At a Ks ke Aff a AMERICAN JOURNAL + oa gies: Bos : fT fy OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B, SILLIMAN, Je., AND < JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, ; PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, f DR. WALDO I. BURNETT, or BOSTON, % DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. ° oO SECOND SERIES. VOL. XVI.“ NOVEMBER, 1863. WITH A MAP. NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. NEW YORK: G6. P. PUTNAM Printed by B. L. Hamzzn—Printer to Yale Co CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVI. NUMBER XLVI. Art. I. Biography of Berzelius; by Prof. H. Ros Il. geen a pie sttie of Remains of lear pried Pp by Ill. A ‘Considértion of soins of the phassiiens wea Lan ‘ und, and their application in the Construction of Buildings designed especially for Musical Effect; by J. B. UpHam, M.D., IV. On the discovery of some Fossil Reptilian Remains, and a Land-shell in the interior of an erect fossil-tree in the Coal measures of Nova Scotia, with remarks on the Origin of oal-fields, ge the time Sayiger for their formation ; by Sir C. Lyert, F.R.S, V.P.G.S V. Reéxamination of American Micocali Part II. sak amaaline : Loxoclase; Danbury Feldspars; Haddam Albite; Green- wood Mica; Biotite ; Margarodite; Chesterlite Tale ; Rho- dophyllite ; "Cummingtonite ; Hydrous Anthophyllite ; Mon- rolite ; Ozarkite ; Dysyntribite ; Gibbsite; Emerald Nickel ; by Fin cage J. Lawrence Suir, M.D. and a is Brus VI. New xed a mnetbod of determining the Atwaties in Min- erals: Part 1I—Conversion of the Su!phates into Chlorids : Qualitative Determination of the mixed Alkalies: Separation of the Alkaline Chlorids from each other, with a more direct rela of obtaining them Abe silicates not aun gee in Acids ; y Prof. J. Lawrence Su VIL. Gna a method of pric ce an Observatory ona Dwelling. hou . JoHN BE Vill. On the Cetechiaesesiee of some Mavine Jovertebrain; ; by M. A. De QuaTREFAGES, IX. Contributions to Meteo oluge aeen Rew ts of Meteoro- Page. 1 logical Observations, made at St. Martin, a Jesus, Va, East, for 1852 ; by Cuartes Smatiwoop, M.D., X. Mr. Blake’s Reply to Mr. Hendrick’s pepe of his article on the Flow of Elastic Fluids, XI. Contributions to Mineralogy ; by Dr. ‘F A. GEN een XII. Review of the Geological Report on Westin: Tow and Mi eet and incidentally ie a ees of a —. ritory, a CONTENTS. XIII. On the aca new element, ‘ane by Prof. J. Law- RENCE SM 95 XIV. On a Isomorphism af Sphene and Budlase’: by Jans Al 96 XV. Characters of Tetraclea, a new genus of Verbenaces by Asa Gray, M.D., 97 , SCIENTIFIC -INTELLIGENCE. Correspondencez—Correspondence of M. J. Nicklés : epee Light, 99, ek ae 100. —Quinidine: Racemic acid, 101.—Metacetic acid, guste Lau —Re- { ¥ | magnets, 110—QOn Inductive Electric machines and on a simple means of increasin ‘ — effects, Ill, —On we chemical reac ‘tions important to health in populous cities, —On esigns by means of the Vapor “— dine, 13 —On the application off ety acids to illumination: Different memoirs ig rches m the presence of boracic acid in mineral waters: On Phycite, by M. Lamy the domnpelanion of the air confined in vegetable mould, 114. Chemistry and Physics.—Speeific heat of gases and vapors, 115.—On the decomposition of 4 éertain organic acids: New organic radicals containing oy Bhatt a new series of organic bodies which contain metals, 11 Nes on Ozone, Geolo, Inu f the Delta of the Mississippi, 120. te da ees sur Ja cham Géslouique ne asteche Provinces de l’Espagne, par MM. pe VerNerviIL et CoLLoms, age d'une description de quelques Ossements Fossiles io Te errain Mivetue, par M. P. AUL Gervais, 124.—Palwontology of New York; by James Haut, 1 Botany and Zoology —F on Cestrica ; an Herborizing re for the Young Botanists of Chester County, sit y Wu oy play: ada LL.D.: Fun gi Prt reigg og og ont} “ie ep ities of the Mee finns sslaee form the basis of © — all v lean Membranes: OFMEISTER, On the Development of Zostera: Horsfield, lante Ja oe w Rariores, ete. ; elab. J.J. Bennetr et R. Brown ei err Spe- es Filicum, being Descriptions 0 of all known Ferns: N. B, War p, F.R.S., &c., On the Growth of Pines in rte apart Cases: 132.—Infusoria of California : facie Re- searches of Prof. AGas Aen a. —New Planets, (24) (25) 136.—(26), 137.—First Comet of 1853: Second Comet 1 1852, by Professor S. P. L rop, M.D., ples able Clo et Tooth of Ge- talodus Ohioensis, by Pro M. Sarrorp: Products of the Swedish Mines in 1849 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science : he Application of Photography to the Representation of Microscopic Objects, 142.—On aire uced by the disintegrated surfaces of crystals, by Sir Davi - neigh Borealis: Me- — ric stone Lixna: American Ass oe e Advanwoiibleh ¢ of Science, 48— — Obituary. —Death of Dr. Lewis C. Beck, 14 Bibliography. —A History of the Fishes of po mag ain by Davip Humpnreys Storer, M.D., A.A-S. pes Principles of = d Physiological Chemistry, trans- ted by Dana eL Breep, M.D., 150.—A nal of ‘Scientific Decora, or Year- A SS, Wilkes, U.S.N, ie James D, Dana — Pico oe a psa het he oman ae of Arts la ] by James D. Dana: Report ‘on’ the Crnss ea of the E ee Expedition arr ai, i { t CONTENTS. Vv NUMBER XLVII. age. Art. XVI. On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating the Geo- : graphical Distribution of Marine animals; by James D. a 153 XVII. Contributions to Mineralogy; by Dr. F. A. Genta, 167 hi Hassler’s Experiments on e Expansion of Merde at vari- s temperatures ; by ‘ XANDER, E'sq., - 170 XIX. Diograslons of Berzelius ; by Prof H. Rose, - erate Lk") XX. piste: BG yas of Minerals; by N. S. Mannos - 186 XXI. Ont able number of the Native Indian “Population of Brit ish maces by Capt. J. H. Lerroy, R. A., 189 XXII. On the hie and ia abies Volume of some } Min- ‘ eral species T..S. Hox 203 XXII. Theor aia ui iene “Of the Bxpéiidivurd of Peat in Tot-air. ngine 5 y Prof. F. A. P. Barnarp, 18 XXIV. be the occurrence of i age og Carbonate of Liaatie. “num; by 1 228 RXV, The Normal of Curvature ; a Prof. Gronee Citron Wutiock, 231 XXVI. Proposed Modification ar the construction of the Ercsen Engine, with a view to increase its available pre ; by er Faepericx A. p. Ox 232 ae Note on the Besant of tients umbellaa, ‘Nutt. y Asa Gra XXVIil eer and Abstracts in Anatomy uf Physiology : by Dr. Watpo |. Burner 251 2 Correspondence o ave A 8 Nintike\—-Oleniical Researches n Dyeing, 268.—Pisiculture : Over-heated Steam applied ’ ai the Carbonizing of Wood, 270.—Expériments on the t Chloroformization, 272.—Composition of matters extracte from fertile soils by water: Photography, 273.—Theory of the Pile and the Aurora Borealis: Manufacture of Sugar— sugar extracted from molasses, 274.—Manufacture of caustic baryta from the carbonate, 276.—Caoutchouc industry, 277. Locomotion by compressed air, 278. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Ge A Geo- caca? | Map of the United States and the British Peotin es of North grote io etc., by Joves Ma ne Poy Sct of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom: pra des progrés de la Géologie de 1534 a 185), par "Arcuiac: Zeitschritt der geologischen ceabtiactantes Jahrbuch der kaiserlien kdnigliehen L rebe ai Reichs. anstalt, 279.—Ge rs ye Wanderungen in Gebiete der = orddstli vo Carn Burtica: Die Braunkohle in ner Mark Brandeburg: Halurgische G tirbach der Ge Ea yoo Dr. UMAR: pean s Lethea € Deutsehlands Petrefaeten, von ©. G. GieseL: Fauna der voberelk preker Gi BEL: » ie et Paléontol “ Francaises ae Saeth + aed ption of the remains of extinct 290—Desen _ Pesshabeores hte der Vorwelt, 4 W. Sm - Territory, etc:, by Jos. Leiny, M.D. : Memoir of the extinet . . val CONTENTS. Jos. Lerpy, M. wie Die Nepeiner oes der Grauwacken formation in Sachsen, ete., von H. B. ‘Ger INITZ, 281.— mes gee Flora von Wildshuth in Cusseta 5, Neu aifgefundene’ Sanvier-Ueher ca aus den Siig gost Schie es Jurakalkes, r. ANDREAS ss Remo sete, per - Pronet he Kreidebildungen v va Tex n Dr. Ferp. Roemer: Sys- silurien du centre de la Russie par abe “Basrande, 282.—Fossil Seariaa Sam ipa Prince Edward’s Island: New South Wales, 283. Zoology.—Neue Denkschriften der nlp og Schweizischen Gesellschaft, etc. rias de‘la real Academia de Cienci _ Madrid : Catalogue of the Cabi net of rierara j des History of the State of New Yor 2 —Bulletin de la Soc. imp. Natura “he de Moscow: Jahresb. des Naturwiss. Vorcinw’ in Halle : thon gers Kais. der Wissenschaften : Wur preeneenbocts naturhist. Jahreshefte : Ze mig ift fiir wissen schaftliche Zoologie : De homme et des races Lea ag par. RD: e0- graphische Verbreitung der Thiers: v on L. K.S ARD : Histoire ‘Naturelle d es Mol- lusques Ptéropodes, par MM. Rane and estcaret Bilder aiis dem ‘J jasldlion: von ARL Voer, 284.—Entwicklungsgeschichte des Meerschweinchens, von Tr. L. W. Biscuorr Phy soba ce gon che Reise nach Mossambique, vo ETERS, 285.—On the Osteol the song Fe Hippopotamus, Jo ; » 286 Museum Heineanum, rt. JEAN ANIS: Journal fiir Ornithologie, von Dr. JEAN Capanis: Anale ae ~aalletaent os m provinciarum occidental 1 lium im- peril rossici, auctor . Gorski: Monographia Pueumonopomorum viventium, auc- tore L. Preirrer: “Wosteaions of the Birds of California, Texas, Oregon : einer Migoceanhie der Lycene als Beitrag ziir spe es ngskunde mit Abbildungen nach der Natur, von Notes on the Classification of the Carabide: of the United States, by Dr. eres L. Le Conse 287. Astronomy.—Shooting Stars of August 10, 1853, 288,—Themis : Phocea : Proserpine : Third Comet of 1853, 289. Miscellaneous Intelligence —American Association for the Advancement of Science, 239.— Note, by Prof. pS to p. 224, on the effect of Moisture on the Heat developed by Compression of Air: Note by Prof. BaRNarD, to p. 225, on the Heat required to convert Water into Steam, poe —Note to p. 226, ee the Theoretic Determination of the Expen- 1 : t Lieut. M. F. Maury, 294 —Were the Ancient Egyptians acquaint nted vith Nitric Aci by THornton J. Herapats, Es rey 296.—California Academy of Natural Scienc Aurora seen at Perryville, on the 24th of May, 1853, by Prof HEELER: Great Gold Nugget : acest College, Philadelphia : y Notice to Naturalists, 298. por gif in the ayer of rain ranaig by Pres, EDWARD Hivchaoce: ‘Prac b ARY LLE: og i Sciences of Philadelphia, by A. L. HeermMann, M. —Rural Essays, by A. J. Downina, edited by George WILLIAM Curtis: Sixty-sixth Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New se Illustrated Record of the Industry of all Nations, edited by B. Sinutman, Jr.: The ora a ea edited by Wa. J. Tenney, Stn nea Medical Recorder, edited by A. P. Mer M.D. and ela 1.D,: Annals of Science, conducted by ‘sate roa - Sartu, A.M.: Report of the Sinidlooendei of the Census for December, 1852: An- nals of Pe Lyceum of N nine History of New York, List of Works, 304 NUMBER XLYVIII. Page. Art. XXX. Biography of Berzelius ; by Prof. H. Ross, - - 305 XXXI. On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, lustratiog: the Geo- graphical Distribution of Marine animals; by James D. Dax, 314 XXXII. The Coal Field of Bristol Cowaly and of Rhode Isla XXXIIL. Rese Booger E. Hircncock arches on Peston Applications of f Magnetic An by M. J. Nicki eae ce ee ee Se ee CONTENTS. rit XXXIV. On the Passivity of Nickel and Cobalt; by M. J. Nicxzs, ‘347 XXXV. Method of taking Daguerreotype Pictures for the Stereo- scope, simultaneously, upon the same pee with an ORI, Camera; by Prof. F. A. P. Barnarp, 348 XXXVI. Theoretic yaaa of the 'Expenditare of Heat in the Hot-air Eng reer saith by Prof. Freperick A. P. ene 351 XXXVII. On the Deiaetdation of Coral Formations; by ‘Saieos ‘D. Dana, 357 XXXVI. Resanihtnaiion of Awehton Mineral: Part Hi—Dian. burite ; Carrollite ; Thalite ; Hudsonite ; Jenkinsite.; ; Lazu- lite; Kyanite ; Elzeolite ; Spodumene ; Petalite: by J. Law- RENCE Situ and GeorceE J. Brusu, Ph.B., 365 XXXIX. 1. Rano of Nitric Acid on the Chlorids of Potessisiit and Sodium.—2. Action of Oxalic ene . the Nitrates and Chlorids of the Pee with a ready method of converting them into the Carbona he ais of Oxalic Acid enabling Zine to decompose Water; by Prof. J. Lawrence Situ, M.D., 373 XL. On the Blood. pia Kolding Cells, and thelr relation to . l. Burnett, M.D., 375 XLI. Extraordinary Fishes from California, constituting a new amil cB rorceabogs by L. Acassiz, XLII. On nge of Ocean Temperature that would attend a change i in one mae of the African and South American Con- tinents; by James D. Dana, 391 XLIII. Reviews and Raconde in Anatomy sing Physiology ; by Watpo I. Burnett 393 ie gpa ome of M. J. Nroxiaa, Reproduction at Cot on fr yroxyline: Phenomena of Con monia in Rain-water: Bronze for the heading of Ships : Pnoaee ys: Other papers read before the Academy, a —-Galva : Machine with Vapor of Ether, 408.—Loc motion “ik the Vapor of Chloroform, 409. sie rizes Proposed, 410. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—New Bases containing Palladium, 410.— Anthranilic and Benzoic Acids : New Compounds of Iridium: On Zirconia, 412. —On Did ymium, 413.—Regen- eration of Hippuric Acid: On the Alkaloids of the Quinquinas, 4 ransformation a L* 2 “4 S = Q i) g i na ~ =) —- o ~ i] Q @ 8 = f~¥) oO > 9g. wf 2 EE, a=) o re | © i) = a a oO i] 2 cs — 2 and Paleontology. eit = Vuikanischen Gesteine Be a und Island, und ihre submarine Umbildun n W. Sartorius ing Wa HAUSEN, 418. 8.—List on Geology and Palooussiony, 419, 420—On the Pugtuction n oO! British Islands, by fore VERT, 420.—Reports of Profe ice Henry D. Rogers,on Wheat- ley, , Brookdale and Charleston Mines, Phenixville, Chester Co., Pennsylvania, 422, Botany.—Harvey : Nereis Boreali-Americana; or insta en toa deb rsige: so the vot Alge of North America, 422.—Plante Fr emontianee ; Viii CONTENTS. ted by Col. J. C. Fremont, in California, by Jonn Torrey, F.L.S., 424, -~On Darling- tonia California, a New Seger cae oe ca California, by Joun Tor a Fas0-2 rrapage saenea on the Bat of Linneus, by Joan Torrey, F.LS.: Pla nite Living Animals, ay y ‘JosEPH Lerpy, M.D.: Exotic Pe: from the Schweinitzian Her- barium, principally from Surinam, revised iby t the | . J. Berxexey, M.A., F.LS., and Rev. M. A. Curtis, ak 426.— of y.—Adrien de Jussieu, 426.— M. Achille Richard: Dr. Pres! : Dr. Wale ‘an Flea — Bip of Works on sapeaage? F 427.—Lectures on Surgical Pathology, a at e f England, by James Paget, F.R.S., &c. ‘onomy.—New Comet IV of 1853: Proserpine : Second Comet of 1853, 430.—Third Astron Comet of 1853: Shooting Stars of August 9-10th 1853, 431. iscellaneous Intelligence. —Note to Prof. Barnard’s paper on oe ee of Heat in the Miscel Hot-air Engi the Author, 431.—The Conical Condenser, a serge Appendage, by Lieut. ih B. Hunt , 432. zy taiiecs s of | . accep hical Department of the Library of Congress, by Lieut. E. B, Hunt, 436 the Compuaiie and Figuring of the Spec- . e : e me sBy, 438.—On the employment of the piers Sine Dieese of Calcium as a means of preventing and destroying the Oidium Tuckeri, or G Betas np by Dr. Ast TLE y P. Price, ¥Riet the Interior = o aS by M. H. Boye; On the Popular Theory of we Arctic Basin. Is it true ? * Dr. Scorgssy, 446.—On the Consolidation of Cora I"Rormations : Daguerreotypes for the Stereoscope: British Association: Cli Sep Arago: H E. Stric tland, 447,— Annual Report of the Superintendant of the Coast Survey : Twentieth Annual Report of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, 1852 : The Book of N a Rich ScHoEeDLeER, Ph.D.: The Ethnographical Library, conducted by Epwin pre RIs, Esq., 450 —Contributions to est Aa Rota Geography of South Eastern Asia an ee by G. W. Earx: Report of Progress of the Geological Survey of Illinois, ee G. NoRwoop: a Honilboak of the Dageteiderz ye; by S. D. Humpurey, 451. List of Works, 451. Index, 452. ERRATA. 5.1. from top, for Trommet, read Tom P. 280 is pod i 1. sf bottom, for ancien yo aarescogli, read Melampyrum, Pedicularis, P. 289, 5 1. toa botkiee, for passed, read eae é AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES,] ! és Arr. 1_— Biography of Berzelius ; by Prof. H. Roser of Berlin.* On the 7th of August, in the memorable year 1848, Berzetius died at Stockholm, after long and painful suffering, in his 69th year Distinguished men, who, during a long and active career, have enjoyed a great reputation, may have attained their celebrity in ooh ways. a teacher draws round him by his theoretical and prac- extraordinary talent for illustration, he re nders even the most ifficult branches of science accessible to the inquiring public, or by an able combination of known facts, he opens the way to the most fruitful ideas, such a man may contribute to the general diffusion of a scientific spirit, and otherwise exercise the most beneficial influence. But if at the end of his career, we examine whether a void has been left by his removal, ie will often be found that science would have preserved, upon the whole, the same boundary if he had not labored for it. It Bit be that his influ- ence upon science, although considerable, has been only indirect. On the contrary, there are other men of special endowments, Dossesetgs in a high degree the talent for research, who oe ze * Delivered at the Public Meeting of the Academie der Wissénschaften, in on 8d July, 1851, and cited from the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, ve i October, 1852. 3 Suoonn Suntes, Vol a" No, 46,—duly, 1858. 1 ee : 2 Biography of Berzelius. with marvellous penetration where to direct their investigations, and frequently, by discovering a few apparently very simple facts, clear up our views in a surprising manner, overthrow long- established prejudices, and advance science with gigantic strides. It is rarely that men of the latter kind follow up and complete their scientific conquests. They generally content themselves with having shewn, by their discoveries, in what direction the study of details is to be pursued, and, after having pointed out the course and the method of filling up the gaps, resign the exe- cution of the work to others. — h aman was Humphry Davy. There are none who will not acknowledge that at the commencement of this century, found united in one man in so high a degree of perfection as they were in him. In this respect, and in chemical science at least he has been exceeded by none. Since the death of Berzelius several biographies of him have appeared, especially in Sweden. All tell how in his childhood and youth, he had to struggle with care and poverty,—how he ut in an academic eulogium, it is before all things appropriate to point out the scientific merits of the deceased, to shew how Biography of Berzelius. 3 much science has been extended by him, and how great the loss it has suffered in his death. It was exactly at the commencement of this century that Ber- zelius first appeared as an independent investigator. Volta had just constructed the electrical pile which bears his name, and its astonishing effects occupied in a high degree the attention of the men of science of the time. The unexpected chemical phe- nomena produced by the pile excited the interest of chemists fully as much as that of physicists, and induced them to multi ply experiments with this remarkable apparatus. ‘lhe first in- vestigation made public by Berzelius was upon the effects of the electrical pile upon saline solutions. In the year 1803, there appeared in Gehlen’s Neu. Allg. Journal der Chemie an im- portant paper on this subject, the joint production of Berzelius ~ and Hisinger. However manifold and remarkable were the re- sults which had hitherto been obtained with the Voltaic pile with regard to chemical decomposition, still no one had succeeded in discovering the laws of these phenomena. Berzelius was the fist to find the thread which could lead with certainty through this labyrinth of complicated phenomena. He shewed that sub- between the constituents of a chemical compound were only relative, and that one and the same body may behave as a base ceeded in disproving many erroneous views as to the effects of transmission of substances from one vessel into another ; but in his memoir he does not make any mention of the views of Ber- zelius, which correspond with his own ; and Pfaff, who translated vy’s paper for Gehlen’s Journal, felt it necessary to remark that three years previously Berzelius and Hisinger had made known age ze us. sie a ne Aye eee De eee Eee aa ; R44 Biography of Berzelius. all the fundamental principles which Davy now brought forward as entirely new. #4 z In 1807, Davy received the prize of 3000 frances, offered by the Emperor Napoleon for the best set of experiments made dur- ing that year on the subject of galvanism. The merits of Ber- zelius and Hisinger were unnoticed, 3 b thas % Biography of Berzelius. 5 batteries of Daniell and Grove, he had constructed one of zinc, copper, and two liquids, in sucha manner that the zinc was not attacked by the liquid in contact with it, while the copper was briskly oxydized by the other. If now the oxydation of one of the metals were the canse of the electricity, the copper would have been positive, and the zinc negative; consequently the poles of the pile would be reversed. Before the circuit was closed, the copper was violently oxydized and dissolved ; but, when the poles were connected, this action ceased immediately, and metallic cop- per was precipitated from the liquid upon the copper plate. This experiment rendered it obvious to Berzelius that chemical activity could not be the cause of the electrical phenomena; for the Hisinger, who had a particular partiality for the chemical part of mineralogy, and to whom, as a geologist and mineralogist, Swe- den owes so much, Berzelius early directed his attention to the quantitative analysis of minerals. He candidly admitted in after years, that in the first instance, when the law of combination in simple definite proportions was not yet established, he did this chiefly on Hisinger’s account. But the very first result of an in- vestigation of this kind, carried on in conjunction with Hisinger, was of the most brilliant kind: it was the discovery of a new metal, Cerium, during the year 1803, in the so-called tungsten of Bastnas, near Riddarhyttan in Westmanland. It must be admitted that the discovery of a new metal is often the result of mere chance. But it is not every chemist who is tigations and long experience. F'or this reason new element- ary bodies are not easily discovered by young chemists, not even by those of high talent. The discovery of cerium, which Ber- zelius made in his twenty-third year, shows therefore the great and rare sagacity which he displayed even in his first inves- tigations. Klaproth investigated the tungsten of Bastnas simultaneously with Berzelius and Hisinger, and declared that the oxyd which 6 Biography of Berzelius. it contained in combination with silica was new. But he over- looked its metallic nature, and although he obtained it of a red- dish-yellow color, regarded it as an earth, which he called Ochroit earth. The investigation of Berzelius and Hisinger was evi- dently carried out with more precaution than that of Klaproth. Not only did the latter overlook the partial solubility of the oxyd in solutions of alkaline carbonates, he did not even remark the Mineralkérper,” which did not appear until 1807, that he men- tioned the evolution of oxy-muriatic gas on treating the ignited oxyd with muriatic acid, still, however, without attaching to the fact any great weight. Berzelius and Hisinger, on the contrary, justly considered this of very special importance, as unequivo- cally pointing out two very different stages of oxydation, at that time one of the principal means of distinguishing between me- tallic oxyds and earths, which were then regarded as simple bodies. Gehlen also directed attention to this point in a remark upon the paper of Berzelius and Hisinger. Further, he was for- tunate enough to accomplish, with the aid of Hjelm, the reduc- tion of the oxyd, and to obtain the metal in an isolated, although not in a melted state. hen Berzelius subsequently undertook the determination of the equivalent weights of almost all the elementary bodies by means of a long series of experiments, he resigned the estimation of the equivalent of cerium to Hisinger, and did not occupy him- self more specially with this metal. Thus probably the discov- ery of the oxyds of two other metals, accomplished by Mosander, thirty-six years after that of cerium, escaped him. Besides the examination of cerite, Berzelius undertook at that time the investigation of other new and interesting minerals. had to earn his livelihood, was that of physician. He naturally sought in this profession for those occupations especially in which was quite natural that as physician he should be induced to take up the study of animal chemistry. What he achieved in Biography of Berzelius. z this branch of chemistry, and indeed within a short space of time, is extraordinary, and opened as it were an entirely new field in this science. Before Berzelius’s time, animal chemistry was treated nearly in the same manner as that of inorganic bodies; the constituents of the animal body were arranged in certain classes, ‘and described merely as objects of chemical decomposition, perhaps with a few general remarks as to their functions in animal life. ‘This mode of treatment is, in a scientific point of view, totally valueless, Berzelius endeavored to combine anatomical with chemical inves- tigations, so as to tend to a common end, in order in this to give to experiments a higher scientific connection, and to direct the attention of the chemist to the physiological aspect of the subject. In this spirit he investigated almost all parts of the animal body, solids and fluids, certainly only qualitatively, as at the com- mencement of this century there did not exist the most remote knowledge of those methods for the quantitative elementary and solely because their investigations were undertaken from a one-sided point of view, and without any high scientific purpose. Beside Berzelius, the only chemist of that time who entered upon these investigations from a physiological point of view, was Fourcroy ; but his results vary the most widely from those of Berzelius, since from scattered, uncertain, superficial, and often wholly incorrect observations, he drew general and extended in- ferences, although certainly in a very ingenious manner, and by his attractive illustration led the way to the greatest errors. In order to recognize the high superiority of Berzelius over Four- croy in this respect, it is only necessary to compare the investiga- tions of the latter upon blood, especially its red coloring matter, With that instituted by Berzelius on the same subject only a short time afterwards. rzelius made known his investigations in animal chemistry in the form of lectures, the first of which appeared in 1806; the second in 1808. Besides this, the most important examinations of separate animal substances appeared in the Afhandlingar 4 Fysik, Kemi och Mineralogi, and in Gehlen’s Journal. He gave @ masterly review of his labors in animal chemistry, compared with what was previously known on the subject, in a speech de- 8 Biography of Berzelius. livered upon the occasion of his vacating the presidentship of the Stockholm Academy of Sciences. It is there the custom annu- ally to select from among the members of the Academy, a new president, who, in vacating his office, must deliver a scientific dissertation, which is printed. This is, indeed, frequently the the greatest importance. They were on the reduction of silica, and the composition of cast iron. Ithough Berzelius had succeeded in obtaining the metals of the alkaline earths in combination with mercury, by means of the voltaic pile, he was unable to separate in a similar manner the ical of silica from its oxygen. In order, however, to satisfy himself that silica had a composition similar to the earths, he in- stituted a series of interesting experiments for the purpose of uniting the radical of silica with metals, especially iron, by mix- ing iron filings with carbon and silica, and exposing the whole to e contained, together with silicium, carbon. He then found ap- proximately the quantity of oxygen present in silica, by esti- mating the quantity of iron and carbon, the latter certainly by a somewhat unsafe method. ‘The remark which he makes at the close of his paper, published in 1810, is well worthy of notice. After having described his numerous experiments on the quantity of oxygen in silica, which throughout had not given very closely corresponding results, he concludes with these words: “I con- the present time to perceive either theoretical or practical advan- tage to be gained by this accuracy.” A few years later he would not have expressed himself in this manner. nother investigation important for this period related to the composition of crude iron. At the commencement of the pres- acids, less hydrogen was obtained than with an equal weight of malleable iron. Berzelius proved that in this case an oleaginous hydrocarbon was produced, and shewed, with the greatest cer- * - . . * a directly, by dissolving the iron through the agency of chlorid of Biography of Berzelius. 9 with the results obtained; since he could not rely upon the cor- tectness of the method which he had employed for the quanti- tative determination of carbon or of magnesia, whose presence in the solution of crude iron he had proved. On this account, he published his investigation under the modest title of Attempt to Analyze Crude Iron. 10 Biography of Berzelius. pirical facts which had hitherto borne the name of chemistry, the universal law now first developed itself, according to which bod- ies enter into chemical combination. Berzelius is not, properly speaking, the first discoverer of the doctrine of chemical proportions. It generally happens in all sci- ences that great laws are not suddenly discovered by one investi- gator, but are gradually recognized.* * * * * * * During the previous century chemists who had occupied them- selves with the phenomena of the so-called chemical affinity, made several observations which incontrovertibly proved that there was a strict uniformity and order in the chemical combina- tions of bodies. These men were especially Bergmann in Sweden, Kirwan in Dublin, Wenzel in Dresden, and above all, Richter in Berlin. The latter two had indeed come to the conclusion, that acids and alkaline bodies must combine in definite proportions, because in the double decomposition of neutral salts neutral pro- ducts are formed. y to attain to such accurate analyses that the calculated results of the decomposition of two neutral salts could correspond with ex- riment. Lavoisier gave a new direction to the whole science. The at- tack upon the phlogistic theory, and the establishment of the an- tiphlogistic system, took undivided possession of all thinking minds. None had time to occupy themselves with any other than the qualitative changes which bodies underwent by their mutual decomposition. It was also necessary that Latoinieve theory should have gained a complete ascendency before the doc- trine of simple chemical proportions could be fully recognized and appreciated. * Owing to the indistinctness of the MS,, al i i want of it, however, does not affect the eae etr ee saa” Sar See aieoet Biography of Berzelius. 11 stances, particularly the power of crystallizing or of cohering in any form, in consequence of which compounds could separate from a solution, as precipitates or crystals; or else owing to the expansion taking place on passing into the gaseous state, by which they removed themselves from the sphere of action of solid or fluid bodies. The most important law established by Berthollet was, however, that of the so-called chemical mass, ac- cording to which the deficiency of a body in chemical affinity may be replaced or .compensated for by increasing its quantity: and it is indisputable that this law, although it has latterly been more and more forgotten, is perfectly correct. The first of these principles, established by Berthollet, viz: that all chemical combinations are possible between a certain maximum and minimum, and in indefinite proportions, was im- mediately disputed by Proust, who endeavored, by means of many ingenious experiments, to shew that every chemical com- bination takes place in definite proportions, and that between it and the nearest allied combination there is a certain interval within which there is no intermediate stage. Berthollet’s views were at that time apparently supported by the numerous erroneous representations of the composition of the most important compounds. Likewise the experiments which he made, or caused to be instituted, in order to disprove the as- sertions of Proust were far from being adequate. Proust’s exper- led him to enter upon this gigantic investigation. After the dis- covery of oxygen in the alkalies, the conjecture that all saline bases, and consequently ammonia, contained this element, was not unnatural. This view received a still greater probability by the discovery of the ammoniacal amalgam. Berzelius now commenced a series of investigations for the of chlorids, found the quantity of acid in the salt, and by the oss the quantity of oxygen in the base itself. On subjecting ammonia to the same process he was not able either to isolate the ammoniacal metal, or to combine it with the Mercury in such a quantity as to obtain a result. £ i Me Biography of Berzelius. expels equal quantities of phlogiston from the different metals ; or to express the same in the language of the antiphlogistic sys- tem, that when a certain quantity of any acid combines with different metallic oxyds, forming neutral salts, the oxyds must contain an equal and invariable quantity of oxygen. But in order to be able to apply this law of Bergmann with perfect certainty, unassailable proofs of its perfect accuracy were necessary. Those which Richter had given could not be re- garded as at all admissible. Berzelius now compared his analy- ses of potash, soda, and lime with Bucholz’s analysis of oxyd of silver, and that made by my father of oxyd of mercury; and he found in fact that the quantity of these bases which sat- urate the same quantity of hydrochloric acid, forming a neutral salt, contained, with very slight deviations, the same quantity of oxygen. But when he came to examine other metallic oxyds and combinations with muriatic acids, the results obtained were so much at variance (perhaps on account of many erroneous myself justified in mentioning the following cireum- stance, although somewhat of a personal character. Berzelius Biography of Berzelius. 13 mutually decomposing each other, while basing his calculations upon the data of incorrect analysis, was often nearly abandoning the perplexing subject, but was induced by a paper of my father, upon the relation of the constituents of neutral muriates (pub- lished by him in 1806, a year before his death, in the 6th volume of “ Gehlen’s neues Allg. Journal,” p. 22), to persevere. My father had, in the first place, by at least one example, practi- cally demonstrated, that by the decomposition of two neutral salts, muriate of baryta and sulphate of soda, according to his own analysis of them, and of the two salts proceeding from the decomposition, and by calculation, results were obtained, which proved that the neutrality could not be disturbed. Berzelius now considered it necessary, in order to attain to cer- tain results, to investigate anew the composition of the most im- portant compounds with extreme care, repeating the analyses several times before venturing to employ their results in the ex- tension of his views. e remarked very justly, that, on account of the unchangeable neutrality of two salts decomposing each other, it was only necessary to analyze, with suflicient accuracy, all salts formed for example by sulphuric acid, and all those whose ase is baryta, in order to be able, by a simple rule of three, to calculate the composition ofsall other salts, because these two Series contain the three numbers which are necessary in order to find the fourth. rzelius now ventured upon an herculean task, which he prosecuted for many years with the most indefatigable industry, and for a long time without any help. e re-examined every important chemical compound with the most admirable care and exactness. In this work, especially, he displayed rare talent, se- lecting, with the most extraordinary acuteness, those bodies Which were the best adapted for investigation. He published an account of his labors, or rather the commencement of them in the third part of the “ Afhandlingar i F'ysik, Kemi och Miner- alogi” for 1810. ‘They first appeared in German in 1811, in Gilbert's Annalen. In these investigations, theory was constantly the touch-stone employed to test the accuracy of the results, to attain which he was frequently obliged to vary his experiments almost endlessly. € was, in the first instance, compelled to improve the analytical methods, and to abandon many of those in use at that time, and by this means he was gradually led to those views which are now received by all chemists. he most distinguishing characteristic of Berzelius’s mode of Working was, that with the most insignificant means at his com- mand, he still succeeded in obtaining the most brilliant results. ‘hen he entered upon his great investigation, he was 1n posses- Sion of very small pecuniary means, he was in a condition almost 14 Biography of Berzelius. of want, and without public support, which, considering the is0- lated situation of Sweden, must have been especially depressing and unfavorable. The difficulties against which he had then to rzelius, in the first place, altered the methods of Klaproth, _ which at that time were the best, in so tar especially that he em- ployed considerably smaller quantities. The usual quantity ope- rated upon by Klaproth and other chemists was rather more than five grammes; Berzelius never took more than two or three grammes, generally less, determining this quantity, of course, ac- cording to the nature of the constituents of the body to be exam- ined. By employing more delicate balances, which Berzelius first introduced into use in chemistry, and by adequate care, re- ad the good fortune during my youth to assist the merito- rious Klaproth in his chemical investigations, though only during f 1816, when his labors were to each other as the respective accuracy of their results. The spirit-lamp, with double draught, was likewise introduced into use by Berzelins. Formerly the ignition even of the smal- lest quantities of a substance was effected over a charcoal fire. He was also the first to make use of the small platinum crucible, Biography of Berzelius. 15 in which, substances could be both ignited and weighed, and by the use of which considerably greater accuracy was insured, and ‘the absorption of moisture as far as possible prevented. The fil- ter containing the precipitate was always burnt when possible, and the ignited substance weighed together with the ash of the pa- per; a saving of time and trouble for which we are indebted to Mr. d’Ohsson, who worked in Berzelius’s laboratory. It was on this account that a paper was employed which left after combus- tion but a very minute quantity of ash, and which was made o excellent quality in Sweden, because there are springs there rising through granite, the water of which is almost free from fixed sub- stances. ‘The general introduction of this Swedish paper, to the manufacture of which Berzelius paid great attention, is also owing to him. : The use of appropriate funnels, &c., as well as an immense have contributed to render the results of analyses much more exact, and have much simplified the methods themselves. Berzelius had moreover—and it is no slight merit—transferred chemical investigations in which charcoal fires were not neces- sary, from the damp kitchen, or cellar-like cold laboratory, into the comfortable dwelling-room. The present generation have scarcely an idea of the discomforts which were then connected with chemical researches. It certainly required no little scien- tific enthusiasm, during the severe winters of our northern cli- mate, to remain in a place where there was the greatest absence of comfort, and which was even prejudicial to the health. But it was at that time thought that a laboratory with a stone floor was indispensably necessary even for trifling chemical operations. The small caoutchouc tubes, by means of which experiments with gases may be so easily and safely conducted, and which, indeed, alone render many inquiries possible, were early employed by Berzelius in his investigations. Whoever has in former times attempted the collection of a gas will remember the unpleasant- hess of working with brittle glass tubes, and how easily an experi- ment failed from the slightest want of care. It was Berzelius who first rendered glass tubes, as it were, flexible, and they could then be employed in constructing the most complicated apparatus. _ Possessing only the most scanty means, he was led to all these improvements by actual necessity. He took advantage of every Opportunity to perfect himself in mechanical art. He was master of glass-blowing, which he learned from a travelling Italian; he was familiar with turning, glass-grinding, and other arts. He made the greater part of his own instruments; and notwithstand- ing the isolated position of his native country, was thus enabled to construct those ingenious forms of apparatus by means of Which he so infinitely advanced the study of ch : ? 16 F. V. Greene on the composition of remains of Mammalia. Art. Il.—Chemical Investigation of Remains of Fossil Mam- mala; by Francis V. Greene, M.D. Ar the request of Dr. F. A. Genth, I have made in his labora- tory a chemical investigation of several fossil remains, collected by D. D.-Owen, M.D., in his late survey of Nebraska Territory ; the specimens having been kindly furnished me by Dr. Jos. Leidy, from the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences. e specimens consisted of a portion of bone from a Titanotherium, the enamel and dentine from a tooth of the same animal, and a portion of the tibia of the Archzotherium. The general outline of the methods used is as follows: The finely powdered substance, being always dried over sul- phuric acid, was dissolved (according to H. Rose’s method -for the determination of phosphoric acid), in nitric acid, and after adding mercury in sufficient quantity to combine with the phos- phoric acid, evaporated to dryness in a water-bath ; afterwards it was moistened with water, and again evaporated to dryness; this operation being repeated until no odor of nitric acid could be ob- served at the temperature of the water-bath. T'o this dried mass water was now added. ‘The insoluble portion consisted of noth- ing but phosphate and basic nitrate of mercury (except in one analysis, in which iron existed in a determinable quantity); the solution contained fluorid of calcium with the other constituents in the form of nitrates. The insoluble portion was separated b filtration, and, after being washed and thoroughly dried, was fused with carbonate of soda, with all the precautions mentioned by Rose. ‘The fused mass consisting only of phosphate of soda and the excess of carbonate of soda, dissolved therefore com- pletely in water, except in one instance, in which a portion of the iron remaining undissolved was filtered off, and determined in the usual manner. ‘The watery solution was acidulated with hydro- of ammonia. As carbonate of lime and fluorid of calcium are PMR ie BRATS A oe Os, ecntelibatieuieeins I". V. Greene on the composition of remains of Manmalia, 17 in boiling water, and filtered from the insoluble fluorid of calcium. Finding that it always contained a small quantity of silicic acid, the mixture, after being weighed, was treated with hydrochloric acid, which left undissolved the silicic acid, the quantity of whic was determined and subtracted from the previous weight, thus leaving the exact quantity of fluorid of calcium. The solution from the carbonate of lime containing only mag- nesia and the alkalies, was evaporated to dryness to drive off the ammoniacal salts, and the residue dissolved in sulphurie acid, the excess of which was also driven off by heat. The dry mass was dissolved in water, and acetate of baryta added to convert the sulphates into acetates. he filtrate from the insoluble sul- phate of baryta, was now evaporated to dryness and heated in order to convert the acetates of baryta, magnesia, and the alka- lies into carbonates, which were then treated with boiling water, and the soluble alkaline carbonates thus separated from the insol- uble carbonates of magnesia and baryta. This latter mixture was then treated with dilute sulphuric acid, and from the filtrate, mag- nesia afterwards separated as phosphate of magnesia and ammonia. he carbonates of the alkalies were converted into and weighed as chlorids, and afterwards separated by bi-chlorid of platinum. A new portion was taken for the remaining determinations. This was dried at 220° until the weight became constant ; the loss giving the quantity of water. The anhydrous substance was then heated in an open crucible until all the organic matter was burned off, and then moistened with carbonate of ammonia, as it was supposed that the high heat might have driven off a portion of the carbonic acid. The difference of weight gave the quantity of organic matter. Carbonic acid was determined in e usual manner from the loss of weight after treating with ni- tric acid. The nitric acid did not dissolve a small quantity of silicic acid, the weight of which was ascertained and added to that of the portion previously extracted. From the filtrate sul- phuric acid was precipitated as sulphate of baryta. The following are the data of the analyses: 1. Bone of Titanotherium. I. 19136 grammes gave: ~| IL 1:5776 grammes gave: 10200 grs. of pyrophosphate of magne- | 0-0090 grs, of sulphate war oe jorpn Rares of pre acid, which con- hosphoric acid. tained: — i sitleie eid 00086 “ — sulphate - baryta, and 40 “ sesquioxyd of iron. 00004 “ — silicic acid. 00137. « fluorid of calcium. 00404 “ sulphate of ba for de- 00175 « pyrophosphate of magne- termination 0 sulphuric sia for determ. magnesia. acid. = | 16995 * carbonate of lime. 00645 . “ carbonic acid. 00504 “ mixed chlorids of potassi- | 00323 “ water. um and sodium. 00896 “ organic matter. 00127 * — platinum=0-0096 chlorid | oO Srconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 46—July, 1853. 3 18 F. V. Greene on the composition of remains of Mammalia. a. Enamel. L 16226 grammes gave: 2. Tooth of Titanotherium. II. 18518 grammes gave: 0°0545 grs, of ser of baryta for de- mination of sulphuric 00023 = * _- silicic acid. 0'0586 “ — earbonic acid. Of162: ater. 00470 * organic matter. 3. Tooth of Titanotherium. 0°9966 grs. of eee rin of magne- r determination of painters acid. 00079 =* © silicic aeid. 00016 “ = fluorid of calcium. 00099“ oer ate of m sia for determination of magnesia 14999 « eb vine 00454 “ xed coi of potassi- um and sodium, 00081 “ Lng owed 0061 chlorid of potas 6. Dentine. I. 20083 grammes gave : 11348 grs. of gOS of magne- termination of ¢ acid. pre: 00129 “ © silicic aad 00582 “ fluorid of calcium. 00297 “ pyrophosphate of sia for determination of phosphoric acid. 17829 “ carbonate of lime. 00356 “ mixed chlorids of potassi- um and sodium. 00095 « 00072 chlorid : ee potassium. Il. 1:1643 grammes gave: 00509 grs. of —— - — for de- of sulphuri¢ 00018 * - silicic acid. 0330 “ carbonic aeid. 0245, er. 00310 “ organic matter. 4. Tibia of Archeotherium. I. 2:1037 grammes gave: 1-:0248* grs, of Paro cephaie of magne- r determination of ae alice a 01070 fluorid ms ory o0668 “ pyrophos po magn . bed gatas of 17689 Sorhate of lime. 00714 aa chlorids of potassi- C0122 % and sodium. platinum oa ‘0002 chlorid of potassi If. 1:7400 grammes gave : 06345 grs. of ipete of baryta and silicic acid, which con- taine L ten of Titanotherium. Compact, with gb ce fracture. T' 45. Bp Gr. 2-810 (at Opaqu 124 the odor of burned horn. 20° C.) Conta * This quantity is father too small, fore in the analysis the loss was 00300 =“ clphate 0 we baryta, 00045. cie a — 00814 « mis ts f baryta ie termination of dilherie aci y 03895 = * carbonic acid, "0343 “ ~~ water. 0 0711 “ organic matter. Hardne ough Lustre resinous. brown. olor On heating gives off ae water, Gaether with ae t loss in the phosphoric acid ; calculated as votre ed : F’. V. Greene on the composition of remains of Mammalia. 19 #e Mg Ca CaFl Ba Na K Si Sf .6 .H Org. Mat 1777 0-348 49837 0-716 0°359 1-134 0-317 0135 1-067 34°148 4-088 2048 5:62 101-656 with a trace of manganese and chlorine: which may be con- sidered as 2Fe.0,,PO; ~ Real S€a0, Si04....i.. 4+ +... 0882 3Mg0,PO,; . . O-770 aut, eae 3Ca0, PO; . 69685 CaO el Se 2Na0, POs ‘ : 1416 CaFl ‘ ; ; 0-716 BaO, SO3 . 0647 HO Hale re NaO,SO, 2 fe 1-083 Org. Mat. - 5682 KO, SO ‘ é 0°587 —- 101°656 2. Tooth of Titanotherium. a. Enamel. Fibrous, with uneven fracture. Very tough. Hardness 4:7. Sp. Gr. 4:7 (at 20° C.) Color bluish gray. “Opaque. Lustre— surface stain fibres pearly. Contains Mg Ga CaFl Na kK &§i 8 é Hf Org. Mat. 0219 51-872 et 1288 0°239 0611 1:°011 89348 3°165 0626 2538=—101-016 with traces of oxyds of manganese and iron: which may be con- sidered as 3MgO, PO; ; a 0403 8Ca0, Si0g * . TZ 8CaO, POs . 883°835 CaFl - 0.099 2NaO, POs 8 S874 1-418 CaO NE ' sages) 1-284 NaO, SO3 1437 HO ‘ ; ; 0626 0,80, ae Org. Mat. re See CaO, COs ec iar aapaiy 101-016 3. Tooth of Titanotherium. 4. Dentine. Compact. Fracture uneven, somewhat subconchoidal. Hard- ness 2-5, Sp. Gr. 2°935 (at 20° ©) Lustre dull. Color white, in Pe ig (a. CaFl Na kK Si S F OC GQ H Org. Mat traces 0°53 49°82 2:90 0°75 0-23 0°79 151 8610 2°83 trace 2:10 26610022 with traces of oxyds of manganese and iron: which may be con- sidered as $Mg0, PO, «© i. 19098 CaO, CO2 .gilesiose 3CaO, POs c tecieie oe CaFl aie ee CaO, SO, ee OD CaO Pe EE ee Na, SO, SE Obl at HO ee KO, 80, 2 ie ee Org. Mat. dw i ceeaalll 3020,810g. | ss 288 — 4. Tibia of Archeotherium. Compact ; fracture uneven, somewhat splintery. Hardness 4, Sp. Gr. 2:826 (at 20°C.) Lustre pearly. Opaque. Color pink- 20 F. V. Greene on the composition of remains of Mammalia. ish white. Assumes a greenish tint when heated in presence of air. Contains: Mg Ca OaFl Ba Na kK §i § — G WH Org. Mat. 1-140 47-052 5-086 1131 1572 0-276 0-259 2-200 32-957 2-270 1-971 4-086=100-000 with traces of chlorine, and oxyds of manganese and iron; which may be considered as 3Mg0,PO, . : 2099 CaFl - . 3 5-086 3CaO, PO; . 68°582 CaO ; i ; 6517 2NaO, PO; . : 1-079 8CaO, SiO, . . 0732 BaO, SO, un ee O pe pO NaO, SO, ‘: 2443 Org. Mat. é * 4086 KO,S80, a ae CaO, COs . apn 100-000 With very few exceptions the analyses which have heretofore been made, show in the inorganie part but a slight difference be- tween recent and fossil bones, which fact is sustained by the re- sults of the present analyses. In the above investigations, a portion than recent ones; but in no instance was so large a quantity found as in the analysis of fossil reptiles by Baumert,* where the fluorid of calcium in the Zeuglodon macrospondylus amounts to 9:54 per cent., and in the Hydrarechos to 16-67 rcent. By direct determination, Heintzt found the fluorid of calcium in two human bones to be 2-97 and 2°05 per cent. ; the first of which corresponds exactly with the quantity found in the dentine of the Titanotherium. In the tibia of the Arche- otherium a portion of the fluorid of calcium may have been introduced in a manner similar to that of the quartz and sulphate of baryta. * Liebig und Kopp, Jahresbericht fiir 1851, p. 594, t Pogg. Ann. vol. lxxyii, p, 267, =< paseysressnennesretresahctemamestneniameneniatitiae imam ated nee paegeeescne E i On the Construction of Buildings, etc. 21 Arr. IIIl.—A Consideration of some of the Phenomena and Laws of Sound, and their application in the Construction of Buildings desioned ee for Musical Effect ; by J. B. Urnam, M.D., Bos (Concluded from p. 363.) We have already pointed out how the resonance eh a room, and the quality of the transmitted tone, are affected by the which circumscribe the limits of any apartment, the indications were plain; for, as we have seen, the same conditions that are necessary for a proper amount of resonance are those, also, re- quired to maintain the strictest purity of intonation, so far as re- lates to the passage of sound from a denser to a rarer medium, and vice versa. But every sound shut in by the walls of a building, is nae to the disturbing influences of reflection and reverberation. are consequences which it is of the utmost importance to sonteal or subdue, and, these also, are materially modified by the nature and conformation of the circumscribing limits. Unfortunately, the conditions of structure that would favorably affect the first mentioned desirable results, might unfavorably modify the latter. 0 explain :—so far a s resonance and the perfection of the trans- mitted tone are aera, the unity of structure required in the main body of the wall should not be disturbed at its surface ; in other words, the internal face of such wall should be the solid surface of the substance used in its construction.* Now a wall of masonry, presenting a smooth and solid surface to the sound, will occasion an excess of the residuary portions which constitute direct reflection and reverberation ; so that, however satisfactory be the effect of an isolated musical tone, the distinct utterance of a mg mt of sounds in moderate rapidity i is rendered impossi- poe is abundantly confirmed by observation and experi- se a metallic chamber at Montrose, which had been con- pce for the- preparation of sulphuric acid, Dr. Reid observed that any sound produced in it continued in general for seven or eight seconds after the impulse which had given rise to it had ceased. In the interior of one of Barclay and Perkins’ boilers, f-4 P 1s sheathed with a lining of metal, loses in great degree its pure and mellow tone, though it acquires thereby, in its upper register, a certain ness (brilliancy Perhaps,) w. ‘shach hich gives it rap eater prrevinenes in the orchestra, a _compensates, in the ears sg many, for its losses in other respects. 22 On the Construction of Buildings sound produced in the same way, he states, continued for eight seconds. ‘To these we may add our own observations in the ob- noxious rooms at Girard College (before mentioned) which pre- sent an even and solid surface of stone internally. So also, in the case of the Musical Fund Hall in Philadelphia. ‘This room is one hundred and twenty-one feet long, sixty broad and twenty- five and a half high to the centre of the arched ceiling, the depth of the arch, four feet four inches, included. Instead of being plastered upon a lathing, battened in the ordinary way, it has a smooth, solid finish upon the face of the wail. By experi- ments made in this apartment, when empty, we found a reverb- eration of peculiar intensity, which lasted four to four and a half seconds: on striking the wall, at various points, a sharp, clearly- defined echo was returned. Experiments i in other rooms similarly situated, led to a like result. How to provide fully in one and the same structure for results thus seemingly incompatible is a problem not easy to be solved. It seems to us, however, that walls of solid wood (fir or pine being preferred,) are fittest for the purpose, as containing, in the largest measure, the conditions required. Here alone, Bathiees can be found united the requisites for a free admission and c together with its greater attendant ie in a large city, may prove an insurmountable objection to its us With a structure of masonry, means ioe be adopted to over- me, in some measure, the evils just mentioned (excessive re- verberation, &c.); and we know of no way by which this can e better accomplished, with the least detriment in other respects, than by the plan of battening and wainscoting the walls, or of lathing and ——. upon them, after the ordinary methods em- p loyed in carpentry. hus we gain a sound-surface less im- penetrable and unresisting than that of the solid walls, while the sonorous waves in their passage to the masonry beyond, find con- ditions as favorable to the free vibration of the whole structure as the nature of the case will admit. In this mode of finish, a space is left between the surfaces, which greatly assists absorption of the injurious excess of sound. A lining or sheathing merely, whether of wood or any other substance in immediate contact with the wall, not only excludes this provision but is objection- able, also, on the ground that it thus becomes more an integral part of the solid structure, destroying in greater degree that homo- * We would be understood here to use the expressions wai inscoting and lathing and plastering, i contra-distinction to a mere lining of wood or a layer of area — walls direct : (the profession will pardon us if we misuse their techni- with Reference to Sound. 23 gencity which it is our aim to preserve. It is analogous in its effects to the sheathing of a musical instrument. One other question of practical utility comes up in this connec- tion, viz.: as to the comparative superiority of thus battening and wainscoting such solid wall with wood, or of lathing and plaster- ing it in the usual manner. Our preferences are in favor of the employment of wood for this purpose, substantially for reasons above stated. As regards the subjects of venriLaTinc, WARMING and LIGHTING, they have a broad range, and demand alike the attention of the architect, the philosopher and the philanthropist. Hitherto their importance, even in a sanatory point of view, has been too often overlooked or neglected. But aside from a due consideration for the health and comfort of a crowded audience, they are points which affect materially the acoustic properties of a room. The conditions of the external atmosphere required for the greatest intensity, clearness and purity of tone, have been fully stated in a previous number. The effect of the different gases, and of a mixture of gases, vapors, or liquids of different chemical and mechanical natures, upon the communication of sound, has likewise been shown. From such facts and illustrations it is plain that whatever conduces to the purity of the contained air oF a room, to its quiescent and equable state, uniformity of tem- perature and freedom from draughts and partial currents, adds to the truthful interpretation of sound therein. We are convinced the matter has not yet been sufficiently considered in this light, although the attention of the public has at various times been di- rected this way*. Dr. Bell, in his instructive address delivered before the Massachusetts Medical Society, in May, 1848, on the Practical Methods of Ventilating Buildings, thus recognizes the claims of his subject in this particular. 6s ls more palpable and material admixtures. At first thought, it may ®ppear somewhat fastidious, and even unphilosophical, to regard merely unwelcome sounds, recognized by the ear alone, in the light of offen- Sive impurities, or rather as disagreeable additions to the medium in which we live and intercommunicate, yet no explanation will be needed by a body of medical practitioners, residing, in part, in arge tow and. ciliés, for considering the means of obviating, or ae * * *% * x % * : “Ttisa gratifying coincidence, which will most fully develop itself, 8s the various modifications of the ventilating system are brought for- * Vide Reports of the Parliamentary Committee in 1833 and 1836; and the able treatises on ventilation and warming by Tredgold, Reid and Wyman. i: . oo eee zt 24 On the Construction of Buildings ward, that the improvements which have so fully satisfied the require- ments of health and comfort, as respects respiration and purity to the senses, also meet the necessities of the ear. We shall see that under the complete arrangement for atmospheric supplies, secured in modern provisions, this rather more remote requirement is completely fulfilled, a necessity of the highest moment, as regards that somewhat extensive class of edifices, assembly rooms and halls, in which distinct and easy elocution, or the completest delivery and reception af musical sounds and literary compositions, are the principal desiderata. ‘Under the aids of forced ventilation, or that on which an independ- ent motive power is relied upon, all varieties of system require, as a condition of their full effect, the avoidance of any direct communica- tion with the outside air, by the closure of all windows or openings of the vocal performer. The most refined enjoyments of the musical art, the most persuasive and overpowering effects of eloquence, and the full weight of instructive attempts, thus mingle their claims for con- sideration in this useful science, as well as the more immediate and pressing demands of body and mind, for exemption from disease, pro- ) ) longation of days, and the highest intellectual and moral exercises.” stant removal of the vitiated air and its immediate substitution by fresh supplies, the proposition now before us, is how most ef- fectually to accomplish this end, with a just regard to the acous- tic requirements which the uses of the structure demand. It is true we cannot, by any plan of artificial ventilation, fulfill all the conditions that would be desirable, for, as appears by the very nature of the case, there is required, in the room to be ventilated, a constant motion of the contaminated mass of air that its place may be filled with purer supplies from without, thus manifestly interfering with that state of absolute stillness and rest, which w can be made than exists in any hall for music of which we have knowledge. It is a beautiful provision in nature, whereby the noxious products of respiration and combustion are carried upward by the with Reference to Sound. 25 mass of heated air with which they are mingled. Hence is des rived an important indication for an effectual system of artificial ventilation. And it seems to us especially necessary in the pres- ent case, that, whatever modification circumstances may require in other respects, the plan of introducing the pure air from below and providing for its discharge above, when vitiated, should be rigidly adhered to. Thus shall we most readily and quietly en- sure the removal of all existing elements of acoustic disturbance, with the least danger of admitting new causes of a like tendency. In a room, containing a crowded auditory, artificially lighted and warmed in the usual manner, the air becomes rapidly loaded with the products of respiration and combustion, and, too often, by the addition of coal gas from the furnace flues. The changes induced by these processes, in the surrounding medium, are ab- straction of oxygen and the addition of carbonic acid gas and moisture, with inequality of temperature and the creation of nox- ious draughts at various points, all which tend to destroy that homogeneous and equable state of the air which we have foun so desirable in its acoustic relations.* With a given audience the result of these changes upon sound is appreciable in a degree usually inversely proportioned to the cubic capacity of the room. In its general provisions, the plan adopted by Dr. Reid for ven- tilating the temporary House of Commons seems admirably fitted 0 meet the exigencies of the case. His system was devised ex- pressly to satisfy both the sanatory and acoustic requirements of that room. We take the following condensed account of it from the published address of Dr. Bell before quoted from. “* A series of openings through the wall into a court-yard, admits the fresh external air to the basement of the building. A suspended fib rous veil, 42 feet by 18, hangs before the external openings, the object of which is to separate the mechanical impurities, especial y the flakes of soot, ef which the London atmosphere is full, 200,000 visible por- tons having been arrested in a single evening. _ The air thus screened, is next passed into a receiving chamber, con- Stituting about one-third of the basement. A partition divides this its Whole length. At the middle of this wall, an opening permits the air to pass through an apparatus in which, by a thousand jets of water eros- sing each other in every direction, it is washed and moistened. It then * Tt has been determined f iments on animals and from its observed ef fects on men, that an atmosphere containing one per cent. of carbonic acid gas pate considered injurious to health, and as requiring immediate ven , p. 78. ie . T. Brande, Esq., states that he once examined the air in the t Covent Garden Theatre, and found in it three per cent. of carbonic ack ted by vitiati imperfect ventilation, The same gentleman also gas destroys (for breathing) thrice its of oxygen and fifteen times —Vide R. 2, ‘om A on House of Commons Bu ppe t For the ixed ia in obscuring and sting” is referred to t the first part 0 this essay. Stoonp Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 46,—July, 1853. 4 26 On the Construction of Buildings rent passes up, it impinges against a flat board at each aperture, raised a short distance above, called a disperser, which throws the air some- what horizontally, breaking the upward current. ‘No less than 300,000 gimlet holes of a conical shape, with the Mr. John Sylvester, engineer, presented to the Parliamentary Committee a plan very similar in its provisions to that just de- scribed. He also proposed to admit fresh air to the House, first passing it above a cast iron apparatus heated by steam or hot h area of the apertures he estimated at about 665 feet, through which he supposed the air of the house would be changed six times per hour. -He estimated the entire capacity of the house at 200,000 cubic feet.+ In both these plans some important points are recognized, to which we would here direct attention as especially applicable to our present subject ;—and, first, the extreme diffusion to which the air is subjected as it enters. In the ventilating and warming arrangements of our large halls for music and other public purpo- is almost invariably transgress- two or three points, in large Ptr Venaieuierie boa arrangements with diagrams, vide Reid’s Tllus- An evidence of the remarkable uniformit of temperature maintained in the House of Commons, under this system, will be found in the tabular records in Dr. Wyman’s Treatise, 226, Report from e select Committee of the House of Commons, on ventilation, warming and transmission of sound, with the Minutes of evidence, 18365. cenit ope Reneremareainpsne rs aie eer ame GAINS rer RE ares tee with Reference to Sound. 27 masses, through registers, not unfrequently placed along the cen- tral aisle of the room, and, not readily mixing with the surround- ing atmosphere, rises in unbroken columns to the ceiling, whence it is at length diffused. By these shafts of heated air the sono- rous vibrations are refracted, confused and obscured, the philo- sophical explanation of which we have already shown in the analogous effect upon light passing through strata of different densities and natures. he testimony of Dr. Reid in this par- ticular is important. In his evidence before the Parliamentary Committee, he says: “Another interruption to sound is the great body of air rising from the middle of the House, when the heating apparatus is in action; from this cause members cannot hear on the opposite sides, or the speaker persons at the bar.” One of the Committee also, when Reid mentioned this circum- stance, stated that he had often noticed he could not hear a mem- er Opposite him distinctly, at particular times, unless he shifted his seat along the bench; and on examining the place referred to, it was found that he had moved to a position where the hot cur- rent no longer passed between him and the member speaking.* If not found practicable to give the air on its admittance the uni- versal diffusion suggested in the plans just quoted, it can be made to enter after being previously tempered, beneath the benches all over the house, or through a continuous succession of apertures pierced in the floor, along the borders of the room, where an aisle might be left for that purpose. Better still, perhaps, a channel might be left in the walls close to the floor, and extending com- pletely around the room, masked by perforated panel work, through which the attempered air would gradually flow into the apart- ment. It would be easy, in this way, to obtain an aggregate area of inlet apertures equal to that proposed in Mr. Sylvester’s plan. Not less important is it, also, to secure a gentle and equable movement of the entire mass of air through the apartment. With properly graduated inlets and outlets, arranged in the manner just described, together with the provision of a constant, controllable motive power (which is all important, ) this result would natural- ly follow, were it not for other and foreign elements of disturb- ance.t Among the most serious of these is a predominance of * In the old Tremont Temple at Boston, the air was introduced in this way, as is still the case at the Melodeon in that city and at the Musical Fund Hall in P - say eae half a foot d, or about a mile per € house would be a per second, or about one A = ur. At this rate, he says, a volume of air scarcely moves the most sensitive * 28 On the Construction of Buildings windows in the walls, inducing cold counter currents, which, in descending, bring down with them also the noxious vapors from above to mingle with the air of the room again.* This is an ad- ditional reason why windows in this situation should be as infre- quent as possible ; (we have before hinted at their injurious acous- tic influence in other respects). Again the various accessories and appendages to the main apart- ment are often a source of offence. Corridors, lobbies and entries, imperfectly warmed and ventilated, will give rise to sudden gusts and eddies of cold air, alike uncomfortable to the audience and injurious, in their general effect on sound. Much can be done here, as suggested by Dr. Bell, by duplicating the doors at the extremities of every passage or entry, so that the one in front is not opened till that in the rear has thrown itself to.t Under- neath deep galleries the atmosphere is in a different state from that in the body of the room, and hence the difficulty often ex- perienced in hearing distinctly in such situations. Moreover the heated air which there collects, is all the while pouring out in front, whence it rises in a tenuous wavy i; sheet to the roof, to the manifest discom- gallery, between it and the wall, as in al the annexed figure, would obviate these \ evils and aid in preserving the unity and homogeneity of the air in the main body of the house. | ¥ Care also should be taken in the ar- rangement of the ventilators in the ceil- ci ee om ing, that too much sound do not escape with the vitiated air. _ Dr. Wyman instances the case of a chapel, in which an opening for ventilation was made in the ceiling of an organ loft, directly over the organ. He states that when the chapel was crowded, and the current through the opening considerable, the organ be- e nearly inaudible to those upon the floor; the difficulty ning. Sound, we have seen, does not easily turn at right-angles; taking advantage of this fact, these outlets, as we have elsewhere explained, can be cold glass in disturbing the quies- 0 Wyman’s Treatise, page 125. ct, the cross draughts, supplies from sources and emissions of air at points not determined by the motive power, would be utterly inconsistent with any uni- formly arranged plan. As Dr. Reid well remarks, the apartment to be ventilated on a scientific plan, is to be deemed and treated as a piece of philosophical apparatus, results of the operation of — are to he interfered with by no fortuitous in- P . with Reference to Sound. 29 contrived so that the vitiated air may readily enough escape, without a corresponding loss of sound.* So intimately joined are the departments of ventilation and warming in their practical operation, that in treating of the former subject we have necessarily included, to some extent, the latter. onnected with the warming of a building, such as we are now considering, there are two points of practical importance that are mainly to be considered, viz: First the propriety of unit- ing the mechanical appliances for heating and ventilation in one and the same plan; secondly, the nature of the apparatus to be yak oe whether steam or hot water pipes, or the common urnace 3 within a few degrees of the point required when the audience are present, inasmuch as the entering current will not immedi- ately mix with air of a different temperature. To serve the pur- poses of a summer ventilation, or to allow the admission of cold ar, if required, without its passing across the heating apparatus, avery simple arrangement only is necessary. ; Concerning the second point, our preferences are decidedly in favor of the use of steam or the mild hot water apparatus, over every other system of which we have any knowledge. uestion of its greater expense, we conceive, should not be placed eside its manifold advantages. As we have not room now for the discussion of these points, we refer the reader to the able treatises of Tredgold and Arnott for a full exposition of the su- petior virtues of the plan we would adopt; suffice it for us to say here, that in this way, only, do we believe an agreeable, salu- — and equable atmosphere in a large room, can be made certain. 'S hot unimportant. Here the same principles are to be kept in view that have been previously stated. In the ordinary methods of artificial lighting, whether from gas, oil, wax or tallow, the alr ot a room is rapidly contaminated and admixed with the va- * Saunders, in hi ise on theatres, recommends that these ventilators be wed during iiucaeemios of the yess and opened only between the acts. ‘This ever, is going to the opposite extreme. aos 30 On the Construction of Buildings rious products of combustion before enumerated. Moreover, by their injudicious position and arrangement, these lights have often a powerfully disturbing effect upon that state of quiescence in the air of an apartment which we have found so essential for the exact appreciation of sound. From this cause the foot-lights in front of the stage are inconvenient and objectionable, as the waving stream of hot air above them induces an amount of rare- faction, which impairs alike the sound and the distinctness of vision. A similar influence, as respects those seated behind them, has the row of gas burners so commonly affixed to gallery fronts and balconies. Chandeliers, pendent from the roof, however beautiful to the eye, are also offenses to the ear, which a rigid re- gard for acoustic excellence in a room would prohibit. Per- extreme of consideration, in this respect, amounting almost to fastidiousness, is to be found in Dr. Reid’s exclusive system, as he calls it, which he proposed for lighting the new Houses of Parliament. Here the illuminating source was en- tirely outside the space to be lighted, the light being diffused from pendants in the ceiling, or passing down through a cornice of glass which extended all round the room. Commenting on this plan, in the volume before alluded to, he remarks: “Tt will be obvious, that in some buildings, few lights would be more practically useful and agreeable than a series of gothic pendants with illuminated drops, appearing like stars diffused over the ceiling.” the material shapes with which he would form and limit its bounds. At this stage of our subject, there still remain a few points for consideration, which have a bearing upon the complete result. oe 5 with Reference to Sound. 31 it has been a mooted question among many, whether the sur- face of the walls and ceiling, in a room intended for sound, should be plain or broken at intervals by pilasters, panels, and ornaments of various kinds. The opinions of the architects be- fore the Parliamentary Committee were divided in this particular ; but the bulk of general evidence is decidedly in favor of the latter Mr. J. Scott Russell advocates the use of pilasters against the walls of a room, to interrupt the oblique waves which fall along the surface, and constitute reverberation, on his theory.* Although our own views, as previously explained, differ, in some essential points from those adopted by Mr. Russell as to the nature of reverberation, they would seem even more strongly to require the provisions he has laid down for the amelioration of it; and, as we hinted when treating of the subject of harmonic rela- “Tt may be remarked that the ribs with deep mouldings intersecting each other on the Norman or Gothic vault, and thus paneling its sur- ace, are not to be taken as mere ornamental features. In churches It was made an important feature in Dr. Reid’s plan for a House of Commons, that the porous floor, while it allowed the diffusion to the attempered air, admitted for the purposes of ven- tilation, provided also a ready means of escape for the excess of * It is a mistake to suppose that Mr. Russell has the merit of having first sug- gested the use of pilasters in this connection. They com Jed by Dr. Reid many years before, and on much the same grounds as those subsequently adopted by Mr. Russell— Vide Report on House of Commons Building, 1835. z _ + At the National School the plaster of the ceiling was removed but the ey Joists left, by which the excessive noise that formerly prevailed was greatly —Reid’s Illustrations. hi Norman = 2 sagan bh ribs_ gg ape $ room is found to be perfect apted for public speaking, ai easant re a rf y on Public Architecture. Inman and others in confirmation. : 32 On the Construction of Buildings, etc. the cushioned seats on the floor of the hall afforded sufficient ma- terial for the absorption of sound. And it is an easy matter to increase this effect to any required extent, by the judicious em- ployment of upholstery and carpeting. GALLERIEs are generally regarded as prejudicial to sound. But they are almost necessary evils, when it is required to accomodate with comfort an auditory of three or four thousand persons, with- out extending unduly the area of the floor. What adds much to their injurious effect is the unreasonable depth with which they are ordinarily constructed, thus necessitating for their sup- port the use of pillars, by which the pulses of sound are inter- rupted and broken: and when, as is mostly the case, these gal- leries have floors shelving back to the wall, with no provision for ventilation at that point, they become (as we have before sug- gested) vast receptacles for the impure air beneath. It seems to us, moreover, that a gallery, although it be so fashioned as to escape the evils just mentioned, is injurious in other respects, to the musical qualities of a room, when placed in immediate con- tact with its walls; for by impeding the free vibration of the latter, it must tend to destroy their resonance, acting, in this case, much in the same way as a damper placed upon a vibrating string, or a mute on the bridge of a violin. The position of the orncHEsTRaL stace has become fixed by custom. ‘There are those, however, who would have it removed to a point nearer the centre of the room, and for good philo- sophical reasons. Chladni and Herschell are among the advo- cates of this change, on the ground that the original impulse, being then more equally distant from all the walls, the hearer would suffer less from the effect of secondary or reflected sounds. On the same principle it might be urged also that the platform should be raised much higher from the floor than is usual, in order to lessen the appreciable amount of reflection from the roof- Considered wholly in reference to the truthful interpretation of the sound by the room itself, such is no doubt the correct doc- trine. But in the first instance, we should lose the benefit of a solid reflecting surface behind, which serves to reinforce the original sound by a reflection so nearly synchronous with it as not to be appreciable by the ear; and in both , aconsiderable por- tion of the assembly must be deprived of a favorable view of the occupants of the stage. It is better, perhaps, to adopt a middle course between the two in this respect, aiming to satisfy, as nearly as may be, the acoustic requirements of the room with a just regard to the comfort and convenience of the audience. a C. Lyell on Fossil Reptilian Remains, etc. 33 quent co-operation of action, than when separated and individ- ualized as they otherwise are. Parabolic reflectors and recesses of other forms in rear of the orchestra can be productive only of injury to the general effect, for inasmuch as all upon the stage cannot be in the focus, the greater asperities at first noticed. How this results it is perhaps not easy to explain. Can it be that from the constant vibration im- parted by the sonorous impulses to the solid materials some change is gradually induced in the arrangement of their integral mole- cules, after the manner in which agitation sometimes affects the intimate structure of crystallizable bodies? But doubtless much is to be attributed to the natural effect of time in drying and con< solidating and thoroughly assimilating the structure in all its various parts. We here conclude our imperfect essay, ending as we began, With the regret that architects and scientific men have not hon- ored with a more careful attention a subject so full of interest and SO intimately connected with the welfare of an Art, now almost Universally known and appreciated. “a Arr. IV.— On. the discovery of some Fossil Reptilian Remains, and a Land-shell in the interior of an erect fossil-tree in the Coal measures of Nova Scotia, with remarks on the Origin 9 Coal-fields, and the time required for their formation ; by Sir C. Lett, F.R.S., V.P.G.S., &c.* Tne entire thickness of the carboniferous strata, exhibited in one uninterrupted section on the shores of the Bay of Fundy, in Nova Scotia, at a place called the South Joggins and its neigh- hood, was ascertained by Mr. Logan, to be 14,570 feet. ‘The ® From Proe. Royal Soc. of Great Britain, March 18, 1853. Srcoyp Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 46,—July, 1853. 5 34 C. Lyell on Fossil Reptilian Remains, ete. middle part of this vast series of strata having a thickness of 1400 feet abounds in fossil forests of erect trees together with root beds, and thin seams of coal. These coal-bearing strata were examined in detail by Mr. J. W. Dawson of Pictou, and Sir C. Lyell in September last (1852), and besides other results of their investigations they obtained satisfactory proof that several Sigil- larie standing in an upright position, or at right angles to the planes of stratification, were provided with Stigmarie as roots. Such a relation between Sigillaria and Stigmaria had, it is true, ' been already established by Mr. Binney of Manchester, and had been suspected some years before on botanical grounds by M. Adolphe Brongniart; but as the fact was still doubted by some geologists both in Europe and America, it was thought desirable to dig out of the cliffs, and expose to view, several large trunks With ‘their roots attached. These were observed to bifurcate several times, and to send out rootlets in all directions into the bearing soils were observed at sixty-eight different levels; and like the seams of coal which usually cover them, they are at resisting the action of the waves and the weather. Originally the reverse was doubtless true; for in the existing delta of the in State consisting of sand and mud, would be readily removed. € upright trees usually enclose in their interior pillars of sandstone, or shale, or both these substances alternating, and these ments of stems and roots were drifted together with mud and sand during river inundations, The stony contents of one of | C. Lyell on Fossil Reptilian Remains, etc. 35 these trees, nine feet high and twenty-two inches in diameter, on being examined by Messrs. Dawson and Lyell, yielded, besides numerous fossil plants, some bones and teeth which they believed were referable to a reptile; but not being competent to decide that osteological question they submitted the specimens to Dr. Jeflries Wyman of Harvard University in the United States. That eminent anatomist declared them to be allied in structure to certain perennibranchiate batrachians of the genera Meno- branchus and Menopoma, species of which now inhabit the lakes and rivers of North America. ‘This determination was soon after- length. The microscopic structure of these small vertebrae was found by Professor Quekett to exhibit the same marked reptilian characters as that of the larger bones. The fossil remains in question were scattered about the interior of the trunk near its base among fragments of wood now con- verted into charcoal, which may have fallen in while the tree was rotting away, having been afterwards cemented together by mud and sand stained black by carbonaceous matter. Whether the reptile crept into the hollow tree while its top was still open to the air, or whether it was washed in with mud during a flood, or in whatever other manner it entered, must be matter of conjec- ture. oot-prints of two reptiles of different sizes have been observed by Dr. Harding and Dr. Gesner on ripple-marked flags of the lower coal measures in Nova Scotia, evidently made by quadrupeds walking on the beach, or out of the water, just as the recent Menopoma is sometimes observed to do. Other reptilian Ng ancient air-breathing creatures seems greater than in * Professors Wyman and Owen have named the reptile Dendrerpeton Acadianum, Acadia being an old name for Nova Scotia, tees tie ally explored; for in such situations the probability of discover- ordinary 36 C. Lyell on the origin of Coal-fields. subaqueous deposits. Nevertheless we must not indulge too san- uine expectations on this head, when we recollect that no fossil vertebrates of a higher grade than fishes, or any land-shells, have yet been met with in the Oolitic coal-field of the James River, near Richmond, Virginia, a coal-field which has been worked extensively for three-quarters of a century. The coal alluded to is bituminous, and as a fuel resembles the best of the ancient coal of Nova Scotia and Great Britain. The associated strata of sand- secondary rocks does not imply, as we might have anticipated, conditions the most favorable to our finding therein creatures of a higher organization than fishes. In breaking up the rock in which the reptilian bones were en- tombed, a small fossil body resembling a land shell of the genus Pupa, was detected. As such it was recognized by Dr. Gould of Boston, and afterwards by M. Deshayes of Paris, both of whom carefully examined its form and stration. When parts of the surface were subsequently magnified 250 diameters, by Professo Quekett of the College of Surgeons, they were seen to exhibit ridges and grooves undistinguishable from those belonging to the striation of living species of land-shells. The internal tissue also of the shell displayed, under the microscope, the same prismatic and tubular arrangements which characterize the shells of living mollusca. Sections also of the same showed what may be part of the columella and spiral whorls, somewhat broken and dis- torted by pressure and crystallized. ‘The genus cannot be made out, as the mouth is wanting. If referable to a pupa or any allied genus it is the first example of a pulmoniferous mollusk hitherto detected in a primary or paleozoic rock. ir Charles next proceeded to explain his views as to the origin of coal-fields in general, observing that the force of the evidence in favor of their identity in character with the deposits of modern deltas, has increased, in proportion as they have been more closely studied. ‘They usually display a vast thickness of stratified mud and fine sand without pebbles, and in them are seen countless stems, leaves, and roots of terrestrial plants, free for the most part from all intermixture of marine remains, circumstances which imply the persistency in the same region of a vast body of fresh water. ‘T'his water is also charged like that of a great river with an inexhaustible supply of sediment, which had usually been 3 C. Lyell on the origin of Coal-fields. 37 transported over alluvial plains to a considerable distance from one or more ranges of mountains. The partial intercalation of brackish water-beds at certain points is equally consistent with the theory of a delta, the lower parts of which are always ex- posed to be overflowed by the sea even where no oscillations of level are experienced. The purity of the coal itself, or the absence in it of earthy par- ticles and sand throughout areas of very great extent, is a fact which has naturally appeared very difficult to explain if we at- tribute each coal-seam to a vegetation growing in swamps, an not to the drifting of plants. It may be asked how during river inundations capable of sweeping away the leaves of ferns, and the stems and roots of Sigillarie and other trees, could the waters fail to transport some fine mud into the swamps? One genera- tion after another of tall trees grew with their roots in mud, and after they had fallen prostrate and had been turned into coal were rass. : n the ancient coal of the South Joggins in Nova Scotia, many of the underclays show a network of Stigmaria roots, of which Some penetrate into or quite through older roots which belonged to the trees of a preceding generation. Where trunks are seen in an erect position buried in sandstone and shale, rooted Sigil- larice or Calamites are often observed at different heights in the enveloping strata, attesting the growth of plants at several suc- cessive levels, while the process of envelopment was gong on. In other cases there are proofs of the submergence of a forest 38 C. Lyell on the origin of Coal-fields. under marine or brackish water, the base of the trunks of the submerged trees being covered with serpule or a species of spi- rorbis. Not unfrequently seams of coal are succeeded by beds of impure bituminous limestone, composed chiefly of compressed Modiole with scales and teeth of fish, these being evidently de- posits of brackish or salt water origin. e lecturer exhibited a joint of the stem of a fresh water reed (Arundinaria macrosperma) covered with barnacles, which he gathered at the extremity of the delta of the Mississippi or the Balize. He saw a cane-brake (as it is called in the country) of these tall reeds killed by salt water, and extending over several acres, the sea having advanced over a space where the discharge of fresh water had slackened for a season in one of the river’s mouths. If such reeds when dead could still remain standing in the mud with barnacles attached to them, (these crustacea having been in their turn destroyed by a return of the river to the same spot,) still more easily may we conceive large and firmly rooted Sigillarie to have continued erect for many years in the Carbon- iferous Period, when the sea happened to gain on any tract of submerged lan Ss formation of Nova Scotia. The data he said for such an esti- mate are as yet imperfect, but some advantage would be gained could we but make some slight approximation to the truth. The Strata at the South Joggins are nearly three miles thick, and they are known to be also of enormous thickness in the district of the eastward. ‘There appears therefore little danger of erring on the side of excess, if we take half that amount or 7500 feet as the average thickness of the whole of the coal measures. The area of the coal-field, including part of New Brunswick to the west, and Prince Edward’s Island and the Magdalen Isles to the north, (or 51,136-4 cubic miles) of solid matter as the volume of the h an array of figures conveys no distinct idea to the mind; but is interesting when we reflect that the Mississippi would take more than two million of years (2,033,000 years) to Eas eRe IRR He SR eT Se See eae I A Ee tT, Fe RIN ea SFE ———— 2 Re A a Rly C. Lyell on the origin of Coal-fields. 39 convey to the Gulf of Mexico, an equal quantity of solid matter in the shape of sediment, assuming the average discharge of wa- ter, in the great river, to be as calculated by Mr. Forshey, 450,000 cubic feet per second, throughout the year, and the total quantity of mud to be as estimated by Mr. Riddell, 3,702,758,400 cubic feet in the year.* may, however, if we desire to reduce to a minimum the the Ghazipore average, the volume of solid matter conveyed to the Bay of Bengal would still amount to 20,000 millions of cubic feet annually. he Ganges therefore might accomplish in three hundred and seventy five thousand years the task which it would take the Mississippi, according to the data before laid down, upwards of two million years to achieve. he inducement to call attention to such calculations is the hope of interesting engineers in making accurate measurement of the quantity of water and mud discharged by such rivers as the Ganges, Brahmapootra, Indus, and Mississippi, and to Seologists to ascertain the number of cubic feet of solid matter, Which ancient fiuviatile formations, such as the coal-measures, With their associated marine strata, may contain. Sir Charles * See Principles of Geology, 8th ed, p.19. 40 C. Lyell on the origin of Coal-fields. anticipates that the chronological results, derived from such sources, will be in harmony with the conclusions to which bo- tanical and zoological considerations alone might lead us, and that the lapse of years will be found to be so vast as to have an important bearing on our reasonings in every department of geo- logical science. A question may be raised, how far the codperation of the sea in the deposition of the Carboniferous Series might accelerate the process above considered. The Lecturer conceives that the inter- vention of the sea would not afford such favorable conditions for the speedy accumulation of a large body of sediment within a limited area, as would be obtained by the hypothesis before stated, namely, that of a great river entering a bay in which the waves, currents, and tides of the ocean should exert only a moderate degree of denuding and dispersing power. An eminent writer, when criticising, in 1830 Sir Charles Lyell’s work on the adequacy of existing causes, was at pains to assure his readers, that while he questioned the soundness of the doc- trine he by no means grudged any one the appropriation of as much as he pleased of that “least valuable of all things, past time.” But Sir Charles believes, notwithstanding the admission so often made in the abstract of the indefinite extent of past time, that there is, practically speaking, a rooted and perhaps un- conscious reluctance, on the part of most geologists, to follow out to their legitimate consequences the proofs, daily increasing in number, of this immensity of time. It would therefore be of no small moment could we obtain even an approach to some positive measure of the number of centuries which any great operation of nature such as the accumulation of a delta or fluviatile deposit of great magnitude may require, inasmuch as our conceptions of the energy of aqueous or igneous causes or of the powers of vitality in any given geological period must depend on the quan- tity of time assigned for their development. Thus, for example, geologists will not deny that a vertical subsidence of three miles took place gradually at the South Jog- gins, during the carboniferous epoch, the lowest beds of the c only six inches in a century. But the same movement taking place in an upward direction would be sufficient to uplift a por- ER SE ER RANE oie a ee ee ees i & Reéramination of American Minerals. Al tion of the earth’s crust to the height of Mont Blanc or to a ver- ' tical elevation of three miles above the level of the sea. In like manner, if a large shoal be rising, or attempting to rise, in mid- Ocean at the rate of six inches or even four feet in a hundred years, the waves may grind down to mud and sand and readily Sweep away the rocks so upraised as fast as they come within the denuding action of the waves. A mass having a vertical thickness of three miles might thus be stripped off in the course of ages, and inferior rocks laid bare. So in regard to volcanic agency a certain quantity of lava is poured out annually upon the surface, or is injected into the earth’s crust below the surface, and great metamorphic changes resulting from subterranean heat ac- company the injection. Whether each of these effects be multi- plied by fifty thousand, or by half a million or by two million of years, may entirely deeide the question whether we shall or shall not be compelled to abandon the doctrine of paroxysmal violence in ancient as contrasted with modern times. Were we hastily to take for granted the paroxysmal intensity of the forces above alluded to, organic and inorganic, while the ordinary course of nature may of itself afford the requisite amount of aqueous, igne- ous, and vital force, (if multiplied by a sufficient number of cen- turies,) we might find ourselves embarrassed by the possession of twice as much mechanical force and vital energy as we require for the purposes of geological interpretation. Arr. V.—Reéxamination of American Minerals: Part II— Chesterlite; Loxoclase; Danbury Feldspars ; Haddam Al- ite; Greenwood Mica; Biotite; Margarodite ; Chesterlite Tale; Rhodophyllite; Cummingtonite ; Hydrous Anthophyl- lite ; Monrolite ; Ozarkite ; Dysyntribite; Gibbsite; E’me- rald Nickel; by J. Lawrence Surru, M.D., Professor of Chem- istry in the University of Virginia, and Georce J. Brusu, Ph. B., Assistant to the Chemical Department. In this Second Part of the reéxamination of American minerals, Wwe include many other doubtful species—the results concerning them being presented below under their respective heads. It may be well to mention that no mineral is analyzed, the authen- icity of which is not placed beyond the shadow of a doubt ; and iN many instances specimens of the same mineral have been ob- tained from different cabinets, they having been originally col- lected by different persons. These labors have been very muc facilitated by many of the proprietors of the finest collections in is county, and in addition to those mentioned in our last ogo we would acknowledge our obligations to Professors Dana an Silliman, Jr., Mr. Wm. S. Vaux of Philadelphia, Messrs. Jenkins Szconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 46.—duly, 1853. 6 42 Reéxamination of American Minerals. and Horton of Monroe, N. Y., Professor Hume of Charleston, Mr. Markoe of Washington, and Mr. Samuel W. Johnson of the Yale Laboratory. In the analytical processes, with the exception of the alkali determinations, we have deviated but little from the methods on and alumina are i sg by ammonia with the previous addition of sal-ammoniac, but the precipitate is redissolved and reprecipitated three are before the separation is considered sat- isfactory ; in addition to this, the oxyd of iron and alumina are finally tested to ensure the absence of magnes A reéxamination of some of the minerals it noticed may cee of ce ane here given is to remove as far as act any existing doubts connected with; them. Moreover, in contin- uation of these researches, we propose to enter upon the reéx- amination of a number of well established species, in order, by additional a of them, to extend our knowledge of Ameri- can miner 11. Chesterlite, identical with Orthoclase. This mineral occurs in implanted crystals on dolomite near East Bradford, Chester County, Pa. In physical characters it resembles orthoclase, but it has been considered triclinic, and Erni’s analysis* gave soda as the alkali. The crystals occur fre- quently as twins, and are often very much aii ea spe- cimens we have examined the angle T on I” varies from 121° to 127°—rendering it extremely difficult to duende the normal value of the angle; some of the measurements would however lead to the conclusion that it is monoclinic, since the angle of cleavage is by our measurements near 90°. So far as our opinion is concerned—based on both its chemical and physical charactet —we unhesitatingly aging it an orthoclase. wo analyses gay 1 2. Silica, . ; 64:76 : : ; 65°17 Jumi ; 17-60 : : ‘ 17°70 Poroxyd of iron, : 59 ‘50 Lime, : 65 : “56 Magn : : 30 ‘: a" j 25 Pith ‘ ; 1418 ; ; 13-86 a, 175 164 Ignition, . : 65 ; ? : 65 100°39 100°33 These correspond to the composition of orthoclase, and chemi- euly the mineral is identical with it ; if it shall be proved that the * Dana’s Mineralogy, si edit., p. 678. Reéxamination of American Minerals. 43 crystalline form is triclinic, it will be a potash albite and as such, an interesting species. @ specimens examined were received from Messrs. 'T. F. Seal and Wm. S. Vaux of Philadelphia. 12. Loxoclase, identical with Orthoclase. The feldspar associated with pyroxene at Hammond, N. Y., has been named as a distinct species by Breithaupt.* Its erystal- line form, hardness, specific gravity and other physical characters, are the same as orthoclase, and the reasons for forming a new species of it are based upon its cleavage and chemical constitu- tion. ‘The latter Plattner found to be, Si cl a Mg Na K i 6850 2029 067° 822 trace _ 876 308 1:28==100-70 We have examined two varieties of it. Analyses 1 and 2 are from specimens taken from a large crystal and were not perfectly pure, owing to intimate association with a lime pyroxene ; analy- ses 3 and 4 are from a very pure crystal. 2, 1. ge Silica, 65°40 65°69 66°09 ae. Alumina, 19°48 7 : : "25 Peroxyd of iron, 1°25 t ed ahi 0°67 Lime, 2-26 2°36 94. Be agnesia, 20 25 ‘21 : Potash, 2°16 2:36 4°35 4°35 oda, 7-23 7-98 781 781 Ignition, 16 “16 0-20 0°20 99°34 100°12 98°75 98°96 It will be seen at a glance that the only difference between this mineral and orthoclase is the large amount of soda, and in analy- ses 1 and 2 a small amount of lime, this last, most of which is doubtless an impurity, alters somewhat the oxygen ratios. No. 1 gives t i : 13310691 2 ; j é ‘ 1:3; 10-60 3 : ‘ ; 1 ; 2:90 : 11:08 d : 1:2-74: 10°83 This slight difference in the ratio (produced by the presence of a considerable amount of soda) is not uncommon in orthoclase. In that from Hohenhagen, Schnedermann found 4:15 potash and 7-53 soda; the flesh-red feldspar from Bathurst, Canada, gave Hunt 6-36 potash, 5°37 soda, and Gmelin found in the feldspar from Laurvig, 6:55 potash and 6-14 soda, and in that from Fred- icksvarn, 7-03 potash and 7-08 soda. These numbers affect to Some slight extent the oxygen ratio, but the correspondence of the minerals in physical characters denotes their identity with ortho- clase. Moreover, the identity of loxoclase with orthoclase 1s * Pogg. Ann., Lxvii, 419. 4A Reéxamination of American Minerals. made obvious when we take the ratio between the silica and alu- ina, which in the purer varieties (analyses 3 and 4) is as 4: 1, and analysis 4 gives the ratio 12: 3-04: 1:11, or RSi+#Si*. he specimens examined were received from Professor Sil- liman, Jr., and Mr. Samuel W. Johnson. 13. Danbury Feldspars ; 1. Oligoclase ; 2. Orthoclase. 1. Oligoclase——The feldspar in which the Danburite occurs has so strong a resemblance to the oligoclase from Sweden that we have been led to analyze it; the results of our examination prove its identity with that species. 'The analyses gave ; Silica, ; ; 64-03 i ; 63°50 ina ‘ : 22°37! ; : ; 22°75 Peroxyd of iron, ‘ trace ; P ‘; trace Lime, ‘ ; 2°91 ; 8°28 Magnesia, trace, trace — Soda, . ; 10°06 937 Potash, “60 Ignition, 30 21 100°27 99°61 These give the oxygen ratio 1:3: 9 and the formula RSi+A15i, which are the ratio and formula for oligoclase. less contain a little oligoclase that it is impossible to separate. 1 oo : 2. Bilica, J : : 63°80 3 ‘ 63°95 Alumina, : ; : 18:90 ‘ ; A 19°05 Lime, hey ; J 80 ‘ 61 Magnesia, . é : "20 ‘ : : “20 Potash, j i ‘ 11-43 ‘ : ; 10°95 Soda, ee ; 3°69 Ignition, . : 4 30 “50 98°95 The specimens examined were taken from the locality by one of the authors. 14. Haddam Albite, identical with Oligoclase. Associated with the iolite at Haddam, Conn., there occurs a glassy feldspar which has heretofore been called albite. Its com- Reéxamination of American Minerals. A5 position is that of an oligoclase, as will be seen by the following ana s 2. Silica, 63:87 : 64°64 Alumina, 21°82 : 21°98 me, 2°14 = 1 Magnesia, trace ; trace oaa, 10°18 : 9°80 Potash, “BO ‘ Ignition, ; 29 ‘ 29 98°80 99°38 The specimens examined were received from Prof. Dana We have examined the moonstone feldspar, from Mineral Hill, Delaware Co., Pa., which is also oligoclase. 15. Greenwood Mica—Biotite. The chemical constitution of only a very few American bio- tites has ex — In fact, von Kobell’s* analysis of a mica Si X1 fe Mg “ti i 4000 1616 750 2154 1083 058 020 3800=99°76 The results of our analyses are: 1 : 2. erate ‘ 39°88 : . 39°51 Alum ; 14-99 . ; 1511 Peroxyd of iron, 7°68 agnesia, 23°69 23°40 Potash, 9°11) 10-20 a, 1125 ater, , 1°35 Fluorine, 95 “95 orine, “44 9°16 98°95 These give the oxygen ratio: - ; R # Si 3 - - - 11:31 : 931 : 20°72 2. - - - 11:20 : 9-45 : 20°53 or very nearly 1: 1: 2, which carrer to the formula R A small at oe the onygons in the ee is replaced by fiuo- tine and chlor speci sean examined were received from Messrs. Jenkins & Horton, of Monroe, N. Y. * J. £. pr. Chem., xxxvi, 309, and Dana’s Mineralogy, $d edit., page 360. 46 Reéramination of American Minerals. 16. Biotite of Puinam Co., N. Y, In appearance this mineral resembles talc, having a wavy, lam- ellar structure, and a soapy feel. Its color is brownish green in mass, and pale yellowish green by transmitted light. Hardness 2-2°5. Sp. Gr. 2°80. The laminz are entirely devoid of elas- ticity. It has been called pyrophyllite by some mineral collec- tors, but upon what grounds we are ignorant, as it does not pos- sess the remarkable property of exfoliating and swelling up by heat, so peculiar to pyrophyllite. Analysis shows its composition to be identical with Biotite. ‘ 2. Silica, ‘ > 39°62 : 5 89°49 Alumi i 17:35 ; ‘. 17-06 pomeape of i iron, : ‘40 ‘ : 521 Magnesia, 23°85 23°65 Potash, 8 prisons oda, 1-01 rahe BE Water, F , 1-41 ; a Fluorine, ; . 1:20 wee — Chlorine, : . 3] we 99:06 R 8 Si Analysis 1 gives oxygen ratio 11:22:9°73: 20-58, or 1:1: and the oe aA as for the mineral last mentioned, R Si+# Si The ens mined were received from Mr. Silas R. Horton, of Craigville, New Yor 17. Margarodite. This mineral occurs at Lane’s Mine, Monroe, Conn. It has been analyzed by W. H. Brewer,* but owing to some. impurities in his Sagi he obtained an excess of silica. ens very carefully selected, to avoid the fluor spar, and other siiherils with which it is associated, gave: Ls 2. Silica, : : 46°50 3 : 45°70 Alumina, ‘ ; 33°91 5 & 33°76 Peroxyd of iron, : 2°69 : : 311 Magnesia, i 90 . ‘ 115 Potash, ; : 7-32 ; : 7-49 : ‘ 2-70 ‘ 2°85 Water, 4°63 490 Fluorine, 82 é 82 Chlorine, “31 31 99-78 10009 These correspond to the analysis of margarodite from St. Etienne, in which Delesse found, Si e Mg Na K ii FI 4623 3308 3848 210 145 887 412 trace=99'33 In a former paper we have mentioned the difficulty of obtain- ing a correct formula from the analyses of margarodite, owing to * Dana’s Mineralogy, 3d edit., p. 359. Reéxamination of American Minerals. AZ slight differences in the protoxyds. The relation of the oxygen of the silica to that of peroxyds in most of the analyses, is as 3 : 2. he specimens examined were received from Prof. Silliman, Jr. 18. The Chesterlite Tale—a Mica. _Associated with the Chesterlite, a micaceous mineral is found, which has been called tale. It occurs in implanted erystals, in minute tuft-like aggregations on dolomite, there is frequently an iron stain upon the surface, due to the decomposition of some o the minerals with which it is associated, the crystals are seldom over a line in diameter. Its chemical composition is that of a mica, but owing to the small amount examined it is impossible to say positively whether it be muscovite or margarodite, although from its association we are inclined to consider it muscovite. Silica, > ; : 3 F 45°50 Alumina, . . et 4 ud 34:55 Peroxyd of iron, ; : ; ; trace Lime, ‘ 231 Magnesia, - 1:08 Potash, 5 8-10 Soda, : : , , : 2°35 Water and carbonic acid, ; , : 540 99°29 A large portion of the lime and magnesia is doubtless due to the dolomite with which it is associated. The specimen was received from Mr. Thos. F. Seal. 19. Rhodophyllite, identical with Rhodochrome. The violet colored mineral which occurs at Texas, Pa., and was circulated among mineralogists as “violet talc,” has been erite, he doubtless felt himself justified in considering it a new Species. A short time after his results appeared, an analysis of thodochrome was published by Hermann ; its identity with those of rhodophyllite induced us to reéxamine the latter. The results on two analyses are: 7 2. Silica, : ; 33-26 ; ? 33°30 Alumina, ; ‘ 10-69 : : 10°50 Sesquioxyd of chromium, 4-78 : ; 4°67 Peroxyd of iron, ‘ 96 : ; 1°60 esia, ‘ ‘ 35-93 : : — and Potash, ‘ “BB : Water, ; ; 1264 : 13°35 ! 99°61 99°75 * Proc, Acad. Nat, Sci, Phil. yi, 122. 48 Reéxamination of American Minerals. These will be seen to correspond with the analyses (1, 2) of Rhodophyllite by Dr. Genth, and the analysis of rhodochrome (3) — and chrome chlorite (4), by Hermann. Bi. Ab. Fe Sr. Ni oMgvy Galina K oa qaa L Texas, Pa. 33°41 trace 35°86 trace O28 O10 12°79 2. 2°98 .. 11 i a 6°85 trace 35°22 trace O28. 010 18:12 3.L.1 84°64 1050 200 5°50 3547 —— ——- — 1203 4, sy , 31°82 re. 10 406 0-90 25. $6:24..———.. =~ —— 278 Dr. Genth gives the same formula minus one ape of water. forms us that he observed a like variation in the specimens he examined. he chrome-chlorite examined by Hermann was un- doubtedly one of the light colored varieties. Nickel as well as lime is found in some specimens, but both are impurities ; the nickel is due to small particles of sulphuret of nickel which occurs at the same locality, and in many instances iron et from the ee of this aye icet . H. Garrett* has rece 'y Given an analysis of this min- al. " His results differ satay rom those obtained above. 