o In about an hour, however, the fog 5 EE ‘the o6n aod stars looked benignantly upon us, and the volcanic fires begans»; again to play on our left; and. after Perens, tof Hy wit cribable” wearitiess, we reached our tent-a fer paren. at night. I need not a ‘that our thir: lacerated frames welcomed rest and r reftese i :Seeties wé had.vyiltnessed during this labe [On the: folldwins Natiy a a boo 244 Volcanic Eruptions of Hawaii. \ In a letter subsequently received by the author from Mr. Coan he states: —“ The angle of descent down which the lavas flowed from the summit to the northern base of Mauna Loa is 6°; but there are many places on the side of the mountain where the in- clination is 10°, 15°, or 25°, and even down these local declivi- ties of half a mile to two miles in extent, the lava flowed ina continuous stream. This was the fact not only during the flow of several weeks upon the surface, but also in that wonderful flow in the subterranean duct, described in the Missionary Herald. » There was no insurmountable barrier in the way of the flow from the summit of Mauna Loa to the base of Mauna Kea, a dis- tance of twenty-five or thirty miles. The stream sometimes 4 pressions were filled up by the lava as it passed down the slope ve f the mountain, and between the two mountains. In conclu- ~** sion, I remark, that the stream was continuous for more than P Ph. twenty-five miles, with an average breadth of one and a half eo? miles, and flowed down a declivity varying from 25° to. 1°.” g all this time, Kilauea, on th wes 0,900 feet below, was in its usual active condition, an ee -as’an observer says, it showed not the least signs of sympathy. ». Phe crater is an opening 34 miles in length; and within tt, ap ea 1500 and.1000 feet in its diameters, was at the time In cone distughed ebullition..: °° OS, , fhere has been another eruption from the summit, an éarly account from the island to give our e the past year, and was as remarkable as 3 ar * its uietness of progress, and its exten ; «o's Diagn * aga. le * Mineralogical Notices. 245 | Art. XXIIL—Mineralogical Notices.* I. New Species. 1. Triromite, (S. H. Weibye and N. J. Berlin, Pogg., Ixxix, 299, 1850. )—Crystals tetrahedral ; surfaces smooth and having a reddish crust ; cleavage indistinct. Lustre submetallic vitreous. Color dull brown ; streak dirty yellowish-gray. Translucent only on the edges. H. between feldspar and apatite. G/=4:16—466.. ~* B.B, becomes white, intumesces somewhat, and sometimes de- Pa crepitates. In a matrass yields water and gives a weak fluorine reaction. With borax dissolves to a reddish yellow glass, which is colorless on cooling. With muriatic acid, when pulverized, yields chlorine and gelatinizes. Composition according to N. J. Berlin, (specific gravity of specimen, 4:24.) om = ‘ —_—. : fe Wa Ma, Cu, Sn, W, . 2013 2:24 4036 15:11 046 515 O22 183 146 . sh (462 = loss by ignition 7°86=99°44, ; ; . 2g The production of chlorine on heating with,muriatie acid we shows that the mineral contains the cerium either wholly or in ne | part, as peroxyd. The mineral appears therefore to beahydrous © _ silicate of the peroxyds of cerium and lanthanum and of lime. : ei | This mineral is from the island of, Lamé near Brevig in Nor- °'- * way, and occurs with leucophane and mosandrite in a coarse @ = syenite. . 5 ea -., 8%.- * 2. Caraptenre, (Weibye and Sjégren, ibid.)—Probablymono-- clinic ; found only in imperfect prismatic crystals of 120° nearly, .~ Pe showing sometimes traces of other vertical faces. Cleavage basal, «7 perfect. Surfaces smooth, with little lustre; on fracture, weak ‘« "*, Vitreous. Color light yellowish brown. llatyéllow.” % Be paque. H. near that of feldspar ; Oxygen, 24:15 246 Mineralogical Notices. Whence for the protoxyds, peroxyds, silica - water, 4:02: 8°37: 24:15: 8-04=1: 2:6: 2, giving the form 3(Na, Ca) Si+- Zr? to The earth called zirconia was proved to be identical with the zirconia of the Fredericksvarn zircon. Whether it may not be the allied earth Noria, it is at present difficult to determine. This mineral is associated with the Tritomite. 3. Arueriastite, (Weibye and Berlin, ibid. )—Dimetrie. square or eight sided prisms terminating in a pyramid having the ¢ mieriy angle 135°. Cleavage lateral, perfect, actani even and ; mooth, but not shining. Color verdigris-green, commonly some- ‘what dirty ; streak greenish-gray. Opaque. Fracture uneven and splintery. B.B. in the forceps intumesces, and fuses easily to a dull brown glass. In fine powder noe decomposed in mu- es rlatic acid. Composition according to aes Si Al Oa Mg Mn a, -88:00 2410 2264 280 482 O78 695 Em “Oxygen, 1973 1125 647 110 107 O17 622 yw he gives for the oxygen of the protoxyds, peroxyds, silica and eA € water, 8°81: 11 ‘25 : 19-73 : 6°22, whence the author deduces the ~~ > From an iron mine near Arendal, in granite with black garnet ; “/* and Keilhauite. It had been taken for scapolite. [Is it not still - ‘qpossible that the mineral may be an altered scapolite ? The an- 4 Fe the pyramid of scapolite is 136°, which is very neat that ba given for the Atheriastite. | e/: a4. Evpyoruire, (Weibye, von Borck, and Berlin, . yt” - ibid.)—Trimetric. Crystals rhombic prisms of about 1 30°*. Cleavage, basal perfect ; diag- Cleavage face somewhat pearly. », “Also. granular massive, and sometimes having a B.B. fuses to a clear ania glass. Pul- pries formsa jelly with muriatic acid. ‘Compan tee 04 to von Borck and Berlin:— Cr ee eee Wn 25° 59 - hy 108 ss iss 8:29=100°87 .. OB19. 3 ow 8'16=100°41 tformula of analcime, Na® Siem Seer, and \étéfore dimorphous. F'ound with ae ath a Norway, in Line Mineralogical Notices. 247 5. Ditunire, associated with Diaspore, (A. Hutzelmann, cited in Pogg., Ixxviil, 575, from the Bulletin of the Freunden der Naturwiss. in Vienna. \—Ther re are three substances forming to- gether the gangue of the diaspore of Schemnitz:—One (A gray, vy ‘Greenish, with a weak greasy lustre and faint ane lucence 2-735. secon is white, hy ‘with | an even and flat conchoidal fracture, and firm; H.=3°5; G.=2°835. Adheres a ee’ to the tongue. A third C) is white, opaque, earthy; H.=18—2-0; G.=2°574. Ad- ws. heres strongly to the tongue. The first and third have — an- alyzed by Karafiat, the second by Hutzelmann, as follow by Al Ca Mg Fe Mn K&Na H A. 4950 2745 556 072 103 trace 1020 510= 99 B, 2240 5640 trace O44 trace trace trace 21°13=100- * c 2353 53:00 O88 176 20 Excluding the magnesia and reducing to a per-centage, B and Si #1 i t = 22°41 5645 a 14 } 24°36 54°8 2076 ‘ The frst (A) is near agelanolite;, vier fora iB: a Be, K Sito Bi é ~¢ The otfier two are probably identical, tice to ‘thas the name eg Dilinite is applied. Haidinger deduces the formula 412 Si}4H= — Sak: Silica 24-97, alumina 55-56, water 19-47; and this he a may be resolved into Al Sip ort, the formula of Paani a kaolin, and A112, a hydrated alumina. [The formula Al? is still nearer C, giving silica 24-39, alumina 54: 23, water 21-38.] 1 he diaspore of this locality has the specific gravity 3:340. og |* 6. Bronentarpire, (M. A. Damour, Ann. des Mines, [4], xvi, + ~ 227. )—Brongniardite i is an ore of antimony, lead and silver, from. oo the mines of Mexico, whee it was brought by M. de Castelnau. The specimen was a compact mass weighing about 153 AS om P and having one surface ‘Gpriniled with pyrites. The lowing * 2 ae are its characters :—Massive, without cleavage. . Lustre inaiatiic% ag ‘ resembling that of polybasite or bournonite. . Streak-powder sy... grayish-bla ck. Hardness above that of calcite, but scratched of a point of iron. ‘Specific gravity at 18° C., 5+ cc. #. -B. on en pp fuses —, at a.temperaturé, be- » low red heat,. 0 : 248 Mineralogical Notices. p tacked also by chlorohydric acid, and when pulverized by a boil- ing lye of caustic potash. Composition :— iS) Sb Ag Fe Zn , ~ 1. 19°88 2995 25:03 2474 054 0:30 0-40 = 100°34 me. Ss 19°21 2960 2446 25:05 O61 0:26 032 99°51 es 3 19°14 2975 2481 2494 O70 0:22 O387T= 99-93 ere r F . The result gives the formula PbS+Ag S+Sb S? [equivalent - to2(Pb, Ag)S+Sb S°*,] = Sulphur 19-08, antimony 30-66, silver 25-65, lead 24:61= 100. ~ 4. M. Damour observes that the composition approaches most 4 nearly that of the Schilfglaserz (Freislebenite ), the mean of two analyses of which by Wohler, is, S 18:74, Sb 27-38, Ag 22°93, ~ Pb 30-27= 99°32. | The. formula is identical in general character with that of ‘4 feather’¢ Be eigromorpiute of Rammelsberg), it differing only . < having half the lead replaced: by silver. Wohler’s formula for the . .. Freislebenite corresponds to 7(Pb, Ag) S+3Sb S°* or 24(Pb, Ag)S - © 4.$b $3, the silver and lead being in the proportions of 3 to 4.*] oe HS Il. Descrisep Species. nite from the Muschelkalk near Saarbriicken, (R. Wil- , J. fir prakt. Chem., xlix, 154, 1850.)—This ead : m Michatein . 4 «. erystalline granular, and yellowish gray in color. G=e 2 =™. % “ a : ar: ‘ » ..* Composition according to Wildenstein :— 4 64630 Oa 3050 Mg2013 Fe117 Ktrace, Clay and sand 1:88 = 99°98 a a _? : a EAS ee ae eee. eee form Mineralogical Notices. 249 This corresponds to sre C+2Mn 43626. The mineral resembles the kapnite, a calamine containing over 15 per cent. of carbonate of iron (zinkeisenspath, of the Germans). shmhag Calamine from Altenberg, and from Retzbanya, ungary.—Analyses by K. Monheim, (ibid, xlix, 319, from the =~ same. ) Si Zn Pe 6 a Altenberg, ons i 24°31 65°74 0°43 0°31 51= 9830 i - 25°40 67°05 — 031 T47=100238 3. Retzbanya, 25°34 67-02 068 ~. 0°35 758=100°97 , The results sustain the formula deduced by Berzelius, 2%m* Si+3H.” Specific gravity of the Altenberg mineral, 3:43, 3-45, 3-47, 3-49. Manganesian Calamine.—Analyses by K. Monheim, (ibid, © xlix, 382, from the same) ; 1, from Herrenberge near Riom, in pale green rhombohedrons: G. = 4-03. 2, ibid, dull green, G G.=3 ‘983. 3, from Altenberg, G.= 4-20. nG MnO FeO MgO Gad ‘8 8578 T62 924 444 098, §i009, ,H. triee=101 e a 2, 7442 1498 320 338: 168, «Si 0:20, ‘Ho: 98° a8 3. 680 158 284 1:58, Electric ¢: be a Nontronite from Andreasberg. —Composition ac id s ner, (J. f. pr. Ch. vine. from Trommsdorff ‘sJ mee 2, (1825) a: Si Cas Fe ee “40495. 35-705 1095 , 1112 2-259 21:816=100-482. G23 Pyrophyllite from Westand, (N. J. Berlin, Pogg., Lxx —This pyrophyllite occurs in a quartzose gangve alor 2-78— alyse caceous iron ore. G.= 2:79. Analyses by a ¥ Si Al Be Ga Mg Min x a 1 6777 «2517 «082-066 «026 «= 050 8210100. Plrigs 2 6561 2609 070 0669 009 0-09 peers 4 Oxygen, 34-09 1242 ne oo, three other trials, the ate came out 5-62, rage Ber" at In lin deduces the formula #2 Sis-+-21f = Silica 65 a5 ‘ailing 29- 28, ro water 5-12. The result is very near Rammelsberg’ s, who sug- « gested the same formula, and also as equally probable, age a9 ilica 69 65, alumina 25-73, water 4 62. The composition, aS tay? Stated by Berlin, i is the same ' with that of an agalmatolite aenk oh By thier and ees remarks upon its aloes ss 0 Cl ae : ‘- Ps __ Stilbite of Gastaphees Suiedin’ and Barbro 2 Mi e 2 (ibid, ms An nalgess } y Sipe ris ang Al, : sr - toe 035. hee The ave was dried i in powd and in Yashe J und 250 Mineralogical Notices. Sodalite from the Island Lamé near Brevig in Norway, (Pogg. Ann., Ixxviii, 413.) This lavender blue mineral has been mistaken for 3 he It occurs in nodular masses in eleolite, and sometimes has a crust of the latter mineral. Composition according to von Bore :— Si #l Na K Ga Meg — 38°86 30:82 2293 051 1:21 0-44, with trace of Sn, Mn, W, Mo, and chlorine undetermined 93°87 “ A Red Zeolite from near Upsala, Sweden, (N. J. Berlin, Pogg., -.._ Ixxviii, 415.)—The red zeolite of Upsala resembles that of Edel- ‘fors. The following are analyses; 1, of the Upsala mineral by Sjogren ; 2, of that of Audelfors by Retzius; 3, the same by Hisin- er; 4,as similar mineral from Fahlun by Hisinger ; and 5, an- other from Martenberg by the same. H 14:02=100'18 “ 9: Berl in n suggests that the other ated may be the’ same spe- 3 that the difference is due to an excess of silica from Hy poxcleri e, (C.. Rammelsberg, Pogg., Ixxix, 305.)— “amin ine ral fron Areal was named and described by Panel « ~ and‘analyzed by Hermann; the mies obtained the oxygen ratio etl: 26 and formula Rs Si2-4021 Si Rammelsberg has arrive - at a very different result, and for lesion n Hermann’s analysis _ >. isalso inserted in this place. G.=2°61, Breithaupt; 2°66, Her- « “, manr #2: b3—2° 66, teeter #e Mg W giet 56-43 21°70 0°75 4°83 339 039 5°79 2°65, edi bai ign. 14 §7=99'80 6762 16°59 23 146 10-24 051, ign. 06 ; #: Rammelsberg thus shows that the species is ‘bias we albite, Ss ly ratio 1: 3: 12, or more exactly 1:25:3: 12:5. Allow gma, small’ admixture with byyoxene the slight discrepancy esa exists‘ ig removed. : “identical, (G. Rose, is. = xxix, 162. )— ir shows that castor and petalite are iden- n¢ss wm aod physical geben a on Brom @ Mineralogical Notices. 251 specimen in the Berlin Royal Museum he obtained the angle 129°, near that given by Breithaupt ; but one of the planes ( (P) was not a cleavage plane. The other plane (M) was transversely striated and a second cleavage was found parallel to the striations, which gave with M the angle 141° 32/-141° 35’. This angle is the same observed in petalite, and this was confirmed from speci- mens by Prof. Rose, who obtained 141° 35 to 142°. Petalite affords in the same zone on the other side of M still a third cleav- age (imperfect, however,) which according to Breithaupt forms with M the angle 117°; but this was not detected with certainty in the mineral castor ; the largest specimen in hand was but five lines ~ long. The following results show the similarity in composition, 0 Si cl] : oe "7-067 18:000 2660 2273= . Cas 18°856 Liandtraceof K, Naz: “160, Bo 0°613==100-241, Plattner. The aiecoctorn with the blowpipe and acids are also similar. Manganesian Idocrase, (M. Websky, Pogg., Ixxix," 166.)— This idocrase is associated with a mangan-epidot Be ae fereclin - mo > A and a fusible mica in quartz, at St. Marcel in he “% crystals are like those of ordinary idocra hur to hey yellow; streak white. Glass of borax Be “as ‘small «por- Ps tion of the mineral becomes readily i in the oxydation flame Ofen: :** amethystine color; and in the reduction flame with tin n there ' isa Weak iron reaction : Thulite from the Iron Mine Klodeberg near Arendal, Norway, — (N. J. Berlin, Pogg., Ixxviii, 414.)—The thulite off locali ity. resembles rhodonite ; it occurs massive, with a splintery | fracture. # and fine rose-red color. G.=334. Composition according ton” *, Berli re ¥ S aonaue- 3 — te 2 toe Si Al Fe Ca * Mess Me YV ign. “eter! 4028 81:84 154 21:42 066 095 022 1:32 ==9823; Hos er the alkali was undetermined. The constitution is that of idote. a Allanite from Krux near Schmiedefeld in Thiringer: Wolk ld, af *: (H. Credner, of Gotha, Pogg. , xxix, 144.)—The allanitéoécurs m *2 in a coarse granite, and also along with crystals of specular, oe i ; 1a ~ ‘determinations. Not magnetic. ‘ou jet black, with a faint greenish. — ka > . ish-gray, inclining aan eee at tok —_—_ - with borax, and more distinctly. still as salftof’p h in ati pe a brownish y ellow vhicl 252 Mineralogical Notices. Si Al fa Mn Ca Me H 1. 3682 1694 13°32 1711 0°56 1484 ° 0°86 0-28=100°78 2, 8755 15°99 930 319 056 1683 023 1360 022 180= 9927 The proportion of silica is larger than in other allanites, and that of oxyds of cerium and lanthanum less. Credner observes that Scheerer obtained the oxygen ratio for protoxyds, peroxyds and silica 2:3: 5, but that his result agrees more nearly with 2:3: [Scheerer’s formula for his allanite was 3k% Si+28 Bi, corresponding to the ratio 3: 2:5. Rammelsberg has since eX- amined the orthite of Hitteroe and obtained the ratio 1:1: 2, by special investigation with respect to the state of oxydation of the bases. If so much of the iron in the first of the preceding analyses be considered peroxyd as will give the ratio 1: 2 between the oxygen of the alumina and silica, the other bases in the analy- sis being taken as protoxyd, make very nearly the amount neces- A : ~ sary to afford the ratio 1: 1:2; calculation giving for the oxygen rae tion of some : 933, 323.)— 5 h y from Montreuillon, dis- : \| dodecahedral pat s, and lamellar macles of white orthoclase, a little re er sseminated through a whitish or - e.—b, a variety from near Sau- © ew (Cote Or = ay ‘i ; ey: 4 et Si Al Fe Mn Ca K, Na, Mg, ign. we 6 a 150° 29 o4 (diff)88 12 =100 ; Rey 3 6% 176 129 2° traces O-4 OT sere =100 oon! © 2 Feldspar of a Euphotide ; a, from Mount Genévre; b, from tae - Odern in the Vosyes.—The feldspar in each case is in lamellar oe J *\macted crystals of the triclinic system, and has a white or green- ¥ “ssh color. a3 bit : 1 f et * Si X16 OMn’ Bes Ga =62OMg Na K_~ ign 44a. (mean) 49°73 2965 trace 085) 1118 056 404 024 375 =100 *- b .* 6523 2424 | Felil 686 148 483 3803 305 = Mclrsd aon ee “The specimens were not wholly free from tale and minute veins “of serpentine matters. Tie latter had a neater cleavage than 1s *. . usual *ygith tthe feldspar of euphotide, yet was impure also Wil a: ata large proportion of silica and alkalies W ime explains the neater cleavage. H¢ d Bi of 0. 0, the eldspar of euphotide ité as Boulanger su a i Ee ee ee si vee cemecatc nnn eee . Mineralogical Notices. 253 3. Diallage of the Euphotide of Odern.—The diallage is in olive green ‘crystalline lamella. It fuses before the blowpipe with very great difficulty, much greater than the feldspar associ- ated with it. It atfo rded 1 g ign. 49°30 pl 030 943511543 in 085==98-93 Delesse observes that it approaches hornblende, especially that from Nordmark analyzed by Bonsdorff. The chromic acid he believes to be chemically combined in the mineral. Hededuces the formula Rs Siz, which is the formula of the species pyrox- ene. ‘The oxygen for the protoxyds, peroxyds and silica equals 13-51 : 2-66 : 25-61; and supposing the alumina to replace the silica, the ratio 1: 2, characteristic of pyroxene, is given. This ratio is more exact when silica and alumina replace one another in the ratio of 341: 28i. 4. Talc of the Odern Euphotide—This talc is in imperfectly radiated translucent lamelle, often more than a centimetre in length, and constitutes hee masses s which cut like a ite stone. Compositi on :— Eh Bi fe fin oa ‘Me (ait) gas F 5761 O81 B85 0G. BBS. 841 3°78=100 - ‘* This result shows, Delesse observes, that it is near that from . Little St. Bernard, a ee by Berthier, and may be re ited by the pyroxene formul a R3 Siz: aes i he oxygen of the peta yc and silica equals 129 (=1: 2°38) with 0°38 for that of the alumina. The ‘ responding is 3 : 7, (the alumina being excluded, ) which eine. - alent to Mgo Sir. The ratio 4: 9 (=1: 2-25) which differs bit lit-# * tle from the result, affords the formula Mg Sis, which ape been* . a found for other varieties of tale. . * 5. Serpentine of the Euphotide of Odern.—The sscialt is ‘*® Sometimes in veins as if subsequently filled into fissures,’ and — Sometimes in nodules within feldspar, or so graduates into feld- + Spar that it seems to have been formed at the expense-o "this ¥ mineral or of the euphotide as a whol e, bya spnorobael > morphism. Ls 6. Hornblende of the Diorite of Pont Jean, valley of tha’ o-"= - Selle, near St. Maurice in the Vosges. —This me ga is ga, é wa and of a fine — color and forms lamellar m Composition Si x ‘Mn Oa Mg (diff) _ Na’ ae 5004 2895 O24 959 020 1148 1802 | 059=100 al The soda.is attributed to Fadaper which : xi eral with a lens. ¢ Pe. : x eldspar, of the Diorite of Pont’ ea 7 e ist idted. with @°: peal feldspathic” Paste™cont 254 Mineralogical Notices. usual ive the areemaier of diorites; attacked by sulphuric acid. Composit Si fe, Mn Oa Mg Na . K ign 53:05 2866 090 trae 637 151 412 280 240=9981 It is a variety of labradorite. Delesse concludes that the radiated strueture is found more especially in feldspars containing the see proportions of silica 8. Aphanite of Saint-Bresson (Haute-Saéne. )—The color is deep green, verging towards grayish black. It is very tough a and compact. It fuses easily in a glass furnace and affords an obsid- ian about as hard as that of feldspar. G.=2-968. Composition :— Si Ale Mn Oa Mg (diff) Na K ign. 4683 3033 trace 955 686 357 O87 199=100 The small proportion of silica is worthy of note. The main in- -gredient is a feldspathic paste, which it is difficult to assign to gras | en papers of the Diorite of Faymont.—Lustre a litle greasy ' and. wh the other characters of andesite. Composit Rr m2 Bo = Ca «= Na, K(diff) ign See “5938 9667. trace): 6:50 730 1:25=100 ~~ The crystals are often penetrated or. enclosed by quartz, showing _ « » that they were formed amid an excess of silica. ¢ 10. Hornblende of the Diorite of Faymont.—Occurs in black Pat + lustrous laminze and in erystals.. Composition :— AE, + Fe i ali ee on on 2 ie as 29-29 pd - Mian econ i Associated ed with the hornblende, there is sometimes black mica, ¥ yrites, a Bile magnetic iron, an 4 ‘ e ghee of the porphyry of Schirmeck. —This feldspar is 3 Tis oblong and striated, and pertains to the triclinic system. ghtly greenish and a little pearly in lustre. G.=2'686. opapesition *— Si XI, Be Oa Na, . Mg (diff.) ign. of » 65°74 18-49 4ii 100=100 Hick. one be /Tober Schneider of Halle, o. f. pr. Me xlix, 3 22.) s a _ pe "60 01 ae som oe 3S Logo =oteit-+atiow. | 2/Hartz, Mine Gla ach, 76°04 19°61 498 0:28 race * Eroog2matte W+itnW. Ae Fe 721 18 54 5-23 040 0:36 —10074=4 he W +MnW. 2312027 3:96 0:28 015. pga Mineralogical Notices. 255 This last result is the mean of three analyses; the per-cent- age relation for the formula is, W 76: 36, Fe 19: 74, Mn 3- -90 = 100. Schneider concludes from his investigations that the true view of the composition of Wolfram is expressed by the genera form- ula R W, paring wolframic or tungstic acid to contain three atoms of oxygen Native Copper containing Silver from Chili, (M. F. Field, Quart. J. Chem. Soc., No. ix, iii, 29.)—A native copper from a mine about twenty leagues east of Coquimbo and six from the Cordillera of the Andes, afforded Mr. Field for one specimen Copper 98-91, silver 1:09=100; for a second, of a whitish color, Copper 92:4, silver 7-6=100, Native Gold.—Analyses by A. Levol, (Ann. Ch. Phys., [3] xxvii, 310 0.) gh ee tat Gold. Silver. Copper. Ratio of Au to Ag. = Senegal, grains, 8450 15°30. 020 .. 6: 1=Au 846 2. large scales, 86°80 11:30 0-90 Stes Se 3. N. Assciitnes grains, 9100 oe 080 Al pde, GES. 4, California, a A pret 8 “6 6905" O40 - “Wiegee aed 5. Seneg the ins, 33 “585° Plat. 0-15 18: 36>" 9e8. “¢: 6. A piece, loe. not given, 9830" So ee 58 Ts : ' oe On the Meteoric Iron of Zacatecas ; by Dr. C. Bergemann of ~ * Bonn., (Pogg. Ann., Ixxviii, 406. \—The Zacatecas” meteori *: which has been described by Sonneschmidt, Humboldt, an dec ms rs ie ers, has been Papen analyzed by Dr. Bergen : hass weighs over 20 cwt. It has light steel gray colo hackley fracture, Aub the crystalline figures are aa ‘alidte pecific gravity according to Bergemann 7-4891, at which agrees with the de — by Burkart and ingle Analysis gave for its compositi Fe Nic Co Cu Mg... Mn © S CéalitileFe Fe, x fet 85094 9-895 0°668 0630 O:187 trace 0°164 ,0°845 0°334 1649 < Dr. Bergemann thence deduces for its actual constitution — Nickeliferous i iron, . Edi § ees ’ 9377 5 hag pyrites, . fle , a 4 Chromic iron, : * son aig 148 Pisephiuret of nickel and i iron, -. fee gt arbon ae 256 _ Setentific Intelligence. Hy he, SUIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CuEemistry AND Puysics. the Preparation of Metacetonic Acid ; Dr. F. Kenxer, 1. On by Chem. Gazette, May Ist, from Liebig’s An nalen, Feb., 18. quantity of wheat paste is mixed with i ee of water at 122°- 140° pine mass aakine The lime ag is converted into a soda salt, be . athe acid separated by sulphuric acid, is found to be a mixture of meta- ~ } cetonic with acetic acid. ese are separated by saturating a portion - with carbonate: of scales adding the remainder and distilling off the me- = pine inait acid, gee by this process is readily obtained in large er) he . On the “Amie Compounds of Tungsten ; by Prof. waghae (Chem. bo “Grate May eee a leat eres 1850. )--Whe n dry am- oa apa yielding yellow tungstic acid. Heated to white- 0 crucible, ‘itleaves metallic ranges: and a simi- ned in a current of hydrogen gas at a w ted heat, melting point of silver sae! is 0 d.. Itis of a violet brown ee and under Chemistry and Physics. 257 of tungstic acid as yet imperfectly known. The different amids of phosphoric acid already described by M. Ger hardt _ sa ae compounds. “Ga, HE 3. On the Decomposition os Iodid of Potassium ; by Pr of. SScxGeenpiie (Chem. Gazette, May Ist, 1850, from Pogg. Annal., Ixxviil, p.513.)— The anhydrous metallic acids, arsenic, molybdic, tungstic, antimonic and . chromic, when triturated with iodid af fap eg separate iodine even in ° the cold, and abundantly by the aid of heat; artificial stannic acid as well as the native tin-stone effect a similar “decembolegiais by heat i With bichromate of potash the whole of the iodine may be expelled, 2. while neutral chromate of pot and oxyd of chromium remain be- hind; three parts of the bichromate suffice to decompose two of the ns, iodid, the reaction being ie : 5(KO,2Cr 0, )+-3KI—8(KO Cr O,)+Cr, 0,+81. oe ale f ~ Anhydrous perchlorid of iron liberates iodine from the iodid of po- _ Wee Lia tassium atthe ordinary temperature, and a highly concentrated solution — ie: of the perchlorid of iron, mixed with an equally concentrated solution ap of the iodid, precipitates a large portion. of the i odine in a ae 9 Be form ; Fe,: Cl 3 +KIl=2Fe CILK Ci+1. a The persulphate and all ay persalts. of i iron act, inva eidtior’ man nner, # ie td so that the peroxyd of iron may be used. lasiend dof” the i hal ae manganese to separate Sbding’ from alkaline: io + The dry persalis.of copper, erat the. phe liberat - the iodid-on the application of heat. fs € he bromid of potassium, in the aay ay is affected BA ae. redgents, but with less ease thatisthe iodi ichrom ag and persalts of iron are most efficient; the latter ae ployed in the moist way to obtain bromine by distillation, s The chlorids of K and Na are not decomposed by ; ~ ; agents, even ata strong heat; but a partial decomposition is effee “a F., pecially with bichromate of potash and the chlorids of Ba, Sn, Ca‘a De og ee 8 attended with the evolution of chlorine and the gerne a 4. On Furfurol; by A. Cano ovas: (Ann. de Chim. et ae Aab Xxvi, 277).—The author has reéxamined this substance pd se , ggg i : ‘“e mploying a little less sulphuric ric acid uch larger portion of the oil, 100: Beate of bran zeit ; of furfurol. be ae for two volumes tot —-3°346, ¢ oe or = had already been a Chlorine: and Kronb tric acid, 1 Whetbes c 258 Scientific Intelligence. gives as the final product oxalic acid. M. Cahours has also confirmed the results of Fownes as to furfuramid and furfurine. The action of sulphuretted hydrogen upon an alcoholic solution of furfuramid or of hydrosulphuret of ammonia on furfurol produces a sulphuretted com- pound thiofurfurol, C,H, (OS). Seleniuretted hydrogen gives an und. hol and slightly soluble in boiling w It contains ono, and is formed from two equivalents of fusfurol "2C ,H,(OS)=C,H,0,+C8,. T. S. H. 6. Preparation go eo Manga of ae by A. W. Hor maa . - (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm., Ixx, 129.)—A convenient and rapid 4 mode of preparing is epoaid of ae of carbon and chlorine is to E : g ds n : des rge ee of sulphate of poral portion of the Us ‘ & aoe, decomposition even after a long continued red heat. He re- eee: for the purification of the product thus obtained ie follow- si ee The écaloined sulphate is dissolved in water, and a portion of gela- ris noe eer cach. oxyd of cobalt is added, or what is the same thing, ri ; Rah ire ‘ef carbonate of soda sufficient to precipitate in the form © = ,@arbonate a portion of the cobalt. ‘The mixture is digested for some “? * i at a boiling heat, until the. Jigs roc of the o i ae ee laced by “the dirty yellow of oxyd of iron, from the > decomposition © a” r= iron salt by the cobaltic oxyd. If the cobalt asap 7 aS fe Se crits, the salt of cobalt remaining in solution contains 0 » Pest trace of iron; the nickel of the en pure oxyd i is. saiirely gt _ by the previous, process of calcination 8. 4On thegetionse idab u wpe on the Caprylate 2 8 Lanes by G. “Gex- und Pharm., with an excess ae rate of lime yields le time beco bra and k is dau ed rotaes 201.)—The dry oe eee Chemistry and Physics. 259 white crystalline mass resembling china wax. It is lighter than water, in which it is insoluble, tasteless and nearly inodorous; it fuses at 40° C., and boils at 178° C., distilling without alteration. nalysis gives for its formula C,;H,,0, and its formation is by the polymorphosis of two equivalents of caprylate; 2C,H,,BaO,—CO,Ba,=C, .H,,0. It is not affected by potash, nor by nitric acid in the cold; by heat the action of the latter is violent, yielding a yellow compound which ° forms detonating salts and is evidently a nitrized acid. T. 8. H. 9. On the determination of Nitrogen; by Noewuner, (Ann. der Chem. und Pharm., Ixvi, 314.)—In the determination of nitrogen und Pharm., Ixvii, —The author had already suggested the ex- istence of phenol in this substance, and has been able. to verify it by distilling the castoreum wit er, when allportion of an oil liquid having all the reactions of phenol was obtained. The residue of this distillation yielded crystals of benzoic acid and salicine, and the _ mother liquid from the crystals of the benzoic acid gave with ferric salts ** the reactions of salicylic acid. ne "; ae BB. 11. On the Composition and Metamorphoses of Conine; by J. Buxru, ‘ (Compt. Rend. des Trav. de Chem., Oct., 1849, from Ann, der Chem. .-_ und Pharm., Ixx, 73.)—The recent analytical results of this chem- ~~ - £ Onis ; . ii, p. 66), C. H,, N, or in the ordinary notation, C,,H,,N; thatof ; Mr. Blyth is C,,H,,N, and that of Ortigosa C,,H,,N, neither ots. «. Which gives a number of equivalents of nitrogen and hydrogep divi et on + a ble by 4. The results obtained by M. Ortigosa approach very closel | According to Mr. Blyth, the boiling point of conine is 168°-171° C. ; : -.> test papers, but on the addition of a drop of water its reaction is strongly es : alkaline. Conine readily coagulates albumen, and precipitates thevgalts «* * Z es 260 Scientific Intelligence. platinate, by acting upon it with an excess of bromine and evaporating in the product in vacuo, by chromic and nitric acids, ete. According #to M. Gerhardt the reaction will be as follows C,H,,N+2H,0+ O,=2C, H, O.-++N Hg. Mr. Blyth supposes a simultaneous formation of carbonic acid which his formula demands. T. & H. 2. On the Composition and Metamorphoses of Piperine ; by Tu. Werrtuerm, (Comptes Rend. des Trav. de Chim., Oct., 1849, from An- nal. der Chem. und Pharm., Ixx, 58.)—The chloro-platinate of pip- q 76 Age Ne Oyos Cll, tCl,), and he concludes that crystallized e piperine contains 2 e of Aq, and is C, ge Ms O16 J. en piperine is mixed with three or four parts of soda-lime and e's due is brown and contains a yellowish azotized resin having acid prop- erties. If the mixture of piperine and soda-lime is heated to 200° C., a te ormula above proposed does not correspond with the law of divis- “s ibility, and M. Gerhardt proposes in its place the following formula de- ; ie uced from the analyses of M. Laurent and his own, and closely ac- ne cording with the results obtained for the chloro-platinate by the author. a 53 1g N. O,+-Aq, or in the German notation, C,, Hyg N2910 .% aa ‘He remarks that the decomposition evolving picoline and ammonia, or hows pigerie to be a diamid, analogous to th « ancel,* in which the two equivalents of alkaloid will be represented by “18, On a New Gunpowder ; by M. Aucenpre, (Comptes Rendus, 12 i a aanteal Gator ) UGENDRE, ( age 2, Chemical Gaz., May, 1850.)—The proportions giving least residue . en ae ‘yellow prussiate of potash, - ee’ , ’ . . . . - iy . 2 oe or potash, * . aa ‘oe . wdered are carefully mixed, small quan- Chemistry and Physics. 261 tities may be rubbed — in a mortar; for large Qo te 3 per cent. of water must be added and the mixtu bronze a with a Sime pestle, and it may then rw owhana and dri This ii differs from ordinary gunpowder in being explosive even in the form of fine powder, no granulation is therefore needed. Other advantages claimed for it are its easy formation, the ingredients previously powdered may be mixed only when wanted—the want o action of air on the separate materials, while charcoal for gunpowder is injured by exposure ; and lastly, the greater force. On the other hand are its erosive effect on iron barrels, for which bronze must be substituted, and its dangerous inflammabilit This compound having already obtained a newspaper notoriety has probably been very generally tried. The cost of materials and the difficulty of keeping it will be a bar to very extensive use. In. our Own trials, it was found to become somewhat moist, and the original ep eraation was found difficult in the case of the sugar and prussiate ag h. It is dan ngerous to introduce gunpowder, charcoal or sulphur; the smal et quantity caused, in the hands of the discoverer, a tremendous a Se ~G. C. Scasrrer. 4. er tet a Ralls of Chloroform; by Prof. Wm. ; taba M.D., (M r. Sciences, in Chem. Gaz., May, 1850.)— : Prof. G. in general he the fetes of Soabeteha and Mialhe.* Still even ca the hands of the best manufacturers, chloroform has until recently been found contaminated by chlorinated oils mentioned ~*~ in our former notice. Prof. G. — the os reeable effects of chloroform as entirely due to these oils. It is therefore a matter.of Some consequence to have ices tests fae a. purity of this. impor- gh tant ig tanc and colorless sulphuric acid of 1-84 at least, on a te is ooking ae or brown, as the oil is more or less impure. ec oly. 2 pure Shiceoloren, wees not color the aci Pure ehloroform when poure e hand or a handkefehien” » rapidly iporaces. while the less yeti ie remain and a Cer. te d by their color, which i quite persistent.. Dr. Simpson eit ned * became quite offensive 2 the smell left upon them which rema’ . after washing. Anot t is the apecliis: net | which for t the pers, fectly pure article is 1 500, , rt. Kemp, the —— assisiant, ae oiaidiods Ae a able tal of purity. As soon as the acid was no longer colored by the™ Ee orolorn, the latter exhib a mtrong conve exity” downwards toward,” id. ga ro The process for purification . 262 Scientific Intelligence. this should be tried on a small portion in a test tube for greater cer- tainty—the urification is finished with peroxyd of manganese, with which it is to be agitated and left in contact until the odor of sulphur- ous acid is remove Redistillation is not required, in fact, is not necessary to the manu- facturer, who ig as only to wash well the first product with water and aed as abov s an lactase of that the author considers the gross ignorance of persons pretending to manufacture such articles, he refers to as ers examined by him of sp. gr. about 1000, and which see the following origin. ‘The maker obtained two fluids fren distillation, not knowing that the heavy one was chloroform he threw it away put up the lighter, a mixture of pyroxylic spirit, its original is the chlorinated oils and a mere trace of chloroform, and labelled it pure chlorofo Almost pure from chloroform, Dr. G. well says eS It is ree or ts call such conduct the result of gross ere 7 in ee such cases a gross ignorance is gross rasc cality " : 15. On the preparation of Chlorate of TAisk, —Prof. F.C. pap in a paper read before the Chemical ane ty of London, describes the following process as producing a maximum quantity of chlorate. The current of chlorine is passed into a pldbes of 100 fl. grs. containing 102°33 grs. anhydrous potash—its density 1-1. “358 grs. quick-lime es are to be added and the whole slightly heated. The result was 220 oe grs. of the chlorate beside about 20 ers. i? in the mother — The a a precise reaie> | of the liquid is impor Cc. 8. ee tic Acid formed from Bimaiae of Ammonia ae M. Des ue “> SAIGNES, Tistnptes Rendus, March, 1850.)—Piria has proved that aspar- ; agine and aspartic acid are the amids of malic, as oxamid and oxamic es, ? mentation of asparagine has also been obtained from the fermentation . “of the malates in such quantities as to render the malates the best : as aa Source. of this hitherto rare acid.t Still all attempts at forming aspara ie) aspartic acid from malic acid have failed, as chemists have P we *° succeeded in forming malic ether te Fo ‘he’ author has however reached the desived end by the dry bi agai pin, % tn of bimalate of ammonia. The residue with a heat of a 3705 ne sis a sparingly soluble amorphous reddish mass. Well washed F with hot Ld . * * iei« water this mass is changed into a very stable acid which howeve is , but the salts are identical in form wit ne Analysis renders it certain that t a ORES RE RRL SE NE Se See ee Se a ae __ Chemistry and Physics. 263 [ Possibly the sate Fe ad compounds above described may be an amid of one of the acids into which the malic is so readily transformed by heat—but as the ie rid of malic acid is known, this aci naps woul be the anhydrid of aspartic acid. 17. Stibethyle ; by C. Lowie and E. Scuweirzer. _The are decomposed ** iodid of ethyl’’ by the alloy of caveats - 6 ascii formed according to Serullas’ process by igniting antim of tartar. The decomposition is violent, and the hee stibethyle, is is spontaneously inflammable—hence numerous precautions are required < Bast soon lose all claim to that title. Stibethyle seems to form a fine again salt with nitric attr. but the property of forming a salt with an acid has never been claimed as belonging to radicals, but to their o Prey “ e following view of the Siiecstiich of this substance seems to be probable, and with due respect to its able and distinguished he saa we consider it as highly remarkable. Antimony like phosphorus belongs to the nitrogen class a forms sidfcnaay although this. expression is us Sb.H, b-ammonia, can take the plac H,. In the compound bare of Wurtz, that of the caproic series would be gN ibethyle is then caproamine, in which antimony takes the place of nitrogen. 3 a taneous inflammability of the new substance is owing to the presence of antimony, which in its relations to oxygen differs from nitrogen. . ‘ Wertheim has eh that by the action of hydrate of hits a. 4 tine yields ©; H, N, or the compound ge of the metacetjc se ties. We add a hula view of the known a amare, o named according to the series to which ey belong. &®. ae Discovered by eh CME fe Hydric,» — - 3 H,N —— item S. ‘ La aati Ce H, N- * Gs by as Acetic, oe : t Metacetic, as a . he el Butyric, © «>. “G,H,,N Anderson. 2 . a alefic, ©. a. : “C,.HLN urtz. a Caproin, 279. = Cra Bis SP _Laowig and Schweitzer, ae 3 ae Oe 3 Ss s «G. Gs s. " oy ae 18. Action of Nit itric Acid on Pharm. et de Chem., Jan., der amend throsin. from e rhu \ 264 Scientific Intelligence. probably similar to acids derived from aloes by the action of nitric acid. Like these acids, erythrosin possesses high tinctorial power, and is recommended for its properties as a suitable dyeing material. © G. 0, 8 19. On the Atomic Weight of Molybdenum; by N. J. Beruin, (J. f. pr. Chem., xlix, 444, 1850.)—From the analyses of three molybdates of ammonia, Berlin deduces for the atomic number of molybdic acid, “num by Svanberg and Struve, 575°83, based on 200 as the value of sulphur, must be right or very near the true one ; and not 588'966, based on 200-75 as the value of sulphur. Hence also 200 is the true » atomic number for sulphur, bd PE ora Il. MinERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. Ai “: “weit, Member of the Theological Institute of East Windsor, Ct. and E. Hircueock, Jr., of Amherst, Mass.—This locality, in the north part of * “etd _ 4, enormous black and blue tourmalines not perfect in figure. Ja mostly: albite, exhibits the spodumene in a decomposed state pearly att $e we - as soft ‘as m. : e e muc ive in the albite, extended into the quartz in crystals, terminated ‘at one end, and sometimes more than a foot in len The lon individ h i a ts pat ees —— |; inches,~and som "usually opaque, but some are nearly translucent in parts. Good sp e One reason lies in the aoomgare = , whic a . 3 théecleavages, especially’ that parallel with the orthodiagona o % nders them-easily broken. Another lies in the nature of the gangues and allowing “pearance. ‘The crystals can be cleaned by acid with ng injury : + perhaps a little damage to the lustre, The forms’of the- terminations ad are various. The, crystal having the. greatest ‘number of planes, has -been "described in’ Dana’s System of Mineralogy, 3d ed., p- 0" oProf. B. Silliman, Jr. Other crystals are similar 10 swith a less One of the specimens . now Mineralogy and Geology. 265 The angles obtained with the common goniometer are as follows :— hes plane) : t? 102° 30’-106° ist" n b : i = 138° 20' ae = 148° 1? : 1? (over the summit) —80° 30’ m : a? =i 16° b :a2 = 134° Bt, eee al = 144° Mee: b3 : a? = 142° Ps: b :a2 =185° Hels oN ee The angle mil t? is generally about 102° 30’, although one “erystal gave us 106°. a The se m in all the specimens, is finely covered with lines, as mentioned by e new ‘siren of he dor nares at the same locality gave us the following angle [See ) oa. b2 (ov er b)—86° . This form is net usually found ante but a few specimens have been obtained with only a slight imperfection. The plane P is frequently anes | in others it deeply truncates the syoer Many of the crystals ayes — joined to the spodumene, in conn n with which it usually occu . The mineral is very brittle, and Geccs arises the difficulty of a good forms. 4 2. Age of the Nummulitic formation of the Alpes (from ake dress of Sir C. Lyett before the Geol. Soc., Q ra eae ean ie ther w ght * , aA No. 22, 1850. )—In the chronological classification posing the crust of the earth, it has been often aske to ascribe to the older tertiary epoch, or to the cretaceous system, the. great gvmabdlg formation of the Alps, and other parts of f Eufope. ~~ eee This much- soniee question,—one, as I shall presently point, tbat, - of the’ highest theoretical int in reference to the hypothesis of * the, unabated intensity of th : agents of change,—was declared | M. Boue, gre: tion that the nieatnil ili. rocks: belonged. to. the Period, and remarked, ina paper soee 266 Scientific Intelligence. ~ to agree in lithological character with much older secondary rocks. a . ai ae Several of the most animated discussions which have taken place in oe this room since 1825, have turned, as you will recollect, on this subject, especially when the fossil shells brought by Mr. Pratt from Biaritz In the Pyrenees were laid upon our table. A decided opinion was then expressed. by many of us that the nummulitic series of that southern made clear that the proportion of fossil species common to the Biaritz “<~ beds and. the chalk was extremely small—much too small to imply a cretaceous age for the strata in question, or even a zoological passage from the cretaceous to the tertiary formations. They who have read whole series, were identical with fossils of the lower eocene of the Paris basin, while the rest were all tertiary forms -except four, which ” belonged to species of the chalk.t Ina papenby M. Deshayes, read “ to. the Geological Society of France in June, 1844,i that able concholo- 3 ‘declared, after examining the Biaritz fossils, “ that the whole of t * y “At appears from the researches of MM. Desmoulins:.and Raulin, that _. some few of the characteristic fossils of Maestricht have really been ~ efound in that chain; but you will, I think, agree with M. Deshayes; wr? not enough to establish the existence of any true equivalent of stricht geoup—that distinct and uppermost division of the chalk coralline limes aris, are referable.. a eet a eee ee ee tone in Seeland, as. well as the pisos: . ’ . 2 j eels eo) Se Mineralogy and Geology. 267 When we consider that the age of the nummulitic formation of the Pyrenees, however clearly it may now be determined to be tertiary, rior to the calcaire grossier of Paris, especially when we learn that even now M. Agassiz affirms, that out of 139 species of echinoderms de- scribed by him from the nummulitic beds of the Mediterranean, one » species only is common to them and the caleaire grossier. ‘The same geologist maintains that all the fish of Glarus and Monte Bolea, which according to the latest opinions must be classed as eocene, differ en- tirely from those of Sheppy.* Yet I am by no means disposed to ques- tion, on the ground of this want of agreement in the ichthyolites, that the Glarus slates are in truth: aren still less - Gone that the lime- stone of Monte Bolca belongs to same period: I have always re- garded the latter as eocene from rs time when 1 ‘visited that locality “in company with Sir Roderick Murchison in yen You have seen also, in the classification of the three successive eocene Ginnatinne es- tablished by. Mr. restwich for the older tert a “deposits of Great Ha A The peossuchege abave. alluded to, of Sir Sedetick Murchison 4 in the in 1847,.and the paleontological evidence of various eminent _ — brought together by him in illustration of his views, have, I ink, shown i ae that, together with the oe og : stg an enorm Ing group of Petirnd Feo sandstone and impure limestone, appears to me to be far less successful, since a true representative of the Maes- tricht. beds is wanting in the Th or is very Pill iedefined, and no other equivalent assembla, age 7 remains is enumerated sufficiently in character, to fill up the wide gap beri tween the eocene strata cea : : chalk. « I have dwelt eb at ph on the age of the pummalitie series, bes ~ cause its recognit remark made o tee M. Desnoye yy years’ ago ddress to the wr the utmost ieoretieel i importance, “and is singalarly fade of Red 268 Scientific Intelligence. formations” by some of the followers of Werner, and regarded as of palzeozoic age, were really secondary. Now we are called upon to go much further; for these same strata belong to the flysch, and therefore — constitute what is by no means the base of the eocene system. ‘To the mee geologist who is old enough to remember when all the soft learn that the clay of London was in the course of accumulation marine mud at a time when the ocean still rolled its waves over the vertebrate animals had lived and died in succ he Geographical Limits of the Chalk Formation by LEoPoLD * vox Bone: (from the Monatsberichte der Akademie der Wissenchafien u Berlin, fiir 1849, p. 117.:\ Compare also, Be ieuthee iiber die Nestieiti und die Greases der Kreide- ean il Bonn, 1849. Aus ‘den Verhand. des naturhist, Ver. der. heinlande ; Sid from the Quart. J. Geol. Soc., No.:21.)