SCIENCE AND ARTS.” SEZ ae * - : CONDUCTED, BY | ~ Prorzssons B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Ja., @ AND JAMES D. DANA. AIDED “IN THE DEPARTMENTS OF CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS BY Dr. WOLCOTT GIBBS. 4 SECOND SERIES. a VOL. XII.—NOVEMBER, 1851. & WITH EIGHT PLATES. NEW HAVEN: : PUBLISHED BY THE EDITORS. printed by B. L. HanzsePrinter to Yale College. IT. On Certain Meterologia Coincidences ; ee: Mae Resi. Keg... “3 Il. On a Method for distinguishing, oe Biaxial Pe Uniaxial ination of several supposed Uniaxial Micas; by W. P. BuaKE, III. On some of the Thermal Waters of Asia eed by Dr. J. Lawrence Smiru, - IV. Uses of the Stillingia writen? or - Tallow "tesa wit a no- tice of the Pe-la, an Insect-wax of ies sf D. J. Mac- Gowan, M.D., V. On the sudden ae of the 16s on ‘Laas: Chainplain, at the breaking up of Winter; by Rev. Zapocx a VI. On Coral Reefs and Islands; by James D. Dana, - Vil. A description of a new Sand-Bath with Water-Bath and Dis. tilling Apparatus attached, erected in the Yale Analytical Laboratory; by Prof. Joun P. Norton, - - -~— = VIII. On Microscopes and Microscopy; by W.I. Burnerr,~ - IX. On the Connection of Chemical Forces with the Polarization of Light; by Nevin Story Masxetyne, Esq., M.A., - X. On Atmospheric Magnetism; by Prof. Farapay, = XI. On Eupyrchroite of Crown Point, New York ; by CHARLES T. Jackson, M.D., - - - XII. On the Recent Condition of Slacies by Rev. c. s. Lewax, including a letter from Rey. T. Coan, = - XIII. On the causes of the disengagement of Fleticy and upon Vegeto-terrestrial Currents; by XIV. On the Rings of Saturn; by G. P. Bonn, XV. On the Constitution of Saturn’s Ring; by Prof. B. Pans, : XVI. On Saturn’s Ring; by Daniex Kirxwoop, A.M., — Crystals when in thin plates,—and the results of the exam- — &8 ‘ee st “SCIENTIFIC. cvrmnrennors y and Physics.—Rotation. of the Plane of Polarization p Ivanic “hte 111.—Physical Demonstration of the Rotation he by means of e Pendulum, 112.—Equiv valent eet uth’ Equivalent “a “Joids homologous with Ammonia, 115. Aiecinee, and aercm O | Position of Codein, 116. heetic “Acid from Sea-weeds : ie es a? frites and Nitrates, by GrorceE C. tapes dest 11 in Silurian Reptile in Canada, 120. n the Classification of = Cancroi ditional note to the Remarks on @ Classifigation of the Dana, 131.—Microscopic ae of Soundings, made bya Survey off the Atlantic Coast of the United States, by eee J. W. 3 AL Astronomy.—On the new Ring weBetara; by W.C. Boxp, Esq., 1650s the Total — of the Sun, of July 28, 1851, by R. T. Paine, Esq., 134. Intelligence. =-Bleotiomagiets Locomotive, 139.—Meeting of the | .merican Association for the Advancement of Science at Cincinnati, 141.— ~ Gold in Arkansas: Rise and Fall of Lake Erie, 143.—Obituary.—Dr. 8. G. __ Morton, 144.—Oersted, 147.—Jacobi, 148. spots HA .—Astronomical Senpeilgee's made under the direction of Lieut. _ M.F. Maury, U.S.N., during the year 1846, 149.—Practical Mineralogy, As- saying a Minin ng, by vias DERICK Overman, Mining Engineer: A Chart giv- ing an Ideal Section of the Successive Geological Formations, by James Hat, 150.—The Christian Retrospect and Register, a summary of the Scientific, Moral and Religious Progress of the first half of the XIXth century, by RoBerr Barrp: Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, 151. List of Works, 152. ae ca NUMBER XXXV. Art. XVII. Observations on the Pluton — of California ; oe 3 _ by Prof. Forest SHepHerp, - : XVIII. Report of Prof. Arexanper D. Rica Sopasinenitidt of the United States Coast Survey, showing the ip age of __ that work for the year ending October, 1850, - 158 IX. On Coral Reefs and Islands; by James D. Dana, - - 165 the Flow of Elastic Fluids through Orifices ; ith a sug- , stion of a new method of determining the mutual relations _ of Elastic Force, Temperature and —— in an — _ ing Fluid; by Ext W. Buake,~ - 186, XI. On the Relation of the Chemical Couintiantiis of Bodies to Se Aa Prof. E. N. Horsrorp, aciuiee ee > Isomorp baat 2 ty Jas D. ae ; ‘No. Ill, « 4." : ee on the Geology and Thomrosl mo i n of the Lake Superior Land aie by J. Ms + Foss nd J. j, De Warnev, Z : 2 _Effec flects of Lightning during a storm on the first of ly, = pages Mass., by Mr. Henny Rice, ~~ - O1 1 es of the mails 3 by Sir Ropsnice Y SS Siuacmsont VR 5 = servations on the — Sastcann, by Ress 1. Present eoadbtion of Vesuviise®. Grotto del Cane and Lake Agnano.—3. Sulphur: ‘Lake of the Campagna, near Tivoli —4. Meteorological Observatory of Mount Vesuvius, 5. Light for Illumination obtained from the Bie: of Hy- drogen, by M. Gillard, - : XXX. British Association, Twenty-first Setting at Ipswich, July 2: 1. From the Address of Prof. Airy, the Astronomer Royal, ; at the opening of the Meeting—2. On Diamagnetism and = Magne-Crystallic Action; by Dr. J. Tynpatu.—3. Report of the Kew Magnetographs; by Col. Sanine.—4. On our Ignorance of the general course of the Tides; by Dr. Wuewse.u.—5. Observations on Atomic Vol Weights; by Prof. Dumas.—6. Ona Copying Electric Tel- egraph; by F. C. Baxewe.t, . 262-278 d Atomic SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. —New metal, Donarium, 280. a Aridium, a new metal, by M. Utierex Alkalies, 281. Geology.—Discovery of Fossil Fish in the Coal Peo of New fivapéisick, by Dr. C. T. Jackson, 281.—Immense: Coal bed: On ossil Fish*iv 1 eC rocks ng Ohio, by J. W. Fosrer, 282.—Sulphate and Rams of Co Bristol, Conn., 283. * ‘uf? Zoology.—On the Classification of the Crustacea Grapsoidea, by James D. Dawa, 283.—Note to the Paper on the Cancroidea, by J. D. Dana: On the “ie tation of Frozen Fish, by "Prof. O. P. Hussarp, 291. ‘ POP ; (cate fot Ue Riis ; Fs y se 4 a wane Ry, by 0 " Ly. a Planet Irene, 209, Be Boe Intelligence —Smithsonian © ‘Institution, 208i. Cambridge Ob: y Re 295.—The Solar Eclipse : Science of Pisa, 300.—Fish of Mr. Bolca ce ~The Werner Festival at Freyberg :. ‘Monticelli’ s collection of z a ples for sale : Correction, 301 — Obituary. —Sir James Graham Da | ss iphy.—Reports of the Soros of War, with Reconnaissance I from San Antonio to El Paso; by Brevet Lt. Col. J. E. Jonnsron,. - Banker’s Magazine and Statistical ae ,edited by J. Smirm Hom’ ' 302.—A,Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar; by _ Brewer: Elements of Latin Promo, for the use of Students _ guage, Law, Medicine, Zoology, Botan The Fourth Annual —— of the Boar d o! t Aus! Rose: The Journal of Agriculture, edited b Iconographic Encyclopedia, 303. List < — 304, te an sf : < 2% " APPENDIX. actions Association for the Advancement of Science, 305. = NUMBER XXXVI. Art. XXXI. Observations on the Zodiacal Light; with an inquiry ig " into its Nature and Constitution, and its relations to the Solar System; by Professor Denison OtMsTeED, - 309 XXXII. Cultivation of nites and Cloves in Bencoote: 7 Dr. LumspaInE,_ - - 322 XXXII. On Coral Reefs and Islands: : iy Gee D. Dana, - 329 . XXXIV. Optical and Blowpipe Examination of the — Chlorite of Chester County, Pa.; by W. P. Braxz, - 339 XXXV. Notes of a Discussion of Tidal Observations made in ‘Connection with the Coast Survey, at Cat Island, in the Gulf of Mexico; by Prof. A. D. Bacue, : XXXVI. The Silurian Basin of Middle ae oa notices of - “the Strata surrounding it ; by Prof. Jamzs M. Sarrorp, A.M., 352 I. On the Houghite of Prof. Shepard; by S. W. Jounson, 361 XVII. On some of the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor; by _ Dr. J. Lawrence Suirn,—Part II, - — - - 366 XIX. On the Preservation of Animal icles : er Sita sie -Goasy, M.D., F.LS., 378 xh. sss Anlagi Notices. No. it, oe ‘¥ ere ser ee, s es Pi iso of Eumanie and Brookite ; > a : , ee | D. Dana, 397 “XLIL Oger on shi Pen Experiment by. pe oi sr af Association, weary: first Moctig at awich: “July 3 2: a preparing Speculums for Telescope; by the Earl of _ “Rosse z.—2. On a New Method of determining the quantity of ‘ Hygrometric Moisture in the Air; by Dr. ANprEws.—3. On - the cause which maintains Bodies in a Spheroidal State, be- ; bia the Sphere of Physico-chemical Activity ; by M. Bov- | “tieny.—4. On Earthquakes ; ; by Mr. Matrer.—5. Report cone Physical and Economical Effects of the Destruction of Tropical Forests in British India ; by Dr. H. Crecuorn. —6. On the Great Earthquake experienced in Chile, April 2, 1851, from R. Buper, Esq., to W. Bottarrt, Esq., in a letter dated April 17, with Observations by the latter, 416-426 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics —Laws of Magnetism: Magnetism of Oxygen gas, 427.— 5 Molecular structure of organic bases, 428.—On Stibmethy! and its compounds, —Selenio-cyanogen and its oti penile Propion: Iodid of Nitrogen: Al- cohol of Caprylic acid, 432.—On the new metal Donarium, 433.—An account of an apparatus for ae Attrition between the Surfaces of Siliceous Stones in Vacuo, or in Gaseous Media, and for determining whether the consequent Odor and Eoisoscationt | are due to akalee by Dr. Hane, 434. Botany and 2 gds —Note on the Vegetation of the Coal Period, poe E, Tescue- MACHER, 438.—Conspectus Crustaceorum, &c.; Crustacea of t ploring Espen oe James D. Dana: Mastodon in hohe “Ilinois, 8 Prof. 8. P. Lar 439 Miscellaneous aa Exhibition in London, 440.—Aurora Borealis, 5 442.—On a Earthquake in Calabria, by E.J. Morris, 443 Sea ee ‘ Society, 444.—-Dr. Krantz’s Geological aa Mineralogical Specimens: Gold Au al gre offered by the Royal Prussian Academy at Berlin, aie ‘ Obituary.—Lorenz Oken, 445.—Alexander de Saluzzo: William Nicol: Baron — de Silvestre: Dr. KGnig, 44 Bibliography.—United States Exploring Expedition during the years under the command of Charles Wilkes, U.S.N.; Meteorology, by € wa U.S.N., 446.—Outlines of Chemistry for the use of Students, by Grecory, M.D.: Catalogue of Shells contained in the collection of “s C. Jay, 447.—A Synopsis of the Classification of the British Paleozoic Rocks, i by the Rey. ApAm Sepewrcx; with a detailed Systematic Description of the a6 Palzozoic Fossils in the Geological Museum of the University of Cam-_ bridge, by Freoerrck M’Coy, 448.—Monographie des Polpiers Fossiles des “ try, x, z Iitorsecs 2 ee “United ate Gas the. adjacent merica, described and illustrated by Anos Binszy, ‘edite xouLD: History of Propellers and Stentlerigation with Biogra _ of the early pte by Rorert Macran LANE, C. E.: The server, by Sir Henry T..pe 1a Becue, ,C.B., F.R.S., 450. — lem ology, balk dea for the use of Sindenta: by Sauce uEL Sr. Jonny: scopic Anatomy of the Human Body in Health and Disease, by Arrau! Hassaux, M.B., 451.—The Microscopist, or a complete Manual for the Ll of the Microscope, for eee Students osepH H. W ,M eport of ‘the Special Committee ise Geological Ssrvey of California, , submis oe Mr. Ranwpati: _ Bohéme, par Joacuim Barra Prof. Ow F.R.S.,'0 n Dinornis: Am can Historical and Literary Curio ics; coming of Fac-similes of oneal ‘Documents relating to the events oP the erican Revolution, &e., by J. Jay ‘Smits and J. F. Watson, 452.—The poe Symbol, and the agri: of the Rec eciprocal Principles = Rains in America, by E. G. Squiz List of Works, ey Plate I, Kingsmill Islands—to illustrate Article on Coral oe page 25. Plate II, Zodaical Light—to illustrate Article on page Plates Il, IV, V, VI, VII, Diagrams to illustrate rails on n "Tides, page 341. Plate VIII, Geological ite of Tennessee—to illustrate Article at page 352. i eee sic a, | eg —P.17, 2d line from top, for J. D. ia read D. J. —_— —P. 280; 22d line from bottom, for 250, read 1 and Macher, 277. vie -* ae P ‘og.sale -eonpucrEp BY AND JAMES D. DANA. a> ¢ “Pur Awericay Jounnat or Sctence is pubtiched every two of January, March, May, July, September and November, in amber of 152 oy cacy , Prof. B. SILLIMAN j -gince July, 1838, by asthe B. Srnuiman and B. spams Jr. Price for e set, unbound, 100 - 2nd Ser., since January, 1846, edit ied by Prof rof. B. Sinan, B.Siuimas, J, ‘ r, pts J.D. Dawa. Price for the 10 vols. published, un $20 moe __ Volume 10, of the 2nd Series, contains a general ae to si volumes 1-10, ‘ + FB. spa Jr., ‘and J. D. Dana are the present proprietors of the Journal, onde” = * "is requested that all communications and remittances for this work, may be addressed seed to © SILLIMAN Dini: (or J. D. Dax) New Haven, Conn. —~ 4 This Soumal may be purchased of the Publishers, and of the following Booksellers New Haven, G.B.Basserr, 115 Chap. st| Mobile, Ala., 5 ALLEN. Albany, N. ¥., Li Cn New Bedford, Mass. C. & ‘ABER. TTLE & Brown. S. Francis & Co, Boston; Mass., { FETE & Co,” New York City, Geo. P. 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James, 1 rennet é Citteoati ie the Western States,—assisted by J. me Surrn, J.T. —— Tasos = Taran, J. Ww. Armstrone, Perrin Locke, W. Ram- and G, De agecc ee “70 CORRESPONDENTS." - et Te lve pies.of each Lat. 3 2. she. F. ae, Bs a9 quest Fn! at the disposal of the author. Any larger number of copies will be farnished at cost. a should specify at the head of their MSS. the number of extra copies desired; is too late afer the forme are broken up. : ae Feo Aiesoted given when communications sent to this epruaed have been, of a Journals. ’ British c » ea ¢: Ped Me: . é ae SERIES.) hike 1. ee Certain Metéorological Coinctlgnres Si by = % | ‘ H. Aue XANDER, Esq a | pie the ee of the ‘Moon exercise no a e ite ‘© nee upon the weather, either as cause or oa r sign, is a dogma accepted and professed by most geometers pe a eee and, ie. by’ savans ck 2: while the © tlie age of unscie ntifie portion of the community, and thdse = ohtsnits are carried on chiefly in the open air, sich as pon — — - veyors, agriculturalists, etc., aré convinced that they trace acon- nection between thé state. or the. Moon and state of the atmos- _. phere, as real and hardly less eonstant and. apn than if tg . : ee hi a predicted for them i in a systematic theo ob believe, the science ok: meteorology has* yet. vic a mith “and also in ividual faculties of learning; dctiteness, and » in an excellémt and rare degree. “Bit I may remark in passing that, with mos st perso ns, the’ ciens tific denial above mentioned is probably” limited, in fact as * sale ie - bauatin ‘of the influence in question with ou ng, not to the actuality or possibility of the es ce i itself. « At Jeast such would most likely be the position © '- tapee upon reflection: For it would be hard to deny that thes ; =ityiaa tides of the age ioe harmoniously: linked *’ j : ‘dtraétion or less | der the d domain of the pri cant % * spit Ps +t ua ay >. ae ie aes SS “ha. Pe, : o* ™ f : ‘ 7 ays % re 2 On ¢ ‘ertain Meleotologica Coincidences. “5 a? Tec enize ele 2% s whit will be contintially becoming more distinct and etter ence and relations of all things. ‘Uth and 19th June, the quarter-days, reapeetively, of thaliana ae ~s * pols, bod still more dense.» _ And it woldd be difficult to ; he anticipation that, one day, Meteorology is to become - ta ‘science of calculation than it is at present ; and that, then’ mena, which as yet appear arbitrary or insignificant, will be d as elements in great normal formule, each te known, until, as far as finite faculties allow, we approach that divine geometry of which Plato dreamed, and which cannot but — be prescient since it knows the structure and conditions of exist- But, without ascending to such lofty generalities as these, ith? , might perhaps be even claimed by the believers in prognosties, — that certain observations have been already made and discussed’ by sceptical philosophers,* whose normal occurrence may bes affirmed with a high degree of probability ; and which, although > incapable as yet of being derived from, or bound in with, a sound | theory, seem fully to deserve the character of coincidences. Itis @ by such a term, not more modest than appropriate, that I prefer fo designate the accordances that I have observed, and which this paper is intended to indicate. These observations and the conclusions from them are not of ~ recent origin ; although, in so far, they do not rest upon regularly « t | recorded and ‘tabu lated results, Years ago, when the noe . ie IF-holidays. tn dependent more or less upon the dications which might serve to that end, until I came at last to the @ egy ey warranted by dnt experience, that the third day @ ew-moon regulated the weather on each quarter-day © of that halon, and also characterized the general aspect of the — whole period. Thus, if the New-moon happened on the 26th May, _ 1824, the —— -day was the 24th May}; the weather on which 24th ~ determined what was to be on the 26th May, and on the 34, Lately, upon an accidental reference to these coincidences, in conversation with certain friends who had paid much attention te the subject, an interest was expressed to have this saveere ru tested by some past systematic observations. dingly, 1. { availed of my first leisure to resort to the daily nee ob- © servations at the Girard College, Philadelphia; and the accordance — ‘of these with the proposed rule and the coneeguane probability of » that rule, are all that remain to be stated here. : Fe ate ;; and have, both in the character of their Director and theit ~ wn ‘intrinsic evidence, all guarantee of their dep. rene ex-_ Bt Arago: a eS OC 2 a © ee 4 Wee" ae & ae ‘ , ae is 1d ae 5 2 oats Metodig oa ide a 3@ * am "t tem) adledether from Jute, 1 i pre- = 3 hending 62 entire lunistiogs or 248 e vd se were not only daily bpbacrvedt i? art jourly observations even, of various foiviouldl ~» of the clouds; the density, moisture, temperat ure, ., of 4 ge atmosphere, which bear only collaterally upon the point ‘in ques-_ . tion, may be as yet ‘pretermitted. A rt of the time, the observations were not at such short i in- “tervals ; oo for four months in 1843, they were irregular. Also, during the whole series, observations were systematically omitted 6n Sundays: which day of the week, however,was of course *¥sometimes the term-day and sometimes the quarter-day of a par- _ ticular lunation. Owing to these circumstances, the series, for the ‘ pufpose' of this comparison, comes to be ©.grouped as follows, Viz: (@) : ee Metions; 1 in — all the day : do. ich one quarter day is misse ed; da, 0. two quarter-days are missed ; *, do. do. three do, ; ba do: four ~~» Ae do, in which the term-day is sed; = - (%).: . do. in which observations were ei regular. ae 62 Iunations; covered by the series. ae the three groups To 4 The method used in this comparison is’ nian more stringent an in the observations upon which the supposed rule originally” : In these last, the range of the entire day (i. e., day- light) was allowed to verify the coincidences without res to the precise hour of the,day when the change of Moon oc- curred. And the same range (or looseness, if any one prem to term it so) might even have been admitted now. ButI p for various reasons which need not be dwelt on, to ead. abe . coincidences at the precise Be of change. The ielfowing’ ex- tract from the note book in which the ean ance vere copied from the printed Girard observations, and where, close together, come one of the accordant cases, and otie of ee most discordant, will exemplify, better than any description, the mode pursued. Sky covered 10ths, Date. Epoch, 1843, May 27, 2h. m-/Term-day, 2s co) oe to —_ = > ewe = + fw Se = FES a Kb > ae K June 9h. m. a "15, Sh' 4 8 19, Sh. cD) 25, — erm-day, Bed July 25, iho Termes 2 teh, Be ~~? ae. oe pon "eee # “€ ee” eas Pee © 4 : : On Certain Metebpolostical Coincidences. a z these Kiskns? the: first, third and fourth are mere tran: - s of the printed observations ; with the hours of (’s cha ange n g or afternoon) supplied tothe first column. The secon L fot uth belong to the comparison. It is < be observed, fans r that the supposed rule claimed no more ety dry and (as it is called) falling weather. Thus, t _““istencé of nimbus or rain-cloud on any quarter day, provided i — _ did not rain, might be taken as coinciding with the weather on | _-aterm-day which was clear. But 1 have Hot so taken it, in fact; » and have reckoned the existence of nimbus as equivalent to rain, | : and noted it as accordant or discordant, as. the case may bev eee However hardly this may strain the supposed rule, I have no. doubt of the soundness of its being insisted on. On the other mit the propriety of bonsidering the weather on 18th Aug." ! 1843, as coincident with the weather + 25th July, 1843, for — instance, will, I suppose, be equally admitted at With this exposition of the principles =e manner of the com- E parisons, of which throughout the extract above is an average ae sample, the aggregate results may now be stated. ee Of the 31 lunations, then, contained in group (a), a ; 16 agree throughout, a iss ¥ A miss twice, miss thi “1 disagrees throughout. 31 in all. ¥ . If I were endeavoring to sustain the supposed rule, coute qui ® coiite, as a matter of argument or opinion, instead of honestly — seeking for information, the uniformity of bisection in this last 4 series and the correspondence between the numbers and charac- ters of the discordances, might be plausibly urged according to the received doctrine of probabilities as being of oy weight. Of the 12 lunations in group (6), 7 agree throughout, 5 miss once. * 12 in all. * Of the 6 lunations in group (c), 5 agree throughout, 1 misses twice. ‘ oa . 6i in me Ss be a 4 bs f . Certain Mengyagt a ge ‘ip futtations, then, there are under 4 @ | a (4) es accordant entirely ; zs | te da: ™ fo. 1 ~ ; 28 accordant throughout ; 22 aicordant'™ more r less ;_ ee + and the chances would be in every 100 times, 56 in favor ‘of the eet te: eee rule and 44 against it; or the final probability would » be 1,27, etc.: 1, for the rule. io.” - But this comparison by lunations is defective ; pesmi as it =: does not allow a distinction in the character and de of the _discordances. For this, as well as for the proportion of missing % _ observations, it is better to make comparison by the actual epochs or quarter-days ; designating separately the aggregate number of ‘those which coincide with the term-days, of those whieh differ, and of those which have failed to be observed at all. Of cours, every such epoch affords occasion for a coincidence; and in pro- 4 portion to the number of actual coincidences out of a given num- ¥ ber of such Occasions will be the probability of the supposed rule. Counting, then, by epochs, the aggregate are as under , a # ‘ ® Accordant. Discordant, Not Observed. a no +388 26. 0 4 (Oo). Bee ee ee 12 | te. sean ee a 12 AY congas ss oe 1 139 34 27 If we leave the epochs not observed out of the question, the chances stand as rather more than 4 to 1 in favor of the rule; or its probability is a little more than 4. f we consider that among those unobserved epochs the chances of coincidence are even, then they will stand as 76-25 out of 100 in favor of the rule; or its probability is rather more than @. the oe rae I ey. re ire notice in the words of Carlini u Pa a simi- lar occas “‘Queste conclusioni non deyono considerarsi ..... xpiue odie che cakes dedurre dal paragone delle osserva- ie n gran numero d’anni. Cid nulla ostante, ~< possa trarsi qualche norma par istabilire un piano generale, * @osservazioni meteorologiche che riesca il piu. oppo rtuno | alloy oe eartdio de’ fenomeni atmosferici Pe Fs le Lge a : See em ig * /. ee ee ‘es oof i examination of several re Uniaxial Micas ; i * 6 Ondistinguishing Biaxial and Uniaxial Micas. . “ pe An. 1.—On a Method for Recincdaline "betabeaih Bia -* “and Uniaxial Crystals when in thin plates,—and the resul ; P. Buaxe. (Read before the Am a sol) the _Adgancemen of Science, at Cincinnati, Tue ¢ greater number of the ‘“‘ black micas” so-called, have a deep | olive green or “bottle green” color, so deep as generally to be 4 opaque when the thickness exceeds one-fourth of a millimetre.* The other colors most frequently observed are a dull brownish green, sometimes yellowish, and a fiery red. Of course their power of absorbing light varies greatly ; thus, the mica from Greenwood Furnace, olive green, is Sar in Plates over 500 mm, thick.” Sussex Co., N.J., (No. 115) bottle gre . oy Al ee St. Lawrence Co., (No. 116) lvovtnaks «a +38 062 “ (No. 118) olive grean; »“- -"* 9°“ 042 These thicknesses were taken with an instrument sonsteucted | by Soleil, for measuring the thickness of thin plates.f It is called — a spherometer and was designed by M. Cauchoix. In stating the color of specimens, I have given that color whith , they present when a plate sufficiently thin to be transparent is ~ held near the eye, while the light from the clouds or window.is_ 4 allowed to pass through it. It is not therefore possible to exa ine plates of these micas in the ordinary way, even when the thickness is less than stated above; and of course when so verve thin, the images formed around the pole or poles of the result-” ant axes, are much extended and it vou generally be impossible ; to distinguish them or the dark bars which cross the center; and when they can be seen, they so nearly resemble the symmetrical 4 image formed in uniaxial crystals that they cannot be distin- guished from the In order to scabte me to give these dark micas a more com- plete and thorough examination, I have a arranged, in addition to the combination of lenses and “ Nichols Prism,” which I deseri of the variable and uncertain light from the clouds, a broad gas flame, which I bring near to the mirror, so that its = image —— visiting cards are from ‘8 8 tod « f To Peclet’s tee ye wit, © ane f be aN ‘9a te . = =. Wye ‘oil Peennsuielgns Bia nd 1 Unianial Micas. 7 6. ie ae * / : . 2. It is well known t iiewlicre a plate of Iceland-spar, tthe wit ee , - $ perpendicular to the axis, is placed ina polari . es 3 piece being v rodeatt ’) and then rotated in its pane ade ih get Bh » symmetrical cross and rings do not suffer any change of fo * ae < pos ‘ue if, how a plate of a biaxial crystal—as nitre- i oF pe in s similar manner, the dark bars*vhich form the 7 es rh, itd ny > as tcl 4 2 . — y > #2 ae % hy ‘¢ ; - by elle 1, will, when the plate has been rotated 45°} ot ” and take the form and position represented in fig. 2. 2. ; %: ez ; ~ — facts aa figures. thongh familiar to the student of optics, I here 4 : repeat for the sake of the explanations which follow; and this is part important since observers of eminence have evideutly ial creas the optical character gf many of the so-called uniazialor micas. When the micas referred to are examined by | Pe t 4 mn I find the same evidence of a biaxial character. ~ 2 in plates, if the line joining the poles is parallel to the pla igo hy Relstisacions give tothe eye symmetrical crosses and rings, 88 in fig. 3, Ae nearly edge hao that it is a Lu hardly possible to distinguish any variation from symmetry, and — ‘that the outlines cannot be traced by the eye, and a slight open= ak - hk aur # 7 “ 8 On distinguishing Biazial and Uniaxial Micas. such crosses might be taken as proof of a uniaxial character. But on rotating 45°, as in the case of the nitre crystal, we lose the sym- etrical form of the cross, which opens out, as represented i infig.4. is deportment of the cross may be obse when, owing to *™ the depth of color, it is not possible clearly to’ liscern the ties. A method given by Miiller* also depends upon this deport- ment of the dark bars; it consists in rotating the plate of mica when on the table of M. Noremberg’s apparatus (the ray being extinguished by the eye-piece); if the mica be biaxial the light is alternately, for every 45° of rotation, transmitted or shut off, if wniazial, no change is perceived. The i image of the cross and rings by this method is so much extended and dimly defined, ee ing-out of the cross is not so readily noticed, even by a change in iy the intensity of the light, as when its ae is contracted and ad sharpened in outline by the action of lense In the following table are given the , jocalifies and color of 3 several micas hitherto generally considered uniaxial, but which, on examination with my arrangement, have given evidence of being optically béazial. 76. Greenwood Furnace, Orange Oo. ¥.3 olive green ; fii plates.+ “f Tt ond a a e 3 . thinks specim a . Easton, Pa.; a wile eee mica. 88 Topsham, Maine; fine crimson red. 4 89. Mo ount t Vesuvius; dark g: = | 101. ee © Anothe specimen; clearly biaxi: ‘ 105. “ 9 A thicker pir, of —— 101; ‘clearly biaxial. 20250" K¢ transparent, with delicate shade of gr ; bande d with bands tine a deep green, seateey at angles ary P 4 * Lehrbuch der Physik und aetaialye 2 pacman 1844, p. 5 + Greenwood furnace is in the t of Monroe, and this is the vs mica, ana- lyzed by von — (Kastn. pee et anne! 9, ® and Dana’s Ming 3d edit., 360) and pro- nounced by him on optical grounds to be uniaxial, it giving a symmetrical cross. It afforded the chemical formula R*? § Bet (A, #e)8 Si, corresponding to the oxygen ratio o con ad ou melsberg i 3 10 4: 98 : 20°78, oie ce ‘Vestine mica gave 10°1 ; 10:0 : 20°65, ar one from Bedeetmnais 10°25 : 10°96 : 21°23. The ratio is in fact the general ratio i Sale ok cas. e impor- tance of a revised ee examination of these micas is hence- obvious. Ihe mica of Greenwood furnace is of a blackish green color, and occurs ‘usually in very acute oblique prisms, often of very large size; angle of prism (M:M) 71° to 72°, it being oblique from an acute edge, and not from an obtuse edge as in ordin biaxial i ral plane (P: x2 ee: eit # se ° as we , ™ - ack Se -Meas Vesuvius; fom same specimen = 1% bat thicke er; biaxial. and Mo 101 111. Franklin Furnace, Sussex Co., N.J.; deep copper red; G.J. Brush to Bima 109. St. Jerome, Cana, coppery, reddish ; ange, opiates oe: . Moors Slide, Ottawa, Canada; dark bottle een; T. S. Hunt to B, Silliman, Jr. 84. Hammond, St. Lawrence Co., N. Y.; rich smoky yellow ; from Saml. W. Johnson. i ark brownish red; black by reflected light. 106. Gouverneur, N. Y.; + Quen, mi brown 81, Monr nroe, Orange C . mig ses tsb: from S. R. Horton to B, Silliman, Jr. 107. Locality ——? Cambridge care rich brown; in power sepa plates; 112. Locality ——? Cauibridgs | Cabin t: deep g green; like Greenwood F mica. . Moriah, Essex Co., N. Y.; fiery na: ederer Ca inet; an bea mea arable. 9. Warwick, Pa. ; ; olive green (townish) angle estimated over 10° "this ab sembles the Vesuvius specimens, Nos. 102 a nd 103. With the exception of the dark micas mentioned in the follow- ing table, I have not yet examined any that do not give evidence of being optically biaxial; and, it is probable, that these exceptions. would give the modifications of the cross, &c., if their dark color did not make it impossible to observe them in plates sufficiently thick. But if biaxial, the angle for the mica of Sussex, New » Joteey, No. 115, must ‘be very sma et és 98. L oeality ——? dark olive green; resembles No. 81. eB. Locality ——? Yale Coll. Cabinet; color intensel SS * y eres i. us, Sussex Co., N. Y.; dark green; opaque W when in plates a +222 of I ae » asl & 113. Locality ——? N. a Lye. iano opaque in plates over 042 mm. : 148. Middletown, Ct.; ver k gre ey N. Y. Island ; very dark olive-green; in granite veins traversing gneiss, ’ ks 4 £ “ I To Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., I am indebted for the free use of his “¥ specimens for these investigations : : the biaxial character of many of them was suspected by him, when he first examined them, as is mentioned in his communication in this Journal, vol. x, No- vember, 185: In specimens of mica referable to the species. Phlogopite, hav- ing the inclination of the resultant axes between 5° and 20°,— when the thickness is so much reduced that the systems of ri around poles are not distinctly separated, the angular ine Nia tion of the axes cannot be determined in the ordinary manner. Further observations upon this: porn I resrive for a pau com- munication Spiose Seam, Vol XI, No muy 1851. Ps ae Z gr Lawrence Co., N. Y.; da rk brownish green} opaque, over epee thick... -*. . a a Ke . “On distinguishing Biazial and Uniavial Micas. 9 © % ee s 10 J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. Arr. IlL—On some of the Thermal Waters of Asia Minong by Dr. J. Lawrence Surru, of New Orleans, Prof. Chem the University of Louisiana. sc vs Part L—The Thermal Waters of Broosa. i Tere are few countries where Thermal Waters are so numer- ous, and cover so extensive a oe as in Western Asia Minor; many of them still bear marks of the estimation in which they were held by the o— Seman and Greeks for the purpose of supplying their bat Owing to the ‘ifficulty of obtaining proper vessels or corks at or near ‘the springs, coupled with the risk of breakage by the » necessary transportation on the backs of horses over rough and mountainous roads, travellers have been deterred from collecting these waters for the purpose of analysis. In my travels through certain parts of this country, [ took along with me bottles and corks, and collected between twenty and thirty specimens of dif- ferent localities, some of then? in considerable quantity ; and of that number fifteen or sixteen have arrived oes to my labora- . tory, where most of them have been already exa In my remarks upon them I will first alisda } : the thermal waters of Broosa or Prusia, which are the most important at the present day, and the most accessible from Constantinople. The spot itselfis hallowed by many interesting historical associations. The city was founded by — during a friendly visit which this great Carthagenian general n o Prusias, the king of By- thinia, whose name was given Rs * Like all other cities of so ancient date, it has gone through many changes, passing succes- sively into the hands of the Greeks, Romans, and Turks. Since 1326 the Turks have continued masters of this part of Asia Minor, jt having been conquered by Osman just prior to his death, for many years after which event it remained the capital of. the Ottoman empire. Broosa is readily reached from Constantinople by a steamer that goes from this latter place to Modania, on the gulf of the same name, about seventy miles from Constantinople. From Moedania a ride of about twenty miles on horseback brings you to Broosa, at the Si of the Bythinian Olympus. The warm baths of this place have been celebrated from the earliest epochs, and the visit of Bériscantine with his wife in 797, is recorded in history as hav- ing resulted favorably in restoring the latter to healt h. And at _astill later period Sultan Soleman the Great visited these baths _ on account of an attack of gout, and to commemorate his cuge he “had a large dome constructed over the source to which he attri- buted the beneficial effects derived by him; the dome still stands. : \ - — 4 «| . ; * :” * * 3 sip wa ie & > + = 7. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. 11 ‘ _ As it is not my object to enter here into the details of baths | ee known to all travellers in this part of Asia Minor, I shall at — nce proceed to the description of the sources. The sources of — thermal waters near Broosa are seven in number, all situated 7 a little walley which separates Mount Olympus from Mount Ka- tairli, and they are comprised within the distance of a mile and a half. In the immediate neighborhood of some of these sources, j te and sometimes in direct proximity, are sources of cool and delight- ful water that serve to regulate the temperature of the water used in the baths, of which there are as many as twenty private and me public. These sources furnish waters of two description, the a sulphurons and the non-sulphurous, and I shall commence with a description of the former. ' THERMAL SULPHUR WATERS. hy There are two sources of this class of water near Broosa, or rather twe places near to each other where it flows out of the mountain, for my examination goes to prove that they-are the same water. Their names are Kukurtlu aud Bademli-Baghische. Kukurilu Source. The name of the source signifies sulphur. It flows rapidly from the side of the mountain near to its base, through a bed o calcareous tufa, furnishing upwards of twenty gallons a minute, which, along with the water from a cold spring near by, is made to flow through the baths. There isa very sensible odor of sul- phuretted hydrogen proceeding from the water of this source, more especially as it issues forth from the mountain, for there is a large amount of gas bubbling through the small reservoir into which the water rises, accompanied with a larger amount of vapor. As the water flows it leaves an incrnstation of carbonate of lime, more or less colored with some organic matter. his source is held in particular veneration by the Greeks of the coun- try, who usually assemble here twice a year to commemorate the martyrdom of St. Patrice, which was ordered by the Pro-consul of Broosa, and executed by his being thrown into this almost boiling spring. The country is geologically made up of the older rocks, as granite, gueiss, limestone, &c., a silicious variety of the latter over- lying the other two; in some parts, however, the limestone is Te- markably pure, and has doubtless furnished to these waters that carbonate of lime so extensively deposited at the base of this part — of the mountain in the form of tufa, which, for a mile or two of "extent, rises several hundred feet above the plain at the foot of the * mofttain. ; & _ Physical Properties.—The water as taken from the source is perfectly clear and transparent, and remains so when kept in well corked bottles, but othe a yellow deposit is soon formed which ee ‘ : Soe aie i, bes * ae, 12 J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor is probably crenate of lime. A slight odor of sulphuretted hydro- gen, not perceptible when the water is cold. ‘The taste of tk water when cold is in no way peculiar, and it is very pleasant todrink. Specific gravity 1-00118. Temperature, (atmosphere at 66° Fah.,) 182° Fah., which varies but a few degrees with the ns. Chemical Composition.—The gas which escapes from the source was collected in inverted bottles, well corked and sealed, and in one thousand parts was found to contain— Carbonic acid, . ; : : ; . 886 itrogen, : ‘ ; : ; : 99 Oxygen . . . ‘ : . é Sulphuretted hydrogen, . ‘ : : 4 Solid contents in one litre of the water, 970 grammes. The water is alkaline, and, when concentrated to one third its bulk, gives a very sensible alkaline reaction with reddened litmus paper. It is found to contain the following ingredients in one litre: Grammes, ; Carbonic acid, free,* . 3420 | Lime, : . ; Carbonic acid, fixed, . ‘1820 | Magnesia, . ; . 0142 Hydro-sulphuric acid,. ‘0012 | Alumina, . . . 0012 Sulphuric acid, . . ‘2140 | Silica, : : . 1108, Chlorine, . é . -.Q103 | Tron, . ; cc a c a : ; . *2600 | Organic matter (crenic 2 , Potash, 2 20110 eed), z 0350 These acids and bases may be represented as combining in th? _ following manner: Bi-carbonate of soda, . .4100 , Sulphate of alumina, . .-0043. Bi-carbonate of lime, . ‘1830 | Chlorid of sodium, . +0170 Bi-carbonate of magnesia, ‘0460 | Hydro-sulphate of:soda, -0033 Sulphate of soda, - ‘1950 | Carbonate of iron, —=- trace Sulphate of potash, . - ‘0202 | Silica --1100 ed ‘ ‘ Sulphate of lime, . “1710 | Organic matter, .- . -0342 The incrustation from this spring was next examined. One. gramme of a beautiful crystalline portion was analyzed and found to contain— ; eee Carbonate of lime, - +970 | Silica, . ioe . 003 Carbonate of magnesia, +016 Organic matter, . . trace Sulphate of lime,. - . -008 | Fluorid of calcium, . ~ trace Peroxyd of iron, . DEY r wee ‘There are some portions of the incrustation richer in organic matter than this, but then the mixture is sensible tothe eye,and does not represent the* pure crystalline deposit of the springs #) * ‘ “7 : . i . ; * . a ae mans such of gee er cer + : e 4 i y an v4 : cee on eee oe eee eR eds SF eg ee ee ee ee * J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. 13 | The Kukurtln source supplies two baths with water, one called Buyuk Kukurtlu and the other the Kutschuk Kukurtlu. The other source bs sulphur thermal water is called— \ Bademli Baghtsche. This source is Sout three hundred feet from the latter, and flows from three or four openings in the tufa. On my visit to it the entrance to the sources was closed up with masonry, and the door could not be opened by the Turks from some superstitious motive. I was, however, enabled to procure the water a few feet from the source as it flowed through an open gutter ; gas is said to escape abundantly from the source, just as in the Kukurtla source. Physical Properties.—It is clear and transparent, remaining so a a cloudy, and deposits a yellowish sediment. Has a slight odor of sulphuretted hydrogen when warm. Specific gravity 100116. Fah. l ‘Temperature, (atmosphere at 67°,) 184° F | Chemical Composition.—Solid contents, ‘978 grammes in on litre. The water when concentrated reacts strongly alkaline. "i one litre there are the following ingredients in grammes: 3 _ Carbonic acid, free, . ‘2920 | Lime, : : . aie A Carbonic acid, fixed, . °1875 | Magnesia, . ‘ - ‘0160 4 ® ~Hydro- -stilphuric acid, . ‘0010 Baice ; ; . “0005 Sulphuric acid, . . °2160 | Silica : ‘ . “100 m Chlorine, . : . ‘0112 | Tron trace : Soda : ; . 2650 Organic matter ter (eric 2 -0402 Potash, ; 0130 cid 2), The combination - the acids‘and bases may be represented in the following manne Bi-carbonate of eae . ‘4070 | Sulphate of alumina, . +0020 4 - Bi-carbonate of lime, . ‘1790 Chlorid of sodium, . ‘0192 r Bi-carbonate of magnesia, ‘0520 | Hydro-sulphate of soda, _ Sulphate of soda, ~ 2000 | a of iron, tra Sulphate of potash, .. -0225 | Silic Ge 1100 Sulphate of lime, . *1660 Orseatti matter, it SO Two baths are also supplied from this source, the one called Yent-Kaplidja and the other Kainardja. eS It will be seen that in physical properties and chemical com=' position, the water of this source is identical with that of Ku- . kurda ; at which fact I was ts first somewhat surprised, as an approximate analysis made e years ago by Dr. Bernard led } ~ mete look for a aise in oe composition of these waters ; Pee and it was not until my avalysis was completed that I became cite a ae that the waters of the Kukurtla and Bademli-Baghtsch were the same, making its way through different ane I would merely remark here, that the an- 14 J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. alysis made by Dr. Bernard must have been quite eiode; as among other things he gives to a litre of the Kukurtlu water | grammes of sulphuretted hydrogen, water which, when co has no hepatic odor, and has hardly a. sensible effect on lead water None of the other sources near Broosa evolve a trace of sutplin- retted hydrogen, and contain less solid matter; they are all alka- line, and give ¢ an alkaline reaction when concentrated. THERMAL ALKALINE WATERS. Of the alkaline waters, I pare Srainitss three sources situated at some distance from each ot The Kara Mustapha source is iy abit two hundred yards from the Kukurtlu, and almost on the border of the Plain of Broosa; it supplies a bath bearing the same name Physical Properties. —Clear when taken from the source and kept in cat stopped bottles. As the opening in the mountain from which it escapes is bricked over, it was impossible for me to ascertain if there were an abundant escape of gas. ‘Temperature, 127° — Specific gravity 100094. mical Composition. Y Solid contents in one litre ‘541 Brsstines, and the same quantity of the water contains— Carbonic acid, free, ‘ é ‘115 Carbonic acid, fixed, a ‘ ‘ . trace a acid, ae . Bisa... face : Silic ‘066 Chlorit Soda, ; 24 Scoaiig ‘atte not t estimated. The combinations of the acids and bases may be ——— as follows, in grammes Bi-carbonate of vide, - °2600 | Chlorid of sodium, ~~. 0084 Bi-carbonate of lime, . ‘2380 | Carbonate of iron, . trace Sulphate of soda, . 452 | Silica “U6 Sulphate of lime, 0670 Organic matter, not estimated. arbonate of magnesia, trace Incrustations of carbonate of lime are deposited from this eres but not so abundantly as from the two first mentioned. Tschekirghe Source. The Tschekirghe source is about a mile and a half from Broosa, and supplies four baths, those of Boigusel, Vani, T'schekir, rhe, an. Physical Properties.—Clear, and does not readily deposit a sediment; the incrustation muc than at the other sources. No gas escapes from it as it flows 1 om source. Tem re, (air at 72% Fah.,) 113° Fah. Speci —" 1 00068. ‘ .. = * sp 4 me o * . = ae by A - rn ; \ J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. 15 Chemical Composition.—-Solid. contents in one litre *550 mmes; the same amount of the water contains— tbonic acid, free, ‘040 | Lime, . ‘ i i tee Carbonic aci d, fixed, »¢, 094 | gs fem ; : . trace Sulphnricacid, ©.) . ‘152 i . trace Chlorine, —. j . trace Silic oda, : ; » #90897} Organic matter, not cabinagd: Conibined as— Bi-carbonate of lime, . ‘2336 | Sulphate of lime, . ‘2190 Carbonate of soda, . ‘0480 eee of sodium, ._ trace Carbonate of magnesia, Sill ‘040 Carbonate of iron, traces Offaiie matter, not estimated. Sulphate of soda, . ‘0250 The last source that I shall allude to is a very small one near to the Kukurt/u, and not connected with any bath, it is, how- ever, used by the natives for the treatment of diseased eyes. Gueuzayasma Source. The Gueuzayasma source rises slowly in an excavation in the side of a rock, no gas whatsoever escaping from its surface; an incrustation is formed from it, that is in some places covered witha sip green coat resembling some of the salt of nickel or copper, it s, however, entirely of a vegetable tee ed and exhibits under the microscope a beautiful si structu Physical Properties.—Clear and iidtispareat’ Temperature, ~ 118° Fah. Specific gravity, i 00122. ae abdate Composition.—Solid seca in one litre, ‘901 mmes. One litre of the water co ae bonic acid, free, . ‘2201 Lim : : See Carbonic acid, fixed, . °150 Matinee . trace eile de: acid, : 218 | Tron and Picasa’ . trace Soda eee ee. EST F Silic . ie Potash, ‘ 006 Beattie matter, not estimated. Combined as Wilswe, Bi-carbonate of soda, . 2405 "Sulphate of lime, - ale Bi-carbonate of lime, . 2249 | Sulphate of alumina, . _ trace Bi-carbonate of 2, ‘ ei gg of iron, trace magnesia, ts eee | Sih 1140. Sulphate of soda, . 71160 Organic matter, not estimated.” Sulphate of potash, . -0110 The incrustation of the spring contains 97 per cent. of carbon- ate of lime, the remainder is composed of carbonates of iron and m: ia and the sulphate of lime without a trace of fluorine. ese various springs it will be seen supply nine public baths, which vary in their size and magnificence, that of Yeni-Kaplidja being the largest and most = mae they are constructed on the usual plan of the Easte ths, and consist of three parts : * * 2 16 J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Mgror. - ‘ First, a large hall, with an elevated platform all around two feet high, and sometimes galleries attaghed. It is on the ne that one disrobes himself prior to entering the bath, and it is here that the bather reposes on a couch in retiring from the bath. This apartment is frequently ornamented with considerable lux- ury; it is well lighted, and there is sometimes in the middle a reine falling of whose waters in the basin produces a eshness, a at the same time invites to slumber. This apart- ai ei is called by the Turks Djamekian (Vestiarium),. 4 The next division in the bath is the Soouklouk, where one a begins to experience the temperature of the inner bath, and where he reclines on a marble slab, aud is either shampooed or places himself in the hands of the barber to be shaved, cupped or bled. The third division is the Hammam, or bath properly panne | where there is an atmosphere of 105° to 110° Fah., filled \ the vapor of water arising from the heated marble floor. Here there are various recesses with small marble basins in which _ seated by one of them, an attendant of the bath takes possession of you, and puts you through a series of operations that can be sage: felt than described. ‘The baths at Broosa have usually in ammaim a large basin of hot water, into which the bathers can 5 nage the one in the Yeni- -Kaplidja i is about five feet deep by thirty in diameter. There is in some of these baths a small room called the Bog- houlouk (Sudatorium), where the temperature is from 120° to 130° Fah. Once through the various operations of the bath one returns to the first room, reclines on a bed and indulges for a half our or more in the Eastern luxuries of smoking and drinking coffee or sherbet. This is a hasty sketch of the operations that the bather usually : undergoes at these baths; but as numbers of invalids visit them, arrangements are made by which they can bathe in whatsoever way ‘they may think best or the physician prescribe, for there are private apartments attached. | These thermal waters are in great repute in Turkey, and their . effects are said to be most marked on chronic irritation of the abdominal organs ; chronic rheumatism ; gouts; chronic irritation eof the mucus membrane of the intestines ; dischses of the bladder, of the skin, and of the eyes, &c. These waters are also recom- ‘| mended to be taken internally when cold. | In the calcareous inerustation of three of these springs that. were examined, I found the remains of two or three varieties x bie infusoria after the lime had been dissolved out by alee ii e few remarks that [ehave to make with reference to the chemical sod ysis of these’ Waters ‘will be deferred on the publi- cation of the second part of this ‘sa New onde March 14th, 1851. i . iar a . rN ve vie F be’ * 7 * ~.* 2s ee . ba * 3 ger the Tallow-Tree and Insect-war of China. 17 oP *% a % IV.— Uses of the Stillingia sebifera or Tallow Tree, with Ps notice of the Pe-la, an Insect-wax of China :* By J. D. ie Macecowan, M.D. 4 : =o THE botanical characters of this member of the Euphorbiace are too well known to require description ; but hitherto no accu- io rate account has been published of its varied uses, and although oe it has become a common tree in some parts of India and America, its value is appreciated only in China, where alone its products are properly elaborated. In the American Encyclopedia it is stated that this tree is almost naturalized in the maritime parts of South Carolina, and that its capsules and seeds are crushed to- gether and boiled, the fatty matter being skimmed as it rises, hard- ening when cool. bo ® Dr. Roxburgh in his excellent Flora Indica, says: “It is now very common about Calcutta, where in the course of a few years, it has become one of the most common trees. It is in flower and fruit most parts of the year. In Bengal, it is considered only an ornamental tree ; the sebaceous produce of its seeds is not sufficient in quantity, nor its qualities so valuable, as to render it an object worthy of cultivation. It is only in very cold weather that this substance becomes firm ; at all other times it is in a thiek brown-_ ish fluid state, and soon becomes rancid: such is my opinion of the famous vegetable tallow of China.” D State, and consequently presents the appearance described by Dr. Roxburgh. : she Nor is the tree prized merely for the stearine and elaine it , yields, though these products constitute its chief value ; its leaves are employed asa black dye; its wood being hard and durabley, may be easily used for printing blocks and various other articles, and finally, the refuse of the nut is employed as fuel and manure. The Stillingia sebifera is chiefly cultivated in the provinces of Kiangsi, Kougnam, and Chehkiang. In one district, near Haugthan, the inhabitants defray all their taxes with its produce. It grows alike on low allovanlgplaigygnd on granite hills, on the Ea “he ‘ * Drawn up for the Agi ral and Horticultural Society of India. ~ Sxconp Seutes, Vol. XII, ! —July, 1851 8 ; pid] : * : & ee | * 18 On the Tallow-Tree and Insect-wax of China, Pa rich mould at the margin of canals, and on the sandy sea beach. * The sandy estuary of Haugchan yields little else ; some of t : though prostrated, still send forth branches and bear fruit. Some are made to fall over rivulets, forming.convenient bridges. 'They as are seldom planted where any thing else can be conveniently cul- tivated—in detached places, in corners about houses, roads, canals, and fields. Grafting is performed at the close of March, or early in April, when the trees are about three inches in diameter, and also when they attain their growth. The Fragrant Herbal recom- mends ‘for trial the practice of an old gardener, who instead of grafting, preferred breaking the _ branches and twigs, taking In mid-winter, when the uae are ripe, they are cut off with their twigs, by a sharp cres-centric knife, attached to the extrem- ity of along pole, which is held in the hands, and pushed up- wards against the twigs, removing at the same time such as are fruitless. The capsules are gently pounded in a mortar to loosen the seeds from their shells, from which they are separated by sift- ing. To facilitate the separation of the white sebaceous matter enveloping the seeds, they are strained in tubs, having convex, open wicket bottoms placed over cauldrons of boiling water. _When thoroughly heated they are reduced to a mash in the mor- thence transferred to bamboo sieves, kept at an uniform temperature over hot ashes. A single operation does not suffice to deprive them of all their tallow, and the steaming and sifting is herefore repeated. ‘The article thus proeured becomes a solid i mass on falling through the sieve, and to purify it, it is melted and formed into cakes for the press. These receive their form | from bamboo hoops a foot in diameter and ‘three inches deep, : which are laid on the ground overa little straw. On being filled with the hot liquid the ends of the straw beneath are drawn up and spread over the top, and when of sufficient consistence are - placed with their rings in the press. This apparatus, which is of the rudest description, and constructed of two large beams placed horizontally so as to form a trough, is capable of a about « fifty of the rings with their sebaceons cakes; at one closed, and at the other adapted for receiving wedges, hich are successively driven into it by ponderous sledge hammers, wielded *® by‘ athletic men. The tallow oozes in a melted state into a re- tacle below where it cools; it is again melted and poured into tubs, smeared with — to prevent its adhering. It is now mar- ketable, in masses t 80 pounds each—hard, pee White, opake, ‘without ties or without the odor of a t under high pressure it scarggly stains bibulous wane melts at 104° Fahrenheit. It may be pegarded as nearly pure stearine, the slight difference Pioubtless owing to the seas of oil ex- ;? pressed from the seed in the process Just described. The see j % . Fy * a ae ¥ f ay ‘¥ ‘ » ie a A a?” the Tallow-Tree and Insect-waz of China. 19 . iy yield about eight per cent. of this vegetable stearine, which sells about five cents per pound. ; © The process for pressing the oil, which is carried on at the same time, remains to be noticed; it is contained in the kernel of the nut, the sebaceous matter which lies between the shell and husk having been separated in the manner described. The ker- nel and the husk covering itare ground between two stones, which are heated to prevent clogging from the sebaceous matter still ad- hering. The mass is then placed in a winnowing machine, pre- cisely like those in common use in other countriess The chaff being separated exposes the white oleaginous kernels. which after being steamed are placed ina mill to be mashed. This machine is formed of a circular stone groove, twelve feet in diameter, three ‘inches deep and about as mauy wide, into which a thick solid stone wheel, eight feet in diameter, tapering at the edge, is made to revolve perpendicularly by an ox haruessed to the outer end of its axle, the inver turning on a pivot in the centre of the machine. Under this ponderous weight the seeds are reduced to a mealy state ; they are then steamed in the tubs, formed into cakes, and pressed by wedges in the manner above described, the process of mash-» ing, steaming, and pressing being repeated with the kernels like- wise. ‘The kernels yield above thirty per cent of oil, and it sells for a little more than three cents per pound. It is called T'sing-yu, and answers well for lamps, though inferior for this purpose to some other vegetable oils in use. It is also employed for various purposes in the arts, and has a place in the Chinese Pharmaco- peeia, because of its quality of changing grey hair black, and other imaginary virtues. The husk which envelops the kernel, and the shell which encloses them with their sebaceous covering, are used to feed the furnaces, scarcely any other fuel being neede for this purpose. The residuary tallow cakes are also employed for fuel, as a small quantity of it remains ignited a whole day. It is in great demand for chafing dishes in the cold weather. And finally, the cakes which remain after the oil has been press- ed out are much valued as a manure, particularly for tobacco fields, the soil of which is rapidly impoverished by the Virginia weed. Artificial illumination is generally procured in China by vegetable oils, but candles are also employed by afford it, and for lanterns. In religious ceremonies no other ma terial is used. one ventures out after dark without a dan. tern, and as the gods cannot be acceptably worshipped without candles, the quantity consumed is very great. With an unim- t exception, the candles are also made of what I beg to designate as vegetable stearine. When the candles, which are made by dipping, are of the required@diameter, they receive a final dip into a mixture of the same material and insect-war, by which their consistency is preserved in the hottest weather. ‘They are generally colored red, whith is done by throwing a minute quan- * 2 ee i no, % il * d by those who can — oy € sag 20 On the Tallow-Tree and Insect-waz of Chingy tity of Alkanet root (Anchusa FinctoMa), brought from Shang- tung, into the mixture, which forms. ) ‘coating of the = Verdigris i is sometimes employed todye them green. The are made of rush, coiled round a‘stem of coarse grass, the lower part of which is slit to receive the pin of the candlestick, which is more economical than if put intoa socket. ‘Tested in. the mode recommended by Count Rumford, these candles compare favorably with those made from spermaceti, but not when the clumsy wick of the Chinesevis used. They cost about eight cents per pound, Prior to Nie thirteenth century, beeswax was employed as a coating for candles; but about that period the white insect-war was. discovered, since which time that article has been wholly superseded by the more costly but incomparably superior product. of this insect. It has been described by the Abbé Grassier, Sir George Staunton, and others; but these accounts differ so widely among themselves, as well as from that given by native authors, as to render further inquiry desirable. rom the description given by Grassier, entomologists have supposed the insect which yields the Pe-da, or white wax, to bea species of Coccus. Staunton on the contrary describes it as a spe- cies of Cicada (Flata limbuta). As described by Chinese writers, however, it is evidently an apterous insect, hence the inference, either that there are two distinct species that produce white wax, or that the insect Staunton saw was falsely represented as the elaborator of this beautiful material. This like many other in- teresting questions in the natural history of this portion of the globe must remain unsolved, until restrictions on foreign. inter- course are greatly relaxed, or wholly removed. In the mean time, native writers may be consulted with advantage ; and from the chief of these the Pun-tsau and Kiunfangpi, two herbals of high authority, the viene account has been principally derived. The animal feeds on an evergreen shrub or tree, Ligustrum in- oe which is found throughout central Ching. from the Pacific to Thibet, but gs insect chiefly abounds in the province of ‘Sy’Chuen. It is met with also in Yunnan, Hunan, and Hupeh. ny small quantity sce a superior description, is produced i in Kinhwa * ay province. Much attention is paid to the cultivation of tree; extensive districts of country covered with it, and it forms an important branch of agtiouhurdiiodastry, In plant- * ing, they are arranged like the mulberry in rows about twelve feet apart, and both seeds aud cuttings are employed. If the = they are soaked in water in which unhusked rice ey been ed, and their shells pounded off; when pro ed by cuties 6, branches an inch in diameterare recommended a sf ‘has most suit- size. The ground i is pig hed semi-annually, and kept per- fectly free from s. In the third or fourth year they are stocked with Deo insect. After the tag or insect has been gath- eS rn & 2 oe? 2 hag Ng ce Bisset 4 On the Tallow-Tree and Insect-waz of China. 21 = ered from the young tres, they are cut down, just below the wer branches, about four feet from the ground, and well ma- ‘Bfred. The branches which sprout the following season are trimmed, and made to grow in nearly a perpendicular direction, e process of cutting the trunk withim a short distance of the ground is repeated every four or five years, and as a general rule, they are not stocked until the second year after this operation. Sometimes the husbandman finds a tree which the insects them- selves have attained, but the usual practice is to stock them with the nests of the insect, which is effected in spring. These nests are about the size of a “fowl’s head,” and are removed by cut- ting off a portion of the branch to which they are attached, leav- ing an inch each side of the nest. The sticks, with the adhering nests, are soaked in unhusked rice-water for a quarter of an hour, when they may be separated. When the weather is damp or cool, they may be preserved in jars for a week ; but if warm, they are to be tied to the branches of the trees, to be stocked without delay, being first folded between leaves. By some, the nests are probed out of their seat in the bark of the tree without removing the branches. At this period they are particularly exposed to the attacks of birds, and require watching. Ina few days after be- ing tied to the tree, the nests swell, and innumerable white in- sects, the size of * nifs,’”’ emerge, and spread themselves on the branches of the tree; but soon with one accord they descend towards the ground, where, if they find any grass, they take up their quarters. To prevent this, the ground beneath is kept quite bare, care being taken also that their implacable enemies; the ants, have no access to the tree. ge pared it to this, the most familiar to them of all insects, our authors = deem further description superfluous. Early in June they give™ to the trees the appearance of being covered with hoar frost, be- ~ secrete a purplish envelop about the month of August, which at first is no larger than a grain of rice; but as incuBation proceeds, it empands, and becomes as large as a fowl’s head, which is in sprig when the nests are transferred to other trees, one or more * each, accordin® to their size and ¥igor, in the manner already escribeds" =. : shi On being scraped from the trees, the crude material is freed from its impurities, probably the integuments of the insect, by spreading a #5 # . a . ee i ¥, e, sea 2M a "i 22 On the disappearance of the Ice on Lake Champlain. it on a strainer covering a cylindrical Vessel which is placed in a cauldron of boiling water; the wax is received into the former vessel, and on congealing is ready for the market. The Pe-la’ White wax in its chemical properties is analogous to purified bees- wax, and also spermacéti, but differs from both, being in m opinion an article perfectly sui generis. It is purely white, trans- parent, shining, not unctuous to the touch, inodorous, insipid, crumbles into a dry inadhesive powder between the teeth, with a rous texture, resembling fibrous cale-spar; it melts at 100° Fah., is insoluble in water, dissolves in heated essential oils, and is scarcely affected by boiling alcohol, the acids, or alkalies. e aid of analytical chemistry is needed for the proper eluci- dation of this most beautiful material. There can be no doubt it would prove altogether superior in the arts to purified beeswax. On extraordinary occasions the Chinese employ it for candles and tapers. It has been supposed to be identical with the white lac of Madras; but as the Indian article has been found useless in the manufacture of candles,* it cannot be the same; it far excels also the vegetable wax (Myrica cerifera) of the United States. Is this substance a secretion? There are Chinese who regard it as such, some representing it to be the saliva and others the excrement of the insect. European writers take nearly the same view, but the best authorities expressly say that this opinion is incorrect, and that the animal is changed into wax. I am inclined to believe that the insect underg6es what. may be styled a cera- ceous degeneration, its whole body being permeated by the pecu- liar prodtice in the same manner as the Coccus cacti is by carmine. ~ Its cost at Ningpo varies from 22 to 33 cents per pound. The annual produce of ‘this ‘humble creature in China cannot be far from 400,000 pounds, worth more than $100,000. Ningpo, August, 1850. 2 “e tee riers Ls ee Be ia? 3, Arr. V.—On the sudden’ disappearance of the Ice on Lake Champlain, at the breaking tp of Winter ; by Rev. Zapocx Tuxompson, of Burlington, Vermont.’ Tue vanishing of the ice on Lake Champlain in spring is at times so sudden, as to strike general observers with much sur- wise. But, for myself, although [ have lived thirty years upon its Shores, where I have had a full view of its broadest part, and where I have Watched its closing in winter and its opening in spring, with no inconsiderable interest, I have not in that®time » witnessed anything, in relation to the phenogijenon above men- tioned, which has appeared to me either mysterious or very won- derful. In the last fifty years there hayg been a feyw. cases (cer- ie tela Sallis. aaa Wi fies: j Lad Si * Dr. Pearson's Philosophical Transactions, vol. xxi. * hp % he L On the disappearance of. the Ice on Lake Champlain. 23 tainly not more than thred'er fi fot), 3 in which the lake has been en- yey covered with ice on one day, and entirely clear of ice on the One case only of this kind has occurred within the period of my own observations, and that took place about twenty years: since. The ice at that time, though of considerable thickness, had” become exceedingly porous and rotten, and for some days had been considered unsafe; but, having been stiffened at its surface by a sharp frost in the night, some persons ventured upon it in the morning, and passed safely over the lake on foot, where the width is Six or seven miles; but during the day a storm set in, with a very strong wind, and, on the following morning, the ice had sg disappeared ; there was none to be seen on the lake. an occurrence of this kind is certainly web de to excite nee in the mind of the general observer, and make the sud- den clearing of the lake a common topic of congireasiik. es it appears to me that all the mystery about the matter vanishes at once whenever the circumstances are carefully considered. These circumstances I have stated in general terms in Part I, p. 14 of my Nat. and Civil Hist. of Vermont, published in 1842. But ex- periments and observations made since that time require me to modify some of the statements there presented. It was then sup- posed that, when the ice commenced forming upon the surface of the lake, the great body of water below was at a temperature of about 39° or 4U°. This, according to the researches of Count Rumford, would doubtless: be true were the waters cooled down Without agitation ; but I find it is not true in fact, and from the ' observations I have made, Lain -now inclined to the opinion that, in consequence of their violent. agitation by the cold winds which prevail in the early part of winter, the whole mass of waters is usually cooled down. very nearly to the freezing point before any ice forms at the top, and that, after the waters are protected from the winds by a covering of - ‘ice, their temperature is gradually th. raised by the reception of heat from the earth benea Since the publication of my. history of Vermont I have made Some experiments for the purpose se of ascertaining the temperature of the water of the lake at various depths, alter it had been. for some time entirely covered with ice, ,In all these I have found, the ise eth some degrees above pecsite, oe not a so. much above as I had previously supposed. Asan example, I sey the ollowing record from my meteorological ‘dernal for 1844; “ March 27. Temperature of the water of the lake in contact: with the ice, 320 : sir feet below, the surface, 323°; twelve feet belowy.343°; and pein feet below, being the whole depth of ke at t lace, 354°.” ‘These observations were made nearly one-fourth Sf a mile from the shore, and after the lake had = oor With ice about eight weeks. 7 as lon been my intention to.ascertainthe temperature at the ere of the ones pats of our lake when covered with ice, 4) a = x‘ ane one Ba 38 24 On the ee 7 the ae on Lake Champlain. but I have not hithert@examined Rhee the depth has SS 35 feet; I should have attempted it this spring but for th expected disappearance of the ice, the last of March.* A few days after the disappearance of the ice this year, I fou a temperature of the water toybe 363°, and, as the lake was at the time much agitated by the wind, this was, doubtless, very nearly the mean temperature ofthe whole mass of water There are three well attested facts connected with this subject, which, taken together, appear to me to afford a full and satisfac- tory explanation of the phenomenon. e great body of ice is previously always reduced to the honey-comb structure, in which condition any considerable agita- tion of the water causes it to separate into minute divisions. 2. The temperature of the great mass of water is always several degrees above the freezing point, and in a condition to dissolve the minute divisions of ice with great facility when agitated in it. 3. The phenomenon is always attended by a very high wind, producing the agitation require In addition to theoretic objections to the opinion that the ice sinks when it disappears suddenly, we, who live on the shores of the lake, think we have ocular proof that it does not take place. We see the ice, while yet spreading over the whole surface of the lake, gradually wasting as the spring advances, and becoming less firm, till at length it is so far disintegrated that a stick may be easily thrust through it, while it is still from six to twelve inches hick. ‘This disintegration is often carried so far, before the gen- eral icy covering is disturbed, that the ice has little more solidity or tenacity than loose snow saturated with water. In this state of things a strong wind soon produces rents in the ice, the waters, before pent up and quiet, are thrown into violent agitation, and we actually see the slightly cohering masses falling to pieces and dissolving at the surface of the lake; but we never see the ice ‘sinking, norcan I learn that any evidence of this has ever been observed in masses lying at the bottom of the lake. ox Whe objection to this hypothesis—* that so sudden and exten- sivea conversion of a solid into a fluid, as it supposes, would pro- ge a sudden and violent frost through the neighboring coun- y,”—would, naam have weight were the caloric required sl *, Although wet lake this yo Boks to open, in some places, before the middle of Mare h, it rema Mostly covered with ice of considerable thickness and firmness till the 29 1 of t Thonth, he Adie in the afternoon, a brisk wi up fr e incr to a strong gale during the night, and continued to ble, with an lain nd on oe lat ot April, the ] and bays; so ere entirely lenccibt | ice. Thier the ce atethe time, is one of the most remarkable clear- for sev’ ears, page we wr . On Coral Reefs and Islands. 25 a to liquefy the ice suppor to be derived: wholly or principally ¢izom the atmosphere. But this Ido not believe to be the fact. ~The process of liquefaction is aided, more or less, according to the temperature, by the warmth of the atmosphere, and, to the same extent, the air is cooled; but the great supply of caloric for the liquefaction of the ice is derived from the waters beneath. This absorption of heat from the waters below has no effect in dimin- ishing the temperature of the air above. By it, the great mass of water may be cooled down a few degrees, still leaving the surface of the lake, in contact with the atmosphere, warmer by some de- grees than the previous covering of ice. If we assume, for exam- ple, the average depth of Lake Champlain to be fifty feet, and the thickness of the ice to be eight inches, and the temperature of the water below to be 36°, immediately before the sudden disappear- ance of the ice, (and these do not, probably, differ very much from the usual conditions,) then, since the heat of fluidity in water is 140°, it is easy to calculate that the sudden liquefaction of the ice, by heat derived wholly from the water, would diminish the temperature of the whole mass of water less than two degrees, leaving the surface in contact with the atmosphere more than two degrees warmer than the ice. There are some other phenomena connected with this lake, | which I regard as interesting, but I defer touching upon them to another time. Burlington, Vermont, April, 1851. 2 = Art. VI.—On Coral Reefs and Islands ; by James D. Dana.— Part II. From the Report on Geology of the Exploring Expedition under Capt. Wilkes, U.S. N, 3. Corat IsLanps. ng on t dl shore of the Raraka lagoon, (in the Paumotus, ) and looking south- : gene distance, to ; and as the eye the right or left, a few faint dots are distinguished ; sw swan vee finally become distinct groves on nearing the » observer. At Deéan’s Island, another of the Paumotus, and at many of the, pinenepe pene to the ocean is still more striking. The lagoon is in fact but a fragment of the ocean cut i - 4 wt Srconp Szniss, Vo! XII, No, S4-pJuly, 1851 3 ‘ ‘ -~ sa” 2 ad ** 7 =e *. spwvestern reef, ag oe through the suhag 26 On Coral Reefs and Islands. ‘ off by more or less perfect walls of bor reehireck 3 and the reef is here and there surmounted by-verdure, forming a series of islets, In many of the smaller coral islands, the lagoon has lost its ocean character, and become a shallow lake, and the green islets of the margin have coalesced in some instances into a continuous line of foliage. ‘Traces may pegs be still detected of the pas- sage or passages over which t once communicated with the internal waters, though mostly gnri¢ealed by the trees and shrub- bery which have spread, é around’and completed the belt of ver- dure. The coral island is now in its most finished state: the lake rests quietly in its bed of palms, hardly ruffled by the storms that madden the surrounding ocean. From the islands with small lagoons, there is every variety in gradation down to those in which there is no trace of a lagoon. These simple banks of coral are the smallest of coral islands. These remarks, in connection with the general view given on a preceding page, will prepare the reader to appreciate the fol- lowing descriptions of various coral islands, illustrating their forms, actual size, and conditio single group of islands, a Tarawan or Kingsmills, (see Plate,) affords good examples of the principal varieties. ‘The irregularity of shape and size is at once apparent to the eye. e southernmost, J'’aputeouea, the form is very narrow, the length being thirty-three miles, with the width of the southern portion scarcely exceeding six miles, and that of the northern more than one-half less. The emerged land is confined to one side, and consists of a series of islets upon the eastern line of coral reef. The western side is for the most part some feet under water, and tate is hardly a proper lagoon. Sailing by the island, to windward, the patches of verdure thus strung together seem to rise out of a long white line of breakers, the sea surging vio- oad against the unseen coral reef upon which they rest. mouti, the next island north, ic about twenty miles long by sieht: He The rim of land, though i in fewer islets, is similar to at of Taputeonea in being confind to the reef fronting north- ae The reef of the opposite ~ though bare of vegetation, _Sta ands near low tide level, and the le encloses a large lagoon. Nanouki and Apamama, shecmghn 4 aller than Namonti, have Ae-same general character. Nanouki is triangular in shape, and has an islet ofthe western point or cape, which is quite promi- nent. Apamama differ$from either of the preceding in having two narrow ship eutratices to the lagoon, one t oot sae ‘The plate is a ees ORY of the chartiot ‘is islands, asgjjilieveyed by the ee 3 “ee He: _? ‘e we f | EE Se ne oe é On Coral Reefs and Islands. _ 27 Kuria is a remarkable ‘Gouble island, without a proper lagoon. It consists of two neighboring groves, oath about a square mile 1 extent, on adjacent patches of reef. ~ - Maiana is quite regularly quadrangular, with an uninterrupted range of land on two of the four sides, and an exposed reef con- stituting the other two. urawa consists of two sides of a triangle. “The western reef is wanting, and the sea and lagoon have unbroken communica- tion. In place of it, there are two to ten fathoms water, and a bottom of coral sand. Small vessels may sail in almost any- where on this side to a good anchorage, and there is a passage for ships of the largest size. The depth within is greater than on the bar, and these inner waters obviously correspond to the lagoon of other islands. Apia has much resemblance to Apamama in its forest border and lagoon. Moreover, there is a ship-entrance through the southwestern reef. araki is one of the prettiest coral islands of the Pacific. The line of vegetation is unbroken; and from the mast-head it lies like a garland thrown upon the waters. The unpracticed eye scarcely perceives, in such a view, the variation from a circular form, however great it may be. The grove is partially interrupt- ed at one point, where there are indications of a former passage through the reef. Tari-tari is a large triangular atoll. It is wooded almost con- tinuously on the reef facing southeast, and has a few spots of verdure on the southwest, with three entrances to the extensive lagoon. The northern side is a naked reef thronghout, scarcely apparent from a ship’s deck, except by the long line of breakers. Makin, just north of Tari-tari, is a mere patch of coral reef without a lagoon. add a few more descriptions of Pacific islands, with figures reduced from the maps of the Expedition to a scale of four tenths of an inch to a mile. fr 1. » a ae? ed ie ee a Hs ¥ 28 Ont Coral Reefs and Islands. Swain’s aha Jarvis Islands, (figs. 3 and 4,) are of still smaller ‘size, and have no lagoen. The former is densely covered with foliage, oe ned while the surface of the latter SWAIN’s ISLAND. JARVIS ISLAND, sandy. ‘Swain’s Island: is a little. depressed about the centre, a fact pine me, that there was formerly a lagoon. kaafo, or Bowditch, (fig. 5 5 i 200 miles northof Samoa, i is the type of a large part of coral islands. The bank of reef has only here and there emerged from the waves and become ver- dant; in other portions the reef is of the usual height,—that is, Sryct The Paumotu Archipelago, the * crowded cluster of coral islands just northeast of Tahiti, is a — paiee a study for the eader a map of these islands a the Expedition, in- serted in the Narrative of the Expedition, and also in the Hy- drographical Atlas, will well re- pay close study. Sailing among these islands—over eighty in number, only four of which are over twelve feet high exclusive of the vegetation,—two or three are almost constantly i in sight from the mast-head. The small amount of habitable land on these reef-islands is one of their-most peculiar features. Nearly the whole surface is water; and the land around the lagoon is but a narrow rim, the am tap i =e Greatest breadth. o~- ca se baie in s i i ti same ta lil On Coral Reefs and Islands. 29 The ten islands here enumerated have an aggregate area of 1952 square miles, while the amount of actual dry habitable land is but seventy-six miles, or less than one twenty-fourth. In the Caroline Archipelago the proportion of land is still smaller. Men- chikoff atoll covers an area of 500 square miles, and includes hardly six square miles of wooded land. Tu the Marshall Islands the dry land is not over one-hundredth of the whole surface ; while in the Pescadores the proportion of land to the whole area is about as 1 to 200. The distribution of the land upon the reef is obvious from the sketches already given. It was long since remarked that the windward side was in general the highest. It is also apparent that there are not only great irregularities of form, but the reef may at times be wholly wanting or deeply submerged on one ide. In many islands there is a ship entrance, sometimes six or eight fathoms deep, through the reef to the lagoons, where good an- chorage may be had; but the larger part have only shallow pas- Sages, or none at all. In the Paumotus, out of the twenty-eight visited by the Expedition, not one half were found to have naviga- ble entrances. In the Carolines, where the islands are Jarge and not so much wooded, entrances are of more common occurrence. About half of the Kingsmill Islands afford a good entrance and safe anchorage. Through these openings in the reefs, there is usually a rapid outward ssid especially during the ebbing tide. At Depeyster Island, it was fo nile to.run at the rate of two and a half miles an hour. Pale was as rapid at Raraka, in the Paumo- tus, and as Capt. Wilkes remarks, it was difficult to pull a boat against it, into the lagoon. Soundings about Coral Islands. —The water around coral islands deepens as rapidl y and in much the same way as off the reefs about high islands. The atoll usually seems to stand as if stilted up in a fathomless'sea. The soundings of the Expe- dition afford some interesting results. e Seven miles east of Clermont Tonnerre, the lead ran out to 1145 fathoms (6870 feet), without reaching bottom. Within three quarters of a mile of the southern point of this islands. he lead, at another throw, after inne out for a while, brought. ip an instant at 350 fathorits, and then dropped off again « scended to 600 fathoms without ere bottom. On. the lead, which appeared bruised, a small piece of white coral was found, and another of red ; but no evidence of living’ zoophytes. the east side of the isla a > kind of bottom in fathoms ; at one gh gral battoumein 7 fatt oms my rom so gt m to the « e f thesho ore r ent: "8 wees) ‘ th¥ee hundred feet from the reef, a é found in 90 fathoms ; at one hundred Be é a e & # 30 On Coral Reefs and Islands. Off the southeast side of Ahii (another of the Paumotus), about a cable’s length from the shore, the lead after descending 150 fathoms, struck a ledge of rock, and then fell off and finally brought up at a depth of 300 fathom Shak” miles east of Serle’s Island, no iiiion was found at 600 fathom A male and a half south of the — Disappointment Island, were was no bottom at 550 fathom ar the eastern end of Metia, 1 no bottom was found with a line of 150 fathoms; and a mile distant, no bottom was reached at 600 fathoms.* In general, for one to five hundred yards from the margin of the*shore reef, the water slowly deepens, and then there is an abrupt descent, at an angle of 40 or 50 degrees. ‘The inent, correspond with this statement. At considerable depths, as would appear from the above facts, the sides of the coral struc- ture may be vertical or even may overhang the bottom below. There are examples also of less abrupt slopes. Northwest of the Hawaiian Group, Lisiansky, at the island bearing his name, found shallow water for a distance of six or seven miles; the water deepened to ten or eleven fathoms the first mile, fifteen the sec- ond, and at the last throw of the lead there were still but twenty- five fathoms. Christmas Island affords on its western side anoth- er example of gradually deepening waters. Yet these shallow waters terminate finally in a rapid declivity of forty or fifty de- grees. Off the prominent angles of an atoll, soundings generally continue much beyond the distance elsewhere, as was first ob- served by Beechey. At Washington Island, mostly abrupt in its shores, there is a hank, according to the surveys of the Expedi- tion, extending from the east. point to a distance of half a mile, and another on the west. kee a to a distance of nearly two * Beechey, as observations on 80 are the fullest hitherto published, _ states many facts of great interest’ “At ar Island, he found the depth 60 ' 5 fathoms +80 from thokart ‘ine, 5 , 18 fathoms ;—120 yards, 18 fath- a - At nesses I undings gs continued o ut 250 yar ards, where the depth pt _ Darwin states engines fae ace dite bject, of which we may cite the Howing——At Heawandoo Pholo (one st the 3) Lie eutenant Powell found t ne h 3 fathoms close to the edge of reef. undred fathoms from the mouth e lagoon of Diego Garcia, Captain ae found no bottom with 150 fathoms. -At Egmont ‘Island, 50 fa thoms from the r ected were tiate in 150 fathoms. At doo Atoll, ee Be — from he eef, no bottom was ob- _. tained with a line of 200 fathoms. eelimg Island, 2200 nan from the breakers, @ Captain Fitzroy found no ey of 900 fathoms. Mr. Dasprit'also states that at e and arn fathoms, t partly cut as iftit jecting ledge of sock ; and deduées from thé fac ts sobaie @ cliffs.” te soe the world, in the years 180326, in ia quiet : Navy, 4to, a on ape. ‘seal 3 Pe 8 o>, ew | : “at * ; a — i = ‘the probable = On Coral Reefs and Islands. fi Ok miles. At Kuria, one of the Kingsmills, soundings continue for three miles from the north extremity, along a bank stretching off from this point to the north-northwest. Many other instances might be cited, but they are seldom’as remarkable ; yet nearly all islands, especially if the»points are much prominent, afford simi- lar facts. It has been said that the reef to leeward is generally less abrupt than that to windward, but no facts were obtained by the Expedition sufficiently definite or extensive to settle this question. It is probably true, yet the difference if any must be slight. B. Structure of Coral Islands. The descriptions of reefs and their islets apply with equal force to coral islands. By transferring here the statements re- specting the former, we should have a nearly complete account of the latter. ip same causes, with scarcely an exception, are Waves, oceanic bee: aud the winds. This resemblance will be rendered more apparent by a review of their characters; the description will be found to be a simple recapitulation of a for- mer paragraph. The reef of the coral atoll, as it lies at the surface still uncov~ ered with vegetation, is a platform of coral rock, usually two to four hundred yards wide, and situated so low as to be swept by the waves at high tide. The outer-edge, directly exposed to the surf, is generally broken into channels and jagged indentations, along which the waters of thé resurging wave drive with great force. Though in the midst of the breakers, the edge stands a few inches, and sometimes a foot, % ‘above other parts of the plat- orm ; the incrustiug Nullipores® ‘eover it with — wipe and afford protection from the abrading action of the waves. The are usually three to five fathoms water near the bunrgin’ and ng ( sand and fragments, Often the dead areas much exceed wn flourishing with zoophytes, and not unfrequently the cluster scattered like tufts of vegetation in a sandy plain. _ The grow corals extend up the sloping edge of the reef, nearly to low tide level. For ten to twenty yardc from the margin, theme? ef is usually very cavernous or pierced with holes or sinuous f a hiding-place for various crabs, or a retreat (om e cechi ast rias, the seevememnouce, and ppoy a eS and o ied in the solid rock, with barely roomt "= fhe we ‘5 " +: = e's . Sy, # cae Pee oe. ae! ae a a 32 ae Bad, On Coral Reefs and Islands. The reef-rock, Wiaver broken, . sewn a detritus omg. Parts are of compact homogeneous texture, a solid white lme- stone, without a piece of coral distinguishable, and rarely an im- bedded shell. But generally the rock is a breccia or conglomer- ate, made up of corals cemented into a compact mass, and the frag- ments of which it consists are sometimes many cubic feet in size. SECTION OF A CORAL ISLAND REEF. It is apparent that we are describing a secon time an outer reef. Without dwelling farther upon its characters, we may pass to the features of the reef when = above the waters and covered with vegetatior Sections of coral ‘slapd and their lagoons have been given by Captain Beechey and Mr. Darwin. We add another, by way of illustration, although little may be presented that is novel after the ex- cellent descriptions of these authors. Sketches of several of these islands, showing the general rela- tion of the rim of land to the reef and the lagoon within, are given in the Plate of the Kingsmill Group. The following sketch represents a sec- tion of the rim of land from the sea on one side, (the left,) to the lagoon on the other. In the view, the part ma, represents the shallow sea bordering an island, and abruptly deepening one to six hundred feet from the line of breakers. In these shallow waters are the growing corals ; yet, as before stated, a large part is barren sand or coral rock. |, From a to b is the shore platform of sei nearly at low tide level, with the margin (a) slightly elevated, and rach: incrusted = thie top with Nullipores.- "From the platform there is a rise by a steep beach (d c,) of six or eight feet, to the wooded part of the coral belt re spresented between cand d. From d toe there is a gently sloping beach bordering the lagoon. Beyond e, the wa- ters of the lagoon at first deepen gradually, and then fall off more of less: abruptly. In the Paumotus, the shore platform, the steep era and the more gently sloping shore of the are almost constant characteristics. f land, when the island gives ndred yards age” ¥ ab ot y peat : “ % ; s i On Coral Reefs and Islands. 33 P +e o Shore platform and emerged land.—The shore platform is irom one to three hundred feet in width, and has the general fea- . tures of a half-submerged outer reef. Its peculiarities arise solely _ from the accumulations which have changed the reef ito an . island. Much of it is commonly bare at low tide, though there are places whete it is always covered with a few inches or a foot of water; and the elevated edge, the only part exposed, often seems like an embankment preventing the water from running seas transport larger fragments; and at the foot of the beach there is often a deposit of blocks of coral or coral rock, ‘a cubic foot or so in size, which low tide commonly leaves standing in a few inches of water. Besides the deep channels cutting into the margin of the reef and giving it a broken outline, there are in some instances long fissures intersecting its surface. On Aratica, (Carlshoff,) and Ahii, (Peacock Island,) they extended along for a fourth to half amile, generally running nearly parallel with the shore, and at top were from a fourth to half an inch wide. ‘These fissures are not essential features of the reef, and will come up for consider- ation on a future page of this work. | he beach usually slopes at an angle of 35 to 45 degrees, and consists of coral pebbles or sand, with some worn shells, and oc-* ' casionally the exuvie of crabs and bones of fishes. Owing to ‘ its whiteness, and the contrast it affords:to the massy verdure above, it is a remarkable feature in the distant view of these islands, and often seemed like an artificial wall or embankment running parallel with the shores. On Clermont Tonnerre, the first of aes a t. in its earliest stage when * s, appears like a vast field of eae < y ° a hundred cubic feet, lie pil and they are so blackened fMSION ; 4 exposure, & fro uy nerusti ig lich- , movin: s mas vhich genexally rest on thei jecting anglesandhaye __ Pe. ee he pichig onee be he «i shrimps, and crabs, M ‘4 escaping. rom ist ; and béneath, appet ar Ati or living flowers, the sp ind sl biehe- x, Ww as es shells haying a : 3 érab ant walk offrwith unusual life ai Sapien Mor de a ralline dize and sponges tintiwith ey Ages f red, Breen, andMpink, . dice Sat eS : or lock of sal ish ha orm , NOss 4 uly, 1851. ‘a * i Pex os * » # * e . : q ” a i de ye « 84 On Coral Reefs and Islands. ehs, as to resemble the clinkers of Mauna Loa ; moreover, ey y ring like metal under the hammer. Such regions may be trav- elled over by leaping along from block to block, with the risk of falling into the many recesses among the huge masses. On breaking an edge from the black masses, the usual white color of coral is at once apparent. Some of the blocks, measuring five or six feet in each of their dimensions, were found to be portions of individual corals, while others have the usual conglomerate character of the reef-rock. In the next stage, coral sand has found lodgment among the blocks; and though so scantily supplied as hardly to be detected without close attention, some seeds have taken root, and vines, purslane} and a few shrubs begin to grow, ore the scene, by .. their green leaves, of much of its desolate oth of these stages are illustrated on ak: greater part of coral islan da In the last stage, the island stands six to ten feet out of water. The surface consists of coral sand, more or less discolored by vegetable or animal decomposition. There is but little depth of coral soil, although the land may appear buried in the richest foliage: and scattered among the trees, stand, still uncovered, many of the larger blocks of coral, with their usual rough angu- lar features and blackened surface. The soil is seldom: discol- ored beyond four or five inches, and but. little of it to this depth ; there is no proper vegetable mould, but. ope mixture of darker particles with the white grains of coral § d. It is often rather a coral gravel, and below a foot or two, it fe usually cemented to- gether into a more or less compact coral rock. One singular feature of the shore platform, occasionally ob- | served, remains to be mentioned. Huge masses of reef-rock are sometimes found upon it, some. of which lie loose upon the reef, while others are firmly imbedded init below, and so cemented ' to it as to appear to be actually a part of ~ Spates ok i geet hes of some of these ma S are here & ve ss i " ure 1 represents a mass: inte isla 2AUMOLUS,) Six La high, and about le reeferock. Ww, ast es a pit 2 On Coral Reefs and Islands. 35 + aibbitiend to the reef at base, observed on sland.) It was six feet high above = Ss, simil water level, and seven feet in its longest diameter. Below, i had been worn like the one just described, though to a less ta tent. Another similar mass was eight feet high. Pigute 3 rep- resents a block six feet was unattached below, and lay with one end raised on a smal- eight feet high and fifteen feet in diameter, and contained at least a thousand cubic feet. iucobe also afforded examples of these attached and unattached ap some standing with their tops six feet above high-water m These masses are similar in character to many met with siete the fields of blocks just described, and differ only in having been left on the platform instead of being transported over it. Some of them are near the margin of the reef, while others are quite at its inner limit. The third mass figured above was a solid con- glomerate, consisting of large fragments of Astraeas and Madre- pores, and contained some imbedded shells, among which an Os- trea and a Cyprea were noticed. This is their usual character. The other two were parts of large individual corals, (Porites ;) but there was evidence in the direction of ne ~~ that “a did shed were found none and only at consi In no instance were they observed clustered. The loo bic br eng mented pele had the sam 1 character, an have. been the same cause,” oe a high are ently inclined, ® nahi the waters of the hs lago . are | ae usually a m- oft ba iy ‘ae # Aes » “Se, -% J if 36 On Coral Reefs and Islands. form of reef-rock at the same elevation the shore lanl sometimes extends out into the lagoon; but it is more common» to find it a little aeRO and covered for the most part wth growing corals: n either case, the bank terminates outward ce | shores without growing coral. ese three varieties of condi- tion are generally found in the same lagoon, characterizing its different parts. The lower area of growing corals slopes out- ward, and usually, ceases where the depth is 10 to 12 fathoms; from this there is another descent to the depth which prevails over the lagoon. On some small lagoons the shore is a thick plastic mud, either white or like clay, and forms a low flat which is very gently slop- ing. On Henuake, these mud deposits are quite extensive, an of a white color. At Enderby’s Island, another having a shal- low lagoon, the mud was so dee and thick that there was some difficulty in reaching the waters of the lagoon; the foot sunk in 8 or 10 inches and was not extricated without some dif- ficulty. The color at this island was a dirty brownish clay. This mud is nothing but comminuted sal so fine as to be al- most impalpable. “he lagoons of the smaller islands are usually very shallow ; | and in some, merely a dry bed remains, indicating the former exis- j tence of water. Instances of the latter kind are met with only . in islands less than three miles in diameter ; and those with shal- low lagoons are seldom much larger. These shallow waters, = = when direct communication with the sea is cut off, become, in | some instances, very salt by evaporation, and contain no growing | coral, with few signs of life of any kind: and in other cases, they. are made too fresh for marine life, through the rains. At Enderby’s Island the water was not only extremely saline, but the shores of the lagoon were in some places incrusted with salt. » But when there is an open channel, or the tides gain access over é a bare reef, corals continue to grow, and a considerable portion of the lagoon may be obstructed by them. At Henuake, the sea is shut out except at one water, and there were ~ aap ange *® butefew speciés of corals, and those of small size. At Ahii *+* (Peacotk’s Island) there was a small entrance to abe lagoon, and ghoweh Company gpallow, ee were growing over a large * f 30. vit ot | the larger islandsthe lagodlt co eir whole extent ; d te | at On Coral Reefs and ee , 37 however probable that: aoe soundings would be found in the _ large island of Naitsa (Dean’s). In the Tarawan Group, south- east of the Carolines, the depth, where examined by the Expedi- tion, varied from 2 to 35 fathoms. Mr. Darwin found ‘the latter depth at Keeling’s Island. Chamisso found 25 to 35 fathoms at the Marshall Islands. The bottom of these large lagoons is very nearly uniform, va- rying but little except from the occasional abrupt shallowings produced by growing patches of reef. Soundings bring upssand, pebbles, shells, and coral mud; and the last: mentioned material appears to be quite common, even in lagoons of considerable size. It has the same character as above ‘described. "The blu- ish clay-like mud of the harbor of Tongatabu may be classed with these deposits.* It appears, therefore, that the finer coral material of the shores prevails throughout the depths of the la- goon. The growing reefs within the lagoons, are in the condi- tion of the inner reefs about:high islands. The corals grow little disturbed by the waves, and the reef-rock often contains ~ them in the position of growth. At Taputeouea (Kingsmills or Tarawan Group), reefs very similar to those of the Feejees oc- cur; they present the same large Astreeas 10 to 12 feet in diame- ter, which once were growing where they stand but arenow a part of the solid lifeless rock. They often occupy a breadth of 30 to 50 yards, appearing like a series of outcrops; yet not unfrequently they are mostly concealed — by the sands of the beach,+ and it is probable that it generally. underlies the loose surface material of the land. The rock, is fine or coarse sandrock, or a coral ‘pndding-stone, and cotisists of beach materials. Occasionally it is quite compact, and resem= — ° bles common een ee tne 6 its whitef color ; ut ger ° erally its sand origin is very ap aR: he oh ide samenock Was not nase with by the wr riter - many coral islands visited, and. weed for ihe reasom, that opportu #e he P Maldives, and at Keeling a oa Marsliafl Atolls, mention ons iy ies sts at Lieu- esc 08 quar- ‘ 7 38 On Coral Reefs and Islands. ties were not favorable for a thorough exployation. It ha s bi hater that the more exposed points towards the trades, especially the northeast and southwest, are commonly a little higher than | other parts; and it is altogether probable that some of the sand 87: 3 heaps, there formed, will prove on examination to afford exam- | ples of this variety of coral-rock. . Such situations are exactly | oe with those on Oahu, where they occur on so remarkable | Mr. R. ‘Schomburgh states that on the island of poses * in the West Indies, the drift banks on the windward shores are forty feet. in height.* Although in’ ‘these descriptions of atolls, we have dwelt on some points more at length than when describing barrier reefs, still it will be observed that the former have no essential pecul- iarities of structure apart from such as necessarily arise from the ponds with the outer reefs that enclose high islands; and the green islets with ea beach formations, in the two cases, originate in the same manne The lagoons, bicores, are similar in character and position to the inner channels within barrier reefs; they receive only coral material from the action of degrading agents because no other . source of detritus but the reefs is at he accumulations ay going on within them are, therefore, Missile of mee The reefs ‘ within the lagoons, correspond very exactly in mode of growth and other characters to the nner reefs under the lee of a barrier. » The corals grow but little disturbed by the waves; and the reef- rock thus formed, often contains them in their natural positions. — § The preceding descriptions, represent the — character of atolls, but are more especially drawn from the Paumotu ere are some peculiarities in other seas, to which we may hiiefiy allude. e scattered coral islands north of the Samoan Group, * the shore etioran is seldom as extensive as at the Paumotus. It rarely exceeds fifty yards in width, and is cut up by passages _ “often reaching almost to the beach. It was not unusual for our 4 boats to obtain a landing by watching for a favorable opportunity at the — of one of these channels to mount a wave an » mide in on its top. In some places the platform is broken into » @ lets, Enderby’s Island is one of the number to which this de- % scription applies: the beach is eleven or twelve feet high. For a first eight feet, it slopes very regularly at an angle of 30 to degrees, and consists ‘of sand, coarse pigte 8 re stones S 1, coral, with some sh and there is the | beach con-" glomerate near the water sda After,this first open is hi atthe Royal L Gbocraply a i, 152. Mr. Scho: crea first range, as a ‘gale ee. On Coral Reefs and Islands. 