20. Cummingtonite—a Hornblende. This mineral was described by Dewey,t and analyzed by Muir.f{ The latter obtained for its composition, Si Fe Mn Na - H 5654 21°67 7-80 844 3189763 Authentic specimens for examination were procured from the Lederer collection in Yale College. Its structure is fibrous, re- sembling we ah lustre silky; color ash gray. It occuls in mica slate at Cummington, Mass. Two analyses gave : ili 51-09 : 5074 Alumina, : : 95 i i Protoxyd of iron, 82-07 ‘ 83:14 Magnes ‘ 10-29 : 10°31 Manganese, . | 1:50 P 77 Lime, trace . trace Soda, : ; 5 : Potash, trace : — Water, - ‘ r 3:04 99°69 10043 * This Journal, May, 1853, This Journal, [1] viii, 59. } Thomson's Min, 1, 493. y Ar? Reéxamination of American Minerals. 49 These give the formula, (Fe Mg)4 Si?—=R* Sie Si, Atoms, At. weight. = hong Oxygen ratio. Silica, 3 1731-93 3°59 8 pies iron, 24 1125-00 3480 1} rm 14 375:00 11°61 is t na chemical constitution of hornblende, and from its hipaa characters it was long since referred to this species. 21. Hydrous Anthophyllite—an Asbestus. Thomson gave this name to an asbestiform mineral, which is found associated with chlorite on New York Island.* His analy- SiS gives: Bi Mg e h Al H 5498 1338 983 120 680 1:56 1145-99-20 We have received undoubted specimens of this mineral from Messrs, Vaux, of Philadelphia, and Silas R. Horton, of New ork, The ‘asbestiform mineral, carefully freed from the chlo- rite and other impurities, gave on two analyses: 1. 2. Silica, F ‘ 58:20 ; ‘ 58-47 Magnesia, ‘ 28°96 : 29°71 Protoxyd iron, : 8°46 : : 9°06 Soda, . 83 ‘ ‘ ; Potash, ; é trace : ; trace Ignition, : ‘ 2°26 : Alumina, ‘ ; trace : : trace 98°76 100°38 These correspond to the formula, R¢ Si or R* Si2-++R Si. At pies At. weight. Per cant Oxygen ratio, Silica, 1732-00 sae Magnesia, A 87500 30°90 1 Protoxyd iron, 225°00 794 $ This is the formula given for the last mineral, and the compo- sition is that of an asbestus or magnesian hornblende. 22. Monrolite, identical with Kyanite. S mineral was described by Professor Silliman, Jr.t as a So silicate of alumina resembling Weerthite. Prof. Silliman, OWever, observes that the water varied in ‘several specimens ex- amined from 3-09 to 1:84 per cent. ; subsequent examinations} made by one ee us showed that the water in the pure mineral was not over one t In the aint ya recently made, we find that the silica and alu- mina are the same as in kyanite, and that the high silica obtamed by the analyst quoted, was undoubtedly owing to the impurity of the mineral, as a careful examination with the magnifier shows Plates of quartz eget with almost every specimen. ee * Thomson's Mineralogy, + This Journal, [2} viii, 88 $¢ Dana’s Miwedacs: Fs cit hae Skvonp Szniss, Vol. XVI, No. s la 1863. oes 50 Reétramination of American Minerals. sults of analysis on specimens carefully selected to avoid the quartz, gave ‘he 2. Silica, . . ‘ 37-20 ; . : 87-03 Alumina, . % 59-02 61-90 Peroxyd of iron, . : ; ; ; wy Ignition : 1-03 : : ; 85 99:33 These correspond to the formula 41° Sit. 23. Ozarkite, an amorphous Thomsonite. This mineral was described by Professor Shepard as a new Sspecies.* Jt occurs in irregular veins and masses in Elolite at Magnet Cove, Arkansas. We are indebted to Mr. Markoe of Washington, for a large quantity of the Elzolite from which we were able to obtain the mineral in a pure state. Its color is white, structure granular to compact. Hardness 5; Sp. Gr. 2°24 (Shepard). Gelatinizes with hydrochloric acid. T'wo analyses gave, tik 2, Silica, . 2 - 36°85 A : : 37-08 Alumina, . ¢ = 29°42 Peroxyd ofiron, . ‘ 155 t 3113 Lime, t 13-95 13-97 Soda, 39 372 Water, 13°80 13°80 massive variety of that specie e analyses give the formula & $i+3& Sit7t=Silica 378, alumina 31:5, lime 13-00, soda 4-80, water 12-90, cial examination was made for phosphoric acid, but in the This is the composition of Thomsonite, and the mineral is a S. 24. Dysyntribite, a rock of indefinile composition. The substance to which the above name was given by Prof. Shepard,§ occurs in large masses in the Northern part of th State of New York. It is of a green color, sometimes mottled * Am. Jour. Science, [2] ii, : Tol te ee, { Jour. Bost. Soc. Ni A Hist., 1849, p. 42. t This Journal, [2] * 430, § Rep. Amer. Assoc, Advan, Sei, vol. iv, 311, iid fee Reéxamination of American Minerals. 51 with red. It resembles serpentine, but hasa strongly argillaceous odor when moistened. Having reason to suspect that the substance was not perfectly homogeneous—from our first analysis not agreeing with Prof. Shepard’s,—various specimens were examined. The correct- ~ of the supposition will be seen by est Nd the following results. 1, a: 3. = 2 Silica, 44°80 44-77 44:94 46°10 46°60 4474 441 Alumina, 24°90 85°88 25°05 81-01 8515 20°98 20°64 , 1 252 3:33 3°69 t a Manganese, -30 “30 iz tr. tr. tr. ime, *66 *b2 8-44 tr tr. 12:90 . 12°34 Magnesia, ‘42 *b3 6°86 BO 50 8-48 5 Potassa, 687 — 5°80 11:68 11:68 3713... 3:92 3°60 tr. tr. —- tr. patel Water, 538 4:72 611 530 5:30 486 6°30 99°94 10053 9888 99:13 99°96 99:90 There is a remarkable agreement in the per-centages of silica. The mineral was found to lose about 2 per cent. of water by de- meealion. Some + aoe showed the presence of a small amount phosphoric acid. Nos. 1 and 4 were received from Mr. 8. W. Johnson No. 2 from Mr. Ne R. Horton, and the exact loom it is Diana , N. Y., No. 3 was received from Prof, Hume’ of Obutlesiee who obtained it from Prof. Shepard. The original analysis by Prof. Shepard gave, Bi 1 Fe H a 47°68 41:50 5-48 4°83 tra This substance bears a close relation to ELAR T which from the variable proportion of its constituents, cannot be con- sidered a mineral but isa rock. Some of the specimens of dysyn- tribite give the composition of Pinite, but it is reasonable to sup- pose, that a mineral varying so much in its alumina, magnesia, lime and alkalies, may in different masses furnish a resemblance to a vast number of minerals. 25. Gibbsite. Gibbsite was first described by Dr. Torrey * as hydrate of alu- mina. This composition, confirmed by Dewey and Thomson, was considered correct, until Hermannt announced the discovery of over 37 per cent, of ea eri acid in it, and that the mineral was a hydrous phosphate of alumina. 'To satisfy all doubts in this mat- ter, Prof. Silliman, Jr.,f examined it with direct reference to the occurrence of phosphoric acid, and in none of the specimens ex- amined, could he find more than a trace. Subsequently Mr. Crossley,$ of Boston, analyzed it, and his results confirmed the peas analyses of American chemists ; meanwhile gil N. Y. Med. and Phys. Journal, i, + J. m., xl, 32 t This Jour., [2] vii, 411. § This sg [2] ix, 408. |] Z. wy pr. he. xlyii, 1 52 Reéxamination of American Minerals. i, umina, . 64:24 . e 63°48 Peroxyd iro: trace 4 A trace SS ; 33°76 ; 84°68 ca, 5 ‘ 1:33 : 1:09 Phosphoric acid, . A 57 ; i é trace Magnesia, , ; ‘10 ; 05 100-00 99°30 The phosphoric acid was determined by molybdate of am- monia ; the small amount of silica is due to the intimate mixture of the mineral with allophane. From the results of these examin- ations, we are confident that Mr, Hermann has not at any time analyzed pure Gibbsite. 26. Emerald Nickel. We notice in the last edition of Phillip’s Mineralogy, that Prof. Miller and Brooke place this species among the doubtful ones, without however giving any reasons for so doing. ‘To ascertain if any good reason existed for this doubt, we have reanalyzed it, and find the same composition as given by Prof. Silliman, Jr.;* which was, Oxyd Nickel. Carbonic Acid, Water. f 58: 11°69 29°49 We obtained, Oxygen Oxyd of nickel, ; ‘i 56°82 12°10 Magnesia, ‘ ; “67 Carbonie acid, ri : 11°63 i ; 8:46 Water, ; ‘ 29°37 ‘ 26°56 which gives the formula, Nit +671. . Atoms, At weight. Per cent. ratio. Oxyd nickel, ~. eciae. 1408" 59°72 nee Carbonie acid, 1 275 11-66 2 Water, 675 28°62 6 6 We would prefer expressing i ate of Nickel plus two atoms of the hydrated oxyd of nickel ; this to form a carbonate of the totoxyd of nickel, by precipitating 4 protosalt with an alkaline carbonate, a carbonate is obtained, * This Journal, [2] vi, 248. J. L. Smith on determining the Alkalies in Minerals. 53 containing a certain amount of the hydrated oxyd—for these reasons, we would express emerald nickel by Ni€+2(NiH,). It is without question a distinct species, and a most beautiful and interesting mineral, both from the richness of its color and its association with chromic iron. Composition ; a quarter of an ounce of selected fragments sent by Mr. L. White Williams, furnished us with about one gramme of the pure mineral. University of Virginia, May 6th, 1853. Arr. VI.—New and ready method of determining the Alkalies in Minerals: Panr 1l—Conversion of the Sulphates into Chlorids : Qualitative Determination of the mixed Alkalies : Separation of the Alkaline Chlorids from each other, with a more direct method of obtaining them from silicates not soluble tm Acids ; by J. Lawrence Sorrn, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Virginia. Conversion of the Sulphates into Chlorids. 31. In continuation of the subject, the next point to be con- sidered is the conversion of the sulphates of the alkalies into em to the filtrate, to insure there being an excess of the lead salt. 33. The filtrate is then warmed and sulphuretted hyd rogen are must be taken to see that there is an excess of sul- * This Journal, May, 1853. 54 J. L. Smith on determining the Alkalies in Minerals. phuretted hydrogen, a test most readily performed by means ofa piece of lead paper. The liquid is thrown on a filter to separate the sulphuret of lead; the filtrate containing the alkalies as acetates, is evaporated, and when nearly dry, an excess of hydro- chloric acid is added, and the whole evaporated to dryness over a water-bath, and finally heated to above 500°. A hot solution of the chlorid of lead can be used instead of the acetate, render- ing the addition of hydrochloric acid unnecessary. 34, It needs but little experience to convince one of the superiority of this method, over that by the chlorid of baryum, for converting the sulphates into the chlorids, its principal re- commendation being the indifference with which an excess of the lead salt can be added, to precipitate the sulphuric acid, and the subsequent facility with which that excess of lead can be got rid of. It may be well to state, that experiments were made to prove the perfect precipitation of the sulphuric acid from the sulphates of the alkalies by the salts of lead, and it is only after numerous comparative results, that it is now recommended. To distinguish the Alkalies from each other when mixed. 35. To distinguish potash, soda and lithia when mixed, is attended with more or less difficulty, according to the proportions in which they are mixed ; of the three, potash is the most easily recognized, next in order is soda, and lastly. lithia; the presence of which, mixed in small amount with proportionally large quan- tities of the other alkalies, it is almost impossible to decide on with any accuracy, without direct separation. 36. In the analysis of many minerals, the characters of which lead to the supposition of the presence of the alkalies, it is useless to precede the quantitative determination by one of a qualitative character, especially as the steps to be followed to separate the alkalies are the same in both cases, and to proceed in this way, iS economy of time. ‘rom my own experience concerning the con- stitution of the silicates, there are doubtless but a very few of them without an appreciable quantity of alkalies in their cov- * The alcoholic solution does not give perfect results and should not be used. . ¥ J. I. Smith on determining the Alkalies in Minerals. 565 a yellow deposit soon takes place, which by the microscope will be seen to consist of octahedral crystals of the double chlorid of potash and platinum: the evaporation should be continued very gently with a heat not exceeding 120° to 130° until the liquid begins to dry on the edge; if this be now examined under the microscope, and soda be pres- ent, beautiful needle-shaped crystals will be seen, both formed and forming, with an oblique angle of termination, resented in the figure. The border of liquid on the glass is the place to observe these crystals, and that, while the process of drying is going on. When the amount of soda is very small, it is best to allow the solution on the glass to ‘ dry in the slowest possible manner. Should the quantity of soda be still smaller or the nature of the crystals doubtful, resort may be had to polarized light, when the prismatic crystals of chlorid of platinum and sodium will be at once rendered visible by their beautiful colors, as they possess polarizing properties, whereas the crystals of chlorid of platinum and potassium, besides differing in form, do not polarize light. 38. This method of detecting a small quantity of soda in the presence of potash, I have employed since June, 1850, while en- gaged in the examination of the collection of urinary ealeuli belonging to the Dupeytren museum at Paris; at that time, it Was employed daily in the laboratory of Messrs. Wurtz and Ver- deil; the special reason for devising it was to examine the nature of the trace of alkali almost invariably found in the uric acid cal- culi after combustion. 39. The reason for making special reference to the date of the original employment of this method, is to claim priority in its use, as Mr. Andrews announces it in a late number of the Chemical Gazette as a new method. Were not the method so well known and so constantly employed in the laboratory of Wurtz and Ver- deil at the period above mentioned, I should not now set up any reclamation in the matter. : _ 40. The amount of soda that can thus be detected, is exceed~ ingly small, as the liquid can be concentrated to the very smallest bulk. When the amount of potash is proportionally large com- pared with that of the soda, it is better to put the chilorid - platinum in a drop of the solution of the alkaline ehlorids placed 56 J. L. Smith on determining the Alkalies in Minerals. accuracy in their results, for I have reason to believe it rare to the air, and dissolves the double chlorid of sodium and platinum, or prevents altogether its formation into recognizable crystals. These investigations have added nothing to what is already known concerning the detection of lithia mixed with soda and potash ; the plan invariably adopted, is to treat the mixed chlorids with a solution of alcohol and ether, and examine the part dis- solved, by the blowpipe; details as to the manner of using the alcohol and cther solution are given under the next head. Separation of the Alkalies from each other. 43. Under this head I have nothing to add to what is already known on the subject: it may be well, however, to mention the manner in which Rammelsburg’s method of separating lithia has been employed, as it has not yet been fairly tested in this country- His method, it is well known, is based on the solubility of the chlorid of lithium in a mixture of equal parts of absolute alcohol and ether, neither of the other chlorids being dissolved by this menstruum. A number of experiments were made on known quantities of the alkalies, and the results of some of them are as follows: a. 500 milligrm. chlorid of potassium treated with the mixture of ether and alcohol, ten grammes of the latter being used, yielded only ;°; of a milligramme to the liquid, ee ee ee Poe re se cmegean J. L. Smith on determining the Alkaliesin Minerals. 57 b. 500 milligrm. of chlorid of sodium treated in the same way yielded 4 milligramme to the liquid. c. A mixture of chlorids of potassium, sodium and lithium, in which the latter constituted 2 per cent. of the mass, was acted on by the ether and alcohol, filtered and evaporated to dryness ; the residue was equal to 2:53 percent. The quantity used, was CLK and Cl Na each 200 milligrm., Cl Li °8 milligrams. _ A similar mixture containing 18°10 per cent. of chlorid of lithium, furnished a residue of 17-65 per cent. ; e. A similar mixture containing 67:20 per cent. chlorid of lith- ium, gave a residue of 68-40 _ 44, By these results it may be seen that this method of separa- ting lithia from the other alkalies may be perfectly relied on. It only remains to detail the precautions to be taken in order to en- sure accurate results. 5. The solution of alcohol and ether must be made of absolute alcohol mixed with its volume of pure ether. he chlorids must be dried thoroughly at 212° or alittle above ; if they have at any time been heated much higher, a drop or two of hydrochloric acid must be added to the chlorids, that are subsequently dried at the temperature just mentioned. The desiccation is best carried on ina small sized capsule. To the dry mass, a small quan- With a small glass rod, the chlorids soon disintegrate ; the capsule and its contents are placed ona glass plate, and covered with a small bell glass ; (a common tumbler answer the purpose very well, especially if the edge be ground,) this is left to digest for twenty-four hours, and then thrown on a filter and washed with the alcohol ether solution, the chlorids of sodium and potassium remain on the filter. ‘These last can be dissolved off the filter by means of water, and separated in the ordinary way. 46. The alcohol-ether solution of chlorid of lithium is evapo- rated to dryness, converted into sulphate and weighed. The results thus obtained far exceed in accuracy those from any other method for separating lithia. The indirect method, by ascertaining the quantity of sulphuric acid contained in the mixed sulphates, is the next best, but like all indirect methods of analysis, Should never be employed except when it is absolutely necessary. 47. When the alkalies are presented in the form of chlorids before their quantity has been estimated in some other form, it 1s best to proceed first to the separation of lithia, afterwards weigh the chlorids not dissolved by the alcohol-ether, and lastly, Separate the potash chlorid from the soda chlorid, if both be present, by means of the bichlorid of platinum. Experiments Were made with a mixture of alcohol and chloroform, the results Szconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 46.—July, 1853. 8 * 58 J. L. Smith on determining the Alkalies in Minerals. of which were not as satisfactory as those afforded by the alcohol- ether. Substitution of Chlorid of Ammonium for Fluorid of Calcium, o mix with Carbonate of lime to decompose the silicates. 48. It was mentioned in the previous paper on this subject how carbonate of lime could be rendered as powerful in its decompos- ing agency on the silicates as caustic potash, the effect being due to the use of some flux, fluorid and chlorid of calcium being used for that purpose. I have since tested more carefully the merits of the chlorid of calcium, and for various reasons prefer it to the exclusion of the fluorid. In the first place it introduces chlorine instead of fluorine into the analysis, and secondly, the fusion is more easily detached from the crucible, and dissolved by hydro- chloric acid. z 49. The manner of introducing the chlorid of calcium into pound it was inconvenient to weigh and mix it with the carbonate 51. There is no silicate which after having undergone this pro- cess, is not easily dissolved by hydrochloric acid. For the action of the lime to have been com lete, it is not necessary that the mass should have settled down in perfect fusion. The contents the crucible are dissolved, and the analysis continued as pointed out in 19, 20, 21, &c. 52. This method insures the obtaining of every particle of the processes, and not the least of the advan tages, is the ready method of separating all the other ingredients and the small accumulation * The chlorid of ammonium is best obtained in a ulverulent condition, by dis- solving some of the salt in hot water, and evaporating coals: the omar ett of the chlorid of ammonium will deposit itself i i "conditi n, the water is — off, and nie salt thrown on bibulous paper, allowed to dry ; the final desicca- n being carried on in a water-ba in an y with ssponding otter th, or in any other way @ corres + An ordinary portable furnace with a conical sheet-iron cap of from two to three mie answer the purpose perfectly well, all the mabe heat being afforded J. L. Smith on determining the Alkalies in Minerals. 89 A more speedy method of separating the Alkalies directly from the lime fusion for both qualitative and quantitative determination. 53, As soon as the fusion with carbonate of lime and sal-ammo- niac, gave evidence of the mineral being so thoroughly attacked, the question naturally arose as to the condition the alkalies were in after the fusion, and the possibility of dissolving them out by the agency of water alone, at least for the purpose of qualitative determination. Experiments directed to this object soon made it evident that the alkalies might be obtained from any silicate, without resorting to the use of acid as a solvent for the fusion. e mass as it comes from the crucible, is placed in a cap- sule with water, and then heated in a sand-bath or over a lamp for two or three hours, renewing the water from time to time as it evaporates. The mass disintegrates very shortly after being placed in the water. The contents of the capsule are next thrown ona filter, and the water passes through containing the chlorid of the alkalies, a little chlorid of calcium and caustic lime, all else that the mineral may have contained remains on the filter, except baryta and strontia if they be present in the mineral, but as these oxyds are of rare occurrence in silicates, no allusion will be had to them here. 55. 'To the filtrate add carbonate of ammonia and boil for some time, when all the lime will be precipitated as carbonate, add a ew drops of a solution of carbonate of ammonia to the hot solu- tion to be sure that all the lime is precipitated, should this be the case, filter—the filtrate will contain the chlorids of the alkalies and chlorid of ammonium; it is evaporated to dryness over a water-bath in a small platinum capsule ; the capsule is carefully heated to expel the sal-ammoniac, and finally warmed up to 7 or 00° F., it is then weighted with its contents, and the chlorids if mixed, separated in the way mentioned (45 and 46). The amount of sal-ammoniac to be expelled is quite small, not equal- ling the weight of mineral originally employed. 56. Nothing in analysis can be simpler or more speedy than this process. Its constant accuracy still lacked some little to ren- der it perfect, as usually an amount of alkali remains behind, Tepresented by from 2, to one per cent. of the mineral used, cer- tainly a small amount, but still too much to be omitted in an accurate analysis. This also must be arrived at, and it can be accomplished in the following manner. 57. hfier the fused mass fist been treated with watér filtered and washed as in (54), the filter and its contents are dried, the latter are detached from the filter, and rubbed up in a glaze Mortar with an amount of sal-ammoniac equal to one-half the weight of the mineral, and reheated in a platinum crucible ogi as in the first instance, treated with water, thrown on a filter and | Washed, the filtrate added to that from the first fusion, the whole treated with carbonate of ammonia, and completed as in (55). 60 J. L. Smith on determining the Alkalies in Minerals. 58. This second fusion complicates the method but little, as the residue on the filter readily dries in a water-bath into a powder that is easily detached from the filter, and the small portion ad- hering to the latter may be disregarded, as the alkalies remaining rarely exceed more than =1, of the whole mass, and in most in- stances not more than ;,;';;. In many analyses made, one fusion sufficed for the entire extraction of the alkalies, but as a few tenths would occasionally remain behind, we preferred the ad- ditional fusion to get at that small quantity, and to entitle it to rank as a method by which all but the merest trace of the alkalies could be extracted from the insoluble silicates. 59. The proportion of sal-ammoniac added to the carbonate of lime as here recommended, is arrived at after numerous expet- ing the amount of chlorid of calcium formed, the mass fuses more thoroughly, but the water does not disintegate it as com- pletely as when the ammoniacal salt is less ; also the accumulation of this latter at the end of the process is less, an object not to be disregarded. The advantage of thus estimating the alkalies in insoluble silicates is obvious ;—the long routine of separating silica, alumina, lime, &c., is done away with—the accumulation of chlorid of ammonium is very trifling,—and lastly, the alkalies are obtained directly in the form of chlorids. The method will course be all that is necessary, and the action of the water need 61. There is nothing new in the attempt to dissolve out the alkalies by water, from a silicate that had been heated with lime. M. Fuchs used the method for procuring lithia from lepidolite, but of course his efforts were entirely directed to procuring the lithia from the mineral, and not to estimating its quantity, as the to decompose alkaline silicates, heating over a lamp and subse- quently treating the mass with water to extract the alkalies or ture may reduce the feldspars, it fails when tried on kyanite, zircon, micas and other silicates difficult of decomposition. This f J. L. Smith on determining the Alkalies in Minerals. 61 arises from the fact that the chlorid of calcium has but little de- composing effect on the silicates, its action being simply that of a menstruum in which the lime can act conveniently on the mineral. 62. The use of lime or its carbonate mixed with chlorid of calcium or chlorid of ammonium, for the purpose of effecting the decompositions alluded to, would be considered by me of ques- tionable utility if the mixture were not so proportioned, and em- ployed as to decompose the most difficult silicates if necessary ; for unless this be done, we can at no time be certain that the decomposition is complete. As a general rule for decomposing silicates by lime or soda, it is far better to use a charcoal fire than the flame of a lamp, as it is better to heat too high than not to heat sufficiently the mineral to be acted on. Complete analysis of an insoluble silicate on one portion of the Mineral. 63. The effort to accomplish an analysis of this description deserves no encouragement, from the almost invariable inaccuracy attending the results. If we havea given quantity of any one of the silicates alluded to, requiring analysis, we had better subdivide it, however small the entire quantity may be, ascertain one set of ingredients by the soda, and the other by the lime fusion ; for the results thus obtained, may be relied on as more accurate than those furnished by an analysis of the whole quantity, through the agency of baryta or hydrofluoric acid. 64. Should it be desired to undertake the analysis on a single portion, I would recommend the silicate to be attacked with car- bonate of baryta mixed with the chlorid—three to four parts of carbonate and two of chlorid: this mixture can be made te de- compose all silicates at a much lower temperature, than when the carbonate alone is used, but its action is not near so powerful as the carbonate of lime and sal-ammoniac. . This terminates an account of my labors in the determin- oO Many analytical processes mentioned in this article can be ap> — plied when operating on soluble silicates. Laboratory of the University of Virginia, May 10th, 1853, 62 J. Campbell's Astronomical Observatory. Art. VIIL—On a method of constructing an Observatory on a Dwelling-house ;* by Mr. Joun Campseu. Tue idea of placing a telescope sufficiently large to require a revolving dome upon the top of a dwelling-house is so novel, ner in which the thing has been accomplished, may therefore be acceptable to some persons, and perhaps be the means of inducing others imbued with a love of the sublimest of the physical sci- ences, to make a similar experiment. The house is situated in 16th Street, near the 5th Avenue. It is thirty feet wide, eighty feet deep, and four stories high. Like | most modern houses it is constructed with an under cellar, the. foundation walls are therefore about fifteen feet below the level ? of seventy-feet from the ground. Three stout beams rest upon the walls across the centre of the octagon, making a base or sup port for the pedestal of the telescope. The floor is raised three feet above that of the reading-room, care being taken not to pel mit any thing to rest upon, or touch the three beams which sustain the pedestal. oor opens into the reading-room, and another upon a plat form, over the roof of the other part of the house. Opposite t these doors are windows for light and air. See ground plan, fig. 2 astronomical observatory to a dwelling-house in a city, is deservin, amateurs in the science. The author states in a letter to the Editors, tha he wi an Appearance of the Dome from the outside. 64 J. Campbell's Astronomical Observatory. | It is hardly necessary to say that the foregoing arrangements are altogether local, and on any other site would be varied accord- ing to circumstances, 2. : iv A, Reading room. —B, Observatory.—C, Observer's seat.—D, Reading table.—E, Pier of the we Upon the bed plate before mentioned, is placed a circular rail, twelve feet in diameter inside, three inches wide and one inch West Point Foundry, in one piece, and turned in a lathe, so that the bearing should not only be a true circle, but also smooth and level. The dome is twelve feet in diameter, inside, the base being a coun- terpart of the curb, which constitutes the bed plate. It is built in the usual manner with ribs, sawed to the proper circle, of well seasoned pine, that it might be light, and with ‘great care, that it might be an exact hemi- sphere. Two stout ribs cross inches wide a three | | i braced together to ONE Sectional view of the interior of the Observatory: a J. Campbell's Astronomical Observatory. 65 side, with four iron bands at equal distances, to strengthen the structure, and keep the ribs in their proper positions, as they are what may be termed the rad/road of the door which closes the aperture. The dome is covered with tin, except the space between the two main ribs; on one side this space is covered ment of the chain or guide pullies, which this zinc covering overlies. 4. # A, Wooden curb or bed plate.—B, Circular rail—C, Base of the dome.—D, Rack encircling the rail.—E, ‘The pinion. 66 J. Campbell’s Astronomical Observatory. On the under side of the door is a rack, to fit the pinion. Figs. 5 and 6. ! the door at any desired elevation. In order that the aperture | view. Fig. oe J. Campbell's Astronomical Observatory. 67 The handle and also the operator move round with the dome, which is accomplished in a very convenient manner, by the pecu- liar construction of the observer’s seat. This is a small flight of a : Endless screw and pinion on the horizon for moving the door of the aperture. Stairs, at an angle of elevation, suited to the sweep of the eye- piece, so that each step makes a convenient seat. Fig. 8 h frame is of wrought iron—the string pieces reach to the base of the dome, to which they are secured, as seen in the plans., The bottom of the stairs rests upon two wheels, in which grooves are made to suit a circular rail of half round iron, which is the bottom steps of the observer’s seat, and consequently revolv With it, see figs. 2 and 3. It will be perceived that by this ar- d the reading table rangement the aperture, the observer's See y involves the are so constructed that the moving of one 6S J. Campbell's Astronomical Observatory. | iron, three feet in diameter, and the same in height. It stands — upon the three beams before mentioned, is lined with brick, like a well, and covered with a smooth round flag stone, projecting af inch over the iron. The mahogany frame of the telescope, hav- ing four feet, with adjusting screws, stands upon the stone. The steadiness of the pier is remarkable, and may be accounted for by the fact that the rock in the vicinity lies near the surface, and in many cases has been excavated to a considerable depth, to form the under cellars of the neighboring houses, which in a great measure serves to insulate the walls which support the telescope. A map of the Northern Hemisphere, with the figures, is painted upon the concave surface of the dome, and the stars to the fifth ‘magnitude are represented in their proper places. 8, Front and side view of the observer’s seat. The telescope is an achromatic refractor of eight inches ape — ture, 10 feet 6 inches focal length, made by Mr. Henry Fitz, of New York. It is furnished with six eye-pieces, of the Huyge nian form, magnifying from 60 to 480 times, and has a finder of On the Phosphorescence of Marine Invertebrata. 69 ted by means of an excentric bearing for the end of the axis, to which the circle is attached, and which is readily turned, within the declination box, until the adjustment is found to be correct, and then secured. A clock is attached to the telescope for keep- ing the object in the field of view, and an important improve- ment has been made in the manner of communicating the motion to the hour circle. The thread to fit the tangent screw, is cut in the edge of a ring, detached from the hour circle, and merely pressed against it on a conical bearing, by the elasticity of a thin brass plate, which is secured by four screws, that give the requi- site friction. This detached arrangement permits the telescope to be moved in any direction, while in connection with the clock, and obviates the necessity of clamping and unclamping, thereby greatly dimin- ishing the danger of injury to the instrument. Arr. VIIIL—On the Phosphorescence of some Marine Inver- tebrata ; by M. A. De QuatTREFacEs, Szconp Parr.— General observations on Phosphorescence. 1. Description of the phenomenon.—It would be useless to repeat here all the details given by travellers; I will confine myself to some remarks on my own observations. The phosphorescence of the sea has appeared to me under two different forms: 1st, a result of scintillations more or less nu- merous, always isolated, and not giving at all the idea of a liquid In itself luminous: 2nd, a general glow more or less uniform, the phosphorescent substance seeming to be dissolved in the water itself. ae In both cases, phosphorescence is equally a result from living animals, directly emitting the light, but the species which pro- duce the phenomenon are different. A. I have often observed the first mode of phosphorescence on monds, but these sparks, always very brilliant, and appearing at the same instant, never communicated a general glow to the wa- er. They remained completely isolated, and were distinct from the dark surface of the sea.. At Brehat, St. Malo, and St. Vaast, I observed similar facts. ‘The fishermen whom I questioned, all assured me that in these regions, the sea never presented a difler- ent appearance; the young men who had never left their native 70 On the Phosphorescence of Marine Fnvertebrata. coasts, did not seem to understand my inquiries relative to a more general or diffused phosphorescence. M. Beautemps-Beaupreé, mentions his observing phosphorescence of this kind during one of the numerous excursions in which he was engaged, while in some yell sheltered harbor, like the port of Paimpol. the sea itself rarely presents any remarkable phosphorescence in the localities of which I am about to speak, it is not so with the marine plants which are left by the tide. In some circum- stances, I have seen masses of the Fucus kindle up when seized a little rudely; but even then the light was in isolated points, which the eye easily distinguished from one another. In no case did the stalks or the leaves present the uniform tint of a metal at a white heat, and the water which ran out freely was never lumit- ous. Moreover, the part of the beach which the sea had just left dry, remained perfectly dark. At most, only a few sparks might be seen over a space of some extent. Water drawn from the sea in the circumstances of which I peak, and when the scintillations were most numerous and most brilliant, often became suddenly obscure, or presented only some diminished and perhaps destroyed towards the entrance, between the two dykes. It is very decided through the whole port pro- perly so called, in the basin, and especially in the little cove named the “ Parc aux huitres.” The last locality being very accessible, afforded opportunity for studying all the details of the phenomenon. However favorable the circumstances for observation, the water- when quiet was always perfectly dark ; but the least movement drew forth light. A grain of sand cast upon the dark surface produced a luminous spot, and the undulations of the water were so many bright circles. A stone as large as the fist, produc the same results in a more intense degree, and moreover each On the Phosphorescence of Marine I nvertebrata. 71 splashing occasioned a scintillation like that of a bar of iron at a white heat when struck upon an anvil. The entrance of a steam- boat when the phenomenon was most apparent, was a magnifi- cent sight, and recalled to mind the descriptions of travellers. he “ Pare aux huitres” was always bordered by a phosphores- cent girdle, resulting from the incessant undulations of the sea, which reached the shore under the form of small waves; but in perfectly fair weather this light was too feeble to be distinguished ata distance. When these undulations were only three to four inches high, the ring might easily be seen from the pier, through- out its whole extent, and was especially marked in the inner part of this little harbor. t Boulogne, as at Stromboli, these luminous waves seen from adistance, presented a uniform tint of a pale dull white. It might be called almost a froth, resulting from the action of the waves against the shore ; and seen at mid-day under the most favorable circumstances, that was all I could distinguish ata distance of 70 to 80 yards. In proportion as you advance the appearance 72 3 On the Phosphorescence of Marine Invertebrata. save ata distance. If we plunged our hands into the sea, when drawn out they were luminous all over, but after a few seconds, they were marked only here and there with bright spots, whose brilliancy remained constant and without scintillations. he bank recently left by the tide did not however show any trace of phosphorescence ; yet at the least shock, it became lum nous, and seemed literally to glow under the steps of the observer. In some circumstances, wherever the foot rested on the sand or gravel, it seemed like burning coals beneath the tread, and this ap- pearance was equally perfect, with more or less brilliancy, even to a distance of some inches. he Talitri, so numerous on our sandy shores, and whose hab- its have gained for them from the fishers, the name of sand-flea, become luminous by contact with the phosphorescent water,—a act to be noted ; for at first one might be led to imagine that they were the cause of the light. Nothing can be more curious than to see these sand-fleas leaping by hundreds, and appearing like the scattering of tiny sparks. 2 J that produce the phosphorescence in the two preceding cases.—a. At Chausey, Brehat, St. Malo, Saint Vaast, have many times sought for the cause of the bright sparks, which I saw shining and then vanishing in darkness. In each case I met with living animals, and these animals were always Crustacea, Ophiura or Annelida. I usually found the first in the water drawn up either from channels or at some distance from the shore. ‘The second were under stones, or in the masses 0 seaweed. It was especially to the Annelida that the Fucus owed its brilliancy. hese results explained all the circumstances of the first kind of phosphorescence. The Crustacea,,whose movements are enel- getic and whose locomotion is extended, cannot easily be collected in sufficient quantity on a given point to have their scintillations appear like auniform tint. Besides there is nothing in the habits of the species I have examined, to lead one to suppose that’ they are inclined to collect in numerous bands. The size of the Ophiura prevents such an idea with regard to them ; and the smaller Annelid for a like reason cannot contribute to such 4 result. ‘Thus the light produced by these different animals is Ways Seen in points more or less near each other, but never really blended. b. At Boulogne, on the contrary, we find this brilliant light exclusively due to Noctiluce. With the most careful examina- tion, | have never found in my vases a single Annelid, or a single phosphorescent Crustacean. ,, Many circumstances, some of which will be explained beyond, illustrate the particular mode of phosphorescence of the sea, ren luminous by the presence of these Rhizopodes. will On the Phosphorescence of Marine Invertebrata. 73 first notice their size and great number. The diameter of these Noctilucee, varies from about th to 4th of a millimeter; but their abundance more than compensates for their minuteness, each drop of water, as observed by Suriray and M. Verhaeghe, contain- In taking up some water at random from a brilliant wave, I filled a tube about a decimeter in height. After being left a little time quiet, the deposition of Noctilucze on the surface of the liquid was about 14 centimeters in thickness. Thus the Nocti- luce composed about 3th of the phosphorescent water. Again I took the water from the surface and filled a vessel about one- half. The whole height of the liquid was about 15 centimeters, and that of the mass of Noctilucze was about five centimeters; here the proportion was about $. Finally, I remember that at False Bay, M. de Tessan found the proportion equal to 3. From these numbers, it is easy to understand how the sea, rendered luminous by the Noctilucee, may present a uniform brillianey, irresistibly impressing the idea of a phosphorescent solution. hen the surface of the sea is tranquil, as in a well protected harbor, the Noctilucse, because of their small specific gravity, form a continu- ous bed, and the least movement is sufficient to cover that dark surface with a brilliant mantle. When the movement of a vessel at once breaks in upon this mass of Noctilucee, and also calls out their simultaneous phosphorescence, the myriads of bright points ying in the trough of the wave, present one universal hue. From a distance, the eye sees throughout a uniform brilliancy, and near by distinguishes only the most brilliant scintillations or those thrown out by the animals at the immediate surface of the water. These brilliant waves are like so many nebule resolved by the eye only in part. Parr Turrp.— Observations and Experiments on the Light of the Noctiluce. [Instead of giving a full translation of this Part of the memoir as has been done of the preceding, we offer here an abstract pre- Senting in brief the conclusions of the author,—Ebs. | 1. Ina sea rendered phosphorescent by Noctiluce, the light only from the body of these animals.—T his 1 'S proved by direct microscopic examination ;—and by the water's ing deprived of all light when the Noctilucz are filtered out, : ing luminous again when they are res to it. In 4 tube, of the seawater, the Noctiluce if left quiet soon form a “ont the top of the liquid, and the light is confined entirely 's layer of the animals. : .* The production of light is independent of contact ~ the ar—The flashes of light that are produced with the breaking of every wave might seem to show that the access of the animals Series, Vol. XVI, No. 46,—July, 1853. : 74 On the Phosphorescence of Marine Invertebrata. to the external atmosphere was essential to the result. But on the contrary, it is found by observation that in a vase of seawater containing the Noctilues, the bed of these animals that collects at the top of the vase is equally luminous in every part. 3. Color of the light.—When the Noctiluce are in full vigor of life in quiet water, the color is a clear blue. ut on agitating the water, or in the waves of the sea, the light becomes nearly or quite white or like silver sprinkled with some greenish or bluish spangles. 4, Intensity of the light.—M. de Tessan states that in some tropical seas, the phosphorescence is so bright from the breaking waves, that he could read ordinary type at a distance of fifteen paces. The light from the Noctilucee cannot compare with this. At the head of the cove of the “ Pare aux Huitres” at Boulogne, it was not possible to tell the hour with a watch, when the waves were breaking at the observer’s feet. With a tube 15 millimeters in diameter, in which the Noctilnce formed a bed at the surface nearly 20 mm. thick, the figures of a watch face could be read; but strong agitation of the tube was necessary, and it was requisite to hold it close to the glass of the watch. Four to five teaspoonsfull of Nocti luce were collected in a filter, and on producing the phosphores- cence by this means, the hour could be told at the distance of a foot. 5. No disengagement of heat sensible to a thermometer accom panies the phosphorescence.—'T his fact was established by placing the bulb of a thermometer in the Noctiluca water while it was quiet, and then giving it a shake to produce the phosphorescence. he experiment was varied in different ways, 6. The hight of the Noctiluce may be produced over the whole surface of its body or only a part of it.—After a violent agitation, the Noctiluce retain the phosphorescence for some time, so that it may be studied at leisnre. With a lens magnifying 6 to 8 diame ters, it is easy to see that while some of the Noctiluce are phos- phorescent throughout, others are but partially so. in the figure given above, one of the animals is light over its whole surface; On the Phosphorescence of Marine Invertebrata. 75 and the other only on opposite sides. With a lens of 10 to 12 di- ameters, we find that the light often appears successively on dif- ferent parts of the body. There is hence no circumscribed phos- phorescent organ, as in the Lampyri, Elaters, and Pyrosomas.* . The light is due to an infinite number of minute scintilla- tions.—T he preceding figure of a part of a Noctiluca much magni- fied, represents the actual character of the phosphorescence. ‘There isan immense number of points of light. With a lens of 20 to 30 diameters, the light is like an undefined nebula; but with a lens of 60 diameters, it is partially resolved, and with 150 diameters, Wholly, into its constituent spangles. Each luminous spot on the body is found to consist of a cluster of minute instantaneous scin- ullations, dense at the centre, and more scattered towards the cir- cumference of the spot. Thus the same phenomena take place in the Noctilucze as were observed by M. de Quatrefages in the Ophiure and Annelida. Each spot of light is resolvable into con- Stituent points, and consists of evanescent scintillations. 8. The light from the dead Noctiluce or from fragments of them, is identical with that from the vigorous living animal.— hen the light of the Noctiluce, after frequent excitement, be- comes white, it is also more fixed, and finally covers the whole body. From numerous experiments, M. de Quatrefages concludes, that this kind of light is evidence of disease, or of a decline of vigor, and when the light is universal, of death. Microscopic examinations make it apparent that in these cases the light is still made up of minute points, and it is evidently of the same nature with the light given out in active life. _9. Precautions necessary to succeed in the preceding observa- tions—T he animals should be examined without the use of a * The Noctiluca has a depres- S100 on one side, and near the middle of this depression is the Popa ~ same place there veable a nh e as Jong as half the qepenaage the e€ ly is perfectly meral en- ranulous interior. 76 On the Phosphorescence of Marine Invertebrata. Four tubes were filled with water containing the Noctiluce. Into one, oxygen was poured, into the second, hydrogen, the third, carbonic acid, the fourth, chlorine. The first three gases produced the same effect, and not more than atmospheric. alt occasions through the agitation its passage causes, After half an hour these tubes were shaken with precisely the same result in all. Chlorine acted like other irritating agents; the light was at first bright and continuous, but rapidly became extinguished. Macaire and Matteucci have shown that the light of the Lampytl is immediately brightened in oxygen, and rapidly extinguished by carbonic acid. The light therefore cannot be alike in origin 10 the two cases. hos- phorescence, and in proportion to the intensity of the contractions. eat is conclusion was established by M. de Quatrefages by ex- periments upon the influence of pressure, heat and electricity ; of come away from the envelop, and collect about the mouth, leaving the envelop empty. In the dark, there is a very brilliant light at the first contact of the dilute acid with the Noctiluce ; then after- Contributions to Meteorology. 77 It is hardly necessary to cite the other experiments in this place. M. de Quatrefages concludes that the light is produced by the con- traction of the interior mass of the body; that the scintillations are owing to the rupture and rapid contraction of the filaments of the interior, and that the fixed light which these animals emit before dying, proceeds from the permanent contraction of the con- tractile tissues adhering to the inner surface of the general envelop. The production of the light is independent of all material secre- tions. Whether it is accompanied by a discharge of electricity Or not, remains to be ascertained. Arr. [X.—Contributions to Meteorology— Mean Results of Me- teorological Observations, made at St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Canada East, (nine miles west of Montreal,) for 1852; by Cuartes Smattwoon, M.D.* Barometric Pressure.-—The readings of the barometer, are all corrected for capillarity, and reduced to 32° F’. e means are ob- tained from three daily observations, taken at 6 a.m. 2p.m. and 10 p.m. _ The mean height of the barometer in January, was 29-607 inches, in February 29°902, in March 29-952, in April 29-470, in May 29-539, in June 29-489, in July 29-555, in August 29-668, in September 29-645, in October 29-689, in November 29°615, and in December, 30-011 inches.—The highest reading was in ecember, and indicated 30-329 inches, the lowest was in June and was 28-727 inches; the yearly mean was 29-686 inches, the yearly range was equal to 1-602 inches—The atmospheric wave of November was marked by its usual fluctuations, the final trough terminated on the 30th day. Thermometer.—The mean temperature of the air in January, Was 12°-65, in February 21°-90, in March 209-7, in April 38°°38, in May 52°-27, in June 66°°12, in July 72°°33, in August 68°-02, 11 September 59°-15, in October 45°-69, in November 33°°0, in The mean humidity of the atmosphere in winter was ‘781, in spring -806, in summer ‘810, and in autumn 895. The yearly * The i 5° #9” N, Lat, and 78° 36” geographical co-ordinates of the place are 4 W. Long. : height above the level of the sea (estimated) 80 feet. 78 Contributions to Meteorology. Rain fell on 88 days, amounting to 47-131 inches and was ac- companied by thunder and lightning on 17 days.—NSnow fell on days amounting to 84:61 inches ox the surface. The quit of 1 to 10 as used by the Smithsonian Institute at Washington, for the comparison of melted snow to rain, does not hold good in this climate: it varies from lto 5tolto8 I im undertaken a series of experiments on this point, which I have not at present bronght to a close. he whole amount of snow which fell in the winter 1851-2, amounted to 95-920 inches; the first snow fell on the 25th of October, 1851, and the last on the 16th of April, 1852. e amount of evaporation was regularly measured and re corded during that period of the year, when the thenadenelll stood above the freezing point, and owing to frosty nights, an frost also during some days, no accurate measure could be taken. The amount of evaporation in May, was 3-720 inches, in June 3-450, in July 4-150, in August 2°620, in September 2-020, and "in October 1-220: this s period includes me I consider could be taken with anything approaching to accuracy. The most prevalent wind during the year was the West, the next in fe agg was the BE. N. E., the least prevalent wind was the N. by W. The mean of the maximum velocity (as measured by an aectweled similar in construction to Dr. Robinson’s) was 17-632 miles per hour; the mean minimum velocity was equal to 0-463 miles per hou The Aurora ea ag was visible on thirty-six nights, at the following hours, and its appearance was generally followed pe rain in summer and snow in winter. January 19th, 10 p.m. Faint ip arch—sky clear; 26th, 10 Do., da rk clouds in the hor " February 15th, 4 a. M. rab a aurora in the north, streamers shoot- ing to the zenith; sky clear.—19¢h, at 6°30 Pp. m., the hen yens presented a ‘curtain or canopy of auroral light 5 streamers ‘of yellow, green and crimson were sent up in rapid succession from the horizon ee the zenith, where they formed a cupola or corona near @ Auri t the hori- zon, the arch extended — E. to N. We Stars of the oh and 5th mer part of the evening: 1 ese olin Y last ed 20 ag utes ; the northern arch remained still visible. Volta’s No. 1, electrometer, marked 0°76 positive electricity ; there was no ‘ilies Hiatt during, or after the ee —201 uh, I 10 p. m. Low auroral arch in the north, very faint; sky clear Contributions to Meteorology. 79 March Yih, 7 p.m. Faint aurora, occasional streamers; sky clear.— th, 10 p.m. Low each arch, bright; sky clear.—20/h, 9 P. m. Faint auroral arch; sky clea _ Sat aurora rma this month. May 5th, 10 p.m. Faint auroral patches, sky clear.—6th, 1 Faint ‘unl arch; sky clear—18¢h, 10 p.m. Faint er —_ horizon clou une 11th, B45 P.M., the Dene Rtgs an ae arch 3° broad of great magnificence; the commenced in the E. at the horizon, stretching to the zenith, a descending nantly due west to the horizon; the ta was crimson, at other times pale green; the borders or edges were well defined. Stars of the 4th and 5th faint auroral Jight was visible in the north. The arch vanished at 9:20 M he electrometer marked 0; vied west, velocity 1:10 miles per hour.—15th. Low auroral arch from E. to . W., bright wellaw color ; Scnsinne) streamers to the zenith, foom 9:40 to 11:10 p, 23d, 11-40 p nai y ee light, sky clear. jo uly 5th, 10 P. . Auroral bow stretching from E. to W. N. W. ° wide and prirat: ; sky slits Wind south, velocity 0-12 miles. Be 4 Autoral light in the north, TDD EAE brightness ; streamers ; oY clear. ohh 10 p ~M. Patches of auroral light, or clouds ain N. E. to ae ry ight. 20th, 9PM. An arch of light auroral clouds, “1? in width, passing through the constellations Cygnus, Lyra and Hercules to the horizon, lasted 20 minutes, sky clear, wind S. W., velocity 6:26 miles.—29/h, 8 p.m. Auroral arch bright. Cumul. Strat. 3. Heat lightning very vivid. August 5th, 10 v.m. Very faint auroral light. Cirr. Cuml. 4.—6th, Cuml. Strat. 4.—10th, p. mM. Bright auroral arch broad ; dark segment underneath ; ashy clear.—I1 1th, 10 p.m. Faint auroral clouds in the north; sky c September 3d, ids M. Faint auroral light; sky clear.—4/h, 10 r. m., do.— 16th, 10 pe. m. Bright auroral arch, extended and sending up oc- casional streamers ; sky clear.—17th, 10 P. m. aint auroral arch, low, sky clear; 18th, 10 pv. m., do. — 29h 10 p.m. Floating auroral clouds, varying in brightness ; ; sky clea October 6th, 10 p.m. Masses of sneina clouds in i of moderate brightness. » Girr: Cuml. 4 —19th, 10 p.m. Auroral arch faint and low. Stratus 2. 20th, 9r.m. Faint auroral arch, ou dark segment underneath, at 9-20, a fine display of streamers; sky clear November 11th, 10 p.m. Bright auroral streamers, not very eX- tended ; sky clear. December 1st, 3.4.m. Auroral light in the north, bright and ex- tended ; sky clear. —29th, 10 r.m. Low auroral arch ; ; sky clear. Lunar halos visible on six nights. A lunar present also So 7 a bad o c visible on pd vec ios Fogs were observed on six morn- ings. Shooting stars were seen on the 18th of Tuly “and 9th and 10th of August. A {slight shock of an earthquake was felt on the 80 Mr. Blake’s Reply to Mr. Hendricks. 11th of February at 5- ‘AO a.m., barometer 29-067, oe 38-5, wind E. by N., velocity 6:00 miles per hour; the wave came from the W. N. W. The barometer dontititied to fall until inch); the wind veared about noon by the N. to the W.S. W., and increased to a velocity maximum 30:57 miles per hour, which continued during the day following i wind W.N. Electrical state of the atmosphere.—The atmosphere has af- forded indications of electricity, varying in intensity on every day or nearly so, during the year, and was generally of a positive or vitreous character. "I'wo remarka e electr ical storms occurred on the 23d and 3ist of December, ates eh an intensity of 450° in terms of Volta’s electrometer, No. 1: sparks of th of an inch were constantly passing from the conductor to the discharger for several hours each day: it was of a positive character, with frequent and quick changes to negative electricity. An increase of intensity is always observed during the snow storms of our winter ; this increase generally possesses the character of positive electricity, although frequent signs of negative electricity have been observed here ; this change from positive to negative elec- tricity appears to be connected with change in the form of the pape of snow. rystals of snow in this climate during the very severe silat are ap ote e those described by Scoresby, aes figured from 16 to 20 in Kemtz’s Meteorology, also fig. 3; and plain hexagonal prisms have likewise been observed. St. Martin, Feb. 1, 1853. Art. X.—Mr. Blake’s Reply to Mr. Hendrick’s Review of his article on the Flow of Elastic Fluids. Tue following will be found to be a sufficient answer to the criticism of Mr. J. E. Hendricks, in the last number of this Jout- nal, upon my article on the flow of elastic fluids published i No. 12, vol. v, second series, of this Journal. When Mr. Hendricks expresses the pressure by Pé, he should. ¥ so express the quantity discharged by VDS¢. He may then eliminate ¢ and obtain an expression identical with my ow®; whether the value of ¢ be cypher or unity or any other quantity: Hence there is no ground for the oe he would make be- tween “ momentary” and other fore I avail myself of this opportunity 16 direct attention to an error of the engraver of the plate which illustrates the results of my experiments on the flow of elastic fluids, at page 191, vol xil, second series, of this Journal. The figures at the left of the ae (18, 19, 20, &c.) should all be moved upward so as to bring umber 30 against the upper line of the plate. : Pi ee eee Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 81 Art. XI.—Contributions to Mineralogy; by Dr. F. A. Genta - of Philadelphia. 1. Tetradymite.*—The uncertainty in regard to the chemical constitution of tetradymite renders it desirable, that this mineral should be re-analyzed in order to ascertain, whether it may be considered a tertellurid of bismuth, in w which a variable quantity of tellurium is substituted by sulphur, or a combination of one equivalent of tersulphid with two equivalents of tertellurid of bismuth. Several "years ago I discovered this rare mineral at a new locality, viz. een County, N. C., about five miles west of Wastin ati min It occurs there in foliated scales and lamellar masses of splend- ent metallic lustre, and between lead- and steel-color. H. =1-5; sp. gr. =7°237 (at 7° Cels. B.B. on charcoal it fuses readily, tinging the flame blue and giving off the odor of sulphurous acid and slightly that of selen- ium, leaving white incrustations with a yellow ring next to the substance. In an open tube it gives off white fumes and a sub- limate of tellurous acid. Only a few specimens came from this locality, and as they sin found near the surface, a great portion of the tetradymite s already oxydized. This ox ydized portion contains but a octal quantity of carbonate of bismuth ; the greater part seems to . e a combination of tellurous acid with teroxyd of bismuth, and, as it yields chlorine when dissolved in hydrochloric acid, some of the tellurium is oxydized into telluric acid. The accompanying minerals are gold, eonger pyrites, magnetic iron, brown hematite, epidote, quartz, ete. The substance for analysis was first fora with very diluted hydrochloric acid, in order to free it from the oxydized minerals, and then picked out. The pure scales were washed and dried. 0-$039 grms. were dissolved in nitrohydrochloric acid, and the sulphuric acid formed in this manner precipitated by chlorid of barium ; the sulphate of baryta was filtered and first washed with diluted hydrochloric acid, finally with water. The dry sulphate of baryta was powerfully ignited, and after cooling, digested with diluted hydrochloric acid, filtered, washed and weighed. It was is precaution, though not generally in use, is of the greatest importance for a correct determination of ape acid (resp. sulphur) in all cases in which nitrie acid is in solution. It is well known, that in its presence a large a n of nitrate of wit: always falls down along with the sas ste of baryta. ‘This nitrate of baryta cannot be washed out completely, * An abstract of this —_ was published in Keller- Tiedenet Nordamerikanis- chen Monatsbericht, ii, Seconp Serres, Vol. st No, 46,—July, 1858. 1 82 Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. not even with boiling water; the best mode to get such sulphate of baryta pure is to decompose the nitrate of baryta by heat, and to extract the caustic baryta afterwards with diluted hydro- chloric acid. : After freeing the filtrate from the excess of chlorid of barium by sulphuric acid, the solution was treated with hydrosulphuric acid, and from the precipitate thus obtained, tellurium was sepa- rated by digestion with sulphid of ammonium. The filtrate — containing it, was evaporated nearly to dryness and oxydized with nitrohydrochloric acid, the nitric acid removed by evapora- tion with an excess of hydrochloric acid and the tellurium then precipitated by bisulphite of ammonia. This metal filtered upon nown weight was found to be 0°3000 grs. The precipitate of tersulphid of bismuth was dissolved in 00115 grs. The iron being an impurity in tetradymite was cal- culated as iron pyrites and subtracted from the original weight. Thus the analysis gives as the composition of this tetradymite : Bi 61351 Te 33-837 Se trace S 5270=100.458 61351 83837 5270 j 307-996 ° 64141 * 160G0 = 295 : 0528 : 0:308 This ratio does not very well correspond with the formula BiSs+2Bi Tes, for which the calculated per-centage would be: Bi 59-033 Te 36-409 S 4558 The analyses of the tetradymite from Schubkau in Hungary, by Berzelius and Wehrle, and that of the same mineral from Whitehall in Virginia by C. T. Jackson, (the latter after subtrac- tion of gold, &c.) give: : Berzelius. Wehrle. C. T. Jackson. Bi - 58°30 60:0 “BL Te - 36:05 84-6 35°95 5 . 4°32 48 374 99-4 100-00 It will be seen, that Berzelius’s analysis accords better with the above formula than that of Wehrle, and that mine is very similar to the latter. I will now compare these analyses with the formula Bi (Te,S)s, considering the quantity of tellurium as correct. After calcu lating for it the requisite quantity of bismuth to form Bi'Tes, I take the difference as BiSs and get in this manner the follow- ing per-centages : Genth. Wehrie. i Bs. 60-7. oor ‘suas. Te - 83°34 84°6 36°05 35°95 Ss - 497 4-4 3°88 4°72 Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 83 y own and Wehrle’s analyses speak decidedly in favor of the latter formula, and even Berzelius’s analysis shows but a slight difference in respect to bismuth and sulphur. he composition of tetradymite therefore appears to be Bi (Te, S)s; but it cannot be regarded as a settled question, since we have only a few analyses of this rare substance which allow of a fair calculation. Jackson’s analysis is deficient either in sulphur or in tellurium, and the 60-31 p.c. of bismuth require 1:23 p.c. of sulphur (or an equivalent quantity of telluriam) more than he found, in order to have 3 equivalents of the electro- negative elements in combination with one of bismuth. In acid quite distinctly, and judging from the intensity of the horse- radish odor, there cannot be a large quantity of selenium in the mineral. Dr. Jackson remarks, that he observed impressions of the edges of crystals of tetradymite in metallic gold. I have in my cabin a magnificent specimen of native gold from Whitehall, ich appears to be a pseudomorph of tetradymite. TI intend making a thorough J amsraeennig of it and will describe it as soon as I find leisure to do s 2. Gray eee (probably a new mineral*).—At McMackin’s mine, vain County, N. C., I found a mineral associated with carbonate of magnesia, talc, blende, iron pyrites and galena, which is closely allied to some argentiferous gray coppers. As no locality in the United States of a similar mineral has yet been made known, an examination of it, I thought, might give inter- esting results. assive, apparently without any crystalline structure: H.=4°5; sp. gr.? —; color nearly iron black, subtranslucent, when in very thin splinters with cherry-red color ; streak brownish-red ; lustre submetallic ; fracture conchoidal ; brittle. B.B. on charcoal it fuses readily =1, makes incrustations of antimony and zinc, and gives off the odor of arsenic and sulphu- rous acid; with carbonate of soda on charcoal yields a globule of silver and copper. Soluble in nitrohydrochloric acid with sepa- ration of chlorid of silver. 0-1330 grs. were dissolved in nitrohydrochloric acid, the liquid diluted with a large quantity of water, and the chlorid of ned filtered off. It gave 0-0140 grs. silver. The filtrate was alm evaporated to dryness, the arsenic acid reduced by bisulphite “of ammonia, the excess of the latter decomposed by hydrochloric acid, and copper, arsenic and antimony precipitated by hydrosul- phuric acid. ‘The precipitated sulphids were filtered and treated * Read before the Acad. of Nat. Sci. of Philad., Feb. 15, 1853. 84 Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. with sulphid of ammonium. The remaining sulphid of copper was dissolved in nitric acid and the oxyd of copper precipitated from the boiling solution by caustic potash. It gave 00512 grs, The filtrate from the sulphid of copper was saturated with hy- drochloric acid and the precipitated sulphids of arsenic and anti- mony oxydized by chlorate of potash; chlorid of ammonium, tartaric acid and ammonia were added, and the arsenic precipl- tated by sulphate of magnesia as arseniate of magnesia and am- monia. This precipitate contained 0-008 grs. of magnesia. The filtrate from the precipitate by hydrosulphuric acid gave, after having been oxydized by nitric acid, 0-0027 grs. sesquioxyd of iron, precipitated by ammonia; the filtrate from it gave with sulphid of ammonia a precipitate which yielded 0-0042 grs. of oxyd of zine. Sulphur and antimony were determined from the loss and by calculation. The analysis gave: Ag 1053 p.c. which require 157 sulphur for AgS Cu 3073 « * 780 “ Cug 8 11-43 Zn 2-53 “ “ 1:25 “ Tn a Fe 43. * 403 O81 FeS As 1145 © * 4-42 # As S3 14:05 Sb 171g 3 6°63 « SbSs3 Ss 25:48 “ —— 100-00 25°48 The ratio of sulphur of the sulphobasis and sulphoacids is: 11-43 : 14-05 or L: 1-23, corresponding with the formula, 5(Ag, Cus, Zn, Fe)S+2(As, Sb)Ss It will be seen that this composition differs from that of gray copper, which is 4(Ag, Cus, Zn, Fe)S+(As, Sb)Ss. As I had Apophyllite—T he analyses of apophyllite from different localities show such a difference in the quantity of fluorine pres- ent (varying from 0-34 to 1-54 p. c.), that Rammelsberg suggested it might be a silicate in which a part of the oxygen is replaced by fluorine. vitreous and unchanged. Bergen Hill, N. J., afforded many spe- cimens of this kind. I am not aware that investigations have ever been made in order to determine, whether the opaque and Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 85 vitreous apophyllite has the same composition, thus indicating imorphism, or whether it is a pseudomorph in the form of apophyllite, caused by a commencing decomposition of the latter. Some of the differences in previous analyses may be attributed to a want of care in separating the opaque from the vitreous portion, The material for Mr. Reakirt’s analyses came from a large crys- tal, which was perfectly vitreous and not in the least decomposed. he form of the crystal was the square octahedron with the second prism. The powdered mineral was dried over sulphuric acid. I. 1-:167{ grs. mixed and covered with freshly ignited oxyd of lead lost by ignition 0-1945 grs. of water. I. 3-8700 grs. were fused with carbonate of soda, the fused mass was digested with water and filtered from the residue. This was dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the silicic acid separated by evaporation to dryness. e dry mass was moistened with hydrochloric acid and the silicic acid (a) filtered. The filtrate {rom the watery solution containing also a considerable portion of silicic acid, was precipitated by carbonate of ammonia and the Silicie acid (6) filtered and weighed with the other portion: a@ and b weighed 2-0321 gers. From the filtrate of silicic acid (6) a mixture of fluorid of cal- cium and carbonate of lime was precipitated by chlorid of calcium. Both were filtered, and after being ignited, treated with acetic acid, the excess of acetic acid evaporated in a water-bath and the insoluble fluorid of calcium separated from the acetate of lime by boiling water. It gave 01438 grs. Lime was precipitated from the filtrate of silicic acid (a) by oxalate of ammonia and ammonia, which precipitate gave 1:7234 gts. carbonate of lime. III. 1-4570 ers. were fused with carbonate of soda and the fluorid of calcium determined as in II. It gave 0:0491 ers. IV. 1-9708 grs. were dissolved in hydrochloric acid and eva rated to dryness; the dry mass was moistened with hydrochloric acid and filtered. The silicic acid, thus obtained with addition of a small quantity from the silicofluorid, weighed 1-0384 grs. _ The filtrate from the silicic acid was precipitated by ammonia and the small quantity of silicofluorid of calcium fused with car- bonate of soda. ‘The silicic acid was determined as in Il (5), and added to that separated by hydrochloric acid. The lime was also added to the other portion of it. The filtrate from the silico- fluorid was precipitated by oxalate of ammonia. It gave 08484 grs. carbonate of lime. d The filtrate was evaporated to dryness and the ammoniacal salts driven off by heat. The residue was acidulated ir little hydrochloric acid to convert the carbonate of potash which on 86 Review of Owen’s Geological Report on Wisconsin, Iowa, etc. ’ heating with oxalate of ammonia is always formed, into chlorid of potassium, evaporated, heated and weighed. It gave 0:1602 grs. chlorid of potassium. ‘T'he composition of this apophyllite is therefore : I,MandIv. I, Wand Iv. > 52°69 Mean. SiOg 52°51 52°60 contains oxygen 27°18 CaO - 24°99 24:77 24°88 ig 7-08 KO = - 514 514 514 w 0°87 Fl - - 1°79 163 171 HO . - 16°67 16°67 16°67 14°81 10 Oxygen equiy. with Fl= 0°76 100-21 Not taking any fluorids into calculation but their equivalent oxyds, the ratio of oxygen, KO:CaO:SiOs: HO=0-87:7-1:27:1:148 or almost exactly what Berzelius found, : 8°: 30 Sam giving the formula KO, 2Si03+8Ca O, SiO3+16HO. It is not improbable that a variable quantity of oxygen may be replaced by fluorine and that the general formula is: ; K(0O, Fl), 2Si(O, F'l)s + 8Ca(O, F'1), Si(O, Fl) + 16HO. 4, Allanite from Orange County, N. Y.—I find a statement in. Dana’s Mineralogy, p. 681, based upon an analysis of T. H. Gar- rett, that the massive pitch-black mineral from Orange County, which had been considered an allanite, did not contain any cerium. I am indebted to W. 8. Vaux, Esq., for a specimen from this local- ity. Mr. Edw. L. Reakirt analyzed it in my laboratory and found that it contains both oxyds of cerium and lanthanum, After the silica and alumina were separated as usual, the residue, insoluble in caustic potash, was boiled with oxalic acid and the white crys talline precipitate filtered after cooling. This oxalate on ignition yielded a reddish brown oxyd, from which nitric acid, diluted with about 200 parts of water, extracted a small quantity of lanthana. The remaining oxyd gave all the characteristic reactions of ce- rium. ‘The mineral from Orange County is therefore allanite. (To be continued.) ee ed Arr. XIl—Review of the Geological Report on Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota, and incidentally of a portion of Ne braska Territory. In our March number of this year, we gave a brief biblio- graphical notice of this work, soon after it issued from the press; but being the final Report of an important and very extensive Benlogica’ exploration of the Northwest, commenced in 1847 by 2), to givea more extended review of the important geological facts and practical results than our space then admitted. This we Review of Owen’s Geological Report on Wisconsin, Iowa, etc. 87 now proceed to do in as succinct a manner as the interest of the subject permits, premising with a few remarks on the general appearance of the work. The text is comprised in a handsome quarto of 638 pages, in- terspersed with upwards of 140 wood-cuts, 70 of which are geo- logical scenes of particular interest ; the rest local sections. hey An Atlas of plates accompanies the text and contains 27 steel- plate engravings of the most characteristic fossils of each of the formations found in the District, from the oldest fossiliferous strata, to the Kocene tertiary, 18 large plates of sections and profiles of heights, nine of which are on steel and nine on stone. Five of the largest sheets of sections have the topography of the princi- pal streams plotted, in connection with the sections, which add ocene Tertiary Basin of Nebraska; and the other, which is colored to represent the extension of the geological formations under the vast drift deposits of the interior. The geology of the entire region, together with the approximate boundary of the ex- tension of the Iowa coal field through Missouri, is united on a large colored map, 28 inches ° The engravings on steel, representing the organic remains, de- 88 Review of Owen's Geological Report on Wisconsin, Iowa, ete. derfully successful experiment which will doubtless be the means — of its introduction whenever the form and character of the sub- ject admits of its application. All structure visible to the naked eye can be brought out by this process; and even minuter struc- ture, indistinctly visible to the unassisted eye, can be worked up by a skillful artist, after the plate comes from the machine, as may be seen by inspecting figs. 4, 11, 13 and 20 of Tab. IIB, and figs. 16, 19, and 21 of Tab. IITA.” The plates engraved from daguerreotypes of the originals are also admirably executed, especially Tab. XII, XII A, and XIIB. Altogether we have seldom, if ever, seen engravings which pre- sent so life-like an effect; if such an expression be admissible, in figures of fossil remains. The first chapter of the Report embraces a description of the protozoic or most ancient fossiliferous strata belonging to the pa leozoic period. ‘The developments in regard to the organic con- tents of these rocks, in the valley of the Mississippi, are amongst the most important discoveries and contributions of the survey i0 a scientific point of view. On this head we extract the following: ‘Tt had been usually believed, up to the date of my Annual Report of 1848, that the lowest members of the sandstone formation of which Tam now speaking, were devoid of fossils. The geologists of our owt country had set down the Lingula beds of the New York Potsdam as the equivalent of the above-named Lingula beds. I am now able to exhibit a new and interesting geological feature with regard to this formation. The present survey has brought to light the fact, that in Western America are found strata underlying coarse Lingula grits, and at 4 depth of seventy-five to one hundred feet beneath them, which are * In the chloritic and ferruginous slates here metioned no organic remains hav? n discovered. In these rocks Iam unable any analogy, in lithological character, to Professor Emmons’s “ Taconic System.” Whatever may occur elsewher® it does not appear that in the Valley of the Upper Mississippi, any fossil-beari03 rocks, deserving the name of a distinct sys occur intervening between the igneo™ rocks and the base of the sandstones re be to the Silurian peri ‘Review of Owen’s Geological Report on Wisconsin, Iowa, etc. 89 _ Without assuming to determine the much-disputed question of an absolute palwozoic base, it may be safely asserted that the fossiliferous strata above referred to, exhibit the true base of the zoological series in the arg Valley. It was in August of 1847, while descending the St. Croix, that I first Pe meats m8 of Lingulas and ” wee disseminated in srata abutting against the protruding trap r which eross the stream at its falls. In tracing out the panlnals pve of these strata, during as in the above instance, in almost immediate contact with the trap or granite, or else separated from these only by the lowest member of F. 1 Their depth below the base of the to yer Magnesian Limestone, I found to be not less than five hundred fe I observed, cet that besides icra: sa Orbiculas, there occurred in the sandstones of this formation, (above the Lingula grit, however) other Bendbionmih and sckoral forms of Crinoidea, found in peculiar green dolomitic interpolations.* In October of the same year, while measuring sections on the Missis- sippi, between the Falls of St. Anthony and the mouth of the Wiscon- sin, I discovered within a few feet of low-water mark, ten miles see Mountain Island, on the west side of the Mississippi, laminated grits a siliceo- calcareous layers, charged with an Obolus, neebatts cone remarkable on account of the spines with which it is provided, project- ing backwards from the margin of the pygidium. Convinced that the formations of Iowa and Wisconsin were destined to divulge new facts relative to the re base in Western America, I caused to be instituted, during subsequent surveys in 1848, 1849, and 1850, favorable locality. The result showed, beneath the Lower Magnesian Limestone, at least six eer Trilobite beds, separated by from: 10 to 150 feet of intervening strat I communicated this fact, in general terms, in my Preliminary Re- port of October 11, 1847, and mo - at large in my Annual Report for 1848, Peer in the spring of 1 est species of Tolobite obiained in this formation, and which k afew feet above the water level on Lake St. Croix, imbedded in a species of hydraulic limestone _ fifth Trilobite bell, near the top of member d, of F. 1. itis ofa coarse, bff, crystalline varaty of these bed as follows: Thoolatle earthy 5 matter, a, ; E $4 Carbonate o i 48°24 Carbonate o pase P 4243. gpa Py ne with a trace ee alumina, rage 614 Sxoomp Sunizs, Vol: XVI, No. 46.—Joly, 1053. °° 8 90 Review of Owen's Geological Report on Wisconsin, Towa, ete. Many of the fossiliferous beds of this formation are densely crowded with organic relics; as much so as the most fossiliferous of the blue limestones of Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky. The proportion of genera and species, it is true, is not great, but the number of individuals is im- mense ; some slabs are so covered with shells, that it would be difficult to place the finger on a spot without touching some of them If we except the white sandstone, the uppermost bed of P.1 e, that upon which the Lower Magnesian Limestone (F. 2) rests, nothing de- finite was known, up to the thee of the present survey, of the nature paleontological evidence as to the exact place which these strata oceu- ied in estern geological series. It is, therefore, with no small delves of satisfaction that I find myself able to disclose a new feature in the paleontology of Western America, and thus to furnish, not only to the geologist a key to the stratigraphical position of the rocks north of the Wisconsin River, but, at the same time, to the miner his surest and safest ie by which to direct operat ons in mee search her mineral wealth.”— The immense extent of the protozoic rocks chiefly belonging to its lower division seems to be a remarkable feature of the geol- ogy of the Northwest. The area of the “Lowest Sandstone” where it is fairly ce cannot be less than 12,000 square miles; and that concealed by drift at least as much more, within the confines of the United states. "These sandstones attain a thick- ness in the best exposed sections on the Mississippi and Wiscon- sin rivers of upwards of 500 feet. he calcareous beds of the me period are fully as extensive. Commencing on the Missis- sist in Jat. 41° 30’, they prevail to the Wisconsin and Turkey rivers, and thence capping the above-mentioned sandstones, they stretch, with little interruption, on both sides of the Mississippi, to within a few miles of the Falls of St. Anthony ; thence up the valley of the Minnesota river, nearly to its confluence with the Lesueur river; and after being lost under the drift, they reap- pear at the Great South Bend of tein river of the North, at Lower Fort Garry and Great Lake Winnepeg. he upper pase Sr — has, in the valley of the Mis- sissippi River, sout isconsin and Turkey rivers, a length from north to south “of nearly 100 miles, and even a greater width from east to west, giving an area of at least 11,000 square hil North of Wisconsin and Turkey rivers to the St. Croix valley, the lower magnesian limestone has a length from northeast to southwest of 160 miles, with an average width of nearly 50 miles, giving an area of 8000 miles, and this without its extension in the valley of Red River = the — ~~ under * See Tab. 1, B. Fig. ¥ Review of Owen’s Geological Report on Wisconsin, Lowa, etc. GF the drift. And what is remarkable, these calcareous roeks, throughout this vast range, are, for the most part, highly charged with magnesia, containing from 15 to 20 per cent. of this earth, These magnesio-calcareous beds, more than any other forma- tion, impress upon the landscape the peculiar picturesque scenery so characteristic of the Upper Mississippi country in Wisconsin and Iowa. They are moreover the lead-bearing rocks of these States, from whence so much mineral wealth has been derived. From the recorded statistics in the table on page 61, it appears that the veins of Galena, worked in the upper magnesian lime- stone, in the Mineral Point district of Wisconsin and part of the Du Buque district of Iowa, yielded in 1847 upwards of fifty-four millions of pounds of lead, and, as it is justly remarked, this amount would undoubtedly have been much increased up to the present time, but for the inducements offered to miners to emigrate - to California. ‘The whole of these two vast formations—as well siliceous as calcareous—with the exception of the coralline and pentamerus beds, are referred to the lower Silurian period of Murchison. The upper and lower Magnesian limestone formations are separated by a subordinate bed “of sandstone , varying from 40 to 100 feet in thickness, often composed of limpid grains of quartz, upon which rest two beds of fossiliferous limestone with a non-fossiliferous band intervening. In all 30 to 40 feet in thickness. Analyses showed the lowest of them to be the purest limestone of the Upper Mississippi country, containing only between six and seven per cent. of magnesia. These layers lie at the base of the upper magnesian limestone jertaaton, and are described as richer in organic remains than any of the overlying or underlying beds. Many of the species are identical with those occurring in the blue Sevadiace of the Ohio Valley and the Trenton limestone of or The 2d chapter i is devoted to the formations belonging to the Devonian period, which are confined chiefly to the valley of Cedar River and its tributaries. They consist mostly of pure cal- labor-saving eoekiiees in his sowing and harvest erations cumbered with stumps, which forma serious obstruction in the newly cleared forest lands of Ohio and Indiana. The cay beds of this formation appear, from the _— character of the organic remains, to correspond in age to the ane teniestone of New York; the upper to the Hamilton oup. 92 Review of Owen’s Geological Report on Wisconsin, Towa, ete. The carboniferous rocks which form the subject of the 3d chapter, lie southwest of the above formation, occupying nearly the whole of the remaining portion of Southern Lowa, and ex- tend from the Mississippi across to the Missouri. The coal-measures, without the circumscribing belt of carbon- iferous limestone, occupy in Iowa alone 25,000 square miles, extending no less than 200 miles in a direct line up the Des Moines, which river flows diagonally through the heart of that portion of the coal-field which is situated in Iowa. The same coal-field stretches into Missouri, in which state it has at least as great an area. ; e coal measures are underlaid by a great zone of sub-car- boniferous limestone, the average width of which may be 20 to miles, except in the extreme northeast, where the sandstones + ~~ coal formation abut immediately on the limestone of Cedar alley. the beds varying from a few inches to 43 or 5 feet. They are included in the shaly argillaceous division of the lower third of the formation. ‘There are beds of greater thickness farther south in Missouri, at the southern margin of the same coal-field. - Under the head of “Physical and Agricultural character” of the carboniferous rocks of Iowa, the author makes the following rema’ * The carboniferous rocks of lowa’occu py a region of country, which, taken as a whole, is one of the most fertile in the United States. “No that of the Cedar Valley, returns him reward for his labor a hundred- fold. The only drawback to its productiveness is that, on some of the higher grounds, the soil, partaking of the mixed character common to drift soils, is occasionally gravelly ; and that here and there, where the upper members of the coal-measures prevail, it becomes somewhat too siliceous. The rural beauty of this portion of Towa can hardly be surpasssd. Undulating prairies, interspersed with open groves of timber, and some skirted with timber, some with banks formed by the greensward of the open prairie ;—~these are the ordinary features of the pastoral ape. For centuries, the suceessive natural crops of grass, untouched by the scythe, and but very partially kept down by the pasturage of buffalo and other herbivorous animals, have accumulated organic. matter on Review of Owen’s Geological Report on Wisconsin, Iowa, etc. 93 the surface soil to such an extent, that a long succession, even of exhausting crops, will not materially impoverish the land. he prairie-sod, matted and deep-rooted, usually requires from six to eight yoke of oxen effectually to break it up. The future farms of Iowa, large, level, and unbroken by stump or other obstruction, will afford an excellent field for the introduction of mowing and reaping machines, and other improved implements calcul- ated to save the labour of the husbandman ; and which, in new co tries reclaimed from the forest, can scarcely be employed until the first generation shall have passed away.—pp. 100, 101. The immediate basin of Lake Superior is formed of red sand- stones and argillaceous beds, conglomerates and shales overlaid and concealed to a great extent by superficial deposits of red ' clay, marls and drift ; and intersected especially on the northwest shore by a multitude of igneous outbursts which have modified altered and indurated the adjacent strata, and tilted them locally in different directions from the prevalent gentle southeasterly he mechanical action and metamorphism which have re- sulted, have produced the amygdaloids and conglomerates which usually intervene between the red sandstones and dykes of trap. ' The detailed descriptions of these interesting formations are given chiefly in the reports of Dr. J. G. Norwood, and those of Col. Whittlesey ; the field of operation of the former gentleman having been principally in middle, northern, and northeastern Minnesota, that of the latter, along the southern watershed of ake Superior, situated between the Michigan line and the Bois Brulé River. The 4th chapter contains some additional details regarding the Other portions of the interior of Wisconsin, Minnesota and the valley of Red River of the north, for which we must refer our readers to the work itself. The crystalline rocks and metamorphic schists first appear on the surface about lat. 44° 20’, and occupy, under the superficial eposits, a considerable area in the northern and eastern portion of the district, both N. W. and S. E. of Lake Superior; but the actual surface exposures are limited, inasmuch as the drift de- posits have filled up most of the inequalities of the surface, and thus conceal to a great extent the hypogene rocks and crystalline schists, and, at the same time produce a uniformity and levelness of surface which would hardly be anticipated on approaching the sources of such important streams as the tributaries that give orl- gin to the mighty Mississippi. Even the igneous rocks, forming the summit levels, 500 to 1000 feet high, dividing the waters flowing into Lake Superior, and those running into the Missis- sippi, are, for the greater part of their range, buried beneath heavy drift deposits. The country around the sources of the Wisconsin, Chippewa, St. Croix, St. Louis and Mississippi are described as of this character. Wi 94 Review of Owen’s Geological Report on Wisconsin, Iowa, etc. The 5th chapter contains a discussion on the age of the red sandstones of Lake Superior, and the evidence from which it 1s inferred, with great probability, that its general dip is southeast, bringing it underneath the Lingula, Orbicula, and Obolus beds of the St. Croix Valley, and that they therefore constitute the strata intervening between these beds and the crystalline schists that repose on the granite. The incidental observations in the Eocene Tertiary basin of the Mauvaises Terres or Bad Lands of Nebraska and the adjacent cretaceous deposits, are recorded in the 6th chapter from which we have already given extracts in our March number. e extraordinary fossil mammalia collected during the survey in this region, were submitted for description to the able com- parative anatomist, Dr. Joseph Leidy of Philadelphia, whose Re- port on this branch of the paleontology, will be found com- mencing on page 539 of the volume. Dr. B. F. Shumard’s report comprises the details of his obser- vations among the protozoic rocks of the Minnesota Valley, an minute stratigraphical and palzontological details of the most m- teresting sections on both sides of the Mississippi River, from the falls of St. Anthony to the confines of the carboniferous rocks, near Wyoming, as well as on the Wisconsin River, between 1ts ‘mouth and the igneous exposures on Whitney’s Rapids. The Appendix to the report contains the description of new fossil species and genera, collected during the survey from the protozoic rocks, the limestones of Cedar Valley, the carboniferous rocks and the cretaceous deposits, followed by a systematic cata- logue of plants collected by Dr. C. C. Parry, in connection with the geological survey, made during the season of 1848; also 4 systematic catalogue of birds observed by Mr. Pratten, in the northern part of Wisconsin and southern portion of Minnesota. There are also appended tables of the stratigraphical and ge graphical distribution of fossil of the northwest and the equiv- alency of strata. | wuspices conducted, as wel as to all concerned in it; it stands out in strong contrast with On the supposed new element, Thalia. 95 ordinary public printing, which we are sorry to say has, until lately, been very inferior in its typographical execution and quality o paper. And we hope that Dr. Owen’s report, as to style of execu- tion, may serve as a standard for all future Congress documents, which embody valuable practical and scientific information for the people; the more especially since the cost per volume, consider- ing the amount of matter and illustration, has actually been much less than had previously been paid for illustrated scientific works got up at the seat of government in the ordinary unworkmanlike —we may almost say careless and*slovenly—manner of most pub- lic printing. Arr. XIII. —On the supposed new element, Thalia; by Prof. J. AWRENCE SMITH. two or three grammes of the mineral from Dr. Owen, and sub- jected it to analysis without discovering any substance in it that could be called a new element. The results were not made public at the time, as more material was required to arrive at a positive conclusion. It is only lately that, through the kindness of Dr. Genth of Philadelphia, an additional quantity of the Thalite has been obtained, as well as some of the earth called thalia. Both have been examined with great care: the analysis of the former accords with my former analysis, making the 'Tha- lite to be saponite ;—details of the analyses will be given in the third paper on the reéxamination of American minerals. The earth sent as thalia, is magnesia mixed with a little lime. It may be well to state here, that the fact of the precipitation of the neutral solution of the earth by oxalate of ammonia seems to have had considerable weight on the original decision concern- ing this substance. But it is an erroneous impression that oxalate 96 J. D. Dana on the Isomorphism of Sphene and Euclase. Arr. XI1V.—On the Isomorphism of rae and Euclase ; by James D. Dan Ir is the more common course, in deducing the fundamental form from the crystals of a species, to consider the two directions of most distinct prismatic cleavage, where such exist, as corre- + eb to the lateral faces of the fundamental prism. ‘I'he prominent dupartance, ) the relations of the planes in the crystals of sphene become quite simple. ere give a table presenting Hy) the observed planes in accordance 14#)|12(~)|___[1(2) | with this view. O is the basal 22(e)|__/2(n) 2, -2,—1, belong to the fundamental iP) series ; li, ai, are in the seri - allel to the orthodiagon ; 4a, wi, in that parallel to the ae eT and intermediate are forms of the | series, m2, m3, m3, 12 and 22 be- ing of the first, 73 of the second, and 63 and -33 of the — id The table represents a quarter section of the crystal, and is som what analogous to a pig gs S projection of it. The faniinennenil vertical series is marked off by placing it between heavier lines in the table, and so “ale the horizontal series of vertical pris- matic planes. For the convenience of comparison, we have also given the lettering adopted by others. the first figure eter) referring to ~ iy vertical axis ial the paocmid indicating the ratio between the two lateral axes. In the expression 1 2, the figure 2 means that in parameters of the pla es there i is a ratio of twice the orthodiagonal to once the clinodiagonal; and in 6 3, the 3 indicates a ratio of 3 times the clinodiagonal to once the orthodiagonal; i in the f former, the 1 signifies once the vertical axi ait, and in the lat- ter, 6 a ry 6 times the sam e axis, In the ae) and 2, the second figure is not derstood, the ratio between the lateral ari being that of “aes the planes are of th I series. The letter i is written in place of the sy saliathy & ds), lente signifies that the plane is parallel to the vertical has the ratio between the o rthodiagonal and clinodiagonal of 3:1; ii is Cooaital rg the vertical axis and orthodiagonal ; 7i is parallel to the vertical axis and i i verti i the ratio 1:1 : axis the clinodiagonal, a nd 4 1 efers to the vertical axis, A. Gray on a new genus of Verbenacee. 97 The erystals of sphene from northern New York, called Led- erite by Shepard, present actually the fundamental form here adopted, with simply a plane on each basal edge (2 or n and -% or t), and a truncating plane (i or P) on the front lateral edge. The inclination of the vertical axis is 119° 33’; and making a the vertical axisand 6 the clinodiagonal, a:b:e=0:4277:0-75414:1, The interfacial angle I: J (7 :r)= 113° 28’, O: li(y: x)= 158° 55’, L:1(2)=149° 38, 2:2(n)=136° 4. This mode of viewing the crystallization of sphene brings to light an approximate isomorphism of the mineral with Euclase. In euclase J: [=114° 50’, O:1i=158° 10, 1:1=1519 48’. The principal difference in the dimensions of the two is found in the greater length and inclination of the vertical axis in sphene, this inclination being in euclase but 108° 53’. Euclase has also a perfect clinodiagonal cleavage. In chemical composition, the species are widely different, sphene being a titano-silicate of lime (20a 8i+¢aTi*), and euclase a silicate of alumina and glucina (413+ Bet) Sit. Arr. XV.—Characters of Terraciza, a new genus of Verbena- cee; by Asa Gray, M.D. Tue plant which forms the subject of this article first came to my notice in the Texano-New Mexican collection made by the indefatigable Mr. Charles Wright, in the year 1849. In the same or the preceding year, it was likewise collected by the late Dr. J. Gregg, in the Northern part of Mexico. Fine specimens also were gathered by Mr. Wright on his second journey, while at- tached to the scientific corps of the Boundary Commission. In 1851, while under the command of Col. Graham, he collected it on the northern border of the Mexican state of Sonora; in 1852, while returning under the orders of Major Emory, he again met with it in the western part of Texas. I presume it has likewise been found by Dr. C. C. Parry, and Dr. J. M. Bigelow, during the survey of the Rio Grande from El Paso downwards; but have seen no specimens from them. _ Specimens are in both of Mr. Wright’s distributed collections. I have, moreover, just de- tected it in the late Dr. Coulter’s Mexican collection, whose name, as being the first discoverer, the species may appropriately bear. The natural order to which the plant in question belongs is not very evident at first view. In Mr. Wright’s notes, made at the time of gathering it, the plant is mentioned as a doubtful Borra- ginacea ;—a view suggested by the deeply four-lobed fruit, and the nearly regular, pentamerous calyx and corolla. But the leaves Srconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 46.—July, 1853. flask filled with ether, and allowed to remain one or two hours with frequent agisation. The dark yellowish brown colored solution is then to be pour red into a bottle filled eae carbonic acid, and permitted to stand from half an hour to an hour. During this time, a brownish substance separates, which when sollented on a filter dries to a white mass without odor. The terials solution now contains five or six organic radicals, and a number of iodine compounds: these last namely, Stannethyl, : - - Sn Ae Methylenstannethyl, . - Snz Ae2 Elay|stannethyl, - : Sna Aes Acetylstannethyl, - : Sna Aes adical, - : - - Sne Aes Methstannethyl, . : - Sn2 Aes Ethstannethyl, : Sn4 Aes the oxyd is a white sts without taste or Elaylstannethyl is a colorless oily liquid ‘of density 1-410; is a snow white amorphous powder which is precipitated from - na by water from the alcoholic solution. The author describes a colorless and crystalline ites chlorid, bromid, and iodid of this radical ; they are all anhydrous 118 Scientific Intelligence. ethylstannethyl appears also to be a colorless oily liquid; the acids finely crystallized salts. The author describes the nitrate, sul- phate, iodate and bromate, as well as the iodid, bromid and chlorid. The three last are colorless oily liquids, which have a penetrating smell of oil of mustard and irritate the nose an eyes. Ethylstannethy! appears also to be a colorless oily liquid; its com- pounds closely resemble those of methylstannethyl. The haloid salts of these radicals are immediately reduced by potassium and sodium, the radical being set free. The author closes his memoir with a discussion of the theoretical signification of the results which he has obtained. He considers the constitution of the compounds of tin and ethyl as demonstrating that, in organic substances, tin may replace carbon, equivalent for equivalent, o replaced by lead. The following formulas show at once the advanta- ges, and even necessity, of this view. Methylen, CeHe Methylen stannethyl, Sn2Ae2 layl, CsHa Elay! stannethyl, Sn4aAe4 Acetyl, Cais Acetyl stannethyl, SnaAes Methyl, CoH: Methy! stannethyl, Sn2Aes Ethyl, C4aHs Ethyl! stannethyl, SnaAes As these are the first instances on record of a replacement of car- carbon by another element their importance is very great. The author states further that he has reason to assert the existence of radicals composed of tin and hydrogen analogous to the hydrocarbons, and points also to the probability that compounds of carbon with ethyl and methyl exist, similar to those of tin with the same radicals.—Journal ie, lvii, 385 ge Chemistry and Physics. 119 upon the metals themselves, the reaction being brought about by the ts. The materials d by Cahours and Riché, and by Léwig—and which has been fally de- scribed in this Journal. Stanmethyl and stanamyl were obtained in a similar manner, and their salts according to Frankland are isomorphous with those of stannethyl. C2Hs, the liquid zincmethyl) C2HsZn. Zincmethyl possesses a pe- arsenic, antimony, chromium, iron, manganese and cadmium as prom- ising interesting results—Ann. der Chemie wu. Pharmacie, |xxxv, 329. , W. G. 5. Note on Ozone.—In accordance with the investigations of Bec- querel and Frémy, Dr. J. Schiel, of St. Louis Mo., discovered last year that ozone is oxygen in a highly electro-negative condition, and further- e . live element. These results were obtained by Dr. Schiel before the results of the experiments of Becquerel and Frémy were made known. —Extract from a leiter of Dr. Schiel. 120 Scientific Intelligence. Ill. Ggotoey. 1. Inundations of the Delta of the Mississippi: The Mississippi and Ohio Rivers containing plans for the Protection of the Delta from Inundation, and Investigations of the Practicability and cost of improv- ing the Navigation of the Ohio and other Rivers by means of Reser- voirs, with an Appendix on the Bars at the Mouths of the Mississippi, by Cuanues Ener, Jr., Civil Engineer. 366 pp., 8vo. Philadelphia, 185 i i e brought out in excellent style with numerous maps and cuts in illus- tration of the subject. The following citations from the Introduction of the work give an idea of the author’s plan. ‘The greater frequency and more alarming character of the floods are attributed— " rimarily, To the extension of cultivation throughout the Mississipp! Valley, by which the evaporation is thought to be, in the aggregate, di- minished, the drainage obviously increased, and the floods hurried for- ward more rapidly into the country below. alue. For the prevention of the increasing dangers growing out of these a co-operative causes, six distinct plans are discussed and advo- cated: ed :— First. Better, higher, and stronger levées in lower Louisiana, and more efficient surveillance :—a local measure, but one requiring state legislation, and official execution and discipline. Geology. 121 hibit the States and individuals above from deluging the country below. Third. The formation of an outlet of the greatest attainable capacity, from the Mississippi to the head of Lake Borgne, with a view, if posst- ble, to convert it ultimately into the main channel of the river. Fourth. The enlargement of the Bayou Plaquemine, for the purpose of giving prompt relief to that part of the coast which now suffers most from the floods, viz.: to the borders of the Mississippi from above Baton Rouge to New Orleans. Fifth. The enlargement of the channel of the Atchafalaya, for the purpose of extending relief higher up the coast, and conveying tot pre by an independent passage, the discharge from Red River and the ashita. the Mississippi, while affording relief to the suffering and injured popu- lation of the delta. ae ae t will be seen that these several plans harmonize with each other, As we have not space to follow the author through his argument, we only cite in this place a few from among the many valuable facts brought out by the author. “To be able to form a just conception of the present physical con- Stitution of the delta, and the causes of its overflow, we must imagine a great plane sloping uniformly from the mouth of the Ohio, in a di- rection deviating but little from a due southerly course, to the ulf of Mexico. The length of this plane, from the mouth of this river to the waters of the gulf, is miles. Its northern extremity is elevated 275 feet above the surface of the sea, and is there and every where nearly level with low water in the Mississippi River. _ Its total descent, following the highest surface of the soil, is about 320 feet, or at the rate of 8 inches per mile. coe The breadth of this plane, near the mouth of the Ohio, in an east d at the Gulf of Mexico it spreads out to a width of about one hundred and fifty miles. Sxconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 46.—July, 1853, 16 122 Scientific Intelligence. It is inclosed on the east and west - a line of bluffs of irregular —— and extremely irregular direction This plane, Dyer about 40,000 square miles, has been formed in sha course of ages a the material brought down from the uplands “by the Misciesippi and its tributaries. ‘The river has therefore raised oc the sea the soil which constitutes its own bed. It flows down this plane of its own creation, ina serpentine course, frequently crowding on the hills to the left, and once passing to the opposite side and wash- ing the base of te: blutf which makes its appearance on the west at the town of He The actual rhe from the mouth of the Ohio to the coast of the he is, in round numbers, as stat ed, 500 miles. The computed length of the Southwest Pass, is 1,178 miles; ee the average descent at high water ;%/5ths of a foot, or Bt i inches per mile. The — of the river is therefore Jenabinead out nearly seven hundred miles, or is more than doubled by the remarkable flexures of its channel ; and the rate of its descent is reduced by these flexures 10 less than one-half the seg: of the plane down which it flows. the ‘summer and autumn, when the river is low and water js scant- from the banks he consequence is, that the borders of the rivers hich received the first and heaviest vi che are raised higher above the general level of the plane than the soil w re remote; a bd ? 70 and 180 feet or more. The mean velocity of the Mississippi at ils Geology. 123 surface, according to the author, is two per cent. less than the velocity below the surface to near the bottom, and he attributes the surface re- tardation to contact with the atmosphere. The amount of water dis- charged by the Mississippi (including the discharge of the Atchafalaya) at the flood of 1850 is stated at 1,280,000 cubic feet per second. The discharge below New Orleans, at the top of the flood of 1851, was 995,000 cubic feet per second; and at Memphis, in 1850, 958,500 cubic feet. It isa remarkable fact, as the author observes, that at the same time, the discharge of water higher up the stream was much greater than this. For example, one mile below the mouth of the Ohio in June, 1851, it was 1,223,000 cubic feet, although the flood was 7 feet 10 inches below the high water of 1850; and in July 1851, at Cape Girardeau, above the mouth of the Ohio, when the water was 4 feet below the high water of 1850, it was 1,025,000 cubic feet per second. These quantities are the e swamps of the southern counties of Missouri and the northern counties of Arkansas and escapes the measurements at is. The author treats of the local changes and irregularities of the river, arising from the crevasses, the building of levees, a change in the bends, the action of the winds, and variations in the tributaries. In the course of his remarks on the influence of the winds, he mentions that harrow sheet of water, he detected a variation in the surface of more than 8 inches in 20 miles, produced by a continued but moderate breeze. For the important discussions of the author upon the different modes of protection against floods, we must refer to his work. e close by the following citations upon the Ohio river. “This noble tributary rises on the borders of Lake Erie, at an aver- age elevation of 1,300 feet above the surface of the sea, and nearly flows is connected with no mountain range at its northern extremity, but continues its rise with great uniformity, from the mouth of the Ohio to the brim of the basin which incloses Lake Erie. The sources of the tributary streams are generally diminutive ponds, distributed along the edge of the basin of Lake Erie, but far above its surface, and so slightly separated from it, that they may all be drained with little labor down the steep slopes into that inland sea. hese remote sources, a boat may start with sufficient water, within seven miles of Lake Erie, in sight, sometimes, of the sails tle—so little accelerated by rapids—that when there is sufficient water to float the vessel, and sufficient power to govern it, the downward voyage may be performed without difficulty or danger in the channels as they were formed by nature; and the return trip might be made with equal security and success with very little aid from art.” —p- 231. 