—The small ‘extent towards the poles which the chalk formation attains, compared with the Jurassic strata, and still more with the pa BOLL oic deposits, has been regarded by Dr. n in Scotland, of Calmar, Mitau, TTwer and Casan. Glands the chalk does not reach so far n orth; the last appears " co al coast ist the emend of Rathlin near the Giant’ $ ye a: roug! : east. im Siberia from the Ural to-Ochotzk, and from the Altai to the Icy Sea, Ee so n iputely and carefully examined by so many mining lists ands rs, that:we may well doubt the — Mineralogy and Geology. 269 Osirea Diluvit, Terebratula carnea and semiglobosa, by Ananchytes ata, Galerites vulgaris and albogalera, and similar fossils. Older ness of ass 5000 feet. It resembles a mighty wave, sem far down from the highest summits of the Caucasus and gradually dying away on the margin of the older formations in the plain [on the north]. Beyond the ocean the cretaceous formations terminate in the Atlan- to or sixteen degrees lower than in Europe. In Kentucky an e it remains below 37°. But it is very different far up on the Mis- iri ; this great river flows uninterruptedly from the foot of the Rocky Mountains for 1400 English miles, through strata of chalk, at least as far as the mouth of the Sioux river. his is the result of the accounts celebrated astronomer Nicollet. In these:. western pr of America [west ?| of Baia Fe in New Mexico, have entirely c cut off this ain. ™ - ceous sea. No trace of chalk was discovered either by Captain | Fre- os" mont on the Columbia river, or on the Humboldt river in the won “3 ful * ion Bashi” down to the Pactiigs or yet by the cijorrann bee ~~ + This peta is, “however, sioglal Soca limited to No rth America alone. “Ev ven in Mexico per beds al ady eel to * 5 oo. Galeotti has brought Trigoniee from ehuac ap the | jprovin ce of Trigonk which he. Scr vee Trig Costata, Thi is rise: belongs - be : bre of “Agassi differs but slightly: 270 | Scientific Intelligence. The latter is however characteristic of the middle chalk, crate chlo- ritée, as also of the gault. In the middle of the chie f Cordillera of ‘in which M. von Humboldt Gent brought it tous. ‘The or anic remains nelosed in the strata of these mountains of Santa Fe de Bogota prove _ Most decidedly the occurrence of the middle chalk, as I have endeavor- dto show in the description of Humboldt’s collection of American fully proved in his-no less instructive than masterly work on M. Bous- singault’s collections. But as the cretaceous formations in New Grenada atiain a thickness of, more. than 5000 feet, it is not surprising that the “from Socorra, whichis not distinct from the Exogyra Couloni of the pocomien any specimens of this same Exogyra were collected by “the late Er. Meyen on the declivities of the volcano of Maype in Chili “at the height of 13 ,000 feety and: (badly) figured.* Darwin alsot found it on the Portillo Pass in.the Peukenes chain, not far from Maypo, but also sixty English miles further north on the Uspalata Pass The Ea- ~0Byra Coulont or aquila is, however, a true and very decided charac- “ale Coquimbo i in northern cule’ and those which Dom eyko, Professor Mineralogy in Coquimbo, has sent to Paris, again belong to newer , and are found in part also at a distance from It be- Pod ae ae: knot of transition beds which, along with older rocks, oi ve intruded: into the chain of the Andes.t ‘The most remarkable of tM ihees forms is the beautiful oe which Humboldt first brought _< © from San Felipe in the south of Quito, near the Amazon river, a which was figured and described by me a s PLEUROTOMARIA HumBoLD . in the ‘ Petrifactions,’ v. f, 26, first published ia in 1839. D’Orbignys ad “we rectly is still very doubtful. It appears, peculiarly characteristic ¢ of i ound it in ? whole southern districts of America. Darwin vance in the strata of Coquimbo, on the Rio Claro and near nates, ‘and in like manner above Guasco and near Las Amolanos in the rrith goat valley, of f Conipg: | eae Pheerolomarye is always conjoined wat 1 Acad vol. xvii, yi ii, vP b4a, t, MM, £5, : outh® han ss aie i a * % followed by Darwin, names it “ Turritella Andii,” but whether cor . el Sas seinen aia 1a ——— Mineralogy and Geology. 271 the Pecten, occurring even in the northern regions between Mostan and Guancavelica in such incredible numbers, that it forms fields, nay, mountains of petrifactions, long and very generally known to the na- tives under the name of * Choro, ampas.” ( Pecten alatus, Dufresnoyi, @’Orb.) It was this shell also that, in 1761, excited so great astonish- ment in Ulloa at the em blaeution above the level of the sea, at 107, t. 22) occurs with the pecten-strata, it is evident that all these beds in Peru, as at Coquimbo and Copiapo, must be conjoined at least with the gault; a result which is most strikingly channel by an h M. Domeyko has sent to Paris. This is i per- already described and figured by Morton, andthe position of which above the gault at Friederichsberg has been very. nip a ascertained by — Romer. others, some perfectly chutadaviitie neocomie n shells :— ~ : a ~~ i? * ; : a roe =} a si .- bo ow 32° without freezing, | bat t a lit : agitation, pro- of ie of the water in long & faminated ° ey o* 278 | Miscellaneous Intelligence. The stream of water is cooled to the freezing point, and by the cold of the night its temperature is still more reduced. In this state the onion is more than Brine ae and the stenes and wood under the ind the ice a vine them. _ The quantity of anchor-ice formed would be small for an obvious reason. Every pound of water frozen would evolve 142° of caloric, which would raise 142 pounds of water one degree, or 71 pounds two degrees. Allowing the temperature of the stream to be reduced to 31° or 30°, the ee of a relatively = quantity would thus » & "2 B = is) tae a a > tas) n S. oe im 1] = Oo n id $s) D = i=) ° a a i ) wD ae ue because they sites aia the same ines sinha as the water. Rochester, July, 1 P. S. Rocks sometimes pass from a frozen me ae: oo with which their temperature may be as low as 20°, and under water, which congeals on them because they are so cold, noe thus ford s solid ‘~ have never seen it in solid masses, but of a spongy appearance. the anchor-ice retains after it has risen to the surface of the water. P Discovery of the Great Lake ** Ngami,” of South Af ca ; (Let- a. from the Rev. David Livingston, addressed to the, Rev.” o, main nat Poreipth Secretary, London Missionary Society ; dated, the. River Zonga, 3rd September, 1849; cited from Jameson’s Jour- Ju , 1850, vol. ie Ke 156.)- —Dear Sir,—I left my station, Ko Sh ear on: the Ist of June last, . ee formed you, viz., too ees ‘great obstacle to our progress, cae the ' nort » has hitherto present ted an thirty waggons, ate many @ Two gel eaitoeipns, to: whon I had communicated my faten tion: of pr: ceeding to the. ofi-reported lake beyond the desert, came me from m Englan¢ for the ¢ pul thee oa present at the disc nd ta 3 e0;0pe we are Sonepe ya objects have been Miscellaneous Intelligence. 279 ute living on the banks of the lake, with an earnest request from a for a visit. But the path by which they had come to Kolobe was Reegagcricable for waggons; so, declining their guidance I pte: the more circuitous route, by which the Bermangueato usually pass, and, having Bakwains for ee: their self-i interest in our. success was secured by my promising to carry any ivory they might procure for toeir chiefs in my waggon ; me Hah faithfully performed ee tas n Sekhomi, the Bermangueato chief, became aware of our in- 3 iitions to pass into the regions beyond him, with true native inhuman- ity he sent men before us to drive away all bushmen and Bakalihari- from our route, in order that, being deprived of their assistance in the: : search for water, we might, like the Griquas above mentioned, be com- j pelled to return _This measure deprived me of the opportunity o of hold- ey “ee gg -_ a @ S oO = i) ° Sc = Dn 1°) -. a — = i”) 2) oO a] ° 2) _ ° = ie) i] ns n —_ S aq" ra — ie) - a oO | Be a oO = Qe < “O -O, e- 3 . ~ God, after travelling about 300 miles from Kolobeng, we struck on a magnificent river on the 4th of July, and without farther difficulty, in so far as water was concerne ed, by winding along its banks nearly 300 miles more, we reached the Ba. cme tavana, on the lake Ngami, by the beginning of August. * pepions to leaving this beautiful river on aed return —_ and coms ! ba or Bayeiye. They area i distinct race from echuanas, _ They call themselves Bayeiye (or men), while the term Bakoba (the — _ name has somewhat of the meaning of “slaves,’’) is applied to them by the Bechuanas. Their c complexion is darker than that of the Bech- uanas ; and of 300 words I collected of their language, only 21 bear any resemblance to Sitchuana. They paddle along the rivers and lake, in canoes hollowed out of the trunks of single trees; take fish 1 tiets aes made of a weed which emia on the banks; and kill hippopdtaimi - | ae with harpoons attached to ropes. We greatly ace ye frank marily * > bearing of these inland, lace: any of t oke. S site : ently, and, stile the waggon went along the hanks ‘Tar re following lod ‘ ‘ ae i among the reed. . The banks ul ¢ * .. ever seen, except perhaps : some: parts of the. i — ar, eae lyde. They are covered, in general, with gigantic trees, some o ae | bearing fruit, andal quite new. ‘Two of the Boabab varie ie ured 70 t to 76 feet in clfcumfapgnce The hi her we Beooe HS rete $c oe which make oe discovery « of the lake ‘dwindle out of sight. it 3 : af . he. a highway, capable of being giek “traversed section of well-peopled territory.4, feature in this river is its péri feef in height since our a 280 Miscellaneous Intelligence. dry season. That the rise is not caused by rains is evident from the water being s so pure. Its purity and softness increased as we ascended came from a mountainous en oe the conclusion that the in- must be derived from melting sn ~. All the rivers reported, to the al of this, —_ Bayeiye upon, thal a ae and. there are other tribes on their banks. To one of these, after visit- * Yng the Batavana, and taking a peep at the miei part of the Jake, we directed our course; but the Batavana chief managed to obstruct us, by keeping all the Bay yeiye near the ford on the opposite bank of the Zonga. African chiefs. invariably dislike to see strangers passing them r years “saved f the gratitude. This -but the wood, though + hiothes kind. would not = sf ress ™. The sakoba listened. to the statements im Divine Word with great attention, andif; I am pot mistaken, see me understand the message of mercy delivexed, bene tha: whom I have preached for the first time. «,, They ha not, however, take these for certain, it language. ira d are found « the. banks: of all Miscellaneous Intelligence. 281 that a chief, who lives in a part of the country in the north, called Maz- zekiva, kills a man ene sig throws his body into the stream, after which the water begins to The sketch which I enclose i is ——— to ee an idea of the river Zonga and the lake Ngami. The n of the latter is pronounced as if written with the Spanish fi, the e ag sete to show that the ringing sound is required. The meaning is “Great Water.” The lat- _ taken by a Sextant on which I can fully depend, was 20° 20/ south, at the oa —* where it is joined by the Zonga; lon- Fiude about 24° We do not, however, know it with certainty. in the south-southwest presents a large horizon of water. Jt ts report- ed to be about 70 miles in length, bends round to the northwest, and there receives another river similar to the Zonga. The Zonga runs to the northeast. The thorns were so thickly planted near the upper part of this river, that we left all our waggons standing about 180 miles from the lake, except that of Mr. Oswell, in which we traveled the re- maining distance but:for this precaution our oxen would have been un- able to return. I am now sta ascii at a tribe of Bakurutse, and shall a _ina ay or io re- -enter the deser pr The breadth marked-is inte paded to show the difference betecen shee Fy size of thé Zonga, after its junction with the Tamunakle and before it. The farther ‘it t runs east, the narrower it becomes. The course is — shown by the arrow-heads. The rivers not seen, but reported by the*” ives, are. put down in dotted lines. The dotted lines running north” “ofthe the riverand lake, show the probable course of the Tam ia = and:another river which falls into ‘Be lake at its northwest extrem The arrow:heads show also the direction of its ow. Atthe part m ed by the-name eee Mosing it a. Hot srs than 50 or 60; rds oe oe ( ig * Conon i “nebageelal ane entigr No, - 854, Abad: ., Paris.) — 282 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 100° of Centigrade ; but in France the height of the barometer for graduation is 760 millimeters, while in England it is 30 inches, equiva- lent to 761:9862 millimeters. The Centigrade scale corresponding to 212° Fahrenheit is therefore 100-0727 degrees. To this — there is still another, (for instruments made at London and Paris,) amounting to y’yth of the preceding, which depends aris. Representing by G the force of gravity at Paris, and by g that at London, and deducing G and g from the observed length of the G 25 nia we have, Log. — Peas 1:998797. We hence obtain 759: 7185 ‘. ~.., mnillimeters for the height of the barometer at zero in Pevissce The dif- pee " Sfenke nce is equal to 0°215 millimeters or 0:0079 de . These two corrections being applied, the Pusiciat “ical should stand at 100: 08066 degrees, when the London scale marks 212 degrees. The (F — 32°) x 100: 08066 :: fortents then aaneies C= 180 The correction is small; but in exact observations, the thermometer is read to 0-08 degrees ; and it is Saairahin that even a slight error should ; not be added to errors of observa 4. 6. Discovery of an Infusorial "Sitetin in Florida; by Prof. J. ee Bauer, —While on a visit to Tampa (Fort Brooke), Florida, I noti on the shores of Hillsborough Bay, between the mouth o f Hillsborough River and Ballast Point, a white crumbling rock, which = its lightness, friability and other characters, somewhat resembled the Infusorial Marls es of ‘Virginia. An examination made upon the spot with a common Co dington ‘lens enabled me to see small circular discs upon the freshly r Reiored surfaces, which subsequent examinations proved to. belong to oscin ate umerous other marine species of Navicula, ether with numerous spicules of ponges were va : it is pot improbable that he esos near Tampa may be a a porti rb of a deposit as a s those discovered by Prof. W. B. Rogers * et ies ame and Mar “6 te oaiatetick have. beeti made to apply electro- -magneti co rte ayy and: Spariculaaly described the a . , De Negros ‘that although we He, not perhaps s arrived at the best ‘3. The force belt 1,000, the zinc consum ; y ee lifted ne » Si 12,672 4 “Se ssby. ‘te Miscellaneous Intelligence. 283 construction of machines, the public are not in possession of si Pe elec magnetic machine which is capable of exerting power economic- ally; and finding that, ee the aid given to faces by the ussian Government, t e experimentalist has abandoned his ex- perimental trials, —the aie has been induced to devote much atten- tion t a satisfactory basis. ‘The phenomenon of electro-magnetic peer was explained, and phase given of the magnetization of so by means of a voltaic current made to circle around it. lhe er of electro-magnets was ae gher the author stated his belief that this — ~~ : power could in ace without limitation. A voltaic current pro ja ® duced by the chemical disturbance of the elements of any batiery, no matter what its form may be, is capable of producing by induction a magnetic force, this magnetic force being always in an exact ratio to the amount of matter (zinc, iron, or otherwise) consumed inthe battery, .< | Several forms of the voltaic battery were explained, particularly those of Daniell, Grove, Bunsen, and Reinsch, the latter being constructed fluids, slowly combini he author had, however, proved, by an tensive series of Se eek that the greatest amo t of i Sot et Power is produced when the chemical action is most rapid. Hence, “* intense action, than one in which the chemical action is slow. been proved by Mr. Joule, and most satisfactorily confirmed by ‘the = author, that ‘one-horse power is obtainable in an ele teetro oe en- > cost of 45 |b. of zinc, in a Grove’s battery, in = et while 75 Ib. are consume in the same time to produce vacate ow ome ities resistance Pthich the molecular forces off Teel on. eae 2 ees rturbations, on which the magnolia force depends. © It was of oli +s ing preersd to 78, the number of Pte of zine ne desttoye per hour was aa 6%, he and the cmap obigined by y and 284 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Liga only 80 lbs. The cost of 1 cwt. of coal is under 9d. ; the cost of 1 cwt. of zinc is 216d. ‘Therefore, under the most perfect coo atl power must be nearly 25 times more expensive than e author proceeded to show that it was almost gn to be an impossibility ever to reach even this, owing, in the first place, os we rate with which the force diminishes through space. As t n of a great many experiments on a large variety of magnets, - diferent Aa and modes of construction, the following result W given Magnet and armature in contact, lifting force . . 220 |b. Sg lg ia nt sty of an inch. . 90°6 pas 5 [74 tis ‘ i 50°7 Z5 ‘ ‘ » 66 6s oe 6 : 7" 50°1 6s oe =e . 40°5 Thos at -onesfifieth of an inch distance four-Gfths of the power are his r rather ricily, acting in oeeetiee to me. bencai current by which ihe induc ‘ Biehie de is nat all these. results, MP. ta iis disposed to. regard clectromugnetio ef as immpeaction ny account , he conceives, U0 than ae am power; a Vv ae Atheneum.) ante, Jr ( of the dinary pum r.. Varl rley has a conti : dfe, and one puble-actingy barrel. he piston- ‘the « motion eet ae the cy linder oscillates from it Da Maxine Biv Miscellaneous Intelligence. 285 the top and the bottom of the barrel at each stroke, by which the rare- faction of the air is doubled. He has obtained, with this pump, a vacuum of >; of an inch of mercury. ” Photography on Glass; by T. A. Matone, (Atheneum, No. 1179, p. 589.)—In repeating the experiment of M. Niepce de Saint- Victor on photography on albumen (published in the Technologiste for 1848,) 1 was led to devise a plan of my own for making * glass nega- tives.” I proceeded as follows :—To the white of an egg its own bulk a strainer made of letter-paper so twisted as to form a cone, having a small aperture at its apex; pinned near the base to hold the paper to A its shape. The clear diluted albumen soon passed through intoawide- © * remove dust and fibres, cotton wool was used. Unless this latter and every other precaution is taken to prevent dust, the picture will be full of spots produced by a greater absorption of iodine (in a subsequent Process) in those than in the surrounding parts. Now pour the albumen on the glass, inclining the plate from side to side until it is covered ; allow the excess a of the corners, keeping the plate nearly vertical. As soon as the albumen ceases drop rapidly, breathe on, or warm the lower half of the plate; the double-ring gas-burner of some eighty jets. A common fire answers ae as well, save now and then it imparts a little dust. ed: en ; hoe a transparent that thé brilliancy of the glass is unimpaired. It is almost » a * necessary to mark it to know which side has'been coated. Se ’ +3 rhe next operation is to iodize the plate. Dilute pure iodine with 90°, dry white-sand in a mortar, using about equal parts of each. Putt Te ay - Mixture into a square g h, and’ place the albumin a. late; as soon as the latter has. become yellow in color, resemb : beautiful stained glass, remove it into a room lighted only by a candle, g A or through any yellow translucent substance—yellow calico; for in- Ao plunge it vertically and rapidly into a deep nar SIX y ounces of distilled water. Allow it to remain until” . 24 ent. yellow tint disappears, to b succeeded by a milky-) if jodid-of silver. Washing with distilled BF com- + @? We te res vy 286 Miscellaneous Intelligence. \ But where is the novelty? Let us go back astep. While the gallic acid is developing its reddish-brown image, pour upon the surface a present ; % ances which may depend solely on molecular arrangement :—an intri- ‘cate subject, to which I hope this communication may prove a slight contribution ; Prof. 7 hat doubt not $ occas to confirm, as a practica \d-as a substitute for all such works of a ecuted in bronze or marble; and to add | oS mely, by the em- k, which yle gor laster of Paris, anc out t Id, be the int sharp and perfect in-all the integrity 0 me the origindles 2043 ce about five per cent. of ant Wap Miscellaneous Intelligence. 287 most delicate details of the work. As to the durability of the lead for Sof art, any one who has observed the next to no waste which has taken place in lead exposed on the roofs of ancient buildings, will have in this way most abundant and satisfactory proof that it is in every sense of use as durable a material as bronze when subject sim- ply to atmospheric action. t would give me pleasure to enumerate several practical details in or any of your readers think such information worthy of your atten- tion. am, &ec. James NasmyTH. «% «4 “« 11. British Association —The British Association commenced its -°’ twentieth Meeting at Edinburgh on Wednesday, July 31. By Wednes: day night 900 names had been recorded, and the receipts amounted to £814. At the first meeting, Wednesday night, Sir David Brewster, the °° President for the session, addressed the Association. eae 12. Sun and Moon; (L’lostitut, No. 857.)—M. Nrerce be Sr. Victor has obtained images of the sun and moon on beds of albumen ren- dered sensible by an accelerative process peculiar to it. These photo- taphic experiments confirm the opinion before stated by MM. Fizeau and Foucault, that the centre of the sun gives out rays of a greater examination brought to light 49 animal forms, soft portions of plants, a | few crystals, a morpholite and some sand. is powder is disse * tinguished from that of the trade winds by some prominent forms,» +” a. Ehrenberg believes that there is reason for concluding that this meteoric, oe -. ’ powder is neither a terrestrial powder nor simple volcanic cinders. 3 °° 2°" 14. American Zoological Journal.—We take pleasure in announci te ae the sp i ae Setts), under the direction and edito "ecg ¢ will hail it with great bo Joiced that it is in ha ix s ied of he was - 288 Miscellaneous Intelligence. gust and was continued through the week with great zeal and interest: Prof. A. D. Bache, Superintendent of the U.S S. Coast Survey, was pres- ident of the meeting. ‘The number in seine api was lareee ever at which time addresses and discussions were heard. Prof. enry, ees - Secretary of the Smithsonian — and President of the Cambri es es seen delivered his address on Thursday evening. As thi >that it contained a most admirable review of ethics for esa and w: “peculnly fitted for the present period of scientific progres The nex nnual meeting of the Association will be held at Albany on the Ma arch NATURAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY. : the Car- On the position and character of the Reptilian Footprints in boniferous Red Shale formation of Eastern Pennsylvania. By Prof. H. D. Rogers, oe. . On the coal fortgation of the United States, and eapecially in Penne lvania. By Prof, Henny D. Rocer On the a ape of the deposits " common salt with cli . HENRY ERS. On the decomposition of Rocks and Minerals by water impregnated _L -with carbonic acid. By Profs. H. D. Rogers. os? Tert ossils of ‘Marsh eld ~ By Dr. C. "'T. Jackson. c <> «x On ancient Pot-holes in y Dr. C. T. Jackson. : eee,” *" The genus Amia, a ee iv repr ntative of the old family of es s+ Cevlacanthi. By L. Acas oe : ie phic ‘rotks of Eastern Massachusetts. By oe mate. By SIZ n between the young caterpillars of Lepidoptera and the gmata. wadult Late of Mosapiost> and on the mode of formation of Sti ASS . ee upon the care which certain fines take of their young: y Prof. L. Acass i On the development of compound organs from single cells. PY : rof. L. Aca é nent of the liver, alr Diadiet and isan e° silu-2", me AGASSIZ. - ie t of aa a aa Artic Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289 On some ae in the structure of Scleroderms and Gymodonts. By Prof. L. Aca On the Sica of the mouth in Crustacea. By Prof. L. Agassiz. On the differences of Structure of sph in Animals and correspond- ~ ing differences in their functions. By . AGAssiz. é singe rison of the face of sine ih that of Fovneed Vertebrata and ~ On the relation ph aa eclisiatidn and structure in the higher ani- mals. By Prof. L. Acass “4 On the patie al the pee prior to the development of the vie icy * By Prof. L. A oo - On a new mi of scales j in Fishes. By Prof. L. Acas ; On a fossil species rg Walrus so by Prof, Fraser on he shores of New Jersey. By Prof. L. Acass On the probable age of the Moa ‘Bone Beds of New Zealand, “By” Recinatp N. Manret, « K. Notice of the discovery of a portion of the upper jaw of the Iguan odon with teeth in their natural position. vi Recinatp N. Mante Relations of terrestrial Mollusca in Jam ica—gradation of specie into each other. By Prof. C. B. Apams, Koiberi Jollege - On the patie and origin of the species of terrestrial Mollusca, in the Island of Jamaica. By Prof. C, B. Apams. . Suggestion | ‘on changes of dexel in North America, during the drift period. By Prof. C. B. Ap ae On the value of Sth! ‘Mollusca as furnishing distinctive charac- - ters. By Prof. C. B. Apa ; et ta Curious growth ‘of a Polnig.. By S. Wes Pa Essay on the classification of Nemertes sae Planar by. Pixs Girarp, Cambridge. sds 4 a ore new Generic Type i in the class of worms. By Cas. Grragb. On a new American Saurian Reptile. By Cus. peren On the early uses of the metals as a medium of e ee H. Gisgon, = af Ou the Volcanoes of central ange , with observations ‘onthe se x. Saige and Be gate e of Nica caragua. By E. Go, ~ .*? x PY i Me fortiation of Maryland, Virginia (ge N. Carolina. By Prof. W, Cote Not Washington. On the coal formation of Cen h Se agra By, Pet Ns ie a Some observation’ op B e JOHNSON e Re esearches on the origi development atihdietare of th he. spe Particles throughout the Vertebrata. By Dr. W. J. Bur Pe in ntl Seal of Ebvctbers, nat Animals, but Pepe UR On Uiicles ve the primordial forms of. all animal ation By De Bur a ee ae — hee erent Faune. & 5 0 the sdaiice’ of the distribution of Lice P “ By Bde We J. Borner — ie. habits iS Ploiaria brevipennis. = By rvations on drift Strie in New B: on, N. B.. 290 Miscellaneous Intelligence. On the Taconic system. By T. S. Hunt, Montreal. On some localities - Magnesite with remarks on its connection with the origin of Serpentine. By T. 8S. Hunt On the i Srrapiare observed in Potsdam Sandstone. “By SHEPA dl Remarks on the seventeen year rp ‘er ‘Miss Mor On the theories the Deluge in reference to the Ethnogenphie dise tribution of the human race. . P. Les.ey. On $ optical arectei of "American Micas. By Prof. B. Sina N, On in origin of a curious pd gy “he are in certain sedimen= tary rocks.. By Professor B. Sittim On the analogy between the mode “of nop taboetiens in plants and he ahereping generations of some Radiata, By Prof. James D. Dan ale. ‘DeScription of the new genera of Plants found by Col. Fremont in California. By Dr. Torrey Fossil Coniferous Wood from the Devonian strata of Lebanon, Ma- Brass Co., Be. By Prof. Georce C. Scuaerrer. Read b y Dr. W. J URN ; PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS. ae the origin and classification of Mechanical Powers. By Prof. . Josern Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution ? Analysis of the Dynamic Phenomena of the Leyden ‘Jar. By Prof. a the ple principles of Dynamics. By Prof, BensaMIN ‘ ee o ER E tha probable period of ihe fundamental star a Virginis. By P rof. .. PEIRC : ae alvantl wave time. By R. Cutmann, Bava 4 ‘Description of an ab ine a exhibiting the dinade of vibration in * < “s 3 + molctl of unpolarized light. By Prof. E. 8. Snett, Amherst. ‘ig ee ye On et distances. By Prof. W. N Cu AUVENET, of the U. 8. Na- ‘ : t Cat ‘hand in the Gulf f of — 5 = sa t U.S. Coast Survey. f Current : STED. ats of Sogtiont theery: By Prof. D. > pro perties es sompconds re) 5 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291 Notice of a powerful Magnet. By Prof. B. Situman, Jr. n the dae moving of figures. By Prof Exias Loomis, New York Univers Be Retrical phenomena observed in certain houses. By Prof. Loomis. On the continuance of the Magnetic vn pe As Observations at the Toronto Observatory. By Prof. ome remarks on the theory of the solar spots. By Prof. H. D. - Rogers, Boston. On the theory of Storms. By Dr. On the use of zenith telescope in er determination of Latitude. By Prof. Lewis R. Gisses, Charleston, S. C. ek Description of a new eneinecie for measuring the angle contained + © between the optic axes of crystals, and for goniometrical purposes, — } Accompanied by the ange contained between ~ case: axes of some American Micas. By W. P. Brake, Yale Labo On the extension of Bode’s Law. By Prof. Dees Avexannen, Princeton. On the law of oo of an electrical current upon itself. By Mr. J. H. Lane, Patent Office On a Whirlwind aféduiied by the cite of a Cane-brake in Alaba- ma. By ALexanper FisHer OLMsteD, aven. On Monsoons on the shores of the North Atantid By Prof. J. H. OFFIN. On the nen se 5 for giteriad rg received bite of Dy- namical Meteor ogy. . Revrietp, New Yor - Pousianicatae on the "Solar Betipse “of daly, 1881. By Lieut. Cc. ae a H. Davis, Supt. of the Nautical Alm 2 On the numerical a of i -co-citiohaats of the perturbato- mye Zh function of Planetary motion. BySgars C. WALKER On Barometrical viaeacibcatinies and the distance to whieh correspond= ing observations = be used for that purpose. ee Beet. ‘* with, and according to the Jiegatid Prof. ARNoup Guyvor, reps imoget of ae proposed 2 adtial Exhibit 1851. By W. R. Jos 292 Miscellaneous Intelligence. On the variation in the proper motion of the fundamental star @ Vir- ginis. By Mr. cHuBERT of Cambridge. On a new method of observing and recording ss R. A. and N. P. distances. By Prof. O. M. Mitcu HEL, Cincinnati. On the Laws “ Perfect oe Intonation, sod their application to : the Church Organ. By H. W. Poote. ve! A plan for Oe Catalogues of Libraries by ~_—s titlenche * and for forming a general stereotype Catalogue of public Libraries of the United States. By a C, Jewett, Assistant Sec. a Librarian of _. the Sp Agee Institut 2 SF the Nautical Alans By Cuartes H. Davis, Superintendent i sae bs Mastica! Alm a Elliptical Tables of the Planet Neptune. By Prof. Grorcs We _ Coax LEY, St. James College, Maryland. a CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. a Account of six new Mineral species. By Prof. Cuarzes U. Notice of For reign Meteorites and of a large stone lately found, of gt the Linn Co. fall, Missouri, Feb. 7, 1847. By Prof. C. U. SHeparp. _ Some notices of American Minerals. By Prof. Cuarues U. SHEPARD. ~ On the absorption of Lathoric Acid by.acids and saline pew. + Profs. W. B. Rogers and R. E. Rogers. in a new method of detomipslag silicates in the process of apaly- _ 2 ‘analysis of the Pink Scapolite of Bolton. By F BY UBT On the availability of the. Green Sand of New Jersey, as a source of potash agd its compounds. By Henry Wurrz. On the Troostite of New Jersey. By Henry Wurrz. On Canadian localities of Ilmenite and Chromic Iron, with remarks ssociation of these minerals with the Gold of Canada and tT, Canada Geol. Commission. ils and the ashes of Peat. By T. S. Hunt. ae a aibiyen, Prof. of Chem- comments, by T.S. Hunt. Mm in the general atmosphere» xe wet the State. of Massachusetts. _e resente; yr. C, bt ,,” Allanite- Fr aaklio, Nd “By Dr. C _ T. Jackson ‘> Telluret of Bismuth and Gold. - By Dr. Cae FiGksoN. On the manufacture of Zine and Zine white. By Dr. C. Fe Jack N. Analysis. of red marl of Springfield, Mass. By. Dr. C. T. J. con, Sodalite ncrinite, Ps. Litchfield, Mee ioe Miscellaneous Intelligence. 293 Be: the relation of the chemical constitution of bodies to taste. By Prof. E. N. Horsrorp, Harvard. On the connection between the chemical constitution of bodies and color. By Prof. E. N. Horsrorp. On the Spheroidal State. By Prof. Horsrorp _ On the adulteration of Vermilion. By Henry Brown, Cambridge boratory. ~ Ammonia in Atmospheric Air. By Prof. E. N. Horsrorp. Analysis of Phlogopite from St. Lawrence Co. +» New York. By Wm. ba J. Craw, Yale Laborator oe Regge: Determinations of Nitrogen in two varieties of Indian Corn. By “3 ae Wm. H. Brewer, Yale Laborato , Analysis of en ash of Sweet Cutts By Wm. H. Brewer * “8 account of some experiments upon the cause of feriiondiatds ; 7 Dr. Henry Ern On American A pedcrtat, By Grorce J. Brus On some peculiar properties of a compound of Tard and Rosin. By Prof. D. Oumstep, Yale College. Notice of two American Meteoric Irons. By Prof. B. Srtuman, Jr, Proper Bpigke of Lightning Rods. By Prof. Ex1as Loomis, New ys Unive n Ru tile i in Quartz ase other Migopan; By Prof. O. P. Hupparp, , Dartmouth College ma ba 7 a aD roceedings of the’ American Association fg r fs ¢ Advancement rr Sint Tuirp Meerine, held at Charleston, 1850. he oe of Plants inhabiting the vicil _* By H. W. Ravenet, E or. 3 i i the isorery or he Gulf Stream epone - y Lieut. M. F. Maury. 4 ‘ie ; of Voge By Prot, Esrrlicarors of Natur <3 Dr. J. H. Gisso. 294 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Results of observations on the direction and force of Wind at the Coast Survey Stations. By Prof. A. D. Bacu On the application of the Electro- Chronograph in determining the figure-and density of the earth. By Lieut. M. P. age Remarks on preceding paper by Prof. L. R. Gina ; fitness of Stone Mountain, Ga., for such observations ; smallest atin appreciable | the ear between the beats of two chronometers On the existence in some psi of two - Insensible spots on th Retina. By Prof. Lewis R. Gis = Researches on the generation a development of the Opossum. By “©. Dr. Myopetron Micae. ¥ Remarks of Prof. L. om on preceding paper ; necessity of fur- ther details. Remarks of Rev. Dr. Bacuman on the same paper; vigor and power sof suction of young opossum, just taken from the uterus. On the Paleozoic Rochis of Alabama. By Prof. M. Tuomey.* oe he peculiar sensations produced by a damp atmosphere. By Dr. W. L. Jones. On the age Equus. By Dr. Ropert W. GipBE _ Remarks on the preceding a, By F.S. oust No fossil SS inatini scot except cetacean, in the Eocene marl of So So. Ca. _ On the Northern Elephas, and on Mainhdod angustidens. By ‘Dr. R. ow. GiBBES. On Fossils common to several Fodeiaetde: By Dr. R. W Remarks on*the, preceding paper by. Prof. Acassiz and Pro MEY; the se ommon to two or more strata are very we . On the ‘dir bladder of the Drum-fish, Pogonias fasciatus, and the ~~ mecha nis ism by which the sound is produced. By Dr. J. E. Hous asi a on the preceding paper by Prof. Agassiz; development of air bladder = BRomarkr: on the paper of Prof. Tuomey, of yesterday, by Dr. E. :n Eevanct and Lieut, Maury; importance of the coal fields of Alabama or * to the navigation and competes of the Pacific. " ae: : emarks on the p . Gibbes, of yesterday, by Fro Prof. Es | “Agassiz ; the species common to > different formations are very few, J », mistakes in this respect are geological erro < . ss Paci of a fossil ica +to the genus Leistot By a aie Pr rof. TuoMEY. a , By Lieut. M. F. Mav n. ks on the preceding , Prof. epee or the anced E eof the name aoF the first Pe of a — baa a i Ma ciee Flora of the Aflantic. By Prof. HL On'the ‘comparative reflecting or) of the Planets, Mare and. Saturn. By Prof. Lewis R. Gipse Distribution of the Foraminifera on the Coast of New Jersey. By _ F. ps Pourtaes. # one on this paper, by Prof. AGASSIZ ; ; the aid: mloree ha Nate lists, by the Coast Survey. Po f Succession of —_ in Foramin Jupiter Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295 On - American species of the genus Putorius. By the Rey. Dr. Ronn ee ~ the alleged subsidence of the Coast of South Carolina. By Prof. a= of Prof. (ome ate vn reading of this sofia ; zoolog- Races Icroscopic examination of the Pile of the Head of Albinos. By . Browne, Esq. “On an easy mode of illustrating the orice in the Velocity of Sound i in Gases. By Prof. Lewis ‘R. Gi On the Morphology of the Meduse. By Prof. AGassiz. _ Recent sg of the ay one Operations of the United States ; Prof. Bac Coast Surve : ; ad the dicaned! Giecilletioe of + ‘Atmosphere. By Lieut. M. F:; AU : Measurement of the Base Line on Edisto Island, S.C. By Prof. A. Bacue. aout of three new American Meteorites, and geographical distri- bution of such bodies generally. rof. C. U. a Structure of the Bones of Siren lacertina. By Dr. e JoLien es a tae anes , a new oe of Menobranchus, from South Carolinas By Prof. a? ‘ ea R. GIBBEs. ee On the eal Squalide of the Coast of South Carolina; seal Cata- er: logue of the — an Fossil Echinoderms of South Carolina, By = © t. Epmunp Rave . ain On the Becrcoots Formation of Alabama, ole the Artesian Wells ‘ in that State. By Prof. Tuomey.* Sag ae On the Resistance of Timber By H. Hav ; 4 = On the Carcinological Gollectinag of the United pie 3c and descrip. ~ tions of new species, rof. Lewis R. Gizses. On the Morphological Differences of Organs. By P Prof. L. Acassiz.* ’ & De cca and Mortuary Chart o' New Orleans, for 1849. at “ : ? H. Barr : i. a Observations on ‘the Geol sy of Astley River, Ss. Carolina., By ag = Reniesks on the o prea pape’ : =< of ons in the Fossil Be th : Prox a Composition " ieee e ' Plowere of Plants, @ Plants moni ves. By Dr. J. H. Satis *. re by Prot pi meting the ¢ large num." ‘¢ of se as 2 , Sas apes portions escaped’ on passed through the ore tp utes Poa ge 296 ject in alluding to the subject at this late day, (late because our atten- inville for some years of his an ardent imagination and rent branches of literature ) he was still undec aied Professor, he bai ing with: the reso tural science and become a Professor. From t were changed; in three years he went through courses: © ‘tomy and two years afierward (in 1810) he-became a doct having for some time assisted Cuvier at thet he um, he was pinted | e at Ne Si be td ae ar eee 4 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297 the only person fitted to be his successor in the department of Compar- air Anatomy. us 28 years from the period when his resolve was ma ad sufficed to place a" through his own efforts alone, in this supreme position in “gael Say of Sir C. Logi, Qeartcdour, Geol. Assoc., No. 22, 1850. ) “Christian VII, King of Denmark was enrolled a Fellow of this Society in 18: Two years before that time, when travelling in Italy, he had witnessed an eruption of Vesuvius, and ha read a elim of it to the Acad- ciences at Naples; a communication published in their Transactions, and afterwards thei in Leonhard’s Journal for 1822, er From an early age he had taken a lively interest in the progress of | - hatural history, and when Crown Prince, formed at Copenhagen, at-his % _ Own expense, a magnificent collection of shells, the number of species ° : being estimated at not less than 12,000, exclusive of fossils, When I r visited the Danish capital in 1835, he placed this museum and his — library at my disposal, and I had then an opportunity of yeaa, a i rom all zoologists or was he inattentive to the points of controversy then agitated respecting the geology of Denmar e questioned me closely as io my opinion, whether the strata of Faxoe, containing cer- tain species of Cyprea, Oliva, Mitra, and other. genera puall: garded as characteristic of the tertiary period, really belonged to that €poch, or to the cretaceous rocks. That the latter concl,Sion was cor- . rect I had satisfied myself, after exploring the cliffs of Moén and See- land, as I have explained in your Transactions; and bee roe at 7 a a hen Christian VII. sae to the throne, the « cares end re ties gf of an abs olute monarch did not make him forge ful of his former love... for natural history. He was ak aa ible to: se wages foreigners . Bae : : Mications: ich may oo Mention the ‘ Gaea Danica’ of islet Steenstrup Sad Porehharpeacr- > > is He also gave his patronage to a rp id botanical work onite palms” ¢ 7 8. of Mexico, by Professo. r Liebma: in nd promoted liberally the geolog- — . = i expedition of Baron von Ww. ersh n and Professor Bunsen to lee Ky aie he the » he alwitee * ived as king, taking his oes pag as a member, - = President u Alter a reign of nine igs he died in. 298 Bibliography. 21. Darius Larnam.—Mr. La pham, at the time of his death (August of the present year), was Canal Collector at Cincinnati, and member of the State Board of Agriculture. He had charge of i pieierathoh of - grounds for the State Fair, to be held in Septem | In the death of Mr. Lapham the State Board of Agriculture has lost BL f its most valuable members, and the State one of its best citizens. | portment. It is but a few days ago that we received a letter from him, _ giving quite an encouraging account of the progress he was making in “the extensive preparations for the State Agricultural Fair. To-day he is eae ne the dead.— Ohio Statesman. ost.—Gerard Troost, M.D., Professor of Chemistry, Ge- “gee aod Mineralogy i in the University of: Nashville, after a protractiy illness, departed this life on the 14th of August, at lo *cloc Born and liberally educated in Holland, ‘he early vocnifeated a zeal- ous devotion to Natural History and Chemistry, and more especially to the then infant sciences of Geology and Mineralogy. Witha view to _ the more successful pipe cates of his favorite studies, he visited Paris, . and, for several years, was a pupil of the celebrated Hatty. He Te- ‘ SE Mmoved to the United’ States about forty years ago; and, in due time, ~ became an American citizen. His éntire life was consecrated to Ge- ology and the kindred sciences. With what ability and. success, his _ published writings and his well- earned réputation at home and abroad, BES. eo, ae! pine 4 testify. ¢ Seat as the State Gdilenia'o st of Tennessee rie most part of that sori6d; he won the eho enee and Feaiedt “of the community, by invaluable services in bo acitiés, as well as by the _—. modesty, kind- = and Gite courtesy of his deportment towards all men. In the ‘Various stations and relations of life, public and- Riise, he was without ae” nasi honored, venerated, ssociated with him, he could rom the Proceedings of the hville.) “ the meletioner of Quan- for the more re es deter- ther alieradions ‘sad a bee A e & Brown. 1850. n to chem- ‘a large amount of rec . og numbers for the compou ) umbers — en redprecaiine®s a8 Bibliography. . 299 : and the columns of multiples were computed separately by himself and another. From the care thus taken, and the thorough knowledge ness of the work. Those atomic weights have been taken that were med most trustworthy, the determinations of Berzelius, being al- aaa as by Rose, the greatest weight; some recent determinations have been ard for want of confirmation. A column of logarithms has been added to the tables by Mr. Dexter. A large part of the com- pounds given in Rose’s work under chlorine and sulphur have been 5 eg as they were “of comparatively little practical use.” The volume commences with an introduction of a dozen pages, iy by different experimenters, and observes that in some cases he has de- tected a small error of computation. The number determined for tita- nium by oe from Rose’s analyses is 301°55, while it should be 301304. Ina similar manner the number for osmium was found to be 1243-624, abn of 1242-624; that of Pngr'a shows be 1183-36, instead of 1188:36; that of phosphorus as computed by Berzelius is 1, while it showy be make iy The tables are 7 printed ina air 5 see type and are easy of refer 2. First Biennial te on ie Guoiiey ap “Alabainae by M. Tvo- Y, Geclogist of the State; Professor of Geology, er in the Uni-. MEY versity of Alabama, 176 pp. 8vo. Tuscaloosa, 1850. D. J. Slade. ’s —Prof. Tuomey presents 4 this Report the results of a gen netal recon- Noissance of the State, mentioning its great geological features and its resources, in order to show what is required ee future éxplorations : ortance which attaches to the surv The results ob- tained exhibit the state as rich in various min ord products as as well as n facts of geological inlereaie and we shall look for much profit and sigalg from its full survey by one so capable and so exact in ob- servati ‘The fallowlog facts are from this first Veoh. Report Matar hi phic Rocks enter Alabama from the upperco ner of Carroll i 300 Bibliography. in the same manner at the Lookout Mountain, whence they extend to separating the Warrior coal field on the west from that of the Cahawba n the east; a in this direction they are confined to a series of con- tinuous valle They constitute a range of hills known as the “ Red bly enlarge this extent of Silurian beds e iron ore consists of . grains mostly flattened, like the lenticular argillaceous ore f New ork. In some places it passes into a conglomerate containing siliceous ‘pebbles. A bed of brown hematite occurs on Shultz Creek, “also near ‘the headwaters of Hurricane and Rockcastle Creeks twenty-four miles | . . from ‘Tuscaloosa, and at Bucksville. : . Heavy spar occurs in a vein a foot or two thick, near Pratt’s Ferry ~~ on the Cahawba, and in another similar above Elyton. It is ground The carboniferous rocks cover all that part of the state above the lower falls of the riyers, not already described as belonging to the Red Mountain .group. The greatest development of the calcareous ~ from which nitrate of potash is obtaine e coal measures eve - where rest“on. millstone grit. The mountains of Madison and Jackson ~ counties andsiue bills of Morgan and Marshall counties are ‘often cap- ’ ped with syndstones an and shales containing beds of coal. The Raccoon ead eowsnt rts ken have coal beds of considerable extent. These S = © nm cS <=. 19°] Q _ ; ° ba . wm =) i oO was Q Ee - i. gQ (=) Ss o = pS | be] oO n =] oO 2. = = ~ S m what better for purposes of reference, if the author had added tables n the customary way, giving a synoptical view.of the more useful trigonometric formule. ‘4 : . A descriptive account of the Freshwater Sponges:of the Island of = Bombay with observations on their structure and development; by H. ~ ree J. Carrer, Esq., Assistant Surgeon, Bombay Establishment, 22 pages, 4 + : 8vo, with 3 plates, (from the Jour. Bombay Branéh of us Roy. Asiat. © = 5 ? Soc., No. xii, 1849.)—The author in this paper describes 5 species of — ee Spongilla—the S. cinerea, alba, Meyeni, plumosa, new, and the 8. fe - h = - ¢ acterized by any particular form. The memoir - a respecting the structure and development of the sponge, many ae which of whic are.exceedingly curious. The memoir is illustrated by good = e varying forms of the bey engravings showin nge cell. i es e sponge cell, which are ex-.-"~" e-protean cells devel . s hen forcibly expelled. 302 Bibliography. position of the sponge-cell and its intercellular mucilage are for the | most part effected so imperceptibly, that they may be likened to those which take place inacloud. Its granules however are more active, but there appea otion in any part of the cell, excepting among the molecules within the hyaline vesicle, which in any way ap- ® proaches to that characteristic of the presence of cilia. ‘It should be understood however, that these remarks are not appli- cable to every sponge-cell, although fully developed, which appears 1n it and remain stationarily attached to it. The changes in shape and the field of the microscope, but they are rather a statement of what a | 77) ° = oO . part of the cell to which they are attached is entrained in one direction _ “or another ;- while their hyaline vesicle or vesicles (in progression) ap- ~ : e cell, but ; sar occasionally in every part, not only of the body of the, anterior or fected ; if complete, a dark ; pc ‘do ion, some of the large proteans developed in the way ; "+ just mentioned appear to be conscious of the nature of certain objects 3 =*, which they in their cours d surround : as #, ay -Fuly 1 _ * gutbody of a on ich a | 4 . . . fe . ass, When contraction takes place, it Is ellee : SP itien’| ish or-dead 0 : ing lengthened itself out so as to encit® rit from both sides, which uniting: nd int the proteal rround s ee eee es ee tee hs ae th in A oe %, Bibliography. 303 : its dentiform processes with much 5g eig It took about three quar- ters of an hour to perform these tw 9. Recherches Anatomiques et es 5 faites pendant un Voy- age sur les cotes de la Sicile et sur divers points du littoral de la France ; par MM. Mitne Epwarps, A. dE QuaTreFacEes and Em1Le Biancuarp. 3 volumes, 4to, with numerous plates.—These volumes consist of a series of memoirs on the structure, development and physi- ology of various animals in different departments of zoology. The profound, and exact, and the illustrations unsurpassed for fullness and beauty. The First volume, by Mitwe Epw e general subject of circulation; the Second E Qu ae ee treats of the nervous system and Histoty of the dous Molluscs, and o y M. Beaphioxus of the Pycnogonide, Phlebenterisma, Plana the Ne- i i evie 2 Ville. my of ia memoirs have appeared invades ot the later: ‘ es des Sciences Nature ae concernent la sui et la Savoie et de. tous aor Bee! patties @. Hage Iconographic < Greydopaia 9 translated and edited | Adin ogg York. ma 10, oat text NoLD. Guyor: The Earth Man, | : tap Duzer eau ‘Cours Risiosaing ARDS, contains memoirs on ~~ the development of seep ene on the classification of the Gasteropo- = ay - ry, 1 te brid Obsornato te in 1848, 1849, 1 304 Bibliography. EAKIN: Florigraphia Brittanica, or Engravings and Descriptions of the flower- ing plants and Ferns of Britain. 4 vols. 8vo. Vols. 1-3 each 30s. or colored 57s. 6d. vol. 4 14s., ee 16s. exautt: Elements of Chemistry, in course of translation from the French and to be published by Hogan & Thompson, Philadelphia L. Acassiz: The Clas sificati¢n of Insects from Embryologicl data. From Vol. I, i Kno P. SorawEavx: La Chimie ae Cultivateur. 1 va is mo. Paris. 2fr. Lresie and Korr: Annual Report of the Progress of Chemistry for 1847-48. Part V, contain ~m Chemis e ac ng to = ‘Arts and Manufactures, Agricultural Lon THE a atin : ae Aral . “NO 11, June 27, 1850.—On the 5th Comet of 1847; B. A. Gould, Jr—lst i pags of 1850.—On the employmen nt of the theorem, “ small angles are oe to ee sines:” Prof. W. Chauvenet—Ne ;Planet.—From letters of Prof. Se Resithiee o the Editor—Colors of Stars; Prof. Sestini, 2, Jul ini. — ents IT —Piruary 1850. p. 241. Comparatite value of : The Walrus eo - to ae a hy fps spr 3 on he a. ion of the alluv of the \nalysis of Vermiculite by R. Oriedey and ‘destin ksonite identi cal with Prehnite; @. Z: Jac —p. 24 jew Jersey; H. D. Rogers, March— ee "New ou isetts ; Girard. —p. 252. New Shells of se Explor- rycina, 6 of Tellina, 1 Psamm mobia, 8 Don ) f On é th pass lime R 259. Capacity of the Cranium of the Troglodytes alt lakes; H. D. Rogers—p. 260. a a Sd ta 5 bo F ere aS 24 i] a sp’ cre