2 ee aie Goth for eighty to two botrnined feet, and then there j is a ‘amet _Tise of three to four feet. Over this portion there are large slabs — of the beach conglomerate, tina: with masses from the reef-rock, and some thick plates of a huge foliaceous Madrepora ; and these slabs, many of which are six feet square, lie inclining quite regu- larly against one another, as if they ha d been taken up and laid there by hand. They incline in the same direction with the slope of the beach. ‘The large Madrepora alluded to has the mode of growth of the Madrepora a and probably the a key to the ainaraioe of the docuiiplrisins here oe | it ome be remarked that the tides in the Paumotus are two to | three feet, and about Enderby’s Island five to six feet in height. Maldives.—Chagos Bank.—The Maldives have been often appealed to in illustration of coral structures. They are particu- larly described by Mr. Darwin, from information communicated to him by Captain Moresby, and from the charts of this officer and Lieutenant Powell.* The point of special interest in their structure is the eccurrence of atolls or rmgs within the larger atolls. The islets of the lagoon, and those of the encircling reef, . are in many instances annular reefs, each with its own little lake. Gems within gems are here clustered together. The annular islets of the main encircling reef are pblooy, and lie with the longest diameter, which is sometimes three miles ».._ long, in the line of the reef. Those of the lagoon are generally less than two miles across. The lagoons they contain vary from five fathoms or less to twelve fathoms in de Se The Maldives are among the largest atoll-reefs known ; and they are intersected by many large open channels; and Mr. Dar- win observes, that the interior els occur only near these chan- nels, where the sea has free. access. We may view each large — island in the archipelago asa Bab: archipelago of itself. ‘Although » “ thus singular in their features, they illustrate no new principles ~~ with regard to reef-formations + ; on Coral Re e also Journal of the Royal na aa et ciety ~ onabacts Geography ‘of, he Ms Mavs, by J. J. Horsburgh,™, p. 72; an 2 F. W. Owen, ibi also vol. ¥, p. 398, on the stasis f the Maldivos Ca ee Moc 1 Ms Dave by Cap ae. in thus” sierke, cit. 33, 8 «T ou ont | uty (Op. PR: ee res which, yeen these a tails fs aarti partie, ve oons t atolls stand e open J a that the rng formed reefs mn sea, hat _— a 40 % On Coral Reefs and Islands. The Chagos Bank lies about ten degrees south of the Ma dives, and is ninety miles long and seventy broad. ‘The rim mostly submerged - from five to ten fathoms. Mr. Darwin confirms the opinion of Captain Moresby, that this bank has the character of a lagoon reef, resembling one of the Maldives; and he states on the evidence of extensive soundings, that, if raised to the surface, it would actually become a coral island, with a lagoon forty fathoms deep. In the words of Capt. oresby, it is in truth nothing more than a half-drowned atoll.* Meiia and other elevated Coral Islands.—In the Chagos Group we have an example of a sunken coral atoll. Metia affords an srg of one that/has been elevated by some force ; and several aregmet with in the Pacific. Metia, or Aurora Island, is one of. the western Paumotus. It is a small island about four miles by two and a half in width, and two hundred and fifty feet in sheight;i and it consists throughout of coral limestone. As W approached it from the northeast, its high vertical cliffs were oa posed to be basaltic, and had much resemblance to the Palisades of the Hudson.t This appearance of a vertical structure was ib afterwards traced to vertical furrowings by the waters dripping * down its front, and the consequent formation of stalagmitic incrus- t tations. Deep caverns were also seen ‘ The cliff, — vertical in some parts, is roughly sloping in ” others, and on the west side, the surface of the island gradually declines to the sea. The rock was found to be a white and solid —_— seldom * _ (presenting any traces of its coral origin. In some few layers there were disseminated corals, looking like deabadded fossils, — along = beautiful casts of shells; but for the most part it was — com as any secondary marble, and as uniform in texture. — Gocksiciiadbe there were disseminated spots of crystallized cale- spar. pa: a a pe caverns presented us with coarse stalactites, some of which ty six feet in diameter; and interesting specimens were ob- —_—a ie ed c Rntaining recent land shells, which had been enclosed me ~ while hibernating.{ are narrow, or few in number, althoug mnie are ring-formed, but br central ones are not so: where they are b S etd reef throughout the atoll is more om less pee ring-formed. ~~ : ir presence is — sctingent on the ess of ° of their form Pye shall ese Bt nt atolls, of which th c" pe a x 0 = thoy separate portion : of this isi island, see N — «Exp e that m more extengiye ca oa ‘been. k e than a s f On Coral Reefs and Islands. se - surface of the island is singularly rough, owing to erosion _ byrains. ‘The paths that cross it wind through narrow passages among ragged needles and ridges of rock as high as the head, the peaks and narrow defiles forming a miniature model of the grand- est Alpine scenery. There is but little soil, yet the island is cov- ~ ered with trees and shrubbery. ‘ ; e shores, at the first elevation of the, island, must have been _ worn away to a large extent by the sea; and thecliff and some i] isolated pinnacles of coral rock’ still standing on the coast are evidence of the degradation. But at present there isa wide shore platform of coral reef, two hundred or two hundréd and fifty feet wide, resembling that of the low coral islands; and having grow- ing coral as usual about its margin aud in the shallow, depths beyond. In the face of the cliff there are two horizontal lines, along which cavities or caverns are most frequent, which consequently give an appearance of stratification to the rock, dividing it into three nearly equal layers. os Jarvis’s Island.—(Fig. 4, page 28.) Lat. 0° 22'S. Long. 9° 31 W. Length 12 miles trending east and west. No ak e ; $0, Ness uly, 1851, + -—' a0 "7, += 42 On Coral Reefs and Islands. where it is about twelve feet. 'T’o the south-southwest th merged reef extends out nearly a mile, over which the sea brea Distinguished no vegetation except the low purslane and Me trailing plants. Did oe -, wain's.—(Fig. 3, page 28.) Lat. 11° 10'S. Long. 170° ile and west. No lagoon, but the centre a little ‘al than the sides. Surface covered with shrubbery and large trees, among the latter many cocoanuts; the centre more sparsely wooded. Height fifteen to ee feet, excepting on the middle of western side, where the su urface is covered with loose fragments of coral of small size; there appears to have been a former en- trance to the gameeke at this tke ce. Shore reef or platform, one reat numbers of Birgi, (large Crustacea, ) were skh over the island, some of which were six inches i in breadth. Otuhu, Paumotu Archipelago.—14° 5’S. 141°30' W. 14 miles by 3, trending north and south. No lagoon. Wooded. ag 4 Margaret, Paumotu Archipelago.—20° 42’ S. 143° 4’ W. - Diameter one mile, nearly circular. A small shallow lagoon with no entrance. Northeast side alone wooded, and in two patches. Teku or Four Crowns, Paumotu Archipelago.—20° 28’ S. 143° 18/ W. Diameter 14 miles, nearly circular. A small la- with no entrance. Southwestern reef bare ; five patches of » forest on the other part. e sea Was seid heavy when we ected ter to land at low Se ates the edge of : ey -_ latfo As we pulled ards the reef, an anch dropped, 25 eoneies ont, to hold on mand save the ee, from bette 4 carried by the — aaa the rocks. After some he eavy seas passed, a lull ed eae to eo and the teat was pull plied fer Taking a jumped out, ahs made rapid speed « over the reef to escape the breakers whi fol- wel Soon bay , Iw e just behind me, yy crew in the water sloneside ng to stead The man who held to thea ek ring on, had a partial seem siumteonan of the favorable etait S| On Coral Reefs and Islands. 43 Prsningin Tsland.—Lat. 4° 41’ N. Long. 160° 15° W. 3 miles by 1}, trending east and west. It is a dense cocoanut grove with luxuriant shrubbery. No lagoon. The shore’platform is rather narrow. A point of submerged reef one and a half miles long stretches out from southwest end. Could not land on account of bad weather. 4 Einderby’s.—3° 8’ 8. 171° 16’ W.. 23 miles by 1 mile nearly, trending N.N. W. and 8.8. E.; form trapezoidal or nearly rectan- gular. Little vegetation on any part, and but few trees. The la- goon very shallow and containing no growing coral; its shores a coral mud, allowing the foot to sink in eight orten inches, and covered in places with saline incrustations. ‘Shore platform one hundred feet or less in width, and surface inclined outward at a very small angle; covered with three or four feet of water at high tide, and with few corals or shells; beyond this, falls off four to six feet, and then the bottom gradually inclines for one. hundred yards or more. ‘The beach very high and regular ; rises eight feet, at an inclination of thirty to thirty-five degrees; then horizoutal for eighty to two hundred, after which another rise of three or four feet. It consists below of pebbles and fine sand, but above of slabs and blocks of coral rock and the beach sand- rock, those of the latter nearly rectangular and flat. ‘This sandrock occurs in layers from ten to twenty inches thick along the shore, and is inclined from five to seven degrees seaward. Some portions are very compact, and ring under the hammer, while others enclose fragments of different sizes to a foot or more in diameter. The most common coral of the beach was an Astrea ? ‘ii rs tg which was forty feet long and four in diameter. shore «| platform was much intersected by channels. a x ptain Hudson obtained soundings half a mile off in two « a3 hundred fathoms ; the lead struck upon a sandy bottom but was indented by coral. onden, or Henuake, Paumotu Archipelago.—Size 34 miles | by 2 miles. Oblong, five-sided; trending west-northwest. $ small shallow lagoon, communicating with the sea only.at high ee tide, on the west side. There are two other entrances, which, _ ef covered with water, and appeared merely as* fe t with the Pandanus and other speeies, but no breadth 4 mile, and in some parts 3. “Amotig the 2s of coral rock often exposed to x. A the a “see is $ | J a e . 4d _ On Coral Reefs and Islands. surface in many parts very rough. It seaniell surprising at’ all these islands to find so luxuriant a growth of trees and "shrubbery ever so rocky a surface. Shores of the laggon nearly flat. : one side there was a large area of extremely fine coral sand an mud, which extended a long distance into the lagoon. Elsewhere — about the centre of the island, the®reef-rock was bare, and con- tained numerous shells of Tridacn A few. small Madrepores still growing in ‘the lagoon. ‘on the sea-shore side eight feet high. In lower part of Dncle several layers of white lime- | stone, (the beach sandrock sel formed of coral fragments or sand, — shells, &c., much of whi ae gvas very compac ot. The layers | : inctined. towards the sea at an angle of —_— five degrees. Shore platform as elsewhere in this archipela The facts above stated: are evidence of a slight elevation, not ; exceeding two or three feet. “0 a Taiara, or King’s, > Picuiele: Beli veldae. —15° 42’ §.; 144° 46’ W. 23 miles by 12, trending northwest. A small lagoon with no entrance. Reef almost CORTE Y, wooded around, some- what broken into patches. Maraki,. Tarawan’ or. Kincemills Group. —5 miles by 2, and having a lagoo n. Trending north.» Shape oblong triangular. elt of forest ne SApresancnye a former « entrance to — : the lagoon on the east s 4 s Whytuhu, one of the two T Dieappotatinet Islands, Paumotu ~ : Archipelago.— 149: 10/S.; 1419 24/ W. . 54 by 2 miles, trending — northwest. The reef fronting northeast almost continuously — a Ss wooded. On the pears side, three islets, one of rather large — size. Lagoon with no en “ ydney Island.—Lat 4° 3! S. Long. 171° 16 W. Trends northeast and southwest... Well wooded nearly all round; but — on leeward side the forest*in: patches, with breaks of bare coral. a Lagoon narrow, without entrance: Width of island from sea — o four hundred yards: width greatest — fen, eet high. ‘The soil of the island con- — nts.and sand. Shore platform fifty to eighty — si = ape water over it at high tide. Cut up he very irregularly by chanfiels three: to eight or ten feet wide. Ob- — : served small corals groiving on. the bottom outside of the plat- form. Shores of lagoon shallow for fifty yards, and consisting: ¥ of coral agit * Beyond this a slope coveted cane aaah co _ Dheco ~In the On Coral Reefs and Islands. 45 + ee narrow, and intersected by bhsbbicle: Shores dine ef-rock, two or three feet out of water, indicating an a. Elevation of the i isl; and This reef-rock consists of various corals | rmly cemented. “Within the sagge, knolls of coral, but none sie a shore on the leeward si fifteen feet. Width to the mys one hundred to two rhandiied ) yards. Soil of the island coral sand, speckled black with results | of vegetable decomposition. Shore platform narrow... At outer edge a depth of three fathoms, and cs ‘thence gradually deep- : ens, and abounds in fine corals for fift yards, when it deepens | abruptly. Coral reef-rock elevated phd four feet, indicating | an elevation of the island. Lagoon shallow, with some growing: coral, but none near the shore. ‘Soma corals growing on the platform, hear its margin, mostly sma I. Madrep ores, Astreeas, Nul- lipores, Fragments of pumice were fsopel among the natives,» ie Which had floated to the island. Ahii, or Peacock’s Island; Scand ieickinslege: —14° 30’S., 146° 207 W. 13 miles, by 6, trending N. E. by E. Shape i irre ularly oblong. A large lagoon, having an entrance for small ves- . sels on the west. Reef wooded throughout nearly its whole cir- cuit. Lagoon shallow; and much obstructed by growing coral, the latter giving the’water over it a clear light green color. Plat- form, or outer coral shelf of the island, about two hundred and fifty feet wide; under water except atthe lowest tides. Margin, highest, and covered with Nullipore inerustations, which give it a variety of delicate shades of color, mostly: ‘reddish, or peach- blossom red, rose, scarlet. For thirty to fifty feet from the mar- gin, very cavernous, and containing ‘many. 'T hece oi gE mel imbedded, with the variously tinted! m J prene xpande d when, tl surface is covered with water.» Rock. of the platfo m ae ler ; dee er its repore tufts or Astreeas nage them mar- aS Ey-this ars there ost g fissures, ex ending™ ao nearly: parallel with the shore, a et an ineh wide. a _ top, and continuing sometimes a ‘fourth of a mile or- more. These - o® ~ fissures res were commonly filled with coral sand. rparts wie consisting of loose blocks of: spied or € é e soil mostly of onsteti coral and’ “4 ‘ purest oie Ba: intermingled. : 0 the shore platform, observed tbeisame ge i am fragments’ itpon’ the’ ish t the f 1 was without ceral, or consi =a Soli of sant ete MN yi hee ce iyi AG ~ On Coral Reefs and Islands. Raraka, Paumotu Archipelago.—16° 10’ 8.,, 145 miles by 8, trending east and west. Shape somewhat | ng North side nea “a continuously wooded: south angle and south- fo bibbhier saets of the island, someof which stood rere and six feet above high-water mark; che ‘were cemented to the reef-rock below, and appeared like projecting parts of the reef. Layers of beach sandrock on the la agoon shores, as well as on the seaward side, inclined at an angle of six or seven degrees: characters as already described. Growing coral in the entrance to the lagoon, within two feet of the surface, mostly a species of Millepora, (M. squarrosa. ) oa of the lagoon not examined for want of time. The looked as blue as the ocean, and was much roughened iy He nds. Kawehe, or Vincennes Island, Paumotu Archipelago, 15° 30’ S., 145° 10° W. 13:miles by 9, trending north-northwest. Shape irregularly oval. Having a large lagoon, and mostly (as on Raraka and elsewhere, ) surface consisted of angular masses of coral rock, (among which the Porites prevail,) strewed in great numbers together ; and in some parts bearing a few vines and purslane among the blocks, though scarcely any appearance of soil, or even of coral sand. In other parts, not as high, no veg- — etation, — surface “ wet by high tide. A few large masses — of coral on the shore platform, either lying loose, or firmly at- tached lee. some of them were six feet cube, and one was raised seven feet above high-water mark. Those that were at- fea *: so firmly cemented to the reef-rock as to seem to be it, and they were partly worn off below by the wash of the sea; the surface was extremely rough, owing to weat by rains. ‘These masses were sometimes single individual corals, and others were conglomerate ,in character. Shore pp about a hundred yards wide, eathieed highest at the edge, and m of its surface two to four feet under water at low tide. As alias 3 hae ts platform is nothing but a compact coral se lie tone, having no growing coral over. tse shallow pools near itg outer margin, where also hol@ in eee ee are en with small fis sven in amber dipping at an “bt nope, on one from on the sea-shore ree p Pe ee ae ee eo a On Coral Reefs and Islands. A7 Penni, Wilson’s or Waterlandt, Paumotu Archipelago, 14° a0 .. 146° W. N. 15 miles by 6, trending E.N.E. A large la- goon with a deep entrance on the west side. Shape oblong tri- angular. a Shore platform as usual; mostly under water at low tide. e east side; more continuously wooded on the north. The bare parts, mostly covered with blocks of coral, 1 to 30 cubic feet, and larger, tumbled together, as on the preceding. Some blocks of coral on the shore plat- form very large; one 8 feet high and 15 in diameter, containing at least 1000 cubic feet ; it lay on the reef and was not connect with it; below it, the platform was 6 inches higher than thei face either side, owing to the action of the sea. Thesé) are in all instances rough angular, and appear as if they had been se up by the sea, and left exposed to wear from the rains and spray. Nairsa or Dean’s, Paumotu Archipelago, 15° S., 148° W. 44 miles by 17, trending W.N.W. Northern shore mostly wooded ; southern with only an occasional islet, "stood by long lines of bare reef. In these intervals, the reef stood eight — €et or so out of water, and was worn into a range of columns,’ | (OF excavated with k .very much broken, h caverns, so as to look. though quite regularly even in the levelgt the top line. a ig atinue these descriptionsy but the.above, with is before given, will convey a geferal idea of the whole. hie. ie : : e > ‘s -. ie ae iP . a by : = - = ¢ : vig > ee 48 On Coral Reefs and Islands. : C. The Completed Coral Islandy ee The coral island in its best sees is a miserable rest- dence for man. ‘There is poetry in ever ture: but the na- tives find this a poor Gorin for the breadfruit and yams of more favored lands e cocoanut and Pandanus are, in gene- ral, the only products of ibe: vegetable kingdom afforded for their sonia and fish and crabs from the, reefs their only ani- ae food. . Scanty too is the supply; and infanticide is resorted © inggelf-defence, where but.a few years would otherwise over- — Teal the half-a-dozen squate «miles of which their little world consists. Yet there are more comforts, than might be expected on a land of so limited extent,-—-withéut rivers, without hills, in the a of salt water, with the most elevated point but ten feet ove high tide, and no part more than 300 yards from the ocean. Though’ the soil is light and the surface often strewed with blocks of coral, there is a ee covering of vegetation to shade the native illagge fom a tropical sun. The cocoanut, the tree of a thousan , grows luxuriantly on the coral-made land, after it has emerged from the ocean; and the scanty dresses of the natives, their drinking vessels and other utensils, mats, cord- age, fishing-lines, and oil, besides food, drink, and building ma- — terial, ngre all supplied from. it. The Pandanus or screw-pine flourishes well, and is exactly fitted forsuch regions: as,it en- larges and spreads its branches, one prop after another grows out fro e trunk and plants itself in the ground; and by this means its base is widened and thé growing tree supported. fruit, a large ovoidal mass made up of oblong nr seed, diverging rom a centre, each near two cubic inches in size, afforded sweet- ish husky article of food, which, though little better than pre-- pared corn stalks, admits of being stored away for use when oe things fail. ‘The extensive reefs, abound in fish which are y captured, and the natives, with wooden hooks, often bring in larger kinds from the deep waters. Irom such resources @ — population of 10,000 persons is supported on the single island of ‘T'aputeouea, whose whole habitable area does not exceed siX — square miles. Water is to be found commonly in sufficient quantities for the use of the natives, although the land is so low and flat. They dig _ wells five to ten feet deep in any part of the dry islets, and gene- » ‘rally’ obtain a constant supply. These wells are sometimes ye around with special care ; and the houses of the villagers, ; _ as at. 9 are often clustered about them. ‘On ae oe a (Catls-_ BA es [eee ase ee On Coral Reefs and Islands. 49 there is a,watering place 50 feet: in diameter, a which vessels in a tow hours obtained 390 gallons. The Tarawan falands are generally provided with a supply sufficient for bath- ing, ‘and each nati ‘takes his morning bath in fresh water, which is esteemed by them a great luxury. On Taritari, as informed by a Scotch sailor taken from the island, by the name of Gray, there is a long trench or canal, described by him as several miles long, and two feet deep. They have taro planta- tions, which require a large supply of water, besides some bread- fruit. These islands — been elevated a little, but are not over fifteen feet above the The only source of ‘hie water, is the rains, which, percolating through the loose surface, settle upon the h hardened coral rock that forms the basis of the island. As the soil is white or nearly So, it receives heat but slowly, and there is consequently but little evaporation of the water that is once absorbed. ese islands moreover enclose ports of great extent, many admitting even the largest See es vessels: and the same lagoons are the pearl fisheries of the occasional log drifts to their shores, aud at some of the more isolated atolls, where the natives are ignorant of any land but the spot they inhabit, they are deemed ‘direct gifts from a propitiated deity. These drift- -logs were noticed by Kotzebue, at the Marshall Islands, and he remarked also that they often brought stones in their roots. Similar facts were observed by us at — Tarawan Group, and also at Enderby’s Island and else- Ww The stones at the Tarawan Islands, as far as we could learn, are generally basaltic, and they are highly valued for whetstones, = and hate hets: The logs are claimed by the ch hiefs for canoes. Some of the 18s) like those at Enderby’s Island, were - forty feet or more lon Fragments of pumice and resin are racine doe Re the way - the ‘Tarawan Islands. We were informed that the! pum as gathered from the shores by the women,.and orm ‘up eta the soil of their taro patches ; and it is so common that he woman will pick up a peck in a day. Pumice was also met in t er y- There were fish in the pond which had dog cette The Bors was adhesive like clay. He Epoke of the aah ‘as growing to irs ham. great a undance; it was planted along each iid pre ves, that “in the inner Otdia [one of sc gary eed sweet water ; od in Tebual, of the ean Ss a | ‘want of fresh water in the larg purpose.”— Voyage, Lond at 2 a fe na “motu Archipelago, the botanist finds there, as Dr. Pickering in- — 50 On Coral Reefs and Islands. : bis M4 with at Fakaafo. Volcanic ashes are sometinegas stat tedover — these islands, through the atmosphere ; and’ in lanne soil of the Tonga Islands is improved, and ip. § some places it has 7 received a reddish color. is he officers of the Vincennes observed Wiveral large masses of — compact and cellular basalt on Rose Island, a few degrees east of Samoa: they were lying two hundred yards inside of the line of breakers. The island is uninhabited, and the origin of the stones is doubtful; they may have been 'eught there by roots of trées, or perhaps by some canoe. 4 No withstanding the great number of coral islands in the Pau- orms me, only twenty- eight or twenty-nine apetot os 0 plants. The following are the most common of ther Pemphis acidula. Guettarda speciosa. Triumphetta procumbens. Suriana maritima? Convolvulus, one species. Urtica, one or two species. Portulacca, two species. cevola Konigii. c s odoratissimus. Lepidium, one species. Euphorbia, one PRGA Merinds citrifo Boerhavia, two pi Cassytha, one species, Heliotropium prostratum. Asplenium nidus. | Achyranthus, one ARES A species of gra ne or two 1 a shrubs. Polypodium. On Rose Island Dr. Pickering found only the Pisonia and a , Portulacca.. The Triumphetta procumbens, a creeping plant, takes root like the Portulacca, in the most barren sands, and is — very common. The Tournefortia and Scevola are also among — the : Ponan species. oe cake a tree of handsome foliage, an - of the land from which they are derived, are lost to them; words are but signs for ideas, they have fallen off in gen- eri tae It would be an interesting inquiry for the ee osopher, to what extent a race of men placed in such c 4 cig ay le = any improvement. I might st answ b a ap How arts of civilized life: e-eould-exist in and, whe oe 4 “ ¥¢ ‘gees ge a js On Coral Reefs and Islands. ; 51 dlp iting instruments,—the plants in all but twenty-nine in imber,~—but a single mineral,—quadrupeds none, with the ex- “ ception of foreigny’mice,—fresh water barely enough for house- hold purposes,— To ‘streams, nor mountains, nor hills? How much of the poetry or literature of Europe would be intelligible to persons whose ideas had expanded only to the limits of a coral island ;—who had never ¢gneeived of a surface of land above half a mile in breadth,—of’a slope higher than a beach,—of a change of seasons beyond a variation in the prevalence of rains? What elevation in morals should be expected upon a co ed islet, so readily over-peopled®thatsthreatened starvation drives to infanticide, and tends to cultivate the extremest selfishtiess? As- suredly there is not a more unfavorable spot for moral or intel- lectual development in the wide world than the coral island, with all its beauty of grove and lake. These islands are exposed to earthquakes and storms like the continents, and occasionally a devastating wave sweeps across e land. During the heavier gales, the natives sometimes secure their houses by tying them to the cocoanut trees, or to a stake planted for the purpose. A height of ten or twelve feet, the ele- vation of their land, is easily overtopped by the more violent Seas; and great damage is sometimes experienced. The still more extensive earthquake-waves, such as those which have Swept up the coast of Spain, Peru, and the Sandwich Islands, would produce a complete deluge over these islands. e were © informed by both Gray and Kirby, that effects of this kind had een experienced at the Tarawan Islands; but the statements were too indefinite to determine whether the results should be at- tributed to storms or to this more violent cause. The preceding pages have been occupied with a simple de- Scription of the actual condition, structure, and appearances 0 reefs and reef islands. From this review of their existingglea- on ‘their forms and distribution. We may commence with a brief account of the living zoophyte, its habits and its mode of gtowth,—as some knowledge on these points is essential to the Correct appreciation of the discussion before us. This branch of * the subject has been treated of at length in another volume, eo hj ™ * i ich reference may be made for fuller details.* comes "Sey i 3 52 Description of a New Sand-Bath. Arr. VII.—A description of a new Sand-Bath with ‘ater-Bath and Distilling Apparatus attached, Pie the Yale A lytical Laboratory ; ; by Prof. Joun, Nokgon Tis Sand-Bath was constructed nn brought into active em- ployment during the last term in) Yale College. Its operation, with that of all its connected parts, has proved so entirely satis- ae that it has been thought worthy of ¢ ‘notice in this place. iis nothing particularly novel.in any one feature, but the combination of conveniences s issuclias I have never seen equalled, even in the best Kuropean laboratories. The idea of uniting with the advantages of the sande - those of the water-bath and distilling apparatus, and of accom- plishing the workirig of the whole by means of a single fire, is one that I had before entertained. I long hesitated to attempt its realization, because tio model existed; my success in the ex- periment has however been so complete, that it seems a favor to the chemists of ‘the country, 4° give such a description as shall enable those who have occasi0n to build, to adopt an arrangement which possesses the recommendations of efficiency, compactness, and economy of fuel, while at the same time it may be considered almost ger echt. I 2, Front ELEVATION. 5 * ae, * = oy 4", The ; Bs sad 4 * ad ‘ * ‘ =“ Ee — 4d hy = hia 54 Description of a New Sand-Bath. tion and connection of the several parts, They ait ground hate In this plan, a is the fi urtiace. ee furnace may also be seen at a@ in the front sand-bath as represented here and in fig. 8, 4s similar to one put up in the New York Free Academy iy Prof. Wolcott Gibbs; from that one this and scare others com been copied. ‘The original however, and all of the offler copies. were simply sand baths. The lower a slide up, weights being included in the éorner pillars; the heat. of thesfire passes through the bed - plate 6 4, fig. 2, heating the sand ¥ ich lies upon its upper sur- face. All noxious fumes are conveyed away by the ventilator ¢, fig. 2, which opens into a chimney flue and may be closed or opened at pleasure by the chaif'd. It is then to this sand bath — into the condensef. ‘The pump delivers ears ae tk ag figs. 1 i A * “4 ae se) oe rag ‘ s ¥ < - > 4 a i: by Prof. Gibbs, that [ have made the additions now to be de- scribed. The furnace a, is an‘tron pot, lined inside ‘with fire brick as usual, except e e, fig. 1, where is inserted a water-back of large size. This colilitunicates the pipe f, with the water bath g. There are two of these at, one above, and one below, as shown at ff, in fig 2, thro the open door. -'The front eleva- tion of the water bath, which is of copper in all its parts, is shown at @, in fig. 2. Each of the doors seen.on the front, opens into a separate compartment. The depth of these compartments is shown by the sections hh h, in fig. 1. At 4, fig. 2, 1s a larger compartment, for receiving articles of considerable size. At j isa glass tube to show the height of water in the water bath, and at k, a cock placed so low that all of the water con- — tained may be drawn off, thus removing any small quantity of — sediment which occasionally accumulates. ‘These two parts are E. seen more clearly at 7 and k, in fig. 3 The furnace is fa through a : door at J. A moderate fire is is sufficient to establish a brisk circulation through the pipes ff, and causes the water to boil violently in the water bath, keeping it always fully up to 212° F. The steam formed escapes through the pipe m, fig. 1, also shown at m m, figs. 2 and 3. At n, figs. and 3, isa coupling connecting the copper pipe m, with a block in pipe 0, figs. 2 and 3, and worm p, fig. 1. ‘This worm is coll- tained im the condenser q, figs. 2 and 3. The distilled water en gic oa escapes at r, figs. 2 and 3, and runs into the re- eiver s, beneath. ‘The condenser stands on a shelf over a — é figs. 1, 2 men 3y.at the fartherend of which is a force pump * by figs. land3. A pipe v, figs 1 and 3, runs from tk this sink inthe common way, but by closing: 3, will throw its stream jnto the condensef, 2.. Ba a* a ie i & 3 ee as. 68 Connection of Chemical Forces with Polarization of Light. | Mr. Maskelyne then detailed the experiments of M. Pasteut oe malic and aspartic acids and asparagine, and showed how all of these could be understood to contain chemically a molecular unit common to all these and perhaps to tartaric acid, and only modi- fied a little by the super-position as it were of other substances, in combination with it, upon the extremities of its molecule He also dwelt on the possibility.of the lest eh acid being a quadribasic as the tartarie acid is a bibasie acid: it being on this view a conjugate acid consisting of she’ two nike tartaric acids. He then invited attention. to the interesting nature of M. Biot’s investigation of the action of tartaric acid in solution in water, and he showed that here the acid must be supposed capa- ble of combining with an indefinite or indeed an infinite amount of water, while in other “ya again, bodies (such as sugar for combine with, but only to baltigsolved in it. The former is an react of a continuous and not intermittent sort of combination: and though we need not anticipate a recurrence of the contro- versy of Berthollet oat Proust, yet this shows us that the actions of quantity or mass so dwelt on by the former are not without @ great significance ; and that the power that can thus enable us to determine such important pomts in sesiee ng statics, is well worthy of the attention of the philosophic m Dr. Bence Jones permitted a Seaehariinetdt a naiiten of Soleil’s, on the double-quartz-plate principle, to be exhibited, and explained its use. Mr, Tennant also exhibited a mass of quite transparent es spar, and a beautiful crystal of plagihedral quartz. e the delivery of the lecture, a letter bas been received fede M. Pasteur stating that he had forwarded for exhibition at this lecture and in illustration of it, all the finest specimens of the crystals which he has produced, which are further illustrated by models and diagrams. They are the same as those which were op hipese: at the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and the liberality . Pasteur’s muse will be appreciated by members of the Royal acai when they are reminded that the Paratartaric acid of which they are ih products is impossible to be obtained, from its having only once been accidentally formed, and that these specimens therefore consist probably of the only large accumu- lation of this body in existence. tad = eee « & *"On Atmospheric Magnetism. 69 £ a & ll On Atmospheric Magnetism ; by Prof. Farapay.* i On a former evening (January 24,) it was shown that oxygen gas was magnetic, being attracted towards the poles of a mag- net; and that like other magnetic bodies, it lost and gained in _ power as its temperature was raised and lowered, and that the change occurred within the Yange of natural temperatures. ese properties it carriesinto the atmosphere; and the object, this evening, was to show how far they might be applied to explain aide of the observed variations of the terrestrial magnetic orce, If a source of magnetic power be considered (as a magnet), it presents us with a-system having polarity; and if the parts which are called the poles be taken as representing the most con- centrated condition of the polarity, then the contrary polarities, manifest externally in relation to the magnet, are perfectly defi- nite, being exactly equal to each other. If the magnet be irreg- ular in the disposition of its force, still the same definite charac- heat, which, though it be present in a given space, and even oc- | cupies time in its transmission, is absolutely insensible to us by 4 any means whilst it remains a ray, and is only made known through its effects when it ceases to exist. The form of a line of magnetic force may vary exceedingly from a straight line to -_ “ a On Atmospheric Magnetism. =< presence of the magnetic line of force and its direction an en dered manifes The Earth is a great magnet: its patter, according to Gauss, being equal to that which would be Eogenet if. every cubic ard of it contained six one-pound magnets; the sum of the force therefore is equal to 8,464,000,000, 000, 000, 000,000 such magnets. he disposition of this magnetic force is not regular, nor are there any points on the surface which can be properly called poles: still the regions of polars y re in high north and south latitudes; and these are connec by lines of magnetic force (being the lines of direction ) which, generally speaking, rise out of the earth in one (magnetic) hemisphere, and passing in varied directions over the equatorial regions into the other hemisphere, there enter into the earth to complete the known circuit of power. A free needle shows the presence and direction of these lines. In London they issue from the earth at an angle ef about 69° with the horizon (being the dip or inclination ;) and the plane in which they rise forms an angle of 23° nearly with true north, giving what is called west declination. Where the dip is small, as at the magnetic equator, these lines scarcely rise out of the earth and pass but a little way above the surface ; but where it is large, as in northern or southern latitudes, they rise up at a greater angle, and pass into the distant realms posite magnetic hemisphere; thus investing the globe with a like system of forces. that about an ordinary magnet, which changing action of its magnetic oxygen. 'There is every reason totbelieve that these lines are held in the earth, out of which ~ they arise and by which eer | are produced, just as the lines wh ich originate in a magnet are held by it, thongh not in the same degree e; and that any Recurhaice from above affecting them will cause a greater change in their place and direction in the atmosphere and space above, than in the earth beneath. @ system 0 ines of magnetic force around a magnet oF vs earth is related by a lateral tension of the whole, analogous n some degree to the lateral tension of lines of static electrical foace' pain the one and the other being easily made manifest by ; experim ent... The disturbance of the tension in one part is ac- . esinpanied ‘jostantly by a disturbance of the tension in every part; for as the sum of the external powers of a system, tered at its origin, is definite and cannot be changed ; so any ; serio. either of tensity or direction amongst the lines ‘of force at one place, must be ly by a corresponding panes at “every other. So if a of soft iron on the e of a magnet causes a sapetathition of the linés of f orn the cs that a a correspon -_ Re os *. 2 + ; On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. 83 Arr. XIII—On the causes of the disengagement of Elec tricity in Plants, and upon Vegeto-terrestrial Currents; by M. Becqueren.* Since the discoveries of Galvani and Volta, the researches on the development of electricity have taken a philosophical direc- tion. It has been the object to discover not only the causes of its diseugagement, but also the relations existing between electricity, molecular attraction and chemical affinity. The study of electro- physiological phenomena has also been pursued ; and although to a less extent than other departments of this subject, the labors of Nobili, Marianini, Matteucci, du Bois-Reymond and others, show that general physics and physiology may alike profit by researches upon the presence of electricity in the operations of organic life and in the constitution of organized bodies. The causes of the development of electricity in organized bodies, living or but a short time deprived of life, are physical, chemical and perhaps organic ; and in the last case, they pertain to certain vital functions not yet clearly defined. : 'y object in this memoir is to exhibit the proper mode of in- vestigating the physical and chemical laws operating in the pro- duction of electro-physiological phenomena, and also to give the results at which I have arrived in my researches on plants, whose oma of structure renders experiment more easy than with animals, _ Some preliminary explanations are necessary to render the sub- ject intelligible. tganized bodies of the animal kingdom consist of osseous, tendinous, membranous, fleshy, &c. parts filled or moistened with liquids which render them more or less perfect conductors of electricity ; and those of the vegetable kingdom, of woody fibre, vessels, &c., in which liquids are present with the same result. As the solids alone have no conducting power, the liquids act the principal part in the production of the electric effects ob- Served, although vital action may intervene in some Cases. Th with the multiplier by closing the circuit with two plates of pla- tinum plunged in these liquids There may also be chemical reactions and currents without usihg the plates of platinum, when the solids and liquids are ar- ranged as will be soon explained. - * Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. xxxi, 40, 1951. 84 On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. In aiming to ascertain the chemical origin of the currents pro- duced in the interior of an organized body, it should be remem- bered that if two different liquids, separated by a permeable mem- brane are put in communication by means of two plates of deviates in a direction which indicates that the liquid acting as the acid sets free positive electricity, and that acting as alkali, negative electricity. The intervention of metallic plates i is here indispensable to the production of electric currents ; but it is un- necessary when certain solid substances, non-conducting and per- meable, and liquid oo are arranged as follows, as already explained to the Academ decimeter in length, filled with moistened clay free from lime, and so prepared that the part which is plunged into the acid should be less.and less acid, and that in the alkali less and less alkaline, in order that there may be but a simple chemical reac- tion, we have then an apparatus by the aid of which, on break- ing the tube so as to have two conductors, decompositions may be produced. Similar arrangements to this are found beyond doubt within organized bodies consisting of solid parts more or less permeable, and liquids which mingle only a difficulty under the opera- tion of life, on account at the tissue When public attention was first called to the admirable discov- eries of Volta, Dr. Baccomio of Milan} endeavored to construct piles of organic substances of vegetable origin, as Matteucci has for some years done with Home of animal muscle; but no true effects of the action of a pile were obtained. And how did Dr. Baccomio operate? He made a pile out of disks of the root of the beet, five to six centimeters in diameter and disks of walnut of like size, with which he caused a frog to contract, using as an excitor the leaves of Cochlearia. As there was nothing to prove that a similar effect would not have resulted from a single pair, there is no evidence for believing that the whole acted asa _ especially if we consider the following facts. é has obtained currents from animals and vegetables by Peattivig in communication, by means of metallic plates or wires connected with a multiplier, liquids of different composi- tion belonging to one and the same body and capable of acting chemically on the surrounding liquids. “Having placed a plate of platinum in the mouth which is commoi y alkaline, and * Comptes Rendus, xxiv, 505, + Ann, de Chim, [2], lxii, 212, On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. 85 the other upon the skin which secretes an acid, the needle de- viated fifteen to twenty or even thirty degrees,—the mucus of the mouth on account of its alkaline nature giving the nega- 0 I. Electric effects produced by the Circulation of Sap. In plants, there is an ascending sap and also a cortical sap, the latter Ciffering in composition from the former, and having, ac- cording to some physiologists, a descending movement. They ate separated by tissues and produce effects like those above men- tioned. ‘These effects are the more remarkable from their relation to the composition of the bark and wood. ‘To interpret them, it 18 hecessary briefly to recall what is known upon the nature and ‘stribution of these two varieties of sap. ; , he stem of a ligneous dicotyledonous plant is formed of two distinct parts, the bark, and the wood properly so called, separated by a liquid substance considered by many physiologists a semi- fluid tissue, called cambium, which is the principal element of 86 On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. vegetable organization. The bark consists independently of the parenchyma, of epidermis, laticiferous vessels and cortical fibres. The wood is formed of medullary rays, of woody fibre, and pith. The bark like the wood contains a cellular and a fibrous part but in inverse position. ‘The parenchyma which is analogous to the pith occupies the exterior of the bark, whilst the pith is at the centre. ‘This inverse position corresponds, as will be seen, to inverse electric effects. iy As each stem or branch is composed of an uninterrupted series of concentric heterogeneous layers, their successive contacts ought to give rise to electric currents proceeding from the unlike char- acter of the liquids moistening these layers. These effects are rendered sensible—1, by the aid of platinum needles introduced into two contiguous or more or less distant layers, reacting upon the neighboring layers; 2, by collecting with a condenser the electricity carried off from the plant by the vapor of water exhaled by the leaves and by the oxygen proceeding from the decompo- sition of carbonic acid under solar influence ; 3, by using platinum needles in order to ascertain the simultaneous electric states of the plant and the earth. The moisture of the earth enters the roots by their extremity through endosmosis and capillarity, passes into the cellules situ- ated above, and reaches the stem where the ascending move- ment is continued: it dissolves some portions of substances in its course, increases in density, and constitutes then what is called sap. The ascent of the sap is due not only to endosmosis and capillarity, but also to the buds which by their growth draw up the stem and branches the material necessary for their develop- ment. The buds form leaves, which by affording evaporation, aid in the production of the ascending movement and are a means consequently of manifesting electric effects. w not with exactness the different organs passed through by the sap in its evolution. We can say only that in spring it fills the cellules, the fibres, vessels, &&c., and occupies almost entirely the woody substance. The ascending sap, reach- ing the young branches, passes to the surface of the bark in the parenchyma as well as to the leaves; and when once spread in the green part, it is in direct connection with the atmospheri¢ air, separated from it only by a thin membrane through which respiration is going on. 'The sap, which is thus intimately modi- fied, becomes less aqueous through evaporation of a part of its water. Carbonic acid gas is decomposed, carbon is assimilated and oxygen exhaled. he color of the leaves and young bark shows that considerable changes are going on in the sap. s this sap, newly elaborated, redescend through the bark, depositing along its passage material for the formation of tissues? Some physiologists still doubt on this point. But the experiments of ¥ * * ‘| a~ ip ¥ Melle MUERTE se. as 5 — t Ms :, ae Me On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. 87 Biot tend to prove the circular movement of the sap. On exam- ining the optical properties of the ascending and parenchymatous sap of the maple, he observed that the first caused the plane of polarization to turn to the right and the second to the left, whilst the two saps of the birch acted the reverse. These experi- ments which according to Biot establish a reeiprocal dependence between the two saps, are supposed to demonstrate their circula- ting movement. It is certain at least that the parenchymatous sap differs from the ascending sap. The anatomical and physiological details just given were re- quired for interpreting certain electrical effects produced in the different phases of the movement of the sap, effects of interest to meteorology as well as to vegetable physiology. The following. are the experiments. Suppose now a stem of a young poplar (when in sap) has been laid open by a transverse section, so as to show distinctly all the concentric layers of which needle is placed. The direction of the deviation, which is inva- n drawing out the first needle from the pith, and inserting it at different points, approximating towards the surface, the cur- rents are similar in direction but of diminishing intensity; and this goes on until the needle is placed in the cambium betwee the wood and the bark, when the current changes in direction and becomes more intense. hee as On raising a piece of bark, from which the epidermis is easily ;¢moved, and applying a plate of platinum to each surface, both ng ¢ ted with a multiplier, effects of great intensity are obtained. With the bark of alder in full sap, the deviations are 88 On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. sometimes 90 degrees, and the needle may even whirl round. It is hence evident that the bark forms a voliaic couple, the outer surface or parenchyma being the positive side and the inner cov- ered with the cambium the negative. ‘The action soon ceases when the bark is removed from the branch. ‘This is shown b wood ; a current is immediately 2, ome mis on repeating the wile at short intervals, being careful to depolarize the platinum plates each time, the effects diminish rapidly, although the sur- faces may be moistened with distilled water,—and sometimes they are not sensible after half an hour. hese electric properties diminish much more rapidly than in the muscles of cold- blooded — te which they remain several hours after death. e bark is not separated from the branch, these proper- ties ee for several days, proving that their disappearance should be attributed to chen changes which take place in the sap through contact with the a The bark isin reality, Sicesion: a voltaic couple, which loses rapidly its — property when detached from the wood an left exposed to the air. It follows, that in the reaction upon the sap of the pet of air that adheres to the surface of the platinum, there ought to be somewhat analogous effects, as regards intensity, to those which take place by contact with the atmosphere. 'T layer of knee moisture adhering to the surface of the platinum has no influence, since the effects are the same if the needles have bed previously heated to redness. In recapitulation,—we see, that from the pith to the cambium, the ligneous layers are less and less positive with reference to the pith, while from the eambium to the epidermis, the cortical beds and parenchyma are ‘more and more positive, or at least comport themselves thus. In the production of the derived currents, this inversion. in the electric effects corresponds with the position of the. cellular tissue in the bark and in the wood; in the bark it is external, in the wood internal, and in each case it is positive. Where then, do the electric properties of the bark reside? Is it in the different layers which compose the cortical system, or opty in. the epidermis and cambium? The following experi- ; ts, if not completely settling this question, tend to its elu- ci ee ike a branch of alder in full sap, and make a transverse section, then insert one of the needles between the bark and 9 wood and the other into the parenchyma after removing the is, the needle deviates a certain number of degrees, say 20°. -If we now withdraw the second needle which was placed in the periphery, remove the green layer with an ivory knife . “ ww Ee - FOR esi siractens yon 6 = 7 only the cambium is left. All the parenchyma cortical layers thus have a like effect; and does it therefore follow that the layers united form a voltaic pile? Certainly not: the experi- ments thus far made do not authorize this conclusion. However it may be, the cause which makes the bark a voltaic couple and perhaps a pile, by the juxtaposition of the concentric heterogeneous beds of which it consists, appears to be purely chemical. In fact, the ligneous system is penetrated by the as- _ The electricities disengaged when one of the needles is inserted in the pith and the other in the parenchyma, have, I repeat it, a chemical origin; for if the needles are withdrawn and while still covered with the sap are put into distilled water, the same effects hearly, as to intensity, are obtained, effects which can be attributed only to the reaction, upon the water, of the sap adhering to the surface of the needles. ua In these experiments, for inserting the needles into the = As bearing upon this subject, I mention the following experi- ments which wil show the rapidity with which the air reacts Comal he ascending sap bein | : chyma sap, called the descending, ought to give out, by its action Upon the latter, positive electricity as before observed. If we insert transversely under the epidermis, into the parenchyma, the two platinum needles, one centimetre apart, there will be no 12 Secon Sentes, Vol. XII, No, 34.—July, 1851.-. * 90 On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. effect, if the insertion of the two needles is simultaneous and they are not polar. But on withdrawing one needle and inserting it again in the same place, there is at once a current causing a de- viation of 40 degrees, and the direction shows that the needle restored gives negative electricity. On removing and replacing the other one, the effect is reverse, and this one now gives negative — This succeeds well if the wood is in sa D n separated but a short time from the trunk. In this aes the effect is similar to certain facts mentioned in my earlier work on oa When two plates of pla- tinum in connection wit multiplier, are put into a solution, recently prepared, of profoniteate of iron, on withdrawing one of the needles and inserting it again some minutes after, there is a current whose direction shows that the plate replaced gives positive electricity. This effect proceeds simply from the fact that the solution of the protonitrate, and the part of this solution which is on the platinum plate while exposed to the air, are not alike in composition: the portion adhering to the plate has passed, during the exposure to the air, toa higher state of oxydation, and comports therefore like an acid with reference to the solution in the vessel. ‘The steps in the process are easily explained. When nitric acid reacts on iron, deutoxyd of nitrogen and nitrous gas are disengaged, and protonitrate and some deutonitrate of iron are formed ; when the solution is exposed to the air, the deutoxyd becomes nitrous acid and the protonitrate deutonitrate. ‘These transformations which take place slowly in the mass of the solu- tion, are effected very promptly in the layer that adheres to the sur- face of the platinum. On becoming rapidly saturated with oxygen, the solution reacts upon the solution in the vessel and produces electric effects lik those from the action of an acid on an alkali, or from two substanees reacting as such. The recently prepared protonitrate is requir or these vessels, because of the change to od ie takes place in the protonitrate after a while on ex If in the eapacenete:? with the sap the effects are the reverse of thsie with the protonitrate, it is owing to this ;—that the sap of the peochyesd loses oxygen on exposure instead of gaining it. act, onstrate that a very slight difference of chemi- cal cottpoaiiont in two liquids of a plant, separated by a perme- _. able membrane, is sufficient to afford electric effects in the man- ner explained, and these effects vary with changes experienced through the surrounding air or medium _ These effects should therefore be taken into consideration in experimenting upon the causes which produce electric currents in organized bodies, when one of the liquids is momentarily in contact Sati the air. — == ° i On Eleciricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. 91 The electric effects produced between the sap of leaves and the same sap exposed a moment to contact with the air, may be from the walnut and elder show. The needle removed and again replaced in the elder gave for deviation, on the first impulsion, for three trials, 139, 13°, 119, and for three alternate trials with the walnut, 24°, 229, 24°. These results show that the sap of the Walnut undergoes a more rapid change by contact with the air than that of the elder, the current being nearly double in intensity. ~ Leaves o poplar combined with those of walnut: give results still more marked. The leaves of poplar“with regard to those o iy, afford the relation of thirty to twenty.< . ‘'¥€ can draw no conclusion from these results whilst we are ignorant of the chemical composition of the different saps: we only know that all do not undergo the same alteration in equal umes. Such piles, made of series of leaves of ditierent species, With a multiplier is applied to each free face, we obtain the fol- Kind of electricity. Angle of detioen: r ge eh of walnut, ©. 3.4 — 950 e yt elder, . ‘ + x 2, ; Leaves of linden, . © + sa * walnut, . . bo nmiiten i af Tk _ which circulate viele, 92 On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. Kind of electricity. Angle of deviation. 9 § Leaves of sig : ‘ 2 ago ' $6 elder, . ; — 5 4 Tnaves of siiiee: : a ; 10° linden, . ‘ — 5 5 Leaves of orange, . a ws 5° ee - walnut, . i — In the preceding pages I have treated of the effects obtained with a transverse section of a stem; it remains to speak of the electric effects mag oe ina longitudinal section. Let a and 6 wo points in the green part of the parenchyma of a stem at different intatiock from the ground and several decimeters apart, a being the upper and b the lower. On introducing transversely into the parenchyma at each of these points one of the platinum needles, there is immediately apparent an electric current, the di- rection of which evinces that the needle at 5 gives negative elec- tricity, and that at a positive. Hence the parenchyma sap at points thus distant has not the same composition: at the lower point b, as it contains less oxygen than at a, since it loses more and more oxygen in passing along the green part of the parenchyma, it ought to disengage negative electricity. A current is “also obtained on establishing a connection between the cambium and the leaves, which may be effected, by placing one ae between ‘the bark and the wood, and the other in a mass of s erimposed leaves all being a part of the plant. On closing thes cuit, a.current at once appears going from the in- terior to the exterior, as in the case when the needle which is here i the leaves* placed in the parenchyma while the other is in the cambiun the consequence eS | ro Bh i. On the Ellectrie state of the earth relatively to that of Plants. ~ AS the earth is in direct and permanent communication with 7 “plants by means of the roots, it ought to participate in the elec- tric state resulting from the different elaborations taking place in otheir tissues. This question bears upon the electric state of the . atmosphere, and nothing should be omitted which can serve to - elucidate it. It is known that the earth is in a constant state of negative ral whilst the air, when calm and without clouds, contains ss of positive electricity whose abate goes on increas- pigs as ree ascend above the surface of the earth. The earth and Tes are therefore ordinarily in two Bethel electric mae T states change during storms or = clouds appear ; Pid * ait a te ,. : _ On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. 93 these are sometimes positive, and sometimes negative. What are the causes which operate in the production of the electric effects of the earth and atmosphere? We cannot give a reply wholly satisfactory to this question, althongh we know that chemical changes going on upon the earth’s surface must be powerful causes. De Saussure and several other physicists have endeavored to find evidence of the disengagement of electricity during the evaporation of water. But as they have not taken into account the alteration which the vessels experience in the process, the results were evi- dently unsatisfactory. M. Pouillet undertook the experiments anew, endeavoring to get rid of the causes which complicate the problem. He sought to prove that evaporation and chemical ac- tion in vegetables were the two great sources of atmospheric electricity. I will mention his results, that they may be com- pared with the facts presented in this memoir. If a little water is thrown into a platinum crucible heated to a White heat it takes the spheroidal state and evaporates slowly, and on cooling to a certain temperature suddenly passes to a state of vapor. By means of the condenser no disturbance of electric forces was perceived, either during the slow evaporation, or the rapid dispersion of the water. it With acetic acid, sulphuric acid, very pure nitric acid, in place Ww but the result was different when the water held in solution a salt or some substance that is a conductor of electricity. Aécord- ing to M. Pouillet, electricity was produced: with a solution of oF. aS) - @ Lar} -_ ~~ bod dw ne In vibration, the amount was quite considerable. «The vessel be= Se cathe positively electric and the vapor negative. the instant when a separation takes les. of water and those of strontian, electricity the Strontian retains the positive evaporating carries with it the negative. the me manner as strontian. Be. Xperimenting with water containing ammonia, there was ne ; <4 an abundant discharge of electricity, but with reverse electri¢ g products; the vessel becomes negative, and the water which va- - perizes with the ammonia positive,—indicating that the latter, in passing off, carries with it an excess of positive electricity. If the water holds in solution 1-100 of sulphuric acid or even less, there is a discharge of electricity and the vessel is negative. ith saline solutions, electricity was equally given out; the vessel was always negative whether the salts were neutral, sub- Salts, or acid. The vapor of water was constantly positive. should here state that several physicists who have repeated the experiments of M. Pouillet with saline solutions, a solution * * 94 On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. - 4 F of common salt for example, have obtained distinct effects (ope- rating by throwing some drops of the solution on a plate of pla- tinum raised to a white heat,) only at the instant when decrepita- tion began, an effect announcing the volatilization of the last portion of the water. As to the electric effects produced in vegetation, M. Pouillet experimented as follows. Having placed upon a varnished wooden table twelve glass capsules covered with varnish and forming two ranges, he filled them with earth and connected them together by means of platinum wire passing it from the in- terior of one to the interior of another, and so on; he then put the system in communication with the superior plate of a con- denser whilst the inferior plate was in connection with the soil. Different grains were successively sown in the earth of the cap- sules. During the first two days the grains swelled and the germs came out of the envelop. The condenser gave no signs of electricity. When the germs had risen above the soil, on sepa- on the amylaceous substance of the cotyledons, the gases which are disengaged carry with them some positive electricity, and leave in the young plant and consequently in the earth an excess of negative electricity. Some hours were required to charge anew the condenser. During the night and morning, the same results were obtained, showing that light had no influence, which is natural since light does not intervene in the first acts of vege- table life. The experiments were made with wheat, grains of garden créss, and gillyflower, and the same results were obtained if by connection for a second only ;—an effect due, according to ? oO sphere: but are they produced also in the subsequent stages 0 vegetation? I think not, judging from facts to which I shall soon rt. & x / ee xy 4 a _ | On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. 95 * ‘hk ae pet a z ‘ F The different electrical states of the earth and air have been attributed also to the gradual decrease of terrestrial heat from the lower parts of the solid crust, even to the highest limits of the atmosphere. I have been the first to bring forward this opinion ; but as yet there is no fact that proves it. I proceed now to the concomitant electric effects obtained from the earth and plants, after the plant is grown, or has made con- siderable progress towards maturity. Operating with platinum needles or pointed plates, as before, if one of the needles is in- serted into the parenchyma of a stem or any branch of a plant and the other in moist soil at some distance from the root (seve- ral yards for example), there will always be a current, showing that the earth contains an excess of positive electricity and the parenchyma an excess of negative. The deviation varies with the humidity of the soil and the sappy state of the plant, but may be 15, 20, 30, 40 degrees, or even more deviation to its first amount. 'This greater effect with the latter 1s OWing to the fact that as the sap in contact with the needle is altering more or less rapidly, the current would have a new en- ergy when the altered bed is disturbed by friction. There is little or no effect when one of the needles is in the wood or pith. But if inserted in a number of leaves, while still on the branches, the result is similar to that obtained from the parenchyma, prov- ing @ similar constitution for the sap of both. e same effects are obtained from all plants, even the herba- ceous. We may then receive as a principle, that in the act of Vegetation, when germination is accomplished, the ascending sap, which communicates with the soil through the roots, carries up an excess of positive electricity, whilst the parenchyma sap fur- nishes to the air by aqueous evaporation an excess of negative electricity. Vegetation therefore acts the reverse of the causes which ordinarily render the air positive and earth negative. It tacessant, should exert, especially in tropical regions and wooded 96 On Electricity in Plants, and on Vegeto-terrestrial Currents. just mentioned, since the direction of the primitive current is not affected by it Ill. Are there direct Electric Currents in Plants. May we conclude from the facts presented in the first part of this memoir that there are constant electric currents circulating in plants and also between them and the earth: This question is important to physiology, since such currents cannot circulate in liquids without producing chemical action: and it is of no less interest to the meteorologist. o reply to it, we must consider whether the two conditions necessary for the production of such currents are fulfilled. The first undoubtedly exists, as there are present two differ- ent liquids reacting chemically upon one another through a me- dium of permeable tissues: and it is the same with the second, which requires the contact of two liquids by insensible transition. {In fact, in a horizontal section of a stem of a plant, the immedi- ate communication takes place readily through the tissues be- tween the ascending sap and the parenchyma sap. Ina ongi- tudinal section, it is well known that the ascending sap, before it enters the plant by the roots, consists of water including some air, carbonic acid gas, and small quantities of saline and organic © matters taken up from the soil. In its passage, it dissolves by degrees a portion of the substances met with along its course, acquires increased density, and constitutes then the ascending sap. The parenchyma sap, after elaboration in the leaves, loses Each is in the condition necessary for mutual contact by insensi- ble transition, and consequently for producing electric currents without the addition of metallic plates. ese currents ought to circulate as in the annexed figure. VV isa longitudinal section of a plant; ab the bark; cd, the cambium; ef the wood ; gh the-pith. Positive electricity entering at h an if through the roots, and ascend- ing in the direction ba, produces, as ap- pears from the facts, partial currents pro- ceeding fromthe bark to the pith, and this even to the extreme branches are not able to make other induc- “tions from the facts thus far observed, nor =_ 7 GP. Bond on the Rings of Saturn. 97 Recapitulation.—The observations presented in this memoir establish the following facts : - Ihe production of derived currents in the stems of plants by the aid of platinum needles, inserted, one into the bark, the other into the wood, which currents have a direction from the parenchyma to the pith. 2. The production of similar currents in the bark proceeding from the cambium to the parenchyma, having an inverse direc- tion as compared with the former. _8. The sap of the cortical parenchyma, held exposed to the air for some instants, undergoes such a modification that when put again in contact with the parenchyma sap, it becomes rela- tively negative. . The production of derived terrestrial currents, through the medium of the roots from the pith and other parts of the stem. 5. The direction of the terrestrial currents shows that in the act of vegetation, the earth takes constantly an excess of positive electricity, and the arenchyma of the bark and the leaves an excess of negative electricity which is transmitted to the air through the exhaled water. 6. The distribution of the ascending sap and the sap of the Cortical parenchyma leads to the belief that there are currents circulating continually in plants, directed from the bark to the pith, passing by the roots and earth, and perhaps without passing by these two intermediaries. is 7. Chemical reactions are the first cause, beyond doubt, of the electric effects observed in plants. These effects are very varied, and havé thus far been observed only in a small number of cases. - The opposite electric states of plants and the earth give reason for concluding, that through the great extent of vegetation over the continents and islands, they exert a decided influence upon the electric phenomena of the atmosphere. —— Arr. XIV.~_On the Rings of Saturn; By G. P. Bonn, Assistant at the Observatory of Harvard University.* Tue question of the multiple divisions of the ring of Saturn has engaged the attention of astronomers from aul early period. Cassini appears to have been the first to notice the primary divis- ton, moneh he. has placed it midway between the inner and the edges, This interval is always visible with a good telescope, but much hearer to the outer edge than Cassini describes it to be. Short, next, with a t lescope of twelve feet focus, probably a reflector, 8 * Cited from the Astronomical Journal, vol. ii, No. 1 and 2. mond Serres, Vol. XII, No, $4—July, 1861. 13 98 G. P. Bond on the Rings of Saturn. saw two or three divisions outside of the center of the ring; a figure is given in Lalande’s Astronomy. In June, 1780, Sir W. Herschel noticed, on four different nights, a division near the in- ner edge. From its never, either previously or subsequently, having been seen by him, it is probable that the subdivisions are not permanent; otherwise they could scarcely have escaped de- tection under the scrutiny to which he subjected every thing appertaining to the system of Saturn for thirty or forty years. This inner division is figured and described in the Philosophical Transactions for 1792. In Gruithuisen’s Astron. Jahrbuch, for 1840, pp. 103-105, mention is made of lines seen on bot rings in 1813 and 1814. Quetelet, at Paris, with an achro- matic of ten inches’ aperture, saw the outer ring divided in De- cember, 1823. On the 17th of December, 1825, and on the 16th and 17th of January, 1826, at least three divisions were seen on the outer ring by Captain Kater. A full account, illustrated with engrav- ings, has been published in vol. iv, Part II, of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. This contains also a collection of the accounts of previous observers. T'wo reflectors of the Newtonian form were used, of between six and seven inches’ aperture. At Berlin, on the 25th of April, 1837, the outer ring was seen by Professor Encke, with perfect distinctness, divided into two nearly equal parts, and several divisions were recognized on the inner edge of the inner ring. The great equatorial of the Berlin Observatory was used with an achromatic eyepiece. On the 28th of May, the place of the outer secondary interval was determined. The great optical capacity of the telescope, and the eminence of Professor Encke as an observer, give the highest value to these observations. They are found in the Astr. Nachr., No. 338. No. 357 of the same volume has a no- tice of several divisions on both rings, seen by De Vico, at Rome, with the equatorial of the Roman College, the object-glass of six inches, by Cauchoix. A letter from M. Decuppis, Comptes Ren- dus, vol. vii, gives a description of several divisions seen at Rome, in May, June, and July, 1838. On the 7th of September, 1843, a division of the outer ring was detected by Messrs. Lassel and Dawes, at Starfield. They employed a Newtonian reflector of nine inches’ aperture ; the tails are to be found in vol. vi, of the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. : The newly discovered inner ring: of Saturn cannot properly be classed with the subdivisions of the old ring, as it lies within its inner edge. _ We have, then, the best assurance in the number and reputa- tion of those who have described the phenomena in question, 6 i G. P. Bond on the Rings of Saturn. 99 not usually been visible together, and that the telescopes which have shown distinctly several intervals in the old ring have failed to reveal the new inner ring, while the latter is now seen, but not the former, may be taken as some evidence that the difference 1s not probably owing to any extraordinary tranquillity or purity of the atmosphere, nor to any peculiarly favorable condition o the eye or instrument, but rather to some real alterations in the disposition of the material of the rings. _ Admitting this, the idea that they are in a fluid state, and with- i certain limits change their form and position in obedience to the laws of equilibrium of rotating bodies, naturally suggests it- self. There are considerations to be drawn from the state of the forces acting on the rings which favor this hypothesis. For in- stance, on the assumption that the matter of which the ring is com- posed is in asolid state, we may compute for any point on its sur- face the sum of the attractions of the whole ring and of Saturn. The centrifugal force, generated by its rotation, may then be de- termined from the condition that the particle must remain on the Sutiace. Now in the case of a solid ring, particles on the inner and outer edges must have the same period of rotation, This Condition limits the breadth of the ring, for if it be found neces- Sary tor the inner and outer edges to have different times of rota- tion, this can be accomplished only by a division of the ring into two or more parts. In this way Laplace has inferred the neces- sity of there being several rings. F'rom a more exact analysis, M If _the density of the ring be the same with that of Saturn, and its matter uniformily distributed with Bessel’s mass = +7; © Saturn’s, its thickness, seen from the earth, would only subtend an angle of ,'; of a second of arc. It is a confirmation of the a ae 100 G. P. Bond on the Rings of Saturn. mass adopted, that this does not vary more from that derived from observation, than we can attribute without improbability to a difference of density between the ring and Saturn. Sir John Herschel states, Outlines of Astronomy, p. 315, that it cannot be so large as one twentieth of a second. In the Astronomical Journal for January, 1850, I have given as the result of observa- tions with the great refractor at Cambridge, during the disappear- ance of the ring in 1848-49, a thickness not exceeding one hun- dredth of a second. We cannot suppose the mass to be greater than that assigned by Bessel, without also admitting a density much greater than that of Saturn, the smallest observed thick- ness already requiring a density more than three times that o the planet. In the calculations which follow, I have supposed the mass of the ring not greatly to exceed ;!, of Saturn, and its thickness z;th of a second. For the other elements I have used Struve’s measurements. The analysis of the attraction of the ring presents great diffi- culties. Laplace has taken as an approximation for a very nar- row ring the attraction of a cylinder of infinite length, having for its base an ellipse. Plana takes account of the curvature by assuming the breadth to be very small compared with its radius. But if more than the first term is taken into account, the numer- ical calculations become very complicated. These difficulties may in part be avoided by taking account of the form of the sur- face only in the immediate neighborhood of the point attracted. In all the parts distant compared with the thickness, it is sufficient the rings. This plane, considered as made up of parallel straight lines, attracts the particle by the sum of the attractions of its elements. The attraction of each line parallel to its length, ¥ being its perpendicular distance from the radius joming the at- tracted particle with the center, and r and r’ the distances of its extremities from the same point, will be tees dy. EE From which the attraction of a plane surface is easily compu- ted by quadratures. For the ring on the surface of which the attracted particle is, and for the two next adjacent, I have used Laplace’s formula, Mécanique Céleste, vol. ii, [2092]. This as- sumes the figure of the surface to be elliptical; in the absence of any certain knowledge of its form, this has the recommendation of simplicity and of satisfying also the conditions of equilibrium. he hypothesis of any other figure would not materially affect the conclusions arrived at, provided the mass and density be not altered. e numbers thus obtained are only approximations to the truth, but are sufficient for the object in view. ad —— aed a a G. P. Bond on the Rings of Saturn. 101 If we adopt for unity the radius of the outer edge of the outer ring, we have from observation the thickness of the ring =26<515. Let r and r’ be the radii of the inner and outer edges, and 7 the interval between two adjacent rings, rt r+ r= , 2a=r' —F. less than 0-01, which is one half of the width of the know interval. From the blackness of the shadow of the ring upon the ball, which would be diminished in intensity were a consid- erable part of the sun’s rays transmitted, we may infer that the intervals which reflect no light at all cannot occupy an area so large as one fourth of the average breadth of the rings; that is, r—r>0-04. ae The above are very liberal allowances, but it is important to assume the intervals as large as possible, so as to diminish the chances of a collision, which at best is almost inevitable. We come now to consider the forces acting on the rings. _ If be the force with which a particle at the outer extremity of the major axis of a ring is attracted to its surface by the sum of the attractions of all the rings, f the same force for the inner fdge, s the mass of Saturn, and ¢ the time of revolution of any ting in days, the centrifugal force at the distance r will be aT log. k=9-1207. hen, in order that the particle should remain on the surface, We must have 2 s k’ m8 te aide ee Pe Therefore, rare (f+) 102 G. P. Bond on the Rings of Saturn. If we put P= = the attraction of Saturn on the middle of any ring, we obtain the cee hf at. Tr. From the smallness of A mass vf the ring, as well as from its unfavorable distribution, it is easy to see that 7’—r must be very small reas with r and f, I have computed from Laplace’s formula the following values: f, is the attraction of a single ring upon a particle on its surface, at the extremity of the major axis of its ase; f, and f, the attractions of the two next adjacent. The interval between =0 ‘01, 2b=,1,. The radius of the outer edge of the outer ring being sil. Attractions of Three Narrow Rings. Si S Je 28 J. a=0-01 +0-00661 — 0-284 +0°134 79 393 15 03 685 “460 154 04 689 *507 157 05 691 B43 160 06 692 571 162 07 693 *594 164 08 693 ‘614 . 165 09 694 ‘631 166 10 +0-00694 — 0646 +0166 The attraction of the whole ring, considering its mass to be uniformly distributed, I have next computed by — Breadth of whole ring =0°335. Radius of outer Distance of particle within the outer edge —_ 5 Attraction =-+4" 52 mass of ring- “ “ “ “ 04 2-42 5 “ “ “ “« O875 “ 1 40 “ “ “ “ 1 275 “ 7 1 6 “ “ “ “ 1 675 “ Ol “ “ ‘ « 2075 “4004 “ “ “ “ QAI “ —0°52 a“ “ “ “ 2875 “ , Ye: - “These two shies, give the means of Soding e ad rs with suf- ficient exactness. For Saturn we hav S=y( 0 a i ; log. S=9-5567 ; log. mass of ring =7°4848. The density of the ring is assumed = Saturn’s, unless it be otherwise stated. A change in the density _— only that part of the ring’s attraction depending on f,, f,, and f,. _ i. an G. P. Bond on the Rings of Saturn. 103 But f+/ will be changed very nearly in the direct ratio of the different densities when the rings are narrow. We will first suppose the case of but one ring without division. r=0°665 7’ = 1-000 r, =0°8325 ” —r =0°335 Upon a particle at a distance within the outer edge = 0-21, the attraction of the whole ring becomes =0. This gives for the time of rotation t=0-43. The excess of Saturn’s attraction over the centrifugal force at the inner edge =0-37. At the outer edge the centrifugal force is in excess by 0°33. We must there- fore have,— S>0°37 and f’>0°33 But f=0-0040 and f’=0-0070 ; Assumed value of 7’ — r=0°335 Required 4 <0-0058 If there be but one ring, it will be necessary to increase its attractive force by sixty times its probable value, in order to retain its particles on its surface. _ With a single division into two equal rings, we have for the inner of the two, giving such a time of rotation as will retain particles on the middle from leaving their place, é=0:39 r =0°665 S> 0°25 f'>0-19 1 =0°8325 S=0-0050 J’ =0:0042 nm —r =0:1675 r’—r computed =0-0036 For the outer ring, f=0-0012 f’=0-0081 7’—r<0-0066 computed. r’ —r=0°1675 assumed. . _As no change of mass or density within the limits of proba- bility will account for so large differences, we must therefore still urther reduce the width of the rings. ai _ By trying different values, it will be found necessary to dimin- Ish 7’ —r so far, that the intervals occupy nearly as much area as ~ teflecting surface, which cannot be admitted, for reasons fore given. ss will take r’—r=0-02, which corresponds to eleven equal "ings distant from each other by 0-01. For the outside ring, t=0:59 f>0°0023 f! >0-0202 = —0-0036, tendency is from the surface. S= 00144 r’ —r<0-0097 computed. ”—r=0-0200 assumed. its center of figure, but 104 G. P. Bond on the Rings of Saturn. For the middle ring, S>0-0172 SF’ >0-0205 t=0°46 f=0-0046 f/=0-0075 r’—r<0°0064 computed. r’ —r=0-0200 assumed. For the inner ring, f>0-0415 hte: 0: ease t=0:34 f= ‘0118 f'=—00 r’—r<0-0031 ee r’—r=0-0200 assumed. In order to rene the mass as previously adopted, we must suppose an average density about three times that of Saturn. By eaigadhrs, f and f’ for the inner ring with a density =3, we obtain, f=+0-0263 © f= +0-0091 r— <0-010 Pe v—r= 0.0200" ee A density six times that of Saturn would just aie to retain the particles on the surface of the inner®ring. To effect this without changing the mass, we must dimi em Mabe ealhe pro- portion. But the attraction of a thin and nar particle at the extremity of its major axis mies neatly as b sity, Mécanique a at ie lee 2095]. Therefore f i Pot ncreased when we inere ea L occupied | by the intervals ‘is sy eines Ify we lessen the space oceupied y bringing the a djacent rings nearer together, ft iecreases of increases. But there are —_— ger jections,.to a large “number of ~ small. Ba near Sy: elke ia It is n the case ot a dog rng that By {it were per- fectly anon in ever 7 pat zt of. is. e slightest exterior disturbance would pitate i upon the body of the planet. To avoid this catastrophe,.we must suppose each ring to be an deregulangplid game ieee gravity t coinciding with Motion of rotation about the body of Saturn. In ade Bn mr Ane a number of regular con- ‘centric rings are ina position of unstable bs ioe by virtue of their own mutual attractions. e sli inequality in the als would have the effect afghrowing the whole eee - into.confusion. rpm al , for instance, that the inner ring deviate by ever so ‘anal an amount from an exact central position with ref- aa, G. P. Bond on the Rings of Saturn. 105 erence to the ring outside it. The nearest sides commence mov- ing together, until they come in contact. All the others must follow. ‘The consequence of such a conflict of these masses, each urged by different velocities, corresponding to the different times of rotation of the several rings, must be fatal to the whole’ Structure. It is therefore again necessary that oe rings be not of regular ure or density. ut if these irregularities are asiath there will be only a feeble — opposed to their tendency to fall upon the body of the pianet, On the other hand, if they be large, they will become the source of mutual disturbances, which must end in their destruc- tion, by causing them to fall upon each other, ‘The smallness of the intervals between them, and the near equality in the period of rotation of two adjacent rings, will make the danger of the latter event imminent; if not wholly unavoidable. he nearness of the rings will in any case render it impossi-— ble that 196 can assume a figure of equilibrium permanent or nearly so The hypothesis that the whole ring is in ‘a fluid state, or at least does not cohere ‘strongly, presents fewer difficulties. ake There being no longer an unyielding coherence between the a of the i inner and outer edges, es hate not necessarily the same per P conti an » Commonly: see und Fred inet alt sequer If in itor ee DE the most powerfuli the sources of d unite... ecessity in a state oi nati e equilibrium with piso ce either to 0 Saturn or to:the other rit SzooND Senres, Vol. XII, No. o4—July, 1851. ll te = n ‘its di imensions, is nck t of a 106 =Prof. Peirce on the Constitution of Saturn’s Ring. Art. XV.—On the Constitution of Saturn’s Ring ; by Prof. B. Peirce of Harvard University. . Abstract of a paper reg before the American Amecntion. os the Advancement of cience, at the meeting at Cincinna A menor upon Saturn’s Ring, by Mr. George P. Bond, was read to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, upon the 15th of April, and was the occasion of the present investigation. Since Mr. Bond’s paper is still unpublished, I shall be obliged to make constant reference to it, and even recapitulate some parts of it, in order that the proper relation of the two paths of research may be correctly understood. he author of the Mecanique Celeste proved that Saturn's ring, regarded as solid, would not be ‘sustained about the pri- mary, unless it had decided irregularities in its structure. But the observations of Herschel and others have failed-to detect any indications of such irregularity, and a laborious series of observa- ee have finally convinced-Mr. Bond of the utter improbability any important irregularities, and he has, therefore, adopted the conclusion that Saturn’s ring is not solid but fluid. Mr. Bond’s argument is chiefly derived from observation ; Speen a new in- vestigation of the mechanical conditions of the problem has led me one step further. Tam now convinced that there is no con- ceivable form of. rregularity and no combination of irregulari-_ ties, consistent: with an actual ring, which would permit the Ting: io be permanently maintained, by the primary if it were solid. Hence it follows, independently , of vata bi that Saturn’s ring is not solid. And+now it is ‘worthy of remark that if we adopt, as the basis of calculation, the mass of the ring which was determined by Bessel, the thickness {form Ron@en nd the other dimensions from Struve, we shall find ‘the density to be about one-fourth more than water. So that the ring consists of a stream, or of a of a fluid rather denser than -water, flowing around the prim 2. Mr. Bond oats undertook a series of very ingenious and novel computations, in order to determine from theoretical con- siderations alone whether the ring was one or many, and arrived at the remarkable result that neither of these hypotheses was ten- able. He is, therefore, disposed to reconcile the discrepancies of observation in this respect by supposing the constitution of the ring to be variable ; and«that, although the peineipals division, which has been always’ served, is permanent, the other dt ions are constantly annihilated hp the mutual concussions of the rings, and again reproduced by some process which he does not undertake to define. PThis bold thay is fally sustained by my own analytical investigations, and not only do my researches ex- Prof. Peirce on the Constitution of Saturn’s Ring. 107 hibit the possibility of this strange phenomenon, but they even show the precise mode of action aud how it must be the case of nature. If the ring had been originally one, it would soon have subdivided itself at definite points, which can be exactly compu- ted, into portions of a determinate width. The disturbing causes must, however, drive these separate rings, sooner or later, against each other. There must then follow an interchange and crossin of currents, a mutual retardation, a momentary state of equilib- The regulating action upon the motion of the center of gravity is, therefore, cancelled ; and it must ¢ontinue to move uniformly ~ positive ; and without satellites. there can be noring. The the- ory Of this curiously:sustaining ‘power may be variously illus- trated. In the first place, each particle of the. ring may be re- garded. as a satellite, which the other satellites disturb in the usual way. Thus the mean distance from Saturn is not. varied in the least, and the‘disturbance of the eccentricity ean only reach certain definite limits, after attaining which it must dimin- ish, econdly, in consequence of the attraction of its satellites, precisely the same if the attraction of the ring for the satellites were the same as if its mass were accumulated at its center of gravity. But the deviation may be safely neglected and referred to the class of riodical perturbations... 4 Resi ae 4. It follows, then, that no planet cat have a ring, unless it is Surrounded by a sufficient number of properly arranged satellites. Saturn seems to be the only planet, which is in this category ; and it 1s the only one, therefore, which could sustain a ring. Our un, also, does not appear to have its satellites properly disposed * * 108 Prof. Peirce on the Constitution of Saturn’s Ring. for supporting a ring; and the only part of the system where such a phenomenon might have been ——s expected, is — within the powerful mass of Jupiter. But had there been at this part of the system, it must have been ms a to sori ex- traordinary perturbations, that it would in the course of time have been vibrated up against the next interior planet, Mars; and, in this way, have been broken into the asteroids. The orbits of planets formed under sw circumstances would have been natu- rally characterized by great eccentricity. 5. But suppose that, from any ¢ause whatever, the Sun had, at some period; been surrounded by. a light ring comparable in levity to the splost ight ; and peer to escape the planetary influences, we ma uppose ‘the plane of the ring to have had a large inclination to. ‘the ecliptic., The result would have been that the center of gravity: of the ring would have soon begun to move in some direction or other, and have continued moving until it was brought against the: surface of: the Sun. | But during this motion, and in: congequ ice of the solar action, the matter of the ring would have accu wlated at the most remote part; so that if the Sun were:a mere: ‘point, it would have happened that, at the very instant of its expected. meeting yuh the ring, the ~ whole ring would have escaped. fr frot the point of compact. The experiment of Tantalus wo old have been. performed on a grand d. the r g been in: seale, an : ta neously. transformed into a comet in its % . If, however, ‘ing 1 ; he a large gaseous Insiss of a cireular fig) e, the « i which would occur at wa hts g wa Roa raga i o me tl ducted by the. tee ter in a ype fied pie of that ra bypchesis which ie by a shallow and wicked phi- losophy f pose of ensoalg: the Deity from his or the rec own cee "ee ait D. Kirkwood on Saturn’s Ring. 109 Arr. XVI1—Qyn Saturn’s Ring ; by Danret Kirxwoop, A.M., Principal of Pottsville Academy. Messrs. Editors :—I have just seen an abstract of Prof. Peirce’s paper, “ On the Constitution of Saturn’s Ring,” read before the American Association at its recent session in Cincinnati. I had ing on the 3d of January last. Should you deem them worthy of publication they are at your disposal, © a system. .The rotation of Uranus— he physical constitution of the Sun—the law of the planetary dist ati of the planets—th earnest attention | Opes of future d * * ¢ wis wes a form, wou ‘stant annulj, or those. by an imme rst abandoned, “would + longer period to agglomerate around a nuclets than those of recent origin. It is evident also that the plangts haying a greater Sphere of attraction” would require @ p onally greater length of time for the process of co ens ition. Taking these facts into consideration, it would seem that te panes nearest ¥. 3 we ly. 110 D. Kirkwood on Saturn’s Ring. the Sun may have been the first to assume their present dimen- sions. Of the major planets, Saturn has the greatest ig ~ attraction,” and hence the-duration of its forming period m question whether the ring of Saturn may not be the most recent cosmical formation within the limits of the solar system, and whether it may not, in the course of future ages collect about a nucleus and constitute a satellite. The evidence of its solidity is not, I think, by any means conclusive. On the other hand, observations made within the last few years give a degree of plausibility to the presumption that it may be in a state of fluid- ity. Irefer to the occasional appearance of dark lines, chiefly on the outer ring, which have been supposed to indicate a sub- division into several concentric annuli, They do n ot, how- ever, appear to be permanent ; at least they are subject to some m most favorable. It also been found by delicate micrometrical measurements: of sha rings, that they are not of uniform thickness. May not this oe of matter on one side be the incipient nucleus of a satellite? If so, it will be re- served for future astronomers to ante scene no less amazing than the formation of a new world’ within the limits of the solar system If we e admit the truth of the rieBilar hy pbthesis, it becomes an interesting question whether the chaotic matter advanced with regularity through all’ the gic? of condensation, or whether its contractions were sudden and violent. The former supposition appears to have been generally entertained ha writers on the sub- ject; but the latter, as fias been observed by Prof. Nichol, seems ‘more; in harmony with the known fationis of = epi around us. When gaseous substances pass a = e it is not generally by gradual condensation: on ‘the hen such changes are oe ot by rapid and: piierBetic i tibu: The Same is true in most cases when a body: passes from a liquid to a solid state. It affords me the highest gratification to know that the atten- tion of some of the most distinguished mathematicians of our speedy development of important results. Pottsville, Pa, May 19th, 1851. Scientific Intelligence. 111 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry AND Paysics. was placed the substance to be examined. Behind the second Nicol, apparatus. Under these circumstances the light was polarized by the first Nicol in a definite plane which by the action of the interpolated therefore only those colors which had passed through the polarizing *pparatus, and these with a greatét or less brightness according as their Plane of vibration was‘less or’ tore inclined to the plane of vibration es the second Nicol. In place of the color extinguished by this inet iy to the planes of polarization of the different colors. In the unextin- guished portion of the spectrum the lines of Fraunhofer were distinctly to be seen; the cross-wires of the telescope were then brought to Coincide with one of these lines, and then the second Nicol turned till the dark band in the spectrum coincided with the wires and conse- quently also with the fixed line selected ; the angle through which the Nicol had been turned gave then the angle of rotation corresponding to the given fixed line. In this manner it was easy to determine the angle of rotation for the different wave lengths corresponding to the lines B, C, D, E, b, F and G, as had been done by Bloch for plates of Tock crystal. ‘T'o test the accuracy of the method, oil of lemon and different kinds of oil of turpentine were examined ; the results reduced '0 lengths of 100™™ were as follows: B Cc D E b F G 1. Turpentine, 109 1405 187 196 232 32-75 2. Turpentine, 21:5 23:4 293 368 383 436 559 3. Oil of lemon, 34:0 37:9 485 633 664 775 106-0 112 Scientific Intelligence. The turpentine No. 1, was pure and had been rectified in a current of steam, its rotation was towards the right; No. 2, was another va- riety whieh had not been rectified and turned the plane of polariaaige to the left; the oil of lemon was also pure and distilled like is the author found that with pure oil of turpentine the observed nets of rotation never differed more than 5’ from the mean, whereas with oil nic apparatus employed consisted of two helices of copper wire 2. “gum in thickness, and weighing each about 6 Ibs.; they were placed with their axes in the same straight line and had together a length of ing the liquid to be examined. The current from a battery of about 30 aoe (partly Grove’s, partly Bunsen’s and partly iron-zinc,) was o pass through a gyrotrope, a tangents-compass, and the whole pee of the coils themselves. In this manner the author studied the deflecting action of the current upon the plane of polarization in bisu I. phid of carbon and in oil of turpentine; the reat of his investigation he gives in the following statements. w of Biot, according to which: the rotation ef the plane of polarization of any color is inversely proportional to the square of its wave length does not hold good for oil of abies dg or oil of lemon, any more than for rock-crystal, (as shown by | (2.) The law of Faraday, according to ack ‘he deflection of the plane of polarization is proportional to the intensity’of the deflecting current, holds good for those ce which in rite ve deflect the plane of polarization, as well as for those which do not do s (3.) The deflection of the alae of polarization of different "colors e substances, greater in proportio as the wave length of the color in question is less. [n rotating substahoes like oil of terpentine, this deflection is proportional to the déflection produced by the substance itself upon the plane of bg ete of each particular color.—fogg- mii 1851; Wo. 2° & ye os hysicdl: Demonstration of the Rotation of the Earth by means of the Pondutu —FoucauLt has communicated to the Academy 0 ciences an acaunil of an experiment which has excited universal attention and, interest, and which has since been frequently repeated with success, The experiment ra simply in suspending a heavy bal to a long and flexible string, and ‘allowing the whole to vibrate "te é Chemistry and Physics. 113 to be well worthy of confi Commercial bismuth was dissolved in pure nitric acid, the solution precipitated by the addition of water, an the resulting basic nitrate wn upon a filter, and well washed and dried ; the dry salt was ixed with black flux and the mixture tion evaporated to dryness and ignited, and the resulting oxyd weighed. * . e Small portions of the solution, and other calses, we must refer to the original memoir. Asa mean of eight experiments nearly agreeing with each other, it was found that 100 parts of oxyd of bismuth contain Bismuth, . : : Z ‘ 89°655 on from which the equivalent of bismuth is found to be 2599°95, pont Pogg. Ann., 1851, 2, 303. 4. Equivalent of Tungsten.—Marcuanp and Scunerer have deter- Mined the equivalent of tungsten both by the oxydation of the metal and by the reduction of tungstic acid in a current of hydrogen. Asa 15 Soon Sznres, Vol. XII, No. 34,-—-July, 1851. 114 Scientific Intelligence. mean of four ee two by reduction and two by oxydation, Marchand found 1150-6; as a mean of eight t experiments, five b reduction and three by oxydation, Stiewider ee 1150-78, the first series giving 1150°39, the second 1151-17. e may therefore mre 4 infer that the equivalent of tungsten does not differ by a unit from 11 —Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, Feb., 1851, 262. 5. Action of Light upon the Iodid of Ethyl. ~_FRANKLAND has stud- i the action of light upon the iodid of ethyl and has discovered a w and remarkable analogy bebities hydrogen and the benoicnm maals methyl, ethyl, amyl, &c. Jodohydric acid as is well know when exposed to the light in a well closed flask gradually bencuibs brown ri the separation of iodine, and the decomposition is continu- ous if the free iodine be removed as fast as formed. Iodid of ethyl is also discolored by exposure to light and the products of its decompesi- tion under these circumstances form the subject of Frankland’s inves- a few drops of iodid of ethyl were introduced into each balloom by means of a pipette and the balloons were then exposed to the sun’s rays. The surface of the mercury was speedily covered with a thin layer of subiodid which subsequently became protiodid while bubbles of gas were evolved so as gradually to expel the mercury from the balloon ; the action was greatly inereased by employing a parabolic reflector to concentrate the rays of light, the temperature never bein allowed to rise as high as the boiling point of the iodid, 71°6C. After a few hours the balloons were filled ; the gas contained was then allow- ed to stand over a solution of sulphid of potassium to absorb the vapor of iodid of ethyl and afterward submitted to analysis; it was found to consist 0 Ethyl, (Cot Bis aie Ratio + 5 OT-76 y — ethyl, (CaHs, H) . - 17:90 Olefiant gas, ( — - The decomposition of the iodid in t pieketas of mercury may therefore be represented by the equation, nCaHeL+HgecCaHle Pgh _ +s A small portion of the ethyl is - the same time decomposed into ; -vbydruret of ethyl and % ant gas, 2C4aHs=—C4Hs, H ; _ It appears therefore the action of light upon the iodid of ethyl a. Ned a ly similar to its ae aes saph: of hydrogen, and furthermore oe ee “place is analogous to that which the iodid of ethyl undergoes A igh temperature in presence of. zine. *The ence of water was fotind to have no influence on _theeproducts of t Bi ctilbebhiod of iodid of ethyl by the sun’s rays. + 1é author OB sts the employment of iodid of ethy| as an actinome- iS, = hy Sanh ent td measure the intensity of the geet action of _ * fomsapemure ssure,. ~ tensio: of the vapor of prisrancn dae” The* author eloses lis we ebeesic with an elabo- iis and as it appears to us, mo ost suiecessful defence of his views of the nature of sao carta Cade CaHe, and CaHs.