124 Scientifie Intelligence. Descent of the Alleghany, Ohio, and Mississippi Rivers. | DISTANCES.) FALL. | FALL PER M, - ~ Miles, Feet. Feet,| Inches From Coudersport to Olean Point, 40 | 246) 6 2 From Olean Point to Warren, 50 | 216) 4 4 From Warren to Franklin, 70 | 227; 3 3 From Franklin to oe 130 | 261; 2 From Pittsburg to Beav 26 30| 1 1105 From Beaver to Wheeling, 62 | 49|— 9%5 From Wheeling to Marietta, 90 | 49| — 62% From Marietta to Le Tart’ s Sho als, 31 16| — 6255 From Le Tart’s Shoals to the mouth of Ka- 55 | 33|— 39, From mouth of Kanawha to Porstmouth, 94 | 48) — 62%, rom Portsmouth to Cincinnati, 105 | 42) — 4,895 From Cincinnati to Evansville, 328 | 112) — 43% From Evansville to the Gulf of Mexico, 1365 | 320) — 244 From Coudersport to the mouth of the fe Mississippi 2 \ 2446 |1649 Elevations of the Ohio River at low water. et above tide. Mouth of Ohio, above high tide, in the Gulf of ; Mexico, “O75 Mouth of Wabash (approximately), 297 Evansville (approximately), . . : ‘ . 820 New Albany, below the Falls, . : J i 353 Louisville, above the Falls, - ; ‘ ‘ ot STF Cincinnati, . ‘ é é ‘ j F 432 h, : : ‘ . 474 outh of Great Kanawha, . j ‘ ‘ ‘ 522 Head of Le Tart’s Shoals, ‘ ; Marietta span of Muskingum), p : ‘ \ 571 Wheeling, : : ; . 620 Pittsburg, ; ‘ : . 699 A apnea : j ; 960 War ; - 3 , ; a Ps Chautauque eke, : ‘ ‘ : : ; 1,306 Olean Point, ‘ ‘ : ‘ ; ; . 1,403 Mouth of ennye: ‘ 1,419 Conia ‘ ‘ si . 41,480 Couders ; : : . ‘ 1,649 Surface Of ues Erie, : d ‘ 565 The reader will also find in Mr. Eller’s wok — information on the descent of the various tributaries of the Ohio and other valuable details of By gi interest. 2. Coup dwil sur la Constitution Géologique de Plusieurs Provinces de P Espagne, oe MM. p & VERNEUIL et CotLoms, suivi d’une descrip: Geology. 125 of interesting details and conclusions. The observations on which the results immediately depend were extended over a triangular space, the vation of it above t is probably about 600 mete ther tertiary plain of equal extent is that of the basin of the Duero, situated to the north a little to the westward, and separated from th r by and Sepulveda, and the city of Valladolid at its center. Cretaceous deposits enclose it on three sides, and metamorphic rocks, gneiss and granitic, on the other or Portugal side. Its mean height is over 700 meters. The tertiary deposits of these two great basins are similar throughout. ey are evidently lacustrine in origin, and consist of a superior cal- and in th from Valladolid. In two mountains called Las Tetas de Viana, the tertiary rocks reach a height of 1070 meters. . The great height of these two tertiary basins above the sea is re- markable. There are other basins but they are lower, such as the basin of the Ebro, which is four or five hundred meters below those tion—and recalls involuntarily, the authors state, the Atlantis of Plato, or the opinion, more scientific, of Mr. E. Forbes, that Ireland and Spain, if not united, were so near one another that the former received from 126 Scientific Intelligence. the Gulf of Murcia and isolated the Sierra Nevada and the mountains of Ronda, which then formed an island or a peninsula, separate from the continent. tute of the igneous products which during three consecutive periods were ejected through the granitic rocks of the plateau of Auvergne, and is ed by secondary rocks that are not found in the other; lower Silurian are precisely of the same age with the Llandeilo flags of Murchison or ‘Fauna Seconde” of Barrande. There has yet been dis- (p. 75) it is stated that the Peninsula limited on the north by the Pyrenees and the Cantabrian chain, is traversed obliquely from the E. N. E. to the W.S. W. by four systems of mountains; 1, the Sierra Guadarrama, which unites to the Sierras of Gredos, Gata and Estrella, and reaches quite to the ocean; 2, the mountains of Toledo; 3, the Sierra Morena, which extends into the promontory called Cape St. Vincent; 4, the high chain of the south coast which includes the Sierra Nevada, Tejeda, and Ronda. The chains may be presumed to be of different ages. he first the trias from the Paleozoic; the second, between - Jornaaie and trias; the third, between the miocene and nummulitic ; the fourth, be- wee tocene. The first is well seen near Horea and Checa. The second is observed at Albarracin, ete., where the Geology. 127 nummulitic beds, unlike those of the chalk, form a zone which follows the chain of the Pyrenees, and which _— here and there upon the coasts of the Mediterranean, but nev enetrates into the interior. nines and a part of the Alps; for if the Alps have taken their defined form ata more recent epoch, it cannot be denied that between the nummulitic yore mee miocene mollasse, there were disturbances and faults of vast ex The fourth obra iow is seen near Sabero, on the Porma and Curu- efio, near Fresnedo, etc., where the miocene beds have lost their hori- zontalily. It was after mes miocene epoch that Spain was elevated to its present height above the cause seems to have had its maximum en- ergy along a line pee by the mountains of Burgos and Soria and which extends towards Siguenza and the sources of the Tagus. The inclination of the miocene beds to the southwest was thus occasioned, a position which probably allowed the lacustrine waters of the period to flow out by the valleys along which run the Duero, the Tagus and the Guadiana. This valuable memoir closes with a bibliography, giving a list of all papers and works hitherto published upon the Geology of Spain, ex- tending to es,—and a description of the Fossil Bones by (Mast. angustidens, partim), Rhinoceros, a molar, Antilope Boodon, Sus paleocheerus, besides — undetermined. 3. Palaontology of N ork; by James Hatt. Vol. Il._—The w YX appearance of this potions was sue in our last number. | It con- tains descriptions and figures of all the fossils yet observed by the au- thor, in the Medina sandstone, Clinton group, Niagara group, Coralline limestone, and Onondaga salt-group. The entire ‘number of species is 344, and the whole number of plates 101. The printing of the vol- ume was nearly completed in 1850, and its issue has been prevented by delays in the engraving; and on this account, as its author states, it Contains in some —S species jdentical with, or allied to, those that have recently appear bi: fossils of the eaial formations are referred to the following gene (1.) nee INA SANDSTONE.—Plants, Arthrophycus, H., Scolithus, Pa- leeo ere Dictyolites; Corals, Chastetes ; Mollusca , Lingula, Atrypa, Modiolopsis, xin con a Murchisonia ?, Bucania, Oncoceras, Or- thoceras, Cytheri (2.) Ciinton sone — Plants, Buthotrephis, Paleophycus, Rusophy- cus, H., Ichnophycus, H.; Corals, Grapto lithus, Cheetetes, Piha be ny 2 ie ; st ra, Pheenopora, H., R bingy Orthis, Leptena, Strophodonta, H., Chonetes, Spirifer, Atry- pa, Pentamerus, Avicula, Modiolopsis, Tellinomya, Orthonota, Pyreno- meus, ". Posidonia, Cyclonema, H., Platyostoma, ‘Marchisonia, Bu- cania, Oncoceras, Ormoceras, Orthoceras, Cornulites, Discosorus » Ag 128 Scientific Intelligence. - Crinoidea, Closterocrinus, H., Glyptocrinus, Ichthyocrinus, Caryocrinus, Tentaculites; Trilobites, Cybele, Loven, Calymene, Acidaspis, Pha- cops, Ceraurus, Beyrichia, M’Coy. eP UPPER GRAY SANDSTONE OF THE CLINTON GRouP.—Myalina, Mo- diolopsis, Tellinomya, Pentamerus, Leptena, Platyostoma, Orthoceras, Homalonotus.—Icththyodorulite. 4.) Nracara Grour.—Corals, Streptilasma, Polydilasma, H., Cani- nia, Conophyllum, H., Diplophyllum, H., Syringopora, Astrocerium, H., Favosites, Catenipora, Heliolites, Stromatopora, Cladopora, H., Lima- ria, H., Callopora, H., Trema opora, H., Striatopora, H., Stictopora, g 3 Asteriada, Paleaster, H.; Mollusca, Lingula, Orbicula, Orthis, Lep- tena, Spirifer, Atrypa, Avicula, Modiolopsis, Orthonota, Posidonomya? Platyostoma, Conrad, Acroculia, Phillips, Gomphoceras?, Cyrtoceras?, rusta to two large quarto volumes, are yet but half finished. We trust that there will be no impediment in the way of his bringing his laborious and most valuable researches to a full completion. Nore.—In a letter to one of the editors, Mr. Hall states that Bar- rande has expressed to him his suspicion that the supposed Ichyodoru- lite, from the Niagara Group, figured on plate 71, is Crustacean. Mr. all observes that he had before Suspected this, and adds that on reéX- amimation, the spine proves not to have the structure pertaining tot of fishes but rather that of a Crustacean. The articulating extremity is also Crustacean and unlike anything that has been seen in the cor- responding parts of Ichthyodorulites. Mr. Hall says that we have therefore no fish remains, or none of unquestionable character, yet dis- covered in this part of the Silurian system. The fragments from the Clinton group, which appear to have a bony structure, have not yet n examined with a microscope. Botany and Zoology. 129 IV. Borany anp Zoouocy. 1. Flora Cestrica; an Herborizing companion 4 9 a Young Botan- ists of Chester County State of Pennsylvania ; mM. DaR.LInGtTon, i ird Edition, Philadelphia, Lindsey and Blakiston, 1853, p. 498, wath an introduction of 90 pages, !2mo.—The sec- ond edition of this Pray popular work, published in 1837, was almost a model o ocal Flora. To grace his 71s t birth day, our whole according to the natural system. The introductory part oe with five preliminary discourses, which siskaantty discuss the scope the science of botany, and the inducements to its study ; ‘iia limits aa characters of the vegetable kingdom ; the doctrines of morphology ; and the sale tag of plants, both by the artificial and the natural method. o ery full Glossary of botanical terms, a Linnwan atrAigeredt of t Sees and a Conspectus of ore pete ae ook. Sent instance, since it has made room for the Mosses, Liverworts, and even the Lichens ;—the latter being here for the time introduced into a Flora of any part of North ‘America, except that of Michaux. Nor has the compression eliminated the shane te touches of quaint humor and sentiment which still enliven many a page. We must not for- With such an excellent aiteca nec, it must be a pleasure and a peculiar satisfaction to study botany in Chester County, Pennsylvania ! —a county most honorably distinguished, thanks to Dr. Darlington, by the possession of a Florula of its own, for nearly thirty years, and still unique in this respect. May the excellent author and benefactor of his native county survive - see his example imitated in many — se oe a our wide ¢ 2. 5 Carolia "Exsiceats: Fungi of chess, étlustrated ‘by Natural § Spuciasene of the ee; by H. W. Ravenet, Corresp. Memb. Acad. Nat. Sci., &c., &c. Fase. 1, Charleston: John Russell, 1852.— * ee about 30 sets of this a are issued, it will ole be met with, ept by the small, but increasing num mber 0 persons who are oe ented in the study of this obscure and difficult iy af plants. We cond Senmms, Vol. XVI, No. 46—July, 1953. x 130 : Scientific Intelligence. copy the author’s preface, as the best means of introducing the collection Olce,. h can Mycology ; the localities of which will be properly noted. Fasc. 2, tions to the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, of England, and also to my friend, Rev. M. A. Curtis, of this State. To the former, for the examination been verified by an examination of authentic specimens.” “ Black Oak, South Carolina.” mycologists, from ‘its exemplifying so many of the species established by Schweinitz, and lately by Messrs. Berkeley and Curtis. This merit it owes mainly to the careful revision of the specimens our leading and best instructed mycologist, the Rey. Dr. Curtis, It is abundantly the work, showing how much it is needed, will induce Mr. Ravenel to continue it. A. G. 3. Lindley’s Folia Orchidacea: an Enumeration of the known spe- cies of Orchids, Part 1l—This part contains several small and mostly new genera, viz., Sarcopodium, Sunipia, Acrochene, Ione, and Erycina (the latter from Mexico), and six of the twelve subgenera of the large genus Epidendrum, including 99 species. Part Hl. and IV.—The third part, issued in February last, and the fourth, issued in April, contain the remainder of the genus Epidendrum, ith an index of the species, 310 in number. 8 new genera, all but one monotypical, Vanda, of 25 species, and Luisia of 11 species. A. G. Ca Botany and Zoology. 131 4. Mohil: Investigation of the question, does Cellulose form the basis of all Vegetable Membranes. ‘Translated from the Botanische Zeitung (Berlin), Vol. 5, 1847, in Scientific Memoirs, selected from the Trans- actions of Foreign Academies of Science and from Foreign Journals. Natural History, (parts 1 and 2,) ediied by Henfrey and Huxley, ondon.—An important memoir, detailing a series of most acute micro- scopical investigations made under the action of various chemical re- agents, and establishing the affirmative of this proposition, or at least, rebutting all the considerations opposed to this view by Mulder and arting. The three parts of this new series of Scientific Memoirs, the publi- cation of which is now renewed by Taylor and Francis, contain like- wise the following botanical papers : viz., offmann, On the Circulation of Sap in Plants. Also from the Botanische Zeitung. H. Criiger, Organographical Observations on certain Monocotyle- donee Epigyne (Trans. from the Linnea, 1849), viz., Musacez, Can- nacee, Orchidacea, &c. . Hofmeister, On the Development of Zostera, (from Bot. Zei- tung,) a detailed and admirable paper. An interesting conclusion arrived at, and which Hofmeister generalizes for the who ono- cotyledons, is, that the so-called cotyledon is only the uppe aee is de- close of Part 3. . @ 5. Horsfield, Plante Javanice Rariores, etc. ; elab. J. J. BENNETT | London: 185 h cially since we have been kept so long waiting for it. Dr. Horsfeld, time well defined ; to Cardiopteris, a plant of obscure affinity, ah has two stigmas, very different from each other, the efficient one early developed and deciduous after anthesis ; the other (effete) one persist- ent; and to the Antidesmea, illustrated by a petaliferous enus, if a nettia, which, however, has lately been published by T fa er another name. » G @ 132 Scientific Intelligence. 6. Hooker, Species Filicum, being Descriptions of all known Ferns: allustrated with Plates. London: Pamplin. Part VI, or vol. ii, part IL. pp. 61-124, tab. 91-110, 8vo.—This part contains more North Ameri- can species than any of its predecessors. It is principally occupied with the difficult genus Cheilanthes, of which 70 species are described ; those of our own country being: C. microphylla, Swartz (New Mexico, Wright, No. 823); C. Wrightii, Hook. (New Mexico, Wright, No. 823); - Alabamensis, Kunze (Pleris Alabamensis, Buckley, in this Journal, 1843); C. tomentosa, Link (N. Carol. to New Mexico, Wright, No. $16); C. Bradburii, Hook. (Upper Missouri, Bradbury, Texas, Drum- mond, Lindheimer, fase. 4, No. 743); C. vestita, Swartz ? (Missouri, &c., New Mexico, Wright, No. 818) ; C. Lindheimeri, Hook. (Texas, Lindheimer, fasc. 4, No. 744, Wright, No. 817); C. Fendleri, Hook. (New Mexico, Fendler, No. 1015); C. aspera, Hook. (New Mexico, Wright; probably from Texas) ;—a large addition to our known spe- cies. The other genera are Cassebeeria, Onychium, and Hypolepis. given, in a condensed form, but with much neatness, We rejoice to hear that the seventh part of this invaluable work may soon be expected. it must prove still more interesting to North American botanists. A. G. 7. N. B. Ward, F.R.S., &c., On the Growth of Plants in closely Glazed Cases. Second edition. London: Van Voorst, 1852. pp. 148, 12mo.—The first edition of this little treatise, published in 1842, is doubtless well known to many of our readers; and some may remem- r Mr. Ward’s original account of his interesting discovery of a method of growing every sort of plant in the dun atmosphere of the smokiest part of London, published in the Companion to the Botanical Magazine, in 1836. This new edition if reduced in size is increased in interest, and. is embellished with tasteful illustrations on wood, several of them exhibiting approved forms of those glazed cases with which the name our author is inseparably connected. The first chapter, on the natu- ferns as the Trichomanes radicans, which is utterl i i > y uncultivable in any other way. A fourth chapter treats of the conveyance of living plants Botany and Zoology. 133 on ship-board ; which brings to view one of the most important prac- tical applications of Mr. Ward’s discovery. Sir William Hooker states that **the Wardian cases have been the means, in the last fifteen years, of introducing more new and valuable plants to our gardens than were imported during the preceding cen- tury ; and in the character of Domestic Green Houses, i. e., as a means a. = 5 ta = ° 2 . > Q ° 5 = = Ss L sug ia] Qu pS] S oO = =] 5 i ° = re) cs = So = $ oor; and on its probable future applications in comparative researches in vegetable physiology, and even in the treatment of dis- eases. T'o these, as to the other topics of this work, no justice can be rendered to our author’s suggestions except by lengthened quotations, which the nature of this notice does not admit of. It must suffice to Th o read it as requiring least care, and as making the Prettiest appearance at all seasons. Most of these require little light 5 although our clear skies afford us this in abundance. So little bitumin- i he ino to vegetation, here interposes tio obstacle to rearing plants. Quite un like England, the principal obstacle to the growth of delicate plants in our houses in winter, and in our grounds in summer, comes fi dryness of the air. For this, the Ward case affords a perfect remedy ; as nothing is easier than to furnish a saturated atmosphere for those plants that require it, or to supply and retain the degree gh which suits any particular species. 134 Scientific Intelligence. 8. Infusoria of California.— EurenBere (Monatsb. der K. Pr. Akad. Wiss. Berlin, August, 1852, p. 528) gives the following lists of infusoria from Shasta City and Samana eens the latter * locality 150 miles above the mouth of Feather Rive 1 (Bhasta|Sacramen Polygastria : 58 | City. | to River. | City, | to Rive Amphora libyca, “* | «* Gomphonema obtusum, * Arcella microstoma, « |Himahtidium gracile * Closterium digitus, # qu rhage * *? | I quinari * Cocconeis granulata, #204 wie ge ans * lineata, Hig * mexi 2) silicula, * ‘ eee «1 Cocconema fusidium, * }Pinnularia amphioxys * lanceolatum, * borealis, * exicanum, * trum, * subtile, * viridis, % #} *? ? a? | midium Swartzii, # a Ve geek #? Dif ene ? * Stauroneis anceps, * ostomu * SS) sian #1 Discplen per * |Surirella microcora, #1 nusta, * |Synedra petite, * * mature crenulatum, * en * |Eunotia amphioxys, * * icant: # ibba, * * ulna * es * Phytol a 15 se % « |Amphidiscus obtusus, # . cringe angulatum, * Pini “iopiatna, * iconcavum, * * * ¢ —— * LGaillovelia ‘alii, * cren * # levis # denticulat um, # * gee #? * Gleonema parkdéitun, * a * Gomphonema Augur, * rude, * * elavat pate * giganteum, * sevra, * ile, * Spongolithis acicularis, * hereuleanum. * eotyla, * minutissimum, * entricosa, * oes are all freshwater forms; and out of them all, there are_ onl five new cies (those indicate d b whok are published i in the paper from which we , addressed to J. D. Dana, dated Cambridge June 9th, he Sl sr following as some of the results oO is tour, which I have brought home not les from the great southern and western ae Some ularly interesting. I would mention foremost a = ‘“*[ have been successful in coneeting Spesinaany especially fishes, of | f these are partic genus, which I Botany and Zoology. 135 shall call prone ere itp similar in general appearance to = blind fish of the Mammoth Cave, though provided with eyes; it has like Am- blyopsis the mith aperture ae advanced under the throat, but is eos deprived of ee a very strange and unexpected combination of characte I know but one species, Ch. cornutus, Ag. It is a small fish icnodn thie inches long, living in the ditches of the rice fields in South Carolina. I derive its specific’ name from the singular form of the snout, which has two hornlike projections a The family of Cyprinodonts has received the most numerous addi- tions, and among them there are again new combinations of characters. sexual differences, and differs also in its habits ese fishes are con- —— seen swimming on the top of the water in pairs, whence their nha I have found half a dozen new species of this g the Acad. of Nat. Sci., vol. 2, to appreciate the facts here mentioned. From its structure and from the sexual differences observed among other Cyprinodonts, I have long entertained the opinion that this genus had been established upon the males of Peecilia mutilineata also de- scribed by Lesueur (same Journal), and both admitted as distinct in the great natural history of fishes by Cuvier and Valenciennes. aving found both together in all the Gulf States, I have watched them care- fully, and i in Mobile as well as in New Orleans, I have seen them day are viviparous. I have been able to trace their whole embryonic de- velopment in the 7 of the mother, in selecting specimens in differ- ent yi of gest I do cs oeteaue oilaatin I have already mentioned to you the ex- istencil in rhe United States of two families of fishes not before observed in our waters, one the aon, s with one species from Eastport in | ma tail. But I would tire you were I to on with my ee eee. remarks, even if I should i pelll to enumerating new gen for I have many more o 136 Scientific Intelligence. I will close this long letter with one observation upon Crustacea, which may have a more immediate interest for you, if you have not yet noticed the fact yourself. On my return from Florida two years ago, I noticed among many specimens of Lupa dicantha, one in which the tail presented a triangular form intermediate between thai of the male and that of the female. Unable to ascertain from a single speci- men whether it was a mere variety or perhaps an improperly developed female, I awaited another opportunity for a fuller investigation, which the market of Charleston, 8. C. afforded largely during the ee gi of February last, when | ascertained that that form was at times as co mon in the market as either the males or the females, and cae carol anatomical examination, I satisfied myself farther, that these specimens matter, clearly indicated that they are imperfectly developed females, a kind of neuters among crabs, the great number of which leads to the adie that they are not without function in the cad economy of mals. The tail is soldered to the carapace, the last joints ‘es at pics the alimentary canal terminates, being moveable. At the same time males and females were dissected, and showed the sexual for similar conditions in other species, | found in the collection of Pro- fessor L. Gibbes, —— « oe Sribrerias and of L. Sayi with the same conformation of their 1 cannot help returning as pets fis oe to say, that I have now twenty species of Lepidosteus from the United States in my collection, a good ip che cpt which to base a revision of the fossil fishes. 1 could y how many other new things I have collected, for I have aie on Spethed | half my packages.’ VY. Astronomy. . New Planets, (21).—On the evening of the 5th of April, 1853, Pro rea Gasparis of Naples, discovered a new planet in the conden Leo, in R.A. about 11 4™ and Decl. 6° 50’. It cneges a star of the 12th magnitude. The following elements were computed by Messrs. Forster and Kriiger of Bonn, from observations at No piei; April 6 and 13, and Bonn, April 27 and Ma ay 10. Epoch, 1853, ge 10°431400, M. T. Berlin Mean anomaly, 341° 52/ 26”- ‘3 Mean a ong. ase. node, << oe 32 26 35 3}. 1853-0 ‘“* perihelion 44 2 Angle between perih. and node, Ist “6° 8 9 Inclination, “0 Angle of excentricity, - 14 21 14 2 Log. of se ie major, = - 0561038 mean daily motion, - 2708450 2, (25)—On the 6th of April, M. Chacornac, at Marseilles, discovered another planet which M. Valz proposes to call Phocea. It appears like a star of the 9th magnitude, and of a bluish color, Comparison it Miscellaneous Intelligence. 137 with 27363 Lalande, Ane and Argelander, zone 16, No. 205 (d) gave the following position 1853. wiaecittea te x mn, A Decl. April : 154 40™ a+04™ 1185 a+ ll! 2” 11 58 b+ 1 57 «be 4 22 3. (26)— uf? Luther of the Observatory at Bilk, discovered another planet—the twenty-sixth of the asteroidal group—on the 5th of May. It is of the 10-11 magnitude. The following observed places are given ;— 1853. Bilk, M. T. R. May 5, 13h Om 207° 40 — 10° 15/ “ 14, 11; 52 206 3 — 95 4. First Comet of 1853, (Astron. Journal.)—In the last number of this Journal was mentioned the discovery of a comet on the 8th of March, by Mr. G. W. Tuttle, assistant at Harvard College Observatory. the Collegio Romano, on the 6th of March. It was discovered independ- ently also by Schweizer, at Moscow on the 8th, and by Dr. Hartwig on the 10th. here is some reason for stip htomlg this comet to be identical with that of 1664. The following elements were computed by Mr. C. W. Tuttle from the observations at Cambridge, of March 10, 18 and 29. 1853, Feb. 24: aoe a _T. Greenwich. Long. of perihelion Cs st i ot Appar. Eqx. node, - - ‘es 15 30 § 1853, Mar. 18. fhctinaide: - . 20 8 il Log. of perhativa dist., . 0:037938 Motion retrogade. 5. Second Comet of 1853, (Astr. Jour.)—Professor Schweitzer, at Moscow, discovered a comet on the 4th of April 1858, which he de- scribes as ‘‘ small and round, about 3! in diameter, and without a tail.” He gives the following places ;— 1853 ; Moscow, M. T. Ri As Decl. April 4, 15) Om 20h 3m 20s = 113° 4 Wied 14 0 20 4 2% +13 1 VI. MiscetLaNngous INTELLIGENCE. Notes on the Almaden Mine, California, ina aren ter from T. 8. Hass dated San Jose, Nov. 26th . 1852.— We e left S n José at 8 o’clock tile a valley as the eye ever beheld, we arrived at the beautiful village of Almaden, distant twelve miles from San José....It is situated on the There is a large bakery near it, and they use the water in mixing be their “sr and certainly make as saa bread as I ever have eaten. Vol. XVI, No. 46.—July, 185 18 138 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The works are much more extensive than I expected to find them. called upon the superintendant, Mr. John Young, who treated us very courteously. The buildings are nearly all new, the old ones hav- ing been mostly removed. The loads of ore are brought down by the road to a level with the top of the furnace where it is separated into coarser and finer piec The process of extracting the metal from the ore is very simple he ore is placed in the furnaces where a gentle and regular heat is applied. As it diffuses itself through the densed and falls by its own weight, trickles down and out at little pipes leading from the bottom of the chambers of the furnace and empties not to approach them too soon, as the air is charged with the quicksil- sure to be salivated. After examining the works and the different processes we visited the mines, which are one and a fourth miles from the works. We pro- cured an order from the superintendant for that purpose, as no person an angle of about 20(?) degrees. About hal up we e to a locality of sulphate of lime, from which some fine specimens ave been taken. (I also found some speci of fluor spar an chalcedony near the soda Spring.) After a fatiguing jour large as a ma ‘ We soon commenced our explorations from chamber to chamber, which appeared to extend ina most intricate manne almost every rl direction. Sometimes we descended a pole almost perpendicular for fifty feet, with merely little notches cut for the toes, and at other times ascended them. We finally came where the miners were at work; we heard the ringing of the drills and the strokes of the hammer, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 139 and on approaching nearer we could hear the measured groan or grunt with which they accompany each stroke that they make, and when I was convinced that it did not indicate pain, as. its doleful sound led me to think, it became so ludicrous that [ burst out into a a quarter ; eh have been abandoned on account of the danger of working in the We finally sscended to the Pett outlet or that which was first exe- out which contained a large amount of human bones buried beneath the rock which had evidently caved in upon them where they had made their excavations too wide. Having got out into daylight once more, a us richly for our laborious ascent. ‘There was se out rig east. Twelve miles from us o the plain was the town of San Jose, a little to the left the town of Santa Clara, a dy Sacha on the vil- age of Alviso, and the Mission of San José the table land in the distance. This country is so rich and fertile Pv when its agricultural merits are fully developed and pera to bear, it will feed and main- tain all the population of Californ “. Infu usorta.—In the American Foatial of Science for March, 1845, mention is made of an infusorial earth supposed to have been brought from the Bermuda Islands. The history of the specimen there given is that it was received from M. Tu ey, Esq. of Petersburg, Va., the infusorial forms which it i... it is unparalled. The specim men is very white, friable and light, and consists almost pm of infusorial remains. Will not some naturalist near the Bermuda ired make @ reconnoisance of that place and report to the editors - this Journal, and if successful forward a box of specimens ? 140 Miscellaneous I ntelligence. 3. Abstract of a Meteorological Journal kept at vies Coie Beloit, Wis., for the year 1852.—Lat. 42° 30! 23’ N.; 2° 03! 20” W. from oe ; slevation above Lake Michigan, oe Pier. above the Ocean, 750 feet ; by S. P. Lararopr, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and Ratortl History: BAROMETER. } THERMOMETER. Ic ?s| Prevailing | Inches rain & sae ME Max. | Min. | Mean. |Max./Min.| Mean ot aky.* winds, Roses ae January, 29°66 |28°67 “78/9 32 | nw. & Tome cs 9 Aemongt 29°73 28-24 |o9 0/30°26 | 5°70 | xwidse "84 Mar 29°80 28-40 |29- 34:00 | 422 | nwidénw 6°75 ois 29°38 |28'54 |29- 2} 20/4833 | 495 | na&nu 399 May, 29°56 |28-72 29-24 | 85/6061 | 685 | sx ds.w. 4°75 June, 29°58 |28°87 |29-258 89 | 43/6813 | 6-73 | s.w. &y.w. 2°15 July, 29°56" |29:07 |29- 2! 51 70} nx, s,dsn,| 3:49 August, 2 |29°03 |29-346] 93| 52/70 710) nex 1:02 September, [29°58 |28-40 29:31 | 37/5858 | 6-40 + oe 2°91 r, [28 90 |29°258 32/51 25 | 440 mi 4:98- November, (29°67 28 66 2 0 | 11/3183 | 415 Iswin. 7 N.w.| 2°48 December, [29°56 Ai: ‘47 /29°9 5 |- 4/24-55 363 | s.w.dés, 330 Year, 29'597 28-665/29-265| 93 |-18|47-491) 661 IN. x.W.d&s.w.| 4000 | een Ray ane na 21 inde i Patt A'S CSAS, The mean temperature for the past year is 47-421, being a medium of the two previous years. The mean temperature of the winter months of 1851-52 is 24-600, being a lower temperature than that of either of the two previous years by about 2°; the temperature for the spring months is 46146, being 0°554 lower ‘than that of last year, and 2°-966 higher than that perature of the autumnal months is 47°22, bei ing 3°- 23 lower than that of the last year, and 2°-35 lower than that of the year before the last. The average density of the atmosphere, as ae by the barome- ter, is 29-265 inches, being ‘074 inches te than for the last year, and -005 inches lower than for the year The amount of rain and melted snow bi the year is 40 inches, being 15°90 inches less than for the last year, and 11-24 inches less than for the year 1850. This amount, with the exception of the months of than in either of the two previous years, being 30 inches. This amount was nearly equally dasiibated through the winter with the exceptions pie th He mentioned, February having only 1:5 inches while March had in The crops of the last year were universally good crops, though not remarkable for their great yield. The grass was slightly affected by the dry weather in the latter part June and late crops by the dry weather in the latter part of Au ugust, but none very seriously. Our prairie soil seems remarkable for its ‘ites of moisture and the small * Clearness of sky is indicated numbers from 1 to 10; perf clear is marked 10, 2 oe Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141 extent to which crops upon it suffer in a dry time compared with that which they experience on most of the soils of New The presence of a stratum of fine red clay which so generally un- derlies the surface-soil appears of great value in imparting this property to our soil, ' The chinch-bug which made its appearance once in some districts two years since and was not seen last year, appeared again the past year in great nambers, doing, as some think, much damage to the wheat and some other crops. The prevailing winds were north and northwest. CaLenpar.—Jan. 19th, Splendid auroral arch from 8} to 10 Pp. M. Feb, 18th, Aurora at 10 p. M. March 7th, Wild geese seen; 8th, thunder-storm ; 10th, meadow lark singing; 11th, robins singing; 12th, star of Bethlehem up; 17th, aurora with streamers. pril 2d, Anemone in flower, wild gooseberry in leaf; 14th, wild pigeons seen, Missouri currant in leaf; 2ist, ground ivy in flower; 22nd, arched aurora at 9 p. M., bloodroot in flower; 29th, rainbow in 1 - the west at 53 a. M hickory and horse-chestnut in leaf, peach and pear in blossom; 17th, Dodecatheon media in flower, black and white oak in leaf; 18th, splendid aurora from 93 to ll rv. m.; 22nd, blue eyed grass in flower; 24th, lilac, and fly honeysuckle in flower; 29th, snowball in flower; 31st, lady’s slipper. une, Locust in blossom; 15th, Lobelia spicata and Anemone penn- sylvanica in flower; 19th, Rudbeckia rosa; 22nd, Trillium philadelphi- cum in flower; 23d, hairbell and yellow water lily in flower. July 21st, Hottest day in the year, the average of the thermometer for the day being 82°-50. Nov. 6th, First snow. Dec. 17th, Aurora; 2st, coldest day, average of thermometer 4°50. 4. Remarkable Clouds, (from a letter to the Editors, dated S. gree, and diminishing toward the poles The general density of these curvilinear clouds was less toward the south than toward the north, and some of them were discontinuous De: Ow the line of 10 to 15° above the horizdn. In the north the contt- nuity appeared to be complete, and their approach to the point of ‘te ing did not obliterate their individuality ; which was manifested in light lines upon a slightly dusky ground, the general ground of the heavens at a distance from the poles being at the time a dusky blue. 142 Miscellaneous Intelligence. curvilinear clouds. ‘The previous portion of the day had been quite clear; the wind blowing lightly from the point east by north, and re- maining unaltered during the continuance of the phenomenon, which wa t one hour. The course of the wind, it will be remarked, was at a right angle with the magnetic meridian. C. 5. Tooth of Getalodus Ohioensis ; by Prof. J. M. Satrorp, Lebanon, Tenn.—At the Albany meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, held j 5 Pa Ss IS S a aoa — @ or — — = tiny = and having availed myself of all the hints thrown out by Mr. Delves, Mr. Hogg, and others, at the Microscopical meeting in October, after very many failures and no small amount of trouble, lat length was fortunate the ‘ modus operandi’? which I have found most successful ; trusting that, in a short time, the little seed thus sown may bring forth an abun- dant harvest. : would premise that I do not advocate photography in microscopic Science as a rival that will supersede the draughtsman, except in certaiD cases; and although it may in very many instances do so; it wi ? Miscellaneous Intelligence. 145 mont assuredly make much more work than it takes away from those ow the occupation of a microscopic artis be 2 the object to be delineated is flat and moderately thin, as com- pared with the necessary power in use,a very excellent picture may be produced without any aid from the imner; but where the object is not so formed—although when under microscopic examination the mind can Pinel acquire a correct knowledge of the form by focusing up and —it is evident that from the very main of a good ob- puea a gt he can only be obtained in one plane at a time, and it will then be necessary to take several pictures in different planes, and call in the artist’s aid to unite the productions. The immense amount of time and labor that can be thus saved in delineating subjects i on elaborate character can only be appreciated by those who hav tempted the production of objects of this class. It is scarcely necessary to enter into a preliminary explanation on the photographic phenemona, as it is of -very little use for an entire novice shall, therefore, presume that 1am addressing those who understand the general principles of photography, and shall therefore commence The Arrangement of the Apparatus.—Place the microscope with the body ina horizontal position, and screw on the objective to be used, and pressing down the sliding spring-piece. ‘Turn the mirror aside or re- move it altogether, and having taken out the eye-piece, insert into the body a tube of brown paper Jined with black velvet, in order to prevent the slightest reflection from the sides, which would infallibly spoil ayery picture if allowed to operate. ‘The Jens should then be removed the focus of the lens used to concentrate the light, for which purpose an ordinary convex lens of 24 to 5 diameter, with its hx t side to- ug the mel way with the coarse and fine adjustment, done too accurately ; in fact, for delicate objects, a means of magnifying the image is absolutely requisite, and for this purpose a ee eye- Pe cps in contact with ground Pl is perha Econp Senses, Vol, XVI, No. 46—July, } 146 Miscellaneous Intelligence. as is used for the microscope, the chemical focus will be somewhat more distant from the object than the visual focus, and it therefore becomes necessary to make some allowance for this difference. This may be done in two ways, either by placing the sensitive plate somewhat farther off than the ground glass on which the image is re- ceived, or by altering the focus by the fine adjustment; the latter being the plan | prefer, as I find it much more accurate. ; The amount of difference between the foci probably varies in every ak y be asc A 4-10ths of an inch, about 2 divisions, or 1-1000th of an inch farther off. With the 1-4th, and higher powers, the difference between the abo discovery of Professor Stokes of the property possessed by certain transparent media of arresting the chemical rays. _ Any account of the preparation of the collodion, &c. &c. would be more fitted for a work on photography, and would render the present: paper much too ge: eover ther is abundance of informa- tion on photographic manipulatory details readily accessible in numerous publications, such r Hu al, Mr. B am’s, Mr. : . j &c. There are, however; one or two points which it is as well to allude to. If the film of a col- lodion picture be examined by the microscope, some specimens will present an appearance very much resembling condensed cellular tis- “sue, such as that seen in the cuticle of leaves, being apparently. up of flattened irregular hexagonal cells ; while others seem to consist of an entirely structureless amorphous mass; the latter sort of col- _ ion is most suitable for microscopic purposes, 7 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147 The final fixation of the picture by removal of the iodid of silver has ives or nega though all collodion pictures pas of both characters, one of the two should always be predominan Of course a negative is most useful, because the drawings can be multiplied _— paper almost ad infinitum, but for certain objects the amount of detail when very delicate is inconceivably better shown upon glass than i paper. If then a negative picture be desired, it is best to develop with the pyrogallic acid solution , and — e with a solution of hyposulphite of soda; but if, on the ¢ contrary, a sitive picture is the wimaeh site the effect will be infinitely better vi eas with a bath of e following, viz.:— + Cyanid of — esley . 1 drams. . - pint. Nivea of silver, - - - 15 grains. The cyanid to be dissolved in the water, and the crystals of nitrate of silver added, which immediately cause a curdy precipitate, but this is than when the hyposulphite is used, but the pictures do not answ well for printing from. A still further intensity of the whites may be of iron, instead a the pyrogallic acid, ane afterwards BxIS with oo tion to overcome. ‘The solution is made as follo Proto-sulphate aR iron in ery stals, - - 1 oz. Water, - - by mensnre 10 oz. _ Sulphuric acid, - 1 oz. s is best used by placing ina — bath and totally immersing the ae which should be withdrawn the moment the picture is perfectly instantly plunged into a bath of plain water sufficiently copious to dilute the adherent moisture very considerably. The object of having the bath of glass, is in order to see the develo ment: of the picture, as es by causing a sort of fogginess to appear all over it. When developed with the protosulphate of iron, the pictures may be exposed to direct daylight before the final fixing, wm injury, in fact ars “— e benefit, according to Mr. Martin. The causes most frequently operating to prevent the success of the proce HE , first, want of attention to the proper i omic it is to this point more than any other that the utmost attention should be paid, and I feel confident that by well concerted measures to attain this re- quisite, we shall eventually be able to obtain pictures in a tithe of the e now necessary ; in the second place failures more often occur Irom er exposure than from being in too short a time 5 thissigs want of allowance for difference of visual and chemical foci.” 148 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 8. On optical figures produced by the disintegrated surfaces of erystals ; by Sir Davin Brewster, (Phil. Mag. [4] v, 16.)—This An octahedron of alum, when perfect, gives a single reflection of a candle from one of its surfaces. But on immersing it for an instant in Brewster varied the experiments in many ways, and made similar trials with fluor spar, carbonate of lime, ete., and developed the most won- derful results. Different solvents were found to produce different optical figures. Alcohol and muriatic acid act on alum differently from water. Othe remarkable changes were produced by immersing crystals in saturated solutions of salts. Mechanical abrasion by means of a piece of sandstone, hone or file, - produced ina rude manner the figures given by solution; but what was very remarkable, the figure had a reversed position, or was like what solution would produce on the opposite face. € power of producing the optical figures may be transferred from the crystal surface to wax or isinglass; and the impressions on isinglass, thite or labradorite, yellowish brown olivine or garnet, and black augite- merican Association for the Advancement of Science.—This Association will hold its next annua! meeting at Cleveland, Obio, dur- ing the week commencing with the 28th of July. Professor Peirce Cambridge is the President for the yonr,: «3 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 149 OBITUARY. Death of Dr. Lewis C. Beck.—This melancholy event occurred at Albany on the 20th of April, 1853, in the 55th year of his age. At the time of his decease, he held the offices of Professor of Chemistry gers College, New Jersey, and Professor of Chemistry in Albany Medical College. Of retiring habits, pete to u ; ver vious to his decease; his health had been feeble, and his strength ap- parently failing. His devotion to his duties was however unremitted. The best pieaacel of Dr. Beck isa list of his writings, the most important of which are stated below. A abt of the States Ce paeea and Missouri, &c. Albany, 1823. (This work s num ison engravings and descriptions of Indian remains, obtained from awe sona | observation. New Yo Gp Medical = Physical Journal. : acts relative to a disease “Geist known as sick stomach or milk sickness, Vo on — _ a new species of Ranunculus (lacustris), by L. C. Beck an ary mes G. Vol. 2. An sll of the question, whether the climate of the valley of Misisippi un under similar parallels of latitude is warmer than that of the tae Vol. 4, An rea of the Small Pox, Varioloid and Chicken Pox, which pre- vailed at Albany in Mags a ae nem s on the identity of these diseases and the pepe ive pow Vol. 5. An account of | the Salts ie at Salina, Onondaga County, New York, visi chemical examination of sae ah and of the several varieties of salt manufacture d at Salina and Syrac Vol. 7, Notice and chemical mt caged of the mineral water recently discov- ered in the city of Albany. . Gene Vol. 6 ral view: e formation of Phosphuretted hydrogen. Vol. 7 sa the nature of the compounds usually ee Chlorids of Soda, Lime, ce remarks on their uses as disinfecting ag: Tmiatieldas 4 of the Albany Institut old he Geographical wi of the United States. Part I. Silliman’s Journ Vol. 10. Contri butions towards the Botany of the States oo and Missouri. Vor +. Researches on the Commercial oe of the State of N Bib rk. Vol. 36. Note on the New Brunswick Tornado or Water ‘Spout of 1 Vol. 36. Wight - ~~ opper, Ores of as and other sess found Vol. $6 "Re markable examples of ——- and Contraction, é&e. Vol. 45. Views concerning gneous AM Pst of Chemistry, 1831. This work oe ak through fog editior Official Report on Cholera, made to Gov vernor Throop, Au ugust, 1832, » This paper gical Botany of the Northern and ngreen! hes ie rding to ‘he Natural Sys- m, 1833, and 1848. (Two ed The Natural Beet A of New eck Mig ralogy. Tn 4to. ae Li gee This work was preceded by several Annual Reports to he Legislature on Same subject. Adulteraiions of various substances used in Medicine and the Arts. 1846. * This work was edited by his brother, John B, Beck, M.D. 150 Bibliography. At the request of the Patent Office at ae and of Professor Henry of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. Beck commenced in 1848, a most laborious series of “ Researches on the Bread Stuffs of the United — States.” The Report was subsequently published at Washington. VII. BretiocrapuHy. 1. A History uA - Fishes of Massachusetts ; by Davin Humpureys Storer, M.D.,A.A.S. 90 pp., 4to, with 16 4to lithographic plates.— From the Tokbobbtedl of the American Academy of Arts and Set- ences, vol. v.—Dr. Storer, as one of the Commissioners on the Zoology of aabiclienien in the year 1839, prepared a Report on the Ichthy- Memoir, the first part of which is here published, will present a revision of the whole subject, with excellent figures of the species, and a large amount of eaditionsl matter. The paper before us includes the follow- ing species T ys —Perea flavescens, Cuv., Labrax lineatus, Cuv., L. ru- fus, a Centropristes varius, Storer, Pomotis vulgaris, Cuv., P. ap- pendix, ay. If. Triglides —Prionotus lineatus, Dekay, P. palmipes, Storer, P. pila- tus, St., De ctylopterus volitans, Cus. -, Cottus gracilis, Heckel, Acan- thocottus variabilis, Girard, A. virginianus, G. Boleosoma Olmstedi, Agassiz, Aspidophorus monoptergyius, Cuv., Cryptacanthodes ( Storer) maculatus, Hemitripterus acadianus, St., Sebiistes norvegicus, Dey Gasterosteus biaculeatus, Mitchill, G. quadracus, Mitchill, G G. Dekayi; gassiz IV. Roce. cikias ovis, ( uv., Pagrus argyrops, Cuv V. Scombrida.—Scomber Dekayi, S¢., Sc. vernalis, Mitchill, Pe- lamys sarda, Cuv., Thynnus secundo- dorablia, St., Cybium pac ne tum, Cuv., Trichiurus lepturus, Lin., Xiphias gladius, Lin., Palinurus (Dekay) perciformis, Dek., Caranx chrysos, Cuv., Argyreiosus oe laris, Dek., A. unimaculatiis: Batchelder, Seriola zonata, Cuv., nodon saltator, Cuv., Rhombus triacanthua, Dek., Sphyrana aes lis, Dek. VI. Atherinide.—Atherina notata, Mitchill, VIL. Mugilide.—Mugil lineatus, Mitchill. e descriptions of the species are clear and precise, and abound in details, the results of the author’s careful investigations ; they are ac- companied with full lists of synonyms. Th plates are remarkably fine, though without anatomical details. W hie com _— t ork country to which it wilijes: s and as the same species in many instances ~ have a wide range and have relations to those of other regions, it will find gem rs throughout the land and among all interested in America® zoolog 2. Dinwig? s Principles of yi a Physiological Chemistry ; translated by Dantet Breen, M.D., e U.S. Patent Office. —The systematic character of this work xP it — purpose for Sead it was intended, viz., as an introduc tothe ere "Or Bibliography. 15t the ‘Chemistry of Organic Combinations. 3. Annual of Scientific Discovery, or Year- Book of Facts in Science and Art for 1853, exhibiting the most important discoveries and im- provements in Mechanics, Useful Arts, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Astronomy, Meteorology, Zoology, Botany, Mineralogy, Geology, Ge- ography, Antiquities, etc., together with a list of Recent Scientific Publications, a classified list of Patents, Obituaries of Eminent Scien- tific Men, notes on the Progress of Science during the year 1852, etc., edited by Davin A. Wxtis, A.M. 412 pp., 12mo. Boston, 1858, Gould & Lincoln. 4. Coral Reefs and Islands, by James D. Dana; from the au- thor’s Exploring Expedition Report on Geology, with additions. 144 pp. G tention to give to the American public Prof. Lowig’s larger work on 39 Ss 5. Report on the Crustacea of the Exploring Expedition under tlkes, U. S. N.; by James D. Dana. 4to. Part I, 1 to 690 pp., 1852; Part I], 690—-1620 pp., with an oceanic Isothermal Chart, 1853. G. P. Putnam & Co., New York City.—The copies of this work on € ready in the course of the year. 6. The Principles of Botany, as exemplified in the Cryptogamia, Sor the use of Schools and Colleges; by Haruanp Couttas. 94 pp. 12mo. Philadelphia, 1858. Lindsay and Blakiston. 7. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. New Series, Vol. V. Part I. 178 pp. 4to. Cambridge and Boston, 1853. I. H. Emory: Astronomical, Magnetical, and Meteorologica Observations, made at Panama, New Granada. - Winturop Sarcent: Plan of an Ancient Fortification at Mari- etta, Ohio, (With a Plate.) a) “Ill. Watpo J. Burnerr: Researches upon the Origin, Mode of Development, and Nature of the Spermatic Particles among the Four Classes of Vertebrated Animals. (Witha [V. Davin Humpureys Srorer, M.D., A.A.S.: A History of the Fishes of Massachusetts. (With Eight Plates.) igs : V. Cuartes Henry ; , A.A.S., M.A.P.S., ete.: A Sci- entific Account of the Inner Harbor of Boston, with a Synopsis of the eel — 152 Bibliography. General Principles to be observed in the Improvement of Tidal Harbors. VI. W. C. Bonn: Observations on a New Ring of the Planet Saturn. (With a Plate.) VII. G. P. Bonn: = the Rings of Saturn. VILL. Davin Humptireys Storer, M.D., A.A.S.; A History of the Fishes of Massach ane Part II. (With Eight Plates .) IX. Henry L. Eustis, A.M.: The Tornado of August 22d, 1851, in steppe West Cambridge, and Medford, Middlesex County, Mass. (With a Map.) re pt mah 72 Meprcat AND Suraicat JournaL; edited by Prof. W. B. Her- ck, M.D., of the Rush Medical vaicic a! ete., and H. A. Johnson, A.M., M.D.; pub- lished sd month in num 0 p. $2 per annum.—May, 1853, Vol. IL No.1. OUTHERN MepicaL AnD Pear Journat; edited by L, A. Dugas, M.D., Prof. Surg. in Med. Coll. Georgia, Augusta, Georgia.—In monthly puneieas of 64 large 8vo pag per annum. June, 1858, Vol IX, New Ser., ouT JouRNA THE ae I AND PuysicaL Silintaa “Nashville, Ten- L OF DICAL HY nessee ; Editors, Drs. J. W. King, W. P. Jones oe Eee msey, R. O. Currey, B. W: Conresponing Editors, Thos, A "Atchin son, MD, id Kuiess and R. L. Scruggs, M_D., of Louisiana.—In pombe of 80 pages 8Yo, every two months. 2,00 per annum. May, 1853, Vol. ea No. HE VIRGINIA Meprcat AND ate JournaL; edited by George A. Otis, MD, and Howell L. Thor one —Monthly of 80 pages. Richmond, Va. $5 per year. T. Porscuz AND C. G mete _— new sae ee nabs gente States of the World.— A. H. Layarp, M. P.: Discoveries among bes or Nineveh and Babylon, with Travels in Armenia, SE oa nand oe de oho ebeliy the Result of a Second Expe- dition undertaken for the Trustees of the British “Museum. Abridged from the late bw 542 pp. 12mo., witha ihn and duiensbedins wood-cuts. Mew York, 1854. & ‘“ = : Primitie et Novitie Faun et Flora Mader et Portus Spotl memoirs on an Ferns, Pedal | Plants and Land Shells of a rte wy and Porto Bante, oo from the Trans, Camb. Phil. “a as: on M. P. H. Mattie: Nouvelle The éorie des Hydrométéo “eyed suivie on Mint sur Vélectricité atmosphriqa e et d’ - autre sur la bya omé 3 o. Paris, 1853. aoe chelier—This work will much interest apt Vo Anan ‘there may p e: g Q 28 BS oo ° 48 ) 4: m Dm rz PD a) co aS ee Dw of ia pe he a 5 af 2 e points ‘hihiter to that of Mr. Espy, and he claims the priority. As we have not space to do justice to the author’s views, we can — — the volume to those m . W. Dove: Die Verbreitung der Wiirme auf der ‘Oberfliche der Erde. 26 pp» 4to, with 7 Charts an ae 2 ‘Temperature deg 2nd edit, Rest Berlin, 1852. EDINGS OF TH I. t. PHtapevrnta. . VI, No. 8p. 308. New Fossil bear from heceels Mee ; Urs te idens ; J. Leidy—p. 304. Notes on — — of se 313. na section mer the omen o ' my ; niles in Det OF THE a Soc. Nar. Hisr, 1853. me 257. On the Spermatie w — W. L Burnett—p. _ On certain glands in the Pp hg between the kidneys and anus; W. 1 Burnett—p. 260. Eu- pyrchroite tf in connected with a ree d bat C. T. Jackson—No Teiboptieee eae ling a ine from the iary of Richmond, Va.; J. Wyman.—p. 262. A ere ay. Girard, 96: 263. On the origin, de- velopment and intimate structure vols the Ren throughout the Invertebrata ; AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Arr. XVI.—On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating the over aniecm Distribution of Marine animals ; by James D. ANA.* Tue temperature of the waters is well known to be one of the most influential causes limiting the distribution of marine species of life. Before therefore we can make any intelligent comparison of the species of different regions, it is necessary to have some clear idea of the distribution of temperature in the surface waters of the several oceans: and, if we could add also, the results of ob- tering observations, but none of a systematic aaa followed through each season of the year The Map which we present in illustration of this subject presents a series of lines of equal surface temperature of the oceans. The lines are isocheimal lines, or more sie asocry- mal lines ; and where they pass, each exhibits the mean temper- ature of the waters along its ae for the coldest thirty consecu- tive days of the gee The line for 68° F., for example, passes through the ocean where 68° ~ is the mean temperature for reme cold weat January i is not pale the e oldest winter rt. ee Te aa © Bien the A Author's Expl. Exped. Report Ssooxo Ssauns, Vol. XVI, No.4i—Septy 1868. oo) 154 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating month in this climate, neither is the winter the coldest season in all parts of the globe, especially near the equator. On this ae- count, we do not restrict the lines to a given month, but make them more correctly the limit of the extreme cold for the year at the place.* Between the line of 74° north and 74° south of the cold of winter, rather than the heat of summer or even the mean temperature of the year. The mean temperature may be the same when the extremes are very widely different. When these extremes are little remote, the equable character of the seasons, and especially the mildness of the winter temperature, will favor the growth of species that would be altogether cut off by the cold winters where the extremes are more intense. On this account, solid ice, (and only in such places are marine species found, ) is but a few degrees below 32° Fahrenheit. The whole range of temperature for a region is consequently small. The region which has 68° EF’. for its winter temperature, has about 80° for the hot- same course nearly as the summer line of 70° F. In each of these cases the whole extent of the range is small, being twelve to fourteen degrees. _4n fresh-water streams, the waters, where not frozen, do not sink lower than the colder oceans, reaching at most but a few de- * The word isocrymal here introduced is from the Greek wsos, equal, and x, p08, extreme cold, and applies with sufficient precision to the lines for which it ag ; al lines, as these follow the mean winter temperature ; and to use this term in the ease before us, would be giving the word a signification best does aot ete to it, and making confusion in the science, oreover, the greatest range for all oceans is but 62° of Fahrenheit, the highe: being 88°, and the lowest 26°; while the temperature of mosphere of the has a range exceeding 150°, msi | . the Geographical Distribution of: Marine Species. 155 temperature between 30° and 80° F., and the summer warmth in such a case, may admit of the development of species that would otherwise be excluded from the region. While then both isocrymal and isotheral lines are of import- ance on charts illustrating distribution over the continents, the former are pre-eminently important where the geography of marine species is to be studie The lines of greatest cold are preferable for marine species to those of summer heat, because of the fact also that the summer range of temperature for thirty degrees of latitude either side of the equator is exceedingly small, being but three to four degrees in the Atlantic, and six to eight degrees in the Pacific. The July isothermal for 80° F’. passes near the parallel of 30°; and the extreme heat of the equatorial part of the Atlantic Ocean is rarely above 84°. The difficulty of dividing this space by convenient isothermals with so small a range is obvious. It is also an objection to using the isotheres, that those towards the equator are much more irregular in course than the isocrymes. That of 80° for July, for example, which is given on our Map from Maury’s Chart, has a very flexuous course. Moreover, the spaces between the isotheres fail to correspond as well with actual facts in geographical distribution. The courses of the cold water currents are less evident on such a chart, since the warm waters in summer to a great extent overlie the colder currents. It is also to be noted that nothing would be gained by making the mean temperature for the year, instead of the extremes, the basis for laying down these lines, as will be inferred from the re- marks already made, and from an examination of the chart itself. The distribution of marine life is a subject of far greater sim- plicity than that of continental life. Besides the influence on the latter of summer temperature in connexion with that of the cold Seasons, already alluded to, the following elements or conditions have to be considered :—the character of the climate, whether wet or dry ;—of the surface of the region, whether sandy, fertile, marshy, etc. ;—of the vegetation, whether that of dense forests, or open pasture-land, etc. ;—of the level of the country, whether low, or elevated, etc. These and many other considerations come in, to influence the distribution of land species, and lead to a sub- division of the Regions into many subordinate Districts. In Oceanic productions, depth and kind of bottom have an important bearing: but there is no occasion to consider the moisture or dry- ness of the climate ; and the influence of the other peculiarities of region mentioned is much less potent than with continental life. We would add here, that the data for the construction of this chart have been gathered, as regards the North Atlantic, from the isothermal chart of Lieutenant Maury, in which a vast amount of facts are registered, the result of great labor and study. For the 156 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating rest of the Atlantic and the other oceans we have employed the Meteorological volume of Captain Wilkes of the Exploring Ex- pedition Reports, which embraces observations in all the oceans and valuable deductions therefrom; also, the records of other travellers, as Humboldt, Duperey of the Coquille, D’Urville of the Astrolabe, Kotzebue, Beechey, Fitzroy, Vaillant of the Bonite, Ross in his Antarctic Voyage, together with such isolated tables as have been met with in different Journals. 'The lines we have laid down, are not however, those of any chart previously con- structed, for the reason stated, that they mark the positions where a given temperature is the mean of the coldest month (or coldest thirty consecutive days) of the year, instead of those where this temperature is the mean annual or monthly heat; and hence, the apparent discrepancies, which may be observed, on comparing it with isothermal charts. The isocrymal lines adopted for the chart are those of 80°, 74°, 68°, 62°, 56°, 50°, 44°, and 35° of Fahrenheit. The tempera- re. the Hawaiian Islands and the Feejees; and as the temperature at * In the author's Report on Geology, 66° F. is set do the limiti ipera- ture of Coral-reef Seas ; this, howeree, is gic as Feighebeeleny rig ar em to be the mean of the coldest month, and is therefore here used. the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 157 the latter sinks to 745° F. some parts of the year, 74° F. is taken as the limiting temperature. ‘The eejee seas are exceedingly prolific and varied in tropical species. The corals grow in great luxuriance, exceeding in extent and beauty anything nitacigey observed by the writer in the tropics. The n betw F., north of the equator, and 74° EF’. south, is siceekate ac seine tropical or torrid region of zoological life. With respect to the line of 80° F., we are not satisfied that it is of much importance as regards the distribution - ee The range from the hottest waters of the ocean 88° t °F. is but fourteen degrees, and there are probably few a occurring within the region that demand a less range. Still, investigations hereafter made, may show that the hot waters limited by the iso- cryme of 80° include some peculiar species. At Sydney Island and Fakaafo, within this hot area, there appeared to be among corals a rather greater prevalence than ~ of the genus Mano- pora, which as these are tender species, may perhaps show that the waters are less favorable for ie corals than those of the Feejees, where the range of temperature is from 70° to 80° F. ; but this would be a hasty conclusion, without more extended ob- servations. The author was on these islands only for a few hours, and his collections were afterwards lost at the wreck of the Pea- cock, just as the vessel was terminating the voyage by entering the Columbia River. It is unnecessary to remark particularly upon the fitness of the other isocrymals for the purposes of illustrating the geographical —— of marine species, as this will become apparent from e explanations on the following pages The regions thus bounded require, for convenience of designa- tion, separate names, and the following are therefore proposed. They constitute three larger groups: the first, the Torrid zone or Coral-reef seas, including all below the isocryme of 68° F. ; the second, the Temperate zone of the oceans, or the surface bee tween the isocrymes of 68° F. and 35° F.; the third, the Frigid Zone, or the waters beyond the isocryme of 35° I. TORRID OR CORAL-REEF ZONE. Regi Tsocrymal limits. a. Supertori . ~ - 80° FE’. to 80° F. rrid, - ~ - 80° — to 749 3. Sabtotrid, - - - 74° te GRP a Il. TEMPERATE ZONE. 1. Warm Temperate, - - ° to 62° 2 simone . od) 62> ae 3. Subtem - - = BGO tebe 4. Cold Periperste, bee a - 6 6 2s 5. Subfrigid, - - «it AAO ABS? rer 158 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating A ninth region—called the Polar—may be added, if it should be found that the distribution of species living in the Frigid zone requires it. There are organisms that occur in the ice and snow itself of the polar regions; but these should be classed with the animals of the continents ; and the continental isotherms or iso- erymes, rather than the oceanic, are required for elucidating their distribution. It seems necessary to state here the authorities for some of the the Little and Great Bahamas. To the eastward, near the African Coast, it has a flexure northward, arising from the hot waters along the coast of Guinea, which reach in a slight current upward towards the Cape Verde Islands. ‘The line passes to the south of these islands, at which group, Fitzroy, in January of 1852, found the sea temperatures 71° and 72° F. Lsocryme of 68° F.—Cape Canaveral, in latitude 27° 30/, just north of the limit of coral reefs on the east coast of Florida, is the western termination of the line of 68°. The Gulf Stream oc- casions a bend in this line to 36° north, and the polar current, east of it, throws it southward again as far as 29° north. Westw it inclines much to the south, and terminates just south of Cape Verde, the eastern cape of Africa. Sabine found a temperature of 64° to 65° F’. off Goree, below Cape Verde, January, 1822; and on February 9, 1822, he obtained 663° near the Bissao shoals. ese temperatures of the cold season contrast strikingly with those of the warm season. Even in May (1831), Beechey had a temperature of 86° off the mouth of Rio Grande, between the parallels of 11° and 12° north. socryme of 62° E'.—'This isocryme leaves the American coast at Cape Hatteras, in latitude 354° north, where a bend in the out- line of the continent prevents the southward extension of the polar currents close along the shores. It passes near Madeira, and bends southward reaching Africa nearly in the latitude of the Isocrymes of 56° and 50° F.—Cape H atteras, for a like reason, is the limit of the isocrymes of 56° and 50° as well as of 62° the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 159 Gulf Stream, which here (after a previous east and west course, occasioned by the Newfoundland Bank, and the Polar Current with its icebergs) bends again northeastward, besides continuing in part eastward. The Polar Current sometimes causes a narrow reversed flexure, just to the east of the Gulf Stream flexure. Towards Europe, the line bends southward, and passes to the southwest Cape of Portugal, Cape St. Vincent, or, perhaps to the north cape of the Straits of Gibraltar. Vaillant in the Bonite, found the sea-temperature at Cadiz in February, 493° to 56° F. (9°79 to 13-4° C.), which would indicate that Cadiz, although so far south (and within sixty miles of Gibraltar), experiences at least as low a mean temperature as 56° F. for a month or more of the winter season. We have, however, drawn the line to Cape St. Vincent, which is in nearly the same latitude. - Between Toulon and Cadiz, the temperature of the Mediterranean in February, ac- cording to Vaillant, was 554° to 604° EF. (13°19 to 15-79 C.), and it is probable, therefore, that Gibraltar and the portion of the Mediterranean Sea east and north to Marseilles, fall within the Temperate Region, between the isocrymes of 56° and 62° F., while the portion beyond Sardinia and the coast by Algiers is in the Warm Temperate Region, between the isocrymes of 62° and 68° F, : The line of 50° F., through the middle of the ocean, has the latitude nearly of the southern cape at the entrance of the British annel; but approaching Europe it bends downward to the coast of Portugal. The low temperature of 494° observed by Vaillant at Cadiz would carry it almost to this port, if this were the mean sea-temperature of a month, instead of an extreme with- in the bay. The line appears to terminate near latitude 42°, or Six degrees north of the isocryme of 56°. This allows for a diminution of a degree Fahrenheit of temperature for a degree of latitude. A temperature as low as 61° F’. has been observed at several points within five degrees of this coast in July, and a tem- perature of 52°.F., in February. Vigo Bay, just north of 42° north, lies with its entrance opening westward, well calculated to receive the colder waters from the north; and at this place, ac- cording to Mr. R. Mac Andrew, who made several dredgings with reference to the geographical distribution of species, the Mollusca have the character rather of those of the British Channel than of the Mediterranean. Isocryme of 44° F.—This line commences on the west, at Cape Cod, where there is a remarkable transition in species, and @ natural boundary between the south and the north. The cold waters from the north and the ice of Newfoundland Banks, pr the line close upon those of 50° and 56° F. But after getting beyond these influences, it rapidly rises to the north, owing to the * Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1850,p.264 160 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating expansion of the Gulf Stream in that direction, and forms a large fold between Britain and Iceland ; it then bends south again an curves around to the west coast of Ireland. Isocryme of 35° F.—This line has a bend between Norway and Iceland like that of 44°, and from the same cause,—the in- fluence of the Gulf Stream. But its exact position in this part as not been ascertained. . Sourn Ariantic.—Isocryme of 74° F.—This line begins just south of Bahia, where Fitzroy found in August (the last win- er month) a temperature of 74° to 753° F. During the same month he had 754° to 763° F. at Pernambuco, five degrees to the north. Off Bahia, the temperature was two degrees warmer than near the coast, owing to the warm tropical current, which bends the isocryme south to latitude 17° and 18°, and the cold waters that come up the coast from the south. The line gradu- ally rises northward, as it goes west, and passes the equator on the meridian of Greenwich. Sabine, in a route nearly straight from Ascension Island, in 8° south, to the African coast under the equator, obtained in June (not the coldest winter month) the temperatures 78°, 77°, 74°, 728°, 72-5°, 73°, the temperature thus diminishing on approaching the coast, although at the same time nearing the equator, and finally reaching it within a few miles. ‘These observations in June show that the isocryme of 7A° EF’. passes north of the equator. The temperatures mentioned in Maury’s Chart afford the same conclusion, and lead to its posi- tion as laid down. : Isocryme of 68° F.—On October 234 to 25th, 1834, Mr. D. J. Browne, on board the U.S. Ship Erie, found the temperature of the sea on entering the harbor of Rio Janeiro, 674° to 683° F. Fitzroy on July 6, left the harbor with the sea temperature 703° eechey, in August, 1825, obtained the temperature 68°16° to 69°66° F’. off the harbor. The isocryme of 68° F. commences therefore near Rio, not far south of this harbor. Eastward of the west. The isocryme of 68° F. thus bends far south, reaching at least the parallel of 30°. It takes a course nearly parallel with the. line of 74° F., as different observations show, and_ passing just south of St. Helena, reaches the African coast, near latitude 7° south. Fitzroy, on July 10 (mid-winter), had a sea-temperature of 683° near St. Helena; and Vaillant, in the Bonite, in Septem- ber found the sea-temperature 68-7° to 69-269 F. Tsocrymes of 56° and 50° F.—T hese two isocrymes leave the American coast rather nearly together. The former commences just north of the entrance of the La Plata. Fitzroy, in July 23 the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 161 to 31, 1832, found the sea-temperature at Montevideo 56° to 58° d in August, 57° to 544° F. These observations would ie 5 temperature 56 FE. was also observed in 35° south, 53° west, and t 36° south, 56° 36’ west. But on July 10 and 13, 1833, at Montevideo, the sea-temperature was 464° to 474°, a degree of cold which, although only occasional, throws the line of 56° F. to the north of this place. The temperature near the land is several degrees of Fahrenheit lower than at sea three to eight de- grees distant. East of the mouth of the La Plata, near longitude 30° west, Beechey, in July, 1828, found the temperature of the sea 61'86° F. So in April 23 to 29, Vaillant obtained the tem- perature 59-5° to 61°25° F. at Montevideo, while in 35° 5’ south, 49° 23’ west, on April 14, it was 66-2° F., and farther south, in 37° 42’ south, 53° 28’ west, April 30, it was 64-4° F.; and in 39° 19’ south, 54° 32’ west, on May 1, it was 573° F.; buta little to the westward, on May 2, in 40° 30’ south, 56° 54’ west, the temperature was 48° F., an abrupt transition to the colder shore waters. Beechey, in 39° 31’ south, 45° 13’ west, on Aug- ust 28 (last of winter), found the temperature 57-25° F., and on the 29th, in 40° 27’ south, 45° 46’ west, it was 54:20° ; while on the next day, in 42° 27’ south, 45° 11’ west, the temperature fell to 47-839 F, These and other observations serve to fix the posi- tion of the isocryme of 56°F. It approaches the African coast, in 32° south, but bends upward, owing to cold waters near the land. On August 20, Vaillant, in 33° 43’ south, 15° 51’ east, found the temperature 56° F'.; while on the 22d, in the same latitude, and 14° 51’ east (or one degree farther to the westward), the temperature was 57°74° F., being nearly two degrees warmer. At Cape Town, in June (latitude 34°), Fitzroy found 55° to 61° F., while on August 16, farther south, in 35° 4’ south, and 15° AQ’ west, one hundred and fifty miles from the Cape, Vaillant found the temperature 59-26° EF. The high temperature of the last is due to the warm waters that come from the Indian Ocean, and which afford 61° to 64° F. in August, off the south extremity of Africa, west of the meridian of Cape Town. he isocryme of 50° F. leaves the American coast just south of the La Plata; after bending southwardly to the parallel of 419, it passes east nearly parallel with the line of 56°F. It does not reach the African coast. ‘ Tsocrymes of 44° and 35° F.—Fitzroy in August (the last win- ter month) of 1833, found the sea-temperature at Rio Negro (latitude 41° south) 484° to 50°F. But during the voyage from the La Plata to Rio Negro, a few days before, a temperature of 443° to 46° was met with; this was in the same month in which the low temperature mentioned above was found at Montevideo. he bend in the course north of the entrance to Srconp Serizs, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853. 21 162 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, iliustrating the La Plata, is to some extent, a limit between the warmer waters of the north, and the colder waters from the south; not an impassible limit, but one which is marked often by a more abrupt transition than occurs elsewhere along this part of the coast. The water was generally three or four degrees colder at Montevideo, than at Maldonado, the latter port being hardly shel- tered from the influence of the tropical waters, while Montevideo is wholly so. The exact point where the line of 44° F. reaches the coast is somewhat uncertain; yet the fact of its being south of Rio Negro is obvious. After leaving the coast, it passes north of 474° south, in longitude 53° west, where Beechey, in July, 1828, found the sea-temperature 40°70° F. The line of 35° F. through the middle of the South Atlantic, follows nearly the parallel of 50°; but towards South America it bends southward and passes south of the Falklands and Fnegia. At the Falklands, Captain Ross, in 1842, found the mean tem- perature of the sea for July, 38:73°, and for August, 38°10°; while in the middle of the Atlantic, on March 24, latitude 52° 31/ south, and longitude 8° 8 east, the temperature was down to 34-3° F., and in 50° 18’ south, 7° 15/ east, it was 37° F.; March — 20, in 54° 7’ south on the meridian of Greenwich, it was 33°4° F. The month of March would not give the coldest temperature. The temperature of the sea along the south coast of Fuegia sinks almost to 35°, if not quite, and the line of 35° therfore runs very near Cape Horn, if not actually touching upon Fuegia. Nortu Paciric Ocran.—Jsocryme of 80° F.—The waters of the Atlantic in the warmest regions, sink below 80° F. in the colder season, and there is therefore no proper Supertorrid Region in that ocean. In the Gulf of Mexico, where the heat rises at times to 85° F.., it sinks in other seasons to 74° and in some parts, even to 72° F.; and along the Thermal equator across the ocean, the temperature is in some portions of the year 78°, and in many places 74°. But in the Pacific, where the temperature of the waters rises iN some places to 88° F’., there is a small region in which through all seasons, the heat is never below 80°. It is a narrow area, eX- tending from 165° east to 148° west, and from 74° north to 11° south. In going from the Feejees in August, and crossing be- tween the meridians of 170° west and 18U°, the temperature of the waters, according to Captain Wilkes, increased from 79° to 84° F., the last temperature being met with in latitude 5° south, longitude 175° west and from this, going northward, there was 4 slow decrease of temperature. The Ship Relief, of the Expedi- tion, in October, found nearly the same temperature (833°) in the same latitude and longitude 177° west.* But the Peacock, im * See, for these facts, Captain Wilkes’s Report on the Meteorology of the Ex- the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 163 January and February (swmmer months), found the sea-tempera- ture 85° to 88° F., near Fakaafo, in latitude 10° south, and longi- tude 171° west. In latitude 5° south and the same longitude, on the 16th of January, the temperature was 84°; in th, January 10th, it was 83° F.; on March 26th, in 5° south, and longitude 175° east, the temperature was 86° F. ; on April 10th, in the same longitude, under the equator, at the Kingsmills, the temperature was .; on May 2d, at 5° north, longitude 174° east, 834° F.; May 5th, latitude 10°, longitude 169° east, 82° F. The fact that the region of greatest heat in the Middle ‘Pacific is south of the equator, as it has been laid down by differ- ent authors, is thus evident ; the limits of a circumscribed region of hot waters in this part of the Pacific, were first drawn out by Captain Wilkes. Another Supertorrid region may exist in the Indian Ocean, about its northwestern portion; but we have not sufficient in- formation for laying down its limits. Lsocryme of 74° F.—At San Blas, on the Coast of Mexico, Beechey found the mean temperature of the sea for December, 1827, 74:63° F.; for January, 73:69° F.; for February, 72-40° EF. The line of 74° EF. commences therefore a degree or two south of San Blas. In the winter of 1827 on January 16 to 18, the temperature of 743° to 74:-6° F. was found by Beechey, in 16° 4’ to 16° 15/ north, 182° 40’ to 135° west ; and farther west, in the same latitude, longitude 141° 58’ west, the temperature was 74-839 F. West of the Sandwich Islands, near the parallel of 20° north, the temperature rises five degrees in passing from the meridian of 165° west to 150° east, and the isocryme of 74° F., consequently trends somewhat to the north, over this part of the ocea tween the meridians of 130° and 140° east, the tem- perature of the sea is quite uniform, indicating no northward flex- ure; and west of 130° east, nearing China, there is a rapid de- Crease of temperature, bending the line far south. Vaillant of the Bonite, found the sea of Cochin China, in latitude 12° 16’ north, 109° 28’ east, to have the temperature 74-12° F'.; and even at Singapore, almost under the equator, the temperature on February 7 to 21, was 77:54° to 79:34° F. The isocryme of 74° F poe bass therefore upon the southeastern coast of Cochin shina. Lsocryme of 68°—Off the Gulf of California, in 25° north, 1179 west, Beechey obtained for the temperatue of the sea on Dec ber 13, 65° F'.; on December 15, in 23° 28’ north (same latitude with the extremity of the peninsula of California), 115° west, a temperature of 69°41° EF. The line of 68° will pass from the ex- tremity of this peninsula, the temperature of the coast below, as it is shut off mostly from the more northern or cold waters, being much warmer. The temperature 69°41° in the middle of De- 164 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating cember, is probably two and a half degrees above the cold of the coldest month, judging from the relative temperatures of the lat- ter half of December and the month of February at San Blas. Leaving California, the isocryme of 68° will therfore bend a little southerly to Q240, j in longitude 115° west. In 23° 56/ north, 128° 33’ west, Beechey, on January 11, found the temperature < the sea 67:83° F. The line of 68° passes north of the Sand- wich Islands. The mean temperature of the sea at Oahu in Feb- ruary, 1827, was 69°69° F. Near China, this isocryme is bent far south. At Macao, in winter, Vaillant found the sea-temperature, on January 4, 59° F.; on January 5 to 10, 52°7° to 50° F.; January 11, 12, 49'87° to 48: 74°: PF .5 January 13 to 16, 50° 9° to 52-16° F.; and at Tou- . ranne in Cochin oes on February 6 to 24, the sea-temperatiire was 68° to 684° F.; in 16° 22’ north, 108° 11/ east, on January 24, it was 67°; in 12° 16’ north, 109° 28’ east, it was 74:12° F. The very low Macao temperature is that of the surface of the Bay itself, due to the cold of the land, _ not probably, as the other observations show, of the sea outsi The line, before passing south, bends ieabenid to the south- east shore of Niphon, which is far warmer than the southeast coast, along Kinsiu. In the Report of the Morrison’s visit to Jeddo (Chinese Repository for 1837), a coral bottom is spoken of, as having been encountered in the rae of Jeddo. According to Siebold (Crust. Faun. Japon., p. ix.), the mean winter tempe!- ature (air) of Jeddo is 57° F.; while that of Nagasaki, although farther south, is sor F. Isocry of 62 ° F.—On January 8, 1827, Beechey found in 29° 42’ north, 126° 37’ west, the temperature 62:75° F. ; while on the preceding eo 32° 42! north, 125° 43’ west, the sea-tem- perature was 60°5° F. Again, on December 11, in 29° north, 120° west, the sebieuitshes was pee ae Isocryme of 56° F',—At Monterey, on January 1 to 5, the sea temperature according to Beechey was 56°; but the mean tem perature of the sea for November 1 to 17, was 54-91°. In the ellow Sea, the January ped meee is 50° to 56° F., and the line of 56° begins south of Tsocryme of 50° F.—At ceca panei se November 18 to Deceriiiel 5, 1826, Beechey found the mean sea-temperature t0 be 61-149 F. , and off Monterey, in longitude 1235 west, the tem- perature was 50°75° F., on December 6. But in December of 1826, the mean sea-temperature at San Francisco was 54°78? F-. ; and for November, 60°16° F. The line of 50° F. (mean “of the — coldest thirty consecutive days), probably leaves the coast at Cape Mendocino. Tsocrymes of 44° and 35° F.—Captain Wilkes found the tem- perature off the mouth of the Columbia River, satiate en de- the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 165 grees of longitude, 48° to 49° F., during the last of April, 1841. The isocryme of 44° would probably reach the coast not far north of this place. The temperature on October 21, in the same lati- tude, but farther west, 147° west, was 52°08°F. On October 16, in 50° north, 169° west, the temperature was 44°91° F. Ac- cording to some oceanic temperatures for the North Pacific, ob- tained from Lieutenant Maury, the sea-temperature off northern Niphon, in 41° north and 1424° east, was 44° F., in March, showing the influence of the cold Polar current; and in 429 north, and 1493° east, it was 43° F. The line of 44° hence _ southward as far as latitude 40° north, on the Japan cain in March, in 43° 50/ north, 151° east, the sea-tempera- ture, was 41° F'.; in 44° 50’ north, 152° 10’ east, 39° F.; in 46° 20/ north, 156° east, 33° F.; in 49° north, 157° east, 33° F.; and at the same time, west of Kamschatka, in 55° north, 153° east, 38° F.; in 55° 50’ north, 153° west, 38° F. The line of 35° comegsetly makes a deep bend, nearly to 45° north, along the Kurile Islands. Sourn Paciric.—Isocrymes of 74°, 68°, and 62° F.—The temperature of the sea at et on ee 3d, was found by Vaillant, to be, in the river, from 703° 0 734° F, and at the Puna anchorage, August 5 to 12, 74:7° mig 75-2°F, But off the coast, August 15, in 2° 22/ south, 81° 42’ west, the temperature 69-89 F.; and the next day, in 1° 25’ south, 84° 12/ west, it was 70° F'.; on the 17th, 1° south, 87° 42’ west, it was 71-28° F.; and on the 14th, nearer the shore of Guayaquil, in 3° 18’ south, 80° 28’ west, it was 78° F. Again, at Payta, one hundred miles south of Guayaquil, in 5° south, the oo was found by Vaillant, July 26 to 31, to be 60°8° to 614° F. The isocryme of 74° F., consequently leaves the coast just north of the bay of Guayaquil, while those of 68° and 62° F’., both com- mence between Guayaquil and Payta. Payta is situated so far and protected by it from a southern current. At the earls Fitzroy found the temperature as low as 583° FE’. on the 29t September, and the mean for the day was 62°. The average for September. was, however, nearer 66°. The Gallapagos appear therefore, to lie in the Warm Temperate Region, between the isocrymes of 62° and 68° F. Fitzroy, in going from Callao to the Gallapagos, early in September, left a sea-temperature of 57° F. at Callao, passed 62° F. in 9° 58’ north, and 79° 42’ west, and = the 15th, found 684° F. off Barrington Island, one of the Gal- a raged warm season, the cold waters about the oo need have narrow limits; Beechey found a sea-temperature of ° on the 166 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, etc. 30th of March, 1827, just south of the equator, in 100° west. But in October, Fitzroy, going westward and southward from the Gallapagos, found a sea-temperature of 66° EF. at the same place; and ina nearly straight course from this point to 10° south, 120° west, found the sea-temperatures successively, 68°, 70°, 703° 724°, 734°, 74°; and beyond this, 754°, 763°, 774° F., the last on November 8, in 14° 24’ south, 136° 51’ west. These observations give a wide sweep to the cold waters of the colder seasons, and throw the isocrymes of 74° and 68° F., far west of the Gallapagos. Captain Wilkes, in passing directly west from Callao, found a tem- perature of 68° F’., in longitude 85° west F’., in 95° west; and 74° F’., in 102° to 108° west. These and other observations lead to the positions of the isocrymes of 74°, 68°, and 62°, given on the Chart. The line of 74° passes close by Tahiti and Tong- atabu, and crossing New Caledonia, reaches Australia in latitude 25° 8 In mid-ocean there is a bend in all the southern isocrymes.* — Isocrymes of 56° and 50° F.—The temperature at Callao, in July, averages 584° or 59° F. At Tquique, near.20° south, Fitz- roy had 58° to 6U° F., on Jnly 14, 1835 ; and off Copiapo, in the same month, 564° F. At Valparaiso, Captain Wilkes found a sea-temperature of 524° F., in May; and Fitzroy, in September, occasionally obtained 48° F'., but generally 52° to 53°. off Chiloe, Fitzroy found the temperature 48° to 514° in July. Inpran Ocean.—Isocrymes of 74° and 68° F,—Off the south extremity of Madagascar, in 27° 33’ south, 47° 17’ east, on August 4th, Vaillant found the temperature 69:26° F.; and 29° 34’ south, 46° 46/ east, the temperature of 67-84° F.; off South Africa, August 12, in 34° 42/ south, 27° 25’ east, the tem perature 63-5° F’.; on August 14, in 35° 41’ sonth, 22° 34’ east, a temperature of 63-3° F.; while off Cape Town, two hundre miles to the west, the temperature was 50° to 54° F In the above review, we have mentioned only a few of the ob- servations which have been used in laying down the lines, hav- ing selected those which bear directly on some positions of spec! interest, as regards geographical distribution. The Chart also contains the heat-equator,—a line drawn through the positions of greatest heat over the oceans. It is 4 shifting line, varying with the seasons, and hence, there is some difficulty in fixing upon a course for it. We have followed mainly the Chart of Berghaus. But we have found it necessary to gi¥ it a much more northern latitude in the western Pacific, and also _ a flexure in the western Atlantic, both due to the currents from the south that flow up the southern continents. Vaillant passing from Guayaquil to the Sandwich Islands, found the temperature, after passing the equator, slowly increase, * See Observations by W. C. Cunningham, Am, J. Seu, [2] xv, 66. Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 167 from 76° F., ae - in 2° 39 north, 91° 58’ west (of Green- wich), to 81-9° F., in August 31, 11° 15’ no orth, 107° 3’ west, after chiab it was si above 80°F. The same place i in the ocean which gave Vaillant 76° F., in August, afforded Fitzroy (4° north, 96° west), on March 26 (when the sun had long been far north), 823° F. This fact shows the variations of temperature that take place with the change of season (To be continued.) Arr. X VII.—Conitributions to Mineralogy ; by Dr. F. A. Gentu of Philadelphia. (Concluded from p, 86.) 5. Owwenite,a new mineral.—I found this mineral in the meta- morphic rocks on both sides of the Potomac River near Harpers Ferry, associated with quartz and sometimes with impressions of carbonate of magnesia. Massive, aggregate of minute scales; cleavage distinct in one direction; H. =2°5; Sp. gr. =3-197 (at 20° C. ); color olive- green ; streak paler; lustre pearly ; fracture subconchoidal; very tough ;. powder greasy to the touch; odor argillaceous. BB. ‘fuses easily =3, and gives an iron black magnetic globule ; with borax gives the reactions of iron, and with soda in the oxyd- ating flame shows the presence of a trace of manganese. Yields water in the matrass.: Dissolves readily in dilute hydrochloric acid. It was analyzed under my opine oo by Mr. Peter pes who obtained the following re 18920 grammes ignited for = Nei forty-five minutes at a sets red hese in a well covered platinum crucible, lost 0'2050 grs, . 1:1542 grs. treated in the same manner, lost 0°1195 grs. It is possible, that these determinations of water are a little too low, because a small quantity of iron was found to have oxydized higher on heating. TIL. 2:0770 grs. were dissolved in hydrochloric acid. The silicic acid gelatinized on evaporation ; it was evaporated to dry- ness, the dry mass moistened with hydrochloric acid, diluted with water and filtered after it had completely settled. The silicic acid weighed 0°4798 grs The filtrate was oxydized by nitric acid, Eabeiiabo by am- monia, redissolved in acetic acid and evaporated in a water-bath, again ‘moistened with water and this ve asin until all the acetates of alumina and iron were thus Both were filtered, and alumina separated from the sesquioxyd of iron by caustic potash in the usual manner. From the acidula potash solution the alumina was igre 2 ae by sulphid of am- monium ; it gave 03226 gramme 168 Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. The sesquioxyd of iron was redissolved in hydrochloric acid and precipitated by ammonia; it weighed 1: : the soluble acetates, to which chlorid of ammonium had been added, the lime was precipitated as oxalate, which yielded 0-0106 grs. carbonate of lime. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness and the magnesia sepa- rated from the alkalies by oxyd of mercury ; the magnesia was redissolved and precipitated with all the requisite precautions as phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, which gave 0-0670 grs. pyrophosphate of magnesia. e mixed chlorids of sodium and potassium weighed 00185 grs. and the platinum 0:0033 grs. IV. 1:3668 grs. dissolved and the silica separated as in III, gave 0°3187 grs. silicic acid. From the filtrate, oxydized by nitric acid, both sesquioxyd of iron and alumina were precipitated y ammonia, and the alumina separated from sesquioxyd of iron as above; it weighed 0:2138 grs. The sesquioxyd of iron re- dissolved and precipitated by ammonia was 0-7148 grs. The filtrate from the sesquioxyd of iron was added to the liquid con- taining lime and magnesia, and after being concentrated by evap- oration was precipitated by oxalate of ammonia. The oxalate gave 0:0100 grs. carbonate of lime. Mand V. I, IV and V. SiO, 23°10 23°32 23°21 contains oxygen == 12°05 Fes Os 13:90 13°88 13°89 es Sa 4°16 11°45 Als Os 15°58 15°64 15°59 "2 4-29 FeO 34:58 34°58 34:58 e 7-68 oe ene g 116 137 1-26 ig 0-49 CaO 0°29 0-43 0°36 i. 0:10 _ NaO 0-41 0-41 O41 a O11 K 0-08 0-08 @ 0-01 HO 10°84 10°85 10°59 “ 9.42 99°89 100-06 The ratio of oxygen of RO: R203: Si03: HO is, 8:39: 11-45 : 12-05 : 9-42 or very near 1: 26: 2a PIR At eal 2 ae oy Pe Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 169 corresponding with the formula 2(3RO,8:03)+(3R2 a $103) +6HO. Owenite is closely allied to some other minerals, viz., Aphro- siderite and Thuringite, and they all resemble each other so very much that their difference can be detected only by a chemical examination. Aphrosiderite is a mineral not generally known; found at several localities in Nassau, and distinguished from earthy chlorite by Fridolin Sandberger, who gave an analysis of it in his ‘‘ Uebersicht der geologischen Verhaltnisse des Herzog- thums Nassau,’ but without calculating its formula. He found that it contains : SiO; oi 26 “45 which contains oxygen - "3 Als O$ mee 2S 93 eO = 44-94 “ oe - MeO eS Ft “ OAl t 19 23 100°74 The ratio of oxygen of RO: Als O23: SiQs : HO is 10:23: : ae ED Be wes or very near ge ppl a sate aa ae formula aa) SiOs y+-(3Al2 Os; iO eds S ; thuringite according to an analysis of Rammels- berg, is 3(3RO, Si Os)+(2Fes Os,8103)+-9H0. The relation of these three minerals will be seen from the following formule : Owenite = 2(3RO, $i Os)+(3R20s, SiO:)+6HO; rena Adtay = 3(3RO,8i0:)+(3Al20:, 8103)+6HO; Thur = 3(3RO,Si03)+(2Fe: : Os, SiOx) +9HO. a itis miner is named in honor of Dr. David Dale Owen, U.S. eolog - dimmererite—Emerald Nickel —A year ago, before I had received my foreign journals, I published two analyses of Kam- Mmererite, and finding these different from Kammererite and Rho- dochrome, I proposed for it the name “ Rhodophyltlite.” On be- ing informed that Dr. J..L. Smith was about making an investi- gation of the same mineral, I wrote him that the conclusion to which I had arrived, after comparing the results of my analyses and those of Mr. Hermann, was, that Kimmererite and my Rho- dophyllite were the same mineral, and requested him to mention it in bie a ee This ought to have been sufficient. Notwith- Siete Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 47 wep ae —— 170 Hassler's Experiments on the Expansion of Water. my analyses agree well with each other. With reference to his article on emerald-nickel, it suffices to say, that I have described the mineral in 1851 under the name Nickelgymnite.* It is a variety of gymnite in which a variable quantity of magnesia is substituted by nickel, and when pure, it does not contain a trace of carbonic acid. Mr. Garrett would not have arrived at such a scientific formula if he had been mote careful in selecting his material. ‘The same is to be said 0 r. Hermann’s Pennine, which is a mixture of Kammerenile, Dolomite, Nickelgymnite, etc. at Arr. XVIIL.—Hassler’s Experiments on the Expansion of Wa- ter at various temperatures ; by J. H. Auexanper, Esq. Tue late Mr. Hassler enjoyed, during his life-time, a high re- putation: but one founded, i uld appear, at least in this country, more upon the prestige of his manifest and presume moral and intellectual faculties, than upon any just knowledge or estimate of his special achievements in Science or Art. is true that these faculties were both large and_ well-defined ; and they had a scope for their exhibition, sometimes, more favor- able to the interest of the spectator than the ease and comfort of the actor. He was undaunted, diligent, patient, self-reliant ; n° > . a : a . ith a spice of dogmatism, that like carbonic acid in certai® Ww wiues (itself an irrespirable gas) only served to make them more racy and montants. Unfamiliar people were apt to suppose that * Keller-Tiedemann’s Nordamerika bude Nex 1G - f Hassler’s Experiments on the Expansion of Water. 171 this free acidity predominated, normally ; but the fact was, tad his dogmatism arose out of his disgust at all pretence, and it w always manifested in proportion to the difference between the a ity and the pretension in any person cr thing that exhibited the latter. He was essentially a man of truth: assumption of any kind disgusted him; while to assumption without a basis (or what is commonly called humbug g) he was never merciful, but visited it with all the weight of logic and the sharpness of sar- casm. Those who knew him, knew that he could be both heavy and sharp. But to draw traits of character was by no means the Gp of this memoir; what has been said, has slipped from my pen s taneously. It is true, et honored by the intimacy of Mr. Haciee and even bound by a sort of half promise (for in the mathemati- cal probabilities of life, mes was every chance of my being long his survivor) I should years since, had the means been at my dis- posal, have endeavored to do justice to his memory by an account of the events he had mixed in, of the services he had rendered to- wards the stabilitation and diffusion of knowledge, and of the methods which he partly originated, and partly combined, for di- vers researches of science ut the present notice of one of these methods, and of its suc- cessful niet sa in the determination of a set of physical con- stants, is owing to no such editorial impulse. The fact is, that having occasion, in behalf of professional investigations in which I was concerned, to wish for a better tabulated statement of the were accessible to me, it came into my head to examine, reduce, and compare the quite extensive series of observations on this point which Mr. Hassler had ea the apparatus or apparatus is given. As it is no wise necessary to repeat here what is in print elsewhere, this reference will be sufficient. Only these particulars may be noted, viz: Ist, that the quantity of water op- erated upon, upwards of 30 avoirdupois pounds, was such as vastly to magnify the differences, and reduce the errors of observ- ation; 2nd, that the extent of observation, going as far as the va- ration of temperature in a whole year, and always allowing the temperatures to settle themselves by their natural en? in a = Baty soon Corer 1 See Ieee 172 Hassier’s Experiments on the Expansion of Water. room set apart for the purpose, instead of ‘being forced, unstable and therefore doubtful, as in all cases of production of artifici transient temperatures, is such as to afford a more than usual check upon the aceuracy of any part of it, and a more than usual confidence in the equilibrium of the temperatures averre In this method of observation, it follows that the actual tem- peratures and the corresponding weights succeed one another ir- regularly. The first thing to be done, then, was to group the resulting weights, degree “by degree, and thus repare them for their arithmetical means. ‘Their preparation resulted in a synop- tical table, in which the average weights corresponding to frac- tions of almost every degree of Fahrenheit between 35° and 86° found a place. This synopsis was then converted into another, where the temperature was given in whole degrees, and the weights corresponding found by taking proportional parts of the actual weights observed for the said fractions. Then, in order to cover the irregularities of result existing as between degree and degree, and to ensure a sufficient generalization, these last ascel~ tained weights were tabulated from five to five degrees, com- mencing with 40° , which is so near the density of maximum density as to allow of being assumed for it. In fact, the actual difference of weight observed between 39°:4 and 40°-4 is only 2-4 grains on a weight of nearly 228000 grains, or somewhat more than the ;55.555 par The differences of the weights in this last tabulation, divided by 5, and thus reduced to a rate per degree for every five degrees, presented a quite harmonious diverging series; the second differ- ences were nearly constant, and the plus and pene third differ- s 77) Qu =4 wa i) a4 = o Qu is) or ta) <4 OT = bee mh = a jor ie*) GQ g n ~- ° oF = oO ~» an] oO 4 a 9°) oo ° << ror) st ’ ing table oe Weights calculated. | Weights observed. Proportional Ditferences._| 40° 3:3 27843°3 Ge = 45° 837°3 Oo - 50° 8113 815-4 — 0000014 55° 765-3 766— — 0000003 60° 699°8 695°3 000018 65° 6133 6043 0000040 70° 5073 5018 +0-000024 75° 3813 871-5 +0:000043 80° 235°3 230°5 0000021 85° 227069-3 2210765 0000032 What remained, then, was to convert the said calculated we th into decimal parts of unity taken as the maximum density * Biography of Berzelius. 173 water and so occurring as beforesaid at 40° F. Finally, the den- sities were interpolated from degree to degree between these epochs, according de a method which I have given in a former volume of this Journ The final results are given in the following Table of the Specific Gravities of Water at successive Temperatures of Fahrenheit's Thermometer. Temp. F. Specific Gravity. Temp. F, Specific Gravity. 40° : 63 “ 0°9991 41 9:9999997 64 099907382 42 09999978 65 0°9989905 43 0-9 48 66 9989 44 09999860 f 67 09988147 45 A 0:9999737 68 0:9987217 46 i 09999579 69 0°9986252 47 “ 09999385 10 i 09985253 48 : 09999157 v1 = 09984219 49 : 09998893 "2. z 099838149 50 4 0:9998595 13 2 09982043 51 0°9998262 44 : 09980901 52 09 94 15 09979723 53 09997491 16 09978510 54 09997052 ues 09977263 55 0-9996577 48 09975981 56 09996067 19 09974665 57 0°9995522 80 0°9973315 58 09994949 81 0:9971929 59 0°9994328 82 0°9970507 60 099938680 83 0°9969049 61 : 09992997 84 09967555 62 F 0:9992278 85 ? 09966025 Empirical Formula :— t° = observed temperature .* 19 — 42° Sp. Gr. at ¢° = (69 + 35:15. 2° j° 42°) oe" Arr, XIX.—Biography of Berzelius; by Prof. H. Rose, of Berlin. (Continued from p. 15.) Previous to Berzelius, Dalton, in his new System of Chem- ical Philosophy, had attempted to express numerically the rela- tive quantities in which bodies generally combine, and by a means, as he regarded bodies as consisting of atoms, he establish as it were the relative weights of the ultimate ces. Thus originated the doctrine of the ed atomic weights. 174 | Biography of Berzelius. the correct idea of that which is now universally called atom 1 chemistry. Richter had previously employed in a similar sense the name relative mass (massentheil), in order to express the different quantities of acid and base which combine together forming salts ; his idea however, was not so material as that of Dalton, and this character was necessary to give it that perfect clearness, which was indispensable, if a theory was to be founded upon it. The long and obstinate opposition which was made by German philosophers to the idea of atoms as employed in chemistry, and the war waged with all the weapons of logical acumen against the atomic view of the composition of bodies, for a long time rather obstructed than favored the advancement and spread of the exact sciences, especially that of chemistry. Now that the atomic theory is adopted by all, the use of the word T'o Dalton, therefore, belongs the great merit of having given n atom is allowed by all in order to explain the facts with ease and simplicity. Dalton assumed that simple substances combined in equal atoms, and, indeed, atom with atom, when there was only one compound of the two elements; if several, one atom of one sub- stance combined with one, two, three, or more atoms of another. The first conception of these so-called multiple proportions origin- ated properly with Higgins, who made it known as early as 1789, in a work on the subject. But the most important experiments, by which the theory of Dalton was proved, were instituted by Wollaston, who published in the year 1814 his ingenious scale of chemical equivalents. When the numbers made use of by Dalton are compared with those which Berzelius deduced from his own accurate experl- ments, differences are found similar to those existing between these latter and those given by Richter. The number of analy- ses upon which Dalton had founded his arguments was too small, and moreover they had not been executed with very great ac- cu chemists have hesitated between hydrogen and oxygen. Dalton chose hydrogen, and took it as 1, since its atom is the lightest of all the elements. - Many chemists followed his example on this ie ito Se es aaa account, especially after Prout subsequently had attempted tO shew that the atomic weights of all simple bodies were multiples of that of hydrogen. Richter had long before entertained a si™- ilar view, inasmuch as he assumed that the equivalents of all ba- ses form an arithmetical, those of acids a geometrical progression Nevertheless, Berzelius and Wollaston took oxygen as unity be- cause it was the most widely distributed of all the elements, and Biography of Berzelius. 175 existed in most compound substances. By adopting oxygen as unity, all calculations were greatly simplified. Berzelius took it as 100, Wollaston as 10. Berzelius remained true to his opin- ion to the last, and always declared himself against that of Prout, even when, in 1840, it was again adopted by Dumas, who at- tempted to prove its truth for at least a few elements by actual experiment. It is true that the atomic weights of several of the non-metallic elements appear to be multiples of that of hydrogen, but it has not been possible to maintain Prout’s views as regards others. So long as we are ignorant whether this correspondence is merely accidental, or actually a law of nature, we must suspend a decision. especially in such proportions that one atom of one element unites with one atom of another, assumed also that when, for ex- ample, several oxyds of an element existed, the oxygen atoms of the higher oxyds were multiples of oxygen in the lowest oxyd. But when only one oxyd was known, it was obviously very haz- ardous to assume that it consisted of equal atoms of both elements, Without taking any notice of the other relations of this compound. Berzelius studied all the circumstances with the greatest attention, and the caution as well as penetrating tact with which he pro- ceeded, are evident from the fact, that, when subsequently, Mitsch- erlich, by his important discovery of Isomorphism, furnished an admirable means of recognizing with certainty bodies having sim- ilar atomic composition, it was not necessary for Berzelius to make any alteration in his views. ed by him must peroxyd of ut one atom of metal and one atom of oxygen, and, formerly adopted be reduced to one-half. The higher oxyds, such P 176 Biography of Berzelius. iron, would then contain three atoms of oxygen to two atoms of At that time, Berzelius adopted the view, that when a simple hody is converted into the gaseous state, one volume of the gas corresponds to an atom. For this reason, water was always re- garded by him as composed of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. He held this opinion firmly, and disputed the hypotheses of Thomson, Dalton, and other chemists, who assumed that in two volumes of hydrogen there were as many atoms as in one volume of oxygen. Subsequently, when by the direct de- termination of the specific weights of sulphur, phosphorus, and mercury vapors, made Dumas and Mitscherlich, this assump* tion of Berzelius was not generally confirmed, he limited its appli- cation to the permanent gases alone. He was on this account compelled frequently to assume two — atoms where other chemists assumed only one atom. He there- fore introduced double atoms in those cases where they were the equivalent for one atom of another substance. Many chemists phorus, as double those adopted by Berzelius; many French tion of his Lehrbuch, he has assigned for doing this, are so strong, that they cannot well be set aside. These he derives especially Biography of Berzelius. 177 of hydrogen must be able to replace one atom of oxygen or sulphur. Even if it does sometimes happen that we do not find conclusions of this kind confirmed by experiment, if in the replacement of one body by another in compounds, an element, as for instance potas- sium, may be replaced by a compound radical such as ammonium, still it is not admissible to assume that such substitutions as may be theoretically inferred from the similarity in atomic weight, or atomic volume, really do take place, without the authority of re- peated experiment. It is certainly convenient to regard equiva- lent and atom as synonymous terms, although not truly appropriate in a scientific view. For the purpose of expressing the proportions in which bodies _ combine chemically, Berzelius, so early as the year 1815, employed certain signs as symbols for the different elements. Such signs were employed long before this in chemistry, or rather alchemy, although they were then of little value. These symbols undoubt- edly owed their origin to the mysterious relation between the plan- ets and metals, as assumed by the alchemists, and the pleasure which they took in expressing themselves in a manner unintelligi- ble to the people. Berzelius would not adopt the old symbols, not only because they were, in fact, destitute of all significance, but likewise because it is certainly easier to write the abbreviation of a word than to draw a figure. 