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Ouvrage pe en A sles ches in-fol., gravées et coloriées avec le plus a 34 fivmateons publiées forment un ensemble de 198 planches : ieu de $252, $62. —Histoire naturelle, generale et particuliére des ants et fossiles, comprenant a deser oe tai] leur organisati le do he wichger les temps les plus. anciens jusqu’a nos _— Paris, 1836- vol. in-fol., a 1 de 144 pl. clits nig s, $30 t ee t GOD eo de Fran br desupigeiee des plantes, qui con natprellem ce, 2 parts, Te ART t DUPONCHEL L,—Hirstomes naturel des Lepidoptéres on Pa- i sania’ France, -13 vols. 8vo, with 39 6 plates colored Se Su eile - with 152 plates Sed. $57 ours élémentaire de Botanique ia 1°50. | eae les , leur "ites &c. at MiLxE Rpwar ou bhai a ee gard, com- __ sre ie. famille, Se patope, oitenan la eeepticn , s et poisons, tirés , contenant 0, $4 — del Becligy: —On a new Spodumene Locality at Norwich, Mass., b ARTWELL, and E. Hircucock, Jr., 264.—Age of the Notainelitic forma- tion of the Alps, 265.—On the Geographical Limits of the Chalk Formation, by LEopoip von Bucu * Zoology. —Contributions to the Natural History of the Acalephe of North Amer- = 4 a Acassiz, 272.—On the Structure of Nummulina, by W. B. by ARPEN- RZ ye ake,, 275, 2S il Eetelligestié. —On the Negro Races of — ae by M. Ser ES: Fabrication of Zinc compounds not intl to health, 276. Auchaliee, by Prof. C. Dewxy, 277.—Discovery of the Great me “ Ngami,” of South ' Africa, 278. —Comparison of Fahrenheit and Cafe pe ota 281.— Discovery of-an Infusorial Stratum in Florida, by Prof. J. W. Barrey: On the te » Application of Magnetism as a Motive Papin: by R. Hun 0 —Improve- ments in the Air-pump, by Mr. Varuey, Jr., 284.—On Peshabrephy on Gla, by T. A. Matone, 285.—Lead Statuary, 286.—British Association: Sun the 29th and 30th of April, 1840 during aclear sky and quiet weather, by Euren- B American Zoological Journal : rise) of the Antarctic Continent : E dhscting of the American Association for the Advancement. of Science at New aven, 287.—Proceedings of the Adivicas Association for the Advancement of ‘Science ; third Meeting, held at Charleston, S.C., March, 1850, Editoriz notice, With reference to the article on the Electin- noe nae in Volume 295. Obitua uary.—M. de Blainville, 296.—Christian VIL King f De points du litto oral -de FAGEs, and Emtue Agricoes, Me CONTENTS. Agr. XV. Observations on the Contrast in the Physical Features and Resources between the Old World and the New World; by Prof. Arnoup Guyot, - XVI. On the relation of the Laws of Mechittice + to Penpetol Motion; by Jeremtan Day, - : XVII. Contributions to the Mycology of North Aine: by Rev, M. J. Berxezey, of Be ipsa and Rev. M. es Curtis, of South Carolina, - : XVIII. Experimental Résonrciee in Electricity: =n -third Seri eries ; : oy Micuary Fanapay, Esgq.; D:C.L.; ERS, ete, : ae aes Béticty of India, : On i Quantity. of Heat evolved from Kingophdle ’Air by Mecha nical Compression 5 by Joux Gora, M.Dy*+ . Noti of Reinga of: Vertebrate Animals fiyse at Rich: ~M. age. 161 Br Ae PR OT ae NOVEMBER, 1850. No. 30. ished the first day of every second month, price $5 per year. CONDUCTED BY » AND JAMES D. DA SECOND SERIES. 30. NOVEMBER, 1850. td ridge to Yale Salton” al to any distance és ‘ AMERICAN Jovnnan or Ser ENCE, Second Series, which was uary, 1846, is published on the Ist of Ee ed ‘March, May, July, Sopte popes of seg year, in Nos. of 152 pages each, making Two Volumes ~ illustrated by Engravings, and containing a comprehensive bulletin of Scie gence. Subscriptions $5 Le: ae in seer Bomstiances should be B. st et — Hav Comp. on ‘ales fouls & a very small number remain. This. 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Term ms Hs per w 9 per arm of twelve or fourteen No previous | n Sélenti term, commencing soon after tote ng Oe by Prof. ORTON, | iddle his on Geology, Face 2 mi . ae Gintinses to mati fa 5 feet long-and 4a Aperture ; with pi ollars. c reLescopes from 2 to 4 inches aperture, ne 400 dollars, all conveniently and su : eo j [ly] | Foner AMERICANI MeeuioeaTi wishing specimens of prieritan Foner, can obtain — of not fete than ten Decades each) on application to alee! iety Hill, South Carolinay M.A ee. oo -enable‘him to the. orders of his friends with increased satis- Supply every description of apparatus, for ane or re-~. August 17, 1850.—ty. 2 JAMES GREEN, MANUFACTURER AND IMPORTER OF Eien and Chemical Apparatus, Optical and j — Mathematical Instruments, me : ; ee No. 422 Broapway, New Vows: J.G. desires to inform the public that he has removed his es- gre tablishment from Baltimore to New York, where he believes that piel the Reve facilities afforded for manufacturing apparatus, will faction ae greater ‘promptness. oe In addition to the articles?of his own make, his personal ac- — quaintance with the princip al makers of Europe, enables him t : 3, Search, on very favorable terms. + ‘ Special attention will still be given to making Standard Ba- Re rometers and Thermometers, also, Portable Barometers eee Wol- } ‘s Barometers and Thermometers, as adapted for the sys- tem of meteorological observations conducted by the Smithsonian Instit ion, put up in sprin ng boxes for safe tragepentagion through- ut th ited Stat eign parts. ari rimental lectures on “Natural Philoso- 00 2 Compass ses, Drawing Instruments, Catalogues ink to address. . = en mt 1850. a - CATALOGUE. oF * SHELLS. Tue subscriber will publish on the Ist of Oct., 1850, the fourth edition a of his Catalogue, contain ining upwards of species and varieties, a together wit th synonymes. Tp which are added au og localities, and references to good figures, with Index, complet = It will be published on fine sized paper, large 4to, and will “contain over pages. e $3. Address : JOHN C. J hye, Wetiniasiee Co., Pec TRork. | AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] cage ie of the British Apeieraitee at amps “toe #** Ty hestien the custom of some of rede chair to give a brief account of the progress i the preceding year; but however ? Be, it would be beyond the pow ‘this Association—a subject, too, possessing a charm af ocibjecs, and, more connected ‘than ae other with : ta the interior too—from the inner life’ of the earth that es the materials of civilizatio—his coal, his iron, and nd de i er still, as geologists have eb ableaa none 3 ie XXIV. ait of Sir David Brew heftirdithe Twen- 306 Sir David Brewster’s Address with more power than the geologists around me—we find in the bosom of the earth written on blocks of marble—the history of primeval times, of worlds of life created, aud worlds of life destroyed. We find there, in hierogly phic®¥as intelligible as those which Major Rawlinson has decipher on the slabs of Nineveh, the remains of forests which waved in luxuriance over its plains—the very bones of huge once that. took shelter un- der their foliage, and of gigantic ile gs poh that trod uncon- trolled its plains, the law-givers and the executioners of that Inysterious community with which it pleased the Almighty to people his epee world;. But though man is but a recent occu- nt of the earth, an upstart in the vast chronology of animal life, his jai in the Paradise so spray prepared for him is not less exciting and. profound. For him it was made, he was to be the lord of the new creation, and to him it especially be- longs to investigate the wonders it displays apd to learn the “lesson which. it réads. But while our interests are thus closely ‘connected with ‘a surface and the interior of the earth, interests of a higher kind are associated with it as a body of the ‘solar sys- tem to- whieh w belong. The object “of “Gelgy is to unfold the history and explain all the the system—perhaps of all the other planets of the net ota The laws of matter must be the same wherever el . The heat which warms our globe radiates distant of the planets, and. the light which twinkles in the Temotest star is, in its faa ie science which its truths inspire, they would see in every planet around them, and in every star above them, the home of immor- tal natures—of beings that suffer and of beings that rejoice—of souls that are saved and of souls that aré lost. Geology is, there- pos the first chapter of astronomy. It describes that galtion of solar system which is nearest_and dearest to us,—the cosmo- atta observatory, so to speak, from which the astronomer is to survey the sidereal universe; where revolving worlds and systems of worlds summon him to investigate and adore. There, too, _~he obtains the great base lines of the earth’s radius to measure the distances and magnitudes of the starry host, and thus to pene- — trate by the force of reason into those infinitely distant regions But where the si ah oe not follow him Astronomy, big - though thus s sprung fro e earth, seeks and, finds, like Astrea, — @ More congenial Gere fle: Whatever cheers and enlivens - our terrestrial pare th- radise is derived from the orbs around us. Wi Sai eee before the British Association. 307 _ out the light or heat of our sun, and without the uniform move- . the study of our own globe we learn that it has been rent and they see the liquid fire rushing upon them from the volcano, or Stand above the yawning crevice in which the earthquake threat- ens to overwhelm them. Who can say that there is a limit to agencies like these ? the law of planetary distances, planet would be fo . - Ceres, in 1801; Pallas, the ? om. ered a ninth fragment called Metis. Ar. G Of Naples, discovered another, which he calls Hygeia; and Within the last two months, the same astronomer has discovered the eleventh fragment, to which he has given the name of Par- Who could dare to assert that they may ig Ae 308 Sir David Brewster’s Address _ thenope.* If these eleven small planets are really the remains of a larger one, the size of the original planet must have been consider- able. / What its size was, would seem to bea problem beyond the grasp‘of reason. But human genius has been permitted to triumph over greater difficulties. 'The planet Neptune was discov- ered before a ray of its light had entered the amen eye; an a law of the solar system just discovered, we can determine the original magnitude of the broken planet isu after it has been shivered into fragments,—and we might have determined it even after a single fragment bad proved its existence. This law we -owe to Mr. Daniel Kirkwood, of Pottsville, a humble American, who, like the dlustdibhs Ss olui struggled to find something new among the arithmetical relations of the planetary elements. - Be- tween every two adjacent planets there is a point where their at- tractions are equal. If we call the distance of this point on one side of a planet to that on the other, the diameter of its sphere of attraction, then Mr. Kirkwood’s law is, that ih every planet the ‘Square of the length of its year, reckoned in days, varies as the cube of the diameter of its sphere of attraction. .This law has been verified by more than one American astronomer, and there can be no doubt, as one of them expresses it, that-it is at wie a little liter than. Mars, or about. 5,000 mites in Faiaineter a of i ust have been about 574 hours. The e hypothesis of Laplace ;, but we venture to say that this opinion will not be adopted by the astronomers of England. Among the more recent ceptor within — ds of our own Syeibel et te ion th our inguished pacited becniey r. La * Ceres 1801, Januaty 1 i, .c.seccececsee Pallas 1802, March $ uno 1804, Septemberl ...... Vesta 1807, March Astrea ...5%,.2%--ss-++ 1845, December 8 ss A OS OS SOOT SUNT co caent s 04 i 1847, August 13 Flora 1847, October 18 otis He April 25 ~M . : Hygeia .. 849, April 12 Parthehope............ 1850, May 11 i before i British Association. 309 ~ able est the atmosphere, observed the very minute, but ex tremely black, shadow of the ring of Saturn upon the body of the planet. Hé® observed the line of shadow to be® notched, as it were, and almost. broken up into a line of dots; thus in- dicating mountains upon the plane of the ring—mountains doubt- less raised by the same internal forces and : pce the same ends as those of our own globe. » In’ passing from our solar system to the frontier of the sidereal . universe around us, we traverse a gulf of inconceivable extent. > If we represent the radius of the solar system, or of Neptuine’s ’s orbit (which is 2,900 - millions of miles) by a line two miles long, the interval be- .. earth’s orbit, or 13,746 times that of De pte which is thitele times ’as far from the sun as the earth. And yet to that distant. _ Zone has the Thiele of man traced the Creator’s arm working the’ “sical and intellectual life. It is by means of the. gigantic teles- : ee. that we have be ome | ac quainted with the _ the presence of Sytamaica! laws almost within our me The ibe oe. aia so cn developed in some of the nebule= Lis ioe is of opinion that those nebulz are systems of a very - Similar nature, seen more or less perfectly, and variously placed with reference to the line of sight. In re-examining the more re- ¢ of these objects, Lord Rosse intends to view- them with | light of his six feet speculum, und iminished by the second n of the small mirror. By thus adopting what is called the front view, he Will doubtless, as he himself expects, discover Many new features in those interesting objects. It is to the in- r. Lassels has still mare recently, and under’ a singularly favor- 310 Sir David Brewster's Address fluence of Lord Rosse’s example that we are indebted for the fine Reflecting Telescope of Mr. Lassels, of which I have already spoken ; and it is to it, also, that we owe another telescope, which, { though yet unknown to science, 1am bound in this*place espe- cially to notice. I allude to the reflector recently constructed by Mr. James Nasmyth, a native of this city, already distinguished J by his mechanical inventions, and one of a family well knownto | us all, and occupying a high place among the artists of Scotland. This instrument has its great speculum twenty feet in focal length, : and. twenty inches in-diameter ; but it differs from all other teles- , “copes in the remarkable facility with which it can be used. its tube moves vertically upon hollow trunnions, through which the astronomer, seated in a little observatory, with only a horizontal motion, can view at his ease every part of the heavens. Hither- to, the astronomer has been obliged to seat himself at the upper end of his Newtonian telescope; and if no other observer will » acknowledge the awkwardness and insecurity of his position, I ' ean. myself vouch for its danger, having fallen from the very top — of Mr. Ramage’s twenty-feet telescope when it was directed to ‘a point-not far from the zenith. Se ae = Seep but slightly connected with astronomy, Teannot omit éalling your attention to the great improvements—I may call them = te: a distinguished member of this Association. The superiority of _ the Talbotype to the uerreotype is well. the pictures are reverted, and incapable of being multiplied; while _ in the Talbotype there is no reversion, and a single negative will supply a thousand copies, so that books may now be illu strated with pictures drawn by the sun. The difficulty of proetiring good paper for the negative is so great, that a better material has been — eagerly sought for; and M. Niepce, an accomplished officer in the French service, has successfully substituted for‘paper a film of albu- “men, or the white of an egg, spread upon glass. Thisnew process has been brought to such perfection in this city by Messrs"Ross & Thompson, that Talbotypes taken by them and lately exhibited By by myself to the National Institute of France, and to M. Niepee, were universally regarded as the finest that had yet been execul- ed. Another process, in which gelatine is substituted for albu- men, has been invented, and successfully practised by M. Poite- vin, a French officer of engineers; and by an ingenious method which has been minutely described in the weekly proceedings of the Institute of France, M. Edmund Becquerel has succeeded 12 transferring to a daguerreotype plate the prismatic spectrum, with : all its brilliant.colors, and also though in an inferior degree, the colors of the landscape. These colors, however, are very fuga- before the. British Association. 311 _ ceous: yet, though no method of fixing them has hitherto been _- discovered, we cannot doubt that the difficulty will be surmount- ed, and that we shall yet see all the colors of the natural world transferred by their own rays to surfaces both of silverand paper. _ But the most important fact in photography which I have now to _ Mention, is the singular-acceleration of the process discovered by - Niepce, which enables him to take the picture of a landscape illuminated by diffused light, in a single second, or at most in two seconds. By this process he obtained a picture of the sun on al- previously made by M. Arago, by means of a silver plate, that the rays which proceed from the.central’ parts of the sun’s disc have a higher photogenic. action than those which issue from its ~ margin. This interesting discovery of M. Arago is one of a se- Ties on photometry which that distinguished philosopher is now * Civilized world will deplore—the loss of that sight which has de- _ tected. so many brilliant phenomena and penetrated so deeply ek ae ot into the mysteries of the material world, he is now completing, With the aid of other eyes than his own, those splendid research- glory of his country. _ From these brief notices of the progress of science I must now call yonr attention to two important objects with which the Brit- ish Association has been occupied since their last meeting. It has been long known both from theory and in practice, that the ‘MMperfect transparency of the earth’s atmosphere, and the unequal retraction which arises from differences of temperature combine to set a limit to the use of high magnifying powers in our tele- ~ Hitherto, however, the application of such high powers sco and it is only since the construction of Lord Rosse’s telescope that astronomers have found that, in our damp and variable climate, it _ 1s only during a few days of the year that telescopes of such mag - nitude can use successfully the high magnifying powers which they - are capable of bearing. Even ina-cloudless sky, when the stars are Sparkling in the firmament, the astronomer is baftled by influences Which are invisible; and while new planets and new satellites are being discovered by instruments comparatively small, the gigantic Polyphemus lies slumbering in his cave, blinded by thermal cur- Tents more irresistible than the firebrand of Ulysses. As the as- tronomer, however, cannot command a tempest to clear his atmos- phere nor a thunder-storm to purify it, his only alternative 1s to Temove his telescope to some southern climate, where no clonds -@isturb the serenity of the firmament, and no changes of temper- ature distract the emanations of the stars. A fact has been re- cently mentioned, which entitles us to anticipate gréat results ‘bumen so instantaneously, as to confirm the remarkable discovery , - occupied in publishing. Threatened with a calamity which the- ay es which will immortalize his own name and add to the scientifig Rae ‘te; : 5 _ Was checked by: the imperfections of the instruments themselves ; — ’ B12 Sir David Brewster's. Address 3 from such a measure. The Mar rquess: of Ormonde is said to have seen from Mount Etna, with his naked eye, the satellites of Ju- piter. If this be true, what discoveries may we not expect, even | in Europe, from a large reflector working above the grosser strata ; of our atmosphere? This noble experiment of sending a large ~, reflectot to-a southern climate has been but once made in the “history ef science. Sir John Herschel waged his telescopes and his family to the south of Africa, and during a voluntary ex- » ile of four years’ duration he enriched astronomy with many ~_- splendid discoveries. Such a sacrifice, however, is not likely to - be made again ; and ‘we must,- therefore, look to the aid of gov- | ernment for the realization of a project which every civilized people will applaud, aud which,*by, adding to the conguests of science, will add to the glory of ottr country. At the Birming- — j ham meeting of the Association, their attention was called to this 5 subject ; and being convinced that great advantages would accrue to science from the active use of a large reflecting telescope 1 ha a ‘the southern hemisphere, they resolved to petition government for | . “a grant of money for that purpose. The Royal Society readily. agreed to second this application; and as no request from wer, we have every reason to expect a favorable answer to @ soe mcuaeial from the pen of Dr. Robinson, which has just been submitted to,the Minister. - “A recent and noble act of liberality is Russell has granted 1) 00 moting scientific hjeetes The ase -of that diet nosy body has been very solicitous to make this grant effective in pro- j moting scientific objects, and Lam persuaded that the measures g& _ they have adopted are well fitted to justify the liberality of the ~~ government. One of the most important of these has been to place 100/. at the disposal of the committee of the Kew Obser- vatory. This establishment, which has for —_ years been epaee by the British Association, was given tous by the Gov- ernment as a depository for our books and inosine and asa ren ‘well fitted for carrying on electrical, magnetical and me- teorological observations. During the last six years the Observa- tory has been under the honorary superintendence of Mr. Ro- nalds, who is well known to the scientific world for his ingenious. © photographic methods of constructing self-registering magnetical and meteorological apparatus. On the joint application of he Z Marquess of Northampton and Sir John Forechal, Her Majesty's — government have granted to Mr. Ronalds a peeuniary recompense of am for these inventions; and I am glad to be able to state- ir. Brooke has also received from them a suitable reware ins inventions of a similar kind. Under the fostering care ofthe ; before the British Association. 313 _ British Association the most valuable electrical observations have been made at Kew, and Mr. Ronalds has continued from year to ha been published in our Annual Reports. I trust, however, that With no common pleasure, that the Government of this coun- try has, during the last twenty years, been extending their pat- ronage of Science and the Arts. That this change was effect- ed by the interference of the British Association, and by the _ Writings and personal exertions ‘of its members, could, were it necessary, be easily proved... But though men of all shades of ae ih : : Political feeling have applauded the growing wisdom and liberal- and too painfully torn from the affections of his country, whom the science of England must ever regard as its warmest friend and its greatest benefactor. To him we owe new institutions for advanei ienee, | and hadProvidence permitted him to follow out, in the serene evening of life and in the maturity of his powerful intellect, the _ Views which he had cherished amidst the distractions of political Strife, he would have rivalled the Colbert of another age, and would have completed the systematic organization of Science and Literature and Art which has been the pride and the glory of another land. ‘These are not the words of idle eulogy, or the ex- _ Pressions of a groundless expectation. Sir Robert Peel had en- _ tertained the idea of attaching to the Royal Society a number of _ active members, who should devote themselves wholly to scien- _tifie pursuits ; and I had the satisfaction of communicating to him, through a mutual friend, the remarkable fact, that I had found _ Stconp Series, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850. 40 ity of the State, and though various individuals are entitled to — '’ Share in the applause, yet there is one statesman, alas! too early — scienée, and new colleges for extending education e. . ‘Sy. oe ‘we ai - to the objects of science, and a removal of any disadvantages of a 314 Sir David Brewster's ‘Address the legislation of Great Britain ; and though some of their more — ‘obnoxious provisions have since that time been modified or re+ expense, and spending years of anxiety and labor, he is ready to Scene crime—the printing press. among the mss. of Sir Isaac Newtow a written scheme of im- proving the Royal Society precisely similar to that which he contemplated. Had this idea been realized, it would have been but the first-installment of a debt long due to science and the na- tion, and it would have fallen to the lot of some more fortunate statesman to achieve a glorious name by its complete discharge. t has. always been one of the leading objects of the British Association, and it is now the only one of them which has not been wholly accomplished, “to obtain a more general attention public kind which impede its ahbers Although this object is not very definitely expressed, * . Harcourt, in moving its adoption, included under it the re Niston ‘of the law of patents and the direct national encouragement of ‘science, two subjects to which I shall briefly direct your attention. In 1 1831, when the Association ‘commenced its labors, our patent laws were a blot on * moved, they are a blot still, less deep in its dye, but equally a stain upon the character of the nation. The protection which is s given by statute to every other property in Literature ‘and the fine Arts, is not accorded to property in scientific inventionsand liscoveries. man of genius completes an invention, and after i incurring great give the ea agy of it to the: public. Perhaps it is an invention to save life—the life- ‘shorten space and lengthen time—the aay, guide the commerce of the world through the track- an—the mariner’s compass; to extend the industry, in- crease ithe power, and fill the coffers of the State—the steam-en- varying beats: 2004. to 500/,, are demanded from the Saeetitor ; e gift thus so highly estimated by the giver, bears the pe 9: of England. The inventor must now describe his in- vention with legal precision. If he errs in the slightest point— if his description is not sufficiently intelligible—if the smallest portion of his invention has been used before—or if he has in- cautiously allowed his secret to be made known ‘ two, or even to one individual,—he will lose in a court of law his money and his privilege. Should his patent escape unscathed from the fiery ordeal, it often happens that the patentee has not been remune-— rated during the fourteen years of his term. In ‘this ease the” State is willing to — his right for five or seven years more ; obtain extension only by the expences un certain process of an Act of Pariament,—a boon whieh i | = before the British Association. 315 asked, and which through: rival influence has be of the British Association, mentioned by Harcourt, the Organization of Science asa National Insti- Truth secular cannot be separated from truth d if a priesthood has in all ages been organized to track 2mplify the one, and to maintain, in ages of darkness and iid 316 Sir David Brewster's Address corruption the Pental fire upon the satied altar, shall not an intel- lectnal priesthood be organized to develop the so truths which time and space embosom,—to cast the glan reason into the dark interior of our globe, teeming with whe was once -life—to make the dull eye of man sensitive to the planet which twinkles from afar, as well as to the luminary. which shines above, —and to incorporate with our inner life those wonders of the ex- ‘ternal world which appeal with equal power to the affections and to the reason of immortal natures. If the God of Love is most appropriately worshiped in the Christian temple, the God of Na- ture may be equally honored in the Temple: of Science. Even from its lofty minarets the philogopher may’ summon. the faithful to prayer; and the priést and the sage may exchange altars with- out the compromise of faith or of knowledge. Influenced, no doubt, by views like these, Mr. Harcourt has cited the opinions of a philosopher whose memory is dear to Scotland, ie whose ge’ ment on any great Beye ee be everywhere rec ived w spect and attention; I refer to Prof. Playfair, the ap siecle ; successor in our si caaeeel ies University of the Gregorys, t Maclaurins, and Stewarts of former days, who in his: able .dis- ‘sertation ‘On the Progress of the Mathematical and Physical Sciences,’ thus speaks of the National Institute. of ‘Fratce : — «This ee has been considerable advantage to science. To detach a number of ingenious men from every thing but sci- entific ae ea deliver them alike from the embarrassments of poverty and the temptations of wealth—to give them a place and station in society the most respectable and independent, is to remove every impediment, and to add every stimulus to exertion. To this Institution, accordingly, operating upon a people of great genius and indefatigable activity of mind, we are to ascribe that “ superiority in the aera oe ae which, ;in the last seroma ae years, has been so conspicuou This just eulogy on the — Institute of Pregee; in ference ‘to abstract mathematics, may be safely extended oe every branch of theoretical and practical science; and I have’ no hesiistion in saying, after having recently seen the Academy of Sciences at its weekly labors, that it is the noblest and most effective satin that ever was organized for the promotion of Science. Owin the prevalence of scientific knowledge among all classes of ie French population, and to their admirable system of elementary instruction, the adyancement of science, the diffusion of know- ledge, and the extension of education are objects dear to every class of the people. The soldier as well as the citizen—the So- cialist\—the Republican and the Royalist—all look up 0 the National Institute as a mighty obelisk erected to science, to be * Diss, 3rd, Sec. V, p. 500. before the British Association. 317 _ respected and loved and defended by all. We have seen it stand- ing unshaken and active amid all the revolutions and convulsions 4; oe shed. cally conducted, Societi on 318 Sir David Brewster's Address * lands. Their President and Councilar are necessarily resident in London, and the talent and the genius of the provinces are ex- cluded from their administration. From this ee we must except the distinguished philosophers of Cambridge and Oxford, who, from their proximity to the capital, have been the brightest ornaments of our metropolitan institutions, and without whose aid they could never sah attained their present pre-eminence. It is, gs therefore, in-the more remote parts of the empire that the influ- ence of a national oan would be more immediately felt, and nowhere more powerfully.than in this its northern portion. Our English friends are, we believe, little.aware of the obstruc- ~~ * tions which oppose the progress of sciencg. ie Scotland. In our ‘five universities there is not a single Fellowship to stimulate the genius and rouse the ambition of the student. The church, the law and the medical proféssion hold out no rewards to the culti- “-vators of mathematical and physical science ; and were a youth- vie oe ful Newton or Laplace to issue from any of our universities, his: best friends would advise him to renounce the divine gift and to“ seek in professional toil the well-earned competeney which can alone secure him a just position in the social scale and an énvi- able felicity in the domestic circle. Did this truth fequire any evidence in its support, we find it in the notorious faet that our colleges cannot furnish professors to fill their: own important offices ; and the time is not distant when all our chairs in Mathe- matics, ’ Natural Philosophy, and even Natural History, will be oc- cupied by professors educated in the English universities. But were a Royal Academy or 3 like that of France, estab- lished on the basis of our - existing institutions, and a class of resi- ent members enabled to devote themselves wholly to science, the youth of Scotland would instantly start for the prize, and. would speedily achieve their full.share in the liberality of t ate. Our universities would then breathe a more vital air. Our. science would put forth new energies, and our literature might rise to the high level at which it minale in our sister land, But At is to the nation that the greatest advantages would accrue. With ships on every sea,—with a system of agriculture leaning upon science as its mainstay —with a net-work of railways demanding moning to the service of the ro all the theoretical and practi- cal wisdom of the country,—for rousing what is dormant, com- bining what is insulated, and uniting in one great institution the living talent which is in active but undirected unsupported. exercise around us. x. —s* % In thus pleading for the most important of the objects of the British Association, I feel that I am not pleading for a cause that is hopeless. The change has not only commenced but has made considerable progress. Our scientific institutions have already to a certain extent become national ones. Apartinents belonging to the nation have been liberally granted to them. Royal medals have been founded, and large sums fromthe publie purse devoted © to the objects which they contemplate. The Museum of Eco= homic Geology, indeed, is. itself a complete section of a Royal lustitute, giving a scientific position to six eminent philosophers, all of whom are distinguished members of this Association. And in every branch of* science and literature the liberality of the Crown has been extended to numerous individuals whose names _ would have been enrolled among the members of a National In- ‘Stitution. The cause, therefore, is far advanced ; and every act of liberality to eminent men, and every grant of money for sci- _ Gntific and literary purposes, is a distinct step towards its triumph. ee “must be taken up by the minutest capillaries before it can ‘Hourish and purify society. Knowledge is at once the manna knowledge is the antidote. Society may escape from the pesti- ~ lence aud may survive the famine; but the demon of Ignorance, With its grim adjutants of vice and riot, will pursue her into her Most peaceful haunts, destroying our institutions, and converting Into a wilderness the paradise of social and domestic life. ‘The ate has, therefore, a great duty to perform. As it punishes Crime, it is bound to prevent it. As it subjects us to laws, it must ‘teach us to read them; and while it thus teaches, it must teach also the ennobling truths which display the power and the wis- Gom of the great Lawgiver,—thus diffusing knowledge while it 1S extendiag education,—and thus making men contented and happy and humble while it makes them quiet and obedient sub- jects. It is a great problem yet to be solved, to determine what i y yy % before the British. Association. 319 ie 320 On the Height of Laghining Rods. will be the state of society when man’s physical powers are highly “exalted, and his physical condition highly ameliorated, with- out any slab cabin change in his moral habits and position. There is much reason to fear that every great advance in material civilization aay some moral and compensatory antagonism ; but however this may be, the very indeterminate character of the problem is a warning to the rulers of nations to prepare for the contingency by a system of national instruction which shall either reconcile or disregard those hostile influences under which — the people are now prnshibe 2 lack of be oes ; Art. XXV.—On the proper Height of ‘Lightning Rods ; ‘3 Exu1as Loomis, Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philso phy in New York University. Nein. Read before the American Renae for the Advancement of Science at New : n, August, 1850. Tue rule prescribed by the French Academy of Science (and . copied into almost all works on electricity,) for determining the proper height of a lightning rod is that a rod will ponies a a é whose radius is equal to twice the height of the rod. A case re ‘cently occurred in Tallmadge, Summit CONT. Ohio, whale appears to demonstrate that this rule is unsafe On the afternoon of July 27th, about six o'clock, there was a nied by a few flashes: ‘of: lightning. : nd was succeeded almost instant- ly by a loud report. In an ‘instant afterwards, a large pile of shav-_ ings ying on the west side of a carriage shop was found in full and were quite diy: and as no fire had bens used i in that vicinity for several. weeks, and no other mode is known in — which the — : shavings could have been ignited, it is inferred to nie: been cattsed by the electric discharge. The carriage \shop was fur- ~nished with a lightning rod, and it was a matter sof. surprise that the fluid should have struck the ground so near#o'the rod. The top of the rod was fifty-nine feet high above the shavings; and the shavings were one hundred feet distant from a point cortical under the top of the rod. According to the rule above quoted, this rod should have afforded complete protection to a distance of one hundred and eighteen feet from its base; whereas the shav- ings were struck at a distance of one hundred feet, and that too where, being elevated only a few inches above the general level of the ground, they might be presumed to afford no poenliet attrac- = for the lightning. his = + ate an pia ie = . aie O_O im rod appears to have been constructed in accordance with — the usual rules. It is terminated by three points which are gilded a oe Electrical Phenomena in certain houses. . 321 and appear to be in tolerably good condition. About ten feet d from the top is a break in the rod and the two: portions are looped together. From this point the rod is continuous to the bottom and enters the ground to the depth of about three feet where the earth at the time referred to was quite moist. The rod is about five-eighths of an inch in diameter. Se) The preceding caseedemonstrates to my mind that itis unsafe = to rely upon a rod to protect a circle whose radius is more than ~ once and a half the height of the .rod,’at least upon’ the west side, being that’ from which yeti showers generally come in this latitude. APE. XXVI.— On the Electrical Phenomena of Certain Houses ; = of M - by Extas Loomrs, Prof. athematics and Natural Philoso- » phy in New York University. : san aven, August, 1 aay - - -‘Wiruin the past few years, several en in the city of New York have exhibited electrical phenomena in a very remarkable rr ree, For months i in succession they have emitted sparks o _ considerable intensity, accompanied by a loud snap. A stranger on entering one of. these electrical houses, in attempting to shake ~ hands with the hes apes receives a shock which is quite notice- able and somew hat un os Ladies in seeping, to eau each e mouth, and was ‘very much pion j ag ae kia ee ‘she epee first to touch the tube with her finger. passing from”one parlor to. the other, if she chanced to step Upon the brass plate which served as a slide for the folding doors, she received an unpleasant shock in the foot. When she touched her finger to the chandelier (the room was lighted with gas by a chandelier suspended from the caling) there appeared a brilliant and a snap as in the discharge of a Leyden Jar of good size. Tn many houses the phenomena have ‘heen so remarkable as to Occasion ‘general surprise and almost alarm After a careful examination of several cases of this kind, I have - come to the “eager ee that the electricity is excited by the fric- _ tion of the shoes of the inmates upon the arene of the house, Sxconp Szares, Vol. X, No. 30—Nov., 1850. “2 i ey Read before the American Aare for the rice: ae: of Science at i pee «it “¥2 Byte Sp ~ 322 Electrical Phenomena in.certain houses. I have proved by direct experiment that electricity is excited by the friction of leather upon woolen cloth. For this purpose I stood upon an insulating stool, and spreading a small piece of ecar- peting upon a table before me, rubbed a piece of leather vigor- ously upon it, and then bringing the leather near the cap of a Sell leaf electrometer, the leaves were repelled with great vio- The electricity of the leather wat» of the resinous kind. Teter therefore must necessarily be excited whenever a person walks with a shuffling motion across a carpet; but it may be thought remarkable that the electricity should be intense enough to give a bright ‘spark. In order to produce this effect ‘there must be a combination of some favorable circumstances. The carpet, or at least its upper surface, must be entirely of iz wool, and of a close texture, in order to Sonniah an abundance of electricity. So far.as I have had opportunity to judge, I infer: that heavy velvet carpets answer this purpose best. ‘I'wo thick- nésses of Ingrain carpeting answer very well. A drugget spread upon an Ingrain carpet yields a good supply of the fluid. ‘The effect of the increased thickness is obviously to improve the insu- lation of the carpet, he carpet must be quite dry, and also the floor of the room, so that the fluid may not be conveyed aw way as soon as it is excited. This will not generally be the case. except in winter, and in rooms which are habitually kept. quite ywarm.- The most remarkable cases which I have heard of in New York have i of close, aa houses, kept ey ‘warm by "farsa, and t electricity was most abundant in very cold weather. In Pins: oe weather, Gite feeble signs of Bhectiicity are obtained. 