—Ann. der Chemie eee Pe parte; tx vii, 221. bay’ a ——————— a oe oe a Chemistry and Physics. 115 bases in question were obtained by one of three different reactions, by the action of potash on the cyanic ethers, by the action of potash on the cyanuric ethers, or by the action of potash on the ureas. ‘To these modes of preparation Hofmann has, as is well known, added a fourth, namely the action of the iodids or bromids of ethyl, methyl, &c., upon ammonia, and others still have been discovered by Strecker, Anderson, Rochleder and Wertheim. is readily prepared by distilling its chlorohydrate with twice its weight i eolt is. colorless gas which condenses a few degrees below 0° into a highly the green salt of Magnus, and from this a new analogous tv that known as Reiset’s base and repre: mula, CsHsPtN2 or WNH2(OsHs)-+-NHPi(Calei= methylamine yields by dry distillation, methyloxamid, C202, NO(V2 which may be regarded as oxamid in which one eq. of hydrogen is re- jackie So Mio: H(C2Hs i ye BaS 9 fr istltesion with lime and condenses in a cool receiver as a limpig: colorless liquid which boils at 88°-7 : its density at 8° is 0:6964; if possesses an ex- 4 ‘ ps on wee te + ‘ag Be a ek wet P 9 116 solves alumina. Ethylamine is a stronger base than ammonia and dis- places this from its saline combinations, if a large excess of a solution of ethylamine be added to salammoniac, and the whole evaporated to dryness, there remains only chlorohydrate of ethylamine. Chlorine, bromine and iodine react with a solution of ethylamine yielding com- pounds represented by the formulas Ca HsClaN, CalsBraN, CaHsl2N; the chlorine compound is decomposed by caustic potash giving acetate of potash, ammonia and chlorid of potassium, C4 HsClaN-+38KO4-HO=KO, CsH20s-+-NH2+42KCl. of Hofmann, namely, that they are to be regarded as onia In which an equivalent of hydrogen is replaced by an equivalent of methyl, Methylamine, . : ; ‘ NHa2(C2Hs) Ethylamine, , ees . NHe2(C4Hs) Amylamine, a, . ; . “Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, xxx, 443. 7. Constitution and products of the decomposition of Codein.—AN- DERSON has presented an elaborate investigation of codein and its com- dein dried at 1 loses two equivalents of * nia also precipita solutions but rediiaaives the precipitate when in great excess; ammo- the aathor describes various salts all of which may be obtained crystal- ‘lized Moderately st i¢ aci ini eS See” ie. Les a ; ne " Chemistry and Physics. 717 tion of codein absorbs cyanogen with avidity and yields a new base dicyanocodein, CsoH21N30c or 2C2N, CssH21NOc. Distilled with four or five times its weight of soda-lime or potash-lime, codein yields several organic bases among which Anderson succeeded in identifying | . methylamine and propylamin, CsHoN.—Ann. der Chemie und Phar- macie, March, 1851, \xxvii, 341. . Acetic Acid from Sea-weeds.—StENHOUSE has found acetic acid in considerable quantity among the products of the fermentation of va- rious species of sea-weed ucus nodosus yielded 1°45 per cent., ‘ Fucus vesiculosus 1:15 per cent. of the weight of the moist plant. W. G. ' 9. New Test for the Nitrites and Nitrates; by Georc: C. Scnazr- FER, Prof. of Chem. and Nat. Phil., Centre Coll., Danville, Ky., (Proc. mer, Assoc., 4th meeting at New Haven, 1851, p. 403.) —Chemistry | has hitherto furnished no distinctive test for the nitrites, when present in small quantities. From the supposed unfrequent occurrence of these salts, the want of such a test has never been felt. or several years | have been engaged in a research which has led me to believe that the nitrites are of far more frequent occurrence than will give same reaction with both classes of salts. er to Settle the question, it was necessary to find a distinctive test, which should wee all risk of confusion. I first tried acetic acid, » as is well no . | oe” : a ee oo @ ra) a = oOo Qn o 'wo drops of solution of yellow prussiate of potash—there should not hough to give a perceptible tinge to the liquid....A few drops of dded, and immediately, orin a few minutes, — amt 4 f=) Q & re) pas] Qo. a> fe) ind Ler) coneal Lo a o 5 roy yeliow tint. v the other the liquid under examination, to both o “ag are to be added in precisely equal quantities. The vessels should be “qually exposed to the light, with a sheet of white paper behind them. ith these precautions, I have found this test astonishingly d 1 fact, ranking with those for iron, iodi : fused have detected Stander wholl to the color, . decomposed nitrate. 118 Scientific Intelligence. < “et e It should be remarked that the eae of a large quantity of nitre has no influence upon this test, as with pure water it gives no color. The same reaction answers also for fis “ih ce: The next step is to convert this test into one for the nitrates. The Joe doskidn of the nitrates of lead and mercury by boiling with ex- cess of their respective metals, has long been known. The reaction of metals with the alkaline nitrates does not seem to have been studied. I find that nitrate of ammonia is readily decomposed in presence of metallic lead, and what seems meer nitrate of potash is also decomposed, though not so readi To test for the nitrates, we have only to agitate the slightly warmed liquid, for a few minutes, te stipe of lead, and proceed as before igestion more of the salt would be eoeneitad into nitrite, and the color would be i er. In estimating the delicacy of this process, I had used pure rain water, but before completing the nbs ey” ments I was obliged to be absent for several days; on my return, I soon found that the water from the same cistern contained so wisi "of nitrates and nitrites, that it could no longer be used. From the readi- ness with which the decomposition was effected, I presume that nitrate of ammonia was present, ‘The interval had es marked by the occur- rence of frequent and severe thunder showers. one pint of nitre in about 60,000 of water, iponini with lead for only a short t i 1 m) a a ° fe) s - es g 5 09 ® 3 5 o - ro c =) = ro) ° ae 2 a na ra 2 3 a - ° The yellow cata” Sel in this test is the result ¥ a dates Pees aa Everitt’s yellow salt, and red prussiate, s formed, and in some cases also very minute quantities of Clayfair’s nitroprussid. II. Grouoey. =" 1s. On the Paraliclien of Mountain Chains in America ; by Mr. Ds- sor, (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Dec., 1850, p. 380.)—It is gen- r. Beaumont to his system of the phair tees the direction of which (be 16° S,), when transferred to Washington, becomes E. 48° 18’ N., a direction which indeed answers preity. accurately to that of the main pore of the Alleghany chain. This is also, according to to Dr. C. T. ackson, the main direction of, the hills of New Hampshire i Maine. But there is besides in the Alleghanies another direction more nearly par- allel 2 the meridian, which Professor Rogers considers as a mere via- tion from the main directiony Wwhefeas Mr. Beaumont refers it to a pre- vious Mekourel: together with those ranges of hills in Massach which Prof. Hitchcock has designated as the “ oldest meridional system,” “e ee. Geology. 119 and whose direction is a few degrees east of north. According to ica, since it is supposed to have originated previous to the Taconic system. Now to this system is ascribed a most conspicuous part in the con- stitution of the soil, not only of New England but of the whole conti- cut, from whence it extends across Labrador to Cape Chisley ; nor is it supposed to stop here, for Mr. Beaumont follows it even beyond Da- vis’ Strait into Greenland. e range is said to be not less extensive the mouth of the Hudson to Cape Hatteras. From thence it is sup- posed to cross the eastern portion of Cuba, the Isthmus of Panama, and then to touch Cape Gu aquil, passing a little outside of the Coast of Choco, in a direction parallel to the principal mountain chains of New a 4 'o the Silurian formation, the theory of Mr. Beaumont cannot longer be relied upon, being thus deprived of its principal basis. | If it is once ad- * in Vermont, which he supposed waa the authority for M. De Beaumont's allusion to the gold mines of that ata hail prove to be of artificial origin. It was gold which suddenly disturbed in their $0 iting operations. aah ree 120 Scientific Intelligence. oye Sn mitted that the Green Mountains are not Taconic but Silurian rocks, ther the Alleghanies, the m so as we have direct evidence in the raised conglomerates of pea that at least some of the ridges of New England are not of an earlier age than the coal — P nected by Mr. Beaumont with this supposed oldest Meridional ashi r. Desor was unable to say, but observed, — with all due regard for ili great abilities of his illustrious teacher, thought there was no | sufficient reason for upholding any longer ah sieeuliak system, unless ¥ it be established on better proofs | In removing thus this so- called oldest Meridional system from its prominent place, it is not a little interesting to notice that those ranges of hills and mountains which are actually known to have been raised previous to the deposition of the oldest fossiliferous rocks, such as the primitive mountain ranges on the north bank of the St. Lawrence, the granite ranges of Lake Superior, and the iron-bearing old slates of that begs are all more or less secre to the equator. It would seem as in these early times, there been a prevailing disposition on the Pere of the earth crust to rinks’ in that direction. (We take it for granted that these old hills are the result of a shrinkage in consequence of the cooling of the earth’s ace rather than a positive upheaval. ) It is only at a later period that we meet with wrinkles running in the apuaeie < aga (northeand south). r Silurian Reptile in nasi (From — : Sysreae re ares before the Geol. Soc. of London, Feb., 1851, p. 59.)—I_ hav _ Mr. Logan, now at the head of the Government Survey in Cana ‘having carefully se the position of the "rock containing it. The lo cality i is the village of Beauharnois, on the south side of the St. Lawrence, twenty miles lies Montreal. The ‘rock, a fine-grained whitish sandstone, quarried for building, belongs _ to the group called the Potsdam sandstone by the New York surveyors, and lies at the base of the whole fossiliferous series of North America. _ The markings were first pointed out to Mr. Logan by Mr. Abraham, “editor of the Montreal Gazette, who appreciated = geologic cal im- portance. Assuming the Chelonian origin of these foot- gm hoi constitute the earliest indication of reptile-life yet soled n, anda only anterior to the most ancient memorials of fish hitherto doeitah iets of well-defined organic ofe r. Logan; and t unterian Professo ree, we the kindness to communica to me following deserption* e ess e | umerous pts Ske sagan Na: than * R. Owen—Letter to Sir C. Lyell, March 18th, 1851. }. 121 are short and broad, with feeble indications of divisions at their fore part. They succeed each other at intervals much shorter than that be- tween the right and left pair. “The median groove is well defined and slopes down more steeply at its sides than towards the bottom, at some parts of the track. I con- clude from these characters that the animal which left the track was a quadruped, with the hind-feet larger and wider apart than the fore-feet ; with both hind and fore-feet very short, or impeded by some other part of the animal’s structure from making any but short steps; that the fore and hind limbs were near each other, but that the limbs of the right and those of the left side were wide apart: consequently, that the animal had a short but broad trunk, supported on limbs either short or capable only of short steps; and that its feet were rounded and stumpy, with- out long claws, : “As to the median impression, that may be due either toa thick ” 7 ~ III. Zooroey. oe eee 1. On the Classification of the Cancroidea; by James D. Dana.— The Cancroidea (or Crustacea Cyclometopa), like ‘the Maioidea, are characterized by having, (1) the branchie 9 in number, 7 of whic lie so as to form the exterior of the branchial pyramid; (2) the efferent passage from the branchial cavity passing over the lateral portions of the palate ; (3) the male genital orifices situated in the base of the posterior legs and covered by the abdomen; (3) the male abdomen not narrower e : me peculiarities in the branchie fitting them for freshwater life. di The Corystes group also partake of the Cancroid character 5,yet they verge from it, in the large outer antennz more or less hairy, and have a much lower position in the series than the Cancroidea. hey have no true relation in the character of the buccal area and efferent canal to the Leucosia group. é Mest genera Acanthocyclus and Corystoides (of Lucas) have the gen- Guan, ifices, sternum and. abdomen, and outer maxillipeds of the Can- qe and Corystoidea ; but the branchie (in Acanthocyclus at least) — Serres, Vol. XII, No. 34.—July, 1851. 16 ss Mx, “4 Set Lene -- 7 ‘ aoe Bak y - ld 122 Scientific Intelligence. i are less numerous, as in the Grapsoidea. The outer antenne are obso- _lete, and the inner in Corystoides have no fossettes. They are there- fore genera of low grade, at the foot of the Cancroidea, and approach closely in rank to the Corystoidea. Our grand divisions of the Cancroidea are hence, A Cancro Typica. The character of the efferent passage or canal, separating the Leu- cosoid Crustacea or Oxystomata, is the most striking among the Brachyura. While, in all other species, this passage passes over the outer portions of the palate or prelabial area, in these, it passes over Ast pair of eoaitillipéds is modified to correspond, as it covers he or less perfectly) in this and all the Brachyura_ the efferent passa confining ridge: but in others there is a distinct ridge, running longi- tudinally, near the middle of either lateral half of the palate, and terminating at the front margin of the buccal area. This ridge is prominent in ee Ee vppellia., Ozius, Pilumnoides, Melia (as the writer has observed) and some other genera, and is also distinct in minus have i in this chara@ter, therefore, an gps = odes distinction sctsiehs the “es is here @ancrinea into tw o groups, the Cancride and t -Eriph - Mere breadth of carapax alone is of very little value as a shackles Xantho passes by its allied genera into species but little Re ee than long, and so with Chlorodius. mong the swimming species, a large part, as detected by De Haan, have a small lobe attached to the inner margin of the inner branch of the Ist maxillipeds: while others, as Platyonychus and the allied bave “no such lobe and approximate ee what to the Corystoidea, although not properly, as we think, of that group. The species of Lupa and Thalamita have a ridge upon the palate either side bounding the efferent passage; but there is one exception in Lupa econo which species consequently must pertain to a dis- tinct group from the other Lupas. n these brief a oak on the classification of the Cancroidea, we Japonica in 1833, preceded Edwards by a year, but the descrip- tions of his genera were so concise and es te that it was not possi- ble for any one to have recognized them mea — me ©. * tae Zoology. 123 Ruppellia of Edwards, and Eudora of De Haan, have the same typical species. But De Haan neglected to observe in the type the important peculiarity of the orbit, (its being wholly closed within so as to exclude the base of the outer antennz, a peculiarity found in no rachyura except a few of the Eriphide,) and hence his genus includes, x Thet according to his own use of it, some Xanthoid species, wo names are by no mears synonyms; and adopting the group as laid down Edwards, we are forced to adopt his generic name odifications to some extent e in accepted genera, and this we have at- would happen by giving De Haan’s name to Edwards’s genus. e Haan has not recognized the distinction between the pointed and Spoon-shape figures as a generic characteristic, and this makes some difficulty in substituting his names for those of Edwards, where the groups are otherwise similar. This characteristic was first employed by Leach and subsequently by Edwards, The genera of the two kinds often graduate into one another: but the parallel relation between the series is best shown by retaining them apart in separate subfamilies. Between our Xanthine and Chlorodinz there is nearly a perfect paral- lelism. De Haan’s species of the genus Xantho are in part Chlorodii. De Haan has multiplied much the genera of swimming Crabs, by subdividing Lupa and Thalamita. This has partly arisen from an un- warranted reliance for the characteristic on the form of the 3d joint of the outer maxillipeds, as well as on that of the inner branch of the Ist maxillipeds. i ; ag na former paper it was observed that the 3d joint of the outer max- differ from Amphitrite in having this joint more oblong, the reverse of _ Which is actually the fact among many of the species examined by the Writer, So Thalamita is characterized by having this same joint . bd . . 0 in One species (T. integra, D.) scarcely differs in relative length or obliquity from that of Lupa dicantha. Again Oceanus (Thalamita Crucifera of Edwards) is said to have the inner branch of the Ist max-— illipeds three-lobed, and Thalamita, as having the inner margia uni- admetus in form and general characters. ‘There is thus a gradual ‘ransition to the form in Oceanus. Such variations in this margin are fore unimportant, as many other cases illustrate. Our grand divisions are named after the larger to which they ap- pee among the five families of Cancrinea—the Cancride, are the ancrinea Typica ; the Eriphide, are the Cancrinea Grapsidica, for in the ridges of the palate as well as form they approximate to Grapsus ; ~~ rq 124 Scientific Intelligence. rh i sh Portunide, are the Cancrinea Typica Natatoria; the Platyonychide, e Cancrinea Corystidica Natatoria; the Podoptha sablamil the Can- Chlorodinz, the Cancride Top The following is a synopsis of the known genera of Cancroidea.— Leeio I. CANCRINEA, ven CANCROIDEA TYPICA. Fam. I. CANCRID. Pedes postici gressorii. Ramus maxillipedis 1mi internus simplex. Palatum (vel area prelabiata) colliculo ad marginem anticum producto non divisum. Carapax szepius late transyersus, interdum angustus. 1, CANCRINA.— Antenne interne pine minusve longitudinales. Frons interorbitalis perangustus, Digiti acuminati. G. 1. Ca NCER,* Leach.—Pars Pe puetne mobilis hiatu or- bite pa exclusa. Carapax latissim G. 2. Pirtme.a, Leach.—Pars antennze fee mobilis hiatu or- bitee ma exclusa. Carapax perangustus. 2. XANTHINE. Sore interne plus minusve transverse. An- tennee externz basi firmé infixe, parte mobili hiatu orbit non ex- clusa. Frons intanerBctulie latior. Digiti acuminati. 1. Regio carapacis postica convexa. Orbita hiatu exierno non interrupta. G. 1. Arercatis, De Haan. t—Margo antero-lateralis postero-lat- eral longior. Pedes 8 postici compressi, cristati. 2. Carpiivus, per De Haan.—Margo antero-lateralis pos- ‘tero-laterali longio Fron $ seepissime bene 4-lobatus. Ramus maxillipedis Imi intelli lobato-furcatus. Pedes 8 postici nudi, Ee subcylindrici, non cristati . 3. Liomera, Dana.{—Frons leviter 2-lobatus aut rectiusculus. “Margo antero-lateralis postero-laterali non brevior. Ramus max- illipedis Imi internus non lobatus. Pedes 8 postici nudi, sub- . 4, Liacora, De Haan.4—Margo gel tin eniggh on? rali brevior. Frons leviter 2-lobatus aut rectiusculus. Pedes ee ey exceptis, Ramus iiaditlipedis Imi internus non lobat a Sige ahrtens Milne ages, Crust, i, . + Faun. Japon. 17.—Cancer of ‘edward “Crast. i, 872; and Platypodia of Bell, Zool. Trans. i, 335, 1835. t Includes — cinctimanus of White, Crust. Voy. Samarang, 37, i 7, f “4 pra lobato-fur form of the inner branch of the Ist of maxilli sen the Pose is so peculiar, as shown by De Haan, = it eo admitted as a generic distinction. Phe tr true Carpilii have a strongly 4-lo to the front, though the “ee te sometimes so bent downward that the lobes are not seen ina esis view, h dist front view. _ § Faun. Japon. 19. Zoology. 125 2. Regio carapacis postica transversim non convera. a, Caxapax versus margines frontalem antero-lateralemque curvatim declivis. G. 5. Acrma, De Haan,* Dana. —Margo postero-lateralis brevis, seepius concavus. Orbita hiatu externo non interrupta. 6. Carapax versus margines frontalem antero-lateralemque parce declivis. a Orbita hiatu externo non interrupta. "ay G. 6. Xanruo, Leach.—Margo antero-lateralis postero-laterali lon- Pa gior. Articulus antenne extern Imus oblongus, rine bene attingens, articulo sequente e apicis medio articuli Imi orto. G. 7. Evxantuvs, Dana—Xantho forma similis: Stic an- tenn extern Imus hiatum ad summum implens, articulo se- quente e latere excavato 7 . 8. Paraxanruus, Lucas aieele forma similis: articulus antenne extern Imus Stites processum —_ oblongum attingens tantum. Abdomen maris 5-articula Menipre, De Haan.t—Margo antero- intealia postero-lat- [ erali brevior. Articulus antenne extern brevis nec frontem nec frontis processum attingens. ‘Kbdometi maris 7-articulatum. B Orbita hiatu externo interrupta, infra integra. 4 G. 10. Panopaus, Edwards.—Margo antero-lateralis tenuis, pos- tero-laterali szpius brevior, ad orbit lum externum directus. r 4 o 7 Orbita infra extusque tribus dentibus instructa, uno externo, duobus inferioribus. G. 11. Mepzxuvs, ag rai i paulo transversus, [nudus,] f fronte sat b Margo antero- lateralis sub orbit productus. ' bdomen maris 5- articulatum, segmento ultimo breve Pedes antici crassi, iis Xanthi similes G. 42, Hatmepe, e Haan.§—Angustus, parce transversus, [vil- losus,] fronte breviore. Abdomen maris 7- articulatum, seg- mento ultimo valde elongato. Pedes antici crassi, iis Xanthi similes—An Pilumnis propinquior ? | 3. CHLORODIN As. —Antenne interne transverse. Antenne —_ WA basi firmé infixe, parte mobili hiatu orbite raro exclusé. Fro interorbitalis latior. Digiti instar cochlear is excavati—Quoad penis Xanthine et Chlorodine ferme paralle * Faun. Japon. + Crust. D’Or b. rs Am., We see no sufficient ow for sustaining this Senus, excepting the short beads joint of the outer antenn. + Faun. ap. 21.—Pseudocarcinus of Edwards, Crust.i, 4 407 —Peleus, Eydoux and yet Voy. de la Bonite, Peleus armatus is the name given to a Sandwich species figured in the plates of the Bonite, but not yet Faun. Japon, 35. Medaus nearly the outline of Halimede, but is na- ked and ve deeply areolate. i ho in nearly all its or though y areolate. It isa Xantho in sembly having the orbit below deeply divided. On Prk: account, I have intro- ced Halimede, which resembles our genus in form, in this place, not having had 0 opportunity to study its characters from specimens we 126 Scientific Intelligence. 1. Hiatus orbiie internus processu basis antenna externe occupatus, iculum 2dum occludens. G. 1. Ertsus, Leach.* 2. Hiatus orbite internus basi antenne externe occupatus, articulo non occluso. 1. Regio carapacis postica convexa. . 2. Carpi ILODES, Dana.—Carapax latus, nudus, margine antero- aterali crassé rotundato, Pedes 8 postici subcylindrici, nudi. Liomere habitu similis. . 3. Zozymus, Leach.t—Carapax mediocriter latus, -margine antero-laterali tenui. Pedes 8 posiici valde compressi, cristati aut subcristati. Atergati habitu similis. 2. Regio carapacis postica fere plana. a, Carapax versus margines frontalem antero-lateralemque curvatim declivis. . Acrxopes, Dana.t—Pedes 8 postici non cristati. Actee ‘aspectu similis. Articulus maxillipedis externi 3tius apicem vix a... . 5. Daira, De Haan.\—Pedes 8 postici non cristati. Articulus Di Aiped eXterni 3tius apice valde emarginatus. 6. Carapax versus margines frontalem antero-lateralemque vix declivis. DOE RETR Leach.||—-Carapax plus minusve transversus ‘Articulus antennz extern Imus oblongus frontem bene attin- gens. hviettut maxillipedis externi 3tius subrectangulatus. Xantho aspectu ne = G. 7. Pinopius, —Carapax paulo transversus. Articulus antenn® extern aDoraeiaiie processum frontis oblongum at- - tingens tantum. Pararantho aspectu similis. . 8. CycLopius, Dana.—Carapax parce transversus. Articulus ‘antenne externg oblongus frontem bene attingens. Articulus si ie externi 3tius oe latere interiore brevissimo. , De Haan.§|—Cara non wl aa fere orbicu- ‘Tats, tacit aaounts Chlorodio affinis io * Part of the = aap ee typical) have the arm long projecting, and a broad “form somewhat lik cer, Another part, Brass different in habit, have a short _* as in foros oe graduate into Acteodes. The latter may well be named ie “ 4 ony of is and Afgle of sk Haan have Eee the Z. eneus, and De n makes the cristate ge res of th the 8 8p ve vilow him in this rebeeal tho: he 8 ror a eee! dharcte n-shape of the fingers, as done bie lies $ Includes Zozymus tomentosus and the alli “e in which the 8 posterior legs are not cristate. The species are closely like Acteexe one xcept in the fingers. oes em 18; Lagostoma, Edwards , Crust. i, 386. eps De Haan (F. Jap. 13) of wean date, is synonymous with Ayo oi ige 22, ' ] NT TT Rh hE eet TN TTR TNE ARN TA & ee * he Pi) Zoology. . 127 4, POLYDECTINE —Antenne interne ert Antenne ex- nz basi solute, libere.—An Pilumnis propin - PoLypectus, Edw.*—Orbita dentibus eae infra instructa. Manus elongata, digitis prelongis, i det uncinatis, cum den tibus tenuiter spinuliformibus szepe arm Fam. Il. ERIPHIDA. Pedibus maxillipedeque Imo Cancridis affinis. Palatum colliculo usque ad marginem anticum producto utrinque divisum. Carapax sepius angustus, interdum latus, latitadine ante-mediana seepissimé ma- Jore, oculis remotis. 1. ETHRINA, —Carapax transversus, lateribus valde dilatatus et rotundatus. ee a fere longitudinales. G. 1. Cerra, Lea 2. ee —Carapax plus minusve transversus. Digiti acuminati. Antenne interne transverse. rbita bia eae basi antennz oc- nae instructa. Abdomen maris 7-articu 1. Articulus antenne externe \mus frontem bene edi G. 1. Gatene, De Haan.t—Carapax transversus, longitudinaliter multo convexus, antice declivis—An Potamie propinquio G. 2. Ozius, Leach.—Carapax transversus, latus, fere planus. 2. Articulus antenne externa \mus frontem non atlingens. G. 3. PsEvbozivs, Dana.t—Carapax transversus, fere planus, ek pinging antero-laterali breviore. G. 4. Us, he ach.—Carapax angustus, pe transversus, resi convex ee gies laterali brevio G. 5. Pitumno O1DES, Edw ucas.§—Carapax rey parce _ transversus, valde wikis margine antero- laterali longiore, — . et ee Soe bene arcuato, super carapacem postice incurvato. tate the t elicate es on the i in; pene oe the gle of the hand anterio e fingers is quite short. A species collected by the writer is closel like the P. ew lifer in of its charact The form of the hand is very unlike g other Cancroidea; and ano which has been su d ce anything among o near Polydectus, has (like Me edzeus) ve ordinary form, like that in Xantho. e genus Iphiculus of White (Crust. Voy. Samar 57, pl. 13, f.5), has the gene-_ ral characters of our Polydectus—the same villous coat, t, similar anges: even to the — Spiniform dentation of the fingers, and other resemblances; and we suspect altho’ ough broader speci i i i ‘olydec * es, that spongiosus is a true Polydectus, es men of the Rie from which a deseription with a colored aes a while it was living, is not no nd in our collate veer T have not techies been able to ascertain the S hageere of the prelabi __ e myself w er the species Eriphide or not. It is ips er Ozi ear Pseudocarcinus, from which it differs in the ridge on the prelabial plate, Sr ay ay sage § Crust. D'Orb. S. Am, 21. re me 128 Scientific Intelligence. G, 6. Metia, Latr.—Carapax subquadratus, fere pina fronte lato, oculis versus ange insitis. Pedes toti graciles. Basis antennee externz cylindricus An genus sequens hic pertinet ? Acantuopes, De Haan. *—Carapax angustus, Pilumno forma affinis, spinis grandibus anticé armatus. Pedes spinosi.—Species Acanthodes armatus Haanii magnitudine portentosus. 3. ACTUMNINE.—Orbité Ozinis similis. Digiti instar _cochlearis excavati. G. Acrumnus, Dana.t—Carapax paulo transversus, ‘valde vexus, antice lateraliterque curvatim declivis. Articulus a ntenee extern Imus processum frontis attingens tantum. 4. ERIPHIN 2. Sgn infra bene clausa, hiatu interno carens, artic- ulo antenne e orbita omnino excluso. Carapax sive paulo transver- sus sive sb tadeatae G. 1. Ruppeniia, Edw.—Carapax latior. Antenne pars mobilis extern orbita 1c tai remota. Articulus maxillipedis externi _, 3tius pecins transversu . Eripaia, Lair. spas angustus, convexus, fronte sepius valde declivi, Antenne pars mobilis extern orbita longe re- mota. Articulus maxillipedis externi 8tius paulo transyersus. G. 3. Domacrus, Souleyet.t—Ruppellie forma antennisque eX- ternis affinis. Articulus aie externi 3tius valde trans- versus, brevissimus, epistomam te . 4, Trapezia, Latr.—Carapax snbquadFeiis, planus, glaber, fronte horizontalis, leviter 6-8-dentatus, aut sinuosus, lateribus pi inalis.. Tarsi non unguiculati, minute spinulosi. Brach- m ultra Ao ay longe exsertu G. 5. "Tait tia, Dana.§—Carapax aspe ectu Trapezie affinis. Frons ho rizontatin rectiusculus, subtilissimé denticulatus. i bre- viter “— culati. Brachium = carapacem paulo exsertum. RELLA, Dana.—Carapax subquadratus, paulo convexus, levis, franks horeonialis, 6-spinoso-dentatus. ‘Tarsi unguiculati. Brachium ultra carapacem longe exsertum. Fam. III. PORTUNIDA. Pedes postici natatorii, tarso laminato. Ramus maxillipedis Imi internus lobo interno instructus. Palatum colliculo utrinque sepissime divisum. Corpus sive latum sive angustum, oculis sat brevibus. ‘aun. Ja * F ; pon. + Very near ae but the pealasin plate or patito ts strongly alte by @ ridge either side. Besides, the uch narrower and more convex than in the Actex, being subglobose above, a Ka Voy, oS the aie ‘ igs 7, fe oe Pole perg pane cent in the Astro- ée, plate 6 3-7, ormbron and- Jacquin § This J Ong [2] xi, ne ge & Zoology. 129 1, LUP PINA, —Sutura sterni mediana segmenta tria intersecans. Palati colliculi prominentes 1. Pars antenne externe mobilis hiatu orbite non occlusa, orbita jacendo apt - 1. Scyrra, De Haan.*—Valde latus et crassus, marginibus MoisHaribos simul sumtis bene arcuatus, antero-laterali longiore quam postero-lateralis. Pedes antici breviores, crassissimi, manu ae tumida, non angulata vel prismatica. 2. Lupa, Leach. t—Valde latus, marginibus anterioribus totis simul sumtis Hane arcuatus, Manus elongaté trigona aut pris- matica, costa G. 3. Asiearrnir, De Haan Dana.—Angustior. es tact fron- ruPA, Dana.—Transversus. iene frontalis antero- inches angulo convenientes, fronte recto, emarginato. Basis antenne externse subcylindricus, hiatu orbitee multo angustior. 2. Pars serie! externe mobilis hiatu orbite omnino Bee basis proces- m occlusa, orbitd plus minusve rem . 6. sade Latry.—Latus. Frons dimidio latitudinis cara- pacis longior; margo antero-lateralis longitudinalis. Articulus antenne externe Imus prelon mF , 2dus orbita remotissimus. Pedes a longi, manu elongata 6 yBpis, De Haan, Dana. §—Angu ustior. Frons dimidio latitudinis carapacis brevior; margo ——s obliquus. Articulus antenne externe Imus ie (s) , 2dus orbita paulo remotus. Pedes antici longi, manu e paras A G. 7. Lissocarcinus, White. || -Suborbiculatus, levis, subporce el- lanus. Articulus antenna externe Imus brevis, fere longitudi- nalis, articulo sequente orbita parce remoto. Pedes nudi; antici breves, brachio ultra carapacem vix saliente, manu perbrevi. 2. ARENZINA.—Sutura Bernal mediana segmenta tria intersecans. Palatum colliculo utringue non divisum. Ramus maxillipedis Imi internus ad apicem late ‘sisatorstin triangulatus lineamque media- ham fere attingens. * Faun. Japon. 11. ti t Teneons, Pontus and Ach pig af De Bae. et Japon. 8, 9,) the distine- Ons between which shia appe t to be sust . + Faun. Japon. 8. Fetides. ey here ad 7 sg the va of De Haan, which di- Vision he pee to the Lape forceps ( 456). The lus of Adams and White, (Crust. Voy, Samarang, Yi, ir " f 4,) appears to be identical mid Amie f De Haan, which . = “auna Japon. 10. Includes both Charybdis and Oceanus o aan, whic a ws shad ino one one another by imperceptible gradations, sei are me distin- = of abe ob the “Thalamites Hexago- nales” of characters. Correspon ; Voy. tine amarang, 45. ters fi a species collate d by us, in connection with ate enieicn by White. Srcoxp Series, Vol. XI, No. 1.—July, 1851. > t~, ¥ 130 Scientific Intelligence. G. Arenzus, Dana.—Lupe affinis. Carapax valde latus, antice arcuatus. Pars soteqae externz mobilis hiatu orbit insita. Manus prismatica.* 3. PORTUNIN.—Sutura sterni mediana segmenta duo intersecans. Colliculi palati seepius obsoleti. G. Portunus, Fabr.—Angustus, margine antero-laterali breviore quam postero-lateralis. Fam. IV. PLATYONYCHIDA. Pedes postici natatorii, tarso lJaminato. Ramus maxillipedis Imi in- ternus lobo interno non instructus. Palatum colliculo utrinque non divi- sum. Corpus angustum. G. 1. Carcinus, Leach.t—Pedes postici male natatorii, tarso an- gusté lanceolato. Carapax parce transversus. . Portumnus, Leach.—Pedes 5ti natatorii tantum, tarso lan- ceolato, acuto. Carapax non Son! quam longior. . 3. PLatyonycuus, Latr.t—Pedes 5ti ne tantum, tarso Tato, elliptico. Carapax latior peat lon . Potysius, Leach.—Pedes 2di, 3tii, di, 5ti toti natatoril, ‘tarsia late lanceolatis. Fam. V. PODOPHTHALMIDZ. Pedes postici natatorii, tarso laminato. Ramus maxillipedis 1mi internus lobo interno instructus. Corpus latum, antice valde transver- sum, orbitis oculisque longissimis. G. PoporputHautmus, Lamarck. Lecro I. TELPHUSINEA, ve. CANCROIDEA GRAPSIDICA. - Fam. I. TELPHUSIDA. Carapax subquadratus aut orbiculato-quadratus. Palatum colliculo utrinque sepius divisum. [Species Eriphiis paulo affines. ] G. 1. Tetruusa, Latr.—Articulus ponies a Stius sub- quadratus, Zdus oblo ongus. Carapax subqua yLus, Latr.—Articulus naaiiaedie externi Stius subtriangulatus, Qdus oblongus. 2g ae ees ee * This genus is instituted for the Lupa cribraria, which differs from the rene ques in the characters stated. This s species occurs in the shallow waters off a a Xaiva * Seng Pu. Illust. Zool. 8. Africa) is described as near Carcinus. ; the antero-lateral margin 1-dentate and shorter than ee ae a ests eu poet of the 5th pair of legs wider than in Careius ; the 3d bi ee of the outer Pog sn s subquadrate and carinate at base, with the inner or the next joint just aboye its middle, a form which occurs Platyonyehas ¢ Anisopus of De Haan, Faun. Japon. sy ne Zoology. 131 G. 3. Vatpivia, White.*—Articulus maxillipedis externi 2dus _ brevior quam latior, 3tius longior quam lati 0 ee » 4. Poramia, Latr.—Articulus maxillipedis externi 3tius apice subtriangulatus anguloque apicali 4tum gerens. Palatum colli- culo utrinque bene partitum., An hic pertinet genus Galene Haanii ?+ Leero II. CYCLINEA, ver CANCROIDEA CORYSTIDICA. Pedibus maxillipedeque Imo Cancrivts affinis. Palatum colliculo utrinque non divisum. Antenne extern obsolete. Carapax angustus, suborbiculatus. Branchie numero septem. G. 1. Acanruocycius, Lucas.t—Carapax orbiculatus. Pedes lon- gitudine mediocres, tarso uncinato. . 2. Corystorpes, Lucas./—Carapax oblongus, ellipticus. Pe- des longiores, tarso styliformi, longo. Antenne interne fossis carentes. 2. Additional note to the Remarks on the Classification of the Maioidea ; by James D. Dana.||—The following genus by Kroyer should be added to the synopsis given in the last number of this Journal. . ° 2 og Greenland. Kréyer gives the following generic characters :-— G. Crion cETES.—Cephalothorax depressus, subtriangularis, eadem fere longitudine ac latitudine, antice truncatus, fronte lata rostroque ho- rizontali, bifido, brevissimo. Pedes 2di paris duplicem cephalothoracis Nes; pars antennarum externarum terminalis mobilis brevissima. Ab- domen sex constat articulis.—The name Chioneecetes is from zw, nix, and OvxntHS, incola. A t See page 127, where it is placed its the Ozine. The branchial cavity is very large, as in Potamia, and contains outside of the branchize a large een Space. The shell of a specimen from the Sandwich Ids. closely like the G. natalen- sis of Krauss, has the appearance of a fresh-water or land species, the texture less calcareous than in most marine species. The specimen was not collected by the writer, and its exact habitat js not known. Krauss’s species occurred under stones on the shores at the mouth of a river in South Africa. C Orbign, s. Am. 29, pl. 15, ign. S. Am. 31, pl. 16. i canes eae Last eines tune J ournal.p, 425. 4 Tidskrift, ii, 249. lor, Bia 132 Scientific Intelligence. 3. Microscopic examination of Soundings, made by the U. ms Coast Survey off the Atlantic Coast of the United States; by Pro JW. Baitey, ( to. with a plate ; ii, of the Saathtvaisn Contributions to Knowledge.)—After special details with referenee to the charact f the material in each case ounding, Prof. Bailey ach gives the following very important statements as the general results of the examinations. 1 he most remarkable fact determined by the examination of the above mentioned soundings is, that in all the deep soundings, from that of fifty-one fathoms S. E. of Montauk Point, to that of ninety fath- oms 8. E. of Cape Henlopen, there is a truly wonderful development of minute organic forms, consisting chiefly of Levine. which occur in an abundance rivalling those vast ie ar nalogous forms ys na than in any of the others; while Textilaria atlantica, although pres- ent, is by no means so abundant as in ** G, No. 8, 89 PBs ¥ 3d. Infusoria, as well as Polythalamia, occur in the dee undings ; but the infusoria are few in number, and consist of Coacinodieci, Galli- oe suleata, bone other species, which probably swim freely in the an; while none of the littoral parasitic species, such as Achnanthes, lahat, Biddulph, Striatella, and Synedra are found. th. It is worthy of notice that in the deep soundings not a single ecimen was hii Polythalamia belonging to the Plicatilia of es 4 D’Orbigny,) while a number of these to occur in vast qu usntities eae the soroe: of ‘Florida and the West ated afier the deposition of the chalk formation, in which no trace of orms occurs, while they: . very abundant in the tertiary depos- ites. Their entire absence in the deep soundings, where vas Ts tiary beds were deposite 5th. The deep soundings were all from localities which are more OF less under the influence of the Gulf stream, and it is not improbable that the high temperature of the waters along the oceanic current may be the cause of i immense development of organic life, making its path, as is shown by the soundings, a perfect milky way of Polythalamia forms. deposits under Charleston may have been produced under the similar influence of an ancient gulf stream 6th. From the presence of such great numbers of Polythalamia in the deep soundings, there results a very large proportion of calcareous matter, thus presenting a striking difference between them an t quartzose and felspathic sands nearer shore. ”” ae r a Astronomy. 133 7th. The littoral sands obtained in shallow soundings at first view ap- pear to afford little promise of affording any Infusoria. But notwith- standing their coarse, and, in some cases, even gravelly nature, they all yield by levigation a considerable number of silicious Infusoria, which in variety and abundance exceed those found in the deep soundings. th. None of the soundings present anything resembling the vast ac- cumulations of Infusoria which occur in the Miocene infusorial marls of Virginia and Maryland: and, indeed, I have never found, even in estuaries, any recent deposit at all resembling the fossil ones, in abund- ance and variety of species, with the exception of the mud of a small creek opening into the Atlantic near Rockaway, Long Island. 9th. The occurrence of the pebble of limestone with encrinal plates rd. 10th. In addition to the quartzose grains in the soundings, fragments of feldspar and hornblende (recognizable under the micruscope by their cleavage planes and color) are found. The quartz, however, predomi- nates, its grains being sharp and angular in the deep soundings, and often rounded or even polished in the shallow ones. IV. AsTRoNomyY. 1. On the new Ring of Saturn; by W. C. Bonn, Esq., Director of the Observatory of Harvard University, (Ast. Jour., vol. ii, No. 1, May, he first diagram of the new interior ring of Saturn was made by the night of the 11th of November, 1850. The mem- Orandum in the note-book runs thus :— ‘November 11th, 224 50™ sidereal time, (=7" 30" mean solar of the line where the ring crosses the ball. oF any object which we look at. Am very confident of having seen At a second division of the ring, near the inner edge of the inner ng. cae 134 Scientific Intelligence. ** November 15th, 74 830™. Examined the new ring of Saturn with different powers, best definition with 400. New ring ‘sharply defined ; edge next the ball. W.C. Bond thinks he sees the new ring clear of connection with the old, but the side next the old ring is not so definite as next the planet, so that it is not certain whether the new is connected with the old ring or not. Where the dusky ring crosses Saturn, it ap- pears a little wider at the outside of the ball than in the middle. Where the new ring crosses Saturn, it appears not so dark as the shadow of the ring below on the body of the planet.” $8 Pom. e best definition of Saturn’s ring we have ever had. G. P. Bond examined with powers 140 and 400. Cannot be sure that the new ring is divided from the old one, but there can be no oubt " that it exists; its inner edge is sharply defined. I did once or twice fancy, with the higher powers, that there was a division between the and new rings. All the southern region of Saturn is dusky and rior with belts, Outer diameter of outer ring, ¢ i ; = 43"'9 Inner diameter of inner ring, ‘ : . 29 °3 Breadth of outer ring, ‘ bs ae Inner diameter of dusky r ring, . 26°3 Distance of its inner edge from old ring, ‘ « According to Encke’s measures, Astr. Nach., No. 338, the inner diameter of the inner ring should be, at the above date, about 29/8; whereas, by the above. measures, we make the inner diameter of the new ring to be only 26-3.” ur observations, continued to the 7th of January, fully confirmed the estetnauons which # bad drawn from those of the 11th and 15th rs) ber our Rope coast, to the southeastern extremity of the Caspian sea- no part of the United States will the eclipse be total; the greatest “obscuration within our territory taking place at Cape Fiattery, ‘ite ® ‘ee 4 ae. ia yet ve " é sae ~ — Astronomy. 135 sixths (10° 3’) obscured on the north side. t San Francisco the greatest obscuration will take place before the Sun rises, but as the end of the eclipse may be seen, it is hoped it will be carefully observed not only there, but at every placein California and Oregon, where are suitable instruments, as a long time will elapse before another as favor- able an opportunity offers, for the determination of the longitude. Indeed, a total eclipse of the Sun at any particular place so seldom occurs, that but a small part of those inhabitants of the earth who remain stationary, ever have an opportunity of beholding this, the most den by the Moon at London, and again in May, 1724, at Paris, but in and th, 1875, will be, visible in Massach etts, or four in about rio sind: da quarter; but these eclipses, although beautiful, have little of the sublimity that attends a tot uration. . Rare therefore, as is, in general, the occurrence of a central eclipse at any particular place, it occasionally happens, that some places are, ine years, 121 > 1831, was crossed in Alabama by that of November 30th, 1834, and in Virginia by that of September 18th, 1838, and in 1853 the two eclipses of June 6th and November 30th, will both be: central in the Pacific Ocean in long. about 125° West, lat. 2° South #*these are, how- ever, but exceptions to the general rule, and the places thus favored are nearly points on the surface of the Earth. — ; The width of the shadow of the Moon on the 28th of July next, will vary as usual whilst passing over the Earth, but in Greenland, Norway, ig aig tir gy 136 Scientific Intelligence. Sweden and Prussia it will be about 140 geographical miles. _ If, there- fore, the central path given below, be carefully marked on a good map, and a line be drawn parallel thereto to the north and another to the south, at the distance of seventy miles or a little less therefrom, the places at which the eclipse will be total will be easily seen, there being of course some doubt as to those situated like Elsineur, just within the edge of the shadow, asa small error in the Moon’s. tabular latitude is not uncommon. Within the lines thus drawn are included in America several of the Russian settlements southeast of Sitka, part of British Oregon, two of the forts of the Hudson’s Bay Company on the Great Slave Lake, the winter harbor of Capt. Ross in 1830, and of Capt. Parry in 1822, the Northern part of the Island of Disco, in Baffin’s Bay and several o the Danish villages on the Western coast of Greenland ; and at Christiana, Koeningsburg, Warsaw, and Nicolaef, also the cities of Bergen, Gottenburg, eakcrova, Calmar, Frederickshall, Jorkoping, Dantzic, Elbing, Pillau, Jitomir and Cherson; and in Asie Tifflis an ou, between the Black and Caspian, besides many others of less note; but Sitka, and Stockho Im, Copenhagen and Odessa are not included within these limits, the two sees ese situated a little too far to the north, and the two latter to the s The most Faxoeable of all sirn older 6 for ae the eclipse will be = Greenland, in the southern part the Baltic, betwee: “and Koeningsburg; as the Moon being there quite high "the care ek total darkness will be greater than ere nearer the ho where central, in the vicinity of Port 38sec. rs 39. ec., and where cena in the vicinity of poet Qn Although, as 3 ite a ked, the diameter of the perfect shadow on the Earth, is emir geographical miles, the extent of the partial shadow is comparatively:very great. indeed: if we reduce the | time of the end of the eclipse at Sitka, and of the beginning at War- saw, to a common meridian, as that of Greenwich, it will be seen that 6200 English miles, the de of the Sun, 61 seconds before it will end at Sitka, on the left; the Sun, throughout the inter- - vening space, being more or less obscur = he elements of the Sun and Moon, for the following computations were deduced ‘from the English Nautical Almanac, but their diameters and the paralliigt the latter, were increased by the quantities recently recommended by Prof. Airy as the result of twelve years observations (1836 to 1547) ‘at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. The ellipti- city of the earth being tapiidered to be s4ath. ie ee q a“ aes ss y seal oe ee Astronomy. 137 Path of the Central Eclipse, or of the centre of the shadow of the Moon over the Earth, on Monday, July 28th, 1851. { Eclipse Central at 2 0 * e So Po a wt2D je) i) * 2k bo bo 89 to tL row aT Ot bo o ns ay SooooeooSoSoOoSoSoOSOSOSCC OS bo? oO bo i Se of the In fete. : In Longitude, Peng ra In Latitude, | In Longitude, 1 ° Z m. s€C.| o 1 ° i 53 427 N) 137 476 W.] 2 53 0 | 62 589 N.| 0 O€E. 12°7 136 31-2 54 0 44-4 0 508 55 192 133 408 55 0 23°6 1 ae 56 388 130 139 56 0 56 22 57 82-7 127 51:3 57 0 | 61 473 3 ise 58 53-4 124 12-0 58 0 288 4 70 60 50°3 118 37-2 59 0 101 4 551 62 39°3 112 56-9 3 0 O | 60 611 5 42:8 4 6 107 59°7 1 0 31-9 6 303 65 19-0 103 192 2 0 12° 4 175 66 211 98 52:4 3 0 | 59 527 8. 44 67 14°7 94 32°7 4 0'-f 898 8 511 0-9 90 17-4 5 OTe" oe 9 37-7 40°6 86 4°5 6 O }-58 521 10 24-2 69 14:5 81 530 7 0 31-4 11105 42-9 77 428 8.0. 10°4 11 568 70 6:2 73 83:8 9.0.}| 57 4971 12 43:0 24°6 69 26-2 10 0. 27-5 $203. 38°3 65 205 li 5°6 14 15:7 475 61 1738 Sh » 12 0 | 56 43-4 } 29 52:5 57 17-4.aher 13 0 20°8 15.483. 53°6 54 B4y P14 0 | BB OT 9G 16 35°6 53-4 53 216°) Page 0 ff s8aT Da ee Y 505 49 307 |, 167 0 2410-4. | 18 104% | 43°9 45 45-2 “44 0 154 47@ | 18 583. 4 33°9 42 57 18 i ee 19 466 20°6 38 328 . | 58 578" =| 20 855 10 43 35 69 “on O° | 825 21 250" 69 56-7. 33 42°9 TS ie ts << 60 22 16-844 45:1. | 81 48-0 *22°-0. 52 401 23. 6:4 WZ} 28 863 eG 1s? i. sh 68 59000 25 31-7 Be id 457 | (24 517 323 fF 22 842 BO Pie, gBT6 7 34] 26 "463 210 | 21251 page Gey, od Fo 42-2" 94 20 17-2 a ee ae cn arg 27 89°7 ae OT 57-4 19 103 | 98.0 | 49.482 28 392 45:1 18 44 £990 Je. 165 29 409 32°5 16 595 ) 0 | 48 436 80 452 19-6 15 55°6 i) 94. $1697.75, 6-4 14 598 |. 89 0 | 47- 33 3:9 66 52-9 13: 509 7 0 | 46 . 195. ooh. 391 499) [34 0 | 18 35 408 > 25°71 1 498° 35 0 | 45 332 1 96.37 “108 10 506 36 0 | 44 46: 38 48-1 65 56-2 9 523 86 30 i 9 420 41:3 8 548 37.0. | 48-4 40 40°8.. | 26-2 7 581 7 30 55 41 45-2. 10°8 7 22 0 | 42 58% 25] 42 566 64 55:1 6 70 38.80 17R ec, | 44 190 © B92 5 125 39 0 | 41 pre ie 45 58:9 23'1 4 188 89 30, £40 400° 8 161 67 3 25:7 39 40 ‘fs: 139 49 22°6 68 50-1 2 33°2 39 50 -|°39 33-7 51 78 333 1 414 39 53 88 591 52 41°9 16-2 0 501 MEAN TIME AT GREENWICH. se gmp Siete gone of the central path. or ‘On the meridian of the place, tral eclipse on the earth 2h. 14m, 64sec. Secon them Vol XII, No, 34.—July, 1851. 7 18 ing? sti eae a 4.4 138 The beginning and end, &c. of the eclipse at the following places h Scientific Intelligence. ‘ are expressed in mean and civil time of each particu angles of the points on the Sun’s disc, at which the obscuration will and en Sun towards the right mot invert; added thereto. ular lace. e are counted from the vertex or highest point of the and, as seen through a telescope that ~~ for an astronomical telescope, 180 degrees should e Sun will rise at Sitka and Port Stewart at 3h. 56m. and 4h. 3m. and will set at Tifflis at 7h. 20m. The obscuration at the Observatory at Cambridge will be on the northern, and at Sitka on the southern oe tee ete ee limb of the Sun Sitka. Cambridge Observatory. _ Latitude, 51° «9! 64! 42° 227 48” aaa West, 185. 17 12 71 h. sec. < f the eclipse, ......... —- — —aAmM. 7 48 104M ficnatiad abscaration, inde “e---| 4 27 36 8.37 51 End of Rise COUDSS, 22. . 5. 5 oes we § 1 38 9 31 18 ion of ee eclipse, => 1°48 °°8 | Digits eclipse 11° 61’ — Bo 4! petals of | Pein ca gaee cll _- — 850°°9 23194 — 262° 1 F, Providence. Niakernak. 62° :47%19"" 70° 47" 0” bd = 29. 28 538 23 36 Dios. Ste, h. m, sec. 5 boo 9 at 9 29 56 aM. 5.638 54 1G Ser eg 55. 22 838. 50 56 42. 35 39 g 6. B28). 11 88, 45 Duration of total ecli ‘: 2 4g 3 38 Duration of whole dot.[=- — — | 1 52 16 8 49 Angle of beg. of eclipse, .|"— —~ 58° +4 os do.*, of aad of eclipse, ..|. 282%1 >" 235°°9 At the least distance o: Moon -N. 11/96 |Moon south 0’”43 ok hie All centres, diff. 8. D. 45/53 | diff. 8. D. 49/05 diff S.D. 55 5706 Bergen. Christiana, ~Gottenburg—_| peer itae. «<2 Sates 60° 947 9th 59° 54! 49/7 ar 42’ 4” pein East, 5 1823 56 39 h, ‘ eA oa a . m sec. | Eclipse begins, ......... 2 15:43PM | 2 42 85 Pm,j.2 51 48 Pe Total eclipse begins, 8 19 59 45 54 8 54 54 Least distance of centres, 21° 42 47 15 56 36 Total els eae 23 24 48 37 58 18 Eclipse ends, .......... 24 «66 4 48 18 4 5t 226 Duration total cap e, 3. 25 2 48 3 24 im “ whole-doz.... — 3 4°. 6 45 5 38 " ‘Angle of love ‘of Recfipok a5 102°'3 103°°8 of end, 9870-3 287-4 291° At the least distance of |MoonN’rth 18/"88/South 34/""70\North 18/67 5 tilltibk Be { diff 545 cae ht gpa eae a) % es : ¥ or aan Miecellanedus Intelligence. 139 Dantzic. Pillau.? | oningsburg. Latitude North,.,....... 64° 24! 15/7 54° -83f 1389" Fi 42’ 5077 RoE East, 18 40 15 19. 52.30 20 380 6 : h. m. sec. h. m. sec. h.. m. sec, Eclipse begins,......... 3) 29:08 ape [8 8k 28 pape Sere Fede Total peatipe se begins,....| 4 30 87 4 85 34 4384 Least distance of sak 82.4514 2718 89 39 Total eclipse ends,...... 83. 51 88 52 41 10 Eclipse ends, .......... 5 “Sl 10 5.385 49 5 88 4 Duration total ~ 3° 14 8 18 ole asa es 2 3 2 1 eps 9° OSS Angle 1] dediaien: « diaz 110°-0 111°°0 111°4 1 ee RR ER a 293°°6 293°1 a the "et distance of Moon N’rth 14/58! South 6/"80/South 20'7-02 Ss oe Ses | diff S.D. 53/"48/ diff 8. D. 53/"28idifi. S.D. 53/"13 Warsaw. Nicolaef. fli Seances epee ain te hehe: belies cake 46° 58/ soy? ALS ALS: Ale Tongitade piglets 3 ita 31 58 48 44 50 40 * sec, m™, 8eC, begins; si3s.45. 48 54pm} 4 42°13 pm] 5 44 31 Pw. Total eclipse begins, 5 39 «44 6. 875.21 ast distance of centres, 46 20 40 50 8 35 Total eclipse ends,...... 47 16 41 56 39 48 Eclipse ends, .......... 6 85 19 Duration total eclipse,. . P61 9/092 2 aT eo Whole: do,....} 2 0 33 Do BB)i 568 = se Fg Angle of beginning,, a5 112%5 - 120°5 . “12699. 2s, a 52/793 8. D- 0’"B9dift 8. D. rae oS OS Ube et oe ra Bees lat. 56° 9’ 31”, lon. 15° 35’ 137 ES the apparent North latitude of the Moon at 4h. 15m. 35sec. will be ‘tes and the he will be total from 4h. 13m. 5lsec: to 4h: 17m. 16se t Elsineur, lat. 56° 2’ 20’, lon. 12° 37? 30” E., the tones bers of the centres (53-84) | will take place. at 4h, 2m. Bse ec., and as the Feet, CoPenha agen, in lat. 55° 40’ 53’, lon. Foe ey 57! me the least distance, (65-9 8) will take place at 4h. 3m. Isec., and the magnitude of the Speeraiion will be 11° 56’ on the north limb of the Sun.— Boston | Daily Adv Boston, ea He 1851, y. arses seabeccc de - Ele se pene Let (From the National Intelligencer May 3, 1851. tes lay before our readers a statement from Pee < h : fessor Page ae the Electro-magnetic Locomotive ; and when We regard the fact that the highest power ever attained before his ex- Periments was less than half a horse power, and that gosting probably. Plication, we cannot be indifferent to so great a result, and the high ae with which it seems to be fraught: - Editors :—The electro-magnetic locomotive. aes a very fvorabie trip on Tuesday last, more especially when it is taken into nt that we were constrained to make this trial po only one: — ri eee PN 5 Coad dct eis beats 29702 ae cS om t Teast distance of t Nae Moon N'rth 43'"581% vorth : -9\Nort Me “ay v diff 140 Miscellaneous Iotelligedt gs half (or even a little less,) of the power the engines and battery are capable of yielding. Each engine, calculated upon the basis of my stationary engine, ought to give at the lowest estimate 12 horse power, which would make the locomotive 24 horse power. The actual power I have not been able to ascertain; but the following data may serve to give some idea of its power. he locomotive, with the battery fully charged, weighs ten and a half tons. With the seven passengers taken in motion. Ordinarily, upon railroads the allowance is ten pounds to a ton, but this appli friction of locom can only be accurately ascertained by experiment in each case. The =z MiecDibancs Intelligence. 141 was backed three times, but who Pipe! losing headway. Itis a very important ik interesting feat which I demon- strated some years since, that the asiaiel power is greater than the 5 08. Ss Es an hour, and about seven more than in any former jr Washington, May 1, 1851. CHA SG. Pack. Meeting of the American Association for 2G “Adgeiieuea of Science at Sens —The Cincinnati meeting of the Association commenced on Monday, May 5th, and continued through the week. The attendance was large, and the papers presented numerous and important, as will be seen from the following catalogue. The depart- ment which had the most attention was that of Geology, while at the p receding meeting at New Haven avers were very few papers on this Subject. The papers read are as follo AsTRoNomy, Be Puysics, &c. On the limit of pere matey of a direct and reflected sound. By Prof. Henry, of the Smithsonian Institu Prof $e tue for peer a Altitudes by. means of the Boiling Point, By On the Constitution of Saturn’s Ring. By Prof. Perrce, of Harv. port of the Committee u Spon ey Mineu's System m of hgjeeneda Observa- rae By athe Prrror ie f the D. Bacug, Superintendent of t . 8. Notes on the Zenith Telescope in ; dae padcing iatitn es-in the arg Surveys by . Talcott’s Met hod, me on the reduction of the Observations. By Prof. A. D. Bacue. urrent Spud New York Bay, from Observations in the Coast Survey. By 0 : HE, Co parison of Curves showing the hourl changes of Magnets “Declination at Philadelphia, Toronto, and Hobartown. By Prof n & Modification of A Apparatus for the teaeetion of Time, for Astronomical Purposes by means of Electricity. By W. Wurpemany, of Washington Ottis On the oe of the Sun ue hy Centre of Gravity of the Solar System. By EO, , of St. na new metres of ARTS constructing the Integration by Quadratures. By Rev. Tu. On the Lo ‘ade f = Cincinnati Observatory by Telegraphic Operations, in ao with the © 5: C param a ey. By Prof. f O-M. Mrrcuet, Director of the ieinnati O et oe: gd Theory > of Statements by Proportions. By Prof. Tomas Ramey, of cinn: Ona ah hod of distinguishing between Bi-axial and Uni-axial os when in bs “neta and the oe: ag of i xamination of several supposed U. Micas By Wu. M P. Brake, of New York. Be dha the e Orbital rtd of Storms, as opposed to the received pot ona of gen- hae ral winds, founded o n the alleged influence of equatorial temperature. By W. C. Esq,, of New Yor T On the the Mean Rig ct ae of Cincinnati, and the Methods of calculating Mean emperatures. By Dr. Josep Ray, of innati. on Oceanic ai on Meteorological Phe- KES. On a new Form of Railroad Gurves. By Rev. T Ona 4 Curious fact in relation to a lace gam by Cuassz, of Mass. « ‘ ae blag . . 3 $ =i _* Fae ? Flot &e | u ae o 2 142 Miscellaneous Intetticte. 7 ¥ jy 4 CHEMISTRY AND ea On the Detection of Organic Miasm in the By Gzorex C. Sonazrrer, Prof. of Chemistry and Natural ‘Piso, Centre aie pe Ky. On the Cause of Saltpetre Explosio CHAEFFE FER, Danville, Ky. On a Chemical Effects pebducal by “Leble ‘aldctrical currents. By Danie Vaver On the “existence of Phosphorus in certain Des nie — Stones. By Doct. D. D. Owen, U.S. Geologist of the Chippewa Land Distr. ae the Association of certain Minerals m Northern New York, x Frankuin B. oucu, M.D. GEOLOGY. Results of an Esplin of the Coral Reefs of Florida, in connection with the U. S. Coast Surv By dhe assiz, of Harvard. On the Post- detent date of the Red Sandstone Rocks of New J ersey, and the Connecticut Valley, as shown by a remains. By W.C. Reprietp, of New York. On the Fossil Rain-marks in the Red Sandstone Rocks‘of New Jers Ay! and Con- necticut, and their authentic character. By W. EDFIELD, of New York Parallelism of the Paleozoic Rocks of New York with those of the “Western fg ae of all these — the Paleozoic strata of Europe. By Prof. James Hatt, ilurian Rocks of the Lake Superior Land District. By Prof, James Hatt, Paleontologst of the S Sot rand Distribution of Fossil Specimens in the amar pep . low wa, Wisoonain, and Minnesota. By Drs. D. D. Owxn, and B.S of N Harmony, Ind. pes the po Oe, aD of the Lowest Sandstones of Wisconsin, Towa, and Min- A betrtick of an Inrottin be be final Report on ‘the Geological Surveys made in Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnes a he Reds 1847-8-9 Ince 50, containg a Synop- sis of the Geologie features of ny. By D. i Ae ® fe a--) a ee Bt ial a4 - a aie a io) nomena of the associated i saiece occ By essrs, ge d Wur On the different peat of Elevation which haye give oti iri on oft 8 North America. By J. W. Fosrer, U.S. Geologist. for the Land District 0 Song ni Ei the On the Superticial cigar of the North-West, By Onar.es of the U.S. Geological Survey o e Superior. p On the Rauivalene of the "hae of North Eastern Ohio and a Portage, Che- mung and Hamilton Rocks of New York. By Cuartes Warrriesey, Esq. On the Goniatite Limestone of the _ Slate os Rockford, gine? County, Indiana. By D. Curisry, sees Oxfor On Quartz cha in the Sandstone Conglomerate e, and Reasons for rejecting the Theory of W ee, By Prof. NERD, of Cleveland. Notes on in Sine ey of the bicnstiag Hore the United States and Mexico. . W. Emo: law of depos by ee sie tide. ae Lieut, Cuartes H. Davis, USN, Su Natori t of the Ameri utical Alm: ‘eport of the pares sm rr to Bact 4 Legislature of Pennsyl- vania in reference to the pu ae e the final seotieedl report of that State. By Soromon W. Roserrs, Civil E Doin AND Borany. On the limits of the class of Polypi and the rank and succession of their chief natural sabe: By Prof. L. Acassiz, of Harvar ta e Points of the Structure and, Reproduction of Physalia, By Prof. L. oe Shs sscdal Siaassbecios of th Star Fish d Crinoid FY Prof. L. Acassi” On the special Homologies of 5 Se By Pro — the he sees fossils exhibited baie he yee By Prof. L. a ; 24 oe ae > Se * tea ate ‘ mm 2. Oe: * i Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143 On the Trevaeing f Fie soar ime of og Ganda ae . F. Pourtazs, Fon dis Capt: viel of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. By L. F. Pourrates, On a specimen of the Fossil Ox, found in Trumbull Co., Ohio. By Prof. Samven i oe “j i oat and habits of some of the acephalous Bivalye Mollusca. Mon tes Distribution of Crinoidea in the Western States. By Dr. L. P. Yanpett, Be fori Distribution of some species of Terrestrial and Fluviatile “Report tie avertebrat fossils exhibited before the Association. By Prof. J. L On certain Human and other bones from a caye near Elyria, Ohio. By Cuas. Wurrrizsey, Jr, of Cleveland. ‘ : On the Flora of Texas. By Dr. Gro, ENcEtmann, of St. Louis. By Dr. T. W On the History and Nomenclature of some cultivated Vegetables, By Dr. T. W. Harris, of Harvard College. 3. Gold in Arkansas, (from the N. O. Bee.)—Some weeks ago we men- tioned the fact that Mr. Snell, an accomplished mineralogist of our city, had discovered, in the course of scientific exploration in certain portions 4 oledo Blade represents Lake Erie as falling, and that there is e€ ome of your readers may be pleased to get facts from authentic records, Ed 2 “ <2 a. » a oe 4 ws ¥ The highest state of the lake in calm weather ever recorded, was in June, 1838, when it stood 5 feet 4 inches above the zero at Buffalo: on % 144 Miscellaneous Intelligéhce. % ft. in. 1839, May 11, it stood, 3 5 | 1846, May 16, 2 1840, May 14, 3 9 | 1847, May 16, 26 1841, May 18, 3 1 | 1848, May 1, 22 1842, May 5, 3 7 | 1846, May 19, 3 1 1843, ais > (supposed,) 2.8 | 1850, May 12, 28 1844, May 1 2 11) 1851, April 8, 211 1845, May iB 3 The very highest on record was by the tempest in the night of the 18-19 October, °44, at which time it rose to thirteen feet eight inches above the zero at Buffalo The very lowest on record, caused by a strong gale from northeast, was in the a of the 18th of April, 1848, when it fell to 22 in- ches below ze _ The idea of. a 2 periodia rise and fall, once in a few years, is repu- diated oy exact observe The general Phadeniiont is, that the surface reaches its maximum for the voags tant the first of July, then falls a little to about the first of October, then rises slowly to about the first of December, then falls rapidly to about the tenth of February, then rises (in March very rap- idly) and continues to rise until July. OBITUARY. Dr. 8S. G. Morron.—With sadness we record the death of an emi- ent man from the ranks of American science, Dr. Samueu GEORGE e Meson "of Philadelphia. He died on the 15th of May last, in his 53d year. The following paragr aphs fre ¢ obituary notices peblahed ae a decease, but i en: rfectly express our own high estimate of his “— and his many personal excellencies. hs 1 “Moron w val a native of Philadelphia, born in connec lieve, with the Society of Friends, which zens ‘distinguished i in the walks of¥§ fession, which he studied under the au Dr. I rish, he.rec se bt the honors of the de te from the University of Pennsylvania, but afterwards proceeded to Edinbur. ere he gradu- ated ag distinction, ney esteemed for his literary abilities, as well as his pro essional proficiency. Young, ardent, with the enthusi- asm of a pectic se gaat oe poetry was his first ambition—but manly sense rpose that enabled him to posipone the imagina- tive to tsa “solid agd useful, he tel tour of Europe, shook bands i i reland, the land of his ancestors, where strong inducements were offered.to retain him, and returned to his native muueys and to his native city, here to commence a career which, even’ agthat early moment, he had marked out, and to build up for himself aiitne not likely soon to be forgotten Iti is scarce neces- sary for us to efengpte success of his pro rofessional or merely medi- cal career. That was always oe For years, no physician in Phil- a e ?- +F ty fn » “yf Misc éllancous I; ntelligence. 145 € adelphia could boast a larger, few an equal practice. His claims to distinction, in this capacity, were proved by his well known work on nsumption and other valuable publications, as well as by his lectures at the Philadelphia Hospital, Pennsylvania College, and other medical Institutions with which he was at different times connected. ne would suppose that with the burthen of his heavy practice, and all the addition of these laborious collaterals pressing upon him, he could find but little leisure for other pursuits, and indulge but small hope of acquiring fame in a different path. His history is an example of what men can do, even under adverse circumstances, who are pa- to themselves and sufficient to themselves. Ever calm, but ever active, always prepared for the exigencies of his business duties, and ever any thing ever previously effected by the pen of the annalist or the wand of science. more durable impression on the philesophic mind, or have of it could beundertaken by none who knew him better or prized - It will Be all the more justly executed where there is a less y sensibility or eng y w Dr. Morton ‘away, anda pon the country more livel less oppressive appreciation of his loss. Let us Bay of at he was.a good, as well as great man; estimable i sctable: in all he t d did; a man of ih Gj » kind friend ; a . ] lary citizen. h inn ed: but his of science, it will be equally . His whole character was marked by singular proprie- a 19 Secoxp Senies; Vol, XII, No, 34—July, 1851. * s dl ew scientific works ever produced a stronger or ad a more ~ 146 Miscellaneous Intélligence. * ties. Asa man and a gentleman he was pen 4 amiable and accom- plished, simple and dignified. Few men of so.extended reputation ap- eared so unconcious of it; few men accomplished so much with so little apparent effort; few combined more varied powers, or a- greater variety of excellent traits, all founded on solid worth. Few men brought a happier countenance into a sick chamber, or inspired more confidence times presents.— Evening Bulletin, Philadelphia. eldom has our city been more deeply moved in its literary and pro- fessional ranks, by the ravages of death, than during the past a i in u house on the Sunday previous to the fatal attack, that he was never to tread those courts again; that we were delivering to one immortal be- . ing at least, the last public ministrations of grace that would ever fall- upon his ear. he manly form, the gentle mien, the thoughtful man- ner, the apparent vigor, gave hope and promise for future years of toil and usefulness) * * * *— Episcopal Recorder, Philadelphia. zeal in scientific research was not less to be admired than his cool countryman. Wherever science has her votaries, the news of Dr. Morton’s death will carry pain. * * *—New York Tribune @ May 20th. Dr. Morton was President of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia at the time of his decease, and his loss falls with special A marble tablet to his memory, appropriately inscribed, will be place by the Academy in its hall. : 5 f cl z Pty y: hy aA Me De, i 7 ‘ : Fin, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147 OERSTED. he name of Hans Curistian OrrsteD, the discoverer of electro-magnetism, has been added to the long list of those whom continental science has recently been called upon to mourn. It has been truly said of him, that the position which he occupied in Denmark was very similar to that of Humboldt in Germany. He was the phi- losopher, the scientist, the scholar,—the kind friend of youth, the judi- cious counselor of age,—one whom monarch and citizen alike de- lighted to honor. Qersted was born 1777, August 14, in Rudkjobing, deeply ‘imbued with tastes and sentiments similar to those | acterize the last writings of his life. ae ek ee At this time he proposed his new theory of the alkalies, a theory which All Oersted’s energies were immediately enlisted for the new field of Sink he = Sipe 148 Miscellaneous I. gd itual worlds. His books on ‘¢ The Spirit in ee “« N&tdral and Spiritual Culture,” ‘* Natural Science %n its relation sera and —must be and conti inue classic works, whatever may be indi- of land has very recently published a severe attack upon Oersted’s views, occasioned by the publication of his ‘Geist in der Natur.” But although Denmark has been one of the last a nations to learn how little our knowledge of the truth is advanced or facilitated by contests between theologians and scientists ; pre reception ‘of Bishop Mynster’s book shows that the great fact—that the true interpretation of revela- tions through moral and through physical media must necessarily coin- cide—is now at last appreciated in Denmar The fiftieth anniversary (jubilee) of Oersted’s appointment to his professorship in the University of Copenhagen was recently celebrated with great pomp. All ranks vied in showing him honor. The king mmediate environs of the capital. Itite newspaper in narrating the bate adds, ‘“‘ King and people agree in a strange estimate of the were and station of the scientific man, acco rding to our insular notions o not see how they pg have improved on th® sort of testimonial if ri had gained a battl > The following eS of his burial is from the Atheneum, of April 5:—“* It may perhaps be interesting to some of our readers to know how they bury a philosopher in Denmark. ‘The Saye ee has gone to his grave with a cortége such as waits on the march of kings. Thirty thousand ow ns—one-fourth of ‘the ee spelen of the capital—foriaed the procession which conducted him to his final place of repose. » Af the head of this crowd, the King was represented by his first se eres by the heir to the crown and other princes of the blood. ‘Then came the Chambers of the Diet, the Min- isters, the Council of State, pi Clergy, the Professors of the University and of the other educational establishments of Copenhagen, the Acade mies, A Scien and Fine Arts and other learned corporations, the my nearly all the members of the eponeee body, the munici- Saliogs: the youth of the schools, the trading corporations, and fin ally men of every rank lass—all contributing bey several distinctions to swell the one act of homage to hi so much to popu- larize science ia Denmark. ‘The thing was not according to the rules: —the Herald was not fairly represented in a procession like this. But rules which were to’be immutable are giving way on every hand :— and the Herald, B Sedieti as So great a figure through the twilight of the middle ages, is’@ mere phantom in the light of modern — a. G. Jacost.——Carb ber wal Jacos Jacos1 was born in Potsdaiet 1804, Dee. 10. His father “silversmith, of the Jewish faith. He was educated under the ca Lehmann, re a the Gymnasium at "Fon | in 1816, the Berlin Universit ivid- domapgpeesine | ‘. & Biblio graphy. 149 isiliones Ain ytics de gigs eva Simplicibus,” and is a treatise ofigreat analytic value. Among the — which he defended at this time, was the truth of the coupe of “Der Begriff der Mathemat ik ist der Begriff der ie nds iiberhaupt. Alle Wissenschaften miissen daher saben Methonstik zu werden.” The idea of Mathematies is the idea of Science in general ; All sciences must therefore strive to become Mathematics. The wide scope of Jacobi’ Ss — and the: many- -sidedness of his cul- ture, eee to his strong opinion a pecu fide welg nt to Konigsberg in "1825, and was spaitited Professor in that Gatwiesivw in 1827, a post which he retained until his death,—though theory of elliptic functions, and are e published in the Memoirs of the Berlin Aca emy and in Crelle’s Journal. ‘The first volume of a con- templated collection of his complete works appeared in 1846. rof. M. H. Jacobi, the electrician, the discoverer of the galvano-plas- a fe) Consequence of the extreme liberality of the opinions which he enter- tained at the time, his salary was reduced / the Prussian governm n ment. But no sooner had this been done, than the ‘ian government invi- one, and the Prussians were thus un willingly compelled not only to ee arrearages, but also to establish his salary at a ap sher rate than before His personal chardéler was very peculiar. His sajhiaeaace was great, his prejudices — his sarcastic powers hardly exceeded by those of Lichtenberg himself, He took a warm interest i the recent political disturbances of Praseiai although his position was extremely undefined ; eing characterized at one time by the Sebi it loyalty, at another by the most fervent republicanism. In Jacobi, science has not only lost One of her brightest ornaments, but a pean: $F defender of her interests, Pat, champion * who knew not how to yield. In the words ee 24 in a recent letter to the writer, ‘* The loss is not only fo for all who honor her, for she has lost a defender, able and: iaaroeses when her welfare was concerned, to set in motién- all the powers above and beneath, to break and hew open a path for her.” VI. Bie.iocRAray. Astronomical Observations, made under t : direction of M. F hares Lieut. U.S, Navy, during the e year | at the National Ob- Servatory, Washington. Vol. II, published by Mahotty of the Secre- tary of the Navy. , with an appendix of 167 pp., 4to. ‘ashington 1851.—This volume commences with an account of sev — of the prominent instruments of the Jbservatory, the modes of ing the observations, and other particulars, which make up t lirousion, The res sincera oce the next 427 The appendix contains, Jst, a chaptergon Neptune ; 2, on the Elecite-ghroonah, and “on Wind pe arent Charis. On the nhs Pi = ye : 150 Bibliography. & * last subject, Lieut. Maury has brought forward much thaffl not hith- erto been published, and views of interest to met eorologieal science = navigation, whether they are all sustained or not by further study. Some of the views on the Gulf Stream and the northern cur- ee we find stated as early as the year 1837 in ‘an article in this Journal by Mr. W. C, Redfield, and in part alluded to in 1835, vol. xxv, p- 131. But great additions have been made to our actual knowle dge of oceanic currents and the courses of winds,,and greater results promise to reward the skill and energy with which the researches are now prosecuted. We trust that Lieut. Maury may continue to_ have, rying out his system of investigations ; and we would commend the subject also to the commercial cruisers, who with little effort, might contribute to the general fund, facts of great value to commerce as respecting the magnetic character of oxygen, and other deductions from the researches of Ehrenberg on the organic life of the transported dust of the atmosphere. This part of the Report contains extended citations from Ehrenberg’s recent work ; and in view of the occurrence of South American forms of microscopic organisms in the Atlantic dust off the African coast, he suggests that the dust is carried off by ‘ the whirl- winds which ee. mi vernal equinox and sweep over the lifeless plains of the lower Orin > while those of * - arene equinox, take up the organisms of tt ie upper Orinoco and great Amazon basins.” The establishment of such a view will require feethsr havaatieied into the organisms of these different regions. Practical Mineralogy, Assaying and Mining, with a description of the useful minerals, and instructions for assaying and mining accord- ing to the simplest methods ; by FrepEricx Overman, Mining En ngineer. 16mo. Philadelphia, 1851. Lindsay and Bla kiston.—There is much practical information in this little work, but it is not all to be relied on. We learn on the 2nd page that granite is the oldest of “age ;” “to this class belong a aia Geet of parrot as r , pudding-stone or stratified roc and on page 7 the —— ite res ne is ranked with the ‘iddinaiet as rocks: on page a : canic rocks.” We mi ight go on in this citation of errors, but this will su sees ree a work is calculated to make error, rather than science, popul 3. A ‘Chart giviny an Ideal Scéttion of the Successive Geological Formations, with an actual’Geo logical section from the Atlantic to the Pacifie ocean, the whole illustrated by the characteristic fossils of each formation ; by James Hatt.—This geological chart by Mr. Hall is in- tended for class iitriction, and is well. adapted for this sage I “ee * fig. a ay 4 é : s od % | | ‘gh ~~ Bibliography. aor st section ‘and the upper portion by drawings of fossils. The section is an excellent representation, as far as can i single view, o the general principles of geology. Besides exhibiting the dynamics of century; by Rosert Bairp, 420 pp., 12mo. New York, 1851.— This work embraces two distinct parts; the first, the progress of the plete review was of course impossible in so small a compass. The author, without attempting to give a philosophical exhibition of the de- velopment of scientific knowledge, has briefly glanced at many of the Steps of progress under the head of the different departments of science and certain of the arts. y ‘a Ais of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York. Vol. » No. 2, April, 1851. ~ N. ate : the occurrence of the Caspian Tern (Sylo- chelidon caspius) in North America, p. 37. : * a: N. Lawrence: Description of a new species of Tyrannus—T. Cassinii—p, 39, and pl. 3, f. Q.<% j ees ‘ J. P. Ginaup: Description of a new species of Helinaia—H. brevi- pentis.—p. 40, and pls, £44 Se : C. B. Apams: Descriptions of new species of Partula and Achati- - eed - = +. ee 152 Bibliography. C. B. Avams: Analysis of the group of species#of Oy which is represented by C. Jamaicense of ‘Chennitz aug ; witha note on the genus ste = p- 6 sf J. Carson Brevoorr: Description of the Selene oh of Lace- pede, a fish whose sasinds has been doubted.—p. 68, a » 4. NGS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF ScrENCE— Fourth ESS held at New Hayen, Ct., August, 1850. fl pp. 8vo, with several lat Psi Sir Cu HARLES Lye, F.R.S., Pres . Geol. Soec.: Address Taivers’ at hc Fes pi a gory Means of the Geo Hania’ Society o of London, on the 21st of Feb 60 pp. vo.—This impor tant paper, but for its length, we should be glad to eames to the pigs of this Journal. zita Jounston, Esq.: Historical N ae of the Progress of the Ordnance Sur- rs in Scotland. 10 pp- 8vo. Edinburgh. 1851. ‘W. Mircueti: On the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard University. 16 pp. vo. nee PAPERS ON De Pas AL ENGINEERING.—No. nalytic ical investigation of the fee S papeetntnabe ent Boeen ure e, g team from the force of aoe with an Ieppticntiiad of the formula to the foundations of Fort pees mery, Rouse Pt, N. Y., by Bre - = Col, James L. Mason, Capt. U. S. Engineers. 8yo. Washington. 1 Joun Watson, “Be On Thermal LV eutilation, 41 pp. 8vo. New ¥ 1851. Beysamin Coutts Broptr, Esq., F.R.S.: On the condition of sete Sh ree at the moment of Chemical Change. pp. 7 50804 of Roy. Trans. part 2, for 1850. London. 1850. ASTRONOMICAL JOURNAL: hear > Vol. II, NO.1 oeacapersgraiger mays of = and Metis; Prof. C. Riimker—Observations of Clio, made with the Filar-Microme- ter of the ‘Washington Lateral a aot Ferguson—Letters from ee "Hub- bard to the Editor ;—On the New Ring of Saturn; W. C. Bond—On the ee of Saturn ; P. Bond: ay 28.—On the Ri tu @. eirce’s Circular Codrdinates ; Rev. : hails Hill_—Fyrom a letter of Prof. Riimker to the Editor— iar titude of Markree Observa- i i idi ircle; .A, ag bier vations of Metis, ooper’s Sie ae, Markree ; A. Graham.— From a Letter of Lieut. Gilliss to the Editor—F} ements and aphecial of Iris, for ae Nar. Paris. JUNE, 1850.—On the gasmenigeing pe d Orbigny. so 0% Nicothoe; P. a an Benedon.— —Reproductive organs and embryology of ion of P n part as a with that of one 5) nD try . tropical; St. Hilaire—New Melasto caiiecens Nauvdin.—On the family of the Ziphioid Cetacea, and-more especially the Zphins cavirostts of the Mediter ranean 5 P. Gervais—On the genital armature of Inse . Duthi M. Edwards——N0O. 2.—On Brachiopoda; d'Or bign ip Case breccia ad bones of caverns near ar Montpelli ier ; a erres — Nee tien n the classification of in. tive organ of the a lan site: and Rafilesiacew ; H. A. Weddell——On the ry ogeny of the Larch; Jf, N. Geleznoff—Classification of the ee C. spel ti On the Blochius eeu ;-—Respira ing system of gg ialis pM. d kem.—On the seat of the Sense of Smell in the Articulata nee: on the sense of smell and hearing in insects ; ee. r—On the cerebral 1 folds in n, and iolet, Nicinal Teach: b a the order of Primate P, ae atiolet—On the 1 PuateE I, Vou. XII, 2nd Ser. MARAKI iy "4 { 3 . GERMAN WORKS ON GEOLOGY, PALEONTOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, PUBLISHED BY E. SCHWEIZERBART, Booxsetzer, Sturreart. Dr. H. G. Brown’s Lethea Gleognostica, 3d edition, prepared with the assistance of Dr. F. Roemer. This work consists of a large series of plates of fossils in 4to, arranged according to the order of the rock strata, together with text to correspond. Fas- cicles 1 to 4 issued, with plates | to 47. R. 7, 13 sgr. Index Paleontologicus, or a systematic arrangement of all. known species of Fossils, prepared by Dr. H. G. Bronn with the assistance of Prof. H. R. Goeprert and H. v. Mrever.—2 vols. 8vo. R. 12, 18 ser. Abhandlungen iiber die Gavial-artigen Reptilien der Lias- Neues Jahrbuch Siir Mineralogie, Geognosie, Geologie und Petr fakten-kunde, edited by Leonuarp and Brony, 1833-1850, eologis, chartsand 1 table with profile, by K. C.v. Leonnarp.—R.1,25sgr. — Vulkanen-Atlas zur Naturgeschichte der Erde, 15 sheets i Patt colored, by K. C, v. Leonnarp.—R. 1, 20 sgr. — fee Pie Gattungen fossiler Krebe aus Gebilden von bunten Rew bis in die Kreide, with 4 plates, by Hem. sae Tr. has age zur Paliiontologi Wiirttembergs, enth Wirbelthierreste aus den Triasgebilden ‘ 1 , . io * a - Pe sg ot serve 2nd edit. R.3 a 2 mk ag auf die Labyrinthodonten des ‘Keine by H. v. Meyer r. Tu, Preinincer. Imp. 4to, with 12 plates,—R. ay ee paler by G. G. Puscu: in Ato, with 16 lith. plates. —R. 6, 20 s Die Kersmdngelies der bohmischen al by — A. E. Reuss. 51 lith. plates, .in 4to.—R. 15. Der Aufbereitungs-Prozess Gold- und Silber-haltiger Poch- erze im Salzburgischen Montanbezirke, by J. Russracer.— 8vo, with an atlas of 30 plates in large folio.—R. 7, 15 s Die Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs, by Dr. J. R ‘Bue 8vo, R. 2.—Supplement to the same. 73 sg Lehrbuch der Oryktognosie, 4 Dr. J. Re. Buen, with 300 [it] ANALYTICAL LABORATORY. * + oe [Attached to the * Department of Philosophy anv the Arts,” in Yale College.] aie : J.P. NORTON, Be : ; ; Professor of Scientific Agriculture. roe reagents, glass, porcelain, alcohol, fires gone? oledia num only excepted. The only extra chitiie is for breaka age. : ms $5 per week or $60 to $70 per term of twelve or fourteen Lectures on Scientific Agriculture, by al Norton, during winter term, commencing soon after the middle of January. Lectures on Geology, Smaps iaaeaiars Chemistry and Natural Phil pee. Wo. accessibl oes vor as invexigatons of all kinds promptly attended to on rea Yale College, vax, August, 1850. 2 ge + ene. oo camel _ e~ ls : ; e 3 ec” 2% To Professors of Mineralogy, Colleges and Scientific Institutions, Sc. | —FOR SALE— A splendid collection of Minrraus, comprising a specimen of all the known Minerals in the world; late the property of an eminent European Professor of the Science. This collection is believed to be the finest on this continent. It was collected and arranged for the purpose of giving lectures on that interesting and useful science. The Duplicate of this collection was sold in Vienna for 6000 ducats. It is now offered for sale below its value. For particulars, apply by letter to Joun Barwine, Brook- lyn, L.1., corner Clinton and Fulton Avenue. June, 1851, [it] CATALOGUE OF SHELLS. — Tue subscriber has this day published the fourth edition of his Catalogue, containing upwards of 11,000 species and varieties, together with 6,000 synonymes: to which are added their Au- thorities, Localities and References to where figured or described. It is published on fine sized paper, 4to., and contains 460 pages with a complete Index. Price $3 in paper covers or sheets, and $3,50 bound in muslin. Dec. 1, 1850.—1y. GENERAL INDEX © TO THE FIRST SERIES OF THE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. IN ONE VOLUME OF 348 PAGES, 8vo.—Price, $3. A FEW copies remain for sale in the hands of the Publishers. Enquire of Suuuaman & Dana. ce See f: hy arther, second page of Cover. » New Haven, March 1, 1851. ss JOHN C. JAY, fa Rye, Westchester Co., New York. TWELVE PAGES EXTRA. ™) Postage Reduced to 3 cts. per No. Terms, Five Dollars per annum. THE BANKERS’ MAGAZINE, AND Statistical Register. > 4 ? g: | rye | LFF > { { + 4, © MAY, 1851.—CONTENTS. j I. .....Sketches of early Currency in the Colonies. —1, Georgia; 2, Kentucky; 3, Mary- be land, Vapnesivaaie South Carolina, &c. ph IL......State Finances.—Public Debt, Taosete’ and Expenditure of Pennsylvania. Tif. — on the Banking System of Pennsylvania. IV.....Min Resqyrces of the State of North Carolina. Vv. Ry 8. Laws.—1. Indiana; 2. Tennessee; 3. New Jersey; 4. Virginia. VI.....Bank Statistics, — 1. Pennsylvania; 2. Cincinnati; 3. New York; & ons 5. Canada. VIL....Gilbart’s Practical Treatise on Banking, (continwed.). Chap. x1tt.— —— Calculations, Interest, Exchange, Public Funds, Par of Exchange, Coin, Market Value of Gold, Banking Documents, Bonds, Deeds, Declaration of Secrecy, &c. VII. Buse of taiees United States relating to the Mint, and to the Value of Foreign Coins tin the United States. : IX. Be a: of “ The Diamond of Light. X......Charter of the Bank of the Old Dowiates, in Virginia. XI.....Miscellaneous. —S —Stimpson’s Gold Pen; San Francisco ie Market. ig XII....Bank Items.—New Banks in New Tak: New Jersey, Virginia; New —— KUL..Recent Coins of the United States, with Eugravings. XIV. ..Notes on the Money Market, for April. %. BOSTON: PUBLISHED MONTHLY, BY J. SMITH HOMANS, ut I. 50 Watt Srassr, Naw Yous. Single Nos. not Sold, VALUABLE TREATISE ON BANKING? PUBLISHED IN THE BANKERS’ MAGAZINE AND STATISTICAL ‘REGISTER. ALSO ; Published in one volume duodecimo, and adapted to the use of general readers. A hoa 5 on Banxinc, THE Duties or A Banker, aND HIS Personal REQUISITES or. By A. B. seo Esq,, President of fie Ontario Branch sa Digs Author of Pie Tre on Language, or the Alas which Words bear Things,” “‘ Religion in its Raationd to the Present Life,’ é # Bank N i Deposits. FP ¥. Benefi he Publi from the use o f Bank Not Vi. Relative Utility 10 the Public of the Safety Fondi and Free Banks, > i Vil. Logs to the Public from Insolvent eet otes. 4 cals WEES The Safety Fuad System of New Yor iB 4 a Ye fet hee eS nhs eae X Free Beene in New York. — ‘ Pe lative t3 on City Site ntry capita sive Effects‘on City and Country Comme iffe i Poot : ; eS soi Mas Free Bank aN ‘Safety Fuad and ¥ ros Bank Sy stems. poe Gs ag, 5 Sere . o Tie. TY. i x xv. The Ci “ cag gr Tass olka cis cepted acd A. : ae ee ee ee slate. te Banks for the Be esas ob a ies amount of ss oxen A Sorplusage of Currency can n nevertxist long. a j Exiagihpruecs of Bank Ciredation and nl the Extinguishment « Debis due to 5 ey : Banks, preserve a ashe is nee equality, : ie Sudeapres Specie Sus oe f iy gle Si Bank ( Lee ee cos r ‘ Po and Tees Notes. % =e : ie : : ‘ XXIV. vA National Currenc = io gers - ‘ a XAY. Expans sions of the Bank Note Currency.” . ae. ' : XXVE ~ act rit of Speculation i is s Con ntagious, * ; j © f XXVIke Expa ae : y | SXVIL Pansies th fthe cy : es : cs - | XXIX. Petindicat at oes ee et + 3 XXX. < Contraction, 8 “ ae & oe: } XXXIL The Pressure in the Inttstan 2 2 } XT. The Pressure and Pasi te minal oi * The Sale of Es ~*~ corel Collections — i“ State. j St07 — JOHNSON ON BANKING. Contents continued. Security fo bd SAME Phoralit ity of - = Securi Sremiteg on ey Application 48 the Loan VII VUL IX. x. XL Sack ty f Pp is to be Di ted. XII. Acceptances in advance of Consignments. XU. nae XIV. XV x XVIL Assimilated es and Accep tances. Kiting. — Dummies: — Void Notes and Drafts. Of Gains, Wh. ee 2 iva = of Paper that a Banker should prefer. mix. Sal rr ¢ EX: ‘Selection aft fi Sel heir Collection. a7 rr, t XXIL Selec rs tion of Loans founded oa ny Seer: they are to Endure. XXII. Time Estimated w ith reference to the ae Wants of a Soaps: e Time = re to Pann and Bes AB £hite Nasal XXX. ned for the Foden, ete Re Maaodere ts es he XXXL General Supervision. : : Be 5 XXXII. Over-draita, a XXXII Enforcement of Pa MEXIV, Adheren che: Good Principles. (et . rs Bd Sia Th ce eee te a . Banker should beware of Speculators, ‘ XXX Banker should keep j eeeeterent of Debtors. XSXVIIL Echiageay, oe , = a oe _ PART THREE.—THE MAN. LHe should be wary faces Tl. He should be cove ‘Judgment. HL Final Remar mara. Coogan pene Pere ness, We like the mas tH Bel : oe le banker auheres wit cpl P Providence is enarant for his GILBART ON BANKING, | PUBLISHED IN THE BANKERS’ MAGAZINE FOR 1850-41 The best RR ete Secure Sy of coma _— must Be re porad § in the en ania ae endl of thos o are intrusted with the admini public: but no lena regulation should itted which i dj h bility of estab- + lishments Upo A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING. By James Witttam Guizpart, ., F.R.S., General Manager of the London and Westminster Bank. ee ecuhaed ow Boas Tue Nature oF Spee: Il. Tue Urinrry oF BAyxixa. TL. “ates inc TERM DMINISTRATION OF A Bank. V. THE ADMINISTRA- TION oF A BANK WITH REGARD TO = EEDINGS ON Oe ee or ExcHancE. ae EmpitormMent oF SurPLus Fonxps. V sons or Pres: Vill. THe Bank Act or 1844, IX. Tue NK OF ENGLAND X. Jornr Stock B. =& ADMINISTRATI THE Bank —Cierxs — Dvtirs — SaLaRies— Promotions — Discrrtine — Trarnivc. XIE Bank Boox-Keepinc. XIII. BANKING CALCULATIONS. XIV. B. « Dy ~Bonps — Lerrens or Crepir, &c PART It.—0 OF BANKING oe ae on Tue Banx or Encna: Il. pace sei i. Jornr Stock Banxs rx Lonvon. IV. Country Private a Cabeens soni Srock KS. VI. Tre aba S or Scornanpd. VIL. THE Prete OF IRELAND : ANB RELIGI epson oP AN 1X. Ten Mrxvres’ Apvick anovuT pene: A Pas aay 1a as Banking h tained j lebrity, Plain and practical, they are suitable to aracte Sag position of the writ dtoth 1 inclinati f the banking and tile com munity, for ink: they are chiefly Hit ing They are not, however, with hi fi inquiring | mind, while bet ‘sates Sek and elit aie seqnomis sts they f huseful and indispensable in rmation, p t + h } dy h recogni fund by the public. The principal characteristic of M , Gilbart’s book i is, practical common sense, a due subordination of all thé parts of ject, so th s ; which, being jpinel with a perspi style, for the fexae h his i a dly eck Le adek Rea nainiek Re ig nage has se been issued of the well-known “ Practical Treatise on Banking,’’ by Mr. Gilbart, rof the he London aie eee Bank. The work in its present form is far more com- of great interest to bankers. pre of topics The t treatise, which was orig sinally published - * thin octavo volume, oe to nearly S00 pages; saneueaa a very explanation of the prinviolés on which the business of banking must be conducted in pe to be successful ; a.general description of the more important elements of the curre ney — and of various subjects inci- es. Spnipecrn with it, = the phonies nce and ability of the kot enable him to discu pout: with T present notice, we shall confine our aiiaieen to the practical di i for the efficient management © Satie weak , which Mr. Gilbart has laid before his readers. Few men are so well aia as himself for performi ing this as satisfactorily. * * * Noone ce ise fi i those advantages. ‘The work is ae arranged ; its pasranttonn 4 are re clear and decisive: d there is a ki odty pe! 0 Z earnest moral feeling, a i : f th ; The spc is — 1 into sections, which, 20K- jay be Pog described as’ Tense a complete description | keeping; af, f the duties required from the officers ina baaks — instructions weeee the adml st jon of oT a tank, with reference to its ordinary business, duniné oe BANKERS MAGAZINE & STATISTICAL REGISTER, wi Volk: V. —July, 1850, to June, 1850, inclusive. ete aden on hand of the Nos. of the current Volume of the Banke “Magazines commencing Tulyg1850, containing, among other things, viz: I. The Causesiof Commercial Crises, by a Bosto Il, Money istory, Philosophy, ees and toto a Rev. Sam'l Martin. III. The System of Guarantee Insurance. “ Suretyship : the dangers and defects Private Reuaesty, ae a their ‘en medy. EV: get fat ae —Francis omg the Banker and Author; John Law, Author of e sippi Sc Y. Description of Recent ( Coins of the World. [. Account of the “ Old Lady in Thread needle Street ; a by C. Dickens. of : per Curren ney, ie ondrage: Degradation Of the Stand mee &e.; with Sépious gate of the |} 2 eek i caer: &e., a Shes Coins of all Nati tions. (Re printed for the first hs hited S XII. The Liabilities of Benks for Negligence of Notaries, Collection of Notes, &c. ts XIII. A Chapter on Diamonds—th heir value, history, ae & very curious Cha ects pe! XIV. Extra ee; s History of Banking; wi comprehensive Acco of the origin, 1 cod Grigor of the Banks of aglaan, Ireland and Boot ani XV. Charter of the etesere! Bank of on, 4% XVI. The Precio pee Cost of Production, ses of pag Annual Consumption, _ re Sta fmdant 0 f the Currency, Bank aa Usury Bret Domestic |” Exchange, Ceo of the Pbemninion “of Ga on Prices, oe XVI. Gilbert % Practical Treatise on Bank XVIII. The eo Henke of Massachusetts. — Ca spits tal, Circulation, Coin, loads, Real Es ain sites, Bank B alances of ea ch. SIX. Late oot Lp See Bank aoramcais Pd _ York, Massachuse tts, Vermont, ennsylvania, Georgia ama, Louisiana, and other States. beg. sets on hand, also, for the year PR PRE Five Dollars. Notice me new subscribers to this work are desired to commence with the No. for July 1850. The volume will end in June, 1851, and will be furnished with a complete index to all the subjects contained in the twelve Nos. from July 1950, to June 1851. GF Bound Volumes will be furnished in cxhang forthe Non. ats nto Svety . Five — per volume. Back Nos. furnished, if on hand, to complete sets. PosTaGe on THE Arisa? Magarin, by the new law of Congress, will be, after July next, as follows : : Less than 500 miles,....... reverence Po} No., ry ets. Between 50 and 1500 care *. one wee Between 1500 and 2500 mil a wh a To Sunscrrmers.—The value of the Miagisns is greatly enhanced by binding it. e A quantity of loose Nos. : a SORE counters or shelves, will not be readily availa- . Diario peanega at the Sess bre 7 KS Advertisements of —_— Brokers, Stationers, &c., inserted. me Dollars per page, per annum BANKING IN MASSACHUSETTS. — The January No. of the Bankers’ Magazine contains a complete synopsis of the ex- isting Laws of the Commonwealth in reference to Banking, ~ ‘under the following heads : . Liabilities, Duties, &c. of Banks. If. Liabilities, &e. of Stockholders. nL Liabilities ee ve ies of Directors. IV. Cashier and other Officers. V. Of Bank Not VI. Of Interest and the Usury Laws. VU. Promissory Notes & sree = Es = Of Notaries Public. 15.24 Of the Bank Commissi . Of Forgery, Counterfeiting, ke. Tm: & propriate heads, so that each class of officers may refer to i. its Gevaliar liabilities, ee “Tt will be found to contain a full abstract of the yarious Statutes relating to Taxes on Bank Stocks, Loans, ROTTS Loans on BK Loans to Commonwealth, Cireu’ation, Real Property, Legislative Examinations, Semi- Annual Returns, bedise 4 and Measures, Legal Tender, ae Liguidation, Pledged va gre Stock Transfers, & —Act of ieriearoan Execution, pe tec oty Small Noten, ns ot Is- ‘sues, oh Metabo for Non-Circulation, unter Payments, Foreign Bank Notes, Shop Cassin, &c. —Bonds, See Loans to, T' < Lis 3 PRPS Pe a Pyaat Drrectors.—Liabilities of, Eligibility, ses Limit to Number, Time of Elee- * tion, Voting, pect he Dire rections or gee of Directors, Record, Limit %» Loans, Penalty Fr 4XC » StockHOLDERS.—Loans to “arte Special Meetings, Liability for Loss of Capital “gad for B for Bank Failure, Special Examinations, Injunctio: Peale Transfer of Shares, _Faowmons Nores, &c.—Statute of Limitations, Record of Offerings, Damages Badersees aes — on Foreign Bills, Grace on Sight Bills, Notes on Demand, \ InTEREST.—Rate by Law, Usury, Penalty, City Loans, &e. paiscinka gain gota by Law, Protest, Notice, Penalties. —P tf Medi Sony Bille Places ae eres or making, passing, or having in possession, ee Coahieiulas haath Witnesses, Oath of Office, Loans to, Compensa- LANEO nacido nd Measures, Stock Gambling, hadtinns and Trustees, collateral Security, Duty of Transfer Officer, Stock Liable for Taxes, Moneys at In- Attachment, Tax of Collateral Stock, Testimony o f President, &c: This Synopsis has been prepared with a view of furnishing in a small compass, for the especial use of Bank Directors and Bank Officers, a key to the existing Statutes of re Commonwealth. We believe the summary will be acceptable more especially te junior officers of Banks, who have not, generally, access to the published Statutes, sal © are Now prep: So themselves for inaare prom motion and usefulness in our banking lal Presiden i wa. Diseonoess eset exh propér divisions, the legal liabilities of each * class, which could otherwise be ascertained only by consulting peligro, the ised Statutes; these latter making together upwards of six LIN Nd nd SF The kers’ Magazine is published — . 84 pp. Ci delivered free of Postage to ali the Banks in Rhode jodi a iNew Haven, ee, Be a Peele Bangor, Burlington, and other ‘Sai , i. Phas ap eae ee Lee Just Published. — Price, 50 Cents. 1 BANKER’S COMMON-PLACE BOOK, = fe 37 Pages, duodecimo ; containing — I. A Treatise on Banking. By A. B. Johnson, Hsq., President Onta- rio Bank, Utica. II. Ten Minutes’ Advice on Keeping a Banker. By J. W. Gilbart, Esq., of the London and Westminster Bank. III. Byles on the Law of Bills of Exchange. IV. Remarks on Bills of Exchange. By J. Ramsay M’Culloch, Esq. V VI - Forms of Bills of Exchange, in Eight European Languages. . Forms of Notice of Protest, with Remarks. VII. Synopsis of the Bank Laws of Massachusetts, in force Jan. 1851. VIII. Decisions of the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts, in refer- ence to Banking. Persons who reside at a distance can receive the work per mail; postage paid to any part of the U.S. Price, fifty cents each, or two copies for one dollar... | Postage stamps may be remitted as cash at all times for fractional sums of a he £0 “Many exvealiont . Paleers a ge7 _ oos and oth Aan. appeared in America. We have before us one , of no common merit. mage open aise bce The Duties of a sabres and his Requivites therefor. By A. B. Johnson, President a: the Ontario Branch Bank, at Utica, in the State of New York. bi Re: first part— The Bank t principles of banking and currency, and a solespel inns between the Safety Fund system and ‘the Free Bank system estab- — in New York. “The secon: ne = aoa deta vac nampa ae and it shows that however Widely the banks of England and of Americ. y differ in their principles, the fields of their opera- : ete geile ar Tass practical operations, the Means necessary to their constitutions, and their bankers » the dangers to which they are exposed nad the to success, are much the Same in both countries Hore mu will doubtless observe that many of the 1 in = to those that have often appeared in our pages, either in tracts from we have reviewed. This coincidence in the views of Balls snd Amaricn® time! banker adheres almost every Sound principles. Whether or not a bank follows, in its prac Perience, mot machances Sa peace othe. = ee ae ee The anthar .¢ “is 2 ete ee ge fis country, ry ever probably owned « iran- dred doliars worth of bankai mach in deposite in any rin We may point, hy stock, or bad as ja oot ks. Esq., the Presi- dent of the Ontario Brasch Bank, loon root oly Hehe bom ead anomplabed Writer on banking, fi ; nance, currency and general literature. He is moreover, a model bank manger. His clear head, studious habits, and systematic method i: T3, would be inferred from his writings by those whoare not acquainted with The best writers in England of Banking—practical, theoretical and historical—Gil- bart, Bell, Lawson, Francis, te alin cence pain, metonen ee ben Rogers and Tupper, Monthly, 84 Pages Octavo. Five Pallas per { Ag ay ff Z WRITINGS OF HUMBOLDT, M°CULLOCH, MURCHISON, GILBART, WHIPPLE, AND OTHERS. Important Essays published, or in preparation, for the Bankers’ Magazine and Statistical Register. Those marked * are already published, — ae ’ I* J.R. McC ‘on Interest and the Operation of the Usury Laws. IL* J.R.McCutrocn on Foreign and a Exchange, with copious Tables e, a of the Value of Moneys of Account, Coins. : pees J.R. McCurrocs on Money, cous Pain Metallic and Paper Currency, ignorage, Degradation of the Standard, &e., with copious Tables of the Weight ~ Value, &e., of the Coins of Various Nati IV.* Proceedings of the British Association for the advancement of —— London, mes 1849. Observations of Sir R. J. Murcuison, De ta B. and others, on the Gold Mines of California and the Ural. Ve Jove Broxson’s Me =! hha celebrated case of Leavitt, Receiver of Tha North American Trust and pany v. Blatchford and others. VI* Remarks on the = - by Joux Wutrrte, Esq, of Providence. VIL* Accurate Tables of the market value of 150 different Railroad, — surance, and Manufacturing Stocks, for each month, 1849. * Tables of the ee M, ite English Funds, for he month, from November, 1846, to October, IX* Chronicles and aces of the Stock Exchange. Dedicated by permis sion to Samuel Gurney, Esq., comprising sketches of Loans, Lotteries, Life Assar- Nathan Meyer Rothschild, Greek Loan and Joseph Hume, Poyais Loan and Gregor McGregor, Frauds, Forgeries, Anecdotes, and Legends. — ‘Me FF Pe eee as 9 ee ee - nee OS ae eT es Rie BRT ~ XXI* By James Wryvez, M. S * "hed _ The Bankers’ Magazine for 1849 - 50. 