'The symbols of Berzelius, however, Serve to express the chemical combining proportions, and the chemical formule furnish a means of representing the numerical results of an analysis with all the simplicity of an algebraical formula. employ it ; and this renders it the more remarkable, that the op- position made to this innovation was at first so considerable. A French philosopher exchanged the symbols proposed by Berzelius, for the initial letters of the French names for the elements. But it was in England that the greatest opposition was made to the adoption of the chemical formule of Berzelius. Even so late as 1822, an English chemist, speaking of them, said, ‘“ they are cal- culated more to produce misunderstanding and mystification than clearness, since they are of a nature totally different from algebra- ical formule ; it would be easier to express oneself in ordinary words than with these symbols, which only make a kind mathematical parade.” Berzelius replied to the partly rude and uncourteous objections with dispassionate clearness and com- posure. Who would now consider it possible to dispense with - the use of these “ abominable symbols” of Berzelius, as they were Seconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept. 1853. POTS a 178 Biography of Berzelius. termed by the editor of an English journal? The opposition to the introduction of these symbols was the more remarkable, sin Dalton, in putting forward his atomic system in 1808, had felt e urgent necessity of representing the atoms of elements by means of symbols, which did not then meet with any opposition, although at the same time with no imitation in England. The five, and seven atoms of oxygen, because these numbers were not multiples of each other. He therefore assumed, that in phosphoric acid there were four atoms of oxygen, in the arsenious and arsenic — acid four and six atoms, and in oxide of antimony and antimoni¢ acid the same number; and long after he had convinced himself of the elementary nature of chlorine, he doubted the correct state- ment of Stadion, that hyperchloric acid contained seven atoms of oxygen. ‘The examination of the oyxds of nitrogen presented consider- able difficulties to him. As ammonia was analogous to the fixed alkalies, and under the influence of galvanic electricity yielded an amalgam with mercury, there was a possibility of assuming that this was a process of reduction, and that ammonia consisted of 2 metal and oxygen. But when ammonia was decomposed, no 0X- Biography of Berzelius. 179 toxyd of ammonium (the present amidogen combined with potas- sium), ammonia, nitrogen, nitrous acid, nitric acid, and, finally, water, the highest oxyd of the radical, which, however, must, on this view, have contained 72 times as much oxygen as the low- est oxyd hydrogen. Berzelius was led to adopt this extravagant but ingenious view by too great faith in the doctrine of proportions in the form in which he then conceived it. Somewhat later, he retracted the opinion that hydrogen was an oyxd, and demonstrated the ele- mentary nature of this body by weighty arguments; but he still continued to regard nitrogen as containing oxygen, and endeav- ored afterwards to prove this by means of its oxyds. Even in 1818, in a paper upon the nature of nitrogen, hydrogen and am- monia, he said, “I venture to assert, that the compound nature of nitrogen must not be regarded as a mere hypothesis, but, if the doctrine of definite proportions is admitted, as a demonstrated truth.” He assumed that an unknown radical—nitricum—ex- isted, to which he assigned the symbol N, subsequently retained for nitrogen, which-was then regarded as the suboxyd of thi supposed radical, and the highest oxyd—nitric acid—as contain- ing six atoms of oxygen Searches on the composition of phosphorus and phosphoric acids, in which he found, almost simultaneously with Dulong, that the quantities of oxygen were in the proportion of 3 to 5, and after aving in vain attempted to detect oxygen in phosphorus, his Views respecting the compound nature of nitrogen were shaken, and he finally relinquished them, after having convinced himself that a similar relation obtained between very many, we may per- haps now say most, of the different oxyds of simple bodies which form acids. Subsequently, he sometimes made the remark, without, vestigation of the oxyds of tin, he assumed that the oxyd obtained from the Spiritus Libavii, which certainly differs greatly in its 180 Biography of Berzelius. characters from that obtained by means of nitric acid, was, in ref- Gay-Lussac shewed that it did not differ from the oxyd prepared with nitric acid in its quantity of oxygen. After Berzelius had convinced himself of the truth of this remark, he showed how much the two differed in their characters. This was the first ex- ample of Isomerism. Berzelius connected the electro-chemical doctrine with that of simple definite proportions. It was very natural that he should apply the phenomena presented by the voltaic pile, and especially the facts which in his first paper he had so convincingly ex- plained, to the ordinary chemical processes. He assumed, that in every chemical process there was a neutralization of the oppo- site electricities, in consequence of which heat and light were produced in the same way asin the discharge ofa Leyden jar, the galvanic battery, or lightning, with the difference, that these phe- nomena were not rp accompanied by chemical mn positi ve. The con intensity of the electrical polarity in the atoms of different bodies, dependent partly upon their tem- perature, was regarded as the cause of the difference of force with which affinities are exercised. He altered his views of this sub- ject at different times, finally admitted that it was very pos- sible that he was in e In classifying woilteen as electro-positive and electro-negative, Berzelius regarded oxygen and the elements resembling it as elec- tro-positive. Subsequently, however, he altered the nomencla- ture, and more correctly calle them e lectro-negative. Oxygen alone he regarded as absolutely electro- -hegative, all other bodies being only relatively negative or positive, just as they would be related to each other when their compounds were exposed to the influence of the electric pile. These views of Berzelius have been frequently disputed. And in truth, the phenomena attending the greater number of ordinaty cheninal processes, in which bodies act upon each other only when in immediate contact, are different from those which occur during the discharge of an sluekric pile where bodies act at a dis- a It is only i in some chemical ira: such as the arbor- nt deposition of metals, that there is a resemblance ser eaiveeaisiona effected by the pile. Biography of Berzelius. 181 Much later, Berzelius assumed the existence of another force, although only as regarded some special chemical changes—the catalytic force. The evolution of light and heat, according to the electro-chemical theory, could only result from the combina- tion of bodies opposite in their characters; but when they occur in the decomposition of bodies, or when compounds are decom- posed and new ones formed, while at the same time the body whose presence causes this change takes no part in it, Berzelius ascribed this effect to the force of catalysis. uch has been brought forward in opposition to the assump- which stand isolated, for which no suitable analogues can be found, and which appear as it were wonderful, should provision- ally be ascribed to a peculiar cause or force, so as openly to ad- mit, that in the present state of the science it is more appropriate not to explain a chemical process at all, than to do so in a forced and fastidious manner. With the advance of the science, the number of phenomena belonging to such categories will always become smaller. After Berzelius had labored uninterruptedly during a space of ten years in the investigation of the atomic weights, of the ele- of organic bodies had been instituted a few years previous to the appearance of this paper, by Thenard and Gay-Lussac, 1n 1811. Nevertheless, they contented themselves with drawing no other inference from their results than that a vegetable substan , 182 Biography of Berzelius. ways acid when it contains oxygen in a proportion greater than is necessary to form water; that by an excess of hydrogen, resinous, oleaginous, or alcoholic substances were formed; and lastly, that when oxygen and hydrogen were present in the same proportions as in water, these substances were neither acid nor resinous, but re. ented themselves with remarking, that they contained a greater quantity of hydrogen than was necessary to form water with the oxygen present, and that it was united with nitrogen in the form of ammonia. ' . Gay-Lussac and Thenard had burnt the organic substances by means of chlorate of potash, in a special form of apparatus; Ber- zelius borrowed from them the use of chlorate of potash, but his mode of combustion was incomparably more advantageous. He novelty of the subject presented many difficulties. But al- though afterwards the methods of analysis were greatly sif™- plified and improved, still the analytical results obtained by him in his investigation of organic substances have proved to be re ganic bo ies. his observation led to the view which rega@ organic bodies as oxyds, whose radicals, however, are compound, while in the inorganic bodies they are simple. This view at first attracted little notice among chemists, and was not till long after wards recognized as correct by many, after the number of fantas ic ideas of the composition of organic bodies had created earnest desire for a rational and consistent theory we ee ne ee Biography of Berzelius. 183 It is a subject of regret, that it was not granted to Berzelius to live to see several of the radicals hypothetically assumed by him, actually obtained, as was done indeed but a very short time ples. If the minerals occurring in nature are regarded as having compositions similar to the substances artificially prepared in the laboratory, such a mineral system is, indeed, very appropriate, Every man of science must, however, admit that in this case a dif- ferent system of classification must come into use in Mineralogy from that adopted in Botany and Zoology. The inorganic substan- ces with which that science has to do consist of a large number —more than 60—simple bodies: the organic substances, on the contrary, of very few—only three or four. Since, moreover, the intimate connection existing between the chemical composition and all the external characters of minerals cannot be detected, it his predecessors to be entirely forgotten. he mineral system put forward by Berzelius met with oppo- sition, especially from those who followed the so-called. natural systems. In the natural systems of mineralogy, the minerals are all placed according to their similarity in external characters. But all these differed from each other, because they were constructed in accord- Werner had, in addition, based his natural system, to a certain extent, upon chemical principles, which were not carried out very 184 Biography of Berzelius. without causing a sensible alteration in the substance. If it ever happens,—continues Mohs,—that a branch of natural history as mineralogy, employs such characters in its method as these last mentioned, it then exceeds its legitimate bounds, becomes ef- tangled with other sciences, and hampered with all those difficul- ties of which mineralogy has long been a warning example. Berzelius criticised this argument with justice. He declared that it seemed to him the same as if a man who is stumbling m the dark, should hesitate to make use of a light, because he would then see more than he required, and because he hoped to find his way without it. In order to appreciate fully the great merit of Berzelius, in put- ting forward his mineral system, it is only necessary to call t mind how great was the chaos in mineralogy before his time, and especially with regard to the classification of the numerous coml- pounds of silica. Although both Débereiner and Smithson com- menced to regard silica as an acid, at about the same time as Berzelius, still it was he who first made an extended application is View, in the new mineral system which he proposed, by means of which siliceous minerals were included under the h of saline compounds, and the correct conception of their compo sition first rendered possible. he greater number of natural compounds of silica are double salts; and observing the great diversity among them, Berzelius raised the question, as to whether it was probable that the indi- vidual members of such double salts were different stages of sat- uration. As he had previously assumed only the most simple re- lations in chemical compounds, he was at first led to infer upot theoretical grounds, that the existence of dissimilar stages of sat- uration in the double salts of silica, was less probable, especially ne had never met with any similar phenomena in his investl- gations of the double salts of other acids. Nevertheless, he su formule which expressed their composition. But as Berzelius was long doubtful how many atoms of oxygen he should assume in silica, and even when he afterwards decided for three atoms, did not regard this assumption as perfectly certain, he introduced more simple formule for siliceous compounds, which he termed mit- eralogical, and distinguished from the chemical formule by th® printers’ type employed. et ae See j Biography of Berzelius. 185 after making slight alterations in the results of the then known analyses, in doing which, however, he always proceeded with great caution. Afterwards these incorrect analyses were replaced Y correct ones, and especially by Berzelius himself and his pu- pils, who employed in their analyses the most accurate methods proposed by him. __ Berzelius first arranged minerals according to their electro-pos- itive constituents. But after Mitscherlich’s discovery of isomor- phism, which has exerted so important an influence upon the arrangement of the system, he considered it more advantageous to classify minerals according to their electro-negative constituents, because the substitution of isomophous substances is far more fre- quent among the bases than among the acids; and therefore the classification according to the electro-negative constituents cor- o 3 S a. 0 Ru 3 2 = o 4 > a ad > o @ fen) & ® 3 ia) 5 n =) sie = i") = z. (2) ye 72] pa 2] ced . Bo methods have their advantages: they are equally philosophical, and may be employed with equal justice; it was therefore with great injustice that Berzelius was charged with inconsistency in making this alteration. The mineral system of Berzelius is not even yet completed. He was far from wishing to affirm that it was incapable of im- provement ; on the other hand, during his whole after-life he.con- unually improved it, and from time to time published it in a more periees form. The last edition was superintended by Rammels- rg, in 1847, at the request of Berzelius. The most important modifications still to be made on this sys- tem, are perhaps those which would result from a simple applica- tion of the doctrine of isomorphism. It is certainly difficult to harmonize the opinions as to the best method of doing this. _ Berzelius was not quite right in affirming that the constit- uents of a substance alone must determine its place in a sys- tem. Even in the last “‘Jahresberichte” published by him, he Srconp Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853.. 24 186 N.S. Manross on the Artificial Formation of Minerals. declares that, in a mineral system, the sole question for considera- ion is the elem nts and their inorganic combinations, and that it is these which sali be systematically arranged. But he himself directs ro to the difficulties which this view necessarily i in- vol it, he asks, admissible to make one species of diamon ae siesgaties, or of rutile, brookite, and anatase, or of calcareous spar and arragonite? It is scarcely to be yi rae that mineral- ogists will give their consent to such a cours However, Berzelius decides in the dirasrite Still la opinion that there are even many chemists who will not aa tionally agree with him in this. F'or it is not alone from the con- stituents that all the characteristic properties of the compound result, but also from the mode and action of their combination, which is frequently indicated by the form. Taking all this into ee a wit a Ras probable that dolomite is more closely re lated to caleareot s spar than arragonite, and even that tinstone 1s nearer te rutile iia anatase and “Broo kite. Since the external characters of minerals are determined, a8 well by their constitueuts as by the mode in which these are com- bined with each other, it follows that that chemical system 0 mineralogy which approaches most closely to the natural sys tems, or which even corresponds with them, must be the mos perfect. {To be continued.) ‘Arr. XX.—Artificial Formation of Minerals; by N. &. Manross. HIS Memoir—an inaugural dissertation by Mr. Manross 0B [Tv his promotion to the rank of Doctor of Philosophy at the Geor- meenione hela (32 pp., Svo, Gottingen, 1852)-conlam ount of the ag formation of several minerals. thee peri sito were made in the Laboratory of Prof. Wohler. cite briefly the Sosa ‘followed by Dr. Manross and his: i Heavy Spar (Ba8) was obtained by fusing together twelve grammes of neutral sulphate of potash and 52 grammes of ane hydrous chlorid of barium in a thin porcelain crucible, this being enclosed in a Hessian crucible which was well luted. After a! hour, on treating the cooled mass with water, an abunda dance of minute crystals were left behind Ls at had the form of heavy spar, giving M:M=101° 43’. Some of them were two milli- cababge bit and one thick. AAT Vis afforded § 34:32, Ba 65° 57, 9: al (Sr 8) was formed by on together i fi of pot- ash wi a excess of chlorid of strontium. On breaking ope? the cooled mass many transparent ie als were phat y were amas as before by dissolving the excess of chlorid in Mss | N.S. Manross on the Artificial Formation of Minerals. 187 is) ba] < eZ] - S with reéntering angles at the end, and a hopper-sha cavity at the center of the cross. Analysis afforded the usual constitution. Anhydrite (Ca 8).—Fifteen or twenty grammes of neutral sul- phate of potash were fused with four or five times as much chlo- rid of calcium. The surface of the cale obtained, appeared after cooling, covered with a film of crystalline plates, and cn breaking it, there were cavities occupied by groups o rectangular crystals, several millimeters long and two broad, but scarcely thicker than letter paper. Analysis afforded Ga 41-44, 5 58-50=99-94. Apatite.—Daubrée obtained apatite in microscopic crystals by passing chlorid of phosphorus over caustic lime at a red heat (Comptes Rendus, xxxii, 615). Dr. Manross fused phosphate of soda (first rendered anhydrous) with an excess of a mixture of chlorid of calcium and finely powdered fluor spar. ‘The result- ing mass was full of slender transparent hexagonal prisms, some- times a millimeter long, many of which ended in a pyramid ormed on the angles; angle over the summit 68° 15’—which rd 50 of chlorid of calcium. The crystals thus obtained were hex- agonal, usually terminated by pyramids, a face of which made with a prismatic plane the angle 129° 7’, which differs more than a degree from the angle of apatite. G.=3-054. Analysis af- forded Cl 13-02, Ca 7:36, Ca*® 79:10=99-48, which requires the formula 3a? B+2Ca Cl. oe Pyromorphite (3b)? B+PbCl).—Ten grammes of tribasic phos- phate of soda were fused with 70 grammes of chlorid of lead. While the temperature was still above the fusing point of chlorid of lead the fluid contents were poured out, and the interior was found to be lined with light yellow transparent and brilliant hex- agonal prisms, three to five mm. long, terminating in pyramids; angle between the pyramidal planes and the prismatic 130° 23’, which is within 1/ of the angle given for pyromorphite. G.= 7-008. Analysis confirmed the result. Wolfram ((#e, Mn) W).—Finely powdered native — etd be recrystallized by fusing with a considerable quantity of chio- id of sodium. 2 heat applied was such as to evaporate 188 N.S. Manross on the Artificial Formation of Minerals. most of the chlorid. The mineral formed a dark stratum in the bottom of the crucible, and the crystals were in brilliant grains and beaded erystals, not admitting of measurement. Tungsten (6a W).—Neutral tungstate of soda was fused with an excess of pure chlorid of calcium in a Hessian crucible. After a strong heat for half an hour, it was allowed to cool gradually. White glittering grains were obtained which were unmodified square octahedrons; angle over a basal edge 130° 20. G.= 6:0759. In one case when the heat applied was rather low and the cooling somewhat rapid, the tungsten was in the form of needles, each needle being made up of a series of octahedrons, 44 of which were counted in one needle. Analyses gave W 80-42, Ca 19°58, Scheeletine (p> W).—Ten grammes of tungstate of soda were fused with 47 of chlorid of lead. In the dark green mass there were cavities lined with brilliant crystals which were square octa- hedrons; angle over a terminal edge, 99° 46’. There were planes of another octahedron at the summits. G.=8-232 an ‘238. Composition Pb 4665, W 53°35. Wulfenite (Pb iio),—Hausmann has described this mineral as occurring in the walls of a furnace at Bleiberg in Carinthia. (Ann. h. u. Pharm., Ixxxi, 224). Four grammes of neutral molybdate of soda were fused with 24 of chlorid of lead. The crystals ob- tained appeared like hexagonal plates with unequal angles. They were pale yellow, and some of them more than two millimeters across. On dissolving the excess of chlorid of lead, square 0C- tahedrons were found, many of which were tabular by the en- largement of two opposite faces. Angle over a terminal edge 43’. G.=6°811. Analysis gave 60-59 p. c. of lead. Crocoisite (Pb Gr).—In the first trials the heat was too high and the chromic acid was mostly reduced to oxyd. In another trial transparent crystals were formed, having the color of the native chromate. 6-118. Streak orange-yellow. Analysis Gr 32°763 Pb 67-239=100-002. . Anglesite (Pb 8).—By fusing together neutral sulphate of pot- ash and an excess of chlorid of lead, crystals were obtained which had the tabular form and many of the modifications of sulphate of lead. As the result was not quite satisfactory, a more success- ful trial was made in the wet way. A solution of sulphate of potash was prepared, forming 4 stratum an inch deep in a tall beaker glass. Several inches of pure water were carefully filtered upon this stratum so as to leave it undisturbed. A few grammes of chlorid of lead were fused to a cake and suspended by a platinnm wire, just within the surface of the fluid. It was then set aside for some weeks. At first a white cloud was formed when the stream of dissolved chlorid reached the solution of sulphate below. But as the latter be- came diffused through the fluid, the cake of chlorid, and eve? £4 \eekerl:- eee ert reel a Oe Ee NS SP i ll eal il ee a J. H. Lefroy on the Indian Population of British America. 189 the platinnm wire, became covered with a growth of tabular crystals. Some of them attained a length of from one to two millimeters in the course of three weeks. The sides of the glass were also covered with brilliant crystals, but only above the zone first occupied by the solution of sulphate. A considerable portion of the chlorid remained undissolved even after several weeks time had elapsed. It would undoubtedly be practicable to obtain crystals of any desirable size by this process. The form of the crystals was that of an elongated table ter- minated by faces of the primary octahedron. ‘The angle OP : P was 115° 32/, agreeing with that of the natural mineral. Before the blowpipe, the crystals decrepitated strongly and gave with soda the reaction of sulphuric acid, and a globule of ead. No further examination was made of them Arr. XXL—On the Probable number of the Native Indian Population of British America ;* by Capt. J. H. Lerroy, R. A. Tuere are probably few persons who, in the course of their reading in history, have not dwelt with peculiar interest upon the glimpses we catch through the mists of the past, of whole races of men that have vanished from the face of the earth, leaving no heirs or representatives to inherit the richer blessings of our age: of nations whose part in the great drama of human life we can never ascertain, whose sages are forgotten, whose warriors lie with “the mighty that were before Agamemnon” in the obscu- tity of oblivion. ‘Then we may remember “how small a part of time we share” whose interests are so momentous for eternity ; and may recognize, in the force of our sympathy, in the eager- hess with which we interrogate the monuments that have de- . scended to us; in the curiosity which all their reserve cannot baffle; a testimony to the truth of the declaration of the sacred historian, that the Creator “hath made of one blood all the na- tions upon earth ;” as well as the tie of relationship which unites all the descendants of our common parents, whatever their place in the stream, or their fortunes on the stage of life. Naturalists have been able to number some half-dozen birds or animals that have become totally extinct within the period of au- thentic history. We have lately seen what general rejoicing the discovery of a living specimen of one previously ranked in that number (the Apteryr) has created among them. The skull, the foot, and a few rude pictures of the Dodo, have furnished ample material for a quarto volume. How many might be written on * From the Proceedings of the Canadian Institute. 190 J. H. Lefroy on the Indian Population of British America. the varieties of the human race that have ceased to exist within the same period! The Dodo was very common at the Isles de Bourbon two centuries ago; it was neglected, hunted down, and finally exterminated: and the Dutch seamen who made an easy prey of whole flocks, twenty or thirty at a time, in 1602, (the Dodo, page 15,) no more suspected that we should now be ransacking all the museums of Europe for scraps to elucidate its affinities, than the first settlers of Newfoundland did that we should also be seeking in vain for one relic of its aborigines. When happy and hospitable crowds welcomed the Spaniards to the shores of Hispaniola, those cavaliers little dreamt that in three centuries or less the numerous and warlike Caribs of that Island, like the Gauchos of the Canaries, would be extinct, as complete- ly so as the Architects of the Cyclopian remains of Italy, or the race that preceded Saxon, and Dane, and Celt, in the occupation of the British Isles. In half a century there will ‘be no trace of a native race in some of the British colonies in the east. The natives of Van Diemens Land, for example, who numbered 210 in 1835, were reduced to 38 in 1848.* It even appears doubtful whether that most interesting of all savage races, the Maoris of New Zealand, with its wonderful force of character, and faculty for civilization, will not die out faster than it can conform to Its altered condition. Like those silent yet ceaseless operations of nature, which are wearing down, while we speak, the solid mat ter of every mountain chain, and substituting the luxuriant vege tation of the tropical coral reef for the barren waste of the sea; so, slowly and imperceptibly, are the great changes effected, by which one race supersedes another in the occupation of portion after portion of the globe, bringing higher qualities, a different ral and physical organization, to work out higher destimes, and fulfill higher ends of the same controlling Providence. These reflections have been suggested by the subject of the paper which I now propose to lay before this Society, containing _ the result of some enquiries I have made with a view to formin something like an authentic estimate of the number of the Indian race inhabiting the British possessions in America :—a portie only, it is true, of the whole race, yet one which by reason of the great extent of those possessions, is commonly regarded as a very important one. If, as I think it can be shown, that number 3S vastly smaller than most persons would snppose, and very rapidly diminishing, under circumstances which are nevertheless by "° means unfavorable to its preservation; then it must be admitted that the prospects for the race at large are anything but encourag- ing; that the time may not be far remote when posterity may be counting its last remnants, and wishing that we in our day had been more alive to the facts, and more industrious in setting UP * Our Antipodes, by Colonel G. Mundy, 1852, vol. ii. f ae J. H. Lefroy on the Indian Population of British America. 191 marks by which they might measure the ete tide, and com- prehend the destiny about to be consummated. hat constitutes density of st is A question Not easy to answer, when it relates to civilized communities, so wonder- fully has Providence ordained that with fresh demands, and the heavier pressure of necessity, fresh resources should be found in nature for human sustenance ; but in reference to uncivilized man, linked to nature by stronger ties, and having his existence bo und Up, as it were, with those of her provisions which do not greatly vary from age to age, and are not so beyond our means of esti- mation, it does not seem impossible to assign limits beyond which his numbers can never far extend, and within which there is no reason that they should much vary, unless by the operation of external causes. However, I have no intention of attempting such an estimate here. We have evidence in the great earth- works of Ohit, requiring an immense number of hands for their construction, that at some period a considerable population oecu- pied the fertile valleys of that region. We know that agricultural pursuits prevailed among many tribes, which have since almost completely abandoned them; but with all this, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion, based ‘on the desolating habits of Indian warfare, on the severity of the climate, and on the degraded posi- tion of the female sex, that upon the whole, the population of the middle and northern portion of the continent must, at all times, have been small in proportion to its area, and never on a par with the simplest of all natural resources, the animal life of the region. he materials for a specific estimate of their numbers at any One early period, are exceedingly scanty. ‘The early travellers dealt in round numbers to an alarming extent. ‘“ Qui dit un Canton @ Iroquois” says de la Hontan, “ dit un douzaine mil- ters dames. It s’en est trouve jusqu’a quatorze mille et Von calculait ce nombre par deux mille Vieillards, quatre mille Fem- mes, deux mille Filles, et — mille Enfans.” And as there were then five such cantons, or Nations, this people, if the Baron or his authorities can be a POE counted, considerably less than two centuries ago, from sixty to seventy thousand souls. Yet he perverting facts in reference to the more remote tribes they vis- ited, by way of discouraging rivalry in their lucrative trade, must have clung to them when discussing those nearer home. ally apochryphal, I xia a suspect, must be the 20,000 warriors, whom King Oppecancanough somewhat eco os related to have led les the catieek in Virginia. Yet these other similar ements, which it would be easy to multiply, if they fail to far- — a numerical basis for comparison, convey a general idea o of Populousness, which, as compared with what is ‘known of our 192 J. H. Lefroy on the Indian Population of British America, times, would justify anything that can be said as to the decline of the race. ‘“ There are abundant proofs,” says Catlin, “in the history of the country, to which I need not at this time more particularly refer, to show that the very numerous and respectable part of the human family, which occupied the different parts of North America, at the time of its first settlement by Anglo-Amer- icans, contained more than fourteen millions, who have been re- duced since that time, and undoubtedly in consequence of that set- tlement, to something less than two millions.” (Catlin, ii, p. 288.) In the elaborate alphabetical enumeration of Indian tribes and na- tions, upwards of 400 in number, prefixed to Drake’s well-known ook of the Indians: 10th Edit., 1848—we find the estimated numbers of a large proportion of them stated, but being of a gteat variety of dates, and the data probably of very variable authority, no general estimate can be based on it, without an analysis much more laborious than the result is likely to be accurate. In the course of a couple of summers spent a few years ago 10 the Hudson’s Bay territory, I took pains to arrive at an estimate ing each Post, the number of young unmarried men, and an esti mate of their families. The first two were, no doubt, ascertained very correctly, as far as the enquiry went ; the last does not admit — of much doubt. With respect to the districts which I visited, but from which I did not procure these data, it is not difficult to base posts, there are no Indians, and that where there are trading posts, all the Indians of the district frequent them, habit having ret- ered the articles of European trade essential to their existence; consequently we may infer the number frequenting any given post pretty nearly when the scale of the establishment is known. There are, perhaps, a few exceptions to this remark in the dis- trict of Mackenzie’s River, where our intercourse with many tribes is of recent origin; but it is true almost everywhere else- Whenever a conjectural addition was made, by well informed persons on the spot to the more precise numbers, it has been 10° cluded in the following enumeration. _ The British territory, in relation to its native population, may be divided into four regions. First.—The region west of the Rocky Mountains, and north of the parallel of 49°. Second.— The region east of the Rocky Mountains, but north of the paral- lel of 55°; the whole of which is inhabited by tribes of a com- ‘mon origin, and grouped by Ethnologists under the genetic designation of “ Tinné.” T'hird.—The region from the parallel J. H. Lefroy on the Indian Population of British America. 193 of 55° to 49°, occupied partly by tribes of what is called the Bythinyuwuk or Algonquin stock, and partly by tribes of an in- trusive race, kindred to the Troquois or Five Nations. Lastly,—= the British Colonies. Beginning with the Second of these subdivisions, we have North of Latitude 55° [ wer, eee (1.) Es squi ux—ZJnu-it not included Unik’n. (2.) Lo eae te POR ee che os tone bate o,s ae 4 eas On the Youcon and tributaries— m gon, Artez-Kutchi 100 a 84 PEDIC ciate Cb Niaid ae ome enln S30 100 FS he ze 230 “ authority of Kutchcha 90 “ y 7i-Unk 20 . Tanna, 100 Ke 1850 Teytsé 100 a Vanta * Neyetsé i 4 ae 860 On Peel’s River, 1 . | 418 {5000 Fort Good Hope Monti “ian este ss se ees 75 | 875 Loucheux 15 45 Francis Lake, 1847-8. ie Sb 4:0 oes 45 | 210 Pelly Banks Be. Oh tb Avie iu Vins ae 43 | 368 | 6028 {38 ) Dogribs, akg Ls ewyans, dic. Tinnd....... es Fort Goo: 4 Hope wl tnd fodians ary a 28 150 id MG Zoe Ce sb Cees 805 ene 11 55 Fort oe Dat Din ne, Dog-rib, Hare ae 140 600 | Fort Sim in. ee ie as ea 107 a Do Etenaniee CEC Eee Se . 320 : Dog-rib..... Ze Sy PE ate oe * Do. apache ah skids CERT See ey ‘ 50 z= Aehenions: Re usa seach’ ua eC ete 2 Thos freegolat.. c . se: = es) ee 150 Gros Ventres, - - - - - 700 Assiniboine, - - . - - 4,800 fOW,.- co Blackfoot, Me er - ol, =. < e 54,550 Szconp Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853. 26 202 J. H. Lefroy onthe Indian Population of British America. Among whom appear to be included some of those frequenting the British trading posts, and previously reckoned. It is scarcely possible that the Indians of the Lower Missouri, Texas, and Mex- ico, can make up even an approximation to the 330,000 of the Baptist Committee. (Religion in America, p. 56.) Putting the whole together, it would scarcely seem that the present aggregate ean be placed so high as 250,000, instead of the two millions of Catlin. To this remnant, then, has been reduced a race supposed to have numbered from ten to twenty millions, not more than three centuries ago. ‘ War, death, or sickness hath laid seige to it,” and is still laying seige at a rate in no degree less rapid than at any former period. Not to mention the cruel destruction effected by the American fur traders and trappers in the South; by utter lawlessness and wanton disregard of humanity ; by Florida wars and wholesale deportations ; we find that even in regions where the more obviously depopulating agencies have been held in great restraint, the process goes on. ‘The Indians themselves are fully aware of it, and fully conscious also that the whites cannot always be directly charged with it. Sir John Richardson has given us a curious mythological tradition which serves to account — for it to the Kutchin, (p. 239.) A friend of mine, who conferred on the subject with a sage old native of New Caledonia, found that his only theory was that the white men’s tobacco poison h he white’s fire water in this case, and throughout the Hudson’s Bay territory, is happily guiltless, for none enters the country.* If we charge it, in the case of the Carrier, to the un- bounded licentiousness which prevails among them, we have to account for the same causes not having had the same eflect at earlier periods; for, with the sole exception of the Indians of Virginia, boundless licentiousness appears to have been the rule century ago, fully corroborate the accounts of all travellers of the seventeenth century in Canada and the more Eastern regions, in respect to this characteristic. Doubtless, some causes can be assigned, which tend to reduce the physical stamina of the race—such as the substitution of 1n- * I cannot avoid referring Temperance advocates to the amusing Essay, “Sur PYvrognerie des Sauvages,” in the Histoire dé Veau-de-vie en Canada, 1705; re- printed by the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec. It is well to that, i] n'y a quwune mesure Pyvresse quils appellent Ganontiouaratonseri, cest & dire, Yurognerie pleine! + T. S. Hunt on the Constitution, etc. 203 which they were formerly made acquiring a market value, but be- ing exchanged for nothing so essential to their health. ‘T'here which have a frightful prevalence in certain districts. I mea the administration of potions destined sometimes to produce abor- tion, sometimes to cause absolute sterility, in females. Dr. Hod- der, in an Essay on the Poisonous Plants of Canada, read since the date of this paper, has alluded to the former as one of the se- crets of the Indians in Canada, which he has not succeeded in discovering, but to which he attributes, in a very great degree, the other. Arr. XXIL—On the Constitution and Equivalent Volume of some Mineral species; by T. 8. Hunz, of the Geological Gom- mission of Canada. In a recent paper, we have endeavored to lay down some prin- ciples as the basis of a sound theory of chemistry.* Having bination, we showed that the volumes of the uniting species are always merged in that of the new one, so that the atomic theory, as applied by Dalton, which makes combination consist in juxta- * This Journal for March, 1853, p. 226, and London Phil. Mag. for June, Supplement, p. 526. The readers of that article in this Journal will please make the following corrections: p. 226, 10th line bottom. for the capacity of such changes, read the capacity é, ete. ; in st line of the next page, it transcends the limits of human knowledge, read it transcends all ible knowledge. e etagenesis, found on 297, has been used by Owen to designate multiform or seri eration observed in many of the lower orders of life; this, however, is not strictly a metagenesis, and the term t rightly underste lead to grave errors. As appli ions, it appears, however, 204 T. S. Hunt on the Constitution position, is untenable. It was further asserted, that the simple relations of volumes which Gay Lussac pointed out in the chemi- cal changes of gases, apply to all liquid and solid species, thus leading the way to a correct understanding of the equivalent vol- umes of the latter. While chemists have not hesitated to assign high equivalents to bodies of the earbon series, they have been inclined to make the equivalent weights of denser mineral species correspond, to formulas representing the simplest possible ratios. We have endeavored from a consideration of the theory of equiv- alent volumes, to point out the errors to which this method has led, and to show that we must assign to most mineral species much higher equivalent weights than have hitherto been ad- mitted. It was further asserted, that a relation similar to that observed in the formulas of allied hydro-carbonaceous bodies, and desig- nated as chemical homology, exists in the formulas of mineral species. We have said that these formulas, deduced from the re- sults of analysis, are not to be looked upon as expressing any pre- existing relations in the constitution of the species, which is not to be regarded as a compound, but as an individual, in which the so-called chemical elements have no actual existence. The ar- the numerical relations which have been found to govern the transformations of the higher species. The formulas of homologous bodies may be represented as se- ries in arithmetical progression. The first term may be the same as the common difference, and the series is then b, 26, 3b...nb, as in the hydrocarbons C2H2, CsH;,CsHe, etc. If the first term is unlike the common difference, the series is. a, a+b, a+2b,...a+nb, of which the ammonias, NHs, NH3+C:H:, NH;+2C2H:, etc., are examples. Both of these cases are illustrated in the chem- ical history of mineral species. In the paper already referred to, it has been shown, from the relations of carbon, sulphur and oxygen on the one hand, and of hydrogen with the metals on the other, that M 2S2, M202, and H:;0O. (M representing any metal), may be compared with HzC2. This view will be applied in extending the application of the principle of homology. ‘The sesqui-oxyds like ferric oxyd, chro- mic oxyd, and alumina, will be regarded as oxyds of ferricum, chromicum, and aluminicum, having two-thirds the equivalents ordinarily assigned to these metals, and represented by fe, er and al, so that Fe2O., becomes 3feO, capable of replacing 3Mg0O, or» 3FeO. In the same way arsenic and antimony in one-third theit usual equivalents may be represented by as, sb, and AsO» becomes and Equivalent Volume of some Mineral Species. 205 3asO. Silica, SiOs may also be written as 3siO, for the multiple equivalent weight assigned to it, is deduced from certain silicious species whose formulas are as simply written with the le equivalent ; by this means all these oxyds may be reduced to the type M2Oz2. We have further asserted, that for species crystallizing in the same form, the de ensity varies directly as the equivalent weight, so that the quantities obtained in dividing the one by the other, and known as the atomic or equivalent volume, will be equal. Such a relation is already recognized between species of the same genus, and we now propose, having fixed an equivalent weight for one species, to calculate from their densities, those of the ff anaes: thus related are homologous, or exhibit other intimate rela ig this investigation of mineral species, several circumstances combine to render the attainment of accurate results exceedingly difficult. Native crystals are often neither compact nor homoge- neous, and the presence of fissures filled with air, or other for- eign species, makes the determination of density yn Impurities also render the results of analysis doubtful, and if w employ the — generally assigned, it will be found that an attempt to deduce the most simple relations from the results of analysis, or to ike these conform to some arbitrary assumption, has led chemists to adopt numbers which are often considerably at variance with experiment, and to disregard one or two hun- dredths of some element, which is perhaps essential to the consti- tution of the species. This is probably in an especial manner true of the small portions of water and fluorine in certain cag ei with regard to the _ weight of silica is also a source of embarrassment in the examination and comparison of formulas. According to Pelouze, SiOs is 45-34 (O=8) while corrected determinations of. Berzelius make it 46°22. The latter number, adopted by Rose in the tables accompanying the sie ceditich of his Analytical Chemistry, will be re for the calculation of equivalent weights in the present n many artificial crystals those difficulties are pee felt, and the equivalent volumes are closely accordant. cite for illustra- tion the following results from an daboeiiey memoir on atomic volumes, by Playfair and Joule. (Qu. Jour. Chem. Soc., p. 121.) mi inations - 206 T. S. Hunt on the Constitution | Species, | Formula. Equiv. wt. | Density, Volume. Phosphate soda, |POsNa2H, 24HO 399° 1 1525 | 235°5 Sub-phos. soda, |POsNas,24HO 3816 PQ22.. | 2352 Arseniate soda, jAsOsNa2H,24HO 402°9 1:736 {| 233-0 Sub-arsen. soda, |AsOsNas,24HO 425°2 | 1-804 | 235°6 The four species of alum examined by these experimenters ex- hibit a similar relation. They are monometric in crystallization, and, like the last, are represented with 24HO, common alum be- ing SsalsK Ore, 24HO; the al may be replaced by fe or er, lents given by Playfair and Joule have been corrected from later determinations of chromium and aluminum. Formula, Equiv. wt. Density. Volume. Saals KOie, 24HO 474-6 1-731 2741 Saals (NH4)016,24HO 453°4 1-625 279°0 S4acrs KOi16,24HO 500°6 1:843 2716 Safes (NH1)O16,24HO 482:0 1-715 280°5 The densities here adopted are the means of those of several experimenters. Playfair and Joule, from different specimens of the same species, obtained results, some of which we cite to show the amount of variation in crystals of a pure salt. "Thus, for potash alum the numbers 1:726 and 1-751 were obtained, giving respec- tively 275 and 271 for the volume; and for chrome alum, the densities 1826 and 1-856, corresponding to 274-15 and 268°6. For reasons already given, the presumption in these salts is in fa- vor of the greater density, adopting which, we have for the mean of the four species 274°6, and for the first three, 272°8, as the equivalent volume. _ The monometric species leucite is represented by the formula K; Sig+3Al Sin, which expanded becomes SisO2,, (aloKs) O12 with an equivalent of 665-22 and a density of 2-49, giving 267 for the volume. The triclinic species andesine, belonging to the same type, has an equivalent of 622-2 and a density of 2:7, giving 230-4 for its volume. This difference of volume in these an other dimorphous species has already been pointed out by Dana. If we turn from the alums and leucite, to the chlorids of potas- sium and sodium, which likewise crystallize in the regular sys- tem, we find at first sight no apparent relation with the former, or between each other. The one NaCl, with an equivalent weight of 59-4, has a density of 2-257, which gives 26°3 for its volume, while the chlorid of potassium K Cl, with an equivalent of 74-5, has a density of only 1-978, (P. and Joule,) giving a vol- ume of 37-67. If we suppose crystallized sea salt to be 10Na Cl, we shall have 263: for its volume, and the potassium salt may be 7KCl, with a volume of 265-7. We are thus Jed to the conclu- xperiments sion arrived at by Favre and Silbermann, from their e Ae Gl, eae BI eS eds ERE a Fr Ame Se > gee Oe ae A li Se er ie SE Ac aye ee oe $ = » and Equivalent Volumes of some Mineral Species. 207 upon the heat evolved in fusion and solution, that the equivalent weights of crystallized salts are multiples of those deduced from the analysis of these same salts in solution. n order to establish a starting point, it will be necessary to de- termine the volumes of some species, whose combining propor- tions are known to be very high in proportion to their densities. Ferrocyanid of potassium, C12NscFe:K., 6HO, has an equiva- lent weight of 422°8 and a density of 1-832, giving 230 for its volume; milk-sugar, C2:H» Oz, has an equivalent of 360, wit a density of 1:534, and a volume of 234; and cane-sugar, C24 H22O22 gives 342, with a density of 1-593, and a volume of 215. These species approach to andesine in equivalent volume. The formula of the combining proportion of piperine, deduced from its platinic chlorid, is established by the researches of Wertheim, as corrected by Gerhardt, to be C7oHscN:Oro, to which in the monoclinic crystallized alkaloid, H»Oz is to be added, giving an equivalent weight of 582. I obtained for its density in three experiments with a carefully purified specimen, 1-238, 1-244 and 1-250, giving a mean of 1-244, which corresponds to an equivalent - volume of 467-8, or double that calculated for andesine, the soda salts, and other prismatic species above. We may therefore double the equivalents of these species, as well as those of leucite and the alums. Their formulas and equivalent volumes will then be ws: Alum, SsO24 (aleK2H4s)Ose 5480 ea-salt, Na2oCl2o0 526°0 Chlorid of potassium, | K14Clia 5314 Leucite, Si1eO4s (alisKe) O24 534:0 Andesine, Si1¢Oas (al1s NasCa2K)O2¢ 460°'8 Piperine, Cz2Hs6N2010, H202 467'8 n(C2H-), and an examination of some oxyds crystallizing in the other species as franklinite, chromoferrite, martite, have a similar CuO, with an equivalent weight of 39-7, and a mean density 99- and a density of 3-7, has a volume of 27°, giving for Asx Ocomase0Qso, a volume of 540. eh 208 — T. S. Hunt on the Constitution . From these examples it appears that identity of volume in allied and isomorphous species, requires higher equivalents and more complex formulas than are generally assigned, and that these new formulas are homologous. We deduce the equivalent weight of a monometric species like that of a gaseous hydrocarbon from its density. The rhombohedral species of the calcite group are commonly cited as example of identity in equivalent volume, but even this group presents exceptions such as we have seen in the mono- metric oxyds and chlorids. Calcite is remarkable for the vari- ations in the density of different specimens. According to Beu- dant* the purest varieties give from 2:5239 to 2:7234. With the formula C Ca Os =50 and a density of 2°72, the volume is 18-4, and with 2°52 it equals 19:84. The magnesite from Arendal which contains only ‘73 p. c. of oxyd of iron, gave to Scheerer a density of 3-068; if we take 3 for the pure carbonate, the equiva- lent volume will be 14,and calamine with a density of 4:45, gives the same number. Dolomite of density 2-9 gives a volume of 15-9, and diallogite with a density of 3-592, equals 15-6, while spathic iron with a specific gravity of 3-8 has a volume of 15°2. We give here the volume and the angles of the rhombohedron for these species. pecies. Volume. Angle R: R, Calamine, 14-0 | 107° 40/ Magnesite, 14:0 107° 22! Spathic iron, | 15-2 107-107 F Diallogite, | 15:6 106° 51’. 107° 20’, Levy and Breithaupt. Dolomite, 15°9 106° 10'-106° 20/ Calcite, 18-4-19'8' 105° 5’-105° 25/ Kopp has endeavored to connect these variations in volume with the different dimensions of the rhombohedron in the several Species, but it seems probable on comparing the corrected num- bers, that this apparent relation is accidental. Besides the vari- ations in density presented by calcite, it will be seen that the difference between the angles of calamine and magnesite, whose volumes are identical, is the same as that between the latter and ° spathic iron; the angle assigned by Levy and Breithaupt to dial- logite, differs only 2’ from that of magnesite, while the volume the species is near that of dolomite. The importance to be at- tached to the small variations i gular t, is lessened by the differences in the angles of the same species, amounting to from 5’ to 20’, and by the variations observed by Nickles in many artificial crystals, often amounting to 1° and 1° 30’, and seemingly dependent upon portions of foreign matters, sometimes too small to be detected by chemical analysis.t *Annales des Mines, (2,) v. p. 275, cited i ’s Mineralogy, * + Comptes Rend. ie tase ieee sc one ie and Equivalent Volume of some Mineral Species. 209 To the above series of isomorphous species, Rose has added soda-nitre, which has R : R. 106° 33’, light red silver ore, proustite, having R : R. 107° 36’, and dark red silver ore, pyrargyrite R: R 108° 18’. Soda-nitre N Na Os with a density of 2-26 (P. and Joule) gives 37-6 for its equivalent volume; proustite (Ag S)s +As8$3, with a density of 5-5, gives 91, while pyrargyrite, in which antimony replaces the arsenic of the last formula, has a density of 5-8 anda volume of 94. This series then presents wide variations in volume, and it is only by adopting more elevated equivalent weights, that a simple relation becomes apparent. We shall endeavor to fix these equivalents as before from the densities of the species. The for- mulas of the silver ores are to be multiplied by six, for a reason which will be assigned farther on, and we have then for the for- mula of proustite, AgisAssSse with a volume of 546, while the antimonial species, and soda-nitre N:sNa1sQoo have each a vol- ume of Calamine then becomes CacZnaoQieo, with a . volume of 560, magnesite being the same. Dolomite Cs6(Cars Mgis)O10s gives a volume of 554, and spathic iron CacFess O10:=547, while the diallogite of Kapnik is represented by Cs (Mns2Ca2sMgi-s)O10e, and with a density of 3°592, has a vol- ume of 563. Calcite of the density 2°72, and the formula Cs Cas0Qoo0, gives 555°5 for its volume, while that with a density of 2:52, may be represented by C2sCa22Os4, with a volume of 552. With these formulas it is apparent that there may be a great number of intermediate species from partial substitutions. According to the above formulas, we have in the rhombohedral carbonates, several genera belonging to a homologous series of the first kind. These genera have the same volume, and are repre- sented by the general formula n C2M.Oc ; that of the nitrates is NMOzg, and light red silver ore As Ag2Sc=assAgeSc, so that the general formulas of these three groups offer a very interesting resemblance, which was first pointed out by Gerhardt ;* they are The arragonite group is not less worthy of notice, and Rose has shown that potash-nitre and bournonite are isomorphous with these prismatic carbonates. The density of this series is greater than that of the last; Rammelsberg’s formula for Bournonite is (3euS, SbS2)+2(3PbS, SbS2) which equals (€usPbe)Sb3S1s; this with a density of 5°85, according to recent determinations by the same chemist, gives a volume of 254, which we double mpare with the volume of piperine, and with that adopted for leucite and the alums. Bournonite has the chemical *( des Tray. de Chimie, 1849, p. 322. _ Seconp Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853, 2% 210 T. S. Hunt on the Constitution type as the red silver ores, and it is to compare them with it, that we have multiplied the received formulas. of these species by six. Taking then 508 for the volume of bournonite, the formula of arragonite may be written C3«Cas0Oo0 with a volume of 510°; witherite is C22Baz2Os«=503°8, while strontianite is C2sSres 75 =505, and cerusite has the same type and volume. Bromlite is represented by C2s5(Cai2-sBai2-s)O75 with a volume of 500, and barytocalcite, the monoclinic form of the species, gives for the same formula 507-5. Nitrate of potash with the formula Nio.sKi0.sOc3 has a volume of 506. From the fact that it is here found necessary to assign a frac- tional value ton in the formulas of the nitrates and carbonates, we are led to infer that the equivalent weights here assumed, are as yet too low, and must at least be doubled. We however retain for the present, the fractional equivalents, and subjoin the ‘formulas and calculated volumes of the two series. Rhombohedral Species. woe Density. | Volume. Proustite, AseAgisSs6 ‘ 546 Pyrargyrite, } SbsAgisSs6 5°80 564 Soda-nitre NisNaisO90 __ 2:26 564 Calamine, C4oZns00120 4:45 560 Magnesite, ) CaoMga0O0120 * 3:00 560 Dolomite, Cs6(MgisCais)O108 2:90 554 Spathic rom | Cs6FessO108 3°80 547 Diallogite, C36(Mns2Ca25Mg1.5)O108 | 3:59 563 Calcite, Cs0Cas00s0 2°12 5555 C2sCa2sOs4 2°52 | 592 | Trimetric Species. Density. Volume. Bournonite, Sbs(€usPbi2)Sa6 585 | 508 Potash-nitre, Nio-sK10-sO63 2°10 506 rragonite, Cs0CasoOs0 2-93 510 Strontianite, C2s5Sr25sO075 3°65 505 erusite, C2sPb25O075 6:60 505 Bromlite, C2s(Ba12 5Cai2-s)O75 3-71 500 Witherite, C22Ba22066 430 | 504 _ | An interesting example of homology is afforded in the tout- malines whose composition has been well shown in the late ad- mirable series of analyses by Rammelsberg. The ordinary rhom- bohedron of this species gives R: R 133° 26’ (132°—134°, Breithaupt,) but the rhombohedron 2R has the angle 103° 21’, or nearly that of calcite. Rammelsberg has analyzed thirty va rieties of this species, all of which yield boracic acid in quanti- ties varying from six to nine per cent., and from 1:3 to 27 per and Equivalent Volume of some Mineral Species. 211 cent. of fluorine. This last is given off by ignition as fluorid of silicon or boron, and the mineral then becomes soluble in hydro- chloric acid. Rammelsberg admits that silicic and boracie acids replace each other, and finds that the ratios between the prot- oxyds, sesquioxyds, and the two acids, vary exceedingly in the different varieties. Without regarding the fluorine, he divides the species into the five following groups. Ist. Magnesia tourmalines. RsSir+3# Si; the mean equivalent Tae deduced from six varieties is according to Rammelsberg AML 5 (O=8), and the mean density 3:05, giving an equivalent volume of 144:°6 2nd. Magnesia-iron tourmalines. 2RsSis448Si, with a mean equivalent weight deduced from eight varieties of 518-81, anda mean density of 3:10, giving 167-3 for the equivalent volume. . Iron tourmalines. R;Sis+68# Si; the mean equivalent of Six vatiittes is 7747 mg and the mean density 3-2, giving 241 for the equivalent volum Ath. Iron- sient e tourmalines. RSi+3% Si; the mean equiv- want weight of six ee ae was 360°36, and the mean density 3°08, giving a volume ‘ 5th. Manganese Di méalines. RSit48 Si; the mean equiva- lent weight of four varieties was 449°3 - the mean density 3°04, giving 148 for the equivalent volum A red tourmaline from Rozena of density 2-998, yields accord- ing to Rammelsberg the formula RSis+5RS If we represent R:2Os by 3rO, the icin dias of these five groups become as follows: Ist. $150, s(Raro)Ore. 2nd. SisOn e(Rsri 2)O1 5e 5th. $is015(R Yi 2 )O1 3. Multiplying by four the formulas and equivalents of the Ist and 5th, so as to make Siec, and then by a simple proportion raising the others to the same scale, we obtain the following for- mulas and equivalents. : Mean equiv. Mean D. ; Eq. vol | j Ist. Siz006o Be 12r36)O48 1764°6 3:05 | 578 2nd. SjieoQOc60(Riora 0)Os0 1729-2 3°10 558 3rd. | SizoOco(Rz4ras)Os 2} 1928-0 3°20 602 4th. SizoOco(Rsras)Oso 1800-0 308 584 5th. | SizoQeo(Rarss)Os2 1799°6 | 3:04 | 592 It will be seen that the 2nd and 4th have similar formulas, and differ by R202 from the first, while the 3rd, rejecting as insig- * Pogg. Annal, 1850, Nos. 8 and 9, and this Journal, vol. xi, p. 257. 212 T. S. Hunt on the Constitution ai the fraction, is like the 5th, and differs from the Ist by The ne of Rozena is SizOz1(R ris)O1c=Si20 nt ‘Riri 3)Os6, so de we have the four following homologous genera, the last two having each two species. Sis Os 0, Mi6O, 6=(Siso, ras, R3)O1 06. Si20Os0, Ms1sOas=(sico, rae, Riz )Oros Si20O6 0, Ms 00s o=(Sie 0, Tao, Ri 0)O1 10, and (Sic o,f4 sRs 0: 10. Siz 00. + MiriOss (sea, ras, Rz)Onie, ‘and (sieo, rasRa)Orts, The variations in the calculated volumes of the tourmalines are greater than we have found in some other isomorphous species. Instead of taking the equivalent weight and ‘greatest density of each variety, Rammelsberg has only calculated the vol- ume of each group, from a mean of the equivalents and densities, a method which cannot be expected to give accurate results. The following monoclinic crystals have been indicated by Mr. Dana, as isomorphous ; ige glauber-salt, spodumene, py- roxene, acmite and hornblende.* The sulphates being bibasic, glauber salt j is S2Na:Os, 20HO= 322°4, which, witha density of 1-469, gives a volume of 219, or doubling the formula 438. Borax is 2B0s, NaO, 10HO, which multiplied by four gives with a density of 1:73, an equivalent volume of 441: Spodumene is ‘represented by (Nat Lif), Sie +441 Sig, which mul- tiplied by two and expanded, becomes sie oOv o(al2sLisNa2)Ose, with an equivalent weight of 1455-5 and a density of 3-18 giving a volume of 457. The formula of white pyroxene, dion 1S sis2Os2(Ca:sMgis)Oz6 which with a density of 3-24, gives also the volume 457. Hedenbergite belongs to the same type, and is sis2O052(CaisFe12Mg)O26 with a density of 3-5 and a volume of 462. The aluminous augite, hudsonite, is represented by (sis sali 0)Os 8, (Fei 6Caz Mn)O2s, 4 atid witha density of 3° ‘A6 gives a volume of 448. Wollastonite, a lime pyroxene, approxi- matively isomorphous with the above species, is s044Ca22O022, and with a density of 2-9 has a volume of 446:1 In the different varieties of augite or nate the oxygen of the silica, or of the silica and alumina combined, is to the oxyge” of ae protoxyd bases as 2 : 1, while in * homblendes the ratio isas 9:4. There are however many ex of minerals with the ‘eaten of pyroxene and the eile Be horoblonde, while there are hornblendes whose analyses give the augite ratio 0 2: Carinthite with the form of a hornblende, pertains to the same type as hudsonite; Dana’s formula equalst (siz sals)O2z8, > e.CasMg-)Or, with a density 3-127, and a volume of 258°, which gives ae the formula (sis al) Ox s, (Fe:CasMgi+)O2: 4 ane of 442: * This Journal, [2] vol. i ix, p. ot — p. 429, also vol. x, P- 119. + This Journal, [2] vol. ix, p. 2 and Equivalent Volume of some Mineral Species. 213 Hornblende represented by Sis Migs 6a, has an equivaleut of 227-74, which with a density 2°93, gives a volume of 77-7 ; mul- tiplying by six, we have 466 as the volume of tremolite, with the formula sis1Os«(MgisCas)O2s. The density above given is probably too low, for anthophyllite sis 1054, (MgisFec)Ozs with a density of 3:16 gives a volume of 447-2. Acmite belongs to the hornblende type, and is represented by sis «Os +, (fe: sNas)Oz, which with a density of 3-4, corresponds to a volume of 441. For some important observations upon the association of angite and hornblende, and their intermixture with grains of chrysolite and chabazite, see Sandberger in Poggendorf’s Annalen, vol. Ixxxiii, p. 453.* We subjoin in a tabular form, the formulas, densities and equivalents of the above species. Species, Formula. Density, | Volume. \Glauber-salt, S4NasO16, He0O020 1-469 | 438: Borax, BsNasO2s, Hz0O40 1°730 | 441°6 Spodumene, sisoOQco, (al2aLisNaz) Os0 3°180 | 457- Diopside, } sis2O0s2 (Ca1sMgis) O26 3-240 | 457° Hedenbergite, sis20s2 (Ca1zFei12Mg) O26 3°500 | 462° Hudsonite, (siss al1o) Oas, (Fe16Ca7Mn) O24 | 3-460 | 448: Carinthite, (sia1 alz7) Oas, (FevMgi2Cas) O24 | 3-127 | 4428 Wollastonite, siaaO44, Caz2022 2-900 | 446°1 Tremolite, sisaOs54,(MgisCac) O24 2:930 466- jAnthophyllite, sis4Os4, (MgisFec) O24 3160 447-2 Acmite, ) | sissOs4, (fer1sNac) O24 3°400 | 441- * Cited in this Journal, [2] vol. xii, p. 389. : + Prof. E. J. Chagisins it en pent aie idea that Al2Og replaces Si O a, has ex- tended the same view to other sesquioxyds, as Fe203, 02Mns ete, and thus re- fers Rammelsberg’s erednerite 2Mn203, 8(BaO, CuO) to the augite type 2SI Os, . Looking upon i iOs laces sphene and epidote to the same general formula. Two communications by him in U Mag. for 1852, vol. iii, pp. 141, and 270, contain many ingenious and important generalizations with regard to mineralogical classification. 214 T. S. Hunt on the Constitution tical for the pyroxenes and hornblendes, as well as for the tour- malines and many other groups of isomorphous species; the vol- umes thus obtained he has designated by C, the first being the A volumes,* If instead of taking the A volume, we divide the gross equivalent weights by the number of atoms, we obtain the mean equivalent weight of these atoms, and it is clear that C rep- resents only the volume corresponding to the atoms in these isomorphous species, where the condensation is alike. The equivalent weight of silica SiOs is 46°22; this divided by four the number of atoms according to Mr. Dana’s notation, gives 11:55; in the same way Al2O3=614+5=103; MgO=20°36 —+2=1018; CaO=28-—2=14 etc.; so that in formulas made up of varying proportions of these elements, the mean equivalent weight will be nearly the same, and in isomorphous species where the density varies as the gross equivalent, the C volume will only vary as the mean equivalent. But if elements of a higher equiv- * This Jourual, [2] vol. ix, pp. 221 and 407, and xii, p. 204. +See this Journal, vol. xv. p. 230. } Poggendorf’s Annal., vol. Lxviii, p. 319, and lxxxiv, p, 321, also this Journal, vol. ¥. p. 381, and xiv, p. 37. : ss and Equivalent Volume of some Mineral Species. 215 so that the formula becomes sissOs«(M2:H:)O2s=82RO, while some amorphous tales give sis sOs«(M:i9H1; )Oss=88RO, or the formula of hornblende, plus 4MO and 10MO. gives according to Scheerer’s view, the relation of augite, or 2:1; but if the water be excluded, we obtain the relation of hornblende or 9: 4, and with the water, the formula is nearly sis1Oss(Maa Hs)O32=86RO; a similar relation appears in the nephrites which Scheerer has referred to the augite type. In certain other hydrous magnesian minerals, affording from five to ten per cent. of alumina, he has endeavored to show that 3Al2QOs: replace 2Si Os, and thus deduces for the various species, between the oxygen of the silica, with that of two-thirds of the alumina, and the oxygens of the protoxyds with that of one-third of the water, a ratio of 2: 1. But it will be found that his analyses admit of a simpler interpretation ; if we conceive al O to replace si O, as in hudsonite aud carinthite, we obtain, for all the aluminous species which he has referred to the augite type, (with but one exception, ) a ratio between the sum of the oxygen of the silica and alumina on the one hand, and the oxygen of the protoxyd bases on the other, (that of the water being excluded,) of 9 : 4, while the oxy- gen of the water is equal either to 1 or 2, so that the formulas may be written (si al)s«O51, M2sOa« plus 6HO, and 12HO, = S4RO and90RO. )O.;, and with the assigned density of 2.975 gives a volume of 475°8. ses give the proportions of si to al, as 44:56, showing a partial replacement like that observed in some pyroxenes, and in the varieties of staurotide and kyanite, a consideration of whose vol- ume and equivalents we reserve for another occasion. The formula of iolite according to recent analyses by Scheerer, ite and fahlunite, represent these species as iolite plus water, and when compared with,that species are as follows: Chlorophyllite, : ° $iasOas(ta7RoHs )O. 2s Esmarkite, - A Sla sOas(ra 7RoH.)Os 5s Fahlunite, Sl4 sOas(re 7RoHis)Oss. probably belong to the same type with that species. From the e volumes and equivalents of the above species are as fol- ows :— * Pogg. Annal,, vol. xviii, p. 319, and this Journal, vol, v, p. 381. and Equivalent Volume of some Mineral Species. 217 a Density. _ | Volume. Epsom salt, S7MgzO2s, H19049 1-750 . \Chrysoberyl, ((Besoals0)O120 3'800 504: Andalusite, (sizoaléo)O100 | 3300 | 497°8 az (sisoals6)Os0F 3570 , Chrysolite, sitsOas(MgasFes)Oas 500 512°8 Picrosmine, siasO48(Mg24H12)O36 2-680 500:4 Serpentine, sis6Os6(Mg27His)O4s 2-550 4965 Villarsite, sissOs6e(Mg33Fe2MnH9)O«5 2-975 4758 lolite, sia5O45(al27 Mg7Fe2)Os6 2-660 515: Aspasiolite, isiasOa5(ala7Mgs-sPeH10.5)O4s4| 2-764 506° Scheerer in the paper last cited, has, shown that iolite and as- pasiolite not only crystallize alike, but are even associated in the same crystal, one species passing into the other, and the iolite or cordierite often forming the central portions of the crystal. ‘The formation of the hydrous species from an alteration of iolite, re- quires an agency which should at once remove magnesia and supply water; Scheerer from the characters of the accompanying minerals, rejects the idea of such a change, and seems to regard the association as an instance of the crystallizing together of two Serpentine afforded Scheerer an amount of water corresponding to the formula given above, but G. Rose has lately described crystals from this locality which have a centre of unaltered chrysolite; one of them gave on analysis 53: per cent. of mag- nesia and only 4: of. water, corresponding according to him to a mixture of the two species. He hence in opposition to Scheerer, Tamnau and Bébert who have examined the locality, regards these, and indeed all crystals of serpentine and the related species, as psendomorphous. pe A glance at the formulas given above, will suggest an objection to this view. Chrysolite might be converted into picrosmine, by removing one-half of the magnesia, and partly replacing it by wa- ter, for the silica in equal volumes is the same. But if a conver- sion into serpentine is supposed to be effected by adding water, and removing a portion of oxyd of iron and magnesia, the 48 siO of an equivalent of chrysolite will make one and one-third equivalents of serpentine, and the volumes of the two species will be 5128 : 662-0, or since the volumes of equivalents are theoretically iden- tical, as 3:4. But neither in the magnesite and ilmenite which enclose the serpentine of Snarum, nor in any localities of erys- # Monatsber. Berl. Akad, cited in this Jour., vol. xii, [2] p. 815. Sxconp Szrres, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853. 28 218 On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. tallized serpentines or of interstratified masses of this mineral, as far as 1 am aware, have there been observed any marks of the disruption, displacement, and other mechanical effects which should result from such a great increase in volume. he advocates of this hypothesis as to the origin of serpentine, will scarcely maintain that the action in this case is different from that which should produce aspasiolite from iolite, or im- agine a removal of both silica and magnesia from part of acrys- tal of chrysolite, while the surrounding silicates and carbonate of magnesia are like the remainder of the crystal, unaltered. The generally admitted notions of pseudomorphism seem to have originated in a too exclusive plutonism, and require such varied hypotheses to explain the different cases, that we are led to search for some more simple explanation, and to find it in many instan- ces, in the association and erystallizing together of homologous and isomorphous species : We have in these pages given the first series of illustrations of our views respecting the homologies of chemical formulas, and the similarity of volume in isomorphous species; it is be- lieved that these views will be found to enlarge and simplify the plan of chemical science, and lead to a correct mineralogical system. Montreal, Canada, June 21st, 1853. Arr. XXIII.— Theoretic Determination of the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine; by F. A. P. Barnarn, Professor ee Chemistry and Natural History, in the University of Ala- ama. the time, all the heat which has ean imparted to it during the expansion. {t would follow as a corollary, that, if such air could On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. 219 0 whether justly or not, the present writer, having met with noth- ing on the subject published with his explicit sanction, is unable to say.* Whatever may be his own views, however, reporters who have heard him and friends who speak for him, have so ex- pressed themselves, as to leave no doubt that they so understand him. 'To such persons a curious practical paradox may be pro- posed, for which they wguld find it difficult to account, as follows : Suppose an engine to be constructed on Ericsson’s plan; but ? * Since this was written, an article by Capt. Ericsson, published in Appleton’s Mechanics’ ine for June, has come sdivden the eye of the writer. It leaves no doubt that Capt. Ericsson’s views have been correctly represented in the a tions which have heretofore been made, on his behalf, though not avowedly by bis authority, t It 2 usual to put 1= density at 32°, under pressure of 30 inches of mercury. For our present purposes, it is convenient to make the density at 60° = unity, modifying the co-efficient of expansion, as explained further on. 220 On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. on this subject, would of course expect that the next charge of air from the reservoir, taking up these 422°, would, in like man- ner as the former, lift the piston completely up, exerting precisely the same pressure as before, and filling the cylinder once more with air at the temperature of 450°. And they would expect to see this operation again and again repeated; so that, accidental losses being excluded by the supposition, the furnace would be unnecessay. And indeed, the only use of the furnace in the prac- tical case, would, in their view, be, to repair the waste of heat resulting from imperfect insulation, from leakage, and from the necessary incompleteness of transfer in the regenerator. Such per- sons would therefore be probably surprised to find, that the second charge would not maintain the temperature of 450° to the end of the stroke, that the third charge would fall off in temperature still more than the second, and so on till the regenerator should be completely cooled down. But what woufd perhaps occasion even greater surprise than this, would be the fact, that, if a secon charge of air should be drawn through the same regenerator not from the reservoir, but from the supply cylinder directly, the machine not now being self-acting, but being moved by som external force, this second charge, at the end of the stroke would have the full temperature of 450°, and (the other suppositions remaining,) would, in escaping, deposit its 422° of acquired heat in the regenerator ; which would again heat the next charge to 450°, and so on ad infinitum. To this paradox the old philosophy furnished no key. The initial and final densities and bulks of the air in both cases are identical; and in both cases the same amount of matter is exposed for the same time to the same source of heat. But the second process is attended with no dimimution of the stock of heat originally supposed to be in the regenerator, while the first is rapidly exhaustive. How shall the difference be accounted for? On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. 221 or at constant volume, is the same for all densities between 1 and 10; and for all temperatures between — 30° and + 225°, centi- grade ( —22° and + F.);* so that, for all the purposes of this inquiry, we may pce this element as invariable, even if it should not prove to be so under all possible circumstance Now, in the case presented in our paradox, the air, at ve end of the stroke, i is under a pressure easily determinable by the fol- lowing formula, p'=p(1+«4)o, which p’ represents the pressure — p the normal atmos~- haric pressure, 15 Ibs. per sq. inch, 6= the temperature above melting ice, in degrees F'ah., 9= the density of the atmospheric 1 Pl (the co-efficient of expansion per de- gree F., according to-Regnault, to be applied to the volume at : ) If, to simplify the matter, we m e o=1, then « will become at the assumed weather tem pote of 60°F. = 1 air at the time, and «= =) ae 519 ico and @ must be reckoned from 60° upwards, in- stead of from 32°. Its value at the end of the stroke, according to our former ai atid is 422°. Hence p’=27°2 lbs. per sq. tip 1-813 atmosphere , as the air of the ie. at the temperature of 60°, when 0=0, 5 es the same elastic force, its density must, by the same formula, be now =1:813. From this density to density 1, there- by Poisson, about 1- 30 If cies s air had been heated - Comptes goon, Apr. 18,1 + This is the mean, or about ap ean, of two values given by Poisson. But Pois son gives also 1421, ‘as a value determined by Dulong for air perfectly dry, and be also gives 14061, as a value determined by direct Tongue. on the velocity of oO e y Ma , for Jul scot received — the present article was tes apt rie at Ry 1 324, determined experimentally by Mr. Petrie. On the other hand, Mr. Rankine in the Lond. Phil. Mag., for * une, and supplement for the same sho ‘gives 1°40, a ‘41, as the cosa which contain the tru Pec and 1:4094 as the value determined by observati velocity of soun Z Poisson inclines to the largest of all the values, (1-421), on the gro that observations on sound, are liable i a f small, in ein Ss of a in the quantity of heat contained in the air un- dergoing compression and dilatation. With the increase a 7, bo cag the positive and the Piieth terms of pressure in the air engine are increased ; but the advantage is on the whole on thi sities ve side. Thus, if we se go pe ge infttead of 1 36, we lose above 7 per cent. of available ood es is, powe and nee Rs we adore F 14094, we shall gain n ly 11 per cent. of ‘available power, value first in duced into the text is fal ote to stand, though perhaps the Tpolate of sachs or of a higher num ing t Bg pores a_i Seeing obmet tion en that the ociaamsa equivalent of a unit of 222 On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. without enlargement of bulk, the same amount of — would have raised its. cama as much more than 422°, as 1°36 is greater than 1, that is, 573°°92. But as, at the end of ahs stroke its temperature is but 422° above that of the weather, it can give up only the 422° as it escapes. The difference =151°-92 has apparently been annihilated ; but it has actually been converted into expansive power, and is irrecoverable. In saying that it is irrecoverable, however, nothing more is meant than that it is utterly lost to any useful mechanical pur- elevate the ne i by an amount corresponding to the seem- ing loss. It is hardly necessary to say, that this amount of heat will be ie valoped, before the density shall have been reduced to that of the reservoir, 1°813, because the pressure in this reverse stroke is not constant, but rapidly rises, on account not only of the increase of density, but because of the developed heat itself. In this case there is a seeming as if we recovered the 151°-92 degrees of heat which on our supposition had been imparted to the air by the regenerator, and had become insensible. But had the cylinder been filled with air from the atmosphere, and not from the reservoir, and had this air at density 1, been heated 422° as before, it would still yield to the same compression, precisely as large an increment of heat, as in the other case ; although, this time, it would have absorbed in truth only the 422° which it seemed to absorb. The fact is, that, in both cases, the rise of temperature is an effect of labor co onverted into heat; as in the first case, heat is converted into labor. . e can easily understand, now, why, if a charge of airbe sup- posed to pass through the re egenerator into the working cylinder, oT from the oa: supply cylinder, the whole amount of exer elastic Aide indent of the ratio between the two ici i P being taken ¢ amend and ¢ made = 1. th 1e value of 9’ will be gre r as 7 is less. rmula, _ b'=pi(l nnd may lead, through Poisson's formule, directly to the true value of 7; and ». 0. that a correct Be iedependent prabiiees 0 of 7, should furnish, through the same, the true equivalent of heat haat On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. 223 heat which it receives will be faithfully returned again as it escapes. It is now heated without undergoing enlargement of bulk, and it absorbs neither more nor less heat than the denser charge would absorb, were it heated just as many degrees by the thermometer, without being permitted to expand—without being allowed, that is, to do any work, for heat, it is now well settled* will no more perform its labor gratis, than any other known wer. The expenditure of heat, therefore, absolutely necessary to the working of one of Ericsson’s engines, in which the supply and working cylinders are equal, and no cut-off is used, in which no heat is consumed but in working, and in which the air is cooled, between the supply and working cylinders, down to the weather temperature, assumed at 60° F., will be in a general expression, (T - 6) (y—1) MK, In which T is the temperature of the air in the working cylinder, 6, that of the weather, 7, the ratio of the specific heat of air at constant pressure to that at constant volume, M the mass of air heated ; and K,, the symbol employed by Mr. Rankine to express the mechanical equivalent of the specific heat of air at constant volume.* But as, in point of fact, the temperature of the reservoir is not kept down to that of the weather, but is a value, say &, dye to compression in the supply cylinder, so the change of temperature in passing into the working cylinder is less; being 'T —6’, instead of 'T'—6. Hence, the heat expended in working will be really, expressed in mechanical equivalents, (T—#) (y—1) MK, (II) An engine of this kind would be immensely powerful, but for the fact that a large amount of the heat which it thus consumes is employed in compressing air to feed itself. If the compressed air were allowed to expand against the piston, without receiving any additional heat, it is capable of exerting precisely as much power as has been employed in compressing it ; SO that, if this power could be all effectually applied, it would be just adequate to the compression of a new charge, and both power and resistance might be accounted zero. But it must not hence be inferred that all the heat derived from the furnace, and consumed in working, is therefore converted into available power ; for just in proportion as the air remains heated above the temperature of the weather, at the close of the stroke, in the same proportion it is impossible for the heat developed by compression to reéxpend itself in ex- pansion ; and to that extent it must prove a dead loss, unless can be saved by the regenerator. * We refer this symbol here, however, to the degree Fah, and not the degree 224 On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. But the temperature of the regenerator can never be lower than that of the blast which cools it, that is to say, of the air of the reservoir. And hence it follows, as a necessity of the case, that the heat of compression must be unavailable ; and that the fur- nace must furnish the power ae to compress the air, as Well as to do the work of the engine. The amount of heat thus unprofitably spent, depends on ne degree of compression which the air has undergone, which last is determinable by the follow- ing formula of Poisson: g\7 (p’=p (£) (1) In which p’, p, ¢ and 7 are used as before; and ¢ is the density ue to the compression. In the present case, & is found to be =1-5489= 1-55 nearly. The temperature of the compressed air is determined by the following, in which it is represented by ”, © being the number of degrees required to double the es at 32° original temperature. = (046) Sie _6 (2) Putting 9=491, according to ss ee we shall have 6 = 1169-54 = 88°:54 above the original temperature. 'T'o this extent, there- os the regenerator must fail, even if suipposed perfect, to absorb sensible heat which the air contains at the end of the stoke The difference, 333°-46, is the limit of possible economy o be secured by the use of this contrivance. Now expression (1) with the substitution of the value of 6 here Sbeuineal gives us, as the total amount of heat converted into power, 0 of non is balanced by the waste heat developed by unavailable 88:54 MK, la reducing the mechanical power actually developed to an available amount of 31:5 MK,,. on as this waste is unavoidable, we are obliged, in instituting a comparison between the power necessarily expended, and the effect produced, to regard the engine as debtor to the entire amount of 120 MK,, while we pans it with the available power as computed by the formule laid down in another article in this Journal. Now 120-0456 MK, =88-2688 MK,, in which K, is the mechanical : equivalent of the specific heat of air at constant pressure. And, as ‘2376 is (according to Regnault’s most recent determination) the specific heat of air at constant pressure, that of water being taken as unity, 88-2688 x -2376= 20-97 MK,, expresses the positive power developed by the engine in mechatl- ical equivalents of the specific eet Sega other words, On the Expenditure of heat in the Hot-air Engine. 225 every pound of air receives an amount of heat which it does not afterward restore, sufficient to raise the temperature of a pound of water 20°97 F. Buta cylinder 22100 sq. inches base and 72 inches altitude, will contain about 70 Ibs. of air of ordinary ensity. Hence, the unavoidable expenditure of heat at every m stroke of a hot air engine, having such a supply as well as work- ing cylinder, and working without bee will be =20°-97 x70 applied to one pound of water = 14709, nearly. To convert water into steam at 212° Se at the usual es- timate, 11429. And sai ‘287 Ibs. According to Bourne’s tables, the mechanical effect of one cubic inch of water converted into steam at 212°, is equal to 2083 pounds raised one foot. And 1-287 lbs. =35-58 cubic inches, similarly converted into steameat 212°, are equivalent to 74100 pounds raised one foot, or 12075 pounds raised through a six foot stroke. But we have seen in the article already mentioned, that the effect of a hot air engine, — supply and working cylinders equal, and pistons of 22100 inches, is equal to 56400 Ibs. during the stroke. ae divans is in favor of the heated air, to the extent of 1:46 If we take the properties of Ericsson’s i eae is, make the supply cylinder two-thirds of the working cylinder in capaci- ty, we shall have, provided we put the cut-off at two-thirds the stroke, for every ‘unit of weight of the air employed, the same number of units of heat, as before, at the moment of cut-off; but, in ros lt of the subsequent ies setian there will be an ad- Now, if the vlc eater is —_ of tak cog back the heat still uncons envedak end of the stroke, it is a benefit, though Captain rsa og cannot see it, to “turn the air adrift” at the er — ppt or, in other pecghacegy carry the maximum pressure to the and the comparison which presently follows the working cylinder, consists in the fact, that the effective power is absolutely expansively, But in Capt. Ericsson’s engines, the eed dity of a supply ie en to throughout nearly two-thirds of the stroke, oe working without cut-off; that a cut-off creates a negative ure at the close of the stroke, when me) mate engine is itself powerless or worse. The cu tie jee are removed by the plan recom- mended in another article of the present writer in this Journal. Lactiperrsiece Apasotetnit ecd aptain Eniesson is one of his own invention. He boa of heated air SS as if it were so much steam. And because steam can- be turned adrift wi it all its heat, 3 et ae and the purpore “for which they are intended oy mrp however, the moment we recognize his more radical theoretic error, : that the elastic force in air which is due to density, is something so ojalpendent of heat, Pe Soe epee SE any expenditure g at all, Soon Sasams, Vol XVI, No. 4%—Sept, 1858 29 226 On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. ditional consumption of heat, with corresponding depression of temperature. The expression, 120:0456 MK, =20:-97 MK,,, M being equal to 47 lbs. instead of 70, will give us only 986° F. @2Pplied to one pound of water. But the subsequent expansion, according to Poisson’s formula, (2,) will give a temperature of 322° at the end of the stroke, which is a falling off of 128, from the maximum, 450°. This is converted into mechanical effect, and this the regenerator cannot save. 128 MK, = 94-44 MK,=22-44 MK,,. Hence, owing to the expansion after cut-off, there is an additional consumption of heat at every stroke sufficient to raise the tem- perature of a pound of water, 22°-44 x 47 = 1054°-68, This amount added to the former gives 2040°-68. But 724068 _ 1.787 Ibs. of 1142 water =49-41 cubic inches, which, converted into steam at 212°, is adequate to raise 102914 lbs. one foot, or 17152 pounds through the six foot stroke. But we have seen that the power of the hot air engine, of the proportions and dimensions supposed, is represented by 74698 pounds raised through the same distance, hich makes the advantage im favor of air, as 1: 4°35. we allow to the steam the benefit of the same amount of expansion, its effect will be (assuming 7 for steam to be the same as for air, equal to 23050 Ibs. during the stroke,t reducing the foregoing ratio to 1:3-24. But it has been shown, in the article before alluded to, that these are not the proportions most favorable to the efficiency of the air engine. If 1:m represent the ratio of capacities of working and supply cylinder, and 1:2 be the ratio of the full stroke to the fractional part up to cut-off, then should be greater than unity. This proposition will, however, be understood to be asserted only in reference to the theoretic consumption of heat, as com- pared with the power developed, and to the amount of available power to be obtained from a working cylinder of definite dimen- sions. It is entirely independent of the question as to what vol- ume of air can be heated by the furnace and regenerators, SO 2S * Capt. Eriesson says that the fur 1 bihie d : perature. If it does, (which is no doubt impossible, however,) the power of the engine will be greater, but the expenditure of i greater also. In the present case, it W mer number into the calculation, since the maximum temperature cannot possibly sustained during the expansion. The furnaces may, nevertheless, somewhat check the depression. Determined by the method. pre in a following article, and not by the imper- y engineers, etic amount to 174°, instead of 128°. It would be folly, however, to introduce the x t fect modes commonly employed On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. 227 to give the best velocity to the piston. For it will be obvious that, though the theoretical consumption of heat is less when m =1, than when it is less, as 3, yet the volume of air which must be heated and cooled at every stroke is fifty per cent. greater in the former case than in the latter. Moreover, since the theoretic, cylinder is larger. If there were no waste at all from this cause, then condensing cylinders of large dimensions, with supply cylin- ders to throw the air into the reservoir after condensation, as de- scribed in the following article already referred to more than once, and with 7<1, would furnish engines much more powerful than those of Ericsson, both absolutely and with relation to the con- sumption of heat. It is no part of the present purpose to investigate the question, what would be the best theoretical proportions of the cylinders to each other, and of the cut-off to the stroke; or the numerical ra- tio of 7: m, which would render the largest amount of heat avail- able. The results of such an enquiry must always be subordinate ences which theory cannot anticipate. Leakage, moreover, may possibly be dependent, in some measure, upon the relative propor- tions of the cylinders. But losses from radiation, conduction, and by escape through the smoke-pipes, will not be materially different, so long as the working cylinder remains invariable in size, whatever be the magnitude of the supply cylinder. Upon the whole, it cannot be denied that the results of theory are, in one important point of view, favorable to the hot air en- gine. The available power developed in this machine ought to bear a much larger ratio to the mechanical equivalent of the heat expended, than is true of the steam-engine, even when steam is worked with large expansion. But, in another point of view, the air engine is yet, even in theory, far behind the steam-engine ; since, though it lays out the heat to advantage, it requires a very. ulky and ponderous apparatus to lay out the amount of heat he- cessary for the creation of great power. Whether there is any escape from this difficulty is more than doubtful; but whether the evil may not be so far reduced as to render the engine an eli- gible motor on the ocean, for commercial purposes, if not for high speed, is a question which we are not yet justified in answering in the negative. University of Alabama, July 7, 1853. 228 W. P. Blake on Crystallized Carbonate of Lanthanum. Arr. XXIV.—On the occurrence of Crystallized Carbonate of Lanthanum ; by W. P. Brake. ~ Tue mineral I am about to describe was found near Bethlehem, in Lehigh Co., Pa., associated with the zinc ores of the Saucon Valley. It was thrown out from a few feet below the surface, by the miners when sinking an exploring shaft near one of the veins of calamine in limestone. A single specimen of the mineral was preserved by Dr. W. W. Dickenson the superintendent, who at my request furnished me with a part of it for examination. The specimen was about three inches in diameter and attracted my attention by its delicate pink color and peculiar structure, be- ing an aggregation of thin plates and scales of a pearly luster, forming a light reticulated mass which was found to be highly crystalline on examination by a glass, and the crystals were apparently rectangular in form. A more satisfactory examina- tion of them was made by placing some loose fragments upon the stage of a microscope, and viewing them with a glass of moderate magnifying power. The appearance in the field of the instrument was beautiful and exceedingly interesting, each minute fragment being a part of a well formed tabular crystal, and retain- ing many of its edges and angles. It became evident that the angles formed by the meeting of the principal edges were oblique. ach large crystalline plate had upon its broad surface one oF more smaller crystals. Two of the forms observed are here represented. r: 9. The edges of all the crystals appeared to be beveled, and one or two were seen on which there was a double bevelment as re- presented in the second figure. The crystals were so very thin that it was not possible to meas- ure the inclinations of these planes. I however obtained the angles of the tables by the aid of the rotating eye-piece micrometer attached to Nachet’s large muicro- scope. ‘I'he crystal gave the angles 94° and 86°. W. P. Blake on Crystallized Carbonate of Lanthanum. 229 The measurements were repeated upon several crystals in dif- ferent parts of the field with uniform results, as here given. L. Il. Il. 1v. v. Obtuse, 93° 30/ 93° 94° g4° 93° Acute, 86°-86° 30/ 86° : On examination by polarized light, the crystals were found to refract doubly. The isolated plates or crystals appear transparent, and nearly colorless, but when the mineral is seen in mass it has a beautiful pink or rose color, and is not unlike that of peach blossoms. The hardness is about 2 (Mohs’s scale), or nearly that of gypsum. I obtained for the specific gravity at 60° I’, 2-666, which is the result of one determination only, and needs repeating, as minute BB. In tube, gives off water abundantly. With borax in oryd- ating flame dissolves, giving a slightly blue glass which becomes reddish on cooling, and when cold has a purple or amethystine tinge. In reducing flame nearly the same. With microcosmic salt; a blue glass, while hot amethystine, and red when cold; the bead becomes opaque when but slightly heated, and retains a pink color. With carbonate of soda, a green reaction similar to that given by manganese. The crystals dissolve rapidly in dilute chlorohydric acid, with brisk effervescence; ammonia precipitates from this solution a bulky precipitate of a delicate pink color which is insoluble in an excess of the precipitant ; the filtrate leaves no residue on being €vaporated to dryness. The following are the chemical characters of the mineral as given by Prof. J. Lawrence Smith, who has kindly examined it for me. “he mineral gives all the reactions for lanthanum and didy- i sulphate deposits on boiling small prismatic crystals, which, redis- solved on the cooling of the solution, afford unmistakable evidence of the presence of sulphate of lanthanum or its like. } eral when heated to redness loses all its water, anda large portion of carbonic acid, but it requires a long continued heat to expel the last traces; the residue is of a light brown color; if this be treated With nitric acid re-ignited and then thrown into water containing 230 W. P. Blake on Crystallized Carbonate of Lanthanum. one-hundredth part of nitric acid, it will be slowly but completely dissolved, an evidence of the absence of cerium. As to the pre- sence of didymium, it was only indicated by the color of the oxyd ; the quantity of the mineral was too small to enable me to decide in any way as to the amount of that substance mixed with the lanthanum. A quantitative examination, in which every thing was estimated directly, gave, Water, - - . - 24:09 Carbonic acid - - - 22:58 Oxyd of lanthanum and didymium, * 54:90 10157 The excess in the analysis is due to the peroxydation of a por- tion of the oxyds; but as we are not yet possessed of any accurate method of reducing them, the analysis must stand as it is. Other analyses were made of the separate constituents, the results of. which accord with the above, and give the formula, Lad+3H, the per-centage of which is water 25-95, carbonic acid 21-11, oxyd lanthanum 52:94= 100-00. This carbonate is the artificial carbonate commonly obtained by adding the alkaline carbonates to a soluble salt of lanthanum.” I have obtained the following per-centage weights, for the separate constituents. La 6G CHF (by ign. L 54-27 19-13 SSK es IL. 54-93 Bs 45-07 lL 54-64 45-36 Another determination of carbonic acid gave 19-936 p.c. Sub- tracting the mean of the two determinations of carbonic acid from the loss by ignition gives, 25-68 per cent. as the amount of water. These results are sufficient to show that the mineral is a simple carbonate of lanthanum with three atoms of water, and I prefer to describe it as Lanthanite, although its composition is very different from that given by Mosander to the mineral found at Bastnas in Sweden, which has been examined in small quantities only, and possibly in a state of admixture, so that considerable doubt as to its constitution seems to exist ; it is now important that it should receive a reéxamination as it very probably has 4 composition corresponding with the mineral just described. The occurrence of carbonate of lanthanum almost chemically pure with zinc ores in limestones of silurian age, is a fact of no small interest. It should be remarked, however, that the lime- stones have decomposed to a considerable depth, and left the fine ore, together with peroxyd of iron and manganese, in the soil; the uanthanite was only six feet below the surface. New York, March 1853. The Normal of Curvature. 231 Art. XXV.—The Normal of Curvature; by Grorce CiinTos Wurrttock, Prof. of Chem. and Nat. Hist. in Genesee College. Tue complicated method of the osculatory circle and its met- aphysical difficulties, has conducted me to the following solntion f the problem of curvature, founded on the natural and simple relations of intersecting normals to the are embraced by them. he equation of the normal to a curve o at the point (y, x), is 1 dy Ea hs od Mik [y=3 | or ( —Y¥,)=2,—-2, Y,, &, being the co-ordinates of any point in the normal; so ; (ythy (ytk—y,)=.—(t+h), is the equation of the normal intersecting the curve in the point (yt+k,r+h). Or, for ¢, the point in which the normals inter- sect, distinguishing the codrdinates of this point by y., 7,, the equations of the normals become y’( ~¥s) — Be F, ytky(y—yo) Hy thyk=a,—2—h} . [((ytky yy - yc) Hy th k= —h, Ly a k and YEO AY (y-yn)4(y thy G=—13 from which, reducing h to zero and observing that [*] =y' and pee 7 = pee =(9'x)'=9"z, [y=9r], we have y"(y— Yo) ty’? +1=90, ay? sar JER pa gee tye or Yo-Y and by substitution, Therefore, putting 9, which we denominate the “ Normal of Curvature,” for the length of the. normal embraced between the point « and the curve when h=0, there results, (y?2+1)* _ S=V (yo—y)? +(@- 25)? = : It is evident that the Normal of Curvature applies much more directly and simply to the problem of central forces than does the Radius of Curvature. fo Genesee College, May 7th, 1853. 232 Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. Art. XXVI.—Proposed Modification of the construction of the Ericsson Engine, with a view to increase its available power ; by Frepericx A. P. Barnarp, Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in the University of Alabama. The deep interest with which the public have regarded the recent attempt of Capt. Ericsson to employ the elastic force of air expanded by heat, for the propulsion of vessels at sea, appears to have given place to a feeling almost of disappointment. What- ever hopes might still have been entertained by observers whose opinions are governed by visible results only, and not by theoretic deductions, of the practicability of attaining a materially higher degree of power with greater experience, such anticipations can hardly be indulged with any confidence by those who have read with attention the searching examination of the performance of the experimental engines of the “ Ericsson” ship, made by Prof. Norton, in the last number of this Journal. f, in connection with the article of Prof. Norton, we refer to the theoretic investigation of the general question by Major Bar- nard, of the U. S. Engineers, in the April number of Appleton’s Mechanics’ Magazine, we shall be satisfied that there are difficul- ties in the way of increasing the efficiency of the engine in its present form, too serious to be easily surmounted. As to the fact that it has not yet been brought up nor nearly up, to the original estimate of the inventor, no doubt can possibly be enter- tained in any quarter. . Taking the engine in its present form, there appear to be three modes, and only three, by which its power may be increased ; and all these are attended by practical disadvantages of such a nature as greatly to limit their availability. The first is, ob- viously, to increase its size; but, in so doing, we increase the weight proportionally, and thus unfit the engine for the uses of locomotion. The second, is to enlarge the supply cylinder only, increasing the quantity of air employed at each stroke; but this, besides requiring a similarly increased amount of fuel, necessarily increases rapidly the irregularity, or rather, inequality of action of the driving power, at different periods of the stroke. The third mode, isto diminish the fractional part of the stroke during which the air is admitted to the working cylinder, or to place the cut-off earlier in the stroke. But here a practical limit very shortly presents itself, in the occurrence of a resistance towar the close of the stroke, superior to the pressure on the working piston. With double engines connected as are those of the “ Briesson,” such a resistance is not inadmissible within certain imits; because the negative pressure in either engine may be overcome by the positive power of the other; but even with such Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. 233 it may easily be shown, that when the cut-off is at a little short of ¥, the driving power will be reduced nearly or quite to zero, at the points where the component of negative pressure directed against the power of the companion engine is near its maximum; and, with a two-thirds cut-off, which has been recommended by Prof. Norton, and which is larger than that sometimes or usually em- ployed in fact on the “ Ericsson,” the balance of positive power at these points will become but little more than one pound to the square inch. This indeed, is true only when there is no leak- age :—which, however, is simply saying that the disadvantage fails to become serious only in proportion as the advantage sought is unattained. In speaking of the possible modes of improving the performance of the engine, it is taken for granted that the safe limits o have already been experimentally found; and that consequently there is no room to look for improvement in this direction. And it is also admitted that the performance of the engines of the Ericsson will very possibly and even probably, be improved, if it shall be found practicable to save the large amount of power, now evidently lost by leakage. But it seems not at all difficult to show that these engines, with their present dimensions and form, can never develop the amount of power which has been estimated for them by their ingenious inventor, even if all leakage should € stopped ; unless the heat imparted to the air should be made greater than we are told it has yet been. Whether any modification of the form of the engine can be effectual to remove the difficulties in the way of its improvement, or even partially to remove them, is a question which deserves examination. Apparently the hope of a favorable solution is not desperate ; and the object of the present paper is to offer a single suggestion looking in that direction. In order that it may be intelligibly presented, it will be necessary to throw the condi- tions of the problem into mathematical form. The symbols em- ployed by Maj. Barnard, in the article above alluded to, will be adopted so far as they serve. Put a= cross section of working cylinder. ma = the same.of supply cylinder. '= the tension of the air in reservoir, when working with any adjustment of the cut-off. t’ = the same, when working without cut-off. 1= length of stroke; /=fractional part of stroke up to cut-off. n== ratio of expansion by heat referred to a unit-volame at the density of the air in reservoir. : 15 lbs. = pressure of the atmosphere to the square inch. 1= density of the external air, relatively to that in re- : servolr. Sxrconn Srrims, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853. 30 234 Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. The consumption of air at each stroke, “rsipias equals al in bulk, it having been expanded times by hea : ; a Same, reduced to density of reservoir, ay i Which would fill the supply cylinder to the height, a Having a density = and a tension = ant Now, if /=1, or there be no cut-off, this expansion becomes 5mn ;—hence, ¢t/=15mn. *, / But, if there is a cut-off, <= 5G . » and t/ =i. If there is a cut-off, the air works by the expansion due to its natural elasticity during the remainder of the stroke, and its ulti- mate tension =/¢, which, as above, =?’. Hence, the final tension of the air in the working-cylinder i is constant, wherever the cut- off be placed, and is the same as if no cut-off were use From these data it is easy to find an expression for the mean effective pressure during a single’stroke ; this being equal to the whole upward pressure on the working piston, minus the resist- ances divided by the length, which is unity. This expression, reduced to its simplest form is as aoa ee P to represent the mean effective pressure during the s P= 15a(an—1) + L5am ( Anus ht (oh mn). As nis necessarily greater and J less than 1, it is evident that, m and m remaining unchanged, the power will increase while Z diminishes, and this without limit. A different conclusion drawn by Prof. Norton, seems to have resulted from leaving out of view a portion of the resistance. Bat, while this is the mean pressure, it will be seen that the actual pressure exerted at different periods of the stroke is very variable. The maximum will occur in the beginning when the positive pressure is =a, and the resistance simply that of the at- mosphere = 1 he minimum occurs at the close, when the pressure is =at', and the resistances =amt + 15a (1—m). e have seen ¢/ to be constant, m and m remaining the same, what- ever may be the value of L But ¢ increases inversely as /, an pone Pi ; So that amt+15a(1—m) may soon be equal to, oF exce This cironmataele practically restricts the power of a single pair of cylinders within a moderate limit. But when two pairs are connected as in the “ Ericsson” ship, so that one may be at mid-stroke when the other is encountering the greatest resistance. each may help the other out. And this it may do, even when the resistance exceeds its own positive power at the moment; Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. 235 since a large component of the resisting pressure will be thrown upon the crank and shaft. Nor is the power thus expanded by one engine to relieve the other to be regarded as a loss, since in the theoretical estimate of the power of either, the whole resist- ance is counted as negative. - Still the reduction of the joint power of both engines to zero, or nearly to zero, at any point, is undeniable, especially when it is considered that this is a state of things resulting from an ac- tual increase of the mean pressure. The great evil resulting from the use of a short cut-off, is inequality of action, and the advantage of resorting to this expedient must be practically limited, unless a remedy can be found for this difficulty. To illustrate this fact, let us take an example. Putting m=3, n=2, and [=3, we shall have at/=20a, and amt+15a (1—m) =22ia; an excess of resistance nearly equal to three pounds on the square inch of the entire surface of the working cylinder. But z cannot equal 2. In practice, it will, probably, rarely exceed 1:8; and will more probably (a point to be considered further on) fall below 1:6. Put n=1°8, and /=3%. Then, at’/=18a; and amt + \5a (1—m) =23a; the resistance exceeding the power of the engine by 5a, which, putting a=22100 sq. inches, as in Ericsson’s engines, = 110500 pounds. ower of the companion engine, at this time, (taking it at mid-stroke) will be =at=27a ; and the resistance the same as in the former case, viz.