3. The rubber, that is the shoe, must also be dry, like the om and it must be rubbed upon the carpet somewhat vigorou Ok By skipping once or twice across a room with a a motion the feet, a person becomes highly charged, and then bri ¢ the knuckle near to any metallic body, particularly it it have goc d communication with the earth, a bright spark passes. In almost any room which is furnished ‘with a woolen carpet, and is kept tolerably warm, a spark may thus be obtained in winter—but in some rooms, the insulation is so good and the carpets are so elec- trical, that it is impossible to walk across the floor, without excit- ing sufficient electricity to give as It may be said that in this case thet can be but very little friction between the shoe and carpet. But it must be remembered that the rubber is applied to the eta? with considerable force, _ being aided by the whole bhi i a Be e ts so that a slight shuffling of the feet acts with great In the London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine for Feb- ruary, 1839, is given an account of a leather strap connecting on drum of a Worsted Mill, which gave sparks two inches in New method i pegimiptsing Silicates. 323 and charged a battery ina ‘short time. The strap was twe enty- four feet | long, six inches broad, and one eighth of an.inch thick. It crossed in the middle between the two drums, the’strap form- ing a figure eight. Here then was considerable friction, since the strap made one hundred revolutions in a minute. In the American Journal of est for July, 1840, is mention- '. . ed an instance of a lesher band in a cotton. factory, which: ex- } hibited strong electrical: alieceregtien - C ese e examples show that leather ‘when subjected to “consid able friction yields an abundant supply of, electrici In the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society for |. fees December, 1840, are mentioned several cases of individuals who b drew sparks of electricity from a coal stove, and from a common i a ss XXVIL Soe a new method of decomposing NSilicates in the pr acest of A nalysis ; by Henry Wurtz, of New York. Read being the ae Associaton for the De naam of pn at New ee August, 1 , H avine had occasion in ee course a some researches u | ¥ the greensand of New Jersey, which will be presented to at Associat ation hereafter, to observe vi facility with which that sub- could be ee wens by hydrochloric acid. The use of chlorid of iain is however obviously attended with several inconveniences, such as its deliquescent properties, and the un- 4 avoidable inteedaetiod of a large quantity of =" salts . into the solution, in the separation of the lime fr Chlorid of barium was therefore substituted, add the results of 324 New method of decomposing Silicates. ' off the water of oe The pure chlorid of barium thus obtained is pulverized and is then ready to be used for the purpose here sadonsth Chlorid of barium>may be pan in a platinum crucible by a blast lamp, or by an alcohol blowpipe la amp. A mixte ire of chlo- ‘ rid of -batium and chlorid of strontium: in atomic proportions _ fuses however far more easily than eitker of its ingredients. Such a mixture is fused by the heat of an ordinary Berzelius lamp, and more easily, I think, than.carbonate of soda. This is analogous to the well known fact. that’a mixture of carbonate of although sulphate of strontia when precipitated by itself, appears _ ina form somewhat gelatinous, tedious to wash and difficult to - a - filter, yet when precipitated in the presence of sulphate of ba- ~ rytay it takes on the finely granular form of the latter, and the — ~ combined sulphates are as easily washed as the sulphate of baryta * e when precipitated alone. 7 . . "The atomic proportions of a mixture of chlorid of barium and * . chlorid of strontium,, suitable for the fusion “« silicates, are about four parts of the former to three of the latte The best mode of proceeding was found 6 be-as follows :— The mineral in fine powder is intimately mixed with four or five times its weight of chlorid of barium, or of the mixture of chlorid of barium and ehlorid of strontium, ina platinum eruci- . ble; which is then covered, and exposed to a heat sufficient to fus mass for twenty or thirty minutes. When cool, the mass is iiepued by bending the crucible, and allowed to fall intoa « beaker glass. Water is then poured on ‘it in’ sufficient ewcmek to dissolve the excess of chlorid of barium, oF ee of strontium, Gaal teh hees toe tecooemeneatey evidently remain with the silica in the form of sulphate of ba- contains ‘dete lime, on account of the insolubility of its sulphate. This last difficulty is however obviated, in some degree, by the very considerable solubility of sulphate of lime. in. hydrochloric - acid, a fact which must havé been noticed by many chemists: Po 8 an fete Se Satie, ES colorless transparent orthéclase from New York island. This feldspar was fused with chlorid_of barium, sous to the above et ee soda, to be perfectly pure. h S hornblende, from Franconia, New Hampshire. e silica tained from this was found to contain ,considerable more than’a _ trace of iron. Ido not therefore venture to recommend this pro- _ oxyd of iron. Many more experiments which time has not per Initted me to make, will soon be me to settle this question, which I do not consider, yet determined. To test the chlorid of barium reel quantitatively, the min- eral called pink scapolite, of Bolton, Mass., long ago analyzed by Dr. Jackson, was selected. My results agree entirely with his, except as regards the presence of lithia and oxyd of cerium, which careful Sri examination did not enable me to aie cal. w s found, contrary. to recorded statements, bid a be ee ee ph sed by concentrated acids, even w finely elutriated. -A determination of the silica, made by i composition with hydrochloric acid, gave the per-centage 5025 ; - @Mother, made by fusion with carbonate of soda, gave 47: ...T'wo determinations of the specific gravity, made u upon the coarse powder, gave the numbers 2:7002 and 27046 The results ‘9 fa fusion with chlorid of barium were as follows: ee Oxygen. MIR 0c 4 xh Sk MEDS 24-78 24-78 Alumina, é , pon COTE st = 40-71 Peroxyd of iron, . ey 68 § CaaS i ar bs AS2 on NN i secs. wsins opty ROM 2-26 Protoxyd of manganese, race. 100°77 Agreeing nearly with the received formula of scapolite— Ga Na)* Si?+-2Al Si, which requires for the oxygen of the protoxyds, peroxyds and New method of decomposing Silicates. 325 When the mineral thus iniated contains sulphurie acid, it will : ryta. culty would also seem to occur when the mineral © e first qualitative experiment was made with a specimen of process, and the silica thus obtained was found, upon fusion with” xt experiment was made upon a black crystallized. af ye 326 On the Greensand of New Jersey as a source of Potash. silica, the ratio 1: 2:4, while the above analysis gives the ratio kek 52°06: Ass sins “é This method -appears to possess advantages for decomposing silicates which contain both the alkalies, over the ordinary meth- +. ods of fusion with the hydrate or with the carbonate of baryta. _. Hydrate of -baryta: generally acts upon the-crucible, causing the ~~ mass to adhere to it ; and upon the affusion of hydrochloric acid, any potash which the mineral may contain, consequently enters into combination as bichlorid.of. platirfum and potassium, and re- _ mains with the silica. "The carbonate of baryta process requires an intense heat, and is difficult of- execution. — -. .~4. The chlorid of barium process proposed in this paper is prob- Fe ably not*more laborious than an ordinary carbonate of soda fu- nr Sion, and is applicable in cases in which the silicate contains both —__ “potash soda ee es T= P3 - Art. XXVIIL—On the availability of the Greensand of New ~—-) Jersey as a source of Potash and its Compounds ; by Henry Wortz, of New York City. 3 , important end, but owing to the peculiar chemical and physical _ properties of feldspar, the success of these researches has been doubtful. . i me Maer It is true that the feeble affinities exerted by mineral waters per to show that this substance is far superior to feldspar in ifs adaptation to this purpose. On the Greensand of New Jersey as a source of Potash. 327 existence and common attributes of the greensand are miss. It exists in greater or less quantity in several States, but has its greatest development, I believe, in the State of New Jer- sey, where it forms a stratum of variable thickness, covering a terand Salem. Wheréyer.it occurs,, itis spread upon the land farmers, to whom it is known. by the name of Marl. Its proper ties as a fertilizeryare undoubtedly owing to the ease with which upon the Geology of New Jersey, in which he has devoted about a hundred pages to the greensand, and has given many. analyses Ww No analyst has, to my knowledge, found potash in the English Of greensand, others contain variable proportions of a red or _. brown earth and of quartz. A few contain more or less earbon- ate of lime in such a form that it is not acted upon by dilate _ acids in the cold, although upon the application of heat a violent _ @ffervescence. appears... Many contain iron pyrites and some a trace of sulphate of iron. No variety which I have ined _ has yielded any phosphoric acid. . Z ee The greensand grains themselves contain, besides potash, silica, alumina, one or the other or both of the oxyds of iron, and water, With sometimes a little magnesia. _ aealia! » The invariable development of a smell of formic acid by the ction of strong sulphuric acid upon them, seems to indieate the tesence of a little organic matter. Analyses of two varieties of the marl from the estate of the late Alfred Bishop of Bridgeport, at Shrewsbury, Monmouth County, yielded the following results - i TI. Rilitapc dae. ; ‘ ek ae ica el ee ied _ Alumin incipal xyd, 3289 34: & wag eo 9 of iron, ses aied erg y' sere art nesia, : ‘ . Hydroscopic water, . ‘ . : ; eet : 11:50 Combined water, . ‘ : ‘ ' ~ iced sais | 10061 99-25 It may be remarked here that Prof. Rogers's results were ob- tained upon the greensand grains separated as much as possible tom intermixed earth and sand, while the above were made upon _ the impure marl itself. ~ The generally known, but a few words on this subject will not be » i great portion of the counties of Monmouth, Burlington, Glonces- the potash which it contains is abstracted from it by atmospheric* agencies, as is suggested by Prof. Henry D. Rogers, in his Report’. lich indicate the presence of from 10 to 13 per cent. of potash, Various. Some varieties are almost entirely composed of grains». cd greensand, the‘fertilizing properties of which appear to be due to ae * See Pe a a i 328 On the Greensand of New sergey as a source of Potash. For more detailed information I wink refer to the elaborate re- : _port: of Prof. Rogers before mentioned. I will only state further “that the greensand grains are easily pulverized, having only about the hardness of gypsum, and that they are decomposed by dilute acids, and we then come to the imnediate subject of this paper. “Considering thatthe greensand contains the constituents of ~ alum, with the exception of the sulphurig: acid, it seemed proba- ble that by the action of sulphuric acid eee it, a solution would be formed containing more, or -less any experiments ef the marl, and also that the organic matter interfered in some “way. The. solutions. obtained had generally a dark brown color s vand a smell resembling “that of formic acid. They contained: “mThuch sulphate of protoxyd of iron, and gave a few impure crys-_ : ee tals. of alum. A portion of the- -greensand was next gently igni- :. i which served the purpose of destroying the organic matter, _ if any jas present, and also of peroxydizing the iron, thus ren- - dering it less soluble in acids. The pulverized and ignited marl presented the appearance of a brownish red pow wder. It was easily decomposed by dilute salahvaric acid, yielding a solution, | — ‘ the contents of which, upon analysis, proved to be principally common alum, together with small quantities of iron-alum and of the persulphates of alumina and iron. The first erystals of most perfectly pure, and upon the addition of a small wpoity of =, chlorid of potassium to the solution, it was found, as might have been predicted, that all the iron was converted into the uncrys- — tallizable perchlorid, the sulphate of potash thus: formed ‘by _ double decomposition combining with the free sulphate of alu- mina to form common alum; and even in the last. c crops of ¢ : tals now obtained little or no iron could be detected. The man- ufacture of alum, therefore, by the action of sulphuric acid upon previously ignited greensand marl, promises to be suecessful be- yond all anticipation. It. is obvious that it will be necessary to select varieties of the marl as free as pombe from lime and mag- nesia, which would cause a waste o My perpen were next directed pee 3 the poe of chlorid of potassium. Attempts to form this substance by the direct action of I acid upon the ignited marl were raises A very large quantity of perchlorid of iron was , which would give rise to too great a loss of ac Tt was next found that by fusing together greensand and chlo- rid of sodium at a red heat, a hard mass was formed, which Uges ed with water a solution containing potash ; but chlonid of| o the difficulty of separating chlorid of ee from chlor. of 1088 Ss ge Ren ae ee eee On the Greensand of New Jersey as a source of Potash. 329 um when the latter is present in greater quantity than the former, this observation was considered of little value. — Sr anes P A widely different conclusion was arrived at; when chlorid of Le calcium was substituted for chlorid of sodium. The’ pulverized c and ignited marl was mixed with a sufficient quantity of chlorid of calcium to form updén the fusionsof the latter,’ a pasty mass. . he decomposition of: the greensand takes place in this case at a low temperature, and is so complete that I’ have founded upon this circumstance a method of decomposing minerals in the pro- cess of analysis, which I have had the honor of presenting to the _ Association before. . : a ; Se It is evident that the combined water of the greensand must ' be expelled by ignition~ previous to fusing it with chlorid of cal- ar _. ¢ium, otherwise a quahitity of the fused chlorid of calcium will — y also be performed in close vessels to avoid the decomposition which chlorid of calcium undergoes when fiised in contact with th The mass, after fusion, falls to pieces in water, yielding . to this solvent, in most cases, all the potash which was contained in the greensand employed in the form of chlorid of potassium. The separation of this from the excess of chlorid of calcium is an easy problem, owing to the difference between their solubilities. This application of the chlorid of calcium will open a market for the large quantities of this substance which are thrown away in some manufactories of soda-ash. All attempts to procure sulphate of potash by the fusion of _. Various sulphates “with the greensatid were unsuccessful. In fact, the greensand ‘itself, at a temperature below the fusing points _ of the sulphates of lime and magnesia, fuses to a black glass which is no longer decomposable by acids. » A great number of other experiments were made upon the Tee ut no ‘results were arrived at, which promise to be of any practical value except the above. A very great number of experiments were also made, having for their object to obtain sulphate of potash by fusing together chlorid of potassium with alum and with various sulphates, such as those of iron, magnesia and-zine, which gave results o | practical value, but as these researches had but a fortuitous con- nection with those upon the greensand, I shall not introduce an account of them here. i I will merely remark that if sulphate of potash can be obtained by fusing together alum and chlorid of potassium, both of these being obtained economically from the greensand by the above processes, it is evident that this sulphate of potash may be treated Inthe same manner for the production of potash as sulphate of _ Soda is in the manufacture of soda-ash, and it seems to me that the desideratum of another source of potash is thus supplied. Szconp Serres, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850. 42 inevitably be decomposed by the steam evolved. Thé fusion” ye 330 = =©Prof. W. A. Norton on the Diurnal and Annual “Arr. XXIX.—On the Diurnal and Annual dyes in the Declination of the Magnetic Needle, and in the Horizontal and eee oawate Intensities ; by Prof. W. A. Norton. In my: paper on’ the heaped Fariaticng of the Magnetic ele- ments, published in a former No. of this Journal,* I showed that the variations of the heriaeritih magnetic intensity which lie between the hours of 10 p. m. and 10° a.m. of the,following day proce eed pari passu, and are undoubtedly in some way physically 3 connected with the variations that take place during the same ~. Interval of time in nk quantity of moistute immediately at the : ‘éarth’s surface :—or at all events that the deviations from the ~ eneral law of spominionalicy to temperature that oceur during this interval are effects, direct or indirect, of the deposition of dew ‘during the night, and evaporation of moisture during Mec morning hours: re ‘agcounted for the connection subsisting bey 4 tween such dissimilar phenomena by assuming that particles: - water in Gontact with the earth’s surface, (and possibly in t ~ vaporous state,) hada direct magnetic action upon the needle, in accordance with the general theo ory that I had advanced. This” 1s bi simplest assumption that can be made in the case, but It. to be observed that the connection in question may possibly be - sd A cae x as is well known, is. eittandant upon : | varying conduction. of electrical currents, or ‘some other cause. For the present, however, it is most» philosophical to abide by | that view which gives us the: highest generalization—which rep-— resents, at the same time, ‘the nor rmal state of the earth's DA netism and its periodical variations. It is true that we have no authority, » derived: Sonik exec for st su Ipposing water to have a Sects action, as. Ee te rm gay 0 the earth, has what is called a diamagnetic action:’ But our first aim in such ~~ should be to obtain the highest generaliza- om the discussion of the phenomena mere ve the same great truth. I would also remark, with regard to the bate discussion, incidentally entered into in the paper rred to, —. the thermal effect of dew, that this peste mae perhaps ha ve been overrated, and that the law of the pee oe Lee es * See this Journal, ii ser., vol. viii, p. 35. variations of the Magnetic Forces. 331 nocturnal diminution of temperature may be partially attributable to the unequal cooling action of ascending currents of air sa law obtains in the calmest nights, andthe assertion so often repeated by meteorologists. that in clear calm nights the tempera- ture of the soil falls many degrees below that of the air a few feet above it, would seem to render such a supposition inadmissible. But, whatever view may be taken of the relative part performed by the dew in determining the law of the nocturnal loss of tem- perature, it is to be observed that it suffices for the explanation of the connection .subsisting between this law and. that of the nocturnal variations, of the horizontal magnetic intensity ; singe | it must be admitted that the tendency of the thermal influence of: . same kind with that which actually obtains. However, i may possibly also coéperate magnetically with it in determining e the law of the nocturnal variations of the horizontal force. te _ Having made these ex planations and qualifying statements with be “Uy ference to my former memoir, I propose now to show, from another point of view, the high probability of the truth of the eaPlanation ich | i have, there given of the diurnal variations of the hor torce ; and subsequently to discuss the annual vari- b* short time Reavions to the date of the publication of that _ Memoir, [was led, to make a comparison between the curves showing the - Gina « variations of the horizontal force, (as given in the Report of. the Meteorological and Magnetical Observations, made at the » Girard College Observatory, 1840 to 1845,) with the furves veal the diurnal variations of the height of the barom- peter ; an Rngnient that the following remarkable relations subsist- ed bet them... T'hey each have two maxima and two min- ima, nate Migynts of the one set nd curves occur at very nearly the same hours as the minima of the other. ‘The same relations may be observed in the following se sana statement. a and Barometer, at Philadelphia, for the year 1844. i Sa | Horizontal Foree. | Barometer. | — Perens | te See, peep 5 f M. Midnight. NN ae ae eee | 11 p.a. to Midnight. 4a It will be seen that i the hours of maxima and minima of the barometer differ by not more than one hour from the hours of con 4 tinuing during a portion of the night. ' Although the fact that. dew is to produce an inequality of loss of par ere oe a Hours of Daily Maxima and Minima of Horizontal Force — 332 Prof. W. A. Norton on the Diurnal and Annual minima and maxima of the horizontal force. If we make the comparison for other years, and also for the quarters of years, we find a rat ae eee ne correspondence. If end to a minute Copa RATED, we find that the inter- vals beets ‘the: recise hours of maxinga and minima in some instances amount to as much‘as two hours ; in fact that the sec- ondary or morning minimum of the barom eter sometimes pre- variations of the horizontal force, it is to be observed that the Fs Variations both of barometer and horizontal force are compara- tively small during the night, and also in general about the times “of maxima and: minima ; see therefore that such comparatively i smail differences may be expected to subsist, unless the two pie- nomena be supposed to be identical in their origin. If the times force are in some way directly qepuiide nt upon the-diurnal varia~ ad tions of the pressure of the air; as it is, the more probable con- clusion is, that these two different phenomena are two different effects or consequences of the same meteorological p enomenon. hen I had arrived at this point in the progress of my inves- tigations, it at once occurred to me that, as the diurnal variations of the horizontal: force had been explained by referring them to the daily changes in the temperature and humidity of the earth’s surface, the diurnal variations of the barometer ‘were probably at- tributable to daily changes in the temperature and humidity of - the air. It was seen that the same evaporation by day which _ tended to diminish the horizontal force, would tend, by adding to the quantity of vapor in the air, to augment the height of the barometer, and that che same condensation of vapor at the earth’s surface at night, which tended to increase the horizontal force, would, by diminishing the quantity of vapor in the air, tend to make the barometer fall: also that if these as ce in conjunc- tion with those due to variations of temperature, are the ‘actual producing causes of the diurnal variations of the barometer an horizontal force, there would doubtless be an approximate corres- pondence between the maxima of the one element and the minima It is somewhat curious that I should have been condueted in this indirect manner, to the explanation of the daily oo of the barometer, which, as I have since found, has n conclusively established, to be the true explanation of this jheisadibnibe, by direct observation. This is known to meteor- _ variations of the Magnetic Forces. 333 ologists as Dove’s theory of the diurnal variations of the barom- eter. This theory, as stated by Kaemtz, is that the pressure of the atmosphere is equal to the sum of the pressures of dry air and aqueous vapor, and thus the barometric column is composed, so to speak, of two part. ; ene of which crresponds to the air ; the other to the aqueous vapor. Now when the temperature rises the density of the air diminishes, but the tension of the vapor augments, and vice versa. ‘To bring his theory to the test of figures, “he analyzed a set of observations:made by Neuber at Apenrade with a Daniell’s hygrometer. He calculated the tension of the vapor for each hour of the day, and subtracted .it ° tom the barometric column; he thus obtained the pressure ¢ ‘dry air, and found that it had but one maximum and one min- ‘sult was obtained from a discussion of the meteorological observ- _____ ations made at the Toronto Observatory, during the years 1841 and 1842. “ The diurnal pressure of the gaseous atmosphere has - One maximum which occurs about the coldest hour of the day, and _ one minimum which occurs about the warmest hour of the day. The elastic force of the vapor has also one maximum which oc- curs at 2p. m., and one minimum at 4 a.m. The sum of these two pressures however exhibits two daily maxima, viz., at 10 A.M. and P.m., and two daily minima, viz., about 3 or 4 4. ™. an ?.M. “Thus this knotty question respecting’ the diurnal oscilla- ions of the’ barometer has been beautifully resolved by simply interrogating natnre.”” A similar conclusion may be drawn tom the hourly meteorological observations made during the Year 1842 at the following places in Russia, viz., St. Petersburg, uraoul, Catharinenburg, and Sitka.* It is true that small irreg- ulatities are noticed, but as the same general law appears to exist everywhere, it is to be supposed that such irregularities super- vene ‘upon it at particular localities by reason of certain local peculiarities. | forms over-compensates this effect, and thus the barometer rises. This continues until about 9a. m. After this the diminution in the pressure of dry air prevails over the increase due to the aug- eS ee Or i et Se iN ree ts Ca * See this Journal for January, 1846, pp. 138, 139, 140. Sd + 334 Prof. W. A. Norton on the Diurnal and Annual “mented quantity of vapor, and the barometer falls until 3 or 4 _p.m. When the temperature begins to fall the barometer also ~ descends by reasan of the increase in the density of the air: bs in the evening, when a portion of the atmospheric vapor begin to fall in dew, -a tendency to a diminution of the sal pressure‘arises,. but it is not until-about midnight that this ten- dency begins to prevail over the tendency to an increase. From 4 that time the barometer son from this cause, until towards the | hour of minimum temperatu | KS The explanation which i hee before given of the diurnal Ea ‘variations of the Pode force is, in wera en as follows. In the morning as the temperature rises the molecular magnetic force increases,’and therefore the hor condita force tends to in- crease, but the diminution arising from the evaporation going on ~at the earth’s surface over-compensates this tendency, and hence the-horizontal force, on the whole, decreases. This continues ‘until about 10 4.°%. After this the increase, from the risé of ee Somat prevails: over the diminution produced by the con- ee nued:evaporation* until about 4 p.m. From that time the’ hori- 5 tones force decreases with ss temperature anil about 11 P.M. ; when?the tendency to ‘increase resulting from the deposition ' of: dew begins to prevail over the opposite tendency resulting from the falling of the temperature. ‘This secon pecentation CORE tinues until about 5.4. M. In view of what»has now been stated it ‘will, eS think, be be ad- mitted that the diutt al,variations bath of the hérizontal magnetic fi of. ‘baréiieter are in all: ‘probability: certain . —_ resulting from the joint-operation, of the same two geneval.antag- onistic causes—viz., variations of temperature. is ‘variations of ~ humidity. ‘The theory of the variations of the horizontal force which I have advanced js ‘n'a accordance with: the faét of the ap-- - Parent connection subsisting between these phenomena. Other - theories may perhaps be devised, equally in accordangg with. this singular fact ; and indeed it must be conceded. that. it is eed sr of the idea that the cause of the variations of the izontal force, like that of the variations of the. barometric en must achane in the atmosphere. In fact if it be: admit- ted that the particles of the atmosphere and of the atmospheric vapor have a magnetic action upon the needle, like those of the solid mass of the earth, then it is a simple consequence of the ee of the general theory under consideration that the hori- ontal force will vary, by reason of this papi after the manner in which it is observed to do. For, the greater portion of the amigas being posited above the saan: “the tendency of its Rn ee _ * It is to be observed that we are here —— of the average state of things in the course of a year, or quarters of a year. a aa we F variations of the Magnetic Forces. 335 Th action will be to diminish the horizontal force; and therefore when the number of particles of humid air increases immediately above the needle and the barometer falls, the horizontal force will diminish. Whether the atmosphere has really any effect, = ion ad rt) - ee io) oe Fs, 32 9 ia) 5 s. ©) 5 ° pry ee => @ < = be 3 < pe =) a9 (eid @ 5 i 14) “ a) pa = a 2° So = 4 § ae ress — =) - temperature and hiimidity—seems to favor the idea of atmose _ pheric magnetic action : but, if it be conceded that, as is generally Supposed, electrical currents flow along the auroral columns, we magiietic action of the aurora, and have therefore no good ground ; for Supposing that the atmosphere has a magnetic action in its _ hormal state. We may, however, still conjecturally connect the _ aurora with the diurnal variations of the horizontal magnetic m- _ tensity by imagining that'the daily changes of temperature and Ich traverse the atmosphere without producing any percepti- tee luminosity, “or perhaps any other perceptible eflects, except _ Upon the magnetic needle. = Page ~The philosophical’ course for the present, however, is to abide by the theory which furnishes.the most direct representation po sible of the connection subsisting between the barometric and _ Magnetic-variations, and at.the same time accords with a general _ theory’thaty'satisfies‘the conditions. imposed by the normal state figm. Pee A cee of the e “th mack i : Annual Variations ‘of the Horizontal. Magnetic Intensity. a degree * wrobable) that the diurnal variations of the horizontal _. Magitetic intensity ‘are due to changes in the temperature and humidity of-the earth’s surface (or atmosphere ), we naturally seek | for the explanation of the annual variations of the horizontal force in ‘annual changes of, temperature and humidity. Moreover seen that the ditirnal variations of the horizontal force and barometer are linked together, and due to. the same two gen- eral causes. It is therefore to be inferred that a similar connec- on must subsist between the annual variations of the horizontal oree and barometer, and that the two phenomena must be other Parallel effects of changes of temperature and humidity. Now if We compare the curve showing the variations of the horizontal force om month to month with the corresponding curve for the meter, we in fact find an approximate correspondence be- dependent upon. the same two meteorological elements, VAZ5- ave in these currents apparently a sufficient explanation of the . midity of the atmosphere are attended ‘with electrical. currents os uhaiag ben established (or at least rendered in the highest » wifot 336 Prof. W. A. Norton on the Diurnal and Annual tween the maxima of the one and the minima of the other.* In the midst ofsirregular variations the following general law is very another maximum about August, and another less decided mini- mum in the fall. This law has also been revealed by the servations made in Europe. It is stated as follows by Raatoes, (Cours. Complet de Meteorologie, p. 282,) “Setting out from winter the pressure” (of the air) ‘ediminishes until the equinox, then it augments:in summer without attaining nevertheless to the winter mean; we afterwards find in autumn traces of the second minimum, then the curvétises again until winter.’? The same law is‘also manifest in the curve for the horizontal force, substituting ‘maximum for minimum and minimum for maximum. Before “noticing this connection between the annual variations of the hori- - zontal force and of the height of the barometer, I inferred from my previous investigations that the following was probably the eye papiapation of the annual seers of the horizontal force. | rom the winter.to the summer this force tends to increase by reason of the increase of pesitoahewire and to diminish by reason of he loss of moisture from the earth’s surface (or increase of vapor in the air). Fora time the first cause prevails over the second and xs _ thus the force augments. But the formation of vapor will be pro- ~ ra thus it happens that some time during the spring the ten- toa beahsna, of. the horizontal force tomes | to prevail pee r the ten increase This state. ‘of ‘things | contin- tae Giasil thet aedEMioacicnom ‘temperature’ (July or August), After ~ for a certain’ iain the temp apres ‘will fall without a nate diminution in the quantity of vapor in the air ; and thus a horizontal force will contin 4 to decrease for a certain ts time beyond the time of maximum temperature. But we may which will continue until the effect of the average daily r (being proportionally less from day to day) comes to be _ overbalanced by the opposite effect of the diminution of temper- ature. Thus there may be a second maximum in the fall, follow- ed by a minimum in the winter. While this would be the gen eral course of things, - would be room for material irregular- ities in individual yea is explanation of the annual variatiens of the horizontal magnetic intensity I find to be substantially the same, mutatis mutandis, as that given by Professor Dove of the corresponding variations of the height of the barometer. He has established * See Plates in Report of Observations at Girard College Observatory: variations of the Magnetic Forces. 337 that the pressure of dry air has but°one ‘maximum’ and one mine imum during the year,—the former in the wiuter-and the, latter in the summer. The tension of the at mospheric vapor, ou the other hand, attains its minimum in the winter and maximum in the summer. From the combination of these two pressures there results two maxima and two minima of actual pressure, as pre= — camped stated. There i Isa minimum i in the spring because that tity of vapor is not yet very consi etabl e. We find traces of. a second minimum in autumn because the quantity of aqueous — diminishes rapidly, while the prageure of ‘dry air increases 8 It must accordingly be admitted to be. highly probable that : the annual variations of horizontal magnetic intensity are attribu- | table to the combined operation of the same two general antag Pe onistic causes as the diurnal variations, "iF Race of tem- Perature and variations of humidity. It must also be admitted that the existenice of such a connection a these diarnal and a ‘nnual maguetie and meteorological phenomena is a-necessary anlerence from the Thermal Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism ; anc this theory finishes a rational’and consistent explana- on of t the laws of the magnetic variations. t Variations of the Vertical Magnetic Intensity. urve showing the annual variations of the magne imvansity vat Phila delphia for the years [541 to 1815, we ese thes the general law is that the intensity Is greatest or July, and least about. December or January. To this geen law. anfexce tion occu “a the year 1841—1he force hg, instead of rom the first of the year until and then j wacreaeing until Rorember after which there is a - accordance with the general law. Now it will be hat agreenbly to the theory under consideration, the = magnetic*force is dependent upon the differences of tem- perature between the station of the needle and all places situated to the north or south of this station, within the circle of sensible ‘Magnetic ac action. We have therefore to enquire whether these erences obaatve the same law of variation as the vertical mag- hetic intensity ; and also whether there is any exception to the _«:Seneral law, corresponding with that above mentioned, during the —-Year 1841, The observations which I have obtained snited to _ this inquiry, (viz., the mean monthly temperatures at Wash- ington, Newtown, Port Carbon, and Silver Lake, for 1841 and a of 1842, and at Trenton for 1842) furnish results which ac- _ for the most part, with the theory. ut as these results ‘ate confined to one or two years, no certain conclusion can be os ‘Sram, Vol. X, No. 30,—Nov., 1859. 48 ee ze. ee aly, a bad - tions of declination are attributable to the annual variations in be ing that the law of the variation is the same whatever place so “ sitnated with regard to Philadelphia be taken. The following » _ than that at Philadelphia at the beginning He: yea oa to it, or greater, toward the middle of ‘the year, sed less have moved towards the north during the first part of the year, 4 #% 338 Prof. W. A. Norton on the Diurnal and Annual drawn from them; I anni accordingly reserve this discussion for a future occasion. © Annial Variations of Declination. Ascordive to the theory under consideration the annual varia- the position of the isothermal line—or ‘ra ther, to be ‘precise, of en line of equal molecular magnetic intensity, Bs must ap- ximate more or less to the isotherm al line. w the annual peavermies of the isothermal line may be nated by diseuss- ing the annual LY set ‘that take place in the differences be- tween the» mean monthly temperature at Philadelphia and at some place to the. baat or west of Philadelphia ;—that is, suppos- _ table’ shows the méan monthly differences of temperature for 1841, = de Piialclphia and several dese to the west of Philad elphi son ‘Melis Differences of: Péiiérature for 1841. ———— oo ie ae Jan, Feb. ee April.| May. |June. | July.|A’g.! Sept — ee ~- Phila. and Lancaster, _../3°38/1°59| 0-06 | 0-23| 0°38| 0911...) 0-931 1-501 41 ~*~ and Gettysb’g,|....|5-23/3-44| os 0-09] 1°89} 2:18..,. 1 eihae 5-0914°70) “— aiid Gaile, mee ry 19 |-15} so eeeh. . «pp 280.159 “and Harrisb’g,|... 19 ba2l-ovo vee [28 ELT boa F 45 | a [47 sy: and .Chest’r oo 22 13 + lace sent ee eleeeer nceneieese will be. observ sabe 5 5 the mean monthly differences. of. tem- cates for all these places are greater at the beginning and end of the year than: toward the m iddle ¢ the yea r. .The minus sign a a the temperate at iladel pia is less. than at the other p § um It a ots these results that during the yet aft, the temperature at places to the west of Philade ng I at the ‘close of the year. The isothermal line through and towards the south during the latter part of the year. The > tendency of these movements would be to make the declination . least toward the middle of the year and greatest at the beginning — and end of the year. Now, as a matter of fact, on axe the curve given in the Report of the Observations at the College Observatory, showing the annual variations of deatitms tion at Philadelphia, we find that in 1841 the declination was —— in January and February, and again in November I ee ay. On inspecting the ¢ variations of the Magnetic Forces. - 339 given above, it will also be seen that an irregularity occurs in the month of October. In the curve of the declination there is a ats. corresponding irregularity; the declination was less in October 4 oe! September, and much greater. in ‘November than in to _ shows that the same general law obtained during the eutire pe- 4 riod of the observations comprised between June, 1840, and the beginning of 1844. The following ‘table shows ‘that the varia- tions of the difference of temperature between sige and Lancaster followed the same law during t this peri ; Mean on Differences of Temperature between Philadelphia d Lancaster, Pa. t ‘given in the Report of the Girard College observations, ex- - Cept in the case of the year 1841, for which the temperatures published. ‘in the Journal of the Franklin Institute i used. “The e tempeiatn res for-Lancaster were obtained ri: J of the Franklin os and from the origina manuseri - W.-M. Atlee’s Reports to the Franklin ii. hen be bed the ‘indy ess to Shae in my hands. .The’ obse rvations for Get- tysbur ilisle, Harrisburg, and W. Chester were also abtained from the ‘published repotts to the, Franklin Institute, under the general. system of: meteordlogical | ‘observation established by this mise » Phe. ar. observations were made at 7 aA. M., 2 P.M., | The temperatures at Philadelphia used in the calculations are Tt is*ton obi that the comparatively large plus differen- “dot be tiperail that occur in the year 1841, as given in the above table, are to be attributed to the fact that ‘the temperatures at Philadelphia as reported to the Franklin Institute are higher The curve of annual variations of declination above referred to, - | Feb. arch April. {| May, | June.|-July..| Aug. | Sept.) Oct. | Nov. | — |: s ° Oe “yh ae _ ; > 41-19 123], [08 |-07 ts 3°38] 150] 0:06} 023] 038) O91K.... | 0°93) 150) 416 4°71 e2 —0) —2°3 4 08 12) 17 -09 |-0O7 | 1 49 (518 -15 |-O4 1-13 Pl -0'6 | 04: | OO -02 as given in the Girard College observations. Making use of oe the latter we ‘obtain for the Diff erences of Temperature between Philadelphia and Lancaster for 1841. Nov. Dec. Feb, March,| April. | May. | June. | July. | Aug, { Sept. ; Oct, 10 ° ° ° ° ° -13|~051-18 | -01 06 3 ° -18)} ~ —~30 | _ The Sata which we have Re leave little room to doubt ncipal annual movements of the needle are connected iain corresponding movements of the isothermal line ; 340 Prof. Wie sah aga on the Diurnal and Annual variations, §c and that the sania ditbi is such as our theory calls for. The question of this connection cannot however be definitively settled until we have’ obtained a ar series of observations, and at a Beater number of places. ; = te Moats wale oti General Results. . Tt may be well to ‘recapitulate here’ ie brain important results arrived at in this and‘the previous memo , 1. The diurnal and aniual variations of the horizontal _mag- hetic intensity are’due to the joint operation‘of two general an- : sp rermiatis causes, V1Z., variations of temperature and variations of ae The’ diurnal and® annual variations of the‘height of the : Seltin (or pressure of the air) are attributable to a Sang: ie * general causes ;—with this probable ditference, that in ASE the effects result. directly from changes in the teapereaatl “and ‘humidity of-the air, and in the other from changes: in the tem eer and humidity of the earth’s surface Sta Sieben of horizontal mate intensity and of bar thie t #6), be heared: variate of the jioctaaal magnetic oe es ae gonsequences of the thermal theory of t ial-maghe hting that moisture has a magnetic ion; ons the Variations of the horizontal force, e get fications ae deed: ‘by the. deposition of vapor aye ages “evaporation of the ‘same {from the-eart a 0 thee ease a the diurnal variations the : effiécis: ee ‘the mean of three months’ variations) are confined chiefly ‘to th ag between sundown and the hour of: 10 a.m. on the: tolls ' e 6. Taking the mean for three’ months, bees au erease of the horizontal force during the iefly upon the quantity of rain that falls. ‘The “easpination the ¥ station of - needle and the temperature af. a place. to the nee k or south of i The al variations of ‘vertical force and “ietene of. sone 2 * perature also appear to proceed pari passu with each’ other; but » . the observations hitherto discussed are too lithited to settle defini- tively the question of natural dependence. © 9. There is an undoubted connection bagween the diurnal variations of the declination and those. of the horizontal force. . his connection may be described as: follows # ‘when: the curve iar oy l ‘variations ‘of the horizontal ‘force is concave be cotemporaneous vie the points of inflexi ion. of the curve of [ 3 horizontal force.* ae 0. . hich the declination varies with the shifting’ posit “the ual molecular magnetic intensity ;—which tie. wii Beret aly coincident with-the line of equal horizontal” mag ce. ‘The line in question differs from wee true ithe ut | ; Teason. of the oe of the horizontal fore “thon in Planis and tie Alternation of Generations” observ “tn gome. Radiata ; by, Janes. D. Dan NA. af Boat etre the Airican Ascovation for we Advancement of Science at New n, August, 1 : Tur very ‘eoiplikable fact that a Polyp and a Medusa may be N some instances different states of one and the same species, } been well established of late by the researches of Sars, yell, Steenat trap, and others; and recent important observa- * See this Journal, 2nd ser., viii, 360, 361. ion ( westerly) is increasing; and when the This connection accords with.our theory, agreeably to 7 aa, the. (edu 5 between the mode of Rep: epreditt Ria s eeation repeating the form of the original paren e" ‘Yet bgunouen seemingly so mysterious, is er this a of de- se. Alternation of Generations in Radiata. tions have been made on ~~ subject by Professor Agassiz. 'The alternations are as follow . The Medusa ciate eggs ;— 2. The eggs, after passing through an infusorial state, fix ‘themselves am become polyps, like Coryne, Tubularie, or Cam- * panulariee ;— 3..' The, ia produce a kind of bud that finally drops off and: becomes a Med ‘Thus the’ egg of 4 a Me -dusa, in such cases, does not produce a Medusa, Bae after going through the intermediate state of a Ms ‘Or if we commence duith the polyp, the series is thus :— “1. The polyp produces bulbs that become Meduse ; 2. The Meduse produce eggs; 3. ‘The eggs produce This i is what.is called by Steenstrup slegsintion of Geter = tions ;’ ’ and he considers the earlier generation as preparing the : he for the latter. ‘It certainly seems to be a most mysterious ssa. parent ‘producing eggs which afford a progeny, of a Wholly different form,. (even so different; that. rete have _ arranged the progeny.in another grand division of the R La dia ee velo opme mon in the vegetable kingdom ?, Is it not the prevalen "process in. ae en of « our + gardens | and fields, with which we | well ki : howh is us, that in tost Genie, our trees an shrubs for example,gr rowth from the’ seed brings out a bud “ leaves ; from this bud after. elongation, other teaf-buds are often developed, each consisting like the first of a number of leaves. It is an admitted fact (as ony be found i in T reatises on? ial ra copra: To some cases the plant forms but a single leaf-bud ; in others, where there is successive gemmation for a period, the number is gradually multipled, and more or less according to the habit of the species. So among polyps, there is the simple and compound Tubularia, Campanularia, and the like. After the plant has sufficiently matured by the production and growth of its number of leaf-buds, there is a new development— a flower-bud y—consisting of the .