5 Peni Minutes’ ie 3 to the Middle Class of People about ia a Banker By Janes We Grirarr, F. R. S., Manager of the London and Westminster Bank. XIL. Banking i in Scotland, containing, 1. The Law of Scotland with reference to Banking. 2, Statistics of the Existing Hanks ot Scotland. 8. A Comparison be- tween the Bank XUI aa, oF EncLanyp. Its Various Recharters, its Branches, the Laws of the Cum with reference to the Bank of England, &. By J. W. Gitpart, F.R.S hich are added the Dividends of each year from 1695 to 1849, the highest and lowest prices of Stock for each year, } i i of the ge from 1695 to 1849. V. Tue Banxs or InELanp n t of each, their Modes of Business, the Laws of the Currency in Treland, “eee the alas between the Banks. . W. Greparr, F. R. S. XV.* Sonne — by Carer oe Taney (of the Supreme Court, _ U.S), upon T ers of Bank Stock b cutors. One of the most —— nt Bank cases on oa? P Repertbal Sor the ease Magazine.) XVI* Late and Important Decisions in Maine, ies. Hamps shire , Massachusetts, New York, sgt a Kentucky, Georgia, Ma land, and othet States, upon points in Banking, B es, Usury, Brokers, "Stocks; sane of Credit, &e. XVIT* On the a of Gold and Silver, and its Fluctuations. By Baron - : ALexanver Vox Humporpr. Translated for the Bankers’ Magazine. stage he a % a pious Historical and Statistical details. XVIII: escriptive Account of the London Stock ae BY Ma. author of “ Random Recollections of the Lords and Com XIX.* Brxes on Presentment, Noting and Protest of Bills of tase’ ied Promissory Notes XX* A ecussee on Banking, —the Duties of a Banker, and his ena Requisites therefor. By A. B. Jouxson, Esq., President of the Ontario Branch — Bank at Utica. (pp. 35.) act > Sketch of Ext Warner, the Inventor of the Cotton Gin. _ _ XXIL* Essay on a Rpg and its Advantages to the Working Classes. : By the Rev. Dr. Cook, with late and interesting Law Cases upon the subject. XXIL* Life Insurance Premiums ie Policies, — the Law of Mortality, and the different Systems of Life Insurance, — a Review of the Validity and Nonvalidity of Life Policies. xaIv.* _ The Latest Forms of Notice of Protest adopted in New York, Pennsyl- Tana, ae ae ar a ene aa XXV. Tue Loxpon Patvare Bankers. The Joint Stock Banks of London, with Reith ob tal Gate oes By J. W. Grizanr, F. R. S. roe ad REPUDIATION. — = Hie Orig, a eis Ss Coatosancn ich te Lat Bett Comcpninee i Hst r Voto Menage of Goverce MeN —— exander Hamilton upon Public Credit. | iv ~ * ESSAY ON MONEY. & By J. R. McCULLOCH, Esa. ; auTHOR. oF ‘THE DICTIONARY oF © acca ‘PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL ECONOMY,” &c. whole of this Essay will be contained in the Bankers’ Magazine for 1850. (be 4 Published d monthly, five dollars per annum.) % CONTENTS. _ CHAPTER I.— Ozierx or Moner. Circumstances which led to the use of money. Principal properties that every commodity used as such ought to possess. “Nota sign or a measure of value, but a real equivalent. On the commodities used as money in different countries. On the defects of these commodities. Gold and silver the fittest materials for money, — frst used in the shape of bars and i On the coinage of gold and silver. Advantages of coined money. — Coined mainey not a sign, orameas- ure, of value. soy a __ Use-of gold and silver as a standard for estimating the relative value of commodities. Proof of the non-existence of a < standard. a vam? CHAPTER IL. a pcsheanecs Vaue oF Money. The cost of production regulates the value of money, when the power of supply is not monopolized. bse : The proportion between the supply ind facil “e the value of ” money, when pa of supply is sees é hig? Sai i te ; sso } be ee ag os ea NEW WORKS FOR BANKERS. Fer Sale by all Booksellers. L — Tas Banker’ s Common-Prace Boor, containing, — L—A n Banki By.A. B. Johnson, ona President of the — Bank, Utica. 2 —Ten Minute Siivice cnun Banking By J. W. Gilvart, Esq., of London 3, — Extracts from Byles on the Law of Bills of Exchange. ees ont ws and Customs respecting Bills of Exchange. By J. R. McCulloch, Esq. 5, — Forms of Bills of Bacheare in eight. Euro oes : languages. . — Forms of Notice of Protest, as used in various States of the Union, with remarks, - — Synopsis of the Bank Laws of Massachusetts, as in force January, 1861. 8. — Decisions of the Supreme Judi o king, Usu , Bills, & IT g2¥ spore, Treatise on Banxine. By J. W. Gilbart, Esq., of the " ondon and Veins Bank. PART f. —Or Practicat. Banxtne. Sectio TH. Banking Terms. IV. The Gene: el Aint oF a : Bai nk. The Amini. of a oo Wore rece wa Fr Procandingy on Bills of Exchange. V£ Employment 3é Sirplus us Funds. Vil. Seasons ressure. The Bank aA of 1544 “0x. e Bank of En “Stock Banks. Xi. Fe aig ofthe Bank. gland. — Clerks — Duties — — oe ge tig a wan pline —~ Tratte Baakin Bonds oe Se —Or ~ Or Bas Instrrvtions, The Bank of a If, London Private Banks. Hi, ¥. Couatry Joint-Stock Banks. VI. The soe AY. O IV. ney é vate Baak: ante eres : Teal and WIM Moral and ag Duties of Banking Com- Panies. 1 eo Wise Kates ace en a Banker.. coon , “ Mr. Gilbart’s works on Banking have attained a just celebrity. Plain and practical, they are si ble to the character and the suas Se weiter, and tohe wants and inclinaions of | the Dan cir nae Pattee dene rengoaed erie Hi = id Peicial sapere bj Prdegaits fas. an. 3 hed ae oO arts of the su ject, go -Ihence! hh being Herp peril with a pers hee accounts for the favor his works have deservedly i ae ae Satras < Essays ON idea Excrance, Moner, Coins, &c. One Octavo, —75 cents. Alli: 1. On nterest and the ie. Opalitign of the U; ws. Comparison between the Market Rate and Statutory Rate of Interest oie 714 ta 1793. ‘Fei Biecwrof Laws to papaya he ge Laws do not protect the Prodigal and U: T ‘ : ‘ here were no Usury Laws in * l Rate of in France, os rsolss ae To. and the United States. Usury eatin " ag ite of : a Pe Governmen Subj gb ate ion Sa Domestic Exchange. 1. On Inland Exchange. 2. Foreign Exchange. 3. Real hance. "t Tohraite Real Bachacge 6 ; ceca of Bills of Ex ahora 6. rand Ad- vantages. of Bills of of Exchange. 7. Laws and Custo con pnepecting Bite of Exchange, 9, Moneys of — pened Sleme ¥, co ps rot with "Mowe The Baca i oy 5; Siew, Seignorage, 4 Curreacy of the. Hae phe & Pape ie 7 feng rf ere &c., of the Gold and Silver Average market Standard of om Tarathes with Tables of the the Weight ne, Vale Coins of all nations, —their Assiy, Wastes = Weight, and Sterling Value. Price of Bullion in every year ‘from 1300 to : “Mr. McCulloch has id Midian a? knowledge, which men of all Ea Spapee oor? bath dan in hs Polen Boon Pe teckarge net Plate 2 Principles of Banking.’ ” — Te ar. ume, Octavo, —75 cents. Sketches of oe tigiee Settccls, 1 Ex, shies sree ern ae, and Legends. Toundan ha FHL OM his work; and bis sketches of himself intimately ace mete oh. = ery Inquiring mind; while for state tical rote are sources of muc i u ae syn ration Tae poset ste polit econom hey are sources : oss Atias. ted from time to time by Stock Exchange spect hg ie an Sie WILLIS & CO’S °° & BANK NOTE LIST, COUNTERFEIT DETECTER. PUBLISHED MONTHLY AT $1.50 PER ANNUM. urate account of all the of of Bank Notes = enter the "Olen Seen up to the day of Publication. Also, copious Tables of the Prices of Stocks at the Boston Brokers’ ek, Notices of the Money Market, of Coins, Exchange, Bullion, &c COPIES MAILED TO ORDER. ~ Cc NTENTS OF THE FEBRUARY N . Condition of ‘tie money Market. 2. Bank Capital of Cities and Towns. 3. New New England, &c. 4. Movements of the Stock Market at N. York. 4, Stocks and Money at Cincinnati, Savannah, &e. 6. ae of Seige sy sage eee OF THE MARCH NO. Monry Market. — Par Redemption; Further Arrivals of Gold in New York ; Deman i n the A easu r! ree Illinois Gold and Silver Coins. 7, A List of ‘al th e Banks in the United States, showing those of each he and City ; oe of sae President and Cashier of cas Circulation and Coin of each Sta‘ : po aoe OF THE APRIL No. ~w Counterfeits in Massachusetts, Main: aine, Vermont, Connecticut, pol se Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Kent , ke. dition of ae eee and Exchange Market for March, 1851, seit; y Sketch tp a New Ban roposed for Massachusetts. . a Makers. 4. The Money aie ota York, New Orleans, &c. for each month in 1850. 6. Law for the Po of the new Three-Cent Pieces. Free Banks in Ohio; Run on the Stark Bank. 7, Stock Quotations of the Bos- _ bh. x ton Exchange for the last week in Marc CONTENTS OF THE MAY NO. in eve Union. 2. The Alanis Mar- uations in Stocks at New York ' ‘jog oe et THE aoe 1851. XL Forms or Bits oy EXcHANGE IN EI opzan LANcvacgs. XIV. Taptes or Excuse ann Scorcn Monzy, purine Eacu Rerey, rrom 1066 to 1816. XV. Tastes op THE } or Account or Variovs Nations. XVI. Tazres or Tue Assay, Wricut, anp VALtE 0 no Suver Comvs oF att Nations. XVIL Tus oF Directors From 1694 ro 1847 XVII. Drvi: p Prices op Srocx or THE Bank or Exctanb, From J xX Puntic Dest, Ravenve, asp ExrENDITURE 0 U.S. ror rue Year Envine June 3, 1850 XX. Forss Lerrens or Creprr As USED IN _ York anp Lonpon ror Inpra Rewrrances. ‘ORMS OF. spin os Res Enenanp, Inenann, ann ScoTLaAND ENUMERATED, WITH THEIR CrncuLa- XXL Lan oF sae ae Bangers ann Meuweers op tue Cieantne-Hovss, fa be Continued Annually. PUBLISHED BY —— sg 55. BRoaDWAY, > YORK: _ PHILLIPS, SAMPSON, & Co., ra Wasmsarox Srezer, BOSTON: PUTNAM, , Octavo, Price, 25 cents. 4 CONTAINING, UALE Crononocy or Important Events TL. Tus Bayxs or tax Unrrep Srates 1 1951. peepee anp Location or zach. 2. Names AND CASHIER OF i Aen OF EACH. { Ti Srnopsis or ras Usury Laws, &c., or Tue Staves, 1. Lecat Rares or Inrerest, ame ® THE VIOLATION THEREOF. 2, DamacEs on Intanp anv Forzien Bais om ANGE. 3, Gracz on Sicut Bris.. 4. Decisions or tHE Sr. TV. Coracz, T, ta Es, Post-orFicEs, AND or Pusuic , OF THE UNITED STATES, FOR EACH YEAR 1790 ro 1850. V. Pustic Dest, Revenvg, anv EXxpENDITeRE oF EAcH Srare rm THE Unron.. VL Vauve or Foreicn Corns . ar THE Sup-TReascny anp Custos- Howse oP THE U.S. VIL Ft TATIONS OF Srocks RK AND Baltimore, EACH MONTH VIN. Fivervations or Srocxs ar Boston zach Monra wv 1S! IX Er WeEsT Prices or Enciisn Funps, Bach ¥ 1731 to I West Prices or Enc EACH MONTH 1847 to - XL Tastz or Loans natsep FOE Great BRITAIN, AND s or INTEREST FRoM 1793 To 1847, 1 _ Matter of interest to every reader,’but of particular im fate prov —— F * EDITORIAL NOTICES. Taz Baxxers’ Macazive. — We are indebted to the publishers for the September number of this valuable work. It Scipclion a = left met Hunt's narra yr cing and, like ae clo nal, should be weil sustained by the e community, - hall do what little is in our | powst to a our bus z that, We succeed, we i me views ees. by this ~ gabe of oo great Seerictal questions oF so day, are not always irk sei ; but then it discusees those “ee wr a 3 a great alien Iisa regent h, however ne agate a eT were ess are de- cree iesaticg almost every element that ¢ mms ait shed vas heat If they would lay outa few dollars He year ene ‘ouch bance a the Fakes” cos zine, they would have a ir ial gto te gence, are effect of om vould a ne a pec We 10 those “ remar! h is as wel = f business saad 5g it the banker, — Rochester vAdoesti wets Tut Banxers’ MacazinE anp Seiki FINancran Reaisree, for ss spot is well filled with — to every inte elligen: t Paper < pee or other person extensively engaged in the- ae nt of monetary affairs. evinced ry and good polewienh in the collections and ee inn he orem matter which is as to be met with, | ina connected tee 9 St. Louis Republican. Tas case Maceatine ~ This is the ‘title of’s very tseful pelidic cal, more, under the editorship of Mr. J. S. Homans, I. is ‘the only satisfactory f tof ~ ng nat A ae at Balti- iord in the coun- statisties referring z je 6 Bei in which has been. brought- together with a Lise of Feaizn Bankers" from the London Banke siya There are pea scbea other. se _Eenzaly eeommend the publication to all who are i int National Intelligencer, : wxsrs’ MAGazing ann Strate Financtat Bocrertie faniieibrey Ms. f Cee work Bally sustains the pie ger ae joa it is p Aeiootia contains nee ae pope pure pie rare stati Aten, 113—Action of 2d ok the Bead of Ethyl, 1: Oo a serie of ie = ites tion of Se AP cage ‘Red trot Sea-weeds : New test for * Ni-- trites and Nitrates, by Groner C. Scuarrer, 117. _ , Geology. Eta the Peralielien of Mountain Chains in in Amero, by Me. Desos, 1 118. _—Lower Silurian Reptile i in Canada, 120. zy—On the Classification of the Cancrosiea) a, hy J. D. pai: 121—Addi- Kee peat note to the Remarks on the Classification of the Maioidea, by J. Ries eee - Dana, 131. —Microseopic examination of Soundings, made by the U.S. Coast es - Survey off, the. Atlantic: Coast of the United States, by Prof. J. W. Baizey, 132. Se oene —On the new Ring of Saturn; x W:C. ss Esq., 133.—On the € Mscsllénorns RE Pe magnetic a 199,—Meeting of the a American Association for the Advancement of Science at Chegyete M41— Soe old ‘in Arkan nsas < Bigs. and Fall of ey si 143.— Obituary : “az ae eS ig ae ome x > eo A PZ tA. > fe Ha. The next No. of this Journal will be published on the first of ‘Sop a _ CONTENTS. Arr. I. On Certain ‘Meteorological Coincidences ; iy 3; i. Arexanpber, Esq., ak ii. On a Method for i ne ee between Biaxial aod Gaiaxial i Crystals when in-thin plates,—and the results of the exam- ination of several supposed Uniaxial Micas ;: by W. P. Buaxe, — 6 Ti. On some -of the Thermal Waters of. Asia. AMipor ; yt Dr. ee Lawrence SMITH, + é ‘ oe “TW. Uses. ofthe Stillingia sebifork jor Tallow Bree, with a no- * tice of ‘the Pe-la, an Insect-wax of hit *by Dod; Mac- ...- -sowan, M.D., ee V; On the sudden disappeltanes of the eg on Taike harap, » *at the breaking up of Winter; by Rev. Zam THOMPSON, 992 | VI. On Coral Reefs and Islands ; by. JAMES. DANA = §. VIL. A description of a new Sand-Bath with Wate Bath ae Dis. : tilling Apparatus ‘attached, erected in: the Yale Bepicak ack i Laboratory; by Prof. Joun P. Noston, met, | 52 | VII. On Microscopes and Microscopy ; : by. Ww. fishes, - 56 | IX. On-the Connection of Chemical Forces’ with th nae . of Light ; by. Nevin Story MASKELYNE, Esq:, M i : — ~ “Taexson, M.D., - eee a xIL On the Recent Condition of Kalas ra Rey. C. S. Las ae as ding os from Rey. T ; & ee = t s of: anor Bieevicy in Plants, se <= Base eto- terrestrial C pha by MB ECQUEREL, - ee ag! ye sada P —* and Physics. Rotation of the Plane Of F Polat produced by the _ Galvani Carrent, Wt —Physical Demonstration of the Rotation of the Earth - ' eer the Pendulum, 112.—Equiv alent of Bismuth - Equivalent of ~~ ; ( For remainder of Contents, sce third page t: Cover:) SEPTEMBER, 1851. No. 33. Published the first day of every second month, price $5 per year. THE - AMERICAN JOURNAL | 3 ay ‘ SCIENCE AND ARTS a a : /Paorzssons B. SILLIMAN, ae SILLIMAN, Jr., : « AND 2 age ¢ Sates = z JAMES D. DANA. AIDED IN THE DEPARTMENTS OF CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS — BY a Dr. WOLCOTT GIBBS. SECOND SERIES. No. 35.—SEPTEMBER, 1851. _. Tue American JouRNAL oF SCIENCE is published every two months, on the Ist of January, March, May, July, —— and November, in gas of 152 pages each, Two Volumes a year. bscription price $5 a year. ee . Ist Ser., 1818-1845, 50 vols., pase ia a General index. Edited to 1838 b: Prof. B. Smuuiman; Best id 1833, = ae B. SILLIMAN 4nd.B. Sr Lease en Price for complete $100 00 2nd Ser., since fader. roe: ‘odie by Prof B. SiutimA, B. his: i, and J. D. Dana. Price for the 10 vols. published, unboun $20 00 sewn 10, of the 2nd Series, contains a general Index to = volumes 1-10. : : ,* B. Sintran, Jr., and J. D. Dana are the present proprietors of the Journal, and it | is eised sink all communications and remittances for this work, may 33 addressed to a Siutiman & Dana, New Haven, Conn. = * This Journal may be purchased of the Publishers, = of ae Pitonine Salles : New Haven, _ G.B.Bassett, 115 Chap. st! Mobile, A ee. W. ALLEN, — d | Albany, N.Y¥., Lirtie & Co, New Beta, Mass, €. & A. Taser. a vst : verse & Brown C. 8. Frane:s & Co. . a Ferripee & Co. New York City, Geo. .P.. PuTNaM. “e ossy & Nicnois. | (Joun Wier. - % Baltimore, Md., N. Hickman. HecrTor BossaNcE. ! ufo N.Y., Euise ete A. Harr. i i ome Conn. ig apts & Parso: Wiison & Co. 3 B. Warrwuois Providen __ Geo. H. WuItney. | Ciirad Brovusne, N York, and -- Isaac DoouirrLe. © | oe 66° to 85° is therefore not too great a range of temperature for the various reef-forming corals. Par- ticular species, however, have smaller limits; but these limits ave not yet been accurately ascertained.* first licati A ished principle that temperature influ- pie ck ae a See ie: at ie age Mr. J.P: Doky equally imiting te dis- e 's, and in this ell as the conclusions arrived at, our views are Very different. The facts and inferences stated in this place, and on a following stigation. ae. ¢ e 180 On Coral Reefs and Islands. The Porites and Pocillopore predominate at Oahu, ( ripe Islands,) and there are but few of the Astraeidee,—a fact appears to be explained on the ground that the reefs of that ident are not far from the cold limits of the coral seas: and it is inter- esting to observe that these same are the hardiest under exposure to impure waters. e mest parts of the ocean are favorable to the growth of Anarene cand and the allied species; and at the same time, these regions abound i in Porites and Pocilloporee, although the gt lca of these corals is smaller than at Oahu. The genera of reef-forming corals which occur out of the otal rect seas, belong almost exclusively to the Caryophyllia fam- ily, and especially to the genera Dendrophyllia, ' Caryophyllia, Astroides,* Oculina, and Cyathina, some species of which exist in the Norwegian seas. The Gorgonide, Aleyonide, Hydroidea, and Actinide, extend from the equator nearly to the frigid zone. The Bryozoa have an equally wide range. The liability of the lagoons, when contracted in size, to be- come highly heated by the sun, is probably one cause leading to the depopulation of these internal waters. The temperature be- comes raised, as in a puddle of standing water elsewhere, and is quite unfitted, therefore, for species accustomed only to the ordi- nary ey ene temperature of the oce Light and pressure and ofaisteye the ~~ of air in sea- water, safaris the growth of corals, so far as to fix limits to their distribution in depth. It is a little nr pete that those families which have a wide geographical range, have also a great range in depth: for Caryophylliz, Dendrophyllize, Oculinee, Gor- gonide, and Hydroidea, are found even at depths of one or two rosa reef-forming species scarcely exceed a depth of twenty fathom Telahsriture has little or no influence in determining this range, although it has been so asserted: 66° is not met with un- der the equator short of 75 or 100 fathoms. The following table gives approximate results for the winter months, from observa- tions on this point by different navigators in the Pacific. It is well known that these averages are varied much in particular regions by eerie ts. titude. oe of 6° Fahrenheit. N. Latitude. gel : - . QO—25 fathoms. 25° ee ee 20° - -* .80—50 S corals of the Astroides closely tesanbie those of the Astrea, and have pom relerrad to the latter rap by y many authors. A related species is found on the coast of this co as lat. 42. An Astrea has been ye from ora New ae m Walon. ot whic i if : Ee Astrea, ae ae t been described than the coral reef red ated genus a wider lim , Report on a Bssphjeen p. 102. On Coral Reefs and Islands. 181 Latitude. Depth of 6° Fahrenheit. 1S ‘ - 40—60 fathoms. 10° - - 50—75 s §* - - 75 sa? Equator. (0° m : 75—100 S. Latitude. 5° yg 50—75 - 10° ° - 50 ~ 15° x M4 50 ce 20° . ° 40 ~ 95 id = “ . 25 2a" —30" os - Surface. It appears, therefore, that among the causes limiting the range of corals in depth, light and hydraulic pressure must have great influence. The proportion of atmospheric air present may be another cause. Yet according to Darondeau, the deeper waters that the bottom of the ocean in its deeper. parts is mostly without life of any kind. The few Caryophylliz and other species which i en sh The above-mentioned authors, who explored the Pacific in the Uranie under D’Urville,t concluded from their observations that ve or six fathoms (30 or 36 feet) limited their downward dis- even 30 fathoms. He states that in the Red Sea, according to Captain Morehead, living corals occur at 25 fathoms. At Keel- ing Atoll, growing corals are described by him as wholly disap- * Examination of Sea Water collected during the Voyage of the Bonite, Jame- Son's Edinb. Jour., July, 1888, p. 164. Darondeau’s ok t 1 ee ! ards also in the Astro S. Stutchbury, West of England Journal, i, 48. a ae pe 182 On Coral Reefs and Islands. pearing beyond 20 fathoms; and at the Maldives and Chagos, at a less depth. Other facts brought forward by Mr. Darwin, relate’ to Caryophylliz and those =— which have a wide range be- yond reef-forming zoophytes It thus appears that all recent investigators since Quoy and the cruise of the Expedition, tend to confirm this opinion. The conclusion is borne out by the fact that soundings in the course of the various and extensive surveys afford no evidence of grow- ing coral beyond twenty fathoms. Where the depth was fifteen fathoms, coral sand and fragments were almost uniformly reported. Among the Feejee Islands, the extent of coral reef-grounds sur- _ veyed was many hundreds of square miles, besides the more care- ful examination of harbors. The reefs of the Navigator Islands ~~ were also sounded out, with others at the Society Group, besides numerous coral islands ; and through all these regions no evi- the anchor of the oe was jean sixty times in water from 12 to 24 fathoms deep, and in no case struck among growing corals; it usually sunk ‘nto a muddy or sandy bottom. Patches of reef were encountered at times, but they were at a less depth than 12 fathoms. By means of a drag, occasionally dropped in the same channels, some fleshy Aleyonia, and a few Hydroidea were brought up, but no reef-forming species. Outside of the reef of Upolu, corals were seen by the writer growing in twelve fathoms. Lieutenant Emmons brought up with a boat-anchor a large Dendrophyllia from a depth of four- teen and a half fathoms at the Feejees; and this species was afterwards oe near ay On the Flow of Elastic Fluids through Orifices. 189 Substituting this value of V in the preceding couplet and then finding the value of d, we have the following formula for determ- ining the densities in the chamber according to the old theory, viz., in ie Fa i a = The several densities in the chamber computed by this formula are placed in the fourth column of the table. In order to ascertain what the densities in the chamber should have been according to the new theory, I constructed a formula as follows, preserving the same notation as above. By the new theory the force which drives the air through the 4 first orifice is 4—d whenever d is not less than 3° Butd is never d 2 for if it were so the chamber would, according to our theory, be receiving as much as could flow into a vacuum under the pres- Sure J, and must therefore discharge into the receiver as much as would flow into a vacuum under a pressure 4; in order to which the density in the chamber must be equal to 4, and therefore less than 5 when an equal quantity flows through both orifices, 4 . greater than 5° Consequently, the force which drives the air through the first orifice is in this arrangement always 4—d. Again, the force expended in driving the air through the second _ d orifice by the new theory is 5 whenever D is not greater than 5° Let us first construct a formula for the cases in which D is not greater than 3 In these cases the densities under which the air | Siete passes the orifices are respectively 4 —d and 5° Since the forces are as the velocities, 4—d : i :V : v; and since the quantities are dv v Se equal, dV=-, and V=5- Substituting this value of V in the 4 . : couplet, we have d = 4; a constant quantity. Hence while the a: 2 ee density in the receiver varies from 0 to a the density in the : 4 chamber is a constant quantity and equal to z4. Let us now Construct a formula for finding the value of d when D is greater 190 On the Flow of Elastic Fluids through Orifices. than = In these cases the forces are J -—d and d-D and we have for the couplet 4—d:d—D::V:v. ‘The densities in the orifices are d and D, and we have dV = Dv and a Substi- tuting this last quantity in the couplet we find as the formula for the value of d by the new theory when D ex- ceeds 54- The densities in the chamber computed by these formule are placed in the third column of the table. Density of the Atmosphere during Experiment 30. Density | Density i in the cham-|Density in the cham-|Deviation of the in the | ber as found by ex-| ber due to the new! ber due to the old experiment from receiver. periment. theory. ry. the new theory. 0 24 18541 1 24 18-820 2 24 f 19106 3 24 19°397 4 24-58 24 19°695 58 5 24-58 24 20 58 6 24-58 24 20°311 58 q 24°58 24 20°628 58 8 24°58 24 20°953 58 9 24-58 24 21-284 58 10 24-58 24 21°622 58 1l 24°60 24 21-968 60 12 24°64 24 22°320 138 24-70 24-032 22-713 668 14 24-77 24194 23 646 15 24-89 24270 23°423 16 25°03 24-464 23°805 566 17 25°21 24-700 24194 18 25°48 24974 24594 456 19 25°69 25-280 2 41 20 25°96 25°615 25:414 345 21 26°30 25-976 25°835 324 22 26°65 26:360 26°265 23 27°08 26°764 26°699 266 24 27°48 27-186 27-149 244 25 27°81 27-625 27-604 185 26 28°20 28-076 28-066 124 27 28°65 28-541 28533 109 28 29-08 29-017 29-016 063 29 29°55 29-504 29'5 046 30 0 3 The affinity of the experimental results to those derived from the new theory, is obvious upon inspection of the table ; and the want of affinity to those derived from the old theory, is not less evident. The comparative relation of the two theories to the re- ts of experiment, is more readily seen in the annexed cut, SRE My NO Naat Se A ER ee Ee PSB ae ania eee — a Za : ' Oe oe 1. i 3 re pass LL 7 Ee ett Oa ASS Fea — 192 On the Flow of Elastic Fluids through Orifices. where they are respectively delineated by acurve. The upper curve represents the densities or elastic forces in the chamber, as found by experiment; the next curve those due to the new the- ory, and the lower curve those due to the old theory. Notwithstanding the near approximation of the experimental results to those due to the new theory, there is yet a small but distinct deviation, which holds throughout. This deviation indi- cates either that there is some cause affecting the flow which the theory does not take into the account, or that in the structure of being predicated on the assumption that this ratio is constant. It has been ascertained by experiment, that when air is condensed and then suffered to lose the heat evolved by condensation, the ratio of its elastic force to its density will be diminished. Hence it is certain that a part or the whole, or possibly even more than the whole heat evolved by condensation will be required to pre- vent that ratio from being diminished. Still, however, it has gene- rally been assumed by philosophers (I know not on what grounds) that if air is suddenly condensed, so as not to allow the heat evolved by condensation to escape, the ratio of elastic force to density will be increased. This assumption was made by Laplace when he attributed to this cause, in part, the velocity of sound. Let us suppose then, for the present, that in sudden condensation the ratio of elastic force to density is increased. It will then fol- low that in sudden expansion, the ratio of elastic force to density will be diminished. But if that ratio were diminished, then the deviation in the table should be in the opposite direction ; that 1s, the experimental results, instead of being greater than the theo- retical, should be less. The deviation, therefore, is not accounted for by this supposition ; on the contrary, the experiment seems to prove that the ratio is not diminished by expansion, and therefore cannot be increased by condensation, as Laplace supposed. Let us next take the contrary supposition, viz., that the ratio of elastic force to density is increased by expansion. This would cause a deviation in the same direction as we find in the table. In order to ascertain whether the deviation in question is due to this cause, we must next inquire whether a deviation arising from ee et > we Reeth re: = Mil, Seal ie On the Flow of Elastic Fluids through Orifices. 193 this cause, would vary in the same manner throughout the table, as does the observed deviation. Now if we go through the ta- ble and assign for each observation severally, the manner in which the ratio of elastic force to density must increase, in order to sat- isfy that observation, we shall find very nearly one and the same increment of the ratio demanded for all the observations. Hence if we attribute the deviation to this cause we should be obliged to conclude that one and the same change in the ratio takes place, whether the expansion be greater or less. But such a conclusion is obviously inadmissible. We cannot, therefore, attribute the deviation in question to a change in that ratio, either by increase or diminution. or can we ascribe the deviation to that which is the chief cause of deviation from theory in the case of the flow of liquids, viz., the contraction of the stream in passing an orifice. i that cause operated, it would affect the flow in the same ratio in both orifices, and therefore would not, in this case, affect the indi- cations of the mercurial columns. Moreover, I think it can be shown, from considerations a priori, that the cause which produ- ces the contraction of the stream in liquids, could not operate to affect the flow of expansible fluids. . Having satisfied myself that the deviation was not due to the causes above named, my next inquiry was, whether a difference in the sizes of the orifices (hitherto assumed to be equal) would Catise a deviation corresponding to that in the table. In examin- Ing this point, | found that the experimental results would be very nearly satisfied throughout the table, by the assumption that the area of the second orifice was less than that of the first, in about the ratio of -933 to 1. As the two orifices had been made as nearly equal as they could be by forcing the same steel plug through both, I was confident that, as originally formed, they could not differ to this extent. But it occurred to me that some accidental circumstance might have occurred to diminish the in- OWever, is sufficiently near to establish the truth of the new Seconp Serres, Vol. XII, No. 35.—Sept., 1851. 25 194 Onthe Flow of Elastic Fluids through Orifices. theory, so far as respects those points of sper between the two theories specified in the first part of this artic The fifth column of the table shows the several diftennces be- tween the experimental results, and those due to the new theory. It will be noticed that these differences increase slightly between density 10 and 13 in the receiver, before they begin to decrease. This, I think, indicates a slight obstruction to the flow through the second orifice e, when the density in the receiver becomes equal or nearly equal to that of the effluent stream. This increment at its maximum amounts to ‘088, corresponding to the pressure of that portion of an inch of mercury, and is, I think, the measure of the obstruction or resistance due to ‘hist. circumstance. If this view of the subject is correct, then there would have been a de- viation to this extent in this part of the table, even if the orifices had been equal. It is desirable that further experiments of this kind should be tried by those who have better means at command than I had to do justice to the ican To such as may be disposed to under- e it, | would suggest that a perfect equality of the two orifi- ces eae be secured by interchanging the discs, varying the sizes of the orifices until they gave the same indications in both posi- tions. If, after thus securing the equality of the orifices, there should still be a deviation in that part of the table where the elastic force in the chamber is constant, such deviation, I think, must be at- tributed to a change in the ratio of elastic force to densi ty; and so, its amount would furnish the hepa of determining the law according to which that ratio varie I would also suggest that a Si cdiasion of this experiment would furnish perhaps the best possible means of determining the law according to which the ratio of elastic force to temperature varies, when the absolute amount of heat is constant. In an ar- rangement for this purpose, the bulb of a thermometer should be inserted into the chamber; and the outer orifice should be so con- structed that it may be enlarged or ar at pleasure. With this arrangement, we may cause the in the chamber to as- sume, almost instantly, any elastic age we may choose, between the elastic force of the atmosphere, and a little more than twice the elastic force in the receiver; and we may keep that force constant in the chamber during any time that may be required to cool the thermometer down to the corresponding temperature, the continual flow through the chamber in the mean time carrying off not only the heat which flows in from extraneous sources, f. .. We.ma mine the law of their variation when the absolute amount 0 heat remains constant. ae eee a ad eo Relation of the Chemical Constitution of Bodies to Taste. 195 Art. XXI.—On the sie oat ey the Chemical vin ae of Bodies to Taste ; by Prof. E. N. Horsrorp, of Harvard.* Pror. Horsrorp alluded to a paper upon Glycocoll published in 1846, in which he called attention, in a note, to the interest- ing relation sustained by that body in its chemical constitution, to other sweet bodies, and cited the following formule: CiHa 0. = Glycocoll. C4Hs 1500 x 3= Grape sugar. Cale (Os = Sugar of lead, oes a = % Oxyd of glycerile To this enumeration of sweet aS was appended the query, “Ts this similar taste Seepent upon a similar arrangement of their minutest particles? Prof. H. remarked that, early in 1848, he presented to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, ‘with a modification of the formule, an additional list of sweet bodies. Some of the formule were arbitrarily doubled from the received fromule, and others fractionally reduced, for the sake, merely, of tracing this interesting relationship. The modification of the formule, and the list as then presented, were as follows: = CsHs04 X3 = Grape sugar. H CsH2H Os — Grape sugar. CaHe2H Os = Glycocoll. Ga & N ; Pb O CsH2H Oz — Sugar of lead. C4H2Pb Os'3 = Citrate of lead. O O O H a. CsH2K Os = Acetate of potassa. CaH2H Os, H, O, = Nitric ether, O N H . CsH2H O3sX1-5= Oxyd of glycerile, 204 Cl Br CsHeClCls —2=—Chloroform. CsH2Br Brs—2= Bromoform.t Cl Br I I CsHells — 2 = Iodoform. CaHe I Cls —2=Chloroiodoform. I Cl se * Proceedings of the American — ion for the Advancement of Science, Fourth a age ng, held at New Haven, C August, t For the observation that this and “ahe. following four bodies may be included Chen thi ze the author acknowledged his indebtedness to his assistant, Dr, . J. Peirce. 196 Relation of the Chemical Constitution of Bodies to Taste. Br CazH2BrIls —2—= Bromoiodoform. 1 H CsH2H - — 2 = Hydrofluate of methylene.* HF? H Clee = Chlorid of methyle. Ss H CsH2SSs—+2=Sulphoform. CaHe2H 8 H Ce O ‘ . g,HeAg Os, H,0,= Methylsulphite of silver. a O O Gi He Pb, H, O, = Methylsulphite of lead. PION C2H O . So Age! Os, H, O=Chloro-methylsulphite of silver. 2Agy O G6Mt oro st Om | « Witt Tend: S2Pb6 O S4 Ag20 Os + 2=Hypo-sulphite of silver.t O O $1550 Oz = Hypo-sulphite of mercury and soda. 7) To these Prof. Horsford remarked there might be added CsH2(}*0s-3-4+H2= Mannite; and C4aH4Sa. Several other compounds of sulphur with C,H, do not taste sweet. The following sweet bodies, one possessing a multiple and the other nearly a multiple of the number of atoms in glycocoll, do not readily admit of being written in the above formula— C10H1103 = 24 = Valerianic acid. Ci1e6H1107 = 384 = Orcine. In reply to the inquiry as to whether sweetness may be as- cribed to a peculiarity of form, the following facts are of sig- nificance : C4H4S.4 tastes sweet, and contains C, H and S. 4 e oe (CsHsOa C,HandO.° 3. Sa Age? . ss neither C nor H. _ * This body has a pleasant ethereal smell Big m get. The a in constitution of this body with the next in succession” — gives additional interest to the formula. : Relation of the Chemical Constitution of Bodies to Taste. 197 The taste is, therefore, not dependent upon any one of the ele- ments present, since each may be replaced entirely by another without destroying the taste. In the communication submitted to the American Academy, attention was directed to the common formula, in which, acecord- ing to Davy and to most modern chemists, all the acids contain- ing hydrogen may be written, and also the oxygen acids which ordinarily exist in combination with an atom of water, as sul- phuric and nitric acids; to wit, H + x; in which x represents all that part of the acid not replaced by metal in neutralization. few examples follow: H+Cl = Hydrochloric acid. H+ NOs = Nitric’ acid. H+1 = Hydriodic * H+C2HOs =Formic * H-++ Br =Hydrobromic * H+C20 = Oxalie * H+F =Hydrofluoric * H+Csts04 =Acetic “ H+ Cy =Hydrocyanic * H-+CeHsOs = Metacetonic acid. H+-SOs=Sulphurous “ H+CsH7Os = Butyric - H+ so. = Sulphuric “H+ C10H1104 = Valerianic “ &c. The inquiry naturally arises, have sour bodies a common form ? to which, and not to the nature of the constituent particles, the property of sourness is to be attributed. They (the acids) are composed of one larger atom, or group of atoms united to the least atom, hydrogen, easily replaceable by a metal, and bound to — the group by an affinity apparently much feebler than that of any of the remaining elements. An allusion was made, in the communication to the Academy, to the class of resins—some of the soluble members of which possessing a bitter taste—might, according to a research of Heldt upon Santonine, be referred to a single fundamental type. He refers the resins, for their origin, to the oxydation of the essen- tial oils, and though the conception has been entertained by other chemists, it has first met with a full exposition in this pa- per. ‘The hydrogen of essential oils oxydates, as a general thing, much more readily than the carbon. The following formule present Heldt’s view of the production of resins. All are de- rived, he conceives, from Ci oHe. Cael a ar Bina: C1oHe }"—Hx+Ox+(HO)y=R. [CroHs ]]—Hx+Ox+Oy=R. [CioHs |" —-Hx+Ox+Oy=[HO]z=R. _ [Cr1oHe}>4-[HO]x=R. These formule present in the original essential oils, groups of atoms, in which a part of the hydrogen occupies a more exposed Situation, if one may employ the illustration, than other parts of the molecule, and oxydates more readily. In this respect there _ 4S approximation to a common form, in view of which the in- i ee ik Te eee a a 4 198 Relation of the Chemical Composition of Bodies to Taste. quiry was suggested, may the bitterness be ascribed to this form? This, however, does not furnish an explanation of the remarka- nitrogen contained in the organic base. The corresponding re- placement of ammonia with three atoms of water is not of un- frequent occurrence in organic chemistry. Upon the speculation that this has been the derivation of the alkaloids, it will be easy to convert them into the essential oils from which they were derived. -1f we halve the formula of the oil, the first of Heldt’s formule gives (CsH4a)"—Hx+Ox=R. A certain number of atoms of hydrogen deducted from, and an equal number of atoms of oxygen added to, n times CsH4 con- stitute the resin. If, in adding nitrogen, we deduct for each atom of nitrogen three atoms of oxygen, or, which is the same thing, or each atom of ammonia (NHs) added, deduct three atoms of water, we have an organic body containing C, H, N and O, a body corresponding in constitution with an alkaloid. ; By reversing this process, we may convert the alkaloid into its corresponding essential oil. i Take for example Papaverin, one of the alkaloids of opium, analyzed by Merck, CaoH21 : Three atoms of oxygen for the atom of nitrogen, united to the eight atoms of oxygen, making eleven in all, correspond with eleven atoms of hydrogen, which, added to the twenty-one pres- ent, make thirty-two. C1oH21NOs —N —Os+Hs+O3s—Cs0H29+0s, which correspond with CaoHs2—(CsHa)8. There is doubt still resting upon the constitution of most of the alkaloids. Of those considered as best established, the fol- lowing examples will be sufficient for a practical illustration of the above speculation. Thebain =C25H14NOs=C2sH20=—(CsHsz)5. Furfurin —C30H12N20ce=CsoH2s=—(CsHaz)®. Codein —Cs35H2oNOs=CssH2s=—(CsHs)’. The formula (CsH: )]—Hx + Ox+ Oy =R, is suited to the de- rivation of Bebeerin. CssH2oNOs=CssH29=—(CsHs)7-+H. * Liebig’s Ann., Ixvi, 125; Pharm. Contr., 1848, 930. Relation of the Chemical Composition of Bodies to Taste. 199 Harmalin requires the addition of C2H:2 to the second of Heldt’s formule (CsH.4)]—Hx+Oy=R. C27H14N2e02—C27H22=(CsH4)5+Ce2He. Chinin and Cinchonin require the subtraction of C2. Chinin —C3sH22N204*=CssHs2=(CsHa)*—Co. Cinchonin —C3sH22N204t—C3sH3 2—(CsHz)8 aes Strichnin requires the deduction of an atom of carbonic acid, or its equivalent CH2, and the same formula of resin as that of CssH2sN204—Cs4H34=(CsHs)9—CHe. Cotarnin requires the addition of an atom of carbonic acid. C26HisNOct—C2c6H22=(CsH4)*+CHa. The following require slight modifications. Morphin —Cs4H19NOe§ =C24H2s=(CsHs)7—C. Piperin —Cs4H19NOc|| =—Cs4H2s=(CsHs)7 —C. Veratrin =CssH22NOs =Cs4Hs1=(CsHs)? —C+-Hsz. It will readily be seen that in this series the differences be- tween the essential oil and its derivative are such as would disap- pear with the addition or subtraction of an atom of carbonic acid, peta in some cases, and a little more or less oxydation in others, In those bases where the quantity of nitrogen is much larger, the third formula of Heldt would still give us the corresponding resins. (CsH4a)">— Hx+-Ox+Oy=R. Take for example Caffein. : CisHsN4Os. The nearest essential oil of the constitution (CsHs )"isC1sH12. CisH12—Hi+01+014-44(HsN)—12HO=CisHsNsOc. ‘ If we deduct from this formula an atom of carbonic acid, we ave C1sHsNsOc —CO2=Ci14Hs NOs. Theobromin differs, as has been remarked, from Caffein only by C:He, C14HsNs04+CoH2=CicsH10Ni0z. The construction from the class of oils, above referred to, of the formule of those alkaloids in which the quantity of hydro- §e0 Is much greater, is more difficult. _ The foregoing relationships have an interest taken in connec- tion with the inquiry to which attention has been directed, to wit, Py mance bea common form among bodies having a common aste 3 5. . [3] xix, 365. Ch. Phys. [3] xix, 370. . [8] xix, 361; Ann. d. Ch. u. Phar., lxiii, 98. 3] xix, 363. . [3] xix, 363; Ann. d. Ch. u. Phar., lxii, 9 i Ann. lxi, 338? Pharm. Cont. Blatt., 1847, 424. 1c 200 Foucault’s Pendulum Experiment. Art. XXJII.—Foucault’s Pendulum Experiment. Tue peculiar interest of Foucault’s experiment with the Pen- dulum, by which the rotation of the earth is proved even within the walls of an ordinary lecture room, has obtained for it very general attention, and it has already been repeated in numerous places in this and other countries. The occurrence from whic M. Foucault was led to his discovery is thus related by him.* “ Having fixed on the arbor of a lathe and in the direction of the axis, a round and flexible steel rod, it was put in vibration by de- flecting it from its position of equilibrium and leaving it to itself. A plane of oscillation is thus determined, which, from the per- sistence of the visual impressions, is clearly delineated in space. Now it was remarked that on turning around with the hand, the arbor which formed the support of this vibrating rod, the plane of oscillation was not carried with it, but always retained the same direction in space.’ From this came the conclusion that a pendulum set‘in motion will continue in the same plane of vibra- tion, however the point of suspension be rotated—a fact easily proved by a simple trial with a weight at the end of a cord. The rotation of the point of suspension may make the pendulum re- volve on its axis; but the plane of vibration will remain the same. The reason for this is obvious: the swinging pendulum, when about to return (after an outward swing) from its point of rest, is made to move from that point by gravity alone, and can therefore fall but in one direction; and the momentum acquired by falling carries it beyond this centre in the same direction to the point of rest on the other side; here again it is in a like con- dition, and must return under the force of gravity in one and the same line, gravity acting in the same direction whether the point of suspension be rotated or not. Thus the plane of vibration 1s fixed from the very nature of the forces at work. It is evident, therefore, that if a pendulum were swinging at the pole of the earth, the plane of vibration, as it would not change with the revolution of the earth, should mark this revo- to the latitude, being greater the farther from the pole. For these intermediate latitudes the problem is beautifully solved on a globe. Having a globe for the trial, select, for instance, latitude 30°; and apply the principle that the plane of vibration is constant a Me —=S sl Foucault's Pendulum Experiment. 201 notwithstanding the revolution. Suppose the plane of vibration to be the meridian of Greenwich: draw a series of lines across the parallel of 30°, parallel to this meridian ; each of these lines will show precisely the position of the pendulum, in the revolution, at the point where the line intersects the parallel of latitude. If, for example, we draw one of these parallel lines across the intersection of 30° with the first meridian circle east of Greenwich; another across the intersection of the parallel of 30° with the second me- ridian ; another across the third, and so on ;—each will mark the position of the plane of vibration after a revolution of as many degrees as are included between the meridians. Continuing this on, the parallel lines become more and more easterly, and finally they are exactly east and west in longitude 180°; or in other words, the plane of vibration, which is still parallel to the Green- Wich meridian, is actually at right angles to the meridian of 180°; this plane has therefore changed apparently 90°, while the earth was. revolving 180° or making half its circuit. And if this be continued, it will be found that the parallel lines will make the whole circuit of 360° in twice the earth’s revolution, or what is rs pie: These parallel lines drawn on the globe, it is to be observed, should be parts of great circles, and are strictly paralle | having made 90° in its apparent revolution. In 191° 33’ it will have made 180°, and in 383° 6’, (or 23° 6’ east of the meridian of Greenwich,) it will have completed the whole 360° ; so that in latitude 70° the time of the apparent revolution of the plane of vibration, is a little over 254 hours. The globe thus exhibits to the eye the actual uniform position of the plane of vibration, and at the same time its apparent revolution. By marking these parallel lines at one end with an arrow-head, and also describing an are with the point of intersection as a centre, the increasing divergence from the meridians, and the apparent rotation by east, south, and west to north, is well shown. pee ; how tangents be supposed to be drawn to each meridian cir- cle, at its intersection with any parallel of latitude, say that of 70°, these tangents will intersect at a point in the axis of the earth extended; and the angle included between any two Srconp Serres, Vol. XII, No. 35.—Sept., 1851. 6 202 Foucault’s Pendulum Experiment. tangents is the angle which the corresponding meridians make with one another in the given latitude. The plane of vibration, since it continues parallel to itself, will therefore change with reference to the meridians, just the amount of the angle included between these tangents. This is readily seen on the globe, mar- ked off as above explained, in which the Greenwich meridian is the starting point. The angle which one of the parallel lines drawn on the globe (or its tangent) makes with the meridian it intersects 1s (from the nature of parallel lines) equal to the angle between the tangent to this meridian and that of Greenwich. The sum there- fore of the angles between all the tangents to the meridians, will be the amount of apparent variation in the plane of vibration for 24 hours. These tangents—which are strictly the cotangents of latitude—form together the surface of a cone whose base is the parallel of latitude, and whose angle of surface at summit is equal to the revolution of the pendulum in 24 hours. If this cone be supposed to be cut open and laid out on a flat plane, it will form a sector of a circle, whose angle at the centre equals the angle around the apex of the cone. he radius of this sector (or of its circle) equals the cotangent of latitude, (cot L); and the circum- ference of the sector is actually a parallel of latitude—a paralle of latitude having been the base of the supposed cone. Now as the number of degrees in any arc varies with the length of the are : are : as related to the radius of the circle, or as RP? and since the are here is a parallel of latitude and these parallels vary with the co- sine of latitude (cos L), and since also the radius (R) equals cot. L —it follows that the number of degrees in the are (or the number expressing the apparent motion of the plane of vibration for 24 hi will vary as ' stor Bens a of latitude. Other demonstrations arrive at the same result, but none is more simple or more conclusive. The theory thus involves no necessary consideration of the forces engaged, by which many explanations of the experiment are encumbered, but is simply a geometrical problem, based on the position of the meridians of a revolving sphere, and the fact that the pendulum moves in a fixed direction, parallel to the meridian in which it is started. The idea involved in Foucault’s experiment “ seems to have occurred long ago, and is mentioned in a paper in the Phil. Trans. 1742, No. 468, by the Marquis de Poli, in the course of some ob- servations on the pendulum of a different kind. He remarks, Z| _ then considered (adopting the hypothesis of the earth’s motion,) that in one oscillation of the pendulum there would not be de- > an expression equivalent to the sine t | i { HM Foucault’s Pendulum Experiment. 203 scribed from its centre perfectly one and the same are in the same plane’; but he does not pursue the subject as being foreign to his immediate object.”* It appears also, (Comptes Rendus, 1851, No. 6,) that in 1837, Poisson had hinted at such an effect, but suppo- sed it of insensible amount. Different modes of varying the experiment have been proposed. The following is suggested by Poinsot. If two balls are suspend- ed in contact, with a spring between them, and then by a sudden action of the spring are thrown apart and thus held by some at- tached contrivance, they will retain, after the change of position, their original rate of velocity, or that of the earth where they originally were, and consequently will commence to revolve. It would seem that if the cause mentioned be the source of motion they should not revolve if thrown apart east and west, or at right angles toa meridian. But if viewed in a different light it ap- buted along a portion of its length, and the wire will last longer without breaking. Tio mark the motion, a circle (three feet or more in diameter) divided into degrees, is placed below the pen- dulum ; the apparent motion of the plane of vibration, is obser- Ved (in north latitude) to be uniformly from left to right, or with the hands of a watch: For starting the pendulum wheu there is ho better contrivance, it may be held, previous to letting it swing, ‘Eee eeenteeserevemsineensnneies ye a * Phil. Mag. [4] i. 561. 204 On Heteronomic Isomorphism. appears to be somewhat elliptical. This has been attributed solely to accidental causes, and it is true that the slightest error of direction in letting off the pendulum will necessarily produce It. But on a following page, Rev. C. S. Lyman shows that a degree of ellipticity is a necessary result of the earth’s rotation. J.D. D. Arr. XXIII.—Note on Heteronomic Isomorphism ; by James D. Dana. In Volume Nine of this Journal* I published views on certain isomorphous groups among minerals, tracing this quality to a re- lation in atomic volume, a principle already admitted, but show- ing that this relation is most correctly exhibited when the aggre- gate atomic volume is divided by the number of atoms (or mole- cules) of the elements present. Thus for Fe O, I would divide the atomic volume, obtained in the usual way, by 2, which re- duces the compound to the condition of a unit, as if consisting; as in effect it does, of Fe? 07. Again, for Fe? 0*,1 divided by 2 5, as the compound consists essentially of Fe’ O°, the sum of the fractions making a unit. This method carried out with the volume,—the monometric (as Leucite) having the highest num- ber, the monoclinic the next highest, and the triclinic a lower D These views are well elucidated by many groups of silicates, and they give increased interest to the recent results of Ram- melsberg with the tourmalines, his distinguished chemist, after numerous analyses, makes out five chemical groups 30 ae Frat of * P, 290, 1860, [ee rites Mi sneralogicel Notices. 205 this species, and in accounting for their similarity of crystalli- zation, deduces as follows their atomic volumes s.—(Pogg. Ann., 1xxxi, BL.) Formulas of Tourmaline. Mean atom. vol. L R*(S8i2, B2)4-sH(Si, B) +: 8808 IL R3(Si?, B2)4-4K(Si, B) 2217 Ill R5(Si?, B2)+- 6%(Si, B) 30138 “, IV. R(Si, B)+-3K(Si, B) 1464 V. R(Si, B)+4H(Si, B) He then observes that the numbers 1464, 1808, 1850, 2217, 3013, have the relation (correcting his 1-25, by substituting 1 26) 1: 1-24: 1:26: 1:51: 2-06, or very closely Fr ig: lg 2 4:56:56: 8. But let us now divide these numbers by the number of atoms of the elements, and we shall find the atomic volumes, as thus deduced, very closely equal. No. of atoms. Atomic vol. Atomic vol. > No. of atoms deduced, Formula I. 41* 1808 — 41 a » 44°] ss IL. 50 2217 — 50 Fo 44°3 er IIL. 68 8013 + 68 Sate 44°31 o IV 33 1464 + 33 | 44°36 = Vv. 52 1850 — 42 = 44:05 This equality is certainly very remarkable, and the identity of crystallization is attributed to it with good reason. We also remark that the number of atoms 33, 41, 42, 50, 68, have to one another the ratios 1:1-24: 1273161: 2-06, which are coincident, as will be observed, with the ratios obtained by Rammelsberg for the atomic volumes. ‘T'he ratios 4:5:6: which this chemist deduces, ie ve bh therefore only the ratios of the number of atoms, 33:41: Art. XXIV.—Mineralogical Notices. No. Il. 1. New Species. Gurolite, a new mineral ; T’. ANperson, (Phil. Mag. [4], i, 111. -) —Occurs on Skye, at Storr, nine miles from Portree, in basalt ; it is associated with apophyllite, stilbite and laumonite, though found in the finest specimens where these minerals do not abound. The name gurolite (more eee gyrolite,) alludes to the spherical * In the first formula, R? contains 6 atoms or molecules; Si?, 8; 3%,15; 35i 12; making in all 41. os £143) : 206 Mineralogical Notices. form of its concretions, and is from veges, orbiculatus. Structure ra- diating, and surface of the concretions appearing striated owing to the plates of which it is formed rising to irregular distances above the surface ; cleaves easily parallel to the plates. Color white; lustre vitreous, passing into pearly on exposure ; perfectly trans- parent in thin plates. Very tough. Hardness between 3 and 4. .B. yields water, swells up and separates into thin pearly or silvery plates. On charcoal swells up, splitting into thin lamine and fuses to an opake enamel. With borax, yields a transparent colorless glass; with soda fuses with difficulty to an opake mass. Readily attacked by hydrochloric acid. Composition according to T’., Anderson, Si 1 Ca Mg Hi 50°70 1-48 33°24 018 14:18=99°78 Oxygen 26°86 9-49 He thence deduces the oxygen ratio for the lime, silica and water, (considering the other ingredients as unessential,) 1: 3: 14, and Are@orene, a new vanadate of Lead and Zinc.—Kose.u re- ceived this new mineral through Prof. Débner. It was found at Dahn in the Palatinate, with galena, and had been considered a chromate of lead, It occurs massive but imperfectly crystalline, with some traces of a columnar structure. Color red, darker than crocoisite, with a brownish tinge; streak pale yellowish. H.=3. . on coal fuses easily with intumescence, and yields an arsen- ical odor with a globule of lead, the latter being larger with soda. With borax fuses in the reduction flame to a bright green glass, which in the oxydation flame becomes gradually light olive green, giving out chlorine, emerald green. On adding spirits of wine, heating it, and pouring off from the solution the separated chlo- rid of lead, it is still green; but on concentrating it by means of a vapor bath and then diluting it with water it takes a fine sky- blue color. In this characteristic, it is like other allied vanadium h analyzed by Damour contained only 6°34 p. c. of oxyd of zinc. —(J. f. pr. Chem., 1, 496.) _ Enargite, a new ore of Copper; A. Brerrnaurt, (Poggend. Ann., xxx, 383.)—Enargite comes. from Morococha, ee of Mineralogical Notices. 207 Jauli, in the Cordilleras of Peru, at a height of 14,000 feet (French), and also from a mine near Freiberg, along with other copper ores. - It occurs in Peru abundantly in large masses containing occa- - sional small druzes of crystals, imbedded with tennantite in crys- talline limestone. The Freiberg mine affords it in acicular erys- tals, which are distinguished from other glances by the prismatic cleavage. Lustre metallic, slightly imperfect; color iron-black ; streak black ; H.=3 or that of cale spar; G.=4:43-4-445; easily pulverized. Crystallization trimetric ; the crystals presenting the planes of a rhombic and rectangular prism; rhombic prism ( «P)=98° 11’: cleavage prismatic, perfect ; brachydiagonal and macrodiagonal distinct ; basal indistinct ; octahedral (P) in traces. Fracture uneven. B.B. in a glass tube, decrepitates and gives with little heat a sublimate of sulphur; in a stronger heat, fuses and produces sulphuret of arsenic of a reddish yellow color; on charcoal it gives out arsenous acid, oxyd of antimony and oxyd of zinc; and in the reduction flame, it finally yields with borax a globule of copper. Analysis of the Peruvian ore afforded Plattner, (ibid, p. 386)— 8 As Sb Cu Fe Zn Ag 32222 17599 1618 «= 47-205 0565 «= 0228 «= O01 799-449 This gives the ratio for the sulphur,—the arsenic and anti- mony,—and the copper, iron and zinc, 1605: 197: 1214, or very 8 copper and the allied metals) — [8CuS+AsS*] + [2€uS+AsS#], or perhaps 3(Cu, Fe, Zn) S + (As, Sb) 8°, equivalent to sulphur 32-64, arsenic 19-11, copper 48:25. that the mineral is an anhydrous arsenate of oxyd o on; the quantitative relations have not been determined. - 208 Mineralogical Notices. Dechenite, a vanadate of Lead ; Dr. C. Bergemann, (Pogg. Ann Ixxx, 393.)—Dechenite comes from the Lauter valley in Rhenish Bavaria, near Nieder-Schlettenbach, where the rock is the ‘‘ bunter sandstein.” It occurs in small botryoidal masses, having a crys- talline Satane, and presenting when purest a dull red color. ar to be indications of a rhombohedral cleavage. a these masses there are occasional wart-shaped grains of a mo yellow color. ‘The streak is always hig: Angee Lustre of fresh fracture greasy; G.=581; H.=4, that of green lead ore. B.B. alone in the platinum forceps it ge easily to a yellowish glass; in a glass tube gives no water; on charcoal, does not de- crepitate like the known vanadate ore, but fuses easily to a yel- lowish green pearl, which yields a slag containing some grains of lead. ith more of the assay, the odor of arsenic is sometimes given off. With salt of phosphorus and borax, gives the reaction — sanpdic acid. Soda yields a white enamel containing grains According to the examinations, the mineral consists of Pb L Dull red variety, 47-164 52915 = 100079 46101 53°717 = 99818 : Yellowieh 49°27 50°57 = 99°84 The first two analyses afford the oxygen ratio for the base and acids 1:3, equivalent to the formula Pb V= vanadic acid 45:33, lead 54: 67. Octahedral oryd of Antimony.—M. H. pr Senarmont describes (Province of Consianiting ) At one locality, the panty is in masses often cavernous, composed of capillary filaments parallel or a little divergent, and pearly or adamantine in lustre ; it is the pris- matic species. But at another mine called Mimine, the same oxyd exists in saccharoid masses, granular or compact, having cavities covered with octahedral crystals that are sometimes more than a centimetre in diameter. Several admitted of measure- ment and proved to be the regular octahedron, the cleavage octa- hedral, but a little difficult. The composition is that of the pure oxyd, or oxygen 15-68, antimony 84:32. G.=522-5°3, while that of the prismatic oxyd is 5°36. Hardness less than that of calcite. Colorless; transparent; strongly refracting without regu- lar action on polari zed light. Specific gravity of the massive variety 5°23, and color mostly grayish; contains sometimes less than 1 percent. of lead, and there may be 1 to 3 per cent. of gray clay. It is probable, from the existence of thermal waters in the soil below, that these crystals were formed in the humid ee Oxyd of antimony is then dimorphous. Arsenous acid presents Mineralogical Notices, 209 the same forms. Wohler* observed prismatic crystals which were recognized as like those of oxyd of antimony by Mitscherlich; while octahedral crystals are readily obtained by sublimation or by solution. [Senarmonitite is an appropriate name for this octa- hedral oxyd.] Mineral species described by Prof. C. U. Sueparp, (Proc. Amer. Assoc., 4th Meeting at New Haven, p. 311.)—1. Dysyntribite. Occurs in considerable masses in St. Lawrence county, New York, and has some resemblance in appearance to serpentine. It is found at Rossie, and at Natural Bridge in Diana, and is usually in connection with the specular iron of the region. It is massive, granular, tough, almost dull, with an even splintery fracture ; color dark green, grayish or yellowish, sometimes mottled with red and black. H.=3-5-4. G.=2-76-2°81. B.B. in thin frag- ments fuses to a white porcelainous mass. In an open tube yields water. Contains according to Prof. Shepard— Si Al fe H Ca, Mg 47°68 41°50 5-48 483 trace = 99°49 Oxygen 24°77 19°39 1-21 4:29 2. Rutherfordite, (ibid, p. 312.)—Occurs in crystals and grains at the gold mines of Rutherford Co., North Carolina, along with rutile, brookite, zircon and monazite. Monoclinic; M: M=93°. Cleavage, none. Fracture conchoidal ; lustre of fracture shining — and resinous ; color yellowish brown; opake. H.= 6:5; ‘58- 5°69. BB. in a glass tube cracks, glows as if on fire, emits much moisture and turns yellow; alone infusible; with borax forms slowly a clear yellow glass. : _ According to trials by Prof. Shepard, it is supposed to contain titanic acid, oxyd of cerium and possibly oxyd of uranium and ttria, * Wohler on the dimorphism of arsenous acid, Pogg. Ann., xxvi, 177. Srconp Srrres, Vol. XII, No. 85.—Sept., 1851. 27 210 Mineralogical Notices. 4. Houghite, (ibid, p. 314.)—Occurs near Oxbow, St. Law- rence Co., N. Y., and also in Rossie, associated with spinel, from which region specimens were received by Prof. Shepard from Dr. Franklin B. Hough of Somerville. It presents oblong flat- tened reniform concretions, rarely above 3ths of an inch long, with botryoidal surfaces, whitish externally and bluish or red- dish white within ; lustre faintly pearly, glimmering. Sometimes has a spinel crystal as a nucleus. H.=2-5. G.=2-02-203. It decrepitates and emits water before the blowpipe, losing 334 p. ¢. by ignition. Appears to be a hydrate of alumina and magnesia. [Houghite has been studied recently by Mr. S. W. Johnson, of the Yale Analytical Laboratory, who finds that it is a pseudo- morph, often of spinel and probably also at times of scapolite ; some of his specimens are spinel crystals (octahedral) in one part, and true Houghite in another, and all conditions of change are well illustrated by them. Mr. Johnson is still engaged in his investigations on the subject. | . Marasmolite, (ibid, p. 315.)—From the feldspar quarry near Middletown, Ct., along with columbite, pitchblende and albite. Monometric, with cubic cleavage; color brownish black, and streak reddish brown; brittle; H.=3-5; G.=3-73-3-74. Com- position, according to Prof. Shepard :— Sulphur 38°65 Zine 49°19 Tron 12°16 affording the ratio 5:3: 1, and the formula 3ZnS + FeS?.- The name is from pegecuos, decaying.—[The marasmolite, ac- concave ; color dark brown ; lustre adamantine ; opake. H.=6°5. -=434, B.B. in an open tube, yields moisture, having an acid reaction, and becomes pale yellowish white; alone, whitens but does not fuse ; does not fuse readily with soda; with borax dis- solves slowly into a glass which is yellow while hot, but colorless on cooling. When heated in powder with sulphuric acid for some time, it appears to be completely decomposed, and the glass tube exhibits corrosion. ‘‘ ‘The quantity of the mineral was too small for a satisfactory examination; but the absence of silica, lime, magnesia and alumina was ascertained ; and the probability that the substance is a fluo-columbate of some of the less com- pee | Sa Mineralogical Notices. 211 mon earths and oxyds, established.” [We may mention that the most common form closely resembles that of garnet, and the mineral had been referred to this species, which it externally resembles. 'The angle of the pyramid is given at 122° to 124°; but the surfaces are so irregular that the measurements are un- certain. 136° ; e’: e’=151° 30’; e/: e”=159° 30’; €: a@=1279 40’; M:é=118°—118° 30’; e’: a= 127930’; a: 0=144° 20’; €: 0 =128° 20’; e’ : 0=156° 30’; surface M rather im- perfect and not very lustrous; the other faces brilliant. Color blackish-brown, resembling certain crystals of tin ore. Translucent; color by transmitted light deep red, like al- mandine garnet. H. above 6. [The crystal of eumanite has closely the form of topaz, even to the general charac- ter and position of the planes on the sum- mit, and is near figure 393 in Dufrenoy’s : Mineralogy ; the angles also are nearly identical. ‘Topaz gives : M=124° 19’; and if M on é in eumanite is 1189, it will give 124° for M: M in eumanite—M, M, it should be noted, are the least lustrous faces of the crystal; M: e/=135° 59 (136° in eumanite.) The mineral must therefore be closely isomorphous With topaz, if not identical with it, and some other characters are needed to show that the latter supposition is not true, although So peculiar in its color. In the figure, the edge 0’: e” on the night is parallel to the edge e” : e’”, but not so that on the left; Wwe cannot say which is right. - Corundophilite, (ibid, p. 318).—Occurs with corundum near Asheville in Buncombe county, N. Carolina, in imperfectly stellate groups, and also spreading out in laminz between layers of co- rundum. single crystal, exceedingly minute and less than 3th Eumanite. rescence. Melts at the extremity to a shining black globule ; With borax, forms readily with effervescence a clear bottle green 212 Mineralogical Notices. glass. On analysis it afforded Prof. Shepard, Silica 34-75, pro- toxyd of iron 31-25, alumina 8:55, water 5-47, makiug a loss of nearly 20 p. c., a portion of which he attributes to the alkalies. 0-146 gramme was used in the analysis. Neither lime nor mag- nesia were detected. The name is from Corundum and gzdhoc, riend. t (This mineral, as observed by the writer, is usually thin foli- ated or micaceous. It closely resembles chloritoid in appear- ance, which, as stated by J. Lawrence Smith, who analyzed a specimen, occurs frequently with the Corundum of Asia Minor ; but it divides into much thinner lamine than is usual in that species and is less brittle. The angles are nearly those of com- mon mica. | 2. Described Species. On some Canadian Minerals, by T. 8. Hunt, (Phil. Mag., [4], i, 322.) 1. Perthite, of Thomson.—This feldspathic min- eral is from Bathurst, and forms part of a eurite rock, being some- times in large cleavable masses. Form apparently monoclinic. H.=6. G.=2-576-2-579; a darker colored fragment 2583. Lus- tre vitreous, inclining to pearly; color a light flesh red, in alter- nating bands, with reddish or pinchbeck brown, the bands half a line or a line wide, coincident with one of the planes T; the darker bands on the cleavage surface T give a golden reflexion when viewed perpendicularly, like aventurine feldspar. Analysis by Mr. Hunt. Si Al Fe Ga: Mg Na 66°44 18°35 1°00 0°67 02 637 5°56 ign. -40=99°03 66°50 19°25 0°56 0°24 618 5°56 “ +44—-98°73 _. The composition is that of orthoclase, to which species, as he atin the mineral had been referred by Shepard, Dana and imself. 2. Peristerite, Thomson.—The specimens furnished Mr. Hunt by Dr. Wilson, as duplicates of those sent to Dr. 'Fhomson, were a feldspar containing disseminated quartz grains; and others from the locality were fine cleavable masses often free from the quartz. Form triclinic, near albite in cleavage, being perfect parallel to P and M, less distinct with T, a fine play of colors on P, as in labradorite, a delicate cerulean blue prevailing which occasionally passes into light green and yellow. . G.=2-625-2°627 Composition according to Mr: Hunt :— IL. R whence the mineral is albite. 3. Bytownite——The specimen analyzed was from Dr. Holmes and was taken from a specimen pronounced by Dr. Thomson to Si Al Fe Na Oa g L 6680 2130 030 700 058 252 020 ign. 0:60=99'80 67-25 . 2°08 « 066 Mineralogical Notices. 213 be this mineral. H. about 6°5. G.=2°732-2-733. Massive, : 3: 4, the ratio for anorthite ; and therefore, it must be, if this Species, an impure variety of it. The mineral thiorsauite o Genth, has nearly the same composition according to Genth’s 4. Labradorite——Common in boulders from Labrador to Can- ada West, but has not been observed in place. A specimen from Drummond, C. W., of a lavender blue color and pearl-gray opa- lescence, had the sp. gr. 2697, and consisted as follows :— Si A Ca #e ig Na K H ie 5470 2980 = 1142, 086s trace «= 44 083 409935 Mr. Hunt observes with regard to the water in this and other feldspars, that he agrees with Delesse and Laurent, in considering — It as belonging to the constitution of the mineral and not hygro- scopic. _ 5. Raphilite of Thomson.—This mineral from Lanarck, C. W., 18 tremolite. H.=5-5. G.(in powder) =2°845. Lustre vitreous silky ; color grayish or greenish-white, becoming reddish on Weathered surfaces. Composition :—_ Bi. Al. On 5. ee ae 55°30 040 13:36 2250 630 traces 0°80 025 ign. 0309031 Oxygen 2872 0:19 380 872 1-40 0-21 0-04 Dr. Holmes, and a portion of the same specimen he gave Mr. Color honey yellow passing into oil green and olive green ; trans- lucent ; fracture conchoidal. Composition :— Si #e Meg I. 39°34 1-80 43°02 trace 15-09 = 99-25 IL. 40°10 1:90 41°65 0°90 15°00 = 99°55 214 Mineralogical Notices. Another serpentine of similar character, from Grand Calumet Island, ign a pale wax color and sp. gr. 2°362-2:381, afforded— e Mg 41: 20 0:80 43°52 15-40 = 100-92 Mr. Hunt observes that the mineral has the composition of marmolite of Hermann, but is not foliated; and he inclines to consider the species as not distinct from serpenti ne 7. Zircon.—Crystals half an inch thick and an Jineh or more a occur at Grenville, along with tabular spar, calc spar, sphene, pyroxene and plumbago. G.=4:602—4-625. Color lena red, passing into flesh-red and cherry-red. Analysis afforded Mr. Hunt: Silica 33°7 Zirconia 67°38 =101°0 The zirconia contained a trace of iron which was not separated. Celestine. pene crystallization of celestine has been studied with much labor by M. Hugard, and some new crystalline forms are described e, him (Ann. des Mines, [4], xviii, 3.) Mr. Hugard adopts as the mean of his measurements, for 'M: M, 104°, the angle varying between 103° 30/ and 104° 30’; ; he “hare that the crystals which vary most from this are chemically impure. A neat crystal from Lake Erie gave him constantly less than 104° (mean, 103° 30’); but the Lake Erie celestine contains a consid- erable proportion ‘of sulphate of barytes. The paper is illustra- ted by twenty-seven figures. Limestone of Predazzo.—This mineral, called Predazzite by his Saas (J. f. pr. Chem. lii, 346,) makes he composition of a white variety, 2a + Mg t= carbonic acid 34-11, lime 43-41, magnesia 15:50, water 6-98=100. He obtained— 6 Ca Mg H IL 3335 4467 1454 696 SiAlfe04g 10000; G=1868 I. 3398 4263 1405 700 Si029 41, Feo49= 9844; G=1018 For another variety of a gray color he obtained, excluding the alumina, silica and oxyd of iron, which amount to 6 per cent.— Ca L. 29-23 35-70 O47 ion = 10063; G=1:005 IL 28°10 35°97 24°47 1097= 9751; G=0621 Whence he has the formula ¢aG+Mg = carbonic acid, 27°85, lime 35-44, magnesia 25°32, water 11:39=100. Brucite occurs in the marble of Predazzo, and also a eae of serpentine. Composition of Apatite from Sna ; G. Rose ( Monatsb. Akad. zu Berlin, March, 1851, 173. ‘ish eck by M. Weber in the laboratory of H. Rose Ca Pe,te,¥ Bi Cl L 53°16 176 41°82 2°66 IIL 53°44 1:86 41:33 Mean, 53-46 179 41-54 2-66 Mineralogical Notices. 215 Calculating the lime phosphate from the amount of phosphoric acid, the chlorid of calcium from the chlorine, and the fluorid from the remaining lime, G. Rose deduces for the composition— Cah CaCl CaF Fe€e Y 90°66 417 3:07 179 In the analysis formerly made by G. Rose, this chemist found in the Snarum apatite, lime 54-75 and chlorine 2:713, whence he deduced— 6a PB Ca Cl Ca Fl 4-28 sults with the new modes of determination of phosphoric acid therefore confirm the earlier deductions of Rose. Diaspore.—Occurs according to Prof. C. U. Shepard, (loc. cit. p. 319,) at the fluor spar and topaz vein at Trumbull, Conn., in thin or 6-sided tables, flattened parallel to the shorter diagonal. It is the species formerly announced by Prof. Shepard as euclase. M: M=130° 30’, M: 0=125°; 0: 0=152°30’; 0:0n «Px = 104° 30’. H.=7-7:5. G.=3-29. Analysis afforded Prof. She ard, Alumina 84-9, water 15-1=100. Hydrargillite from Brazil.—V on Kose. announces this min- eral (J. f. pr. Chem. 1, 493, 1850,) as occurring in Brazil, and as having been mistaken for wavellite. It occurs in spheroidal con- cretions, having a radiato-lamellar structure, giving some indica- ‘ons of rectangular prisms. Color grayish to yellowish-white ; translucent ; lustre pearly inclining to vitreous; hardness between cale spar and fluor spar. Dissolves wholly in concentrated sul- Phuric acid. Composition according to von Kobell :—alumina with a trace of silica 67-26, water 32°39 =99-65, and giving the formula 41%, It was found to contain no phosphoric acid. New form of Compound Crystal of Quartz.—M. G. Rose has described a compound crystal of quartz (Monatsb. Akad. zu Berlin, March, 1851, p. 171), which consisted of four crystals, one a central, and each of the others united to the first correspondingly by a primary rhombohedral face, the axes of the central and the others, making an angle equal to the complement of double the angle between a rhombohedral plane in the primary and its vert- ical axis; the latter angle is 38° 13’ according to Kupffer, whence the inclination of the axes is 103° 34’. The primary faces of the Pyramid are larger than those alternate, and the prism has its alternate planes larger so as to approach a 3-sided form. The Specimen is from the serpentine of Reichenstein, and is associated with small crystals of arsenical iron. Serpentine —G. Rose has examined crystals of serpentine in the collections of Berlin (Monatsb. Berl. Akad.,) and sustains the 216 Mineralogical Notices. view that they are pseudomorphs of olivine. There are three crystals which have an interior of olivine. A portion of a crystal from Snarum, received from Quenstedt, afforded Hefter in his laboratory,— Si Mg Fe Mn H 4193 6318 202 025 400=10138—; G=30384 Oxygen 21°79 20°58 046 0:06 3°58 Showing that it is a mixture of olivine and serpentine. T erystals of Snarum and of the Fassa valley in the Tyrol are there- fore pseudomorphs. The villarsite of Dufrénoy, which is similar in its crystalline forms, he refers to the same origin. He regards serpentine as an amorphous material incapable of crystallization. Substances perhaps occur imperfectly crystallized, having the me composition ; but the only substance of this nature, which he recognizes, is chrysotile. Schiller spar, which is allied in com- position, the author regards as no natural mineral in erystalliza- tion, but a pseudomorph after augite, with which it is often asso- ciated. He alludes to the frequent occurrence of serpentine pseudomorphs imitative of many of the mineral species, as horn- blende, augite, garnet, chondrodite, spinel, mica, &c. Serpentine of the Vosges.—The serpentine of the Vosges and its associated minerals, have been investigated chemically and otherwise by M. Delesse (Ann. d. Mines, [4], xviii, 309), whose escriptions are very full and complete. ‘The minerals noticed are garnet, chromic and magnetic iron, iron pyrites, diallage, chlorite, chrysotile, calcite, dolomite, nemalite, brucite, feldspar, quartz, talc, asbestus, and specular iron. Garnet occurs of red, brownish and greenish or grayish-green colors. B.B. it fuses with difficulty, and in a tube yields some water. H.=6°5. Composition :— Si Al €r Fe Mn Mg (Ca 4156 1984 0835 1017 trace 22 425, ign. 158=99°75 Diallage is sometimes disseminated through the serpentine, but occurs commonly in small masses or in the intersecting veins. Color deep olive-green, and occasionally, emerald green. The latter variety is sometimes found within a nodule of garnet. Lustre a little pearly but not like bronze. G=3-154. Analysis gave— Si r, 4tn Fe iff. 563 sh 673 Be ey at wi ign. 211100 The 2-11 p.c. given off by heating are nearly all water. Form- ula R° Si. Chlorite occurs in veins or in nodules of garnet, and evidently the garnet has been altered to chlorite, as the different stages © @ process may be detected. B.B. becomes grayish and takes @ metallic lustre, and if in lamelle the edges are rounded, forming Mineralogical Notices. 217 a grayish green glass. With salt of phosphorus gives evidence of chrome, and with soda, a manganese reaction. Composition of the chlorite of the Col de Pertuis— Si Al €r Fe Mn Meg(bydiff) Ga $323 61478 «= 149° 6281392 8076 =~ s«186, ign. 10-21=100 oil-green, usually clear, sometimes olive-green; lustre silky. G. =2:223. B.B. yields water; on platinum wire, it gives a bright light and fuses with difficulty to a glass slightly brownish. Dissolves with borax or soda. Composition :— Si XI Fe Meg (by diff) Ht 41°58 0-42 1-69 42°61 13°70 = 100 The picrolite of Stromeyer has the same composition. emalite occurs at Xettes in the Vosges, and also at Saint Sabine. Brucite is found at Goujot. The Serpentine is of various qualities and colors. Analyses: Si Al @ Fe Mn (a Mg(by diff) ign. 1. Blackish-green, Liésey, 40°83 0°92 068 7°39 trace 1°50 87:98 10°70=100 2. Marooned, Goujot,” 4226 151 —- 711 —— 080 3890 942==100 Specific gravity of the first 2-749. n the second analysis, the alumina as obtained included some chrome and oxyd of manganese. The serpentine of Goujot takes a fine polish and sells at 54 francs the square meter. The author next discusses the relative age and the origin of the minerals and serpentine, giving many views of interest. He observes that of the minerals which have been formed in serpen- Une, those most magnetic (as those rich in iron) have remained in the paste, while those that are diamagnetic have been separa- ted into fissures, so as to form veins or amygdaloids. The mag- hetic and diamagnetic forces, according to this view, have acted an important part in the development and distribution of the in- cluded minerals. Picrolite of Silesia.—Analysis by Dr. List, (Ann. d. Ch. u. Pharm., Ixxiv, 241) :— Si Mg Fe H v 44606 39-748 2631 2576 = 99°561 Leuchtenbergite.—Breirnaurt (Pogg. Ann., Ixxx, 577) ob- Serves that the specimens of Leuchtenbergite are evidently more or less altered by exposure or otherwise, and this is farther proved y the fact that Komonen obtained but 8:62 per cent. of water, Szcoxp Stnies, Vol. XII, No. 35.—Sept,, 1851. 28 218 Mineralogical Notices. and Hermann 12-5 per cent. He therefore suggests that quite probably the mineral may exist in the unaltered state and prove to be a distinct species. Delessite of Naumann, is a ferruginous chlorite from amyg- loid. Ozarkite—On an examination of this mineral, Prof. Shepard obtained the following result (Proc. Assoc., loc. cit., p. 322.)— Si 40-91, 4115-75, phos. lime 4:17, lime 4-52, water 15:10, and observes that this removes the mineral from Scolecite, to which it is referred by Mr. J. D. Whitney. [The investigations of the species by Messrs. Brush, Whitney and Shepard, the latter in two different trials, are so widely different, that we have not reason to believe that in any case a simple mineral has been examined. | Soda-mesotype of the Zircon-syenite of Laurvig.—Analysis by C. G. Gmelin (Pogg. Ann., Ixxxi, 311) :— ae . * kK Si Al Na i 48680 . 26369 16002 20362-9550 = 100958; G.—= 2207 — Hence the formula NaSi+AiS8i+2 It gelatinizes with muriatic acid, before and after heating. The feldspar of the rock contaims much soda. Hydrosilicates of Alumina.—The following are analyses by M. Salvetat:—I. of Halloysite from Saint Jean de Colle, near Thiviers (Dordogne, )—II. Halloysite of unknown locality,—II. of Smectite from Condé, near Houdan (Seine-et-Oise, )—IV. Len- zinite from La Vilate, near Chanteloube, (Ann. Ch. Phys. [3], xxxi, 102.) Si Sigeh AL Fe Oa Mg “Sti doe, (4555 104 22°60 1-05 166 030 0-04 0:06 26-20, q'tz1:04=9946 Oxygen 23°60 1055 0°32 0-46 0-12 0-01 001 23-28 TI. H, loc.? 45:44 — 24:00 1:35 Oxygen 23°60 11-21 0-41 IIL Smectite43°00 1:50 32°50 Fel20 102 030 040 21°70==101°62 Oxyge 15°18 19°08 083 0:09 0°93 26°70 99°35 23°93 IV. Lenzinite 36:36 020 36:00¥Fe1-95 —— 0-18 050 21°50, tz 1°64 =100°13 ‘ 1682 061 19:02 Formulas, omitting the protoxyds which are probably impurities, Land I. RSi2+7H TIL Al2 Sis + 744 Iv. AISi+ 3H. The Halloysite from near Thiviers is tender, soapy and mild to the touch, of paler rose color than that of Montmorillon. B.B. infusible, and at a red heat loses color. Does not form a paste with water. In contact with water it divides into small frag- Boiling sulphuric acid attacks the mineral. ‘The second Halloy- site has similar characters. On account of the difficulty of dis- tinguishing between hygroscopic water and that of combination, Mineralogical Notices. 219 the author acknowledges that some doubt exists with regard to this term in the formula. _ Dried at 100°C. in a moist air, the 7H (obtained after drying at 16° C.) are reduced to 4H; and at 100° C. in a dry air, to 3 The Smectite is greenish, not homogeneous in appearance, and affords a magma of two substances, one colorless and the other slightly greenish, but both of the same composition; and the mass encloses here and there crystals of gypsum. In a certain state of humidity it appears transparent and almost gelatinous. It adheres strongly to the tongue. Moistened with water it yields an argillaceous odor and acts like Halloysite, except that it makes a plastic paste. It contains 744, when dried at 16° hive 53, if dried at 100° in a moist atmosphere, and 44 at 100° ina dry atmosphere. ~ The Lenzinite occurs in pegmatite (whence it is explored for pottery) in small thin beds, having a brownish color, soft enough to be impressed with the fingers, but not plastic. On drying, the color slightly changes. B.B. infusible. Partly dissolved in hot sulphuric acid, leaving a white insoluble residue. At 100° C., the mineral contains 2411. Atheriastite-—J,. F. L. Hausmann shows (Pogg. Ann., Ixxxi, 567,) that this mineral which was formerly referred to Scapolite, but recently instituted as a species by Weibye, is an altered scap- olite, as is suggested by the writer in this Journal, vol. x, p. 246. Feldspar of Laurvig and Friederichsvirn.—Analysis by C. G. Gmetin, (Pogg. Ann., Ixxxi, 313, )— Bi 1 K Na Ca Pe A Free org, S88 Teds G8e ¢Leoapo ds fh. cre seen: oi esem The first is of a pale greenish gray color, the second sky-blue. Epidote.—The objections which Rammelsberg brought against the investigations of Hermann on the constitution of Epidote, are replied to by Hermann in the Jour. f. pr. Chem., vol. liv, p. 250. ermanu had in a former memoir presented the conclusion that the species included several distinct chemical compou Ram- melsberg, in reply, after a new determination of the proportion of protoxyd and peroxyd of iron, referred all the varieties which he examined under a single formula, and suggested that the others would conform to it. Hermann in his recent memoir offers rea- Sons in favor of his former deductions, Gadolinite, (Phil. Mag. [4], i, 350.)—Occurs in Ireland near Galway in a trap rock containing also epidote. New American localities, reported by Prof. C. U. Surrarv.— (loc. cit., p. 320.) 1. Ores of Uranium at Middletown, Ct. Pitchblende occurs at the feldspar or “china-stone” quarry in small crystals which are octahedrons with truncated edges and 220 Mineralogical Notices. angles. It is associated with uranochre and also traces of car- bonate of uranium and the sulphate (Johannite). 2. Ores of Bismuth at Haddam, Ct.—Bismuthine was no- ticed by Prof. Shepard some time since as occurring sparingly at the Chrysoberyl locality of Haddam. Bismutite and Bismuth ochre are now reported by him (loc. cit., p. 320) as occurring at the same place, the former in thin coatings upon crystals of Bis- muthine and the latter in a pulverulent form and usually yellow. 3. Samarskite in Rutherford Co., N. C.—In angular grains, some weighing a quarter of an ounce, from the washings of one or more gold mines. ‘The form appears from some of the frag- ments to be near that of Columbite. Color velvet black ; streak dark reddish-brown. Opake; H.=5-5; G.=5-69. When first heated*in a glass tube, it decrepitates, flies to pieces, glows slightly after the manner of Gadolinite, but remains of a black color. [No analysis or chemical examination is given. A. Thorite at Danbury, Ct.—This mineral is from Danbury, where it occurs with the Danburite, sphene and angite. It is stated to be either thorite or a new species. It occurs in minute square prisms (th inch long) with truncated edges and having a pyramid at summit. The lower part of the four pyramidal planes forms a separate set of planes inclined at an angle of 160° to the terminal set; but in the specimen, only one out of the four of the lower set is present and this is not very distinct. Angle of the terminal set (P), over summit, 98°; same on M ( «P ») 120°. Cleavage imperfect. Lustre resinous; color black. H.= 5-6. Heated in an open tube yields much moisture having an alkaline reaction. B.B. becomes brownish-red but does not fuse, but when most heated has finally a semi-fused aspect. With borax gives a glass colored by iron. [The characters given are insuflicient to prove that the mineral is Thorite, as Prof. Shepard observes. The angle 98° is near the same in rutile, zircon, xeno- time ; calculating from this angle, the angle given as 120° would be 117° 40’. If 120° is right, 98° should be 90°, and the form might be cubic. | Chromic iron of Baltimore.—Analysis by A. Rivot, (Ann. Ch. Phys., Oct., 1850, [3] xxx, 202.) Q e I] r Ga Si, Ti? 30-04 1-96 63°37 2-02 221 = 9960 The oxygen of the peroxyd of iron and alumina is together nearly half of that of the oxyd of chrome. Misy from Rammelsberg near Goslar.—Dr. List describes this iron sulphate as follows, (Ann. Chem. u. Pharm., Ixxiv, 239.) It occurs as an aggregate of small crystalline scales having a ea lustre approaching vitreous, a dull sulphur-yellow color. ‘hese scales, under a lens, are seen to be rhombic tables with Mineralogical Notices. 221 the acute lateral edge truncated. It does not properly dissolve in pure water, but after a while is decomposed, the fluid becom- ing brownish red and having an acid reaction; in water witha .- little Cine acid it is not decomposed. Analysis gave,— Fe Mg K 49° 922 80066 = 2-491-812-0818 «21391100. In another trial Dr. List obtained 43-2088 and 30-365 ¥e, The zinc, magnesia and potash are attributable to mixture with some sulphate of zinc, of magnesia, and of potash present as impu- rity. Excluding | these, the result becomes— whence the ratio, nearly, 2°5: 1: 1, and the formula ¥e?5*+6H, which is that of Copiapite (H. Rose) excepting the water which is 18H in that specie Manganese ak of the Pyrenees.—F or a paper on the posi- tion and origin of these ores by M. Gruner, see Ann. des Mines, [4,] xviii, 61. ae author also discusses the origin of associated minerals and o Glaucodot. This mineral according to pasiniaiy (Pogg. Ann., Ixxxi, 578,) occurs at Orawitza in the nat along with a pale yellow calc spar. It is thin melpsiandes M. pie obtained, Sulphur 19-78, arsenic 43-63, cobalt 32-02, iron 4:56. Copper en of Ayer.—Analysis by Ebelmen, (Ann. des Minion, [4,] xi, 55.) As Sb N Fe 5405 0:05 218 43:50 030 045 Gangue ior White Blende of New Jersey, (Phil. Mag. [4], i, 23.)—The ae Blende from Franklin, New Jersey, called “ ‘Cleiophane” t. Nuttall, has been analyzed by T. enry, with the folowing result :—Zine 67: 46, gop 32:22 =49 ‘68, corres- ponding to a very pure blende. Sp. gr. at 60°, 4-063. A trace of cadmium was found by means of Wollaston’ s test. Troostite of New Jersey, (Proc. Amer. Assoc. at New Haven, 4th meeting, p. 146.)—-An analysis of Troostite by Henry Wurtz, afforded Si Zn Mn Fe Mg Ca 2791-5998 3°18 5°35 166 1:60 = 10018, giving the oxygen ratio for the haan and silica 14°96: 14-50, or very closely the formula 2 Calamine and Electric aii —A paper on the ag of these ores by Emil Schmidt is to be found in the Jour. f. p Chem., li, 257, Wuljente or Molybdate of lead from the mine foot near Blanca in Zacatecas.—Analysis afforded Dr. C. Bergema 222 Notice of Messrs. Foster and Whitney’s Report (Pogg. Ann., Ixxx, 400,) tio 37-65, Pb 62:°35=100-00. The crystals are of a light yellow color. Mimetene of the Mine Azulaques in Zacatecas.—Dr. C. Boros mann obtained in an analysis (Pogg., xxx, 401,) Pb As ° Cl 14-961 23-065 2-445 = 100-471, giving the formula PbOl+sPb? Xs. This corresponds to Arsenic acid 23-065, oxyd of lead 66-948, chlorine 2-445, lead 7-140. Gray Copper from the foot of the ridge Mouzaia in Algiers. ppm iy by eggs (Ann. des Mines, {4,] xi, 47) :-— “As Cu Fe Zn on 25 ve i 912° 4157 4°66 2-24 = 99°61. ya apaley gravity 4:749; occurs in highly modified dodecahedral crysta fence —Dioptase Sigs. Sad Creel is announced by F. Sandberger (Pogg. Ann., Ixxxii, 133,) as occurring in a sand- stone containing Spirifes in the Duchy of Nassau, betwen Ober- lahnstein and Braubach. compound, as he now s thi it will then be proper eo a upon it a mineralogical na ome be continued.) Arr. XXV.—Notice of the Report on the Geology and Topogra- phy yo a portion of a Lake Superior Land District ;* by J. W. Foster and J. D. Wurrvyey. on the Lake Superior Land District. 223 have been noticed at length in this Journal. Messrs. Foster and Whitney, in the volume just published, present the first part of their Report on the region. The work, although mainly devoted to those points in the geology of the district bearing on the mines, and including much of practical detail on mining, presents a clear and systematic view of its general structure as far as examined, and conclusions of important geological bearing. A second part is promised, which shall contain further details of a more purely sci- entific character, with an account of the fossils, by Mr. James Hall, who accompanied the party in the explorations of one season. The authors acknowledge the aid of Messrs. S. W. Hill and E. Desor, as first assistants, Mr. Wm. Schlatter as draftsman, and r. W. D. Whitney as botanist. Mr. Desor’s attention was par- ticularly directed to the drift, and the results of his observations much to the interest of the survey n some geological points, the authors conflict with the conclusions of Dr. Jackson ; and it remains for future investigation to clear up all the doubt that may remain upon the disputed questions. _We propose to run through with the work, giving a brief re- view of some of the results arrived at, and principally by citation from the volume. The Lake Superior Land district is bounded on the north by Lake Superior, east by St. Mary’s river, south by Lakes Huron and Michigan, and west by the Montreal and Menomonee rivers, being situated between 45° and 49° north latitude and 83° 45’ and 90° 33’ west longitude. A striking feature in the topography of the region is the parallelism of the northwest shore o Superior, the south shore, west of Keweenaw Point, and the 224 Notice of Messrs. Foster and Whitney’s Report narrow island of Isle Royal between, proving, as the authors state, that this part of the lake must be the course of a great synclinal valley, arising from two parallel axes of elevation on opposite sides of the lake. We might add farther, that this course is at right angles to the great range of lakes that extends from Erie and Michigan northwest to the Northern ocean, which range is parallel to the Rocky Mountains and the Northwest coast of merica on one side, and to Hudson’s Bay and the shores of Davis Straits on the other.* We cite with regard to the mountains, from pages 34, 35. “1, Two granite belts occur in the Northwest—one forming the axis between the waters of Lake Superior and Hudson’s Bay ; the other between Lake Superior on the north and Lake Michi- gan and the Mississippi river on the south. The outline of the Canada range is N. 60° E., though subject to minor irregularities. It forms the rim of the Canada shore for more than two-thirds 0 its extent. The summits of this range are generally rounded, and rarely elevated 1,500 feet above the lake. On the southern shore, a belt of granite approaches the lake near Dead river, and thence stretches westward, sinking down into a somewhat broken plain southwest of Keweenaw bay. Its widest expansion is about thirty miles. This belt constitutes the Huron mountains, which in places attain an elevation of 1,200 feet above the lake. They do not range in continuous chains, but exist in groups, radiating from a common centre, presenting a series of knobs, rising one above another, until the summit-level is attained. Their outline is rounded or waving—their slope gradual. "The scenery is tame and uninteresting. Hemmed in y these knobs, it is not unusual to find numerous lakes and meadows covered with grass, forming an agreeable feature in the landscape. These meadows appear at one time to have been lakes, which have been filled with the detritus brought down from the surrounding hills, or drained in consequence of the water having worn down the barriers which existed at their out- lets. Towards the western extremity of the district, the granite reappears in low ridges, and crosses the Montreal within twelve miles of its mouth. There are subordinate patches of granite in other portions of the district, attaining no great elevation, which will be described in the detailed report * Origin of the Grand Outline Features of the Earth, by J. D. Dana, this Journal, [2,] iii, 382 and 389. ve ae on the Lake Superior Land District. 225 shore at the mouth of Carp river, and extends westwardly beyond Teal lake. Its outlines are sharp and well defined, its escarp- ments bold, with fragments of rock strewn along its base. The boundaries of this group are defined in the accompanying maps. A trap range starts from the head of Keweenaw Point and runs west twenty miles; then, curving to the southwest, crosses Portage lake near its head, and the Ontonagon river twelve miles from its mouth, and is thence prolonged into Wisconsin. — Its length is more than one hundred and fifty miles; its width, from one to twelve. Between Iron and Presqu’-Isle rivers, a spur shoots off in the form of a crescent, constituting the Porcupine moun- tains. Another spur branches off from the main chain on the south, and is prolonged nearly parallel with it for twenty miles. This belt is made up of paraliel ranges, presenting step-like or scalar declivities on the side opposite the lake, while the other consists of gradual slopes. Mount Houghton, near the head of Keweenaw Point, rises up like a dome, to the height of eight hundred and eighty-four feet; the Bohemian mountain, near Lac la Belle, is little inferior in height. The valley of Hagle river, on the northwest, is bounded by abrupt, overhanging cliffs, some of which rise to a height of five hundred feet above the sur- rounding country. Gloomy evergreens skirt its shores, whose long and pendent ‘branches are so faithfully reflected on the surface that the eye dred feet in height—occasionally broken through by a transverse g0rge—at the base of which are numerous fragments, which Sxconp Seams, Vol. XII, No. 35.—Sept., 1851. ” 226 Notice of Messrs. Foster and Whitney's Report have tumbled from the cliffs above. Still further down is to be seen the rich foliage of the maple intermingled with the dark green of the fir and cedar, and still beyond succeeds a level plain, stretching out for twenty miles, and clothed with a dense growt of trees; while in the distance the Black river hills are seen, blue and indistinct, resting like a cloud upon the horizon. That portion of the district occupied by the detrital rocks rarely rises three hundred feet above the lake. It is not unusual to see ridges of sand and clay forming considerable elevations. The Grand Sable is a remarkable accumulation of this character, rising to the height of three hundred and forty-five feet. Point Iro- quois, at the outlet of the lake, is three hundred and fifty feet in height, and composed wholly of transported materials.” There is much information in the Report on the meteorology of the region, and changes of level in the Jakes, which for the present we pass by. Under the head of the Geology of the Copper Region, the trappean and other igneous rocks come first under considera- tion, 1. the ranges of Keweenaw Point; 2. those between Port- age Lake and the Montreal river, in which district the Porcupine mountains constitute the highest points; and 3. those of Isle Royale. In these districts, the rocks are compact trap, amyg- daloid, porphyritic trap, trap-breccia, epidote trap, and com- pact quartz or jasper.* Epidote is an abundant mineral. It frequently accompanies the amygdaloid, and often fills the cavi- ties with radiated crystallizations. It also replaces the horn- blende of the trap, forming the epidote trap which is very various in character; the seams of quartz and calc spar containing copper are almost always accompanied by this mineral. On the Uni- ted States location, the trap and epidote are seen in alternating bands, the cavities of the former being filled with epidote and quartz, and those of the latter with quartz and cale spar. The Jaspery rock forms the highest points of the Porcupine mountains. It is usually of a deep brick red color, sometimes banded like ribbon-jasper, and contains seams of quartz. A quartzose por- phyry has a brick-red color and contains small crystals of white feldspar, not generally exceeding an eighth of an inch in length. “Almost invariably, fine rounded particles of vitreous quartz are found distributed through the Jaspery base. It forms an eruptive mass, and often includes fragments of the pre-existing igneous and sedimentary rocks.” Besides these there is a singular rock of a feldspathic base, of a light reddish color, through which irregular crystals of red feld- spar and small rounded particles of quartz are discoverable, inter- mixed with a greenish mineral which appears to be epidote. _ The Porcupine mountains afford some copper, but there are not indications enough to warrant mining enterprises. * See also the Report of Dr. . T, Jackson, pages 659 to 662. a. ~ on the Lake Superior Land District. 227 Isle Royale is the counterpart of Keweenaw Point; but al- though the Jesuits formed the most extravagant notions of its mineral wealth, nothing has lately been revealed to justify those expectations ; at least, it is vastly inferior to Keweenaw Point or the vicinity of the Ontonagon as a mining region. Moreover the soil is scanty and the timber dwarfed and stunted. “'The shores are lined with dense but dwarfed forests of cedar and spruce, with their branches interlocking and wreathed with long and drooping festoons of moss. While the tops of the trees flourish luxuriantly, the lower branches die off and stand out as so many spikes, to oppose the progress of the explorer. So dense is the interwoven mass of foliage that the noonday sunlight hardly penetrates it. ‘The air is stifled; and at every step the explorer starts up swarms of musquitoes, which, the very instant i > © ° cS) pt) wn cP ° why ee a tas) Z! $e) 5 a _ mn bos J 3 oO 7 o 5 S 5 a ie] =] a ranged in chains. , intersected by numerous fiords, or narrow and deeply indented bays.” tions of sandstone and trap* are well seen at Chippewa Harbor, there being no less than five in less than a mile. At and near the junctions of these different rocks, marked changes in their lithological characters are observed, which throw much light on their origin. BPS ame ne ee a ot chal eget ee lens * Many facts of this nature are mentioned in Dr. Jackson’s Report, page 472. 228 Notice of Messrs. Foster and Whitney’s Report — , The upper portions of the sheets of trap are highly vesicular, resembling pumice. Fragments of amygdaloid, sometimes round- ed, at others angular, are found enclosed in the pumice-like trap, as though they had become detached and afterwards reunited to the mass, while in a molten state. Numerous short and irregular fissures, extending to no great depth, are observed on the Upper surface of the trap, in which sandstone has been deposited. * Between the sandstone above and the trap below, it is extremely difficult to determine where the one begins and the other ends. Fragments of amygdaloid, angular or partly rounded, are included in the sandstone—more numerous near the base than at the top of the deposits. Where the sandstone is imposed on the trap, there is little evidence of its having been metamorphosed ; but, on the other hand, where the trap rests on the sandstone, the line of junction is clear and well defined. The trap is less vesicular ; and the upper portion of the sandstone belt, for the distance of three or four feet, is converted into a ribbon jasper, having a com- pact texture. ‘These phenomena have been observed at numer- ous places both on Isle Royale and Keweenaw Point. The beds of sandstone are not shattered, nor does the igneous rock pene- trate in the form of dikes or ramifying veins. “All the phenom- ena indicate that the igneous rocks were not protruded in the form of dikes between the strata, but that they flowed like lava sheets over the pre-existing surface ; and that the sand was de- posited in the fissures and depressions of the igneous belt, in some cases, while the mass was in an incandescent state. Similar os noe occur in the cliffs of the shores, consisting of different igneous rocks. At another a on the coast the following section was ob- served : Feet. ‘Inches. Compact Be are into epheida OCH Re 15 Porphyritic t ) Compact ries, - - i Porphyritic trap, —- - - Compact trap, - a Porphyritic trap, - - - Compact trap, - - ~ - ' BlrHHnome alecowows These alternations exhibited well defined lines of junction, and preserved their parallelism along the face of the cliff, as far as exposed. e bearing and dip were the same as in the sec- tion before described. The lines of division pursued an undevi- ating course through the several bands A small vein was observed at one point cutting vertically through these bands, and the veinstone exhibited marked changes in its passage through the different belts. on the Lake Superior Land District. 