=23a; giving an effective pressure of only 4a, and leaving a balance of resistance against both engines = 22100 pounds. If we would ascertain at what point of the stroke, in either en- gine, working as above, equilibrium will occur between pressure and resistance, we have only to make the resistance 23a which is t ‘ constant for more than half the stroke, equal to wai or t’ = 232; 18 or 23218; and og” wee Now, if the connecting rod be not more than four times the length of the crank, we may easily show that the power of a single engine, worked as here supposed, will entirely fail, while the angle between the crank and the line of the centre, or line 0 neutral effect, is still more than 70°, in the pushing stroke, and not much less in the pulling. At this distance, should the com- panion engine be called into help, it expends a power greater than the resistanee it overcomes. But as this is only the initial point of the resistance, no serious task is imposed on the compan- ion, until the stroke is considerably farther advanced. — The point at which the tax upon the companion will become a maximum, will vary with the position of the cut-off, and with the proportions of the parts of the engine. In the case supposed, 236 Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. it occurs between 40 and 45 degrees from the neutral line, and varies very slowly, through a considerable arc: the mechanical advantage of the driving engine iucreasing nearly as the resist- ance of the opposing. During this time, the effective pressure is reduced below 14 pounds to the square inch. The action, there- fore, of the double engine, though not entirely neutralized by this cause, is rendered very undesirably unequal. ; Without going into a more minute exposition of this branch of the subject, it is the design of the present article to suggest a modification of the form of the engine, by which it is believed that the unequal action resulting from the use of high tension may be in a measure removed, so that single engines may wor with larger supply cylinders, without intervals in which the power will be zero; and double engines may carry the tension of the air in the reservoir to a much higher degree than is practicable at present, without encountering the difficulties which have been mentioned. The proposed remedy is not entirely unobjectionable itself; but it is apparently recommended by advantages more important than any objections which have yet presented themselves. An if its adoption shall render it possible to obtain as high power as has yet been reached in practice, from materially less piston sur- face, the most serious of these objections, which arises from an increase of the number of parts, and therefore of weight, will dis- appear. Possibly the modification may ultimately lead to a re- duction of wei That the proposition may be understood, it is proper here to observe, that, at the commencement of the stroke, there is an amount of pressure which, at a high tension of the air upon these huge pistons, becomes absolutely enormous. With the tension aimed at by Ericsson, viz. 12 Ibs. above the atmosphere, it becomes no less than 265000 pounds. Before the completion of the half- stroke, this is reduced to one-third of its value, when it remains constant up to the cut-off, at the two-thirds’ stroke, after which it rapidly diminishes, becomes zero at eighteen twenty-thirds of the stroke, and thence finally negative to the end. The object of the modification about to be suggested, is to provide a relief for | tively free. In order to effect this object, it is proposed to employ three cylinders and three pistons where Ericsson employs only two; and to extend over a complete double stroke the labor of driving each fresh charge of air from the atmosphere into the reservoir. Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. 237 CC, Working we dad P’P’, Condensing cago Surface. 0’C’, Conden Eo Supply Pisto CHCHS cay et , Reservoir. ,V’, V"’, &e, Valves. F, Furnace. R’, Regenerator, O, Hot Air Chamber, PPP, Working Piston Surface. A reference to the accompanying diagram will explain what is meant. Let CC be the working cylinder, C’OQ’ a second cylin- der, corresponding to Ericsson’s supply cylinder, but which will here be called the condensing cylinder, and C’C” a third, which may be called the proper supply cylinder of this proposed engine. Let P be the working surface of the large piston, P’ the c densing iit of the same piston, and P” the supply piston.* € air is proposed to be admitted through valves on the top of C’C’ into that cyli nder, it is to be driven from that cylinder into C’C”, through valves in the bottom of it, this cylinder hav- * To avoid giving the pile of cylinders too great altitude, it is proposed to sink the condensing cyl nee: bergen i binary the working cylinder. For this purpose e as in Eriesson’s stationary single aie, instead of being placed between the sup- Py and working cylinder, as in the ship. t will be observed, pars closing the top of the cylinder C’’C’’, and os Valves in P’’, we may, if we please, cause the communication — the reservoir to be made at the top of the scsi ue at ere — ot rare oes th ‘wriig beuattse tg ve space rtiteho woul be ni varinen, beam to — hat higher, w' a ship, may be a 238 Prof. Barnard ona modification of the Ericsson Engine. ing the capacity, predetermined, to bring it to the density of the reservoir. Finally, by the descent of the piston P”, it is to be discharged through V into the reservoir, R. oattempt will be made here to discuss difficulties of a merely mechanical nature. Some such are foreseen, and also the means of obviating them; but if the proposed modification offers a real improvement, it will be time to consider them seriously when the subject acquires a practical importance. The disadvantages of the suggested plan are obvious at first sight; and therefore they may as well be enumerated at once, in advance. They are, Ist. A multiplication of parts, always to be avoided, if possible. n increase, to some extent, of weight. 3d. The friction of an additional piston. The advantages are recognized only upon a more careful con- sideration. It will be seen, first, that the task of driving the aur, after condensation, into the reservoir, is, by this arrangement, dis- tributed equally over the entire stroke, instead of being confined, as before, to a little more than one-half of it. The total expendi- ture of force necessary in effecting this object, is, of course, neither increased nor diminished by the change. In the second. place, the air of the condensing cylinder acquires its maximum of den- sity only at the very termination of the stroke; and hence the maximum opposition which it offers to the motion of the piston is deferred to the latest possible moment, instead of growing Up rapidly before the completion of the half stroke, as in the present engines. In all this, there is-no gain of power, certainly, but there is a great gain in equality of action. It might seem, in- deed, at first thought, that there is a loss of power, since the elas- tic force of the air undergoing condensation constitutes a resistance, increased at mid-stroke, and will be more uniformly diffused overt the entire stroke, not, indeed, doing away with, but deferring, the great resistance at the close. ? All this can be made to appear only by the aid of mathematical formule. The expression for mean pressure, though constructed upon somewhat different data from the former, assames identically the Same shape in the end, and is P=15a (mn —1)+ 15am ( (1—n) hl Z—hl mn) Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. 239 the case admits of. We shall find that, while the plan now pro- posed will materially reduce the pressure at the maximum point below that of the Ericsson engines at the same point, it in so do- ing only reserves a large amount of force, to be subsequently ex- pended upon a part of the stroke where the mechanical advantage attending its application is rea greater. ‘The minimum pres- sure in single engines, must, in the nature of things. be the same in both forms of constr spans but in double engines, the joint Jorce of the pair at minimum will be much superior in the form now proposed, to what it can be in the present. In comparing these joint ae sg in the expressions ae they have been treated as if they were exerted in the same straight line, instead of bein perpendicular to each other in mean direction. But this will not interfere with the object in view, which is merely to illustrate the difference between the two constructions, in regard to uni- formity of action. The maximum pressure, in a double engine, will ee occur when one of the pistons is commencing its stroke, the other one then in action being about at mid-stroke. In Ericsson’s engines, we have seen Fie the effective pressure on the first may be expressed by the P=at— 150, (1) while that on the second will be, P=at—amt—15(1-—m)a (ii) and that on both together is, = (2-—m)(t-15)a [I] In order to reduce to a corresponding expression the condition of one of our proposed engines at the same moment, we must first determine the cross-section to be given to the cylinder Bas B44 in order that its capacity may be just equal to the bulk of the air in C’C’, reduced to the required density. Now this bulk, being that of the constant supply, must be also equal to the constant consumption, which we have seen to be = Of two equal but dissimilar cylinders, the bases must be inversely as the altitudes. Hence, ‘e nie :m/a in which m/ represents the ratio of the cross-section of C’C” to ‘that of CC, and is obviously equal to- 240 Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. At the commencement of the stroke of one of the pistons, the pressure on its surface will be at, as before. But this will be op- posed not only by 15a, (the pressure on its upper surface) as in the former case, but also by that of the air in cylinder C’C” at the other end of the working beam, whose cross-section is ah and tension ¢. The atmospheric pressure on the upper surface se the smaller piston favors the power, so that the expression for total effect contains these four terms, P=ai —1lda+-l5a , _ ae n n ferrae e Z mn — ‘ l n = 15a () ’ For the simultaneous effective einai upon the ee in ac- tion in the companion engine, at mid-stroke, we hav Pressure on under surface of Spire piston a1 Atmospheric resistance, upper surface =—15(1=—m)a - . . 30m? n Resistance, partially condensed air, on P’ =— a. LP y a mn+l . 30/m Favoring pressure of same, on P” sane a. j : tae ; l Resistance, condensed air, passing into reservoir = —at-. n The atmospheric pressures on the two pistons, P’, at opposite ends of the beam, balance each other The co-efficient of a, in the third term, rout is obtained as follows. At mid-stroke, the undergoing condensation half fills 1 cylinders C’C’ and C”C”. Its bulk is therefore equal to (m+, a. Let ¢’= the corresponding tension, and we have 30mn : mn+l which tension, acting on the surface of P’=ma, gives the term bet Bg” eee’ 8 2 z n as above. In like manner, ¢” acting on the surface, ted of BM, gives the next following term. All the expressions above, united and reduced, give (mn—1)\ P=15a("=—- ; —- a) 2) This, added to the last, gives, for she sali power of both engines, P=15e( 275 ol nee a) i no ~ mat+l “ Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine, 241 Assigning now to J, m, and n, the values heretofore. employed respectively, we shall find, by comparing (i) and (ii) with (1) and (2), and by comparing (1) with (II), that while the total effective pressures of both the mutually auxiliary engines, taken together, e not widely different, yet the parts which make up this total are remarkably unequal in the two cases. The substitutions of e numerical values of the letters, give the following results; a, as before, being taken at 22100 sq. in. (i) = 12a = 265200 lbs. (1) = 7:555a = 166977 “ i 4a = 88400 id a 6:286a = 138920 ‘ Ld (I) = 16a=353600 “ (II) = 13-841a=305897 “ It appears from these comparisons, that, at the moment of maxi- mum joint effective action, one of the laboring pistons of Ericsson’s engines is sustaining three times as great a pressure as the other ; and that this is precisely the piston of which the power is applied at the greatest mechanical disadvantage. By the other construction, this inequality is much reduced. The “otal of effective action is also diminished at this point by the proposed plan; as it was de- signed to be, for the benefit of a later period of the stroke. _ The point of maximum resistance is likewise, when a cut-off is employed, the point of minimum elasticity of the air in the working cylinder—that is to say, the end of the stroke ; and this will therefore be the point of minimum joint effective pressure in the pair of engines. In Ericsson’s engines, we have, for the pis- ton finishing its stroke, P=at! —mat—15(1-m)a (’) and for that at mid-stroke, as before, a P=at—ami—15(1-m)a. tS, For an engine working without a cut-off, these expressions are obviously equal; but it is otherwise for one which works expan- sively, _ In the newly proposed form, the expression for the first piston is exactly the same as (i’). There is no escape from the neces- sity of encountering somewhere a resistance equal to the full ten- sion, t, exerted against the entire surface of the condensing piston. his, moreover, happens, when ¢ has run down to én the work- ing cylinder; that is, when the positive pressure is least. We have, therefore, for piston finishing its stroke, : And, for the piston, at mid-stroke, as before, (2) (oe aoe) (2’) Elia E © ereeatt Szconp Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853. - ol 242 Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. The total of i’ and ii’, for the Ericsson engine, is, (¢ and ¢’ being eliminated, ) P=1ba [ F+t—-2m)—21—m) | (V) The similar total for the other is, l-m _mn—l a ; P=16a [ min 72 ent 1)-2 }> Comparing these, as before, we have, ’) =-—5a=—110500 lbs. (1) =-5a=—110500 * (il) =+4a=+88400 . (2’) =+6286a= 138920 “ l’} =-—a= — 22100 ‘ [Il] =+1:286a=+28420 « It thus appears, that, at the point of minimum pressure, engines constructed in the proposed form would have a considerable bal- ance of positive power, even were their action directed in the same straight line, which it is not. In point of fact, arranged as they are, Ericsson’s engines, with a cut-off at two-thirds’ stroke, always preserve a balance of positive power at the point of great- est exigency ; but for the same reason, the balance is much more in favor of the form now proposed, hardly descending at any time no immediate interest in a discussion like that just now in hand. — Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. 243 against some negative pressure, may, with similarly enlarged sup- ply cylinders, acquire much greater efficiency. Without enlarging upon this point, it will be sufficient to take the expression for mean pressure already given, and substitute in it larger values for m. If m=1, and /=1, n being 1'8, as before, we shall obtain a mean pressure of 70200 Ibs. and, with nine revolutions, and a 6 foot stroke, a horse-power of 230. If 2 be put =3, m and n remaining the same, the horse-power rises to 1340. But with this adjustment, the periodical resistance becomes intolerable. Indeed. it is obvious that when m is equal to 1, no single engine can work with a cut-off at all, without a heavy fly ; nor with a short cut-off, even with the aid of such a regulator. For when m=1 and J also =1, the power and resist- ance are exactly balanced at the end of the stroke.* But double engines may have great power, with a condensing as large as the working cylinder, and without objectionable negative pres- sure. Thus, put m=1 and /=, and the horse-power of a single engine rises to 390. The maximum effect is not attained, however, with m=1. The expression for mean pressure, viz., P= 15a (mn —1)+ 15am ( (1—m) hl /—hl mn) becomes a maximum (n and / being constant) when hl m= (n—1) —hln+(1-—n) hl * In Ericsson’s sogines; if m==1, the power is zero throughout half the stroke, even when working without a cut-off. In fact, this paralysis of the power out much more than half the stroke, in consequence of the heat developed by com- Pression, as is shown further on. 244 Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. demand for heat. T'o avoid protracting this discussion, this whole subject is reserved for future consideration. In regard to the power actually developed by the engines of the “Ericsson” ship, it is much below what, from the data, might have been expected. The inventor was justified in believ- to a deficient heating power. It seems impossible to ascribe it wholly to leakage. It is worth consideration, whether, after all, it is not ina great degree a consequence of the expenditure of much of the force developed, upon a portion of the stroke where it acts at the highest mechanical disadvantage ; and of another portion, in the mutual aid which these engines are required to furnish each other, after their power has become very much re- duced, and when they are precisely in the position in which they ought to act most efficiently. One advantage which must result from the adoption of the im- provement which it is the object of this paper to propose, has not thus far been alluded to. It consists in the unintermitting and uniform flow of the supply of condensed air into the reservoir.* As a consequence of this fact, indeed, we may be enabled to dispense with a reservoir almost entirely, without increasing the disadvantge of a perceptible fluctuation in the pressure on the working pistons. Thus far no notice has been taken of the important fact, that the temperature of the air which is driven into the reservoir by the supply cylinder, is very materially changed by the compression to which it is subjected. This circumstance cannot but exert an important influence on the working of the engine. Bui as yet nothing which has been written on this subject, and which has fallen under the notice of the present writer, has touched this t. material poin should be the legitimate influence of heat developed by compres- sion, and to modify the formule used in completing power, so as to allow for that influenee. Hitherto the tension of the com- is constant. But, in double engines, employing but a single reservoir, this fluctuation will nearly disappear. It is evident that the pressure might be rendered absolutely constant, if the case required it, by means of a large piston working in a cylinder at- : Pay ages weighted to the exacted pressure required trivance similar to this is employed to equalize the blast of tub-bellows in furnaces. _ F brous and undesirable attach- ‘or a locomotive engine, however, it would be a cumbro ment. Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. 245 pressed air has been inferred as if it depended upon nothing but altered density, according to the law of Mariotte. But this is to compute the power of a caloric engine, by disregarding a material part of the caloric in the case. It is evident that, if ¢ is the tension of the air in the reservoir, then the air in the supply cylinder will open the valves and begin to enter the reservoir (in consequence of the elasticity due to heat of compression), before the density reaches is’ In Poisson’s Traité de Mecanique, we find the following formula adapted to case. ‘ o\7 p'=p (£) ’ (I) In which p and p’, 9 and ¢&, denote the pressures and densities of the same air before and after compression, respectively, and y expresses the ratio between the specific heats of air at constant pressure and at constant volume. The mean of the valves given for y by Poisson, is 1-36.* following, which denotes the sensible temperature of the air after the change ; a=(040)(£)"" 0, (Il) In which 6 and 6 express the temperatures before and after the change of density, © represents the number of degrees of increase of temperarature required to double the bulk of air taken origi- nally at the temperature of 32° Fah., (=491° F., according to Regnault, ) and ¢ and & are used as before. But, assuming these several elements to be variable, becomes - a fraction of all of them. We may find a general expression for its value, and thus, if we please, eliminate it, as follows. In the London and Edinburgh Phil. Mag., for June, Mr. Rankine employs 1-41 ; : : rege ir - Scie Rot fallen under the notice of the writer, at the time of its preparation. com- putations which follow, stand as originally made, with the value of 7 =1°36. 246 Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. Put 7'= temperature of air in working cylinder. 6 = temperature of the weather. = temperature of air after compression by the condens- ing cylinder.* ©= number of degrees of heat required to double vol. of air, at original temperature of 32° F. g= density of the atmospheric air at the time, which. may always be assumed =1. o’= density of air in reservoir, which (9 being 1) we have mn already seen must be equal to _~ ‘ nue Hence, (II), #=(040)(<) —6=(6+0)( It is evident that, ae a): —9. l TO ; n—1= O16 (940 )n—O=T, r Jy-1 And gS es 0+ (0+46)mrinr! (T+ 0)b-? _/T+0\2/1\% Oe ae ad wn (PENH Hence, putting 7 and m, each =3, as before, assuming 0=28° (weather temp. =60° F. ), and 7'=450° (being =482° F’.—as high a heat as is probably safe), we shall have n=1-55 very nearly. Returning to equation (IL) with this value of the co-efficient of expansion, we have &=116°-5, or 148°-5 above the zero of Fah- renheit. Equation (I) furnishes also the tension due to this value of 7, which is 27-2 lbs. to the square inch. The formula heretofore given to express the mean pressure will now no longer be applicable; since, in the construction of that formula, density was assumed as a just measure of tension. t That is to say, 7 Was put equal to . of Poisson’s formula; where- e gf \? meh oh (®) - ‘Moreover the area of the logarithmic curve will no longer truly express the elastic force exerted by the air during expansion or compression. Instead of this we must substitute that of a different curve, whose absciss, 2, is the altitude of the column of air undergoing change of density, and whose ordinate is ¢’’, the tension corresponding to that altitude. Fr the positive term of variable pressure, we have the maximum tension =4, I and by (1), rd 2)’. ma * These temperatures are to be estimated from 32° ahrenheit, and not from the miu of tak ccc. : Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. 247 Then, if « represent the area of the curve, du=t"'dx=tl*xa- dz fia rr74€. lt But, when z=/, u=o: Hence cirepnae b= - , _ At the end of stroke, z=1; Hence, mt _ egrs-t) nee OE CT AE which is to be multiplied into a, the area of the working piston. For the negative term, or that expressing the resistance of the air undergoing compression, make, x, the absciss, the supplement of the stroke, or the part of the stroke which remains at any time to be performed. Then the bulk of the partially compressed air, at that ome will be made up of the part amz, in cylinder C’C’, and a-(1—2), in cylinder C’C”; or will be a total of <(1+(mn—I)z). And the corresponding density will be found from this proposition : a . ee . VT tee mn 5 (+ Gun — 1) x) an Lod Hea =0e The tension, ¢”, corresponding to d’, will be (1), sees aie t= 15( ix ae x3) = 15mn’ (I+ (mn—I)z) . And, as before, du=t’dr=15mnv(l+(mn—1)x) "dx 15mn? =e Pe act 1+ (mn— z) +C. ie ‘as (1-7) (mn— —y( emia 15mn?7. = anne man fe EEE RRO Be ISM eee pi y i ¢=0,.u=—0; or O= ro iteas =p* If z=1, the density is minimum ; and then 15mn? ans Peres Semmens tein ea De fir? hee iar = 1ma=D 15mn7 mn' 1—['~7 oF aejmt)™ which is to be multiplied by the difference of the surfaces P’ and 15m nt* — 3— P’—ma-_a— a, giving, finally, P=—;— (mn 1_'-1)a, . The several _ then, which make up the mean pressure, will be as follows 248 Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. Positive pressure, before cut off = + alt lr-1—1 “ “ce “ BE cme after =-+ali Sr alt Negative pressure, in supply cyl. = — ie 1 Balance, neg. pres. in cond. cyl. = ee (m?-Yn'-7—1!-7) Negative atmospheric pressure = —15a(1—m). Whence, 1 alt l5ammr P=alt +ali7——— + . (nn '-7— I'-7)-150( 1m), which is the mean pressure during the stroke. By eliminating (= 15(" ai ) and reducing, we shall have, By y-1 P=15al'-1mnr(n-1)+ 15al-ImIn— eS (m*-Yn\-7 — 19} Tat hoi But, as we have seen that » is dependent on J and m, this sym- bol also must be eliminated, in order that the equation may con- tain only 2a variables. T+0 tok 4 yet wm (G58) (2) 7 roan 8); an wae) O+6 m O86 Substituting this value and reducing, the equation becomes 9 an: g-1 2 2 —] i ue 2 i x fe fig oo: I mu? parse i? m 7 w™(n( 7) "ye Tera —i-y)? 1-7 i? aiecayeactl = 15a 17 mal (ul? m9 Tyee as een eee en) +m—1] This equation is too complicated to admit of a — discus- sion. But, by making particular suppositions in regard to m and j, it may be, in some = Sn simplified. ‘Thus, putting m and i each =1, it beco Pte" ‘eh SF) Which, substituting the numerical values of the symbols, gives P=2:-55a=56400 Ibs. ; ; or, with ten revolutions and a six-foot stroke, a sah power o If we make m and / equal to each other, and pat a new sym- bol, as 4, to stand indifferently for either, the equation becomes, Prof. Barnard on a modification of the Ericsson Engine. 249 +4 1 wVAY—1) 4(1—p 7-1) P=15al 4 (2—-1)+ “a See snd 1] If, in this, we put 4=-8, we shall obtain P=3-69a=81550 lbs., or 296 horse power. With 4=%, we have P=3-38a=74700 lbs., or 271 horse power. It thus appears, that, when m and m are equal, the variation is slow below J or m==8. But the uniformity of action is in favor of the higher numbers. In the expression above, at its maximum value, } -1 =| i= (Co +" = 71226. uy But the value of P is hardly perceptibly greater at this point, than for some distance on either side of it. The comparison of these results, however, with those which may be obtained by making m greater than /, will show that it is not true economy to make these two numbers equal. If m be put=75, while / remains=%, the power will ascend to 4-415a= 97570 \bs., which, supposing two revolutions and six feet stroke _as before, gives a horse-power of 354. Putting m =°85, an 2, the pressure becomes 4:92a= 108700 lbs. =395 horse-power. Values of Z and m like these cannot possibly be employed with advantage in an engine constructed on the plan of Ericsson’s ; since they would render the action almost spasmodic in character. and reduce the minimum power of the pair of connected engines below zero. We have seen that a cut-off was actually used in the ship, which was considerably less than %; but it is very evi- dent the defects of the machinery prevented the attainment of the tension due to such a cut-off; which, therefore, failing to secure the advantage aimed at, failed also to make the evil very conspicuously manifest. But this evil is sure to occur, and is likely to interfere seriously with, if not completely to counteract, the advantages presented by this means of gaining power, just 1n proportion as leakage is stopped, or other causes which may keep down the tension are removed. The construction now proposed will be, in a great manner, free from these disadvantages ; and hence the powers last stated, ranging from 350 to 400, are obtainable without difficulty. Such powers are more than sufficient, according to the investigations of Prof. Norton, to make these engines available for purposes of speed in ocean navigation. Nor are these increments of power accompanying enlargement of supply cylinder, attended with an economical disadvantage. If we compare the powers on the two suppositions, /=3, m=, and 1=%, m=, we shall see that, while, in the latter case, the power is increased 30 per cent, the volume of air to be heated is Szconp Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept, 1853. 32 250 On the Parasitism of Comandra Umbellata. increased only 124 per cent. If m=-85, the increase of power is 46 per cent., while that of the volume of air is only 28 percent. It is, nevertheless, still a question to be settled experimentally, to what extent the volume of air can be increased, without exceed- ing the power of the furnaces. But at any rate we are justi- fied at present in saying, that there is no good reason, as Be for despairing of the success of this ingenious invention Univ. of Alabama, June 1, 1853. Art. XXVII.—Note on the Parasitism of Comandra umbellata, Nutt.; by Asa Gray. So long ago as the year 1847; Mr. William Mitten, an Eng- lish botanist, communicated to’ Hooker’s London sail of Botany, (vol. vi. p. 146, plate 4,) a brief article, on the economy of the roots of Thesium linophyllum ; in which he shows that the roots of this plant are parasitic ; the ramifications of the root forming attachments, by means of suckers, with the roots of ad- jacent plants of various species. he same parasitism probably occurs in other species of T’hesium, if not in the genus generally. But I am not aware that the fact has been confirmed on, the con- tinental species, which are somewhat numerous, although atten- tion has been called to the subject by the reprint of Mr. “Mitten’s article in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles (in the volume which bears the nominal date of 1847,) and an interesting exten- sion was at once given to the discovery by M. Decaisne, who de- tected a similar parasitic attachment of the rootlets of Melantpy- rum pedicularis, and other rhinanthaceous plants long known to be uncultivable. In the Botanical 'fext-Book, I had called attention to the re- lated genus Comandra, which replaces Thesium in this country, as likely to exhibit the same parasitic economy, but, pressed by other occupations, =e neglected to make the examination my- self, nor had I any notice of the observation having been made by others, although ecg umbellata is everywhere a common plant in the United States. The discovery, however, has now been made by my esteemed correspondent, Mr. Jacob Stauffer, of Mount Joy, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. He has recently sent me fresh specimens of Comandra umbellata, with its elongated and woody subter- ranean stems, giving off numerous roots, the branches of which are often expanded at their tips, into a small tubercle or sucker, which is implanted by its disk-like surface upon the bark of a jacent roots, principally. of shrubs. The foster-plants, in the specimens communicated, are Blueberries and Huckleberries, Dr. Burnett's Reviews and Abstracts in Anatomy, etc. 251 (Vaccinium vacitlans and Gaylussacia resinosa). Mr. Stauf- fer’s specimens are accompanied by a neat drawing, illustrating the mode of attachment. This I would gladly forward for the engraver: but it will suffice, perhaps, for the present to say, that the attachment is similar to that so clearly exhibited by Mr. Mit- ten, in the plate which accompanies his article; only that the rootlets in Comandra arise from subterannean stems, and the suckers so far as [ have examined, do not appear to penetrate the foster root deeper than the surface of its wood. Since the above was written and in type, I have received from Mr. Stauffer the announcement of his discovery of the parasitism of Gerardia flava, accompanied by a drawing which exhibits it, and a specimen which plainly shows the attachment. The numerous branches of the root are not only attached by discs or suckers to the bark of the root of the foster plant (in this case either white oak or witch hazel,) but also are implanted upon each other, forming parasitical anastomoses. I trust that Mr. Stauffer will continue these researches, and will publish the results, illustrated by his drawings. Arr. XXVIIL.—Reviews and Abstracts in Anatomy and Physi- ology ; by Dr. Wauvo I. Burnert. I. Anatomy of the Nervous System of Rana pipiens. By JEFFRIES Wyman, M.D. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. pp. 91, - 2 plates. March, 1853. only when resting on full and complete data. — : an’s memoir contains many entirely new anatomi- cal details, and is replete with sound, philosophical remarks on the homological and other relations of the vertebrate nervous centres, Where there is so much worthy of special notice, we must be content to indicate a few of the principal features. _ After pointing out some of the anatomical relations of the olfactory lobes, Prof. Wyman remarks : ; a “A condition of things rarely met with, perhaps only in a few Anourous Batrachians, is the fusion of the right and left olfactory ; 252 Dr. Burnett's Reviews and Abstracts masses, with scarce a trace of any indication that they are double organs. . . . This union of the olfactory lobes, how- ever, 1S analogous to what occurs in the cerebral lobes of sharks other Plagiostome fishes, and in the optic lobes of the Lepi- dosiren, al, as it seems, in Menobranchus. Their fusion is a subject ‘of additional interest, since it tends to show that they are eveloped from a single em mbryonic vesicle, and not from a pair of vesicles. If this statement be true, then we have the olfactory lobes arrested in —s development, hm to the division of this vesicle. An analogous state of things is easily shown ina chick of the foutth day, where the optic lobes form a single ves- ue, though they subsequently become double and widely separ- ted from each other. In Lepidosiren, according to Owen, there is but one optic lobe, and that on the median line; we may therefore regard this last as the vesicle undivided. The fusion, or rather the absence of separation, of the cerebral lobes of Pla- giostome fishes, is undoubtedly to be explained in the same man- ner.’’—pp. 7 In n speaking of the cerebral lobes, théir distinct separation here ticulate “divisions of animals. says : though frequent attempts have been made to homologize the renee systems of vertebrates and articulates, yet in reality there seems to exist no correct basis on which the alleged homol- ogy may rest.” After noticing Pe advocates of this view, and some of their gous with the spinal cord. : If a true homology existed, we ought at least to have representatives from the articu- lates and vertebrates, in which the identity would be obviously proximate, if not absolute. But as yet, there has been escribed no instance where the spinal cord, structurally iad is Sales ly and distinctly represented in the articulates, nor among verte- brates any true ganglionic chain with an @sophageal ring through which the esophagus passes.”—p, 9. in Anatomy and Physiology. 253 These doctrines of homology, with different divisions of the animal kingdom, demand the fullest attention from anatomists and physiologists, for our most comprehensive ideas of organiza- tion, and our highest views of the nature and permanency of grand types in animal life, depend upon our discrimination care- fully between what constitutes a true homology, and what is merely a similarity of functional relations. In former times the writer, following Rathke and Geoffroy St. Hillaire, was the advo- cate, from embryological data, of thisalleged homology between the nervous centres of these two grand divisions of the animal kingdom. Subsequently, however, extended and enlarged views of the character of grand typical forms, have shown the inadmis- sibility of such doctrine, and we are pleased to find here so clear an exposition of the real character of this hypothesis.* assing over the details of the description of the cerebral cen- tres, and meeting our author at the cerebellum, we find some very noticeable remarks upon that disputed point, the function of this organ. He says: “The low degree of the development of the cerebellum in frogs, naturally suggests to us an inquiry as to the nature of its functions, and likewise leads to the couclusion, that, whatever those functions are, they must, on analogical grounds, be sup- low state of activity in comparison with the same organ in those animals in which it is proportiopately more largely developed. The low development of this organ in frogs and present time ; namely, those of Gall and Spurzheim on the one WwW : “ His theory, that the cerebellum codrdinates muscular motions, is opposed by numerous anatomical facts, as well as by some the results of pathology; for out of ninety-three cases of lesions of the cerebellum, Audral found but one to sustain the theory of Flourens. . . . . - + We will take one more illustration * Tt may not be out of plese i mention in this copnestion » workmich ie el deserving the attention of saree ical anatomists as to the point in tion ; viz., Observations de prima Insectorum genesi adjecta articulatorum evolutionis eum yertebratorum comparatione, Diss. Inaug. By Albert Kélliker, Turin, 1842. 254 Dr. Burneti’s Reviews and Abstracts of the inconsistency of this theory (and it equally applies to that of Gall and Spurzheim) with facts; we will contrast the organ in question, as it appeared to us in the recent dissection of a porpoise (Delphinus phocena) and of a shark (Carcharias obscurus). Both of these animals are predacions, both pursue their prey in the water, both are endowed with great rapidity of motion, both are capable of readily and suddenly changing their direction, and both move by the alternate flexion and extension of the vertebral other fish whatever.”—pp, 13, 14. No doctrine was ever received more kindly, or treated more brain, who has not seen the striking irrelevancy of the whole doctrine to facts; we refer here to the pretended organs on the brain’s surface being evinced by corresponding prominences on the cranium. e allotment of certain portions of the brain for the performance of certain classes of mental action, is another thing ; but even this is without that comprehensive support which could entitle it to a scientific character. rom the anatomical description of the grosser parts of the en- cephalon, Prof. Wyman proceeds to a consideration of the inti- mate anatomical structure of the brain as elucidated by micros- copical inquiry. In this subject are involved points of the highest physiological import, and about which some of our best observers are very far from being agreed. As this is a subject to which the writer has paid some special attention of late, and moreover as his in Anatomy and Physiology. 255 tive, the tubular or conductive. The former composes the grey substance of the ganglia or nervous centres, the latter forms their medullary portion and the nerves. ‘The question at issue of late among microscopical anatomists, is, what is the precise anatomical relationship between these two portions of nervous matter. Do e€ primitive nervous fibres enter the grey matter, wind about oie ong the nerve-cells and ganglionic globules, and finally ter- minate in looping anastomoses, as has been advocated by our earlier observers; or do these primitive fibres terminate infundi- buliform in ganglionic vesicles, as has recently been advanced by some of our best microscopical observers ‘ The decision of this point is 3 Sa in connection with the origin and transmission of nervous e will refer briefly to the histotiéal relations of this subject. Many years since, Remak discovered in the nervous tissue, large vesicular bodies which had irregular digital prolongations. These cations he maintained were continuous into the grey fibres the nervous substance. This view was soon after verified by Hannover, who after some extended research, concluded that the nervous centres contained two kinds of ganglionic vesicles, those which were simply and those which had processes which Were continuous with the nerve fibres. Since then there have followed not a few hambess with results of a similar import, and Whose names we have indicated below.* Chief among these, For the sake of convenience of future reference, we here give the names of those éuaeee ers who have studied this subject. Re, np edges Observ. anat. micros, de Syst. nerv. Struct. Berlin, 1838; also in Miiller’s re. nig evvaeh rill ees 1840, p. 555; also Recherch. micr. sur le Syst. nerveux Hetmbatk, t De rk nas Syst. nervy. evertebr. Berlin, 1842, p. 10. Will, Miller s Arch. 1844, Killiker, Die Selbstindizkeit w und Abhiindi eit des sympathischen Nerven: nsys- tems, 1844; also “ Neurologische Bemerkungen ” in Siebold & Kolliker’s, Zeitsch. f i, 1849, p. 135; also “ petty " Anatomie,” ii, 1850 , p. 390-546. i 2. Budge, Ros Hyrtl, peas e, p. 1 Bardeleben. , Millers beaks ties oi p. 84. ing bers 6, p. 7 Schiff, Gr. Schwann, Ann. des Se. Riler, 1846, vi, PL. v1, vi. Biddex u. Volkmann, Zur Lehre v. d. Verhiltniss d. Ganglien-kérper zu d. Ner- veri-fasern, 1847. Reference may be also made to the following where the subject is incidentally, or in course illustrated. Bruch, Ueber das Nervenssystem des Blutegels, in Siebold u, Kélliker's Zeitsch. f. Zs uF 1849, p. 164, Taf. xii. ee 7 © Bock. ab: b, Carinaria, Firola und Amphicora, Thid. it, 1851, p. 325, ‘Tat Miler, ie te Transl by Jourdan, Littres Ed., Paris, 1851, i, p. 560, where aloo’ Robin’ 's views are quoted. 236 Dr. Burneti’s Reviews and Abstracts however, as will be seen, is Kélliker. Judging from his state- ments and his still more numerous figures, there would appear no doubt that nerve-fibres may and do arise from the vesicular centres. (See especially the numerous figures in his “ Mikrosco- pische Anatomie,” 1, p. 390-546. After the most careful study of the intimate structure of the nervous centres of frogs, Prof. Wyman has failed to observe any thing of this direct anatomical relationship between the two por- tions of nervous substance. Liedy’s observations on the micros- copical structure of the nervous centres of the terrestrial Gastero- _poda, sustain also the view of the non-direct connection. (See “ The terrestrial air-breathing Mollusks of the United States, by Amos Binney. ited by Dr. A. A. Gould. pecial Anatomy, by Letdy, vol. i, p. 243.) To this the writer may add his own experience of the same import. He has invariably failed to detect the direct continuity of these parts, and in some special researches made sometime since on the intimate structure of the human brain, nothing of the kind warranting Kélliker’s opinions was — This discrepancy of results is not a little remarkable, and al- though from the character and the amount of the authority in favor of the direct connection of vesicles with nerve tubes, there can be no reasonable doubt that such relations do occur; yet it may be very justly asked if this connection when present, is not the exceptional condition, and one wholly unessential to the mutual physiological relations of the nerve-cells and nerve-tubes. If it is necesssary for the transmission of nervous power, that the nerve-tube should be directly continuous into the nerve-cell or vesicle, then it would be supposed that all nerve-fibres must ter- minate in this manner. This, as is well known, is not the case. The writer has had the good fortune to be able to watch the phases of nerve formation from the earliest point to the complete condition, and it has occurred to him that these curious phenomena in question, might find some explanation in the probability of some of the old nuclei of the nerve formation, producing a cell within the confines of the nerve tube, and thus giving rise to a vesicular expansion. Some appearances have been observed rather favor- ing this view, but we adduce it only in a suggestive light. he whole subject deserves special attention from our best microsco- pical observers in anatomy. oe From a consideration of the intimate structure of nervous tis- sue, our author passes to Section III, on the spinal cord. Space allows us to make but a single extract which we select upon 2 point of more general interest. : “The change of form which the spinal cord undergoes during the progress of development is one of the most interesting fea- tures, and one which long since attracted attention. ‘The phases in Anatomy and Physiology. ‘ 257 are the same that are met with in other vertrebrates in which _ limbs are developed ; but while in these the changes take place with great rapidity, in frogs generally the ichthyic condition of the cord in which there are no enlargements or bulgings, con- tinues for several months, the eggs being hatched in the spring, and the complete development taking place in the latter part of the summer. In bull-frogs, in this latitude at least, (42° north), it took not less than a year, as the tadpoles hatched in the spring, pass the following winter in the same condition, the metamor- phosis occurring during the following spring or summer Until the legs begin to be developed, the cord presents the form of an extremely elongated cone, and the bulgings as was noticed by Serres, are developed simultaneously with the legs. I have not, however, been able to confirm the statement made by him, and repeated by others, that the caudal portion of the cord is shortened as the legs and the bulgings are developed. According to my observations, no shortening takes place until the absorption of the tail commences, and this happens after the bulgings are formed and the legs have acquired their growth. The whole of the caudal prolongation, however, is not absorbed, a portion being persistent and eventually becoming enveloped by the elongated coceyx.”—p, 21-22. Section IV, treats of the peripheral portion of the nervous sys- em. Here Prof. Wyman’s researches have afforded results somewhat different from those of his predecessors. The subject of the cranial nerves is, as is well known, one of the most important connected with philosophical anatomy ; for upon the interpretation of these nerves, depend the various cranial theories some of which have become so noted. We cannot better present the subject than by giving Prof. Wyman’s table which exhibits an entimeration of the cranial nerves of man and mam- mals compared with those of the frog. ‘* A. Cranial nerves. Mammals. Frog. I. Olfactory, - - . - - I. Olfactory. II. Optic, - - - - - II. Optic. Ill. Motor communis, - - - IIL. Motor communis. IV. Patheticus, - - - - IV. Patheticus. V. Trigeminus, on VI. Abducens, $arecombined, and form V. Trigeminus. — VIL. Facial, VIII. Auditory, - - - - VI. Auditory. IX. Glosso-pharyngeal, aS Vogt, comb’d & form VI. Vagus. XI. Acessory, _ XIL. Hypoglossal, e Srconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853. 33 258 Dr. Burnett's Reviews and Abstracts B. Spinal nerves of the Frog. I. Hypoglossal. Vil. ot Brachial. Crural. IV X. Coccygeal. ve“ ‘Abadmitial: From this table it will be seen that the hypoglossal nerve in the frog occupies a position somewhat anomalous, forming, as it does, the first pair of the spinal series.” —p. 24. In his description of the optic nerves, Prof. Wyman has some interesting remarks on the relations of the optic lobes to the func- tion of vision. He says: “Many observers have shown, by dis- section, that blindness of long standing is followed by atrophy of the optic.lobes, (agreeably to the well-known law of atrophy fol- lowing disuse), and that extensive lesions of the lobes are attended by either impairment or loss of vision. In recent dissections of He then alludes to the instances of blind animals found in cav- erns and other dark places, in which the optic lobes are not un- developed. ut we do not recognize the correctness of this last sentence, and cannot perceive how the plural function of these lobes can be inferred from the data cited. On the other hand, considering the stability of typical forms in structure, and the unvarying relations of grand types, even in distinct systems of tissue, we should indeed not look for any deviations from these fundamental plans to fit a single condition, and especially where all the other relations of life are as usual. The doctrine of final causes, although fully sustained by the general conditions of or- ganization as manifested under typical plans, has many an instance in living forms which would be wholly irreconcilable, did we not bear in mind its reference to a type idea. ‘The mammary glan exists in man as well as in woman, and yet it has but one tunc- tion, its presence in man being in virtue of a typical plan. : e pass over the details npon the cranial nerves contained ™ this section. Not a few of them are new, and the whole carried out in all their relations with an almost wonderful minuteness- in Anatomy and Physiology. 259 of fishes. It is a branch from the nervus lateralis and appears to have been hitherto unnoticed. Prof. Wyman remarks: “ The observation of the existence of a dorsal nerve gives ad- . ditional importance to the discovery of the nervus lateralis by Van Deen; and if to these we add those branches of the vagus described above, which pass along’ the branchial arches, the anal- f the larve of Batrachians to fishes becomes much more striking than there has been reason hitherto to regard it.”—p. 37. ction V. treats of the philosophical anatomy of the cranial nerves and skull. Prof. Wyman gives his preference to the three vertebree theory of the constitution of the cranium. ays: “If we apply the analogies of the spinal chord and vertebral column to the cranium and its nerves, we ought to base our de- terminations on the repetitions of true spinal nerves and of the true vertebral elements. If the theory be true which redtfces the cranial nerves (exclusive of the special sense nerves) to three, namely, the trigeminus, vagus, and hypoglossus, then we ought, 4 priori, to detect at least three vertebral segments. This con- clusion agrees perfectly well with the determiuation from osteol- ogy. . . . . . . These vertebre may he designated as follows: 1st, the occipital, of which the basilar bone is the body ; 2nd, the parietal, of which the posterior sphenoid is the body ; 3d, the frontal, of which the anterior sphenoid is the body.”—p. 41. In concluding this section, Prof. Wyman has some very notice- able remarks on the interpretation to be given to the jaws and other bones of the face in connection with the three vertebrae theory. After alluding to the fact that the latter are strictly ap- pendages of the mucous membrane, and that the jaws and other tooth-bearing bones, as well also as the hyoid bone, are developed in intimate relation with the alimentary canal, and that primarily the mouth and nostrils are but a single cavity, he remarks: “ We have strong grounds for the hypothesis, that all the bones of the face which are developed in the walls of the primitive cavity of the mouth which they surround, are in their anatomical and phys- iological relations splanchnic, connected either with digestion or respiration, rather than parts of the endo-skeleton of animal life.” 42 —p. 42. The last two sections (VI and VII) treat respectively of the spinal nerves and of the sympathetic nerve. iey are full of details most interesting to the thorough anatomist ; but our space will ndt allow us to refer to them specially. It should be men- tioned, however, that Prof. Wyman has distinctly made out a coccygeal nerve, thus making the number of pairs of spinal nerves ten instead of nine, the number usually enumerated ; an 260 — Dr. Burnett's Reviews and Abstracis also showing that the strangely shaped coccyx is a true vertebra. We have thus but imperfectly indicated the contents of the work under notice. It could scarcely be otherwise, for the various sub- jects in the different sections are treated so connectively from par- agraph to paragraph, that full justice to the author’s labor could admit. However, the purpose of this notice will be accom- plished if we succeed in calling attention to one of the ablest of recent researches. Il. The Hectocotylus of the Cephalopoda. Delle ena ane sulla Storia et Notomia degli animali senza vertebre del regno 0 di Napoli, 1825, p. 223, Tav. xyi - ee int vier, A, es Sc. Nat. xviii, 1829, p. 1 A. fig. Costa, n. des Se. Nat. 1837, p. 172 ian "id Tea Xvi, Ee "iss, PL. 13, fig. 2, ac. Kile, Mist s Nat. Hist., xvi, 1845, p. 414, also, Bericht von der zooto tomischen ~ zu Wiirtzburg, Leipzig, 1849. p- 67, Taf. i, ii; 3 Transact. Linn. Soc., Sito, Lebrbech der he ot Fseon Anatomie a evirseniat Thiere, Berlin, 362. Also Zeitsch, fiir wissensch. Zool. Power, (Madame) Salk macs Mediterranéens. Jere ari Genes, 1847-51, p. 34, Vovany ie Tort ee. des Sc. Nat. ides sth aes p. 146. PL. vi- Hi. Miiller, Ann. des Se. Nat., 1852, xvi, p. 132, ee in cite in the Zeitsch. fur wissenschaftl. Joa, iv, p. 1, Taf. 3 i, and p. 3 The Hectocotylus is a worm-like past which is found attached like a parasite to certain forms of Cephalopoda, ( Octopus, T'rem- us, Argonauta.) The subject has attracted so much atten- tion from its curious nature that [ have thought best to indicate its historical relations by the above list of authors and papers. hey will, moreover, serve as texts to some little account of this zoological anoma hese bodies in question, which are vermiform, but which re- semble distinctly no animal whatever, are found attached by @ sucker, in the cavity of the mantle of certain cephalopods. It 1s not strange that some of the observers first named should have regarded then as parasitic worms, and although presenting evi dently, anomalous anatomical parts, Cuvier concluded by pro- nouneing it “un ver vraiment extraordinaire.” But it soon appeared as a remarkable fact that the cephalopods on which these bodies were found were invariably of a certain kind, and furthermore, that from the most careful search, no males were seen. EF rom this, K6lliker was led to regard them as male ce dss ofa remarkable nature. This su position was con- by his anatomical researches, for he showed that the - cee of these forms had, in many respects the characteristics of the cephalopods alone; bosiiins containing distinct spetmatic and cone parts, It was then evident that these curious e of a true cephalopod nature and serve the - tion of enna But it was a question of both p in Anatomy and Physiology. 261 zoological import, what is their individual character. Are they to can be regarded only as distinct individuals. Moreover, he brings to the support of his view the observations of Madame Power, and of Maravigno, from which it would appear that the hecto- cotyli are formed within eggs, and first appear as small worms having two rows of suckers on their whole length, and a filiform appendage at one extremity, and a small enlargement at the other. On the other hand, other and later observers support the second view, the non-independent animal character of these forms. Chief among these are H. Miiller, and Vérany & Vogt, and incontro- vertible as would seem at first the ground of Kolliker’s opinion, they have satisfactorily shown, even to Kdlliker himself,* the correctness of their position. ‘The details of these researches by which the question seems now pretty definitely settled, the limits of these pages will not allow me to give. It may be remarked, however, that these observers have all studied these forms upon living specimens on the coast. It has been shown that the Argo- nauts on which these hectocotyli are found, have a highly de- veloped testicle, the situation and structure of which correspond to those of the common cephalopods, and which communicates with the hectocotyle. : In conclusion, | may quote H. Miiler’s own words: “It is then proved that the hectocotylus is formed on a male argonaut. and is nothing but an arm metamorphosed in a very irregular manner. This arm, or the hectocotylus, is detached when it has been filled: with the sperm which is formed in a true testicle of the argonaut itself, and it then plays an apparently independent life. In this condition, it meets the female argonauts which form a true copulation, it impregnates, as I have observed with the hectocotylus of a Tremoctopus, and it resembles in this, as also, by its movements, by a kind of circulation, and by the long duration of its life after detachment, a true male animal.” * See the Nachwort, by Kélliker, to the memoir by H. Miiller in the Zeitsch. far wissenschaftl. Zool., iv, p. 35. ; 262 Dr. Burneti’s Reviews and Abstracts Ill. New Muscle-element in the Thoracic Muscles of Insects. Aubert* states that he has found an entirely new form of mus- cle-element in the Libellulide ; this consists of flat, primitive, muscular bands occurring only in the thorax, and which by means of a pitcher-shaped (becherformigen) apparatus, move the wings. The following are his conclusions on this subject : “1. The comparatively very large muscles of those insects which fly with a buzzing sound, separate, when fresh, into fine, transversely striated fibres. 2. fibres are the primitive muscular fibrille. : 3. Between the fibrille there isa granular mass, the use of which is unknown. * A. All other muscles when fresh present no appearances of this ind. 5. The Libellulide have in the thorax primitive muscular ands. 6. The elements of the muscles are little cakes or cylinders which are applied together, forming the fibrille 7. During contraction, the fibrille thicken, and the strie are approximated.” These results have been confirmed by my own experience, for the thoracic muscles of insects have long been to me beautiful ob- jects for the study of the histological elements of muscular tissues. It is a form of this tissue particularly to be recommended for the study of the intimate sarcous elements. The fibrille readily separate into the discs of which they are composed, and the whole field is then filled with these last floating freely about. But it is a question if these primitive fibrilla which are here so distinct, are not the products of definite cleavages of primitive muscular fibres. In studying them carefully with a power of 800 to 1000, we have been able to detect no remains of their early formative conditions. Furthermore, we know that the muscular fibre is the primitive embryological element of this tis- sue. It therefore appears to us. probable that this peculiarity of the thoracic muscles of insects is due simply to readiness for cleavage, and which may be subservient to their rapid and deli- cate action. Another point which we have noticed, and which Aubert also has alluded to, is the singular spiral aspect which these fibrille sometimes asstime from an apparently irregular movement in their contraction. This is particularly worthy of note now, since, re- cently, Martin Barry (Miiller’s Arch. 1850, p. 529) has advanced the doctrine of the spiral structure of muscular fibrilla. We have not critically examined the ground on which Barry has 2 * Ueber die eigenthiimliche Structur der Thoraxmuskeln der Insekten, in Sie bold d: Kélliker’s Zeitsch. fiir Zool. iv, 1858, p. 888, Taf. xv. ae in Anatomy and Physiology. 263 his views, but from our knowledge of this tissue, the phases of its formation from the earliest to the perfect state, and the various appearances it presents in different parts of the animal kingdom, e are led to venture the conjecture that its alleged spiral struc- ture, may be due to irregularities and anomalies of contraction. IV. On the presence of a layer of transversely striated. muscular fibres in the Choroidea of Birds. muscular fibres in the posterior portion of the choroidea of the certain extent by Henle; but Wittich has been unable to observe ra, and in man; he has, however, contrary to the statements of Rainey, detected this tissue in the whole posterior half of the choroidea of birds. As to the manipulation and preparation for the observation of this tissue, I will.quote Wittich’s own words: “For the most intimate research, I can best recommend the eye of the thrush. This having lain a short time in diluted alco- hol, not only the retina, but also its subjacent membrana pigmenti can be entirely removed. This being done, the choroidea can be p- arated from it. . Between this external tunic and the membrana wards the ciliary border, the meshes becoming more open, but they are most numerous towards the pecten of the choroidea. * Siebold & “ Deser Killiker’s Zeitsch. f. wissenschaftl. Zool. IV. p. 456, Apr. 1853. i a muscle of the striated variety, situated at the posterior pa of the choroid coat of the eye in Mammals, with an explanation of its mode of ac- tion in adapting the eye to distinct vision at different distances.” By Geo. Rainey, Roy. Soc. 1851, Jan., p. 28. eee rhe Rainey regards this choroid muscle as the analogue of the ciliary muscle of birds, & view which, Wittich shows to be unfounded. i: 264 Dr. Burnett’s Reviews and Abstracts The thickness of the primitive bundles corresponds exactly to that of Crampton’s muscle. his muscular layer is less easily observed with the eyes of doves, hens, turkeys, geese, ducks and crows, owing to the greater number of pigment cells in the cho- roidea, and to the greater disposition of the primitive muscular bundles to split up into the fibrilla, which have a varicose aspect, and are almost exclusively seen in prepared specimens.’ As to the function of this muscular layer, Wittich remarks: “Its action would contract the choroidea, thereby diminishing its He then alludes to the well-known relations 0 Crampton’s muscle and of the pecten ; in the same category with which belongs the muscular tissue in question. Wittich’s concluding remarks may well be quoted: “TI will here mention a circumstance which seems to me well worthy of especial attention in comparative anatomy, but which unfortunate- have been unable to follow out thoroughly. It is, that with muscle has been disputed by some anatomists (see Huck, Die Bewegung der Krystallense, Leipzig, 1841); but now, from the investigations of our author, which so completely confirm those Treviranus, Crampton, and Krohn, the case admits of little oubt. The striated, and therefore voluntary character of this whole system of muscular apparatus is especially worthy of note in con- nection with the eminently adaptive power it gives to the eyes of these animals. mers in Anatomy and Physiology. 265 V. On the seat of the Sugar formation in the Animal Body.* As is well known, Bernard (Compt. Rend. xxxi, p. 572, 573,) has shown the existence of sugar in the liver, not only of all vertebrates, but also in that of the Gasteropoda, Acephala, and capods. F'rerichs (Article, Verdauung m AR. goner’s Hand wérterb, d. Physiol. p. $31,) has confirmed these observa- tions for the liver of man, and many animals; Van den Broek ‘(Nederlandsch Lancet, p. 108-110) for that of dogs and rabbits ; Baumert (Erdmann’s Journal, liv, p. 359) for that of the fox, the dog, the cat, and the sheep; and Kunde and Lehmann (Kunde, De Hepatis ranarum exstirpatione, Diss. Berolini, 1850, p. 11) for that of frogs. I selected twelve frogs for my investigations, (says Dr. Mole- Schott,) and notwithstanding the smallness of their livers, so much sugar appeared that it was easily shown by 'Trommei’s test. Bernard and Lehmann regard this sugar of the liver as grape- sugar. The question arises, is this sugar of the liver derived from the blood, or is it formed by the liver proper? Bernard advocates the latter view, since he has thus obtained the sugar wholly inde- pendent of the food, with the Carnivora and Herbivora, with ani- mals famished during hibernation, and with the foetus in utero. Frerichs, Van den Broek, and Baumert, have repeated: these ob- servations and confirmed them. Still more important is the result obtained by Bernard (loc. cit.) and Lehmann (Hrdmann’s Journal liti, p. 214, 215) that the partal blood of the dog and horse contain little or no sugar, while the blood of the hepatic vein contains, like no other vein in the body, this substance in considerable quantity. To these data I would add a fact of some import. If the sugar is not found in the liver, but is only strained off, as it were, by this last from the blood, then the blood of those animals whose liver had been removed would be found surcharged with sugar, exactly as the blood is filled with urea in animals whose kidneys have been removed. But with frogs, some of which had been without the liver for fourteen days, others for three weeks, I found no sugar in the blood, flesh, gastric juice, urine, nor final- y in the water in which twenty-six of these animals thus muti- lated had passed two days. From all these facts it appears to me indubitable that the sugar Contained in the liver is formed by the liver itself. * Translated from Miiller’s Arch. 1855, March, p. 86. (Ueber die Bildungstiitte des Zuckers im Thierkérper. By Dr. Jac. Moleschott.y 34 Stconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853. b 266 Dr. Burnett’s Reviews and Abstracts A list of the Works and Articles upon Anatomy and pBstes published since 1853, which have come under our notice. As some of the Continental works of the latter part of 1852, of great importance, did not reach us until this year, we have included them in our list. This list commencing thus with 1853, will be continued in each No. of the Journal and will be made as complete as our means will allow.* 1. SPECIAL WORKS. Beitriige zur Lage ne ai Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte der Rochen und Haie ; von Dr. Franz Leydig. Leipzig, 1852. en on -histologische Pokateuckungen iiber Fische und Reptilien; by the same. These works of Leydig are of the first order, and their microscopic. details are illustrated with = excellent figures. We shall have occasion to refer to them particularly hereafter-.] sila eth des Meerscheweinchens; von Th. Ludw. Wilh. Bischoff. Giessen, A Text Book of Physiology ; by Dr. G. Valentin. aye cert and edited from the 3d German edit. by William Brinton, MD. Lon The Dissector’s Manual of Practical and Surgical aacenss ; by Grannus Wilson, F.R.S. London, 18 2. PERIODICAL LITERATURE. meses & orien ZEITSCHRIFT FUR WISSENSCHAFTLICHE Zoo.ocre. Band iv, Heft. April, 18 rie Journal ae in the pelea of Bebe! regs: and bangs! Anatomy, has no equal anywhere, we shall frequently draw selections. Where o. in iat so interesting, bets cannot do otheHine fereg ‘ibsact tee ‘ppritets of this tabular form.] Cohn, Beitrige zur ee der Infusoria. Bruch, Beitrige zur Anatom und Physiologie S: Diinndarmschleimhaut. is ol Folliker & H. ‘Miller, Bot cht tiber einige im = sata 1852 in Mes- augestellte vergleichendanatomische bp Riagubaichiaiarta Kolker, ection Ret you Tubularia und Campanularia, — Sip! recs — ter Sc! Biccecalins —— neuer Schmarotzer, Loph ed tan von Leptoce abe vod Helmichthys. Sigenthiimliche und Wisin von Chauliodus. Gegenbaur, Batwickelmg d he Echinoderms und Pteropode: a H. Miiller, Ueber —— Bau der Phylli —— ar der Cephalopoden. Jeber die Hectocotyl Ki ae Sa & Gegenbaur, Entwickelung von “bechecmiponigaee Killiker & H. Miller, Chromatophoren bei Cymbulia. * We are under grateful obligations to Prof. Agassiz wee. nee aes us invalu- able facilities in freely opening to Re his y and ex Aside from purchases, this gentleman’s emin to be oe stocked with all new works in sbi cal to Geology and the Arts, as particularly interesting to the sen ologist 2. A pestered Map of sen? States and the Britith Proves ces of North America, with a lanatory teat, geological sits and 8 plates of the fossils which i toe gle the form ations ; by JuLES Marcov. Boston, 1853. 8°.—A com esac ituberation of the ee ology of the N. American Continen ures and descriptions illustrative of British wae remains. De- hich new genus from the chalk of Sussex. I is highly sratitying to the writer to see that the fossil fishes recently discovered in at Britain, are likely to be all described in a satisfactory manner by s econ etetl an observer as Sir Philip Egerton, whose collection of fossil fishes, in connection with that of his noble friend, the Earl of Enniskillen, is un- rivalled, L. A 4. Histoire des progrés de la Géologie de 1834 a 1850, per cHiac. Paris, 1851. 4 vol.—This work, of which we have recently received the fourth volume, is not merely a history of the recent pro- gress of geology, but a real encyclopedia of all the branches of science related to geology, and ought to be studied carefully by every i woes gist and palzontologist 5. Zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen — 4th vol. Berlin, 1852. 8°.—This and the eding volumes contain a. bern papers upon Geology and Galimeeha hit . rbuch a kaiserlich-kéniglichen geologischen Reichsanstall, Wien, 1852. —The third volume of a very valuable series of pa- pers upon a sore of subjects relating to Geology, Paleontology, and Mining. L. A. 280 Scientific Intelligence. 7. Geognostiche Wanderungen in Seine der nordéstlichen Alpen ; von Cart Enruicu. Linz, 1852, —Geological Sketches of Up- per Austria, with descriptions and sap of fossils. L. A . Die Braunkohle in der Mark Brandeburg ; von Dr. E. PLerr- NER. Berlin, 1852. 8°, with a map and 4 plates.—An — e the —s of the mark of Brandeburg, chiefly geological. 9. Halurgische Geologie ; von Dr. F. v. ALBERTI. Stutigardt, Tibi: gen, 1852. 8°.—A complete treatise of all matters pertaining to the geology of salt, its occurrence, its origin, its associations, &c., &c. 10. Lehrbuch der Geognosie; von Dr. C. F. Naumann. Vol. 2d, part 2d. Leipzig, 1852.—One more number, and this excellent text- book of Geology will be complete. What renders it particularly use- ful, and superior to most other works of the kind, is the cma - of characteristic fossils which accompanies it. . G. Bronn’s Lethea Geognostica. 3d edition paublieteadl in connection with F. Rozmer. Stuttgardt, 1852. 8°.—Too well known rom the former editions to require particular notice. We would only state that the new tionesevions in Paleontology have been a in- corporated in this new editit 12. Deutschlands Peirefacie, von C.G, Giesen. Leipz 8° omplete with their synonyms and the indications of the localities and geolo aa formations in which they emer and references to the works in which they are described. It is for Germany what John Morris’s Catalogue is for Great Britain, and Bronn’s Index Palaontologicus for the whole world. This last work, yet little known in this country, ought . . in the library of every geologist 13. Fauna der Vorwelt, mit Natur Bericksichtigung der lebenden Thiere. Von Dr. C. G.Giepen. Vol eipzig, 1852. This volume contains a very full Pee of the: fossil poe known to this day. It is an indispensible work for every pal@on ntolo- gist. The first volume of “es work is devoted to the — . second has not yet ap 14. Zoologie et Paldontologie Frangaises ( Animaux oniaioés) Par vais. Paris, 1852. folio. No. 15, 16, 17 and 18.—The concluding numbers of an extensive work upon the fossil remains of areas animals in France og 5. Palaontographica, Beitrige zur ine geet der Vorwelt, — Dunxer and Herm. von Mey Vol. 2d, No. 6.—Contains the description of some a aealle fossil —— from the lithographic The author shows ing a distinct genus, "which he calls oe eaters The same No. con- tains interesting contributions to the tertiary flora of Silesia, by Prof. roppert. Among them, we notice ypsinter ai a maple, the fruit of which measures not less than six, and mes over inches in length. | ca it ae Geology. 281 Nebraska Territory, collected during the Geological Survey u the direction of Dr. D. D. Owen; by Jos. Lerpy, M.D. From D. D Owen’s Report of a Geological Survey of Western Iowa, and Minne- sota, &c. Philadelphia, 1852. 4°.—This memoir affords another evi- 16. Description of the remains of extinct Mammalia and Chelonia from } j nder North America, and may furnish many more interesting extinct forms. The mammalia described by Dr. Leidy belong to his new genera Oreodon, Archzotherium, and Eucrotaphus, and to the genera Palzo- therium, Rhinoceros, and Machairodus, he and Dr. Owen have added new species, all of which are beautifully illustrated. The reptiles, four in number, belong all to the’ genus Testudo proper. Besides the species described in full, there is at the close of this paper a list of five other species mentioned elsewhere before. shee 17. Memoir of the extinct species of American Ox; by Jos. Leipy, M.D. From the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. v.— This is a very valuable contribution to the natural history of the fossil species of Ox found in North America. The author refers them to two genera: Ist, Bison, the type of which is our Buffalo, and, 2d, a new The nearest approach to a natural classification has been propose n Barrand rows, such as Virgularia and Sertularia. I believe, however, that their true position is neither among Polyps, nor among Acalephe, to which class the Hydroid polyps must now be referred, but among Molluscs, in the class of Acephala, in the order of Bryozoa, of which many are found Srconp Seats, Vol: XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853. 36 282 Scientific Intelligence. in a fossil state in the palzeozoic rocks. My reason for assigning such a position to the Graptolites, is the discovery I have made in eine upon the coral banks of Key- West, of a new genus of Bryozoa, in whic the arrangement of the cells resembles that of the Graptolites il more than either Virgularia and Sertularia, and the delicate stem which, if fossilized, are pena have left an impression very simi- lar to that of most Graptolites. I have not yet had an opportunity of publishing my investigations upon this singular creature ; but | have no oubt left in my mind that it is a living representative of the fossil Graniclien, for which [ propose the name of Cladobryus hyalinus, as it differs from most of the ordinary Bryozoa, by the regular branehing of its stem, and resembles, 1 in that respect strikingly, the new genus Cladograpsus of Geinitz. 1 have collected a sufficient supply of this remarkable animal, in alcohol, to provide all the paleontologists with it. To trace the true yoo of the Graptolites, the genera Crisia, and Eucratea, ought to be c ared. Upon this interesting — compare, also, J. Hall’s Pelesciitedtire of New York, vol. i an 19. Beitrag zur rene Flora von Wildshuth in Gherotsivetel on Dr. C. von Err HAUSEN, with 4 plates. From the Proceedings of the Imperial ‘Aare my of Sciences at Vienna, vol. ix, 1852.—Descrip- tions and eure of many fossil plants from the lignites of a in ha Aus eu on Saurier- ries Sea aus den Iithographiscien Schieforn des obern Jura belts, von Dr. ANDREAS WaGNER. chen, 1852. 4°. From th e Transactions 3 the ‘Royal Academy of Solsaces of Bavaria, vol. iiii—Contains full descriptions and pa: figures of two new genera of fossil Saurians, Pliocormus, and rus, and new contributions to the knowledge of several Hebe eo with new species of desc Ichthyosauras, and Stenosaurus. 21. Description des Mollusgues Sossiles qui se trouvent “_ les gris verts des environs de Genéve, par F. J. Picrer. Genéve, 1852. —The third number of an Santeaiey: i aes of the cre- taceous fossils of the vicinity of , in Switzerland, with many beautiful plates. A work idispaiatbles hen the identification ee our greensand fossils. ni Die Kreidebildungen von Texas und ihre organischen Bin schlizenes von Dr. Ferp. anaes 4°. Bonn, 1852.—A very hand- some volume, giving an account of a geological survey of f Texas, and the descrip of the at ce remains found i in the cretaceous and tertiary Io ha fore us contains only a monograph of the gaara ; but they are illus trated as fully and minutely as if the dissections had been made from epoptens just caught upon some mud-flat left dry by the ebb tide, and the changes some of them undergo with age are treated as e: Zoology. 283 first work of Mr. Barrande. [Norz.—In § 13, p. 280, for Natur read steter.] 24, Fossil Saurian Bone from Prince Edward’s Island.—Mr. J. W Dawson describes briefly in the ‘ Eastern Chronicle” of Nova "aspen n slightly curved backwards, and are finely serrated on the edges. teeth and bone are white, and in excellent Ressreaiiee and they are attached to the original matrix of soft red sandstone. It was found 21 feet from the surface. The rock is believed to corr ate in geological ne with the trias or new red sandstone. . New South Wales.—Various reports of explorations in the gold > of New South Wales, by the Rev. B. W. Ciarke, have been received by us. They are rh to local douiiie. and afford little that we can extract to advant tage. The explorations were mainly along the Australian Alps, where the rocks are granite, and various slates, the latter often much contorted. The region is in ssid parts much in- tersected by trap dykes. We hope to receive a eral review of subject from the author who is indefatigable.in his gedie ym II. Zoooey. 1, Neue Denkschriften der ih at art pe meet oe ur die gesammten Naturwissenscha urich, 1 Though erage three years ago we notice this see a. in aa to refer to tw o important papers contained in it; one by Prof. O. pa upon the fossil insects of Oeningen and Radeboy, the other by L. Ri meyer upon the nummulitic formation of 1a with a detiled description of the nummulites of that geological per Memorias dela real Academia de Ciencias de “Madrid. Madsid, 1851. Vol. i, part 1 and nr ae several valuable —_ <5 the Geology and Zoology of Spa 3. Catndayha - the Cabinet a ‘Natural History of the State of New York. Albany, 1843, 8°.—The Regents of the University deserve great credit for directing the aoe of this catalogue. Nothiog ts adapted to secure permanently the interest for public collections, og to contribute to their increase than the circulation of suc We only regret that no more direct reference is to the individual Specimens described and figured in the Natural History it New York. The importance of preserving such records to favor the researches in 284 Scientific Intelligence, case of doubts, oe the identity of a newly discovered species, cannot be overrated, and we would particularly call the attention of all the iladial of Miesdine i this point. The chief value of many of the museums of Europe arises from the circumstance that they, contain the Sect eecriens described by the naturalists who have brought our science to its present condition. In this respect, we cannot commend too highly the catalogues of birds and eggs, published by the Acacores of Nat. moe i of Philadelphia, drawn up by John Cassin ese - Heerman, Esq. 4. Bulletin de la Société impériale des So edenaeeed sie Mosco ow, publié sous la redaction du Dr. Renard. Moscow, 1852. —This periodical contains papers upon almost every department of Natural History. é ini 5. Jahresbericht des watienmtisenschasilichern Vereins in Halle. Ber- lin, 1852. 8°—Touches upon a variety of topics in various pte ments of Nat. Hist. 6. ae der Kaiserlichen Academie der Wateuswchisftis Wien, 1852, 8°.—Like the proceedings of other academies, contains short abstracts of the papers presented to the oe Academy of 7. Wurtembergische naturhistorische Jahreshefte. 9th vol, mene gardt, 1853. 8°. Conducted by Prof. H. v. Mohl, Pr. Flieninger, Pr. Fehling, Dr. W. Menzel, and Pr. Krauss in Stuttga ardt.—This and the preceding volumes sbi. very valuable papers upon mean: com- parative oe Paleontology and Botany » A 8. Zeitschrift fir wissenschaftliche Sibhigho, loruungapati von Prof. C. Th. v. Siebold it. Alb. Kélliker. 4th vol. Leipzig, 1853. 8°.— The most important recent Journal of comparative Zoology and Anat- omy ; contains numerous illustrations. 9. De Phomme et des races humaines, par H. Hotiarp. Paris, 1 1858. 1 vol. 12°.—A work intended to prove the origin of all mankind from a single pair, and also to illustrate the varieties of men as derived i in the course of time from a common stock. These views may satisfy those who seek merely for arguments in favor of an opinion genera ly re- ceived, without taking into consideration the range of facts in —_— bearing upon this important subject. 1 ie Geographische Verbreitung der Thiere, von L. K. Semele pa. Wien, 1853. 8°. 3 parts.—The first t comprehensive treatise OD the Rte for distribution of animals, including all classes of the an- imal kingd A. istoire Naturelle des eet Ptéropodes, par MM. Rane and Sov. Paris, 1852. 1 vol. fol.A beautiful monograph © all the Pieropedons Molléscs known to this day, with 15 ern lates. 2 12. Bilder atis dem Thierleben, von Cart Voer. Frankfurt, 1852. of fossils in former geological periods. This, and the other works of i the author, show him to be thoroughly acquainted with the questions Zoology. 285 now under discussion among naturalists; but we shrink with disgust from his cynicism and atheistic philosophy. Teaighe 13. Entwicklungsgeschichte des Meerschweinchens, von Dr. Tu. L. W. Biscuorr. Giessen, 1852. 4°.—Another of those masterly mon- take, for the benefit of American Naturalists. We would recommen that most of the earlier embryological works be equally translated, for no one ought to proceed in these investigations without consulting the works of Pander, Baer, Rathke, &c., Wc., which are hardly to be seen in any American library, though they constitute now the basis upon which modern physiology has been renovated. L. As 14, Naturwissenschaftliche Reise nach Mossambique, von W. C. A. Perers. Part 1, Mammalia, 200 pages, 4°, with 46 plates. Berlin, 1852.—In the year 1842, the King of Prussia granted to Dr. Peters the means of undertaking a scientific expedition into regions of Africa peculiar forms of | own to inhabit Madagascar, such Makis, were also to be found upon the opposite coast of Africa, or not, was a question no body could answer before the invaluable researches : nee Makis alive from Anjoana, one of the Comoro Islands. The minute- ness of the descriptions of Chiroptera and Insectivora deserves particular notice, for many of the species of these families enumerated in our hrysochloris and Macroscelis, to the cosmopolite genus Sorex, 2 to two genera, Petrodromus and. Rhyncocyon, first described by Dr. Pe- ters himself, from Mossambique. How truly African this country is, 286 Scientific Intelligence. appears, perhaps, still more wb apd from its carnivorous animals, among which we notice on, the leopard, the spotted hyena, several belonging to the genera Herpestes and Bdeogale. One species of Viverra, the Rasse of Horsfield, observed upon Anjoan, furnishes an- other evidence that even the small islands east of the African continent artake more of the Zoological character of the East Indies a > agascar, than of Africa itself. Of gnawing animals, twenty-three spe- cies were Haney belonging to the genera Sciurus, Myoxus, Meriones, Mus, mys, Cricetomys, Hystrix, and Lepus, and to four new gen- P Besides these Pachyderms, one species of Phacochcerus, and one yrax are notice mong ruminants, the giraffe is wanting, nor are even domesticated ‘éamels ever seen in or but the antelopes occur very extensively, and several new species are described. Do- sticated goats, sheep, and cattle have been isdidend from the Co- moro Islands and from Madagascar. ome varieties of sheep have been i il of Mossambique is Bos caffer, a species formerly found as far south as the Cape. Of Cetacea, the Dugong, Halicore indicus, inhabits almost the whole eastern coast o rica. The sperm whale, ven" macro- cephalus, is said to have been very common in — — f Mossam bique ; ‘it is now rare there, as are also other Cetac It is to be hoped that the next volumes of this Gecke of the Oriental coast of Africa will soon follow “a first. We may look forward to a great —— oy in becoming acquainted with the fishes of the Zambese. works furnish cishabic contributions not only to spe- cial zoology, but also to the geography of animals, and are equally creditable rf their authors and to the governments clemtcepea* suc! costly publications. n the Osteology of the Head of Hippopotamus, and a penser tion of the Osteological characters of a new genus of Hippopotamide ; by Jos. en M.D. From the souronl of the Acad. of Nat. ogee! ton as hese liberi iensis is not — secibunlly distinct, but a distinct genus, for which the name Cheeropsis is proposed. é L. Ae Zoology. 287 16. Museum Heineanum: Verzeichniss der ornithologischen Samm- ling des Oberamtmann Ferd. Heine, von Dr. ei se esc Halber- stadt, 1850-51. 8°.—Invaluable as far as a correct synonymy is of importance in the study of Natural Faistoiy "Thea uthor objects justly Journal fur Ornithélogie, von N 1853. 8°.— The first number of a Journal devoted exclusively to Ornithology, pub- lished with the coéperation of the most prominent mriesytay set of 18. Analecta ad Entomographiam provinciarum Babs He pares i imperii rossici ; auctore 8. B. Gorski. Fasc. 1. Berolini, 1852. 8°.—A monograph of the Neuropterous Insects, oe ihe sae of some new species of Hymenoptera of south eastern . Me 19. Monographia Pneumonopomorum viventium ; auctore L. ‘Sones! FER. Casselis, 1852. 8°. 1 vol.—A — saan of the monate Gasteropods, provided with an operculum, 20. Illustrations of the Birds of pete Texas, Oregon, British and Russian America: intended to contain descriptions and figures of all North American birds, not given by former authors, and a general synopsis of North Amerian ornithology. ‘To be completed in 30 parts h part to contain 5 colored plates; by Jonn Cassin. 8vo. Phila- delphia, 1853. Lippincott, Grambo o.—A ver het number, with beautiful plates. The synopsis of Parinz is given as a specimen inka of birds of North America. If completed in the style begun, it will be a most valuable addition to the natural history of the United tates 1 Ballscriptions to the work are solicited by the publishers. 21. Versuch einer Monographie der Lycenen, als Beitrag zur Schmetterlingskunde mit Abbildungen nach der te von BERNHARD Gerwarp. Ha mburg, 1853. 4°. Nos. 9 and 10.—The concluding numbers of a a of one of the most vecaehe and pier groups of Lepido 22. Notes on ihe Classfeaton of the Carabidae of the United Stotes' ; by Dr. Jonn L. Le Conte. From the transactions of the American Phil. Society. Vol. x. 1853.—We regret not finding time for the 288 Scientific Intelligence. Ill. Astronomy. 1. Shooting Stars of August 10, 1853.—The observations here re- corded were made at New Haven, Conn., by. Messrs. Francis Bradley and Lyman Baird, with myself, on the night of Wednesday, August 10, were stationed together, in the open air, each observer having in his view, as far as practicable, a third part of the visible heavens. The time was highly favorable, the air being clear and calm, and the moon absent. Systematic observations were commenced at midnight, and continued until 3h. 25m. a. mM. of the Lith, and the fol- lowing table shows the number of different shooting stars seen by us during this period : 8. N. N. W. E. N. E. TOTAL. 04 to 1h A. M. 48 27 35 110 eae a 42 34 39 115 See we 57 31 31 119 a ee Ae 26 7 ll 44 —_—_—— Besides the meteors above enumerated, we saw about twenty during the quarter of an hour preceding midnight, rejected fifteen or twenty doubtful cases, and lost some after three o’clock on account of advancing daylight, and other causes. No meteor was twice reckoned, although many were of course seen in common by two observers. f these meteors the large majority, probably not less than three- fourths, moved in paths which traced back would intersect very near cy stars of the first magnitude, while a few equalled in splendor the planet Venus. It is evident from the foregoing statements that the periodical me- teoric display of August 9-10th has appeared this year in usual form, and in numbers not much diminished. In order to render the numbers . 4. horizon, covering the stars Castor and Pollux, stretching UP auri, while somewhat hazy. During the night of Tuesday, the 9th inst., the sky was too cloudy observation. E. C, Herrick. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289 ‘2. The planet discovered on the 5th of April, by Professor Gasparis, has been named Themis, with the sign (24). 3. Phocea, (25) (Compt. Rend. xxxvi, 991.)—The following elliptic elements of this planet have been communicated by M. Valz :— Epoch, 1853, May 1-486. Mean anomaly - - 305° 17’ Long. of perihelion, - - - 303 14 “asc. node, - - - 14 Inclination, - - . . 21 24 Excentricity, - - - 024441 Semi-axis maj., - - . 2:3762 Mean daily motion, - - 968-70 4. The planet discovered on the 5th of May last, by Mr. Luther, has been named Proserpine; its sign is (26).—Compt. Rend., xxxvi, 1015. 5. Third Comet of 1853, (Astron. Journ.)—Mr. Klinkerfues, assis- tant at the Gottingen Observatory, detected a small comet on the 10th of June. At 13% 0™ 54s, its position was R. A. 143° and N. Decl. 43°5. had a tail 3 or 4’ in length. The following elements are given by ruhns :— Perihelion passage, Aug. 27-213 M. T. Berlin. iheli : - 310° ong. perihelion, - 31 12/1 Place of asc. node, - - - 140 50 27 °6 Inclination - - - - 59 54 23°1 Log. perihelion dist., - - 9°49 1256 Motion direct. [V. MiscetLaANEeous INTELLIGENCE. 1. American Association for the Advancement of Science.—The sev- enth meeting of the American Association was held at Cleveland, during the week following the 28th of July. Prof. B. Perce, of Cambridge, was President for the year. The meeting was less well attended than those of former years, owing partly to the engagements of many of the members of the Association at the different institutions of the country, with which they are connected. Among the papers presented, those of the departments of Physics and Mathematics were much the most numerous, and were mostly of high merit. There were but few papers brought forward in Geology, or Chemistry. The meeting adjourned Tuesday, the 2d of August, to meet in Washington, on the last A committee for revising the constitution of the Association was: appointed, consisting of Prof. Bacne, Dr. J. Lawrence SmirTH, Dr. Le Conte, of Georgia, Dr. W. Gnas, of New York, Dr. B ’ Jr., Prof. ocers, Prof. J Dana, Dr. J. Letpy, Prof. 8 Ss. ings should be furnished to members at cost, or free 0 0 the Proceedings are published by the public liberality of the city where the meeting may be ‘Srconp Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853. 37 290 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The following officers were appointed for the ensuing year: Prof. J. D. Dana, President; Prof. J. Lovertne, of Cambridge, General See- retary ; Prof. J. Lawrence Smirx, Permanent Secretary, and Dr. Ex- wn, Treasurer. ; - Gould, Jr., was requested to prepare an obituary of the late Sears C. Walker, to be presented at the meeting at Washington. The following is a list of the papers read at the Cleveland meeting. sent to us ened for alicetans a ) Physics, Mathematics, Astronomy. Prof. B. ambridge, Mass.: Investigations in Analytical Morphology - No. 1, Desrption it the Science; 2, Stable wait Unstable forms of Equilibrium; 3, forms of the E en 4, Stabilit ity of Saturn’s Ring. ers car Se of Astronomical vers, Criterion for the A een of doubtful observations eory of the action of tune upon Saturn, ciel A. D. Bacon, Supt. Coas begs aeee Washington: On the Reg: ‘a: Key West, Florida, from eee made in connection with the U. 8. Coa vey. On Tides of the Waitern Coast of the United States, ‘som " Obsceviktioas at San Sesmenas pene in connection bo fhe e Prof. on 7 —* per, of Princeton: e special analogi s of Struciure in the m He BS of the Earth kad "the winible Homueplere “of the Moon, with sine as to the Structure and Appearance of those portions of the Moon which are invisible. On Sool e Relations of the Central Distances of the Primary Planets, more lites, and Rings of the Solar System, of which Bode’s Law would seem to be but imperfect captingesse mitive Form and aan Saas of the Asteroid Planet, the cause of isability of the same, and of the peawans in the Orbits of the Asteroids. ver, of the U.S. Naval Academy: On the Method of finding the oe oe a a Orccue by equal altitudes of the = ——— _ New Formulas of Spherical Trigonometry. r. B. A. Gout, Jr, of Cambridge, Mass.: On Personal Equations in Astronomical ini vai. sat On the Velocity of Transmission of Electric Signals along Iron Telegraph ires. On the comparative precision of the Electro-chrono: hic or American Method of Baas tio Aa az fit Prof. O. M. Mrromet, : : On a New Method of securing Uniform Circular Motio pe i Asan used in receiving the Registration of Astronomical Observations a “e-3 Prof. C. W. Hacguzy, of bet York: Mathematical Analysis of the contact of surfaces in n oscillating Machin Lt. E. B H : On Gohe on of Fluids, linet 1% Steam Boiler Explosions. The ‘Coni cal Condenser, a Telescopic A ppend : Prof. Joun H. ©. Corrrs, of —_ Washington Observ ee Some errors peculiar he the obeortel, which ma may aff ect determinations of the declinations of i Fixed tars. Dr, Juttus FRreptAnper, of oon On the limit toward which the series, Mos 1 2itp a eat Us ti bes converges for r p=0. Prof. 0. N. patecenc': byt Miami University: Strictures on the mechanical explana- tion of the zig-zag path of the Electric S J. . RippeELL, of iy Orleans : pat 8 of c Moleslan Bier able of the gaseous, liquid, and solid conditions of mat Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291 Prof. Jossra Henry, of Washington: Illustrations of Cohesio | Prof. Josrra oan Cambridge: On a Modification of Soleil’s Polarizing Ap- pera for Projectio a Ona stp case of internal Fringes, produced by interference in the eye Prof. Gzo. R. Perxrns : Deen of a plan for furnishing a Fluid Mirror, to be used in a » Reflect ng nas i, an, of Cinci The Zodiacal Light, the periodical appearance of Me- ‘teors, oy the point in ae to which the motion in the Solar r system is directed. (2.) Meteorology. Bee C. Reprterp: On the value of the Barometer in navigating the American ‘n Sie ¥. ae of New York: Does the Moon exert a‘sensible influence upon ou _ OREN "N is ave 5 Stig’ which passed over New York, July 1, 1 J. H. Cor eras n Investigation of the Storm Curve, deduced from ed Relation ecatiig beberta pea direction of the Wind, and the Rise and Fall o ete Lorin Bropeer, of Washington: On the Barometric Pressure in extreme Lati- tudes, and ag existence of Belts of low Barometer in the Arctic Regions. panne — e South East Monsoon of Texas, the Northers of _— and the Gulf of Mexi ad the abnormal Atmospheric Parent of the North American nee generally. ete distribution of Heat over the North American Continent, and the construction 2 ‘ite Isothermal Lines. ——— On the Subordination of Atmospheric Phenomena, or the Position of the several Classes with respect to the primary Cause or Initiatory Processes, a Le ane distribution of precipitation in Rain and Snow on the North Amer- ican Contine Prof. A, D. Bac Supt. U. S. Coast emt Washington: On the Winds of the Coast of ihe United ‘States on sa Gulf of Mex Prof. Josepx Loverine, Cambridge: On Sonieel Meteorology. (3.) Geolog , Geography, Chemisiry. J. M. Sarrorp, of Lebanon, Tenn.: On the a of the lower Silurian soups of Middle Tennessee with those of New York. , of New York: On the Geological A ge and Affinities of the Fos sil Vishes Magy a bane to the ag hg formations of Gusnections, New Jersey, and the coal fie = ond,‘in Virgini A, Wosnke a of Eut: gry a het On we Geology of the Choctaw Bluff. J. A. Warne, of pf Tacnameeg A Geological Reconnoisance of the Arkansas Newsrrry, M.D., of Cleveland: On the Structure and Affinities of certain JS. Fossil Plants of the carboniferous era. On the Carboniferous Flora of Ohio, with descriptions of fifty new Species ane On the Fossil Fishes of the clit Limestone of Ohio. J. Pesnnie of Cleveland: Origin of Quartz aeiteaede in the Sandstone Con- : : Rocks. a f. Bacux, Supt.: Recent Discovery of a Deep-sea nee © on the Gulf Stream, Oa the Coast of South Carolina, Georgia and vei ricky Lieuts. Commanding Craven and Maffit, U. 8. N., Asst’s Const Survey. oe ee ENTH 292 Miscellaneous Intelligence. (4.) Zoology and Botany. NETT, cag Boston: On the Blood Corpuscle—holding Cells, and their plist to the § rg“ sy poe and Mode of Development of the Renal Organs in Ver- On the Formation and Functions of the Allantoi sage on the Development of the Vicious Aphides. he Reproduction of the Toad and Frog, without the intermediate stage On the Signification of Cell Segmentation. Prof. J. dearly “N ew Orleans: On the aaa Sf of Red Blood. —— On the Origin of Capillary Blood V On the Structure and Tra bcforulation nf “Oseillaria aureliana S. N. Sanrorp, of Granville, Ohio: On some es s in the Histo os of Gordius. R. Howe t, of Nichols, New York: On the Wheat Fly, and its R i. 5 Prof. Arnonso Woon, of Cincinnati: On Six New Species of Plants (5.) Miscellaneous. Prof. E. Loos, of New York: On the Measurement of Heights by the ren ar Prof. Jouy Brocxtessy, of Trinity College, Hartford: On the Rising of Water Te sense before Rain. W. H. B. Tuomas, of Cincinnati: Indications of Weather, as shown by Animals and s. a Pet E. N, Horsrorp, of Cambridge, Mass. : e fatal effects of Chloroform. Prof. 8. S. Hatpeman, of Cob — Pa,: Dacaune of the power of the Greek ic Law f. : e Capt. Wix unt of Experiments on Sound. Notice of Brand ag 0 for — metals by their specific gravity. Axprew Brown atchez : On the effect of the Reclamation of the an- nually inundated oe ¢ the Missp ‘Valley upon the general Health of the sermon + the elo: of that Ri Liar R. Lyn siggy rg : The esian alge Charleston. ie Havre, he pe i Central Railroad, Philad.: On the Re- sistance of the Vertiont aie of Tubular Bridges, pi to the tables of Gay Lussac and eRe anik hs pee ee ten- sion of the vapor present in the atmosphere is only of the total 3. Note , by Pas Buia i p. 225, on the Heat required to convert Water tate Steam.—The ( so-called) lilens Pai: of steam, has been a differently stated by different experimenters. Poisson (Traité de Miscellaneous Intelligence. 293 and Clement asa mean. As 560° C. =990 990°-+-2 12° — 60°=1142°, for the qnantity of heat necessary to convert water at 60° into steam at 212°. 4. Note to p. 226, on the Theoretic Determination of the Expenditur of Heat; by Prof. Barnarp.—A partial compensation for this ex- penditure, arising from expansion after cut-off, overlooked in the text, seems to be of sufficient importance to deserve attention in this post- script note. When the supply cylinder is less than the working cylin- der, the density of the heated air is, at the end of the stroke, necessarily, in the same ratio, less than unity. In this case, it is 3. Now this air cannot be discharged at a less pressure than that of the atmosphere ; and, in the general formula, 6 p'=0(4+ sa) 9, canique) puts it at 550° C., adopting the determination of Désormes s 560° ° F., we have 6 6 519 must be equal to 3; or 519 to 3. That is, 4 must be 259°-5 above the initial temperature, (60° F.) or 289°'5 above 32° F. If we put p/=p, and 9=§, 1+ apparent consumption, as given in the text; leaving the actual theoretic consumption, an amount representable in mechanical equivalents, by 186-3 MK,=136-98 MK,—82°56 MKyw. _ Putting M—46°82 Ibs., we find the consumption of heat to be suffi- cient to raise one pound of water 1524°-5 F., or to convert 1-335 Ibs. into steam at 212°, which is adequate to raise 76-880 Ibs. one foot, and es the power of steam to that of air, as ‘81. Allowing the steam an equal expansion, the ratio becomes 1: 4556. - The relative theorelic economy of steam and heated air employed as motive powers is apparently, therefore, not materially affected by varying the ratio of the supply to the working cylinder. . 5. On a Native Boro-titanate; by Prof. J. Lawrence Smitx."— under the name of Warwickite, and considered as a hydrated ea titanate of magnesia, iron and alumina. It was afterwards « ae by Mr. T. S. Hunt under the name of Enceladite, and in his last analysis _* This important paper was received at too late an hour to be inserted earlier in 294 Miscellaneous Intelligence. - Jour., [2] xi, 352,) considered a tri-titanate of magnesia. Tn e reéxamination of American minerals, in which Mr. Brush and my- self are engaged, this mineral came up in turn for examination, and to our amazement, it is found ie contain a — amount of boracic acid, doubtless upwards of 20 pr. ct. A ximative analysis are already made, but owing to the difficulty of Sica it of sufficient quantity in a perfect state of purity, its final examination may be delayed for some time ; and it is for that reason thought advisable to publish the present note on the subject. It is essentially a borotitanate of magnesia an iron; the metallic acid, however, has some anomalies about it, not yet cleared up. This is the first borotitanate known, and as stich highly interesting, the smallest portion of it, when acted on with sulphuric acid, will ae the strongest indication of the presence of boracic acid. 6. Su one pg hard (Northern Journal, Lowville, N. Y., March 16, 1853.)—At Lowville, N. Y., and in its vicinity, early 0 on the — of Saturday, deep 2and3o0 ae ” on the 12th of March, there a shock like an earthquake. It commenced with a heavy distant rupabling sound, apparently beneath, ace gradually increased, and at its maximum broke out in a gran explosion, louder than the loud- est thunder. There were stent reports, but it seer and ended with the same heavy rumbling with which it begun. Houses were shaken so that dishes and _ were displaced, ae the bell of the church struck nine or ten tim e academy bell also rung, although less igh. One aheiaing a was s thrown down. . The people were all aroused and many rushed to the streets. The editors of the paper from which we cite,.ask, ‘‘ Was it an earthquake; or a concussion of the atmos- phere, produced by some meteor or aerolite ?” and then gives reasons for believing it an actual earthquake, viz: the subterranean character of the sound, the motion of the 2 the absence of any light or flash, and no sudden barometric chan The direction is stated at at want to west, or the reverse. It was felt at Turin and Copenhagen quite heavy, at Aes s heavy, at Water- town slight, at Remsen, Trenton, and Holland Scion: not at all. The wind was southeast. The preceding day had been clear, but at 10 in the evening of Friday, the sky became overcast, and unusual darkness prevailed, which continued till the time of the occurrence. The ther- mometer and barometer gave the following observations: Thermometer. Att. Thermometer. Barometer. Friday, 6 a. m. 30-0 45 0 29-252 2 P.M. 39:5 53:0 29°205 10 p. m. 27-0 60-0 29:220 Saturd’y 2-30 a. mM. time of shock 34-0 52-5 29-140 6 a. M. 32-5 478 29:095 2 P.M. 40°5 57-0 28:975 Observations on Atmospheric arate ; by Lieut. M. F. Macey, ( ma, Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., vi, p. 313.)—Lieut. M. F. Maury; through Dr. Le Conte, the ‘Carredbontiag Secretary, presented an en- graved diagram, repre nting a “ vertical section of the basin of t Atlantic,” about the verattels of 39° and 40° north latitude, the data for which drawing are furnished by the deep sea soundings, taken by officers of the U.S. Navy, in obedience to an order from the Navy Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295 Department. Lieut. Maury says, ‘‘ These data are not very abundant, but such as they are. they give a proximate idea as to the submarine de- pression.” The diagram exhibits a striking contrast between the profile of the earth’s crust above and below the sea level. e same plate represents a vertical section across the continent of South America from Lima, on the Pacific, to the mouth of the Amazon Heights of Places determined by Lieut Herndon, U.S.N. Distance = Boiling eigits cm i tatute miles « the le ee ee ger Lima. pont. of the vr Brought forward, . 352 La Cueva, : : : 20 2065 2595 feet. Lingo Maria, . : 10 207°8 1923°°* Land travel, 882 Focache, ‘ : i 174 209°1 4258 .5* Sion, . . : 58 2097 944 ¢ Lupuna, 58 10° 19 Chasuta, 87 2105 585° * Cruz, & ‘ 220 11-2 ares Nanta, ' é ‘ 353 211°3 126 ¢ Petras, : . 5 197 211-1 A Ried Egas (904) ; : : 107 2082 | 1715 “ River Bank, . f : : 131 208-4 1611 . ‘ é i z 60 2085 1560 “ 34 ‘ ‘ 163 208°6 1507 “ he i ss 4 4 208'8 1406 “ Barra, : ; i : 14 09°38 Ting... @ Mouth of the Madeira, . ; : 104 209°8 893 Villa Nova, . : tl , 209 210°3 638 “ Santarem, 3 j 220 2105 GS »:*# Para, . : 759 911°5 95... ea, . ‘ . Direct water travel, . 3652 Andes, he was in fact under a bank of atmosphere, and that the pres- 296 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Let us now proceed to account as best we may, for this bank, or in- creased atmospheric pressure. These experiments were made in south latitude, and in the trade wind region of that hemisphere. These winds strike nearly perpendi- cularly against the Andes, the tops of which range extend in many — — if not quite as high, as do the trade winds themselves. w, then, what is the effect of such an obstruction as the Andes afford to the passage of the south east trade. winds ? we may judge by the effect of similar obstructions to running water, we have no hesitation in saying that the effect isto bank up. ot Rock and other obstructions to the rapid current of Hurlgate— taking small things to represent great—may serve us with an illustra- tion that will assist me in making myself clear. Any one who witnessed the water running over that rock, could not fail to be struck with the fact, and the extent “ which the water was piled up, not over the rock, but up stream from it; not only was there this banking up of the water, before it reached the rock, but there was also a depression above—that is, up stream from this bank of = on the one hand, and below or down stream from the rock on the ot n like manner it appears to me, ‘bee Herndon’s observations have revealed the fact that there is, at times at least, in the intertropical at- mosphere of South America, an air-cast mould of the Andes. It is remarkable how clearly these observations ia ‘a piling up of the atmosphere to the windward of the Andes, and a depression in the general atmospheric level to the windward again of this air bank. If this conjecture afford the real es aay sept of the phenomena, we should look on the lea side of the es fora low barometer, or a de- pression in ths atmosphere, fireandibg to the hollow in the water below pe ock. The aie eight of the barometer in Lima, as far as I have been able to saensinin it, indicates that such a depression is perceived there. subsequent observations should confirm —— Se and establish them as realities, we should then be put in possessio of im- portant physical facts. We should be led to inte that the beight of — and of mountain slopes above the sea level, as determined y the barometer, would depend somewhat upon which way the win lies and the only safe rule of admeasurement in such cases, would be to establish a standard a ga at the foot of the mountains, both on the windward and the lea s region become a natural anemometer, which will give us sik terms 0! the barometer an expression for the whole amount of force em mployed p. 339.)—In the Supplement Number of the athe 99 for July last, my father published a paper on ‘ ‘ Early pel Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297 istry,” in which he gave a short account of some experiments he had made on certain hieroglyphical marks or letters that had been dis- covered on the wrappers of a mummy which was recently unrolled by Mr. Nash at this Institution; and he then stated it was his belief that the ancient Egyptians were acquainted with a marking fluid containing nitrate of silver for its basis, and were also familiar with the use of nitric acid. A short time afterwards, Mr. Denham Smith, in a reply to this letter, took exception to my father’s views on the subject ; and made of an argentine solution having employed some three thou- sand yea o as ‘ marking ink,’ totally dissented from the conclusions that had been founded on it, inasmuch, he said, as there was no evi- c of distillation. He also hazarded the opinion, unsupported, however, y direct evidence, that the marking-fluid in question was prepared—if I understand him aright—by dissolving either the chlorid or oxyd of P pon examining some of the fibres of the bandages that were Stained by the argentine ink, I found them to present a very peculiar external surfaces, were found small particles of some organic tissue, which were colored of a still deeper yellow than the fibres them- selves. On subjecting some of the latter to the action of strong liquor mmonie, the yellow portions, particularly the altered intercellular of ammonia; whereas, on the other hand, fibres that d been stained by solutions of chlorid of silver in ammo- ‘ia were uniformly colored of a dark brown or and exhibited no trace of yellow coloration. Sxroonp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 47.—Sept., 1853. — 38 298 Miscellaneous Intelligence. or by one of the processes adopted by the alchemists, I will not at pres: ent attempt to decide, but will leave the problem to be solved at some future period, when the researches of antiquarians shal] have offered us further evidence on the subject 9. California Academy of Natural Sciences.—-An Academy of Nat- ural Science has recently been instituted at San Francisco, Califernia, having for its objects the collection of specimens in yarious departments of science, and lectures and publications on scientific subjects. A Randall, Esq., has been elected President, H. Gibbons and T, J. Nev- ins, Vice Presidents, W. P. Gibbons, Corresponding Secretary, L. W. Sloat, Recording Secretary, A. B. Stout, Treasurer. Aurora seen at Perryville, on the 24th of May, 1853 ; by Prof. . W. WueeELer.—At a quarter before nine, P. M., 24th, a bank of white light lay along the northern horizon, elevated perhaps 10° due north, and extending about 100° on the horizon. Nine o'clock, streamers distinctly visible in the N. W., and a little to the E. of N. 94, Streamers more visible; bank less so. Some of the streamers could be traced above the pole star. 4, Streamers not so high, but oceupy almost the whole bank. 93, Streamers hardly perceptible ; bank disappearin 10, Bank and streamers have both disappeared The light was white and slightly yellow, nothing of redness; the evening clear and still ; thermometer 13° Cent, Perryville is in Lat. ° 43’ 56”, Long. 89° 53’ 20”, 11. The Great Gold Nugget, (Atheneum, No. 1344.)—The Times states, that the great Australian nugget lately exhibited at Mr. Wyld’s obe, in Liecester Square, has been melted and sold by Messrs. Hag- gard and Pixley, bullion brokers, for 5,532. Its weight before melting was 1,615 ounces; and it yielded 1,319 ounces of fine gold, equal to d. 12. Polytechnic College, Philadelphia.—A Polytechnic College has been chartered by the State of Pennsylvania, to be established in of instruction. A chemical laboratory, mineralogical collections, and other appurtenances required for instruction in the practical applications of science, are included in the plan. The rofessorship of Metaliurgy> and Industrial, Agricultural, and Analytical Chemistry, (a large Tange for one man,) is stated to be filled, but the three other departments PFO posed are yet to be provided with Professors. 13. Notice io Naturalists.—The Cabinet of the late Dexter Marsh will be offered at public auction, on Wednesday, the twenty-first day of September next. It embraces a great variety of natura Myo ni | il 13 0 ural ob 3} peculiar value consists in its unrivalled collection of Fossil - ootprints Miscellaneous Intelligence. 