~ ee as the leaf- bud, but ge unlike it in general ap nece—as much so, as th usa is unlike the polyp. The Rower-indvetiei starts as a ) from the leaf-individual, or the group of leaf-individuals, s in every respect to the bulbs from the ee On Electro-magnetism as a Moving Power. 343 } larize and allied species; and when it has fully matured, it pro- _. duces, like the Medusa, ovules or seed—these seed to begin the _ _ found again of successive or alternating developments. a ye Thus among plants the seed produce leaf-individuals; these Me yield bulbs or buds becoming flower-individuals; and these pro- duce seeds; precisely, as the egg produces polyps, the polyps, bulbs that develop into Meduse, and the Meduse, eggs." When we follow out this subject minutely, we find the -anal- ogy completely sustained even in minor points of structure and . growth. .The leaf-bud consists of leaves developed in a spiral order; and in the polyp, as some species-show beyond doubt, the ~ tentacles and corresponding parts are spiral. in development. The. — same spiral character is found in the flower, but the volutions are ~ the t Cy so close as not to be distinguished readily from circles. In Meduse referred to, the regularly circular form is far more neatly Med : and perfectly developed than among the poly ps—as is clearly seen ia comparison of the polyp Coryna, with the elegant Sarsia, a ws ___ fessor Agassiz’s ‘recent memoir, published by the Ameriean -. emy.of Arts and Sciences at Boston. The relations in structure etween plants and polyps might be farther dwelt upon ;.but for ther observations the writer would refer to his’ volume* on tae . Avr. XXXL—On Electro-magnetism as a Moving Power ; by Lae ~~ Prof. Caras. . Pace. Na Sa +¢. G cted with the poles of a battery in action, that an iron bar a : species of which is described and beautifully delineated .in Pro- a? : fie Ament pees a ari cl 43 . ae 344 On Electro-magnetism as a Moving Power.’ be partly drawn ont of the helix by the hand, it goes back with a spring when the hand lets go its hold. This power—the action of the helix upon the metallic bar within it,—is the power used in his engine. ‘The power, when a single coil is used, has its points of greatest and weakest force, and in this condition is objectionable« But by making the coil to consist of a series of short independent helices, which are.to be brought in action suc- cessively, the metallic rod is made to pass through the coil ~ back again with great eee ty and an equable motion. In all t engines hitherto used, t ere isa loss of power at the instant of i _ change of current, owing to the production of a secondary current _Moving in the opposite direction, and to this loss is owing the fact that these engines cannot be rendered available. Prof. Page had in view the obviating of this difficulty when he commenced his “recent investigations, and has: full success in his new invention. The report below, is an outline only of his experiments on:the appiration, of Electro-magnetism, and is dated, Aug. 3d, 1850. er atte aaa from the National Intelligenodt of Sepien r Ans Hi Fadi i ive brief time-allowed, it seill be imppentila for. me aig "more in’ Anis respect than to give an outline of the experim which I have repeated and recorded during the past year. heir — full detail and sabi esi will form a volume, replete 1 with inter : esting sc matter, and require much time and lab e firs pene experiments ‘were made with a sual iad emulate, build expressly | for the purpose, and with the utmost care n reference ‘to’ mec rical accuracy. ; Attached to this. was a dy- nanometer of new onstruction, and: ‘admirably. adapted to- the gine, at any given velocity—a great desideratum..in a, this new power. With this trial engine the Sollevei eT questions were tested : a : 1, The dynamic values of different quadisies of; soft iron. a 4 2. The dynamic values of steel, hard and soft: » - 3 3. The dynamic value of cast iron The statical values of all these variéljes were tested by: a sepa- rate apparatus, constructed for the purpose, called the axial galva-_ nometer. ‘Twelve .warieties in all were tested, and were in bars of — uniform size, one foot-in length, and one inch in diameter, and it, was found that the statical and dynamic properties corresponded.” € proportions of the helices were approximately tested, though much remains unsettled yet upon this important poe: 5. The advantages of keeping up the magnetism in 2 axial bar was coast satisfactorily tested. 6. Various modes were tried of —- saat motion of the engine, and with success ge Ft . ag 2 * eye ae - On Electro-magnetism as a Moving Power. (845 7. Various kinds of cut-off (which i is the most critical ae ims portant point in the construction of the engine) were tried. , he operation of closed circuits and secondary currents was a by a number of experiments, requiring great care and ac- Facy. a The best working velocity of this engine, aid its absolute ‘ power with a given battery, was fully tested 0. The ratio baci increase of power, vith an iticrease in the rapreg, Sie the c he a ti of different binds of metal i in forming the cut-off. 12. Various mechanical points of construction, supposed to” have been — with the exhibition of; this power, were put to a practical tes _ Various other’ minor points also — the subject of experiment, which will be communicated herea - A-second model, of small size te somewhat rude cotistruc- tion, was also. made, with a view of ate a new prrengcgiees of the axial bars Experiments were then commenced upon a 1 larger scale; with: a view ‘to determine whether ‘the same proportion of pawer oe obtained from large as from small engines, this being the ce een in: view: at the time of the ao of the ih a d by the most flattering results. - sn Sat Vol. X, No. 30—Nov., 1850. 44 e 346 On Ellectro-magnetism as a Moving Power. The experiments here were not such as could be performed upon the laboratory table; but were with large masses of iron, : weighed six hundred pounds. When this engine was first tried, iL > with the same battery which had before given me one-fifth of as ticularly to the cut-off, which was a very different thing now from what it. had been in smaller engines, the engine soon yielded one horse power. . Here was a gain of eighty per cent. as meas- ured merely by the size of the battery. But it was much more ; for the cost was found to be less for one horse power than it had been before for one-fifth of a’horse power, ina smaller, engine ; how much less has not yet been ascertained. 2 eee A great variety of experiments were continued with this engine, to be hereafter detailed, each having a ans “objegt; and, t . am happy to say, each resulting advantageousfy, .so that finally, by little daily increments, I obtained from this engine, by a tri- fling addition of battery, a full two horse power. ce way of giving a practical character to the engine, it was geared toa circular ‘saw ten inches diameter, the turning-lathe and grindstone of the workshop, all of: which it worked simulta- neously, as witnessed by a number of visitors, and, if I mistake not, by your ecessor in office, in company with Lieut. Maury, — of the National Observatory. After many satisfactory trials with this engine, it was taken down, and all its available parts used in the construction of the single horizontal engine which I had the honor lately to exhibit ‘ore the Smithsonian Institution. This change was © 10K the purpose of dispensing with the dead weight of one of the driving bars, and more particularly for introducing the important . four-horse. Further addition of battery would still augment the power, and I see no reason why ten horse power might not be obtained from this engine, by the addition of more-battery ; but Whether it would be economical to increase. power by this means alone, and to ascertain the point, for this and every other engine, beyond which economy would cease by increasing the battery, — alone, are matters to be determined by experiment. 2 Te The next most important point to .be determined was the ex- the expense was found to be less than the most expensive s engines, although recently, in Europe, it has been decided by ex-_ petimenters and men of science, and generally conceded, that it was fifty times the cost of the dearest steam*engines; but this is no obstacle to its introduction, considering its immense advanta- Ses in other respects. Moreover, if thus much has been done in le Very inception of this undertaking, what may we reasonably __.€Xpect from its further prosecution ?* A eS i aged it can be rendered available in practice, much remains to be done with the galvanic battery, to render its action regular abd durable, and in other ways to establish a certainty of action, __ 80 that the engines ‘may be managed by persons not thoroughly Skilled in the subjects of electricity and magnetism. __ It remains yet also tobe proved whether the power will in- Crease in proportion to thé size of the engines. ‘This principle Seems tobe strongly indicated by ‘past experiments; but yet it cannot be established by caleulation or process of reasoning. Ex- periment upon ai extensive scale can alone determine this point. A part of the work preparatory to building a locomotive engine has none; but it seems necessary to try further experiments * Prof. Page, a8 mentioned in our last’ nuniber, statéd in his remarks before the American Association, that one horse power for twenty-four hours, would cost about f. W. R. Jo that his estimate was based upon too 2 cost for the zinc, and that 10 cents would be a nearer estimate. In either case, a aot advance is made upon’all previous experiments. ' f. age also observed, that the cost of electro-magnetic power was not to be reckoned in this comparison by the mere cost of zinc, nor the cost of steam by the ds of coal consumed. The cost of human life, the sacrifice of millions of m4 and risk of many millions more, and all the contingent advantages and 0 account. : mode of me plained tas follows after drawing a diagra 1 2 load lbs. The power required to barely keep the engine in motion under this min nt 126 Ibs. The full power being on, the engine made eighty revolutions per 348 On Electro-magnetism as a Moving Power. yet been tested, although it possesses Soaps el not to be found in auy form of the reciprocating engine. re are some ob- vious disadvantages attending its construction ; cn it is hoped that they will be “outweighed, more especially as this form of the engine will. oocuny less than one-half the room required for the % reciprocating fo It wonld teemee desirable that the investigation thus begun, and so far stigcessfully eonducted, should be carried at least be- yond an uncertain issue, and that every important point should be settled, and particularly that of its availability on an extensive scale. The power is peculiarly fitted for’ purposes of navigation, ake itcan be made subservient; and atrial npon a scale of oue 7, wing ‘notice of Prof, Page’ 8 experiments is from the Daily National In- tel'i rencer of September 11, ~ Since the first announcement by Prof. Page of the resu ults of his discoveries, I have seen pa gee: public journals accounts of inventions for the same purpose, b -_ other persons, and in mést.of them claims to novelty and great superiority. I had “ some candy e refer té Professor P. an article of this kind, fom aJate number of the St. L perey in which it was stated that Mr. Bl t.city, ha new faveution, “far in ce,” as was sho culation, “ of that adopted by snaking the reference, my attention was ca sh th vole an'’s Journal, page 352; published in 1839, in which Pro explained and fig ed an electro-zmagne Babe 3 ios is peculiar and entirely new eter hitherto tried ; ‘and ther the bering: of his s beaten: oy whi ch; ‘though seemingly. fair, he _Wwas pers the ES daicod end, he marked out an entirely new oie.* his and ot other plans as I understand it to be, is*this: In i Laat at pa eberstery st Dr. Page, a the awial en owhi o@fhink: de really. a curio 13>. @achi peor at this, iilstaad alt) I his woud feele “it “appears” 2 at upon a ne ew e era ‘in ‘seience an art, promisit rev pursuits as miractlous to the people of the day ‘ steam eye and the magnetic telegraph. * In order to show ‘that there was somethi power, he Joaded down m thé. saat é laced "tke crank at half stroke, and then a hook over the’ end ‘of. * bg crank, to which wai k was attached a long rope. Three of the strongest m th then’ hold of the rope, two ving their feet b. The three men could not the engine a hair’s br Four of the men the k and they moved the crank two inches, where it stuck fast. The power was then let on, and the ~ started, and e & speed of ninety vovahwioat nute taking off fourteen pounds from: the end of his friction brake the engine made one hundred { and rn Pars tis per minute. Professor Page stated that this was not testing the power of the engine, but it showed that what four men could but just move days i i ied of a mi t, t tw hes, the earried through pip mile, and that, too, in ute. Und that, from t ge e posi t power of four men could go no further than two inches, gate ‘essor @ expects to make a ne I upon a railroad soon. ‘He has sufficient power now to make a demonstration ; but is not satistied with it, He-would be : to make the first trip with psig arsaonel horse power, It is, however, that A invention, and _ navigation he ets the test. benefits from this : oie toss the project carried toto of = engine and magnate bot [ne rio ; of fam et we n eharcoa = eae fn mber | of the On the Secondary Spark. . 349 hundred horse power seems to be the only mode of arriving at a definite conclusion upon this point. It is obvious that, prelimi- nary to such an undertaking, a great many experiments will be absolutely necessary ; and such only as one quite familiar with the difficulties of entering upon an entirely new. eld, of opera- tion can pepe appreciate. | Arr. XXXII.—Singular property, and sehinordtieete size and length of the Secondary Spark ; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pace, M.D., Washington, D.C In experimenting with my great maghet a new property of the’ secondary spark has been discovered’ and some. very interesting facts elicited. I will. premise that the helix nearly a foot in diame- _ tereach way, when charged by the battery, draws up within it © " a Vertical position a huge bar of iron weighing 300 pounds, through a distance of ten inches, presenting by far the most power- » ful Magnet ever ‘known. When the circuit with the helix: is sud- y broken a secondary spark is produced; eight inches in length. eae he most Reranteng feature of this a is the modification én th merican Journal: Washington, D, ©, Aug. 27, 1850. World to enter oe ‘the benefits of the - iat fi kind past ae power cannot ry, or satis Ly Tea a er ther be — available for “locomotion or navigation,” Sacrifice of mind and mea ar ph rege to find that which eg py it tad be Secured by the: pr plan) d ‘ge exist... A point has been arrived his ae investigation which indiaten, to use the language of Professor Page, in 4 “a sah to Congress, the import sce “1 carrying the thing “ beyond an un- T ave no doubt of the applicability and rape e04 (especially if we ife) of pcg * age purposes mak Congress in providing for the experiments DY tt the world may not yet be pc aq, and many vil be real have still to be made, and peoemlion — , expended am _power for ships, or that to his zeal and intelligence we are not in- introduction of what we now enjoy in the “— of steam na — 350 On Rutile and Chiorite in Quartz. Art. XXXII.—On Rutile and Chlorite in Quartz; by O. P. Husearp, M.D., Prof. Chem., Min. and Geol., Dart. Coll., N. H. From the Lepeondinae of the fea es egeperg for the Advancement of Science, New Haven, 1850. Spiess of rutile in quartz have for twenty years past, been found.in boulders in several towns in the vicinity of Dartmouth College, none of which ee ever been traced to their sources. Localities. have been mentioned, but none have furnished spe- cimens resembling these boulders, excepting a single one. This -. Central Railroad. It was described by Mr. Alger in the Proceed- ings of the American Association for 1849, and also in.the pres- ent volume of this Journal, page ~~. Ina cut of sixty feet perpendicular through solid talcose slate, and thirty feet from the surface, a vein or pocket of quartz ‘was met, and a considerable number of specimens soniaumaae rutile were obtained. The locality is now exhausted. F its position, it never could have furnished the scattered ‘cialis heretofore known, and we have yet to discover their origin. .” Some of the specimens from this region have comparatively. but little beauty; the rutile is in very fine capillary crystals of dark color, two or three inches in length, and the quartz is of stele quality. But others are exceedingly fine, both in the rich- ss of the quartz and the abundant long needJes of the rutile. “There are three known American specimeng of a remarkable character, one of which is from this Waterbury locality. The other two were found as boulders and are even of superior quality. One of these has been in the Cabinet of Dr. J..R. Chilton, New York City, for many years, and is réported to have been found in Northern New England. It has the rutile in long acicu- lar crystals and one series of prisms united into a crystal a kcal -. fer of an inch wide. . The other is a mass in the writer’s cabinet, described. by Mr. _ Alger as “the finest specimen of this mineral found in the Uni- ted States.” _ It was picked up in this region nearly twenty years ago, but in what town is not known. Specimens _— Roches- ter and Bethel, Vt,, resemble it more than any other It is about six inches long and three inches in its otha dimen- sions, being of irregular shape, and only a fragment of a larger mass. ‘T'wo sides have been cut ons polished by the lapidary, one retains its polished plane boulder surface, and the remaining e exterior is irregular, presenting a conchoidal fractured surface. There are indications of smooth cleavage faces in ferent ea inclined to each other. uartz in mass is transparent and slightly smoky—while the slices cut off r are almost colorless. It is questionable w whether i | | 2. P-Series treet ine le # On Rutile and Chlorite in Quartz. 351 the color is proper to the quartz, or occasioned by the reflection from the rutile crystals. Mr. Alger finds almost no rutile in the white quartz crystals from Waterbury, “ while the colored varieties abound with it,” and probably, he suggests, owe their color to it. The rutile crystals are from the size of the finest hair and al- Most invisible, up to a twelfth of an inch in diaméter and five inches long; they are uniformly distributed through ‘the quartz, and intersect and cross each other in all directions. ‘There is no radiation from a centre, but in many instances the crystals have one or more large graceful curves, and sometimes two in opposite directions, and some are bent at an angle either right or oblique. any are broken at the surface of the quartz, while others are Wholly included in it, terminating in a single plane or tapering to a point. They are all of a uniform bright reddish brown color, and of |» the lustre of polished copper. Where the ends are seen on the polished faces they have the color and lustre of polished steel. nN humerous cases the surface of the crystals is covered here and there with a brilliant, silver white mineral, sometimes limited — to the lateral edges, and again investing parts of the prism at in- tervals, or with frequent ‘interruptions, giving it the appearance of eing made up of numerous short white and brown prisms, the orm remaining unchanged. In some éases this mineral occurs like a thin disk, through the centre of which the rutile appears to penetrate. I have not been able to determine with certainty the nature of pa _and can only conjecture that it is the same with the cufyed crystals described below. In the writer’s specimen, a8in those described by Mr. Alger, there are humerous vermiform, tortuous and convoluted crystals. By transmitted light, theyare sometimes of the color of copper, thought faintly so, or,of a bronze yellow, or of greenish and yellow shades oreven very dark, and by direct light they are almost'black.’ These ir nsversely finely striated, — crystals are regular hexagonal prisms, tra s Pte and appear to be made up of thin plates of slightly varying size, 8iving thé érystals a varying diameter. They occur either singly or in groups of several laterally joined, and united in all their convolntions, and having a single terminal plane, highly lustrous, which often presents a silver white color. ‘The above figures, en- 352 On Crystallized Oryd of Chromium. larged views of two of them, give a perfect idea of the originals, the prismatic form of which is obvious to the eye and perfeetly distinct with a glass. If we judge from the figures in Mr. Alger’s paper in this volume, (p. 14,) the prismatic preci of his crys- tals is much less strikin Mr. Alger has described the mineral in his specimens, as mica. I have been able to obtain only a very small pag of the min- eral from one’ or two protruding curves on m cimen. It readily cleaves parallel to the terminal plane, is reais softer than mica, and is easily reduced by the pressure of a knife on _ white paper, into a fine, coherent powder, of a greenish tint. It has no elasticity, and before the blowpipe gives off an abundance of water. From these decided characters, and the rarity of such an association of mica, and the quite frequent one of chlorite and quartz, it seems altogether probable that this mineral is chlorite. If these several minerals were at one time in solution in, the fluid quartz, they-must have crystallized previous to. it. The rutile prisms are so straight or so gracefully curved and bent, that they ~ would seem to have experienced but slight resistance. They in- tersect- and cross each other, and pass through the loops in the chlorite crystals or touch them on the outside, and they peo cae first. Around most of these convolutions of chlorite ere is a burr, or a minute spot of imperfectly radiating fractures, Ssmictlly iridescent, which suggests that they were formed before me: solidification of the quartz, and that’ they had occa- e pressure or disturbance and a sligh racture. But as the: Sahlcrite: uniformly, and ‘the rutile in very many cases, must have: been ‘without any attachment,’ the ee of eit fluid quartz to have sustained them was probably gre On removal of the rutile. and chlorite: rig the gang gue the vertical strie of the former.and the transverse strie of the latter are found figured on the quartz, making it eertain that the latter was last solidified. There must be somewhere in this region north, ‘a rich deposit, for which mineralogists will earnestly seek, until it is Sse and - its treasures are transferred to appt cabinets. Arr. XXXIV.— Occurrence of Crystallized Oxyd of Chromium in furnaces Ped the manufacture of Chromate of Potash ; by W. P. Brak Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, New Haven, August, 185 i reice of the sesquioxyd of specie have been obtained in small quantities by Wohler, by passing the vapor of cio? —— acid through a tube heated to nF | ' } q On Crystallized Oxyd of Chromiwm. 353 _ The crystals which I have examined with the following re- sults, were obtained from a furnace which had been long in ope- ration for the production of chromate of potassa from the mineral chromic iron. A portion of the furnace having been taken down for repairs, I found small but exceedingly brilliant:erystals lining isseminated the cracks and fissures between the fire bricks an - @: ab=141° 38’ 24” (mean of 5 measurements.) Calculating from a:R, the angle a: a} =141° 15, and R: as = 96° 50’; and.gs the plane. a} is exceedingly small, this result is More probably ids than that given above from measurement. he angle a: R gives for the angle of the rhombohedron 85° 22’, which is but little less than that given for specular. iron. The axis = 1-39045, The crystal according to Naumann’s notation has the descriptive, expression, OR, R,-4R, R®. The crystals have the hardness of sapphire, equal to 9 on the Scale of Mohs. Lustre metallic. Color black ; opaque ee ite plates, which are green by transmitted light. The powder ort als _ The mass of the bricks and the portions on which the sesqui- oxyd has crystallized, is charged with soluble yellow chromate of Potash, and in many or all of the specimens the green color of the uncrystallized oxyd can be seen. Srconp Series, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov,, 1850. 45 354 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. My frequent ‘daily examinations of the furnaces in operation made me familiar with the condition in which the contents were at differeut times, and considering the facts before stated, I ac- count for the production of the crystals in the. following way. When the furnace, newly constructed or lined with fire- brick, is fired and. charged with alkali and chrome: ore, much of the fused chromate of potash formed, is absorbed by the porous bricks, and I-observed that it had penetrated througts three or four courses of bricks and mortar _ After the-furnace has been long i in operation the bricks become saturated, and vitrified, to a certain depth; and the floor and sides of the furnace become incrusted with a vitreous. coating, which is constantly increasing. The parts more remote from the _ fire are consequently better protected from changes and variations - of temperature, and are exempt from the inne of: more fused material. The chromate of potash i is thus kept for a ae time at a uni- form high-temperature, and gradually losing its potash from vola- ~~ tilization, the chromic¢-acid (Gr) in combiriation with it loses ony “Se es — saat (#) and eeynaiiiaes. Cae Penn Art. XXXV.—Memoir on Emery; by J. Lawrence Smrrs, M.D.—F'rst part—On the Geology — beepers of. Emery, — from. observati tons made in Asia "Mino 4 Read before ihe. “heademny” of. Sciences of the Fre ench Institute, Jay 15th, 1850, and commiunicat ted by the author for this Journal. Or all the mineral substances employed i in the arts, ie have offered so little opportunity for. geological examination as emery, aad ee our knowledge of it in this er is very imit J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 355 Prior to 1846, the existence of emery was rot remarked in Asia Minor or any of the contiguous islands except that of Samos, which fact is alluded to in Tournefort’s travels in the seventeenth century. In the latter part of 1846, I arrived in Smyrma, and was shown specimens which I recognized as emery: that came from a place about twenty miles north of Smyrna; they had been first discovered through the agency of a knife grinder of the ish government as well as to the arts emery being at that time ~ posed locality of this mineral. On this second visit other local- ities were made know to me that an English merchant by the name of Healy had succeeded in bringing to light. acd The first locality towards which I directed my examination — was that of Gumuch-dagh, a mountain about twelve miles east of the ruins of Ephesus. Before, however, arriving there, ‘I discovered this mineral imbedded in a calcareous rock in a-valley: twenty miles south of: Smyrna, called Allahman-Bourgs.; the — Position not being very favorable for the ‘study of the geology of — this substance, my route. was continued to the place originally ‘Bixed upon. Obtaining guides at the village of Gumuch, | com- Menced the.examination of the mountain, which is composed of bluish. marble resting on mica slate and gneiss. On-the very summit of the mouutain, the emery was found. scattered about and projecting above the surface of the soil. After examining the extent of the formation and satisfying myself that it was there M. Smith and some of the officers of the imperial powder works, to examine thoroughly into the importance of this mine, a bd cording to the report that will be made the government will de- cide on the steps to be taken with reference to it, &c. This circumstance, unimportant in itself, has subsequently be- come of great value to secure to me the priority of the discovery and examination of emery in situ in Asia Minor ;* and also to show that I have been instrumental in the development which has oem ees ONO aac ere Miah te Sn Ale a ea * See Am. Jour. Sci., 2nd ser., vol. vii, 283. 356 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. been subsequently given to this emery in a commercial point of view. Since the first discovery other localities have been ascer- tained by me, all of which will be alluded to in this memoir. Localities'of Emery in Asia Minor and the neighboring islands. Gumuch-dagh.—In going from Ephesus east to Gouzel-Hissar (the ancient 7'ralles) we pass by the ruins of the ancient city o agnes on the Miandre and near to this latter is a beautiful valley, celebrated for its figs, in which is situated the village of Gumuch at the foot of a mountain bearing the same name, It was here that the emery formation was first examined. ~All the rocks of the surrounding country appear to belong to ‘the old series; the limestone is entirely devoid of fossils and’metamorphic in its ~ character; it rests on the older schists of which mica schist ap- pears the most abundant, and this again farther to the north was traced in contact: with gneiss. The Jimestone is of alight blue - passing into a coarse grained marble; and on the south side, the _ roek by its decay leaves in many places precipices of considera- ble elevation, that add much to the picturesque appearance of the region. . cade The emery is found in different places in the Gumuch moun- _ tain; the place, however, to which it is traced in greatest abun- | dance, is on a part of the summit about three miles from the village of Gumuch, and some fifteen hundred or two thousand feet above the level of the valley; it overlooks the magnificent plain of the Miandre, whose curiously tortuous course is seen as if traced on a map. The emery lies scattered on the surface in the greatest profusion, in angular fragments of a dark color, and large masses of several tons weight are seen projecting above the surface ; in penetrating the soil, the emery is found imbedded in it and a little farther down it'is come ‘to inthe rock. In fact by breaking the marble that projects above the’ surface‘at this spot we are sure to find nodules of the mineral. - ; ~ Sometimes the emery forms:almdst a solid mass several yards in length and breadth. One’ of thesé places, opened’for the pur- of exploring, is about ten’ of twelve yards square and all the. _ rock taken out is emery ; the spaces between the blocks are filled with an earth highly charged with oxyd of iron. In some places the masses are consolidated by éarbonate of lime of infiltration, which must not be confounded with the emery in its original gangue (the marble) in which it is found in nodules sometimes round and at other times fissured so as to represent angular frag- ments. In no place does it present anything like a vein, nor has it signs of stratification. The largest mass at this locality that J saw unbroken must weigh from thirty to forty tons. Attached to this mineral, more especially in the fissures and on the surface, are several minerals that will be alluded to hereafter. ce ws J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 357 Kulah.—Phis locality of emery is the second in importance in Asia Minor, it is a town situated about a hundred an fifty miles delphia (one of the seven churches). It is near the river Hermes, and on that interesting volcanic district of Asia called Catacecau- mene or the burnt country, resembling in many respects the vol- canic region of Auvergne. The rocks forming the base of this region are of the older metamorphic series, covered to a greater or less. depth. by lava. of different volcanic periods, which has flowed from the numerous craters that form the prominent feature of this region, 'T’he most common rocks in the mountain ranges about Kulah aré white granular limestone, mica slate, hornblende schist, gneiss and, granite ; the last four are séen more conspicu- ously in the mountain two or three. miles to the south, which ave not been subjected to volcanic action ; the limestone. over- rock lies these rocks. Before arriving at the place where I examined the emery, (about two miles to the northeast of Kulah,) an outcropping of gneiss ? Was seen and subjected to the closest scrutiny, without discover- ing the slightest trace of corundum; and I will here remark that although I have found several thin layers of mica schist engaged in _ the marble, in no instance was there any trace of corundum in it. . The marble in this region is very compact, of great hardness and I may also add of great purity. I cannot say whether this’ hardness is traceable to a greater depth than that to which it has felt the influence of the superimposed lava. Here again the em- ery was found on the surface, but not in‘sueh abundance as at Gumuch-dagh, and moreover the soil is not as deep as in the latter place. The emery as seen in the marble at Kulah is ca- pable of being studied with the greatest satisfaction, particularly as two or three places in the rock have been quarr aarrie Adula.—Not far from this town which is about twelve or fif-- teen miles east of Kulah, 1 have also discovered emery, only, d. Island of Nicaria, Grecian, Archipelago.—I have also been able to examine thoroughly the emery of this island, which prom- attached to the surface. = pir Fl eos hee 358 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. and of Naxos.—This old and well known>lo@ality is here a ae to, simply because it has furnished me with: specimens, the examination of which forms a part of this memoir. It is found in large blocks mixed with a red soil and also imbedded in white marble. It is taken principally from the north and east side of the island—the best comes from Vothrie, nine miles fromthe _ Shore, and is embarked at Sulionos. ‘Another good locality is at Apperanthes, seven miles from the shore, and it is embarked at a small port called Moutzona. In the south of the island it is found near Yasso. It is in such abundance on this island, that notwith- standing the immense quantity carried. off it is not sie ‘foun d necessary to quarry it from the roc Conclusions sath reference to the Geology o + Emery. The localities at Gumuch-dagh and Kulah are those which afforded me the best means of studying the geology of emery, although in-every instance I have ems it associated with ce old limestoue overlying mica slate, gnei Cc. ‘It is imbedded either in the earth eae covers the limestone a in the rock itself; and exists in masses from the size of a that of. several tons Weight, generally angular, sometimes Lass ed, and when in the latter form they do. not appear to have be- come so by attrition. The masses in the soil possess but little interest for the weil gist, as they may have been left there by the decomposition of the rock, or been transported from other positiogs ; still, the latter is difficult of supposition, in reference to what is found at Gu- much-dagh, for here it is only on the summit and not on the sides of the mountain that the emery has. been, traced. _ But having had the means of studying the emery and rock in contact, I have come to the firm conclusion, that the emery has been formed and consolidated in the limestone in which it is found, and that it has not been detached from older rocks as granite, gneiss, 62, and lodged in the limestone at. the pees of its formation..* My reasons for s so thinking are the following— Ist. In no instance could the closest investigation of the older rocks of these localities, that are below the limestone, furnish the slightest indication of the existence of emery there ; 20 moreover the masses of emery in the limestone never had ‘frag ments of another rock attached to them. A few thin layers of mica slate were found in the limestone, but they were not in con- tact with the emery, nor contained any traces of corundum. dwell thus much on this point, because in my specimens the careous rock in connection with the emery is under two forms; that of the original rock, and that formed by the intl of calcareous water in the fissures which exist near the J. Lawrence Smith on E mery. 359 2d. The limestone immediately in contact with the emery differs almost invariably in color and composition from the mass of the rock; and.at Kwdah, where the marble forming the rock is remarkably pure:-(as evinced by analysis), the part in contact and contains a large portion of alumina and oxyd of. iron. thickness of this interposing coat between the emery and the marble is variable ; but what is certain, it passes gradually into white marble, so that their crystalline structures run into eac other, showing that they are one and the same rock. Had the Masses of emery been broken from an older rock and imbedded in _the marble at ‘its:formation, there is no reason why the contact ‘Should not always be direct and immediate without this transition from ferro-aluminous limestone to pure marble. What we see is _ just what should be expected in ferruginous and aluminons min- _ erals forming and separating themselves from a limestone not yet - consolidated ed for exploring this mineral. It has been stated that at all the localities under consideration, but principally at Gumuch and axos, the emery exists in great abundance detached from the rock in a red earth; now this earth is simply the result of the decomposition of this heterogeneous calcareous envelope, which from its nature is easy of disaggregation by the influence of at- mospheric agents. Had the emery been in immediate contact with the marble we could -hardly have expectéd this spontaneous “Separation in so great a quantity. I have in some iristances seen small nodules of emery in small cavities in the-rock but perfectly detached. : e-immensé mass- alluded to as covering several square yards of surface is another evidence of the emery. having been formed in the limestone ; for this mass does not consist of a single piece, but of a number of different sizes, not lying together _ irregularly, but with their contiguous surfaces more or less paral- lel, although removed a little distance from each other; in fact, it 1s just what we would expect in a large mass that for some cause or other had been fissured in various directions. 4th. Yet another circumstance to be remarked in connection A B S S S Cod S @ 5 © 122] Lal ° S fa) so] or ad = oO Zz > S or & isc) o S - is) oO - ~ a is) value of this argument is better understood on examining the Specimens in my possession é with the emery is of a dark yellow-color resembling ‘spathic iron, 4 2 ‘ _ BP a ; ot TD hts kind of separation between the emery and the marble has been highly useful in the facility that it has indirectly afford- 360 J. Eewrence Smith on Emery. Enough having been said to prove that the. emery under con- sideration was formed within the limestone. in which it is found, I will allude to process of segregation which has given rise to this formatio It would. sane that the substances. pfininated fines the calea- reous rani were silica, alumina, and oxyd of iron, and that these three in the exercise of homogeneous - and chemical attractions have given rise to the minerals which consti itute an are assocla- isa j ted with emery. In my collection, there is ing this. fact in a remarkable manner. dt is a emery in the center, with two concentric. yer the inner of chloritoid and pa outer of emerylite ; the. tter was in nh contact with the limest Em ery ~inixtie of corundum (lumina ale bydrated) and oxyd of ir Chlorioit—sle 24, alumina AO, oxyd of, iron 28,, water Io - Eme 30, 0, lime 13, water Ati in ae caine in commencing from the external. cop . thick direction we must regard the consolidation of the:no that the larger portion of silica eliminated as combined witl “a Jargé portion of alumina and some lime to tome a pecuhar mine t, the remainder of the silica ‘combines. with an aditional hex quantity of alumina and considerable oxyd of iron to form another ‘mineral ; and finally the remaining alumina and oxyd of iron crystallize separately.. Facts of this kind in geology are not un- frequent, but they are always highly a and worthy of remark. In coneluding the geological considerationsof emery with ref- erence to the localities in Asia Minor and the. mh islands, I would remark, that at some Jour time when the observations become extended, it will doubtless. be found that the emery forms the geognostic mark of extensive calcareous,formations in that part of the world, just as the flints do in the chalk of Europe. Mineralogical position of E'mery. Emery has been considered by some as corundum, others sup- it represente some rock or other, not always the same, in which corundum is disseminated in greater or less quantity ; others again consider it a mixture of corundum and oxyd of iron. I am of opinion that the latter is the most correct manner of re- garding this substance. Emery properly speaking is not a simple mineral, but a me- chanical mixture of granular corundum and oxyd of iron in which the former usually predominates. It has not the aspect of corun~ dum disseminated in a rock, for it is found in ns — of different dimensions and of great hardness; and when broket giving way in the directions Sf fissures, which oxy co in the mass. : ~ Most frequently there is no other ee of the. presence of corundum i in emery but its hardness. The oxyd of Iron present. 1s always’ under the form of magnetic oxy h ‘ies or less mixed with oligiste ;: sometimes it is titaniferons. There are aes minerals associated with the emery, all of which will ake destribed hereafter. The as aspect of this Eritice differs more than is supposed, for by. which to judge others, ~ ‘The localities that I have discovered furnish me with specimens showing considerable ditfereuce not i “only ¢ as Meatie ie: but also in the structure. ‘he. os emery is of a dark grey with a mottled surface, and ebb “points of a micaceous mineral disseminated in th ‘Inass. © Tt t frequently contains bluish specks or streaks which are easily: recognized as being pure corundum. The Gumuch-dazh emery is commonly of a fine grain did oR dark. blue’ bérdering on black, not unlike certain varieties of mag-. . perce) iron ores. With this variety we frequently find pieces of -coruridum of some size. The interior of the mass is tolerably ‘pes from the micaceous specks found in that of Naxos The Kulah emery is usually coarse grained, and much’ darker than that of Gumuch-dagh, ‘its external surface resembling some- times that of chromate'of iron. The Nicaria emery in many instances presents a schistose or lamellated structure to a very remarkable degree, so much so that certain specimerg might pass for gneiss. ‘T’ he color is dark blue and somewhat mottled like that of Naxos. ‘There is also much that is quite compact found in the same locality. The jamella- ted variety contains.an abundance of a micaceous ara which in this instance appears to*have determined its struc he Samos emery, as yet found only in small sahonitien, and in the form of nodules, is uniformly of a dark blue color, some- ~ times of a coarse grained and at other times of a fine grained a ‘Hot unlike. certain varieties of very compact blue lime- ne. Fracture.—The fracture of emery is tolerably er. — the surface exposed is granular of an adamantine aspect ; it is exceed- ingly difficult to break when not traversed by fissures or het of a lamellated structure as much of that from Nicaria. When re- duced to powder it varies in color from that of a dark grey to black. babes color of its powder affords no indication of its com- mercial v The aly examined under the microscope shows the distinct sia of the two minerals, corundum and oxyd of iron, 94 inseparable as the smallest fragment contains the Vol. X, No. 80.—Nov., 1850. 46 £. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 361 %* ett lately, the emery brought from Naxos has been the criterion — : 362 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. - Magnetism.—As‘itis natural to suppose all: specimens of em- | ery affect more or less the magnetic needle; in some the magnet- | ism is barely perceptible, in others it amounts to strong polarity. Odor.—Emery when moistened always affords a\.very. strong argillaceous odor; even the most compact varieties. = . °° Specific gravity.—T he different varieties do. not vary much in __ their specific gravity, it béing always in the neighborhood of 4. The specific gravity of various specimens will-be given-on a following page. . " a Poe Hardness.