229 At a point about half a mile to the west, numerous alternations of compact trap and amygdaloid were observed, having the same regularity in bedding and inclination. We have observed this banded structure in the igneous rocks, at short intervals, from Blake’s Point nearly to Washington Har- bor, a distance of forty-five miles; and throughout the entire extent of the island they present a remarkable uniformity in bear- ing and inclination. ‘They were, undoubtedly, deposited at first in horizontal sheets, and owe their present inclination to the same upheaval which uplifted the associated sedimentary rocks. regard them as purely igneous products, and not as the result of metamorphism.” In the chapter on the stratified and sedimentary rocks, other examples of the alternations of the trappean and detrital beds are given. But before mentioning the facts, the characters of the sedimentary or stratified rocks should be stated. These are com- prised under three divisions; 1, Conglomerate, not strictly a sedimentary rock, but a volcanic tuff ; 2, the Inferior sandstone, an equivalent, according to the authors, of the Potsdam sand- stone ; 3, Compact or lower magnesian limestone, referred to the age of the calciferous sandstone, chazy limestone, bird’s eye and Black river limestones of the New York geologists. The frag- ments of trappean rocks in the conglomerate are often 18 inches in diameter; they have a rough surface as if fresh broken, and are hot properly worn. “The conglomerate appears to have been formed too rapidly to Suppose that the masses were detached and rounded by the action of waves and currents, and deposited with silt and sand on the floor of the ancient ocean; for, while the contemporaneous sand- Stone remote from the line of volcanic foci does not exceed three undred or four hundred feet in thickness, the united thickness of the conglomerate bands in the vicinity of the trappean range on Keweenaw Point exceeds five thousand feet. As we recede * Geognost. Briefe, p. 75-82. 230 Notice of Messrs. Foster and Whitney's Report testifies the intensity of the force with which the erupted rocks have been propelled from the interior through the earth’s crust. The detritus has suddenly been taken up by the waters, which have then deposited it in the strata which it still covers.’ The junction between the trap and conglomerate is well dis- played in the vicinity of Copper Harbor. The rocks bear nearly due west, with a northerly dip of 35°. The trap on the upper surface resembles pumice, the vesicles frequently empty, but oftener filled with calc spar, agates, chlorite, &c. Other portions are wrinkled, as though arrested while flowing. ‘The lower por- tion of the conglomerate does not exhibit a clear and well-defined line of demarcation, but encloses angular masses of amygdaloid, as though the materials had been thrown down while the trap was in a viscid state. This appearance was particularly noticed a few hundred yards above Porter’s island, where the pebbles, for the distance of twenty feet perpendicular, are enclosed in a scori- aceous mass.” On Keweenaw Point, the conglomerate rises to a height of 650 feet, and expands to a thickness of 4000 feet. The cul- minatiug points in the range are back of Horseshoe harbor and Grand Marais. At the base of the Porcupine mountains, the these beds of trap and their alternations with fragmentary de- posits are thus explained by the authors. ‘‘We may suppose that at one time all of this district formed a part of the bed of the primeval ocean. Adopting the theory a ————— on the Lake Superior Land District. 231 Isle Royale. Along the lines of these fissures existed numerous volcanic vents, like those observed at this day in Peru, Guate- mala, and Java, which were characterized by periods of activity and repose. F'rom these vents were poured forth numerous sheets of trap, which flowed over the sands and clays then in the progress of accumulation. During the throes and convul- sions of the mass, portions of rock would become detached, and rounded simply by the effects of attrition, and jets of melted matter be projected as voleanic bombs through the air or water, which, on cooling, would assume spheroidal forms; while other portions of the rock, in a state of minute mechanical division, would be ejected in the form of ashes and sand, which, mingling with the water, would be deposited, as the oscillations subsided, among the sands and pebbles at the bottom of the sea. During the whole of this period of volcanic activity, the sands which now form the base of the Silurian system were in the progress of accumulation, and became mingled with these igneous pro- ducts. 'The level of the sea, as evidenced by the ripple-marks, was subject to repeated alterations: sometimes it rose so shoal that the marks of the rippling waves were impressed on the sands; at others, it sank to unfathomable depths. In the process of consolidation, the rocks became traversed by numerous fissures, and the water, charged with lime, was forced In like jets of steam, filling them with materials different from the enclosing mass. In this way the pores in the conglomerate and the vesicles of the amygdaloid were filled. Thus alternating bands of igneous and aqueous rocks were formed, until finally the great crystalline masses of greenstone were protruded through the fissures, not in a liquid, but in a plas- lic state, lifting up the bedded trap and conglomerate, and caus- ing them to dip at high angles from the axis of elevation. As the voleanie action diminished in energy, the detrital rocks en- closed fewer igneous products; and, when it ceased altogether, sand and clay, derived from regions remote from the lines of dis- — turbance, were the only materials which, for a time, were de lted on the floor of the ocean. To illustrate the nature of volcanic action, we need only to revert to instances which have happened within the present cen- ury. So recently as 1831, a mass of rock rose up from the sea the course of three months sank eleven feet below the water, leaving a dangerous reef. 232 Notice of Messrs. Foster and Whitney’s Report The formation of this island was attended with earthquakes and water-spouts, and the effusion of vast quantities of steam and vapor. The surrounding water was covered with scorie and the bodies of fishes. Fragments of rock were detached by the waves and currents, and deposited in the bottom of the sea. ow, if its bed were laid bare, it would probably be found to exhibit a section somewhat like the following: 1. A mass of voleanic rock, forming an axis or cone, crystal- line or granular in proportion to the rapidity or slowness with which it parted with its heat, and the degree of pressure to which it had been subjected. oleanic breccia, consisting of fragments which had be- come detached and afterwards reunited with the fluid mass. 3. Coarse conglomerate, composed for the most part of peb- bles derived from the upheaved mass. 4. Beds of arenaceous and calcareous particles, brought down by the rivers of the adjacent coast, and enveloping the remains of fishes, if not too perishable in their nature, and of shells, in- habiting the surrounding sea. e conglomerates and trap tuffs would rapidly thin out as we hibited on a grand scale at the eruption of Kilauea, (Hawaii) in 1840, where the fused rock on reaching the sea, as Mr. Coan states, “was shivered like melted glass into millions of particles, which were thrown up in clouds that darkened the sky and fell like @ storm of hail over the surrounding country,” and as a result three conical elevations were thrown up in a few days, the smallest 150, b ees on the Lake Superior Land District. 233 and the largest 250 feet in height. The same effects would take place in the depths of an ocean, only far more vast, when the opened fissures lie their whole length exposed to the waters ; and the results would vary according to the condition or progress of the eruption, the currents that were in action at the time, and the character of the region around. Adding also the friction of the eruptive rock against the walls of the opened fissures, as sug- gested by von Buch, and we have a sufficient cause for the forma- tion of the fragmentary beds. That there were actual volcanoes in the Lake Superior region, may be doubted ; for the same results as are there observed mig take place by eruptions through fissures without the existence of a permanent vent and cone. In fact, nearly all (if not all) the ejections about modern volcanoes are through fissures in the slopes of the mountain and in the surrounding country. Farther evidence is needed on this point. The sandstone of the region contains beds of the conglome- rate and its layers alternate in many cases with the beds of trap, proving that all belong to one epoch. e rock varies in color rom different dark brown shades to reddish or red; and also passes into a slate. he compact or lower magnesian limestone contains fossils, - which are shown by Mr. James Hall to correspond in age with the lower of the New York series. A conspicuous fossil is a Maclurea like a species from the Chazy limestone. The Lep- teenze have the characters of L. sericea, which in its highest range does not extend above the Clinton group of New York. The Species of Orthis, though too obscure to be identified, have the characters known only in those of the lower Silurian beds. A Crinoid (Glyptocrinus) is not more recent than the Hudson 2 Ae group. The other fossils observed tend to the same con- clu . this review. The resemblance of the trap ranges and the asso- ciated sandstones of Michigan to those of Connecticut and New Jersey had led geologists to refer all to the same era; and the age of the latter being shown by the occurrence of fossils, and especially the fossil fish, described by Mr. W. C. Redfield, to be Subsequent to the coal, the era of the former was thereby supposed to be settled. Dr. Jackson, after his examinations still sustains this view. Messrs. Foster and Whitney state that the magne- Sian limestone, whose age is evidently lower Silurian, has been ound by them to overlie the conglomerate, and hence they place the trap and conglomerate in the lowest Silurian or as an equiva~ Srconp Sxrres, Vol. XII, No. 35.—Sept., 1851. 30 234 Notice of Messrs. Foster and Whitney’s Report lent of the Potsdam sandstone. The following are their observa- tions on this point.—p. ‘The sandstone, as we ascend from the lower strata to the higher, is found to be less colored by the oxyds of iron, and to take into its composition particles of lime, until finally it passes into well characterized, compact, magnesian limestone. e upper portions of the sandstone effervesce with acids, where a granular structure only is recognizable by the eye. We apply the term magnesian to this belt to define its lithological charac- ters, although the associated organic remains would seem to in- dicate the presence of several of the lower Silurian groups, which cannot be recognized by lithological differences. he whole of the northern slope of the anticlinal axis bears evident marks of having been subjected to extensive denudation ; and hence over the greater portion of this region we look in vain for traces of limestone rocks. If they existed, they have been reach the trap range. It is in township 51, range 35, and occu- . Douglass, in the summer of 1846, but nothing farther was known until the township was subdivided in 1848, when its ex- tent and exact locality were determined. on the Lake Superior Land District. 235 Stone, wherever observed in this region, rests unconformably on the argillaceous schists. It is seen in this position ten miles this Vicinity. On the southern side of the axis, Messrs. Foster and Hill found these two groups occupying the same relative position.” The point is one of great interest to American geology, and will not be permitted to rest until the facts are too clearly made out to admit of farther discussion. In the chapters on Mines and Mining, much valuable informa- tion is condensed which will be found practically useful. following paragraphs present some interesting facts respecting the metallic veins of the region. “The materials composing the gangue of veins are often ar- Tanged in parallel plates, constituting what the Cornish miners call comby lodes. De la Beche supposes that this arrangement tesulted from successive openings of the fissure. 236 Notice of Messrs. Foster and Whitney’s Report The annexed is a section of the gangue of a vein on the southeast quarter of section 10, township 60, range 39, Isle Royale: 1. Laumonite, half an inch. 2. Prehnite, with native copper, two inches. - 3. Clay, probably decomposed chlorite, Ly one inch. M \ This vein appears to have been subjected to three successive openings. The east vein of the Northwest Company exhibits two combs: that attached to the foot-wall, six inches in width, is composed of cale-spar with little copper; that attached to the hanging- wall, twelve inches in width, consists of chlorite, quartz, and calc-spar, investing copper in spangles and masses. e have given sections of several veins in the chapter on mines, and they may be referred to in the further illustration of the structure of the veins of this region. n the Cliff vein, there are two combs—that attached to the foot-wall containing most of the masses, while the other carriés disseminated copper. The sheets of native copper, as a general thing, though not invariably, occupy the foot-wall of the vein. Where crystals occur investing the walls, with their faces op- posite, whether separated or interlocked, they atford strong pre- sumptive evidence of the original width of the fissure. p The Prince vein, Canada shore, affords a beautiful illustration of this. The vein on Spar island is about fourteen feet in width, the walls being invested with amethystine quartz, with the faces turned outwards, occupying two feet in width, while the inter- mediate space is filled in for the most part with calc-spar and pyritous copper. It is difficult to determine the order in which the materials composing the matrix of veins were deposited. In some cases the earthy substances were deposited before the metallic, and in others it is evident that copper existed in the fissures before the process of filling was complete. It is probable, however, that the copper was formed at different times. At the Copper Falls mine, for example, we find small specks of copper enclosed in obtuse rhombohedral crystals of calc-spar, variously modified ; again, we find native copper deposited around crystals of analeime and cale-spar, taking the form of the faces of the crystals, every line and wave being faithfully represented, as in the electrotype process. The copper often appears in arbo- rescent forms, invested with cale-spar. The Prince mine affords specimens of dog-tooth spar, studded with minute crystals of bi-sulphuret of copper, while the vitre- ous copper is often enclosed in a matrix of carbonate of lime. REST ESTE on the Lake Superior Land District. 237 The silver in this vein is found in thin leaves, between the lamine or joints of the crystallized spar, indicating that it was deposited subsequent to the filling of the vein. tallized quartz, which would indicate that the latter was deposited Subsequent to the former. We have before us a specimen from this mine, consisting of native copper, native silver, crystallized quartz, and carbonate of lime, (calc-spar.) The copper and sil- ver are distinct, and appear to be chemically pure. ‘The form of the crystals of quartz is impressed on the silver and copper, and in the body of the crystals there is no trace of a metallic sub- stance. The calc-spar, however, conforms to the silver and cop- per, both of these metals being disseminated through it. The silver occurs in imperfect octohedrons of the size of a pea. _ This arrangement would seem to indicate the following order in the deposition of the materials: 1. Quartz; 2. Copper and silver ; 3. Cale-spar. At the Cliff and North American mines perfect crystals of cop- per occur only in the cavities of the matrix; when in contact with quartz, it takes the form of this substance. he inference from these facts is, that some of the earthy materials constituting the veinstone were deposited prior to the Copper and silver, while others were subsequent in their de- position. ee The silver is generally found to occupy a certain position in the lode. Thus, at the Copper Falls mine, it is most abundant Copper, yet it does not occur in sufficient quantity to justify the The authors adopt the electro-chemical theory in explaining the origin of the veins. ‘The fact that the copper is found invest- ing minerals, copying every wave and stria, and even incrusting zeolitic crystallizations which could not have stood the heat of fusion, favors this view of their origin. This article has already exceeded our estimated limits and we omit therefore other citations marked off, and close with a few par- agtaphs on the Cliff Mine, pp. 127-130. 238 Notice of Messrs. Foster and Whitney’s Report, &c. “The Cliff mine is situated on Keweenaw Point, about three miles from the lake shore, in the southwest quarter section 36, township 58 north, range 32 west. A range of elevated hills sweeps round in a crescent form, trending in a southwesterly di- rection, and forming the western boundary of the valley of Eagle river. In places these hills attain an elevation of 800 feet, and towards the valley present bold mural escarpments, while on the side exposed to the lake the slope is gradual. ‘This range 1s spathic porphyry, as at the Albion. Below, and forming the base of the ridge, isa belt of granular trap, occasionally amyg- daloidal. Between the two, there is a thin belt of slaty chlorite about twelve feet in thickness. These belts dip to the north at an angle of 45°, conforming in this respect to the inclination of the detrital rocks which flank the range on the north. Wher- ever veins are observed in the greenstone, they are pinched and barren; but where they enter the compact or granular trap they expand in width, and become charged with metal. This trap region for productive veins is neither a crystalline greenstone nor a soft porous amygdaloid, but a granular trap, with occasional amygdules scattered through it, and possessing a good degree 0 consistency. Where veins enter the greenstone, as before re- marked, they become pinched; where they penetrate the soft amygdaloid, they become scattered and lose themselves. The lode of the Cliff mine is seen to occupy a break or de- pression in the hill, and thence can be traced to its base. It was discovered in the summer of 1845, and during the succeeding fall a drift was carried into the greenstone about one hundred feet, and between that point and the summit several others were opened. When first discovered, the vein was only to be seen in the upper belt of greenstone, the metalliferous zone being con- cealed by detritus. No one could have inferred from its appear- ance at that time that the enormous masses of copper existed but a short distance below which subsequent explorations revealed. * * * At the summit it appeared hardly more than an inch or two in width: the gangue was mostly prehnite, with copper aS- sociated with silver, incrusted with beautiful capillary crystals of red oxyd. Further down the vein was again exposed; here it had expanded to the width of nearly two feet, the veinstone con- sisting of a series of reticulations of laumonite. Up to this period the sandstone and conglomerate were sUp- sed by many to afford the best mining-ground, and that to this source they were to look for permanent supplies of the sul- phurets of copper. During the winter of 1845-46, some Ger- man miners, in clearing away the talus near the base of the cliff, Effects of Lightning. 239 discovered a small loose specimen of mass copper. This stimu- lated them in their researches, which resulted in the discovery of the vein in the belt of granular trap about twelve feet to the east, showing that it had been subjected to that amount of heave or dislocation..* * * * From that time to the present day, hardly a month has elapsed without developing new masses; and their occurrence, so far from creating wonder, is regarded as a matter of course. The largest single mass hitherto exposed weighed about fifty tons. * * * sf . From the reports of the trustees rendered in 1849 and 1850 we gather the following information: he amount of capital stock paid in by the stockholders is $110,000. The personal effects of the company on the first of December, 1848, were $140,982, leaving a surplus of $111,105 —a sum a little more than equivalent to the eutire capital stock. This statement does not include the mine, with its fixtures and improvements, such as the stamping-mill, furnace, &c. * * * * Products. Expenses, 1846 - - $8,870,95 $32,203,44 1847 - - 70,977,382 61,737,85 1848 - - 166,407 ,02 67,667,58 1849 - - 244 237,54 106,968,77 ‘This embraces such expenses only as were incurred at the mine ; those of insurance, commissions, freights, é&cc., are exclu- ded. The cost of transportation to Boston is $15 per ton; to Pittsburg, $7,50. The incidental expenses amount to about 20: per cent., in addition to those of mining. he company have erected the necessary works at Pittsburg for smelting and refining the copper, and they estimate that t shipments for the year ending December, 1849, will amount to 660 tons of refined copper. The product of silver for the year 1849 was $2,365,30.” ee > of July, 1851, at Attleboro’, Mass.; by Mr. Henry Rice. On the Ist of July a thunder storm commenced in the S.W., at about 63 a.m., the wind being at the time in the south. At 72 a.m. the wind had changed into the S.W. At a little before 8 o’clock the shower seemed to divide, one part going to the north and the other to the south of this place. At 8 a.m. the wind had changed into the east, the clouds at the same time coming from the south. At 8} it commenced raining here, the shower which Was at the south having come up and the wind having changed mto the south. One flash of lightning which seemed to go directly downwards, was succeeded by the report in eight sec- onds, and the report continued audible for thirty seconds, hence Arr. XXVI.—F fects of Lightning during a storm on the first 240 Liffects of Lightning. we may suppose the distance of this flash to have been about 12 miles; this I think was as near as any to this place. | At a distance of about four miles south of this place, the light- ning struck the upper telegraph wire and passed off in both direc- tions, giving reports as loud as that of “a pistol fired in a close room,” in the telegraphic offices in Boston and Providence. The lightning split or splintered nearly all the posts for about one mile, and broke several of the glass insulators. ‘The most south- ern post which was affected by the lightning is situated about four miles south of this place; calling that post 1, and number- ing all the posts which have been affected, I find the last one split is No. 28. Nos. 9, 24 and 27 are not injured in any way. No. 18 is split the most of any; this post stands in a very wet place, in fact it is surrounded by water. Nearly every post that was affected had a long, narrow spiral groove dug out along its whole length, corresponding with the grain of the woo ost on the wires; they also heard several slight reports similar to those of percussion caps. As the shower passed on to the east, the lightning struck a house belonging to Mr. Ebenezer Draper, situated in the village of Attleboro’, known as “ Attleboro’ City.”” This house was struck twice, the second discharge being about three minutes after the first. There was no lightning rod on the house, and the nvarest one to the house was situated about fifty rods distant. There are, I believe, but three rods in the village, or within f mile of the house. This house is a one-story frame building, stand- ing upon a stratum of graywacke conglomerate soil of the red slaty variety, and has been built 1. 50 or 60 years. The house ow fronts the road which runs through the village ina N.E. and S.W. direction. Ateach ; end and within four feet of es be agg 2 the house stands a Balm of ‘ Gilead (Populus candicans). | These trees are very much? : branched, but the branches of the tree at the N.E. end of the house do not extend over the house to any consid- erable extent. There were four persons in the house at E e roe é ad the time it was struck, viz, = a SS ae Mr. Ebenezer Draper and wife and daughter, and Mr. Daniel Barney. — 3 —. i 7 Effects of Lightning. 241 Fig. 1, on preceding page, represents a ground plan of the prem- ises: A, front door which opened into the entry E; B, front room ; C, kitchen ; ch, chimney; e¢, old fashioned clock, reaching from the floor near to the ceiling ; f, seat of Mr. Draper by the clock; g, seat of Mr. Barney; h, seat of Mrs. Draper; 7, seat of Mr. Dra- per’s daughter; S, stove; c, door leading out of the kitchen into back entry E’; p, post on which hung a mirror; T, T, Balm of Gilead trees; W, well. _’ The house was first struck at A, fig. 2, whence the fluid passed into the house and divided ; : a part going down the stud C, and thence down the N aie The part which went down A C ran along the stud from 1 ZA i rl ZA a 1 eed) ZENS Y H VIEW FROM THE N. E. beam F B, thence along the beam a short distance to the stud C D, down which it went, tearing off several clapboards in its progress on the outside of the house, and the laths, plastering and paper, beside the window, on the inside. It also broke from the window three lights of glass, throwing the glass into the house. The white oak stud C D was split its entire length, the fluid fol- lowing the rows of nails which fastened the laths, clapboards, &c. That portion of the fluid which went down the rafter A B split off the weather board from the rafter, then passed down the post BH a short distance till it came opposite the wheel-work of the tall old fashioned clock which stood in the corner at e, fig. 1. rom the post it passed to the top of the clock to the wheels, tearing off the upper part of the clock-case and throwing it into the middle of the room .B, fig. 1. From the wheels, it passed down the long iron pendulum, thence through the bottom of the clock-case into the corner of the house and into the ground. he glass in the upper part of the clock-case was broken, and the case at the bottom was badly splintered, but the clock was not stopped, t. Draper, who was sitting in the chair at f, fig. 1, was pros- trated by this part of the shock into the middle of the room, on his face. There was no visible mark of injury on him at the time, although he complained at first of numbness in his lower limbs, then of a severe burning sensation in his feet, and requested his “ boots might be taken off, for his feet were burning up.” Szconp Szams, Vol. XII, No, 85.—Sept., 1851. 31 242 Fiffects of Lightning. There was a bruise at the corner of his left eye and another on the back of his right hand, but these he thinks were not made by the lightning. The clothes which he had on at the time were entirely of cotton and were uninjured. The room-was immedi- ately filled with a very strong smell of sulphur. There was a small hole made in the back right-hand corner of the flag-bot- tomed chair in which Mr. Draper sat. No other person in the ‘room was in the least injured by this stroke. It appears that a part of the fluid passed down the tree situated at that end of the house. The first visible effect of the lightning on this tree is on one of the limbs about twelve feet from the ground, where a little bark is torn off; from that spot to the trunk, occasional marks of its progress are visible ; on the trank of the tree, there is a seam split in the bark about four feet in Jength. Mr. Draper’s right foot was very much swollen on the next day, when I saw it; he attributes this to his first shock. These believe are the principal details relative to the first shock. As soon as Mr. Draper’s boots were off and he had somewhat recovered the use of his limbs, he was assisted by those present into the kitchen, Mr. Barney being on his left side and his wife and daughter on his.right. As soon as he was seated ina chair (about four feet from the post p (fig. 1,) in the kitchen, the second flash came and prostrated all four of them. This flash struck the house on the roof, close to the edge and directly over the rafter at A’, fig. 2, where there were four iron hooks hanging ; from these it passed down the stud A’ E, on which was hanging a long iron rod; thence it went to an iron pan which rested on the beam, leaning against the side of the house; from the pan it ran along the beam in the direction E F, fig. 2, till it came to the post F G, (p, fig. 1,) down which it went, tearing off the casing on both sides, breaking to atoms a mirror which hung on the post, split- ting the post, which was of white oak, its entire length, tearing off the laths on both sides of the post on the inside of the house, and the clapboards on the outside; it then passed into the floor, after which but few marks of its progress are to be seen. There are a few places over-head in the kitchen where the plastering 1S torn from over the nail-heads. A few splinters are torn from the floor of the entry which leads out of the kitchen, and some out of the kitchen floor, near to the door of the entry. The effect of the stroke upon Mr. Draper’s daughter, although she is a lady about 45 years of age and in very feeble health, was but slight; and being merely stunned she soon recovered. Mr. Draper was also stunned, and more so than at his first shock ; but he thinks he received no additional injury. The effect upon Mrs. Draper and Mr. Barney was more severe- A portion of the fluid passed from the post p, fig. 1, to Mr. Bar- : ney, (he being nearest the post and distant about four feet, ) strik- Effects of Lightning. 243 ing him on the outside of his left hip, then running round on the front of his hip in a spiral manner to the inside of his left leg, ripping open the inner seam of the left leg of his pantaloons for about eight inches as it passed down his leg. It tore off a piece of skin above the ankle, then passed over the ankle and tore off the skin from just below the ankle to the first joint of the great toe, where it passed out through the boot, tearing out a ragged, nearly round piece of the size of an American dollar. Another portion passed out nearer the heel, mak- 3. ing a ragged slit two inches in length. Fig. 3, represents the appearance of Mr. Barney’s boot. The piece of leather was not detached on the upper side. He on no stocking at the time. Mr. Barmey was the first of the four who came to a state of sensibility ; he imme- diately crawled to the door d, fig. 1, and called for assistance (there being a house within about three rods.) He at first complained of an intense burning sensa- tion, and requested that his boots might be taken off. The foot, on taking off had been at work ina field near the house of Mr. Draper, and seeing the shower coming up, went into the house to be out of the rain; he thinks he got into the house before it commenced raining, and that his clothes were perfectly dry unless his perspi- ration might have moistened them. His pantaloons were a pair of blue and white overalls. The stitches and not the cloth were ripped out at the knee. r. Barney says that his wound “does not feel like a common burn bnt more like a scald.’ He says that he “has for some time past been troubled with a severe cough and soreness in his lungs, but that since he received the shock, he has not felt so Sore at his lungs and his cough is much better.” ts. Draper (an old lady now in her 80th a also received a portion of the fluid which came from the post p, fig. 1. She was in a state of insensibility for half an hour, although as soon as assistance could be procured, means were used to resuscitate her. e was first struck on the back of her neck; the fluid there Scorched the hair, then ran round her neck on a string of gold 244 Effects of Lightning. beads which she had on at the time. Each bead must have been enveloped in the fluid, 1 think, as it passed around her neck, for the position of each bead was distinctly marked by a black spot on her neck, and the number of these black spots correspond with the number of beads. The effect of the fluid on the beads Was to turn them black. She had in her ears at the time a pair of gold ear-nubs ;-—the one in her left ear had a spot on it similar to what would be made by putting strong acid on brass ; it looked black and corroded. From her neck the fluid passed down her left side to her feet, leaving but one mark of its progress, and that was at the lower part of her chest on her left side ; the skin there was somewhat bruised and blackened but not broken. Her left foot, when I saw it, was very much swollen, but was not bruised, neither did she complain of any soreness. Her sensa- tions on coming to were the same as those of the others; an intense burning sensation in her feet “as though her feet were in he ” She had on at the time a thin cotton dress, which was not in the least injured by the stroke. ‘There was no rent made either in her stockings or shoes. [ believe I have now detailed the principal effects upon the several individuals; there are however some further particulars worthy of notic There were no marks made by the lightning on the kitchen floor where the four individuals were prostrated. There were po marks of the lightning near the stove, which was but about four feet from where the four individuals were standing at the time of the second shock. In the cellar little damage was done, except to remove the mortar from between the stones. In the chambers or attic above, there were several articles of iron furniture stowed in the end near to where the house was struck. Within four feet of where the lightning passed down the stud A’ E, fig. 2, there stood an air-tight stove which did not seem to have been in the least molested by the lightning. An old umbrella which lay at the foot of the stud A’ E, was set on fire but none of its metallic fixtures were melted. The silvering on the back of the mirror which hung on the post p, fig. 1, did not seem to have been in the least affected by the electricity ; still the frame of the mirror was very much shat- tered. . The electricity, wherever it went, appeared to have made a very diligent search for nails, screws, hinges, &c., and wherever it found them, it either tore them ont or split the wood around them.* North Attleboro’, July 18, 1851. * In the passage of electricity, the effects of violence are to be found mainly where the current is interrupted. A good metallic conductor, or masses of iron to- gether would receive the fluid and might show no effects, but ranges of nails or spikes would give rise to a shock between them and consequent violence.—Eps. ee SS ee On the former Changes of the Alps. 245 Arr. XXVIL—On the former Changes of the Alps; by Sir : V.PBRS& Ropvericx Impey Murcuison, TE complicated structure of the Alps so baffled the penetra- tion of De Saussure, that after a life of toil the first great histo- rian of those mountains declared “there was nothing constant in them except their variety.” In citing this opinion, Sir Roderick explained how the obscurity had been gradually cleared away by the application of modern geology, as based upon the succession of organic remains, and then proceeded to indicate the accumu- lations of which the Alps were composed, and the changes or revolutions they had undergone, between the truly primeval days when the earliest recognizable animals were created, and the first glacial period in the history of the planet. The object being to convey in a popular manner clear ideas of the physical condition of these mountains at different periods, three long scene-paintings, prepared for the occasion, represented @ portion of the chain at three distinct epochs. ‘I'he first of these views of ancient nature exhibited the Alps as a long, low archi- pelago of islands, formed in a great part out of the Silurian and older sediments which had been raised above the sea, when the lands bore the tropical vegetation of the carboniferous era. Stating that there were no relics in the Alps of the formations to which he had assigned the name of Permian, as marking the Close of the primeval or palwozoic age, Sir Roderick rapidly re- viewed the facts gathered together by many geologists from all quarters of the globe, and maintained that they unequivocally Sustained the belief, that there had been a succession of creations tom lower to higher types of life, in ascending from inferior to Superior formations. He carefully, however, noted the clear dis- tinction between such a creed, as founded on the true records of Creation, and the theory of the transmutation of specie ja trine put forth in the popular work entitled the “ Vestiges of Creation,” and from which he entirely dissented, — ; n the second painting (an immense lapse of time having oc- curred) the Alps were represented as a mountainous ridge in which all the submarine formations, from the medieval up to the older tertiary or Eocene, had been lifted up upon the flank of the pri- meval rocks. Each rock system being distinguished by a color Peculiar to it, the nature of the animals contained in each of these deposits was succinctly touched upon. Between the young- oc- * Proc, Roy. Soc, March 7, 1851, p. 31. 246 On the former Changes of the Alps. that “an entirely new creation had succeeded to universal decay and death.” In speaking of the Alpine equivalents of the British Lias and : Oolites, Sir R. paid a deep-felt tribute to Dr. Buckland, who thirty years ago had led the way in recognizing this parallel ; and Leo- pold von Buch was particularly alluded to as having established these and other comparisons, and as having shown the extent to which large portions of these mountains have been metamorph- osed from an earthy into a crystalline state. In treating of the cretaceous system it was shown that the Lower Green Sand of England, so well and so long ago illustrated by Dr. Fitton, was represented in the Alps by large masses of limestone, since called Neocomian by foreign geologists. ; Emphasis was laid upon the remarkable phenomena, that every where in the south of Europe (as in the Alps) the Nummulite h fossil fishes (among which eels and herrings first made their ap- pearance); other strata of this date contain the well known fishes of Monte Bolca; and others again have been rendered so crystal- line amid the peaks of the Alps as to resemble primary rocks, $0 intense have been the metamorphoses! si Dwelling for a few minutes on the atmospheric conditions which prevailed after the elevation of the older tertiary, Sir R. n- ferred that a Mediterranean and genial climate prevailed during all the long period whilst the beds of sand (Molasse) and of pebbles (Nagelflue) were accumulating under the waters both of lakes and of the sea, and when derived from the slopes of all the pre- existing rocks. The marine portions of the Molasse and Nagel- flue contain the remains of many species of shells now living 10 the Mediterranean; whilst in alternating and overlying strata, charged exclusively with land and fresh water animals, not one species among many hundreds, including numerous insects, 1S identical with any form now living. This point, on which he first insisted on his return from the Alps in 1848, Sir R. had con- sidered to be of paramount importance in proving, that terrestrial life was much less endowed with the capacity to resist physical On the former Changes of the Alps. 247 changes of the surface than submarine life: for here we have a fauna which is Pliocene in the order of the strata, and yet is not Eocene in its animal and vegetable contents. A certain number of the more remarkable animals that lived amounting in many places to a total inversion of mountains, be- tween the older tertiary and those younger deposits which were accumulated under the waters during the period he had just been describing, Sir Roderick then briefly pointed out what he had de- monstrated in detail elsewhere: viz. that the sands and pebble- beds of that age had been suddenly heaved up from beneath the waters all along the outer or northern flank of the chain, so as to form mountainous masses, the inverted and truncated ends of which had been forced under the edges of the very rocks out of whose detritus they had been formed. efore this great revolution had taken place, no large erratic blocks were known, but after it, they became common, and were the necessary production of that intensely cold climate to which the Alps were then subjected; a change, of which their surface bears distinet evidence. During the same period, the low countries of northern Europe Were covered by an Arctic sea. If such waters then extended to the Jura and the Alps, icebergs and rafts must have been detached from the latter, carrying away blocks of stone northwards, to be dropped at intervals, just as it has been demonstrated that the Scandinavian blocks were dropped in Prussia, Poland, and the low lands of Russia, when all those regions were under the influence of an Arctic sea. Bavaria, and the lower parts of the Cantons Vaud, Neufchatel, and Berne, were, it is supposed, then covered y Waters which bathed the foot of the Alps. That the change from a former genial climate to the first great period of cold was a sudden one is further sustained by the fact, that the inclined strata in which the Mediterranean animals are ied, are at once covered transgressively and unconformably by other beds of gravel, shingle, and mud, in which the remains of Plants and animals are those of a cold climate. 248 On the former Changes of the Alps. The third scene, therefore; exhibited the sands and pebbles of the genial period thrown up into mountains on the flanks of the chain, the peaks of which were probably covered for the first time with snow, and from the openings of which, whether pro- truding to the sea-shore or into deep fiords or bays, glaciers and their moraines advanced, from which icebergs or rafts were floated away as suggested. In concluding Sir Roderick thus expressed himself :—“ Having thus now conducted you rapidly through the most prominent changes which the Alps have undergone, from the first period when they had emerged, probably as an archipelago of low islands in a tropical climate, to that epoch when the animals and _ plants living upon them indicated a Mediterranean temperature, and then to that Arctic period, the conditions of which I have just been discussing, I have no longer to call for your assent to any infer- ences of the geologist, which all of you are not perfectly compe- tent to understand. “'To convert the Alps of the earliest glacial period into the Alps of the present day, you have only to figure them to your- selves, as raised 2000 or 3000 feet above the altitude which they are supposed to have in the diagram last exhibited. All their main features remaining the same, you would then have before you, the present Alps and their valleys, irrigated by lakes and rivers instead of bays; and in place of the waters sketched in beyond them as in the painting, with ice-bergs floating upon sand, and blocks, the waters in the manner represented ; whilst if you continue the same traverse up the Lake to Altorf, you will pass by numer-- ous extraordinary folds and breaks of the secondary limestones, and of the older Tertiary or Nummulitic rocks. ch a doub ling or crumpling up of these strata, you may then perchance agree with me in thinking, was in a great measure the result of lateral pressure between two great masses; the crystalline centre of the chain upon the south, and the newly upraised deposits 02 On the former changes of the Alps. 249 the north of which the Rigi is a small part only, which latter having been intruded upon the terrestrial surface, necessarily com- pressed the pre-existing formations into a smaller compass. If more adventurous, you should climb to peaks rising to 8000 or 9000 feet above the sea, that flank the central summits, you may there satisfy yourself, that deposits, which were once mere mud, formed during the same time as our slightly consolidated London clay, have been in many parts converted into schists and slates as crystalline as many of the so-called primary rocks of our islands. So intense has been the metamorphosis ! “In speaking of the last changes of the Alps as stupendous, I know it may be said that, in reference to the diameter of the Planet, the highest of these mountains and the deepest of these valleys are scarcely perceptible corrugations of the rind of the earth. But when we compare such asperities with all other ex- ternal features of this rind, they are truly stupendous. How, for example, can the observer travel over vast surfaces such as Rus- Sia, and not be able there to detect a single disruption—not one great fracture, and no outbursts whatever of igneous and volcanic rocks; but on the contrary, a monotonous and horizontal se- quence of former aqueous deposits, which, simply dried up, have hever been disturbed by any violent revolutions from beneath, nd then compare them with the adjacent Ural mountains, or sull better with the loftier Alps, and not be impressed with the grandeur of such changes? “And here my auditors will recollect, that even beneath and around this metropolis they can be assured by finding extinct fossil mammalia, that such also have been the changes, though tise again from beneath the waters and constitute the present “ntinents and islands before man was placed on the surface. ut race, in short, was not created until the greater revolutions of which I have treated had passed away. bite These grand dislocations belong, therefore, distinctly to for- } rmous when as hie recorded in human history. At the same time geologists ve shown upon clear evidences, that during the long and com- Seeizs, Vol. XII, No. 35.—Sept, 1851. 32 250 On the former changes of the Alps. paratively tranquil former period which intermitted with geologi- cal revolutions, there was a constant exhibition of diurnal agencies similar to those which prevail in the present world. In those older times, rain must have fallen as now,—volcanic forces must have been active in scattering ashes far and wide, and in spread- ing them out together with sheets of lava beneath the waters,— gradual movements of oscillation and moderate elevations and depressions must have occurred,—long continued abrasion of the sides of mountains must have produced copious accumulations of ‘débris’ to encroach upon lakes, the overflow or bursting of which may have sterilized whole tracts. “All such and many more modifications of the ancient surfa- reer, were doubtlessly common to all epochs. But whilst no such operations can be compared with those phenomena of dis- ruption and overturning of mountain masses which have been specially dwelt upon this evening, so also according to my view it is impossible, that any amount of small agencies, if continued for millions of years, could have produced such results. “In thus attempting to shadow out in the space of an hour all the chief formations and transmutations of a chain like the Alps, I have probably labored to effect what many persons may deem impossible; but I have thought that some at least of these even- ing discourses should awaken the mind to the larger features of each science, the details of which must be followed out in courses of lectures. I would beg, therefore, those persons who have not studied geology practically, to dwell chiefly on the facts brought forward, and to believe that they are indisputably and clearly proven. They tell us unmistakably how different creations of animal and vegetable life are entombed in these vast monuments of ancient nature, and they reveal to us that each creation of the successive inhabitants of the surface lived during very long peri- s of time. They announce to us, in emphatic language, how ordinary operations of accumulation were continued tranquilly during very lengthened epochs, and how such tranquillity was broken in upon by great convulsions. “ Being thus led to ponder upon the long history of successive races and also upon some of the most wonderful physical revolu- tions the chain has undergone, we cannot avoid arriving at the belief, that, in addition to many other great operations, the dis- ruption which upheaved the middle and younger Tertiary forma- tions from beneath the waters, and threw them up into mountain m ccompanying the production of the first great arctic pe- riod known in the history of the planet, was a change of immeas- _ urable intensity. That change, in short, by which a peri snow, ice, glaciers, floating icebergs, and the transport of huge erratics far from the sources of their origin, suddenly followed @ genial and Mediterranean clime !” Rev. C. 8. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. 251 Arr. XXVIII.—Observations on the Pendulum Experiment ; by Rev. C. S. Lyman. Every one who has repeated the interesting experiment of M. Foucault for exhibiting the rotation of the earth, has noticed the tendency of the pendulum, after vibrating awhile apparently in a straight line, to acquire gradually an elliptic motion. quantity of this ellipticity in different experiments is very varia- ble, some observers having found it to amount occasionally to half an inch or an inch for the minor axis, when the pendulum was left to vibrate for a considerable time. If the experiment, however, is skillfully conducted, the degree of ellipticity will always be small, and when it is not so, it may safely be attribu- ted to imperfections in the apparatus, currents of air, lateral vi- bration of the pendulum at the moment it is disengaged, or other like sources of disturbance. In our own experiments, to which we shall again refer, with an apparatus by no means answering to our wishes, the minor axis of the ellipse rarely exceeded two- tenths of an inch, with an initial are of vibration of about four feet, and in some trials no ellipticity was perceptible for the first two hours. Whether it is possible to conduct the experiment so skillfully as entirely to avoid these sources of error, and cause the pendulum to vibrate without any observable ellipticity arising from such accidental causes, is very doubtful. Certainly no one has yet succeeded in doing it. Suppose, to simplify the problem, the experiment to be per- lenae at a pole i ve ph & The point of suspension of the pendulum, and the center of the circle over which the pendu- lum vibrates, being in the line of the earth’s axis are unaffected iN position by the earth’s rotation. But the circumference of the Circle, and with it the pendulum ball when drawn aside and de- 252 Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. tained over it previous to being let off, obviously partake of the earth’s motion of rotation, making a complete revolution around the pole, or center of the circle in twenty-four hours. The pen- dulum ball has thus a certain momentum, or amount of motion at right angles to the plane of vibration, at the moment it is dis- engaged; which motion, during the time the ball is descending from the circumference to the center of the circle, must carry it to the right hand, or aside from that center by a space corres- ponding to the tangential velocity it possessed at starting. Con- tinuing its curvilinear motion under the action of gravity and the tangential force referred to, it proceeds by the laws of central orces to complete approximately an ellipse, with the point of rest for its center. The same elliptical motion which would thus necessarily exist at the poles, must occur likewise on any other part of the globe, except at the equator. For in any given latitude, it is easily de- monstrated, that the graduated horizontal circle across which the pendulum vibrates, possesses a virtual motion of rotation in azi- muth about the vertical, in consequence of the earth’s rotation— the amount of its angular motion in a given time being equal to the angular motion of the earth on its axis in the same time mul- tiplied by the sine of the latitude, as has been shown by many writers on the subject. _ This relative azimuthal motion of the horizontal circle around its center, is precisely that of which the ball partakes at the mo- ment it is disengaged, and from which must arise a necessary ellipticity, just as in the case at the pole, only less in amount by as much as the sine of the latitude is less than radius. _ Perhaps this motion may be more readily conceived, by con- sidering, that points on the earth’s surface rotate eastward with different velocities as they are at a greater or less distance from the equator ; consequently, that the south point of the horizontal pendulum circle moves eastward with a greater velocity than the center, so that when the pendulum ball is released from that south point, retaining the full amount of its eastward motion, in- stead of passing directly through the center, or point of rest, it must leave it behind, passing it to the eastward by a space equa to the difference of the motions of the two points during a semi- vibration. _ The same will hold true in whatever direction the pendulum is made to vibrate. For, suppose the ball drawn to the eastern side of the circle: though in this case the actual rotary velocities of the center of the circle and of this eastern point of it are the same, considered as around the earth’s axis, yet considered as around the vertical, with which in these experiments we have to do, they are quite different. It has already been shown that the point of the circle has a relative azimuthal motion in re- Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. 253 the circle. Hence, from whatever point the ball is let off, it must possess a tangential motion relatively to the center, and therefore move in its vibrations in an elongated ellipse. Nor are we to regard this necessary ellipticity, though minute, as too small for detection, where the experiment can be carefully performed under favorable circumstances—particularly with along pendulum, and a large are of vibration. a _ Suppose the pendulum 208 feet in length, making a vibration in 8 seconds or a semi-vibration in 4 seconds. Suppose the are of vibration 2U feet, or the radius of the circle 10 feet. A point in the circumference of this circle would, in the latitude of New Haven, have a motion relatively to the center of 40” of are in 4 seconds of time, or a semi-vibration ; which 40” on a circle of 10 feet radius will be equal to 0:022 of an inch. Thus giving for the minor axis of the ellipse double this quantity, or nearly the twentieth of an inch. This space would doubtless be readily appreciable in a delicate arrangement of the experiment on the Scale supposed ; or if not appreciable at once by direct observa- tion, would be likely to develop itself, as experiments were mul- tiplied, by showing the elliptical tendency to be in one direction rather than the other. The ellipticity arising from the earth’s rotation must, as we have seen, always be towards the East, or in a direction opposite to that of the hands of a watch. But the ellipticity observed in the experiments is in both directions—showing that in general it must be owing to other causes than the one specified. Indeed, in the ordinary experiments, with pendulums comparatively short, and a small arc of vibration, this ellipticity must be entirely in- appreciable by direct observation. It can only become obvious, Ht at all, in experiments on a large scale; and so far as appears, persons who have conducted such experiments have not had their attention drawn to this particular point. It is partly with a view to invite the attention of more favored experimenters to the sub- Ject, that this article has been written and the results given of our own imperfect experiments % 254 Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. it 36 inches. Owing to the closeness of the entire apartment, little or no trouble was experienced or apprehended from aerial currents. Without giving the experiments in detail, we will only men- tion some of the results. The pendulum was usually set vibrating with an are of about four feet, which in half an hour became reduced to 28 inches, in an hour to 19 inches, in an hour and a half to 14 inches, in two hours to 104 inches, in three hours to 63 inches, and in four hours to 44 inches. In general the duration of the experiments was not much over an hour, often much less, occasionally three or four hours. As to the amount of ellipticity, there were but two instances out of over thirty in which none could be perceived. In several other cases it was barely perceptible after the lapse of two or three hours, and in but one instance exceeded two-tenths of an inch for the minor axis. In general it was less than one-tenth of an inch at the close of the experiment. As to the motion in the ellipse, it was by no means always in the same direction, and hence could not be due exclusively, at least, to the influence of the earth’s rotation. It seemed rather motion in the ellipse was with the hands of a watch. The same number of times when put in vibration at right angles to the meridian, the motion was in the contrary direction. When vibra- ting from N.E. to S.W. the motion was with the hands; when from N.W. to S.E. the reverse. And these results were nearly with the rotation of the earth, nor with the points of the com- pass, but with something in the apparatus itself; and it probably depended not on any imperfection in the ball of the pendulum, but in the wire above at the point of suspension. The necessary ellipticity of rotation was not detected in these experiments, being doubtless over-balanced and lost amid the more efficient causes of ellipticity arising from accidental sources. As to the rate of angular deviation of the plane of vibration on the graduated circle. this was observed to be obviously affecte _by the direction in which the pendulum moved in its elliptic orbit—being accelerated when that motion coincided with the Rev. C. 8. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. 255 motion of the plane of vibration, and retarded when the reverse ; and the amount of this acceleration or retardation was not constant in a given case, but increased as the are of vibration diminished and the ellipse became less eccentric. Sir John Herschel has en that angle is indefinitely small, the sines of the angles made by the pendulum wire with the perpendicular, which sines rep- resent the intensity of the central force by which the motion the vertical is considerable, the sines cease to be proportional to the arcs, and as the pendulum approaches the extremity of its vibration, being acted on by a diminished central force, it is suf- fered to go past the point on the circle at which in the preceding revolution it turned the extremity of the ellipse, before it is brought to do the same again, and hence the line of apsides must revolve in the same direction. This accords with our experi- ts. The mean hourly motion of the plane of vibration, when the direction of the elliptic motion coincided with it, was 10° 1’. When it did not coincide, 9° 44’—giving a mean hourly motion of 9°57’, The theoretical hourly motion in the latitude of New Haven would be 9° 54’. This amount of motion as deduced So far as experiments have been tried, in pepe saci thy oy seem to indicate such a result, while in other eicek 0 not. raat * Outlines of Astronomy, p.421, Am. Ed. 256 Vesuvius. Art. XXIX.—Miscellaneous Notes, from Europe; by B. Sizumany, Jr. 1. Present condition of Vesuvius. Tue eruption of Vesuvius in February, 1850, and that of the year previous, entirely changed the summit features of this ancient mountain of fire. The former crater disappeared, being filled with scoria and ashes, while fwo craters now occu e summit of the cone. deepest and most active of these is that of February, 1850, which is situated on the side of the cone nearest to Pompeii. It is somewhat lower and has a much greater depth than its immediate neighbor, which is on the side of the bay of Naples. We had no means of measuring its depth accurately, but judging from the time required for the returning sound of a stone cast into its mouth, as well as from inspection and comparison, we assumed the depth of the new crater to be from 800 to 1000 feet. at times, when viewed from the sea, to be wantin n the summit, however, these vapors appear dense enough and are sufficient to prevent the possibility of making the entire circuit of the crater rom this cr cause we were unable to examine the lip dividing the crater of 1850 from hardly possible for more than two persons to stand abreast upon it. abundant specimens of aphthitalite, which frosted over the rugged cav- ern like snow. Near this spot also are two fumeroles formed during the last eruption; the largest about 25 feet high, with an aperture of near ten feet, its outer walls black, rugged and forbidding. The flow of lava from the eruption of 1849 was in the direction of the ancient since erected a new village for the unfortunate inhabitants near the site of the former one. During the past six years the king of Naples has also constructed a carriage road up the side of Vesuvius as far as the Hermitage, where as a Royal Meteorological Observatory, under the direction of the celebrated Melloni. This road follows in a very serpentine path over and around the hill of ashes, which all who have seen Vesuvius will remember as forming a remarkable feature in its topography. In this manner, sections have been opened in the hill for a distance of three OF four miles, and were these viewed without reference to the immediate Grotto del Cane. 257 again graduating into the finest silt an some places the lines of deposition are curved in regular undulations, and in others they meet at a sharp unconformable angle. Close observation alone hills of the flanks of Vesuvius. In Herculaneum we se phenomena in a more remarkable manner. Here owing to a much larger accumulation of material—to subsequent overflows of lava and the superincumbent weight thus produced, with the aid of water, the ashes were consolidated into so compact a mass that some writers have even doubted whether Herculaneutn had not been destroyed by an Overflow of lava in the first instance. at such was not the fact is well known, and the condition of the antiquities imbedded there quite forbid the idea were no other evidence attainable. * 2. Grotto del Cane and Lake Agnano. The Grotto del Cane or dog grotto, has been so much cited for its Stratum of carbonic acid gas covering the floor, that all geological travellers who visit Naples feel an interest in seeing it. Unfortunately, like some other ¢ ottos, its enchantment disappears on a near view. dog is very unwillingly dragged and placed in a depression of the floor, where he is soon narcotized by the carbonic acid. 1 Lake Agnano, as is well known, fills the bottom of an ancient crater n the shore of the lake eee nly opposite the Grotto del Cane there is a constant and copi- 1S f a ? e this region. At the foot of the hill on the east are numerous vents of ‘Senims, Vol. XII, No. 35.—Sept., 1851. re 258 Sulphur Lake of Campagna. Mes neighborhood; but from which vent does not appear—evidently not from the one now containing Lake Agnano, since that has not been active in the historic period. In another cavity excavated in the hill near to the Grotto del Cane, is an abundant flow of carbonic acid, accompanied as is said by am- ~ 3 3. Sulphur Lake of the Campagna, near Tivoli. The celebrated sulphur lake of the Campagna, near Tivoli, the Aquz Albule: of the ancients, still retains its interest to the geologist as the most remarkable of all the thermal sources of Italy. Whether pagna—we must admit that it is worthy of attentive consideration. In the days of Father Kircher this lake was described as being over one mile in circuit. Now the lake is not over 500 or 600 feet in diame- 0 The strong odor of sulphuretted hydrogen announces the existence of re the traveller reaches it. The water was examined by Sir Humphrey Davy, who found it to contain one volume carbonic acid, and less than 4 volume of sulphuretted hydrogen. of effervescence. The water is very clear, a slight milky or opaline appearance it has being due, as we thought, to the reflection of hite sides and bottom of the lake. Its temperature is 80° the area of the lake appears to have been contracted, and not from any partial drainage which is evidently inexplicable since the level of the lake is now only a few inches below that of the adjoining and level Campagna. Breaking off a mass of grass and clods from the shore it was found that the roots of the plants were also encased, while the stone walls sam nee. A large space on the Campagna near the sulphur lakes lately fell in, owing to the cavernous and unsupported nature of the rock, and it was easy to see in the freshly fractured portions of the rock the same stems of aquatic plants, such as now grow on the margin of the water. [tis perhaps too much to infer from these casual observations so wide a deduction as that all the travertine is due to this origin from sul- phur waters charged with bicarbonate of lime ; but it is not going farther than is allowed by a prudent philosophy to say that travertine is now forming on the shores of Lake Solfatara from this cause. 4. Meteorological Observatory of Mount Vesuvius. The Meteorological Observatory recently erected at Mount Vesuvius f i Il kno Was projected by Prof. Melloni wn to all the worl his memorable researches on heat, and the most distinguished of all aa pe Me Unfortunately for science, the revolution of 1848 entirely las aL j cant, nows no law but his own will, and who has shown in this act that he was unworthy of so noble a subject. 260 M. Gillard’s Light. 5. Light for Illumination obtained from the burning of Hydrogen, by M. Gillard. We have had an opportunity of seeing the successful application of M. Gillard’s patent in the extensive silver plate works of Messrs. Christolef in Paris. It is well known that M. Gillard claims the pro- duction of a useful light and great heat from the combustion of bydro- gen in contact with a coil of platinum wire—the hydrogen being produced by the decomposition of water. The apparatus employed is very simple, and consists essentially of one or more cylinders of iron arranged horizontally in a furnace similar in all respects to the usual ar- S iently situated in the same furnace employed for heating the retorts. ecomposition of water ensues of course, accompanied with the pro- duction of carbonic acid, (COz) carbonic oxyd (CO) in small quantity, of free hydrogen and a limited quantity of light carburetted hydrogen & A ieee oe Proceedings of the British Association, §'c. 261 lishment where it is desired to employ light and heat, may erect its own apparatus even in the most isolated situation, all the materials em- ployed being every where accessible. It is understood that M. Gillard has secured his patent in the United aes. and it is presumed that his method will soon be practically tested there. e merely add that the result of M. Gillard’s invention in one par- ticular differs from the anticipation of chemists: that is, we should ex- pect from the decomposition of water in this mode the production of carbonic oxyd CO, carbonic acid CO2, and light carburetted hydrogen 2H, with a limited amount of free hydrogen. e result of his ex- perience, however, seems to establish the statements already made, as may be seen ina report of the Commissioner of the Society for the Encouragement of Industry, &c., to whom the subject was referred. Arr. XXX.—Eztracts from the Proceedings of the Twenty-first Meeting of the British Association, held at Ipswich, July 2.* 1. From the Address of Prof. Ainy, the Astronomer Royal, at the opening of the Meeting. * * * Commencine, then, with the subject which stands first in Own plane, so as to take proper bearing in the chain or hoop whi "Supports it edgeways. To Lord Rosse’s critical eye the effect even of this mounting, though greatly superior to that of any preceding, 1s not quite perfect. In the progress of the experiments, some singular results have been obtained as to the set which a metal so hard as Lord R ses composition may receive from an equal pressure of very short duration. Surface of silver, I believe, has now been successfully used for the small reflector. “id 262 Proceedings of the British Association nebule; but there are also some striking examples of dark holes in bright matter, dark clefis in bright rays, and resolvability of apparently nebulous matter into stars. [do not deny the importance of the last of nebulz, I do not hold the inference to be by any means certain that all nebule are resolvable. Mr. Lassell exhibited at the last meeting of the Association a plan for supporting his two-feet mirrors without flex- is plan, slightly modified, has been adopted in use: and lam assured that the improvement in what before seemed almost perfect tance, the erection (this year) of the large transit-circle at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. is k ots, é&c., it may well be considered as one of the finest specimens of engineering that has ever been produced. As an example of an excellent mechan- ical structure carrying a large object-glass, I think it probable that this Greenwich transit-circle may have a great influence on the construction of future instruments. I had another representation will be accompanied with the same success — which has attended every application made by the Association for aid ee Sor the Advancement of Science. 263 ince the issue of the suggestions, the observations made last year on 4n eclipse visible at Honolulu in the Sandwich Islands have been re- ceived ; and they make us, if possible, still more desirous that the spirit 264 Proceedings of the British Association of the suggestions should be complied with, as far as possible. There of being ready, at definite points, for the observation of . phenomena. Among subjects related in some measure to astronomy, I may first oof cessary, the rotation of the earth. It is certain that M. Sanaa s theory is correct; but it is also certain that careful adjust- ment has sometimes failed. ‘The Council of the Association have lon regretted the very great delay which has occurred in the publication of the geodetic results of our great National Survey ; and they were pre- x which yet remained to be made, and for publishing the whole in a form which should be available for discussions of the figure of the earth. communicating with the Royal Society, they learned that that eg urgent recommendation to the same tenor, and that xO & So tion that this work is now in sais progress; and I cannot but remark on it as a striking instance of how much may be sometimes effected lete. North Cape to the ee is so far advanced that its completion is expected in the present yea t the last meeting of the Association, a Committee was appointed Beprossly to urge on the government, what had long excited the atten- tion of the Association, the de ective wines of the survey as regards Scotland. I am happy in stating that there is strong reason to hope xt subject to which the influence of the Association was ener- has usually been associated. Although the active employment of sev- Madras and Bom mbay ae petiditedl and only in partial activity,) the work connected with them has not yet ¢ ceased. Much has yet to be sentative of the government, the agents of the Association are emplo at the Kew Observatory, under the Se of Mr. Ronalds, in devising or examin fies new instruments. The Daguerrotype method of nbs mere eich is pottipl liable to this objection, that the original records are destroyed) has been extended to the vertical-force instrument. Appenine nai been arranged for the ee original Jor the Advancement of Science. 265 thermometers—a subject to which the attention of M. Regnault and Mr. Sheepshanks had been advantageously directed. And, with the i i ced received as one of th Nature. In the related subject of Galvanism, although much of detailed law has been established by the labors of the same great man and of meteors, in Reports by Prof. Powell, printed in the volumes of the Association for the last two years, Skconp Sznizs, Vol. XII, No. 35.—Sept., 1851. ie 266 Proceedings of the British Association of those observations. I have the gratification of stating that consid- erable progress has now been made in preparing them for the press. General Committee, by M. Kupffer, for the formation of a Meteoro- logical Confederation, to be extended over the whole of Europe. A pire, has already been created. The Council to whom the project was referred, afier very careful consideration, cobwine it inexpedient to jein in the proposed cr nai They were deterred by various prac- tical difficulties, of which some may perhaps tweet — while — are felt with unusual ‘008: at the present time. It was with extrem unwillingness that the Council adopted this resolution, mid | with the full hope that at some future time a confederation similar to that proposed by M. Kupffer may be firmly Serle ptt Under the auspices of the Board of Ordnance, the officers of the corps of Royal Engineers are iiakin arrangements for the establish- with these could be combined occasional trustworthy observations a sea, we should probably have oe most complete system of Terrest val Meteorology that we can hope to obtain. Among the systematic sioberelt toni of less de character, I cannot omit referring to the daily report of the state of the wind at 9 o’clock every morning, which is supplied by rin ‘moporintendehia of railway stations, over a great portion of the British isles, and aye in the ie News newspaper. — ny instruments ies by the various amateur as hee are ac com- arable: great attention having been given to the adjustments of the aye by the ena Mr. Glaisher. tion. Manlepnwinn measures of the ene of light in air and in nd indeed regard . theories of light. A vémarkable; investigation by Prof. Stokes, he ared with experiment, seems to establish that the vibrations esenanftatians polarized light are, as for other reasons was suppose ed by resnel, perpendicular to what is usually called the plane of polariza- tion. me optical theories hotel admitted formerly of very imper- analysis by Prof. Stokes’s poeta methods of investigation. A curi- Brougham; but they have at present no bearing on theory, as the theoretical calculations with which they must be mehuaed appear to be too difficult or too complicated for the present state of pure mathe- matics. The 8 poe of Jamin regarding the silanes of polar- ized light under peculiar circumstances appear to give 7 to the Sor the Advancement of Science. 267 applied to the undulatory theory. And lastly, some curious experi- ments by Mason, Jamin, Prevostaye, and Desains, appear to show more fully, what had partially been shown by Prof. Forbes, that radiant heat admits of polarization ia all respects similar to that of light..* * 2 theoretical calculations of Cauchy, founded on a molecular hypothesis ied ; 2. On Diamagnetism and Magne-Crystallic Action; by Dr. J. TYNDALL. other case, by a change of sign from positive to negative ? To this question Plicker replies “* No.” His experiments have led him to the conclusion, that when the power of a magnet which operates upon a close study of the subject convinced him that to account for these a0 nomena the hypothesis of two conflicting forces in the same compoun mass, the one or the other of which predominates according as the power of the magnet is increased or diminished, was by no means ne- sel . ur way to a comparison of ma iC repulsion is now clear. We know oved, however, to be totally —the feebleness of the torsion balance was the instrument finally resorted to by the au- thor. A loop of paper was attached to one end of a fine silver wire, and in the loop rested a little beam of light wood. At the ends of the 268 Proceedings of the British Association with a torsion head. en the cones were excited, by sending an electric current through the surrounding helices the balls were repelled. The index of the torsion head was then gently turned against the repul- sion until the balls were brought within ;4th of an inch of the ends of he torsi i The strength of the exciting current was measured by a galvanometer of tangents, and it was regulated by means of a rheostat. ‘The cones were excited by currents which varied from 10° to 57°, and the corres- ponding repulsions were determined. Spheres of the following dia- magnetic substances were used :—1. Bismuth of commerce ; em- Sulphur of commerce; 4. Spheres from a crystal of native sulphur ale: a- proportional to the exciting current. These results cannot be reconciled with the statement that diamag- suspended between poles of a magnet exhibit phenomena which are force is rejected ; and it is there shown that the position of the optic ism of the mass, is entirely changed if a magnetic constituent be sub- al i * Z th cases is identical, the optic axis of carbonate of iron sets Sor the Advancement of Science. 269 axis through each sphere being carefully marked. ‘The spheres were Perpendicular to them. ‘The repulsion in the former case was to the repulsion in the latter, in the ratio of 53 to 388. The diamagnetic mass in both these cases is repelled witha greater force in one direction bs . . be r~) La D om S i) S ° re) ° ny a oo — ~ =| r=) = oO Qo pang =) =| as © — 3 ® =) 2. 6 a ro Lan | - ig ® © 2 oO oe co] » w the manifestation of their greatest energy? To this question the au- thor imagines that a full and intelligible reply is returned by experi- ment. If the arrangement of the component particles of any ve Such as to present different degrees of proximity in different directions, then the line of lo proximity (other circumstances being equal) will be that of strongest attraction in magnetic bodies, and of strongest Cubes were taken, the line of compression being pene ded uspende of the faces of each cube and parallel to the other four. — é i circuit the line of plane of most eminent cleavage in the case 0 tess pieced one upon each end of the torsion balance, first with the ‘ne of compression parallel to the axis of the cones, and secondly per- 270 Proceedings of the British Association was thus exhibited in the case of the model than in the case of the crystal. A pair of cubes constructed in the same manner from pow- dered carbonate of iron, exhibited an analagous predominance of at- traction in the line of compression. Against this mode of experiment an objection was urged, during the meeting of the British Association at Edinburgh last year, by Prof. Wm. Thomson, of Glasgow. ‘You have,” he said, *‘ reduced the tain direction, so that the repulsion and attraction of t ne of com pression, which you refer to closeness of aggregation, is after all a r t of crystalline action. esides, we know ompressed isinglass exhibits the same optical phenomena as crystals, and you ar unable to prove that the action is not due to a quasi crystalline struc- ture induced in the gum by compression.” The following experiment will set this point at rest. It will not only show the influence of com- pression apart from the mere arrangement of the axes or from the in- i b ci ol Sor the Advancement of Science. 271 unvarying result:—the line of compression stood always equatorial, and it was a matter of perfect indifference whether this line was the magnecrystallic axis or not. In these cases no gum was used, and not only was a predominance of axes present, but they all worked togeth- er; they were further assisted by the great mechanical advantage offer- ed by such plates to diamagnetic repulsion; the line of compression nevertheless triumphed over all and determined the position of the crystal. He must further assume a crystalline structure on the part of wax, flour, shale, and the pith of fresh rolls; for in all these substances the line of compression determines the position of the mass in the mag- netic field.’ * met case of the kind.—Dr. Tyndall stated in reply that he had diligently Sought for such a case, but had never succeeded -in finding it. rof. Faraday felt prepared to admit that some of Dr. Tyndall’s re- Sults seemed to promise an explanation of Pliicker’s perplexing results and conclusions ; but for his own part he was anxious to keep his mind free from ias, to get well-established facts, and to free them as much a8 possible from all circumstances which could mark, or disguise, or »», Mislead in the interpretation of them,—and such being his fixed deter- mination and settled habit, he was rather at a loss to remember to what Portion of his publications on the subject Dr. Tyndall referred when he supposed him to have considered the facts now brought forward as Improbable. 8. Report of the Kew Magnetographs ; by Col. SaBINE. 3 _ The author said that at the request of the Council he was about to Bive the Section a brief account of the experimental trial now making at the Kew Observatory of Mr. Ronald’s instruments for the self-regis- tty of the variations of terrestrial magnetism by means of photography. 272 Proceedings of the British Association These instruments had been described at former meetings: but it was servation previously in use, it was necessary that three instruments should be provided,—one for the variations of declination and t r those the horizontal and vertical components of th s.- The seeing the importance of the object, appropriated a portion of the su placed at their disposal by government to this purpose. ‘The three in- ave the advantage of greater sensibility, and in consequence require a less time of exposure to the light,—so that movements of a more contrary, has the advantage that the original tracings and records of the variations can be preserved,—a matter impossible with the plates, except in some very rare and interesting cases. In coming to a Jus ' the science has followed the combination of measuring apparatus with optical power,—so in terrestrial magnetism the various periodical and other causes which in their joint action produce the variations, re- quire that the traces of them should undergo tabulation as an indis- pensable preliminary to their practical application. In Mr. Ronald’s plan the tracings when taken on the silvered plates are tabulated with tolerable rapidity, and are then copied by hand with a graver’s tool oD sheets of transparent gelatine paper,—an operation requiring about & Sor the Advancement of Science. 273 are arranged in a journal and preserved. ‘The original plate, except i ases, is then cleared off for new work. The gelatine paper is transparent, durable, and bears ‘handling so well that impressions can be freely taken on paper with printers’ ink and a small press; which . EJ a D és) ge is : i) : sured by mechanical contrivance. The zero line has thus a perma- Sentially the sae as those of Mr. Brook, which had been adopted at e Royal Observatory, Greenwich, he could not help thinking that there was one important distinction. In Mr. rook’s method, a sheet of Photographic paper wrapped on a cylinder received and recorded We Working of the instrument; and these original records, carefully dated, were kept. Where silver plates were used It w s of course impossible to preserve the original records; after the tracings were Stcoxp Seams, Vol. XII, No, 35.—Sept, 1851. 35 me Q74 Proceedings of the British Association transferred by hand to the gelatine paper the silver plates had to be cleaned off, otherwise it is obvious they would soon multiply to a num- r too expensive and cumbrous to be used. Now, he had strong s alluded to those sudden, slight, but now important agitations which the instrument seemed to undergo after es on each side of its mean position with great steadiness. And yet, from the recent pissed of Prof. Faraday as to the varying ie vont of oxygen to magnetism b alterations of the temperature, it became highly probable that these same slight waverings of the meth tn would be found to have an interest attached to them hitherto altogether unsuspected. 4, On our Ignorance of the a el course of the Tides; by Dr. WHE In 1833 Dr. Whewell published in the Philosophical ee an essay towards a first approximation to a map of co-ti lines; in which he attempted, from the data then accessible, to en lines ex- — the course of the tide wave all over the ocean. So far as the are concerned, this mode of expressing the course of tides is still calao be the best; but our materials, which were scanty at the former period, are very incomplete even yet, with the exception of the coasts of Europe and the east coast of North ro gee the east coast ° n order divergence and of convergence of the tidal wave. We do not know these points on the west coast of Africa, or on the east coast of South America; and consequently we do not know the course of the tides of the Atlantic, nor do we know the relation of the tides of the Atlantic primary and governing object the obtaining a connected pening o the tides of the coasts of the Atlantic, in the first place, and of tho of other oceans afterwards. e Astronomer Royal said that the i en to which Dr. Whewell had now directed their attention had an object definite, intelligible, and most important, whether we considered it practically in its bearing on carefully in the manner pointed out by Ds Whewell in some limited loca “ep samen in the Atlantic Ocean, poole gs ee would meet found the government cheerfully to bestow on such saa He had not the least objection, should such an application be deemed proper - Jor the Advancement of Science. 275 to every sailor important, branch of science, he would beg leave to make a few remarks. In the first place, he must bear his testimony to the accuracy of the statement of the learned gentleman who had brought the subject before them as to the extreme intricacy and puzzling char- acter of the general phenomena, and our deplorable ignorance of ex- tensive fields of research in it. It was known to most of those whom ‘owards the east; and in this motion to an fro the waters of this great basin might be conceived as a whole to partake; while yet the motion of no one part need move more than a very few feet from its place. 5. Observations on Atomic Volumes and Atomic Weights, with is deh erations on the probability that certain bodies now considered as elementary may be decomposed ; by Prof. Dumas. Prof. Dumas alluded to the solubility of some substances and the ubility of others, giving many instances of the difference of this ity i to solution in water, sulphuric and strong acids, and . */ 276 Proceedings of the British Association words. n to the quality or degree of solubility. Thus, sulphate of mag- After graphically expressing the solubility of bases with sulphuric acid by lines, he proceeded to show that the relative volumes of the elements chlorine, bromine, and iodine could be perfectly represented rof. en a number o by lines equal in length. umas said that wh easy. And here we may remark, that Prof. Dumas had not previously prepared diagrams or tables, but covered a iarge black board with lines, s n er was also of the middle term, exactly half of the extremes adde together ; thus, sulphur 16, selenium 40, and tellurium 64. Half of the extremes give 40, the number for the middle term. Chlorine 35, bro- mine 80, and iodine 125. Or the alkalies, lithia, soda, and potassa, or earths, lime, strontia, and baryta, afford, with many others, examples of this coincidence ; hence the suggestion, that in a series of bodies, if the extremes were known by some law, intermediate bodies might be ble, the one into the other. ue hed S _ He then took up the inorganic bodies where substitutions took place which he stated much resembled the metals. After discussing groups Sor the Advancement of Science. 277 into black lead under the voltaic arc. fler elaborate reasoning and offering many analogies from the stores of chemical analysis, Prof. Dumas expressed the idea that the law of the substitution of one body for another in groups of compounds might lead to the transformation of one group into another at will; and we should endeavor to devise means to divi e molecules of one ‘hus, in nature when chlorine occurred, iodine and bromine might also be found, and always would be if they were transmutable the one Into the other. Cobalt is thus mysteriously associated with nickel, iron with manganese, sulphur with selenium, e arts during opera- lions when certain radicles were prod ogous ones were foun Constantly to be associated. In the distillation of brandy, oil of wine ays an associated result _ Ur. Faraday expressed his hope that Prof. Dumas was setting chem- ists in the right path; and although conversationally acquainted with the subject, yet he had been by no means prepared for the multitude of analogies pointed out. 3 t. Grove spoke of the importance of the view; as, by knowing the extreme compounds, it might serve as a guide in experiments and asa check to the results. He adverted to the allotropic condition of sub- Stances when their principal characters were changed, but their chem- ‘cal qualities were unaltered; thus, carbon in the state of a diamon searche Rate numerous examples of the triad groups alluded to by 278 Proceedings of the British Association, &§c. 6. On a Copying Electric Telegraph; by Mr. F. C. BakEwELt. In the method adopted for transmitting copies of writing, the letters nd n cylinder of the transmitting instrument, and a metal style in connection with a voltaic battery presses on the surface of the cylinder as it re- volves, By this means the electric current is continually broken when the style is resting on the varnish, and as the style is made to traverse by an endless screw from one aid of the cylinder to the other, it passes necessarily over all the lines of the writing, and about eight times over each ge The receiving instrument is similar to the transmitting one, and on the feyttode of that instrument, paper moistened with a solution of prussiate of potash in diluted muriatic acid is placed; the metal style on that instrument being a piece of steel wire. When the electric cur- rent from the positive pole of the voltaic battery passes through the steel point to the paper, a blue mark is made by the production of Prussian blue,—and when the cylinder is in motion, the effect is to draw a series of pil lines on the paper; but as the lines are broken whenever the varnish writing on the transmitting cylinder interposes, the forms of the letters are transferred from one instrument to the other,—the writing appearing of a pale color ona ground of blue lines drawn closely together. To produce this effect, it is requisite that both instruments should rotate exactly together, and nee wl ynchronous movement is attained by means of an electro-magnet,—one instrument being made to regulate the other by retarding its asalictl at regular intervals. The regulation of the instrument is also facilitated by a guide-line, consisting of a strip of paper placed at right angles to the writing, by which means the person in charge of the receiving instrument can as- certain how much the speeds of “the two a differ, oa by the addition or subtraction of weight can bring the gaps form strip of paper to fall exactly under each other,—which indicate that the two cylinders are revolving at the same rate. It was stated in answer to questions by members present, that two hundred ae ‘per minute might be copied by the instruments exhibited, and that five hun- dred in a minute are attainable. To illustrate ‘he facility which this means of telegraphic communication affords for transmitting secret messages, an ab sioner blank piece of paper was produced, on which a message been metas ty invisibly before the meeting of the Sec- tion, and b haahin g it over with a solution of prussiate of potash the writing became instantly legible. (To be continued.) Scientific Intelligence. 279 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CuEMIstTRY AND Pauysics. 1. Crystalline form of the Rhombohedral Metals, (Berichte der Berl. Akad.)—Prof. G. Rose, in continuation of his previous investi- gations, has examined an artificial crystal of Tellurium obtained by €dges was found to be 71° 51’.. This rhombohedron is therefore a secon- dary to the primary rhombohedron. Prof. Rose also reckons among the rhombohedral metals the Tetradymite (Tellurwismuth) from Schemnitz. It affords the two rhombohedrons 81° 2’ and 66° 40! according to Hai- dinger, the former being that, parallel to whose faces, composition occurs and twins are formed. Prof. Rose is therefore inclined to consider this mineral as a joint crystallization of the three constituents, a tel- ine in hexagonal prisms and this is confirmed by Rose. The latter found for the inclination of the base on three adjacent planes replacing the basal edges respectively 110° 35'—110° 40’, 110° 31’—110° 42’, and 11°. 50’. i lizes in rhombic prisms is supposed to be an error. e statement of Nickles that it also crystallizes in monometric or tesseral forms, is not Improbable since zinc has many relations to the tesseral metals. The fact shows that zinc is dimorphous. Ne process which these chemists adopted to determine this point, Consists in ascertaining the quantity of carbonic acid contained in ter, which it is almost impossible to expel by drying without simultane- ously disengaging small quantities of carbonic acid, it is unfit for the Purpose of analysis. . fe magnesite of Frankenstein contains only 0:05 per cent. of for- £ign matter, of which an account is taken in the calculations. cer- ‘ain quantity of this mineral, well powdered, was introduced into a glass 280 Scientific Intelligence. tube, and was placed ina stove, the temperature of which could be raised at pleasure. By heating this stove to 300° C., and at the same n. The residue which remained in the tube, after being weighed, was calcined at a strong red heat; the loss of weight indicated almost the whole of the carbonic acid contained in the mineral ; ; the calcined resi- le qua of carbonic acid which a given sight of the magne- site oe consisted of—1, the portion removed by drying at 300° ; 2, that e by ae 3, the small portion which remained All these peered were performed ~ considered with sufficient care, and eae or results. The last eleven ——— w f As all the errors which may be committed in such delicate analyses tend rather to lower the real etches M archand and Scheerer are of esis ~ neglecting the insignificant fraction of thirty-four hun- dredths, the round number 250 may be adopted as the equivalent of nagueltens that of oxygen being 100, or 20, taking the equivalent of hydrogen as unity. Accor ording to this statement, 100 parts of magne- sia consist of 60 magnesium an oxygen; and 100 parts of carbon- ate of — are constituted of 47-619 carbonic acid and 52°381 of magnes The iabetetin of MM. Marchand and Scheerer place a among the number of simple substances,. the —— of whic multiples of that of hydrogen by a whole nu New Metal, Donarium, (Pogg. Ann., vol. boiatl April, he ee This new metal Donarium was obtai ed by Dr. Bergeman while i A mineral substance was separated, which has since g. N called Orangite, which is essentially a silicate of oe of the formula Do? 03, te 08 me 8 2HO, and affording on analysis Si Oa Me & Hn —_- H 17-695 4 bed 4042 0310 0214 6900100711 _ The metal was obtained from the ox yd by means of acne : Porme da heavy coal-black powder, which, when dry and rubbed in mortar acquired a metallic lustre. It burus when thrown into the shine of a lamp with a reddish light, and forms a red oxyd. Hydrochloric acid, hot or cold, has no action on the metal; and nitric acid only Geology. 281 heated. Nitro-muriatic acid changes it rapidly to a red oxyd, and a small portion is held in solution. ith sulphuric acid it readily forms asulphate. The atomic weight deduced from the composition of this sulphate, is 997-4, or near that of bromine. 100 paris of the oxyd contain 13°072 of oxygen. The oxyd on charcoal alone is gent e yellowish, becoming colorless on cooling. 4. On Aridium, a new metal; by M. Utteren, (Oefv. of Kongl. Vet.-Akad. Férh., 1850, No. 3 55; J. f. pr. Chem., lii, 443.)— name of iron : 5. Bismuth-—R. Scuneiper has determined anew the equivalent 6. Alkalies.—An article by Ebelmen on the separation of the al- kalies from magnesia and on the analysis of minerals containing the alkalies, is contained in the Ann. de Ch. et de Phys., 3d ser., vol. xxx, Pp. 324, Nov., 1850 * Il. Georoey. 1. Discovery of Fossil Fish in the Coal Formation of New Bruns- wick; by Dr. C.’ son.—Dr. Jackson in a letter to one of the abundant in all parts of the fish strata. These I at last traced to a stem. They appear to be new species and remind me of our aquatic floating plant, the bladder-wort of our ponds. ; The occurrence of immense quantities of well preserved coprolites of fishes verifies the idea of Agassiz, that the heterocercal tailed fishes those Szconp Szrzes, Vol. XII, No. 35.—Sept., 1851. «86 282 Scientific Intelligence. of the fishes were cannibals! Some of the coprolites I have seen connected with the anus of the fish appearing as if extruded by compres- sion of the fish. Some of the fish appear to have been dead and par- in the struggled hard against adverse fortune, erecte their fins strongly to guard. themselves from some imagined swallower, while others wiggled and squirmed in vain to free themselves from the tenaceous mud w every scale, he minutest markings; the scales retain their silvery hue a. tinted yellowish brown by the Diluraumaes matter.” Immense Coal bed.—Mr. J. Dill has communicated to the Family Visitor a brief account of a remarkable deposit eo coal at Bunya: Perey SPUEAKis Ohio, which, if true, exceeds anything of e discover e writes :— Pe ‘of an immense structure of coal in the vicinity of this place, have long been circulated in Central Ohio. I first he ard of it in the winter of 1848-9; it was then reported to be about ninety feet k thick. urther examinations ascertained the thickness of the uncov- ered part, in the face of a deep ravine at Av foe A few days since r a gentleman of high standing informed n pi oli i of to be lé Mr. W. Vicia? adds, in a letter to the editors, as follo % Although this extent is at variance with all our previous s knowledge of carboniferous deposits, yet I have no doubt that, in the main, it 1s true. I was recently within a day’s ride of the locality, but regret ue I was unable to te the requisite time to its examination. co versed with several intelligent persons who had seen the deposit a all concurred in representing it as one of unparalled thickness. It exposed for several miles in the banks and along the bed o mall stream—one the tributaries of the cking river. Like most of the coals of Ohio, it is highly bituminous and is more or less impreg- « nated with iron pyrites which for manufacturing purposes, impairs its value. The deposit instead of being one bed, may regar ed as a repetition of beds; for, at intervals of feet. we meet with thin ere several species of molluscs and c and even the delicate fronds of the Neuropteris. have never before observed a local n e led. I have also succeeded in procuring beautifully preserved ws rom the limestone of Cambridge, belonging. to this series—the ¢ ence of which I had known for several years Zoology. 283 York, ma some vertebrated animal, probably a fish. Mr. Joseph Sullivant hiss observed the remains of fishes consisting of teeth, scales and fins in Ill. Zooroey. 1. On the Classification of the Crustacea Grapsoidea; by James D. Dana.—The Grapsoipea, in the system here explained, correspond to the Cyclometopa of Edwards, excepting that we separate the Telphusa, Stroup and place it with the Cancroidea.* he Grapsus family—the third has the same limits as in the system of Milne Edwards. The form is subquadrate, toonteulcg more or less acute; the front broad; the eyes of moderate ength or short; the second joint of the male abdomen usually not nar- rower than the corresponding part of the sternum. We give more im- portance than has hitherto been done to the fact of the outer maxilli- i oe an oblique piliferous crest on e ake this characteristic the basis of a su * This yolume, p. 130. 284 Scientific Intelligence. the former characterized by the cn of this crest. A su of the groups will at once show, we believe, that we follow me leas in this subdivision. The Plagusine are distinguished Bs longitudinal sinuses in the front of the carapax for the inner antenn The family Gecarcinip2—the fourth—is the same in limits as the “‘Gecarciniens” of Edwards,—the species are remarkable ~ their e an for having the second joint of the male abdomen but slightly bier than the corresponding part of the sternum The family PinnorHERIDE—the fifih—differs from the ‘ Pinnothe- hee and having no distinct orbits for the retraction of ihe eyes. nearly as can be made. The first, Gonoplacide, link hiss Grapsoidea d to the fourth or Gecarcinide, and from the fourth to the fifth or Pinno- theridze, and from the fifth to the sixth or Myctiride. — Sull, there are the third, and the latter, articulated with the middle of the apical mar- gin ;—a distinction difficult to carry out and dividing natural groups, a8 the Gecarcinide, Grapside, &c. His genera of the Ocyeus group, are, Doto, Scupimera, Myctiris, Gelasimus, Macrophthalmus, Cleistos- Philyra (division of Plagusia), Plagusia (another division), Grapsus, Trichopus, Eriocheir, Pachysoma, Goniopsis, Platynotus, Brachynotus, Nautilograpsus, Cyclograpsus, and in his ** Decas Septima,”’ publishe in 1849, he unites with the group, Pinnotheres and Hymenosoma. We add a few words on the genera of Grapsipz. Both De Haan* and Randall? have divided the Grapsus of authors into two genera, ac- » cording to the short or oblong form of the third joint of the outer max- Bes iso. ah ee, * Faun. Japon., p. 38, Sa eet + Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., viii, 124, 126. Loolozy. 235 illipeds. The former are De Haan’s Grapsi, and Randall’s Pachy- grapsi; the latter De Haan’s Goniopses and Randall’s Grapsi. But the length of this joint, as we have shown in many other cases, is a characteristic of small importance, and such a basis for subdivision is therefore wrong. ‘There are two natural groups; one with arcuate sides, like G. pictus, and the other with straight sides like G. cruenta- tus and G. messor; and in each, this joint may be short or oblong. G. variegatus, like G. pictus, has the joint oblong; yet a species every way similar and hitherto referred to the rariegatus has the same Joint not longer than broad.* e hence reject this subdivision and adopt two others, viz: Grapsus, having arcuate sides, and Goniograp- sus, having straight sides. The latter forms the transition to Sesarma and G. cruentatus is like the Sesarma in habit. The genus Cyclograpsus of Edwards is characterized by its author as having a piliferous crest on the outer maxillipeds, though exceptions are admitted. Subsequently, M’Leay made his genus Gnathochasmus on the same type. Some recent authors have taken M’Leay’s name for these typical species and restricted Cyclograpsus to the exceptions. e find no authority in the rules laid down by the British Association, or in the nature of the case, for thus perverting Cyclograpsus from its true type as first established, and we therefore make Gnathochasmus _Synonym of it, and a opt a new name for the species without the piliferous crest. This we believe is due to M. Edwards The ollowing is a synopsis of the Families, Subfamilies and Genera of Grapsoidea :— CRUSTACEA GRAPSOIDEA. 1, ArTIcuULUS MAXILLIPEDIS EXTERNI 4TUS ANGULO STII INTERNO ARTICULAT Fam. I. GONOPLACID®. Carapax transversus. Frons quarta parte latitudinis carapacis longior, paulo deflexus, Jamellatus. Antenne interne transverse. Articulus abdominis maris 2dus sterno contiguo angustior. G. 1. Evcrate, De Haan.t—Carapax antice arcuatus, parce de- clivis, Panopeo forma antennisque affinis. Appendices maris Sexuales e sterno orl abdomineque tect. Pedes marts antici breves, crassi. Oculi breves. Abdomen maris 5-articulatum, versus basin sterno contiguo vix angustius. é G, 2. Curronorus, De Haan.t—Carapax antice arcuatus, parce ecies referred variegatus, according is one from Valparaiso. which we name the Grapsus planifrons, has this joint no than ‘Orust. Faun. Japon, p. 36. Geryon, Kroyer, Tidskrift, i, (1837,) p. 15, pl. 1. “4 De Haan, Crust, pea Japon., p. 20. Pseudorhombila, Edwards, Crust. ii, 58. Sapam * The sp to The G. varie, : to its description by Edwards, and the figure by Guerin, has the joint quite oblong. - species, whi * 286 Scientific Intelligence. G. 3. Gonortax, Leach.—Carapax latus, trapezoidalis, antice elongate transversus, angulis anticis acutis ppendicibus maris sexualibua Cureaiiots affinis. Oculi longi. Pedes maris antici preelongi. 2. ArticuLus MAXILLIPEDIS EXTERNI uty ANGULO 3TII INTERNO NON ARTIC Fam. IL.