299 Birds and Quadrupeds, and the Impressions of Fishes, from the ne red sandstone of the aise River. The collection of Minerals em- braces an immense number of Crystals of Beryl, some of vast size, from the celebrated oustiey of Acworth, . Particulars will be sent upon application to the subscriber. Amon the specimens of this a are the following, spprdiabe by President Hitchcock, and Dr. Dea Ghalsaselonités. —No. 92. A Slab, 106 feet, literally covered with Footprints of Birds, at least 70 distinct impressions, arranged in deter- minate lines or transits. In two of these transits the Footstep is 10 inches in length, and the stride 3 feet and 8 inches. The surface is very bright and smooth, and the impressions are without blemish, showing in the most distinct manner the phalangeal, tarsal, and ungual depressions of the foot. Appraise o. 93. Is the counterpart or cast of the foregoing, very fine. Ap- praised at $150 No. 94. A slab in two pieces, about 8X4 feet in dimensions, from the same eps as No. 92. 17 fine impressions, Appraised at $79. No. out 5X3 feet. 9 rows of tracks on its superior surface, and several in relief on its inferior. The impressions are very fine. an specimen is mounted to take a revolving motion. Appraised at 150. No. 95, About 7X4. _ Literally covered with perfect oe at least 40 in all, arranged in determinate lines Appraised at $75 No. 97. Two Colossal Footprints, each 16 inches in length ; stride 3 feet 6 inches. Very fine. Appraised at $25. No. 100. Two Colossal Footprints, each 14 inches long; stride 3 feet 4 inches. lag aised at $25. 0. 99. b 6 age 4 inches in length. One row of consecutive footprints, iad? nee ery fine. Apprais sed at $30. _ No. 98. Slab 7 feet 6 inches long. Footprints and Raindrops in re- lief. serene at $20. No. . Four ieee cain teas Appraised at $20. No. 102. Six impri Appraised a No. 103. A s single Ooléoadl Pisioriiy 18 inches in length. Ap- Praised at $25. Besides the foreyoing, are a very great number of nie 100 of which are enumerated, appraised from $10 to $1. They are mostly from the celebrated localities tiata nib s drive and South Hadley Yeon riabaaiaed inet all ihe known species, and the specimens are truly beautiful. They indicate animals of ee robably of the Batahian order of Reptiles, or the Taile or Salamandrian species. small, and are appraised from SiaDdSs CO g F 300 Miscellaneous Intelligence. land, Mass., Middletown, Conn., and Pompton, N. J., and embraces eight or ten species of the Genera Paleoniscus and Catopterys. The specimens enumerated, amounting to 200, are entire and remarkably fine, and are appraised at $25, $20, $15, $10, $5, down to $l. Taken altogether, this collection offers a rare opportunity for acquiring these elegant fossils, which are otherwise so difficult to obtain, especially in a sound condition. Minerals.—The collection of Beryls from Acworth, N. H., is large, and was obtained by Mr. Marsh, as were the foregoin i personal exertions, and at great expense. It is very valuable, and was appraised by Prof. C. U. Shepard and Dr. Edward Hitchcock, and among the principal specimens are the following : No. 240. 11 in. diam. 38 in. circum. 12 in. length. Apprais’d at $20. < 8 « 66 96 « ‘c D4 % 66 3 $15. No. 234. 74 ‘“ 34 ce g « oe “6 $10. No. 239 g % a3 32 « rice J9 6c 3 $10. No Pay § 9 * cc 99 6c 14 * 6 oe No. 253. 15 « rT 39 « rr 16 * 6c oe $15. No. S86: 30 sr > Ais ee agg arte He $4 No 951 8% 6c Qs “« ee 13 * ‘“ 6 $4 No. 265. 13 “ ss c sc 12 « “ “ $6 No 274 9 « 6c 380 +s “ec 99 «& “ 6 No. 279. 12 « “ 38 « x3 1g « ‘c 13 $s. Besides many others at $10, $8, $5, $3, $1, of which more than 100 specimens are enumeri They are also arranged into suites, and great numbe ther specimens, G s, Septaria, Rain Drops, Wc- Miscellaneous Objects—lilustrating Aboriginal Arts. 225 specimens Indian Relics, found in jhe Valley of Connecticut River. _ Eleven pieces Pottery and Discoidal Stones from the Mounds of Mis- Sissippl, Very interesting. Stuffed Birds, Alligator, Boa Skins, Roman amp, Ancient Mosaic, English Minerals and Fossils, Limestone and Chalk Fossils, Coal Fossils, Mastodon remains, Fossil Corals, Show Cases, &c. Coins.—1118 Pieces Copper Coins, including duplicates. 85 very rare Coins and Medals. Shells.—A_ valuable collection of Shells and Corals. Valuable Books.—17 Quarto Volumes Geological Survey of New York, Owen’s Geological Survey, Hitchcock’s Geology of Massachu- setis, &c. QF The sale will be continued from day to day until it is completed; and it will probably afford the only opportunity that will occur for @ long time, if ever, of acquiring the beautiful fossils of Connecticut River- a Bibliography. 301 They can ~_ be obtained by skillful prospecting at great risk and ex- pense. All the localities have been exhausted for several years, and Greenfield, Mass. July, 1853. V. BiBLioGRaPHy. 1. Miscellaneous Chemical Researches: Inaugural dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, addressed to the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Gottingen, by Cuartes A. Joy, of Bos- ton. Gottingen, 1853. 50 pp. 8vo.—The researches ere published were made part in Gdttingen, under Prof. Wéhle , and part in Berlin, under Prof. H. Rose. They relate to the composition of sa corals, meteoric iron, volcanic rocks, minerals, and s eka ic compounds. We defer to another number a further notice of t i results. 2. Report on ane points in the Geology of Massachusets by Pres. ace Hircncocx. Exec. Dep’t Mass.; Hous 39. —This valuable esi \reats of CL ) the Coal Field of Bristol county and of Rhode Island; (2.) the Determination of the geological age and position of the beds of Brown Hematite Iron Ore in Berkshire county, Mass. ; (3.) dis of ancient Glaciers in Massachusetts. The second section has already appeared in this Journal; the others we propose to cite from at length in our next. hysical Geography; by Mary Somervitte, author of the con- nection of the “ Physical Sciences,” Mechanism of the Heavens, etc. An V.S. W. Ruscu rcER, M.D., U.S. Navy. 570 pp. 12mo. Philadelphia, i853. Blanchard and Lea.— The | Physical Geography of Mrs. Somerville, the most learned woman of the age, is alread well known, The whole range of the earth’s ap Gaenee of Philad Ke A. M.D., March 1, 3.—This catalan of fh eggs embrace » 1323 ee pa of 493 genera. Of t 35 species, derived from all parts of pe urs, of Paris. The Australian species, numbering 246, sccompaie the splendid collection of birds from that county s Bata tinguished ornithologist Mr. John Goul at ie on, and Sih is now in the Museum of the Academy. The Cuba ok belonged to the callection of the well Sandee naturalist M. “ de la Sagra, and were presented by Mr. E. W ae. - Bibliography. / The whole of the first two collections were purchased by Dr. T. B. Wilson, and, with his usual liberality, presented to the Academy. The names are attached to their donations throughout the catalogue. undetermined eggs in the collections of M. Des Murs and Mr. Gould, there are 197 species. ; 5. Rural Essays; by A. J. Downtne, edited, with a memoir of the author, by Greoree Wittiam Curtis, and a letter to his friends by Freperixa Bremer. G. P. Putnam and Co.: New York, 1853. 558 pp. 8vo.—The Rural Essays here issued originally appeared as editori- als in the Horticulturist. We are gratified to see them collected to- the great calamities of the last year. The memoir of Mr. Downing by Mr. Curtis is full of interest, and forms a most appropriate introduction to the volume. Sixty-Sixth Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York. 316 pp. 8vo. Albany, 1853.—Following the several valuable Meteorological Tables; Observations on the Weather, Auroras, Level of the Lakes, Productiveness, etc., of 1852, Flowering of Plants, &c., by Rev. Cuester Dewey; Table of the Periods when the Hudson River opened and closed at Albany ; Tables of the Fall of Rain in the State; on the Periods of Cold Weather during the last few years, and the connection of Earthquakes with Atmospheric Changes, y E. Merriam. 7. Illustrated Record of the Industry of all Nations ; Nos. 1, 2; 3,4. Edited by B. Strrrman, Jr. New York: G. P. Putnam and Co. Double Numbers of 18 pp. 4to, 25 cents.—This Illustrated Record, is The magazine before us, if ably conducted, would meet this watt. We judge however, from the paper on the mines and mineral resources Bibliography. "303 of America, (No. II,) that more care will be needed in the preparation of papers, before it will reach the standard it should assume. In men- tioning the mineral productions of New York, distinction is seldom made between good and bad localities, and an erroneous idea is conveyed of past year, (vol. xiii, 2nd. Ser., 417,) is spoken of first as the ancramitic oxyd of zinc, and afterwards ‘under the old pet te name of Cadmia which is attributed to Prof. Silliman. The name ancramite was given it when it was first noticed, but has Nhat since dropped out of use. Certain New York localities ‘of zinc ore are stated to yield sulphate of zinc, chromate and carbonate. The precious stones of New York mentioned are, jasper, agate, garnets, emerald. The article on the me Mines and M Resources of eye (No. II,) thus leads the reader to igs that many things occur in the state of New Yor which do not, and ge t many localities afford workable beds, where ha are mere traces of ore. Memphis Medical Recorder, published bi- rags by the Memphis: ae College. Edited by A. P. Merritt, M.D., Prof. Mat. Med. and pada and C. T. Qos TARD, M.D., Prof. Pigs — Path. Anat. uses of medicines in their treatment. W derstand that Prof. J Millington i is to be connected with the Memphis Medical mes and will contribute to the Memphis Medical Recorder. The ent num- ber contains as original papers, one on the uses of Wanita wale. by ‘ef Wooten, M. D., another on the relations of uterine and constitu- important paper on fossil plants from Ohio, by J. W. Fostex, illus- trated by wood-cuts; and the mei hg for February, March, April 15 and May, others on ibe same subject, by J. S. NEwBERRY 11. Report of the Superintendent of the Census for December, 1852, to which is appended the Report of December 1, 1853. Printed by order of the House of Representatives of the United States. Washing- ton, 1853. N 12. Transactions of the Meteorological Society of Mauritius. 1853. 0. 1, 8vo 13. Annals ofthe Lyceum of Natural History of New York, ston 1853. Vol. vi, No. 1.—(1.) Descriptions of new species of birds of the genera Ortyx, Stephens, Sterna, Lin., Icteria, Vieillot, by G. N. Law- RENCE'—p (2.) Alivons to North American Ornithology, No. 3, by G. N. Law- RENCE.——p. 4, Ae eS. - 3.) Orni ne ical Notes, " aor Sees ogi of new boc of Holieidee, by we 1. eerstcy. Descriptions of new sees | id —— the Sandwich we Dr. W. Newcoms.—p. 18. (6.) Note to a. Description of a argentea of Lacepede, in vol. v of the Annals, by REVOOR . 30. Wg haath ian: on the olin! of "Rotall Lam., by Rev. S.C. Fairpank, of Bombay.—p. 35. J. A. Cox: Geology, Topography and Natural History of Palestine. 96 pp. 8yo. London, 1852. 2s. 6d. C. Lye: ae of Geolovy, American Edition from the last London. Boston, Little, Brown an a Witciea: The Natural History of the Birds of Ireland. Small 8vo. eid lin and London, J.B 6d. Dr. peter: Poplar Ht His istory of Bath Pa Royal 16mo, with 20 plates. 10s. 6d. col.; of British Seaweeds, with 22 disertg ~ 8 L. M. Farapay: Lectures on the Non-metallic Eler London. Bonpranpia : Zeitscrift fiir ee Botan, my Carl pei He nover. No.1. Jan. 1, 1853. p. 1 Atlas zu Humboldt’s Roam in as Ane Tafeln. m. erlauterndem Text vou Traug. Stutigart. 5te Lfg. quer Fol. (6 Lithogr., p. 49, 60.)—88 cents a ee J. R. Brom: Zweiter Nachtrag zu den Pseudomorphosen d d. Minerale chs, gr 8. ee = u. eee Heidel . C. F, Naumayy: Elemente der Mineralogie, 3d edit. 448 pp. large 8vo. “Leip, a 1852. Bs “u PrarF: Grundriss der mathematischen Verhaltnisse der. Krystalle. 208 Pp. $r0, wth 16 eos Nérdlingen, 1853 ig NER: Die Probirkunst mit dem *Ldthesdive 3d. Edit. 716 pp. a a ; Leipaig, 188 RANZ row Kopett: Die Mineral-namen und die mineralogische Nome nklatur. 160 pp., 8vo. Miinchen, 1853.—An im portant work giving the or of the names of minerals, enclature. _ We Connecti aki ite, after Benjamin Franklin ; correctly it was after the ea near Franklin Fur- —Pennite, after Penna, in North America, instead of ors one Bibliography. : Shephard’s name Eremite, is wrongly attributed to De i : spelt without ¢ a ith an ek; the name of t r ackson, instead of . Jackson. Am hich von Kobell lays dow ds ongly Insists upon is the spelling of foreign names deriv names of persons, as they are spelt in the country frém which — are taken,—Un- der ag itis is stated that it isnamed after the North American es lo 3 and Chemist, J. F. W. Jobnston; it should be the English, &e. The name of J. Lawrence Smith is written without the 4 Be A. Roemer: Mineralogie und Geognosie, (464 pp. 8 Tfn. 173 Hizschn.) Hane nov Paooxrorvos OF THE ~~ N Soc r Nar a —p. 295. _ on the ex- traction of the iron fro he Franklinite of New Jer sey ; C. T. Jackson. —p. 291. Oe the probable ron of the. ocean of the European chalk ae gree in ‘opposition to the view of Prof. E. Forbes, that it was a deep ocean ; H. D. Rogers.,—p. 298 er’ a bone of Palapteryx; Dr. Kneeland.—p. 300. Onan n Earthquake at Manilla, Sept. my 1852; Dr. Kneeland—p, 203. On the sandhill crane ; Dr. TNcs OF THE Acap. Nat. Scr. P —p. 3 Synopsis of the aha of the Atopi —p. 357. 8 ISOCRYMAL CHART TO ILLUSTRATE THE aan 50 » oF MABINE ANIMALS t ¥ f ij { f ¢ } SAMOS DWAWA, A A nh oO leg Vv y aa Soha as g a‘ sm 2, 1%, 2 tae - ei) eres OS Ri ON ; mere eS ha 3 - B\ ale \ a | ft: J eee ee ay . as pe: tiated jor J} id Sh eK me -' ri 7 | * ae toe ea ae i toe / s I pA ne \ a N es ro) : [Rh ke Seen | ome Tn tle | ae H dy i f =F SF ¢ a % oF z ae art wr a -— , as i Q eat ie s . A 2 2 a a (ee oe i | 5 aie \ x €\ 2) J) 2 «UO ay 4 ? 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[SECOND SERIES.] Arr. XXX.— Biography of Berzelius ; by Prof. H. Rose, of Berlin. (Continued from p. 186.) Somerme after the appearance of the mineral system, Ber- zelius published his work ‘‘Ueber die Anwendung des Lithrohrs in der Chemie und Mineralogie.” In Fahlun, under the guid- ance of his older friend Gahn, a pupil of Torbern Bergmann, he ad acquired uncommon dexterity in the use of the blowpipe ; and he had thus enriched this special part of chemistry with a humber of original investigations, and brought it to a high de- gree of perfection. In the above-mentioned work he makes known everything connected with the subject, both what he had learned from Gahn and what he had himself discovered. Rarely has a work been welcomed by chemists like this; in- deed, so immediate a recognition of the practical value of a work 1s seldom possible. It was at once translated into most European languages; and in some, especially the German, it passed through Several editions. Everywhere it met with merited appreciation ; and Mr. Children alone, the editor of the English edition, allowed himself to add remarks as superfluous as they were ill-natured. Besides the behavior before’ the blowpipe of the most import- ant chemical compounds, all metallic oxyds, acids, and their salts, sulphurets, &c., Berzelius described the reaction of all more readily placed at his disposal, as he required only very small quantities for these experiments. He entered upon this investi- Srcoyp Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 48—Nov., 1853. 39 * ‘ 306 Biography of Berzelius. gation with untiring industry, and was thus able to furnish even those mineralogists who but unwillingly admitted the influence of chemistry upon mineralogy, with an extremely welcome gift, since, by simple blowpipe experiments, it was made possible to distinguish minerals with ease and certainty, especially sili- ceous compounds, which were with difficulty, or only ambigu- ously, recognizable by means of their external characters. This work bore so manifestly the stamp of perfection, even on its first appearance, that, with the exception of Plattner, in Frei- berg, no one has contributed any essential additions or improve- ments to blowpipe investigations; and it is quite as indispensable to the chemist and mineralogist at the present day as it was thirty years ago. : About this time, Berzelius discovered selenium, and was en- gaged upon his admirable investigation of this element. Never was there an examination so accurate and thoroughly exhaustive, of an interesting and hitherto unknown element, comprising a its characters and remarkable combinations, so that, if we except the discovery of selenic acid by Mitscherlich, which escaped Ber- zelius, nothing essentially new was added to our knowledge of this element during the next thirty years. Our astonishment at this will be the greater when it is recollected that all these inves- tigations were carried on with a very small quantity, only about 2 ounce of selenium, of which a part was lost through the care- ~ Jessness of a servant. This paper upon selenium can be compared only with that by Gay-Lussac upon iodine, which appeared several years before, and has yielded, in so many respects, such valuable results. It must, nevertheless, be remarked, that Gay-Lussac was not the discoverer of iodine, and did not undertake the investigation until after the first chemist of that time, Davy, had almost established the true nature of iodine; and that he had large quantities of materials at his disposal. Almost at the same time that Berzelius was engaged in the ex- amination of the compounds of selenium, Arfvedson was en- gaged in his laboratory with the analysis of some Swedish min- erals ; and under the guidance of Berzelius, succeeded in discover- ing lithium, which, as it came so unexpectedly, justly created great interest. The following larger papers of Berzelius form, as it were, 4 series of monographs upon separate and important branches of chemistry, which were at that time still obscure. It was natural, when he commenced the demonstration of the law of definite proportions by means of a succession of laborious investigations, that he should throw aside much, in order to sketch the ground- work of his system. The investigations which he now undertook, Were all instituted in accordance with a matured plan, and he had long meditated upon them before actually undertaking them. Biography of Berzelius. 307 The first of these researches was upon the ferruginous cyano- cyanogen, had neglected to study these compounds. After him, several chemists had occupied themselves with their examina- tion, but all obtained very different results, the greater number, owever, assuming that the iron in the so- -called ferro- asinbid acid salts was an essential constituent of the acid, which was combined in the salts with an oxydized body. Berzelius, however, shewed that these salts contained neither prussic acid nor oxydized hases, but that they consisted of cyanid combined with the eyanid of an alkaline metal, and conse- quently were double cyanids. He also extended his investiga- tions to the salts of the so-called sulpho-cyanic acid, and shewed that they consist of a metal, sulphur, and cyanogen, the latter two united to form a radical (which he subsequently called Rho- dan); and — in se likewise there was neither prussic acid nor oxydized ba hese ieieliohien tlie which fully confirmed the views of Gay- Lussac regarding cyanogen, were, however, of still greater im- portance to Berzelius in another respect. After Davy had been induced, by his researches in 1810, to consider that it was simpler and more correct to look upon chlorine as elementary, and not, as he had formerly done, as a “bar of oxygen with a radical that had not been isolated ; most chemists concurred with him in this view. Gay-Lussac Aes Thénard, who, even before Davy, considered a similar view possibly correct, although not oideait more probable than the old one, after the discovery of iodine, openly declared a with Vauquelin and all the other French chemists, in favor of the new doctrine; and the famous paper of Gay-Lussac a iodine, which appeared in 1813, is written in this spirit. Berzelius alone, who from the first had disputed the hypothesis of Davy, continued to defend the old doctrine, even after the dis- covery of iodine. He did this —s in a paper which first appeared in Gilbert’s Annalen for 1815. He there endeavored, with a profound sagacity which must be highly admired by every one, on reading the paper even after the lapse of so long a time, to prove the truth of the doctrine of the compound nature of chlorine. He directed attention to the remarkable phenomenon that the constituents of chlorid of nitrogen, which are united only by a very feeble affinity, separate with such an energetic evolu- tion of heat as is never observed except in chemical combinations. But above all he pointed out the analogy which existed between muriates, which, according to the new theory, in the anhydrous State contain no oxygen, and the sulphates, phosphates, and other salts, which are indisputably compounds of oxygen acids _ oxygen bases, and in which the presence of oxygen may be readily detected. 308 Biography of Berzelius. The great authority of Berzelius, and the soundness with which he carried out his refutation of all the evidence brought forward in favor of the new theory, were the reasons why many chemists, especially in Germany, did not adopt Davy’s view of the nature of chlorine. The immediate cause that led Berzelius to undertake the inves- tigation of the cyanids of iron was evident, viz., he expected to find in them a more complex radical (united with oxygen form- ing an acid) associated with an oxygen base, and similar to that which he assumed to exist in muriates. It cannot be disputed genous salts, and especially as several metallic cyanids, such as eyanid of mercury or silver, correspond so completely with the analogous chlorine compounds, he was of opinion that if he could by this investigation detect oxygen in the ferrocyanic compounds, it would be a strong proof of its presence in muriates likewise, and, consequently, evidence in favor of the old theory of the nature of chlorine. However, the result of these investigations was the opposite of that which he expected, and thus the main argument against the new doctrine of the nature of chlorine fell to the ground. n other reasons for the greater probability of the new theory were from time to time discovered, Berzelius adopted it with the most amiable candor, and relinquished the old theory which he had so long and so ably defended. ne, among the reasons was, as I know, the following :— Immediately after Berzelius’s investigations on the cyanids of iron, Leopold Gmelin obtained the interesting red double salt of cyanid of potassium and cyanid of iron, which is anhydrous and contains no oxygen. The red color of peroxyd of iron, which is more or less communicated to all its salts except the neutral ones, was to Berzelius an additional reason for regarding the red perchlorid of iron as an actual salt with an oxygenous base ; and, as in the salt obtained by Gmelin, notwithstanding its red color, the iron was not in the state of oxyd, but directly com- bined with cyanogen, (one double atom of iron with three double atoms of cyanogen,) Berzelius saw that it was probable that the red color of iron compounds was not owing alone to the presence in them of peroxyd, but was also common to those in which one double atom of iron is combined with three double atoms of chlorine or cyanogen. eas Another main inducement to adopt the new theory of the nature of chlorine, consisted in the results which he derived in favor of it from his subsequent comprehensive res pon al- kaline sulphurets. According to Berthollet’s investigations, these Biography of Berzelius. 309 bodies were regarded as combinations of sulphur with alkalies un- 1elted with sulphur, a part of the alkali was reduced to the metallic state, sulphuric acid was formed, and a mixture of alka- line sulphate and sulphuretted metal was obtained. This which Vauquelin was able to put forward only conjecturally, and could not demonstrate by convincing proofs, was immediately proved most satisfactorily by Berzelius through his successful reduction of sulphate of potash by means of hydrogen or the vapor of the sulphuret of carbon. He thus obtained sulphuret of potassium in which there could not be any oxygen. By treating anhydrous lime with sulphuretted hydrogen at a high temperature, Berzelius likewise obtained water and sulphuret of calcium. This experi- ment rendered it obvious that when liver of sulphur is obtained by melting together sulphur and carbonate of potash, the solution in water contains sulphuric acid, which is not, as Berthollet con- jectured, first formed by the decomposition of water, but isa joint product with the liver of sulphur of the reduction of the alkali. Berzelius found, moreover, that the alkaline metals co pearls in several definite proportions with sulphur forming substances which are all soluble in water. hus arose the question: What is contained in such a solution ?—a question, the answer to which is especially important when regarded in connection with the solutions of metallic chlorids. Is this liquid a solution of the un- altered sulphuret in water, or is the alkaline metal oxydized, and, consequently, a compound of sulphuretted hydrogen with alkali formed, or a compound of sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphur, and alkali ? ‘Since, in the last case, it would be necessary to as- sume as many compounds of sulphur with hydrogen as there are compounds of sulphur with the alkaline metals, Berzelius de- water really does take place in this case, and that a compound of metallic beats with eibuceics! hydrogen and alkaline oxyd is formed. Hieiseline regarded these investigations as i pre sulphur _ compounds exist which are very analogous to the muriates, and t there might likewise be bodies a, think coatssaid an acid and an oxygenous base, possess, like the chlor ids, all the peculiar characters of salts ; and, consequently, if this were so, all that evidence against the new theo ory of chlorine failed, which he derived from ” aoe analogy of muriates with salts con- etion of an ox cid and an oxygenous base. Vith this ic catianted on alkaline sulphurets was connected Po enaiy important one upon the sulphur salts, which, however, appear until several years afterwards. 310 Biography of Berzelius. In the former paper Berzelius had directed attention to the compounds. The different sulphur compounds of the electro-negative met- als which Berzelius called sulphids, and whose composition is analogous to that of the metallic acids, combine with the electro- positive or basic sulphurets in such proportions, that if the sul- phur were replaced by an equal number of atoms of oxygen, some one of the salts would be formed which the same radicals would yield in their oxydized state. the sulphur compounds of the non-metallic elements, those of carbon and hydrogen alone combine with the basic sulphurets of the metals; the latter class of compounds,—those of sulphuret- ted hydrogen with alkaline sulphurets,—were already known un- der the name of hydrothio-alkalies, but their true composition Was not recognized until now. compound radicals with metals. _ This discovery of sulphur salts, is indisputably one of the most important extensions of chemistry. Berzelius entered upon their study with great industry, and the number of sulphur salts ex- amined by him amounted to about 120, to many of which he cer- tainly could give only a passing attention, although he analyzed many quantitatively. Next to this followed his investigation of hydrofluoric acid, one of the most important which Berzelius executed, since it has thrown such an unexpected light upon several of the most inter- esting departments of chemistry. ae _ Thénard and Gay-Lussac had indeed already prepared hydro- fluoric acid in a pure state, and several of its compounds. But as they were at the same time occupied with a number of other Biography of Berzelius. 311 portant researches, they did not pursue this subject further, and especially did not study with sufficient accuracy the phenomena which presented themselves when potassium was heated in fluorid of silicium. Berzelius, in the first instance, prepared the most important metallic fluorids ; then he went on to the remarkable compounds which hydrofluoric acid forms with electro-negative fluorids, especially fluorid of silicium, and fluorid of boron, besides fluorid of titanium and others. It was through him that we first ac- quired a correct conception of the composition of hydrofluosilicie acid and the fiuosilicates, as well as of the action of water upon fluorid of silicium. But the most productive part of this same results as the French chemists: namely, the brown non- metallic substance which they regarded as a complex compound of fluosilicid of potassium and of fluorid of potassium with silica. Berzelius found that it was impure silicium, which, when washed with water, could be obtained free from all fluorine compounds. It then contained only an admixture of silica, which could be ex- tracted by concentrated hydrofluoric acid, after having previously been slowly heated to redness. He moreover shewed that the silicium could be obtained in different states of density, and with different characters. This unexpected result induced him to undertake similar inves- tigations with fluorid of boron. We are indebted to him for a correct knowledge of the decomposition of fluorid of boron by Water, and of the composition of fluoborids, as well as an easy method of preparing boron, by treating fluoborid of potassium with potassium. He likewise discovered at this time the gaseous chlorid of boron, and corrected the views of the composition of boracic acid by his own experiments and those of Arfvedson. He Moreover prepared the compounds of fluorid of titanium with metallic fluorids, especially fluorid of potassium, from which bod he shewed how metallic titanium was to be obtained by means of potassium. This is the only method by which titanium can be obtained in a pure state; for the experiments of Wéohler have proved that the substance found in the slags of iron furnaces, and_ formerly called metallic titanium, contains nitrogen and cyanogen. compounds of fluorid of tantalum with metallic fluorids were So prepared, and he obtained metallic tantalum in the same way as titanium. He then reduced zirconium from the zirconio-fluorid oi 312 Biography of Berzelius. t must be remarked, that in these investigations Berzelius as- sumed, as he had previously done in the case of hydrochloric acid, that fluoric acid was an oxygen acid, and that it contained a radi- cal, combined with two atoms of oxygen. But in the same year that he gave up the study of fluorine compounds, viz., in 1825, he observed in the first part of the third German edition of his “Lehrbuch,” that it was more probable that fluoric acid, like hy- drochloric acid, was a hydrogen acid; and he described all the fluorine compounds according to this view. } ogether with these comprehensive researches, Berzelius pub- lished a number of less extensive ones, They all originated in solution of carbonate of potash, as much chlerid of potassium as it would take up, atid passed chlorine through the liquid without saturating it. After a few minutes chlorid of potassium was prée- cipitated, which contained no chlorate of potash, or scarcely any ; the liquid had acquired the power of bleaching. When the liquid separated from the precipitated chlorid of potassium, and per- fectly saturated with chlorine, chlorate of potash was precipitated, containing scarcely any chlorid of potassium. Consequently, during the first action of the chlorine, chlorid of potassium must ‘ Biography of Berzelius. 313 have been formed from potash, the oxygen of which could have combined only with chlorine, giving rise to the production of the bleaching compound. It had long been the wish of Berzelius to investigate the rare metals accompanying platinum, the knowledge of which had been left imperfect by the chemists who discovered them. He was enabled to carry this into execution, when, after the discovery of the large quantities of platinum in the Ural, he received through Herrn von Cancrin, a considerable quantity of native platinum, as well as native Osmium-Iridium. This circumstance led him into avery important investigation of the process. for decomposing native platinum ores, by means of which the rare metals accom- panying platinum were first properly made known. He studied the characters, determined the atomic weights of Rhodium, Pal- ladium, Iridium, and Osmium, and prepared a number of their compounds. Owing to the great number of the oxyds and chlorids of these metals, and their great similarity to each other, this investigation was very difficult ; and, as regarded osmium d osmic acid, a very unpleasant one. But although Berzelius himself declared that he had as it were given only the sketch of the history of these metals, still this research, like all that came from his hands, was an extremely accurate, and to a certain extent, perfect one. The next investigation of Berzelius was in reference to a new and peculiar earth, Thoria, which he had discovered in a mineral which he had detected it, he named Thorite, and the metal which he obtained from its volatile chlorine compound, Thorium. (To be continued.) Sxconp Sertes, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—Noyv., 1858. 40 314 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating Arr. XXXI.—On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating the Geographical Distribution of Marine animals ; James D. Dana. (Continued from p. 167.) Remarks on the Several Temperature Regions. Tue form and varying breadth of the different regions, and the relations between the sea-temperatures of coasts in different lati- tudes, which they exhibit, are points demanding special remark. The conclusions are of much interest, although some changes in the chart will undoubtedly be required by future researches. Atlantic Torrid Region, between 74° F. north, and 74° F. south.—The form of this region is triangular, with the vertex of the triangle to the east. Its least width is four degrees of lati- tude; its greatest width between the extreme latitudes, is forty- six and a half degrees. On the African coast it includes only a part of the coast of Guinea, and no portion is south of the equator. On the west, it embraces all the West India Islands and reefs (ex- cepting the Little Bahama,) and the South American coast, from Yucatan to Bahia,—a fact that accounts for the wide distribution of marine species on the American side of the ocean. Atlantic Subtorrid Regions, between 74° and 68° F.—The North Subtorrid Region of the Atlantic is about six degrees in its average width, which is equivalent to a degree of Fahrenheit to each degree in surface. It encloses within the same tempera- ture limits, a part of the east coast of Florida, between 24° and 274° north, and a part of the African coast, between the parallels of 9° and 143° north, the two related coasts differing ten degrees in latitude. The Bermudas, in latitude 33°, and the Cape Verdes, in 154°, fall within this region. The South Subtorrid Region has the same average width as the northern. _ ‘Taking the whole Atlantic Torrid or Coral-reef zone together, its width on the east is about twenty-one degrees, while on the west, it extends between the parallels of 30° south and 34° north, a breadth of sixty-four degrees. As many species will thrive un- der the temperature of any part of the Torrid zone, the geograph- ical range of such species in the Atlantic may be very large, even from Florida and the Bermudas on the north, to Rio Janeiro on the south, a range of which there are actual examples. Atlantic Warm Temperate Regions, between 68° and 62° F. —The northern of these regions has a breadth of fourteen and a half degrees along the west of Africa, and about seven degrees along the United States, to the south of Cape Hatteras, off the Carolinas, Georgia, and northern Florida. These shores and the Canaries are therefore in one and the same temperature zone. the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 315 The southern of these regions averages five degrees in width. ~ The eastern limit on the African coast is sixteen to eighteen de- grees to the north of the western on the South American coast. Atlantic Temperate Regions, between 62° and 56° F.—The north ‘Temperate Region is but a narrow strip of water on the west, terminating at Cape Hatteras, and having no place on the coast of the United States. ‘To the east it widens, and embraces Madeira lies upon its southern limit. It is, therefore, natural, that the same species should occur at the Azores, Madeira, and on the African coast, and be excluded wholly from the Atlantic coast of Europe. This according to Prof. Forbes, is the fact with the Littorina striata, besides other species. The coasts of Por- tugal and the Azores are in different regions. The South Temperate Region extends to Maldonado at the mouth of the La Plata, from near the parallel of 30°; along the African coast it reaches over more than twice the number of de- grees of latitude, to within five degrees of Cape ‘Town. Atlantic Subtemperate Regions, between 56° and 50° F.— The northern of these regions, like the preceding, can not be distinguished on the coast of the United States, as the lines of 50° and 56° F. with 62° fall together at Cape Hatteras. On the eastern side of the Atlantic, it occupies the coast of Portugal to latitude 42° north, having a width of five degrees. It thus cor- responds on this coast to the so-called Lusitanian Region. The southern includes the mouth of the La Plata on one side, pe Negro for about five degrees, and passes wholly to the south of Africa. Atlantic Subfrigid Regions, between 44° and 35° F.—The coast of Massachusetts, north of Cape Cod, of Maine and New- foundland, and all Northern Britain, the Orkneys, Shetlands, and Faroe Islands, pertain to the northern Subfrigid Region ; while the southern, includes the Falklands, Southern Patagonia, and uegia. . 316 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating Atlantic Frigid Regions, beyond 35° F.—Greenland, Iceland, and Norway are within the northern of these regions, and the South Shetlands, Sandwich Land, and South Georgia, within the southern. Pacific Regions.—A comparison of the regions of the Atlantic and Pacific, and especially of the limits of those commencing at the South American coasts, brings out some singular facts. The Torrid region of the Pacific, near the American coast, em- braces only seventeen and a half or eighteen degrees of latitude, all but one of which are north of the equator; while that of the Atlantic covers a long range of coast, and reaches to 15° south. The south Subtorrid Region has a breadth of about three degrees on the Peruvian coast, reaching to 4° south, or probably to Cape Blanco, while that of the Atlantic extends to Rio Janeiro, in 24° south. The Warm Temperate Region, if at all found north of Cape Blanco, 43° S., hasa breadth of less than a degree, while that of the Atlantic extends to Rio Grande, in 33° south. The next or Temperate Region has a longer range on the South American coast, extending to Copiapo, in 274° south, and the Atlantic region corresponding goes to Maldonado in 35° south. The Cold T'em- perate Regions of the two oceans cover nearly the same latitudes. On the North American coast at Cape Hatteras, the three iso- crymes 62°, 56°, and 50° F’., leave the coast together; and in the Pacific on the South American coast there isa similar node in the system of isocrymes, the three 74°, 68°, and 62°, proceeding nearly together from the vicinity of Cape Blanco. Viewing these regions through the two oceans, instead of along the coasts, other peculiarities no less remarkable are brought out. The average breadth of the South Torrid Region in the Pacific, is more than twice as great as that of the same in the Atlantic ; and the most southern limit of the latter is five degrees short 0 the limit of the former in mid-ocean. So also, the Subtorrid Region at its greatest elongation southward in the Atlantic, hardly extends beyond the mean course of the line of 68° F. in the Pacific, and the average breadth of the former is but two-thirds that of the latter. The same is true to an almost equal extent of the Warm Temperate and Temperate Regions. The breadth of the Torrid Region of the Pacific to the east- ward, where narrowest, is about six degrees ; and to the west- ward, between its extreme limits, forty-nine degrees. The Tor- rid zone or Coral-reef Seas, in the same ocean, has a breadth near America, of about eighteen degrees, and near Australia and Asia, of sixty-six degrees. New Zealand lies within the Subtemperate and Cold Tem- perate Regions, excepting its southern portion, which appears to pertain like Fuegia to the Subfrigid. Van Diemens Land, ex- elusive of its northern shores, is within the Cold Temperate. the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 317 Other particulars respecting the — regions through the Pacific will be gathered from t Indian Ocean Regions.—The Tord pat covers the larger . part of the Indian Ocean, including all north of the equator, and embracing the larger part of Madagascar. The Subtorrid extends just beyond Port Natal on the African coast (four degrees of lati- tude north of Cape Town), where there are coral reefs, and also covers the northern part of the Red Sea. The Warm ‘Temperate and Temperate regions each claim a part of the South African coast, and the latter terminates at Cape Lagulhas It he ence follows that Port Natal, in latitude 30° south, the Ha- waiian Islands, and Bermudas, lie within regions of the same name ; while Cape Town, in latitude 34° south, is in a like region with sitter New Zealand, Valparaiso, the Atlantic shores of Por- tugal, and the sea between Cape Hatteras and Cape The areas of the Torrid, Temperate, and Frigid zones of ocean temperature, either side of the equator, considering 27° as the normal limit between the first two of these zones, pot ~~ the limit between the Frigid and Temperate, are as follov Torrid zone, 33,711,200 square moles (geographical) 500 Frigid zone, 12,694,700 “ + 4 It is hence seen that the Temperate zone, although two degrees wider than the Torrid, has not as large a surface. The species of marine life, if distributed equally over the two, would, prereset be one-fifth more numerous in the Torrid zone than in the Tem ate, unless the extent of ocean and coast line were far greater in be the former, as it does not abound in islands like the Torrid zone. * It is difficult to fix upon exact ratios and we do not attempt 1 The following table gives very closely the surface of the z in square geo pean miles, sp es degr ome of latiinde to the poul'g. of 80? : it is dodiinke from a larger table 5 "Pocotinta th in his Linder- und Vélker-k o irs * sag zone from the equator to the parallel of 24°, the second, ted 24° to 5°. and “34° eievigt ccna BSSeage ihe nei 10 Ree 5° 3,232,800 oe ee eee 2,693,760 "4 8,220,496 374° 2,612,6: be 202,048 40° 2,526,624 124° 8,177,472 424° 2,435,776 15 3,146,912 45° 840,256 174° 3,110,320 474° 2,241,280 20 3,067,808 50° 2,136,128 224° ~ 8,019,472 524° 2,027,840 2,962,176 55° 1,915,696 274° 2,905,632 574° 1,767,168 ° 840,368 6 : te bed “6 ! . . Ca , ’ The zone from 60° to a has t area, ; a sentne “ go°to9o® i * Le 318 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating The range of temperature is far greater in the Temperate zone than in the Torrid, it being 20° F. in the latter, and 33° F. in the former; and this should be a cause of a greater variety of genera in the latter for the same number of species. In the Torrid zone, the Subtorrid Region has nearly one-third the surface of the Torrid Region, and not one-fourth as much _ coast line, facts which should be regarded in comparing the num- er of species of the two. We add here, a few brief remarks, in a popular way, on the origin of the peculiar forms and positions presented by the iso- thermal lines of the ocean. The great currents of the globe are admitted to be the causes that produce the flexures and modify the courses of these lines. hese currents are usually of great depth, and consequently the deflecting land will be the deeply seated slopes off a coast, beyond ordinary soundings. The eastern coasts of the continents either side of the equator, feel the influence of a warm equatorial current, which flows west- ward over each ocean, and is diverted north and south by the coasts against which it impinges, and more or less according to the direction of the coast. The western coasts of the continents, on the contrary, receive a strong extra-tropical or polar current. In the southern oceans, it flows from the westward, or southward and westward, in latitudes 45° to 65° south, and is brought to the surface by the submarine lands or the submarine slopes of islands or continents: reaching the continents of Africa and South America, it follows along the west- ern coasts towards the equator. The same current, being divided by the southern cape of America, flows also, with less volume up the eastern coast, either inside of the warmer tropical current, or else on both sides of it. In the Northern Seas, the system 0 polar currents is mainly the same, though less regular; their influence is felt on both eastern and western coasts, but more strongly on the eastern. In the Atlantic, the latter reduces the temperature of the waters three or four degrees along the north coast of South America, as far nearly as Cape St. Roque. The cold currents are most apparent along the coasts of con- tinents and about islands, because they are here brought to the surface, the submarine slopes lifting them upward, as they flow he limits of their influence towards the equator depends often on the bend of the coast; for a prominent cape ora ben in the outline will change the exposure of a coast from that favor- able to the polar current to that favorable to the tropical, or the reverse. Thus it is at Cape Hatteras, on the coast of the United States ; Cape Verde, on Western Africa ; Cape Blanco, on western South America, etc. ese are important principles modifying the courses of the Oceanic isothermal lines. We may now proceed to the application the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 319 of them which the pt authors afford us, and to some conclusions flowing from the fae n the Atlantic, a warm tropicai current flowing westward, is trended somewhat northward by the northern coast of South America, and still more so by the West en Islands, and thus it gradually curves around to parallelism with the coast of the United States. But south of Newfoundland, either wholly from the influence of the colder current with which it meets, or in in the isocrymes of 74° and 68° F., near the United States coast, thus have their origin. For the same reason, the line of 56° PF. is nearly straight, till it reaches beyond the influence of the New- foundland pe and then makes its Gulf Stream flexure. The line of 44° F, for ‘the same reason,—the spreading of the Gulf of the Gulf Stream flexure. So on the western coast of Britain, the isocryme of 44° F, has a deep southern flexure, for a like The waters of the tropical current gradually cool down in their ~~ through the influence of the colder waters which they unter; and along the isocryme of 62°, they have in the n a mean temperature. Owing to the influence of the polar current on the northern coast of South America, the equator of heat lies at a distance from the land. p the western coast of ‘Africa flows the cold current from the south and west, bending upward all the isocrymal lines ; and passing north of the equator, it produces a large southern bend, off the coast of Africa, in the northern isocryme of 74° outside of the warm current preci from the coast of Guinea, and also a large northern flexure in the heat-equator.* The Atlantic eeopleall current also flows in part down the eastern a hie South America, giving a deep flexure to each of the iso- s, besides making these lines to diverge from the equator, daoiek all their length. Again, the polar current passes north- * Along the ocean, near Africa, south and southeast of the Cape Verdes, Captain MS yaw found a eyed ieiiee to the northward for much of the time until passing oqne 320 On an Fuothirmat Oceanic Chart, illustrating ward nearer the coast-line, bending far back the western extremity of each of the isocrymes. ; In the Pacific, the tropical currents show their effects near the coasts of New Holland and China, in a gradual divergence of the lines from the equator. The ranges of islands forming the Tara- wan, Radack, and Ralick Groups, appear to divert the current northward in that part of the North Pacific, and consequently the isocrymal lines bend northward near longitudes 170° west and 180°; and near Niphon, that of 68° showsa still greater northern flexure. The influence of the extra-tropical currents in this ocean is re- markably great. The southern flows from the west and south, bending upward the line of 56° F. along the South American coast, producing at Valparaiso at times a sea-temperature of 48° F. Still farther north, it throws the line of 68° F. even beyond the equator and the Gallapagos ; and that of 74° F-., nearly fifteen hundred miles from the coast, and four hundred north of the equator. The line of 62° F. reaches even beyond Payta, the sea-temperature at this place being sometimes below 61°. The north polar current produces the same result along the eastern coast of Asia, as on the eastern of America. The iso- cryme of 74° F. is bent southward from the parallel of 23° to 12° 30’ north; and that of 68° F. from 34° to 15° north, and the latter deflection is even longer than the corresponding one in e Atlantic. The trend of the coast opens it to the continued action of this current until the bend in the outline of Cochin By comparing the regions of the different oceans, north and south of the equator, we may arrive at the mean position of the several isocrymes, and thereby discover on a grander scale, the influence of the various oceanic movements. For the purpose of reaching mean results, the Middle Pacific is the most favorable ocean for study. This is apparent in 1ts greater extent, and the wide distance between the modifying con- tinents ; and also no less in the greater actual regularity of the rymes. the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 321 We thence deduce, that the mean position of the isocryme of 74° EF’, is along the parallel of 20°, this being the average between the means for the North and South Pacific. In the same manner we infer that the mean position of the isocryme of 68° F. is along the parallel of 27°. The southern isocrymes of 56° and 62° F., are evidently thrown into abnormal proximity by the cold waters of the south. This current flows eastward over the position of the isocryme of 4° F., and consequently in that latitude has nearly this tempera- ture, although colder to the south. Hence it produces little effect in deflecting the line of 44° F’.; moreover, the line of 50° F. is not pushed upward by it. But the lines of 56° and 62° F.. are thrown considerably to the north by its influence, and the Warm Tem- perate and Temperate Regions are made very narrow. With these facts in view, we judge from a comparison of the North and South Pacific lines, that the mean position for the isocryme of 62° FE. is the parallel of 32°; and for 56° F., the parallel of 37° ; for the isocryme of 50° F., the mean position is nearly the paral- lel of 42°; for 44° F., the parallel of 47°; for 35° F., the paral- lel of 56°. There is thus a mean difference of five degrees of latitude for six degrees of Fahrenheit, excepting near the equator and between 35° and 44° F. These results may be tabulated as follows. [socryme of 80° F.,_ _.. ‘ Parallel of 6° 66 e) : : “ 20° “ 68°, i, Be “ 62°, os 10% Soe BOP “ 56°, Fagl . hs neg ER « 50°, ee “ 4g0 «“ 44°, Prt: “ 47° 3°, ‘ : Using these results as a key for comparison we at once perceive the great influence of the oceanic movements on climate and on the geographical distribution of marine life. i Atlantic has e polar or extra-tropical current of the Southern a more northward course in mid-ocean than that of the Pacific. * We may hence deduce the temperature of those isocrymes to which the a of latitude for every five degrees would normally correspond. They woul be or 20°: 74° F,- for 25°, 70° F.; for 80°, 64-49 F.; for 35°, 58°4° F.; for 40°, 524° F.; for 45°, 46-4° F.: for 50°, 41° F.; for 55°, 36° F.; for 60°, 31° F. Srconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—Noy. 1853. 322 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating and 74° F., where they cross the meridian of 15° west, as the mean position for this ocean, we find that the former is eight degrees in latitude farther north than 68° F. in the South Pacific ; and the mean for the latter isin 7° south, while for the same in the Pa- cific it is 20° south, making a difference of thirteen degrees. The effect of the cold southern waters is consequently not along the African coast alone, but pervades the whole ocean. It is hence obvious, how utterly untenable the common notion, that the tropi- cal current from the Indian Ocean is the same which flows up the west African coast. With a temperature of 56° south of Ca Town, it would be wholly incapable of causing the great deflec- tions for the whole South Atlantic which have been pointed out. It combines with the cold current, but does not constitute it. The facts thus sustain the opinions long since brought forward by the distinguished meteorologist Mr. : edfield, that the currents flowing north along the African and South American coasts are alike antarctic or cold temperate currents. e may now turn to the North Atlantic. In this part of the ocean, the mean positions of the isocrymes of 74° and 68° F., are near the normal positions deduced from the Pacific. The line of 62° F., is in a somewhat higher latitude, the mean position, excluding the eastern and western deflections, being near the parallel of 36°. The line of 56° F. has the parallel of 424° north for its mean position over the middle of the ocean, which is five and a half degrees above the normal in the Pacific. The line of 50° has in the same manner for its mean position over mid- ocean, the parallel of 474°, or again five and a half degrees above the normal position in the Pacific. The line of 44° F. may be considered as having for its mean position the parallel of 52° north, while it rises to 60° north. The lines in the North Atlan- tic above that of 68°, average about five degrees higher in latitude than the mean normal positions, while 68° and 74° have nearly the same places asin the Pacific. There is hence a great contrast between the Pacific, South Atlantic, and North Atlantic Oceans. is is seen in the following table containing these results : Normal, deduced Mean position in Mean position in from Pacific. South Atlantic. North Atlantic. Isocryme of 74° F., 202 4° south, _ 68° ba 19° 4 62° 32° 29° 26° 56° 37° 86° 424° : 50° 42° 89° 474° “ 44° 47° 44° 52° (max. 60° north.) 85° 56° 59° 61° The influence of the warm tropical waters in the North Atlan- tic lifts the isocrymes of 74° and 68° as they approach the coast of America, while the same lines are depressed on the east by the colder northern currents. Moreover, north of 68° the whole 1- * American Journal of Science, xly, 299, 1843. the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 323 terior of the ocean is raised four to five degrees in temperature above the normal grade, by the same waters spreading eastward ; and between Great Britain and Iceland, the temperature is at least ten degrees warmer than in the corresponding latitude of the South Pacific, aud thirteen or fourteen degrees warmer than in the same latitude in the South Atlantic. he influence of so warm an ocean on the temperature of Britain, and on its living productions, animal and vegetable, is ap- parent, when it is considered, that the winds take the tempera- ture nearly of the waters they pass over. And the effects on the same region, that would result from deflecting the Gulf Stream in some other direction, as brought out by Prof. Hopkinst and others, and substituting in the Northern Atlantic the temperature of the Southern Atlantic, is also obvious, without further illustration. The discussion of these subjects would be foreign to the topic before us The subdivision of the oceans into Temperature Regions, af- fords a convenient means of dividing off the coasts into Zoologica Provinces. A comparison of the facts afforded by the distribution of Crustacea, with the positions and extent of the Provinces thus deduced, show that they are natural, and may in general be well characterized. Zoological Provinces have been considered by some as centres of creation, and therefore of diffusion, for groups of species. But such kinds of centres we fail to distinguish in any part of the globe. Each species may have had its one point of origin and single centre of diffusion, in many, and perhaps the majority of cases: but, however the fact may be, we have no evidence for as- serting that particular regions were without life, and were peopled by migration from specific and predetermined centres ; for if there were such centres of diffusion, there are at present no means by * Ross, in his Antarctic Voyage, found the sea-temperature in 60° south and 3° west, 314° F., in the month of March; at the South Shetlands, 61° south, the po temperature was 31° to 35° in January (midsummer) ; and in the same latitude, an 45° west, it was 30°1° in bis? : = + Quarterly Jour. Geol. Soc. vol. viii., p. 56, and Amer. Jour. Sci, 1853, vol. Xv. 324 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, illustrating gical Provinces; and as regards marine animals, ocean-tempera- ture is the more prominent of these influences. Under tempera- mean, and also the varying action of currents which induce the changes, especially those occasional extreme results which are of decennial rather than annual recurrence. How far geological changes, by subsidence and elevation, have varied the distribution of the present races of animals, or given limits to zoological regions, is a point yet uninvestigated. ‘The conclusions that have been derived from this source are mostly a hypothetical character, and are to be received with distrust without a larger supply of evidence. It is easy to meet a diffi- culty by the supposition of a former union by dry land of regions now separate ; but it appears to us that better evidence is needed on such a point, than those derived from the zoological fact which is to be explained. : Along the various coasts, prominent capes are in general the limits of Zoological Provinces; and this fact is well shown in the chart of ocean-temperature. They are, as we have explained, the points where the cold or warm currents are turned off from a coast, and where therefore there is a sudden transition in the tem- perature. A striking example of this has been pointed out on both the eastern coast of North America, and western of South America, att 56°, and 50°, and Cape Blanco, the meeting point of 68°, 62°, and (nearly) 74°. So also the east cape of Kast Australia, is the point of meeting of the isocrymes of 74° and 68°. At the south extremity of Africa, on the west coast of Asia, there are approxi- mations to the same fact. Cape Cod the southeast cape of New England, is a marked point in zoological geography, and the ter- mination of the isocryme of 44° F.; and the North Cape of the La Plata inside of Maldonado is another. We proceed to give an enumeration of the several Zoological Provinces to which we are led by the temperature regions adopted. It should be again observed, that the isocryme of 68° is the grand boundary of coral reefs, and of the larger part of the zoological life connected with them, and that the Torrid Zone and Coral- reef Zone of oceanic temperature are synonymous terms. We mention also the extent of the Provinces; and it will be found, that although seemingly numerous, few of them are under 500 miles in length, while some are full 4000 miles. For zoological reasons which are explained in another place,* and which may be the subject of another communication to this Journal, we adopt for Marine Zoological Geography, three grand * The Author's Report on Crustacea. the Geographical Distribution of Marine Species. 325 divisions of the coasts of the globe. 1. The American or Occiden- tal including East and West America; 2. The Africo-Huropean including the coasts of Europe and Western Africa; and third, the Oriental, including the coasts of Eastern Africa, E. Indies, East- ern and Southern Asia, and Pacific. Besides these, there are the Arctie and Antarctic Kingdoms, including the coasts of the Frigid Zones, and in some places, as Fuegia, those of the extreme tem- perate zone. We add here, only in general —— that there is a remarkable similarity in the genera of Eastern and Western America, and an identity of some few SDD that the coast of Europe and Eastern Africa widely differ in Crustacea from pa the American or Oriental; that the species of the Oriental division have a great similarity in genera, and that numerous species of Crustacea of Eastern Africa, are identical with those of the Pacific. We pass by, for the present, the details on these points. We also omit the zoological characters of the Provinces here enumerated. Several of these Provinces are identical — those proposed by Milne Edwards, Prof. E. Forbes, and others far as possible, the names heretofore used, are retained. L OCCIDENTAL KINGDOM. ‘A. Western SEcrIon. 1. Torrid or Coral-Reef Zone. Pro Limits. Length in Miles. i: Panamian (torrid) 1° 6 to 17S os ‘ ; 1600 2. Mexi n perees (N. subtortid) 174° w. to Californ. Penin., . 600 8. eet “ —_(S. subtorrid) 1° s. to Cape Blanco, 43° s., . 200 > North pacinige Zone. 4, Sonoran nin, Californ, to 284°», . 550 5. Diego* oi sets ian, fone! ate) 2840 n. to 844° n,, ‘ 450 6. Dalitsthiins. (subtemperate) . y. to C. Mendoci: 48 1. Oregon, (cold eannipetrhta) rita C. Me ioc . to Pats “Sound, (?) 480 8. P ugettian, (subfrigid) pron Puget’s Sound to 55° or 56°, 1200 3. South Temperate Zone. 9. Gallapagos, (warm tem — Gallapag 10. Perwian, (temperate) Fr : C. Maas: t = gn wie % 1500 1l. Chilian, (subtemperate) 274° 5, to 700 12. Araueanian, (cold temperate) . 38° 5, to ie or 750° 8, ‘ 900 13, South Patagonian, (subfrigid) . 50°s, to Magellan Straits. . B. Eastern Szcrion. 1. Torrid Zone. i 2 Key West & N. Yucatan 1. Caribbean, (torrid) . . ; Sift Soca da? trong ~ 2. Floridan, (N. subtorri ; i Key West to27°n., . ‘ 2 3. Brazilian “ae nbtawid) ee 15° 6 to 24°s. . f 2 600 2. North Temperate Zone. 4. Carolinian, (warmtemperate) . 21° nN. to 0. Ha 600 5. Vargindiog (cold temperate) = ae to OC Cod, ee OOD 6, A: cadian, (subfrigid)+ to E. Cape of Newf’d?d, 900 * May possibly be united tiene shah ao + Changed from Nova-Scotian in 326 On an Isothermal Oceanic Chart, etc. 3, South Temperate Zone. —: Limits Length in Miles. 7. es warm temperate) . 24° * to 3 4380 8. pate (tem stained : a to north ©. of La Plata, 360 9. Platensian, (subtemperate) uth of La 10. North Patagonian, Cold temperate) ae C. of ta: Plata to 43°s., 500 11. South Patagonian,} (subfrigid) . 48°, to Magellan Straits, . 700 I, AFRICO-EUROPEAN KINGDOM. 1. Lorrid Zone. 1. Guinean, (torrid). -. S810 9" x, . 1200 : 9° w. to 144° nv. including ; 2. Verdensian, (N. wititaneay . } the Cape Verde Islands, 1000 aie ; 5° x. to 7° or 8° g,, includ- 8. The Biafrian, (S. subtorrid) . 1 ing RE SD Mi icent 900 2. WV. Temperate Zone, j 144° n. to 28° or 29° n. in- 1000 4, Canarian, (warm temperate) he ing the Ostinites, 5. Mediterranean, (temperate) . = 29° y. — St. Vince nt with Medite anean, excepting some of te be Sa —_ mab cluding Madeira and Azo LInusitanian, ean gc oO S vinent to 42°N, . 300 t — (cold tem: — - «42° n. to Scotland, . 1000 Caledonian, (subsrigi d) mitre coke . Shetland’s Ferr 3. South Temperate — 9. Angolan, (warm temperate ) page to te, .. iS 360 10. Benguelan, = erate) . 18° §, to 280s, . 900 ll. Capensia mperate) . 98°s to, Agulhas, . 450 13. Rectan (eold temperate) . Tristan d’Acunha, IIL ORIENTAL KINGDOM. i. Argican Srorton, on Easr Coasr or Arnica anp Nuronsorine [sianps. 4° s, ° or 22° in Red 1. Abyssinian, (torrid) . . . Sea, including larger part of } 3500 Madagascar and Islands north, 2. Erythrean, (N. subtorrid) . Northern third of Red Sea, about 300 3. Natalensian,(S.subtorrid) . . 264°. to 31°s., with Southern Madagascar ar and. Isle of France. 4. Algoan, (warm temp. and temp.) 31° s. to C, Lagulhas, 550 m. Astatic Szorion. 1. Lorrid Zone, 1, Indian, (torrid) . : . East India Islands, N. Australia, ; Southern — to 124° nN. on ochin 2. Liukiuan,(N.subtorrid) . ., 124° n.to15° en with Form Loochoos, S. S.E. Shore of Taped 8. Endrachtian of 1 (3 subtortid) __W. Australia 22° 8. to 264°5, 00 * The St. Paul province may perhaps be united with the Uraguaian. gut The South Patagonian is a dr yr = Re es bata divaion of the 9wo mar mene Mt be found * E. Hitchcock on the Coal of Bristol Co., and R. Island. 327 2. North Temperate Zone. Provinces, Limits. 4. Tonquin, (warm temperate) . . 15°n. to 25°n.,, (Gulf Tonquin.) 5. Chusan,(subtemperate). . . 265° n. into Japan Sea. 6. Niphonensian, (cold temp. & subtemp.) East Coast of Niphon, to 40° N. 1. Saghalian, (subfrigid) . . . Coast of Japan Sea, part of Western and Northern Niphon, Saghalian, Yeso, etc. 8. South Temperate Zone. 8. Cygnian, or Swan R.(warm temperate) W. Australia, 264° s. toS, W. Cape 9. Flinders, (temperate) pete eae Southern Coast of Australia. 10. Moreton, (warm temp. and temp.) . E. Australia, 264° s. to 81° s. ll. Bass, (subtemperate) E. Australia, 31° or 82° 8. to an Diemens Land 12. Tasmanian, (cold temperate) . . (Van Diemens Land. m. Paciwric Section. 1. Torrid Zone. - Polynesian, (torrid). . ‘ ; Pacific Ids. of Torrid Region. 2. Hawaiian, (N.subtorrid). . . awaiian range of Islands. 8. Raratongan, (S. subtorrid) ; : Hervey Islands and others of South Subtorrid Region. 2. South Temperate Zone, 4. Kermadec, (warm temp.andtemp.) . | Kermadec Islands, ete, 5. Wangaroan, (subtemperate) . : Northern New Zealand, 6. Chatham, (cold temperate) . - Middle N. Z. to 46°S.and Chatham L Arr. XXXII.—The Coal Field of Bristol County and of Rhode Island ; by President E, Hircucock.* * From a Report to the Governor of Massachusetts, dated Feb. 23, 1858. 328 E. Hitchcock onthe Coal of Bristol Co.,and R. Island. The metamorphic action to which this deposit and the coal — have been subject, is two-fold: first, mechanical, secondly, chem- tcal The mechanical force seems to have operated upon the strata containing the coal ina lateral direction, so as not only to raise them into a highly inclined position, but also to produce plaits, or folds, such as would be formed if several sheets of paper, lying upon one another, were taken into a man’s hand, and by pressure on the opposite edges, were crumpled so as to form ridges and hollows. # * * * * * This same effect has been produced upon the coal strata of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, as well as in the great Appalachian coal field of Pennsylvania and Virginia. e miners are familiar with these irregularities, and they constitute some of the most serious difficulties with which they meet. in the mine of the Blackstone Coal Company, at Valley Falls, R. 1, for instance, the bed, and the accompanying rocks, which tor a considerable distance dip nearly 45° to the northwest, begin to curve so as at length to dip southeasterly. In the Aquidneck mine, at the north end of Rhode Island, the d of coal that had been worked, was in some places pinched up to a width of not more than one or two feet, while in other places it has a thickness of from ten to fifteen feet. I noticed here have sent veins into the coal strata: a fact that seems to indicate that the latter were not deposited till after the granite and syemite E.. Hitchcock on the Coal of Bristol Co., and R. Island. 329 slates, yet they also show a greater degree of induration, and in also more common than usual. These too, are now usually re- ferred to the action of heat. The coal, also, from this basin, has a greater specific gravity than mest anthracite ; bearing a propor- tion to the Pennsylvania anthracite, of 175 to 1°55. It hasa tendency greater than usual, to break into cuboidal fragments, and t tate to pronounce a genuine coal formation. Such are the chief circumstances that have so long perplexed is a metamorphic coal field. ; uch an identification of this deposit is a point of great import- ance in forming a judgment of its value, and it therefore seems desirable that the evidence should be presented. This will in- volve a description of all the important facts with which I have come acquainted respecting this coal field. ; I. In the first place, the general outline of the surface over this corresponds with that of a regular coal field, or basin. tis generally nearly level, save some gentle swells and a few outliers of rock, the remnants of former more extensive masses. On its margin the older and more crystalline rocks rise higher, though not very much so; for there is reason to think that both the mar- gin and the surface of the coal field have been subject to powerful Sxcoxp Serms, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—Nov. 1853. 42 330 EF. Hitchcock on the Coal of Bristol Co., and R. Island. By this argument I intend merely to show that there is no im- probability in the supposition that this basin of five hundred square miles, may be a coal field; just because it looks like one. But the argument has no great force ; because other deposits may exhibit a similar surface. Strictly speaking, it merely shows that the surface is underlaid by one formation, or by closely allied for- mations. Il. The rocks correspond essentially to those of the coal mea- sures. The predominant varieties are four: 1. A dark colored slate, or slaty clay, often much indurated, and more or less charge with carbon, lying in immediate contact with the coal, especially beneath it. Its surface is sometimes highly glazed, as if by heat, or friction. I noticed fine specimens at the Roger Williams mine, a mile or two north of Valley Falls, Rhode Island. 2. A coarse light gray grit, or sandstone, lying, so far as I have observed, im- mediately above the coal beds, and easily disintegrating at the surface. 3. A dark gray, hard grit, or sandstone: a much more extensive rock, forming in fact the principal one between the beds of coal, and in some places embracing coal without the interven- tion of shale. 4, A coarse gray conglomerate, which probably underlies the other rocks above described, and may be the equiva- lent of the millstone grit that forms the basis of other coal fields. I do not feel satisfied, however, that such is always the position of this rock. Further examination is needed. This rock occurs in various places along the eastern part of Massachusetts ; but nowhere, that I know of, associated with coal, save in the Bristol coal field. Several other varieties of rocks exist on the borders of this coal field, but whether they are the coal measures metamorphosed, or older rocks, such as the Devonian and Silurian, is not certainly known. They consist of gray and red slates, and red sandstones and conglomerates. As to the red varieties, I have little doubt but that they belong to the Devonian or old red sandstone system, and have accordingly so represented them where they are most fully developed, viz.: in Wrentham and Attleborough. In the south part of the former town, this red rock forms a striking feature in the landscape. I found it there, by the Aneroid barometer, to rise about four hundred feet above the general surface at the Mansfield coal mines, and three hundred feet above the excavation once made in Wrentham for coal. On this hiil I found the red rock to have a strike K. 10° N., anda dip 70° southerly ; so that it must pass beneath the coal field, as we should expect if it were the old red sandstone. A mile south of the meeting-house in North At- tleborough, however, where this red rock (here mostly a con- glomerate ) shows itself, the strike is E. 15° N., and the dip 35° northerly. This fact looks as if we might here be on the south- ern border of a coal basin, and at Wrentham on thé northern ber- der, and that there may be an axis of the older s running E.. Hitchcock on the Coal of Bristol Co., and R. Island. 331 northeasterly across the coal field. But this point needs further ee a and I have not given such a view of the matter on ap. But I thought it best to indicate the region where I ae seen the old red sandstone, as I presume to call it, most fully developed. Now, setting aside these border rocks, and looking only at those in connection with the coal, I think we cannot hesitate to identify them with those of other coal fields ; though, perhaps in Massa- chusetts and Rhode Island rather more metamorphosed than is common. IIL. The number, position, strike, dip, and general character, of the beds of coal, already discovered in the district under con- sideration, render it probable that it is all one coal field, or essen- tially one. _ Under this head Iam led to describe briefly all the coal beds in this deposit known to me, most of which have neh one to a greater or less extent. I have visited them all, wit two exceptions of no oe and ers into all the mines na are accessi s of coal in Mansfield. —These have been opened in two parts of the town. One is near the centre where a shaft was sunk by the Mansfield Coal Company, some fifteen years ago, sixty-four feet ; but only a little coal was found. About the same time, the Mansfied Mining Company sunk a shaft eighty-four feet near the Hardon farm, two miles southwest the centre. A drift was then carried across the strata, and it is said that seven beds, of various thickness, up to ten feet, were found. Dip of these beds, 53° N. W. Strike, S. W. and N. seventy feet, and ten feet in diameter: from which, according to the statements of Thomas 8. Ridgway, Esq., the engineer, they have carried a south tunnel six hundred and sixty feet, and other tunnels and gangways to about the same amount. Not less than thirteen beds of coal have been crossed, but none of them thick. They are very irregular, sometimes swelling out to six or eight feet in thickness, and then — up toa fewinches. The dip Varies from 30° to 70° N. W., and the strike is nearly N.E. and was sunk man ears ago, about one woes and eighty feet, Mostly in ate Naa caer slate, and several beds found. The 332 E. Hitchcock on the Coal of Bristol Co., and R. Island. coal which I have seen from this spot is not good, having forty per cent. of ash. Strike of the bed, nearly E. and W. ; dip, 45°N. 4. In Raynham.—An outcrop of coal appears in this town, about three feet thick, which has not been explored, except a few. feet. Strike, N. 50° E., dip, 45° S. E 5. In Bridgewater.—Indications of coal were shown me from the rock thrown up in digging a well in the south part of the town, but nothing further could be learned. | 6. In Taunton.—Two miles northwest of the town, asimilar opening was shown me, but | could not learn the dip and direc- tion of the slate. Four miles to the west of the town, I wastold that similar indications existed. The same is true of West Bridgewater; and in Berkley coal plants are found, such as usu- ally accompany beds of coal. Williams mine, which was opened many years ago; but the works were burnt, and the explorations abandoned. But they have been resumed within a few years, under the superintendence of Capt. Thomas Martin. A shaft has been sunk three hundred feet perpendicularly, into which I descended, with Capt. Martin. The old bed, whose strike was nearly N. E. and S. W., has been abandoned, and by carrying a horizontal drift two hundred and sixty feet, a new bed was struck, which, at the place, runs nearly N. and S., and dips west about 45°. The average width was stated to be fifteen feet, and in some places twenty-three feet. If this be not a mere protuberant mass, occasioned by lateral pres- sure, it indicates a larger amount of coal than I have seen in any other mines in this coal field. 8. The Valley Falls Mine—This is scarcely more than 4 mile south from the Roger Williams mine: yet the strike of the beds will not allow us to suppose them connected. ‘The ,opera- tions here are carried on by the Blackstone Coal Company. A shaft is carried down, which follows a bed of coal, with dip near the surface of 30° to 45°. This bed, which I examined several E. Hitchcock on the Coal of Bristol Co., and R. Island. 333 10. In Providence-—The same gentleman, in boring for water, in the north part of Providence, at the depth of sixty feet, struck a bed of coal dipping N. E. 45°, which is ten feet thick, and of the same general character as that at Valley Falls, which is known to burn well. . In Cranston, R. Island.—This town is on the west side of Narraganset Bay, along which the coal rocks extend as far as Warwick. In Cranston, according to Dr. C. T. Jackson, ‘slate, graphite, and impure anthracite,” are found in an excavation seven oreight feet deep. Coal plants are very abundant on Warwick Neck ; but no coal has been found. 12. In Bristol, R. I—The coal bed in this place is in the west part of the town, and the spot where it crops out is only a few feet above the harbor. It was discovered in sinking a large well. Although I descended into it, I could not ascertain the thickness of the bed, nor with accuracy its strike and dip. Approximately it runs N. a few degrees E., and dips westerly about 48°. ‘The coal did not appear to me to be as much crushed as in some mines, and seems of an excellent quality. 13. Portsmouth Mine, or Case’s Mine, in Rhode Island.— This mine, situated in the northeast part of the island of Rhode Island, was opened in 1808, which was earlier than the Pennsyl- vania mines were explored. At that time the mode of burning anthracite was not known, and the coal was not sought after, and the work was abandoned in 1813 or 1814. Some years after- ° E.; dip 35° southeasterly. Mr. Clowes, however, says that the beds run N. E. and 8. W., and dip from 40° to 90° southeast. the dip of the bed now wrought, varies from 28° to 35° S. E. hree beds of coal occur, only one of which has been wrought by the Aquidneck Coal Company, which bed, I was told, varied 334 E. Hitchcock on the Coal of Bristol Co., and R. Island. in width from two to twenty feet. They have followed down the middle bed to the depth of six hundred and twenty feet, from which six gangways have been extended, from eighty to eight hundred and forty-four feet each. During the last half of 1851, thirty-one hundred tons of coal were taken out, and an opening is now made into a subjacent bed. The appearance of the opera- tions at this mine, under the superintendence of Arad Gilbert, Eisq., and the quality of the coal, appeared to me more satisfactory and promising than at any other mine in this coal fie e mouth of this mine is not more than twenty feet above the ocean, and only a few rods —, ; yet, after descending about one-third of the distance, to the bottom of the inclined shaft, I found the mine quite dry, sihounis at the bottom, I was some hundreds of feet below the waters. The coal appeared to me less erushed at this mine than at most others ; yet the bed is very un- equal in width; showing that the folding agency has here operated. The opening of this mine is several ot feet lower than that of the Case mine. ‘The latter, however, I have understood to be subject to the influx of water, but L Siiaris learn how deep it was ever wrought. 1 consider the eager whether these two mines are opened on the same bed, as yet quite unsettled. Both of them lie near to protruding mines of granite, and have been subject to a good deal of disturbance. . In Newport, R. Island.—In the southeast part of this town a thin bed of coal shows itself on the coast, where the dark strata of slate stand nearly perpendicular, and have a direction nearly east and west. During the revolutionary war, the British pete some excavations . this spot, in the hope of finding fuel. uit the prospect is very poor, especially as the spot is so near rosea which has affected the strata. Yet at this place the shale abounds in coal plants. et me now present, in a tabular form, the leading facts re- specting these — localities, where coal has been discovered in this field; at least those cases where the facts are definite enough to tabulate. Locality. a ee 7a weed | SS Tee: nickness of do. | Strike of do. eo Mansfield, Centre, . 1 |A few inches, be. E, and s, w., ny. w., large. # Hardon, 7 \10 feet, N. BE. and s.-w., 53° w. w. New, . {18 (7 feetmax, \y.z. ands. w., 30° bs 70° x. W- Wrentham, Bisa! 1 ee g. and W., 45° Rayn 1 [8 feet, N. 50° £, ve = z Geet slant 2 (15 to 23 feet, wwe dsw. dn. & 8.4 Valley Falls, 5 (6 to9 feet, (v.50° to 60° zg, ms : 45° | Providence, . 1 10 feet, < w. and s. £., 45° Bristol, 1 j= = janet Ae vo ee » Pertsmo ortsmouth, Case’s, 3 (13 feet max,, x. and aweh 9 __.“ Aquidneck, | 3 |2 to 20 feet, |x.a few crite eet a E.. Hitchcock on the Coal of Bristol Co., and R. Island. 335 The geologist will notice two circumstances of importance in the preceding facts; one is, that there is a tendency to a northeast and southwest direction in the beds of coal. The other is, that where horizontal drifts of any considerable extent have been car- ried across the strata, several beds have been crossed. The ex- ceptions in the dip can easily be explained by the proximity of the older crystalline rocks, which may have greatly changed the direction, at least for some distance ; and the opposite dips observ- able in some cases, may be referred to the same cause, or perhaps to an anticlinal axis of older rocks, which I have some reason to Suspect, may cross this coal field in a N. E. and 8. W. direction. It seems to me difficult to avoid the conclusion, that these dif- ferent beds, scattered as they are so widely, all belong to one and the same coal field ; although denudation or vertical movements may have rendered some parts of it much less productive than others. The strike and dip, as well as the number of beds, cor- respond as well to other coal fields as we ought to expect, when Wwe consider the great amount of metamorphic action which has here been exhibited. It ought to be known, too, in this connection, that this region is densely covered by accumulations of drift, and the sand and gravel of ancient sea beds. Especially is this the case where the rock is the softest,—that is, the black shale—which contains the coal beds. Hence rocks rarely show themselves at the surface, and the wonder is, that so many beds of coal have been discovered, rather than that no more have been found. The digging of wells and other excavations have been the principal means of bringing them to light; nor will any reasonable man doubt that probably many more are concealed beneath so thick a coating of drifted materials, IV.—The character of the vegetable remains found in connec- tion with these coal beds, make it almost certain that they belong to the coal measures of the carboniferous system. é, [Figures of species of Stigmaria, Calamites, Pachypteris or ontopteris, and Neuropteris, on two plates, are here referred to. } I might add several other species of plants peculiar to the coal formation, and found in this field. But it seems to me unneces- sary. Those already exhibited appear to settle the question as to the true place of these deposits, in the geological scale. geologist would think of putting them in any other part of the Series than the carboniferous. I have not, indeed, met with any specimens in these rocks, of Sigillaria and Lepidodendra, which are common inthe eoal rocks of Pennsylvania and Ohio. But it is more easy to explain their absence from a real coal field, than the presence of so many other plants, identical with those of the coal measures, in any other formation. 336 E. Hitchcock on the Coal of Bristol Co., and R. Island. In view of all these proofs I am led to the inference that this is a genuine coal field of the carboniferous series. And the tendency to a northeast and southwest direction in the beds, as well as the high dip, leads strongly to the conclusion, that this is only a de- tached portion of the great Appalachian Coal: Field, which stretches through the Middle States. In comparing the character of this deposit with those of Kuro- pean coal fields, I am led to regard it as very similar to the Up- per Culm Measures in Devonshire in England. ‘These are com- ness, being perpetually interrupted, coiled upon themselves, and repeated over again, forming an incredible number of anticlinal and synclinal lines.” (Amnsted.) A considerable number of beds of coal occur in these rocks which are several feet thick, and they are more or less extensively wrought. Only a few years ago, some of the ablest English geologists (De la Beche and others) contended that these rocks were not true coal measures, but con- siderably lower in the series. Yet I believe they are now uni- versally regarded as belonging to the carboniferous system, and on the same evidence as I have just adduced, viz.: the organic re- mains. The Devonshire beds seem to be more changed by meta- morphic action than those of the Bristol coal field, if we may judge from the fact, that the vegetable impressions are more dis- tinct here than in England. | In Brittany, Normandy, le Maine, and Anjou, in France, ac- cording to the French geologists, analogous rocks occur, contain- ing beds of anthracite more than three feet thick. And though referred by some to the Graywacke strata, they are at last taking their place in the true carboniferous system, as are also the al- thracite strata of the Alps, which have been regarded as newer than the coal formation. (See Quarterly Journal of Geology for August, 1851, p. 91.) The evidence, then, seems very strong, on which I base the conclusion that the Bristol and Rhode Island deposits, with vege tables remains, possess the age and characters of a true coal field as the carboniferous period of the geologists. And if it be ind so, much greater confidence of success may be entertained in the researches after coal, which have for some years been ing; than if we could assign no settled place to the rock, or that place were higher or léwer than the carboniferous system. * * . J. Nicklés on Different Applications of Magnetic Attraction. 337 Arr. XXXIII.—Researches on Different Applications of Mag- netic Attraction ; by M. J. Nicxu#s, Doctor in Science. Part I.— Use of Magnetic Attraction in Locomotion on Railroads. Tue researches here described, have been in progress three This apparatus consists of a framework of iron; F, (fig. 1.) moving on 4 wheels in pairs, , to whicha rotatory movement | is imparted by means of a_ weight B,acting on the wheels in place of steam. Another weight A, fixed at the ex- _—— of a cord, represents the re- sistance, or the charge to be rawn This car was placed on a railtoad C, whose grade could be track, and so that its arms were separated by the distance be- pass over the rail, and motion began when the weight A was re- moved ; although the adhesion was sufficient for transporting its own weight, it was not enough to balance the resistance exerted by A, (A representing the train to be drawn.) The addition of the electro-magnet was intended to give to the driving wheels Sxconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—Nov., 1853. 43 338 J. Nicklés on Different Applications of Magnetic Attraction. this supplement of adhesion, and in fact, on closing the circuit, ar passed over the rails without difficulty ; ; on breaking the ormnciliel again, it stopped and fell back on the track. ‘The weight A used in the experiment was two kilogrammes, and the motor weight B about six. The figure is reduced to one-fifth the lineal dimensions. In this experiment, the adhesion derived from the weight of the engine was obviously replaced by another force differing in being independent of the grade of the track, since the magnetic attraction anes acts perpendicularly to the plane of the arma- ture whatever may be the position or inclination, while gravity acts at right nia toa true horizontal plane. The constancy 0 the magnetic —— is —* by means of a piece of apparatus which is described bel Although this sicetirenit was so simple and unpretending, it afforded an encouraging demonstration of the problem in view, and it has interested the different — of physics of Paris, MM. Despretz, Becquerel, Silbermann, ete., who have exhibited it in their courses, as well as the sake experiments below detailed. The process just explained would certainly have been very sim- ple, if the successful application on a large scale had required ouly that an electro-magnet should be placed on each side of the driving wheels. But this method would not stand the most elementary con- siderations. ‘The ble method seem- ed then to consist igs. 2 and 3 rep- J. Nicklés on Different Applications of Magnetic Attraction. 339 resent different views of a small car which in figure 4 rests on a railroad. The driving wheels of this car are surrounded in their lower part by a helix H, containing a conducting wire wound a certain number of times on itself, and constituting thus a true | 4. 340 J. Nicklés on Different Applications of Magnetic Attraction. ample, influencing the part of the wheel above the helix, the other, austral, the lower portion; and as the helix is placed as near as possible to the point of contact, this last portion must be more strongly magnetized than the upper, the austral being concentrated on the smaller space. The apparatus in figure 4 served to verify these different effects. The roller T is for receiving the cord which is wound’ upon the motor axle KE (fig. 3), and which corresponds to the moving power ; P represents the train to be transported. The weight P is increased until the car is ready to slide back ; as soon as the motion ceases, the current is let on, and immedi- ately the car starts off and draws the weight P; it descendsagain if the circuit is broken, and reascends on establishing it again, and so on. In this apparatus, each of the helices H and H’ consists of a brass box containing each 8 meters of copper wire of 0@-0071 in diameter, distributed in 77 turns, or 16 meters and 154 turns for both. The cord which sustains the weight P is fixed on N (fig. 3) the two modes of adhesion operating in this apparatus and between the pressures which produce the adhesion. Weight of car 5 kilogrammes. Grade 190 millimeters to the meter. One element of a battery of gas carbon. Total current tan 35° 10". Reduced current of the helices, tan 18° 257. Weight required for motion. Sum of Additional weight required to Ordinary adhesion. Magnetic adhesion. | adhesions.| replace the magnetic adhesion. 5°500 kil 5100 kil. 16°600 3°500 checks in use on railroads, they act upon the rails, and thus pre- serve the wheels which are rapidly worn by the ordinary checks ; J. Nickiés on Different Application ef Magnetic Attraction. 341 there is nothing to prevent making the magnetic checks to act upon the wheels. In either case, a power as energetic as de- sired may be developed, whose intensity may be varied at will, from that required to produce an instantaneous arrest of the mi as in cases of imminent danger, to that for ordinary stop- Pane different effects were produced with the small car rep- resented in figure 4. The element of a galvanic battery here employed, gives a force sufficient to stop the car instantly, even when driven at full speed it arrives at the bottom of a grade of 190 millimeters. By diminishing the current or augmenting the charge, we produce on the contrary an effect which retards the motion of the vehicle and ends by stopping it altogether. By in- terrupting the current and reéstablishing it in turns the car may be made to leap along the track. These different effects, which are not well attempted with a large train, are readily shown ona small scale, and are calculated to interest much the young student. But it will be understood that my researches aim not merely to exhibit a new property of electro-magnets, and combine them in instructive apparatus. My plansare of anotherkind. They seek to contribute to railroads, a new and important improvement, and [ shall not be satisfied until it has become easy to use grades of more than 10 millimeters to the meter, and until it shall become no longer necessary to construct tunnels at great expense or to build extensive earth-works, or make curves of large radius. Of what avail otherwise the efforts to givea smaller size to the driving wheels, less weight to locomotives, lighter rails to the road, thereby to make a large diminution of expense in the con- struction and use of roads? Ifa smaller and lighter driving wheel a invented, the adhesion must be imparted to it which it fails having on account of its lightness, and hence it must be use- fas under the old system which works upon the paradox of mak ing a machine run better by giving it more weight. I have therefore sought to pass from the laboratory experiment to the actual locomotive in its own field. I have made my trials on the road between Paris and Lyons. The locomotive put at my dispo: sal was, in truth, somewhat worn by long. service, and one of its driving wheels ‘carried a ton of weight more than the other. I was not allowed to make any changes in the machine, and I was required to attach my apparatus in such a way that it might be easily removed. Notwithstanding the unfavorableness of these conditions I went to work, certain of having an effect suf- ficient to prove the spereateD possible. ‘This was admitted by : eee appointed by the minister of Public Works, consist- of MM. Pouillet, Regnault, Froment, Le Chatelier, Chatelus a Sauvage, chief engineer of the Lyons railroad. e useful effect observed in this experiment was about 9 per cent. 342 J. Nicklés on Different Applications on Magnetic Aitraction. Under the new conditions, obstacles were encountered which were unknown in my laboratory researches. Still, without modi- fying the wheels, which was not allowed, I undertook to apply the method of magnetization above described. As the experiments have led to some curious results not devoid of scientific interest, I will enter into some details which may at will be the battery, and particularly the helices. The helices when once constructed must remain as they are, while, by the different modes of combination of which a battery is susceptible, we can always apportion more or less the tension of the fluid to the resistance to be overcome. Helices of Magnetization. Considering only the works hitherto published on magnetiza- tion, the nature of helices should be easily resolved. In fact, ac- cording to Dal Negro, Fechner, Lenz and Jacobi,* : 1. The magnetic intensity developed is proportioned to the in- tensity of the current. 'The nature of the application is opposed, it is true, to a galvanic development of great power; but it may be supplied, if, as Lenz and Jacobi conclude he attraction is proportioned to the intensity of the current multiplied by the number of turns in the helix ; and with much more reason, if as says M. Dub The magnetic attraction developed, is proportional to the square of the current multiplied by the square of the number of turns of the spire ; alaw which ten years since Mr. Joule { ex- pressed in the formula, M=E2W2, M, representing the magnetism eveloped, E, the quantity of electricity in activity ; and W, the length of the conductor. Moreover, MM. Lenz and Jacobi, say that “the section of the conducting wire is without influence on the magnetizing force, provided the galvanic intensity does not vary ;’ and as the resist- ance offered by the conductors is proportional to their length and inversely as their section, a battery and helix may be constructed such that the number of turns of the helix shall be the greatest possible. Happily [have had occasion to observe that Mr. Joule’s formula is not exact, or at least does not apply in such a case as this; the law of magnetic maximum of M. Miiller is on the other side opposed to it. These doubts and contradictions, and the necessity of further experiment, complicates much the problem in hand. Ihave how- * Poggendorff’s Ann., xlvii, 225. + Poggendorff’s Ann, (7) hexxi, 46. ¢ Phil. Mag., [4] vii, 309, and Annals of Elect., i, 470. J. Nicklés on Different Applications of Magnetic Attraction. 343 ever, succeeded in meeting the several points, and in making the resistance of the battery equal with that of the conducting wire, without too considerable a development in either the battery or elix. The wire was 4™m-5 jn section, with a total length of 1036 meters ; each helix received 518, forming 216 turns. The battery consisted of 64 elements of Bunsen made with gas carbon ; the surface of the carbon in each element was 0™-911; that of the zinc immersed 0™-9148. These 64 elements were ar- ranged in 8 cases, having each compartments covered with gutta percha, as has been done by Prof. Page. he whole was placed behind the tender. In this position the battery was out of the way, and hardly seen in the train. This battery whether arranged for tension, or coupled for quan- tity in series of 32 elements with double surface, produces the same results whenever an equivalent direction is given to the cur- rent. ‘Thus when arranged for tension, a sitigle current is pro- duced ; and when for quantity, the current is diverted on arriving below the machine, so as to form a distinct current in each helix ; two conductors of copper wire answer in this experiment which is not quite delicate in other respects on account of the excessive conductibility of the materials which enter into the construction of alocomotive. ‘hese conductors were lodged in tubes of gutta percha, which were themselves covered with chamois leather, that was impregnated with varnish especially where these tubes are directly supported by iron. On reaching the point of junction the tender with the machine, these conductors are adapted to the conductors fixed to the locomotive, being bifurcated with them in a way to avoid rupture from the vibrations of the cars while in motion. From thence, they follow the left side of the locomo- of the wires proceeding from the helices. These last were sus- pended to the grease-boxes by means of strong clamps and a plate of iron. interrupted conductor which is in contact with one of the poles of the battery. | 344 J. Nicklés on Different Applications of Magnetic Attraction. This part of the conductor is flattened, so as to present a con- venient surface ; a spring holds it off from the plate, and in this state the Circuit is open ; to close it, a key is touched which acts on the conductor, and presses it upon the connecting plate ; and it is broken by a contrary movement, when the spring throws o the conductor. On making the battery connection, a magnetic radiation is per- ceived to a great distance, so that at 5 meters from the wheel in the plane of the helix, small strips of iron may be magnetized. The result of the experiment made with the apparatus just described, has been made the subject of a report to the Minister of Public Works, by the commission already named. The fol- lowing numbers are cited from this document. The trial was made on a grade of 10 millimeters to the meter. The elements of the machine, were as follows ; Meters Diameter of pistons, - - ‘4 Play of the pistons, *35.n0 ¥ 0-600 Diameter of the driving wheels, 1-600 Heating surface of the fire; - 779-600 66 66 ‘sc es; - 7860 tub Weight of the machine provided with its water and coke, - - - - - - 29 tons. Load on the rails to be drawn by the driving wheels, 14 tons. Pressure of the boiler, - - - - 6 atmospheres. The whole train, about - - . 119 tons. The rate of motion, per hour, - - 15 kilometers. again open. ‘T'o make the locomotive move in spite of the mag- netism, a pressure of 9 atmospheres was required with a risk 0 bursting the boiler which was registered for six atmospheres. .the results of trials with a single wheel, from rest to a velocity of 18 kilometers an hour. SSSR Ge ST Tv, ; ; Pressure due to | Relation of additional pressure 1” urns per miuute. | Kil. per hour. | M tization, | the ordinary pressure on the rail il. "8 to 10° 3 5lto 4 | 10°6 p. ¢ | * p. c / = __ 33 27s 0 30 | 9 639 kil 60 18 J. Nicklés on Different Applications of Magnetic Attraction. 345 In this experiment the wheels did not rest on the rail as in or- dinary conditions: by means of the grease-box reversed of each, they were fixed upona framework for their support ; two wooden pulleys were arranged on the motor axle; these pulleys, in con- nection with the power wheel of the work shop, were calculated _ so as to furnish the two velocities of rotation, registered in the table. The rail placed below each wheel was moveable at one of its extremities, around a bolt, and carried at the other, a box of . zine for receiving the weight necessary for detaching the rail from the wheel when it was suspended by the magnetising action; a reservoir of water, divided into litres, was arranged so as to turn into each box the water necessary for breaking the connection. Kowing the length of the rail, its weight, the same of the box of zine, and the quantity of water required from the reservoir, we may, by a simple calculation, ascertain the amount sustained by the point of contact, and thence the pressure due to the magnetisa- tion, either during rest or rotation. In this way the table above has been obtained. 'The decrease observed during rotation was also exhibited in the following man- ner. The rail resting at its free extremity on a block of wood, and being separated from the wheel by an interval of 0-17 metre, a small magnetic declination needle placed at a distance of 0-75 metre from the rail, was moved along the the wheel in order to ascertain the points where its direction was perpendicular to the ane of the wheel. When the wheel was at rest, the needle took a position vertical to the rails only when in a vertical plane passing by the axte, and consequently at the point of contact with the wheel. When on the contrary, the wheel was in motion, it was necessary to change the place of the needle, moving it backward (in relation to the direction of the movement of the wheel) in order to obtain the direction normal to the rails. ‘This change of place amounted to 0°33 and 0-39 m. for velocities corresponding to rates of 18 and 36 kilometers to the hour. These observations show that the resultant of the magnetic forces which passes by the centre of gravity of the helix, and consequently 346 J. Nicklés on Different Applications of Magnetic Attraction. emergence. ‘These contrary effects of magnetisation and demag- netisation, and subsequently of inversion of the fluid, might be made of use, if contrary to the fact, the rim was made of soft iron, having no coercitive force. Hence, at each revolution, the wheel is subject to double magnetic work, which is unequal, and must give to the resultant of the magnetic actions, a position of equilibrium different from that existing when the wheel is at rest. At rest, the wheel does not differ from an ordinary electro-mag- net; like it, it is divided into two parts magnetically distinct ; the turns of its helix are parallel to the plane of the armature ; the resultant of the -magnetic actions developed by the helix is perpendicular to this plane, and passes by the centre of gravity of the helix. The position of the pole is then subordinate to that of the helix. If the former is displaced 0:33 meter it is only necessary to move the helix forward a corresponding quantity to remedy the displacement of the pole, which will be easily man- aged, if no other improvement is required. One of the most important improvements consists in the possi- bility of bringing into simultaneous action the two magnetic poles, to profit by the increase of force that always takes place when both poles act together on an armature. The trial reported by he researches which I have here described, constitute the first part of my experiments. It would have been difficult to have carried them thus far, if I had not found in one of the most dis- tinguished engineers of France, a Maecenas who appreciated at first sight the importance of my labors, and by a rare generosity enabled me to undertake these researches. M. Bazaine, in whose life many facts of the kind might be mentioned, needed not this new act of disinterestedness, that his love of progress should be nown. e€ was among those who introduced railroads into France, and he gave the country its first great road, that from Strasbourg to Basle. * Vol. xv, p. 104, Jan, 1853, and p. 880, May. J. Nicklés on the Passivity of Nickel and Cobalt. 347 Art. XXXIV.—On the Passivity of Nickel and Cobalt; by M. J. Nickxés. Te singular property of iron of becoming less oxydisable in contact with fuming nitric acid, has engaged the attention of many chemists and physicists. Since its discovery by Keir, it has been examined from different points of view by Herschell, Faraday, Schénbein, Buff, de la Rive, Andrews, Mousson, Mil- lon, Beetz, and Bollmann. The researches of these investigators have shown that iron may become passive not only in contact with fuming nitric acid ; it acquires this property also on blueing it in the flame of a lamp, or on touching it with a plate of plati- num, while it is plunged in nitric acid not fuming. The same effect is produced when the iron is put in connection with the positive pole of a galvanic battery. As evidence of the modification which it undergoes under these circumstances, the iron does not precipitate sulphate of copper when it is used as the anode of a galvanic element; oxygen is disengaged around it, without attaching it; in contact with diluted nitric acid, it remains unaltered, but it becomes again active when after being taken from the acid, it is put into water Similar facts may be observed to a greater or less extent with nickel and cobalt drawn into wire. The wire of these metals used in the experiments was chemically pure ; it was prepared by M. H. Sainte Claire Deville, by a process of heating of his inven- tion,* who also analyzed it. — fuming nitric acid, both of these metals acquire a passive State only of short duration ; but the passivity becomes permanent when, after blueing them in the flame of an alcohol lamp or on a charcoal fire, they are plunged while hot into this acid, in which Case, they act in every respect like passive iron, except that they are less negative than in nitric acid. They can however, communi- cate their passive state to active iron plunged in nitric acid not fuming, and so arrest the energetic action that is produced by the acid, _ Platinum is always negative with respect to these three metals In the passive state, and either of these last is negative with re- Spect to the same in the active state. The preservation of iron against attack in sulphate of copper, observed by M. Schénbein, has not been obtained out of the gal- Vanic current; in all my experiments, the passive iron becomes promptly covered by metallic iron. ave also examined the electro-chemical relations of iron, nickel and cobalt in the active and passive states, in contact with different acids as well asa solution of potash in water. ‘The neg- ative character of passive iron is really very decided only in * See this Journal, xv, 424, 348 Prof. Barnard on Daguerreotypes for the Stereoscope. nitric acid ; in the other liquids used in the trials, positive elec- tricity passes to the iron instead of proceeding from it. In the potash liquid, the reactions have been the same both for the active and passive metals, which seems to show that the passivity of these related metals is destroyed by this alkali; in fact, if after this immersion in potash, they are put in contact with nitric acid of density 1-34, they are found to have resumed the electro-chem- ical condition which belongs to the passive state and they are no longer attacked by the acid. The following series exhibits the relations respectively of iron, nickel, and cobalt to the two states, commencing - with the posi- tive metal, and ending with the negative ; the experiments were made with the different liquids mentioned in the table : Liquids employed. Active Metals. | Passive Metals. Fuming nitric acid. ee Sas + Co, Ni, Fe, — et: - ceigasl: Fe, Co, Ni. | Go; Ni, Fe. SH Co, Fe, Ni Ni, Co, Fe. SH, with 9H. Fe, Ni, Co, Fe, Co, Ni. Potash solution. Fe, Ni, Co. | Fe, Ni, Co. Palladium is equally susceptible to the passive state. Arr. XXXV.—Method of taking Daguerreotype Pictures for the Siereoscope, simultaneously, upon the same plate, with an ordinar ; . A. P. Barnarp, Professor of Chem- istry and Natural History, in the University of Alabama. Prof. Dana.—In the September number of the Journal of Sci- ence, just published, I observe a mention of a method of taking photographic pictures for the stereoscope, the two pictures being taken simultaneously. This has brought to my mind an arrange- ment employed by myself about a year ago for a similar purpose, which is so simple and satisfactory in its results, that you may ing two object-glasses, (without, at least, a very inconvenient al- rangement of mirrors,) because, of the two pictures produced 10 such a camera upon one plate, the right hand one will be that which should belong to the left eye, and vice versa. Fig. 1 is a plan of the k ; arrangement which I haye — »st employed. C is the camera, eae Let P -Pacentral point in an object to be copied, and AM, A ig “SS ; two small vertical plane sd y ‘* Prof. Barnard on Daguerreotypes for the Stereoscope. 