—The hardness of emery is its most important property, as to it is due the value of this substance in the arts. For this reason I have devoted much time and attention to the deter- mination of it. ‘Ina mineralogical sense its hardxess is not diffi- enlt to determine; for if we try different’ varieties of emery by scratching agate or other hard substance, the effect will naturally be very nearly the same ; for in every case, it will be some point of — corundum that has produced the scratch. If, however, we hap- fy), > 3 CN * Q Pu ae Pp a ir] &. ro) = fs] 5 2 a 3 ro) on} -* oo a] = =: ~~ e- 3 ° oO: Law | — om as o ia?) = oO cI a ° sen ba) sieve; the operation is repeated until all the emery has passed through the sieve. ‘The object of giving but two or three blows at a time is to avoid crushing any of the emery to too fine a powder. Ss Thus pulverized it is intimately mixed and acertain portion of it is weighed, (as I operated with a balance ‘sensible’to a milli- gramme, the quantity used never exceeded a gramme.) ‘To test the effective hardness of this, a circular piece of glass about four inches in diameter and a small agate mortar are used. The glass is first weighed and placed ona piece of glazed paper; the pul- verized emery is then thrown on it little by little, at each time rubbing it against the glass with the bottom of the agate mortar. The emery is brushed off the glass from time to time with a feather, and when all the emery has been made to pass once over the glass, it is collected from the paper and made to pass through she same operation which is repeated three or four times. e glass is then weighed, after which it is subjected to the same Op- ration as before, the emery being by this time reduced to an im- palpable powder. This series of operations is continued unt -_ fe fF te jae Stay J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 363 by repeated weighing the loss sustained bythe glass is reduced “ae a to a few milligrammes, The total loss in the glass is then noted, > and when all the ‘specimens of emery are submitted to this opera- tion under'the same circumstances, we get an exact idea of their relative hardness. = ¢ The blue sapphire of Ceylon was pulverized and experimented with in:this.way; it furnished me‘with a unit of comparison by which to compare the results obtained. This operation is long — but certain, and for the harder varieties of emery it is necessary to repeat the rubbing six or séven times and it requires nearly two hours for completion, => The results that I have obtained are interesting and have fur- nished me with the means of forming conelusions that I could or Tt. not have otherwise-come at. & Glass and dgate-have uot been chosen for this experiment with- pieces of agate, with two pieces of glass, and with metal and “glass. The agates were found too hard, as they crushed the emery without producing hardly any abrasive effect; the-others were found not to crush the emery sufficiently, making the ex- timent tedious and long. With the glassand agate we have a ard substance which crushes the emery, and in a certain space of time reduces it to such an impalpable state that it has no longer any sensible effect on the glass, and on the other hand, the glass is soft enough to lose during this time sufficient of its substance to allow of accurate comparative results. In the employment of this method in the arts, it would not be necessary to go to the sapphire for a standard of comparison; any good emery would answer the purpose quite as well. a t must be understood that this method of coming at the abra- sive effects of emery does not furnish the mineralogical harduess of this substance, by which we understand the harduess of any individual particle, as evinced by its effect on a substance of less hardness,.without regard to the molecular structure of the mineral. Two minerals possessing the same hardness but differing in strne- ture, one being friable, and the other resisting, will be found very different in their abrasive effects; for instance, break a piece of quartz in two, subject one of the pieces to a white heat, and after cooling, compare the two by rubbing the point against some hard substance ; both will be found to scratch equally well: then try the two ina state of powder, by rubbing them between two pieces of glass that have been weighed, and the difference of their abrasive effects will be found very great; because, the one snb- Jected to the fire is exceedingly friable, and becomes readily crushed to an impalpable powder. This fact is eminently true With reference to emery, many specimens of which containing the same amount of corundum differ somewhat in their effective “e 364 J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. rR av hardness owing to the more or less Somapact: structure of the co- 3 ig ce a “rundum. By the method with the agate and glass:'I hae found the best emery capable of wearing away about one-half its weight of the glass (that used was the common Freneh window glass). The sapphire under the same circumstances :wearsaway more than four-fifths of its weight. A tabular view of ce will: be given a little farther on a Sa Chemical fenpbetetiie of Hiainy.° be Pe This substance consisting of a mixture of. corundum dnd oxyd of iron in various: proportions, it is easy tosee: what its composi- tion must be. “Yet the chemical examination of this mineral taken in connection with other properties is not devoid of interest. ‘For the purpose of analysis, the emery was —— to a state of powder, in the manner alluded to in speaking of its hardness, — with a diamond mortar and sieve. This powder was dried for twenty-four hours over sulphuric acid ; a gramme was then weigh- ‘ed in a small platinum crucible of about one-fourth of a cubic inch in Sapecitys fitted with é a cover that sagan itself well to it; this Thus arranged the crucibles were heated tg satanic for : r. After c g, thes pore: crucible was carefully withdrawn and weig bed “Th nished me with thé amount of water in the emery. °*" t requires a continued red heat to drive out all the Water, & circumstance which is true for a number of minerals, particularly or those containing a large amount of alumina as diaspore an the micas which will be spoken of in this wder, of which the water has been estimated, was next suilieniated to levigation in a large agate mortar placed on a sur- ace of glazed paper; and when completed, it was carefully de- tached from the mortar, placed in a platinum capsule, heated gently to drive off any hygrometric moisture and weighed ; the increase of weight furnished the amount of silica taken from the mortar. The levigation of one gramme was accomplished in two ope- rations, each requiring about twenty minutes; and by using @ mortar of convenient size and the extremity ‘of a feather or a small brush, it is possible to lose but an insensible quantity of the mineral and to with sufficient precision the amount of silica ot from the mortar. a ee J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 365 Another method by which I accomplished the levigation in ~ : some of the analyses, was in a steel mortar of the same formas the agate mortar; and when completed the powder was placed in a glass with nitric acid diluted with thirty times its weight of water and left in it for one hour agitating it occasionally. The iron taken from the mortar was. dissolved, and no part of the mineral attached. : The’ next thing was to filter and continue ‘the analysis with the substance thus freed from the iron of the mortar,.without any second weighing. Of these two methods I preferréd to employ the first for the emery, a8 it is more expeditious and almost if not quite as exact as the second.-. There are, however, occasions in-which the steel mgstar should be resorted to. » eae The substance once reduced to an impalpable powder, it was necessary to render it completely soluble, and my researches to - afrive at.this were long and tedious. In trying the various known ~ Methods the most successful was found to be that with a mix- - ture of carbonate of soda and caustic soda heated to whiteness _ for one hour; nevertheless I could not obtain a complete decom- . position, The decomposition might probably be completed if the levigation was made more thoroughly, but it is easy to. under- Stand, that with a large number of analyses of the same substance to make, it was a desideratum on my part not to consume the best part of a day in the levigation of a single gramme ; particu- , a8 I did not wish to confide this operation to another, as much Care was requir ose nothing during the levigation. Mixed with carbonate’@f baryta and heated in a forge, the decomposition of the mineral wagfar fronrbeing complete ; the same may be said : ISL Of potash. decomposes it almost entirely by a Single operation, but unfortunately, a double salt of potash and alumina is formed*which is almost insoluble in water or in the acids, and it is only by a solution of potash that it is first decom- posed and afterwards redissolved. I will not stop to detail all the disadvantages attending this method, but will at once speak of the method which gave me very easily the most accurate results. It is by means of the bisulphate of soda that all my analyses of emery, of corundum, and of several aluminates were made. I believe that I am the first who has shown the great advantage that I will say is, that the former in giving a decomposition at st as complete as the latter, furnishes a melted mass quite solu- Hi F — 366 J. Lawrence Smith on Eimery. — ble in water, and in the future operations of the analyses there is eno embarrassment from a deposit of alum. The bisulphate of soda was prepared by adding an excess of pure sulphuric acid to the pure carbonate or neutral sulphate of soda and heating it in a capsule until all: the water had been ex- pelled and sufticient of the acid to allow of the mass becoming solid on cooling. ‘That obtained 1 in commerce is not sufficiently The: pulverized emery is placed in a large platinum exuciblés with six or eight times its weight-of bisulphate of soda, and the mixture is-heated over a lamp in the same manner and with the same precatifions.as are employed when using the bisulphate of potash. From ‘fifteen to thirty minutes suffice for the operatten The mass is allowed. to cool, ee water with a few drops of. éul- alien ane are 6 added to it and the whole heated, when it solr tion: and when treated with water and a Joke or two of eee’ ric acid all except the silica is dissolved. ‘The liquid which passes ov filter in this case is added to the first and the analysis contin- ed. The silica obtained is diminished by the quantity taken up from the mortar in order to arrive at what is actually contained in the mineral. The filtered solution i is heated with a little nitric alkali ; this redissolves the alumina first precipitated and thus sep- arates it from the oxyd of iron and a trace of lime. The iron and lime are separated in the ordinary way; the alkaline solution of alumina was poe and the alumina precipitated with car- bonate of amm Thus analyzed, dee emery from different places gave the fol- lowing results :— oe aes i is Speci Chemical composition, | en Ts eo ee | Water (Alumina. Pion, Lime. | Silica. | ‘Total. 1 {kK 57 =e “190 | 6350 | 33-25 | 0-92 | 1°61 | 10118 2 56 3:98 | 210 | 70°10 | 29°21 | 0°62 | 400 | 99°03 3 56 3°75 | 2°53 | 71-06 | 20°32 | 1:40 | 41 4 53 4-02 | 2°36 | 68°00 | 30°12 | 050 | 236 | 98°34 5 47 382 | 311 | 77°82 62 | 1:80 | 81 6 46 8-75 | 472 | 68:53 | 2410 | 086 | $10 | 10131 aah 46 3-74 75°12 | 13°06 | O72 | 688 | 8 44 | $87 | 547 | 69-46 | 19:08 | 281 | 241 | 9928 a 42 4°31 | 5°62 | 60°10 | 33°20 | 0-48 | 180 eee 10 3-89 | 200 | 61-05 | 27-15 | 1:30 | 9°63 | 10113 | J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 367 - T ought to mention that the analysis afforded other substances’ in small quantities in some of the emeries ; as titanic acid, oxydof manganese, oxyd of zirconium, and sulphur (existing in pyrites) ; but these substances are unimportant in the composition of“emery, and are in such minute quantities, that it is necessary to operate on a considerable quantity of the mineral to obtain satisfactory results concerning them. a . + The analyses marked 6 and 8 were made by decomposing the emery as it. came from the sieve, without pulverization in the agate mortar. It was by accident that it occurred and I was not aware of the neglect until it was fused with the bisulphate of soda, but not wishing to lose the analysis, the operations were coutinuied as in the other cases, only using a little more of the bisitphate in the second decomposition ; aud somewhat to my sur- prise, the decomposition was quite as perfect as in the other cases. I had nearly completed all my analyses in the manner detailed, _ when*his fact became known, so that I have but these two cases to report. It will simplify the analysis of corundum if pulver- ization in a diamond mortar be found sufficient, and I propose examining specially into this question. The water which was found in the emery comes from the corundum, a fact which will be shown when the analysis of pure corundum is given, which will be in the second part of the memoir. A very minute quantity of what has been estimated as water might bea little oxygen lost by the oligiste which is some- times found in emery. Those emeries which contain the least water, every thing else alike, are the hardest, as instanced by that from Kulah, notwithstanding the quantity of iron it contains. The silica existing in emery is most often in. combination with alumina or the oxyd of iron or with both, for this reason we mus not always regard the quantity of alumina as an indication of the quantity of corundum in the emery. which differs from these ores of iron, and besides the surface exposed is of a lighter color. From the numerous observations ade, I may set it down as a general rule, that any blackish oe or dark blue rock of a strong argillaceous smell, that scratches agate easily, with a specific gravity in the neigborhood of 4, is Sure to be emery. The mining of Emery. The mining of this substance is of the simplest character. = The natural decomposition of the rock in which it occurs facili- Se - J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. oe tates its extraction. As has already been mentioned, the rock de- 4 composes into an earth in which the emery is found imbedded. he quantity found, under these ‘favorable cireumstances is so great that it is rarely necessary to explore the rock. The earth in the neighborhood of the blocks of emery is almost always a red color, and serves.as an indication té those who are in search of the mineral. Sometimes before beginning to excavate, the spots are sounded by an iron rod with a steel point, and when any resistance is met with, the rod is rubbed'in contact with the resistin m4 body, and the effect produced on the “point enables a seh to decide — it has been done by emery or not. The blocks -whtch of aconvenient size are transported in their rai state, ae Antes frequently they are required te broken by means-of large hammers; when they resist the mer, they are subjected to the action ‘of fire for several hours, and on cooling they most commonly yield to blows. It, however, appens sometimes that large masses are abandoned from the im- possibility of breaking them into pieces of a convenient size; as the transportation either on camels or horses requires that the pieces do not exceed one hundred pounds. At Kulah, the quantity of emery detached from the rock was not very considerable, as it had been aera from decomposi- tion by the beds of lava that cover it. Here the marble was quarried to get atthe emery: which was done in the early part of 1847 with profit, although; the transportation from Kulah to Smyrna is over a distance 6f one hundred and ten miles on the | backs of camels. Since the diminution of the price of emery, i this mine has been abandoned, for the quarrying into the marble is attended with the greatest difficulty as the tools used for boring, | &ec., are thrown out of use in a very short time, by the pieces of 4 emery which are encountered at every instant. At present all the emery sent from Asia Minor comes from the mine at Gumuch- dagh, twelve miles from the ruins of E'phesus. ate ee ee Commercial consideration of Emery. The use of emery in-the arts is of very ancient date, a fact proved by works on hard:stones that could not have been execu- ted except by emery or minerals of that nature. It is very prob- able that emery coming from the localities which have been men- tioned, was used in former ages by the Greeks and Romans. For example, the — of Gumuch-dagh is immediately by the — ancient Magnesia on the Meandre, and between Ephesus and Tralles, twelve ies from each of these cities, and the same dis- tance from I'yria;'in all of these cities the arts flourished, and none more than that of cutting hard stones, if we are allowed to judge from 798 specimens of their skill in this art that have come down to u (J. Lawrence Smith on Emery. 369 _ Nevertheless, the quantity of emery formerly employed wa ‘ Insignificant in comparison to the quantity now required, more — particularly within the last twenty years, since the use of plate lass has been-extended. The annual consumption at the pres- ent time is about fifteen hundred tons. or various: reasons, the island of Naxos furnished for several centuries almost exclusively the emery used in the arts, as much for the facility with which it was obtained as for the uniformity of its quality. The emery exists in very great abundance ov this island, and notwithstanding the quantity already extracted there still remain immense deposits of it. . |. = eds The price of this substance at the end of the last century was from 40 to 50 dollars the ton, and between 1820 atid 1835 it was at times even less. About this period, the ménopoly of the Naxos « hearer the sea, of Gumuch-dagh commenced in 1847 and worked largely, and of Niearia commenced in 1850. From all these different places the emery goes to Smyrna, and from there, prin- Cipally to England, the vessels taking it at a very low price as it serves for ballast. ‘ ai +e The various mines belong to the Turkish and to the Greek government. The Greek government now sells its emery in lots of several tons. The Turkish government sells the entire monop- oly of its mines, aud consequently its operations are controlled by a single interest ; but in all probability, this monopoly will be done away with, in virtue of a commercial treaty existing be- tween Turkey and the other powers. If this takes place the price of emery will be still farther diminished. Of the different varieties of emery employed in the arts that of Nazos is still preferred, and with reason, as it is more uniform 1n its quality than that coming from Kulah and Gumuch ; never- theless, if the best qualities of that from the island of N icaria are ound in abundance and that only sent into market, it will prove at least equal if not superior to that of Naxos. Stconp Serres, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850. 370. On American Spodumene. ae * Arr. XXXVIL—On American Spodumene ; by Geo. J. Brusu, of the Yale Analytical Laboratory. Read before the American Association for the Avlvancement of Science at Naw Haven, August, 1850. Owrne to the want of a complete anal ysis of an American Spod- . umene, I was induced at the suggestion of Prof. Silliman, Jr., to undertake this researc The Spodumene from Uté has often been the subject of chem- ical investigation and has been analyzed by Arfvedson,* Stro- meyer,t Regnault,f and Hagen.¢ That from the Killiney local- _ ity has been analyzed by Thomson. | These are all the complete sac recorded of this species. Partial analyses, however, exist of specimens from the Tyrol mountains, and from Sterling, Mass. ., the former by Hagen and the latter by both Hagen and Bowen.{ The constitution of this mineral was not wet th ee prior to Hagen’s analysis, until which time it had been consid- 4 ered as essentially a silicate of alumina and lithia. Sige how- | ever found a portion of the so-called lithia to be soda, which dis- covery being confirmed renders the formulas derived from former | { analyses incorrect, owing to the great difference in the atomic weights of lithia ar nd:soda. * Hagen’s analysis of a specimen from the Ut6 locality gave, ° Silica; 66136 — 3456 3436 1226 12 Peay fen 321 ae iene he ae pee eee 100-000 from which he deduced the formula, Na Sitahi Sito! Siz. My aualyses agree with Hagen’s in the soda, but lead to a different formula. The specimens selected for analysis were from the Norwich and Sterling (Mass ) localities. A qualitative examination of each, showed the sees of silica, alumina, per- oxyd of iron (trace), lime, lithia, and so In the quantitative examination the alkalies were obtained by decomposition by hydrofluoric acid and determined as sulphates ; the other constituents were obtained by fusion with carbonate of soda. That from Norwich in two analyses yielded, icc M cwape gS Jour., xxii, + U baa yar i, 426. SE og tit ser mies) 1839, 580. q ice xlviii, 371. iL Am. Jour., viii, 121. On American Spodumene. _ 871 ia Il. Mean. Oxygen, Rattle Silica, 63:06 6272 6239 3267 3267 804 Alumina, 28-00 2885 28-42 1328: 1328" -327 95 ‘. ime, 1-43 104 29 Lithia, 5°67 567, 5-67 3:12 4:06 1 Soda, 251 251 251 65 10019 10088 And that from the ee locality of which also. two analy- ses were made, gave L Il. ‘Mean. _ Oxygen. - Ratio. Silica, . 6286 62°67 62:76 32 6L. 3261 780 ae: 2883. 2983 29:33 13-75 1375 328 a ma : ie 71 6 18) Lithia, | 648 648 648 3566 419 1. Soda, - 1-76 1-76 1-76 A5 : 100-49 101-45 The mean of the ratios calculated from the four analyses is L 3 27 : 7-92 or quite nearly 1: 3:8, which gives the general ormula Rs Si2+341 Si2 and the special formula (0570 Sek 1388 Na+-8097 Li)s Si2-++3Al Si2 which requires, 8 atoms of silica, 461848 = pr. ct. 64:14 3 ‘* alumina, 1925 40 26°76 2:4291 “ ~~ lithia, 441-27 6-12 “3999 “ — Roda, 15484 2-15 a. “ilane, 60°10 ‘83 | 7200-09 100-00 This fortiula corresponds quite bis with the analyses, espec- ially in the protoxyd bases, the mean of which is almost pre- cisely that required by the formula. With the specific gravity 3:18 we obtain from the above the atomic volume 2264. The B atomic volume (see Mr. Dana’s memoir, in this Journal, ix, 220) will be 161:7, and the C atomic volume 42:7. The isomorphism of this species with pyroxene is pointed out by Mr. Dana on page 120 of this volume.* Scene ee 372 Optical Examination of several American Micas. i ae ‘en Arr. XXXVIL—Optical Examination of several American Micas ; by B. Sttumay, Jr., A.M., M.D., &c. Read before the American i for the Advancement of Science, at aay n, August, 1850 Prior to the publication of the second edition of Dana’s Min- eralogy, little had been done in distinguishing the séveral species among American micas, and in allotting them to the various locali- ties. In connection with Professor Dana, the writer, during the liane of the Mineralogy through the press, made a number of observations respecting the optical properties of such micas: as Were at that time’ accessible. A summary of these observations will be found in that volume.* Since that work was published, the writer has continued and multiplied his observations as far as the whole research as far as they are complete are exhibited in the following tables uch yet remains 3 to be done, not only in confirming and ex- tending the present measurements and adding new ones from, unexamined localities, but still more in reference to the chemical |, — character of the several compounds, which from their great re- My j the Beant, of the several varieties in differeuit directions, the effects of heat and magnetism in varying the angle of the optic axes, and the value of “the latter under So hiokiaet light in all parts of the spectrum ;—and investigations on these points would well reward the observer.t 3) had proposed the subject Jast-mentioned, to my frieud, Mr. W. P. Blake, before my own observations were made, and he has recently ssalibed and con- structed for himself an instrument for observations and measure- —_— of this sort. This instrument appears to me particularly ne ae Mineralogy, p. ek A a experiments ag ee by the author, aided “PY Mr. W. P. —_ with M: apparatus, to determine whether ay ee relation e : x 1 Steen various micas 1S 0 ee at all to the diferent Bef ate optic _ @xes. In these trials the mica reas net the same of Jeteniaeel they wots placed v0 thot the ws at py = ‘bundle of roy® - Optical Examination of several American Micas. 373 ‘well adapted for this purpose, and with its aid we, may hope for ~ “ag nt x advances in our knowledge of the physical relations: * of the The instrument which I have used for the measurements given in this paper is a modification of the goniometer of Charles and } Malus. It has a horizontal circle of about eight inches diameter reading to minutes, with a tangent screw and double readings. . To the centréof the instrument has been adapted a simple con- ‘ trivance for holding two tourmalines, and at the same time for se- curing the mica plate in the proper position. The tourmalines have both a horizontal and rotary movement, and are so arranged that the mica plate can be conveniently held between. them in an unva-— rying position while the arm of the goniometer. makes its revolu- | tion. The instrument is adjusted for use by bringing the specimen . into such a position that the line connecting the optic axes shall be horizontal ; and by turning the arm of the instrument through pe requisite number of degrees, the two series of colored rings a com € arrangement; the instrument is so adjusted, that the cord accurately intersects the black dots of the inner colored circle ~. about one axis; a revolution is then made, till the cord intersects heat. The instrament was so pag a the Locatelli lamp deflected the — ted ’ of time 30° of the scale. arrange ed, the following results w ained ; os wera toes os Needle rercent. Mica examined. Optic angle, Color. : anes | rays te a ee cael Muscovite of Grafton, ...69° 80’ - light brown, -........ 19°-20° |57-60 “es pite, Po ope’s 5s Mills, 4? nag white glassy, .....s4..| 18°- atiee 86-345 “ brownish yalow, setvla 15° 45 oD Edwards, ... 13° 30’ _lyellow brown,........ 15 45 erie (2) To Me, deep reddish brown, .. 132-1 2° (39-36 ( proba hlogopite. . Biotite, witidg ¥ aa dead green alinoit black |] 1° 33 Muscovite, Royalston, Ms, 57° 30’ dark brown, . y weeple oO? nearly colorless clear, . .|21°-21°30’ 63-645 - ounliewd Me, 72° 30/ light brown,.........- 5 12-21230 63-645 ey Jones Falls,Md.,)67° dark Qre@hi-is 2s vss ewe 18°=19? Sed “Philadelphia, . .|60° 30’-61° casi inhexag’l figures,| 21936'-229|64°5-66 | When the crystal was placed so that the dye of heat passed ee to the optic axis, (thus the ~arigo mica was placed at an pegs of 34° 30’, the remaining otherwise as before) the needle was on repeated trials eflected 24°, €qual to 72 per cent. of all the rays a ¢ while i in the other bis "ton with the 0° pass to From these few trials (which are regarded as only preliminary and approxima tive,) i t will be oor. that — interesting relation stale 2 subsists ott the sort Sechied fr, ‘and this last experiment is particularly worthy of confirmation by exte nding it arleties —~ Blake presented his instrument and a series es of measurements made with it the Physical Section of the Am. Assoc., at the New ing sapetion: sit, Optical Examination of several American Micas. -. in the same manner the other axis; the amount or angle of this 4 ~~ revolution is. the angle between the axes. With this arrange- ‘ment there is no difficulty after a little practice in obtaining a series of measurements on the same specimen, varying from each other but a few minutes at most,:without having recourse to lenses or other means of more accurately defining, the field of observation or reducing the area of the colored circles. Such modes of greater accuracy are important for the more delicate physical questions previously suggested; but for the purpose.of mineralogical determination, the means just described are quite sufficient, since it is shown that in a series of specimens from the “same locali ity there is generally a difference of angle greater than any error of. eee rerion arising from the imperfection of the in- = ApeEM name mo A corresponding differences in optical characters. For this reason we briefly recapitulate the divisions which are adopted by Prof. Dana in the late edition of his system, and which are also given Ser eeniietion of the chemical formulas on p. 118 0 this vol- cies of mica now recognized are muscovite, mar- arodite, emerylite, euphyllite, margarite, lepidolite, agit and biotite. Of these, all but the last are binaxial. Our obser- vations will be confined ainly to muscovite, lepidolite, hice pite, and biotite. 1, Muscovite. —Thts name has been proposed by Dana to em- brace those binaxial. micas whose angle of polarization is between 55° and pail excepting however the ‘lithia micas which, having @ liar composition and a very high angle, are included under He yapecies celia. The terms “ oblique ica” “ common mi- “ binaxial mica” formerly applied tothis species now fail e Ms distinctive, since we have other oblique and binaxial micas which belong to different species. The optic axes in this species lay in the direction of the longer diagonal of the prism. It is much the most abundant variety and is commonly found in gran- itic rocks. 2. elite. —This species embraces all the lithia micas, group peeseiting however varied chemical characters which vil probably be subdivided by future research. ‘They are all bin- axial and as far as observed they yield a higher angle than any other of the species of this family, being 75°-76°. The blow- pipe reaction for lithia as well as its high polarization angle, en- able this species to be very readily distinguished. Many of the 0 gm are easily recognized by their rosy or peach-blossom color. 3, Phlogopite—-This name was first proposed by Breithaupt for the — brown mica associated with serpentine which ee ee a.) oe Optical Examination of several American Micas. 375 York. This species is distinguished by a polarization angle be- 13°-16°; it rarely falls below 10°; in all cases the two axes are so teemed a uniaxial mica. lhe crystalline form is trimetric, and it occurs often in elongated and tapering hexagonal prisms, some- : r red, some- times greenish yellow and rarely white. Its cleavage resembles — __ that of muscovite, but the lamin are not generally so elastic. In chemica! constitution it is a distinct compound although but few analyses have yet been made of this species. Like the biotite it is remarkable for the amount of protoxyd bases which it contains and the small quantity of alumina—giving for the ratio of the oxygen of its protoxyds, alumina and silica, as deduced by Rose, 18:12:30 =1: 3:13, (more exactly 7:4:11, according to Craw,) while in the muscovites it is generally 1:12:16. Its localities are much more numerous than was at first supposed ; ~~ they abound particularly in northern New: York, in Canada, and in Morris and Sussex counties in New Jersey. One of the Most noted localities of this species is Edwards in St. Lawrence county, N. Y., where it is found both colorless, of an eminently Silvery luster, and also of a rich brownish yellow color. : 4. Biotite.—This species includes the uniaxial or hexagonal mi- cas. Most of the vagieties of this species are of a dark color—often black or greenish black and transparent only in very thin lamine. Owing to this prevaléht dark color it is often difficult or quite impos- sible to obtain satisfactory evidence of the optical character, and there is little doubt that some localities quoted in this article as fur- nishing uniaxial micas, should be in fact.elassed among the phlo- gopites. Only one American variety of this species has yet been analyzed—viz., that from Monroe, N. Y., by von Kobell. | "hey are generally magnesian micas and have for the oxygen ratio of their protoxyds, alumina, and silica, the ratio 1: 1:2 = + #Si. This species and those anomalous specimens which are classed under it in the present article, but which probably belong elsewhere, offer interesting subjects for chemical examination. Beside the phlogopites and biotites, properly so called, there are Several micas which have fallen under my observation in this re- Search which are anomalous in character. These present under the influence of polarized light an elliptical colored image, in which however it is not possible to bring out clearly the two poles of a Wey: ; ree -a@ uniaxial cr 376 Optical Examination of several American Micas. binaxial mica, nor, on the other hand, the symmetrical cross of 1 he divergence is too constant and too regular to allow the supposition that the ellipticity is due toa mal-position of the lamine or to a separation between the thin plates (remarked on as a cause of irregularity in certain crystals very large rhombic’erystals oblique from an obtuse edge. P:M= 112° — 1154°, M: M= 122°~ 125°, the angle of the basal edges Is 119° 30’. Plane angle of P 119°. It hasa cleavage parallel to the longer axis. The obliquity of the optic axes appears to be nearly as great as that seen in some phlogopites of equal thickness, but the dark color of the mineral prevents a satisfactory examina- tion. Should the character ofthis mica be confirmed by a set © good analyses, it must in all probability form a distinct species a8 suggested by Dana.* This variety is not to be confounded with the well crystallized: mica of Greenwood furnace which, as seet in ordinary specimenis, is oblique from the acute edge (sections of distorted acute rhombohedrons) and which is regarded as a unl axial mica. Enphyllite, margarodite and emerylite have hitherto been found in quantities too ineonsiderable and in specimens generally too poorly crystallized to furnish many measurements. * Mineralogy, SY, Pp. 690. eer + For the soe Son of these species, see Dana’s Mineralogy, and also this v0 4-118. se ume, pages 114-118. - a “AO x08 ‘ON ‘X TOA ‘Saraag 7 ae | a Locality of Mica, From whom received, ~ Color, Form and Remarks. Angles of axes,” New Yor York Island, 4m. from pec ¥, . ew ire bie ae Hist., eg gray, with black grains disseminated in it,-......-'56° 20'-56° 40/ Royalston. — Seuss ede awe’ Ben ark Sa own, sage meet Brag of the Beryls,........'57° 30’ ib, RC gr Ae. 5a Ad ae anoth CUNO oe hin. 0s ev» «| BBO-59° eer ; Es oes cie| ke, BOMOY Pee ies sox es ky brown. euaet wes in blotches, ....... ; Oyo Philadelp Penn, .. Sever ys seeeeee riko ‘Cabinet, T. Conrad, . eons ish gray, banded ; — bars 2 ‘color, ate abe e's 60° 307-61° ib, near Fairmount, .../T. Seale, ........... ea da a brown; resembles Penn BEY TNC a esas vip so j82°-62 Oxford Maine, . ps RIM a hess eau see e ees light browns perfect deystata baepabins in pransiere 62° 42'~ 63° - Mirection,: 5.26: ..¢. Monroe, Conn., Lederer Cabinet, 03.005. 3 brown with patches, of dark brown mottled, . pveaene s 64° 30-659 30’ Royalston, Mass., ae Cabinet, by Prof. violet brown; in thick — i vettanceuubital were e oa s\G0 cig hE fee eee ore ore C.M. Wheatley’ s Cabinet, . a ish gray ; in perfect crystals, ........ cece eeees 65° 80’-66° Falls 3 d, 24 m. from 1 Baltimore, en Me ERS oats Siatrre sine be nsparent brown — scales OF RS uae asc scents 65° 30’-65° 40/ Near Ellicott's Mills, ib, ib eates pe © b. ore and Ohio Railroad, ....... 66° 80’ “Jones’ Falls,” near per ++ eal. Gibbes and W. 8. Vink, mcs Pash eros ‘y mametically ccvveag hans es grains 60 15’-66° 80’ AD, OOD, cca tidiees i ‘ale College Cabinet, ....... greenish yellow, . Signage nae ans 66° 30/-67° Hasta, Gon (cian Bi) file cower. Bure, sae. clear : Bieeen sh wtp Ar six peas Roe vb ok’ OT? Gra es SONG, see ‘ye sssilight brown, ru aeinaced tori ; Ans . oat Bes 67° 807 Unonvie P eo soeereeeell, Seale, .., wwe - Feat wee Bes sek Subs 679-67 28° Ackworth, N. H.,. ++++++++/Yale College Cabinet, .......\greenish gray, i 67° 15’-67° 80? Grafton, N. i“ another specimen, PES secs ae 03s AON light tee with th flattened ‘quartz and tourmaline, ...... 68° 5!-68° 20/ ® |Templ ve seeere ee «(Ey Hitchcock, br, at ae tegnapatent WEWA 5 ..5570% +) lage o Peruaio enh rcs «0 699 30’-69° 40’ Orange, ypesrla teas ee ST yr ee ib. ib. t beaut crystals, “a5 169° 30’-69° 40’ Willimantic fat Conn, a brownish green, tran ent, I PTAmite ac ea e's i690 30’-69° 50’ Pennsbury, Pen gat an ais rown crystals ; ee er ocalit ty)» 27'- Royalston, an, peaiey E. Hitchcock Jr, .. .(dark brown ; 2d locali ity, » ie 40’— et ¥ ‘“: Rass Taste L.—American Meaney ee Lepidolite Atveas, Polarization angle from 5° to 76°, S V jpdaaas fo uoyouuosr gy yooudg UDIVAIUL "S020 Ah6 ‘~~ 2 Fable continued. Ie a SS ‘ From ws received Color, Form and Remarks. —s-. .. . * Angles of axes. Peeks A care” Ore, feces oe Nag Gown 8d speci MMS Oi 5. ents cu atee res oe ne to 5 9°_69° 30 seeeee D, Dan vee i ae feldspar AREY, es rads pote Sere k ers «tea 0/1070 BOF ede Vale Oallage Onibinet, -|greenish in separ 0°-70° 3807 pels cles ibis aie eel E. are Jr., +see++ (greenish yellow epodumene locality, : es a 0° 30/ Hawes. ae een; in coarse g Lea S Eee eae boa Sw ES Tee TO OO ein « e¥ieneente ‘lYale oto ‘Cabinet, . +s, 4 jatar yellow ; with spodumene, .......+...+00 es O47 0° 30! ..+|Mr. Po ....+.{brownish; chrysoberyl lo Sp RN Reece ips aha Ae 6° 40°11" iS Serre (beans Mr, Burr, rownish ; in large plates,,........ ea ee ea Grastbee DENS ola sigth tins xp oe a O% B. FH feeees iene eer oe 1 MORHOEE Ss Sahin hcune case ees tant Templeton, Mass,, (2d spec.,) ... ty Bitches, a r, era EN .[transparent brown, ..... 66. eee cece cece eee teen ee ees e, Del. eyvedyess WRG, 5 avec enscsedcurs faint greenish pitino WME AS Soave ce ceca essswewen ° 30/-71° Onc ae cece ees Dr in Rr, Hough, ...........{greenis :* ina - Be ge pr ciaiig arg gt thas ataleigigsalntatn 1°=71°. 80! onsets LEMOS ee aH eR Kee .+++++-flight bro nsparent, in t thick masses, .......seceeeees [EP 40/719 50’ 2, Se eee eee ete i Hiteheod, Ir, ee teeseeees VO eliawa o green transparent; = specimen, Retry iene ent bs ae i, eae rg ib. ib, ; calumbite locality, ...cs 0.0. ceseedes fie ave a E. pea, "W edichaotee Oe. ¥ > ‘ly Aim Gollese Cabinet, 5 aaa ib. ib.: : Gore cs tee si COW CINE ie oes ce SET ER Cee’ dw tes ere Sea Lye. Nat. Hist., N. Y, from in lind estone vein with fibrolite, &ec.; rich yellowish brown, Dr. Torrey, like Nat OG; iver as 14° Dr. Hough, light yellowish, with ¢ of magnetic iron? .......... r. Ora ey. brownish yellow hexagonal “eryata al 8 inch, Masiets rs . ‘plate xamined 4 incl thick 5 axis in the line of the shorter|/156° diagonal, eee twee Cray ees PORE. wi + »|b6° 7-16 in} 16° 15° 80’-16° 30/ ° 15’ ry Meites n 15° another s spéc we n, white x pag Oh curved yal often opake, “oh ye llo Own ; ve bly the same as Gouve eur, .., in Timeston one in beautifi hoopla not over ¢ to $ inch ameter; hexagonal ; vd own Geet ss VF 70.ads fo uoynunuor ry yooydg 16° 30’ 17° 30’a18° - GLE “SPOLT unonwow a ie Table ohtinual The following are probably of the > same odes but are generally too dark in color si admit the pescage of light j in plates of sufficient thickness define well the two sets of ellipses. Nevertheless in several -cases the angle’ may be approximately | oe and in others the mica may be more properly arranged with the anomalous varieties which present equivocal evidence af a Dita character. re of specimen. Whence obtained. ‘olor, Form and Rima x ; : Angles? . Moriah, F Essex C ee a SEAT LP a Ra Seer Cabinet, +. 90. 2Wery dark smoky red, in thin plates b y transparent Tight , «+|Estimat’d 16°-17° prouvernour, N. Y.,.....scccsicecs sie Hough, ..... rE eros ot P brownish copper red; yellowish; in hex: oe plates li like ; PTR ee 6 bp Gas 665 ah ose ss Uoulg Cale wie tare oe - Somerville, N. Y., ..... Dr. Hine, pW isa. eee rhevenich, with blood red epots, which magnified are Thee bie seen to be Bar PT ai ialek ae wie Estimated 5°-7° Burgess, Canada West,.,.........;:/T. 8, Hunt, . ../bronzy, alm tallic luster; a very brownish yellow, semi- Resa t if thin; opake in ap a line thick ; slightly elastic sly : found with apatite in sandstone, ... Angle very low. Lederer Cabinet, .........../bronzy yellow, distinct from the red mica of same place, ..|About 14° Be Ts SES Fh alk on sos th .../whitish yellow; imperfect ee with particles of for eign matter, resembling specimen from Natural Br ides ; ‘About 10° ...|Dr. Hough, .... very dark bake brown ; opake in plates over a line ick; clea early binaxial, 20. ..6. sc se ce ete ee esse tence reders Estimat’d 10°-12° ib, ibs keen des teaeeeee opake avery pe resembles in general character arranie . DM a sate k at reiein oie dks s 54x aie lace eldin al sw ge Gers e' o's J LQP—12 ling Mine, Morris ese 45 J.,.....{H. Canfield, rich willows brown, in inclining to red; in limestone. ...... Suckasunny Mine, Bein veteeeenns ib. : deep olive brown, inclining to ye et eae wto de ees HA Sis ccs an aciees panes st @UO WS dle orbeek d very small; in limestone. ...-. ‘ d, Sussex Co, NJ, ek d PO teas ng wa bs ‘Rep oven ite icra Fine, N.Y.: in limestone. ur be added the anomalous micas before described — Monmouth (2) 'N. ret omg dik from Franklin furn N.J., and nevieal ries ‘aur has found in various cabinets, but which being without labels unable -as 7% to ge to the proper aa from Oxbow, N. Y., has —— received while i ve are in ‘the ye press, + ad ar VY JoJaaas fo uoynuwuns sy yooudg oge UDILLIUL . “S001 Optical Examination of several American Micas. 381 the accompanying-tables we have given for each specimen: Ee In measured, its locality, color, the source whence. received, the angle bate the optic axes, and other observations bearing on their history. It may afford a more correct impression of the pres- ent state of this investigation to remark that specimens from over one hundred American localities of mica have been examined be- sides a considerable number of uncertain locality ; and from many” of these localities very numerous specimens have been measured. Thus there have been measured of muscovite specimens from about 50 localities; of phlogopite over 30; of euphyllite 2; of fort Bs of biotite about 12, and: ‘of doubtful species : : —The number of localities in the toiled States fitke : tihng aman mica (biotite) has been constantly diminishing since the commencement of these- investigations, as increased skill in observation and improved’ means of examination have shown one after another of the reddish and yellow or brown. colored micas to have more or less decidedly the characters of phlogopite.' <2 Thus the dark brown mica of Fine, the red micas of M - of Sterling, of Franklin, and of Gouverneur, have successis ly _ been thrown out of the list of biotites into the binaxial species. Others remain in doubt as those of Topsham, Me., and a Pa. reenwood Furnace, comet wig Orange County, N, Y., is the oe nates to this variety also. It is opake in plates over malin of an inch thick, but of rich olive green in thin plat ay hai but not so much so a as to require any ba a new analysis of this variety in progress the results of which he will present on a future occasion. The chemical constitution of _ Very few American biotites has been cua: indeed the local- ity just referred to is the only one cited. Von Kobell’s result Corresponds with the formula given on page 375. ss Mica of Monroe, N. ¥.—This mica from the same town as = last is also uniaxial and gives a figure almost entirely cir- * in, ¥. P. 81. + Min. (1850), 360. a ae 382 Optical Examination of several American Micas. cular. It is distinguished by its bronzy lustre and dark greenish olive color inclining to gray or black. It is imperfectly transpar- ent, having by tansmitted light a dusky or hazy appearance. It occurs in plates of immense size, which are marked on the cleav- age surfaces with rhombic, and triangular figures, (no distinct lat- eral planes have however been fo tind, s well as with transverse cleavage lines. It is slightly elastit bat very tough. One speci- men which the author has seen in the cabinet of Mr. C. M. Wheatley in New York is nearly two feet in diameter: Mr. _ Horton of Monroe has also furnished the writer with numerous very large specimens. No analysis of it has been published, but _. the author hopes to present one at a future time. The white mica fot Easton, Pa., which is very silvery ed slightly elastic and opake in thick — is probably a biotite, and, excepting the very similar white mica of Amity, N. Y., 1s the only white uniaxial variety yet sth in this country. Black micas are almost universally referable to the species 3. he 2 biotite, although many micas usually called black in collections are : reality dark brown and olive green and are frequently refer- phlogopite. Unfortunately very few of the: localities of ariety of color found in cabinets are labelled... I have one ym. Moors Slide on the Ottawa in Canada, furnished me by Mr. Hint of the Canada Geological Commission. Another black mica is found in St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., of which specimens were ob- tained by the author from. the cabinets of Mr. Wheatley and of the N. Y. Lyceum in New York. Two black micas from the Cambridge cabinet are unaxial, locality not know Geological relations.—It is worthy of notice thot the species muscovite is found almost entirely in granitic rocks ; in no instance as far as I have seen, has a specimen of this species been found in alime rock. On the other hand, the phlogopites, with a single exception, so far as has been ascertained, are found in limestone and often in dolomitic beds. _ The biotite is less well pare chondrodite ~~ fibrolite, an interesting confirmation of the sug- gestion here put forth. Can this distribution be unco rhe with ed chen il composition of the several compounds? é character of the phlogopites would seem to : the doloweiee position of the species, while the absence < this element i in Be muscovites is a negative fact of equal signmiiean : | Analyses of Phlogopite. 383 The writer cannot close this paper ibis beige his thanks to numerous correspondents who have in the.-kindest man ner responded to his persevering enquiries “for spore ens. It is in- een of those who wish to examine them . ies : so labelled as to avoid.error, and they are.at all times open to the Laboratory _ Read before the American a paneer for the oe of Science, at "jes n, August, 18 Tu mica called Phlogopite has been ened by oa dorff, in Poggendorff’s Annalen, volume viii, page 157. gin | analysis has likewise been published by Svanberg, in the - actions of the Royal Swedish Academy for 1839, of a miga which has been supposed to be phlogopite, but as it does not agree in atomic proportions with that ong New York, it my probably may not come under this s Meitzendorff gives the following as the ‘composition of the Specimen which he analyzed: it was from Jefferson Co., N. Y.; 3 and probably from Natal Bridge Nadsomeli Fl i ae seat ea oti & O65 $80 02810114 - Oxygen, 2146 «= 717 «053 «1131 =—-1'65 017 The specimens ee by me were all from Edwards, St. Lawrence Co., N.Y. No. 1, had a deep yellonemns brown color, in broad plates. many exam that the Aaa ? and da Line : Yale College, Oe cae vansin alaerars ia . ¥ Traité de Minéralogie, iii, p. 647, 1847, also Danssfp 359. Fad Ans, XXXVIII.— Analyses of Phlogopite from St. Tera a | County, N. Y.; by Wm. me of the Yale Sieh ; m a 384 Analyses of Phlogopite. No. 2, was a. paeeverent and colorless crystal of a silvery lus- we; an No. 3, was a. part of the same aryl rendered quite opaque and silvery by the absorption of w The crystal which fur- nished Nos. 2 and 3 was ie 6 by 8 inches in surface dimensions. No. 1, gave reactions for silica, alumina, magnesia, potash and fluorine, with small quantities of peroxyd of iron and soda, and a 8 doubtful trace of lithia. Nos. 2 and 3 gave silica, oe magnesia, potash and ee - with traces of water and fluorin _ The following are the results of analysis : sae No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. Pets. a 40145 40°358 4036 .. with a little 2. oS LF8BB- >. 