J. Lawrence. Sagrn, of the University ‘of Louisiana, New Notice of a esian Opal; by the sa oe the metamorphic Condition of Franklinite aN J J.) w Y C.F i al of Newark, N. J. On Houghite ; by S. W. Jounson, of the Yale Analytital Laboritory: 5. Grotogy axp PaLsontonocy. On some of the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor, with an account of the nature of we "md and composition; by Prof. J. LawRenck, ‘Saara, of the University of uisiana, New Orleans, On the Mcgee Coal Field of Massachusets; by Pres. E. Hirencock. Remarks and Conelusions respecting ces; by t ent the Probable age of the Statue “slates. of the ie “Ubanootibat Valley ; by € same, On the Geological Age of the < g rocks of North Carolina; by Prof. W. B. Rogers, of the Univers rsity of a otes on the Geological Structure of Pi edarn Vermont and Massachusetts ; by e sam On the passage of anticlinal axes into Faults; by the sa _ On the methods adopted in the Geological Surv got Ee emaenin of investiga- ting and representing the Geology ; by Pro tsdam Sandstone ; On the Lithologiest and sel nat gmat of the Po y i. ol mmissi essee with those of the State of jst, Alban Lie Maver, U.S.N. f in 1 the Existence of Diluvial Dr B Hote a New York... 308 American Association for the Advancement of Science. = he Be eg the Unconformity of the Paleozoic Formations of the U.S.; by Prof. L. Remarks spe the Fossils of the Potsdam Sandstone; by Prof. James Hatt, N.Y. Scans Alban marks upon the Fossil ae ae of Ma ——- Favosites, and allied genera Favis- tela ‘Astroceiam, ~ othe y the arks upon Trilo bit ite 0 of the Pe Cada andstone, — sacl Dr. Owen, Di- llc and it relations to Asaphus and So, 5 by the Paleozoic genera, Trematopora, Cellopora, and allied enliee at more recent iclicahy perio the same Tracks, Trails aa in — Shales and Sandstone of the Clinton Group from Green Bay, with remarks on bon thinning out and re-appearing of this portion of the Clin- ton are oup; by the On some Reptilia “Footmarks of the Infra-carboniferous Red Shale of Pennsyl- vania ; by P f. H. D. Roe On the Vicension of the. Ta fra-carboniferous — of Pennsylvania, and a de- ap oom of anew se nus of Fossil P: yt On se ater ew Fossil Plants of the Oolitic Coal ¢ of Eastern ‘Virginia ; by Prof. oe hoes n the Misttiiions of Marine Ged — Organic Remains in the Carbonife- rous ‘System 0 of Ohio; by J. W. On e Fossils of Northern Ohio; ee Prof. J. BRarNerp. 6. ZooLocy anp Borany. On =] New Type of Alternate Generation observed among Meduse; by Prof. L. AGass “ont the > {reosraphical Distribution of Animals in California; by Dr. J. L. Le Cont of New On the Cssication she the ete by ©. Girarp, of bay be os ; by Lieut. M. F. Mav y, U.S On two sae Spkbien ot Ju one zlanes by Prof. J “thie «arabes On th re orth America ; Views on: eae ature of Orga Structure : ee ious "E B. Hont, U.S. Engineers, 1s Miscettanrovs. ; On a New Form ae Microscope, with a New Mode - Measurement of Dimensions and Angles; by Prof. J. Lawrence Sarru, of the Aki of Louisiana, New Orleans. in the pi Soin of Nicaragua; by a n the Distinctive Character of the Indians of ( California by Dr. J. L. Lz Conte, of New Yor Description of samples of Ancient Cloth, from the Mounds of Ohio; by J. W- Additional facts respecting the — by which a person can see the Arte- ries of his own Eyes; by Epwarp Hircucocx, Jr. Influence of the Poison of the Rattlesnake on Plants; by Dr. J. H. Savissury. n the Economical Uses of the Skin of the White Porpoise; by T. S. Honr, of ap Geological Commission of Cialis, | roposal for a Trigonometrical Survey of New York; ; by Lieut. E. B. Hunr, U.S. Engineers. On the Proper Geometrical Form of the Mould Board of the Plough; by Rev. Cuas. Hacktey, of New Yor Observations on the Freezing of Mersin and on the Causes which enable some Plan’ ghee | p Bent n of extreme C gids oe ANALYTICAL LABORATORY. [Attached to the “ Department of Pdllosophy anv the Arts,” in Yale College.] di 2; NORDO N, Professor of Scientific Agriculture. Tue course of instruction in this i abocllte 4 is now fully ig he and all fe ea ia eae are afforded to the students. Sess poe age those o ollege, eat aa in January, May or ober aod of continuing boat three months e Instruction given in ie and in general Analytical Chemisty, both Organic and organ ist Students allowed to work during the whale day with use of balances, reagents, glass, porcelain, alcohol, She — platinum ones sent The only extra charge is for breakag ge. ms $5 per w r $60 to iieiores on Scientific Agriculture, by Prof. NorroN, during winter term, peeen neing soon after the middle of January. n Ge cology, oe Elementary Chemistry and Natural Puiesphy. site ac Analyses -< inventapitiaie of all kinds Peel attended to on rea- sonable term Yale College, New Haven, August, 1850. HASKELL, MERRICK & BULL, Importers and Wholesale Druggists, No. 10, Got Srreet, New Yorx, ermany ; : Ware ae for cheision urposes, and a to all of which i ay of the relent able is 2 CATALOGUE OF SHELLS. Tue subscriber has this day published the fourth edition of his Catalogue, containing upwards OS 11,000 species and varieties, together with 6,000 synonymes: o which are added their Au- thorities, Localities and Reiaccnsg to where figured or described. It is published on fine sized paper, 4to., and contains 460 pages with a complete Index. Price $3 in paper covers or sheets, and $3,50 bound in muslin. JOHN C. JAY, Rye, Westchester Co., New York. Dec. 1, 1850.—ly. CENIE AEN ES: TO THE FIRST poate OF THE JOURNAL “OF SCIENCE AND. ARTS. IN ONE VOLUME OF 348 PAGES, 8vo.—Pkicr, a FEW copies remain for yay in the hands of the Publishers. Enquire of Sintiman & D See farther, second page of Cover. “ New Haven, March 1, 1851. FIVE NEW WORKS ON BANKING 3 FOR FIVE DOLLARS. FOR SALE BY ALL BOOKSELLERS. I. Toe Banxer’s Common-Piace Book, containing,— Treatise on Banking. By A. B. Johnson, Esq., President of Ontario apes Utica. Ten Minutes’ Advice about Ban nking. By J. W. Gilbart, Esq., of London Batecin >a Byles on the Law of Bills of Excha R. arte der: the Laws and Customs eiapctiat lin of Exchange. By J. u Forms of Bills of Exchange i in eight European languages. Forms of Notice of Protest, as used in various ie 04 of the Ales with remarks. Synopsis of the Bank Law: fe Massachusetts, as in force, J seek. cisions of the “Supreme Judicial Court of Mewes huse setts. we ” Banking, Usury, Bills, &¢.—Pric: Il, Practica, Treatise on Banxine. By J. w. Gilbart, pt of the. London and Westminster Bank.. 8vo, pp. 478. Part 1—Or Practicat BANKinc, Section Il. The Nature of Banking. II. The Utility of Banking. Bi: Runking ‘Terms. IV. ‘The General Administration of » Bape V. The inistration = Beak wi ith regard to Proceedings on Bills of Eschentes ig yment of Su wy he VIL. Sensonb ab uae VILE. ed ea | keene X. Joint-Stock Banks. XL The. ion of PAKS wees Emplo IX. The Bank 3 Bank—Clerks—Duties—Salaries—Promotions—Discipline—Training. XII. Bank Book- one = Banking “Lk aR XIV. Ban Ene Docuteente—Bonds—Letters of oral — ini Duties of Bankin ng Companies. Ix. Te en Minutes’ Advice about saad already been recognized b the a ie. The prine T oharuetatiatio of Mr. Gilbart’s boo 1s, practical eommon sense, a due subordination of all the parts of the subject, so that t none has an undue prominence ; which, bein ng joined with a uae cal accounts for the favor his works have deservedly met with.”—Londo by pie IIL. McCuttocn’ s Essays on INTEREST, EXcHANGE, niga we, &c. ll in One Volume, octavo,—75 ce (1.) On Interest and the Operation of the Usury Laws. Gofliparkesy between the ips Rate and the Sta tatutory Rate of Interest fronv 1714 to 1793. xeric Effects of = regulate fi: nterest. ‘The Usury Laws do not protect the Prodigal and Unwary. There vere no Usury Laws in Holland, ©n the legal Rate of Faget in France, Hamburg, Husa, Acettis poghorn, Spain, and the United States. Usury Laws do not reach the Government. Error of some Writers on the Subject of a low Rate of Interest, 2) ‘On ‘oreign end Domestic Exchange. 1. On Inland Exchange, 2. Foreign Ex- change. 3. Real Exchange. 4. poaystene Real petgan 4 Nc soent of Bills of Exchange. 6. History and Advantages of Bills of Exchange. Bs Laws ai Tespecting Bills of Exchange. 8. Moneys or. Account. (3.) Essay on Mone , Cotas, Bullion, &c., with Remarks on Metallic and Ms = Cur- rency, Seignorage, Degradation of the Standerd, &e. 1. Origin of Money. e Ex- — Value of Money. 3. Seignorage. 4. Currency of the Precious Motdia ie Pa- Stan rd oney. pious Tables of the Weight, Value, &c., e Gold and silver Coins of all nations,— their Assay, Weight, pendant Weight, ad ‘Sterling Value. Average Market price of Bullion in'every year 1821 “Mr. ereoon, has aed a great mass of led ge, which men of all parties should be glad to n his £ Political Eeutoasy.' : rat nange, Interest, Taxation,’ + Pager | Meus: and * Princiahen of Banking.’ ”"—Edinbur Review. IV. Curoniches AnD CHARACTERS OF THE “pgs Excnance. One Vo lume, octavo,—75 cen Dedicated by permission to Samuel Gurney, Esq.. comprising Sketches of Loans, Lot- Series, Life. "Mido Tontines, Bribery, Sitropi on, Contractors, Railways, a Peon. am Go é Baily, Nathan yl Rothschild, Greek Loan and — —_ yy as and Gregor McGrego , Forgeries, Anecdotes, an ends. baa Francis has fulfilled, and most admirably fulfilled, the title of his book.—London “The extraordinary frauds Pk have been lel ade og time to time by corres that h, ha: i i doa Banker's Mag Pa ge i sane with the - Tue Banker’s Atmanac, 1851, containing 130 pages of valuable Sittin Tables relating to Banks, Banking, Exchange, Coins, Fi- nee, &e.—50 cts. J. SMITH ANS, 111 Washington st., Boston. — os aie, genet ane a ees “ a As commerce. Olb bots..: . 1b. Ee + een for ‘organ ‘analysis,.- ae vis see ss ae 7 «Hydro se PA aS ‘of 1 | 00 || Lime, ae aed PRECIP. presses a Ib. ate autos jecceseeeees ie ae a me es sis By POL. ve i: : te fo Hippel meer SA “ oz.| 3 Magnesia, Snipe, PULC,~0+--seeeseres 6° Tbs “ Poa «| 2. #4 , Car oz. “6 Molybdic ce 2 : lb. ‘ | ATO oay iw eeecareseces OF es Nitric, eo sp. gr..1, 38227. ib. = -. eae oe « Th. “a sen se ts ce pas age Bis Bs. Viepriptes- oe ba! be av pure “es 1 ey 3 _ . “Phosphoric, glacial 97) 5.| 3H Mierocosmie Sel, See Phosph. ‘Soda + Silicic, precip, pleneec ss svoons - ca hg : ne gail si, ecinic. white, iret PET ER 38 SE | Nite fen ae ae «<< Sulph man wal 1 "lb St Vite st ono Ores and Minerals— 4s “pure so 6 = ¢ eee St eae Pi agrreeeneers DOE Oz, ts as Nordhausen,......+++++44+ bs is ae piles — ae a “« Tannic Seeesl 5 ac" Wartaric, pure. Crysti.. - vce eiscecs 1 WW onl “ hts Sulphuret,....++-++- 2 5 ‘= ean Coupee’ ene s Seeapeecawert | ak) ee * Pilch Blende an, sol. ‘Concent... ses.ns-. " fy oe: | Gee Potassa, Caustic, pure... —- “8 Ib. Alcohol, 2 varia NBD. ohne ss ose ca eek : gal)... tN See. chen steeee De aS eee * Carbonate, pure,.... is - Ps Ammonia, pure, sol pe ga re eels ee . Biehromate Moe ga ecee eee a “ Nitrate, refined, commer- wy as cially pure,. aie Gre cs 1 * late, . : Ss e “| 2 bys tarde nog ee se 1 Sulphate,.,...... cccleceneees . fy Potassium in 4 om als pioneer see 0% % TL ee eee, ‘ i « erroeyanie,.1sc00. i : 1 : = ere alin its kod — commerc.......... Ib. . Seleni fo Animal C areval, commercia ve herea. g-% 7 = Aa Silver, ; Niiate, eryst. ore te * . from dried Pilea, : : & oz. a Sods, se Caan pure. oC een 3 Ib. ff) ere Carbonate, crystals, pure, nasiet eg ee Cia pure “ Jp.) 4 anhydrous, “ ....++++ pare = ic Caustic hyd cryst re eae . 1p veveeeees Sa sod sbene mnie, Bap Poe * Bismniith, | metalic, conten ONC ase ee Sodium, Woe vial. cerceesseeieees tte * wai | eee ee o rat aa 4 Ib 1} 90 |} eromtie; Witeateycdsuge enc. of -aksceomans | * bahia nat Strontium, Chloride, OE ae ae ae s “ oz) .. Sulphuretied Hydroge aOhiccnadeennele % toad re Tin, metaliy er st aa ae a oe 4k wig “ Protoc Races conga oe ae « Splciam cha, ied UPC 00. e seen ee e Me ae eae eae se ae ap a See “ Oxide, pure ....0000050. Corea Qi z PUTE,..--++4e0r+ oon peed: commerce 1 { sacs tenses . “a ras «Oxalate LO. sss eneeeeeeereeeeees 2) 50 i * « Soups, Metmic PUNE... cies iegee cece : Ls ae Oxide, ra pet eens HE wt Timid bake HARD ADs LOM tO 0+ r nes and ee > 32 aL Pe) bies, Hai” in one piece, 32 ji B gis. 3,20 c Tubes, German, Berzelius, . ..pr doz, eae Ly . er Glasses, Bohemian, 8 in nest,...nest, ; itt, Bese fo 4 lige Flint Glass, page 1 Igall. 12 in. hi igh, ares Resets 0.2 Es daa Abi eg So GES) A uart re nage NC ea ee 0 Chaat eats Pate “ce ass mouth piece,. . a eile erm bor’d. ivory mouth piece,. . ining tr with pla- th p! mmer ye vory — Silver, platina e, "containing 9 reagents 2 37 50 $s 1,25 1,75 te French Glass, cork be dag dad, et 3L 37 45 55 75 class stopped = pped, French les narro —— : W mouth Oz. 1-16 1- " 65.70 75 $0 1,05 1,20 2 16-24 a re ee 2,40 a2 ES nch G lass, stopped, 16 20 1,50 1,80 3,00 2,10 stopped, uart, | 2quart, ‘ 25 16 1,50 2,75 ae a. a flint | glass, —- glass titre . ree. Powder ris. the ta 8g bs be ‘, Beis. 3 2,10 240 2160 4 juous Cl 50 1} 2 1 | 00 1/50 ..| 70 1} 15 1 | 00 --| 81 td -| 5 «| 44 31 1); 35 1; 12 +3} 70 +) 25 25 by 75 00 00 2. $25 18 | 00 1) gg 2 || Crucibles, Berlin Porcelain, from the Royal Bottles ae for a ga 4 ~ Ea cs * Charcoa eeeate Liebigs, brass, with ere Cork Borers, sets of 12 pieces, “a 6 ee ee ar he with covers, No, ei 5 89 0 H Be. 50.45 30 25 20 20 20 15 15 15 Crucibles — made ad Boenay 5 No. 2 Ka, 20 5 Crucible, ‘resden Poreela, with covers, No. 3.4 6.7% Ea, $0 35 5 Crucibles, ae lead are sien a Ele Cu tg ’ cae 5 Pr Doz. 30 30 38 Pr 754 Bh 240 3 50 540 7,00 i Tin, Sin. 9 in. High. 0 50 Dippers —— French with cover lip and n handle, ot wwe ee Oe ie ie oS Ea, ” 950 2,00 1,25 1,12 85 10-50. a ti ng of grou d glass plate, bell class, wae norcelain acid saucer, rom Desiceating Apparatus, Liebig’s, pcre af coppe bath, ek = ore chlori I os Sa Sei eee So 6 o Bares oe «SS Se ee glazed inside and No. 000 00 0 2 3 Ea. 40 15 20 95 25 30 a 865.0 Te 1,00 1,50 2,50 3,00 ‘ Bvaporating Dithes'l Dresden ne ain Diam. in. 17 2 144 12h 1 104 . 00 3,60 2,50 1,80 3 150 Ea 7h 6 $45.4 3 ee 8 her B p.10 ML Ea. 25 90 65 50 20 Evaporating Dishes SE snes porcelain, thin, Diam, in. (er) 40 ae 42 60 75 90 Evaporating wpe, French agate in setts of a 2 ead e, of Filters, paper, cut "round, y for. us rench ani pe Yr, ~ diam. 3 68 154 20 22 r. hund. 20 5005 1001001 10 1,20 1,30 Piitering Pa pr. rm, ite; made from pure rr tae w sca being bleached by a0 --perream, § de dO va ee os per pre Ae Filtering Paper, Swedish,.....------ . 1 Filtering Stands, hard woo ac bhee GR ees eee 2: polished,......+-+++++++ +--+ 1 Flasks, ent, long neck and rim at top, flat) botiom, : : ag 2 2 “i 16. 32 62» ee 1 22 30 50 Flasks, pact x fl with rim, Oz, 2 A 16 = oO: RSs iar “Se aes 8 bs ele —< co pati: 18 35 23 30.0 «35 dagyre oe rim, — es Be. 92 28 7D Funnels. Blase for Bite a t pt ip ee 18 Ea, 31 8 xy | Funnels, tube. eetacitpacml tees ee se aes COCK. : ee 55-6 7 9 we. 2233 344 47 5 2213 4 48 60 72 90 1,20 1,50 eeu ge iron, Liebig, for organic an- “ aaeeee Berlin make, with Furna' aol ual and as. es crucible and retort, - linder. . ‘RSRSS 8 Gsee, containing Thermomeien| | | ied decimal hydrometers ss | 12 | 00 “ : without soi 38 & i, be * se, eee for 40 50 65 7 Mg yr Rose hte with porcelain . with mahogany foot, sap Eetaee pat’n on 3 feet, ri size, brass, Luhme yy ras 1 small s Lamp Bad ss , for the above. .......5./ tee baa Litmas Pape’, blue and red,........- pr sheet, Measures, Foasge | Oz. 4 6 8 12 16 Ea, 30 35 40 50 60 70 90 5,20 | Mercury Treughs, Berlin porstinit, aWwiswas 6 ea a as eket, ] lens, -............4. | *9 Wiebe v eweuKt obie | 3 rs Bee unlit tase ma ) Minim ‘Cina: "| Morta: egy vnlimony } No, Wee OL 2S 4A 26; | Diam. oun 3 34.4445 53 6 64 7 | Each, 44 50 58 6472.80 88 1,00 3,10 1,25 | 0.' TRB 9 BiH 18) me 7 ant an il 12 C 0D 25 75 Mortars, iron, Maned inside, * . 10 12 No.1 2°3°4°5 6 Ea 50 56 60 75 95 ALS 1,35 naaeas Mortars, glass, Diam, in. 24 3h 33.4 4k 38 60 83 90 na 120 4,75 agate. Diath. tn, i 7 oe 2 23 23-8 % 25 3,50 4,00 is 5,25 625° Mufiles, “ Neaniey e,"* In. - 5x34 Sint 6x5 74x6 j Ea. 20 mic "Apyaratas, Liebig, consisting of 24 + graduated ha, esi 3 trough, MG Fen ods eee . ’ Pipettes, Platina, capsules, Crueib les, Fi oil, Wire, ... _ Mor conical and Phillips, Seeee pr set, h a. 30.30 30 31 BS Receivers, tubulated, “Om 4 cs 16 a gall. fo BAM : Wee w we Cts,) mn i0 || Retort ‘Welded eke plain, 15 Rods ame WITS, 0 ve Bila eee e9 = red, melied, . Inches, 2 aioe | Safety Tabes, ‘without bulb, ieee bulb. Ea. 15 OS Bo } Specific pte Be Boties, in cases, oe Specific Gant? Bottles, in case poate ie ns, : ‘ith case and shivewirnoile,’ 1,000 gr: es se and counterpoise, ana eS . Rs gramme, perforated stoppers, in CASE,.- Ps Bull Copper, Berlin make,Bx12in with iden tin} helm, very — ny Bip, yosse esen 5 eee Stirrers, per doz. 3 to 12 in. .......... 25 a 50c Straw K ings, each, Saucers, acid, porcelain,...........---+- “Nena caeares French, wine glass form with lip, _ No. 2 3 4 rr. doz, ‘Toate rOpBPY, | fot j9 tubes, cme re aa white wond, For 19 tubes i retbaiailiens German, oF engr’d on stem, ee do. do 350° ¢ Lares oe scale, engraved | on 1, DB0P Be ne we's: ewww ete eee enee 50}, i 38, T ‘erucib anal tical, 6i Jong iron, bent,) = iy Me éin olted steel,..| ie patina pointy vores oles for sol. cobalt, &c. .-. + omen, Pubes, graduated, eubie et bo ea eae Tubes, chloride caleiu ye. seach.) Watch 2 ah Speen ‘small, .++»pr doz. aoe Wouttes a i SO. fs oe eee eee ns eres al Geology.—Discovery of Fossil Fish in the Coal Formation of New Brunswick, by Dr. C. T. Jackson, 281.—Immense Coal bed: On Fossil Fish in the Coal rocks of Ohio, by J. W. Fosrer, 282.—Sulphate and Carbonate of Copper of Bristo], Conn., 283. Zoology.—On the Classification of the Crustacea Grapsoidea, by _— D. Dasa, 283.—Note to the Paper on the Cancroidea, by -Daxa: On i- tation of Frozen Fish, by Prof. O. P. Husparp, 291 . Astronomy.—New Planet Irene, 293. “Soman? Intelligence. —Smithsonian Institution, 293—The ce Ob- servatory, 205.—The Solar Eclipse: Science of Pisa, 300.—Fish of Mt. Bolca: The’ was Festival at Freyberg: Monticelli’s collection of Minerals at Na- ples for sale: Correction, 301 .— Obituary.—Sir James Graham Dalyell, 302. _ Bibliography.—Reports of the Secretary of War, with Reconnaissances of Routes from San Antonio to El “y vad by Brevet Lt. Col. J. E. Jonnstoy, &c.: The . : Banker’s Magazine and Statistical Register, edited by J. Suite Homans, Esq., 302.—A Guide to the Suicilage Knowledge of Things Familiar ; by Rev. n tin Pro: iation, for the | guage, Law, Medicine, Zoology, Botany, &c.; by Prof. 8. S. Ha The Fourth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smitl ' tution: Ausfthrliches Handbuch der Analytischen Chemie, von Hersric Be Rose: The Journal of Se edited by Wee s. Kine aoe :, Iconographic Enspstipns, 0 ° re d List of Works, 304. : APPENDIX. -American Association for the Advancement of S The next No. of this Journal will be published on the first of Nov. CONTENTS: | Ane, ite Observations on the suaee rane of California ; y Prof: Forest Sueruern, 3 xvill. sport of Prof. Atexanper D. Rachs, Guticvintendiont of the United Sintoe Coast Survey, showing the Poa of = one work for the year ending October, 1850, - 158 » | XIX. On Coral Reefs and Islands; by Jams D.. Dana - 165 XX.. On the Flow of Elastic Fluids through Orifices ; ae a sug> “ gestion of a new method of determining the mutual relations of Elastic Force, pe cee and Density i in an Fxpands ing Fluid; by Exr W. Bra 186 XXI. On the: Relation ‘of the Chemical Constitution of Bodies to Taste; by E. N. Horsrorp, Meee 2 UL. a XXL voosies. Pesasion Experiment, ~~ 00 | 4 2 : aay Note a Heteronomic Isomorphism ; by James D. DANA, 204 © 4 o RXLVS logical Notices. _ HE, 2 ea 4 Notice of the Report on the Geology and Popbava phy of - @ portion of the Lake Superior esis = eg by: J: W..Fos ter and J. D. XXVI. Effects of Lightning dactngic = Maca the first of July, ee aa at Attleboro’, Mass., by Mr. Henry R AVIT. Or iors Changes of the RES ; i ‘Sir Ropenice S Ct ee ey Morcut on, V.P. XXVIIL Observations on the Penduluri ‘Experiment : by Rev. oe ae 251 XIX. Miscella Sa otes Soni Eomge +: by f; Siren Juin Tats Aas condition of Vesuvius—2. Grotto del Cane and o.—3. Sulphur Lake of the of ogee Ves near. ~ drogen Aah M. Gillard, eee "256-260 SNK. British Association, Pwrenty iret Meeting ee July 2: : 1. From the Address of Prof. Arry,-t mer Royal, ‘at the 2 of the Meciog On ‘ ae aS S5 he Prof Sos —6. ipiee = ae Electric Tel- graphs en WELL 262-21 NOVEMBER, 1851. No. 36, AMERICAN JOURNAL ae OF. Fe ee ARTS. se a s “ 2 j t conpuctED BY Eoheraisons B. SILLIMAN, -B. SILLIMAN, Jr., AND : JAMES D. DANA. AIDED Sai THE DEPARTMENTS OF CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS BY Dre. WOLCOTT GIBBS. SECOND SERIES. “No. 36.+.NOVEMBER, 1861. WITH SEVEN PLATES. NEW HAVEN: PUBLISHED BY THE EDITORS. [FOR AGENTS ADDRESSES, SEE NEXT pacz.] . Printed by B. L. Hamien—Printer to Yale College. ; f paid quarterly in advance, under 500 miles 4 ofs.; 500-1500 8 cts. ; 1500-2500 Tue Amentcan Jovrnat or Science is published every two months, on the lat of oary, March, May, July, September ‘ak November, = SR of 152 pages each, Two Volumes a Samet Subscription price $5 a yea advan Ist Ser., 1818-1845, 50 vols., including a General Pat Sa ’ Edited to 1838 by i: Prof. B. Rkconen: since July, 1833, adhe B. Sttumwan and B. sir ares de: 4 Price for complete set, unbound, - ‘$100 00 + 2nd Ser. since January, 1846, edited iy Prof. B. Sra, B. Siunwas, he: act and J. D. Dana. See See oe giana bound, .» $24 00> Volume 10, f the 2n j the volumes => 8B. horas and 1 D. Dana are with present proprietors of thi communications and remittances for this work, may Stnuiman es raed New Haven, Conn. es hie cs tent te en of the followit New Haven, G.B Bassett, 115 Chap. st| New Bedford, Mass., C.& A. Tanen, Albany, N. Y. ae & Co, |New J.C. Mor Bias ” (Lirtis & Brown. | — A oS. Fesavek Co. Boston, Mass., | Es Fererpce & Co. City, | Geo. P. Purnam. : Cross’ _ tJoun WixeEyY. ae gag % > ee eaoe BossancE. < Buffalo, N.Y. Exe , 2 ok. Hare. _ Hartford, Conn., Br - ~ Wirson & Co. 8 by & Gee Olesen ie ay gy LAC LITTLE. Carmi “4 € Henry Wuirrce. nae | Braunse Wa. 8, Wisans. Spee A Tart & Jones. London, 3 Row ucH Roce Louisville, Ky, ~ T. 8. Netson & Co. Tayior & Mavry. Middletown, Ct., Woovwarp & Sons. ER & ‘LES. pron Ala., S. W. ALLEN, TRAVELLING AGENTS whose Twelve all Cec ieg til iaeiisitaliaii, | segrehsonteihaprrint oma Any larger number Authors shoals sporti ae a AT THE VEHNAT AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. (SECOND SERIES.] Arr. XXXI—Observations on the Zodiacal Light; with an , inquiry into its Nature and Constitution, and its Relations to the Solar System ; by Dexison Otmsten, Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, in Yale College. : Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at the | Annual Meeting at Albany, August, 1851, %, _I surmrr to the Association a series of observations on the Zo- j diacal Light, made by me at Yale College from 1833 to 1839, "pon the basis of which I propose to offer a new description of this mysterious phenomenon, and a brief inquiry into its nature and constitution, and its relations to the solar system. Particu- ‘i ar'y; I propose to inquire whether or not it is the origin of the. meteoric showers of November and AUgOR oe ees Yarlous circumstances conspire to interrupt the continuity of a Series of observations on the zodiacal light; among whic are the following -— $F ste 1. The comparatively few nights in the year when, in our cli- mate, the sky is cloudless, and the atmosphere sufficiently clear to afford good observations on a light so feeble and diffuse. *. The low angle which the zodiacal light makes with the horizon for the greater part of the year while it is visible. The presence of the moon, which entirely effaces it; and, Secasionally, for long periods, the presence of Venus or Jupiter, and sometimes of both planets. he light of Venus, especially, 1s often so bright, and the planet is so situated in the midst of the 2odiacal light, as greatly to interfere with observations. Hence, a ND Serres, Vol. XII, No. 36.—Nov., 1851. 40 a kee S 310 Prof. Olmsted on the Zodiacal Light. number of years are necessary of diligent attention to the phe- nomena of this light, in ee to become well acquainted with its habitudes and laws. Nor can I pretend to have made the best possible use of the oportetnicila afforded for viewing it, during the six years that my attention was directed to it. On the con- trary, my observations were often interrupted by ill health, and other causes beyond my control. Still, they were sufficient to convince me that my previous knowledge of this — was ex- ceedingly defective, and my notions of it very e ous ; and the same may justly be said of most or all of the deseription and graphic representations of it given in works of s scie I will therefore, first, attempt an accurate Geseription and rep- . resentation of the zodiacal light. Since the direction of this body is oblique to the circles of di- urnal revolution, and since it appears only immediately before or immediately after the sun, and therefore more or less of it falls within the twilight, consequently, its appearances are very differ- ent in different latitudes, being seen best of all in the tropical re- gions, where its direction always makes a high angle with the horizon, and where’ the twilight is short ; and being scarcely visi- ble in such high latitudes as London and Edinburgh, except near the time of the equinoxes. Hence British writers who have at- tempted a description of it, have usually given one that is alto- gether vague and inaccurate. ‘The lower latitude of our place of observation (41° 18’ 30’) affords a much better view of it, an my description and representation of it will conform to its appear- ance at this latitude. I learn from my friend, Prof. Dana, that while with the Explo- ring Expedition in the torrid aes he seldom failed of seeing the zodiacal light morning or evening, when not prevented by some of the causes before enumerated ; but during the summer months in our climate, we hardly see it at all. At the beginning of au- tumn we look for it in the morning sky, and at the end of au- tumn in the evening sky. The state of the atmosphere most favorable for seeing it at its minimum intensity, is that peculiarly transparent condition which either precedes or follows a copious rain. The presence of a black cloud, also, near the horizon, frequently enables us, by contrast, to see more distinctly the faint diffusive light of the. upper portions. With these advantages we may unite that of fixing one eye on a darker portion of the heav- ens a few degrees to the — or left, and looking askance with the other eye over the region of the. object sought. This last expedient will usually be fiona useful for fixing its exact boun- daries, in its various stages of intensity. Although, as was first remarked by Mr. E. C. Herrick, faint traces of the zodiacal light may be seen in the northeast early in August, yet it will hardly be obvious to common observation be- Prof. Olmsted on the Zodiacal Light. 31] fore the latter part of September. I quote from my record for September 25th, 1835:— Observed the zodiacal light from 3 to 44 o’clock, a.m. . Very faint. Seen only by fixing the right eye on the region of Canis Major, and carrying the lefi eye along the ecliptic. Covers Regulus and the cluster in Cancer, and terminates a little south of Castor. The earliest distinct view I have obtained of this body in the evening sky, was on the 21st of November, 1837, when I have the following record :— horizon and hid behind a cloud, we could severally define the bounda- ries of the zodiacal light. By fixing the right eye on the milky way near Altair, and the left eye near the head of Capricornus, we could tween it and the milky way, embracing the Dolphin, perceptibly darker. Elongation from the sun 90°. at that season of the year, in our climate, about 4 o’clock, ) he will first discern a feeble, diffuse, and scarcely visible light, of a pyramidal figure, extending from the horizon upward through the zodiac to Gemini, covering Regulus and Presepe, and termin- ating a little south of Castor. Near the horizon its material is usually mixed up with the vapors that prevail there, so as to ed vent its forming a definite boundary at its base ; but from an alti- tude of a few degrees above the horizon, the light gradually de- clines until it fades into nonentity. Along the central part of the pyramid the illumination is greater than at the borders. From the greater length and amplitude revealed to us by padres peculiarly favorable for observation, we have reason to think t “ , on ordinary occasions, we do not see the whole of the yeni’ ut that it really extends further than its visible boundaries, “ee length and breadth. If the observer continues to watch t : ody from the middle of September onward through the poh of October to the middle of November, he will perceive that the Vertex or visible terminus moves along through the order of oa signs, and nearly at the same rate with the sun, appearing, on the . 312 Prof. Olisted on the Zodiacal Light. 25th of October, to occupy the space south of Denebola in the tail of the Lion, terminating a little above Regulus. From this time until the middle of November it appears nearly stationary, ascending from the horizon to the constellation Leo, in some par of which it terminates, the vertex varying somewhat in altitude with the condition of the sky. After the 13th of November, the light fades in the morning sky, contracts in dimensions, and soon becomes stationary and then retrograde with respect to the sun, proceeding eastward no further than 7 Virginis, a point which it reaches by the 26th of November, having at this time an elonga- tion of only 60°, whereas a fortnight before the elongation was As the sun advances in the ecliptic, while the light ap- pears nearly stationary, the elongation on this side continues to diminish, as well as the dimensions and the illumination, until early i January, after which it is scarcely seen in the east until aes The ‘fore regoing general statements are supported by observa- tions taken at different times through the period of six years be- fore mentioned, a few of which I extract from my records :— Nov. 26,:1837.—This morning about daybreak, saw the zodiacal light—very bright and distinct, but elongation only 60° Nov. 28.—Commenced obsernniehe at 5 o’clock. Zodiacal light brighter than usual in preceding years at this season, but the vertex appears nearly slalionary in Gamma Virginis. Dec, 5.—Zodiacal light visible this morning as early as 3 o’clock. Not quite so br ight as on the 28th of November, but increased in ginis. Dec. 9.—Examined the eastern sky from 4" 30 til! daybreak. Very cold and clear. Zodiacal light much less bright than on the 5th. than it was eh ave a Contracted balwaed Spica and Theta Vir- Binis, 4° north of Spteas whereas a few days since the border grazed this star. Jan. 18, 1837. etree light very diffusive and ill-defined. Seen after this no more in the e the southwest, crosses the milky way, the head of ace has its vertex near the right shoulder of Aquarius, with an Been from the sun of full 90°.. ‘From this time it climbs rapidly upwards, until _by December 2d it reaches nearly to Al- Alpha Arietis, having an elongation of towards 120°, It be- comes nearly stationary through the month of January, but in 3 7 Prof. Olinsted on the Zodiacal Light. 313 February and March it moves slowly onward through Taurus to emini, beyond which it searcely advances. The accompanying diagram (PI. II,) is intended to represent the general appearance of the zodiacal light, when seen under favorable circumstances near the time of the vernal equinox. It is seen of a pyramidal form with a broad base resting on the horizon. Its northern border grazes the bright star Algenib in Pegasus, passes south of Alpha Arietis seven or eight degrees, and about two degrees south of the Pleia- des. Along its southern boundary we recognize the stars in the mouth and neck of the Whale, and still higher, Aldebaran, the Hyades, and the horns of the Bull. The successive positions attributed to the zodiacal light from the time of its earliest ap- Nov. 26, 1837.—Light feeble, Venus being very bright; but seen afier Venus was set, reaching nearly to the Fish south of Pegasus. Elongation 100°. D Dec. 21, 1835.-This evening atmosphere very transparent. Zo- diacal light very conspicuous, reaching nearly to Algenib, though quite aint towards the vertex. Elongation 90°. ec, 28, 1837.--Night favorable. Appeared to me not to reach quite so far eastward as it did a few nights since—certainly not beyond the equinoctial colure. Could not be certain much further than the Pentagon of stars in Pisces. Elongation 75° ‘ February 7.—Zodiacal light very conspicuous since the last moon, but has advanced eastward very little since Christmas, still reaching Only to Alpha Arietis. Elongation 75°. Feb. 24.——First night since the moon has been away. Sky favorable for observation. Zodiacal-light bright and well defined, its axis nearly in the ecliptic. Reaches to the space between Aldebaran and the Plei- a i 9 gation 85°. : , March 26.--Zodiacal light very a reaching above the Pleiades, which are a little north of the axis. Elongation 60°. 314 Prof. Olmsted on the Zodiacal Light. March 29.—Light more faint. Elongation 60°. Vertex near the ecliptic. April 6.—Light fading rapidly. Very diffus May 1,--Last night a very plentiful rain sy a series of wa days. To-day air keen and sky very clear. This evening tae light remarkably distinct, (for this season of the year,) being discerna- ble much nearer ay horizon than common, and reaching further east- ward among the stars than I ever observed it before, namely, into the neighborhood of Cease and Pollux. Elongation 60°, but presumed to be much greater than it would be but for the extraordinary transparency of the atmosphere. May 10, 1834. snZodiacal light seen for ten minutes after twilight ceased—say till ten minutes after nine. Reached to Castor, but very diffuse. Elongation 57°. Seen no more in the west till the latter part of November. To present at one view the various elongations from the sun, observed from Nov. 21st to May 10th, the result is as follows :— 1. Nov. 21st, Elongation, 90°| 7. Feb. 7th, Elongation, 73° 2. Nov. 26th, ro 100°| 8. March 29th, 60° 3. Dec. 2d, - 110°} 9. April 6th, Light rapidly fading. 4, Dec. 18th, “ 120°/10. May Ist, Elongation, 60° 5. Dec. 21st, “ 90° | 11. May 10th © 57° 6. Dec. 28th, es 715°. From this tabular view it appears that when the body first came into view, on the 21st of November, it extended about 90° eastward of the sun; that its elongation increased rapidly from this period, being five days afterwards 100°, in six days more 110°, and in fourteen days after this 120°, sae is ae thes ae elongation I have ever noticed; and being a the e tim about 60° westward of the sun, its whole at in "Toagitide was 18 I have, in a few instances, remarked what was apparently a sudden nd remarkable expansion of the zodiacal light, a cireum- stance more than once noted by Cassini. My record for Novem- ber 21st, 1838, is as follows :— 5 a. M., about 20 minutes before twilight, the zodiacal light was very large, extending i in breadth from Corvus to Arcturus. saw it so broad before. More inclined towards the south eg aa, its vertex passing one or two degrees to the south of Regulu Whether this extraordinary enleruaraass in La mp a space of more than 40° was owin a change in the itself, or to some unusual atmospheric eet or the nation tal presence of an aurora borealis, it is impossible for me to decide. It is well known that the great French astronomer, Dominique Cassini, was the first to direct the attention of astronomers to- wards the zodiacal light, and that he made numerous observa- tions on it extending from 1683 to 1688 inclusive, which are pub- tise on the Aurora Borealis, including also a few observations of his own, and of several other philosophers. It is interesting to compare these ancient observations with such as we have been able to make at corresponding times of the year; and having made this comparison in numerous instances, I feel able to say that the zodiacal light, in the main, is the same thing that it was in the days of Cassini and Mairan, being subject to similar variations at different seasons of the year and in different states of the at- mosphere. I shall avail myself of such aid as 1 can obtain from this and every other source in the remaining parts of this essay. NATURE AND CONSTITUTION OF THE ZODIACAL LIGHT. 18th December, 1837, its elongation was 120°. _ The variable apparent elongation to which this phenomenon 1s Subject is more or less influenced by three causes: the state of the atmosphere, the inclination of its line of direction to the hori- Mosphere. Since the axis of the zodiacal light does not deviate far from the ecliptic, we may imagine it to be represented by a a. Portion of that circle on the artificial globe, and we shall easily Ri See that since its inclination to the horizon varies between twen- 18 greater at one time than at another, then, since at the vernal €quinox the elevation above the horizon is at its maximum an 316 Prof. Olmsted on the Zodiacal Light. the duration of twilight at its minimum, the apparent elongation ought to be greatest of all; whereas it is then only 60°, while from the 21st of November to the 18th of December, 1837, we found it increase from 90° to 120°, and this at a season of the year when the elevation above the southern horizon is near its minimum, ‘and the duration of twilight is longer than before. in the east. 2. Direction.—The general direction of the zodiacal light is, as its name imports, from the sun along the zodiac. Cassini and Mairan thought that its axis lay nearly or quite in the plane of the solar*équator, making an angle with the ecliptic of seven and a quarter degrees; and, accordingly, that its nodes must be in the part of the ecliptic which the earth traverses in June and November. But Cassini himself remarked, that the direction of the axis is not always the same. On several occasions the vertex appeared to him to veer to the northward of its previous direc- tion, so that, while it would at one time just graze Alpha Arietis on its northern border, shortly afterwards that star would be wholly within it. Before I had met with these statements in Cassini, I had several times remarked the same changes in the direction of the axis, the vertex sometimes lying in the ecliptic itself. Nor, as I think, will the observations warrant the conclu- _ sion that the axis of this body cuts the sun and consequently lies across the ecliptic in the plane of a great circle. On the 19th of January, 1835, the northern border was 8° south of Castor, and the vertex directed to a point south of the Pleiades. Conse- quently, its axis could not have been far from the ecliptic. But, on the 20th of March, the vertex reached above the Pleiades, and the axis had perceptibly veered northward from the ecliptic. These observations taken in connection with those of Cassini, Prof. Olmsted on the Zodiacal Light. 317 . . . a * bel 9 . 3. Motions.—The zodiacal light sometimes moves forward in the order of the signs, it is sometimes stationary among the stars, and sometimes retrograde. Beginning with moruing observa- e vertex moves slowly along through the constella- tions Gemini, Cancer, and Leo, being, on the 13th of November, a little east of Gamma Leonis,t having, in three months shifted its place eastward nearly three signs, and consequently nearly kept pace with the sun in its annual revolution, maintaining an average elongation from that body of 90 degrees. After the middle of November its light fades away in the east, its vertex becomes nearly stationary and of course its elongation westward of the stin diminishes, until the early part of January, when it is hardly visible at all in the morning sky. In the mean time, this light as been rapidly rising in the evening sky, and to this we will next direct our attention. e have seen that about the 25th of November its upper portions reach beyond Capricornus, its vertex extending to the right arm of Aquarius. From this time it moves onward, some- times more rapidly than the sun, but with an average elongation of 90°, until about the 24th of February, when it reaches a point a little south of the Pleiades. From the latter part of February, its progress eastward has seemed to me slower than before, hardly gaining one sign for the next three months, scarcely ever being distinctly visible beyond Castor, although neither the want elevation above the southern horizon, nor the length of the twilight, would prevent its being seen beyond this if in reality it existed there, Finally, early in April it rapidly fades away, an soon after the first of May disappears altogether. These facts respecting the zodiacal light are derived chiefly from my own observations, made and recorded at different times during the six years following 1833; but on comparing them With the observations of Cassini made towards 170 years ago, a near correspondence will be found between them; and the same will be the case if the comparison be made with the tabular view 7 observations collected from various authorities, as given ouzeau in 1843. In some cases, the apparent progress of this body throngh sad signs corresponds so nearly to that of the sun, as to suggest the idea that it is something attached to the sun, and has an apparent Motion due to the same cause, namely, the motion of the — in its orbit. In other cases, however, its movements are too sud- den and too unlike those of the sun to permit such a conclusion. * Above this point the light'is blended with that of the milky way. Cassini placed it in 1686-at X Leonis. Szconp Series, Vol. XII, No. 36.—Noy., 1851. 41 318 Prof. Olmsted on the Zodiacal Light. thus situated, though they might be greatly modified by per- spective, can hardly be any other than motions of revolution. On this subject La Place has the following remarks, at the end of his chapter ‘on the figure of the atmosphere of the sun.” _ (1.) “This atmosphere can extend no further than to the orbit of a planet, whose periodical revolution is performed in the same time as the sun’s rotary motion about its axis, or in twenty-five days and a half. Therefore, it does not extend so far as the or- bits of Mercury and Venus, and we know that the zodiacal light extends much beyond them. (2.) “The ratio of the polar to the equatorial diameter of the solar atmosphere, cannot be less than two-thirds, and the zodiacal light appears under the form of a very flat lens, the apex of which is in the plane of the solar equator. Therefore, the fluid which reflects to us the zodiacal light, is not the atmosphere of the sun, and since it surrounds that body, it must revolve about it accord- ing to the same laws as the planets: perhaps this is the reason why its resistance to their motions is insensible.” 4. Material_—The matter of which the zodiacal light is com- posed, presents many analogies to that of comets. In its visible form, in its direction with respect to the sun, in its very shade and color, in its increasing density towards the sun, in its trans- parency which, as in comets, is such as to permit small stars to be seen through almost every part of it: in all these respects we recognize a great resemblance between the zodiacal light and the tails of comets. We are at least authorized to say that it isa “nebulous body.” From all the foregoing considerations on the nature and con- stitution of the zodiacal light, we infer, then, that it is a nebu- ous body, revolving around the sun in an orbit but slightly in- clined to the ecliptic. I proposed finally to inquire whether or not the zodiacal light is the origin of the meteoric showers of November and August, and especially those of November. t may be known to some present that after the great meteorle e causes of that remarkable exhibition of shooting stars, in which I came to the conclusion that they proceeded from a nebulous body revolving about the sun, and, at its aphelion, approaching very near to that part of the earth’s orbit through which the earth passes on the 13th of November. At the conclusion of the ea. Prof. Oimsted on the Zodiacal Light. 319 essay, I suggested the possibility that the zodiacal light might be the body in question. I y ins] body was inferred from evidence wholly independent of the zodiacal light, and even before the zodiacal light was thought of. In fact, at that time I had very vague ideas respecting this light, as something that appears in the west after twilight about the time of the vernal equinox, but I did not even know that it was ever visible at the period of the year when the November meteors occurred; for at that time I had never read either the observations of Cassini on this body, or the treatise of Mairan on the Aurora Borealis, where so much is ascribed to its agency in the production of this latter phenomenon. Nearly twenty years have since elapsed, and I have had sufficient opportunity to observe the zodiacal light, and to reflect on the question of its possible connection with the meteoric showers of November and August. The result is, an increasing conviction of such a con- hection. [I may here remark that the first idea of such an origin Phenomena of nature. ya In the paper which I published in the American Journal o Science in the year 1834, on the cause of the great meteoric Shower of November 13th, 1833, I inferred the existence, in the planetary spaces, of a nebulous body revolving around the sun, the extreme portions of which on the 13th of November lay ib Ot across the earth’s orbit, in such a manner that the earth wry through it, or at least near enough to it to attract portions of It mto its atmosphere, where they took fire and exhibited the 320 Prof. Olmsted on the Zodiacal Light. phenomena of shooting stars. As the leading steps by which I arrived at this conclusion, after an extensive induction of facts, were very brief and simple, I may be permitted to repeat them here. I[ argued thus: If all the meteors which fell on this occasion (which were in vast numbers, and some of them proved to be bodies of comparatively large size,) had been restored to their original position in space, they would of themselves have composed a nebulous body of considerable extent. But, since the same shower had been several times repeated without any apparent exhaustion of the nebulous body, it was inferre that only small portions of that body came down to us, such as constituted its extreme parts which approximated nearest to the earth; and various reasons induced the belief that the nebu- lous body itself was one of very great extent. It was a striking fact that the earth had, during several preceding years, fallen in with this body at exactly the same part of its orbit. Now, since it is impossible to suppose that a body thus situated, and conse- quently subject to the sun’s attraction, could have remained at rest in that part of the earth’s orbit while the earth was making its revolution around the sun, the conclusion was that the nebulous body itself has a revolution around the sun, and a period of its own. Since the earth and the body met for several successive years at the same point of the ecliptic, that period must obviously be either a year or less than a year. It could not be more than a year, for, in that case, the body would not have completed its revolution so as to meet the earth at the same point for suc- cessive years. Its period might be a year, and it might be less than a year provided the time was some aliquot part of a year, sO as to make it revolve just twice or three times, &c., while the earth revolves once. The time being given we easily find the major axis of the orbit by Kepler’s third law. On trying so short a period as one third of a year, it gives a major axis too short to reach from the sun to the earth, and hence it was inferred that the body could not have so short a period as four months, since it would never in that case reach the earth’s orbit, even at its aphel- ion. A period of six months was found to be sufficient, and this Prof. Olmsted on the Zodiacal Light. 321 : that of the zodiacal light, a period as short as one third of a year, “a or even less. 4 I do not assert positively that the zodiacal light is the veritable 5 body which produces the meteoric showers of November and Au- gust. Before such an hypothesis can be proved to be true or false, with certainty, a greater number of precise observations ee: continued through a series of years, would require to be made, and a careful comparison instituted between the hypothesis and the facts. Should the zodiacal light be found: at last incompe- tent to explain the periodical meteors, the existence of a nebu- lous body, as inferred from a full survey of the facts in the case of the meteoric shower of November 13th, 1833, independently : of all hypothesis, will still be true. But, with great deference, I submit to the Association, the following presumptions in favor of the opinion that the zodiacal light is the nebulous body which produces the meteoric showers of November. ee 1. The zodiacal light, as we have found in our inquiry into its nature and constitution, is a nebulous body. as a revolution around the sun. 3. It reaches beyond and Jies over the earth’s orbit, at the time of the November meteors, and makes but a small angle with the ecliptic. 4. Like the “nebulous body,” its periodic time is commensur- able with that of the earth, so as to performa certain whole num- ber of revolutions while the earth performs one, and thus to com- plete the cycle in one year, at the end of which the zodiacal light and the earth return to the same relative position in space. is necessarily follows from the fact that at the same season of the year it occupies the same position one year with another, and ne ne * For the first suggestion of this analogy, I am indebted to one of my former oe We Mr. Hubert Newton. _ - Amer. Jour, Sci, xxiii, 386. 322 Cultivation of Nutmegs and Cloves in Bencoolen. These five propositions I offer as so many facts established by observation. Most of them appear in the original paper of Cassini on the zodiacal light; others may be seen in the tabular collec- tion by Houzeau of all the known observations made at different periods; a few, not noted by others, have been added by myself. For the inferences here made respecting the connexion of this body with the periodical meteors, I alone am responsible. Arr. XXXII.—Cultivation of Nutmegs and Cloves in Ben- coolen ;* by Dr. LumspalineE. Tue mode of culture adopted in the different nutmeg planta- tions is nearly the same. The beds of the trees are kept free from boundary. 'This was the first tree that blossomed of the importa- tion of 1803, which consisted of upwards of 22,000 nutmeg plants. Next to the alluvial deposits, virgin forest lands claim pre-eminence, their surface being clothed with a dark colored carbonized mould, formed by the slow decay of falling leaves and Civ: = * From a Paper in the Proceedings of the Agricultural Society established in Su- a af aR nag: from the Journ. of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, v, p. 78, Jan, 1851. ig ase A ee Cultivation of .Nutmegs and Cloves in Bencoolen. 323 mouldering trunks of trees; and next to these are to be ranked the open plains. Declivities are objectionable from the risk of the precipitation of the mould and manure into the subjacent ra- vines, by the heavy torrents of rain that occasionally deluge the country. Above all, the plantation must be protected from the southerly and northerly winds by a skirting of lofty trees, and if nature has not already made this provision, no time should be lost in belting the grounds with a double row of the Cassnarina littorea and Cerbera manghas, which are well adapted for this purpose. ‘This precautionary measure will not only secure the planter against eventual loss from the falling off of the blossom and young fruit in heavy gales, but will prevent the up-rooting of the trees, a contingency to which they are liable from the slender hold ther roots have in the soil. If the plantation is ex- tensive, subsidary rows of these trees may be planted at conven- ient distances. No large trees whatever should be suffered to grow among the spice trees, for these exclude the vivifying rays of the sun and arrest the descent of the salutary night dews, both of Which are essential to the quality and quantity of the produce. They further rob the soil of its fecundity, and intermingle their roots with those of the spice trees. It is true that by the protec- tion they afford they prevent frequently the premature bursting of the husk, occasioned by the sudden action of a hot sun upon it when saturated with rain; but the loss sustained in this way is hot equal to the damage the spice trees suffer from these intru- ers, Extensive tracts of land are to be met with in the interior feet from each other, screening them from the heat of the sun and The plants are to be set in rows as well for the sake of regular- ity as for the more convenient traversing of the plough, which is 324 Cultivation of Nuimegs and Cloves in Bencoolen. now to be employed in clearing the intermediate spaces of lallang and other noxious grasses, carefully avoiding to trespass on the beds of the trees. They must be watered every other day in sultry weather, manured annually during the rains with four gar- _den baskets full of the above mentioned compost to each tree, and protected from the sun until they attain the age of five years. will now be sufficiently hardy to bear the sun, and from that age until their fifteenth year, the compost should consist of equal parts of cow dung and burnt earth, and from eight to twelve baskets full will be required for each bearing tree, a lesser pro- portion being distributed to the males. From the power of habit the trees will, after the fifteenth year, require a more stimulating nutriment ; the dung ought not, therefore, to be more than two or three months old, and the mixture should consist of two parts of it to one of burnt earth, of which the suitable proportion will be from twelve to sixteen baskets to each tree biennially. In all cases the prepared compost must be spread out in the sun for three or four days previous to its application, in order to destroy grubs and worms that may have lodged in it, and which might injure the roots of the plants. In all plantations, whether situated in forest land or in the plains, the necessity of manuring at stated intervals has been found in- dispensable, and is indeed identified with their prosperity. e@ proper mode of applying it is in a circular furrow in immediate contact with the extremeties of the fibrous roots, which may be called the absorbents of the plant. Where there is a scarcity of dung, recourse may be had to the dregs remaining after the prepa- ration of the oil from the fruit of the Arachis Hypogea, which seek the surface; the growth of the lateral branches alone is t0 be encouraged, and all suckers, or dead and unproductive brancb- es, are to be removed by the pruning knife, so as to thin the trees considerably and to admit of the descent of the night dews, which are greatly contributive to their well being, especially du- ring the dry and sultry weather; creepers are to be dis odged, and the lower verticels lopped off, with the view of establishing an unimpeded circulation of air. The conclusion of the great Cultivation of Nutmegs and Cloves in Bencoolen. 325 annual harvest is the fittest time for pruning the trees. After the eradication of the lallang, the growth of innoxious grasses is to be encouraged in the intervals between the trees, which will give the plantation the appearance of a park, and the plough is now to be abandoned. ; The nutmeg tree is moncecious as well as dicecious, but no — means of discovering the sexes before the period of inflorescence are yet known. The relative proportion of male and female trees to each other is also undefined, and is indeed the result of chance. Setting aside however all pretension to mathematical precision, the number of productive trees may be roundly estimated at two-thirds of the whole cultivation. As the monecious plants are produc- tive, the number of male trees necessary to be retained will depend entirely on that of the moneecions kind; all above this number, being considered superfluous, should be cut down and other trees planted in their stead. Were 1 indeed to originate a nutmeg plant- ation now, I should either attempt to procure grafts on male stocks on such trees as produce the largest and best fruit, by the process of inarching, notwithstanding the speculative hypothesis of the graft partaking of the gradual and progressive decay of the parent tree, leaving a branch or two of the stock for the purpose of establish- ing a regular polygamy, by which means the plantation would consist of monccious trees only; or I should place the young plants in the nursery at the distance of four feet from each other, and force them to an early discovery of their sex, by lifting them out of their beds once a year and replacing them in the same spot, 80 as to check the growth of wood and viviparous branches. The sex might thus be ascertained on an average within the fourth year, and the trees removed to the plantation and systematically arranged, whereas in the usual mode of proceeding it is not as- certainable in general before the seventh year. pon an average, the nutmeg tree fruits at the age of seven years, and increases in produce till the fifteenth year, when it is at its greatest productiveness. It is said to continue prolific for seventy or eighty years in the Moluccas, but our experience car- nes us no farther than twenty-two and a half years, all the trees of which age that have been properly managed, are still in the highest degree of vigor and fecundity; and for this reason no term for planting a succession of trees can as yet be fixed upon. Seven months in general elapse between the appearance of the blossom and ripening of the fruit, and the produce of one bearing tree with another under good cultivation may, in the fifteenth year of the plantation, be calculated at five pounds of nutmegs, and a pound and a quarter of mace. I have observed, however, t at Some trees produce every year a great quantity of fruit, tound, but more plentifully in some months than in others. ‘The Szconp Serms, Vol. XII, No. 36.—Nov., 1851. 42 : 326 Cultivation of Nutmegs and Cloves in Bencoolen. great harvest may generally be looked for in the months of Sep- tember, October, November and December, and a small one in April, May and June. Like other fruit trees on this portion of _ Sumatra, I have remarked that it yields most abundantly every - other year. "The fruit having ripened, the outer integument bursts spontaneously, and is gathered by means of a hook attached toa long stick, and the mace being cautiously stripped off and flattened by the hands in single layers, is placed on mats for three or four days in the sun to dry. Some planters cut off the heels and dry the mace in double blades, from an opinion that the insect is apt to breed in or about the heels, and that the double blade gives a better and more substantial appearance to the mace. The former idea is entirely groundless, for if the article be properly cured, kept in tight packages in a dry situation, and exposed to the sun for five or six hours once a fortnight, there need be no apprehen- sion of the insect; and if it is not, it will assuredly be attacked by it whether the heels be cut off or not; again, the insect is much more likely to nestle within the fold of the double blade, and the fancied superiority of appearance has so little weight with the purchaser, as not to counterbalance the risk of probable deterioration and eventual loss. In damp and rainy weather the mace should be dried by the heat of a charcoal fire, carefully con- ducted so as not to smoke it or blacken its surface. The nuts liberated from their macy envelope are transported to the drying house, and deposited on the elevated.stage of split nee- bongs, placed at a sufficient distance from each other to admit © the heat from a smouldering fire beneath without suffering even the smallest nuts to pass through. The heat should not exceed 140° of Fahrenheit, for a sudden inordinate degree of heat dries up the kernels of the nuts too rapidly, and its continued applica- tion produces fissures in them, or a fermentation is excited in them which increases their volume so greatly as to fill up the whole eavity of the shell, and to prevent them from rattling when put to this criterion of due preparation. ‘The fire is lighted in the night. The smoking house is a brick building of a suitable size, with a terraced roof, and the stage is placed at an elevation of ten feet from the ground, having three divisions in it for the produce of different months. The nuts must be turned every second or third day that they may all partake equally of the heat, and such as have undergone the smoking process for the period of two complete months and rattle freely in the shell, are to be cracke with wooden mallets, the worm-eaten and shriveled ones thrown out, and the good ones rubbed over simply with recently prepared well sifted dry lime. 'They are now to be regarbled, and finally packed for transportation in tight casks, the insides of which have been smoked, cleaned, and covered with a coating of fresh water and lime. If packed in chests, the seams must be dammered to ’ Cultivation of Nutmegs and. Cloves in Bencoolen. 327 prevent the admission of air or water. There is no necessity for sorting them, as previously to their sale they are classed into sizes in the Company’s warehouses in London. he mode generally practised in preparing nutmegs for the market, is to dip them ina mixture of salt water and lime, and to * Spread them out on mats for four or five days in the shade to dry. Tam, however, convinced from much experience that this is a pernicious practice, not only from the quantity of moisture imbi- bed in this process encouraging the breeding of insects and ren- dering the nuts liable to early decay, but from the heating quality of the mixture producing fissures and occasioning a great loss in the out turn; whereas by liming them simply in the dry way as ave recommended, the loss ought not to exceed 8 per cent. In May, 1816, I made some experiments on this subject. I cracked a quantity of nutmegs that had been smoke dried for two months, and distributed them into four equal portions. J prepared the nuts of one parcel with-a mixture of lime and salt water ; those of the second were rubbed over merely with fine well dried shell lime such as the natives use with their betel, although I have no doubt but that recently prepared and well sifted common lime would answer equally well; those of the third parcel were mixed, unlimed, with one-third of their weight of whole black pepper ; and those of the fourth, also unlimed, with the same pro- portion of cloves. They were then put into separate boxes wit sliding tops, and numbered 1, 2,3 and 4, in the order I have Mentioned them. At the expiration of the first year they were allsound. After that of the second, I found three worm eaten nuts in No. 1, and two in No. 3, but those in Nos. 2 and 4 re- Mained untouched. The injured nuts were allowed to remain, 328 Cultivation of Nutmegs and Cloves in Bencoolen. nutmegs, as the home dealers call them, mixed with cloves as in watered. They germinate within five weeks, and when four feet high are to be transplanted at intervals of thirty feet, witha . small admixture of sand with the red mould so as to reduce its tenacity ; and to be cultivated in the same mode as the nutmegs, only that when full grown they require less manure in the pro- portion of one-third. They yield generally at the age of six years, and at that of twelve are in their highest state of bearing, when the average produce may be estimated at six or seven pounds of marketable fruit each tree during the harvest, which takes place in the rainy months, but with us they have hitherto borne two crops in three years only. The fruit is terminal, and when of a reddish hue is plucked by hand, so that the process of gathering it is tedious. It is then dried for several days on mats in the sun, until it breaks easily between the fingers, and assumes a dark brown color. It loses about 60 per cent. in drying. en past its prime the clove tree has a ragged and uncombed appear- ance, and Iam led to suppose that its existence is limited to twenty years, unless in very superior soil, in which it may drag out a protracted and unprofitable state of being to the period of perhaps twenty-four years. Hence it becomes necessary to plant a succession of seedlings when the old trees have attained eight years of age, and this octennial succession must be steadily kept in view, With reference to the number of laborers, cattle and ploughs necessary for a plantation of 1000 nutmeg and clove trees, after the ground has been thoroughly cleared of underwood and stumps of trees, I consider that seven Chinese or active Bengalee labor- ers, fifty head of cattle and two ploughs, would be sufficient for all the purposes of the cultivation, with the exception of collect- ing the clove harvest, which, being a very tedious process, would require an extra number of hands; and indeed the best plan would be to gather it in by contract. ses Ae ss On Coral Reefs and Islands. 329 Art. XXXIII.—On Coral Reefs and Islands; by James D. Da Fourth. Na.—Part From the Report on Geology of the Exploring Expedition under Capt. Wilkes, U.S.N. . - Formation or Reers, anp Causes or THEIR FEATURES AND GeocrapHicaL Disrrisution. AN inquiry into the causes and origin of the features presented by coral reefs and islands, has led us to glance at the nature of coral zoophytes, and at the effects of various agents upon their development. The way has thus been prepared for considering the bearing of these facts, and of other influencing causes, on the growth of the coral plantation as a whole. While, therefore, the preceding pages treat of zoophytes as individual species, the following will relate to those results which proceed from their accumulation, and the causes which have determined the features and geographical distribution of reefs and islands. 1, Formation of Reefs. Very erroneous ideas prevail, respecting the appearance of a bed or area of growing corals. The submerged reef is often thought of as an extended mass of coral, alive uniformly over its 330 On Coral Reefs and Islands. to gather into gardens the choicer varieties. Yet there are scenes in the coral landscape, which justify the brightest coloring of the poet: where coral shrubbery and living flowers are mingled in profusion; where Astrea domes appear like the gemmed tem- _ ples of the coral world, and Madrepore vases, the decorations of the groves; and as the forests and flowers of land have their birds and butterflies, so = Life in rare and beautiful forms Is sporting amid those bowers of stone,” for fish of various hues, red, blue, purple, green, and other brilliant shades, keep constant play, appearing aud disappearing among the branches. These fields of growing coral spread over submarine lands, such as the shores of islands and continents, where the depth is not greater than their habits require, just as vegetation extends itself through regions that are congenial. The germ or ovule, which, when first produced, swims free, finds afterwards a point of rock or dead coral to plant itself upon, and thence springs the tree, or some other form of coral growth. e- analogy to vegetation does not stop here. It is well known that the debris of the forest, decaying leaves and stems and animal remains, add to the soil; and that accumulations of this kind are ceaselessly in progress: that by this means, in the luxuriant swamp, deep beds of peaty earth are formed. So it is in the coral mead. Accumulations of fragments and sand from the coral zoophytes, and of shells and other relics of organic life, are in constant progress; and thus a bed of coral debris is formed and compacted. ‘There is this difference, that a large part of the vegetable material consists of elements which escape as gases on decomposition, whereas coral is itself an enduring rock-material undergoing no change except the mechanical one of comminution. The animal portion is but a mere fraction of the whole zoophyte. In these few hints, we have the whole theory of reef-making: not a speculative opinion, but a legitimate deduction from a few simple facts, and bearing close analogy to operations on land. The coral debris and shells fill up the intervals between the coral patches, and the cavities among the living tufts, and in this man- ner produce the reef deposit, which is finally consolidated while still beneath the water. The coral-zoophyte is especially adapted for such a mode of reef accumulation. Were the nourishment drawn from below, as 10 keep pace with the progress of death, organic incrustations cover the lifeless trunk, and protect it from the dissolving waters. On Coral Reefs and Islands. 331 But on land, there is the decay of the year and that of old age producing vegetable debris; and storms prostrate forests. And are there corresponding effects among the groves of the sea? It has been shown that coral plantations, from which reefs pro- ceed, do not grow in the “calm and still” depths of the ocean. — They are to be found amid the very waves, and extend but little © below a hundred feet, which is far within the reach of the sea’s heavier commotions.* Here is an agent which is not without its effects. ‘lhe enormous masses of uptorn rock found on many of the islands may give some idea of the force of the lifting wave ; and there are examples on record, to be found in various Treatises on Geology, of still more surprising effects. * During the more violent gales, the bottom of the a s said, by different au- thors, to be disturbed to a son of three sent three hundred and fift ty, or even five hundred feat and De la Beche remarks, that when Ne pattie is fifteen bs thoms, water is very rabeipr sol red by the action of the waves on the sand and : Deatiptes Rendus, t. xii, 174, M. Sian mentions that par- allel ridges are formed on the bottom, by the motion of the water, which may be ingui hollo F a ° = - ee © 5 zones were distinguished ata — - of one hundred and eighty-eight meters, to the Northwest of the St. Paul’s Roa _ 1 Lyell, vol. ii, p, gs canta of the force of waves on coasts, Lyell men- tions the transportation wh a ae of stone, waged feet from its bed, which was eight feet two inches, by seven feet, and five feet one inch in its dimensions, an another nine feet two in pony ee six and a half et by oe See having been “ hur- ried up an acclivity to a distance of one panied 8 d fift se i tl on the subject, by Thom s Steven Hee of Edinburgh, published in he i a 2 BS = po 4 @ = ‘ detttion aay two hundred and sixty-seven e ents, ext three successive months, that the average force for Skerryvo ore, for five of the sum- mer months, during the years 1843, 1844, was six hundred and eleven tee per t ix of the wi it w: vale “We r to the moved. t 1 v moved, Mr. Rei (os cited ‘by M Ste venson) says: “The sea, when I saw it striking the © stone, wou y immerse or bury it out of sight, and the run extended up to the grass Tine Shere 4 making a perpendicular rise a from agihineg to forty above high water level. On the -pabeg Abe waves striking the stone, we could onstrous mass, of upwards of forty to: woight, lone lean lan nde and the uld mens it — with a jerk, leaving i it with very little water about it, that sal twelve feck in height, is erally br buried in foam ‘aa spray, wee ground swells, when there is no wind. On the 20th of No- and six feet, which is equivalent to a pressure of nearly foot any incredulity respecting wer of waves should be laid i pty oytaaes rked that the we much wider ocean than with far 332 On Corat Reefs and Islands. We must, therefore, allow that some effect will be produced upon the coral groves. ‘There will be trees prostrated by gales, as on land, fragments scattered, and fragmentary and sand accn- mulations commenced. Besides, masses of the heavier corals will be uptorn, and carried along over the coral plantation, which will destroy and grind down everything in their way. So many are the accidents of this kind to which zoophytes appear to be exposed, that we might believe they would often be extermina- ted, were they not singularly tenacious of life, and ready to sprout anew on any rock where they may find quiet long enough to give themselves again a firm attachment. But it should be observed, that the sea would have far less effect upon the slender forms characterizing many zoophytes, among which the water finds free passage, than on the massive rock, against whose sides a large volume may drive unbroken. Moreover, much the greater part of the strength of the ocean is exerted near tide level, where it rises in breakers which plunge ‘against the shores. Yet, owing to the many nooks and recesses deep among the corals, the rapidly moving waters, during the heavier swells, must produce whirling eddies of considerable force, tending to uproot or break the coral clumps. These dis- rupting and transporting effects, will be less and less as we re- cede from the shores; yet all coral depths must experience them in some degree. There is another process going on over the coral field, some- what analogous to vegetable decay, though still very different. Zoophytes have been described as ever dying while living. dead portions have the surface much smoothed, or deprived of the roughening points which belong to the living coral, and the cells are sometimes half obliterated, or the delicate lamella worn @ same process has been supposed. to take place in the more com mon reef corals, the Madrepores and Astreeas, and it is possible that this may be to some extent the case. Yet it would seem, from facts observed, that after the secretion has begun within the lyp, the secretion of lime going on takes place against t e portions already formed and in direct union with them, and ne as granules to be afterwards cemented. On Coral Reefs and Islands. 333° The mud-like deposits about coral reefs have been attributed to the causes just mentioned, but without due consideration. There is an unfailing and abundant source of this kind of material in the self-triturating sands of the reefs acted upon by the moving waters. On the seaward side of the coral island, and on the shores of the larger lagoons, where the surface rises into waves of much — magnitude, the finer portions are carried off, and the coarser sand remains alone to form the beaches. This is a well known fact common on all shores exposed to the waves, coral or not coral, and to this cause the sandy character is attributed. But in the The progress of the coral formation is like its commencement. The same causes continue with similar results, and the reader might easily supply the details from the facts already presented. he production of debris will necessarily continue to goon: a part will be swept by the waves, across the patch of reef, into ees a) Seige ne cores * Mr. Darwin, in discussing the origin of the finer calcareous mud, (op. cit., p. 14,) “Upposes that it is derived, in part, from Fishes and Holothurias, and other authors have thrown out the same suggestion. He cites as a fact, on the authority of Mr. esk, that certain fish browse on the 1 ving m Mr. Allan, of res, he nee also that Holothurias subsisted on them. With regard to the fa t ’ ini i m: 8 = i~ a re @ ~ ~~ ° for the su bet the finest ele over particle, will ~~ i jamonds; and this incessan ir Orem cease ae eas cnaita of coral mud, how- Aes ever reat their extent, : J 334 On Coral Reefs and Islands. the lagoon or channel beyond, while other portions lodge on its surface. But besides the small fragments, larger masses will be thrown on the reefs, by the more violent waves, and commence to raise them above the sea. The clinker fields of coral, by this means produced, constitute the first step in the formation of dry land. Afterwards, by farther contributions of the coarse and fine coral material, the islets are completed, and raised as far out of nt water as the waves can reach—that is, from six to ten feet. The Ocean is thus the architect, while the coral polyps afford the ma- terial for the structure: and when all is ready, it sows the land | with seed brought from distant shores, covering it with verdure | and flowers. The growth of the reefs and islands around high lands, is the F same as here described for the atoll. The reef rock in all cases is mainly a result of accumulations of coral and shell debris. ere are reefs where the corals retain the position of growth, as has been described on a former page. But with these, the debris comes in to fill up the intervening spaces or cavities, and make a compact bed for consolidation. There are other parts, : especially the outer reef along the line of breakers, which are ormed by the gradual growth of layer upon layer of incrusting Nallipores; but in the Pacific, such formations are of small extent.* Among the peculiarities of coral islands, the shore platform ap- pears to be one of the most singular. It will be remembered that it lies but little above low tide level, and is often three hundred feet in width, with a nearly flat surface throughout. Though apparently so peculiar, the existence of this platform is due to the simple action of the sea, and is a necessary result of this action. Passing to New Holland, from the coral islands of the tropics, we there found the same stracture exemplified along. i the sandstone shores of this semi-continent, where it is continued for scores of miles. At the base of the sandstone cliff, in most places one or more hundred feet in height, there is a layer 0 sandstone rock, lying, like the shore platform of the coral island, near low tide level, and from fifty to one hundred and fifty yards in width. It is continuous with the bottom layer of the cliff: the rocks which once covered it, have been removed by the sea. Its outer edge is the surf-line of the shore. At low tide it 1s mostly a naked flat of rock, while at high tide it is wholly under water, and the sea reaches the cliff. New Zealand, at the Bay of Islands, afforded us the same fact, again, in an argillaceous sand- rock; and there was no stratification in this case to favor the production of a horizontal surface; it was a direct result from the ao es * Prof. Agassiz has recently observed that deposits of this last kind constitute in many places the reef rock about the Florida Keys. a On Coral Reefs and Islands. 335 causes at work. The shore shelf stands about five feet above low water. A small island in this bay is well named the “Old “THE OLD HAT,” BAY OF ISLANDS. Hat,” the platform encircling it, as shown in the above figure, orming a broad brim to a rude conical crown. The water, in these cases, has worn away the cliffs, leaving the basement un- touched. A surging wave, as it comes upon a coast, gradually rears itself on the shallowing shores; finally, the waters at top, through their in part, the force of the upper waters. 'The wave, after break- ing, Sweeps up the shore till it gradually diesaway. Degradation from this source is consequently most active where the upper or plunging portion of the breaker strikes. _ But, further, we observe that at low tide the sea is compara- tively quiet; it is during the influx and efflux that the surges are heaviest. The action commences after the rise, is strongest from half to three-fourths tide, and then diminishes again near high tide. Moreover, the plunging part of the wave is raised consid- erably above the general level of the water. From these con- siderations, it is apparent that the line of greatest wave-action, must be above low water level. Let us suppose a tide of three feet, in which the action would probably be strongest when the tide had risen two feet out of the three; and let the height of the advancing surge be four feet:—the wave, at the time of Striking, would stand, with its summit, three feet above high tide evel; and from this height would plunge obliquely downward against the rock, or any obstacle before it. It is obvious, that under such circumstances, the greatest force would be felt, not far from the line of high tide, or between that line and three feet above it. In regions where the tide is higher than just supposed, aS six feet for example, the same height of wave would give 336 On Coral Reefs and Islands. nearly the same height to the line of wave action, as compared ; | with high tide level. Under the influence of heavier waves, = ; as are common during storms, the line of wave-action would : at a still higher elevation, as may be readily vei cues by ch reader. Besides a line of the greatest wave-action, we may also dis- . tinguish a height where this action is entirely null; and it is ni evident, from facts already stated, that the point will be found somewhat above low tide level. The lower waters of the surge, instead of causing degradation, are accumulative in their ordinary | action, when the material exposed to them is movable: they are ) constantly piling up, while the upper waters are rending and pre- | paring material to be carried off. The height at which these two operations balance one another will be the height, therefore, of j the line of no degradation. As the sea at low tide is mostly quiet, and the lower of the surging waters swell on to receive the upper and parry the blow, and moreover, there is next a return current outward,—we should infer that the line would be situated more or less above low tide, according to the height of the tide, i and the surges accompanying it. We are not left to nengeaor j on this point; for the examples presented by the shores of Holland and New Zealand afford definite facts. Degradation hie there taken place sufficient to carry off cliffs of rock, of great extent; yet below a certain level, the sea has had little or no effect. This height, at New Holland, is three feet above ordin- ary low tide, and at New Zealand, about five feet. With regard to the height varying with the tides, we observe that in the Pau- motus, where the water rises but two or three feet, the platform is seldom over four to six inches above low tide, which is pro- portionally less than at New Holland and New Zealand, where a great difference between the effect of the comparatively quiet | surges of the middle Pacific, and the more violent of New Zea- | land. Within the Bay of Islands, where the sea has not its full force, the platform, as around the “Old Hat,” is but little above low water level. The exact relation of the height of the plat- form to the height and duce of the tides remains to be deter- mined more accurately by observation. While, therefore, the height of the shore platform depends on the tides, and the usual strength of the waves, the breadth of it will be determined ~ e ay causes in connection with the nature of the rock- material. * On basaltic shores it is not usual to find a shore platform, as the rock scarcely an en es nt seas; such coasts are con On Coral Reefs and Islands. 337 It is apparent that one single principle meets all the various cases. ‘The rocky platform of some sea-shores, the low tide sand-spit on others, and the coral-reef «platform of others, require but one explanation. The material of the coral platform is piled up by the advancing surges, and cemented through the infiltra- ting waters. These surges, advancing towards the edge of the shelf, swell over it before breaking, and thus throw a protection about the exposed rocks; and as the tide rises, this protection is complete. They move on, sweeping over the shelf, but only clear it of sand and fragments, which they bear to the beach. The isolated blocks in the Paumotus which stand on the plat- form, attached to it below, are generally most worn one or two feet above high tide level, a fact which corresponds with the Statement in a preceding paragraph with regard to the height of the greatest wave-action. ‘In addition to this ordinary wave-action, there are also more violent effects from storms; and these are observed alike on the Australian shores referred to, and on those of coral islands. The Waters, moving through greater depths, and driving on with in- creased velocity up the shallowing shores among cavities or under shelving layers, break and lift the rocks of the edge of the plat- form, and throw them on the reef. From the observations of the ordinary seas and those during stormy weather. We have . therefore no difficulty in comprehending how the ordinary wave- Sequently often covered with large fragments o ‘ Stone shores, this gradual aan keeps the platform of nearly uniform breadth. Moreover, » any uptorn masses thrown upon it, are soon ; rs carried off; and thus the platform is kept nearly clean of debris, even to base of the cliff, fa 3. 338 On Coral Reefs and Islands. leeward and windward reefs, especially as the wind for some parts of the year has a coyrse opposite to its usual direction. But seldom, except on the side to windward, is a sufficient force brought to bear upon the edge of the platform, to detach an uplift the larger coral blocks. The distance to which the waves may roll on without becoming too much weakened for the trans- portation of uptorn blocks, will determine the outline of the forming land. With proper data as to the force of the waves, the tides, and the soundings around, the extent of the shore plat- form might be made a subject of calculation. The effect of a windward reef in diminishing the force of the sea is sometimes shown in the influence of one island on another. A striking instance of this is presented by the northernmost of the Tarawan Islands, All the islands of this group are well wooded to windward—the side fronting east, between north and south. But the north side of Tari-tari is nothing but a bare reef, through a distance of twenty miles, although the southeast reef is a continuous line of verdure. The small island of Makin, just north of Tari-tari, is the breakwater which has protected the reef referred to from the heavier seas. Coral island accumulations have one advantage over all other shore deposits, owing to the ready agglutination of calcareous grains, as explained ona following page. It has been stated that coral sandrocks are forming along the beaches, while the reef- rock is consolidating in the water. A defence of rock against encroachment is thus produced, and is in continual progress. Moreover, the structure built amid the waves will necessarily have the form and condition best fitted for withstanding their ac- tion. The little islet of an atoll is therefore more enduring than hills of harder basaltic rocks. Reefs of zoophytic growth but “mock the leaping billows,” while other lands of the same height gradually yield to the assaults of the ocean. There are cases, however, of wear from the sea, owing to some change of condition in the island, or in the currents about it, in consequence of which, parts once built up are again carried off. Moreover, those devastating seas which overleap the whole land may occa- sion unusnal degradation from some parts. Yet these islets have within themselves the source of their own repair, and are secure from all serious injury. agoons in coral islands are constantly receiving more OF less debris from the reefs; and patches of growing coral within also tend to fill them up. But the effect is slow in its progress, and none but islands of small size, as before stated, show aby approximation to an obliteration of the lagoon. ER et Optical and Blowpipe Examination of Chlorite. 339 Art. XX XIV.— Optical and Blowpipe Examination of the sup- posed Chlorite of Chester County, Pa.; by W. P. Buaxe. Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Albany, August, 1851. In September, 1850, Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., handed me a speci- men of a beautiful green foliated mineral for optical examination ; it was unexpectedly found to be biaxial; but as the locality of the specimen was not known, no further examination than the measurement of the angles was made at that time. In May, of this year, I received from Prof. J. D. Dana specimens of the hitherto supposed chlorite, of Chester Co., Pa., which I examined by polarized light, and obtained results so similar to those obtained with the specimen first referred to, as to leave no doubt of its being from the same locality.* The mineral occurs three miles south of West Chester, in ser- pentine associated with magnesite, and is found in plates of irregu- lar outline, sometimes three inches broad, and in triangular plates age Is perfect, parallel with the broad faces of these crystals, but is not so perfect as in mica, and the lamine are more brittle. The lamin are flexible and elastic, but less elastic than mica. Color, beautiful emerald green. Hardness of cleavage surface, 2 to 2:25, scale of Mohs. Specific gravity 2-714, which is perhaps too low, as no Specimen could be obtained perfectly free from air. ; Optically it is biaxial, with a high angle, and the following are the results obtained : ecimen a, examined in September, plate one decimetre long and six centimetres broad, with an irregular outline. . “pecimen 4, a triangular plate measuring one and one-fourth inches along each side, examined in May. Apparent angle between the optic axes in a, 84°-30’ mean of nine measurements. Apparent angle in 5, 859-59’ mean of five measurements. The plane of the axes is perpendicular to the cleavage surface and at right angles with the base of the triangle, as indicated by the arrow in the figure. I was also able to obtain evidences of SI Ti acer ee * Prof. Dana received his specimen from Thos. F. Seal, of Philadelphia. 340 Optical and Blowpipe Examination of Chlorite. optic axes in the angle of the plate opposite to the base, and found them to have an equal inclination with 8; and the plane of these axes was found to form an angle of about 60° with the plane of the others, or to be at right angles with one of the sides of the triangle, (which is as near the angle as could be determined by marking the direction upon the plate and subsequent measure- ment by goniometer and protractor, ) this peculiar relation of two systems of optic axes, had been noticed in a also, and there is probably a line of composition in most of the crystals from the locality. ‘The position of this line is represented by the shorter dotted line in the figure. Another interesting peculiarity is, that the optic axes are not equally inclined to the cleavage surface, or to a line perpendicular to it, (the “normal” of Biot.) he inclinations were measured, but as the instrument had not been adapted to this mode of meas- urement, the angles given can be regarded only as approxima- tions, and are here given merely to show the existing inequality of the inclinations. Spec. a gave the angles . : . 50° and 34°. oR et oe : . §8°-13/ and 27°40’. The greater angle being on the side of the “normal” adjoining © the base of the plate or triangle. rom these results the mineral must be referred to one of the systems of crystallization having the three axes unequal,—and it cannot therefore be classed with the species chlorite or ripidolite, which according to authors is rhombohedral or hexagonal. The Ala chlorite was examined optically by Biot and reported to be uniaxial, It is here interesting to observe that we have this undoubtedly clinometric mineral with such a peculiarly high angle between the optic axes, occurring in triangular plates and masses so much resembling the micas from Monroe, N. Y., whose biaxial charac- ter is so difficult of determination, and which by reason of this form have been referred by some eminent crystallographers to the rhombohedral system. The form in both cases may be consid- ered as resulting from an acute oblique rhombic prism by the replacement of the acute solid angles.* : Examined with the blowpipe the mineral gives the following reactions. ; B.B. in the forceps, contracts and becomes opaque and white, with traces of fusion on the edges. Alone, on charcoal, sa i 0 = » & sa With borax in the oxydating flame, dissolves readily wit much ebullition ; the glass while hot, red and brownish, but becomes ——_—____ dina . Sa aMne mn mami * Dana’s Mineralogy, 1st edition, p. 264, and Am. Jour Sci, 2d Ser., xii, p. 8. ne a : ee es Prof. A. D. Bache on Tidal Observations. 341 green when cold; in the reducing flame, while hot, color not so deep as in the oxydating flame, and passes through the shades of olive green while cooling, to beafitiful emerald green when cold. With phosphate of soda and ammonia in the oxydating flame, dissolves slowly, leaving a skeleton of the fragments; glass red and yellowish while hot, fine green when cold. When much of the assay is added, the glass becomes opalescent to opaque when cooling; in the reducing flame, skeleton disap- pears, bead brown while hot, opalescent and green while coid. With carbonate of soda on platina foil, no reaction for manganese. The constituents of the mineral so far as indicated by the above reactions are, H, Si, €r,#e. Analyses are now in progress at the Yale Analytical Laboratory. In addition to the optical character, the mineral is shown to differ from chlorite in hardness and elasticity, and by the pres- ence of chromium. I propose for the species the name Clinochlore, in allusion to the great obliquity between the optic axes, and its green color resembling that of chlorite. A similar mineral from Unionville occurring in triangular and hexagonal forms, I have found to be biaxial and probably like the above; but I have not yet succeeded in obtaining any meas- urements. Arr. XXXV.— Notes of a Discussion of Tidal Observations made in @onnection with the Coast Survey, at Cat Island, in the Gulf of Mexico; by Prof. A. D. Bacue, Superintendent,* with five plates. In executing the hydrography of the entrance of Mobile Bay and of Mississippi Sound, connected tidal observations were made under the immediate direction of Lieut. Comd’g. C. P. Patterson, U. S.N., Assistant in the Coast Survey. The observations at Cat Island, at the entrance to Lake Borgne, Louisiana, and at Fort Morgan, at the entrance to Mobile Bay, have undergone more than one discussion, the peculiarities of the tides giving great interest to the observations. ‘he results, as obtained from a year’s hourly observations day and night at Cat Island, will be given as far as obtained, the steps taken for further progress stated, and the information which has been obtained from other sources bearing upon this most interest- ing problem of the tides in the Gulf of Mexico, will be briefly touched upon. * From the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 4th meeting at New Haven, 1850, p. 281. Revised by the author for this Skcoxn Sunms, Vol. XIJ, No. 36.—Noy., 1851. 44 342 Prof. A. D. Bache on Tidal Observations. I hope, in the progress of the Survey along this part of our coast, to develop the subject of these tides, full of importance to the navigator, and of interest to the man of science. ‘These tides, with special -exceptions, ebb and flow but once in twenty- our hours. . The tide gauge was of the kind known as the box gauge, with a float and staff, graduated into feet and decimals of a foot. It was placed in the harbor of Cat Island, near the light-house, at the extremity of a temporary wharf. The harbor, as the Coast Survey chart which I now present to the meeting shows, turns its widest and deepest opening to the Apparent time was given by a mark, and the observations were made at mean solar time by applying the equation. The time differences of time oticeable by differences of rise and fall. Slight inequalities, caused chiefly by wind, were also ound to affect t servations so materially that it was not after attempting to determine the epoch of high and low watet y more frequent observations, it was decided that errors would probably be introduced by aiming at a degree of precision which the phenomena themselves did not present. The observations were made day and night, hourly, for a year, with exceedingly rare omissions, and, as the discussion has shown, with a degree of faithfulness which merits very great praise. The observers were Messrs. Gustavus Wurdeman and R. T. Bas- sett, attached to the Coast Survey. The general opinion of nautical men on the subject of these tides is, that they mainly depend upon the action of the wind; wind, lends plausibility to this generalization, which neverthe- less is unfounded. . causes are of a much more general character, and such as usually influence the tides, so modified as to be difficult to bring out; phenomena which are only accessory in the ordinary dis- cussions assuming here the chief and overruling part. ; he regular tabulation of the observations was made by Lieu- tenant Comd’g. C. P. Patterson, who did not fail to perceive that the ordinary methods of discussion of the tides were inapplica- e. His removal from the Survey on other professional service has devolved upon me the labor of discussing the results. Their importance, interest, and novelty, so far as our coast and their striking peculiarities are concerned, have justified me 1? giving much time to the discussion, which has been carried on Prof. A. D, Bache on Tidal Observations. 343 under my immediate direction, by Mr. G. W. Dean, Sub-Assis- tant in the Coast Survey, and by Messrs. R. M. Bache, A. S. Wadsworth, Jr., and W. M. Johnson. I am indebted for the diagrams necessary to illustrate the con- clusions already arrived at, to Messrs. Bache, Johnson, and Keyser. present a part only of the labors of these gentlemen. The whole of the hourly observations for the year have been thrown in the form of curves, and numerous tables for examining and verifying the different hypotheses have been made by them. Though the subject was reached inductively, I do not propose to present it strictly in that form. e work even now is far from being complete; indeed we have rather reached the true method of discussion, than have completed the discussion; and we may yet have to modify our hypothesis, though I think not materially. I present it to the Association as a work in progress. When the investigation for this station is made complete, the application of the methods to the other stations on the Gulf of Mexico will be in a degree mechanical. It is curious that one among the earliest complete series of tidal observations on record, is of tides ebbing and flowing but quin, and communicated to Dr. Halley, who gave them, with a ‘agram connecting the phenomena with the moon’s motion in the ecliptic, in the thirteenth volume of the Philosophical Trans- actions for the year 1683. Newton explained these tides by his lunar theory, but in a way, as appears to me, to leave it doubt- ful whether he su pposed the interference of two ordinary or six hour tides to produce the phenomena. ‘These tides have been referred to since by almost every writer of note, who has given a general theory of the tides. The subject of the diurnal inequality of the tides has been so Completely and ingeniously discussed hy Mr. Whewell, Master of tinity, that it may be said emphatically to be hisown. He first pointed out the empirical law of variation of this inequality. The first distinct attempt to trace the cause of apparent ebb and flow once in twenty-four hours to the influence of the diurnal ir- Tegularity, is also, so far as I know, his. In discussing (Phil. Trans, for 1837, Part I,) the tides at Singapore, where the diur- nal inequality is very large, he was led to the conclusion, if ear- ried a little further, “at a certain stage of it the alternate tides Would vanish.” To this effect he attributed the “single day tides of King George’s Sound, on the coast of New Holland, as observed by Captain Fitz Roy,” and gives the curves for a week’s observ- ations on the diagram accompanying his papers. The progress of the diurnal inequality wave along the coast of Europe forms 344 Prof. A. D. Bache on Tidal Observations. an interesting part of Mr. Whewell’s labors, the conclusions of which are given in the same volume of the Phil. Trans. In all these,cases, however, there are two tides in the course of the day, so as to bring out the diurnal inequality by the com- parison of the consecutive high or low water. The subject is followed up in the eleventh series of tidal researches by Mr. Whewell, and in the appendix, in which the diagrams of the tides of Petropaulofsk, in the Bay of Avatcha, Kamtschatka, ap- proaching very nearly, at certain parts of the lunar month, to the order of single day tides, is given, to prove that the diurnal in- equality may be so large “as to lead to the appearance of only one tide in twenty-four (lunar) hours.” The equations of the diurnal and semi-diurnal tide waves are given in this paper, and the wave produced by certain cases of their interference is dis- cussed. (Phil. Trans. for 1840.) I do not pretend to give such notice of these important papers as would be necessary in a formal communication. Unquestion- ably the observations now under examination would have fur- nished to Mr. Whewell only the means of trying ideas and con- remain to be fully put to the test by more elaborate discussion, and by bringing the results at other places to bear upon the same question. Iam forced by the necessity for brevity to omit a ref- erence to the learned, ingenious, and elaborate paper of Mr. Airy, in the Phil. Trans. for 1848. The small rise and fall of the tides, amounting on the average to but one foot, would seem to make it difficult to obtain the law of the phenomena, even with the aid of the most careful and truthful observations, the class to which those under discus- sion have proved to belong. In regard both to time and height, we may expect to be baffled by small irregularities, requiring long continuance of observations and comparisons of means, to get rid of. Thus far, few cases have occurred which do not ex- hibit more striking coincidences than differences. o show the time of high or low water in such a way that the discussion might be readily generalized, the diagrams, of which a specimen is before the Association, were made (PI. 3, or No. 1); the hours of the day are the ordinates, and the days of the mont the abscissa. ‘The signs H and L show in their proper place th hour of occurrence of high and low water for each day. The time of the moon’s superior transit is marked, and the periods of Prof. A. D. Bache on Tidal Observations. 345 crossing the equator, and’are usually most regular and strongly marked when in syzigies, with declination nearly zero. Follow- ing one set of high and low waters,.it will be found that they occur later and later as the lunar day gains on the solar, with very remarkable differences, of which the explanation will be given, towards the period of small declinations. The interval from high to low water is gencrally less by some hours than that from low to high. That as the moon approaches the equator, there are a few days of singular double tides, or of single tides, in which the times from low to high water are very much in- creased. That when the declination changes its name, a high tide takes nearly the place of a low in time, and vice versa, with an interval of irregularity, or, in other words, the tides are dis- placed by nearly twelve hours. 2. There is, as Mr. Whewell has remarked, no proper estab- lishment to be derived from such tides ; yet we may obtain a de- sirable datum by throwing the results into the form of tables, in which the luni-tidal intervals are arranged according to the days from the zero of declination and the corresponding superior and inferior transits, and for north and south declinations. This will be made more clear by subsequent explanation. ‘These afford a test of the theory of these tides, by showing the displacement year, and containing the times of high and low water, deduced from the daily curves, the readings of the gauge, the rise and fall of the tides, the times of the moon’s superior and inferior transit, he intervals serve to show that the high water belongs alter- nately to the superior and inferior transits of the moon, accord- mg as the moon’s declination is north or south, with a few Cases only which admit of doubt. ‘T'wo sets of luni-tidal inter- vals were computed (see tables) for three months, to ascertain the proper epoch of reduction (or age of the tide). In one case the intervals were referred to the superior transit of one day be- ere, and in the other to the superior transit of two days before. he square of the discrepancy of the mean in the latter case was greater than in the former. An establishment deduced from these numbers for high water without correction would have a Probable error, as tried by discrepancy from the mean, of nearly eighty-four minutes. I have little doubt of being able to reduce error, by computation, much within the limits of observa- 346 Prof. A. D. Bache on Tidal Observations. tion, so as to give useful prediction tables. The foregoing results point distinctly to-a ruling cause depending upon the moon’s de- clination. , 3. The howly OBservations for the year were thrown into the form of curves; the abscissas representing the hours and the ordi- nates the heights. these I present, as characteristic, the months of January and March (PI. 4, 5, or Nos. 2,3). In January the tides are single throughout the month, the rise and fall diminishing towards the zero of declination; and in March two periods of e similar set of diagrams for the periods of greatest declination show uniformly single tides and the greatest comparative rise and fall at the same periods, whether coinciding with syzigies or with first and last quarters. In computing the heights of spring and neap tides by the common methods, four months gave zero or negative differences. To discuss the epochs of the phenomenon, as compared with greatest and least declinations, I prepared two sets of tables, which require revision. They show sometimes an actual coincidence in the epoch of least tides and zero of declination, sometimes a precedence and sometimes a subsequence, which, when not caused by irregularity of winds, I believe will find a satisfactory explanation; at 4 mean, there was little,advantage in*the discussion found from displacing the epoch. The average rise and fall for the second day before the greatest declination was 168 feet, for the day next preceding the greatest declination 1-78, for the day of great- }, and for the next 177. and fall about 0:75 days after the greatest declination. The av- erage rise and fall on the corresponding days, in reference to de- clination zero, were 0-96 feet, 0-75, 0:60, (dec. zero,) 0°63, 0-73, the curve giving the epoch about one-sixth of a day after the zero of declination. The numbers, as stated, require revision; and there are causes for an apparent displacement, which require further examination. 4. This general examination tends to point to the diurnal irregularity, as Mr. Whewell has stated, as the cause of the occtr- rence of these single day-tides; a view which is confirmed b such examinations as I have been able to make of the hourly tidal observations at Fort Morgan, at the entrance of Mobile Bay- Prof. A. D. Bache on Tidal Observations. 347 The interference in this case would be between the diurnal tide- wave, which represents the diurnal anequality and the ordinary semi-diurnal wave, whether this wave has-a regular progress s ponent 5. Asa first approximation, I assumed the two waves to be governed by the law of sines, and then determined the curve Which would result from the superposition of two such waves, having the same or different origins. he mean of the regular double tides about the zero of declination would present a first approximate value of the rise and fall of the semi-diurnal tides, and the mean of double and single tides at the maximum of de- clination would, especially when near the quadratures, give a (st approximation to the height of the diurnal tide. The com- parisons with the forms of curves already traced, addressing the eye, are easily made. I present herewith diagrams (Pl. 6, or No. 4) for the case, in Which the maximum of the diurnal tide coincides with that of the semi-diurnal, is three hours in advance, (or coincides with mean water falling,) six hours, (or coincides with low water,) and nine hours, (or coincides with the second mean, or mean water rising,) Using the approximate quantities referred to above for the greatest eight of two component curves. It requires little examination to see that neither of the first three forms represents the case, and that the fourth does so remarkably, even in what appear to be small Itregularities in the daily curves. This will be seen in the re- sults for October, of which a diagram on a large scale is presented, giving the tidal curves near the zero, and thence up to the maxi- mum of declination for the first half of the month. In the sin- gle day tides there was the same slow rise compared with fall, sharp rise and fall near high and low water, with the tendency to & stand during the rise; the same excess in the interval of time from low to high water, over that from high to low water. his hypothesis as to the position of the two waves may perhaps be slightly improved by further discussion. It is obvious from the equation of the curve (which I have already referred to as given by Mr. Whewell), that the form and position of remarkable Points will vary with the constants in the. component curves, as well as with the position of the origin of each in reference to that of the other. To carry out the representation graphically, I have drawn the Curves for four values of the constants of the diurnal and semi- 348 Prof. A. D. Bache on Tidal Observations. diurnal, formed from the observations with the same displace- ment of nine hours in the time of high water of the diurnal curve, and corresponding to the epochs of the maximum decli- nation, two, four, and six days before or after the maximum. These show the general features of the curve sufficiently, and the variations in the times and heights, the passage from single to double tides, and the reverse; and the coincidence with ob- servations is such as to warrant a close numerical discussion. _ 6. The equation of the curve shows how the time of high and low water depends on the constants in the diurnal and semi- diurnal curve. The equivalent of the equation given by Mr. Whewell is— C.cos 2t+D cos (t- E)—y=0, in which ¢ is the time in hours from the place of the maximum . ordinate of the semi-diurnal curve as an origin; C is the con- stant of that curve of sines; E is the distance of the maximum ordinate of the diurnal curve for the former, and D the constant for the curve of sines; y is the ordinate of the complex curve. By an easy transformation, this takes the form, 2C .cos 2#+D cos ¢.cos E+D.sin ¢.sin E-C=y. For E=9 hrs. Cos E=~sin E=—¥v, and y=2C cos *#+D sin E (sin t—cos t) —C. The differential co-efficient of which for the case of the maxi- mum or minimum is dy ; a= —4C cos ¢t.sin ¢+D sin E (sin ¢+cos.t)=0 ee. 4C AC sint' cost DsinE D/} or, since the second term is negative when ¢>6 hours, AC cosec .¢—sec t= ~~; DV Applying this to the four cases shown in the diagrams hrs. min. E=9 hours, C=0-175, D=0-700 we find maximum at 10 254 =a O15 10 33:3 = 0-400 10 51-1 =0°157 11 568 and for the intervals between high and low water in lunar hours, h. m. bes a (YA. Ay. Ms x 9 092, 8 53-4, § 178, and 6 06-4. ale, We might apply this mode to test the hypothesis, using Fi the values of C, the half difference of the ordinates of six a0 twelve hours from the mean, and of eighteen and twenty-four hours with the signs changed, and for D, the average of the oF for | Prof. A. D. Bache on Tidal Observations. 349 7. Placing the maximum of the semi-diurnal curve at 0 hours, in the hypothesis that the high water of the diurnal curve is nine hours in advance of that of the semi-diurnal curve, the two curves cross the line of mean water at three hours, the diurnal curve rising and the semi-diurnal falling ; at six hours, the semi- diurnal curve has reached its maximum, and rises again at nine hours to its intersection with the mean water line, at which time the diurnal curve has reached its maximum; the semi-diurnal curve attains its greatest rise at twelve hours, and the mean level at fifteen ; the diurnal curve also descending to the same ‘point at that time. Within these two intervals from mean level to mean level, the symmetrical with that above. From three to nine hours, the ordinates of the semi-diurnal curve are subtractive ; from nine to fteen hours, additive. The mean is the average between high and low water. The tides of each day will give the forms of the component curves, beginning with the mean, and ending with it, considering as symmetrical the parts above and below the axis of X, In tabulating, the branch above the axis should be referred to the h | cal Mean of the preceding and succeeding low water A 3 and of the high water which it includes, and that below to the mean of the two high, and of one low water. From three to hine hours, the difference of the ordinates giving the actual curve, and from fifteen to nine in the reverse order the sum of the same ordinates, half the sum of the two series of ordinates gives the value of the ordinates of the diurnal curve, and half the differ- ence, the ordinates of the semi-diurnal curve. The same being repeated with the second branch of the curve, the average will 8lve two results for each day’s observation. The iven in the table on the board, for March 5, will 350 Prof. A. D. Bache on Tidal Observations. for seven hours (m) and backwards for seven (n). The same is done for low water, (m’ and n’.) The half sums and half differ- ences are taken in each case, and then the means. The compu- semi-diurnal curves. In the case shown in the first diagram, the ordinates of the semi-diurnal curve from mean water to high water, and corres- ponding nearly to a minimum of declination, and new moon, are 0-00 feet, + 0-02, + 0-03, + 0-05, + 0-04, — 0:02, + 0:02. The average ‘004. The ordinates of the semi-diurnal curve are 0-00 feet, 0°14, 0-28, 0-32. The curve of sines computed with the greatest or dinate has in this case for its correspomding ordinates 0-00 feet, nal curve are 0-00 feet, 0:12, 0:22, 0:26, and the computed ones, 0.00 feet,0-13, 0-24, 0-26, the greatest difference being 0-02 feet, and the average 0-007 feet in excess, as was the former. For March 12, corresponding to the maximum of the diurn@ curves, and to neap tides (one day after last quarter), the orer nates of the hourly diurnal curve from mean to high watet are 0-00 feet, 0-21, 0:36, 0-51, 0-63, 0-69, 071, the corresponding om dinates of the curve of sines being 0-00 feet, 0°18, 0:35, 0°69, 0:69, 0:71, in which the greatest difference is 0:03 feet, and the » ou Prof. A. D, Bache on Tidal Observations. 351 mean +0-007 in the curve computed from observation. The ordinates of the semi-diurnal curve are each zero, Two days afterwards, viz. March 13, gives for the diurnal curve, 0-00 feet, . 0:18, 0:34, 0:47, 0-61, 0.68, 0:74, corresponding to which is the curve of sines 0:00 feet, 0°18, 0-37, 0-51, 0:63, 0:72, 0:74, in which the greatest difference is 0-04 feet, and the mean —0-02 feet, the curve of observation having the least ordinates, The semi-diurnal curve is 0-00 feet, 0:00, 0-03, 0-02. The average of three months, taken by weeks, gives for the mean curve and curve of sines the following table :— | Hours, Diurnal Curve. Semi-Diurnal Curve. ”” |From Observatn. Of Sines. Diff. From Observation. Of Sines. Feet. Feet. Feet. 0 0-00 00 0-00 1 017 015 0-02 0°04 0:04 2 0°32 0°30 0-02 0°07 0:07 3 043 0-42 0-01 0°08 0°08 4 0°52 0°52 0-00 5 0°56 058 —0°02 6 0:58 0°60 —0:02 Sum 001 These results are shown by a curve in the diagram herewith presented (Pl. 7, or No. 5,) on the full scale,* the greatest differ- ence between the curve from the observation and the curve of Sines being less than a quarter of an inch in the mean deduced from three months observations. Whether this will disappear in the mean of more observations or whether a modification of the hy pothesis of displacement of nine hours must be made to meet it, further computations now in progress will show. 8. When this analysis has been made as complete as possible, and applied to the year’s observations, it will remain to take up the two series into which we have divided the observations, and to discuss them numerically in detail, as we have heretofore done, Senerally, in regard to the known laws of the diurnal irregu- larity, and of the ordinary tides. ch determination gives a corresponding value of the maxi- mum, or of the ordinate of high water, and in the case of the Mean of the curves for January, February, and March, these Maxima are 0-66 feet, 0°65, 0-60, 0:60, 0-58, 0°58. Mean 0°61 feet, differing -03 of a foot, from the maximum found directly . fom the observations, and if the discrepancies are accidental, §!Ving a mean probable error by the variations from the average of 0-02 feet (one-quarter of an inch) of any one of the deter- Minations, and for the mean, 0-01 feet nearly. _9. By the kindness of Col. Abert, of the Topographical En- ats of Major Bache, of the same corps, and of Lieut. Maury, “perintendent of the National Observatory, I have been put in _ # Reduced in the plate. * 852 On the Silurian Basin of Middle Tennessee. possession of tidal registers which have been kept during the progress of the local surveys made of harbors on the coast of the * Gulf of Mexico. The tidal observations of Major Bache, U. S. Topographical Engineers, at Key West and the Tortugas, are the most complete of this series, and show, as a general phenom- enon, the prevalence of the semi-diurnal wave at that point. have not yet had the opportunity to examine fully these results, which are however under discussion. : Art. XX XVI.—The Silurian Basin of Middle Tennessee, with notices of the Strata surrounding it; by James M. Sarrorp, .M., Prof. of Chemistry and Geology, Cumberland Univ., Lebanon, Tenn., with a plate. 1. Tue rocks of Middle Tennessee, west of the Cumberland Mountains, belong, for the most part, to strata below the Pen- tremital carboniferous limestones. 2. They may be divided into five natural but unequal groups, (see table, $ 7. f The First and Second, commencing with the lowest, comprise the ‘“ Blue limestones” of western geologists. The Third includes the gray limestone of the Harpeth and ‘Tennessee rivers. The Fourth, the well known “ Black slate.” The Fifth and uppermost, the “siliceous stratum” of Dr. Troost—a heavy group, often including limestone, but well marked everywhere by its siliceous character. 3 e strata of these groups, originally, formed a slightly elevated dome, the denuded summit of which is in Rutherford county. Here the lowest of the rocks under review are visible. From this point the dip eastward is very slight ; towards the LIli- nois coal-field, however, it is considerable, being from four to five hundred feet in sixty miles, and sufficient to bring the uppermost group down to the level of the Cumberland river, in Montgomery county. ‘Towards the south and west, the dip of the ‘blue limestones” is greater than that of the “black slate” and the siliceous group above, thus making room for the Harpeth and Tennessee river group. 4. The groups enumerated above have been denuded in such a way as to form a basin, its outlines more or less obscured by “spurs,” hills, &c., though, upon the whole, well defined ; 1t 1S of an oval figure, about one hundred miles long and fifty or sixty broad, and runs somewhat obliquely across the state. (See map, Plate 7.) Ihave denominated it the Silurian basin, since the rocks of the entire area are of Silurian age, the ‘blue lime- stones,” or groups first and second, being the surface-rock of the level and rolling lands constituting the bottom of the basin. On the Silurian Basin of Middle Tennessee. 353. 5. Along the western side, the upper part of the second, the whole of the third, fourth, and fifth gronps crop out on the hill- sides or bluffs forming the walls of the basin. Group third, - which is seen only along the western side, in sections, thickens as we proceed south-westward, and emerging in the counties of Perry, Wayne, Hardin, &c., from beneath the superior groups, which separate our basin from the bottom-lands of the Tennes- see, becomes the surface-rock of these lands and the knobs along the river. On the south-eastern side of the basin, the slopes, bluffs, &c., present sections corresponding to those of the oppo- ° Site side, with the exception of the entire absence of group third, or the gray limestones of the Harpeth and Tennessee rivers. (See section, on the map. he uppermost group, including all above the black slate, Spreads out into a broad zone encircling the basin on all sides. It thus forms the “Barrens” and flat lands lying along and in front of the western slope of the Cumberland Mountains; run- 8roups and exposed (¢ 5,) the limestones below. The zone com- Pletes the circle, by sweeping off to the east in North Alabama, until it again reaches the mountains. € groups and their members will be noticed in the as- & cending order, commencing with the lowest, as follows: ili b—Cherty limestone. aD einai eg } a Siliceous beds. IY. Black or bituminous slate. III. Harpeth and Tennessee River or gray limestone. c—Upper Nashville beds. Il. Nashville Group, b—Lower Nashville beds. a—Siliceous, or sandy limestone. c—Upper Lebanon limestone. I. Stones River Group, b—Lower Lebanon limestone. a—Stones River beds. => 364 On the Silurian Basin of Middle Tennessee. 8. The rocks of Middle Tennessee, equivalent to the “Blue limestone” around Cincinnati, and to the Hudson River, Trenton and Black River Groups of New York, are about five hundred feet thick. They comprise the first two groups, which, though having characters in common, are upon the whole natural, and separated by a well defined horizon. The lower of these and the first of our series is the I. Stones River Group. 9. This group is so named from the name of the stream along which it is finely developed. It is limestone throughout, and from 240 to 260 feet in thickness. We have divided it, for con- venience, into three members, though a more natural arrange- ment would unite the first two. .) Stones River beds.—This includes a series of blue and brownish-blue limestones, mostly fine-grained and thick-bedded, some strata of which abound in dark flinty layers. These rocks —the oldest of Middle Tennessee—are about seventy-five feet thick, and form an irregular circle, with a diameter of ten or twelve miles, constituting the summit of the denuded dome in i on 1, Stromatocerium rugosum, Hall. 5. Leptiena, allied to L. incrassata, 2. Orthis bellarugosa, Conrad. 6. Pleurotomaria umbilicata, Hall. 3. Atrypa hemiplicata, Hall 4. Gonioceras anceps, Hall! 4. recurvirostra? Hall. 8. Actinoceras tenuifilum, Hall. 11. (b.) Lower Lebanon limestone.—The irregular circle just mentioned is surrounded by a broad zone of thin-bedded layers, which—every where attended by ‘cedar glades’”—sweeps oH 12 opposite directions, reaching the Cumberland on the north, and Duck River, along which it spreads, on the south. This thin- most of the species enumerated. The sky-blue layers—some- tim rated by seams of argillaceous matter—are coarsely crystalline and abound in ealeareous remains. * All of the species given in this er, with very few exceptions, have either been collected, a4 seen by myself, in ee and it slheds me sion to state, that, 2 comparing and making them out, I am greatly indebted to the valuable assistance of so able a Palzontologist as Prof. James Hall. igs + The relative abundance of species when considerable is expressed as follows" very abundant !!!—abundant !!—common ! 2 ane On the Silurian Basin of Middle Tennessee. 355 — List of Species. 1. Chetetes, n.sp.!! allied to lycoperdon.| 29. Pleurotomaria subconica, Hall! es ? n. sp. ; x lenticularis, Sowerby. 8. Trematopora, two new species. 31. Subulites elongata, Conrad! 4. Stictopora !! four or five n. sp’s. 32. Holopea, n. sp. 5. Retepora fenestrat ; ied to obliqua. 6, Escharopora, n. sp. 34. Murchisonia bicincta, Hall! 7. Graptolithus amplexicaulis, Hall. 35. Cyrtolites compressus, Conrad. 8. Schizocrinus, n. sp. 36. Bucania bidorsata, H 9. Fragment of a Cystidian, new genus. | 377. “ expansa, . - of a Spheronites, n.sp. /38. Carinaropsis, n. sp. 1l. Stems of Cystidie. 39. Endoceras proteiforme, Hall ! 12, Leptena incrassata, Hall !! 40. “ n. sp. 13, “ sericea, Sowerby. 41. Orthoceras fusiforme, Hall! 1. :. # filitexta, Hall. ; “ multicameratum ? Hall. 15, “ _ three sps. new and undeter. | 43. 4 undulostriatum? =“ 16. Orthis deflecta, Conrad !!* 44, Actinoceras tenuifilum, ! 1 (* subaeguata, “ ! 45. Gonioceras anceps, Hall. 18. * pe : by 46. Oncoceras constrictum, Hall! 19,“ — ¢ricenaria, ! 47. Lituites, 2 n, sps. 20,“ — bellarugosa. 48. Cyrtoceras, allied to arcuatum, Hall. —. sp. allied to disparalis. 49. Cytherina fabulites, Conrad !!!+ 22, Atrypa increbescens ? 50. Ceraurus pleurexanthemus, Green. ‘ “sp. ¢ allied to recurvirostra. |51. Calymene Blumenbachii, - 24, Ambonychia amygdalina, Hall. 52. Illenus ovatus, Conrad. 25, ¥ obtusa, Hall, ae . Edmondia ventricosa, Hall. 54. Phacops callicephalus, Hall. 27. Maclurea magna, Lesueur, 55. Isotelus megistos. 28. Pleurotomaria umbilicat: Hall! 56. Tail of Lichas, of Stones River and the Cumberland, and of Stones and Harp- eth on the north and Duck River on the south—thus cutting off the minor basin of Lebanon, and, east of Columbia, that of the ck River. is. é er been figured ; having seen Mr, I can have no doubt as to its identity with mine. S56 - “On the Silurian Basin of Middle Tennessee. however, are not very abundant, and hence our list is by no ‘means as long as the last. oye List of Species. 1. Stromatocerium rugosum, Hall !! 9. Atrypa recurvirostra, Hall. 2. Columnaria alveolata, Hall !! 10. Leptzna filitexta, * 3. Astroceriwm, Nn. sp. 11. Pleurotomaria rotuloides, Hall. 4, Chetetes lycoperdon? Hall. 12. s subconica, “ | as a: columnaris, 2g 13. Murchisonia bicincta, i 6. Streptelasma profunda, “ !} 14, Actinoceras tenuifilum, 1 4. Clathropora, sp. undescribed. 15, Orthoceras anellum # 8. Stictopora, two new species. 16. es multicameratum ? Il. Nashville Group. 13. This group is not as easily subdivided as the last; the lowest portion, however, including from sixty to eighty feet, is a well characterized member; the remainder, which is about two hundred and sixty feet thick, not affording grounds for a positive division, has simply been divided equally into Upper and Lower Nashville beds. 14. (a.) Siliceous or Sandy limestone.—The aspect of this, the first subdivision of the group, is quite different from the purer limestone below ; it is mostly a thick-bedded, coarse-grained, gritty, and, when freshly quarried, dark-blue, limestone. Dy weathering it loses its calcareous matter and becomes often a soft yellowish sandstone or shale. : i mber abounds in individuals of Orthis testudinaria, which is highly characteristic, not having been noticed in any other position within the basin. This sub-group, forms a zone enclosing, and concentric with, those described. List of Species. 1. Chetetes lycoperdon ! ., 5. Spirifer lynx. 2. Leptzena, sp. ! 6. Small Acephal, new !! 3. Orthis testudinaria \!! 7. Modiolopsis anodontoides. 4. Atrypa increbescens, tae 8. Holopea ?! 15. (band c.) Nashville beds, Lower and Upper.—Succeeding the last, we have thick-bedded strata of blue and blackish-blue _limestone running up into thinner layers, separated by seams, an rarely beds of shale. These rocks are generally granular, often gritty and impure, and prone to disintegrate. About Nashville, there are two minor beds, which, though of limited extent, are of sufficient interest to be noticed. The first is a bed, at the base of the series, of light clouded blue limestone, from twenty to thirty feet thick, and extensively used for build- ing. It is peculiar in being made up, as is shown on weathe surfaces, of finely comminuted fragments of shells, which, gether with the oblique lamination observable, proves it to Hav n deposited from a strong current. This is followed by a few bi * ra On the Silurian Basin of Middle Tennessee. - 357 cavities formed by the grouping of the shells. The bed is from eight to ten feet thick and has been noticed by Dr. Troost in his reports. ee In the following list of species, those which are confined either to the upper or lower part are distributed accordingly. Streptelasma, sp. und. Upper. 22. Atrypa modesta, Say !!! Cheetetes lycoperdon, Say. !!! 23. Ambonychia radiata, Hall. * constellata, Vancleve. Upper !!/24. Avicula demissa, Conrad. “ __ columnaris, Hall. 25. Two new gen. of Acephals, Yavistella stellata, 26. Pleurotomaria bilix, Conrad. teceptaculites? n. sp. 27. = n. sp. Astrocerium? n. sp. 28. Murchisonia bellacincta, Hall. ctopora, n. sp. 29. - subfusiformis, H tromatocerium, n. sp. 30. « _picineta, Hall. chizocrinus (stems.) 31. * Sp. } Jyathocrinites conglobatus, Troost. Up.|32. Bucania punctifrons? Conrad. slerias antigua, Troost. Upper. 3. $s - Sp. ep alternata, Conrad !!! 34. Cyrtolites ornatus, Conrad. : ; ; RQAMMRAEADh + =a hs FSO DAR MP WME SO LTH OR Co BS te - sericea, Sow. 5. Oncoceras constrictum, Hall. “_planoconvexa, Hall. Upper. 36. n. sp. Orthis sinwata, Hall. Upper !! 37. Orthoceras multicameratum ? ] “ subjugata, “ eae 38. lamellosum. “ pectinella, Conrad. 39. Gonioceras, n. sp. Lower. ; “ undescribed. 40, Cyrtoceras macrostomum? Conra : Spirifer lynx, Eich. !! 1. Actinoceras tenuifilum, Hall. Lower. 21. Atrypa increbescens, Hall. !!! 42. Cytherina, n. sp. III. Gray limestone, or Harpeth and Tennessee River Group. 16. Here we reach a horizon wholly distinct in every respect from the last. s doubt, includes rocks both of Upper Silurian and Devonian age. In Sumner county, but a few feet below, the slate Pentamerus Series, Vol. XII, No. 36.—Nov., 1851. gs , ae 358 On the Silurian Basin ~ 7 Middle Tennessee. If so, the Devonian division thickens towards the southwest. The thinning out of the strata and the commingling of the fos- sils render it difficult to make the separation e following is an ell on ‘of the rocks, along the Tennessee, commencing with t est. First, a stratum of impure blue diamante thin-bedded and fine-grained, of unknown thickness, peste or fifty feet of which are exposed in the bluffs and beds of several creeks in Hardin county. It is a good hydraulic eeatine and is beautifully lam- eons in smooth ook which are from one to five inches thick. limestone, common on the Glades; apper portion sometimes affording bluish layers of siliceous limestone ; ; all often of a marly nature, easily disintegrating, forming the angular gravel of the Glades and liberating their siliceous and calcareous fossils. List of Species. 1. Astrocerium sees Hall. 24, Platycrinus Ann Dixoni, ar 2. “s venustum? = Cupelliecritas, gp’s. of Troo 3. % + ab _~- 6. Haplocrinus, 4. Lichenalia, n. sp. a Leptwena depressa, Sentai 5. Stromatopora, n. sp. 8. subplana, Conrad. 6. Ceramopora, n. sp. 29. Spirifer crispus, Daman 7. Stictopora crassa, "Hall 30. undeseribed. 8. Fenest ella e elegans, a1, = 48 und sat 9. a Hall. 32. Calce 10. . es 83. Ateype gdecesinerstieg Hall. - 11, Favosites gothlandie ca, Lam. 84, rugosa, Hall. : niagarensis, Hall, 35. nia | 13. Syr ingopors Sp. 36. “ three sp’s. undes. 14, Catenipora pichanchie, Lam. 37, “« aspera, Da 15. Streptelasma oe ue Hall. 38. “« — yreticulatus, “ 16. 39. « — Wilsoni, Sow V4. Copan Rives sp. 40. Orthis elegantula, Dalman. 18. Pica. um ? 41,“ hybrida, Sow. 19. eee us, A Tenet 6 's 42, punctostriata? Hall. 20. Petirenier Reinwardtl, Troost. 43. Pentantorts pric ty 21. Balanoerious sculptus, Troost. 44, galeatus, Dalman. 22. Eucalypt se a Troost’s sp’s. 45, Tab catcebe niagarensis, nsis, Hall. 23. Gilbertocrinus Ame ericanus, Troost. |46. Phacops Hausmanni, IV. The Black Slate. 17. This group, or stratum, cropping out around the escarp- ments of the basin, forms a well defined horizon. (See map.) It is already known, through the notices of 'Troost and others, a5 4 brownish black slate, often bituminous, and containing iron py- rites, which is especially abundant near the base of the stratum. hen exposed to damp air and at the same time | from On the Silurian Basin of Middle Tennessee. 359 rain, it is frequently enerusted with alum salts and copperas, due to the decomposition. of pyrites. : In the northern part of the state, it is from forty to sixty feet thick, but thins out almost ‘entirely towards the southwest; in many places often, as along Buflalo river, and in Hardin county, but a few inches of it are to be seen, sometimes scarcely a trace — fact expressed upon the map by the broken part of the heavy ine. I have not been able to discover more than three small shells, of which but one has been well made out. In addition to the shells it occasionally affords fragments of leaves and wood. A Lingula, the shell referred to above, has been figured by Owen and Norwood in a amphlet, entitled, “‘ Researches among the Protozoic and Carboniferous rocks of central Kentucky.” They consider it allied to i, spatula of the Genesee slate, though it is rather broader in prox prtion to its length. One of my specimens 1S a new species of Cnonetes ; it was obtained, together with the others in Maury county. V. Siliceous Group.* 18. This series—the “siliceous stratum” of Dr. Troost—in- cluded between the black slate and the pentremital limestone, is well marked throughout by its siliceous characters. There appears to be doubt as to the age of the lowest beds, Some regarding them as Devonian, others as carboniferous; we are inclined to adopt the latter view, and have upon the map re- garded the entire group as carboniferous. The species are cer- tainly closely related to carboniferous types. 9. This series has been divided into two members. (a.) Siliceous beds.—This member, including in the northern Sparta turnpike exposes an entire section at Snow’s hill, which * This interesting series requires far more study than has been bestowed upon it ; ro fossils especialy, pacts the Orinoids which Dr. Troost has eseribed, are new and need to be w Mostly from personal observations may add something to what was before known of these rocks. See, in addition, Troost’s reports. t See Researches of Owen and Norwood holt referred to. 360 On the Silurian Basin of Middle Tennessee. is, from top to bottom, soft, yellow, siliceous or sandy shale, with ~e interstratified laye rs of hornstone rock is generally thinly dotted with siliceous—sometimes ealeareoGphisionnetotane’ the larger occurring in the upper, more calcareous portion, are often fine geodes of quartz lined with crystals ; one locality, at least, affords rhombohedral forms. An interesting feature of these rocks—in fact of the group— is the presence of Crinoidal limestone. It occurs at various ele- vations in intercalated beds, ranging from one to ten feet in thick- s abundant fossils. The silicified ones are found occasionally in place, but usually detached, on the hill-sides with the flinty frag- ments, and in the soil ; silicified T'rrochites of a large size, both circular and oval ,—common also to the succeeding member,— are found in many plac: Large Spirifers and Produit occasionally occur, but excepting perhaps oS fossils are not abundant, the conditions under which the rocks were deposited not having been favorably to animal life. List of Species. 1. nent pl Lage, sp.? 10. Synbathocrinus ieee Troost! 2. Streptelasma, n. sp. . ane Catyllocrinus Tennessee, 3. Actinoeri inus heat Troost. /12. Cyath ocrinus pentaspherious = 4. (18. corrugatus, - 5 3 % 14. Galiestitis tuberculosus, i: 6. 2 Hombol “ 15. — rinus tuberosus, esta ve « Marin £ 16. Spirifer allied to attenu 4 my : shins, “ 17. Producti and et tetaciead. “ k “ S we approach the topmost strata, the mam without afford- ing any well marked limit, gradually run i 20. (b.) Cherty limestone.—This sasrabiel focus related to the last, differs in being a true limestone, in affording a brick- red soil, in the character of its imbedded masses, and in being much more oe The fundamental rock is thick-bedded and ipa a light blue color; it occurs occasionally in purer beds wit oh flints, but, in the main abounds in reniform nodules of chert and in siliceous layers. The latter, which, by the way, are very epee: liberated by the removal of the calcareous matter that contained them, occur very generally on the surface and in the red soil, j in rough friable masses having a porous sandy — ture and a light yellow or gray color ; ; they abound in species © the beautiful Be and often in a larg —— ibed (7 ) Orth as well as in other species. The strata are scktenthy argillaceous to svi the soil a clayey consistence. - a ape On the Houghite of Prof. Shepard. 361 A most important economical feature of these rocks is the presence, especially westward, of iron ore which sometimes passes down into the member below. The soil everywhere con- tains sufficient oxyd of iron to color it deeply. This member is mostly the surface-rock of the table-lands sur- rounding the basin, and usually appears a few miles in the rear of the escarpments, increasing in thickness as we approach the mountains on the east, or the hilly ridges of Southern Kentucky on the north and northwest. ) rom my own observations, and the best data I can collect, I infer the member to be from 250 to 300 feet thick, making the entire group 450 or 500 feet. Owing to the present imperfect state of our knowledge of American carboniferous species, it is impossible to give a satis- factory list. The following is presented. 1. Syr ingopora reticulata, Gold. ? 9. Platyerinus Saffordi, Troost. 2. Lithostrotion, sp. 4 0. Productuscora, A. d’Orb. and other sp’s. 3. Cyathophyllum, sp.? '11. Spirifer, several sp’s. 4. Fenestella retiformis, Schlot.? and 12. Orthis, : . other species. 13. Terebratula serpentina, d. Kon. 5. Synbathocrinus Tennessee, Troost! | 14. Pleurotomaria, sp. ? 6. Agaricocrinus tuberosus, « {| 15. Euomphalus, three sp’s. 7. Conocrinus tuberculosus, « —{/16. Bellerophon, sp. ? 8. Granatocrinus cidariformis. '17. Acephala, several genera. Arr. XXXVIIL—On the Houghite of Prof. Shepard; by S. W. Jounson, of the Yale Analytical Laboratory. Read before the Am. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, at Albany, Aug. 1851. On page 314 of the Proceedings of the meeting of this Asso- ciation held at New Haven last year, occurs a notice of the min- eral Houghite by Prof. Shepard. More than two years since I Noticed specimens of this mineral from Dr. Hough, and then pur- posed to examine it. The specimens which were in my posses- Sion at the time of the publication of Prof. Shepard’s paper, and Which furnished the material for my analyses, agree in the main With his description ; and it appeared improbable that any chemi- cal species could be made from them as they were exceedingly variable in composition as well as in appearance. It commonly Occurs as small imbedded nodules, usually more or less flattened, With the interior dark gray or bluish gray and the exterior white.. periment and observation. unite in proving that the differ- €nce in color between the external and internal portions of these ‘*coneretions” is due to difference of composition, The milk- White’ parts contain carbonic acid, the bluish-white portions do hot. Further, some specimens are milk-white throughout, while thers are almost entirely of a bluish tinge, and semitransparent. The specimens at my command for analysis were uniform in ap- * 362 On the Houghite of Prof. Shepard. opake layer, that was transparent and homogeneous: within this, fragments and crystals of spinel predominated. These statements are necessary as a preface to the account of my chemical inves- . tigations, after detailing which, the physical properties will be again referred to. The mineral subjected to analysis, comprised fragments par- tially opake and partially translucent, as it was almost impossible to procure by separation a homogeneous material. After igni- tion, it manifests an alkaline reaction, and this, as I have since found, it also does before heating. As stated by Prof. Shepard, it is decomposable in acids, before and after ignition. A large nodule, slowly dissolves, even in cold acetic acid. Carbonic acid is evolved during solution, and in sufficient quantity to produce a precipitate on passing through baryta water. A residue has always occurred in my experiments, consisting in part of insoluble minerals,—spinel and phlogopite, ‘and also in most cases of silica; and in fact, the mineral has often afforded a well characterized jelly with acids. ‘The acid solution gives with ammonia, in presence of chlorid of ammo- nium, a copious white precipitate. The filtrate contains only magnesia, or occasionally a trace of potash, possibly from decom- position of phlogopite. he ammonia precipitate, as noticed by Prof. Shepard, yields alumina and a trace of iron to caustic pot- ash, but is not entirely decomposed even by a large excess of it, during protracted digestion at a boiling heat. Following the usual routine of analysis it was repeatedly, and most carefully examined for all the salts and rare earths that can occur in such circumstances, but no evidence of their existence was obtained, It appeared to be a hydrous compound of maguesia and alumina, and upon reference to Gmelin’s Handbuch, notice of such a sub- stance was found. By three or four repeated solutions in hydro- chlorie acid, and precipitations by ammonia, it was completely separated into the two earths, alumina and magnesia; which with water completed the sum of its ingredients. ‘ Previous to entering on the quantitative investigation of this mineral, I made inquiries of Dr. Hough, who resides near the 1o- cality, hoping to obtain homogeneous specimens. He could not urnish them, and the following analyses were made without eX- pectation of perfectly accordant results. In the analysis, carbonic acid was determined, in the usual man- ner, in a flask furnished with chlorid of calcium and aspirating tubes. Water was expelled by ignition, and collected in chlorid of calcium. The mineral was decomposed in hot nyse acid, the whole evaporated to dryness, redissolved, and fil iS On the Houghite of Prof. Shepard. 363 in the solution, alumina and magnesia were separated by bicar- bonate of soda; the magnesia weighed as pyrophosphate, the alumina, as such, after solution and reprecipitation by carbonate of ammonia. The insoluble residue was treated with hot solu- tion of carbonate of soda, to extract silica. Before subjecting the mineral to analysis, a portion in small fragments, the most homogeneous that could be selected, was used for determining its specific gravity. For this purpose after its weight had been taken, it was boiled in the water in which it was subsequently weighed, as air bubbles adhered to it very per- tinaciously. The number 2°175 was obtained; but the mineral was afterward found to contain spinel. _ A quantity of the mineral after being pulverized, was placed in a Liebig’s drying tube, and exposed in a current of dry air to a heat of 100° C.; it lost water for a long time. The heat was afterward raised to 175° C., and it continued to lose weight for several days. It was finally submitted to the highest tempera- ture admissible in an oil-bath, 280° C. (536° F.), and after more than 100 hours of drying, it ceased to lose weight. As this re- sult had not been foreseen, the original weight of the mineral Was not taken ; the loss was at least five per cent. In this dried portion were foun 1 Mio i § insol. (Spinel, &c.) Silica. 19°743 cose ee 2458 2 Shea: 8°020==100. _ A fresh portion of the mineral including that employed in tak- ing the specific gravity, was carefully intermingled, pulverized and dried over SOs in vacuo. wo determinations of carbonic acid gave respectively 6°712 and 8-094 per cent. ; mean, 7°380 percent. Another portion, the only remaining material, was ignited until it ceased to lose weight. It then contained no carbonic acid. 'The loss was 40-857 pr. ct. It was analyzed with the following results. x Me 30048 55:467 insol, (spinel and mica) 15°196, Silica, trace =100°711 Several water estimations were made, varying from 33 to 41 per cent., but I attach no value to them. If we subtract 7380 the mean result for carbonic acid from 40-857 the total loss on Ignition, we obtain 33-477 as the per-centage of water; rejecting the insoluble minerals and calculating the remaining constituents on 100, the composition stands as follows : t é a wi iss 5833 = 99-995 Excluding, in both analyses, all the ingredients but alumina magnesia, and reducing these to per-centage relations, we find the following numbers. x) Ist rene be 2d og lg sets ; Mg 64763 64-362 64812 364 On the Houghite of Prof. Shepard. These accordant results indicate the existence of definite rela- tions between these two ingredients. Divison’by the equivalents, ives the ratio of 4 of alumina to 19 magnesia, corresponding to alumina 35-15, magnesia 64°85. The ratio of 1: 5 would require alumina 33°53, magnesia 66°47. It seems useless to speculate on the constitution of Houghite without new analyses. Quite recently, I have visited the locality in company with Dr. Hough. It is in the town of Rossie, and near the village of Somerville, in St. Lawrence county, N. Y. The mineral occurs composition, scapolite of brown and green color, phlogopite, graphite, spinel, and a crystallized pseudomorphous (?) yellow serpentine, in which I have obtained the water and silica per- centages of that mineral. ae uch of the rock exhibits evidences of atmospheric action. The serpentine in the altered parts has become discolored and so ; friable as to yield to the pressure of the fingers. The nodules of Houghite are half exposed, easily detached from the rock, and often opake and milk-white throughout This altered or bleached appearance in the rock does not occur n the uppermost surface, as far as [ have observed, but along its sides and under portions pendant over a cavity. Dut not a nodule of Houghite has been found even in the least altered rock that has not presented superficially in some parts a millk- white color. Among the masses which furnished material for analyses, I found several specimens that exhibited unequivocal evidences of octahedral crystallization, one of which is here represented. Some of them are ths of an inch in diameter; they are superfi- cially grooved and contorted, their edges are rounded, and protrude beyond the planes of the faces. In some an appear- ance occurs, which seems as if it had been produced by a protrusion, near the edge of each plane, leaving a line of depression with reéntering surfaces, corresponding to the lateral edges of a perfect octahedron, while on the faces, a triangular depression occurs, bounded by the protruded edges of each plane of the crystal. In one nodule there is a gradual transition from the soft and amorphous Hough- ite, to the hard and regularly terminated spinel. The crystals are occasionally compound. ak On the Houghite of ProfShepard. 365 In another specimen, in Dr. Hough’s collection, there were the ons e soli issem- inated particles of spinel, and were easily scratched by the knife. [Note on the probable Identity of Houghite and Vilknerite.— gh Johnson has observed that we cannot obtain from the analyses ize the suggestion that Houghite, when pure and free from car bonic acid, may be identical with the Védknerite of Hermann. €rmann obtained jfor the Vélknerite, 411765, Mg 3859 HH 4376 ‘This gave Hermann for the oxygen of the alumina and mag- hesia the ratio 1: 2, [more exactly 1: 1-84] while the analyses of 3d edit., p, 201. 47 » _. * Journ. f prakt. Chem, xl, 11, and Dana’s Mineralogy, Stoop Sentzs, Vol. XII, No. 36—Nov., 1851. + ee &) 366 J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. Houghite rather favor the ratio 1: 14. The approximation shows at least the close relation of the two minerals. As part of the of infiltrated waters or the atmosphere. The hydrotalcite of Hochstetter, which Hermann refers to Vélknerite, afforded 10°54 p- c. of carbonic acid.* The mineral has probably resulted from the alteration of spinel, . judging from the many specimens the writer has seen. ‘There J. D. D. Arr. XX XVIII.—On some of the Thermal Waters of Asia Mi- nor ; by Dr. J. Lawrence Sorru, of New Orleans, Prof. Chem. in the University of Louisiana.—Part II. Waters of Yalova, Hierapolis, Eski-shehr, Troy, Mitylene and Tiberias. Thermal Waters of Yalova.t _ Tue shortest way of reaching the springs of Yalova is by land- ing on the south side of. the Gulf of Nicomedia, near to Angor?, (three hours distant from Constantinople by steamer, ) and proceed- ing along a beautiful plain, that gradually narrows until termina- ting in a valley closely shut in by hills, The springs in question are situated in this valley, about six miles from the sea; they are at the foot of a hill, which on the southwest closes in the valley of Yalova and are known in the country by various names, as Couri-Hamam, Dagh-Hamam, &c. On the road that approaches the springs, there are extensive Te mains of the foundations of old Roman and Grecian buildings, and still nearer, the remains are more perfect, in the form of arches, * See Dana’s Mineralogy, p. 201. ; + The locality of these waters is described very fully as it is but little known, being seldom visited by travellers. he” -y s J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. 367. aqueducts, baths, &c. Their extent gives evidence of the celeb- rity they enjoyed in former times. The styles of their architec- ture belong to different periods. The remains of the brick edi- ces are evidently of the period of the Lower Empire, for on many of the bricks are to be found an impress of the cross, and Latin words written in Greek letters. To judge from the form of these letters, particularly the epsilons, sigmas and omegas, one is led to believe that they date from the Justinian age. The mas- sive stone arches, which support the vault under which the wa- ters rise, seem to have been constructed by the Romans. Their structure presents nothing which opposes the idea received by the inhabitants of the surrounding villages, namely, that they were constructed during the reign of Constantine the Great. And what seems to sustain this hypothesis, is, the popular legend that the mother of Constantine was indebted to these waters at one riod of her life, for her restoration to health; and from this fact (according to the authority of the celebrated archeologist, the Patriarch of Constantius) Yalova was formerly called Hel- enapolis. Slastic dervish, who armed with a wooden sword undertook at the head of a body of Mussulmans to conquer this city.” ere are several ancient authors who allude to these springs, among whom are Ammianus, Marcellinus, Mela, and Anna Com- enus ; Yalova, which is now but a small village, was formerly ee Place of debarkation for the inhabitants of the celebrated cities o Nicomedia, of Nicea, and of the numerous cities of Bithynia, who Visited these springs. The port of Couri, whose antiquity 1s 368 J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. indicated by several Greek inscriptions, was probably, as now, frequented by those coming from Constantinople and other cities of the Propontide. ; After the fall of the Roman empire, these baths went to ruin, and were almost forgotten; nevertheless the reservoirs and aque- ducts remain as in the time of the Lower Empire. It is only a few years since an Armenian banker purchased the place and constructed houses for the reception of the sick. These waters have at least nine sources. They flow from the sides and bottom of a hill, rising through a sandy bottom accom- panied with bubbles of gas, and differ but little in their tempera- ture and composition. The character of the surrounding rocks is not easily made out; I am inclined to refer them, from my ob- servations higher up the gulf, to the older tertiary. ‘The waters in their course leave not the slightest deposit, so that the ancient aqueducts have never become obstructed. According to the accepted classification, the mineral waters of Yalova belong to the hot stilphurous waters. They have at their source a very slight odor of sulphuretted hydrogen, but the quan- tity is so small, either in the water or the gas, that it could not be estimated. The temperature of the waters is from 151° to 156° Fah., and varies but little with the changes of the atmospheric temperature. The water is limpid and transparent, and has the specific gravity 1:00115. The gas which escapes at the source gave on analysis, Nitrogen, - - - 97 per ct. Oxygen, - - - 3 One litre of the water gave 1-461 grammes of solid matter. —The same quantity of water contains in grammes, Sulphuric acid, . . °690) Magnesia, . . . 1002 ) : ; Chlorine, "086 | Alumina, ‘ ‘ . trace Bolla: ogionsa 40) SOR BRR fe eh oe Ob Lime, oh eee Combined in the following manner :— Sulphate of soda, . . °807 | Sulphate of magnesia, - Sulphate of lime, . . ‘414° Sulphate of alumina, Chlorid of sodium, . -072/Silica,. Chlorid of calcium, 068 | on the secretions and excretions, particularly those of the skin ; which renders them so efficient in rheumatism, gout, &c. J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. 369 Thermal Waters of Hierapolis. The ruins of the ancient city of Hierapolis are among the most interesting in the southwestern part of Asia Minor. The place is situated about six miles from Laodicea (one of the seven churches) and about one hundred and ten miles from Smyrna. The site is seen for many miles before it is reached, as it rises abruptly from the north side of an extensive plain, and the sides of the hill are covered with an incrustation of dazzling white- ness for upwards of a mile in length, .and from this it has re- ceived its present name, Pambuk-kelesey, (cotton castle. ) This place was much admired in former times, if we are to judge from the inscriptions still to be seen on different parts of the ruins, to the following effect. “ Hail, golden city, Hierapolis ; the spot to be preferred before any in wide Asia; revered for the rill of the nymphs, adorned with splendor ;” the people, in some of these inscriptions, are styled, “the most splendid,” and the great solidity, and frequently has a granular form resembling riven snow. which might be likened to a consolidated cataract, and what _ to the delusion, at the base the incrustations have accumulate : i ified stream extends Several hundred feet into the plain. It has formed walls and 370 J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. dikes, and incrusts the grass and vegetation that it flows over, and many of the tufts of grass, in perfect verdure, are thickly # incrusted near the roots with this white carbonate o The channels that conduct the water through the city are made by deposits from these waters ; many of them are very deep and almost arched over. The in nerustations in and about the city have elevated the level of it some fifteen or twenty feet, since its destruction. Strabo tells us, that in his day the people of this city conducted these waters into their gardens or other places where they desired to form a wall, and in a short time they ob- tained fences of a single stone, so rapid was the deposition. The road which leads from the plain to the city is a causeway which is formed entirely from the water. Ph ysical Properties.-The water is of remarkable niga eone ! and remains so after being kept for any length of time. ing lost my thermometer the ‘day efore arriving at this source, I was unable to ascertain its exact temperature. I judged it to be about 130° Fah. Specific gravity, 1-00143. Chemical Properties.—Solid contents in one litre, 1:934 grammes. One litre contains in grammes: Carbonic acid, free, . ‘352 Potash, . : . trace Carbonic acid, fixed, . -462|Lime, . ; ‘ . 589 Sulphuric acid, . » ‘641| Magnesia, . aie GRlorine, sie. 4 hips at Ad Bln 4-03. earth Se oe oda, : ‘182 | Phosphoric acid, . . 7005 The combination of acids and bases may be represented in the following manner. Bi-carbonate of soda, . -078| Sulphate of lime, . ee Bi-carbonate of lime, . 1:368 Sulphate of magnesia, . ‘431 Bi-carbonate of magnesia, ‘041 | Phosphate of THs . 012 Chlorid of calcium, . °020/} Silica, . . 7008 Sulphate of soda, . Re 9 | The tncrustation of the spring was analyzed ; is remarkably white, and almost pure carbonate of lime. The composition is as follows. Carbonate of lime, . : : 98°2 Silica, . ‘ ; : . : 00-6 Magne Phosphate of lime, ; ‘ : 12=100°0 Fluorid of calcium, : At the present day these waters are not used, and the neigh- boring country is quite deserted, with the exception of a misera- ble village of some half dozen huts. In former times, howeve!, beside the use of this water for the baths, it was greatly in repute J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. 371 among the dyers in a purple color made from a kind of root, and owing to the remarkable adaptation of this water for that purpose, the tint obtained is said to have rivalled the more costly purple, and to have constituted the principal source of riches to the city. The company of dyers is alluded to in the inscription on a square building among the sepulchres. These waters also seem to have possessed medical virtues, if we are to judge from some of their medals, on which you find Apollo (the tutelar deity of Hiera- polis) with ASsculapius and Hygeia. Strabo alludes to a circumstance connected with these waters that I inquired into while there, but without success. It is the existence of what that author calls a Plutonium, described as an Opening about the size of a man in the side of the hill, with a kind of enclosure of half an acre in front of it; from the open- ing there issued constantly a dark vapor, that filled the enclosure in front of it. He states that all animals entering this enclosure became suffocated, but that the sacred eunuchs who attended in the temples could enter with impunity. : I sought to discover this plutonium but without success, it was doubtless an opening in the rock, from which issued a mix- ture of carbonic acid and vapor of water, that has subsequently become obstructed. Thermal Waters of E'ski-Shehr. Eski Shehr is the ancient Doryleum, the plains of which are Very extensive. It is mentioned by the Byzantine writers as the field of the first battles between the soldiers of the Hast- €rn empire and the Turks. It is situated on the river Purs- ceck or Thymbius, which empties into the Sangarius, that flows into the Black Sea, and is equidistant from that sea and the sea of Marmora, being a little over one hundred miles from each. _ Eski-Shehr is a city of some importance to the Turks, and it 1s from here that Europe derives the greater portion of that min- eral called Meerschaum, used in making pipes. In a certain quarter of this city, by excavating to the depth of afew feet, hot water is obtained, which is a matter of great an- noyance to the inhabitants, as they can have no wells of drinking water. It isin this quarter that are situated the celebrated hot baths, doubtless used for more than two thousand years, with such change in structure as time and the habits of the people re- quired. There is here a large excavation sixty or eighty feet Square, closed in with stone and roofed over; its depth I did not measure, but am told that it is twelve or fifteen feet. The wa- ter arrives from many sources at the bottom of this reservoir. € reservoir was made by the Greeks and repaired some years ago by the Turks. The-amount of water furnished is 372 J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. very great, and forms half the water used in turning a mill in the neighborhood. The water is allowed to flow from the great reservoir into a large Turkish bath, as well as from different hydrants for the purpose of washing dyed stuffs, &c. Physical Properties.—This water is clear and transparent, and when cold it is very agreeable to the taste; no gas escapes from it, nor is there any deposit, even after very long repose. Temperature 119° Fah. Specific gravity 1-00017. Chemical Composition.—The solid contents in one litre ‘260 grammes. One litre of the water contains in grammes— Carbonic acid, free, . ‘118 | Soda with a little potash, -119 Carbonic acid, fixed, . °195/ Lime, . ‘ ; | Sulphuric acid, . . °030 | Silica, . ‘ ‘ . 008 Chlorine, . , trace Combined as follows :— Bi-carbonate of soda, . ‘219 | Sulphate of lime, G29 Bi-carbonate of lime, . ‘078 | Chlorid of calcium, . trace Sulphate of soda, . ‘021 | Silica, ; ; . 008 As is seen by the analysis, this water is remarkably free from solid matter, nor is it supposed by the inhabitants of the country in its neighborhood, to possess any other than the ordinary prop- erties of water. The geological character of the contiguous country has noth- ing in it that would induce one to suspect the existence of such abundant sources of warm water. The plain of E’ski-Shehr appears to be one of those extensive lacustrine regions so com- mon in the western portion of Asia Minor; the deposits consist of a consolidated breccia. Imbedded we find the rocks of the neighboring mountains, as well as the Meerschaum or silicate of magnesia, so extensivly worked for exportation. Thermal waters are obtained in numerous parts of the plain as well as at a Shehr. Thermal Waters of Troy. Near the plains in which are supposed to have been situated the ancient city of Troy, are numerous sources of thermal waters, of several of which I procured specimens; only two, however, have been analyzed, the others not having arrived at my laboratory. ‘These springs are those alluded to by Homer, and they have en- joyed more or less reputation from the time of the Trojans to the present date. ‘The two that I have examined are saline and their sources near each other. Analysis shows them to be identical. The physical properties will be alluded to when the other waters from this locality have been examined. ; J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. 373 Chemical Composition.—One litre contains of solid matter 21301 grammes. The same quantity of water has in its com- position Carbonic acid, fixed, . -0595 | Lime, , : . 1-4000 Sulphuric acid, . . ‘9680 | Magnesia,. —.. . 03012 Chlorine, . : . 128000 Oxyd of iron, . . | trace Bromine, . .. « ,.°> trace| Silica, .. . . >. 00600 Soda, 92110 Combined as follows :— Carbonate of lime, . +1225 |Chlorid of magnesium, -°7031 Sulphate of soda, . -0607/ Bromid of magnesium, ¢race Sulphate of lime, . 0540 | Chlorid of iron, "trate Chlorid of sodium, . 17-4450 | Silica, . . ‘0600 Chlorid of calcium, . 25078 Thermal Waters of Mitylene. On this island, the ancient Lesbos, there are several warm springs, and much of the geological structure of the place is volcanic. I visited two of the springs; the first is near to the village of Mitylene, and immediately on the shores of the gulf of Olives, it is called Kelemyeh Oulinjah, and there are two baths attached to it. Kelemyeh Oulinjah source-—The water is clear, and flows Without leaving a deposit. Its temperature is 102° Fah. (atmos- phere at 77°), and when cold there is nothing marked in its taste. Chemical Composition.—There are 1250 grammes of solid matter in a litre of the water which contains the following in- Stedients in grammes. Carbonic acid, free, . °155;Soda, . . + + 278 wee acid, fixed, . ‘075 see : eee is ulphuric acid 4 - 040 nesia, . Chlorine, =.) 2. 870 Silica, Ce Se ee Combined as follows :— Bi-carbonate of lime, . *2450| Chlorid of calcium, . ‘0865 Sulphate of soda, . 0357 | Chiorid of magnesium, 1628 330 Silica, : é . ‘0150 Chlorid of sodium, . 6510 ‘The other source visited on the island of Mitylene is about six miles north of the village, and is called Touzla ; there are baths attached to it, and the waters are strongly saline. Touzla source, (saline. )—Physical Properties.—The water not flow clear, being, more or less tinged with yellow pro- duced by some organic acid in combination with lime. his posit is seen to mark the course of the water as it flows down Skconp Sens, Vol, XII, No. 36.—Nov., 1851. 48 374 J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. the beach into the sea which is very near to it. ‘Temperature of the water 117° Fah. (atmosphere at 76°.) Sp. gr. 10263. Chemical Composition.—There are 34-520 gramines of solid matter in a litre of the water which contains the following in- gredients in grammes :— Carbonic acid, fixed, . ‘050 Lime, ‘ é . 2534 Sulphuric acid, . . 1648) Magnesia, . ‘ VALS Chlorine, . ; . 18-440} Alumina, . ‘ . 0-012 Bromine, minute quantity not| Iron, . . ; . 0-003 Sale. ee ee Combined as follows :— Carbonate of lime, . 0912) Chlorid of calcium, . 270040 Sulphate of soda, . 1-:4625| Chlorid of magnesium, 0:2023 Sulphate of lime, . 1:3000)| Carbonate of iron, . 00038 Sulphate of alumina,. 0-0221 | Bromid of magnesium, minute Chlorid of sodium, . 28-0260 quantity. There are several other sources of thermal water in various parts of this island; the one reputed to have the greatest temper- ature is about eighteen miles from the latter, and called F'ezilkeh ; this source I could not visit, and can therefore say nothing of it from personal examination. There is yet one other source that I will allude to, the Tiberiad Thermal Waters. The source of these waters is on the border of the sea of Gali- lee and within a mile of the city of Tiberias, of the solid structure of which, repeated earthquakes have left but little. ‘The sur- rounding country show marked evidence of extensive volcanic action. There are several sources at the place I visited, but they seem to vary little from each other. They flow into Turkish baths, and from them pass into the sea, on their way leaving a slight yellow deposit which is doubtless, as in many of these waters, a crenate of lime. Their temperature was not accurately ascertained for want of a thermometer, but I should consider it about 120° Fah. ; hemical Composition.—In one litre 23-540 grammes of solid matter. The same quantity of water furnished in grammes pe Carbonic acid, fixed, . -006| Lime, , : . Sulphuric acid, . - |, 1197 | Magnesia, .. . pall? Chlorine, . A 13-989 | Silica, : 6: Soda, . : ‘ . 876] Combined as follows :— sat Sulphate of soda, . +0620! Chlorid of calcium, . 7801 Sulphate of lime, . 0386 Chlorid of magnesium, 1850 Sulphate of magnesia, © -0151 | Silica, pein Chlorid of sodium, . 222330 | Carbonate of lime, . J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. 375 The quantity of water brought away was too’small to examine for the presence of bromine. his is the last of the thermal waters of Asia Minor which have been examined ; there are a few others that may yet reach me, when the composition will be made known as soon as examined. Cause of the Thermal Waters in Western Asia Minor. The cause of the abundance of warm springs in this quarter of the globe, in all formations from the alluvial to the oldest rocks, is doubtless owing to the extensive igneous action within ho great depth beneath the surface of the country ; a fact evinced by the frequency of earthquakes, but more especially by their extent ; for they almost invariably extend from one end of it to the other, as well as to the neighboring islands. Neither time nor change of government has contributed so much to the destruction of the hundreds of magnificent cities which once covered this country, as the desolating influence of the earthquake, and many are the cities that now exist, which have been prostrated over and over again, and rebuilt, each time in diminished splendor, until at last they are little better than collections of huts when contrasted with their original condition. All the country at the present day seems to be as much subject to them as former entire gaseous product, as in the case of the springs of per This singular fact attracted my attention several years ago, W 376 J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. in numerous instances it was almost pure. The question natu- i rally arises, whence comes this nitrogen? and as we know of no other natural source of nitrogen than the atmosphere, it occurs to the mind that there is a source of the gas in the thermal waters, which, before they pass to the heated substrata, absorb a certain amount of air; the oxygen of the air contained in the water combines with the rocks and minerals, or is taken up by some de-oxydizing agent in the waters, which, as they return to the surface naturally bring the nitrogen of the air freed of all or most of its oxygen. | This explanation, which appears so natural, does not, however, | account for the fact, and I have been obliged to abandon it. Did the nitrogen in these waters occur in such small quantities, as we might suppose to have been absorbed by water, the explanation | would hold good; but the fact in the case of the springs at Ya- lova and many other sources, is, that the gas, which is nearly. pure, bubbles up in great abundance. Again, if the nitrogen evolved by springs be simply such as the water absorbs before penetrating the surface of the earth, how does it happen that this gas escapes from springs of ordinary temperature? For it is rea- sonable to suppose that the water having once taken into solution a gas, will not give it out except by heat or the presence of a large amount of saline matter, neither of which occur to explain the evolution of nitrogen gas from certain springs. Feeling thus satisfied that the nitrogen in the gaseous products of springs is not owing to its absorption from the atmosphere, 1ts origin has been sought for elsewhere, but without success, an am constrained to believe that nitrogen is one of those elements stored up in the interior of the earth, in more or less abundance, either pure or combined, and frequently finds its way to the sur- face through those fissures by which mineral waters are con- ducted. Its more frequent occurrence with thermal waters 18 doubtless owing to the greater depth from which the latter come. After all, however, that has been said, we must acknowledge the explanation imperfect, and as only furnishing another evidence of the difficulty of learning anything of the origin or uses 0 this singular substance, nitrogen in its elementary state. On the Analysis of these waters, particularly with reference 1 the Silica and Alkalies. The general method of analysis adopted, differed but little from that usually employed; and the construction of the salts out of the acids and bases has been made entirely from the dic- tates of my judgment in the matter. ih, J. Lawrence Smith on the Thermal Waters of Asia Minor. 377 The examination of the silica attracted considerable attention, from the fact that we are in the habit of always estimating it as uncombined silica, even when found in alkaline waters. Although my researches are sufficient to prove to my mind the inaccuracy of this, still I have not thought proper in this paper to deviate from the rule generally adopted, leaving it to more extended re- search to decide the point. combination before the water was concentrated, or is ita result that has taken place during the evaporation; this question can Only be decided by more extended investigation. The observation of the above fact has led me to adopt the fol- lowing method of estimating the silica in mineral waters. Take a certain quantity of the water, evaporate almost to dryness, add hydrochloric acid, a little more than is required to saturate the car- bonates present ; continue to evaporate to complete dryness, and then add water acidulated with a little hydrochloric acid, filter and wash the silica that remans on the filter; in this way we Ty Way. ; This completes the description of all the thermal waters of Asia Minor which have as yet come under my notice, with the obser- Vations that the investigation have given rise to. 2k. a 378 H. Goadby on the Preservation of Animal Substances. Art. XXXIX.—On the Preservation of Animal Substances ; by Henry Goapsy, M.D., F.L.S., formerly Dissector of Mi- nute Anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons of England. In the preserving fluids that I use, and which are known by my name, the following ingredients occur, viz.: rock salt, alum, corrosive sublimate, and the white oxyd of arsenic, or arsenious acid These materials are never all employed at one time, and they should be used judiciously, to prevent the contingency of destroy- ing, rather than preserving specimens of Natural History. To this end, I think it desirable to describe the properties of the materials respectively before giving the necessary formule for the fluids. ock (or bay) salt is very preservative, and will maintain the characteristics of all tissues unimpaired, better than any other agent with which I am acquainted, provided the strength be well regulated; and I make much greater use of the purely sa- line, or B fluid, than of any other, ‘ Alum possesses very important conservative properties; it 1s astringent, coagulates albumen to some extent, rendering trans- parent tissues opake in proportion to the volume of alum brought in contact with them; but it destroys the carbonate of lime, con- verting it into the insoluble sulphate. The aluminous, or A, 2, fluid, however, is a very valuable composition; and to it I owe many important preparations, which may be found both in my own possession, aud in the Hunterian Museum of the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons, of England, and which could never have been made without its assistance. Alum combines with animal tissues so perfectly, that it cannot be dissolved out of them by long continued maceration in water. Whenever it is considered necessary to use the aluminous fluids either to give form, and support, to an animal, or any part of an animal, or a delicate tissue, by reason of its astringent property, or to render diaphanous animals or tissues opake enough to be visible, the excess of alum should be washed away with water, and the animal or whatever it be, with few exceptions, remov’ from the aluminous, and preserved permanently in the B fluid. It should be borne constantly in mind that the effect of fresh volumes of the aluminous fluid should be cautiously watched, lest the alum produce mischievous results; but with care, 1t may even be used to the full extent of its valuable properties on the soft parts of an animal enclosed in a shell of carbonate of lime, or otherwise possessing that earth, for the muscular, nervous, @ other soft tissues, will be much sooner affected by the action the alum than the denser tissues containing earthy matter. it ite > HZ. Goadby on the Preservation of Animal Substances. 379 will hence be seen that the aluminous fluid is not of universal application. Corrosive sublimate is also astringent, and the coagulator of al- umen; the intention of its application is not for the sake of either of these properties, but simply to prevent vegetation grow- ing in the fluids respectively. But inasmuch as albumen takes from corrosive sublimate a portion of its chlorine, and thus con- verts it into calomel, and as all animal tissues are more or less albu- minous, the propriety of using it at all, may well be questioned. In places where the sporules of fungi abound, as in the store-rooms of large museums, not even the presence of ‘corrosive sublimate Satisfactory results. 1 believe, therefore, that the corrosive sub- limate may be safely left out, although I shall include it in the Tecipes of the fluids. A few years ago I was desired by the examiners in pr: ie of the University of London, to preserve a body during the sum mer season for their examinations in the autumn. arsenic to the B fluid. r ( exceed the success of this experiment, and if I had changed the 380 H. Goadby on the Preservation of Animal Substances. fluid, and substituted B fluid without arsenic, I believe the body would have been permanently preserved. It was neglected, how- ever, in this respect, although I watched it with some solicitude until, after the lapse of rather more than twelve months, I found the entire body (with the exception of the bones) reduced to the condition and appearance of decomposing size, except that it remained perfectly sweet. I have made a number of experi- ments, with the like results. I have seen the characters of mus- cle, tendon, nerve, &c., gradually disappearing, until nothing but a glairy fluid remained, but which was always perfectly sweet. The softening ptoperty is that for which I employ arsenic ; either to recover animals that have been hardened, and corruga- occasionally washed away, then renewed, and so on; and the nerves, under its well regulated influence were as tough as cop- per wire, and although very delicate in appearance, would bear pulling and stretching with impunity. e aluminous fluids I originally designated by the letter A, and I called them 1 or 2 as the same weight of the ingredients were dissolved, either in one quart of water or two quarts; they’ are thus made. A, 2 Rock salt, i ; ; . Aounces. Alum, . , ; ‘ ‘ ‘ 2 ounces Corrosive sublimate, . - i . Agrains. iling water . 2 quarts.* _ The A1 only differs from the above in having half the quan- tity of corrosive sublimate, and water. It is very rarely used, being generally too astringent. B Rock salt, . ‘ : : . §8 ounces. Corrosive sublimate, 3 ‘ $ 2 grains. Boiling water, . , . i . 1 quart. .The corrosive sublimate must never exceed, under any circum- stances two grains per quart of water; otherwise there will be in timé a white precipitate on the preparation that cannot be re- moved, and which will greatly“disfigure it. ee me ee og ha * The imperial quart of 40 ounces is initended to be understood throughout this paper. Pi : e * H. Goadby on the Preservation of Animal Substances. 381 When the B fluid is made according to the above recipe, its Specific gravity at a temperature of 60° will be 1:100, and with it, terrestrial and fresh-water animals can be well preserved. or marine animals the strength of the fluid must be increased by the addition of salt to 1:148, otherwise they will be decom- sed. A great number of marine animals in the first stages of the preserving process require alum, but it must be cautiously used, and carefully watched, and as soon as it has done all that is required of it, the animal should be well washed in clean water and placed in the B fluid. There is no objection to fre- quent contact with alum, if necessary, provided the process be conducted on the principle here laid down. The Arsenical Fluid.—When I employ arsenic for its soften- ing properties, I use it alone, unless the process is likely to, oc- cupy much time, and in that case, I combine it with the B fluid, © in the following proportions, and call it C: B fluid, as directed above, arsenic 20 grains. Arsenic can no more be trusted with Which had never been preserved. In alcoholic fluid, of any Srconp Szriss, Vol. XII, No. 36.—Nov,, 1851, 49 aoe . * mi Rg 382 H. Goadby on the Preservation of Animal Substances. delicate tint, is maintained to this time. I believe that the interior has not been destroyed by the softening tendency of arsenic be- fore alluded to, because, if so, I think there would be considera- ble deposit in the fluid, which has not occurred ; neither in that case would the insect retain its roundness, and fullness, but on the contrary become flaccid by the removal of those tissues (muscles) that give form to the integument. As this caterpillar had been secluded from the operation of light (the fruitful agent for de- Stroying color in animals) for more than twelve months, I deter- mined to try the effect of constant exposure, to which I submit- ted it for three years in England, and for six months in this country ; its beauty is still unimpaired. As it is a sole specimen, and I am not likely to obtain another, I am unwilling to dissect it. I have been particular in speaking of the successful application _ of arsenic in the preservation of color in this caterpillar, because I believe it is of some importance. It is most interesting to col- lect the larvee of Lepidopterous and other insects, as far as pos- sible, but they lose much value for the purpose of instruction and for collections, unless their color can be permanently preserved ; and I have great hopes that the fluid which has proved so emi- nently successful in the instance of the caterpillar of the. goat- moth, which takes on the described blackness a very few days after death, in every other preserving fluid, may be equally effica- cious in the preservation of color, in the other species. 18 sarin and will instantly sink in it ; the conditions are ex- actly reversed in the former case, where every animal, from an ee to an elephant, is lighter, and will float upon either em. oe of full strength in the first instance, and any thing to preserved in them should undergo previous maceration 1n th The animal will insensibly absorb, and become saturated with, ble ee of the preserving fluid, but in a state of considera- € dulution ; the strength of the fluid must now be gradually in- gt H. Goadby on the Preservation of Animal Substances. 383 with safety. It is easy to ascertain if the animal be saturated with which it is convenient to increase the daily strength of the B fluid in the manner already described. _ By pouring a little fluid into the small proof glass, and apply- ing a bubble as the test of strength of the fluid that has been employed, the operator will instantly learn, not the exact strength, which is unnecessary,) but that the fluid is either of the strength, or Weaker or stronger ;—all the information he needs to guide him in his labors, Instead of the bubble marked “B” I would substitute two, One indicating 1-100, the other 1-148, and the Italian barometer 384 H. Goadby on the Preservation of Animal Substances. makers could easily graduate such bubbles. 'The whole appara- tus is enclosed in a japanned tin box 1 inch deep, 14 wide and 2iths long, which can be carried in the waistcoat pocket, and costs but little. 3 When either of the foregoing fluids are required for the dis- play of preparations in a public or private collection, they should be well filtered, and for this purpose they may be passed a great number of times through fine flannel rammed into the nozzle of a large earthen funnel, or once through a filtering machine, or twice or thrice through good filter paper. If the filtration be properly performed, these fluids are remarkably bright, white, and brilliant, far exceeding in this respect any alcoholic fluids. Rough filtration may be satisfactorily effected by once passing through the thick flanuel used for a jelly bag ; but if this be not at hand, it is only necessary to allow the fluids to stand quietly in the vessel in which they were made until quite cold, an then carefully pouring off the top, the extraneous matter always found in rock salt will gravitate, especially in the aluminous fluid, which has the property of throwing down any thing which disturbs the transparency of water. Neither of my fluids can be retained in open vessels, glass jars, or even stoppered bot- tles, for any length of time, without additional protection. In open vessels, the water evaporates, and the salt crystallizes, to the total destruction of the specimens included. Salt, being highly deliquescent, the volume exposed to atmospheric influence (the upper portion) becomes greatly diluted when the atmosphere contains moisture and ascends into the neck of a bottle, even around a well ground stopper, by capillary attraction ; it gains the upper surface of the stopper and then descends the sides of the bottle, and will lie as a pool on the shelf on which the bottle rests. As the weather changes, and becomes dry, the salt crystallizes, and thus forms a conduit for the fluid the next rainy day, : which it can greatly, and readily, extend its outposts; and by this means, in time, it will pass completely out of the bottle or other vessel. Bladder will not confine it, applied to a glass jar on the plan employed for spirit preparations; and the only plan is to cover the jar with a plate of flat glass (patent British plate man- ufactured by Messrs. Chance of Birmingham, is the best) and seal it down with the patent marine glue, applied to the glass, with a hot iron. e best, neatest, and readiest mode, in my experience is the plan of my invention, namely: first place in the upper vessel of a small copper glue pot some marine glue cut small ; in the lower vessel, where the carpenter would put water for the careful disso- lution of animal glue, put linseed oil, and then apply heat; the temperature of the boiling oil will dissolve the glue the first, se¢- ond, and even a third time, with care; after this it altered in its properties, and refractory. H. Goadby on the Preservation of Animal Substances. - 385 By means of a syringe, to which a small pipe is affixed, fill up 386 H. Goadby on the Preservation of Animal Substances. great expansion of the fluid (the B especially) in sudden increase of temperature, may cause the breakage of the top glass; then cut a cork to fit the small hole tightly, insert it, pare it off level with the surface, place upon it a piece of solid marine glue made to adhere to the cork by means of the point of the hot iron, and cover it with another disc of glass of about the size of a ten cent piece, and the preparation is finished. - It is a good practice to prepare the portion of thread that is to come outside of the jar, the cork, and even the surfaces of glass to be coated, with a liquid solution of the marine glue, which may be made by dissolving a piece of glue in an excess of white- wood Naphtha. Shonld a stopper become fixed in the neck of a bottle by the crystallization of the salt, it may be easily removed by dissolv- ing the salt by water, and gently tapping the cross piece of the stopper at its extreme ends, (never across its shortest diameter, ) with a door key. If the cross piece come off, make it, and the remainder of the stopper that is in the neck of the bottle hot with the iron, apply marine glue, and cement them together,— when cold, renew your operations,—the stopper is stronger now than before, will easily come out, and last longer than one not broken. To keep the fluids in stoppered bottles and to prevent rials depend on whether the cement is required to become hard, or not. If th er, the resin must be in excess; if the atter, use more lard. For the purpose that I indicate above, it should be stiff, and j remaining just soft enough in cement. eee In another paper I propose to treat of the modes of making preparations. Mineralogical Notices. 387 Art. XL.—Mineralogical Notices. No. IIT. (Concluded from page 222.) transparent, and in larger pieces translucent. Structure foliated mM one direction; cross fracture flat conchoidal. Hardness be- tween fluor spar and apatite, or 4-5; specific gravity 5-397, Berge- mann, 5°34, Breithaupt. Small splinters heated in a platinum Spoon become dull-brown, and on cooling again of an orange color, and the larger pieces lose their translucency. In a glass tube gives off moisture. Held with the platinum forceps in the flame of a spirit lamp, there is slight decrepitation. B.B. on charcoal infusible, the edges only being slightly glazed and per- haps only from a mixture with foreign matters. Mixed with soda the silica is dissolved, and the rest remains in the glass rendering it opaque. With borax a yellowish pearl, becoming colorless on cooling; with salt of phosphorus in the outer flame, a reddis glass, in the inner, yellowish, and in either case colorless on cool- ing. With acids easily decomposed yielding with muriatic acid a perfectly clear jelly, of a yellow color, and it is even attacked by dilnte acid. Digested for twenty-four hours with a solution of an alkaline carbonate of ordinary concentration, it is strongly acte upon. This mineral is from Langesundfiord near Brevig in Norway, Where it occurs in zircon syenite, with wohlerite, mosandrite, thorite, zircon, hornblende, black mica. Its composition is given on page 280 of this volume. _, Loganite, a new mineral; Mr. T. S. Huwr, (Phil. Mag. [4], i, 65, July, 1851.)—Loganite occurs at Calumet Island on the /ttawa in white crystalline limestone, mixed with green serpen- Une, phlogopite, pyrites and rarely crystals of apatite. The form 4ppears to be a prism, with the acute and obtuse lateral edges re- Placed and also the acute solid angles. Crystals small; edges 8euerally rounded, and faces faintly shining, with the lustre vit- reous or vitreo-resinous. Cleavage parallel to the sides and base of the prism distinct, macrodiagonal perfect. Color clove brown to chocolate brown ; streak and powder grayish-white. Subtrans- lucent, Brittle, fracture uneven. Heated in a tube yields water freely with an empyreumatic odor. B.B. loses color, becoming gtayish-white, but infusible; with cobalt solution becomes blue. With acids partly dissolved. Composition, Si 1 Fe Mg H&é Oa l. . 82-84 13°37 2:00 35°12 17°02 09610131 2 «8214 13:00 228 36°43 16°83 0-93=101°61 me Mineralogical Notices. In another trial, Si 33-17, and G6& 16-50. Supposing the lime combined with the carbonic acid, it will leave [1], 16:36, [2], 16°12 of water. This affords the Berzelian formula, 4Mg® Si-+-(Al, #e)? Si+12H, corresponding to silica 33-29, alumina 13°31, peroxyd of iron 1-92, magnesia 35°50, water 16-°00=100-02. In the Gerhardtian notation, the formula according to Mr. Hunt is Si O* (Al 64 Mg$ H2), the oxygen ratio for the silica and bases being 17°515 : 34:990. It approaches chlorite closely in composition, although not at all foliaceous. The species is named in honor of Mr. Logan, who is at the head of the Geological Commission of Canada. atlockite, a new Oxychlorid of Lead; by R. P. Gree, SJr., hands of Mr. W. G. Lettsom is an inch square, an eighth of an inch thick and transparent. The edges and angles are replaced ; 1 9 and in uralite, as shown by G. Rose, there is an example of a substance with the external form of augite and the cleavage structure of hornblende. In volume Ixxxiii of Poggendorff’s Annalen, p. 458, (July, 1851,) Rammelsberg gives the results of analyses of an augite and a hornblende from the basalti¢ tufa of Hirtlingen in Wes terwald. He obtained— ee : Si Al Fe Mn Ga Mo 1. Augite, 4752-813 1302 040 1825 12-76=10008 Oxygen, 2469 379 289009 519 5-10 2, Horblende, 4252 1100 1659 1295 1345 Nal71 K1-92 ‘Ti 101=1004 yeen, 2209 514 368 348 538 043 0-32 Mineralogical Notices. 389 The second is the mean of three analyses. The augite gives for the oxygen of the silica, alumina and protoxyds, 24-69 : 3:79 : 13:27; and for the oxygen of the silica and alumina together 28-48, 28-48:13:27=1:2:15. The ratio does not become 1 : 2 except we suppose 241 to replace 158i. The hornblende affords in like manner 22:09: 5:14: 13-29, ak for the oxygen of the silica and alumina 27:23. 27-23: 13:29 =1: 2-05. The augite has nearly the ratio usually given for hornblende, 4:9; while the hornblende has the augite ratio 1:2. So the T'a- berg black augite affords the hornblende ratio 1:2°39=4:9°5. Ram- melsberg hence shows that hornblende does not consist uniformly of 188i with 1R*Si2, the usual formula; but that both it and au- gite may be a pure bisilicate, &* Si2, or may correspond to the general formula, m & Si+n 8? Si2, in which a and m may be each a unit, or 3 and 2, or other numbers, the addition of m atoms of wx trisilicate to n atoms of the bisilicate, producing no change ty) would give for m,n, the values 3,2, and afford the formula 3K Bi+2k? Siz, equivalent to Re Si7. This formula corresponds to the analyses of a tremolite from Fahlun, an actinolite from Ta- _berg, a hornblende from Helsingfors, each containing no alumina ; and of the aluminous varieties from Kongsberg, Kimito, La Prese, Lindbo, Vogelsberg, Bohemia, the Uralite, &. M. F. Sanppercer (on p. 453 of the Ixxxiii volume of Poggen- dorff,) precedes the paper by Rammelsberg by mentioning many Cases of the close intermixture of hornblende and augite crystals, and describes cases of twins in which one part of the crystal is augite and the other hornblende. He also describes crystals of augite containing throughout particles of chrysolite, the latter mineral being in parallel combination with the former. In Specimens he finds hornblende and chabasite intimately mingled. This combination of hornblende and augite in a single twin Would seem to show that the difference between them is not due to temperature. M. Sandberger urges that the hornblende and augite in the cases adduced cannot be either one or the other a result of pseudomorphism, and that both are properly the same mineral species. _ Rutile of Waterbury, Vermant.—Dr. A. A. Hayes in remuark- ing on a specimen of quartz containing acicular rutile from Wa- terbury, Vermont, before { 1¢ Boston Society of Natural History, (Proceedings, 1851, 23,) stated that the acicular crystals must ave existed occupying a cavity before the quartz was formed, The rutile needles often pass through the regular terminations of the quartz crystals, and roughen the surfaces by their broken ends. The flaws or rents in the mass of the crystal are most frequent about the rutile, indicating that this mineral by its Szooxp Sxgms, Vol. XII, No. 36.—Nov., 1851. 50 >. a 390 Mineralogical Notices. changes of temperature, as it does not expand at the same rate as quartz, may cause the destruction of crystals of the latter. Beudantite of Levy.—Mr. H. J. Brooxe states (Phil. Mag., [A], ii, 21, July, 1851,) that on showing a crystal of the Beudan- tite of Levy to M. Descloiseaux, he acknowledged that it differed entirely from the mineral examined by himself and M. Damour as Beudantite, as well as every other specimen under that name which he had seen. Emerylite on the Diaspore of Katharinenberg.—Mr. 'THomas F. Seat of Philadelphia states in a letter to one of the editors of this Journal that he has just received a specimen of the diaspore of Katherinenberg and finds it also quite a good specimen of ‘emerylite. Agalmatolite—This material is called Fun Shih or Powder stone by the Chinese, from its softness. It is often reduced to wder and used in this state in making razor strops. It is found in the Canton province. The reddish colored variety is more common than the green.—Correspond. of S. W. Williams of nton. ‘ Karstenite—The crystallization of Karstenite has been studied by J. F. L. Hausmann, who points out its close conformity in its angles with heavy spar and celestine, and makes some general re- marks on isomorphism or homeeomorphism.—Soc. Sez. Goitin- gen, March 15, 1850. Cinnabar.—A large deposit of cinnabar, yielding 80 p. c. on analysis has been discovered in the island of Corsica.—J. de. Pharm., March, 1 Gold from California, (Phil. Mag., [4], i, 261.)—Analyses of three samples, after separating the oxyd of iron mixed with it. i Gold 93:53 Silver 6.47 = 100. A. D. THomas. IL «93-06 “694 == 100. -F. Watrers Til. “« - 96-42 “358 = 100. A. D. Tuomas. Gold of New Grenada.—The principal deposits of alluvial gold in New Grenada, are those of Sinitabé, Oquendo, Baharona, San Juan, La Vaca and Rio Dulze. The best mines are twenty- ve or more in number, of which those of El Zancudo, Titiribe, La Clara, Amalfi and Pedrero are worked. The amount exported and made into coin for the year ending with August 31, 1848, was 5:187 liv.—(Ann. des Mines, [4], xviii, 358. ) _ On the origin of Ores of zinc, lead, iron and manganese in wregular beds; by M. J. Detanovr.—Ann. des Mines, [4]; Xvin, 455. On the Sulphur bed of Szwoszowice, near Cracow ; by M. + Zevuscuyer.—( Ann. des Mines, [4], xviii, 125.) Pay Mineralogical Notices. 391 On the Nepheline rock of the Lébau mountain ; by Dr. Hewe- rriem, (J. f. pr. Chem., 1, 500.)—This author finds’ the mass of the rock to consist of 45°38 p.c. of augite, 32-61 nepheline, 4-00 magnetic iron, 3-91 apatite, 3-42 water, 1:33 titanite, the remaining 9°35 p, c. being in part olivine. The augite, a diop- Side, consists o Si Al Ca Meg Fe Mn 52°54 0-42 25°42 17°54 229 trace == 98-21 The nepheline from selected grains, afforded— Si Al # I Na kK It 4350 $2338 142 365 O11 1418 508 032=100°89 Analyses of the whole stone gave Si Al Be Ga Fe Mn Me Na eee I. 41:13 14:33 661 1223 720 0:06 533 4:38 170 165 3-42 If, 42:12 1435 2312 1300 — 0:18 614 4:11 218 165 3-42 with chlorid of calcium 0-04, fluorid of calcium 0-27, in each, and in the 2nd, 0:54 of titanic acid. Variolites of Drac.—Analyses and descriptions are given by Al. - Gueymard in the Ann. des Mines, [4], xviii, On the structure and composition of certain rocks of the Alps and Dauphiny ; by M. Lory, (Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, vii, [2], 540.)—This paper treats mainly of the hornblendic rocks, diabase and diorite. The diabase of the Chalanches in Allemont (Oisans) consists principally of hornblende of a deep green color, lustrous and largely lamellar; in some parts, the large crystals of hornblende are so filled in with smaller, that there is little room left for feldspar; in others, the feldspar is more abundant, and mixed in with the hornblende like a graphic granite. The hornblende consisted of— Si Al Fe Ca Mg alkalies (diff) Hornblende, 453 80 257 123 60 13 ign. Oxygen 2175 37 ‘58 85. 22 1-4=100 The alumina appears to replace silica. The feldspar afforded on analysis (p. 542)— ; se we . * K H Andvite, 894 stk 06 ST trae «TO 84 HBOS Oxygen 80°86 1131 019 104 180 057 182 It is hence andesite having the oxygen ratio for the protoxyds, peroxyds and silica 1:3:8. The andesite is associated wi epidote, which is often abundant. This mineral gave on analy- Sis (p. 543) — Si zl. e é, 406 30°2 112 177 Oxygen 21:1 141 . 25 49 Ta oF aod Beery ge ves = Bon" Mineralogical Notices. Another diabase contains crystallized prehnite in prisms. Its aecaigg afforded a different puaposizien from the above, as follow. Si Xl Fe Mm Ga Mg H Hornblende, 509 49 212 trace 112 87 1-6, alkalies and loss 1°5 The feldspar of the rock is andesite as before, giving :— Si & Fe Ca Mg Na kK H Andesite, 599. 251 trace 87 OF T4 12 1997 A schistoid dioriia: is a common rock in L’Oisans. There Is feldspar is andesite. This same feldspar is also found in the euphotide of Lavaldens in the department of L’Isére. This rock consists of deep olive green lamellar diallage and the white ande- site; the latter afforded on analysis— Bi AL Be Oa Mg allolice (cits) H 60:0 8 °° T1 6-0 23 =100 A doubt existed among some elinkérs st itis Geological So- ciety with regard to the feldspar i in the above analyses being ande- site, on the sround that the rocks in which it has been reported to be found may contain some free silica; but this Delesse denies. ] Lava.—Ramuetssere makes the lava of Thjorsa, Iceland, from the analysis by Genth (given in this Journal, vol. vii, 2nd series, p. 114,) to consist of anorthite 55-59, augite ‘40-46, olivine 4:51. The Thiorsauite of Genth is impure anorthite according to this chemist. For the lava of Hals, Iceland, which has a grayish black color and sp. gr. 2°919, he gives the composition, lime-oligoclase 63, augite 28, olivine 9. That of Efrahvolshraun, which is unerys- talline, with a black color inclining to gray and sp. gr. 2°76, consists, according to him, of 71-37 of lime oligoclase and 29° ‘66 augite (including olivine and magnetic iron The lava of Etna was determined by Abich some years since, to be composed of 54:80 labradorite, 34:16 augite, 7-98 olivine, and 3°06 magnetic iron=100. That of Sirceaboli, according to the same author, consists of 48-18 labradorite, 44-91 angite, 6° _ magnetic iron, or 44:30 labradorite, 39-12 augite, and 16°58 oli- vine. That of Vesuvius, of 60°19 leucite, 20-44 augite, 10:12 olivine, 8°95 magnetic iron = 100. Rammelsberg .also observes that the Juvenas meteoric stone has the same composition as the Thjorsa lava of Hecla, it con- sisting of anorthite and augite in nearly the same proportions. Red Antique Porphyry.—Deuxssr has examined this rock with important soli (Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, vii, 524, 1850. ) The fe s in small oblong macled triclinic crystals, of a — whitish or rose nai rarely greenish. G=2-690. Composition : oth, Mineralogical Notices. = 393 Si Al #e M K. ign. : 68:92 2249 075 060 553 187 693 093 164—99-67 Oxygen 3061 1051 023 O18 1:55 O72 1477 0-16 _ This result approaches both the andesite of Alsace and the lime-oligoclase of Forchhammer. The paste of the same rock gave— Si Al a Mg Na K ign. 6217 1471 779 880 500 410 204 0589969 It is remarkable that the part driven off by heat is much less than with the crystals. Its density is 2-763, which after fusion 4 is reduced to 2-486. Red Syenite of Egypt.—This syenite, according to Delesse, consists of quartz, orthoclase, oligoclase, mica and often horn- blende. Mean density 263. The orthoclase is of a reddish color. The feldspar which is commonly referred to oligoclase is usually white, sometimes yellowish or even greenish. The propor- tions of the ingredients are, orthoclase 43, gray quartz 44, white oligoclase 9, black mica 4.—Buill. Geol. Soc. de France, vii, 487. Mineralogical Notes from the correspondence of Prof. B. Su- Liman, Jr., dated Italy, May and June, 1851.—Prof. Scacchi pub- lished in 1849 a memoir on the Campania, entitled, “‘ Memorie Geologiche sulla Campania,” 4to, pp. 131, with 4 plates, Naples. Misenite, a new species described in this work by Prof. Scacchi 1s a sulphate of potash, having the composition 280? KO, HO. he Scacchite is a silicate of lime and alumina containing fluo- tine, and occurs in square prisms highly modified. Leucite occurs at Vesuvius in the older ejected blocks as well as the most recent lavas, and it is observed in some instances un- dergoing a change to Ryacolite, while still retaining the external orm of leucite, and sometimes cavities of ryacolite crystals are formed in the leucite. : ircon occurs at Vesuvius in beautiful white and blue octahe- drons in the old ryacolite gangue. #%wor spar occurs in octahe- drons with hornblende in the older lavas. Forsterite is identical with anorthite. i Davyne is regarded by Prof. Scacchi as a variety of Nepheline. The 6-sided prisms are striated longitudinally, and are modified by a plane on the terminal edges, and another on the lateral ; it occurs in a compact pyroxenic gangue, while the Nepheline oc- curs in a gangue of ryacolite. 2 Arragonite is formed in.an old mine at Monte Vasa from day to day, at a temperature below that of boiling water. __ ; uratite comes from Campiglia in the Maremma Pisena in Tuscany, and not from Volterra. ourmalines of Hiba.—In the Grand Duke’s collection at Florence there is a specimen 11 inches square, with four erect 394 Mineralogica]- Notices. green tourmalines and one prostrate, 2, 4, and 24 inches long, and # to linch thick. 'They are asgeciated with orthoclase and crys- tallized quartz. The pmk.gourmalines of Elba have always the basal plane OR, while the green prisms are terminated with rhombohedral planes. 7% Analcime ?