16°450 16084 Mg 28099 29°554 30247 ; 10-564 7-226 6:066 Na i 0°63 4:938 4:39 Fl 4202 loss byign. 0-952 265 FS 100-996 99'478 Bee i eee « Oxygen Ratios. ae ie No. 1 No. 2 No. 3. Si 20°86 20°97 20:97 Al 1 16 Mg. lites." 11°61 11°89 Kk 1-79 12:99 1:28 1411 1:03 14:05 Na 016 1:27 4 The ratios are respectively 16:23366; 183252 2735 1:87: 1:2-78; the mean of these is 1: 17:1: 269, which equals very nearly 7: 4: 11, and corresponds with the "formula TR* §it441 8i, The equality between the oxygen of the silica and that of the bases will be observed; and if &* and 41 may replace one another, the formula becomes (Re, Ay) Si, acommon type among the silicates. per-centage corresponding to this formula is as oo online the fluorine, which is not found in analyses 2 an Si Al Mg K 41°60 16°82 3001 11°57=100-00 In No. 1, the 41 contains a small proportion of ¥e, which in-— creases the amount of oxygen from the peroxyds so as to make the ape he, silica appear smaller in proportion than they really are, and the determination of the silica is also, probably, too low somewhat Mage ’s Hise ysis affords the ratio 13:13 : 7-70: 21 AG ; = lals 1-7: 1: 2:78, and corresponds quite closely with the ch eqt peg 7:4 sie the same which is afforded Mes. the analyses above. _ = 2. TE Analyses of Phlogopite. 385 The fluorine, however, comes in as an important element, and one which it is somewhat difficult to dispose > Bt: in a perfectly satisfactory manner. . Rose considers the fluorine to exist as ioctl of potassium, and gives the formula K FI+(3R* Si+28 $i) This corresponds” to - the ratio 3 ; 2 : 5—the potash being removed from the other aii eve as a fluo rid. ane bedlatiors remarks that the fluorine may be considered as © Rilicotiuorid of potassium ; but Rose is opposed to this view, on. the ground that it would. ‘change the ratio of the oxygen in the _ several oxyds. This it would do, if it were considered simply-as silicofluorid of potassium, but if, in accordance with the recent — % views of aarerneiiet published in his last supplement, it is. taken as replacing oxygen in the several compounds, the ratio. will remain tind ened In this view, the formula 7R* Si+-4a1 Si, represents correctly the constitution of the mineral, if we supp the oxygen partly replaced by fluorine € apportionment of the fluorine and oxygen to the several ty eee is as follows :— 1. Meitzendorff’s Mica Oxyg' ee es Fluorine 2 en in sha Sum. Combined with Si 165 Si 20°68 22:33" ¥ ¥ Al 060 Als 6-92) 148 8-05 a ape He 0535 Mg 0°90 Mg 10-94 K 015 ‘ 158 12°68 13°73 Na 016 Ratio Lf 22: 278. Eee 2. Mica from Edwards. Analysis 1, Fluorine a ore in residues. Sum. Combined with si 2-101 Si 997 22-071 0764 Al pi 8554 ie 1146 Mg 1056 K ot91 K 1-71 + 12°43 18-767 Na = 016 Ratio =1:6: 1 : 2:58. The ratio of the silico-fluorids to the silicates is 1: 30 in Meit- zendorff’s analysis, and about 1: 24 in the mica oft 3 according to the first, the detailed formula is— . 30(7R? Si+41 Si]+1[7(3R F-+Si F*)44(Al F*+Si F?)] and according to the second— o4[7R? Bi444l Si]4-1[7(3R F-+Si F*)+4(Al F*-+48i FS)], Analyses 2 and 3 correspond closely with Meitzendorff’s the ratio, if this view of the fluorine be taken, and the aids 3 with fluorine and those without, which are alike _o come range one general Sere a. Srconp Serres, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850. © 49 results dedu “from theory. They form but a contribution to this interesting branch 386 Proceedings of the British Association Extracts from the Proceedings of the Twentieth Meeting of the British ’ Association, held at Edinburgh, July, 1850.* Section A.—MaTHemaTicaL aND Puysicat Scrence. ‘On Atlantic Waves, their Magnitude, Velocity, and Phenomena; by oo 4 Dr. Scoressy. Durine two passages across the Atlantic in 1847-8, I had opportuni- i c advaniageous agreement or accordance for observations on their width and velocity. ‘These observations | shall extract, in their order, from my journal kept during the homeward passage. rst observation h reco:ding is under the date of March.5, 1848, when the ship was in latiiude about 51°, and longitude (at noon) 38° 50’ W.—the wind then being about W S.W., and the ship’s course, true, N. 52° E. At sun- "set of the 4th the wind blew a hard gale, which, with heavy squalls, had sail forward. ‘The barometer stood at 29°50 at 8 p. m., but fell so rapidly as to be at 28-30 by 10 the next morning. In the afternoon of this day I stood some time on the saloon deck or cuddy roof,—a height, with continued during the night; so that all sail was taken in but the storme ¥ masses of water possessed a height of considerably more than twenly- four feet (including depression as well as.altitude,) or, reckoning from osed e ee a for the Advancement of Science. ‘ney wave was, I believe, fully equal to that of my sight on the paddle-box, — or more,—that is, 29 = 15 feet, or upwards; and the mean highest loaves, not including the broken or acuminated crests, about forty three above 1 feet a ove the level of the hollow occupied at the mo the ship. iluminat the general expanse not unfrequently was by the tran- Stent sunbeam breaking through the heavy masse the storm-cloud, Wild and partial glare, the mighty hills of waters rolling and foaming as they pursued us, whilst the gallant and buoyant ship—a charming “ sea- boat”—rose abaft as by intelligent anticipation of their attack, as she _Were harmlessly spent beneath her and on her outward sides,—the Storm, falling fiercely on the scanty and almost denuded spars and Steam chimney raised aloft, still indicated its vast, but as to us innoxious, Scene as I ever witnessed, and a magnificent example of ** the works of the Lord,” specially exhibited to sea-going men, ‘and his wanders in the deep.” In the aerial wings in a perfect drift of spray! But during the period of these most vehement operations of nature, I was fortunately enabled, 388 Proceedings of the British Association ing a total continuance of the storm, in its ies of about thirty-six urs.* I renewed my observations»on the waves at ten A. M.— storm having been then subdued for several a and the height of the -wayes having perceptibly subsided. Soon | observed, when standing on the saloon-deck, that ten waves, in one case, came in succession, whieh all rdse above the apparent horizon,—consequently they must is have been more than twenty-three feet, probably the average might be s about pe sel six from-ridge to hollow. At this period I also found that i oceasio nally (that is, once in about four or five minutes,) three or four : waves in gaccession, as seen from the paddle-box, rose above the visible } —hene e they must, like those of the preceding day, have been elke feet ' waves. But one important difference should be noted—viz., _ that they were of no great extent on the ridge, pega. though more 7 mere conical peaks, but a moderate elongation Another subject of consideration and investigation, on this occasion, | eg was the period of the regular waves overtaking the ship, and the de- | 3 _ termination, proximately, of the actual width or intervals, and their ve- _- “Tocity.. 1. The ‘ship was then going nine knots only, the free action of »< the engines being greatly interfered with by the heavy sea rapeing and the lines of direétion of the waves and the ship’s course differed about 224 degrees, the sea being two ‘points on the larboard quarter ae other. ee words, the true course of. the ship was east; the direction from, whe nee the sea came was W.N.W. 2. The period of regular waves in inci- , dental series, overtaking the ship, were observed as ; follows Wa Min. Sec. Mean. 20 occupied . § 5." ¢ ; 165 10 at rs 2 $8 55 - 15-5 10 % yen 2 50 Big s 17 0 10 “ : 2:46 8S . 16% 8 ss 2 16 : ye ae ‘Boesezel : avenge, , s eS aif obliquity of the direction of the waves to the course of the ship, i is Rend to be elongated about 45 feet, reducing the probable mean distance of the waves to five hundred and fifty-nine feet. Inde- 1s comparison ‘frequently re-considered and re epeated, subseque: tly Fielded, in si accordance with the former, a total width, inthe lime __* The barome eee: at 8 P.M, was at 29°50; at 6 aM. of Sanday iat tn 30, 12 inches in ten hours, At 6 p.m. of the latter day it had risen Sor the Advancement of Science. 389 no means indicates, it is obvious, the real velocity of the wave, as the; — ship meanwhile was advancing nearly in the same direction at the rate — a -! obliquity: of two points we have 231°5 feet to be added to the former. measure, five hundred and fifty nine feet, which gives 730:5 feet for the: actual distance traversed by the wave in 16°5 seconds of:time, being at. yen hee the rate of ae =) 17,251°7 feet, or 32°67 English state a hour. To know how far this result is but proximate, it» Known magnitudes, to estimate certain distances with all but perfect ac- cy hus, as to a circumstance in which we were most deeply in- 0 390 Proceedings of the British Association o the amount of one-twelfih of the whole, or forty-nine feet—the effect os the calculated velocity of the wave would have been only about a sixteenth, gr 2:16 miles per hour. The form and character of these deep-sea waves became at the same time interesting subjects of obser- * Yation and consideration. In respect to. form, we have perpetual modi- fications and varieties, from the circumstance of - ae ask of op- eration. of the power by which the waves are form Vere the wind - portcealy uniform in, direction and force, and of os continuance, we might have in wide: and deep seas, waves of perfectly regular form- tion. - But no such: ‘equality i in the wind ever exists. It is pe erpetually ° anging its’ direction. within certain limits, and its force too, both in the ace-atd in proximate quarters Tnnum erable disturbing, "ge regard “the actual forms of waves, nothing particularly new could be expected ee from ¢ an inquiry of this kind ingregard to phenomena falling within the es perpetual observation of sea-going persons; yet, at the risk of stating ~ what might be deemed common, Twill venture to transcribe from my _ holes made with ‘the phenomen a before me, the leading characteristics which engaged my attention. Dating the height of the gale ( 6th) the Jorm of the waves was less regular than after the. wi ae, was highest the succession of the primary waves was perfectly , it was rather difficult to trace an "entice! ridge for Hoenn a quarter toa third of a mile. ‘The grand elevation in such case sometimes eX- tended by a straight ridge or was sometimes bent as of a crescent form, with the central mass of water higher than the rest, and, not unfrequentlys _ with two or three semi-elliptical mounds in diminishing series, on either side of iB highest peak. These principal waves, too, it should eh , Were not continuously regular, but had embodied in their gene mass many minor, secondary and inferior waves. Neither did great waves go very prevalently in long parallel series like those ag tarded by shallow water on approaching the shore; but every now and then changed into a bent cuneiform crest with breaking acuminating peaks. On the Sey hen spowitg (March 7,) after a aécond stormy ight, wind 5.S.W. (fine), w a heavy and somewhat cross sea unabated magnitude of the more westerly waves indicated a continu- ance of the original wind at some distance astern of us. The gale had moderated a t daylight, and the weather became fine ; but t as the sea still kept high, its undulations became more obvious and easily analyzed. At three in the afiernoon, when about a third part of the greater undu- lations averaged about twenty-four feet from crest to hollow, in height, these higher v waves could be traced right and left as they approached the ship t to the extent of a quarter of a mile on an average, more 0 - Traced through their extent the ridge was an irregular slik backed hill, precipitous often on the leeward side. The undula- tions, indeed, as to primary waves, consisted mainly of thes e a icked masses, broken into or modified by innumerable secondary yee for the Advancement of Science. 391 the ship’s speed being increased from nine to eleven. _knots, and the ob- liquity of the ship’s course to the direction vo y the waves was three points. On the 9th, two days after the abo¥e* condition of the - the same ridge. ‘The crests often curled over, but.none ag the height of a thirty feet wave, and broke fora wide space, estimated at fifty to one hundred yards in continuity. aS Miscellaneous Notes and Sug gestions. — “The ‘Bide adopted i in. 1 these’ : researches of finding the height ‘of waves is, I believe, quite satisfa r¥y "and, observed with care and with relation to: numbers or proportion OF 53 depression of 3’ 49”, the distance of the visible horizon, as seen “es aS this en, would 'be 4-45 statute miles, and the actual depreacail feet due to the distance of the summit’f the wave when the ship Was # in the nsidet of the hollow, could one be id is foot or 2°16 ine = Other modes of determining the width of a wave—or the extent betwixt, : summit and summit—much | veata rable to that descsibed ihe only availa aa _ able one I could devise) might easily be adopted - eel the manage- ; of the ‘ship was in the hands of the obser ver. In steam ships the the ship w whet going in the direction of the wave or against the wave ; the ratios of the time of transit of wave-crests, Giles different rates of « sailing of the ship might yen results very close to the buy n mod- ~ — 5 n — S - = = a " 9°) ay bs | oO - Poe i] 2 =. 2. = u D oO @ ai a t be | bes: fal a - ‘i ail. e, or The uthor referred, in conclusion, to the forms of wave crests, and heights, modified by crossings, interferences, and reflections. On Metallic Reflection ; by Prof. G. G. Stoxes. The effect which is produced on plane-polarized light by reflex- ion at the surface ofa metal shows that if the incident light be supposed Fah glass plate. Mr. Airy’s paper is published im the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions. M. Jamin has since been led to the same a: in observing the phenomenon. The object of the present tion was to point out an extremely easy mode of deciding B92 Spa itt of the British Association A cane experimentally. Laat ACh at an azimuth of about r of th i aye ene © Fase se of. vibration of light polarized in the plane of inciden » dare ded ands to that voles? | in a plane lie oe a to the npn Barer wheres ke d - apfoash to symmetry, in the system of displaced: ‘ingens i is a abated in advance ofthe position calculated in the ordinary way for rays of mean : wefrangibitity. - . Since an observer has no other guide than the symme- try of the’ bands in fixing’on the center of ‘the sy stem, he would thus be ea led to, attribute to the plate a refractive index which is slightly too ae "The author r has‘illustrated this subject by the following experim i) Be ae. ee to a theoretical error, depending oe ‘- dispersive power.of the plat t is an extremely simple © {as-the author showed) of the circumstance that the ne § 4 ae, viewing the whole through a prism of moderate angle, held in front of the eye-piece with its edge parallel, to the fringes, an indistinct pris- matic image of the wires was seen, together with a distinct set of fringes, which lay quite at one side of the cross wires, the dispersion ictaaae ‘by the prism having thus occasioned an apparent displace- of the fringes in the direction of the general deviation. On é Refractive Indices #5 — Substances ; by the Rey. Prof. Sivicp on former occasions choise toextend the list of observed indices for the standard rays of the solar spectrum given by prisms different media, by means of an apparatus described, alon with the aban of the results, in my report to the British Association, 1839, I now beg to offer to the Association the indices in like manner obtaine for the four following. The rare of spikenard | received through @ : hett, h te ee perfectly pure; for the other eee i am indebted to Mr. N. 8. 5 * fe i The ts in each case are the mean of several repetitions. of 5 ‘ (the oils of lavender and sandal wood) the absorption © , ee for the Advancement of Raience 393 the violet rays (as in so many other oils) was rch’ as to render the line | H very, ind iinet its index ts therefore marked*agdoubt fal. — : aes for the the Standard rd Raya or > ase a — 1:4899 | “14868 15034} 1 sone 15091 167 | 5151 rs 525 5. 20 ides Cai 14641 ts 14658 SE 14728 ie my report ers I stated the impossibility of obibinin measur yo gd of lead from the absence ofall appearance of lines,an entire absorption of the blue and violet: portion of the spectrum. E ine eoroent that in the absence of any determin ations” ‘of the kind it Be t-not be-useless to give the very rough estimates: which my former Se soliscipia enable me to obtain by means of the ta of blue glass, — which gave a poi et to D, and ; exire fy reen space visible might be about e most refracte Of the two spectra (given by the double acts ee the mibatniis) “was the: ent. defined, and in this the oh corresponding to D is ex- tremely uncertain. The mean of two sets of observation was as fol; lows :—Prism of chroinate of Yaad: axis of prism. perpendicular to Q axis - of crystal, mean atigle guajeed by: ‘reflexion and_ a) measurement - es ist mao ; -. 2nd Sp ven af. Ray. A pee leas _ | * >. Extreme red, eet about B 229 | 858. 26° 30’ 2°84 about D 23° 10! 2°55 29°? 300? about E 24° 30/ 2°70 30° 30° 310 While upon the subject, I may be allowed to remark, that. as attempts are now making, with so much promise, for procuring optical glass superior quality, it would be highly snteaaiind if specimens were cut Into prisms (portions of half an inch cube, or even less, will a and two sides only need be polished, containing an angle o in Fraunhofer’ s glass nearly six hundred were Tibi On the Magneto-optic Properties of Crystals, and the Relation of etism and Diamagnetism to con gi Arrangement ; by Messrs. J. Pepsacs and Hermann sein ka0 During the joint net carried on more aa one hundred natural had been examined. The results were thus briefly summed _ Seconp Serres, aah X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850, 0 394 Proceedings of the British Association up :—We have on the one side four new forces assumed,—the optic at- tractive force and the optic repulsive force, the magno- -crysiallic force and -the magneto-crystallic force ; and on the other side no new force what- ever, but simply that modification of exislitg forces which we have named . ero any By at tention to the compression of amor Weitis ye ape: oe A ia! per gave rise to a very animated discussion.—The Presiden = id, pave Ree he was ready to admit that Mr. Tyndall’s rob was ; & _ most ingenions,, and the arguments and experiments by whic * tained. his views.were apparently well conceived and sound, yet time » ‘must be given to weigh them, well before, a -satisfactory conclusion could be reached.—Prof. _Themson thought that Mr. Tyndall’s views would be found -jo:be omens consonant with Dr. Faraday’s and the ae theory of Poissgn. ‘ On the Polarizing Sirueture of the Eye; by Sir D. Brewster. The author said that when he sat down to in paper he was Prof. S a the polarizing structure of the eye for the p ereshee, which would be referred to them, immediately by. Mr. Stokes. He would, therefore, confine himself to showing, that the eye contained within itself amply sufficient to account for the. phenomenon, because constituting the eye itself an ever ready pelerecope oY o. 5 < - Ss o = oO Oo ° 5 Qa. oO i] wn Ps) pnd ° 3B ° = oad a < bo) Saee] ° ban 7 » i] > 5 ° -~ os o ed = oO —_— ie condensation on the’: fof; the former, whilst there is much about the latter. Indeed, ests we know, condensation of vapor is _ the only influenc that operates: ‘exclusively on the eastern coasts of the ee chemical action which converts sucacritaeel ‘su berenée into a Tiquid, and Comegucniy changes the heat from a latent to an active state. The greatest irregular rise in the, isothermal lines is found in the : “winter of she bsthern hemisphere, - just at ibe time that the condensa- _ on of vapor produces the greatest effect. ‘on the» temperature hae the same temp i densation of wae is, S the. cause’ of. the rise of the isothermal: pe the parts, Pe ite On the Argunen for the P huiatoal i ection of Double a deaieed easy. of, Probabilities ; ; by Prof. For “The oe read'a passage fr from Herschel’s ‘ Outlines of Astronomy,’ -where thi is argument is set forth. ‘Mitchell, in the year 1767, in a pa- per in the Philosophical Transactions, was the first who advanced this “argument. He calculates the odds as 500,000 to 1 against the stars which compose the group of the Pleiades. being foniaincuby concentra- i ‘i the space they occupy, ahd thence infers the probability of 3 i = ® — =) _ n. Se. = R 2. a Q ™ “yy =) ° = o. 3} oS =a ® 2 i) af - ® = a C a=) and more have since been added to the list. Again, he calculates the against any two stars of a number fortuitously scattered, falling Sor the Advancement of Science, 399 — within 32” of a third, so.as to form a-triple star, as not less than 173,000 to 1, while four such triple stars were known to exist. The conclusion, adds Sir John Herschel, of a physical connection of some ind or other is, therefore, unavoidable. “ Against the principle of this. argument, Prof. Forbes, though with much diffidence, felt himself cal- | led on to protest. He owned he could not attach any idea to what would be the distribution of stars, or of any thing else if “ fortui- 32, tously scattered,” and therefore he must regard with hesitation, if not. doubt, an attempt to assign a numerical value to.the’ antecedent proba- - peared that an equable spacing of the stars over the ould t far more inconsistent with a total absence of law. or'princip! the existence of spaces of comparative condensation, including bin or even more s, as well ‘as regions of great paucity of Stars. an illustration of this, he‘adduced the representation Stars and their grouping by sprinkling viscid white paint from a coa ru : r 4 are ; ; eee Oe ilkeagt it was impossible t conceive a nearer a proach to * random'scattering,” yet he had witnes- ~ foo Pa ~ 8. There is also a quicker rotation round ‘its longer axis. 9. A comet Shines by reflected light, and shows a’ sensible ‘phase. 10. In propor- tion 1 rie. ; ; Bi mh hey : id bility of any given arrangement or grouping whatever. To him-it.ap-" : sky would seem ngevery variety Ya y mate * 400 _.. Proceedings of the British Association | ae e straight from the sun at perihelion, must be turned straight towards the ‘sun at aphelion; and at other parts of the orbit must have intermediate positions. This he proceeded: to illustrate by a diagram, in which@ =~ _ number of ellipses with the same major axis were so arranged, respect- _- the comet, iitiorthe. contrary took place by the Sitesion of these sev- eral orbits towards aphelion, The author exemplified these principles by reference to the great comet of 1845, which, though visible to the ke -- sun:parallel to the ecliptic, having approached within about 60,000 a fete miles of the sun :—the nearest approach to that luminary ever actually id tory of comets no fact was ale established than that their tails were : always turned, though with a slight curvature, directly from the sun; ; . that this fact was well known to Sir J. Rereng and” was one basis of 4 “his induction, " : On a new Membrane eos ie. Ghyatatin Mass by Sir ie ; — 2 and at length the capsule burst. ee it kas burst, however, he , ~~ showing that a perihelion the several parabolic paths of the parts te of the comet, by becoming crowded together, caused the condensation of ; n eye for about three. weeks, and to the telescope for more than / five, yet in the very short: time of less than twenty-four hours swept through that part of its perihelion path cut off by a plane,through the =~ d,. Ma kcecchecrved, that if the 12th axiom (attributed to Sir J. ) ‘were a correct representation of facts, e conceived that it il of a comet, which was eter to be turned ing the sun occupying.a focus common to all, as that their ‘perihelia x i pypht all be ranged in one line, embracing the sun also.—Prof. Smyth = | did not concur in Mr. — argument; though time would not | now admit of his going farther into it than to remark, that inthe his- “The author drew a diagram represcliag the crystalline lens of an ox with its inverted capsule ; and said that having lately had occasion #0. examine the crystalline lens of an ox, which had been killed the day before, he had put it into water,—by imbibing which it had soon swell- ent plane; and he had Sacetie in this instrument observe the hey exerted on the light, which were quite imperceptib ble to by it. ar Jor the Advancement of Srience ee 401 hae Prof. Stokes observed. that’ heretofore it had Lestiinlagrllyaiat posed that the clouds always exerted a aegolenning: action on the Tight On the Danselite by) a ‘nantes 4 Be portance of distin siahinig n the optical. foci of the lenses used in photographic cameras and the foci of the photogenic rays.» He said that ignorance of this distinction, or inattention to it, the had invented a simple instrument, which was exhibited and: exple ed, for accurately distancing the object to be depicted and: determi the corresponding foci of the photogenic rays in any given camera. s proper for exposing an sph on a given day, aint un 3 r given ae are camera; and that a longer or shorter time than this was injurious to the effect... To ascertain readily this proper cal he had Invented dynactinometer, which he now exhibited. . It consisted of a square frame of card, Bho a circle of card capable of being turned round either by hand or by clock-work ; in one position of this circle, the, . whole surface of the rit exposed to the camera at the proper p genic distance was black.;. but as the circle turned, a. neatly divided“: Sector of white card was eX] d, and by causing the circle to turn so as to expose a given number of i tins each successive equal num- t of seconds, the part of the sector whose image was most clearly _ @efined on examination of the photogenic ee gave the number of ~ Seconds best for exposing the object to the camera. © But as the several photogenic plates were not equally sensitive, thie sensitiveness of the plates was determined by placing them in a small frame, and allowing them to descend along an inclined plane, during a Simp de of which descent i i rest being ete melee. ct means of comparing the sensitiveness of the several plates. Attempt to eicsate the occasional distinct vision if ie revolving ored sectors; by Prof. Steve He exhibited an instrument for whirling cards with coletedaes sectors on them, devise d by Mr. ee of Belfast, to teach his children jetta ads Proportion to apes e the exact bron whieh they Sociol This apparatus he had lent to Prof. Stevelly to show his class; and while doin, ng so, he was surprised to observe that while the cards were revolvin Tapidly, if he suddenly turned away his head he caught a distinct view of the individual colored sectors at the instant he was losing sight of ‘Srconp Serres, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850. 51 which they reflected or transmitted to the eye. eight ss a sts Re: Proceedings of the British Association ee ~ the’ em by a side view. A few weeks before this, he had attended the ae — lectures of Prof. Carlile, of the Queen’ s Cole “hee on the anat- Fen ome acquainted a pase on the side next the bye % which they went; these, after accom- aS. eee it in its passage into the eyeball. ‘These portions of the re- tina of the different eygs were also united into one nervous action by e “commissure of the retina.” So that, the retina of each eye was ‘divided into two portions,—the portion next the nose, and the outer and larger portion ; and these two portions of each eye were supplied by nerves springing from opposite sides of the brain, and not a in’ their action by any commissure or connecting nerve. . Now, the con- “sequen ce of the sudden turn of the head was, to throw the ace from its usual place ye n the portion of the’ retina next the nose, affecting a * new and fresh of the retina for an inStant only,—for the motion — af the head instantly interposed the socket of the eye and shut off the ors therefore became distinct at that instant, for a sim: _ les reason sed in the beautiful experiment of Prof. Wheatsto ot electric spark showed them distinct,—namely, the instantaneousne’ the impression. The following are the titles of other memoirs presented to the Sec- tion ‘of Mathematical | and Physical Science.— Report on the observations and experiments at the Kew Observatory; by F. Rowatps. Report on Luminous Meteors the Rev. a ft: On the’Laws of ara § of TF igohide ; by W.J d ted of sg working of the new aia one ago rig the past year; OLLET OSLER. On Magnetic sama by Mr. J. A On the ris ig ‘of the Silk rac. Threads for the Declination Magne- tometer; by M ROUN. _ On the the Mechanical ‘Compeneations = the effect of cher sean on the Bifilar A. Br of za on tie ® Expansion of Glass, Woods, and Metals from por Tem- — “7 wake monet tyg Pecearroe on the Instruments for the measurement of earthq! on ‘on the Meteorology of the Azores; by Mr. J. C. Hunt. tet > a 3 hs “a Sor the Adgancameny of Science. i. #4. Meee rf 2 Report on the effect of a stroke of hing on’ a tree near’ ‘Rainborgh; bys see ° # Pay: HILLIPS, te x On the climate of the: “valley of the Nile; by Mr. aR On the means of computing the wantities of ao vapor in i tbe Liman Biss at various emg an pa of by MrT pee 4 ‘On the daily form of Gloads at Iakorstotats MrT: Hormms, -* 7% Bis; the passage of t aeccing across the very Islands by Mr. R. Russe remarkable yy sia eee near the Moon's first quarter, ota * a 1839 to 1850; by : <) in some extraordinary electrical appearances observed at Manchester on thé Loth. . - of July, 1850 ; by Mr. P.O ge -Meteorological Phenomena ae Hggate, Yorkshire ; s by a a Rani gees ae I ate On cigpenan: Magnetic Lines in Yorkshire ; by. Prof. P: Capel oe estion of Probabilities obra occur’ in mri use ar a fixe collimator fpr: of the verification of the constancy of Position of an Azimuth Circle ; by Prof. Airy. Fae On the Lunar Surface, and its ae to that of the fai by Mr. Llergees es eas 3; by me dee On Polygons inscribed on a Surface of the Second order; by Sir W. R. Hasuzox, On the Theory of Magnetic Induction; by-Prof. Tomson. 3 7 Pee the reduced observations for six years of, e Winds i in the regions of Glasgow; of. On n some powerful Magnets made by a process adesiaid by:M. Elias, and manufac- =~ ou M. Logeman, optician, at Haerlem ; by Sir DaBrewster. e Optical Properties of Cyanure et of Magnesia and Platina; by Sir. D. a Geometrical Rotation between Ten Points, ona surface of the second order sir W. R. ', On the de of Cs cae of Newton’s Rings in passing the Angle of total G. G. Sroxes. io nthe Distribution of Shooting Stars in the Interplanetary Spaces; by Mr. H. a, On E Electr Figures of Dust ou Plate one: by Mr. J. A. Brown. a Magnetic a exhibited by Mr Bicews Section B.—Cusussray, INCLUDING ITS ArPLicarions TO Acnicut- Ps AND THE TS, n the per-centage ov Nitrogen as an Index to are nutritive Value of ; by r. A. VoELCKE The object of ae paper was = show, that t i usual estimation of the nutritive qualities of an article food is frequently attended with inaccuracies s, which renders it destiable to modify our present me plants. In order to prove experimentally the presence of am salts in larger quantities than hitherto suspected, and to afeid f the objec u 3, was found to be 0-204 per cent. for the fresh fangi, or 182 per cent. for the dry fungi. The whole amount of nitrogen in " Procealings of i fie British Association € Sgkine agarics, collected at ihe same time, determined by combustion, _was found to be’0-74 per cent. for the fresh fungi, or 6°61 per cent. for he fungi dried at 212° F, Deducting-from the’ last stated numbers the rl aed y of nitrogen found to exist in the juice in the form of ammonia, we “find that only 0-536 per cent. of nitrogen’in the fresh, or 4°799 per cent. of. nitrogen in the dry fungi, e xists in the state of proteine compounds, and that nearly one third of the nitrogen obtained by direct combustion ~ exists in the form of ammonia in the juice, or at all events i -..,. whieh the nitrogen adds nothing to the nutritive value of see fungi. ae & The nutritive value of the fungi has thus been overrated considerably ; ; prea many vege: r ele ker’s communication yan give in- ifection—Dr. Daubeny made some ob- aving been engaged in examining the dietaries of a large number at “exfensive establishments, he should lay the: sabia before the Meeting. . | On a peculiar Sore: produced in a Diamond shee mere the influence a ae e Voltaic Arc; by J. P. Gas M. Jaquelin was SS first to show that when ae diamond is subiiie | to hats high temperature and influence of the , are, 1 it quickly bar | a peara coke :—the diamond when in a native eats is an insulator or Sach eatoctor of electricity, but vhs 8 changed into coke it be- | ; comes an excellent conductor. At the Chemical Section of the British : M Jaquelin, and subsequently, on the 16th of June, 1848, he publicly —— the experiment in London, in the theatre of the Royal Institu® On repeating the experiment a short time since before a few | fends, [ obtained a . product so totally different from that of M. — 4 m induced to bring the subject before this Section, in thes= positive or platinum end of the onto or being formed in small cup or crucible, in which the diamond was placed ; jor the wma vi Science. “3 § 405 Me 3 tive or zinc end of the battery, a nice of the. same charcoal ( but Wavlane: ed) was attached, The experiment was then made. ib iene ‘form © ~~ as described by M. Jaquelin, by first making ee eet the two char et coal terminals, then bringing the flame in such a Position as to cau O surrou ott ctrode which was in a state of intense ignition, remained attached to the neg-.- ° : ¢ ative terminal. When cool it exhi ited the same state: as it now pre- mee te : e ; a sida of becoming a black capnenacec re a good conductor, it has a vitreous white o appearance, and remains a non-conductor. It has also a deep, sironlée: sau on thas. portion | which was oppositeand =| box-wood charcoal remaining attached to it... The centre of the cavity © *” “appears to be still brilliant, as if that portion of the diamond_ had not complete state of fusion. In-one or two reg peeing F gs *y . Rise on the iptisent State of our Knowledge o ied ig Action of the Solar Radiations ; by Mr. In this’ report the mig gave an historical sketch of ‘he progress of inquiry on this subject, from the period when Scheele first observed that the chlorid of aie was blackened much more speedily by the _ ays at the blue = of the spectrum than by those at the least refran- |. oad r red end, to the announcement of the discovery of the sensi- ility of the iodized. tablets to the solar influences by Daguerre and the the least refrangible end, and lecontleeshts sae ma at the a re- appear to be influenced by light—the luminous power—as distinguished from the purely chemical or calorific powers. The vitality of plants is stimulated by light; and although many functions are performed in the absence of luminous radiations, they all appear to be pages e by I i sam se e to tha _ Proceedings of the British Association hence that'.the formation. of wood in plants is a function of their xiality spcshs ‘by, Light :—that the development of the flower is due cate. balance of the tek Actinism and Light, since we find Ps tie St bath, the luminous and’ chemical agencies are very active during _. the process, and that the: egny p3 fruit and the perfecting of the _ - healthful conditions of the seed are due toa * combiniation of the calorific ~. influence of the solar rays ‘hie inorganic ‘bodies, ‘the author peter it : eee ened -beyond a doubt—Ist. That the maximum of chemical ~ (ac | phe peeone | was to be found where there was the least quan- “tity of light and. heat.-2. That as the luminous power: increased— __. power) diminished, until it came to its minimum, where light—luminous “ power—existed at its maximum,-~3d. That although Be chemical influ- ence extended to the red or heat-giving rays, its operations were mate- rially modified, and to all appearance changed, by the combined opera- tion of the calorific power, and that results standing in direct opposi- tion to those obtained by the pure chemical rays were given’ by the chemico-calorific rays. In conclusion, the author pointed out the wide field for investigation which was opening to the experimentalist, and he showed. that, although much had bene achieved» by. the experi- ments already undertaken, there yet remained an extensive: ground fl Ace yet want the researches which shall satinfgotorily show whether these | phe nomena are due to one great principle modifie a] the matter on which it acts, or whether they result from the operation of forces com- bined in action, although very different in their Palteog effects. New Researches on the Condcdt tality of the Earth; by. Prof. Although the good oe power a the earth is at present gen- erally admitted and is advantageously applied to the construction of elec- tric telegraphs, i it must be confessed that nothing has been hitherto known of the laws and theory of this singular phenom menon. In England, ee Germany, and Russia, it has been found advisable, for several years past, to form the telegraphic circuit partly with the earth and partly with the metallic wire, instead of forming the whole circuit with me tallic wire oy: I was, f believe, the first to show, by exact see pence between the electrodes plunged in the earth has attained a certain length. Having laterally renewed my studies on this subject, nari confirmed and extended in a complete and ean manner t sions drawn from my former researches; I have also piesa ote | result, given above, by different wi cineutil processes. T F “hits? Sor the Advancement a: Science. . have compared the resistance of a eenabadl 4 legraphie ren with the of an entirely metallic. es raat B a lengthvof wire twice as great as that employed. in a mixed c Thave also! formed metallic circuits of very fine biznes: ‘wires, heii the. same ‘Tesistance at . that of a mixed circuit, in which the:metallic portion remained*con- _ 3 stantly the same, and to which were added different lengths of ebrths sos The following are the principal conclusions drawn from experiments sco a ——according to the specific gravity of that earth ,——according to its depth beneath the surface,—according to the nature of the electrodes and ex- tent of their surface. This resistance,does not increase with the ins. ear a cae see sam youre power; different portions of the a eo the: vlodiiadeh we may find og an increase or diminution in the resistance of the earth. Likew in operating ona long mixed telegraphic circuit, which is not petfectly isolated, owing to the effect sof the different derived circuits formed between the posts ‘and the earth, electric current is stronger near the piles than at a distance, and s results which I had obtained from my former bm experiments. The resistance of a layer of earth appears to diminish as its: length in- creases only in cases where we meet with other layers of better conduct- ing power. In every layer of earth of a certain constant a power, the resistance which at first increases very feebly with the in creased length of the layer. , becomes same for all the spp lengths, however great, on which experiments have been made. Now, it is evident that as the increase of resistance ina long eg circuit i is ey perceptible when we add to the circuit, by means of two e electrodes, a thin stratum of water; so we ought to find j in the ae pion telegraphic circuits that the resist- ance of the earth is rig or ‘pearly sO, since it is equal to that of a thin. stratum of water of a very large section. The law of the conducting _ power of the’ earth edad established, it remains to give the theory of his phenomenon. ‘The opinion of the scientific world is divided on point. Some explain the good counleesitg power of the earth by the almost Shake. section of the earth compared with the distance of ‘ 408 - Pirgeecdinis TL the British Association r ee wes veléet rodes ; others, again. suppose that the electricities at the ex- _,tremities of the. pile are dissipated in the earth, in the same manner as the, electricity of the conductor of an electrical enhine: This second es Sihepian nation, will not bear the slightest examination, norcan it be made to ~ ~ tally with the results of the. most elementary pie aioe relative to the Finally, according to this explanation, the resistance of the metallic part of a mixed circuit ought t to di isappear,—a thing: which ne ever happens. I - think that | may be of the good con- : Ss ducting power of the ‘earth, founding my assertions on very simple ex- periments and on theoretical views already known. As. long ago. as. 1837, proved in a memoir published in the Annales de Physique et.de Chimie, that in operating on a certain liquid mass, very co onsidérable compared ‘ with the distance of the electrodes plunged in it, theilength of the inter- mediate liquid stratum has no sensible influence. on the. intensity of the ent. 1 have recently verified this result on a very large scale. had a wooden case made seven metres in the side. I keep this case — isolated from the earth, and filled with water. Operati ing on this mass of of water, we find that the resistance of a certain stratum water, variable within certain limits, is independent of its length. . In like pote: in diameter from 2°™ to 30 or 40°™, I have found that the of these spherical masses of water wa s the same, and inde- pee of their diameter. I have already said that this result may be de duced from the e theory, and this is done as follows :—From the same ductor of an electrical machine in action, and at the other extremity with the earth, than to the case of the electrical current defined by its electro- chemical, and electro-magnetical action ; it is no less true that a certain number of the phenomena of the electrical circuit are explained by representing the propagation of the hesrseagy current by the same equa- tion given by Fourier in his theory of heat. Among these phenomena, ; may be placed lectricity — the fundamental law of the propagation of e ity in Germany, and in Itaby by my friends Ridolfi and Felici. “-¥ersation on the various methods employed | by the Electric Telegraph continent prior to these investigations of M. Ma of the earth to conduct _electricity.—Mr. “ derstood that the water contained. in the superficial stratum is the con- ucting medium; since he has proved that non-metalliferous i and dry earth will not conduct an electric current. the employment of the ae oe Lead we Eorhares Acid as pu- rifying agents ; by Dr. Scor On‘ the southern coast of stn, in a region limited by Almeria on the east ilaga on the west, bounded on the north by mountain -Tanges’ ‘and onthe: ante by the Mediter erranean, is a tract of land which, so fareas its cliniate. and productions are conc erwed: may be aptly des re- »@ circumstance which een) Spain itself seems to be very little voowe. There is perhaps no example on record of any operati tion of materials as the operation of extracting sugar from the cane. One portion of this loss is due to mechanical, another to chemical causes. The sugar-cane has been ‘ete’ by most writers who have found opportunities = practically examining the subject to contain no more than 10 per cent. of solid non-saccharine matter, leaving 90 per cent. of juice to be pice OF this 90 per cent., most writers con- cur in testifying that in practice scarcely 50 per cent. are actually ob- tained ; at least in the British West India possessions. Cane juice itself has usually been stated to contain pe to 23 per cent. of crystalline ugar, of which scarcely 7 per cent. in practice is actually extracted. ny of other experimente ers. Having operated on canes from v: ie parts of this district, by slicing them, exhausting first by hot ay and then by hot ne and finally drying, I obtained as my mea sult about. 10 per cent. of woody or insoluble matter; whilst the suger Qu eore etal inet ranged from 17 to 23 per — as had previ- zCOND Sertss, Vol. X, No. 30.—Nov., 1850. ; Sor the Adelincctents sey ‘Societal. | 409° in metallic wires according to their. Section “atid length. and the thee. more general cases of the propagation of the electrical current, and i 4 of derivation, in large metallic plates, or in spherical masses andin oe earth, such as they have been found by MM. Kirchhoff and Smaaeen " - The reading of the Se from Prof. Matteucci led to a con- On the Sugar Produce of the South of Spain, chiefly i in connection with mee Daly bab stated. It would consequently appent, that 40 per cent. of juice i is actually lost in the ‘practice of ou t India workings ; and RP Sak thling ground ot whereas the West “India cane col | is repre- sen of very inferior construction. e cane, however, is. passed between oppe rollers of the mill four times, until the reftise or’ megass, as the ‘many cases by hydrostatic force. By the latter method, I have seen 13 410 Proceedings of the British Association WwW arises, as a most important “ebkeideentioi “be question as to what . this loss | is Travia and to what extent it. might have been ob- ange by altered machinery ‘or improved manipulation. Instead of 50 ent. of j ae extracted, '70 ‘percent. is much nearer the average aan yielded by the suga arémills of this coast, although occasionally the result is as high as 75 per cent., and this, in some cases, with mills ssed cane is called, has been reduced to a state of disaggregation Sieralion of pressing, sometimes by the agency oft a . screw, but in per cent. of juice e extradt from megass which had already yielded up 73 per cent. of juice to ‘mill, thus ete the total quantity extent per cent. out of te original 90, an sseapasent as a manu — operation leavir very little more to be desire eats hydrostatic ora contents caf which are finally exposed to the operation of claying. one manufactory, however, witnessed by me at Almunecar, lime is no longer used on account of its well-known i injurious effects on sugar :— no oie agent having been substituted in its stead, but sole reliance bei aced on the pip ryt by heat of albuminows matters —. lized Ger de ocaling the other 60 per cent. sibs in the sonaee : ‘0 operat is Montril, about forty-five miles saath 2 G ae mangetboiory furnished with apparatus of the rudest charelae: "Up © ee a 5 bit eon nape for the Advancement of Science. . All ae period (July 9) our own vacuum apparatus has not been cudhaleni: ya vanced to enable us to pursue our operations by its aid; neverthe- of ‘ “i ai owing to the superior.defecating power of the subacetate e of lead, — we have, even with the old and rude machinery, obtained a result of cess. Hitherto only. one-sixth per cent. on tei juice of sub-acet been used,—but bimagine the quantity may be advantageously i Sa oe ed. As filtration: is indispensable for the conducting of this process, —. considerable fear was antortait a fermentation might supervene. his fear, however, agate as dem purine to be groundless, inas-. much as we possess in sulphurous Gold & agent most pi recat «3 dint. fermentation. Another speculative fear Sen lest danger might a from the lead employed : this fear, too, practice ante el tes to fat en- ~~ ine without foundation, for not only is the s»'phite of lead most easily 1oved,—~bu t even were it to remain no injus" could supervene, inas- ‘much as this. agent is as harmless as chalk. “Tn continuation. ——Observations on the Sulphite of re? were made Dr. Grecoky;—who stated that he had made experiments on the sulphite of lead formed in this process. He admitted ‘els an infinitely small portion niet still remain in the sugar, but that he considered it guile innocuous. He had indeed fed rabbits and dogs with food which ° ae aa 8 qm ° i) ea box] oO = be] ~~ _ io] _ a oo a ts] on - =] - © RQ =. 