—A singular Analcime-like mineral occurs at Monte Catini, in which the soda replaces magnesia, according to Prof. Meneghini of Florence, who obtained for its composition— Si Al Mg Na K H 59°347 22-083 10'250 0-450 0-015 7-560 [This result gives the oxygen ratio for the protoxyds, peroxyds, silica and water 1: 2: 6: 14.] Blowpipe test for Sulphur.—The test for sulphur by means of the nitro-prussid of soda, is suggested by Prof. J. W. Bailey, in volume xi, of this Journal, p. 351. The following are more minute directions for the use of this elegant test. Heat by blowpipe any sulphuret or sulphate (or any thing con- taining sulphur) upon charcoal with carbonate of soda, put the fused mass into a watch glass with a drop of water, and add a particle not larger than a pin’s head of the nitro-prussid of soda ; there will be a magnificent purple at once. If this test for sul- phur is tried upon parings of nails, hair, albumen, &c., I wou d advise that the carbonate of soda be mixed with a little starch, which appears to prevent the loss of any of the sulphur by oxyda- tion. If you wind up a piece of hair four inches long by coiling it around one point of a platinum support, then moisten it and dip it into the mixture of carbonate of soda with starch, and then heat by blowpipe, the fused mass will give with the nitro-prussid an unmistakable action indicative of sulphur. This experiment any one can repeat. By careful management I obtained perfectly satisfactory results from a piece of hair less than an inch long. chrysolite, an iron-magnesia, pyroxene containing alumina, (Fe Mg)? (Si, Al)*, chytophyllite, humboldtilite, orthoclase, lead vitriol, arsenate of copper? and arsenate of nickel. Brown, yellow, green and black blende have been formed in the furnaces of the Lauten valley in the Hartz, in regular octahe- drons with modified edges and in dodecahedrons. Blende als° occurs lamellar or even radiated. : alena also is often formed by sublimation in the chimney® of furnaces, and the crystals are uniformly cubic with the usual . a 5 Mineralogical Notices; 395 cleavage. Octahedral and cubic ‘crystals of magnetic iron some- times incrust cavities in the stone or brick work of the furnaces. The chytophyllite, ( p- 35,) has the-formula (ie, Ga) (Si, 41), and consists of ae ere Sth Si Al Fe 7 - Oa n 54897 5-078 20794 - —- 20°846==101°115 It is foliated columnar, not unlike some kyanite, with the color pearl gray, having a shade of lavender blue. Luster of folia be- tween vitreous and pearly; translucent, when thin. Specific gravity at 15° R. 2-940. H.=5-5. Breaks with difficulty being tough. B.B. fuses easily with intumescence to a greenish-black glass, not magnetic. New American localities of Minerals; by F. B. Hoven, A.M, M.D. (Communicated for this Journal.) —Sulphate of Barytes, in a highly crystallized form, associated with an extremely unc- tuous variety of specular iron ore and serpentine, on the farm of James Morse, in Gouverneur. Specimens from this place are full of angular cavities from the intersection of tabular crystals. ; _ Chondrodite occurs abundantly disseminated through white limestone, about three-fourths of a mile west of Somerville, in the town of Rossie. This is the only place where it has been observed in quantity in Northern New York. It is associated as usual with : Spinel, in perfect octahedrons with but few modifications. The latter mineral is of a pale rose color, and when in small crystals, is nearly transparent. They occur from an inch to less than a line in diameter and are frequently grouped together in great numbers. The large crystals are quite rare, but the smaller ones are common. Apatite, in the town of Gouverneur, about two miles north of Somerville. Large crystals occur through the soil and in the subjacent limerock. Most of those hitherto procured have been from the partially decomposed rock. _ One crystal had a length of one foot and a diameter of two inches. The form of the crystals is very perfect, except the terminal planes which are covered with pits and irregular indenta- tions. The quality is very poor, but doubtless translucent and highly colored specimens might be obtained from the rock. Sphene, in large brown crystals, has been obtained from the town of Macomb, in the vicinity of Pleasant Lake. The quality 18 Very inferior, and crystalline form imperfect. _ ; lena an inc Blende, have been observed in considerable quantities in the town of Macomb, about half a mile from the ilson Lead Mine. It is on the land of James Averil, and is Owned by that gentleman and Messrs. Wilson and Smith. These Ores occur disseminated through a friable limestone rock, to the Width of several feet, and promise a profitable yield of these met- 396 : Mineralogical Notices. als. Carbonate of lead in a white powder is the only associated mineral of interest. Crystallized Specular Iron ore, associated with elegant crys- tallizations of quartz, have been discovered on the farm of J. mith, in Gouverneur, St. Lawrence county. ‘ Phlogopite, in large plates and spheroidal concretions, and con- taining minute crystals of garnet, has been obtained in considera- ble quantities in a working for iron ore in Gouverneur, near the mill of R. K. Smith. The mica crumbles soon when exposed to the weather. Crystallized specular iron ore is associated with 1t. Arragonite, in snow-white concretions on surfaces of iron ore, at a new working at the Parish iron mine in Rossie, St. Law- rence county. remolite, in great variety and abundance on the farm of F’. Arnold, in the town of Diana, Lewis Co., associated with white limestone. Notices of Localities in New England ; by Mr. Jas. J. H. Gree- ory, of Marblehead, Mass. (Communicated to one of the Editors. ) Sullivan, N. H.—Tourmalines! In quartz, of a deep brilliant black, with terminal planes; found about a mile south of the center of the town.—Beryls are said to be found in the same locality. Surry, N. H.—Amethyst ; in the great railroad cut imbedded in calcareous spar, but now rare. I was informed that they had been found in other parts of the town. Cale spar, variety called nail-head spar, in slabs lining seams in the granite. Grafton, N. H.—Garnets ; from a quarter of an inch to an inch in diameter; well crystallized, but of a dull color and with — unpolished: very easily obtained from decomposing slate roc Hartford, Vt.—Calcareous spar, in masses in a ledge cut through by the railroad near the Connecticut river.—Iron pyrites, crystallized in cubes, some of which are two, three, and four considering their size. Found in a ledge about one-fourth of a mile from the calcareous Bethel, Vt.—Actinolite! Yn brilliant crystals in talc. Found very abundantly in a dyke passing through a hill.—Steatite, con- taining crystals of bitter spar. oyalston, —Mica! at a locality situated about four miles beyond the old one in South Royalston. The mica 38 of On the Identity of Eumanite and Brookite. 397° a brilliant bronze, crystallized on three sides, and affords speci- mens much superior to those of the old locality. —Beryls ! The beryls approach nearer to aqua-marines and generally are of a smaller size, and clearer, than those of South Royalston. Those of a sky-blue in the white quartz are very beautiful—Feldspar. In crystals of the same form as those of the old locality, large and _ Scarce. ‘These minerals occur in worn granite on the farm of Mr. Solyman Heyward or Heywood. Arr. XLI.—On the Crystallographie Identity of Eumanite and. rookite; by J. D. Dana. A rew days since, I received for examination from Mr. J. E. Teschemacher of Boston, two minute crystals of the Eumanite of Prof. Shepard. They had been long in his cabinet, and were pro- cured from a specimen of the Chesterfield vein, the same locality that afforded the Eumanite. They have the same dark brown color, with a deep brownish red translucence,. “like almandine garnet.” The hardness, as Mr. T’eschemacher observed, is about 6, or not above 6, scale of Mohs. A comparison of the figures here given will make obvious the identity of the two; figure 1 represents Prof. Shepard’s crystal, figure 2, Mr. Teschemacher’s. 1. 2. Szconp Serres, Vol. XII, No. 36—Nov., 1851. 61 398 Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. figure 2, and, the large lateral planes of figure 2 are wanting in figure 1. The angles obtained are as follows, together with those given by Shepard and the corresponding angles of Brookite. Eumanite. Eumanite. : SHEPARD. ANA. Brookite. Hie 4 100°-101° (fr. 2:2) 100°-100° 25’ M:M 123° 128° 08’ (fr. €: M) . 121°-124° (observed) eae 139°-142° a’: a’ (over base) 102° 11/ (fr. a’: a’, over summit) 102° 24’, Levy. a’: a’ (over summit) 77° 49° M:é 118°-118° 30’ 118° & :@ 08°-110° ee 180°-130° 80’ 1309-130’ 18 M:e’ 136° 0’ e/:e! 151° 30’ 150° 197 erie’ 159° 30’ 159° 28 (fr. 2’: e’ and e’’) é’:e 140° 02’ é’: et 119° 30’ ta 127° 40 ' & ta! 141° 5 (cale. fr. a’ : a’) a:e! 127° 30’ @:0 144° 20’ et 128° 20° e’:0 156° 30/ between @, e’, e” are parallel; those between a’ and the o either side of the plane a’; and those between 9, e’, e’, 0 are parallel. Figure 2 has the faces, (adopting Levy’s fundamental form and axes of Brookite, a=0-5558, b(é to €) =0°5957, c=1), axPn, Px, 2P2, «P2, «P3, «Ps, 2P2, P3, «Px € dee RS , eS é Calculating from these axes gives, e/:e/= 149°, @:e’=139° 53’, ez = 159° 20’, & : e” = 120° Al’, 0:0 (over e’) = 100° 26.’ New Haven, Sept. 23. Arr. XLIL—Observations on the Pendulum Experiment; by Rev. C. 8. Lyman. Tue fact that the plane of vibration of a free pendulum has 4 movement in azimuth around the vertical, had been observed by many experimenters, before it was brought so prominently into notice by M. Foucault in connection with the rotation of the earth. ‘This movement is distinctly described, and illustrated by a figure, in some manuscript observations on the motion of a Rev. C. 8. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. 399 pendulum by the Florentine Academicians, but without any in- timation of its cause. That such a motion was to be expected, was also suggested by the Marquis de Poli, (Phil. Trans., 1742,) and by Poisson in 1837, but without giving the subject any fur- ther attention, or attempting to test it by experiment. he observed independence of the plane of oscillation of a vibrating steel rod inserted in the revolving arbor of a lathe, ap- pears first to have suggested to M. Foucault the idea that the plane of vibration of a free pendulum would, in like manner, be independent of the rotation of the ear ‘he experiment was first tried by him with a pendulum six and a half feet in length suspended from the vaulted roof of a cellar, and with entire success. It was subsequently repeated, in connection with M. Arago, at the Paris Observatory, with a pen- dulum thirty-six feet long. This wasin February, 1851. Since that time the experiment has excited general interest, and numer- ous repetitions of it have been made both in Europe and America. € propose in the present article to give a general summary of information on this subject, derived partly from published ac- a a firm metallic support. ee irections, this method is as good as can the wire is thus flexible or not, may be ascertained @pperiment- ally in the manner suggested by Prof. Bache at Washington ; namely, by placing the portion of the wire at which the flexure 400 «Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. is to take place ina horizontal position, and after attaching a small weight to the extremity of it, observing whether the weight bends it down always to the same extent while the wire is turned around on its axis. If any error in the movement of the plane of vibration of the pendulum is due to a different flexibility of the wire in different directions, the effects of it may be elimina- ted by so constructing the support to which the wire is attached that it can be shifted in azimuth during the experiments.* 2. Length of Pendulum wire and weight of ball.—The greatest length hitherto employed was that of 220 feet, at the Pantheon at Paris. The pendulum at Bunker Hill Monument was 210 feet long. That used at Providence was 97 feet, that at New Haven 71 feet, while in Great Britain and on the continent, few of the pendulums used were over 50 or 60 feet in length. In many cases they have been less than ten feet; and even with these the change in the direction of the plane of oscillation is clearly shown. The weight of the ball employed has been very various, ranging from two to eighty or ninety pounds; and it has usually been made of lead, which, on account of its great specific gravity, is better adapted to this purpose than any other copper shell and in others in one of iron, could detect no differ- ence in the results, and concluded from his very delicate experi- the mass of the body is great and its motion slow, will have comparatively but little effect on the direction of the vibrations. This is the main reason why short pendulums do not succeed as well as long ones. 3. Length of the arc of vibration.—It seems to have been an object with most of the European experimenters to give the or gist) ae AO ., Some hale completed the supe at top by means of softened catgut oF ib by Mr. Phillips. But the great ellipticity of the path of bis peviaiam and the irregularities in the results do not strongly reco Rev. C. 8. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. 401 pendulum a very wide swing, for the purpose doubtless of having the motion of the plane of vibration, measured on the graduated 7 tter. Not only is the resistance of the air proportionately less, but the tendency to an elliptic motion is greatly diminished, and the ease of marking the apparent motion of the plane much in- creased. A total are of vibration of 2° or 3° is preferable to one of 8° or 10°. The former corresponds to an are of from two to three feet in a 60 foot pendulum, instead of 8 or 10 feet, which is a length given it by many experimenters. ources of error.—These are so numerous and obvious, yet difficult to avoid, that the wonder is, not that the experiments exhibit some discrepancy in the results, but that they show so little. Poinsot reasoned that the rotary motion of the earth must tend to affect the plane of a pendulum’s vibrations, but concluded that the effect would be too small to become sensible. The effect of a different degree of flexibility in the suspending Wire in one direction from that in another, will be to vary the ap- ong with it around the vertical, and thts, in some degree, di- Minish the amount of motion which the plane of vibration would otherwise have. Bat besides this effect, the air must produce other and still greater disturbances, in consequence of the cur- 402 = Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. rents into which it is constantly liable to be thrown. Few apart- ments are closed perfectly tight; or if there be no currents from this source, the motion of the observer in the room, his respira- tion or the heat of -his body, will constantly tend to disturb the equilibrium of the air; and how great an effect on the delicate movements of the pendulum the slightest current will have, may be learned by breathing ever so gently towards such a pendulum when in motion. A single breath will throw it into an elliptic path and sensibly change its plane of oscillation. One great source of the elliptic motion so constantly observed in these experiments undoubtedly is the almost insensible lateral oscillation which the pendulum is apt to have at the moment of being let off, notwithstanding the utmost care that may be taken to extinguish it. Perhaps as good a way as any to secure perfect quiescence at this moment, is to bring some smooth surface, like that of an ivory scale, into contact with the point of the pendulum index, while the other end of the scale resting as the short arm of a lever, on some solid support for a fulcrum, is gently pressed by the finger. In this way the contact can be delicately re- newed and broken till the slight friction on the point of the peu- dulum gradually brings it to rest. e common method of starting the pendulum by suddenly letting loose the single thread attached to the loop which retains it, is perhaps the best that can be employed. 5. Phenomena observed.—When a pendulum, freely suspended as before described, is put in vibration, the plane of oscillation is seen gradually to change its position in reference to the points of the compass, or to have a horizontal movement of rotation around the vertical from left to right, or with the motion of the hands of a watch. : The rate of this angular motion has been the point to which most persons who have repeated the experiment, have directed .. oe <—- 4 Rev. C. §. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment, 403 AN periments, an arc of vibration of about seven feet, but in his . later ones, of one or two feet only. r. B. appears to have taken much pains to note the amount of elliptic metion which the pen- dulum acquires, and appliedsto the observed angular motion of the plane of vibration certain corresponding corrections, to ob- tain his tabulated results. a z “ The following table contains the observed rate of motion, and other particulars of the experiments, at the several places named. We regret that the results of the experiments of Prof. Horsford, at the Bunker Hill Monument, are not within our reach. Fi Pe so ilbs|_s ive 1. 18 Pe liek Ge oma ae dy Puce Be 1BS/ 582/282) 2 135 Se lee Sesises| es les Heiss ioge oes aa. les : : _ ie aks hours Bristol, Eng, . . [58 ft..8 ft. 12:09711°768'51 27 | 264 (T.G. Bunt, . . “| “ (11-945) © |." |. .|Mean of preceding with additional ex- p : “ 4ft. 11-677; * sf 87 | Corrected for ellipticity; “ (14in.11°651|; * $ 4 “ ‘short 11-750) “ “ (8264141 trials uncorrected : for ratgonet Dublin, . . . |85 ft/4 ft. |11-90012073'5323 |. . |(Galbraith and Haugh- ton.) we ee 5 14 ft.13°12 |12°163/58 58 |. . |4 trials. ? (J. Phillips) . . |5f (18in1194| “ | “ |. .[4 “ weight 175 lbs, Geneva, Sw... . /664 /11 ft. 11-84810°856'4612 | 9 |4 “ E. and W. (Dufour & Wartmann)| “ S + zt es if Pe o ia : ‘ Length of arc*| Length of are Length of T f Py first 5°, so % of one = tion | of ony ae of onilation . m, $s names 1 29 20 28 0 44 2 30 50 30 0 40°5 =i © 3 81 5 30 25 40°6 uli + 31 30 31 30 46 e 5 31 50 31 10 44 Mean. 30 55 30 18 3 SS RS ee a Ne oa re, the PendulumExperiment, 405 experiments appearsto have be@¥Bvery carefully ednducted. _ The experiments of Mr. Phillips at York, present still greater discrepancies. At New Haven the rate of motion per hour in different trials, always fell within half a degreeyof the mean, as will be seen from the following table, which presents more in detail the observations of which some general results were given in a previous paper. ‘’ Time. muthal cir- arc of vi- Length | minor ing sean ot “4 sapeos. m4 erent | cle passed bration at| Of are | ‘lip °F! motion {bration per the ellig ted for eet. Y fOVEES beginuing, | #¢ end. /¢ IPSC+ in ellipsejhour. ~ {per hour. | ellipticity. | min. | 5 4 | inches. |inches,| . in. 9 dee. 416 | “0-4 480 | 2301002] R | to12 |—-6:01 | 1011 2.;117:0} 0-20 550 | 116) -O1 5 6 |— 01 | 10°25 : 363] 0-6 508 | 272) -06 R 992 |— 02 9°90 3 ae 0-805 | 366 10 R 10°00 | — -03 9°97 4 8] 0-10 404 | 17 20 L 987 |+ -06 9:93 Belugs 10 406 | 14 nT = 975 {+ -03 9-78 _ stag 10-20 | 460 | 18 so} L 952 {4 08 960 . 28 | 90-120 | 44-0 72-1 16| R 10-41 |— 04 | 10°37 if | a 90-9 434 | 268} 12] R 10°34 |— 04 | 1030 i | 5 180-140 | 44°8 8 04} R 75 |— 01 9°74 : 486 1298} lo} L 1017 |+ 04 | 1021 . ‘0 |.12°2 i. 46 | + -02 9-4 R 10°28 |— -03 | 1026 he 10°18 00 | 1018 R 9-92 |— ‘02 9°92 7 9:66 |-++ -02 9°68 997 | 9°97 b ‘ The zero of the hofizontal circle was nearly in the meridian. mean rate of metion, it will be observed, a little exceeds ‘are of vibration had become very short. be considered of two kinds, the necessary, and 7 ticity which must necessarily be given to the ndulum by the rotation of the earth itself, has 52 XII, No, 36.—Noyv., 1851. moti > Sznizs, Vol. , os ; -. 406 = Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. been perhaps sufficiently illustrated in an article on page 251 of this volume. Such an ellipticity may be produced in an exag- erated degree, by suspending a pendulum from an arch overa whirling-table, so that it may hang when at rest directly in the axis of motion. If the pendulum ball be drawn aside to the periphery of the table, and detained there by a catch, while the table is made to revolve, on bear loose instead of falling ina straight line through the point of rest, or center, it will describe an elliptic orbit, whose minor axis will be proportioned to the tangential velocity of the ball at the moment it is disengaged. If that velocity be sufficient to carry it a quarter round the periphery of the table in the time it would move by the force of gravity to the center, or make half a vibration, the centrifugal and cen- tripetal forces will balance each other, and the pendulum when let loose, move in a circle, with the same rate of motion as that of the circumference of the revolving table. In the ordinary pendulum experiments, this ellipticity, owing to the slowness of the tangential motion given to the ball by the rotation of the earth, must be very slight; so slight, indeed, as to be nearly or quite insensible to direct observation, being lost amid the accidental sources of elliptic motion, unless the experi- ment be conducted on an extensive scale. The longer the pen- dulum and the larger the are of vibration, the greater will be the minor axis of the ellipse. The following formula, deduced by Prof. Stanley of Yale Col- lege, from a consideration of the forces by which the pendulum is governed, viz., gay": expresses the length of the semi-minor 7 axis (B) in terms of the tangential velocity (V), and time occu- pied in a semi-vibration of the pendulum (t). Then, A being the length of the semi-chord of vibration, or radius of the circle in which the ball receives its tangential velocity from the earth’s ro- QnA q B eg QnA _ at - $6400’ 2nd consequently, B=sin.4 79 x 7 4 being the latitude of the place. tation, V=sin. sin. i. a : 21600’ For the latitude of New Haven, (41° 18’ 24,”) with a pendu- lum making a half vibration in 2s-33, and having a chord of vi- bration of 4 feet, this would give for the minor axis of the el- lipse, 09-0034. In the latitude of Paris, with a pendulum 220 eet long, and vibrating 20 feet, the minor axis of the ellipse would be 0:"-0344, nearly ;!,th of an inch, a quantity easily appre- ciable in careful observations. : hether this ellipticity will tend to develop itself in a series of experiments by causing a preponderance of motion in one direction “ sgh q CC - Ee a oy Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experimeut. 407 rather than the other, is somewhat doubtful. Many of the pub- lished observations, especially those with long pendulums, seem to indicate sucha result. At Providence the motion in three- fourths of the trials was towards the left. With shorter pendu- lums the ellipticity in each direction seems to have been about equal—though in Mr. Bunt’s long series the preponderance was also towards the left. ut the most marked ellipticity, and the one constantly observ- ed in these experiments, is that which may be considered as ac- cidental, and which varies both in amount and direction in differ- ent trials. In the experiments at New Haven, the minor axis of the ellipse rarely exceeded a tenth of an inch. Mr. Bunt in some of his trials, and several others, have found it equally small ; While others, owing doubtless to a faulty apparatus, or to aerial the time of describing the ellipse) multiplied by Ss i To reduce this to a convenient form for computing the pro- 8tessive motion of the apses of the ellipse per hour, let m repre- Sent that hourly motion, ‘Tl’ the time of a complete revolution of the apses, and ¢ the time in seconds of a double vibration of the 8a? being in seconds) Pendulum ; then, as above, Tata But, ( 7’ being in 360° ; _ a 3600. Substituting the above value of 77, 360° x 3600 x38 soenng 5¢ m= iad af" ai * Sat ‘If a=71 feet 852 inches, £=9,333 seconds, b=24 inches, and ¢=0-2 inches, (6 and ¢ being the arithmetical mean of the A408 Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. values of these quantities at the beginning and end of the exper- 486000 x24 x02 = 0°-3443=0° 20/ 395 (852)? x 9333 per iment, ) then, = hour. In this manner were computed the corrections for ellipticity given in the last column but one of the table on page 405. It will be seen from this table that the motion of the apses of the ellipse as given by the formula, accounts for but a small part of the difference between the observed rate of motion of the pen- dulum plane and that which it would have were there no elliptic motion. It must be remembered, however, that the formula does not take into account the resistance of the air, and other fruitful sources of disturbance. 'The agreement of the formula with the differences in the rates of motion observed by Mr. Bunt is some- The motion of the apses of the extremely narrow ellipse that has been spoken of as arising from the earth’s rotation, must tend slightly to diminish the rate of motion of the pendulum plane, since it takes place in the same direction as the motion of the compass as at first. _ Again let it be noticed, that the direction of the force of grav- y being constant, that is, towards the center of the earth, the RET Rev. C. 8. Lyman on the Pendulum E'xperiment. 409 relation of the pendulum to that force must also be constant, and its motion is to be treated, not absolutely or in reference to space, but precisely as if the earth were at -rest, the equal motion of both earth and pendulum having no effect on their mutual rela- tions to each other, save in the relative change in the horizontal direction of the line of the pendulums vibrations, in consequence of the fact that that direction is entirely independent of the earth’s motion, as we have just illustrated. The direction of the plane of vibration depends for its permanency on the inertia of jatter, and whatever change may be made in the position of that plane in respect to space, or the heavens, by the earth’s rotation, precise- ly the same change of position takes place in the earth itself, and as we have said, the direction of gravity in respect to both Te- maining the same, we are only required to consider the relative horizontal change that takes place in the angle made by the plane of vibration with a given line on the earth’s surface. At the pole the problem is extremely simple—the plane of vi- bration remaining constant, and the earth turning under it at the full rate of its angular velocity of rotation, or 15° per hour. As we recede from the pole, the problem is, to find the true ratio subsisting between the earth’s angular velocity of rotation and the latitude of the place, for at the equator both the latitude and motion of the plane are at zero, and no relative angular mo- tion can be exhibited. - Binet, (Comptes Rendus, 1851, Nos. 6, 7), Rev. J. A. Coombe, (Phil. Magazine, No. 7, 1851), and other mathema- ticians, have investigated the problem on the method of resolving the rotary motion of one point on the earth’s surface into two, one about the vertical to that point, and the other about an axis at right angles to it and lying in the direction of the meridian. If the motion took place wholly about the latter, which is parallel to the surface of the table over which the pendulum vibrates, the effect would be precisely the same as at the equator, for there this axis coincides with the earth’s axis, and in either case there could be no relative motion of the plane. It is the other part of the motion were wholly around this axis, th ae the same as at the pole, for there this vertical axis would coinei With the earth’s axis, and the angular motion would be at its Maximum. From these considerations equations are formed from which the exact angular change of position of a line on - earth’s surface, considered as around the vertical, is shown to Proportional to the sine of the latitude M. Binet enters into _ analytical investigation, in which the conditions of the ape ty) the pendulum generally are expressed by certain differential equa- tions, the integration of which conducts him to certain expres- 410 ~=- Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. sions, which, when simplified by. the consideration of limiting the vibration to small ares, gives the azimuthal velocity uniform in the direction from left to right, and in the simple proportion of the sine of the latitude. Prof. O’Brien of Kings College, London, in an article on Sym- bolical Mechanics, in the August number of the Philosophical agazine, investigates the same problem, and concludes, “ that the effect produced by the earth’s rotation on the pendulum is proportioned in every respect to the sine of the latitude.” erhaps the simplest and most satisfactory method of illustra- ting the subject to minds not specially trained to mathematical coil ny ee ae * We have learned since that article was in type, that the same method of illus, been used by Prof. Horsford. ee *s 2 * base the circle of latitude B CO, and the inclination of any two meridians to each other at this parallel of latitude, is represent- ed by the angle formed at the apex of the cone by the corres- ponding tangents. Let the ar- rows a, b, c, represent successive positions of the pendulum plane; now, as the earth revolves on its axis, the angle formed by this plane with the meridian, or rath- er with its tangent, is continual- ly increasing, but evidently in- creasing not by an amount as great in a given time as the an- gular motion of the earth on its axis in the same time; for the motion of a place B going round with the earth at the rate of 15° an hour, takes place in a circle having for its radius the line B b, while the same motion of B considered as around A, (or in other words, the relative angular change in the direction of the meridian), takes place in a circle of which the radius is B A, a radius as much greater than the other as the hypothenuse of a right angled triangle is greater than one of its sides; consequently, the circumferences of circles be- ing proportioned to their radii, the angular change in a given time must be less in the larger circle than in the smaller, and as mucl less as the line B 6 is less than B A, or as the sine of an angle is less than radius, (Bb being the sine of the angle B A 6, when B A is made radius.) But the angle B A 4, in the right angled triangle A B D, is the complement of the angle at D, which lat- ter is the complement of the latitude ; consequently B A b=the latitude ; B is the sine of the latitude ; and therefore the angu- ar change in the direction of the meridian, and consequently i apparent motion of the pendulum plane, is proportioned to the sine of the latitude. : Now when the pendulum has made one complete revolution total change of inclination of the parallel arrows — one globe to the successive meridians in going once round the globe, in li i f 360°. must in like manner equal only a corresponding part o ‘Phe last line in the series of quasi parallels, therefore, can only — be parallel to the first, when the circuit has been made at the * 412) Rev. C. S. Lyman ‘on the Pendulum Experiment. equator, where both the meridians and successive positions of the pendulum plane maintain a perpetual parallelism. This varying rate of relative angular motion as we proceed from the poles to the equator, may be very simply illustrated by the following easy device. ut out a circular piece of paper, and draw radii from its cen- ter to every thirtieth degree, as represented in the figure. At the extremities of these radii draw a series of arrows, all parallel to each other around the entire circle. Cut open the paper from the center outwards, as at the double line in the figure. t 1180. 210 150 240 120 \ 270 90 300 60 330 30 360||0 This paper with its radii may be used to represent the cone form- ed by the meridional tangents, having the axis of the earth passing up through its apex or center, and its base resting on a parallel of latitude. At the pole, where the tangents touch the surface of the earth, and all lie in the same plane, the sum of all the angles which they form at the center, is equal to 360, as represented by the paper in its original flat condition, its circumference being en- tire. Leta pendulum be carried around the pole at an indefinitely small distance from it, say a few feet only, and the successive po- sitions of its plane of vibration will be not only relatively paral- ~ lel to each other, but may be considered as strictly so, as repre=_ sented by the arrows in the figure. If now one edge of the pa- aes where it is cut open, be tapped over the other, the center W: rise and e apex of a cone ; and as one edge of the % * a Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. 413 with the arrow parallel to it is slid around the surface so as to make the cone gradually more steep, it will be seen that the an- gle of inclination which the first arrow forms with each succes- sive arrow that it meets, is continually increasing, and is precise- ly equal to the portion of the original circle that has been covered up by the over-lapping of the sides. Let the edge overlap for example one quarter of the circle, or cut off 90°, the cone will then be as in the accompanying figure. All but 270° of the en- tire circle are seen to be ginal degrees are made to encompass the entire base, or to equal the entire cir- cle of latitude to whic the base of the cone cor- ; hence each pair of radii, instead of including only 30 degrees of a circle of latitude, includes 30° grit and the angles which the arrows make with the successive radii, viz., 30, 60, 90, &c. degrees are continually falling short of the corresponding angular motion of the earth, viz., 40, 80, 120, &c. degrees, so that when acomplete circuit of the earth has been made, or 360°, the ar- rows have changed their relative direction only 270°, or fall 90 Short of making an entire revolution in 24 hours, as will be seen in the figure. or gives 11° 15/ for the motion of the plane of _ Vibration per hour in the latitude contemplated. And as this lati- tude must be that, the entire circle of which is just iths of the circle which has the slant height of the cone for radius, as ap- pears from our first figure, it follows that the gine of the — must be just $ths of radius, or the latitude 48 : 35! 257. : en the sides of the paper are lapped so that 180° of the circle are concealed, the first arrow wil 414 Rev. C. S. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. which is just half of radius, that is, to the latitude of 30°. In this way the base of the cone goes on diminishing as compared it in fact becomes infinite, and the tangents form a cylinder. Of course here the pendulum plane has no relative motion. South of the equator the conditions are reversed, and as we pass towards the south pole, the plane of vibration will be found to revolve in the opposite direction, or from right to left, and with a velocity as in the other hemisphere varying with the sine of the latitude. 7. Modifications of the experiment.—Various analogous meth- ods of rendering sensible the earth’s rotary motion have been pro- posed, but none of them, so far as we know, have yet been tested by actual experiment, except that of M. Bravais with a conical n as to leave it to be governed solely by its own inertia. he experiment proposed by M. Poinsot (L’Institut, 1851, No. 897,) of a bent spring suspended by its angle and with the two gett An experiment on this principle was suggested by ieut. E. B. Hunt at the Albany meeting of the American Scei- entific Association. a ‘s 4 & uy Rev. C. 8. Lyman on the Pendulum Experiment. 15 The experiment of M. Bravais, with a conical pendulum, (L'Institut, No. 920, Aug. 20, 1851,) is extremely interesting, and appears to have been entirely successful. He coneluded from the nature of the case, that a free pendulum revolving in a circle would perform its gyrations in less time when its motion _ Coincided with the rotary motion of the earth, than when it was contrary to it. To settle this by experiment, he adopted two distinct methods that of direct observation, and that of coincidences. In the first method he observed the time occupied by the same pendulum in making from 900 to 1200 gyrations to the left, and then the duration of the same number of revolutions to the right, the pendulum being 33 feet 54 inches in length. The observed times of rotation were as follows. Right to left. Left to right. Diff. 6539887 65-39825 ‘00064 6 39925 6 39849 00076 6 39815 6 39751 00064 6 39959 6 39863 ‘00096 6 40106 6 -40032 ‘00074 6 40116 6 40044 ‘00072 Mean diff. ee 00074 The difference by theory is = 000716 The second method was even more precise. 'T'wo pendulums, one slightly longer than the other, were suspended near each other, in the plane of the meridian. One was set revolving to the right, the other to the left simultaneously, and the passage of the threads across the meridian was observed through a tele- Scope, whose optic axis cut the two threads when at rest. Let m and n/ denote the number of oscillations of the respective pen- dulums between two successive coincidencs, n’=n-+1, n’ being the shorter. At the end of the series the pendulums were set re- Volving in opposite directions respectively, and the recurrence of the coincidences under the new circumstances, determines the numbers N and N’= Let 4=the latitude, T the length of a sidereal day, ¢ the time of a conical oscillation of the long pen- dulum, separated from the effect of the earth’s rotation, and ¢’ t same for the short pendulum. Then we shall have by theory, sin 4 1 j Ce ' n+n’ N+N’ Bi wie 7% One trial gave n=207:86; N=217'82 n/ =208'86 ; N’=218-82 Another n=20631; N=215-96 n'=207°31; N’=216-96. A16 Proceedings of the British Association From these numbers the difference in time between a right and left oscillation is found to be, from the first trial, 08-000725 ; from the second, 0s-000710. From these observations M. Bravais concludes that a seconds pendulum, revolving conically, would lose three seconds per day when moving from right to left, and gain the same when moving in the contrary direction. A pendulum 33 feet long would be retarded or accelerated 11*-4 per day. From these observations M. Bravais also computed the length of a simple seconds pendu- lum, which he made 39-1255 instead of 39i"-1291 the number commonly adopted, (993™™-77, instead of 993™™-86.) Arr. XLIIL—Exztracts from the Proceedings of the Twenty-first Meeting of the British Association, held at Ipswich, July 2.* 1. On preparing Speculums for Telescope ; by the Earl of Rosse. Tue Earl of Rosse said that, having observed by the public prints that the President of the Association had, in his inaugural address, done account. In order to help their conception of what he had to say, he drew with chalk the annexed sketch. A, the great concave speculum at the bottom of the telescope tube, collecting the rays of light which came from * From the Athenzum of July 12 and 19, Nos. 1237, 1238. Sor the Advancement of Science. 417 y ~ fe] Q, 5 iii) = > oO ° g. a 142) 3 ) = S = fas) 3 ba) ag O = o. 3 Q =. S 4 ' __. at the middle of the tube. One difficulty to be got rid of was, that the head and person of the observer would itself abstract much of the light that should be permitted to proceed to the speculum to be there reflected to form the image. Another was, that the temperature of the body of the observer, so much higher as it was than the surround- ing air, tended to produce ascending currents, which both produced a wavering motion and an incorrectness of the image quite fatal to the the problem seemed most strangely to have been overlooked by all, and yet he was bold to say it was the most important of any ; he al- luded to the diffraction caused by the head of the observer, or by the box or in which it was proposed to encase it or himself. The effect of this diffraction upon the performance of the instrument would come more injurious also the larger the profile of the object which Stopped off the light. Under all these difficulties, he had come to the conclusion that all attempts at viewing the direct image must be aban- _ doned. He then turned his attention to prismatic reflexion, in which comparatively much less light was lost. But he found it impossible to a . matic ; and if any mathematicia the means of securing this resu eel h obligations to him, and would cheerfully furnish hi 418 Proceedings of the British Association data of the problem. Under these. circumstances, he perceived that there was no resource but to improvetmetaltic plane reflectors as much as possible. Now, it was well known that in reflexion by silver much less light was lost than by any of the other metals,—but, unfortunately, this metal was so soft, that great difficulties presented themselves in giving it the requisite degree of high polish. He had tried by the elec- trotype process to procure a surface with a high polish by depositing silver on a surface of speculum metal, and treating it by the same cess as that used by the distinguished officers engaged in the Trigono- metrical Survey of Ireland. But, unfortunately, he soon found that, use what precaution he would, either there took place an adherence of the deposited silver to the surface on which it had been deposited, or the polish was rendered imperfect by the means resorted to to prevent this. He tried copper similarly, which did not adhere, but produced a high degree of polish,—but of course its color and other properties other grinding powder for bringing a surface of silver to a correct form, . _ part of the process of polishing, chamois leather of the finest kind was used to rub the rouge on the silver surface, yet the finer finishing a Bie for the Advancement of Science. 419 ae: perhaps one in every twenty of the persons employed answer for thus giving the final finish. But it was obvious that the irregular action of the human hand would by no means answer the end he had in view. Suffice it to say, that. at length, after many fruitless trials, he had suc- Parpo air, or by dissolving a proper quantity of resin in the spirits of turpen- tine, and by means of this varnish applying the rouge to the same de- the use of this polishing substance he had produced a plane surface of silver which, as far as the photometric means he had within his reach to form the great speculum similarly of silver. The arl of Rosse replied that he had at present no expectation of doing so. ‘That it was a very different matter to grind and polish a speculum of a few square inches surface—which could. be done by a small machine worked by hand, and from which to the eye-piece the light had to travel but about three feet—to executing the same operations over the surface of a Speculum six feet in diameter, and from which the light after reflexion had to travel a distance of fifty-three feet. For Newton, with his usual Sagacity, had long since shown that any error in the form of the object Speculum of a reflector was a much more serious injury to the perform- : ance of the instrument than an equal error would be in the plane spec- ulum,—and that for the identical reason he had just pointed out. 2. On a New Method of determining the quantity of Hygrometric Moisture in the Air; by Dr. ANDREWS. In the absence of Dr. Andrews, Prof. Stevelly made this commu- ~ bication. Dr. Andrews had found on trial that several powders when well dried, would rapidly, effectually and-completely take up the a ture of damp air passe gh them, as effectually as the fused chi ee tid of calcium, which is too troublesome in the making, preserving Be ae oh 3 _ tion had the opportunity of seeing M. a his hand ‘e Se Sn he Pel _ and us mmon u#. For instance, he had found that welt. dried ox manganese—and a still more universally obtainable substance, powdered alabaster or sulphate of lime, as dried and pre- pared by plasterers, or b se who m being inclosed in of calcium. The apparatus contrived by Dr. Andrews—a drawing of which Prof. Stevelly exhibited and explained—consisted of a gasome- ter whose bell was attached as a counterpoise to the weight of a Dutch clock sufficiently heavy to work it. By this a measured volume of air phon containing the absorbent powder, which was attached to it by col- lars of cao Daniel’s and other rs,—to determiue the correct relation be- tween the depression of the wet bulb and the dew point—and even to se the apparatus itself as a simple integrating bygrometer by which in On the Cause which maintains Bodies in the Spheroidal State, be- yond the Sphere of Physico-chemical Activity; by M. Boutieny. capability of the human hand to pass through red-hot molten metal without injury ; and by the prompt kindness of Messrs. Ransomes & 'y, the experiment was arranged to take place at 7 o’clock in evening. Accordingly at that hour the members.of the Chemical Sec- Me i= hs * a i | ! ha : 4 4 Sor the Advancement of Science. — afhe stream of liquid red-hot iron as it passé from the faceede ou at- terwards scooping out portions of iron from the casting ladie, until the fluid sunk to the merg red-hot fluid state, when danger might be-appre- hended from the fallifig of ghe temperature causing the iron to adhere. He, 4. On Edtihquakes ; by Mr. Matter. Mr. Mallet presented his “Second Report on the Facts of Earth- quakes; and stated the result of his experiments for the ** Determina- tion of the Limits of Earthquake Wave Transit,” for which the pro- posed plan was explained last year. ‘The rate of transit was expected to __be the least rapid in sand, and most in some elastic, homogeneous, crys- easure . ' between the firing of the powder and the indication of the shock at the other station, as registered by Wheatstone’s chronograph, gave a rate ies © of 965 feet per second, as the average of ten good experiments. A Shorter base was measured on the granite, and shocks produced by borings three and a half inches diameter and eighteen feet deep, in Which as much as twenty pounds of powder were exploded. The eX Periment was repeated twenty or thirty times,—and where the granite ’ ~ Was most shattered the shock arrived at the rate of only 1,299 feet per Second ; under the most favorable circumstances, where the rock was _ Most homogeneous, the impulse travelled at 1,661 feet per second. In many of the most celebrated earthquakes, clocks have been stopped, and thus indications afforded of the rate at which the shocks travelled. In the Lisbon earthquake of 1761, the shock travelled to Corunna at the rate of 1,994 feet, to Cork at the rate of 5,280 feet, and to Santa Cruz in Barbary at 3,261 feet per seeond. The great Cutch earth- quake, in 1819, stopped the clocks in Calcutta, and showed a rate of 1,173 feet per second. The Nepaul earthquake of 1834 stopped nu- merous chronometers, and the rate of transit from the assumed centre ing rocks as homogeneous substances ; and perhaps, after all, the earth- + * quake shocks might follow a law altogether different from that of sound aves. oast. Special attention was called to one spot 36.—Nov., 1851. 54 ae * Ps ree 422 Proceedings of the British Association in the Atlantic near the Line, and midway between Guinea and Brazil ; vessels passing this tract almost always experienced shocks,—the soundings were extremely variable, some being obtained at 400 fathoms, whilst at very small distances the depth was exceedingly great, as if the bottom was formed by a group of voleanic mountains. The con- nection between earthquake lines and volcanic lines was very apparent on this map; but some earthquake regions, like Central Siberia anda tract extending from India to Bohemia, display very little voleanic en- ergy. Ona diagram section of the globe, the most distant points at which great earthquakes had been felt were connected by straight lines 5 these showed what very large portions of the mass of the earth might have been affected supposing the original impulses to have been com- municated at very great depths. Lastly, Mr. Mallet called attention to the great want of bibliographical catalogues in all public libraries, which rendered the search afier earthquake literature a work of enormous labor. Mr. Hopkins remarked that whilst he placed no faith in such indica- tions as those of earthquakes being more frequent in winter, they were yet very curious; and it was not yet known how much might be due to the influence of apparently trivial causes. With regard to the con- dition of the interior of the globe, and looking at the earthquake map, he was still disposed to lean towards the hypothesis of the existence of internal lakes of fluid, more or less disconnected, in preference to a fluid central nucleus; earthquake shocks would be propagated to great distances beyond the boundaries of the agitated fluid. of the Destruction 5. Report on the Physical and Economical Effects o of Tropical Forests in British India; by Dr. H. CLEqHoRN. : for the Advancement of Science. into commerce. There are others, perhaps more numerous, which are known only to the scientific observer ; to these, i er of the Committee to direct attention. That these improvements may be extended by arigid enforcement of the present regulations, and the enactment of additional provisions of the following character,—viz. careful main- tenance of the forests by the plantation of seedlings in the place of place in the forests. of the forests occupying tracts unsuited of altitude .: e was little rain, and abundant a in. In temperate climates forests certainly not in the tropics. ith rega ld be no doubt that it was foolish to destroy what was valuable, but we had not the power to arrest t -Struction of forests in India. Mr. Bunbury enumerated several it Stances where forests did not exist and yet there was much rain, he present de- — ‘se 424 Proceedings of the British Association want of the influence of their neighbors. Dr. Lankester pointed out posed to each other, might be explained. ‘That forests did not always grow in rainy districts arose probably from the waters accumulating and forming morasses in which forest trees would not grow. In districts where there was not much rain there might be much moisture in the atmosphere,—rain in general supplied only a very small quantity of the water required by plants. Vegetable physiology afforded no expla- nation of the effects on climate, attributed by some observers to forests. 6. On the Great Earthquake experienced in Chile, April 2, 1851, from R. Bunce, Esq., to W. Bottazrr, Esq., in a letter dated April 17, with Observations by the latter. beating north and south did not,—from walls standing east and west be- ing cracked every way, particularly lengthways,—and from vessels at sea, forty to sixty miles off the land, having felt it at a corresponding hour to the difference of longitude. at it is electric | have also grounds for believing ; for it is clear to me that in its course it has oe while nothing occurred to my house (built, however, purposely on aie own plan for resisting earthquakes) except the removal out of place of a few tiles. A large brick chinmey, well stayed above with iron stays, was divided at a certain height from the ground in a horizontal line, and the upper part was twisted round over the lower to about the same angle. In some houses which stood firm from being frame built, though cracked in all directions, the furniture in the rooms, particularly “— Stairs, appeared as if some fiend had been among them, making the his playthings, some upset, some turned round, &c. I conceive, therefore, now, that since earthquakes are little felt to the eastward of the Cordillera and severally so to the westward, along the whole range, that chain of mountains must be the point of attraction for the electricity of the atmosphere, and that it then follows westward a proper conductor in the earth, finally leaving the earth in the sea,— 4 hac, can a ship at sea be shaken as a house on shore, which has been the case, by any other element, for water bein capable of pce sion if driven against a solid frame, as a loaded ship is, will yiel i is different altogeth- to the resistance, and the blow given to the vessel is di Sor the Advancement of Science. 405 : Ihave experienced in this place, as I have stated, three ruinous earthquakes,—that of 1822, which I passed in the house until the back fell, that of 1829, and the present; and from observations on each oc- casion and now again, particularly as in each case I have been calm and resigned, [ think I may be allowed to venture my conjecture in common with others, in which I feel so confident that you are at libert to submit them to your scientific friends if you please, and if any re- quire further particulars [ shail be happy to give them. I may, how- ever, add something more ;—the barometer and thermometer indicated nothing, nor was there the least warning of any description; but as in- variably occurs after a heavy shock, we had on the third day after a Shower of twelve hours’ rain, for which I had already prepared, aware of its being the consequence, happen at whatever season it may. conceive, also, that | have felt less relaxed than before it. J cannot understand all these things unless electricity be the agent ; while the almosphere must be affected in some way to shower down rain at sea- Sons when under ordinary circumstances it does not fall. Santiago (the capital of Chile), Casa Blanca, and Quillota seem to have suffered equally with Valparaiso; and the latter two places worse, while some of the public buildings of the capital are ordered to be pulled down, My wife, who is at that place, mentions every subsequent shock tally- ing exactly with those here. The shock of 1822 was, however, about double in force and time; and I recollect well it was with difficulty I could stand,—whereas on the present occasion I had no trouble. and was several days in reaching its former level,—while on this Such thing was observed. Your newspa ay make out a different Story, but you have here at least correct observati The country is ons. advancing fast; but it is an awful fact to contemplate that the most massive buildings of the country are the first to yield to the phenomena referred to,” movements were now more rapid, i 1 ) | were eed nets 0 shocks. The heavens were darkened with clouds of eruptive matter, flashes of lightning were seen, and then there de- : Scended much white ashes like a fall of snow, which covered the coun- try around.’ On the 28th of the same month happened the most dread- ful shock of all. The town of Quinistacas, four or five miles istant from the volcano, with 100 inhabitants, was buried ; the town of ¢ oO g =| oO go R a : = oO = =) a oO “ = = a “ae mens that I was led step by step tochange my opinions. In fact, with= : ls, it is impossible to arrive at satisfactory conclusions on- apy a Botany and Zoology. Single specimen 2 thrown unexpected light, wi ‘obtained by v8 i in- Spection of fifty others of nearly the same appearance. As it is, the questions in doubt are much more numerous than iss Which appear settled. One of the characters which seems to have es- caped him is that of the fissures chiefly traversing well defined “ee ble surfaces (epidermis). These are from $ line to 4 inch in depth, describe various curves, or right lines, sometimes parallel lines, and forms of all kinds, they are sometimes filled with siliceous matter and exist in the siliceous epidermis of the bamboo and the rattan. I also differ from him in what he considers the annual ring s of Arau- caria, although my first impressions were similar to his. y Specimens of Sigillaria, Lepidodendra, and Sagenaria are numer- us, and there are various appearances, resembling the internal struc- ture of some of these gigantic vegetables, which if they can i se nized as such would cause considerable astonishment. ‘The aran- ces which Dr. Gaeppert has at present probably no idea hte oa omni and very interesting, but without well and carefully drawn figures, de- Scriptions of them, would be useless. {n stating that I differ from so experienced a naturalist on this subject as the learned pr sipped Bres- lau, it is far from my intention to impute to him even erroneous vi yet it is only ton ibn of opinion that truth comes to light, and this is m my only When this vabjent t shall have been taken up and studied by scientific men whose minds are — prepared and who are possesse cl onaite Boston, Sept. 18th, 1851. 2. Conspectus Crustaceorum, &e. 5 Crustacea of the Exploring Ex- Ppedition; by James D. Dana. —Crvstacra Grarsol 1peA, (Proc. Nat. Sci., Philad., 1831, Sa ai, )—This paper includes descriptions of the following new specie ucrate crassimanus ; Macrophthalmus pomcnss Gelasimus nitidus; Heleecius inornatus ; seudograpsus oregonen P. nudus: Grapsus planifroas, G. longitarsis, G. SH Ses : Goviograps simplex, tatus; Planes cyaneus; Hemigrapsus crassim grapsus angulatus; Sesarma peas Be Ss. oon sum; Cyclograpsus cinereus, C. granulatus ; Chasmaguathus subquad- ratus, C. granulatus, C. levis; Helice crassa ; seis He abbreviatus; rigcgret Lapa P. glabra; Cardisoma obesum, C. hietipes ; Pinno- drawa up by a seine, from near the mouth of the river. * For the genera see this volume, page 283. a : ; : ma Miscellaneous Intelligence. .'. °° ee ee DS Ill. MIscELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. . - exhibition though falling far short of the reasonable expectations of men of science, presents yet many objects of interest and I have thought that a few notes taken upon the spot might prove useful if only as hints to those wishing to purchase apparatus abroad. Of a liberal display of balances for chemical and physical purposes, we have to notice the ¢ 1. Great Exhibition in London.—The scientific portion of the great Saxton. Deleuil* exhibits balances of three sizes; the largest or bal- ance for physical researches is intended to bear as much as two kilo- rammes in each scale and with this load will turn with one milli- gramme ; it is mounted upon a cast iron base and placed within a large with glass doors, so that bulky objects, as glass globes, &c., may price with weights is 1500 francs. The large balances of MM. Collot fréres, are very similar to those of Deleuil, differing chiefly in having Jass base instead of one of cast iron. eleuil’s smaller balances oe Miscellaneous Intelligence. instrument is very lig r one, but its shape is inelegant and the want of the sliding rod arrange- ment is a serious inconvenience. The Danish, Swedish and Belgian balances do not deserve notice; the superintendent of the U. 8. Coast » Survey exhibits two balances by Mr. Saxton, a larger and a smaller, ut the construction of these is too well known in this country to re- quire description at our hands; they are at least equal in point of work- manship to any which the writer has seen abroad _ Of optical apparatus the display in the exhibition is upon the whole very good. M. Dubo i ght and the instrument ‘would appear to be a good nt 1 and Jamin’s instrument for the study of the phenomena of reflection at transparent surfaces. The Nicol’s prisms, rhombs and spheres of iceland spar, and glass prisms executed by Bertrand,t are the finest Specimens of workmanship in this department which we have ever wit- a, essed. Of glasses for optical purposes there are many interesting Specimens. ett Rae’ de POdeon, 86. + Bertrand, Jr., 32 Rue de Bretagne. de Pecole Pol i ue, ax, Rue M. Léprince, 14. Paris, nee Miscellaneous Intelligence. + from those now generally known or at all likely to replace the modes of telegraphing employed in this country artments of electricity sid magnetism the instruments of purely sclowiitis interest were rare; we have to notice only a Weber’s electro-dynamometer by Leyser af i and very powerful steel magnets by Logeman of Haarlem. Schreeder of Darmstadt exhibits model of the wave surface in biaxial crystals ; Nobert, of Greisswald, the well known microscope maker, exhibits sets of his ‘ruled glass test pilates for microscopes., The philosophical apparatus in the ~ English department is mostly intended for the illustration of lectures, and pos- sesses very little merit even for its purpose. Of apparatus for scientific ment a considerable display of astronomical instruments, con- Sao chiefly upon the principle that such instruments are good in proportion to their weight, and not likely to be adopted by those who are acquainted with the works of the German artist mechanicians, The purely chemical portion of the exhibition is almost wholly without objects of interest. There are of course a great number of finely crystallized specimens of alum, bichromate of potash and other showy tens, are re comparison the finest specimens of the art; he pis tures executed upon glass possess a Sk ate ‘eoftraial and r as well as sharpness of outline. It is to be hoped that this branch h of progeny will soon receive attention in this country. a Borealis.—Since the grand aurora of Nowacitiar “With, 184 8, (whi Nich was a ee for its great extent, being seen in nearly equal splendor from Odessa on the east to California on the west,) we have had no exhibition of this phenomenon of the highest class, like those which occurred from 1835 to 1839, inclusive ; but the late month of September has been signalized by three grand auroras, occurring respectively on the nights of the $d, the 6th and the 29th, An aurora borealis. of the highest class, is distinguished by the presence of all the more striking characters of the p cece icra or at least ex- greatest intensity, especially in the completeness and grandeur of the corona, and of auroral waves; and that of the 29th was remarkable to W meteor was visible throughout the paren states, a and splendid appearance as far south — 43 #5 On the Earthquake in Calabria ; by E. J. Morris, (letter to editors of Washington Republic, dated Naples, Aug. 26, 1851.)—On the 14th ult., the western portion of the continental part of this kingdom, from the northern confines of Calabria to the Roman ee was a Sees oo Miscellaneous Intelligence. isolated eminence, three thousand feet in eerhale 0 rising at the where the Appenine*chain terminates on the of the Basie and Apulia 3 its slop summits are broken imo numerous craters, Qu oO mn = Q a a a ~ rs 3] w 7 ~~ i ® bes me i] S 3a oO whole more attractive and easily acquired by any student possessing a Knowledge of the elementary principles of algebra and geometry. | Bibliography. The Bosteirsel Air-breathing Molluses of the United States tind ’ 4 adjacent Territories of North America; described and illustrated : by Amos Binney, edited by Aucustus A. Goutp, vol. 1, 360 pp-, 8vo, ; with 16 plates; vol. 2, pp-; (vol. 3 not yet issued, to be a volume of plates.) Bo 851. Little and Brown —These volumes are of the highest honor to re lamented author, both as a printrss to scienc n ten thousand dollars will stout been expended on the wo oye when com- e tion. As the title implies, the work treats of molluscs, and not simply of shells. .In addition to the hag ar of species, it takes up the anatomical structure of molluscs of the di erent genera, and illustrates © i countries into the United States. It corrects largely the synonymy of the science showing numerous cases in which the names of Say and by European authors. The beautiful dissections and anatomical draw- ings of vol. i, are by Dr. J. Leidy of Philadelphia, who has contributed a chapter on the special anatomy of these molluscs. The death of Mr. Binney was a sad loss to American science. As one of the founders of the Boston Saab History Society, as a con- tributor to its Journal and Museum, as the possessor of an extensive sci- entific library which he was ae ee by the frequent addi- tion of rare works, as a man of elegant taste as well as science, and as a friend of all that was good, Dé was held in honorable and grateful esteem in Boston, and in other parts of ourland. These his last labors, just now open to the world, will secure for his name the widest distinction. At the death of Mr. Binney, the publication of this work was left by — his will in charge of Dr. Augustus A. Gould of Boston, and it could not have fallen into better hands. Dr. Gould has brought out the work in excellent style and jon added to it many notes of value, besides giving it his critical supervis istory of Prop lers and Steam ao ea — Biographical ’ Sketches of the early Inventors ; 7 Rosert Macrarane, C.E. — York: Geo. P. Putnam. 12 mo. pp. 144, —The chic of Mr. Mac. farlane’s book i is to furnish means of reference to inventors for a com- — thus saved by a whidlipsiaies class of men whose ts a _ quently expended in a wrong direction. The book is 5s ilustrated by Geigule ular and fixed paddles now in us é An interesting sketch of the history of ocean steam navigation forms ; = ae meri of the book. me: ical Observer ; by Sir Henry T. a LA BECHE, ¥ [Director general of the Geological Survey 0! of the U Londow: Longman, Brown, Green and I —This is not a reprint t of the author’s 2 ae =f Bibliography. ume, ‘* How to Observe Geology,’ long since out of print, though to a certain extent founded on the former treatise. Its object is to afford a the correctness of such observations may sted; and to sketch the directions in which they may apparently be extende he great expe- rienc author as a “ geological observer,” the v estor of 10. Elements of Geology, intended for the use of Students; by eol., in Western Reserve College. New York: 1851. 334 pp. 12mo.—This small work contains a brief Disease, illustrated with numerous drawings in color; by ARTHUR Hitt Hassaut, M.B., with additions to the text and plates, and an intro- duction containing instructions in Microscopic Manipulation, by Henry VanarspaLe, M.D. 2 vols. 8vo., 1 vol. text, 560 pp. and one of 79 plates. First American edition. 1851. New York ; Pratt, Wood- ford & Co. The importance of microscopic research in the study of the human system, is now very generally appreciated by medical men. ing much information on microscopes an ; : for dissection, injection, and other purposes, and on the preparation an i ‘ects. The instruments of the more prominent mak- abroad are remarked upon with discrimination, and also the recent é age PS: Bibliography. labors of Spencer and others in this country.” The volume fs therefore _ highly valuable as illustrating the modes of microscopic rese earch as well as results of investigations, and especially so to the student of medicin 12. The Microscopist, or a complete manual for the use of the Micro- scope, for ae aie —— and all lovers ve Natural Science, with illustrations ; by JoserH H. Wytues, M.D., 191 pp. 12mo. Philadel- phia, 1851, Lindsay & ‘Blakis ton. The recent multiplication of works on the microscope promises well for the future progress of American ments, but is singularly iden as an American work, in making no mention of the lenses of ae which certainly are not rip PS in this memoir. The genera to which they are referred.are Graptolithus, Linn., and Rastrites and Gladiolites of Barrande.. Some of the fig- — ures remind us very much of the stems with thei. seriate qeilss ins ined Sertularia tribe of polyps. . Prof. n, F.R.S., on Dinornis, Part iv, containing the rest eatotite tion of the Feet of that Genus and of Palapteryx, with a description of the Sternum in — and Br Ate 20 pp. 4to. with 4 plates ; from the Zool. Soc. Trans. vol. iv. Part 1. This mportant memoir is illus- trated a encaiadee tes of the size hat life. : 6. erican Historical and Lite y Curiosities, consisting Bacvsimiles of original Documents peli to the events of the can Revolution, with a variety of Reliques, Antiquities, and Mo ; aphs ; collected and edited by J. Jay Smita and JP We . Putnam. 1852. bs th edition, with additions. N. Y.: 2 eee plates.—This is mostly a work of édrions interest relating to American affairs. There isa pity from future generations.’ e work contains nu- merous titbits tes arian as well as general sera mostly of a personal chara : 16. The Serpiat Symbol, and the Worship of the Reciprocal Princi- ciples of Nature in America; by E.G. Squizr. 254 pp.8vo. New York: $851. G. P. Putnam. American meine Researches, No, 1.— . eriods more or can Calendar... ‘3. The Mythological af beara of the Ancient oem _ Prof Je WB Sisoatin ical Examinations of Soundings, made by the U.S. urvey off ti the ‘Atlantic Coast of the United States—From the Smithsonian Coast Surv. Contributions to Knowledge. made in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida.-—Smi We have to defer a farther notice of these Knowl : nm 1 Dasa'& pe Manval for Farmers; 84 edition, revised and enlarged, M Far ARADAY : tal peuerhes in Electricity —22nd series; Crystalline ine gee mere ete ise tic Series ; adn the lation of Gray Dh ede to as ot ipsa the gn Sibi and diamagnetic con- bodies. tic conducting pow wer.—Atmospheric magnetism.—From the : No, 22, in the volume for 1849, 23, for 1850, 24-27 , No. 36.—Nov., i851. ¢ pra J. Leidy.—p. 244, Ww species of Grapsoid Crustacea Bibliography. . aes ernie a ms igo Association for 1850. London, of t logical Survey of the United Kingdom "Fi igures and descripe tions peg of British al Sag Remains _ Decades L Me Il, 1849, 1850. M. Avoten Wurtz: Memo r les Am ne composées. (From vol. x1, of re “ Memoires _présentés ee divers Sasants a Academie des Sciences.” 68 P- A. T Baers Annales de l’Observatoire Physique apis cae Misc pupae ar ordre de La Majesté Renta Nicolas I, sous les aus ee. re des Finances et Chef du Corps i e rs des ae Année, 184 iM o. 1 and No. 2. pa 844 and 394, with numerdts plates of diagrams. : Descriptio Sagegees ope Belgii we ing &e., by Prof. re on cae Hoey Pars I. Animalia Radiata it Annulata. Large 8yo XXxvili and 234 pp. ree: Bat, 1351. <1 ie 1. 26 Foerster: “Mbnogaphi der Gattung Pezomachus. Ber lin, 1851. Nicolai. 1} th Harcnens C, Martin and Beriaxy: Annuaire Meteorologique de la France ane 1851. 3dyear, 1 val 8vo. 1851. 13 fr. D. Durvy: ey atenas Natu naa a Mollusques terrestres et d’eau douce qui vivent en | gwen 4e fascicule. 4to. ris. - HIAC: Histo’ ire des Progr de la aponad 98 Pc 4 1849, published byt the Geologie se ramel of Fra aol. 3, in 8vo MBAULT : Dict ctionaire des analy es ie aie or ‘ailphabetical nceess ry of t as eae of all weet satis artificial, from the origin of chem any fy, to the present time, Vol. 2 vo. Pea. 8 fr. E Cas alia : Expedition ae les pare les wet es de oa du$ the Voyage. Vol. A 1 vol. in 8vo Paris, a i 3) rae 274 gr. E. Grose: Die Familien der Anneliden m. Angabe ihrer Gattungen u. i 1 ; 1 thal. r. A. Wacner: Beitriige zur gates der Siugethiere peme s. 8 abthl, i 3g th R00. Boston Soc. . , On Mo W. Stimpson, (continued.)——p. 18. New genus and speci Ss 0 hoe erican Cottoi is_Thompsonii ; eet, Girard—On Swamps along western rivers; Desor.— ; ai eeeiet 1 On American ae ot: 5. res, i her levigat seks 6, Ident tity of Nucula navicu and . > Hi im. son-—On the roe: of a Hippopotamus ; ds pec i m.o etry n untain > of Europe and America; Prof. — cord i J. Wyman “toledo i Abie er. ne n Dunes on the shores of the Upper American wat 5 Desor. r—P. 42. Stro obilophaga enucleator abundant in March in Vermont.— ote New genus of Holothuria, oS ; Ayres—p. 47. nalysis 2 phosph x of lime of Crown Point ; T. Jac —An Ascidian, Pelonia aren- ifera, in Massachusetts Bay; Stimpson p.4 ae eticah of the Quarternary de- sits 0 and America: Desor— 2. New genus Hf Holothu- ae Pa ee: “i siete 2 56. Reports of Curator——p. 59. Electio cers, mehr sident; C. T. Jackson and D, Hum goat k Storer, Vice Presi- - ish J. Eliot Cabot, ‘Core onding aire Nath. B. Shurtleff, Pepe asurer; ©. K. illaway, Librarian.—p. 6 - new olotharian’ yearn p. 63. New — ee Sead ne gilt us ; Whe TCS, : ; , PHILADELPALA, —July, 1851. ty 235. Fungous disease of ak. F ty 287, Fossil ruminant ungulates fro sh Seite eaeld, scum, O. free Cotylops orga J, Le 239. . Syn a Wele. birds of Le * J. D. Dan (Oreodon Le / INDEX TO VOLUME XII, Acid, acetic, from sea Sob, TY?. eapryhe, alcoho) of, feo i 3 rese namé for, 390 ress of, before British " Association, sg tnieroscopie examinations of Penta nes, 18 Be nas Hi rit ee and Register, noticed Balances of “Delen g, &c., 440 Bases, molecular A a. organic, 498, Banker's mpeg — Bakewell, F. C., 0 copying electric tele- graph, 278. Alcohol of eaprylie acid, 432. Alexander, Jit, logical Alkal 3, Ebelman Alloa, ctanns ates ammonia, Wertz, Alps, Bed. Murchison, on the former changes || a ees erican Association, see Association, Amethyst, ‘Ammonia, on alkaloids homologous with, Wurtz, 115. Am paminia, on series of, Hofmann, 428. Analeim onte rots, 394, Mideiass eid n Codein, 1 Andrews, new 0 ng of determining the mois- ture of the a S hae eubstaces, preservation of, H. Goad- reel Is rot the Lyceum Nat. Hist. N. York, noticed, | Apatite in Giniverenr, 395. of m, 214. oo. 205 w metal, 28 Arkansas, gold in, 143. Arra in No ae 1 New York, 396. Artificial demiatiog of mineral in furnaces, Kin Minor, Thermal. waters of, J. L. Smith, 10, 366. Association, American, a a of meet-} _ ing at Cincinnati, 14}. proceedings of meeting at Math August, sib 305. Becquerel, glectsicity of plants, 83. Beryls at Ruyalston, sree A.. hs Molluses of U. States, no- ticed, 450. ‘Bismuth, v5 Shot pb of, Mae ae . W., on the pide of elastic fluids cessik orifice Blake, W. P., bias character of some sup- posed uniaxial m on ae vappivet Ton, 339. Blende, white, of New Jersey, 221, ‘ond, G. P., on Saturn's rin gS W a new ring of S ped ngrenssag on ithe 9 spheroidal ‘ate. and exper- ments by pang hand in melted iron, 420. Hermes Gui dé o Scientific Knowledge of Thi Fa sutiar, notice Briti ol Association, 8 see Associution. Brucite in the Vosges, 217. Buratite, Bu peda W. J.,on microscopes and micros- yin, 212. Cc. calabria, earthquake in, 44 3. me ne and Electric Calamine, 221, nia Geysers, F. Shepherd, 153. iypuetiies 3 21 ambrnidge Observatory, 295. anada, Tower ‘Silurian reptile in, 120, arivints at — tides at, A. D. Bache, 341. tish, proceedings of, 261, Astro! eel observations made dese of M. F. Maury, noticed, 149. Atheriastite, 219. erie magnetism, res Faraday, 69, Atomic volumes and weights, Dumas, 275, weight of bismuth and tangsten, 113. Aurora of ee mber, 1851, D. Olmsted, 442. Australia, go. in, 445. a ind ‘the Cha Hors — earth nake in Pale c hondrodite i in Chromic iron of Baltim Chris no! acid, alcvhol ef, 432. noid. k, 39. shemical sete connection of with polari- zation of light, N.S, Maskelyne, 64. consti, ’ relation of, 10 taste, EB. N, 424, og pete soo a als W. P. Blake, 339. otthern n New. York, 395... ite, na cde fag ernie tian Retros ticed, 151, in the ——— 217. Chrysolite ‘Cinnabar in Cleghorn ie a tion of forests, 422. Clotte, c cultivation 0 , 328, Coal be ps large, ky nae Rens we eo A. D. Bache web a Calin, constitution of, and products from, ed per, gray, of Algie ig oe and re -shalomgp of, from Bristol, Ch. Copper ni kel of Ayer, 221. Coral ees and islands, J. D. Dana, 25, 165, om texture and composition of, J. D. Da- aol e of growing, 177. Lowen rane gos Crustacea hen oe clatsification of, J. D. Grapsoidea, classification.of, J. D. Dana, Hexapus list of new s: ed, by J. D M sida’ feacga, on Cc stalline fo "379, D. _— J. G., death of, 302. a, J. D. , classification of the Cancroidea, v amlinon of Crustacea Grapsoidea, coral reefs and ioiden 131 25, 165, 329. and Arges, two genera ig amy of 7 sak J.D. Dana, rm of the Fah evcoa ty Lae Hexapus and | Arges 9. prot identity of Houghite and Vélk- neri wcrpealieraphic identity of Eumanite list of >a 'Grapsoidea described by, 439. Gar ar INDEX. t, red syenite of, 392, Ebene of plants, Becquerel, 83. Elements of al dy ng geometry, by A. E. hurch, notice ears ‘coral oe aN Emerylite at Katlarinnberg, 390, [Enargite, 2 idute ay scion of ‘igh on iodid of, 114. anite, 211, 397. Ea ipyrchroite, ie es C. T. Jackson, 73. say og nin London, “ Cope Palace, W. Expedition around the world from Sweden, ¥. n, 281. 0 : “W. "Faster, 282, =peeen: somuanitian of, O. P. Hubbard, Flvics, flow of elastic, through orifices, E. W. Blake, Forests, physical effects of destruction of, H. Cleghorn 7 orsterite, "303, Poof fish of New Branswick, C, T. Jackson, of Ohio, J. W. Foster. — Silurian, uf Tennessee, J. “ot Safford, dey ae W., and J. D. Whitney, G Goologsant Pines oa s Pendulum J.B, Dana, 112, , 251 398, Frankland, on action “a gn i iodid of ‘eink 114, : G, veers = — 219. ie seashores, pe ning salle on the serpentine of t 216. aa iorite, of the Alps, 91. Diallage i re the pi ab Diamagnetism dh inegne-rystli action J. Tyndal. pore, Pioptens, snl um, n ievolimes 387, Boer ms Dumas, on Soni volumes and weig' 3. Dysyntribite, 209, "= oelem ents of, by 8. = John, pa sers of peace , W., Chemical Pativaty 11, 427. on exhibition in London, no! Landolt.on ameter 431. eo Grey, R. P., on matlockite, 388. Grotto A cane, B. Silliman jot BG Haldeman’s roan * Latin Pronuncia- alts Ge se I Chart, d, s Geologica noticed, 150. Halloysite, x n, 394, Hare, R., on attrition of siliceous stones, 434. Hassa , Microscopic anatomy by, no- ticed, 451. ayes, A. A., on rutile, 389. Heavy _ in stern New York, 395. Hofmann, on molecular structure of organic bee, "23. Hornblende, 388, Hors 391, 392, Ly lorsford, E. N., oa of chemical consti- tution to ae Houghite s. moti Hen 0 with Vélknerite, J. Hubard, 0. f “resuscitation of frozen fish, Hint T. S., on some Canadian minerals, 212.| on Logan ite, i ison aagen af Braz Hydro; ae for oleae gas, by M. Hygrome © moisture of the air, new mode srr 419, 1 om, ier disappearance of, on Lake Cham- hina, D. J. me i: of nitrogen, G Irone, new planet, 293, heteronomic, J. D. Dana, 204, J. Jacobi, obi obituary notice of, 147. Jackson, C. T., on Eupyrehroite, 73. seat Mesotype of Laurvig, 218. |{Landolt on stibmethyl, 430. koe Lava, Rammelsberg on composition of, oat Lead ores, reference to article on origin of, |'Lenzinit ite, 219. Leuchtenbergite, 217. ucite change d to ryacoli te, 393. Light, tape ion a" chemical forces with polarization S. Maskelyne, 64. Li ening, effect of, at Attleboro” ’ Mass., A. ae Limostane of Predazzo, 214. ‘omotive, nag age. of Prof. Page, Loganite Todi nications of nutmegs and cloves, 322, - C.S., recent condition of Kilauea, 7. on pendulum. ‘experiment, 25 1, 398. Macfarlane, R., History of Propellers and ae m am navigation by. noticed, 450. i , D. J., on the Tallow Tree, 17. Magnesia an alent of, Marchand and a. tism, laws of, Tyndal. agnetism of oxygen, Pliicker. Ma hs, Report on the ‘tow, Sabine, Maldi Mallet, on on Terthnideieats pupsnees ts of the Pyrenees, 22 ference to article on origin of, ‘390. arasmolite, 3 210. nd Scherer, equivalent of mag- , connection of chemical rization of light, 64. rn Illinois, 439, pees Observations ge ander the S ietien of, noticed, 149, M Coy, war! on palwozoic fossils of Cambridge University Museum, noticed, Jey 5 C. ese ak shells by, noticed,| Johnson, S. W., on Houghite, 361. kK, Huan ent ndtionof © i tg King —~ el eaten Kirkwood, D., on Saturn’s rings, 109. Krantz's establishment, a 75. s |Microscopist, the, by J. H. Wythes, noticed, , don: —— new, 280, aridium a Qsi. Meta crystalline form of the thombohedral, Meteorological coincidences, J. H. Aleran+ Meteorol of U. S. Exploring Expedition, - ke of, noticed, $46. at a bee one binwta ] Spr trai of some supposed — snissial, W. F. anatomy, A H. Hassall on, no- ticed, 451. ; 451, piieccongptn snd Mieeeeors W. J. Burnett, Laboratory, sandbath, de, for, J.P. Norton] 56. INDEX. ~*~ — Ls Mt. Bolea, 201. sa ‘Actinolite, 396 ; Agafmatolite, 390 ; Loa, Hawaii, winds of, 446. 3 ~-cime, 394; Arragonite, 393, 396 ; Andes Pberesing R. J., on the Alps, 245, - wee 392; Antimony, pre 208 + ite 214, 395; Armoxene, 206; N. 9; Beryl, Blende, white, of New on Beu- ’\| Nemalite in the Vosges, 217. antite, 390; Brucite i Voswes 217: Nepheline rock of Lébau, 391. oscars 393 ; Brwae 22; = ypto-|| Nitrogen, iodid of, Gladsto one, 432. oy ; Ca pe spar, Nitrites al — es, new test for, G. C. Sche wet re on anew sand-bath with wa- ter. ie ih 5 te Nutmegs, pa a of, 322. — =. O. of J. G. Dalyell, 302. Dr, 8S. G. Morton, 144. ] Jacobi, 148. : nid Sabearnanin aii, 397; Eupy Feldspar, 219; Forsterite, 393 et t it eine o, 446. ‘on - Silvestre, 446. *||Octahedral a ony, va, — oemor notice of, 147. oy 25 -|Olmsted, D.,on auroras ae Bapbelibie 1851, : Leuc ; Loganite. lite 442, < 210 pean 338 ; Mes ony De 218 ; on the zodiacal light, 309. 4 a, 6, 390 5 Misenit te, 393; Mi Optical characters of a supposed chlorite, 399. Molvbdate of Lead, ‘| Orangite, Nepheline 391; ‘Organic bases, m olecular structure of, 428. bag 387 rkite, racticnl Mineralogy, notic ed, ue dite, t Poesinrisa, ry ‘Perthite, 212 ;|| Owen, onthe inornis, noticed, 452. Picilite, ‘917; pena e, 3965 Porphyry, Oxygen, magnetism of, Pliicker, 427, 392; Pyrites, 396; Pyr ne, 388; Ra ||Ozarkite, 218. philite, 213; ‘Rerinait, 2135 Rutherford Ozone, the odor from tte a siliceous = ile, 209; Rutile, 339; Samarskite, = stones not due to, R. Hare . rs 1! Page’s el ectro-magnetic locomotive. 139. peeverenee Societys notice of, 444. Bristol, Ct. 222; enite a of Egypt, 393; ‘Tourmaline Elba, 39 Ramones canis, Lae pre: sto Be Tourmalines, 396 ; Thorite, (supposed) ie molite, 396; Troostite, 221 ad ots Magn; ; Wulfenite ot Zircon, 214. Mineralogical collectio a, Kranta’s , 445, ne Dana, 200. pet ie notices, 2 ‘Lyman,’ 2 specimens for sale by Krantz, petiatoriins 212. pite in in Gouverneur, N Y., sical instruments at great ex Mineral assayin Over- ineralogy, a Sia g and mining, F. Phiogo Misenite, 393. Misy from near Gosla neti the air, oie pan of determin- Picrolite in the Vosges, 217. Pisa, science of, z Planet Irene, new, 293. Sets togeol, G. P. Bond, 91 a. A Motscdice rs of or b ganic bases. gl Belle ses of the United States, A. Binney o Kir Kirkwood, Molybdate of lead, 221, Montiel 8 collection of minerals for sale, vl aren of oxygen, 42% 9 nlunce of o weather, J. H. Alez- has a nS Si '. G., obituary notice of, 144, deg America, parallelism of. ae “ . ae aftased by nig Berlin Academy, 445. n, Morley on Sy ies jn Har Pyroiene rine rend Moat 388, Q. Quartz, twin of, 215. R. of es noticed, 452. oe lightning, 239. san nalytical chemistry, sea re 303, €, G., on origin of _ pepens:? coh ae ig form sean 2 aod of making speculums, 416. Rutherfordite, ai Rutile of Waterbury, Vt., 389. 8. Sabine, on the Kew m gnetographs, 271. oe rd, J. M., geology of Middle Tennessee,| on a alana ate A agli: 218. Samarskit i in Rutherford -, 220 ndbath, new, with water res a urn, a new ring of, A, Ms Bind, 133, on the rings of, G. P. Bond, 9 e Pare, (06. Kirkwood, 109, Scacchite, 39 happen Gi ‘et new test for nitrites and ni- tra ak Sa TS n, J. D. Dana, 3 gwick, A., wor bf on > Beiuah putseonsts rocks, referred 1 to, 448. Senarmon Serpentine, a he le singe 216. Shelly catalogue a of ‘the totlackion of Dr. J. ‘a Shep, d, F., fre ‘of California, 153. erie te 'C. U,, new mineruls and localities, 219. Sele enio-eyanogen, Crooker, 432 Serpent Symbol, work on, by E. G. Squier, noticed, 453 Silliman Jr. *, condition of Vesuvius, 256. Grotto.del Gane and Lake Agnano, 257. = tl lake near Tivoli, gical oo te oe Vesuvius, : Gillard s light, 260 Pty correspondence of, 301. — oH me of Asi waters sia Minor, 10, 366 ie INDEX. Pemelalers, on pyroxene and Sacihfhall Sphene in Northern Randal report in favor of a geological sur- fob in Norther Squi 5, ne rhombohedral noticed, 303, Pr aee Institutien crap regis 1 phenomena of péricdica pasod by ee eclipse of July 28, observations on, Soundings, microscopic examination of, J. W, 132, Spee lee tie ron in Northern New —_ 396, culums for telesco 8 Rosse, ork, "305° Spheroidal state, Routiga. 420. ae ew York, 395. er, erpent Symbol by, no- mhavizaion, history of, by A. McFar- lane, noticed, 450 mre Landolt, 4 430. St. John, S., Elements of geology by, noticed, Raphnlite, ticed, 4 Rooke, see Coral. }) Steam eports “a 7 paces of War, by Lt. J. EB Soh ston other. as on rates i from||Steatite gi ea to "I Pas noticed, 30! Re ept tite, ewer Silurian, i in Cana 190. Retinalite, 2 _ Rice, H.,e Sulphur, blowpipe test for, J. W. Bailey, 394, ed near Cracow, lake near Tivoli , B Silliman, Jr., 258. aters of Asia Minor, ‘Sun, total eclipse of, on pe 28, 134, 300. Tr: L aeted phoixs Dos Moca rowan, 17. i er vegetation, dae Tesch ty al, Te Telegraph, eh “aot, F. C. Bukewe lrraloesonts: specu a Rosse, 4 *|'Tennessee, geology 0 M. Safford, 352. fe a waters of Asia ee. J. L. Smith, | Thompson, Z.,on ice of lake Champlain, 22, Phorite, supposed, of Danbury, Ct, 2% | Tides, on our peace 3 of the general course of, Wh tg we ee A Bache, 341. annsition of Elba in I — Roster Ig 396. Tremolite, 3 in Lewis Co., N 34 Y., 396, : wh reba of New Jereey, 221. Tungsten, equivalent ol, 113. Tyndall, on diotapnerele and magne-crys- tallic — on, s of magnetism, 427. U. Uranium ores at Middletown, Ct., 219. V. Variolites of Drae, 391. — of coal sed: J. E. Teschema- S; Vientien, present condition of, B. Silliman, ~ Gti, DB, WwW. Waters, thermal, of Asia Minor, J. L. Smith, 10, Whewell, 0 our ignorance of the general course of ie Bye 244, Whitney, J rt on — Superior Land District by, “Noticed 222 t and Watson, American ae lite-| purionitioe by iy, Second, Wiedemann, rotation of plane o of polarization io stem, 11, by galvanis RL Hie 2 a ere . Hone . s a SECT Aho “UL GO'HO 1 eer Oe cae ‘Faia Or] wag LUZ 9 powers a HAL 62M] “LETTS SOF LETS ‘pmec mts 2 of Ma obs, Fides at Pas Leap Dinara fiom the 22 "2 of Rise and tall of tides trom hourly. Pitebay acai . . meSemOTS we hares weg . sme gS UTS ~aLOT Rg peeze4cls raya pree mg STAI po 6 LeU 4 | weones » Moen's Transits ooyUL smeoegg SY ——— | os | was S OT eae Ly “Ty HT Ue co Sa a ae eT Se a Be a EAS A ect a Ghote hee Vee Ss ee Ss Vi de mg o7y9tS “my gests “mag WHS HOE TIL | \ 37 38 ft HoH ARE BSED | Tides atCat Island Louisiana Curves ot rise and tall ‘ lj s Transit, Moons Transit. Moons Transit, - 9h.50. 9m. pee ciclend ie Tedes al Lat oe faving 3 a ee T at aaa 6 hours ” R= 6 e vertical lines Heirisenta one day small The space denwain the ee ” & = a mS S : & Forms of curves by ; aie, a of eh Mean curves tor Jan Feb.and Mar. deduced tiom observations &- computanons. Si ee 6 8 10 a2 14 16 18 20 22 ‘24 \ AX The space between the vertical lines represents 2 hours. horizontal ,, , wota toot, AW WD % 7M N q S ly $ Md, HN RA i i Hi thn acd wd STS TRIN TINS / aA) i yeaa Sak #2 Bes uae fs a ees ala ae ce I 1) gan pans Nas pS es Lith. of hich? Pease, Mbany, Svc, te sie 2 Rrshta : * ch ea : ie a a 2. gis ce cv (S85. Z Z Nae Bes 1° : cu \ 3 { ] Kory a “ | Vi =] * ny Ur.” ZN s ( yal, er 2 yyng> we zy . ry \ J ie ne TU Mi \ HNN } R ad } , a ot AN YN\ Ay DP = N) y if ~ a ee ee { taunts eT Oe : F / VS 4g Ba fe i . * | } 7 ‘ ie 1 gh it, //1 A j — es | ; q | e ato | | #4 = Oi tia Ges Ae ° seinen 3 : . 4 3 : = jae i = Lyf, eae Slice “ffroup. ~ yy, PEW Zi F alah = | ” Alarhonferous SA Stliceous Group. \S “ng . TA Sa Sage A ys 2» | 5 Devonian whegp lack Slate. Pe ys , "Sa NSS wyigs | rl ‘ S * . ; < ‘ \ - F f ' - ANF N NESS ot in gee See and Gray Lunestorne ibs A Su a ee a VAM ( | | lp. Slur. es ef \ 9. % SO Tb Td Sibir = MNashoille Group. MOO. NATTON SS Stones River Group. | : <——i ~_— | : ; g.- | wttlte Cedar blades. Le A | oe AS J * ”» H \ Bee Barrers.ete. fs AY | Bt | RD cata ABER DOPE ESS EL CMe | a | eee oe i ae ‘ ial ; if | S a, «Wy. B A I £ ty I é RE, | OF LONDON; AND 290 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, l publish gis des in October, the following import- a = ‘ ant works : I. Kwarr’s "T connbsiol: or, Chemistry applied to the Arts - - and to Manufactures. Vol. Ill, embracing Water, Milk, Tea Bread, Sugar, etc. With nearly 200 Setanicn representing, bya peculiar style of wood engravings, the various operations employed in the manufacture of the above articles; and eight folio colored plates, representing by sections of. buildiags, the interior arrangements, machinery, etc., of a Sucar Factory. If. A Practica, Treatise on THE USE OF THE MicroscopE. By John Quekett. Second edition, considerably enlarged and improved, and with several additional illustrations on steel and wood. foe Ill. 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Scale of hardness, blowpi ipe minerals, etc. abinets for Ladies, in elegant malicean ae with drawers, containing, in — a larger than two et ue by about one foot in depth and Phe ig 300 small er.) ge as ™. 3 & ~ SE 3 SP) > Oo. = a ae 3 oe: a cS =<) n - ct ' & 5 ~ a & A ied ZB t--) ad = ° inerals exercise of Sees in analyz g the em, such as Uran Wo Ifr: Telluriu om. Titanium, eyean etc., att 4 west prices. Al ieee ance are gee with printed labels, in English, German and Fr ench. Orders for algerie and rock uld always mention the size desired. sstis.—The number of spe cies of fos silo organic remains, amounts to about i B ur the e furnished to any e w the above number. ens ie ecimen is furnished with a printed Jabel pps the loca el eesione™. tiasion, a name ; the ag bagi are generally arrang: according to the relative age of the formations; for special purposes zoolo ical aatications are adopted if asked ai fossils of larger size, painted in the psi oe s of the original and forming a val complement for public cabinets. e attention of scientific men is particularly i te oe Mr. K.’s collection of Saurians from the Lias of Wine surpassing e pieces for bene hy and completeness, those of the first Mu = of Eur Ichthyosauri at from &: oligo, haben. pee Crinoidea of the slits and other formations at equally moderate phe Rocks. —A boat ne thousand varieties of nasi: -specimens are on hand, yr case lete series of all the primary and sedimentary rocks which form the knov solid part of our globe. All the specimens of = collection are of the ne se and shape, so as to admit of being arr anere. in an elegant manner, without un- age waste of room “ drawers or ¢ WwW geog a ecti of ona interesting to geologists, such as on Saxony, the Hartz, Mt. pia the Alps, Italy, Hungary, Norway and Sweden, Mexico, and eh others are still on hand. rT spec abling eke “up 3 ore - eve complete caiedog © This e atcullehinent has c ntly, dprit ye an pe r interes sae 3 alles ors he list of sak contains Ae about 800 species collected at more than 3000 ties, and forming a cabinet of ] 10,000 first rate specimens, unrivalled by any ate ‘ A separate part of the ss age ntains prices of casts of rare and inter » iw e* . AMERICAN EDITION. if FOSSIES. 1. 30 species of fossil shells from the salle ot hes elevated o on the hs % coasts of Norway and Sweden upwards of 150 * 2. 150 ae from the pees oe * jenn species from the Wir formation (Molasse) vy! Switzerland, 10. 100 species from the upper cretaceous formation of Belgiu : » 1. 300 species from the cretaceous formation of Eéutkeiei Fraliee; ‘\ ee eT eee ss from the same formation of Northern | France, t given only single groups ac greensand, Néocomien) or Care fae ilies ake ng es poda, etc. 13. 150 specie oe formation (Plaener and Quadersand- ati of nbeise and - 100 species from the chalke ee (Unterer Kreidemergel of Ramer) o of Westphalia, 15. 60 species from the greensand of Blackdown i in Devonshir 16. 100 species from the upper and lower greensand of Prkioveee and any; 22. 30 species from the upper oolite of Bavaria: “ditbepraphic slate), 23. 20 species Crustacea from the same locality, 4. 150 ee from the Jurassic formation of “— mostly from Yorkshir 2. 100 species — the Oxford clay of Moscow in Russ 26. 250 species from the Jurassic formations of — soe Wartemberg, 27. 80 species Faseeg the Alpine limestone of St. Cassian, Tyro 28. 30 s ecies of fish-teeth, + hag and bones from rs Prisesic "formation 30. 40 Suacies from the Permian Bis em of Thuringia Gch and ohemia, 32. 75 species: from ‘tie Sas mian System and carboniferous limestone of Moscow and the Ural Moun : 33. 50 species from the nian limestone ‘of Hise : ay 100 — from the same formation in . ing d sent a, ge in ral Ort ere Petia’ rigoce “ erebratula and Thecidea es sae uding the 8, Onychis les, Tones ras d Torriliesty 7. 50. species For a: ate Echinodermes ‘according to Agassiz; bigny, & jepesic es of “fos il corals, according to Milne Edwards and Haimes, species of fossil eines according to Agassiz lI. CASTS. Persons wishing to pour casts, can be furnished with two plates of engrae. ings, representing them ns 1. — giganteum, PI. II, fig. 6. Pec perfect, 24 feet long; from the diluvium of the Mise ver The ori gin nal is in the Roy al Museum at Berlin. ; ode hd nig sactngeer Harlas nt bones ; Pa phalanges, etc., from: the same » tw) Ss. Meuglodon 9 as Deen: Basilosaurus Harlan 5 ; Hydrarchos, Koch. “wo teeth, from the tertiary labs Be 75 4. Iguanodon, Hylxo us and 14 di eorat bones from the Weald d cl ay. of sen England, - 5 00 he originals n the British Muse 5. Pterodactyls pa Goldf., Pl. I, ie: ¥, 'Two p e lit Bhosaphic slate a Zour . ~ 38 © ie iginal is in the M Mystriosauri spec. ( sie sada PIS, ee t in 4 parts, 12 feet lo rg" of the best specimen ever recat, =. n the Lias-slates of Boll, be seg erg, 26 00 The o original belongs to Mr. Kra : Mvitsicnaares to ngipes, “Pp g. 5. Perfect skeleton from the same localit ty, : ‘ 9 06 he original in the Imperial Masons at Vienna. . sg, rae age species. , fig. 8, Head of as > all sized specimen from the same pi ‘ . 1 50 The dtiginal is in the Royal Museum at Berlin tg Pe: Mystriosaurus, spec Vertebral spine ¢ with a. same locality, . ‘ ‘ 6 00 . Ichthyosaurus platyodon. PI. II, fig. 2. ‘ Perfect head of a skeleton 60 feet lon ‘ : a - 9 00 Perfect fin of the same apertins PI ‘ fig. 3, “ ° 5 03 - Ichthyosaurus ——— gle , fig. 4. eud, thorax and fins mae fect, . : ‘ 7 00 f Tebthyosauras eae bere od Ra ‘fig. 9. Pe i ct head, : : 123 in ne f Nos. 10-13 in A. Krantz’s cabinet. ‘ Telthyossurue communis. PI. lI, fig, 1. n perfec . 075 "The ceigiial’ is in the Imperial Museum at Vienna. saurus, NeW i perfect, Ne, ie ort nal in A ag ns oo. ig af ~* : the Kei ponbofiihedan at Guerin in fal in the Museum ws 3 age manta, fg. 12. 4 1 us ad; fron e Mus uschelky : Bal u The oigiat | in os ated Mowe a Proteudbuanat Spenerii. IPK ® - Vertebral spine a oa £x wowie from es... ray: of ser ahd urg,. : ms original , in the ‘Royal Museum at Berlin. % QL, Alotoptychius nobilissimus, Ag. : ee oti : Old Red d Sandon of Scotland, ‘ 4 : oe 5 00 vigindt ish M : Oe es Boe BE re Teoh emar Kable f for rareness or bans ? pach + of as re a ° ~ pie tesen 13 and: 14, each piece, Ill af | DLLECTYONS. a es : i = 100 different species, » + S150 00°” 300 ““ rT) 350 00 | 300 “ +.» age DOR OD - 500 “ a im ‘ - ; tals s a 2 ? ov af; ge B. Rocky Specimens. a * Size 3 by 3 inches. : Size Soy 4 inches.* ‘ a 100 different specimens, . $ 5 00| 100 different specimens, .$ 9 00 i 150 iy co 900} 150 « Bis ot 15. 00 200=O a eS A rae ae © i 0:) See ee 300 “ (2 : 95 00} 300 “ ae : 45 00 500 &“ te 4 : 54 00 500 ‘“ “ é . 100 00 1000 «. 7. 135.00]1000 Me hooks sg) ee 4 ‘ C. Minerals. ’ * : Size 2 by 2 inches, ; Size 3 by 3 inches. ee differen oe, 8 (550 100 different specimens, .$ 9 00 00 | 200 “ aa e 21 00 hg ges ae ses a 00 | 300 « ag ‘ 00 Se ete h 42°00 | 500 “ “ey : 72 00 7. Om * & .. . 105.00| 100 — « OR Tae 2 2000 % : : 260 00 2000 ane 1c : 375 00 ye ead given'by Prof. B. Stuuiaay, Jr., New Haven, Prof. J. D. Dana, of New Haven, Conn} Prof. Acikssre of Cambridge, Mass, November, 1851. as = | rm in ~ La hate is vam y folly’ organized aid all Ecane Tacit s are afforded to thé students. ‘The ons correspond with those of the College, comnyencing in January, May: and _ tober, and continuing about three months @ach. struction gives in Agricultural, a in egferal Analytical ek ae _Otganic and anic. ; Sy tructi fe afforded:as far as practical he in cert 4 branches of Ap- lied = Cher and abana is be - fitting students as teachers in The various Peper entgof Che [ Students allowed to work duringthe w day = use of balances, ! pee, glass, porcelain, alcoho fires, , platinum only excepted. he only extra cha $70 me er of twelw 9 previous chey nt. ie ures on Scie = eile by Pet. ae during winter term, ee aay n after the middle of t ace. ‘germ s $5 per week or $60 to +, ia r fou eeks sandy Feared of those iho enter this depart- —_ Yale College, its Haven, August, 1850. HASKELL, MERRICK & BULL, Importers and Wholesale Druggists,= No. 10, Gop Srreet, New York, } te, Have recently received an assortment of -pure Refigents ok rare Chemical Preparations from one of the most reliable Sousges in Germany; also Bohemian Glass, Berlin and Drésden Porcelain . Ware suitable for chemical purposes, and a variety of Chemical ace la to all of whictt the attention ae the — public is reques ted. » : +4 aalew ei. snaneted 1861. 2: ‘ cla a = he Ahorities Seago It is pepttied oy on fine sized paper, vote Aa and ¢ _ With a.@dmplete Index. Price $3 in be owe $3, 50 bound in muslin. ; Dec. 1 2 1850.—1 y: GENERAL NDR” THE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND AR = IN ONE VOLUME OF 348 PAGES, 8vo.—Pricz, $3. A ¥eEw copies remain for sale in the hands of the Pull Enquire of Situman & D See farther, second page of Cover. New Haven, March 1, 1851. FIVE NEW WORKS ON BANKING FOR FIVE DOLLARS. FOR SALE BY ALL BOOKSELLERS, I. Tue Banxer’s eg teree Book, ee 1. A treatise on Banki By A. B. eee E nt of Ontario gg Utica. 2. Ten Minutes’ Advice about Banking. wai Gilbert, Esq., of London 3. Extract from Byles on ~ Law of Bills e leche nge. 4. eres Se the Laws and Customs respecting Bills of Exchange. By J. R. 5. Forms of Bills of Exchange i in eight Losale sg langua 6. Forms of notice of Pro used in various States of th the Uni on, with remarks. as Deeitions of the Bank ni sheath hasnt as in force, ee ay 1 8 af the Sapreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts on’ Banking, Usury, —Price 50 H. Pracricat Treatise on Banxinc. By J. W. Gilbart, rae of the London and Westminster Bank. 8vo, pp. 478. $2 —Or Practica Banxinc. Section I. The Nature of Banking. II. The vuity of - Banking. Lene Pag: ng | hc IV. The General Administration of a Frente oie’ f a Bank regatd to Proce — _ of Exchange. euaiocount of! Surplus ‘Pande. vi ‘Gees of — VIII. The Bank Act of ee. IX. The Bank of England. X. Joint-Stock Banks Xi The fe Somers! of the rks ‘en Eabig | hav tained a jou esictilly. Plain and practical, d the position of the “gbiees ry and ‘wants and nd orca community, for whom they are hiefly in« te ver, without much interest for avery: inquiring mind, ~“—e y are sources of much useful an ovep indi ie present work treats of banking as an aré, and its merits ha i DUG The principal characteristic of Mr. Gilbart's s book tion of all the parts of the subject, so that none mmo ay ich, being joined with a ris style, accounts for the — have soos met ith, "Londo ig “ps rie : ; TIL Mc SGvitoce! s Hianarg on InrEREST, EXcHANGE, —— Coins, &# Ul in ae octavo,—75 cen a. ' ‘On Interest om: the Opereiiae of the aa, Comparison between the Market "Rate and the Stat Rate of Interest trom 1714 to 1793. Pernicious Effects of Ftd regulate | sury Laws do not protect the and Unwary. ry olland. On tog legal Rate of Interest in France, PMB codon eostria, rietot ve Spain, and the United States. Usury Laws do not reach the int of — iters on the Subject of a low e of iotereek Domestic Exchan 1. On Inland Exc ‘0 Ex- e. 4, coco Real Exchange. 5; ego 0 — 6. ape ib ag ee of Bills “ Exchange. 7. Law 8. oney, Coins, Bullion, &c., with Hoharke’ on Metallic and Paper Cur- i E -y, Seigno e changeable Value of Money. 3. Seignorage. 4. pet of the Precious Metals. 5, Pa- per money. 6, Standard of the Currency. 7. Standard of Money. ‘Together with co- pious Tables of ‘the Weight, Value, &c., of the ‘Gold and Silver Coins of all nations,— their Assay, Weight, Standard Weight, and Sterling Value. Average Market price o Bullion in every year from to 1821 ‘Mr. McCulloch has condensed a great mass of knowledge, which men of all parties should be glad to see so put together, in his ‘ Political Economy,’ ‘ Exchange,’ ‘ — est,’ * Taxation,’ ‘ Paper Money,’ and ‘ Principles of Banking.’ Edin nburgh Review IV. Curonictes AND CHARACTERS OF THE Stock Excuance. One Volume, octavo,—75 cents teries, Life Ass ce, Tontine s Babery Corrupti on, Contracto: ors, Railwa Sheet Gideon, coecach Colaaed, Mark Sir Francis Botieds David Bicarde Francis Baily, Nathan Meyer Ro thschild, ok Loan and _ mt Hume, Poyais Loan and Gregor McGregor, Frauds, Forgeries, ‘Xpedaaneaa — Francis has fulfilled, and most admirably falfled, < title of his book —London “The extraordinary frauds which have been perpetrated from time to time by Stock Exchange speculators, afford Mr. Francis se —— for the historical Lares of his work ; and his sketches of the manners of the kk Exchange, at the present time, show that he has made hims “se ntimately acquainted ee the customs of its frequenters.—Lon- don Banker's Magazin V. Tue Banxer’s Atmanac, 1851, containing 130 pages of valuable . Statistical Tables relating to Banks, Banking, Exchange, Coins, Fi- : ce, &c.—50 cis. J. SMITH HOMANS,. Sept., 1851. 111 Washington st, ore ‘the ears 318 ning sh 2a gy, by Cua i aig gee ane Bae E, C.Ejs: Pie Gein "RS, 130 — Physic -pu H. de ae Geological Survey of California; subi Bohéme. aching, Bar P ° - ean Hisiercal and 1) erary Citivaities, consisti s ies: sof original . octimen ts relating “to se events of the American Revolution, &c., by J. Jay Smita sae J.F. War n, 452.—The Berpent coe and the Worship of the Reciprocal Principles of ‘Natu ure in ee ica, by E. G. Squier, 453. List of Works, 453. Index, 455. ft? In a few copies of our last number, -the pages 257-264 were cee ea inserted after page 176, in place of pages 177-184. Another copy will be mailed, ge postage paid, to any subscriber who has received an ee “er upon hisre- — it by mail or otherwise. ey ¢ pee ier ‘oa nd Gotistitution, agd its relations’ t ; by Professor Denison OtustTED SSxUIACulation os ‘age ae aad flows in Beneooten's ie mF a Re a A oe >, 4 sn. ote see h Ligh witha fairy, EUMSDAINE ; 1s f ad nee fey: “tree D ‘Dank . plical, a cae y no iaag nee of “the. pied oo. er Cou ary, 3 pA Ww. oe Buake, é with at Coast ee at Cat um in the Gulf 5 by: Prof, . BACHE urian Basta of Middle Pnneaees enh notices of: the: Houghite of Prof. She epard; by S.W. JOBNEO ies On some ef the Then Waters of wlsia: apa : ie Lawrence Suitu,—Part Il, - - the Preservati “of Anioal Substanees e * en the Pendalom Brpesinents by Hove" ion, sPwentes ‘fied feeting at fieeh July 2: Speculums for Téle escope ; -by the Earl of rt New Method of determining: ihe quantity of ae ture in the Air; By Dr. AnpREws.—3. On itains Bodies in:a Spheroidal-State, be- of Physico-chemical Activity ; by M. Bov- rthquakes.;- by: Mr. Mattet.—. Report Chemistry and Physics Baw States tism : Molecular structure of sean Rates 428.—-On fe 430 .—Selenio- ayes egen and its compounds: Propion : lodid of Nitrog a ia of Caprylic acid, 432.—On- the new metal Donarium, 433.— An ace acai, orin Gaseous Media, and for determining whether the consequent and Seenien are due to Ozonsfieati tion, by De. Hane, 434 or-remainder cs Contents see third page of of Co er. trate surrounding it; by Prof. Jamms M. Sarrord, A.M., 3 Magnetism of Oxygen gas, 497 — —On Stibmethy! and its open’ m, 433 n apparatus or producing, Atwition between the Surfaces’of Silicecus Stones in — (% : : > ee es : 339° E t Odor