9 S oS *D = 5 Ug oo a = 5 — o p jon with the hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, iron was often mistaken for the former metal. Dr. Curistison contended that we had no evidence that the Pet ie of lead was innocuous. It was true that in case of poisoning by car- bonate of lead sulphuric acid was administered to convert it into the comparatively insoluble sulphate ; but this was a case widely eae from the slow accumulation of lead upon the system. Dr. Christison adduced some examples of exceedingly small doses of lead bathe taken in water for more than twelve months before its evil effects became ap- they were not affected by many poiso Dogs and cats were the “ity animals which could, from their iatecbal structure, be regarded as the Tepresentatives of the human system in these investigations. ‘On the Air and Water in Towns, and the action of Porous Strata on Water and Organic Matter ; by Dr. R. A. Surru. is a matter of great importance to find from what source it is best “to obtain water for sis towns, and how it is to be collected. To these AL. : Proceedings of the British Association points Dr. Smith particularly directs attention. Regarding the condi- tions of many springs, which never become muddy, but possess a con- ‘stant brilliancy and a very fae! temperature: at all Soiteins of the year, the author thinks that there is a purifying and cooling action going on beneath. The surface water.from the same place, even if filtered, has not the same brilliancy ; it has-not the same freedom from organic mat- ter, neither is it equally charged with carbonic acid or oxygen gas,— there are other influences therefore at work. The rain which falls has not the purity, although it comes directly from the: clouds ; 3; it may even salts; and it is shown by Dr. Smith that their purity is due entirely to _, the power of the soil to separate all-organic matter, and: at the same time to compel the mixture of cae acid.and oxygen. The amount is remarkably pure, and the drainage of the soil is’ such” that there: is very little of any salts of nitric acid in it. If the soil,:says Dr. Smith, has such a power to decompose by oxydation, we ‘want to know how it. gets so much of its oxygen. We must, see look to the air as the * only source, and see how it can come tro When water become: deprived of oxygen, it very soon takes it ai siete may be prov by experiment. This shows us that as fast as the oxygen is: consumed by the organic matter, it receives a fresh portion, conveyed to it by the ' porous soil. Several experiments of the following character were giv- best, according to Dr. Smith, as far as clearing the water is con- being of steel filings,—oxyd of iron, oxyd of manganese, and wdered bricks all answering equally use This shows that the sep- aration of the organic matter is due to some peculiar attraction of the orous mass presented to the uid. This paper was a continuation of Dr. pmb Monet published last year,——and he pro- poses continuing the inqui On the Proportion of P spor Spotl in some Natural Waters 3 . be ake object of this wii was to riche siteiition toa ces ts rce ; many of our fields may be economically supplied with Pi a b for the Advancement re Science. 3 et e phosphoric acid. Prof. oe has shown that: traces of phosphori ae acid are met with in many rocks of igneous origin, but-also in sated ye rocks, particularly in imbeicne rocks, the presence of phosphoric acid has been indicated by several chemists. The author found the propor tion of phosphoric acid in graptolite, from the neighborhood of Ciren- ° cester, amounting to 0°124 per cent., equakto:0-260 of bone-earth, and — in Stonesfield slate from the same locality amounting to 0-117, equal to. 244 per cent. of bone-earth. As water, charged with carbonic acid, is ¢ capable of seeoOe bone-earth, this important, fertilizing substance is Ss found in many natural waters, phosphoric acid. _ Such ister, therefore, may be applied with advantage for irriga- tio » often neglected naturalsource,. are strikingly enbiie? in the irrigated meadows in the neighborhood Pa. of Cirencester ; and it is the.opinion of the author that one of the chief causes of the bouskeial effecia which follow the application of the water: -. for irrigation in this locality, isto be found in the phosphate of lime it contains.. .In a tea-kettle incrustation formed in a short period by this water, the proportion of phosphoric acid.was found to amount to 1:25 per cent., Showing’a considerable quantitysof this acid present in he water. A very hard water from Edinburgh. Rice, proved — tain phosphoric acid, but its proportion was not so large as that int Cirencester water, ‘the quantity of phosphoric acid: in a boiler ane a- en EST es et contains phosphoric acid, but the open amounts to ~~ mere tra _A quantitative determination of phosphoric acid in the . : goler cepa of a Canada steamer gave only 0-0306 per cent., and ain i i i in a p oe at Bs ~ af ik roe] ot. ° =] ° =a ~ nw RQ O ro) 5 o bs | ~~, is Ss go o ra) al = oO re) 5 co c = i] fans * t . eae natural waters The a ae of Potassium; by Mr. W, Perriz. While speculating on the consequences of the dynamical theory of heat, I was led to the conclusion that cold potassium ought to be found luminous ; and farther, that it ought to be only about a tenth part as lu- minous as phosphorus. On testing this experimentally, with the precau- tions for sensitive vision which the anticipated feebleness of the light indicated to be necessary, the result was, that on diving a bit of po- tassium, (which was quite dry, being protected only by coating of bees’ wax,) the halves showed two distinctly aes Ee 2 sections the light being about a tenth of that from a similar surface of phosp orus, as far as the eye could make the pa pe The light diminished, naturally, as a protecting coating of oxyd was formed, but remained just perceptible to the most sensitive sight, as long as half an hour. On the presence of Fluorine in Blood and Milk; by Dr. G. Witson. 4 In 1846 I announced to the Royal Society of Edinburgh that after ding that sea spar was soluble in water, and occurred in many nat- waters, I thought it well to seek for it in milk and blood, and found net evidence of its presence in both. The proofs however were ‘so decisive as I could have wished. This summer, however, I have ! _ Vol. v, p. 337, 8 L from top, for Ga o read Ca 8. 414 News Planet. —Staurotide. 4 ES Siaitved the fresh drawn blood of the ox. About 26 imperial pints or 3 gallons of aneera were made use of. From the large scale on mination. Milk was examined ina similar. way, with nine. imperial pints of rich milk from a country farm. The vapor which they evolved etched glass distinctly. The ashes of twelve pound of new skim-milk cheese made this spring treated in the same way occasioned deep etch- 5 pon ie) 07) 2. o oS 99 = = taal > oO iv) i) 2 e So oO my ie 1s a S&S ei “Ss - ® -& - = ao 7 at = By oO = i) QoQ. o ' peated the inquiry into.the. solubility of fluorid of calcium in water, re- _ ported to the Association at its Southampton meéting, and with the same result, viz., that 16 fluid’ Paaces, or 7,000 gr. of WaUets at 60°, dissolve 0:26 gr. of fluor spar. Another New Planet.—On the 13th of Sept, isco sveetiat” new 3 a was discovered ‘by Mr. J. R. Hind, agers ‘Its place,Sept. > 11h 29m 3s Gr. m. t. was R. A. 23) 44m 45s-( e and N. decl. * 149 Gm i> 9. Itis Seaiahly, one of the Asterdidet roup. a pposed Staurotide of Norwich, Mass.—Notwithstanding the . “semblance to Staurotide in these crystals, and the ‘identity: fete baie in the prismatic angles, cat A are found by Mr. W. J. Cra | i General Index.—We close this volume with a general Index to the first ten velumes of this series of the Journal, intending to continue the plan with every a. tenth volume, believing that the value of the Journal will be thus enhanced, as well as its convenience to our readers. Some articles now on ‘and, are consequently deferred to olume.— Eds. “Errata— The Errata of the ten eee ee this series are to be found on page vill 7 each ee also in volume iii, p. 464; also for additional errata of vol 1, vit of and ii Oe thle vols i i, p. viii; of vol. iii, see vol. i og p. viii; of vol. v, see vol. vi, vol. vi, see vol. vii e — ; of voL ig see vol. ix, p. vill. not mentioned, are ollows :— Vol. i Iv, p. 278, ior Tautolite, cd in ig 356, in a. r vol. i, r vol. ii. Vol. vii, p. 114, aby hon ok - Ma arbury, read Marburg. sous BE eas or 44183, read sais ¥ ind for’ Vili, p. 428, 7 _ me hae Ephipphora, read Ephippi ino aaa Mag “Mag. N OP, se ea oy for Journal, read Proceedings. CATALOGUE w LEA & BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS, JULY, 1850. LYNCH’S DEAD SEA. CONDENSED AND CHEAPER EDITION.--Now Ready. _ PRICE ONE DOLLAR BY M. MAIL, FREE OF POSTAGE. NARRATIVE OF THE UNITED STATES’ EXPEDITION DEAD SEA ie RIVER JORDAN. BY W. F. LYNCH, U.S. N., _ Commander of the pice Ailen, IN ONE NEAT ROYAL 12M0. VOLUME, EXTRA CLOTH. exzeditio, has induced the author to prepare a condensed edition for popular use, __ which is now furnished at a very low price. In preparing the former editions the ~~ object was 40 produce a work worthy in every respect of the national character which it d no pains or expense was spared in bringing out a volume as hand- some as anything of the kind as yet prepared in this country. The great demand, which has rapidly exhausted many large i he: of this edition, ree its pri oe icient proof of the intrinsic value and interest of the work, and in Stain al the is new and cheaper edition, rm Peal ee Resa ‘tute that it of the former volume, from the time the expedition reached Lake Ti as till: its departure from Jerusulem, n, embracing ail the explorations upon the river i oie and the Dead Sea. Some matter in the preliminary and concluding chapters has been ont or condensed, and the two maps of the Siiaal edition have been reduced in reserving however, all the more important _—— of the country descri » price of ‘the tere costly issue, in a neat and handsome volume, admirab y adapted parlor or fireside reading, or for district schools, sabbath schools, and other libra- ‘ies, it should find a place in every house and cottage in the land where there isa eopy of the Bible, or w: mpere there is any interest felt for the sacred regions now first accurately surveyed and escribed. __, To facilitate its nein by those who live at a distance from bookstores, or from _ the larger towns, the publishers have prepared an edition in paper covers, suitable for mailing, which they’ will forward through the Post-office, FREE OF POSTAGE, on the as of LLAR, by mail Fidei condensed and cheap, yet very handsome edition of Lieut. Lynch’s admirable Narrative of the Expedition to the Dead Sea. e in which was excited and gratified by the first publication of this work, demanded that it should iy placed in a form for more ups neral circulation, and this demand is met inthe we have noloee us. Reg “7 wom: itself nothing need be : “ag S$ @ narrative that eo In one very large and handsome octavo volume, a lars Twenty-cieht beautiful Plates, and Two Maps. Jong and expected, fully sustains the hopes of the most sanguine and . ‘The type, paper, bindin oe ot _ pet cee are all at the best ant eee a ane engravings. It wi € to elevate the character of our national $a poarrs | for years. Thei parcgategh bree g of the subject will give it popu- at must be Pog to = appreciated ; and it will be read extensively, and New and condensed edition; witha Map, from actual Surveys. © : ex The universal curiosity excited by the interesting narrative of this veinsseali } ie. ‘ 5 4 2 LEA & BLANCHARD’S NEW PUBLICATIONS. ... ~ JOHNSTON'S PHYSICAL ATLAS. __ ae THE PHYSICAL ATLAS OF NATURAL PHENOMENA. ii POR THE USE OF COLLEGES, ACADBMIES, AND FAMILIES. = Y ALEXANDER KEITH JOHNSTON, F.R.G.S,F.G.8. In one large volume, imperial quarto, handsomely betta ae oS With Twenty-six Plates, Engraved and Colored in the best style, . Together with 112 pages of Descriptive Letterpress, and’a very copious Index. his splendid volume will fill a void long om in this country, where hq attai oes presenbng | a results of the important science of Physical ‘Geograf a distinct and tangible The list of dishes subjoined will show both the design _ of the work an tthe satis tachi its carrying out has been attempted. The repu- * tation of the author, and the universal * aporpanin aah which his Atlas has been _ Teceived, are su wriro a Ripe arantees that no care has spared to render the book ~ eomplete and trustworthy. The e engraving, rittingd, und elon will all be found _of the best and so enaaie description » As but a small edition has been prepare ed, the publishers request all who may desire to Riptsre copies of the work to send orders throu gh their booksellers without delay. LIST OF PLATES. GEOLOGY Y. i. Geologie f the Glob 1. Humboldt’s System of Isothermal Lines. ees es 2. Mountain Chains of Europe and Asia. 2. Geographical Distribution of the Currents of Airs ‘ 3. Mountain Chains of Ameriea 3. Hy etographie or Rain ba ee ca rid. 4. Aupatresion of the Glacier a chen of the Alps, | 4. Hyetographie or Rain Map of. = sosthw ook Woltiais: Action NATURAL Se Paleontological and Geolo am Map of the | 1. Geographical Dist a of Plants. British Islands. (A are t.) 2. Geogra phic al ig of the Cultivated Plants» RAPHY. 3. Geographical skin | of Quadrumana, Eden- _ au Miarsupiatia, and , op er, eogT. arniv 5. Geographical Dintabaue n of Rodentia and Rumi- ‘ antia. i Geographical Distribution of Birds. 7. Geographical Distribution of ag 8. Eihnographie Map of the world. a. 9. Ethnographic Map of Great “Britain and — , in apopular gpererectve form, the re ai sper of naturalists and Philosopher * - the most ng rtant ee a of Ne tural Science. Its study requires no pre aining; for while facts + hyena are stated heaton of 2 to the ie rales of Ligte 2 manate sey are . ee For the first time, in this a“ siiey, the pri inotnlen of coamie reppecnensation ation are ere i i fa. : . ‘ ; ec pa f inf gard oa nt kingd » ome: depositories of information regarding the different kingdoms of na c co) eg met ae Pe &@ conciseness, preci cision, completeness, and prompt itude 0: appl ication — er unattainable by any other agency. _ Thee elegant substitute of igen delineation sters the most ot compat ao , gress vi The Physical Atlas is the result Pepe m hte pitas ae eee a only have the writings and researches of mere ers and trovellersof been ree _ oe but — of — a n of the age, in the different depart densed description of e Sys subject Mosc ah with conétade reference _ ' of the maps, and the colors and signs rte syed are uniformly ¢ : the plates. But while eiulaane ring to make ayailable to erp knowledge otherwise nearly ra senanilae it has ever been bo: @ work, aceuracy and truth are the first r tes, in order more p! ( / i d ae geal will, we hope, be rewarded an extensive enterpr x Sr a this host admirable wo ae ‘No chool-reom and no family should be witheng the Physical ie hands of a judicious teacher, or head of a a family, information of the most se nature -- in all departments of science 2 and-natural history can be introduced and commented on, in refer- A ie ny desired extent. Such works give attractiveness to knowledge, and stimulate to energy : : 5 : exhibited, the faculties of imagination and judgment find room for equal exercise and renewed delight. It is the lively picture and alee 5 our planet.—N. Y. Lit. World, Maes h 9, 1850. a The book before us is, in short, a graphic qneyelopedis of the sciences—an atlas of human de ge done into maps. It exemplifies the truth which it expresses—that he who runs may er (rea her e mal Laws of Leslie it enunciates by a bent li g across a map of Europe; the abstract researches of Gauss it embodies in a few parallel curves winding over a section of the =. globe; a formula of Laplace it melts down to a little path of mezzotint sh oa ; a problem of the. (~ tT endental analysis, which covers pages with definite integrals, it makes plain to the eye bya © little stippling and hatching on a given degree of longitade! A f time and” Space, heat and cold, wet and dry, frost and snow, volcano and storm, current and tide, plant and ~~ , Gerstood—are brought together by a marvellous microcosm, — planted on these little sheets of Paper, thus making themselves clear to every eye. In short, we have a summary of all the cross- questions o — ature for twenty c cen nturies—and all the answers of Nature herself set Bs dtee ~ Speaking to s un mot. or Johnston is well known as a geo- ey Bn of sth nonuiaey and. aie and it is certain that this work will add to his erie tation = lly e: pand pher - is beautifull ce ompanied with we we and tabular leitorpiae of wreak "Te ‘the to’ the stu ent, and to the already ine Bat daily i aes acitroeg of inqui- rers who ee natura panes, the Physical Atias is of incaleu value. i brings i; more ne™ anorami and in Rg Prehensible, : all ‘ie pF ue eoraeat known relative to the great subjects of 2h it sone ly and may be regarded as a lucid epitome of a pp scattered volumes, ——— or less intrinsi cally w _ We possess, indeed, the valuable Physical Atla: var Mr. Keith Johnston, whieh may well be asso- _. Clated with Mrs. Somerville’s book, for their eetiet ill tion. But this s is ee a oes undertaking, and by no means yet known or studied cr. with its ei its. S are as essential i ' Inone Feet eotigat 12mo. hog ae ser interesting. — North American. NMEW AND CHEAPER EDITION Now Rindye KENNEDY’S rE oF WIRT. MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE OF WILLIAM pk e) i BY JOHN P. KENNEDY. ; NEW EDITION, REVISED. gai Seg gs < oa In two large vols., royal 12mo., with a Portrait and fac-simile letter fran pa Adams: ‘ The whole of Mr, Wirt’s Papers, Correspondence, pear bia &¢,; having been placed inthe hands * of Mr. Kennedy, to be used in this work, it will be found t o comme in much that is new and inter- é esting relating to the political history of the times, as oot as to P ig ; : t per dete m its former cost was an objection, _ In its present neat and conv venient form, the. work is emtwen tly fitted to assume the position which it merits as a book for every parlor-table and for every fire-side where there is an eee etion of the kindliness and manliness, oe intellect and i nder i fs wh professi racing sketches pit siuorvulired on all the most chat ngu rage . a the yer of that brilliant parley as well as notices of the many h Mr. beac was =e Av id f bi uch as we had admired Mr. Wirt, we did not kiow me snk he rine eee pies and how Seay ig was of imitation, until we read these pages. _ To a young lawyer, we could hardly suggest more usefu Ir eading. No American has $ purs rsued the law, through a long and illustrious care er, with more single hearted devecion than William Wirt. His hers the Pirie stagae this peek a. all neta thi eum fervent a 5 To his fa amy and ot Atos = is con a oung men, t desert the aes oa 2 eae we iia to enrich our ag af on allure ap as high ae examples. When space permits pages wi yal extracts from these © eligi inks _ ‘Wester n Law Journal, Mareh, 1! h remember to hav be ay Emon “ae ertainly none of biography, with more pleasure than the pe ke wer in: gg Aye e las yerespecially, we commend “the | rechingtis tracing aretie OF one who, springing from an gh peepe ses arn Srethnet hie pose trymen. No class pe pen ae ie ake no sign. ty a thanks of the profession at large a to ii 4 ing so much for us to respect tand admire in the character of the subject of his jahors £ $s tg ‘speak . Spe ‘style in ‘which the book i is ene up; the reputation of the publishers is sufficient B is ne guarantee f for a a telligencer. 4 x ro eg pait, as all life-like “ Lives” are, auto-biographie. Wirt stands tiltsede eee ogT seg by his own Pen n, either ie eeiterts from his ow rsonal memoirs, or from his publie- addresse: : the frank and carel self e of his. private vistors is. ae =! val Ee s passes befo} Seis : S struggice and | apprehensions, his trials, ses and sorrows; een ; stakes, his amiable crac nd his innocent eunity at oan it themsel¥es so naively and 5 ens > You, that y athize with all. The book thas faseina ting your interest and opp cat its rap ced. Sete ~ One of the most valuable books of the season, and certain! pone of the most entertaining works ever siyent - lished in this coun Mr. Kennedy is admirably qualified for the preparation of such @ work, and h oa oan dently eae access toa pote variety of useful material. The work is one whi ‘be in the han Coal 7 every soune _ int untry. Its intrinsic interest will secure it a very ge neral populari ty.—N. = rier and Enguir The fascinating letters of Mr. Wirt, one of the most brilliant and. agreeable men of the day, in themselves: furnish a rich fund of instruction and enjoyment.— Rich mond In This work Bes — are a for with much interest by the pu ite te id will not disappoint the high me eobhet end le need he f the author, and the — nt materials left by the Ae ja a to which he has had free access.—. Philadel- SiThe « style is at once vigorous and fascinating, and the interest of the eran absorbing charaeter.— Pp Mr. Kennedy i is one of br e very finest of American writers. He never touches a subject that e does m “ adorn— s fortunate for the memory of Mr. Wirt that the espn of his life has fallen into such han The pabbahors hone performed their task in excellent style. The paper and the type are good, a getting up is admirable. RE poninrny Whi, ctations of Mr, Kennedy has made a couple of very interesting volumes. He has not disappointed the ¢ expe He has who know his powers, pa had enjoyed the nm Pape! and humor of his ie wious Write eS have, properly adopted the plan of makin, Me Wane T speak himse saat hoe as possible. ry period yo pee gg a large bi of his letters, showing him in pues arin nest or enliness of is life, and rare; in a manner to satisfy us of the equal godess vor his heart and the clear art hisint ile. econo oe nt will be apt oF hr these p i a a sensible nade or veseligs encaey ee Drograae © usands, throu al painal strug veresting and, finally, into renown oom excellence chs urnish many eS oo examp! well os int history. —Charleston Mercury DAVID © ERFIELD by Dickens. Chap peep os ery Fart t, contain Lea oa feet: half; Sak aE Hed Price 25 cents. To be com = Pag in Bets Blanchard’s complete edition of Dickens Novels har oe. pe shing in ly Numbers, with plates, price fiv ts each. pe LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. 5 . PAGETS. TRAVELS IN HUNGARY.—4Just Ready. , HUNGARY AND TRANSYLVANIA. H REMARKS ON THEIR CONDITION, SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMICAL. BY JOHN P ESQ = ia a picnic ae es extra cloth. mn d ith Mr. Paget for our guide. It would tbe wel pe postble « choo: if inte a to flag, and appears to have made el cefatmted, a my pci the cheng and traditions oe country, but with its whole ot ag —_ nd, as really to invest the ely & history andi inasitaions ast B Drepenss so many points of analogy t eet t with a new and peculiar inigpest for an anahean, ae i Bo de sie MACFARLANE’ 5 TU rani mea —Just Ready. THE RESULT OF june = IN 1847 AND 1848 TO EXAMINE INTO THE F THAT COUNTRY. BY CHARLES MACFA ARLANE, ESQ., r of * ‘Constantinople. in. 1828. ‘In two oat ears royal 12mo., extra cloth. Mr. Macfarlane was fp pe eleven nce nel in ie 2 durr period a — erforming a country e sion bo ipally i) the Roe a after another residen a halik ufacturing operations in places semov iF ital are sau te rat resdiee: 0 hom ‘es travel scopent him in contact, by € aits 0 wit x details not seldom telling against his own views, a1 I epartments avi State, and saan Sa g Ministers, which we are yet at all disposed to ‘think jnaecurate rl overcharged. ‘The abuses a. the oe Ha m are described generally as in no respeet reformed, melancholy criptions are given of the ma nha § morals of women of station, aa Mr. Macfarlane i with ill- dis se contempt and sarcasm oft “Ss private character and pursuits of the Sultan. Ezamin eas 4 eo ee Ee ay * SIBERIA: —JTusi Ready. naa Pa te &; IN STBERIA. : INC CEG Ae. EXCURSIONS NORTHWARD ‘Down the Obi to the Polar Circle, on Boutiedan to the Chinese Frontier. “= BY ADOLPH Bees : = te TRANSLATED FROM THE GE _ BY WILLIAM DESBOROUGH COOLEY. In two large volumes, royal 12mo., extra ¢ mplete and suthesiie account which we Much inter rest attaches to this work as the only co pos- i e ral Mountains to Be ~ ing’s St eg of which less hi . Erman deveuss zd 2 rel info wap iarting 7 R, TRAVELS Exhibiting them in their ae hake Social, Pahoa and Industrial. INCLUDING A CHAPTER ON CALIFORNIA. <, ANDER MACKAY, e From the Second and Enlarged London Edition. = in two veny neat volumes, royal 12mo. (Just Issued.) This is not the raveller in ove — who adopts all his ideas of the “ Model Re- public” from the ite Wieden in stea i , railroad cars, and hotels. Mr. Mackay spent some saat in the hited States, made If thorou ae conversa wis our national genius and character, and with our These he describes oh the s the t_and vivacity of a ‘10 exp disap- nt Pec u.trities, politfeal, social, moral, and religious. nt man, but with the ne ness ofa friend ; and while he does not hesitate to. ress ‘ Probation ~ ln he considers it deserved, he is totally and Ee eertesinasina censure Of the Trollene 8 and Basil Hails. JUST ISSUED, —1RISH MELODIES, PLATES, MMEDIATE ND r MR. EDWARD FINDEN. Peclune te Bee pages, handsomely bound in extra cloth, with gilt edges. RINTED ON SUPERIOR PAPER. a 6 LEA & BLANCHARD’S NEW PUBLICATIONS 7 AUMBOLDT’S ASPECTS OF | VATURE-New Edition, ow Rea : ¥ ASPECTS OF NATURE, pr IN DIFFERENT LANDS AND DIFFERENT CLIMATES, (|. WITH SCIENTIFIC ELUCIDATIONS. oa BY ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. ok TRANSLATED te MRS. SABINE. kee di SECOND AMERICAN EDITION. Lie a Se In one very neat seit royal 12mo., extra cloth. — ares A remarkable work; combining in a rare manner the lofty and all- -comprehensive peeeeeeeeon of the poet = 5 with ess — knowledge and minute nee oreey i the Nang of ry Law ot lone Spec ‘ bla si¢ Inte f this publication must e for wide and rapi a pepalerigg ‘Tt is at once 3 learn puts fa ecinatie: eck ing the mos na wonderful ‘nana ws natural history in the charms of a simple, ' an and picturesque style. oe Miscellan ‘ a phe hole book yomtaic ra the riking evidence of genius. Every page teems with information, and at it is SOMERVILLE’S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ee New Edition, much Improved—Now Ready,” PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. = ¥ MARY SOMERVILLE, ' AUTHOR OF ‘‘ THE CONNECTIO TENCES, °? ETC. ETC. Ss OND AMERICAN EDIT! ON, From the Second and Revised London Edition. AMERICAN NOTES, GLOSSARY, &c In one neat a 12mo. yol., extra cloth, of over 550 pages The great suecess of this work, and its introduction into many of the higher schools an aa academies, have induced jee Lactate to prepare apr and much improved edition. In addition to the on. and © improve nts of the author bestowed on the work in its Pes: — bs © press asecond time in London, bye his country; and 2 commrebennses pho Naa Been n added, rendering the volume more par tg educational purposes. The amount of these additions may be understood from the fatt that on mite has the size of the page been increased, - pack “~ value itself ‘enlarged by over one hundred and fifty pages. At pene - the price has not been ine raise comes lagging i in the rear, and is well But wi ous to eg eggs ern be bse! “youth the enlarged method of st : Pp a whith en penedit i diecnsrates 10 ting as itis instructive. Nowhere, except in her own n previous work, The meseenee | 4 Pes Physical Sciences, is there tobe found so large as well- selected information so lucidly set forth. In surveying - mp ine y the ey e than w Ay: x @ D ro} Z 3 i) mn & cu log mS &. i oe ahs = - oO Hui 5 oe a ow nD oe 2 fs) 6 ' ence itself involves her in ; no dissertations which are feltto i oe or delay. She strings her beads dis- net and close together. With quiet eepeviceaity = seizes at once whatever is most interesting and — S ore the book; and we hold such pr rs ville has bestowed upon the public to be of incaleu lable value, disseminating more sound information than all the bee Se and scientific institutions will accom piel in a whole cycle of their existenc — Blackwood’s HERSCHEL’S OUTLINES OF OF ASTRONOMY.—Now Ready. me BY SIR JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL, F. R. 5. “he ; In one am volmine, Crows Sy0., — six plates and numerous wants With this, we take which we hold to be, beyond a doubt, ie greatest and most remarkable of the works in which the ‘nes of astronomy phe the appearance of wn heavens are e -Scribed to those , and recalled to Pines wh oare. Itis the rewar of men who op descend from the advancement of poleene to eare for bi seem ee hele works are essential t th ks ofthe learner.—Ath 'm.- Probab! ly n 0 book.e science, b — eae mer a compass ¢ -* entire € epitome of every a Pa hon within all its various depariments practical, theoretical, and physic iner ‘tet f Pring wind Silliman’s Tournad. i é LJ +2 NEW AMERICAN WORK ON SHOOTING.—Nearly Ready. a i SHOOTING ; OR HINTS TO SPORTSMEN. In one a hands 5: rena oth) oe is ag THE WaR IN HUN GARY. Now Ready. “MEMOIRS: OF AN HUNGARIAN LADY, BY THERESA PULSZKY. INTRODUCTION FRANCIS PULSZKY op In one wun crops ine volume, extra clo th. “ We sg aban i inform o eader: f this s wor rk is the accomplished wife of the — man whi nally Guededized to the h Cabi a Testy te ilaeeag pee to pn recital of e events which ae become so famous would insure a wide ay! for B sibagerers Pulszky’s book. But we should very m ie nder- vencinaatie its value if we so Htenived | oor Memoirs, indee > Matin pie ches of oun sg which are worthy of a place ve = side of fila By Stael De Launay, and Madame Campan. cig t pat pe: rich in — avant and 10} aphical ‘information of the first, character Madame Puls zky wes 5 teh of direct intercou = bo) for amet < ° m as civen a ec sa 9 um. en events in ~ sl y; Pi the arrival of a Hungarian esatation in 1648, to thee fe ease n of Ger Georgey on 13th fietetnr 1849. M. Pulszky has also prefixed a valuable ee ion, which giv of Hungary that has ever issued from the English press.— Glob MISS KAVANAGH’S WOMAN _.IN FRANCE.—NOW READY. WOMAN IN FRANCE IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, Y JUL ANAGH, Author of “ I a Tale of Auvergne,” &c. In one very neat volume, royal 12mo., extra cloth. Intreating other subjects wa her gallery—as for ‘ceniale those paca ong personages, Mdlle Aissé . Madame Roland— —_ Kavanagh puts forth a pee athetic power ———* s depth and repose to a book Be in other hands might have pecuaig¢s wearying from its unmitigated sp ckle. q sane € critic, dealing with = bas eneyelopiedia o of —— sinoars, vicissitudes, sufferings, and repent- F es as the history of “« W n Fra ust pes 1 ae is fain to content himself with peed bei merely a + general character like the | hove ‘su = is the Faseing of the subject—such is the ee bic ye ma! * ter—su ee uence of suggestion—that every page for sp on es Ra footie toons us will ever be tired of reading about the oe of arene: bi ibinarnen y wi hey - Shalled so agreeably peat as in the pages before us.— The Athen Parpors FRANCIS THE FIRST.—Just Issued. “TRE GOURD AND RETEN OF FRANCIS TRE FIRST, KING OF FRANCE. AUTHOR OF ‘* LOUIS THE ae a “© CITY OF THE SULTAN,”? &c. &c. wo very neat volumes, royal 12mo., extra cloth. Roe Re admire weidhteier al works are those on which Miss Pardoe’s fame will chiefly rest— ere Loui Founcenth,"and“Franels the First.” The extremely interesting character of their times — cuited Mice P TS a8 a writer, and she has in both cases executed her task w ith gre ee and equal aceu- r cy, The amour information displayed in these volumes is really the depth ot research lonaee’. to s produce i it fully entitles Miss Pardoe to take a very high rank among ‘ae writers 0: _ FOSTER’S EUROPEAN LITERATURE.—Now Reapy. Barriso, Danasu, Durcu, Fuarcres German, HuNGARL ure: aaa PoxtisH, AND RussrAN, Por ,» SPANISH, AND Sw 5 ‘With a full Moen hical and caccdicnedinal Index. ‘BY MRS. FOSTER. "tn one large royal 12mo. volume, extra cloth. (UNIFORM wITH SHAW’ *s OUTLINES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.) “This co compilai — amateie Pp all young persons who have just completed their academical 1 f Europe fr cng ee ap onda of ieeermiaipey present day. iti is = commited wih care and judgment and is, in all respects, one of the tin- Structive works th. la } Morning Herald. RTgiAK AMP's De can OF ENGLAND. | ‘Lives OF THE QUEENS OF ENGLAND. ee Nici PONE STRICKLAND. bing i e se octavo, beautifully printed a large type on — ener, up in rok mats ian age ea and sold at a cheaper rate than — edition LIBRARY OF ILLUSTRATED Wie. WoRt 3. - hi A SERIES OF ‘BEAUTIFULLY. 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First American Edition, with Notes and Additions by Pror. Water R. Tons as In two handsome ‘gate volumes, printed and illus-: ~ trated in the highest style of ar “Volume One, lately published, aaa) two hundred and fourteen large wood pearevings. Peer Two, just ready, with two hundred and fifty wood engrav ings. WHISBACH’S MECHANICS. PRINCIPLES ih ANE. MECHANICS OF ‘MACHINERY AND ENGINEERING, Be east RO: ie Translated and E Pror. Gorpon, of Glasgow. First A as rican edition, with A atidons by Pror. Spat es ae on. Intwo ogiate eee: beautifully print Volume e One, with 550 illustrations, cal issued. ics Volume Two, with 350 illustrations, now ready. j The second. volume of this work embraces aie application of the Principles of Mechanics to _ fs, Bri dg it rm Scales, Pow Bo Water wee moraines, Water Engines, MACY: Comprising the , Ar SaaAMEDM Apparatus, and Manipulations of th = story Shop er lh atory. By Francis Mour, Ph. D., Assessor. Pharmacie. _ the Royal Prussian colaes of Medicine, Cottentas and THEoPHILus ” RepwooD, Profe - Pharmacy in the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Edited, with a tue ~ Pror. 2 Am Procter, of the Philadelphia College of pearpicr: In e handsome: ely prin ' octavo volume, of 570 bag; with over 500 Pagre vings on "In preparation, works on Meaty. Kes the Steam Engine, Machines, Asir onomy, Rural Economy, Sc. oe SIX MONTHS IN THE GOLD MINES. Just wiiily. SIX MONTHS IN THE GOLD MINES. -FROM A JOURNAL OF A THREE YEARS’ RESIDENCE IN UPPER AND LOWER CALIFOR- NIA DURING 1847, 1843, AND 1849. Anthor of % Pringigied oe ee one See, ¢ gre 1 es i _ A prize fon ving been offered n London for the best « that sum Pras en wapeied § to o Dr cowtume nt work, by Z | fea for the Dr. G. L. Roupell, sual oi W.A hci - treatise prose a poe iB A of Sieh and teacher as Dr. Carpenter, cannot SZ 4 SPENGE'S aie ‘JURISD DICTION.Now Complete. Be _ © VOLUME II. JUST ISSUE | orig JURISDICTION OF “THE COURT OF CHANCERY. EK, Esq., QUEEN’S COUNSEL. eit IME te ~ COMPRISING ITS RISE, PROGRESS, AND FINAL ESTABLISHMENT. with a view to the elucidation of the main subject, a concise account of the the C n Law, with reg - to Civil Rights; with an attempt to trace them to their sources ; oa ich the deen: Alterations made by the Legis- ure. nlows to the present day are noticed. rod cai ME Il. COMPRISING EQUITABLE or ND INTERESTS; emma NATURES, UAL TTTES. ‘AND INCIDENTS. In which i is maa es so far as relates to these subjects, the substa ance =. o «Maddock's Treatise n the bering unepeemt: actice of the High Court of Chan The whole leis two ery large octavo volumes, of over ites Hu heat tien pages, strongly bound in the best law sheep, In the first volume, ‘the Histo ory of the Court of Chancery has been brought ame to the t classed, were there stated. The object of the second volume is to illustrate ree principles 32 eich the jurisdiction of the Courts of Chancery is now exercised, in regard to what are, Por the purposes of this work, designated as “ 7 apes Estates and Interests.”’ The appearance of this work has been delayed beyond the berion originally olicipne by the .¢are which the autho jon a ma collecting materials from every side, and treating thoroughly every ramification of h ose who o possess the first volume pee lose no time in completing their sets while he ua volume is to be had separate. _ Some three years ago, we had occasion to notice the first volume of this work.» (4 ‘West. Law. Jour. 96.) €; ~p dispar said, “The second volume will treat the subjectof Chancery jurisdiction aoe as itis now and judging from what we have now seen, we shonid think the whole work would prove to be vin ie the most learn and élaborate work yet written upon the subject.” This prediction has been fully ral pat the appearance of the pa volume. am sect “4 exhaust the learning connected with al the sub) t treat i ne rn Law deurmal & prt 4 > ently appear fro e- ge. aval Paed, as ost to supersede the pecaesitd of sane sulting the e report Law Journ a £ ce ee: io” = al -* oo o 4 So o “a re Te, fe] ° A a “-? ‘O69 ree — SS = @ 2° : =o £88 > aa a un ve 's own merits, than for the hy tn soa = profession in rt that lawyers at Hae "wiles An * mule sn page hana diligent y—Richmond Whig. Bek, professi Bas d f hi ! ith due accuracy a work of this AW this profes 5 The gen- eman’s quali for the tsk are undone reat | oto sa caeeien of his g greal practical oxnenanee he is the author of the Iuable “I Gis sf gs apg. grabs Se, hed €3,p.2 Vailapie finde ae. as the result of inquiries that must have been painfully Cras a part abd interesting He nvor the Sugin and gradual srowih of of the Courto Chancery, and - ‘rom mn Gree: nleaf. valuable works er‘ tle Law is issued from the American press, and I earnestly nia mia ‘Your etches wil be liberally rewarded b HILLIARD ON REAL ESTATE. Lately Issued. be Ameen LAW OF REAL EEOEEE EE edition, revised, corrected, and BY Ee UREN CIs HILLIARD, . two large octavo volumes, beautifully printed, re bound in best law sheep. substi i i th nd in A cay Englis nl ate pe al alk det ooetien of of the Reel ae Dy ms ila Ay this country ; and at the same time it embodies es y valuable in all the States, em mbracin a8 es, the pecdliar oh s edition, the su uent e all been incorporated, fr aking it one-third bringing "te view of the law upon the subject treated quite is recommended in the highest terms by distinguished jurists timens ee we modern jurisdiction was established, and the various heads under which it ariadictiog@e 3 241. r. Spence has entitled peal to these thanks by the production of the volume now before us, Bi which — *y 10 LEA & BLANCHARD’S PUBLICATIONS ta ose ; . oe EAST’S REPORTS. ; ee REPORTS OF CASES ADJUDGED AND DETERMINED IN- tHe COURT OF KING With tables of the names of the cases and pri al mat “By Epwarp ene! Pass wry : ne r the ple", cip Temple, Barrister at Law. Edited, wat notes ae peforen dalle by G ML. Wu N, Esq., 0 hia evs In — large outere ‘egos eae in beat laws, “sheep, saiee feands and double rice, to subscribers, nay nty-five = ae In Pa aa tion vn Hees t, the sixteen ria es a the former gate have been One gt: i : volumes in one ‘throaghout—but agro ty has been omitted; the entire work will b notes Mr. Wharton ded to those of Mr. Day _The € great reduetion of Price, oe $72, c* pe canes to $25, he | » will, itis trus ror # for ita ee Males’, % CF ADDISON ON | CONTRACTS. A TREATISE ON THE LAW OF CONTRA CTS AND RI IGHTS AND LIABILITIES EX CON- TRACTU. By C.G. i a Esq., of the Inner Temple, Barrister at Law. In one volume, octavo, hand- aaqnaty bound 1 in rae sheep itly and fi ] 1 branch of law, per author has collected, ib] m, “ene e rules and daeacipies of the Law of Contracts, poli supper, {dance 3 or ore Sin lifioe them yes eoateaces to nearly four ew adju dg: ed cases. 9 _ Te ea: s the Ri : = a Liabilities of soe and a chaser; Landlord and Ten eager big d Hirerof — Chat ag von Lender; Wesksea er; Master, Servant ae he in ; Principal, and Agent wah rence ; ‘iNeahand and Wife; Pascnocs, iat 1 Stock Companies; "Corpaantion co sional Committeemen ; Shipowners; ‘Shipmaste ers; Inkeepers; Carriers; Infants; Banarics, pe. HILL-ON TRUSTEES. ~ : fee : o PRACTICAL FERATISS OF on. THE Law RELATING TO TRUSTEES; their powers. duties, privi heat re Ba ong 4 Pen HILL, Esq. ” of the Inner eal es Beviaier at Law. ro ed by Francis J. f the Philad hia Bér e, bes p, raised bands, o> dae begs leave to rah the observation made ray Ge «3 author (ius work is alee x" principally for the instruction and guidance of trustees, y much enhances its practical value. A CLAW. IS TIGA Containing explanations of such technical term n the pe A of legal authors, in the — of the courts, and in the parliamentary proceedings of the Hote of Lords and Commons; to ye uosgae s added, an outline of an action at la By Henry Jam hice Esq., of Be Inner Temple, Special Pleader. “Edite from the sec aad enlarged taeda dition, with nume ms eed by Henry ae of the “Geter: try Be on In one large volume, royal 12mo., of about page: ely bo cep. Tts object principally is mpress slistiadet “ ae ‘dis sti ret upon the mind. the eae of oe technical terms of the law, Wj j and as such can ed fail to be generally useful.— — Pennayiuanta EATERNATIONRY LAW. oe Ww. wry WueEaton, LL. D., Minister of the _ &e. whisk sition, revised ‘and ae In one large and pages, extra cloth, or fine law Mr. Wheaton’s work is indis ee le to every diplomatist, statesman, al ul and necessary indeed to all ne men. To every pili and ey daa mind, the: study must be an attractive, agdin the ae ofour author it is a a delightful one.—North Am A NEW WORK ON _COURTS MARTIAL. es A Chee tay ON AMERICAN MILITARY Lé LAW AND THE PRACTICE OF CC JURTS- & ART. » WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR THEIR IMPROVEMENT. By Jonn O’BRIEN, oeseoun nited States Artille In one octavo volute: extra cloth, or sant sheep. This work stands on ly id Ameriean Military Law in the same position that ee Commenta- Ea ries stand to Common Law.— U. S. Gazette, 4 TAYLOR'S MEDICAL New Baition, Just Ready, 1850. ” A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE wet Aurrep 8. Tayor. With nu- merous Notes and Additions, and references to American Law, by R. E. Grirritx, M.D. Rocpad American, from the Third and Enlarged Londo’ ition. In one octavo volu ume, ni eat law sheep. This work has been accepted by both the legal and Metie#i professions in this country Seiko standard text tee on nthe important subject of which it treats. The demand which has called for three: — we and , has afforded an opportunity for the author to enlarge it considera introduction of much new andi important matter, rand fr the editor to make such h remade 2 ae perms z were shown to hau pales gag: Itis accordingly ——, © ith confidence as worthy repu- tation which it uired. TAYLOR’S MANUAL OF TOXICOLO‘ In one large octavo volume. A new work, eer TRAILL’S OUTLAS OF A OOUREE. Ape) LECTURES ON MEDICAL fiesta one small octavo volume. 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Youatt on the many Youatt I 4 8vo., i jal eri | Youatt on the Pig, Same work, in 7 Pa L. & B. iis ish mumerous works in ; pn can be -) on cere oe a hei ysi ine Lens, a Sir D. eens TER: On n of the PORE a bye D Dynactinomete, by Mr. Crauper: vision of rapidly revolving coloring esr hy ‘Prof. Srevetry, 401.— f Nitro x to the nutritive Value of Food, CK a peculiar form produced in a Di aes when fluence of the Voltaic Are, by J. P. Gassior, 404.— on th Ww of the. Chemical Action of the Solar Ratlationn, ta on Water and Organic Matter, by Dr. R. Phos pphee? c Acid in some Natural Wan rescence of Potassium; by Mr. W. —The Phos f Fluorine in Dkeka nd Milk, by Dr. G. pelt Supposed Staurotide of Norwich, Mass. : “APPENDIX. Prof. Page’s ecto “magnetic Engine by P Professor Wt ENSON, 473.~ a 0” ae ma Ca : age CONTENTS. Arr. XXIV. Address of Sir David Brewster ‘Before the Twen tieth Meeting of the British Asapciion at ee Jay, 31,1850, - 305 § XXV. On rs a Height of Lighting Rods by Prof. ra 320° XXVI. On my "Blestrical Pecan of Coie Houses by 2 Prof. Evias Loomis, — - a XXVII. On a-new method of decotiposing Silicates in sha pro- cess of Analysis; by Henry Wurtz, - - 823 5 XXVUE On the availability of ihe Greensand of hee ate as te a source of Potash and its Compounds; by, Henry Wurtz, 926 _ XXiX. On the Diurnal and Annual Variations in the Declination of the Magnetic Needle, and in the Horizontal and Vertical.’ = Magnetic Intensities ; by Prof. W. A. Norton, . 330 XXX. On the Analogy between the mede of hepichakn Woo Plants and the “ Alternation of Generations” observed in some Radiata; by James D. Dana, | 341 ‘a On Plectee mance as~a Moving Power by, Prof. a> = ‘ E: = is: aa Bs ; Ss adinats size ‘ead length of, F ; by Prof. Cuas. G. Pacr, M.D., - 349 On Rutile and Chleniss in ee ; me Eee 0. “a . 302 XXXV.. Sitesi on Emery; “y I es Sail 1D. - First part—On the Geology and peornicer of nai from park it XXXVI ‘On American Seoduseue 4 by Gro. I. Hide is ee 27 | | XXXVII. Optical Bay of several American Micas ; és . B. Sin LLIMAN, Jr., A.M., @.1).,"é&c. Fe e $72 | - ta XXXVI Analyses of Ele from St. Lawrence County, N.Y.; by Wu. J.C | Extracts from: the Premcediags of the Twentieth | ish Association, held at Edinburgh, July, 1850 Oi tlantic —— their Mosnitnde, Malte eee 386.—On talli lie Reflection, by Prof. G. G. of A ceteeteais hind 1