349 mirrors, moveable on a common vertical hinge at A. These of P being single, the optical axis FA may be directed truly toward the hinge A, and the image be formed truly in the middle of the screen, at F. Now supposing that it is desired to produce two pictures distant from each other (measuring from centre to centre) by a space =n, the two mirrors must be carefully moved on the hinge A to the positions AM’ and AM”, so that the images of P reflected by them shall pass from F to f, and from F' to f’, each of these distances being $2. In order that the points of view under which these images will present P, may be so far different as to correspond to those of the two eyes in natural vision, the camera must be placed at a certain ° determinate distance from the mirrors. ‘This will be easily as- certained without calculation by a person familiar with this pro- cess; but it may be found mathematically as follows: 2. two mirrors, and A the hinge. Then, the camera being sup- posed to be properly# adjusted, AF will be the line of its axis, and also the direction of the ray PA after reflection, while the mirrors continue in one plane. Let AM’ be the position of one , of the mirrors after its displace- ment. Then if C be the virtual centre of the arrangement of lenses, the image of P will be \ formed at F’ instead of at F, b means of the ray PA’ reflected through C to F’. GG’ the glass screen, will of course be perpendicular to the axis AF". Draw AB perpendicular to AP, and AB’ perpendicular to AF. Put the angular change of position of the mirror M’ (=angle MAM’)= «a, the angle ACA’= 6, and the angle APA’= 7. Then in the triangle PAB, right-angled at A, angle B=90°—7. It is easily seen that BAM= the original angle of incidence of PA. Represent this angle by I. BAM+MAA‘/=BAA/=I+ « Also, as above, ABA’=90° —7 Whee in the triangle BAA’, the third angle, BA’YA= 90°— Be é . Now, to obtain AA/ in terms of AB, sin BA‘A : sin ABA’:: AB: AA’, 350 Prof. Barnard on Daguerreotypes for the Stereoscope. Or, putting AB= « sin (80° -I-a+7) : sin(90°-7) ::4 Again, in the triangle B/AA’, Angle AB/A’, = 90° + 6. And, AA’B’ (= AA/B)= 90° —I—« + 7. Whence sin AB/A’: sin AA’B’:: AA’: AB’. Or sin (90°-+6) : sin (90° -I-a+): _ @cos * cos (I-+-e-7)’ Ooefe: 24g, eos (I-+e=7) ‘AP ,_.acosycos(I4+a—y) acos7 aod au ~ eos 6 cos (I--a—7) ~ cosé* Now AB‘ is parallel to GG: hence, pee ab sO (9) = (e): Now, by Poisson’s second equation, 6"=(O+4T) (5 } a nO ol\ 7 Whence, also, lo q-1 G'==( O+T) (F — 0, And we have no occasion to determine o’” and 9 For o’ we proceed thus. In the last number of the Journal we have these two — 7 sow. . T+9 Pao of mn 1 Q l == (S45)(Q)", st eA eat) + aelehagae the value of m in the last expression, we obtain, after reduction, t=(1( evan ait) - by iain again in the preceding formula, we have finally, a, i w=(0+T)(s(arn)) — 2, Or, o=| (= moo)" (o4t) | i As the factors (9+4) 7 , and (O17), may be regarded as constant, we may represent their product by a single apeabole ol, as N, which being substituted will ine i the expression thus 1- a"=N(<) 7 - 0, i ® On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. 353 Whence for the total consumption, (T—oy=(T-0—N(4) ” Since we have all along regarded T as equal to 450°, @ to 491°, and @ to 60°, T'+6 will be =941°, and N=791°-663. Hence finally, while these suppositions remain, E ast | 7 (T—0"y7=(941° ~791° 633 ( -) ys From this formula, making y =1-36, as before, we shall have, for the case of equal supply and working cylinders, 186-55 MK, =137:17 MK 3=32'59 MK,, , which is a larger result than was obtained in the former article, while the effect of final expansion was disregarded. Supposing, as before, that the cylinder will contain 70 lbs. of air, the entire consumption of heat would be sufficient to raise a pound of water 70 X32°-59 =2281°, or to convert nearly two pounds of water into steam at 212°. The power of this steam, computed as in the former article, would be sufficient to raise 115000 Ibs. one foot, or 19100 through the six foot stroke. But, as we have seen that the air engine will raise, on the present supposition, 56400 lbs. six feet with the same expenditure, the expansion is in favor of air in the ratio 1 : 2-95. Supposing the cut-off at 3, the mean pressure will rise to 116600 Ibs., being an increase of more than 100 per cent., while the expenditure of heat will be increased but about 60 per cent. The steam which this heat would generate, would raise 30500 lbs. through the six-foot stroke, showing an advantage in favor of air,as 1: 3-80. But if the steam is allowed to expand to the oa extent as the air, the advantage will be reduced to the ratio, : 2°80. A supply cylinder equal to the working cylinder, however, is too large foreconomy. This is aconsequence of the loss of heat by expansion, in escaping, spoken of in the commencement of this article; and it could not be true if the regenerators were capable of arresting the heat remaining unexpended at the close of the Stroke, to the extent anticipated by the inventor. ‘Taking the proportions of Ericsson’s cylinders, we shall have, for a ¥ eut-off, 186 units of heat consumed to every unit-weight or pound of air. ut as the air is now but 3 of what was before supposed, our mul- tiplier will now be 47 instead of 70. On completing the calcula- tion, we find that heat enough will be expended, to raise, by means of steam at 212°, 12830 lbs. six feet. But the air engine, in this case, will raise 77660 lbs.,* to the same height with the same expenditure of heat; so that, here, the advantage is in favor * Stated incorrectly seventy-fowr thousand pounds, in the former article, Seconp Serizs, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—Nov., 1853. 45 354 On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. of air in the ratio, 1:6-°05. If again, we allow an equal expansion to steam, the advantage will be. reduced to the ratio 1: 4-40 Tn all these computations, as in the former article, we have con- sidered the value of the co-efficient of capacity for air (or 7) to be nly 1:36. ty there can now be no doubt that this ought to be put =1-40, or 1-41. Mr. Rankine (Lond. and Ed. Phil. Mag., June, 1853) Minis 14094, which is employed in the computa- tions that follow. The effe ct of the enlargement of this number, is to diminish somewhat the calculated power of the air engine, in every case. For the sake of making apparent, in a single view, the effect of variations in the proportions of the cylinders, and of different posi- tions of the cut-off, the following table has been prepared, ex- hibiting a large variety of suppositions. The little probability which seems now to exist, that any further attempt will be made to apply the invention in practice, renders the calculations rather curious perhaps than useful ; but they may serve to throw some light upon certain questions which have been topics of discussion with different writers on this subject. In this table, the symbols 7 and mm stand as in the former article, for the length of the stroke before the cut-off (the entire stroke being unity), and the numerical ratio in cross section between the cylinders (that of the working cylinder being unity). In the column headed “ heat expended,” are given the numbers of units (or degrees F".) which the total theoretic expenditure would be capable of imparting to one unit of weight (or pound) of water. The column headed R, shows the theoretic ratio of advantage in favor of air, as compared with the steam which the heat expended would produce at 212°, the steam being supposed to work with- out expansion. ‘The column R’, shows a similar ratio, on sup- position that the steam expands as much as the air. Since these expansions are very variable, the numbers in this column are a less eligible criterion by which to judge of the relative theoretic economy of air and steam engines, than those of the column R. But as steam is often worked with much larger expansion than any that air admits of, an additional column is introduced, headed R”, which shows the effect of heated air as compared with that of the steam generated by the same heat, and expanded to three times its original bulk. the powers in this table are computed by means of the form- ula, p. 248, of the last number of this Journal,* and on the sup- * In this formula as there printed there occurs an error. In the last term within parenthesis, the factor i” should be SrA Also, in the particular formula, top of the following page, the numerator of the first fractional term should read jy’(i”"'~1) instead of u/(1’-1). ‘These errors are discoverable by following out the steps of the precomes ye precede them, On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. 355 position that the surface of the working piston is 22100 square inches, the stroke six feet, and the number of revolutions, ten. Aggregate horse-power of air eviews with the gorreanontena expenditure of heat, and comparison with stea oe | H.P. |Heat expended. R. R. R" I 1 197 24869 1:260 | 1:960 |) .1:1:30 “85 “85 279 2113 1:4°33 23°73 1: 216 ‘80 | -80 90 1989 1: 4°65 3-84 1: 2:32 "7646 | -7646*| 292 1900 1:5°05 1: 4-00 1: 2-52 “75 75 291 1864 1: 5°23 74°12 1:2-61 ‘70 | -70 1740 1:5°53 : 3-99 1:2°76 4 3 273 1657 1:5-41 : 3-95 1:270 *65 “65 268 1616 1:5°40 : 3:87 1:2-70 “60 “60 24 14 1:5°31 3-63 1:2-65 1 85 303 1:3:20 1:2-77 1: 1-60 1 “80 333 3312 1: 3-29 1:2-72 1: 164 1 75 360 3542 1: 3°34 1: 2-52 1: 1-67 1 “70 384 3783 1:3:32 1: 2-50 1: 1-66 1 3 398 3949 1:329 1: 2-49 1: 1:64 1 65 403 4036 1:3:26 1:2:33 1:1-63 1 -60 415 4302 1:3:25 1:2-23 1: 1°62 "85 | :80 2309 ee ae Pim 1:2:18 85 | % 2512 1:4:38 1: 3-45 1:2°19 85 70 359 2727 1:4:31 1: 3:24 1: 215 374 287 1:4°26 1:3:11 1:2:13 85 65 381 2932 1:414 1: 2:99 1: 2-07 85 397 1: 4:08 1:2°79 1: 2-04 80 75 319 2183 1:473 1:3°75 1: 2°36 80 | 70 340 2390 1:4:68 1: 3:52 1: 2:34 80 t 356 2530 1:461 1:3:36 1: 2°30 65 362 2606 1:4°59 1:327 1: 2-29 “80 8 1:4:37 1:219 1:218 5 -70 315 1: 5:00 1:3-77 1:2:50 “75 z 331 2197 1;4:90 1:3:59 1:2-45 “15 65 340 226 1:488 1:3:50 1:2-44 “75 1: 4°67 1:3-20 1:2-33 70 3 299 1870 1:5°23 1: 3:80 1:261 65 306 1:5°17 1: 367 1: 258 70 328 2144 1:5°01 1: 3-43 1: 250 % | -75 9 1:5°67 1:461 1:283 | +} 70 > 1532 1:5°53 1:4°15 1: 2-76 + 65 281 1722 1: 5°32 1: 3:84 1:2-66 3 1 922 1:5°14 1; 3:52 1: 2°57 *65 60 287 1813 1:5°18 1:3:55 1: 2°59 The column R” shows that there is still a ae theoretic bal- ance in favor of air, as respects economy of whe steam is worked with pretty large expansion. Moreover, the ad- int not be detected without aes not all _ the misp There paar a few errors in the text which somewhat anise the sss i ul undesirable, In i 356 On the Expenditure of Heat in the Hot-air Engine. vantage is somewhat greater than it appears in the table, since this column is computed by regarding the expansion of steam as conforming to the law of Mariotte. There are large drawbacks, however, which have not been con- sidered. In the first place, the regenerators cannot possibly (as our supposition has presumed) abstract from the escaping air all the heat down to the temperature ”. There must also be great loss by radiation and conduction. Much heat is carried off by the leakage of the heated air, and finally the escape of heat through the smoke pipes cannot but be largely greater than occurs in heating water in boilers. apt. Ericsson allows a loss of 30° from the first of the causes above named. This would amount to from to 25 per cent. upon the total theoretic consumption. In working with / =m it would be 20 per cent. ; and this alone would make a consider- able reduction upon the favorable ratios in the table. It will be seen, by inspection, that if power is sought without regard to economy, large supply cylinders are to be preferred. The construction proposed by the present writer in the last num- ber of this Journal, renders the use of such cylinders practicable, though it would not be so on Ericsson’s plan. If economy is sought at the expense of power, cylinders from ‘60 to 2 in cross section, furnish the best results. In this point of view, Capt. Ericsson’s proportions are well chosen. It is also apparent that the cut-off which produces the most economical re- sults is at ‘75 or thereabouts, whatever be the ratio between the cylinders. But, on all accounts, it is evident at a glance, that the supply cylinders between ‘70 and ‘80 in section (probably about ‘75 in preference to any other) are most eligible. Very little is lost by their use, in point of economy, while there is secured a very great gain of power. But here probably we encounter the great and it is to be ap- prehended the inseparable obstacle, in the way of the success of the hot-air engine viz., the practical difficulty of heating the great mass of air with sufficient rapidity. Suppose we make all reasonable allowances for the effect of friction, leakage, and clearance of cylinder, it is not possible after all to bring down the power so low as the experiment with the “ Ericsson” ship showed it in fact to be. Capt. Ericsson, for instance, says that a pressure of half a pound to the inch, is sufficient to overcome resistances. At 12 pounds above the atmosphere in the reservoir (what he aimed at), this would constitute a charge of about 15 per cent. upon the power ; for with 12 pounds actual pressure, but about 3:4 Ibs. pressure over resistances is obtained. For leakage we have no reliable a upon which to form an estimate; but we know that in the J. D. Dana on the Consolidation of Corai Formations. 357 Ship, the leakage was actually large, and it will probably be not far from the truth to put this at 15 per cent. more. We thus obtain a reduction of thirty per cent. in all, while the engines fell as far as fifty per cent. below their aggregate theoretic power. The remaining deficiency can hardly be accounted for, but by supposing that the air coudd not be heated by furnaces and regen- erators both together, to a sufficient degree and with sufficient rapidity to maintain the theoretic pressure, and the assumed velo- city of piston. "This explains the statements made by reporters present on the trial trip, that the temperature of the working cylin- der did not rise above 440°, and also Capt. Ericsson’s repeated assertions that he could not carry more than 8 pounds of pres- sure. And this may satisfactorily explain the published state- ment which has remained for two months uncontradicted, that the original plan of heating the air has been entirely abandoned. The results to which this investigation has brought us, are less encouraging than were anticipated, or than, in the beginning we even desired to find them. We are compelled to look, at present, much less hopefully upon this invention than we have been dis- posed to do heretofore ; so much less so, as to apprehend that it can never come into successful use as a Motive power. Univ. of Alabama, Aug. 30, 1853. Arr. XXXVII—On the Consolidation of Coral Formations ; y James D. Dana. At the Cleveland meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, in August last, Prof. Horsford read a labored reply to the writer’s criticisms* of his views, on the con- solidation of coral limestone. This paper by Prof. Horsford, has appeared in several daily newspapers, and has thus had a wide circulation. Deeming the public papers no proper place for sci- entific controversy, either for attacks or replies, and knowing that an author may not hold himself responsible for the accuracy of articles thus published, the writer had intended to take no notice of the arguments of Prof. Horsford, until they had appeared elsewhere. But on finding evidence in the date of the reading of 358 J. D. Dana on the Consolidation of Coral Formations. cient reason for considering Prof. Horsford responsible for what he had thus published, and for subjecting his statements to a brief notice in this place. I was not present at the meeting of the Association where the paper was read. I propose therefore, to touch briefly upon some of the more ob- vious errors, misapprehensions, or inadvertencies, into which Prof. Horsford appears to have fallen. - I. Prof. Horsford’s investigations were made principally upon what he calls the “crust-rock,” one of the two kinds of coral for- mations which he mentions ; and this might be supposed from his descriptions to be a common form of the coral reef rock. In fact, it isan uncommon variety. I found nothing like it in my ex- plorations among the Pacific reefs and islands. The ordinary submerged reef rock, the prevailing rock wherever there are reef- regions, has no resemblance whatever to the “crust-rock,” and is distinct also from his “oolitic” rock. It is sufficient to account for the misapprehension which Prof. Horsford appears to be under respecting reef rocks, to state that he has never seen a coral reef. ’ II. Some examples of a thin calcareous crust, are described by the writer as occurring in the Sandwich Islands. Prof. Horsford errs in regarding these as examples of his “crust-rock’’. The author has described them as a surface formation upon elevated hills of coral sand rock; that is, as mere surface crusts wpon the “ oolitic” variety of Prof. Horsford; it is of much more modern origin than the rock itself, and not one of the two prevailing va- rieties of reef rocks, any more than a stalagmite is an example of the rock which it encrusts. {ff. Prof. Horsford supposes erroneously that the explanation of the origin of this crust which I give, has been applied by me to the West India “crust-rock.” Not having seen that rock in place, I have offered nothing upon its origin or consolidation. IV. Prof. Horsford proceeds in his theory upon the supposition that the coral sands of seashores and submerged coral deposits of reef grounds, contain a large per-centage of animal matter. This conclusion, he has not sustained by an examination of these ma- terials from various regions: he is satisfied after an examination simply of some specimens of his “crust-rock ;” and proceeds at once to theorise for all coral formations: for if he does not say in so many words that his theory is intended for coral rocks generally, the manner in which he has replied to my objections, and the use us, to Dr, Gibbs, our collaborator in charge of chemistry and physics, and that if in his opinion its chemistry and statements of facts were correct, it would be published ; also, that if his former paper had been thus submitted, it would not have appeared in this Journal, on the ground of its incorrect chemical princi Siicn of reply been sent us, we should probably have saved Prof. Horsford the publication 0 some of its errors. J.D. Dana on the Consolidation of Coral Formations. 359 he makes of the facts I have published, show that he intends for it this universal application. V. In the analyses of the “crust-rock” in Prof. Horsford’s for- mer paper, he claimed to have found in one case, 20 per cent. of animal matter. In the recent paper, another analysis is given in which there are but 1:47 per cent., (no more than was found by Prof. Silliman, Jr. in some of the bleached corals,) and the differ- than quantitative. The foundation for the theory proposed, is therefore based on ascanty supply of imperfectly ascertained data, VI. In discussing the chemical objections to his theory, he comes at last to the point on which the whole turns,—the forma- tion of hydrate of lime,—and thus observes : “Prof. Dana proceeds : But suppose the uncombined ammonia to be formed during the decomposition, will this ammonia precipitate the hy- drate of lime from the solution of the sulphate? It is perhaps sufficient to say in regard to this statement of Prof. Dana’s, that it was written in : g view, the learned author correctly states what I did say. He says in ‘ i¥ The small capitals and italics are Prof. Horsford’s. The assertion, “I have never uttered anything of the kind,” is forcible and apparently decisive. e verbal difference between the statement alleged to be er- roneous, and that acknowledged to be correct, consists in sub- Stituting precipitate for separate, and in omitting the word soluble. Judging from the peculiar stress laid upon the word soluble by the use of capitals, it might be supposed that Prof. Horsford be- lieved in a souuste hydrate, as distinct from another which was insoluble. But chemists know of but one, and that takes 778 parts of water, at 60° F’. (according to Dalton) to dissolve one part, or it 1s about one half as soluble as sulphate of lime or gypsum :} 1n pro- _ * Prof. Horsford in his former paper, uses the words, “The nitrogen going over into the form of ammonia at a later period, decomposed the cw gi of lime, forming phate of ammonia and soluble hydrate of lime.” We therefore add, “of the sul- phate of lime,” to make the statement complete. According to Bucholz, gypsum dissolves in 460 parts of water, either hot or cold, according to Giese, in 380 parts of cold and 388 parts of boiling water—Gmel. Chem, iii, 202, 360 J.D. Dana on the Consolidation of Coral Formations. portions larger than this, it would be precipitated whenever separ- ated. e two statements would therefore seem to a chemist to be very much of a kind, if not identical,—unless it is meant that more than one part of the hydrate to 778 of water would never be separated. We pass to the chemistry of the passage which is the important point in the whole discussion,—for if false, the theory proves to be no better in its principles, than in its alleged facts. Now it is well known that ammonia will neither separate, nor precipitate, soluble or insoluble hydrate of lime, by action on the dissolved sulphate; on the contrary, sulphate of ammonia is readily decomposed by a salt of lime, or by its hydrate. What avails then the long array of facts and arguments with which Prof. Horsford fills up his paper? Much might be brought for- ward on other parts of his chemical discussions, but as the key- stone of his theory is gone, it would be a waste of words.* VII. Prof. Horsford repeats from his former paper another mode of consolidation, viz., “The deposition of finely powdered car- bonate of lime, with mucilaginous matter filling up the interstices between the grains of rock, and serving to increase the cohesion.” This idea of making rocks by sticking the particles together with mucilage, (or with glue, as is implied in another place,) is quite original with Prof. Horsford. It needs no discussion. VIIL. After going over, with many details, the prominent points in the theory of consolidation proposed by him, Prof. Horsford presents another view which was barely intimated in his former Paper, and which falls in with the theory that I had been led to ado proportion, so asto be able to dissolve some carbonate of lime, a in time, produce the consolidation. With reference to submerge deposits, the same principle was supposed to operate ; but ast ere * Prof. Horsford insists in his article upon a certain order of decomposition, which is necessary to his theory ; sulphuretted hy i or an ammioniacal salt the later. Facts in nature are the reverse of J. D. Dana on the Consolidation of Coral Formations. 361 is no drying in the process, it was suggested with hesitation that there might be a chemical action under the influence of the mag- nesian salts of the ocean, leading to a double carbonate of lime and magnesia, that is, a dolomisation,—Haidinger and von Mor- lot having shown that such a chemical change may be produced, at least under the influence of heat, and B, Silliman, Jr., having found a specimen of reef-rock to be a magnesian carbonate of mote, through the play of molecular forces thus set in action, (a kind of catalytic or “ presence” influence, ) the solidification of the mass by the crystallization of the carbonate of lime in solution,— a play of forces of one kind inducing the molecular action result- ing in cohesion; and the same circumstances or condition would be particularly favorable for chemical changes, like that of dolo- misation: Prof. Horsford deserting in part, his favorite theory, here takes the old ground that consolidation may result through the car- of the animal matter within the coral mud,—which appears to be a sensible idea. do not understand this “mobility.” Infusorial mobility is out of the question ; and what else shall we suppose was intended? The developed carbonic acid might shove the particles first one way, and then another, but this is not a consolidating process. mobility, and thereby promote conso though strangely expressed. he means (seemingly he does not) that the process of decomposition is one romotive of con- solidation, by a sort of catalytic influence, ight have been more distinctly explained. # Dana's Exp. Exp. Geol. Report, p. 153 Srconp Sznms, Vol. XVI, No. 48—Nov., 1853. 362 J.D. Daua on the Consolidation of Coral Formation. X. The absence of carbonic acid from sea-waters is a point which Prof. Horsford endeavors to prove by reference to several analyses. But is it true that carbonic acid is evolved as he allows, from the decomposition of animal matter in the mud or sands, forming the bottom of coral-reef regions, and yet that none escapes, so as to be found in the waters of these regions? It is obviously impossible. any analyses have actually found the carbonic acid or car- bonate of lime. 'To meet the case fully, the analyses should be made of waters from reef regions, and not of those from the open sea. But Darondeau and Henry have found carbonic acid even in the air dissolved in various sea waters at different depths; and as their results are of some general interest, we cite the fol- lowing table from the Annales de Chemie et de Physique, \xix, 103. The latitudes and longitudes are reckoned from Paris. Density | Sas i108 3 Y parts of water, 100 parts of gas. - Time collected., Lat. Long. Depth. j,,, 2, , at 0°C., & 760|/——_—- i NORE On Meh Sees DE GMOS & 10°C. am, pressure. |Oxyg.|Nitrogen}Carb. acid Aug. 30, 736:119 8’ n. |108° 50’ w Surface | 102594 | ; 83:33 | 10°51 (?) vd ie = 0 fath.| 102702 2:23 10:09} 71:05 | 18:06 Mar. 19, 37 11° 43’ nj 87° 18! £.) Surface | 1:02545 1-98 5°53} 80°50 | 13°97 bs Fess 9 200 fath.| 102663 3 04 3:29] 38:56 | 58°15 May 10, ’37 18° 0’ n.| 85° 32 z.) Surface | 1-02611 191 6°34} 80-34 | 13°32 ¥ ng r 02586 2°43 5-72| 64-15 | 30-13 July 31, 37 24° 5's. | 5290’ w. | Surface | 1-02577 1:85 84] 77-70 | 12°46 Pha {450 fath.| 1:02739| 2-7. 9-85| 53-23 { 31-92 | Aug. 24, °37 30° 40's! 119 47’ x. 00 fath.| 102708 2:04 4:17! 67-01 | 2882 _ which admit of ready reduction to extreme fineness.” In men- tioning my objection to this view, he says :—“ It is unfortunate that we find the author (Prof. Dana) elsewhere remarking: ‘The Nullipores, properly calcareous vegetation, (stone plants, ) flourish best along the line of breakers and form thick accumulations 3 and they arise from successive growths over one another of these incrusting stone-plants, Prof. Agassiz found in the West Indies, large accumulations of fragments of tender calcareous Alge; and these Prof. Horslo evidently had in mind: but a calcareous mud is almost as uy _— by the moving waters out of the fragments of coral as of J. J. Dana on the Consolidation of Coral Formations. 363 XII. To the principle, abundantly exemplified, that on shores where the waves break heavily, beds of pebbles or sand are pro- profound problem, which may be paralleled, and perhaps eluci- dated in some slight degree, by the enunciation of another of equal significance, bearing upon the laws of motion in general :— If the slower a coach moves the longer it will take to go a mile, how long will it take if it does not go at all: XIIL. Prof, Horsford passing from reef-rocks to coral polyps, suggested with reference to the secretion of carbonate of lime that “the carbonate of lime of the coral, was the fruit of simple double decomposition of the sulphate of lime in sea water, by the carbonate of ammonia exhaled from the living coral.” To this sug- gestion I objected in my former paper, on the ground that the ex- eretions could not turn about and aid in the secretions.* He now says, “it appears to me that the precipitate of carbonate of lime under the circumstances supposed, would take place in the walls of the cellules, where the carbonate of ammonia is set free, and would of course take the form of the cellules:’’—thus making the secreting cellules produce, contrary to all that is known, carbonate of ammonia, one of the results of the ultimate decomposition of animal matter. XIV. The deposition of carbonate of lime from calcareous waters is the last point which I will now mention. Prof. Hors- ord commences his observations on this subject as follows : “ He (Prof. Dana) remarks: ‘Among the modes of consolidation the manuscript, E. N. H.) give up the carbonic acid so that a precipi- tation of the carbonate of lime takes place. But is this pressure or a * I have stated in my report, that the coral polyps have probably the power of deriving the lime by secretion from the sulphate of lime present in the waters ; but I have not undertaken to point out the exact character of the change, as question has not been investigated. 364 J.D. Dana on the Consolidation of Coral Formations. higher temperature needed ? The common deposition of carbonate of lime from the waters dripping through the roofs of caverns is evidence to the contrary.’ ce | He goes on to illustrate by reference to soda water, etc. In another place, after mentioning the remark of the writer, he says, with point, ‘ The reply to this may be found in elementary works on chemistry.” I do not care to damage by my remarks any elementary work on chemistry. But how does the case stand? Prof. Horsford is right as to the pith of my criticism, and also as to my opin- ions being gratuitous. Now suppose we collect some of the water dripping from the roof of a cavern; and suppose we cool it down at once from 60° F. to 40° F., and allow such a wind as occurs often at the Mammoth Cave to blow over it, would it not evaporate, and the carbonate of lime be thereby deposited ? Suppose again the barometric pressure upon that water could be in- creased from one atmosphere to fwo, would not the winds still pro- duce evaporation and a deposition of the lime? There can be only an affirmative reply to these questions. All that is needed is evap- oration, and this may take place with a diminished temperature and increased pressure. If we should now take that water and attempt to deposit the carbonate of lime by means of heat, it would be necessary according to such elementary treatises of chemistry as we have seen, to raise the heat to the boiling point of water, before the carbonic acid would be entirely driven off, and the carbonate of lime which it contains, would be deposited.* the article first appeared; and in the copy of the , revised by him for this Where it was published at his request, the rg eas uncorrected. Reézamination of American Minerals. 365 Arr. XX XVIII —Reéramination of American Minerals : Parr Ul—Danburite; Carrollite; Thalite; Hudsonite ; Jenkin- site; Lazulite; Kyanite;.Eleolite ; Spodumene ; Petalite : by J. Lawrence Smirx, M.D., and Groree J. Brusu, Ph. B. 27. Danburite. / Tuts mineral has as yet been found in this country only at one locality, Danbury, Conn. It was first described by Prof. C. U. Shepard,* and*considered by him a hydrated silicate of lime and potash. Still later it was examined by Dr. H. Erni,} and boracic acid was found to be an important ingredient in its constitution ; in his analysis, however, a large amount of alkalies is indicated. As the results of our analyses show but a trace of these sub- stances and no other base but lime, it is possible that Dr. Erni’s alkali determination was made, through mistake, on some of the feldspar accompanying Danburite, as it not unfrequently happens that the granular portions of the feldspar resemble the lighter varieties of Danburite. ‘This supposition appears reasonable, as the silica and lime of his determinations agree with those about to be stated. The composition as given by the authorities mentioned are, Si ‘ * 56°00 28:33 7 ¥?085 K(withNa?) and loss 5-12 H 8-0 =100. Shepard, 4974 22°30 Mg 198 #eand Al211 K431 Na 982 B 924 =100. Erni. The results of the analyses just made, are as follows: 3 ke : j 4, 11Ca, F 48°10 48:20 — — Alumina, 30 Peroxyd of iron, t 1:02 cae Manganese, : 5) hit) : gies 29°41 22:33 22°22 22°11 Magnesia, » “40 undeterm. — oe Boracic acid, . 27°73 27-15 — — Ignition, . “50 50 00°00 99°20 This corresponds to the following constitution, Pr, cts Ox. ratio. ti. Gli Co Se 49°42 ‘ 4 3 2%. Borage ati bts 28-02 ‘i 3 eee ee 22°56 1 performing the part of a base. The formula for Danburite under ese views would be expressed by oCa Sit + Ca B? or Oa? Siz + Bs Sit * See Am: Jour. Sci, [1] xxxv, 129. ¢ Am. Jour. Sci. [2] ix, 286. 366 Reéxamination of American Minerais. We are in favor of regarding the latter as representing the true formula. If Danburite be examined in its relation to datholite, it will be found to differ from the latter in having just one half the number of atoms of lime minus three atoms of water. Cae Sit + Bs Siz +- sit= Datholite. \ Ca’ Sit + Bs Siz = Danburite. This mineral forms then the second natural borosilicate of lime. hydrofluoric acid ; which according to previous experiments was shown to consist of silicic and boracic acids. Three re petitions of the above experiment gave perfectly concordant results: in fact no more beautiful proof could have been had of the absence of all other bases but lime, in any very sensible quantity. Moreover the amount of lime thus indicated, agrees perfectly with that obtained by the direct method of analysis. The boracic acid was estimated by first ascertaining the exact amount of silica by a soda fusion, and then deducting this quan- tity from the entire loss of a given quantity of the mineral under the action of hydrofluoric acid. € specimens examined were among the finest that have ever been found, and were procured by Mr. Brush at the locality. 28. Carrollite, a Copper-Linnaite. This mineral oceurs at Finksburg, Carroll Co., Maryland, and was described as a new species by Mr. W. L. Faber.* He gave as its chemical composition, s Co Ni Cu Fe s Si 2704 2850 § 1-50 3299 B81 1°82 214 Formula 200 S +Cu?5S. Our attention was first called to this mineral from the unusual relation of the sulphur to the metals in its composition, it being * This Journal, 2d Series, vol. xiii, 418. Reétxamination of American Minerals. 367 we believe the first example of a natural subsulphuret that had been nae the relation being R*8°. been furnished through the kindness of Prof. Dana, hit an b abewodiiion of the mineral to select from, which he had procured from original specimens in the hands of Prof, Booth, it associated. A reéxamination of it gives the following for its physical and chemical characters. Hardness 5-5; sp. grav. 4:85.* Lustre metallic ; color steel gray ; fracture uneven, without suffi- tient indication to make out clearly the nature of its cleavage. The results of ate analyses are E Sulphur, 41°93 40°94 40°99 Cobalt 87°25 ’ 38°21 37°65 pper, 1748 17-79 19°18 Nickel,} < 154 < 154 154 : 1:26 1 140 Arsenic, ‘ trace trace trace 99°46 10003 10076 These correspond to the general formula RS + as will be seen by comparing the amount of salah required for os metals indicated in the three analyses with the quantities nd. Sulphur. 2. Sulphur. 3, Sulphur. Cobelt, . 8125 st00” sea1 oes ares t21 €opper, ; ee, AAR 1h is 1779. 1088. 1918. 12°78 Nic Glee pes riieeee oe F = ‘St 118 tA CL ov, (ot ea 93° ies ag 10 10s 41-83 49-14 oe ae for the copper, iron and nickel, the entire cobalt would be openenied | in the three analyses iy 56: 37, sr: 92, and 68-50 pr.ct. The formula requires Atoms. Pr. et. re aa : . "ae Sate : : ree Cobalt, 3 This is the toriniila ro eoneeieatiol St Linneite, and the min- eral in question is a copper Linneite similar in composition to the one from Riddarhythan, Sweden. he composition of this mineral is interesting, as it Seager the only example in the mineral kingdom of the isomorphism Copper and cobalt, where the Jatter may be replaced to a great or less extent by the former. Amon atifcial uae BY eth ing this replacement, we have the cupro-sulphate of cobalt with 10 and with 7 atoms of water, the latter crystallizing in oblique prisms, like the sulphate of cobalt with the same number of atoms of Beli which is also the form of green vitriol. aa It may pike Sips rita there is a typograp| on. the statement . i is never Miaevotes 368 Reexamination of American Minerals. 29. Thalite, identical with Saponite. This mineral was originally described by Dr. D. D. Owen,* by whom it was found on the north shore of Lake Superior, ana in the amygdaloidal traps of that locality. At the time it was noticed, it was supposed to contain a new element, which was called thalium ; the mineral itself was named thalite. Through mineral, which was subjected to most careful analysis, the result showing nothing in its composition by which it differs from sapo- nite ; and all attempts to isolate a new earth from it were vain. A second portion of the thalite, with some of the supposed thalia was sent us by Dr. Genth of Philadelphia, which was labelled, “not quite pure ;” its composition, however, differed from the first principally in containing less water, as it was allowed to dry for a greater length of time—it being a common thing for saponites to lose more or less of their water by desiccation in the air. The result of the examination of the thalite was given ina note in the last number of this Journal. Many of the ‘Teactions con- tained in the original description of thalite and thalia we have been unable to recognize, among them the evolution of chlorine by the action of hydrochloric acid, and the bpeibaeeiat by a neutral solution of succinate of ammonia. e pea-green color 0 the concentrated Logs samme acid solution of the thalia, prepared in the st mentioned by wen, is easily explained by the nee of an exceedingly minute quantity of the chlorid of chrotaice, as the smallest trace of this last metal will, under the circumstances, produce that color The results of our analyses are as follows: 1, 2. eee OS a RR Ree 48°89 Aomingy acs cams WAR pm ss Ss te 723 Oxyd of iron, ais 5 Si NS ee Pare 2°46 Manganese, ¢ s trace trace Lime, 1-07 Magnesia, 24°10 24:17 Soda, i Potash, ' 45 « . . . . 81 Water, eo «O08 eh 15°66 98°84 99°22 Bi Ea Fe newearth Mg k Mn H 42 46 15 10-12 20°5 os trace 18 * Jour. Acad. Nat, Sci. Philad,, ii, part 2d, 1852. Reéramination of American Minerals. 369 then the existence of a new earth in this mineral cannot be established, it is clear that it must be a saponite, with which min- eral it is identical in physical properties. 30. Hudsonite, a Pyrorene. This species was described by Prof. L. C. Beck.* It has since been shown to be a pyroxene in which a portion of the silica is replaced by alumina. Beck and Brewer obtained for its composi- Ss Al Fe Mn Mg 36-94 11:22 36°08 2°24 — 12°71 = 99°14. Brewer.+ 37-90 1270 36:80 192 114010072. Beck, A recent examination of some specimens has shown the pres- ence of a considerable amount of alkalies. 'The mineral was re- ceived from Mr. Silas R. Horton, and is the same as was sent by him to Prof. Beck. The results ‘of two analyses are, ge 2. Silica, . P ‘i i 39°30 38°58 Alumina, . : ; 9°78 11°05 Protoxyd of iron, . i 30°40 80°57 “ Manganese, . ‘ 0°67 0°52 ime, 10°39 10°32 Magnesia, 2°98 3:02 Potash, 2:48 ai Soda, fe a ‘ 1°66 t ae Ignition, : ‘ : 1°95 1:95 00° (00°17 Considering the deans as replacing silica, these site the oxy- ts ratio of pyroxene and the formula RB? (Si, Al). 31. Jenkinsite. e green mineral that occurs in velvety coatings on the mag- netite of O’Neil’s mine, in Orange County, N. Y., has been des- cribed by Prof. Shepard,t as a new species. Its intimate associa- tion with magnetite, renders it somewhat difficult to obtain it perfectly pure; but by placing the fine particles of Jenkinsite in a vessel of water, and stirring the mass withaclean rod of soft iron, that passes through an electro-magnetic. coil in connection with a attery, every particle of magnetic iron is removed. ‘Two differ- ent portions thus purified, procured at different times from Mr. Silas R. Horton and Mr. John Jenkins, gave F 2. Silic : 38°97 37-42 Protoxyd of i iron, ‘ 19°30 20°60 anganese, 4°36 J 405 4 Maguest 22°87 22°75 Alumi 0538 0-98 Water, 13°36 : j 13-48 99°39 99°28 oe of N. York, p. 310. + From Dana’s Mineralogy, 3d ed., p. 267. t This Journal, [2] xiii, 392. Srconp Senizs, Vol. ol. XVI, No, 48.—Nov., 1853. 47 370 Reéxamination of American Minerals. From these we obtain the mean oxygen ratio for silica and pro- toxyds, and water, 19°84: 14:50: Ll 92=4:3:24, and the form- ula R Sit + 7H. Atoms. At. wt. Pr. tt ‘ 2809. =. 8888 Magnesia, . r 6 ; 4 1500 25:23 Protoxyd of iron, . 3 3 : 1350 22°70 Water, : i 7 ; . 188 13°24 5947 The mineral is similar in composition to serpentine with one atom more of water, and the magnesia replaced in part by pro- toxyd of iron and manganese. It also has a strong resemblance. to hydrophite, both in chemical and physical properties. 32. Lazulite. This species occurs in considerable abundance in Sinclair Co., N. C., which is its only American locality. It is of interest to compare its composition with the European varieties, and for that reason the examination was made. The sp. gravity was 3:122. ‘Two analyses gave Oxygen. Ox. Jon ag acid, . 43°38==24°31 “4 15 = 24°74 . 3122 14°59 217 15°03 Protoxyd of iron, . S29 1-84) 5. * a> 1s t 80 1006 4-02 t ane voor «6401 55° _ Water, : 2 568 5°05 550 489 Bi, ¢ : 107 ‘ 107 99-70 “100-96 No. 1, has the oxygen ratio =24:90 : 14-94 : 6 : 5°16, or very nearly 25 : 15:6: 5. No. 2, has = 25-56 : 15-54: 6: 5-04. Fri. these we deduce the formula 2(Mg, Fe)* B+ Ay Bs + of Atoms. At. wt, Pr. ct. Kee acid, i 5 ; 4460 ; 44:02 5 3209 : 31°67 Protota of iron, 2 : 00 ‘ 8°88 Meee : 4 ‘ 1000 i 9°87 Wat : 5 563 5°56 The foots differs ae that of Bervinclbeee “i one atom less of alumina and of water; calculated by his formula it would give the alumina much too high for our analyses. e phosphoric acid was separated from the alumina, by fusing the mineral with carbonate of soda and silica, this being the most perfect method, in fact the only one to be safely relied on. It appears to be iden- tical in specific gravity and composition with the variety from Gratz examined by Rammelsberg. Reétzamination of American Minerals. 371 33. Kyanite. Associated with the lazulite just described, is a very beautiful white kyanite. Its composition is Silica, ‘ Z - = . Fi : 87°60 Alumina, . ; ‘ : i : 6040 Peroxyd iron, 160 99°60 This corresponds to the formula 41° $= silica 37-47, alumina 62:53. 34. Fleolite. The Eleolite of Magnet-Cove in Arkansas, passed under the name of “ flesh red feldspar” until recognized by Prof. Shepard.* It has the following physical and chemical properties. Hardness Sp. gr. 2°65. Color flesh-red. ‘ Lustre greasy. Structure massive. Chemical composition, Silica, : 4446 Alumin - : ; ; 30°97 Peroxyd of iron, : : : . 2-09 Lime, ; ‘ ; , ; 066 Soda, : . ‘ ; 15°61 Potash, : : ‘ 4 ; 591 Tgnition, : ; : : 0°95 100°65 From this we have the oxygen ratio for the silica, peroxyds, and protoxyds, 9: 6 : 2, and the formula R?Si+ 218i. The mineral examined, was furnished by Mr. Markoe of Washington; it is the one alluded to in our last paper, as containing the compact Thomsonite, under the name of ozarkite. Since publishing the analysis of the latter, we have procured a specimen of the eleolite containing the Thomsonite in handsome radiated erystallisations. 35. Spodumene. Several analyses of this species from Norwich and Sterling, Mass., were given by Mr. Brush in vol. x, of this Journal. In these analyses, the alkalies were determined as sulphates, and from the amount of sulphuric acid, the relative amount of alkalies was calculated. Since these examinations, it has been analyses referred to, are erroneous. The method used in this in- * This Journal, [2] ii, 252. 372 Reéramination of American Minerals. stance is that recommended by Rammelsberg, the separation of the chlorid of lithia from the chlorids of potash and soda, by a mixture of alcohol and ether. These analyses gave J 2 3 Silica, : n 64:04 63°65 63°90 Alumina, . F 27°84 } = : Peroxyd of iron, . 0-64 { : lie sshd Lime, . F 0°84 are 0°31 ; 0:26 Magnesia, tr. Lithia, 5:20 5:05 4:99 da, 0°66 Potassa, : 0-16 t 4 oe ; ies Ignition, . ‘ 0°50 ‘ 0°50 ‘ 0°60 ~ 99°38 99°30 99-25 From these is deduced the oxygen ratio for the protoxyds, per- oxyds, and silica, 1: 4: 10 and the formula Re Si2+441 Si2, cor- responding with the results recently obained. by Rammelsberg,* for the composition of the spodumene from Uton and the Tyrol. The silica, however, is somewhat lower than that of the Euro- pean specimens, which is probably owing to the greater purity of the American mineral, it being found in crystals. Since completing the above examination of the spodumene from Norwich, we have noticed a recent examination of the variety from Sterling, Mass., by Rammelsberg in which he states uis having found 4°5 pr. ct. of potash, and a ratio nearer 1: 5: 12, than 1:4:10. This difference is accounted for by that author on the ground that the mineral is somewhat decomposed, and that the original ratio was 1:4:10. The fact is, Rammelsberg as in many places on the surface, were scales of mica with yellow flakes of oxyd of iron ; the specific gravity was 3-073. Now the spodumene :— ; * Pogg. Ann., lxxxy, 544. Dr. J. L. Smith on Actions of Nitric and Oralic Acids. 373 Ox. ratio. oaks ’ ‘ 64:50 : ‘ 33°41 or 10°66 : } 25°30 ) : Peroxyd of iron, . . 2555 -'* A Le Ie ‘ ’ 0-43 } Man fous ; ‘ ; 0:06 | : é ithia, se5f B48 oF (1:00 Potash and soda, . i 110) Loss by ignition, . : 0°30 99°89 It will be seen that this forms no exception, and when examined pure, has the same composition as spodumene from other localities. In fact, so far as the American spodumene is concerned, we be- lieve that the specimens from Norwich are the most beautiful that have been found anywhere, and we shall take pleasure on some early occasion in Robb § eee with good specimens from both Norwich and Ste 36. Petaliie. n connection with the analyses of spodumene, it was hi i interesting to examine the American petalite. For this pur specimen from Bolton, Mass. was selected. The results of analyses are,— i. Oxygen. 2. Oxygen. Silica, . ‘ 17-95 : 40:50 i 77-90 ‘ rod umina, “ 16°63 : TAT peo eee 1-7 y. Peroxyd of iron, . 0°62 : 0-18 ‘ Pe 051 0715 t Us Lime, : é tr. ; . tr. Magnesia, 0°21 0-08 0°26 0 ithia, 3°74 2-07 » 2:27 352 1:94 } 2:18 Soda, 048 012 5 0°53 4 ‘otasa, . é tr. : % ‘ tr. Ignition, . ‘ 0°60 ; ; ; 070 10023 99°37 No. 1, gives oxygen fatio 20: 3°92: IT. 2, yl eae Bae yi: * or BS nearly a0: |, ein which we have the formula R* Si + 441 Sit = Silica 78:37, alumina 17 ‘44, lithia 3-40, soda 0-79. Arr. XXXIX.—1. Action © 2 a Acid on ig press a Potassium and Sodium.—2. Action of Oxalic Acid on Nitrates and Chlorids of the same, with a rade sucel pe. converting t¢. to the Carbonates.—3. The presence of Ovalice Acid enabling Zine to decompose Water; by Prof. J. Lawrence Sura, M.D., of Louisville, Ky. T1s note is intended as an appendix to my researches for determining the alkalies in insoluble silicates in this Journal.* During that investigation, many novel and interesting reactions were observed, several of which pare hopawedly been alluded to. I present here one or two others of so * This volume, page on 374 Dr. J. L. Smith on Actions of Nitric and Oxalic Acids. is well known that if nitric acid be added to a chlorid, or hy- drochloric acid to a nitrate, more or less of a decomposition will in either case ensue ; but I believe it is not generally known how ready and complete the replacement is, when nitric acid is heated with chlorid of potassium or of sodium. Among the experiments made, 40 grammes of nitric acid were boiled gently with 6 grammes of chiorid of potassium, and i twenty minutes, no trace of chlorine could be found in the liquid ; the same is true when the chlorid of sodium is used. The opera- tions appear to depend on the oxydizing property of the nitric acid, with the liberation gf chlorine that combines with some of the ele- ments of nitric acid to form the chloronitric acid that readily passes off. 'The decomposition of the nitrates of the alkalies by hydro- chlorie acid does not readily takes place, it not being complete even after repeated evaporations to dryness, with a large excess of hydrochloric acid. 2. Before setling on the plan I now adopt, an easy method was sought for separating the alkalies from magnesia, by converting the two into carbonates,—a plan that had previously been adopted ; but the question with me was to change the nitrates to carbon- ates. The idea suggested itself of heating the nitrates with an ex- cess of oxalic acid, to the temperature at whic the latter undergoes decomposition, w when the nascent oxyd of carbon might break up the constitution of - nitric acid, and the carbonic acid formed combine with the On making the a pa iiont I was surprised to see an abundant evolution of nitrous acid vapors at a temperature considerably be- low 212°. It was clear that the oxalic acid decomposed the ni- trate, liberating the nitric acid, which reacting on the excess 0 oxalic acid, gave rise to the nitrous acid vapors. If crystallized oxalic acid ‘aud the nitrate of potash or soda, the former in excess, be placed together in a flask, and heated over a water-bath, the mass soon enters into watery fusion, and at the temperature of from 130° to 140°, bubbles of gas are evolved, consisting of nl- trous acid and carbonic acid ; at 212° the evolution is vigorous, and if after evaporation to dryness t the water be renewed several times, the nitric acid will be completely expelled from the nitre, there a the excess of oxalic acid, and the oxalate of the alkalies It was natural to conclude from the above result, that oxalic acid would likewise decompose the chlorids of the alkalies, and on experiment, the conclusion proved to be correct. If an excess ° oxalic acid be mixed with either the chlorid of potassium oF of sodium, and the whole warmed gently, abundant vapors of hydro- chloric acid are evolved, and i careful manipulation, all the chlorine may be driven off under this form. t Dr. Burnett on the Blood-corpuscle-holding Cells. 375 a few moments into carbonate of soda, not, however, without some trace of the chlorid being present. Itis not my object to point to any special application of this decomposition, but it is one that may come into play in certain operations in analytical chemistry. Experiments were made with the sulphate of the alkalies, to see if the oxalic acid had any decomposing action on them, ex- pecting to test for free sulphuric acid, by the action of the solu- tion of the mass on zinc or iron, taking for granted that the pres- ence of oxalic acid alone would not cause the evolution of hydrogen gas. Experiment, however, showed that this manner of testing the question was fallacious, and no other method suggest- ing itself, it was impossible to decide the question positively ; suf- ficient was ascertained to show that if the sulphate was decom- gas being evolved ; the action ceases in a short time, from the formation of insoluble oxalate of zinc; with iron, the action is very feeble even when the solution is heated. The decomposing action of oxalic acid on the nitrates and chlorids of alkalies, appears to be due simply to the fact of a more stable acid being able to replace a more volatile one, and in no way measures the relative strengths of the acids; it being a well established fact that the physical as well as chemical pro- perties of acids have much to do with their capability of replacing each other ; a mere change of circumstances often reversing their relative action. Arr. XL.—On the Blood-corpuscle-holding Cells, and ther relation to the Spleen; by W. I. Burner, M.D., Boston. Tue history of the spleen is a remarkable one in physiological science. From the earliest times to the present day, it has been the opprobium of investigators, and the dignified old Haller, after searching in vain for its functional relations, concluded that it was an unimportant and unworthy part in the economy. No less than fifteen theories as to its use have been advanced and defended up to the present time ; these embrace every ostensible view of its func- tion, having any ground of plausibility. It can be easily conceived, then, that modern physiologists might conclude, when at last from emical and microscopical research, the true function of this 376 = =©Dr. Burnett on the Blood-corpuscle-holding Cells. organ should be made out, that it would be only one of the old theories revived. But this, modern ingenuity has shown may not be the case; for, quite recently a theory has been advanced on this subject, which is unique and in no respect like any of the preceding. KoOlliker, the distinguished Wurtzburg professor of anatomy and physiology, maintains that the spleen is the blood- destroying organ. It is indeed a significant question in physiology —what becomes of all the blood-corpuscles that have been used in the system? We find no traces of their decay in the blood- vessels, and, from all the appearances in the circulation, they never ass away. After they have served their part as oxygen-carriers, where is their final resting place? Kdlliker supposes that this refuge is in the spleen, an organ in which they congregate, as- sume the form of globular masses, then crumble and are dissolved, passing off for a biliary or some other purpose. This point opens for discussion several interesting topics, chief among which is the modus operandi by which Kolliker thinks this process is accomplished. In order to understand this, the general relations and the inti- mate structure of the spleen must be briefly noticed. one of the Invertebrata possess this organ: but it may be said, in general, to be present in all the Vertebrata, for its doubtful ex- istence is with some of the Myxinoid fishes only, and even here it may well be questioned if the general rule does not hold good. It is evident, therefore, that the Vertebrata have relations in their economy on which the presence of this organ depends. This int, however, will be reserved for future discussion. In its gross aspect, the spleen appears as a red, pulpy organ, with white points here and there dotting its surface when its investing mem- brane is removed, or when its structure is exposed by an incision. This red, pulpy matter is composed chiefly of blood-vessels he in place by an intercellular or delicate parenchymatous substance made up of nucleated cells, and of peculiar muscular fibres which are of recent description. The white points are the Malpighian corpuscles, which consist of vesicles filled with granular, nucleated cells not unlike those found in the general parenchyma. Such is the intimate structure of this organ with the higher Vertebrata; but with the lower Vertebrata, it is much less complex, no Malpighian bodies being found. On the whole, the spleen is a vascular, parenchymatous organ, composed so largely of blood-vessels that it has much varla- bility of size in the same individual according to the flaccidity oF turgidity of these vessels. We will now proceed to the poin at issue in Kolliker’s theory of the function of this o In the splenic tissue of many animals, there are not unfrequently observed roundish or oval masses of a brownish color, and © Size varying from ;j, to ;;';5 of an inch in diameter. Dr, Burnett on the Blood-corpuscle-holding Cells. 377 appear to be aggregations or collections of blood-corpuscles which may or may not be invested with a distinct capsule. These cor- puscles are in some stage of didingamnicle and appear more or less brown, as this dissolution proceeds. ‘hese bodies, Kélliker thinks occur very generally and constantly ithe spleen, and he supposes that, by them, this orgs n serves for the working up of old worn out blood- -corpuscles.* need scarcely say that so novel a theory, and one, too, with such ostensible plausibility, has attracted the attention and pro- voked much discussion among physiologists. Indeed, I know of no special subject in physiology, that has received more attention from some of the best Microscopists, than this; Remak, Ecker, Virchow, ee Reichert, Kolliker, aud many others, have given it special attention, and already its literature is not insignificant. I cannot here give an analysis of the somewhat different results of these observers, but it may be mentioned that although all admit that bodies such as I have described, do occur in the spleen, yet none of them, as I understand, accept Kélliker’s hypothesis of their dunabecis a and all have not observed them with that freqnency and constancy mentioned by Kélliker. As for myself, I have earef ‘lly examined the spleen throughout the Ver- tebrata, with special reference to the doctrine in question. These examinations have extended through whole tribes of fishes, rep- tiles, birds and mammals. J have “not found jm bodies by any means as common as Kolliker has stated ; indeed they have ap- peared to me under circumstances which seemed more accidental than normal, and, with comparatively few exceptions, they were unenclosed by a distinct membraie. This was found to be the case especially with birds and reptiles. It is true that with the ‘rabbit and other rodents which [ have nates these bodies were regularly saccular when present, but they were of various sizes; and it is worthy of notice that, in cee ania’, blood, taken from other parts of the body, showed a disposition toa grouping of its corpuscles into masses of variable size n some reptiles I have found these bodies present at one time and absent at another, and with the frog, where Kolliker says they may be beautifully seen, I have generally failed to detect them. On the whole, then, my conclusion is, that the bloo ee . holding cells of Kalliker, are accidental rather than al p ductions, and that they sustain no relatious to the Caidatob of the spleen. [regard them as simple, minute extravasations of the blood into the spleen parenchyma, which may or may not be in- ted with a membrane according to the greater or less plas- ticity of the blood. * This view Kolliker Reecal oeit in 1847, but it was first enunciated in a complete form in 1849, in the art oe 8 the Cyclop, Anat. and Physiol. See literature. + I would except Gerlach, Bitard: see literature, beyond. Srconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—Nov. 1853. 48 378 Dr. Burnett on the Blood-corpuscle-holding Cells. This view is supported by many facts which have been ob- served in both physiology and pathology. If inflamed blood be drawn from the body and allowed to stand, there are, not unfre- quently, found at the bottom of the vessel, bodies consisting ap- parently of little sacs filled with blood-corpuscles. This is due to the fact that a certain number of corpuscles become collected into one mass and this last is then invested by a membrane com- posed of the blood-plasma. That this is the correct version is shown by the fact that these capsular bodies sometimes include other matters beside simple blood-corpuscles, and Kélliker himself mentions a case where, in an extravasation of blood into the commissura mollis, he found them containing pieces of cerebral substance. I would mention also, that I have observed these conditions distinctly marked in some blood of an elephant, which was recently examined. My opinion, finally, is like that of Remak, that these peculiar bodies are minute blood-clots, (Blutgerinnsel) of accidental oc- currence, and of no physiological significance. At now remains for me to notice in this connection another sub- ject, to which the one we have just treated is somewhat allied. I mean the so-called pigment-holding cells of Remak. ‘he his- tory and relations of these bodies have been brought out re- cently by the discussion of the constituents of the spleen to which we have just alluded. If the spleen of fishes is examined, there will be found on the sheath of some of its smaller arteries, roundish or oval bodies, which consist of a thick-walled capsule enclosing pigment granules. These are the bodies in question ; they have not unfrequently been mistaken for the Malpighian corpuscles. They are tough, and the last parts of the spleen to be perfectly closed sacs, and have no communication with the artery on which they rest. The constancy of their presence, as well as the general regular- ity of their size in individual species, would lead me to agree with Remak in considering them as true physiological organs. They The following appears to be the most probable view of the function of the spleen in the economy, as elucidated by the more modern microscopical studies. _ * For figures of these bodies, see,— Killiker, Article Spleen, Cyclop. Anat. rs br 1849—Ecker, R. wanes Icones ; . , Lirg. I, 1851, Taf. vi—Remak, , Arch. 1852, p. 115 Taf. v, fig. 4, Dr. Burnett on the Blood-corpuscle-holding Cells. 379 I think there can now be but little doubt that the systematic position of the spleen is in the category of ductless glands,—be- longing, as to its physiological signification, with the Supra-renal capsules and the Thymus and Thyroid bodies. Its structure and its development, both, indicate the correctness of this view. Experiments have shown that, whatever may be its function, the presence of the spleen is far from — indispensable in the body or even necessary for its health.* whole history of its formation and development i in the embryo, Jeane shows that it the a of incubation is over. Its relations to the conan then do not begin until ii animal has commenced to have a nutrition of its own. In this respect, therefore, it is inverse to the other duetless glands; fos: as has been well shown by Ecker and other observers, the Thymus and Thyroid bodies, and the Supra-renal capsules, are truly embryonic organs, and cease to perform any function in the individual animal. I would, therefore, say that the whole tenor of present research upon this organ, combined with many incidental pathological phenomena, favor the view that the spleen has functional relations in the adult life, corresponding to those of the other ductless glands, just mentioned, in the embryo; that is, it is intimately connected with the formation of the red-corpuscles of the blood. I would not say with Gerlach and Schaffuert that it is the locality where these SE aa are formed,—but rather that it has more the office of a lymphatic gland where the plastic materials of the blood are prepared and unis fence for their conversion into the red- -corpuscles ; or, to speak more to the point, it is one of the organs in which isle ugascien: are formed and eliminated bee paratory to their being changed into, or rather serving as the basis for the formation of, the true red- -corpuscles. The Malpighian Vesicles are undoubtedly prominent agents in these processes, and Gray has shown that their development here is precisely like that of the vesicles in the Thymus and Thyroid glands. In this con- nection should also be mentioned the fact of the existence of the spleen is most prominent in those vertebrates which have the ted constituents of the blood most marked, while with the Myxi- * The sensible remark of Haller is well worthy of quotation in this connection “In utilem aliquam partem corporis animalis esse, tam laté per divisas species r nantem, indignum est dictu.”—. physiolog. vi, 426. ‘ {Se rey On Oe evelopment of the dct on -waercngpronties gg Philos. Trans, 1852, part ii, ; t See literature, beyond. 380 Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California. noid fishes, whose blood quite resembles that of the Articulata, the spleen is so feebly developed that its existence was for a long _ time denied. These data are worthy of remembrance, and without a more detailed discussion, I think we are justified in concluding, if any conclusion is now proper, that the spleen is a vascular-lymphatic gland, whose function is intimately connected with the forma- tion of the blood, by the elaboration of chyle-products. Literature of the Blood-corpuscle-holding Cells. fre Miiller’s Arch. 1834 k, Diagnostische 99 Patiogenctische Untersuchungen. Berlin, 1845, 117, — * Mii ae Arch, te — Mill Arch, 1 ose: Killike, Mittheil d, Zirich ie cee Juni, 1847. le and Pfeufer'’s saan ntce pln vit, 261, — Cyelop. Anat. and Phys., Art. ‘pleas; cic Bola a nd Killiker’s Zeitsch. £ wiss. Zool, i, 1849, 260, — ee ii, 1850, 115. Mikroskopische Anat. li, 1852, 253 Eeker, as 2 ret a Zeitsch. f. rat, Med, i iv, 1847, 261, —+— Ibid — Wagner's H andw, d, Phys. iv, ed gi, Landes Beitr. z. Lehre v. d. Verricht. d. Mila, *Ziirich, 1847. Virchow, Arch. f. pa th. Anat i, 1847, p. 3 379, anil ii, 1849, 9, 587, Gerlach, Henle and Pfeufer’ § Lailech, f. rat. Med. vii, 1848, 75. —- Gew eeu. Pe pg 848, 2 Schiffner, Henl a Pyeafors Zeitsch, f. rat., Med. vii, 345. Reichert, Miiller’s A esb, 2 Glare Gluge's Pathol. "histol 1850, "31, Glu bic Ginsburg, Miller's Arch. 1850, 167. ger F Vierteljahrachift, — ii, Anal. 18. ‘a snl Tbid. 1851, iii, Anal. Leydig, Beitr. zur mikr. Anat. u. ot eo Rochen u. Haie. ee 1s 58, 62, — Anat, histol, Untersiich. ib. Fische u. Reptilien. titers: 18 Wharton Jones, Brit. and For. oh ee Raivio: 1853, No. pan Arr. XLIL—E xrtraordinary Fishes from ratiecrite constilu- ting a new Family, described by L. Agassi Asout fifteen months ago, I received a letter from A. C. Jack- son, Esq., soon after his return from San Francisco, California, informing me that while fishing in San Salita Bay, he had caught with the hook and line, a fish of the perch family, containing liv- ing young. The statement seemed so extraordinary, that though an outline of the specimen observed was enélosed, I suspected some mistake, and requested Mr. Jackson to furnish me further information upon what he had actually seen, and if possible speci- mens of the fish preserved in alcohol. To ose ine the following answer : S : he ee Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California. 381 “T regret much that the information which I sent you avails so little, without the actual specimens of the fish and young; these however, I have already taken active measures to obtain, | and trust before many months to be able to send you at least specimens of the female, if not of the young. I should at the time I caught the fish have preserved them in alcohol, but at that time I was attached to the Navy Yard commission, and was with my comrades industriously prosecuting the examination of the vicinity of San Salita, as to its adaptiveness for a navy yard, and could not leave for San Francisco without suspending the work, and the means for preserving the fish could not be otherwise pro- cured. This explains the apparent culpable indifference which allowed me to omit preserving the specimens. I have sent direc- tions to California to have caught for me several of the’ fish, and if at the present time (September 16th, 1852) the females were pregnant (which is not probable) to take from one the bag con- taining the young, and put mother and young in the jar of alcohol, and to put several other females untouched, into the jar also. These specimens will by direction and examination even if they be not pregnant, and if the jar contains no young, determine the truth and accuracy of the statement I made in my former letter on the subject. This fact proved by these specimens, it will be very easy to obtain during the next spring and summer, specimens in all stages of pregnancy. I think, if 1 remain in the country, he fish I refer to, in my opinion, does not exist in very great numbers even in the waters of San Salita Bay, for the two which I caught on this occasion were the only ones which I fell in with, though I fished in the same place probably four times. ‘There was a little peculiarity perhaps in the circumstance of my taking them asI did. 1 had previous to this time, tried my rod and line, as I mentioned before, four times, always wit success as regards groupers, perch, &c., without a sight of the singular fish under consideration. A few days, perhaps a week, after the four trials, and on the 7th of June, 1 rose early in the morning for the purpose of taking a mess of fish for breakfast, pulled to the usual place, baited with crabs, and commenced fish- ing, the wind blowing too strong for profitable angling ; never- theless on the first and second casts, I fastened the two fishes, male and female, that I write about, and such were their liveli- ness and strength, that they endangered my slight trout rod. I however succeeded in bagging both, though in half an hours sub- sequent work I got not even a nibble from either this or avy other species of fish. 1 determined to change the bait, to put upon my hook a portion of the fish already canght, and cut for that purpose into the largest of the two fish caught. 1 intended to take a piece 382 Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California, from the thin part of the belly, when what was my surprise to see coming from the opening thus made, a small live fish. This 1 at first supposed to be prey which this fish had swallowed, but. on further opening the fish, I was vastly astonished to find next to the back of the fish and slightly attached to it, a long very light violet bag, so clear and so transparent, that I could already distinguish through it the shape, color and formation of a multi- tude of small fish (all fac-similes of each other) with which it was well filled. I took it on board (we were occupying a small vessel which we had purchased for surveying purposes, ) when I opened the bag, I took therefrom eighteen more of the young fish, pre- cisely like in size, shape, and color, the first I had accidentally extracted. The mother was very large round her centre, and a a very dark brown color, approaching about the back and on the fins a black color, and a remarkably vigorous fish. 'The young which I took from her were in shape, save as to rotundity, per- fect miniatures of the mother, formed like her, and of the same general proportions, except that the old one was (probably owing to her pregnancy) much broader and wider between the top 0 the dorsal and the ventral fins, in proportion to her length than the young were. As to color they were in all respects like the mother, though the shades were many degrees lighter. Indeed, they were in all respects like their mother and like each other, the same peculiar mouth, the same position and shape of the fins, . and the same eyes and gills, and there can not remain in the mind of any one who sees the fish in the same state that I did, a single doubt that these young were the offspring of the fish from whose body I took them, and that this species of fish gives birth to her young alive and perfecily formed, and adapted to seeking its own livelihood in the water. The number of young in the bag was nineteen, (I fear I mistated the number in my former letter, ) and every one as brisk and lively and as much at home in a bucket of salt water, as if they had been for months accustomed to the water. 'The male fish that was caught was not quite as large as the female, either in length or circumference, and alto- gether a more slim fish. I think we may reasohably expect to receive the specimens by the first of December. But I can hardly hope to get satisfactory specimens of the fish as I found it with young well grown, before the return of the same season, VIZ, June. By that time [ trust the facts will be fully decided, and the resulis, as important as they may be, fully appreciated.” In a subsequent letter, (dated January 31, 1853,) Mr. Jackson informed me that he had requested Capt. Case, U.S. N., who commanded a sloop of war in San Francisco, and whe had also seen the fish, to supply my friend 'T. G. Cary, Junr., Esq; of San Francisco, with specimens of that fish, should he succeed in getting any. I wrote myself also to Mr. Cary, to be on the look out for this fish. : : Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California. 383 About a fortnight ago, I was informed by Mr. Cary, in a letter dated San Francisco, August 10, 1853, that after a search of sev- eral months he had at last succeeded in obtaining several speci- mens of this remarkable fish, three of which were sent by ex- press, (which have reached me lately), while a larger supply was shipped round Cape Horn. After a careful examination of the specimens, I have satisfied myself of the complete accuracy of every statement contained in Mr. Jackson’s letter of February, 1852, and I have since had the pleasure of ascertaining that there are two very distinct species of this remarkable type of fishes, among the specimens forwarded to me by Mr. Cary. I propose for them the generic name of Embiotoca, in allusion to its very peculiar mode of reproduction. feel some hesitation in assigning a family name to this type. It is probable that all its members will present the same peculiar- ity in their mode of reproduction, and that therefore the name #’m- biotoca may with perfect propriety be modified into E’mbiotocoide, as Didelphis has given its name to a numerous family, the Didel- phyide, after having been for a long time simply a generic name. Should it however be found that other types of this family present Various modifications in their vivaporous reproduction, for whic the name Embiotocoide might be objectionable, I would propose we parallel to the base of the posterior dorsal fin, separating the scales which cover the base 2 = rays, from those of the sides of the body and name it Holcon The perseverance and caeikion with which Messrs. — and Cary have for a considerable length of time been watching every opportunity to obtain the necessary materials for a pelonitife examination of these wonderful fishes, has induced me to com- memorate the service they have thus rendered to zoology by in- scribing with their names the two species now ity my hands, and which may be seen in = museum in Cambridge, labelled Emb. Jacksoni and Emb. Car A country a idiathics such novelties in our days, bids fair to enrich science with many other unexpected facts, and what is ene ie of California, is in some measure equally true of all our waters. This ought to stimulate to renewed exertions not clap our naturalists, but all the lovers of nature and of science in this country. Family Holconoti or Embiotocoide. The general appearance of the fishes upon which this family is founded, is that of our larger species of Pomotis, or rather that of the broader types of Sparoids. Their body is compressed, ~ covered with scales of medium size. The scales are cycloid, * 384 Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California. which respect they differ widely from those fishes they resemble most in external appearance. e opercular pieces are without spines or serratures. Branchiostegal rays six. The mouth is en- circled by rather thick lips; the intermaxillaries forming b themselves the whole margin of the upper jaw. The intermax- illaries and upper maxillaries are slightly protractile. Teeth only upon the intermaxillaries, lower maxillaries and pharyngeals; none either upon the palatines or the vomer. In this respect, as well as in the absence of spines and serratures upon the opercular pieces, they differ much more from the Percoids, than from the paroids ; but the cycloid scales remove them at once from the latter, in which the scales present a very uniform ctenoid type. The thick lips might remind one of the Labroids, but the scales of the Embiotoca are neither elongated, nor provided with the characteristic branching tubes of that family. One long dorsal fin, the anterior portion of which is supported by spinous rays, and the posterior by numerous articulated branch- ing rays, which are sheathed at the base by two or three rows of scales, separated from those of the body by a rather broad and deep scaleless furrow. This last peculiarity has not yet been ob- served in any fish, as far as I know. There is indeed a distinct longitudinal space parallel to the soft portion of the dorsal, nearly of the width of a single row of scales, which is entirely naked and well defined, forming as it were, a furrow between the scales of the back, and those which rest against the base of the fin rays. Though protected in this way by a kind of sheath, the anterior part of the dorsal fin alone can be folded backwards and en- tirely concealed between these scales, as in many Sparoids; the posterior part only partially so. Moreover, the scales of the sheath are separated by a furrow from those of the back, only along the se of the soft part of the dorsal fin. The first rays of the anal fin are short, comparatively small and spinous. ‘The base of this fin is strangely arched, and sheathed between scales, in the same manner as the dorsal ; the spinous rays when folded back being more fully concealed in the sheath than the soft rays. The ventrals are subthoracic as in the Sparoids, and provided with a strong spinous and five soft rays. : “our branchial arches, supporting four complete branchie with two rows of lamelle in each. The opening behind the last arch is very small and entirely above the base of the pectoral fins. Pseudobranchia very large, and composed of sixteen or seventeen lamelle. The alimentary canal is remarkably uniform in width for its whole length. It extends first on the left side as far back as the ventrals, turns forwards and upwards to the right, then follows the middle line along the large air bladder, to the seconc third of the abdominal cavity, then bends along the right side down- ward and slightly forwards almost to meet the fi Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California. 385 turns backwards again, and ends in a straight course at the anus. The stomach can not at all be distinguished externally from the small intestine by its size and form. There are no cecal append- ages at all in any part of the intestine. The whole alimentary canal contained large numbers of shell fragments of small Mytili. The liver has two lobes, a short one on the left side, and a long one along the middle line of the body. The female genital apparatus, in the state of pregnancy, con- sists of a large bag, the appearance of which in the living animal has been described by Mr. Jackson; upon the surface of it large vascular ramifications are seen, and it is subdivided internally into a number of distinct pouches, opening by wide slits into the lower part of the sack. This sack seems to be nothing but the widened lower end of the ovary, and the pouches within it to be formed by the folds of the ovary itself. In each of these pouches a young is wrapped up as in a sheet, and all are packed in the most economical manner as far as saving space is concerned, some having their head turned forwards, and others backwards. This opening is situated behind the anus, upon the summit and in the centre of a conical protuberance formed by a powerful sphincter, kept in its place by two strong transverse muscles attached to the abdominal walls. ‘The number of young contained in this sack seems to vary. Mr. Jackson counted nineteen; I have in proportion to the mother. In a specimen of Emb. Jacksoni, 103 inches long, and 43 high, the young were nearly three inches long and one inch high; and in an Emb. Caryi, eight inches long, and 34 high, the young were 23 inches long, and iths of an inch high. Judging from their size, I suspected for some- time that the young could move in and out of this sack like young opossums, but on carefully examining the position of the young in the pouches, and also the contracted condition of the sphincter at the external orifice of the sexual organs, I re- mained satisfied that this could not be the case, and that the young Mr. Jackson found so lively after putting them ina bucket of salt water, had then for the first time come into free contact with the element in which they were soon to live; but at the same time, it can hardly be doubtedethat the water penetrates into the marsupial sack, since these young have fully developed gills. The size of the young compared with that of the mother is very remarkable, being full one-third its length in the one, and nearly so in the other species. Indeed these young Embiotoce, not yet hatched, are three or four times larger than the young of a Pomo- tis (of the same size) a full year old. In this respect these fishes Srconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—-Nov. 1853. 49 386 Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California. differ from all the other viviparous species known to us. There is another feature about them of considerable interest, that while the two adult differ markedly in coloration, the young have the same dress, light yellowish olive with deeper and brighter trans- verse bands, something like the young trouts and salmons in their Parr dress. ‘The transversely banded species may therefore be considered as inferior to the other, since it preserves through life the system of coloration of the embryo. — It will be a matter of deep interest to trace the early stages of growth of these fishes, to examine the structure of the ovary. and the eggs before fecundation takes place, etc., etc. The state of preservation of the specimens in my hands, precluded every such investigation. hough I know thus far only one single genus of this type, I do not think it right to combine the generic characters with those of the family, as is generally done in such cases, as I would also object to the practice of omitting any specific characteristics where only one species is known of a genus. This showsan entire mis- apprehension of the relative value and subordination of the char- acters of animals. I would therefore characterize as follows the genus E'mbiotoca, Agass. _ Body much compressed and elevated. Head small, with scales only on the cheeks and opercular pieces. Teeth in both jaws, jaws, and arranged like pavement. Dorsal fin with nine or more spinous rays. ‘T’he first three rays of the anal fin, spinous, and much shorter than the following articulated rays, which are always finer and more numerous than the corresponding rays of the dorsal fin. The lateral line is continuous to the base of the caudal fin. Whether the peculiar mode of reproduction is a family or a generic character, remains to be ascertained by further Investigations. It is however probable that with some slight modifications it will be found the same in all the members of the family. Some differences between the two species observed, might ren- der it doubtful whether they ought to be considered as belonging to as many distinct genera or not. But we know that in genera differing greatly from others, ®he range of the specific differences is also wider than in genera with many species; so until I am taught differently by new discoveries, I would refer them both to the same genus. Such doubts could scarcely be enter- tained respecting families with many genera, where a standard to estimate genuine generic differences is easily obtained. Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California. 387 1, E'mbiotoca Jacksoni, Agass. The body is quite high, of an oval form, greatly compressed and similarly arched above and below. The superior arch extends to the posterior base of the dorsal fin, whence it continues in a hori- zontal line to the base of the tail. The ventral arch of the body is similar to that of the dorsal outline. The profile from the dorsal nto the end of the snout, is rather precipitate and regularly arched, except obliquely above and in front of the eyes, where it is slightly concave. The greatest height of the body, including the dorsal fin, is equal to the distance from the end of the snout to the extremity of the pectoral. The greatest thickness of the body is equal to one-fourth its height. The head is of moderate size, its length, measuring to the posterior angle of the opercle, being about one-fourth that of the entire fish. he mouth is quite small, the hind extremities of the intermaxillaries and maxillaries ex- tending not farther back than the line of the anterior border of the orbit. Buta small portion of the superior maxillary is exposed at the angle of the mouth. The anterior edge of that part of the snout into which the intermaxillaries fit, is on a horizontal line drawn immediately below the orbits. The upper jaw is slightly more prominent than the lower, the teeth of the latter fitting wethin those of the former. In the upper jaw there are fourteen or fifteen teeth; in the lower there are two or three less. They all are slightly swollen near the top, and are not pointed but rather blunt- ly edged. They do not extend to the angles of the mouth, but leave a space without teeth on each jaw. The teeth of the upper jaw are but little larger than those of the lower. The teeth of the pharyngeals are much shorter than those of the jaws, and form two quite moveable plates above, and a triangular one below. ‘There are not more than thirty teeth on each of the superior plates, and mostly truncated at the top. The four or five teeth, which form the inner row of each plate, are more prominent than the others, and somewhat pointed. The teeth of the inferior pharyngeal plate are similar to those of the upper, but the teeth of its posterior range are the most prominent, aud pointed. The lips are rather fleshy, and entirely conceal the teeth. Beneath the lower lip there is an elongated pit on each side, extending towards the cor- ners of the mouth; it is covered by a thin border of the lip. The distance from the end of the snout to the anterior border of the orbit, is greater than the diameter of the latter by one-third. The inferior margin of the orbit is on the middle longitudinal line of the body ; and its posterior border is half way between the en of the snout, and the posterior angle of the opercle. ‘The oper- cular pieces are large. On the preopercle are four concentric rows of scales; the two inner and anterior are the longer. ‘There are thirteen large scales in the row nearest the eye, and the number is 388 Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California. Jess and less in the others. Still within the row nearest the eye, there is a space without scales, aud marked by pores radiating from the edge of the orbit. The posterior and inferior border of the preopercle, outside of the ridge of the latter, is thin, membranous, and without scales, but marked with numerous pores or tubes similar to those around the orbits, and radiating from within out- wards. The opercle, subopercle, and interopercle are covered with scales, which decrease in size from the former to the latter. There is a narrow membranous border to the opercle, extending from its posterior angle to the height of the termination of the lateral line. The notch between the subopercle and interopercle is on a vertical line with the edge of the posterior border of the preopercle. There is a small patch of scales, nine or ten in number, immediately above the superior attachment of the preopercle. ‘The dorsal fin extends over about ths of the superior curve of the body ; its pos- point of each spine, the fin appears to extend backwards in a loose filament. There are 192 articulated rays in the dorsal fin: the superior outline of this part is nearly similar to that of the back, although the rays of its first halfare the longest, and nearly equal in length. The furrow on each side extends as far forwards as the base of the first articulated ray, where there are three rows of scales forming the sheath ; but the rows are reduced to one to- wards the posterior attachment of the fin. The pectoral fins are of rather large size, and are placed below the middle line of the body, as well as below the posterior angle of the opercle, They extend about as near to the anal fin, as do the ventrals. ‘The second ray of the pectoral is but slightly arched towards its extremity. There are twenty-one rays in each pectoral. The base of the ventrals is just in advance of the middle of this second ray of the pectoral. The spinous ray of the ventrals is $ths the length of the following articulated ray. There is a long plate of scales between the ventrals. The anal fin is broad and com- posed principally of fine slender rays. The last and longest of of the tail. The candal fin is deeply forked; it contains fourteen rays, omitting its outer and short rays. ‘There are eight rows of scales between the lateral line and the spinous portion of the dorsal fin, and eighteen rows below the lateral line in the same region. Sixty scales in the lateral line. Color uniformly dark live brown, along the back, fading slightly upon the sides; dor- Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California. 389 sal black, mottled with white; caudal blackish, lighter upon the base; anal deep black, with a light longitudinal band; pectorals white ; ventrals black with light base. From the above description, it must be obvious that this is the species first observed by Mr. A. C. Jackson, to whom I have in- scribed it, or at least a species very closely allied to it. There is only one fact about it which surprises me, that while he observed mature young in it on the 7th of June, Mr. T. G. Cary should have found it still with young as late as the beginning of Au- gust. Again Mr. Jackson saw nineteen young in it, whilst in the specimens forwarded by Mr. Cary, I found only eight or nine young, which were transversely banded like Emb. Caryi. May 2. Embiotoca Caryi, Agass. The body is much more elongated than in Embiotoca Jacksoni yet equally compressed. Its height, including that of the dorsal fin, is less than the distance from the end of the snout to the ex- tremity of the pectoral; and less than one-half the length of the fish. The profile is much less steep, and the snout quite as promi- nent, hence the head is longer than high. The posterior border of the orbit is nearer the angle of the opercle than the end of the snout. ‘The upper and lower curves of the body are equal, and approach more nearly towards the tail, making this latter narrower than in the first species. ‘I'he scales of the back do not descend upon the head lower than one-half the distance from the first spine of the dorsal to the end of the snout. The forehead is slightly concave as in Emb, Jacksoni. The posterior end of the intermaxillary does not extend as far back as the anterior border of the orbit. ‘The nature of the lips, and extent of the upper max- illary is much as in the other species, but the anterior edge of border of the orbit.’ A vertical line through the orbit shows the height of the head in this region to be one-third less than in E. Jacksoni. ‘The opening of the mouth is directed more obliquely 390 Prof. Agassiz on Viviparous Fishes from California. upwards. The teeth are more slender, but have otherwise the same form. In the upper jaw there are twelve, in the lower eight teeth. ‘The nasal openings are of tolerable size; one before the other, and in advance of the eye, but slightly below the line of its superior border. The vertical diameter of the orbit is less than its longitudinal ; and its posterior border is nearer the angle of the opercle than the snout. The preopercle in this species is less rectangular than in the former. The inferior rounded angle of its ridge is in advance of the posterior margin of the orbit. The scales of the preopercle are also much smaller and less conspicu- ous. Tubes radiate from the border of the orbit and from the ridge of the preopercle, as in Emb. Jacksoni. The posterior mem- branous border of the opercle is narrower: the notch between the subopercle and interopercle is on the vertical line of the posterior border of the preopercle. There is a patch of scales above the superior attachment of the preopercle. The dorsal fin differs very little in form from that of the former, but extends somewhat far- ther forwards, its first spine being immediately over the posterior angle of the opercle. The distance from this spine to the end o the snout equals the distance from the same back to the ninth ar- ticulated ray. ‘The posterior rays of the articulated portion, are shorter than in the first species, but they are more numerous by three rays. The pectoral has twenty-one rays; it is perhaps longer than in the other. The ventrals differ little. The anal fin how- ever, differs greatly : it is very small and contracted, and is placed far behind the ventrals. The scales at its base form a waved out- line much more marked than in E. Jacksoni. The spinous rays are very short, the last being less than one half the length of the following articulated ray, the base of which latter is directly un- der that of the fifteenth corresponding ray of the dorsal fin. _ Its posterior base and termination are as in the first species. The Color light olive, darker along the back ; light brown Iongi- tudinal bands extend between the rows of scales, and darker trans- verse bands reach from the back to the sides of the body, not ex- tending below the lateral line in the anterior part of the trunk, with black and white. Anal with a large diffuse black mark upon lighter ground. Peetorals white. Ventrals white at the base, terminated with black. Only one female has been observed, containing eight young. This species was discovered by T. ary in : the Bay of San Francisco, in the beginning of August 1853. J.D. Dana on a supposed change of Ocean Temperature. 391 Arr. XLIL—On a change of Ocean Temperature that wou attend a change tn the level of the African and South American Continents ; by James D, Dana. Tue idea of a change of climate consequent upon a change in the distribution of land and water on the globe, brought Bs ability and precision, by Pro - Hopkins, especially with i Be to the Northern Atlantic. As there is profit in this consideration of possibilities whether we can prove the actual occurrence of the supposed events or not, we briefly remark in this place upon another geological change that would affect the temperatures of both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. pon the oceanic isothermal chart issued with the last number dered by cold waters; and that while in the Pacific, 80° F. is the coldest temperature of the year in mid-ocean, towards South merica, even under the equator, the ocean temperature of 74° is not found, in the cold season, short of a distance of 2500 miles rom the c We besa also remarked upon the evidence that a similar south- ern or extratropical current affects the temperature of the whole Southern Atlantic, me page 320) and makes this literally the cold ocean of the t is moreover sah ol from the temperature of the waters off lantic ; the positions of the lines of 68° and 74° in the two regions make this sufficiently apparent. It is also obvious, that the South American Continent, by extending so far south, —22 degrees, or 1300 miles, beyond the south point of Africa, —should necessarily intercept to a large extent the antarctic current, and thus occasion In connection with other causes, the northern flow that influences So widely the temperature of the waters off this coast. The posi- tion of the isocryme of 35°, shows that this same current flows on, rising somewhat northward towards Cape of Good Hope; yet the African continent lies so far to the north, that it can in fact inter- cept but a —_ part of the southern current, which consequently to a large extent passes on south of the Cape ; yet this small part produces a pn BiH effects pointed out.* * We find that at the recent meeting of the British Association, Mr. A. G. Find- lay, in the course of a paper on the oceanic currents of the Atlantic and — takes the common view that the — tae is the origin 0 clin flows up the West African coast, a view shown on page 322 eckn wae 392 J.D. Dana ona supposed change of Ocean Temperature. s se now, that by a change of level, America were to ter- minate in latitude 34° S., and Africa in latitude 56° S.: the rela- tion of the two, and of the cold influences of the currents adjoin- ing, would be entirely changed. The vast area in the South Pa- cific, embraced between the west South American coast and the isocryme of 74°,—which marks the influence in the colder season of the cold southern waters, though not by any means its extreme limit,—would, if transferred to the Atlantic equatorial regions, stretch nearly or quite across from Guinea to the East Cape of South America; and the line of 68° would sweep around north of the equator quite to mid-ocean. The actual extent of the change may be perceived with close accuracy if we transfer the isocrymal lines off this part of Western America to the Atlantic. In the Pacific, under the same circumstances, the line of 68° would nowhere reach within several degrees of the equator. The distribution of marine life would be greatly changed. While now the west coast.of South America is, as regards the ocean, one of the coldest regions for the latitude in the world, it would become very much moderated, and a considerable portion of coast would be bordered by tropical waters. Along by Lima, and far south, there might be coral reefs. In the Atlantic, on the contrary, the Gulf of Guinea now characterized by torrid waters, would be filled with the colder seas of the temperate zone, and true tropical life would be altogether excluded. e influence also on the Gulf Stream would be very decided and the whole North Atlantic would feel the change. It is a remarkable fact that while the west coast of America is bordered in the tropical part by cold waters, 10° to 12° below the mean of mid-ocean, and the marine zoology is hence extratropical, the temperature of the land is peculiarly torrid over the same lati- tudes. It is evident that in judging of the influence of the ocean temperature on the temperature of the land, the direction of the aerial currents for the year, should be considered as a most import- ant element towards any just conclusions. Although we cannot show that the supposed change of level in the continents has taken place, we may learn from the facts what vast changes in marine life, have happened in past ages, through such changes of level as have occurred in the earth’s history. The changes on the land from this cause would be less marked ; besides, these have had far less influence on the life of ‘the rocks than those of the ocean, as the fossiliferous rocks are mainly of marine origin. We know that in the cretaceous and tertiary. _ periods, the Andes were in part under water, or at a much lowet level, and effects of the kind considered, cannot be altogether hypothetical. Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 393 Arr. XLIII.—Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physi- ology ; by Waxpo I. Burnett. I. (1.) Theorie der Befructhung und iiber die Rolle, welche die Sper- matozdiden dabei spielen; von Dr. Ta. Lupw. WitHELM Biscuorr, —in Miller’s Arch. 1847. p. 422-443. (2.) On the rato gnation of the Ovum in the Amphibia, and the direct agency of the Spermatozoon ; (1st Series.) ies pee Transactions, 1851, p. 169 ; “2nd Series revised. ) Pro mote Royal Society, June 17, 1852 ; by GEorce Newrort, F.R.S., &., &c. (3.) De Spermatozoorum peep in ovula. Aditomenta ad , nae giam Generationis. e Gottn. Aue. Fer &ec. Ac- cedunt Ixxxi figurae eee textui Aa ag in Iv Tabulas collecte. 4to, pp. 118. Regiomonti Prussorum, MpcccLul. Wirth every inquiring mind there is a deep interest connected with the development of animal life. ‘To watch the origin and rise of new forms, to trace the successive phases through which they pass, as the ideas on which they are based become more and more definitely expressed, until finally the perfect animal is produced,—these have been avorite studies from the earliest times with some of the most genial minds, and over which they were accustomed to dwell with increasing delight. But more in- teresting still, because more wonderful, is the study of those neces- sary —: ~s all individual development—the mysterious conditions of fecundation. ‘To observe, after nature has prepare the material, few ae puts up a new structure and to trace the adaptive idea in the laying of each part, require un opportunity united with careful diligence and patience. But to lift the veil beneath which lie hidden the more than mysterious relations of individuality, this is to tread on the confines which separate the material from the immaterial world. There is no question in physiology so difficult and at the same time so interesting as—How is a new individuality started by the conjugation of the sexes; and whibiio so little could be ob- served, there has been more scope for speculation. In modern times, however, with certainly better Risresie m if not better eet He ah we have looked for less ore limitation of that which can be perceived by the senses, is the real confine between the known and the unknown in physical science. . We have selected the above-cited works, because they comprise some of the most important’ recent contributions upon a subject we here propose to take up in asomewhat discursive manner. As it would be profitless to notice the —_ of those numerous men, Srconp Seriss, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—Nov., 1 50 394 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. who, in this department have written upon what they really knew nothing, yet speculated much, we shall attempt to show the state of our real knowledge on this ultimatissimum of physiology —the modus operandi of fecundation. Modern histological studies, have we think, pretty definitely settled two fundamental and important points: Ist. That the ovum is, morphologically, only a nucleolated cell; and 2nd. That the sperm-cell is the true homologue of the ovum. The ovum (fecundated) produces the embryo; the sperm-cell the spermatic particle. The embryo and the spermatic particle are the correlative representatives of the female and the male sex. One is the metamorphosed nucleus (vitellus) of the one; the other the metamorphosed nucleus (nucleus of the daughter-cell) - of the other. In both, the ovum and sperm-cell, the process of segmentation seems a necessary preliminary to the evolution of the new being.* The strict correlation between the essential products of the sexes is as wonderful as it is beautifully suggestive of the unity and simplicity of plan by which nature proceeds. This point, so seductive in all its relations, might be dwelt upon in detail, but we will continue with main and general facts. The ovum, asa nucleated or nucleolated cell, continues to grow, and whatever size it may attain to by the endogenous formation within its capsule of new cells, yet, when complete, it is, (even though belonging to the Ostrich or Epiornis, ) morphologically, only a great compound nu- cleated or nucleolated cell. All these conditions of origin, growth and maturity, can be satisfactorily studied in the lower animals, and we would especially recommend the compound Ascidie for this purpose. The ovum, thus complete, is ready for fecundation. We have already said that the sperm-cell is the analogue, or more properly homologue, of the ovum; its origin and evelop- ment, as we have traced them in all their details, are precisely the same as those of the ovum. The sperm-cell increases to a defi- nite size, its nucleus (vitellus) then regularly segments 2, 4, 8, 16, é&c., and the results of this segmentation, are daughter-cells. The condition of the sperm-cell at this moment is like that of the ovum produced by the same process of segmentation. I mean the mul berry-like condition. But at this point there is a digression, for with the sperm-cell the nucleus of each of the daughter-cells 18 changed into a spermatic particle, while with the ovum, the whole mass is metamorphosed into the new being by a process of substitution. he spermatic particle, then, is only a metamorphosed nucleus of acell, and, perhaps, were the analogy carried out completely, each daughter-cell would be the representative of a miniature ovum. *See Researches on the origi of the spermatic ae among the Saphire Voce ton deen dpel. 2 84% Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 395 Physiologically, the phenomena we have thus briefly de- scribed, obtain equally in the vegetable kingdom ; for, as re- cent discoveries have shown, even in the simplest cellular plants there is a conjugation of two kinds of cells, the product of whic terminates in a new generation ; and in the other plants, the su- perior Cryptogamia, and the Phanerogamia, there are parts which in a developmental as well as a morphological point of view, correspond to the essential male and female products of animals.* Throughout the organized world, therefore, the conditions which wait upon the true generative process are the same—the com- bination of the representative products of two distinct sexes—an these products, whatever may be said of their form, are always physiologically the same ;—they are cells or cell- -produets. e would make a general statement which embodies a great deal of physiology on thissubject: A true generation must e regarded as resulting only from the conjugation of two opposite sexes, from a sexual process in which the potential representatives of two individuals are united for the elimination of one germ. The germ power thus produced may be extended by gemmation or by fission, but it can be formed only by the act of generation, and its play of extension and prolongation by budding or by division must always be within a certain cycle, and this cycle is recommenced by the act of the new conjugation of the sexes. In this discussion, we have satisfactorily reached this point that the ovum and the spermatic particle are the potential representa- tives of the sexes to which they respectively belong. From their union results the condition of fecundation; the grand a now is, what is the modus operandi of this fecundating act we touch upon debatable ground, and the three authors with which we have headed these remarks are the advocates of as many dissimilar views. Bischoff’s view, based upon speculative probabilities rather than upon observation, is, that contact alone of the spermatic particle with the ovum being suflicient for fecun- Sahai impregnation consists in a kind of catalysis which has its empli fication in chemical conditions as enunciated by Liebig, falls very far short of affording the requisite explanation of these phenomena, as we hope soon to show. is his field of sxGhabilities and possibilities we shall enter upon agai Newport’s ait apace upon the or caesl phenomena of this subject are far the most complete that we have, and being the results of a most ae or observer, they deserve our special attention. ‘That his views may be the more clearly understood, * wonld refer to a profound] siological memoir by Robin, titled: «O its “hee ce as we in te ina ag ‘ke oeenie of vlan mae talieali? tee 9. 396 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. we quote his own language, as used in some of the conclusions which he has given. We will commence with the 5th, omitting oe 2 a ats four as irrelevant to our point in question: at only extremely minute granules of solid matter can pee ny vossibility pass into the tissue of the envelopes during en- dosmosis ; and that there is no evidence whatever of the existence of a fissure or orifice, in the envelopes of the egg of the amphibia, at the time of, or before impreguation, capable of admitting the spermatozoon to the interior of the yolk-membrane or its contents. “6th. That it is the spermatozoon alone which affects impreg- nation ; and that this does not take place until the spermatozoon is brought into immediate contact with the external layer of the ovum. “8th. That although direct contact of the spermatozoa with the ovum is indispensable to effect impregnation, I have never been able to detect any traces of these bodies in contact with the yolk-membrane, or even within the substance of the external en- velo “9th. That impregnation is commenced the instant the sper- matozoa are brought into contact with the egg, but a certain duration of contact i is essential to its completion. “10th. That impregnation is not effected, when the whole or the majority of the spermatozoa in contact with the envelopes have previously become motionless, and apparently have lost vitality, as they are found to have done after the lapse of a longer or epee! peri 11th. That although an exceedingly minute quantity of sper- matozoa suffice to impregnate the ovum, the phenomenon of im- pregnation takes place more tardily even “witls duration of contact, when the number is extremely limited, than when it is in full abundance, withoute excess ; while, when the quantity is deficient, or the duration of contact too limited, then the phenomenon Is in- CoMprers, and partial 1 impregnation only i is effected. 2th. Partial impregnation is shown in imperfect segmen- tation of the yolk ; and is due to the spermatozoa being insuffi- cient in quantity, or in duration of contact, or inefficient through diminished vitality ; : anid: it may also result from diminished sus- ceptibility in the ovum.’ Newport’s experiments and observations show, in: brief, that contact alone of the spermatic particles with the ovum is requisite 8 fecundation, that each ovum requires several particles ; an at there must be duration of this contact. Here is a limit to * In his second series, Newport says he has detected the ¥ ghee particles: within the coverings of the egz, and sometimes even partially im in the vitelline membrane neath them ;—but he had no evidence that they ace the vitelline cav- ity. We consider this fact of penetration within the envelopes as 0 o import in the question before us; for, as we hope to be able Se as a ll be regarded as contingent and not essential. Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 397 observation of physical facts, and we regard these important data worthy of full trust considering the source from which they come, This author discusses briefly the question of the nature of the im- pregnative power, and from the fact that the spermatic particles are sometimes seen to disappear on the surface of the egg-envel- opes, he thinks it may be fair to conclude that the agency of this body is material in its operation; on the other hand, the fact ofa mere momentary contact producing changes in the ovum, suggests in his mind the so-called catalytic power of certain known bodies. But he thinks that neither this last, nor endosmosis, are sufficient to account for the phenomena of this grand act. The view of Kéber, the last of the writers we have cited, has at least the merit of being unique if nothing more. As long ago as 1838, Martin Barry* announced that he had observed spermatic particles within the ovum. It should be mentioned however, that long previons to this, Prevost and Dumasf in their researches found these particles within the envelopes of the eggs of frogs. ut Keber’s alleged discovery is, that the introduction of the sper- matic particles within the ovum, takes place through a special opening, a kind of micropyle, or an infundibuliform passage. This discovery was made upon the eggs of mussels (Unio and An- odonta), and that I may furnish a correct idea of its formation and relations, I will quote some of his conclusions. After describing the formation of the eggs and sperm of these animals, he pro- ceeds :— “3d. At the procreative season, there arises from the eggs, becomes obliterated. “ Ath, After this, and sometimes even before, the albuminous and vitelline membranes coalesce at the point of the micropyle ; then the vitelline sac dehisces, and thereby the spermatic particle is received and enclosed in the very interior of the egg.” —(p. 107.) pon this sneceeds a description of the more or less Minute changes which are alleged to supervene upon these processes, such as the disappearance of the micropyle, the disintegration of * Barry, Philos. Transact., 1840, pt. ii, p. 582.—1843, pt. i, p. 83. + Prevost and Dumas, Ann. d, Se. Nat, ii, p. 233. . 398 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. The announcement of the presence of such a structure on the ovum is indeed wonderful, and more especally so since other ob- servers, whose attention has been particularly directed to the embryological study of these animals, have failed to notice it, although one would suppose that an apparatus of this kind must be very visible. Keber affirms that he has observed a like struc- ture in the ova of some other animals which he has examined. But, however well fortified he has sought to make his observa- tions, they certainly need more than the usual confirmation, and we cannot but regard it as far from being a settled fact in embry- ology, that the ovum has a direct structural communication exter- nally for the ingress of spermatic particles to its interior. After all this discussion of facts, we revert to the primary ques- tion, what is the nature of the fecundating act? We have seen that its physical phenomena consist in the contact of active vital spermatic particles with the mature ovum; that this mature ovum, thus affected, experiences peculiar changes which terminate finally in the evolution of a new being possessing the characteristics of the male as well as of the female parent. It is true that, as was observed by Prevost and Dumas, and as has since been confirmed by Barry, Newport, and others, the spermatic particles may force their way through the envelopes of the egg some distance into its interior, but we regard this as an unessential condition of the fecundatory act; adhering by their heads to the envelopes of the egg, the incessant action of the tails of these bodies would obvi- ously tend to force them inwards, and especially through such homogeneous, soft tissues as the egg-envelopes. As a point of some importance in this connection, it may be mentioned, that there are cases where’this intrusion of the sper- matic particle into the interior of the ovum does not seem avail- able from the very structure of the particle. Thus, with the Deca- pod Crustacea, these bodies consist each of a central nucleus to which are attached many long radiating processes ; moreover, in these animals, the motion of the spermatic particles ceases SO shortly after their escape from the body, that this entrance into the ovum would not be likely to be effected with even the most favorable perforating structure. It may also be here mentioned, that as motion is, with these particles, the only visible exponent of their vitality, it is highly probable that in these very same anl- mals, the merest contact suffices to fecundate the ovum. Even admitting the hypothesis of Keber and others, that the rmatic particlé is mixed de ipso with the contents of the ovum, it would explain nothing, and would approximate us not in the least to the nature of this process, for it is just as comprehensible that the spermatic particle should fecundate by mere contact, as that it should by a material mixing or even an interpenetration of its constituents with those of the ovum. So ,. Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 399 By referring to the resultant phenomena of this fecundating pro- cess, we may perhaps gain some insight into the conditional if not the real nature of itsagency. We have already said that the sper- matic particle is the potential representative of the male; what sig- nification is to be attached to its mere physical form, that is, whether it is conical, globular, &c., we know not; and this seems the more idden from our perceptions, from the fact that exactly similar forms and sizes,—in fact, physical relations apparently identical— belong to spermatic particles of animals as widely dissimilar as could be. This fact alone, of the correctness of which we are well assured from our own observations, should be sufficient to con- vince us that we have here to deal with no very simple relations or properties. But let us pursue the subject a little further. I lous conditions belong to the catalytic action ; or with Newport that they may be the exemplifications of a force, peculiar and sué generis. For there is something above and beyond the wakening of latent forces, of one particle that is positive with another that is negative. The grand fact is, that the act of fecundation in- cludes—whatever may be said of its also vitalizing the ovum—the communication or the transmission of the individuality of the pertaining to inorganic matter. T'o us the relations and conditions of cells, which are the primordial forms of organization, demand the teleological view of organic life.* Individuality is the distin- guishing feature of organization, and we recognize in it some- thing more than a mere collocation of physical conditions; we * See The Relations of Cells to the Physical and Teleological views of Organiza- tion, in this Journal, xv, 87, Jan. 1853. 400 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Phystology. regard it as an Idea which exists before organization, which last as only the language in which the Idea is expressed. ‘The con- ditions of this process of fecundation which we have just review- ed, will accept no other explanation, say what physiologists may about the unphysical character of such a view; we must have something beyond mere combination, which lies with physics ; this we have in development, which lies with life. In conclusion, we may say, that as the domain of science lies with demonstrable phenomena, so its legitimate study is with the sensible and tangible. ‘The conditions of immaterial agencies, and their relations with material forms, must be accepted as pure phenomena incapable of the analysis of ordinary scientific facts. But after all, how much more of an enigma is the process of fecundation than the essence, the primordial cause of everything connected with both the inorganic and organic world about us. Science should put out her long, tentacular arms in all directions, laying hold of the tangible and the sensible, but it should be re- ‘membered that the supra-sensible is beyond her pale, and that “multa esse constant in corpore quorum vim rationemque per- spicere nemo nist Qui fecit potest.” Il. Mikroscopische Anatomie oder Gewebelehre des Menschen ; von Dr. A. Kéuirxer, Professor der Anatomie und Physiologie in Wurtz- burg. Zweiter Band: Specielle Gewebelehre. Erste Halfte; von der Haut, den Muskeln, Knochen und Nerven, mit 168 Holzschnitten, ausgefiirht von J. G. Frecen, und vier litho- graphirten Tafeln. Zweite Hilfte. 1. Abtheilung. Von den Verdauungs-und Respirations- rganen. Mit 127 Holzschnitten, ausgefihrt von J. G. PLEGEL. 8vo, pp. 554, 346. Leipzig, 1850-52. The writings of Kélliker already mark an episode in the his- tory of physiological science. The department he has chosen, 1S Structure, in both its forming and its complete condition. This 1s a field which has been made worthy by the presence of most honor- able names, who have marked it all over with intersecting lines which here and there stretch out beyond the ordinary boundaries, it is now so extended that it would, indeed, be meritorious to prove a faithful pilgrim in the paths of others in this wide domain. The merit and peculiarity of Kdlliker is, that he has proved him- self both a pilgrim and a pioneer, and while he has pushed eX- ploringly upon hitherto untrodden ground, he has not, like many; been ignorant of what others before him have seen and done. Of the work before us nothing has appeared like it, since the * Allgemeine Anatomie” of Henle, nearly twelve years ago, 2” the work of Henle was no more remarkable then, than that of Killiker is now. Considering these two works, as we may, 19 4 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 401 measure, as corresponding books of their times, the difference in new matter or in newly developed points, as shown by an exam- ination of the Jatter, is.a satisfactory commentary on the progress of structural science during this brief period. The second volume of the Mikroskopische Anatomie is pub- lished before the first, a mode of proceeding which we do not like, but which is becoming not uncommon abroad. It of course enables the investigator to put that portion of his labors before the world which have been finished, and so far is very good, but we question if the work, as complete, is not thereby delayed. This second volume is devoted to special histology, and treats of the essential structure of the skin; or rather, more comprehen- sively, of the cutaneous system, of the bones, and the nervous sys- tem; these subjects are included in the first half. The first part of the second half, and all published that we have seen, treats of the digestive and respiratory organs; and when it is borne in mind that the histology of these two subjects occupies 900 pages, an idea will be entertained of the comprehensive manner in which they are taken up. ‘The limits of our prescribed space make it wholly out of the question to review such a work, for each of its subjects presents enough of new matter originally brought out, for a special examination. We shall be well content if we suc- first described its peculiarities, general and intimate, as a tissue of its kind or genus; then follows the details of its structnral analy~ innervation, its nutrition, and its connections with surrounding parts. You have then, Tissue: its structure, general, special, anatomy and physiology have been too much inclined to treat the human subject with its details as though its physical relations to the inferior animals, were as dissimilar as those of its mind, They would seem to forget that, zoologically, man is an animal, 8 51 Sxconp Serres, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—Nov,, 1 402 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. and therefore that his structures are but greater or less variations forms through which her different organic conditions are mani- fested ; thus, nervous tissue is the same, essentially,. wherever found in the animal kingdom, whether in the plant-like polyp or in man. he same may be said of other tissues, and when the student of structure has fairly seized hold of such grand facts, he has proceeded not a little way on his course. We cannot think of taking up any special portion of the work of Kélliker before us, not even ina general way, and quotations from so succinct a treatise would mar the sense and convey little meaning. Much, however, that is new and of special interest will be found under the head of development of each tissue or struc- ture, for here Kélliker has shown himself particularly original and proficient. This is especially true of the nervous system, where e is a fullness of detail commensurate with the importance of the subject. We look with more than ordinary interest for the appearance of the first volume of this encyclopzedian work ; but as it must com- prise subjects which are yet hardly ripe for a satisfactory discus- sion, we would not ask its too early issue. We refer here to that debatable ground, ced/s and cel/ doctrines. Not satisfied, ourselves, of the universality of the application of Schwann’s doctrines in this respect, and having, moreover, carefully traced the features of a new mode of cell-genesis essentially dissimilar from that 0 Schwann, there is some personal concern attached to this subject. But untied from any special theory, we shall be more than please if the distinguished Wurtzburg Professor is able to reconcile these dissimilar conditions of the science, and clearly show asingle and universal mode of cell-genesis,—a unity, which, from the very correlative constitution of the human reason to the conditions of organization, the mind seeks and longs for in an earnest and almost prophetic manner. — Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 403 Record of Anatomy and Physiology, Oct. 1, 1853. SPECIAL WORKS. — on pring PS a ae Maa at the ly poles of Puree of i ae: lan y FR. Vol. I. Hypertrophy: ophy : Ttsblesion on: eg ret Nir Specie Diseases. y a ie ng ip 9 ndon, f 33, De Spermatozoorum introitu in Ovula; Additamenta ad Physiologiam Generationis. Auctore Gotth. Aug. Ferd. Keber, ane at Chirurgize Doctore, Regio physico i dunt Ixxxi figure chalcotypi inserte et in 1v Tab- s collecte. : Beitrige zur mikroskopischen Anatomie und Physiologie des Ganglien-Nervensys- tems des Menschen und der Wirbelthiere. Von Carl Axmann, Doctor der Medicin. Mit 22 in den Text Roni nam n Abbildungen Be rlin ; a aus den menlichen rah ver, zleichenden Anatomie, Von Wenzel Gru- er, Dr, Med. et Chir., dic. de Mit xt Tafeln. «St. Pete ersburg, 1852. Mémoire sur la structure intime = Foie et sur la nature de l’'alteration connue sous le nom de Foie Gras, &e. ce. Par A. Lereboullet. Accompagné de quatre plan- j 1858, Rudolph Wagner's Ico hysiologice. dog scsrts perp zur pbae und Bnbwickelungageschihte, Vollstindig ne bearbeite eg? a erausgegeben yon xander Ecker. Erste und zweite , Fae g. pence [The first mentioned of these works will be found noticed in our reviews and Bibliography of this number ; and the po four deserve a special mention, for most of them are contributi i ha 146), furnishes by far the most complet account we have of the microscopical struc- ture of the ngs age nervous el oe is we iustrated with numerous tea k by ‘Grube (Ato, pP- 160), is ge of eight me- moirs, the Gist of ¥ oe sp pecially to some difficult p tea: “the: memoir is is upon hum n Myology, pits ogy and Splanchnol- ogy, and th the anatomist will be not a ue carprised at the e patient detail here shown. The whole is “fully illustrated by 11 plates—The work of tel boullet (4to, pp. 117) is more important as bringing iii i in o evio edge on the su any of the now seen in at abe in zr thf Fil beauty, their fine original. We can con fidently predict the same fate for the illustrations of this new edition. In future notices it will be bo pleasure and profit to refer to this excellent work. ] PERIODICAL LITERATURE AND TRANSACTIONS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES, Sresotp & Kéuireer’s ZEITscuRrirr FUR WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZooLoaie. Bd. V. Aft, 1, August, 1853. J “ar rage Coceus hesperidum. "Seam Ueber die Entwickelung yon Debobeed, “der Scheibenquallen und von i 13. 404 Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. a pe Tagg” Bde ein spies da iiber den olypteras bichir. . 40, entet ~e rp Gegen Ueber einige niedere Kalliker, ings Bemerkungen iiber die Pacinischen_ Kérperchen. p. 118. Miztuer’s Arcuiv vir Anatomie, PaysioLoGIz UND WISSENSCHAFTLICHE MEDICIN, 1853. Heft. 2, July. O. Kohlrausch, Ueber das Schwellgewebe au den Muscheln der Nasenschleimhaut. Ueber so genannte Infarkten. E. EH. Weber r, Widerlegung der von Volkmann gegen meine Abhandlungen tiber die nwendung der Wellenlebre auf die Lehre vom Kreislaufe des Blutes und ins- besondere auf die Pulslehre gemachten ops teger J. Miller, Ueber den Bau der Echinoderme . E & Pier es ZEITSCHRIFT FUR RATIONELLE Mepicry. Neue Folge, IIL. Hehe Ly D, 8. 1852-5 Everts, Ueber eae R Weber, Ueber Croup und 'Tracheotomie Donders, Die Bewegung der Lungen u nd ae rzens bei der ee p- 39. Von Dusch, Tetanus traumatious; Chloro ormnarkon naneen Dursy, Beitrage zur Anatomie der Muskeln und Bander Hand. ES 8. Béhmer, Ueber die syphilitische Affection der Leber Zeuc ker, Sarcine in der Lunge. p. ats Versuche an einem Enthaupteten nebst erliuternden Versuchen an Thieren. H. Bex Ueber krebsige Phlebitis. p. 136. e zur Lehre yon den Knockenkrankheiten. p. 1 ty, innere Callus, seine Enstehung te Bedeutung. "160. Eckhard, Der palvaniach Strom als Hinderniss der Muskelzuckung. p. 198. 5 aeoat it Ueber Verrenkung des Unterkiofere. p- Kré eilung eines sehr grossen s. g. angebornen Nabel- oder Nabelschnur- 21 hes, p. 218, Weinmann, Ueber die Absonderung des Bauchspeichels. p. 247. Fuchs, Uebe Piel: crastosa seu norwegica Boeckii und deren Vorkommen in tse lead: oe , Ueber gues as oe eopeme ped gig or genau zu zeich- nen und ins i deren Flachen if? Kierulf, Tiniger Versuche iiber die Har "— 3 Donders, Beitriige zum Mechanismus der spate am Circulation im gesunden und kranken Zustande. _p. 287. Fischer, Beobachtungen aid eo gn ered Affectionen der den Bulbus umgebenden Gebilde in der Augenhohl Pauli, Uebée die Behandlung des Vorfalls der Gebarmutter. p. 328. Meissner, Ueber Polypen n des dusseren Gehorganges. p. 3419. asena a Heilung einer Atresia recti ex retroversione vesice urinariz wm pS ieicshiones, Ueber die Krystallisation der organischen Bestandtheile des Bluts. Pr Herbst, Die Unterbindung des Wirsung ’schen Ganges an Kanischen, mit en auf die Bernard’sche Ansicht tiber den Zweck des pankreatischen Baftes. p- 3 Annaes prs Sciences Natorenyes, xix, 1853. Nos. 2, 3. ao gang Recherches sur l'armure génitale femelle des Insectes hémiptéres. ite 65. Horm & Dans Recherches sur le developpement des des Pectinibranches; soente "(The first part is in tom. xviii, p, 257.) p89. sw Reviews and Records in Anatomy and Physiology. 405 Pontaillié, Observations sur deux Distomes. Jules Hai vime, Observations sur les aren et sur l’organisation de la Tri- choda lynceus. _ p. e3 R. Wagner, Note sur le développement des Vers ~~ p- 179. Duvernoy, "Mémoire sur es Oryetéropes du Nil blanc ou d’Abyssinie, et du S énégal, ot es nouvelles recherches sur la niyo microscopique de leurs dents. Compres Renpvus, Tom. xxxvi, 1853, January to July. Sinéty, Note sur une poche buccale chez le Casse-noix (Nucifraga Caryoctetes. . 185 Gratiole, Rapport sur un Mémoire de M. eee sur pipe roe du systéme vasculaire de la sangsue médicinale et de lAulas vorace, pour servir a lhis- toire des movements du sang dan rhe Hirndinges,. ae 8 Dumeril, Mémoire sur Yorganisation des Abo 2 Batraciens $ que ont et conservent une queue pendant toute leur vie, ou Urodel p- Ege rota Sur des ae nerveuses Se aiioven: hi homme et chez les animaux ér p- 9 Quatre Pelorehes sur la vitalité des spermatozoides de quelques Poissons Pea poorer Sur bi movements du fluide nourricier chez les Arachnides pulmonaires. Tom. xxxvii, to August 8, Gratiolet, Recherches sur Ascoue gs de la Térébratule australe, pour servir a Vhistoire des Brachiopodes. p. 4 Procerepines Royat Socrery, Loypon, January to June 23, 1853. pe ey Be the ele hi open the Eustachian tube. (Feb. 17.) Lowe, he Page n of the Toad and Frog without the intermediate stage of Tudpot. (Mar. Barry, On animal ae vegetable fibre as amon amupceet of twin spiral fila- me a i tke very other structure has its origin, 5 eee of the Spermatozoa into the tags f the Ovum ; a Note showing "ak to have been recorded as an established fact in the Philos. Trans, for 1843. (Mar, MeDonald, Observations on the Anatomy of the Antenne in a small species of Crustacean, (Apr. 7. Clark, On certain aaa of the Spinal Cord. (Apr. 14.) te Pee gion e of the Blood-vessels, vq the lungs. (June 9.) Allm On the ‘Avakeaiy's ty Phydloligy of sg xc a Manibetos to our dis wiadgi of the Tubularian Zoophytes. (June 16.) HE ee ~ Magazine or Natvugan History, vol. xii, July, August, and Sete J. E. Gray, On the bie of the — oe a. Quatrefages, On the Phosphorese scence of some Marine Sy aiet tees p. 15 and p. 180, (taken from Silliman’ s Journal, for March, 1853.) Ne ?, On the Ocelli in the genus Anthophorabia. p. 44. Ah. of Linn. Soc.) J. Davy, On the eye of the Mole. p.45. (Procee ed. bool bock, On two new species of Calanidee, Bio ikatconn on Spermatic tubes of Pontella, Diaptomus, &e. p. 115 and p. 1 J. E. Gray, On the Teeth of the genus Mitra. p. 129. 406 Correspondence of J. Nickles. Arr, XLIV.—Correspondence of M. J. Nicklés, dated Aug. 20, 1853. Reproduction of Cotton from Pyroxyline—The following ge tion on the restoration of cotton from pyroxyline, was ma y M. Béchamp, Professor a - School of Pharmacy at eee The process consists in heating pyroxyline, at the temperature of boiling water, with a siesaitd “solution of protochlorid of iron. The chlo- rid deepens in color and very soon there is kw of pure nitric oxyd. hen this disengagement Se cease e process is’ ended, after washing the cotton ‘with patey acid - remove the peroxyd of iron impregnating the cotton fibr y a similar method, M. Béchamp has peer in reproducing amidon from xyloidine, gum from nitric gum; and he has thus found a process which may be applied — doubt to many substances con- taining nitrogen in the state o Phenomena of Contact.—M. NS of whom we have spoken in our former contributions, and who has been engaged in some researches on forced dilatation, has undertaken the study of several points that have been much controverted. He has employed in his researches pressure aided bya high temperature. His apparatus and the observa- he has made, may be useful in practical eeety: and we pro- pose to resi to the subject in our poor communicatio The following are some of his 1. Absolute alcohol heated in a caloded sania! towards 360° C., along with aeiag sii chlorid of calcium, produces ether and ofefant gas. Ci Sr acts in the same way. Cl Ba and Cl Na he has under trial. The chlorids hence act by contact, and not by removing the water of the cube 5 since they are used in the state of a crystallized ee 2. s 400°, CIH NHs decompose alcohol, producing ether, @ little Prato gas, and chlorohydrate of ethylammine, * At 360° IH, AzNe acts in the same way: towards 400°, it de- composes ether into water bind iodohydrate of ethylammine. . At 360°, wood-spirit, with crystallized Cl Ca gives methylic ether ; with ClH N Hs at 300°, it affords methylic ether and chlorohydrate of methylammi 5. Sugar Meiiod to 100° C. with a little water is altered after some hours only in an insensible manner. With Cl Ca it changes to glucose. Cl Na does not act. CIH NHs produces répidly, this transformation. Essence of turpentine in contact with acids at 100° C. is modified isomerically. Its rotatory power changes. This change takes place even when the acid is insoluble in this liquid, and enters into no bination. The —— of lemon with the acids at 100° C. undergoes a age alteratio arthy shlorids and CIH NHs, towards 240° 3 ‘act in an analo- gous manner on the essence of turpentine, 7. Fluorid of boron acts at the ordinary temperature. 1 part of gas (two vols.) transforms completely 160 parts of the turpentine with- out decomposition or evolution of gas. These changes are alt with a slight disengagement of heat. Bronze for Sheathing of Ships:—P hotography. A407 ora ia in Rain-water.—M. eho Ho has been engaged for me time in investigating the proportions of ammonia in rain-water in Rs cities and country, taking Paris as one ° lata and for the other the old monastery of Liebfrauenberg, situated in the Department of the the mean, 3°35 milligrams per liter; while at Liebfrauenberg the rain- water contained hardly milligram. srr the excess to emana- tions, Boussingault says, that Paris may be viewed as a vast mass moking chimneys—a spf little Rininoka to a city which ite itself the “ cerveau de Puniver Bronze for the Sheathing of Ship s.—M. Bonierre, chemist at Nantes, who has studied this subject for some years, has arrived by bis experi- ments, at the following conclusion: that by diminishing the propor- tion of tin the oxydizable m metal is less uniform in its distribution through the plates, and — is a consequent inequality of alteration under the influence of seaw His recent researches show that sheathing of bronze is peofarable; as regards durability and solidity, to copper or rass. he abnormal alterations which have been observed are due to defective manufacture. e presence of arsenic does not occasion alteration in this alloy as happens for red copper. Bronze that will do good service contains in general 4°5 to 5°5 p. c. of tin; that with less, alters unequally. The introduction of a little zinc into these alloys of copper and tin, improves soe product = favoring the diffusion of the positive constituent of the metallic ma Photography.—Several cae on photography have been ad- dressed to the Academy. One of them relates to the cause of the partial reduction which the salts of silver experience in photographic . Bertsch ha ber for January.— moir of M. Carlet on Eiebncie acid, discovered y M. Thenard, and obtained by M. Bouis by means of castor oil_—A am on the use of chlorine in analyses by MM. Rivot, Beudant and Daguin.—Memoirs of M. Payen and of M. Brame on marl beds and the effects of lime in peciciaiasdns oes to by used in the adeiinieteiliots of chloroform, by Dr. Baudens.—Notes of M. Favier, M. Bourdaloue, M. Breton de Champ, ete., on the iescling of the Isthmus of Suez ; according to some, there is a considerable difference of level between refe method of maparpetations “of sich to himself. 408 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. Galvanism.—A modification of Bunsen’s battery is proposed by M. Guignet, consisting in replacing the nitric acid by a mixture of peroxyd proceeding from the decomposition of water. The process is recom- mended : but it is of too recent introduction to have been fairly tried. yautier communicates a fact of quite a different kind.. He has obtained some sulphuric acid by exposing a mixture of air and sulphur- ous acid to the luminous arch produced by a powerful battery. To succeed, the points of the battery should be of platinum. r. Amussat presents the results which he has obtained with the use of a galvanic battery in therapeutic surgery. With a platinum wire heated to a high temperature by means of a strong battery he has had complete success in the caulerization and removal of tumors. The wire should be incandescent, but must be used with caution, as at this temperature it is easily broken off. Machine with Vapor of Ether.—The steamboat, Du Trembley, has un engine adapted for the use of the combined vapors of water and ether. The object of the ether is said to be to retain and utilise the heat lost by the sieam, and employ it in forming a second vapor whose force shall be added to that of the steam. The following is the process employed by Du Trembley, the inventor. The facts here given are from a report signed by an administrative commission which examined the invention during the first voyage m by the vessel between Marseilles and Algiers. The vessel is of a size to carry 100 passengers and 230 tons of merchandise. In order not to lose the heat which the steam retains after employing its expansive force, M. Du Trembley receives the spent stearn in a close above takes place ; the water is condensed and the ether evaporates. In condensing, the water produces a vacuum which adds to the ex- encountered ; and the ether vapor, collected ina separate compartment in which the tubes terminate above the vaporizing apparatus, then con- tributes a new force which is added to that‘of the steam. The condensed water is collected again in the boiler whence it had gone out as steam, carrying back as much heat as the ether had left after its vaporization. he ether vapor which is collected above the vaporizer and the tubes in which it is formed, is taken into a cylinder specially adapted to it, but every way similar to that for the steam. The piston of the second cylinder can act either independently, or may connect witht am as that of the cylinder for the steam ; in the latter case, the two vapors are combined in the same work, as takes place in the vessel in applying this Du Trembley, and which must always be the case system to navigation. i xs 3h eee eget Locomotion with the Vapor of Chloroform. 409 The ether vapor is treated like the steam: it passes into tubes like those of the vaporizer, where it is condensed by a continued jet of cold water is restored to the boiler, to recommence the circuit just de- scribed. Such isa brief description of the system of combined vapors adopted by Du Trembley. It may serve to explain the principle of his machine, and to show that compared with the ordinary steam engine, there will be a notable diminution in the fuel required. In the course of the trials, the commission made four experiments on the quantity of coal expended. Together, these trials continued through by the engine alone, or by this with sails, the force of the engine was nearly constant at about 70 horses. ‘The quantity ef coal consumed during the 365 50™ was 2860-9 kil., or 77:67 k. per hour, and 1-11 k. nent nos propre experience.” as such reasons have not prevailed against this mode of illumination, they cannot prevail against an invention which has ther advantage o the i machine is heated up before starting, it disappears entirely after the ship is in motion.” Locomotion with the Vapor of Chloroform.—Chloroform has been used in place of ether in an engine somewhat similar to thatof Du Trem- bley’s. The experiments have been made in the Orient, on a steam vessel of 120 horse power, called the Galilee. They profited by the presence of the minister of marine, to run the vesse é in all directions. ‘The details of the construction of the machine have not yet been made known. But after the above description of the ether engine, we may conceive that it is nearly the same thing. — y speak of an economy of fuel of 50 p. c. with the chloroform engine. Szconp Seates, Vol. XVI, No, 48.—Noy., 1853. 52 A10 Scientific Intelligence. Pisciculture.—The government of the Pays-Bas has instituted a com- mission for establishing in Holland some Piscines after Millet’s system. A Piscine will be installed in the palace of the Voos in Guelder, another in the palace (“du bois”) at the Hague. The commission will publish also a manual containing all the theoretical and practical data to insure good management and successful operations. The preparation of this manual is already far advanced. Prizes Proposed.—The Société a of which M. Du- mas is Bate proposes to issue the following pr : of 3000 fr. to cont ~~ of the best eile on oh the nature of the disedne mes attacks the v 2. A prize of 3000 fr. to a leveutir of the effectual method of preventing or destroying the disease of the vin 3. Three prizes of 1000 fr. each, and six of 500 fr. each, in favor of authors of the best works on the following subjects (1.) Origin and progress of the wrearet the work to be accompanied by charts illustrating the annual progr (2.) Discovery of a method of seeing at will the Oidium or of in- noculating it. (3.) Discovery of the conditions of hybernation peculiar to the Oidium. (4.) An exact history, accompanied with authentic proofs of the effects obtained from the use of different manures, and especially the is do te 5.) Variations in the disease due to climates, nid. gare soils, an meteorological circumstances. (6.) Historical account, accompanied with authentic documents, of the effects, positive or negative, obtained from the different remedies proposed and hitherto employe esearch on the effects produced on the vine towards removing oo disease by plants or trees in their vicinity, and especially those seen are rich in volatile oils, or which inhale a strong odor. Invention of apparatus convenient of use, for throwing different ane solutions or powders on the vine. (9.) Indications of the measures which may be prescribed by author- ity for preserving the = -houses, and even whole vineyards from the ravages of the dise e society at the same tine issues a list of the different works which have been published on this subject, and will distribute all these docu- ments gratuitously. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry anpD Puaysics. few Bases — Palladium ne ne vs palladium, Pd ‘ch pres with ammonia, as is well known, two compounds whic have the e same enciniaian but which differ ain in: aarti the one being dark rose-red, the other yellow. These compounds pee studied by Vauquelin, Kane, Febling, and Fischer, and found to be rep- resented by the formula Pd Cl+-NHa, but their true nature has re- mained unknown, Miiller has given the subject a careful investigation Chemistry and Physics. Ail in Wohler’s sae ie and has arrived at the conclusion that the yellow salt is the chlor an ammonium in which one equivalent of hydro- gen is sasdaaed, > one equivalent of palladium, and is consequently represented by the formula NHsPd, Cl. Miller terms the new radical NHsPd, palladamin which we shall however venture to change to pal- ladammonium, corresponding to methyl ammonium, platin ammonium, &e. e oxyd of palladammonium is readily obtained by diffusing the chlorid through water and adding oxyd of silver, or by precipitating a solution of the sulphate by hydrate of baryta. In this manner a pale yellow strongly alkaline solution is obtained, which, when evaporated over sulphuric acid, yields a solid pepe crystalline substance which is the oxyd NAsPd, 0, and which may be redissolved without decom- exhibits similar reactions, and it is therefore a stronger base than the oxyd of ammonium. The salts of palladammonium are most easily prepared by decom- posing the corresponding silver salts with the yellow chlorid. The author describes the carbonate, sulphate, and sulphite ; they are all anhydrous; the two former are in yellow octahedra. The nitrate of the bromid strongly resembles the chlorid and gives yellow octahedra ; like the chlorid these two compounds are anhydrous. hen the salts of palladammonium are treated with an excess of ammonia they pass into the salts of a second base corresponding in constitution to Reiset’s platinum base and represented by the formula 2NH3 The author terms this ‘eo palladdiamin, but we shall call it palladdiammonium, as the termination amin has ata — arEne only to ammonias a and not to ammoniums. It ma be considered a forms salts when saturated in the cold with acids. An excess of acid, — particularly when heat is applied, resolves the compounds of palladiammonium into ammonia and palladammonium. The author iad the chlorid, ptotlins bromid and fluorid of this second radical, as well as the carbona all the salts are colorless and crystalline. pea R to prepare a urea in which one-fourth of the hydrogen should be — by eg ht proved unsuccessful. By substituting ethylamin for ammonia, Miller obtained new bases, the chlorids of which were represented by the formulas NH2(CsHs)Pd Cl, A12 Scientific Intelligence. NH2(CaHeN)Pd.Cl, and NH(CsHs)(CaHsN)Pd.Cl. An anilin com- pound corresponding to the first of these was also obtained ; its chlorid is represented by NH2(C12H7)Pd.Cl— Ann. der Chemie und Pharma- te, Ixxxvi, 341. 2. Anthranilic and Benzoie Acids. —GERLAND has instituted an accu- rate comparison of these acids, which together with a third acid dis- covered by Chancel, are represented by the formula C14 He NOs+HO. The results of this investigation are as follows. (1.) Anthranilic acid is the true carbanilidic acid constituted simi- larly to carbonic acid and represented by the rational formula COz, CO(NH.C12Hs)+ HO. (2.) Anthranilic acid is different from benzamie acid and from the acid termed by Chancel carbanilidic acid. : (3.) Benzamic acid C1sHs(NH2)Os+HO is identical with Chan- cel’s carbanilidie acid. .) Nitrous acid NOs converts anthranilic acid completely into salycylic acid ; the equation is C14HeNOs, HO+NOs=C14Hs0s, HO+2N O.—Ann. der Chem. und Pharmacie, |xxxvi, 1438. 3. New Compounds of Iridium.—Sxosuixorr has discovered a class of ammoniacal componnds of iridium which exhibit a perfeet analogy to the well known platinum bases of Gros and Reiset. The investiga- the green salt of Magnus. ‘Treated with hot nitric acid this substance ds tained which is the chlorid of a new base corresponding to Reiset’s platinum base, and having the formula NoHe.IrCl or NH2(NHs yIrCl. The author obtained a crystalline sulphate and nitrate of this base, hav- ing the formulas NH2(NH4)IrO, SOs and NH2(NH4)IrO, NOs. The perfect parallelism between these bases, and those containing platinum and palladium is very interesting, and it is to be hoped that rhodium, ruthenium, and osmium will be studied from the same point of view.— Journal fiir prakt. Chemie, 58, 31 Chemistry and Physics. 413 Expailly, Ural, East Indian, and Ceylon zircons is also easily soluble in oxalic acid, and that ammonia precipitates from the solution the hydrate of zirconia. The oxalate dried at 100°, bas the formula Zr2O0s,2C2 into several earths, by the method of partial precipitations employed by Svanberg; the precipitates also contained the same amount of fixed base, and hence the equivalents of the different earths, if we admit the existence of more than one, must be the same.—Journal fur praktische Chemie, 57, 145. 5. On Didymium.—Manienac has communicated a memoir on didy~ mium, and its principal combinations. The author effects the separation of didymium from lanthanum by the method of Mosander, that is to say, by the crystallization of the sulphates. It was found however, that the process could be facilitated by first dissolving the oxyds ina large ex- cess of nitric acid, and then successively adding small quantities of ox- alic acid. The first precipitates are more deeply rose-colored, and a known weight of the sulphate, gave as a mean of five det 698-2 for the equivalent of the oxyd ; the analysis of the chlorid gave the ing the chlorid with potassium. A greyish powder was obtained, which in cold water disengaged bubbles of hydrogen; the particles of metal burned with vivid sparks when projected into a a lamp. pels ammonia from its salts when boiled with them ; but water slowly converts it intoa hydrate. The hydrate as obtained by precipitation ~ with potash, has a very pale rose color, and resembles alumina: the Aid Scientific Intelligence. represented by the formula 3DiO, SOs. The double sulphates of idymi nd soda, are respectively repre- sented by the formulas NH4O, 803+3(DiO,SOs)+8HO, KO, SOs+- XXXvili, ‘ 6. Regeneration of Hippuric Acid.—Dessatenes has succeeded in re- producing the hippuric acid from benzoic acid and glycosin, by causing the oxychlorid of benzoyl, to act upon glycosin-zinc oxyd. ‘The reaction 1s represented by the equatio chonine, is isomerie with it. The sulphate of quinine treated in the sainé manner, yields another new base isomeric with quinine, hh Chemistry and Physics. A15 molecule of quinine is double, and composed of two active molecules, one of which deviates strongly to the left, the other feebly to the right. ing the bark after it is stripped from the tree in the dark. This would very greatly increase the product of quinine.—Comptes Rendus, xxxvil, 110, July 25th, 1853. Transformation of Tartaric acids into Racemic acid.—Pa STEUR has found that when tartrate of cinchonine is submitted to a gradually e origi al Rendus, xxxvii : the original paper.— Comptes ers Levo-camphoric and De wn” > so precisely as much to the left as ordinary camphoric acid turns it to the right. ; ble each other very strongly in chemical and physical properties. Equal A416 Scientific Intelligence. camphors from which the two species of camphoric acid are derived, have also the same solubility, the same point of fusion and of volatiliza- tion, and the same power of rotation though in opposite directions. (It is not stated whether they unite to form a third and inactive camphor.) Pasteur has confirmed these results of Chautard.—Comptes Rendus, xxxvil, 166. 10. On the Color of the Salts of Manganese.—Goneev has at length settled the much disputed question of the cause of the pink color of the salts of the manganese, by proving that pure salts of protoxyd of man- ganese have always this color, and that the so-called colorless salts of of the salts of other metals having the complementary green color. By boiling a solution of manganese with freshly precipitated and washed nickel or copper: nickel is about y¢%5q of the quantity of manganese ; iron must be added less solution, but in this last case, the solution in mass has a faint violet hue. The insoluble salts of manganese are white in powder, but rose- red when crystalline.— Comptes Rendus, xxxvi, 861. W. G. tl. Note to Dr. Smith’s paper on the Decomposition of Chlorids by two I believe before Mr. Wurtz studied the subject. The alkaline nitrates are easily converted into chlorids, by boiling them with an ex- cess of chlorhydric acid, in presence of any metallic oxyd having a strong affinity of oxygen. | employ the protochlorid of tin for this pur- pose, and when the reaction is over, and gas (nitrous oxyd) is no longer evolved, a current of sulphydric acid gas removes the tin, and the filtrate contains only the alkaline chlorid and free chlorhydrie acid.—w. &. 12. On the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ; by Mr. R. Hunt, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1853, Athen., 1100.)—This was a report to the section of the continuation of an examination of the chemical action of the rays of the prismatic spectrum, after it had been subjected to the absorptive influences of different colored media. em examination adopted has been to obtain well-defined spectra of a beam of light passing through a fine vertical slit in a steel oat by prisms of flint and crown glass and of quartz. The spectrum being concentrated Chemistry and Physics. A17 by a lens, was received upon a white tablet and submitted to careful resentation of the connexion between the color of a ray, and its power to produce chemical change. In the report made to the Belfast Meet- ing of the British Association the results of experiments made upon glass tablets prepared by the so-called collodion process were alone given. In the present report the examination has been extended to the photo- graphic preparation known as the calotype, and iedid and bromid of silver in their pure states and when excited by gallicacid. _M. Edmond i A are m rptive media which, at the same time as they obliterate a particular colored ray, destroy the chemical action of that portion of the spectrum, yet there are a still more extensive series which prevent the passage of a ray of given refrangibility, and do not at the same Srconp Serres, Vol. XVI, No, 43.—Nov., 1853. 418 Scientific Intelligence. spectra obtained (copies of which will be appended to the printed report) there appears to be evidence of the conversion of one form of force into another—the change, indeed, of light into actinism or chemical power ; and, again, as in Mr. Stokes’s experiments, the exhibition of the ordin- arily invisible chemical rays in the form of Zight. r Magnetical Investigations ; by the Rey. Wm. Scoressy, D.D., F.R.S., L. and E., &c. Vol. ii, 448, pp. 8vo, with illustrations. Lon- izing the inductive influence of the eatth’s magnetism ; (4.) on the de- velopment of magnetical properties by percussion in steel and iron, as aided by contact with iron bars previously magnetized by hammering ; (5.) indications explanatory of certain peculiar magnetic phenomena, changes to which their magnetic condition is liable, which is treated at -H. W. Dove: Darstellung der Farbenlehre und optische Studien ; 288 pp. 8vo, with 2 lithog. tables. Berlin, 1853. Il. Geonoey anp Panzonrotoey. 1. Ueber die Vulkanischen Gesteine in Sicilien und Island, und thre submarine Umbildung von W. Sartoxivs von WaLTERSHAUSEN. 532 ] 100 pages of the work (pp. 16-105). Other minerals are taken up in order and also the rocks, and many new analyses are given. a Geology and Paleontology. 419 2. Statistique géologique, miperalogigns métallurgique et paléon- mines du departement de la Meuse ; par Amanp Buvienier. 1 vol. o, and atlas in folig. Paris, 3. Die geognostischen und orographischen Verhaltnisse des nord- lichen Persiens. Von Dr. C. Grewinex. St. Petersburg, 1853, 8vo. 4. Untersuchungen iiber das Mainzer Tertiarbecken u. dessen Stel- lung im geologischen Systeme. Von Dr. Fripotin SANDBERGER. be iy ae 1853. 8vo. 5. Apunti sulla Geologia del Piemonte di BartoLomEo Sisco: Torino. 1853. 4to 6. Zwei geologische Vortrige. Von Osw. Heer u. A. Escner von der Linru. (1. lnsects of the Lias. 2. Erratics of Switzerland.) Zurich, 1852. . Introduction pilosophigue a l'étude de la Géologie; par A. Gav- TIER. Paris, 1853. 8. Geognostiche ie eiiges des Siebengebirges am Rhein. Von Dr. H. v. Decnen. Bonn, 1852. 8vo 9. Bescon géologique et minéralogique du département du Bas- Rhin. Par M. AuBREE. Strasbourg, 1852. 8yo 10. Systematische Beschreibung und -pueigae der Versteinerungen des rheinischen Schichtensystems in Nass Von Dr. Guipo und FRipotin SanpBERGER. Oth No., folio. Wi abailee, 1853. 1 12. Palzeontographica : rene zur Naturgeschichte der Vorwelt. Von Dr. Dunxer u. Herm. von Meyer. 4to. Cassel, 1852. Vol. 1 is now complete. Of vol. 2, vi 1-6 have been published me No. 1 to3 of oe 3. (Compare Journal, September, °53, p. 280, No. . Traité de paléontologie ou Histoire Naturelle des animaux fos- ae considérés dans leurs rapports zoologiques et ecole: ; par ae i 2d edition, vol Ist. 8vo, atlas 4to. Paris, 1853. 14. Herth ber die Leistungen im Gebiete der Pi oholesic mit besondererez Beriicksichtigung der Geognosie wahrend der Jahre, 1848 und 1849. Von Dr. C. G. Giezen. Svo. Berlin, 1851. 15, Dimerocrinites oligoptilus. Ein Beitrag: zur Kentniss der Gat- tung Dimerocrinites. Von R. Pacur. St. Petersb + 1852. 8vo. . Description of the fossils of Sy ria; by T. A. RAD. 4to, with plates. From official report of the U. S. ined eli to exh ere the Dead Sea and the River Jordan; by Lieut. W. F. Lyncu, U.S. N. Baltimore, 1852. 17. Silicification orpapiae bet ot ' Eine geologische Abhandlung von Anex. Perznoupt. Halle, 1853. ito. 18. Fossile Flora des Uebershng sgebirges. Von Dr. H. R. Gorrerr. Bonn, 1852. Ato, with 44 plate 19. Iconographia plantarum ee m. Von Dr. Franz Uncer. Wien, 1852. Fas with 22 pl. (From the 4th vol. of the Trans. of the ine Apa of Die pig ie von Swinitza. Von Jou. Kunpernatscu. Wien 1852. Fol., with 4 pl. (From the Trans. of the Imp. Geol. Inst.) Vol. 1. 21. Die Gasteropoden der See OS e in den Nordostlichen Alpen. Von Dr. L. F. Sexers. Wien, 1852, Fol., with 24 pl. (From the — 420 Scientific Intelligence. 22. Palzobromelia, ein neues fossiles Soe 2 Von Dr. C. von ErrINGsHAUSEN. ten, 1852. Fol., wit 23. Beitrag zur Flora der Wealdenperiode. Von Dr. C. v. Errines- HAUSEN. Wien, 1852. Fol., with 5 pl. (Id. 24. Die fossilen Mollusken "des Tertiirbeckens von Wien, unter der Mitwirkung von P. Parrscu, bearbeitet von Dr. M. Hornes. Nos. 1 to 4. Wien, 1851-52. Fol., with 20 plate 25. The Ancient Fauna of Nebraska, or eénsorite of remains of extinct Mammalia and Chelonia, from the Mauvaises terres of Nebraska. By J. Leipy. Washington, 1853. 4to, with 24 pl. (From the Smith- sonian Contrib. to Knowledge. : = pies abs, of an extinct species of American Lion, Felis atrox. . A memoir on the extinct Dicotyline of America; by Jos. Lrrpy. Piilaetpiag 1852. 4to, with 4 plates. (From the Transact. of the Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. 10.) 28. Allgemeine Pilescisiogie: Entwurf einer systematischen Dars- tellung der Fauna u. Flora der Vorwelt. Von C.G.Gieset. Leipzig, : 1852. 8vo. 29. Untersuchungen an Schadeln des gemeinen Landbiren als krit- ische Beleuchtung der Streitfrage iber die Arten fossiler Hohlenbaren. Von Dr. A. Tu. v. Mippenporrr. St. Petersburg, 1851. 8vo. 30. Ueber die Reptilien u. Saugthiere der verscheidenen dae g der Erde. Von Herm. v. Meyer. Frankfurt, 1852. S8vo. 31. Sur le gisement et sur l’exploration de lor en Australia ; a M. Detesss. 28 pp. 8vo. Extr. des Ann. des Mines, 1859, iii, 185. 32. Sur les a des Roches Granitiques; by M. A. DELEssE. 18 pp. 8vyo. Enxtr. du Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, [2] ix, 464. 1852. 33. Recherches sur les Roches Globuleuses ; par M. Dexesse. 62 pp. 4to, with 4 plates. Extr, Mem. Soc. Geol. de France, Abe we € propose to give an abstract of this memoir in our nex mber. 34. Uber der orographische und geologische structur pi Gruppe des Monte Rosa. Vou ERM. SCHLAGINTWEIT. 20 pp. 4to, with 2 plates. Leipzig, 1853.—Aus “ Neue Untersuchungen iiber die physicalische eographie und die Geologie der Alpen,” von ApoLpH ScHLaGINT- weit und Herm. Scanacintweir. . On the Production fi Gold in the wes a ; by J. Cat- VERT, a7, (Phe Brit. Assoc., 1853, fr. Athen., 1104.)—From his own ex- ploration, from rese eral in viitioud works, a from communications, Mr. Calvert stated that gold was found in forty counties in the British islands, and over an area o square miles. He thus classified the gold regions :—The West of England, North Welsh, Mid: Eoglene, of Northumbrian, Lowland, Highland, Uluter, and Lainater. The W England region might be divided into three districts—Cornwall, Dart moor and Exmouth, or West Somerset. In Cornwall, the tin-streams which were of the same composition as gold-diggings, had long been known to contain nuggets and coarse dust, or hops of gold, but had only been slightly worked by Sir Christopher Hawkins, at Ladoch. The largest Cornish nugget was not worth more that about ten guineas. Corn ish districts were very rich in gold. The Dartmoor district "gold i in its northern and southern streams. A miner, named Geology and Paleontology. 421 Wellington, got about 40/. worth of gold, at Sheepston, and Mr. Calvert had obtained gold from the granite by this process. In the West Som- of Queen Elizabeth’s time, the diggers relied on keele, a reddish earth, as an indication of gold, and the miners do now. He had seen it also He found gold in the Lowther Burn, Long and Short Cleuch Burns, Mannock Water, Kepple Burd, Glengomar, Elvanwater, Goldscour, and other places. At Wanlockhead he saw gold in the midst of the town. At one place the miners, two years ago, got gold, which at Glasgow landshire. The Wicklow diggings were only shortly referred to. It appeared, by returns obtained from the Dublin goldsmiths, that the pres- ent su f the peasantry was about 2,000/, a year. In Ulster the gold in these islands was now about 5,000/. a yea largely increased. The number of gold bearing streams known was one hundred. Gold had been found in nearly all the clay-slate districts. Many of these were worked in the Middle Ages, and probably also by 422 Neientific Intelligence. the Wicklow above 100,000/. The largest known nuggets were 3ib. from Lanarkshire, and others of 24 |b. from there and Wicklow. The importance of attending to this branch of the national resources was strongly urged. Mr. Calvert concluded by stating that he considered the cla ay-slate formations of Canada would soon be discovered to be a vast gold-fie : 36. Reports of Professor Henry D. Rogers, on Wheatley Brookdale and Dhariccion ey Phenizville, Chester Co., Pennsylvania. 8vo.——The lead-veins of Phenixville are very singularly productive in in fine Sr aiailien aoe of the ores of lead, and according to the report of Prof. Rogers, they appear to promise well in an economical point of view. ‘The specimens of the sulphate, ee molybdate, and phos- phate of lead are of remarkable beauty. The veins have a new parallelism, ranging with few exceptions, about N, 32°-35° E. by compass. They inte rsect a gneiss roc some of them also cut {one an overlying red shale which Prof. Rogers states is probably of the triassic age, or perhaps of the older oolitic. hey are therefore subsequent in wo Bi tothe shale. Numerons trap dykes also intersect the same red shale Fibs in this region as we as in the Connecticut valley. The lodes confined to the gneiss in general bear lead as their principal ae a those which intersect, also the shale contain ores of copper. Zinc ores (blende and calamine prevail in both sets of veins, but somewhat more abundantly in the lat- Ill. Botany. 1. Harvey: Nereis Boreali-Americana; or Contributions to a His- tory of the Marine Alge of North America. Part IL. Rhodospermee. March, 1853. pp. 258, 4to. Plates 13-30; colored. Separate issue, from the fifth volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge ——Our extended notice of the first part, published a year ago, sulfi- ciently explains the nature and scope of this elaborate work. The present part contains a full systematic account of our North American Rhodospermee, the rose-colored Alge, which are much more numer- ous than the Melanospermee, or olive-green Alge, as well as more difficult to discriminate. Over a hundred pages more of letter-press and twice as many plates are therefore devoted to their elucidation ;— a liberal allowance, under the al a Sate but twice as many cate texture of t wodospermee render them ‘charming objects for such isons) ‘instenees and Dr. Harvey’s pencil is unrivalled in th depa ut it is next to impossible to find colors so bright and iug, in all their species, two kinds of fructification, or rather two kinds of spores, borne always on different eine and each eqvat lly cap- oe: of germinating and reproducing the species. The idea of each pecies, therefore, includes two individuals, not however as in cert Botany. 423 of the higher plants, and in most animals, where the pair is of two sexes, the sterile fertilizing the fertile one; but here there are two sorts of fertile individuals, which mature each their particular kind of seed, or spore, independently. ‘These Algi, moreover, like the Fuci, produce len of Phenogamous plants, although they have not been observed to execute vine spontaneous movements which they do in the Melanosper- s been commonly assumed that only one of these. two kinds of ripetidietbes bodies could be regarded as true spores, the other being supposed to be of the nature of a gemmule or bud, analogous to the bulb- lets of the Lilium bulbiferum, for instance, only of the utmost simplicity of structure. But aut thorities are by no means agreed as to which is the real spore, and which the gemmule. Our author (in his Manual of the British Marine Algz) had very plausibly maintained that the smaller bodies, contained in a ne an were ath true spores, and The sa s been ? edimorphous in fra cst and that both kinds are veritable spores, equally fertilized by the antheridia. t may here be feunavked; that some direct evidence as tetbpigorse by the antheridia has lately been furnished, in the Fuc Thuret, whose observations were communicated to the Preis lle of Sciences last spring. The spores of certain common dicecious spe- cies, received in a vessel of sea water, apart from any admixture of the obntsinll of the antheridia, uniformly failed to germinate. While those h added, promptly germinated. Impregnation is eer inferred to take place in this family, in much the same manner as in the Rhizo- carpee, (see vol. of this Journal, p. 31, et $64, ) that is, the matured spore receives the fertilizing influence after its separation from the parent. The classification of the Rhoiloupcrmeis:' is more recondite than that of the Melanospermee ; and most of the essential characters can only of Delesseria Americana, here assumes the rank of a new gens, which Dr. nasty ‘ag sspeoarately called Grinnellia, “ in honor of Henry Grinnell, ., of New ork, whose whole conduct in promotin st = the accomplished ssi indefatigable author may have the oppor- A424 Scientific Intelligence. Singapore, thus circumnavigating the globe in his search for the objects of his favorite study. he volume of Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge (vol. v), of which the above formsa part, is filled with natural, historical, and phys- iological memoirs. The following relate to botany. A. @. lante Fremontiane; or Descriptions of Plants collected by Col. J. C. Fremont, in California; by Joun Torrey, F.L .—The subjects, ten in number, are each illustrated by a plate. The first sub- ject is Spraguea, (S. umbellata,) a remarkable new genus of Portula- own and unrivalled botanical artist, (the earlier published Sarcobatus of Nees.) The present is a most in- teresting as well as showy shrub, being a Bombaceous plant, allied to Cheirostemon, the famous Hand-flower of Mexico, itself anomalous in the order, like the present genus, from the imbricated calyx and the want of acorolla. Its characters scarcely throw any additional light upon the affinities of Cheirostemon, which, as the older and best-known genus, should have given its name to the division of the order which Dr. Torrey proposes for these two genera. Fremontia is perhaps the most re- ramosissima,) of uncertain affinity, apparently most approachtng Chry- sobalanacee or Rosacea, (the author inclines to the latter,) notwith- new Rosaceous genus, probably of the tribe Dryade@; but the fruit is unknown. The sixth, Chamebatia foliolosa, is a Dryadeous genus, 10- to the order Savifragacee, with which the “ collateral relationship,” a8 except the convolute estivation of the petals; which is of little moment while they are imbricated in Fendlera, and valvate with a slight modifi- cation in Deutzia. The eighth subject is Hymenoclea, Torr. and Gray, acurious genus of Composite allied to Franseria, of which last also two new species are described. The ninth is Amphipappus Fremontii, 2 ita between Gutierrezia and Solidago, the brief characters of Botany. 425 which, as well as of oe had already been published. The tenth is Sarcodes sanguinea, ular new genus of Monotropea, inter- mediate between Dicseddiens ie Schwetniteia:s in this connexion are a Meeting, and published 4 in its proceeding .3. On Darlingtonia Califor pn * ce Pitcher-plant from ‘North- ern California; by Joun Torrey, F.L.S. (Witha plate.) —The foliage and scape of this plant, without aaa or fruit, was discovered by Mr. Wm. D. Brackenridge, assistant botanist of the U.S. Exploring Expedi- locality (near Shasta Peak) by Dr. G. W. Hulse ; as these have several- flowered scapes, no sir a very reduced emt lamina to the petals, almost definite stamens in a single row, a turbinate ovary with a de- pressed and dilated top, and, above all, a naked (five- pita a Begre with- light upon the affinities of the group, wsnerte so obscure, is that of the almost definite stamens, which so far as it goes, favors Dr. Planchon’s view, that it is related ta Pyrolacee. We are well pleased that this most interesting and striking accession to the ae a of our country, is to commemorate one of the olde st and best of our botanists, Dr. Darling- ton.t During the autumn and winter, living roots of this plant, packed n Bost , would be pecuniarily as valuable as a considera ble lump of gold, and would furnish a handsome and highly curious acquisition to our gar- dens, A. * We find that this and th ume of the Smithsonian ainioas: but a Spake issue of pe was ie pebtiched + Not a a Brackenri idge, a > nooereny both in the Narrative of the U.8, Expedition, sor the pre oir. Our Saiicics and venerable fiend ‘vill yah be amused, and perhaps rman reviewer of the’ third edition work reach a fourth edition, to engage the assistance of some person better ac- quainted than Pergo | with the idioms of the English la e! We profess a mew bat critical acquaintance with our mother tongue, and must say that we had not noticed the grellrs onw: in question; nor had we ever expected to see Dr, Darlington taking lessons in the lish language from a Dutchman. _ Szconp Sznuzs, Vol. XVI, No. 48—Nov., 1853. 426 | Scientific Intelligence. 4. Observations on the Batis maritima of Linnaeus; by Joun Tor- rey, F.L.S. (With a plate.)—This is a thorough. history and illustra- tion of this obscure plant, the plate filled with beautiful and clear analy- ses, from the pencil of Mr. Sprague; a fact not recorded upon the plate, as it should have been. A second species, Batis Californica, is indicated, which was discovered by Dr. C. C. Parry, near es lego. As to the affinities of the genus, Dr. Torrey inclines to adopt the views of Dr. Lindley, (who refers it to his Euphorbial alliance,) bu eee it as the type of a proper natural order. . Plante Wrightiane Texano-Neo-Mexicane; Part il. An acaelet of a Collection of Plants made by Charles Wright, A.M., in Western Texas, neal Mexico, and Sonora, in 1851 and 1852 ; by Asa Gray, M.D., pp. 119, with four plates. The greater part of this important colieniaih was made under the auspices of Col..J. D. Graham, then in carried in the present memoir only to the end of Composite. .G 6. A Flora and Fauna within Living Animnls; by JosEPx se M.D., (pp. 67, with 10 plates.)—Dr. Burnett has already called atten- tion, in the last number of the Journal, to thiselaboratememoir. From a botanical point of view, it may be pronounced to be a contribution of the highest order and interest ; and the plates are Seem Sees - not unequalled, by anything before published in this coun 7. Exotic Fungi from the Schweinitzian Herbarium, ‘snaciall ly Sram Surinam ; revised by the Rev. M. J. Berxe.ey, , F.L.S., and Rev. M. A. Curtis, D.D. (From the Journal of Academy of Natural Sciences, N. Ser. vol. 1l.—A large number of species of fungi are here described, and three new genera are characterized, namely, Coilomyces, Dasypora, and Corallomyces. A plate is devoted to the illustration of these, and of certain species of several other genera. A similar mem- oir on the Schweinitzian Fungi of the daned: States is pina it must prove a very important contribution to our mycology, which al- ready owes so see to the individual and canon labors of coset Berkeley and Curt . Ge 8. Botanical Nowst ogy.—There have been several recent “deaths among the botanists of Europe. The most important loss sustained is that of Professor ADRIEN DE Jussieu, the son and successor of A. L. de Jussieu (author of the Genera Plantarum), and the grand-nephew of Bernard de Jussieu, the correspondent of Linnwus, and the first to sketch the Natural System of Botany. M. de Jussieu, was himself one of the soundest and most learned botanists of the age, and a most — mable man, greatly beloved and admired by all who knew him. decease will be greatly felt in Paris; both in the Academy of Selonted, of which he was this year the president, and at the Jardin des Plantes, with which he has been long Zaha ye He died on the 29th of aa in ese for more than a century. ‘The bot botanical moe oc- oe at the Museum: of hea: Garaan ae ——- Zoology. 427 pat chao and a chair of —- established in its room, of most distinguished contemporaries of A. L. de Jussieu. M. ichard was celebrated as a professor, and held no mean rank as a botanist. His chair in the jaca was filled by the election of Dr. C. Montagne, the well-known Cryptogamist; that in the Ecole de Medécine by M. Moquin-Tandon, formerly of ‘Toulouse. We hear of the decease of Dr. Prest, of Prague, the pace of the Reliquie Hankeane, Tentamen Pteridographia, &c., Also of the recent death of Dr. Watrers, of Berlin, author of the Repioniaie, and the Annales Botanices Systematice; a useful record of all plants recently published. He is said to have died by his own hands, after notifying his botanical friends that he was dissatisfied with the world, which would not recognize his merits. It is reported that Dr. Peter- mann, of Leipsic, will continue the Annales,—a work much pagers —or carry ona similar publication. .G. IV. Zooioey. . Memorias sobre la Historia Natural de la Isla de Cuba; par Fe- ao Pony. Habana, 1853. Vol. 1, No. 2. Histoire des sciences natorelies au moyen age, ou Albert le Grand et son époque, considérés comme point de = . _— expéri- meee par F, A. Poucser. Paris, 1853 A Naturalist’s rambles on the Devonshire Siaie: . ee Henry Fees London, 1853. 1 vol. 4. A synopsis of the Mollusca of ar nee Britain arranged segording to their natural affinities ” anatomical structure; by W. I. Leacu po on, 1852 vols. 5. Melanges biologiques irks du Bulletin erteuniuer Farag de P Académie impériale des sciences de St. Petersbourg. Vol. 1, 8vo. St. Petersbourg, 1853. 6. Der Harnstoff als Maass des Stoffwechsels. Von Tu. L. W: BIscHoFr. Giessen, 1853. 8vo 7. Uber die Larven u. die Metamorphose = Echinodermen. 4th pa- per. By Jou. Mutter. Berlin, 8. ehee Synapta digitata u. poe die a iekas von Schnecken in a Von Jou. Mitten. Berlin, 1852, folios ey 10 plates. aturgeschichte der Adria. L.K.S ten, ion a with 7 pl. (From the 4th vol. of the ales 2 the Imper. Acad. of Sci.) 10. Das Thierleben der Alpenwelt. seg u. thigh ier nungen aus dem —— Gebierge. n Fr. v. Tscuopt. Leiprig, 1853. . Indicis gener Malacozovrum oa et corrigenda. Auc- oma N. Herrmansen. Cassellis, 1852. 8vo 12. Histoire seve des végetaux parasites au croissent sur l’hom- me et sur les animaux vivants ; par Cu. Rosin aris, . 8vo, with atlas. 428 Scientific Intelligence. 13. L’organisation du régne animal; par Emine Brancnarv. 5th No., folio. Paris, 1852. December. 14. Odontographie. Vergleichende Darstellung des Zahnsystems der lebenden u. fossilen Wirbelthiere. Von C. G. Giesen. 2d No. 4to. Leipzig, 1853. We intend to give a detailed account of some of these works in the next number of the Journal. be {If. Lectures on Surgical Pathology, delivered at the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons of England; by James Pacer, F.R.S., &c. 2 vols. London, 1853. Vol. I, pp. 499. (Hypertrophy: Atrophy: Re- pair: Inflammation: Mortification: Specific Diseases.) Vol. II, pp. 637. (Tumors.) The Art of medicine is as old as humanity itself, but Pathology ele- vated to the dignity of a science which can be studied in an intelligent and definite way, is of quite recent origin. Physiology and Pathology must always be mutual aids, for the latter is but a fallen condition of the former; and no one can clearly under- stand the physical conditions of disease, until he has learned the normal Zoology. 429 the reader. These nals are taken "P pappereiory to a consideration of the more special process of the healing art involved in practical surgery. ‘These it is not our aaa ee discuss or even touch upon ; but what we desire to impress is the necessity of studying the condi- tions of nutrition in all its phases of growth and repair, as illustrated in the lower forms of life where nature has laid bare the processes for our observation The study of the development, growth and repair of polypes, a Occ and spiders, may seem to have the remotest connection with the domain forms imperative with him who would have a wide comprehension of her laws. Were we so ‘minded, this train of thought might be very pleasantly extended, and we could cite ee our duthor, examples of men distinguished in their art, whose eminence is not a little due to that broad grasp of organic nbensiouih’ derived from scientific studies of this B d. But we will quote one passage where Mr. Paget expresses himself o this very ‘ior, sk with his usual felicity. It is near the conclusion of bs seventh Lectur ‘**T may seem in hae as in some earlier lectures, to have been discus- sing doctrines that can hardly be applicable to our daily practice, and to the clearer knowledge of that law, in reliance of whic alone, we dare not to practice our profession ; the law, that lost perfection may be reepsened by the operation of the powers by which it was once achieved. Then, let us not overlook those admirable provisions, which we may find in the lives of all that breathe, against injuries that, but for these provisions, would too often bring them to their end before their appointed time, or leave them mutilated to perish a painful and imperfect life. We are not likely to undervalue, or Hs steht of the design of all such provisions for our own welfare. But pe better appreciate these, if we regard them as only of the same Midd 6 those more abundantly supplied to creatures whom we are apt to think j insig- nificant: indeed, so abundantly, that, if with a consciousness of the facility of self-repair, self-mutilation is commonly resorted to for the preservation of life.”—Vol. I, p. 165, 166. Pleasant as it would be to discuss these points and. relations further, and to follow them in their close conse onan detail to those methods of art which belong to the relief of humanity and the restoration of our 430 Scientific Intelligence. broken physical nature, yet this would hardly belong to our department. We shall be pleased if we succeed in calling particular attention to a work written in a fine philosophical spirit, with a true English practical- ity, and in a style excellent for its plainness and lucidity. We may add that the “ getting up” of these volumes is quite com- plete. Printed ina large clear type, and on excellent paper, it is indeed, a delight merely to read such writings. ere are, moreover, constant wood-cuts intercalated in the text, which, for cleanness, are in keeping with the rest of the “work” of these volumes ; and, finally, what we always like to see, there is a very complete and convenient index at the end. W. I. B. V. Astronomy. 1, New Comet, IV of 1853, (Astr. Journal, 64.)—On the night of Sept. 11, 1853, Mr. C. Bruuns, in Berlin, detected near the forward paw of the Great Bear,a “ large faint nebulous comet, resembling a star- cluster.” Its position Sept. 11, 134 12™ 153-3 was RB. A. 126° 59’ 11-5, and Decl. + 44° 51’ 33-6. Its position Sept. 15, 128 18™ 538-8 was 132° 22' 8-9 in R. A., and + 42° 29' 545 in Decl. Up to Sept. 17, no indications of a tail were visible, and the nucleus continued to present the appearance of an unresolved nebula, with numerous points of light. From the observations of Sept. 11, 13, 15, Mr. Bruns had deduced the elements given below, which however, owing to the disad- vantageous position of the comet, he considers as being only a tolerable approximation. : T. Oct. 164.6122. Long. of perihelion, —- - . 301° 23’ 204 a asc. node, - - - 222 13 44°1 Inclination, % : Gs: 6-3 4 Log. perihelion dist., - - - 9-260658 Motion retrograde. 2. Proserpine, (26) (Astr. Journ. No. 63.)—The following elements of this planet were computed by Mr. A. Kriager :— Epoch, 1853, June 10-0. Mean anomaly, - - 358° Long. of perihelion, - 227 34 4-6) Mean Eqnx. ““ase.node, - - 45 55 34 3} 1853, Jan. 0°0 Inclination, - . - 3 36 14 :°0 ngle of excentricity, - 4 20 30 °3 Log. semi-axis maj.,_- 0:418836 ° ** mean daily motion, 2°921752 3. Second Comet of 1853, (Astron. Nach., 859.)—The elements given below, were computed by Mr. C. Bavuns, from observations of April 14, 16, and 19. ‘k= 185, May 10:39998 M. T. Berlin. Long. of perihelion, - “ 201° 12! 57/-2 ) Mean Eqnx. “asc. node, - - 4). 32. a a 18530 _ Inclination, © cn eae haat 57 53 3:0 ae Log. perihelion dist., - - 9°956398 0.3 a retrograde. Sor-ect amelie ae Miscellaneous ene. 431 4. Third Comet of 1853, (Atheneum, Sept. 17. \—The comet ve was so conspicuous near the western horizon about the first of Septem ber, reached its greatest brilliancy on the 8d of Sept.; on which da shortly before one o’clock, Pp. M., the nucleus was perceived in full day: light by Mr. Harrnup, of the Liverpool Observatory. It appeared round, and about 9” in diameter, without any appearance of a tail. . Sho servations reported in oe last number of this Journal, the following ave been received, . Coulvier Gravier, at Paris, reports (Comptes Rendus, tom. 37, p. 288) the hourly number on the 9th at 49, and on the 10th, 56, but omits to give the number = observers, and ‘the time of night in which his observations were ma Rev. Andrew T. Pratt, M.D., Missionary of the American — at Aintab, Turkey, has communicated some observations made by mself and another person Aug. 9-1lth. The evenings were Piles 2 but their view was confined to the part of the heavens west of the meridian, and above the altitude of twenty degrees n the 9-10ih, from 9 to 10 0 ‘lode “they saw 36, and from 1 to 2 Fre ea 66. On the 10-IIth, from 12 to 1 o’clock they saw 78, and from 1 to 2 o’clock, 88. The general tection of the meteors was quite sig the radiant being near Cassio hese observations agree with those ceaceton made at New Haven as to sl ener direction and greater frequency after midnight, and confirm, what erhaps be considered as sufficiently well estab- lished, the etal a of shooting stars. VI. MisceLuaneous INTELLIGENCE. 1. Note to Prof. righ paper on ep agp of Heat in the Hot-air Engine, page 351; by the Aurnor.—In Appleton’s Mechan- ic’s Magazine for Ae dtneel is editorially stated, on the authority of Capt. Ericsson, that the engines now in preparation for the caloric ship are to have working cylinders of 6 feet diameter and 8 feet stroke, are to be double-acting, and are to draw their supplies from a reservoir of highly condensed air kept artificially cold, to which the escaping air is to be returned. This construction requires no modification of the theory of the engine, but renders necessary, in the gen neral formula, the sub- perdi : 15142, or as 54:49. The stroke, being also increased in the ratio 4: 3, will i increase dis nominal horse-power, should the same number of revolutions be maintained, in the same ratio. The powers given in this table, therefore, being multiplied ak: aoxa= Z will give the gore ere powers of the new engine tion of economy, however, remains unaffected, since the mass air se be heated is increased in precisely the same ratio as the power. The mass varies as the product of volume into density ; 432 Miscellaneous Intelligence. that is, as 62890: 142x615, or as 72:49, the same ratio as the preceding. ‘The success of the engine in this form will depend entirely upon the heating apparatus. Should that be no more efficient than the former, the failure will be more signal, because of the increased demand made upon it. It is to be presumed, however, that the invent- or’s attention is now directed mainly to this point, and that his attempts at improvement may not be entirely fruitless. The formula for mean pressure (page 248 of this volume) may be made entirely general, by substituting a letter, as IJ, to stand for the pressure against which the engine works. It may also be rendered more simple in appearance by making the following substitutions. Put L vy &! =u, and Pe Bec With these changes, it takes the following form, which is here given in full, in consequence of the typographical error in the former article. ke -% Pie [ em ~ aD ar ll -1)- Ta =B'n") +m - 1 | In Appleton’s Mechanics’ Magazine for July is contained a very able and satisfactory examination of the general theory of the caloric engine by Maj. J. G. Barnard, of the U. S. Engineers. As the article in this Journal for September appeared considerably later, in the order of attainable without di culty. From what has already been said above, mains to be seen. 2. The Conical Condenser, a Telescopic Appendage; by Lieut. E. B. Hunt, Corps of Engineers, U.S. A., (Read before the Am. hardly anticipate that this arrangement will be of practical soexek th __* A similar reason must prevent, in the present number, any allusion to the con- tinuation of Maj. Barnard’s investigation, which, it is understood, is to appear Miscellaneous Intelligence. 433 It consists — of two conical mirrors of the same — and with a common axis, so placed that the beam of light i is first re ec; whence it is again reflected, in certain cases, parallel to its first direc- tion. Thus the first or ring-shaped beam of rays is condensed, so that it can be received on the object-glass of a telescope, in condition for ac- curate eee? the quantity of rays being greater as the ring-ra- dius is incre To apeesuate: this, we first observe that if a ray be ee, re- flected between two parallel mirrors, its directions, after all the even reflections, are parallel to each other. Let the two cones now es as- sumed, with a common axis and equal vertex angles, the inner surface of the outer cone, and the outer surface of the inner cone, being re- t First, take a beam of rays parallel to the common axis. Each ray of this beam which falls on the outer cone, and again, after reflection, on the inner cone, will emerge parallel to its primary direction, as the normals at its two points of reflection are parallel. Thus all the rays from the outer pp however great its radius be, will in this case be condensed into a new beam parallel to the first, but emerging from the inner cone. Mae object-glass, or rather a telescope, with its axis ° 2 S g Se 5 gg rc} 5 @ tor) 8 na ow ~~ = oy ben J o OQ =. < o rel 3 3 o S na & = exceeds the area of telescope apert The condensing tones are thus — a perfect arrangement for increasing the intensity of light from a star on the axis. Cutting off from the inner cone just enough to cover the ‘abject: glass, and from the outer one the part supplying rays to that portion thus determined, and mounting the two asa sea appendage, light may be condensed to any extent, froma “star, by increasing the ring-radius. The effect would be idemical With that of enlarging the object-glass ot an area e equal to the orthographic ray pro- jection of the ring. This ring could doubtless be increased to twenty or thirty feet diameter, which with a two feet aperture would give such an illumination from an axis-star as is overpowering in contem- — , let a beam be taken, making, with the we a A nisl angle, ae as that of all beams in an astronomical field m always be. To trace this through the condenser, siopa the ring re- solved into elementary rings, and the beam into corresponding e ele ito i rmals mentary beam into the same plane. The rays fall parallel in revolu- tion, and their points of rebectioa fallin an are, subtending twice the angle between the axis of the beam and that of the cones. As the aberration due to the s re above revol have effected, the veils of second reflection will fall into a curve, dif- 55 Srconp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—Nov., 434 Miscellaneous Inielligence. fering not very much from a circle; by examining which, it will be seen, that it gives a counter or corrective aberration, which would make the fina emergence nearly, in a beam, parallel to the first incident beam first reflected from the outer ring element. Thus the two reflec- tions are strongly corrective of each other, and the incident elementary beam will emerge, after two reflections, nearly asa true beam, for all the extent of vial a field as belongs to high telescopic powers. What is true of an elementary beam is equally true of the total beam It should be Sead that the rays of each elementary beam lying in the plane through its axis and the axis of the cones emerge parallel to their first isi and that for the adjacent portions of the ring, the lack of accurate emergence would be insensible. Thus, all beaks in the field have a perfectly correct defining part, in the ones. Another important remark is that all incorrectly condensed ra a are ) the field is the least perfect, but even this has a correct definition, with less light, and some overlaying of wandering rays. To what extent around the axis the field would prove useful, experiment only can de- ide ar as I can judge, this would be fully to the extent required in large eb such as are now particularly desired for resolving the remote nebulze, and in stellar observation in general. Much of the discussion of these mirrors, and their optical actions, I have omitted, as ing superfluous here. My general conclusion i in, that optically, this condenser is an available means of giving a vast increase to the space- penetrating power of telesco The loss of light by each rebchian should of course be taken into account, as a circumstance lessening the useful effect, in a degree, di- ie as oe LAenrption, and dependit ing on the iia iacia! and poli of the re lecto only meridan observations. To observe at very limited ee the meridian, a measureable rotation might be given to the plane mirror around its. igh line element, perpendicular to the telescopic axis. If Miscellaneous Intelligence. 435 it be desired to observe through all azimuths and altitudes, the whole arrangement, including the telescope, can be made to revolve horizon- tally. Doubtless an equatorial mounting could be contrived, but I doubt if it could be made convenient. The large ring webld maanirally be composed of segments, which could be cast in speculum metal, and polished by a revolving straight e glass, cut into shape while plane, and bent, when heated, to the re-, quired curvature by a mould. Then a final polishing, and a pure silver. It is, pe erhaps, superfluous to dwell longer on this arrangement. I would say, in conclusion, that if an extension of telescopic power much felted reflection, exceeding in intensity anything ever rea ized. In transit or other meridian instruments, it is now necessary for the hote telescope to turn in its axis, and for the observer to follow its rotation with much discomfort and torture of timb. ‘There is a very simple mode of Rd daslite with all this, which occurred to Prof. Bache and myself, het rae ntly and nearly "LO REE It has not yet been tried, and I know not when it will Let the telescope be supported in any manner, with its axis horizon- tal and perpendicular to the meridian. Mount at its object-glass end a perfectly plane mirror, making an angle of 45° with the line of colli- mation, and ae for this a rotation measured on a meridian limb. is = 3 ic} = =) 172) 8 oO 2) eS - =" oO oO eee & o im] : = a) =| 99 nm nn @ pom ee 5 wg oO =. @ = ¢ —~ h with no other hotel ita that of the mirror rotation. This mirror may be made a permanent appendage to the object- -glass, or may be mount- ed quite itself. The main difficulty would be in the first adjustment, and the setting up would then probably be easier than that of the ex- isting fesse: eans of arranging this so as to get the ae ae of glass, ce can be formed hte eflect 93 per cent. of the incident light at 45°, rd The el S eneee art is surely so perfect in the Coast Survey Laboratory, that silver mirrors can be deposited ona speculum metal matrix, leaving only a final polish to be given. It is not rash to assume ttempt. h whole, the introduction of this reflector, and the consequent ’ revolutionizing of the transit, will prove desirable in prac- tice, remains to be seen. = = ES 436 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 3. Project of a Geographical Depariment of the Library of Con- gress.—The following are the principal points in a plan for a geograph- ical department of the Library of Congress, presented by Lieut. E. B. \T, Corps of Engineers, to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Cleveland, August, 1853. . That a Geographical department of the Congress Library be es- tablished, as a distinct and independently organized department, with its own executive officer,—the general direction being under the Joint Library Committee. Il. That special appropriations be made for this department, or that the Library Committee set apart a portion of the general Library ap- propriations for this purpose, During the period of collecting the great mass of existing materials, these appropriations would require to be proportionably large. Ill. That the appropriated funds be applied to the collection, arrange- ment, and indexing of all important geographical materials relating to the whole world; also, in part to the necessary expenses of administration. V. Among the materials thus to be collected, the following classes may be mentioned: 1. A first-class terrestrial globe. All m terials illustrating the early and recent geography of the United States, its sea-coast and interior, including traced copies of all valuable maps and charts in manuscript and not published. The materials for illustrating the past and present geography of each state, county, town- ship and city, shoyld be gathered by purchase, correspondence, and tracing. 3. All maps and charts on other parts of America. 4. The Admiralty or sea-coast chart of all the European and other foreign States, and the detailed topographical surveys of their interiors, where such have been made. 5. The most approved maps published from private resources, whether as atlases, nautical charts, or mural maps, including publications on physical geography, guide-books, railroad maps, and city hand-books. 6. A complete collection of all the narra- tives of voyages of discovery and exploration. 7. Geographical, geo- fetic and nautical manuals, and treatises, with all the requisite biblio- graphical aids to the amplest geographical investigation. aving an organization and appropriations for gathering such a mass of material, it would be of the first importance to arrange com- plete and systematic indexes or catalogues which would at once make known all the material on each locality, and to have those materials so arranged as best to facilitate special research. A room for drawing, in which materials for the collection could be copied either for its files, or to answer public and private calls, would be indispensable for the completeness of this scheme. In this room, compilation could be conducted in answer to Congressional calls, and in keeping constantly corrected and filled out, a set of State maps on large scales, to which map publishers should have free access. pee competent executive officer who would be able to maintain correspondence with persons having special geographical knowledge, and to keep a list of persons who could be addressed for additional information on foreign and domestic localities. Also, correspondence should be maintained with foreign geographical societies, and their publications should be secured with promptness. = Miscellaneous Intelligence. A437 VIII. The head of this department could present, through the Libra- ry Committee, an annual report, on the geographical explorations by our own and foreign Governments, or ay oo o far as their D ee teresting and important geographical ‘iste or publications for the year. Among the duties which would belong to this department would be that of calling attention to i lon demanding examination, or locali- lies needing exploration. Also, it would be able to furnish the prelimi nary information for such explorations, or to indicate the sources whence it could be derived. e Composition and Figuring oY - Specula for Reflecting n ie a ih (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1853 ; ee 8.)-—-Mr. Souuir ommenced by stating that he had given ‘is pe to this subject for years, and that he was more than ever convinced of its importance by once well and carefully made, were far less apt to deteriorate than re- one In order to be intelligible to the section, it was necessary for him to go over some ground familiar to the public, since the researches of Lod Rosse, Mr. Lassell, and Mr. Nasmyth. He stated that he con- sidered it to be a matter of prime eR as a the copper and tin should be used in exact atomic proportio , following the num- _ given by Berzelius, used the following ectenita :——copper 32 ; n 17:4. Lord Rosse’s are, co pper oes tin 14:9. s the metal when proportions e found on trial best :—copper 32; tin 15°5; nickel 2. e also found she introduction of a very small quantity of arsenic useful in preventing the oxydation of the tin when melti ¥ M ssell he also found excellent; but he was against the use of fluxes, as most injurious. The author passed over the casting and grinding with very slight notice ; but dwelt on the composition and figuring of the polisher as of great importanc ‘he composition as cular grooves,——and not sie parallel and cross grooves, as use Rosse and Mr. Lassell. These concentric grooves he crossed by radial grooves, widening as they receded from the centre, so as to be bounde by curved outlines. By giving proper form and dimensions to these curves the nene form could be most accurately given to the spec- trum in the process of polishing. The form of the curved outlines of these radial Aissaient he found should be parabolic. He concluded by stating the importance of st having the speculum too thin, and of using proper dale in mounting and supporting it, to avoid any chance aL CORESBY aiid that having been in another section he had not ee" the early part of the communication of Mr. Sollitt; but he rather A438 Miscellaneous Intelligence. time : so that after the speculum had been a certain number of hours under the action of the polisher, he was well assured that the proper figure had been attained. Prof. Stevelly briefly described these motions and adjustments ; and stated that the actual result was, an enormous circular disc of six-feet aperture, without crack or flaw, and of a splen- did uniform polish, and reflecting light from objects of a perfectly natural tint—-Mr. Varey said he had found that the use of a little zinc in the composition of the speculum metal took from it the liability to tarnish which he had found so annoying. He expressed regret that struction of his speculum ; his own experiments had led him to hope they might be avoided.—_Mr. LassEtt said, if he had heard Mr. Sollitt o the proper proportion. of tin to be used with the copper, he believed it to be impossible to give an unvarying rule, as the copper of commerce was very irregular in its quality and purity. found the best mode to be to add nearly the quantity of tin known to be required,—which generally was from 14 to 15 parts tin, to 32 copper ; and then weighing a small portion of that alloy, add to it by slow de- grees known weights of tin,—and, assaying it from time to time by the simple test of dropping it into water as soon as it acquired a certain brittleness and briliiancy of fracture, easily to be recognized by practice, the North Atlantic and Northern Oceans ; by the Rev. Dr. Scoressy, (Proc. Brit. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 439 all the currents of the ocean, with perhaps one exception, the Gu 20 stream, which had been, in its more important eatures, careful X- h ic t instrument by no means perfect. he determination, however, of oceanic currents, to which the ee communication referred, depends simply on induction from observation of temperature, and that mainly indicated, yet still the general result found important and useful. The rches of the author embrace those in the Greenland Sea, the North and a considerable belt across the North Atlantic. To those in the North Atlantic he wished at present to direct attention ; and to a belt of it embraced within the limits of a series of passages chiefly by sailing vessels between England, or some European port, and New York. these passages, sixteen in number, four were performed by the author himself, and twelve were supplied by an American navigator, Capt. J. C. Delano, an accurate scientific observer. The o bservations day of each passage, the ean day at sea was found to be May 18th or 19th,—a day fortunately pets neg in singular nearness with ‘the prob- able time of the mean annual oceanic pcp Peat The author had laid down the tracks of the ship in each of the voyages, on a chart of Mercator’s projection, and the principal ania on Surface Tem perature were marked in their respective e places. The obverva sions were then tabulated for meridians of 2° in breadth, from Cape Clear, longitude 10° W., to the eastern point of te Island, faints 12° Was _-embracing a belt of the average breadth of 22 miles, or a stretch of about 2,600 miles across the Atlantic. The results were the following : u 74° ; from the means of each meridional section, 56°, _— the mean atmos- pheric temperature for the corresponding perio od w s §4°-2.—3. Range of Surface Temperature within each meridional section of 2°, 84° at the lowest, being in longitude 20-22" W., and at the ements 36°, being sixteen meridional sections being 51°-88, and the at ran ‘3. —d. In the succeeding fone sections, where the lowest temperature w °, the average lowes as 37°: the average ran a: 440 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ern halves of the Atlantic passage, the author said was conclusively indicative of great ocean currents yielding a mean depression of the lowest meridional temperature from 51°-88 to 37°-1, or 14°-8, and pro- ducing a mean range of the extreme of temperature on the western side more strictly, in the proportion of 29°-7 to 11°83. The author drew ature and highest elevation, with ans ch longitude dis- tinguished by different shading ; and pointed out how the inspection of this as well as of the tabulated results affords striking indications of the two great currents, one descending from the Polar, the other ascending from the Tropical regions, with their characteristic changes of cold and heat. In classifying the results, the author considered the entire bel of the Atlantic track of the passages as divided into six divisions of 10° of longitude each, and these into meridional stripes of 2° each, omitting the first two degrees next the European end, or about 80 miles westward of Ireland to 72° W., or about the same distance west o ew York. regularity, showing the variations and range to b uch less, while throughout the eastern half the widening of the distance, and the irreg- ular form of the extreme curves showed the influences of the two cur- rents very remarkably. ‘The author then proceeded to draw conclusions, showing that sometimes the cold current from the north plunged beneath F 2. out and forming the main Gulf-stream. Sometimes where they met they interlaced in alternating stripes of hot and cold water ; sometimes their meeting caused a deflexion,—as, where one branch of the Gulf- stream was sent down to the south-east of Europe and north of Africa, and another branch sent up past the British Islands to Norway and mate, was subject to far less variations of range of temperature than many i eneral influ- known the temperature to rise no less than 52° in forty-eight hours, —having previously descended in a very few days through astill greater range; while in these countries the extensive range between mean sum- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 441 tudes would soon become too salt to perform their intended see Next he pointed out their use in forming sand- banks, which beca i i lds fo Next, this commingling of the waters of several regions tended to change and renew from time to time the soil of these banks,—which, like ma- nuring and working our fields, was found to be necessary for — these extensive pastures for the fish. Lastly, vei poten ng dow soon be nt wn as extensive eri rendering whole tractevef our temperate zones uninhabitable wilds. Dr. Scoresby concluded by pointing out several meteorological influences of these currents, by sing extensive fogs and winds more or les 6. On the employment of the higher Sulphids of Calcium as a “means of preventing and destroying the Oidium Tuckeri, or Grape Disease ; =i om” Asttey P. Price, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1853; Athen. 1100 0.)—OF many substances which have been employed to arrest the eae effects of this disease, none appear to have been so pre- eminently successful as sulphur, whether employed in mh strat of pow- der o wers of sulphur, or by sublimation in hous affected. Nenvidiomading the several methods described for its application to the aware that any had been offered in 1851, when experiments were instituted, by which sulphur might be teitooaley dis- tributed over the branches, and be there deposited in such a manner as to be to some extent firmly attached to the vine. Three houses at Mar- gate, in the vicinity of the one in which the disease first made its ap- pearance in England, having been for the space of five years infected with the disease, and notwithstanding the employment of sulphur as powdered and flowers of sulphur, no abatement in its ravages could r adopted, and although but few applications were made, the stems became coated with a deposit of sulphur, and the disease gradually but effect- ually diminished, in so much that the houses are now entirely free from any trace of ~~ or symptoms of infection. The young e 0 with dise of that year received no further treatment. The vines in the i Sroonp Series, Vol. XVI, No. 48.— Nov. 1853. 56 442 Miscellaneous Intelligence. diate neighborhood, and adjoining one of the houses, are covered with isease, but, notwithstanding their close proximity, no indication of the disease has at present been detected in either of the three houses. 7. On the Interior of Australia; by A. Perermann, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1853; Athen., p. 1168.)—At a time when the exploration of the unknown interior of Australia was earnestly thought of, the probable character of that extensive region became a subject of particular inter- est, and of legitimate inquiry. Scarcely one-third part of Australia could said to have been even partially explored, and by far the larger por- tion was therefore entirely unknown. This unknown interior of Aus- tralia had frequently been a matter of speculation, at first founded‘on very few facts. But, as our knowledge increased, and actual facts became more numerous, the theories had been modified. One of these hypothesis was, that the interior, toa certain extent, consisted of a shoal sea. It was in 1814, only forty years since, when the exploration of inner Australia might be said to have been systematically commenced, that Mr. Oxley, the first surveyor-general of New South Wales, a man of acknowledged ability and merit, surrounded about one-eighth part of the longitudinal ex- tent of Australia. By tracing down the rivers Lachlan and Macquarie, he was checked in his progress westward by marshes of great extent, beyond which he could not see any land. He was, therefore, led to infer that the interior was occupied by a shoal sea, of which the er to the Royal Geographical Society, announced that he had arrived at different conclusions, namely, that the interior would be found generally to be of a very low level, consisting of sand, alternating with many basins of dried salt lakes, or such as were covered only by shallow salt water or mud, as was the case with Lake Torrens. He also said that it was more than probable there might be many detached and even high ranges, similar to the Gawler Range, and that, interspersed among these ranges, intervals of a better or even of a rich and fertile country, might be met with. In 1850, Mr. J.B. Jukes, in his valuable work on ‘* The Physical Condition of Australia,” stated his opinion to be that the ogy of Australia, and the absence of large rivers, besides other features. Tt was well known that the Australian colonies were subject in sum- : oS ‘mer to occasional blasts of what is called the hot-wind, from its ex- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 443 tremely high temperature. This hot wind always blew from the inte- rior, in New South Wales and Tasmania, its direction being from the northwest and from the north in Port Phillip and South Australia. The breath of this wind was like the blast from a fiery furnace, in- creasing the mean temperature a summer’s day, on the westerly the hot wind the thermometer rose to 100° or even 115° in the shade, with the southerly squall there was sometimes a sudden fall of full 40° in the course of half or even quarter of an hour. ‘This wind swept up from the interior clouds of dust and sand, sometimes intermixed with entirely corroborated this assumption. The discoveries of Capt. Sturt, of the winds. ‘The situation of Capt. Sturt’s desert was such that there centre of the largest of these deserts, which probably extended from o w o * et o S ou ® a La = S) =] IQ > & - > cS & = =, =) i] S. ie] or oo romal ° < =< ® 2 5 S 444 Miscellaneous Intelligence. promising district of northwest Australia extended far to the south, to the middie of the continent, and beyond it, at least to the latitude of Gascoyne River. One significant fact supported the latter opinion, and a d that was the occurrence of large trees which ated down the rivers of northwest Australia, and found at their mouths,—an occ own in southwestern Australia. In conclusion, Mr . of mankind. 8. On Preserving the Balance between Vegetable and Animal Organ- ms in Sea-water; by R. WarrincTon, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1853; and promising district would be explored and laid open for the benefit water without changing the water. It is not sufficient that there should be plants alone ; but where the higher animals such as fish are kept, it is necessary that some beings should exist which will feed on the decay- ing vegetable matter. This desideratum is supplied by the various water creatures are, however, more varied than those of fresh; hence the difficulty had been proportionally great in arriving at a suc- 64 pp. 12mo, with a map. Burlington, 1853.—This Appendix to Mr. Thompson’s Vermont, is devoted to its Natural History, Geology; Meteorology and surface Features, in which departments it contains considerable original information. Among the discoveries of the author are the bones of the elephant, and of a new fossil whale. The latter 1s | y Mr. Thompson the Beluga vermontana, (this Jour., [2] 1% 256.) We cite the following altitudes of different places in Vermont, Miscellaneous Intelligence. 445 ALTITUDES ABOVE THE OCEAN. Wo i Feet. a en oc 400 Mountain Summits. Brattleborough, 160 Feet.| Benningto , 432 Chin, Beton Thompson, 4848 Manrikiateb, 650 onan 4044 | Rutland, 500 Sout 3882 | Castleton, 476 = mel Sat Dusan 4083 | Ludlow, 985 eak, Ms, 4018 Proctorsville, 895 Shre aneosh 4086 | Chester, 670 Killington i -‘Sherbumne Partridge, 3924 | Brandon, 460 Equin 3706 | Middlebury, 390 Kieutne SW indso ity 3320 | Vergennes, 225 Snake Mt., eta Adams, 1310 | Norwich, 400 Buck - Mt., 1035 | Newbury, 420 Sugar Loaf, £ Cacti, Thompson, 1003 | Barnet, «< 460 Snake Hill, Milt 912) St. Johnsbury, 585 Cobble, ty 827 Lyndon, 135 _—_— Barton, 953 Passes over the Green Mountains. Derby Centre, 975 Lincoln, Adams, 2415 Fit rec — Gtanville, a 9340 Depeny Common, 1158 toe a 211 roy, South, 740 Sherburne, sp ariridgts 1882 Mw ogee oie Walden t Clinton, 1615) yy dona ivf ae Mt. Holly, 9 Toad) Gilbert, 1415 med brid , Roibar nhl 997 | Catabridge, 410 gt A ae Johnson, 460 illiamstown, Johnson, 908 ; Sere Lakes and Ponds. ages. Champlain Lake,* 90 Burlington Town iam Benedict, 202 | Memphremagog “ 695 University, 367 | Joe’s Pond, Cabot; 1544 Milton Falls, Thompson, 298) Tyford’s Pond, Walden, 1692 e s 452 Molley’s Pond, Cabot, 626 cho Corners, z 604 ski Peacham, 1410 Underhill Flat e 665 | Wells River Pond, Gro illiston, H: 402 | Crystal Po Barton, 983 Franklin, 430 | Mud Pond, Sutton, 11838 St. Albans, <4 370] Savanna Pond, . 1210 Highgate Springs, 160 | Willoughby Lake, Westmore, 1161 Swanton, 160} Elligo Pond, it 898 E. Berkshire, 460 | Salem Pond, Winooski Falls, 203] Pensionérs Pond, Charest, 2140 Sheldon, 875 | {sland Pond, ighton, 1182 Richmond, 832 | Lake Connetiont, head Ee J Com, —— : 425 River, in N. H, 1589 iddle 520 Mentaclan (Capitol,) 540 Fails. ps as anes (Depot,) 24 Great Falls, Marshfield Bc ie 732 t, Bandilph, 678 | Nat. Bridge Falls, poms oma (foot,) 345 556 | Meln idoe’s Falls, Barnet, ead,) om Royalton, * 47 oot,) White River Junction, 335 | 20 Mites Rapids, Lannbae ees” $02 Windsor, 288 oot,) 486 Bellows Falls, 225 Guildhall Fall, Guildhall, (he esa 835 * The level of Lake Champlain i is taken for a basis in many of the a which have been made, for canals and railroads, and their profiles indicate the height of places above the lake. In shientiog from these, the heights above the ocean, for accompanying tables, 90 feet lake above the (Ane access, I am disposed to think that 90 feet is nearly the true height. The change of level the Inky tat , the differe nce between the extreme high water and the ex- treme low water 5 10 eight feet 4A6 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 10. On an Aurora Borealis of “tsp 2nd, 1853 ; Boye.—l observed this aurora on 2d of Se eptember oo (1858) when on the Newfoundland Bank, ea 10 miles south and 26 miles west of Cape Race, or in latitude 46° 25’ to 30’, and longitude 53° 25/ to 35’ sGeadawich). The previous evening an inconsiderable aurora h stars were distinctly visible below it. From its upper convex edge, streamers would shoot up emerging towards a point below the zenith, in the southern hemisphere. The space of radiant light, or corona, formed and disappeared ticularly towards the close of the phenomenon, the lo ng streamers be- came more indistinct, and resolved themselves into ‘salient dis- persed lines of light terminating at their lower extremity, in a small bunch of short lines, giving the appearance of a golden rain or a golden figured drapery all over the heavens, which latter seemed to be illumin- ated on all sides. Absit: ] consider it one of the finest auroras ever was some, but not much lateral motion of ponte streamers. Capt. Leitch of the steamer formed me, that he had been unable to observe any effect on the oe needle, the variation of which in this place he gave as 27° west, and which, as he paid —— attention to it, he would ely hal failed to do, had the — amounted to 2° 0 I have been informed, by several gentlema saat on the sata eve- ning an aurora was visible in Philadelphia, -couslacing of a band of ht. light 11. On the baal? Theory of an Arctic Basin. Is it true? by the Rev. Dr. Scoresby, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1853; Athen., 1167. rem a gentleman proceegy to refute the notion of an Arctic basi ved that he was fully convinced of the futility of — to ieiaob she ont Pole ‘by water. He believed he had pene into the Arctic a than any living man in the vorld--namely, oF Miscellaneous Intelligence. 447 distance of 803 degrees,—and his observations had left no doubt in his own mind that the country about the North Pole was one mass of | stupendous blocks of ice. This opinion, he knew, was not by any means the popular one; but still he had not made his assertion without some claim to knowledge on the subject, and he would stake whatever = “ and though he had failed in the object of his mission, it wa ing to circumstances over which he had no control. He (Dr. Se sendi by) still thought the Pole might be reached. But by water it was, as he had said before, wholly impracticable. A discussion ensued, in which Mr. Findlay and Dr. Shaw took part ; the latter, after directing attention to the Arctic discoveries of Com mander Inglefield, a his belief that it was by sea and not by teat that a Polar basin isto be sought. The deeper the water the less ice is to be expected,—and a screw yacht might start from England in May, and return héme in October with an account of a further penetration to the northeast between Spitzbergen ~ ~— Zembla than had as yet ever been accomplished by any navigat On the Consolidation of Coral Societies —-The paper by Prof. Horsford referred to on page 357, has recently appeared in a pamphlet form, and a copy has been received by the writer from the author. The paragraphs from Prof. Horsford’s paper cited in my article in this number and the other statements —— . Oy me, remain in the pam- phlet as they were published in the Tra 13. Daguerreotypes for the nena oP daguerreotype sent us by Prof. Barnard, as mentioned on page 350, is a very beautiful specimen of the art, besides having the peculiar sabteih which aes it for the stereoscope. There are two admirable pictures, on the sa ber last. The meeting for 1854 was appointed to be held at Liverpool. 15. Clinochlore——The crystal of Clinochlore figured on page 436, vol. xv, of this Journal, was ales the cabinet of William W. Tefferis . B. Stri death of Mr. H. E. Strickland, who was killed o on Wednesday by a rail- way train, whilst Fueraowine the strata of a railway cutting on the Man- ~~ Sheffield, and rohan line. The melancholy particulars re thus given in the daily papers —‘ Mr. Strickland arrived at East iation ; and in inate of his practical investigations in 448 Miscellaneous I ntelligence. that science, he proceeded on Wednesday afternoon to examine the strata of the deep cuttings on each side of the Clarbrough Tunnel, about four miles distant from Retford. A little after four o’clock, a boy at work in the fields observed him standing between the two lines of rails, near the mouth of the tunnel, on the Gainsborough side, with a pocket- book in his hand, apparently engaged in making notes. At this time, a coal train was approaching on the down line,—to avoid which, he stepped off the ‘six feet’ on to the up-line but unhappily he did so just at the moment when the Great Northern passenger train was issuing from the tunnel. The train dashed upon him,——and the next instant he lay a shattered and shapeless corpse.” Mr. Strickland was in the prime of life,—-at that age when the prom- ise of youth is fast realizing itself. e was born at Righton, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, on the 2nd of March, 1811. His father, Mr. Ilenry E. Strickland, of Apperley, in Gloucestershire, was a son of the late Sir George Strickland, Bart., of Boynton, in Yorkshire. e was a grandson on his mother’s side of the celebrated Dr. Edmund Cartwright,—whose name is so indissolubly connected with the manu- — greatness of England on account of his invention of the power- oom om. Mr. Strickland’s boyhood was spent under his father’s roof; where he was under the private tutelage successively of the three brothers Monkhouse,—one of whom is now a Fellow of Queen’s College, Ox- ford. From his father’s house he was transferred to the late Dr. Arnold,——who, prior to his appointment at Rugby, took private pupils at Laleham, near Staines. He finished his education at Oriel College, Oxford. , Although distinguished for his classical knowledge, Mr. Strickland had early acquired a taste for natural history pursuits ; and after the completion of his studies at college he resided with his family at Cra- court House, near Evesham, Worcestershire——where he studied minutely on the construction of a new wind-gau In 1835, Mr. Strickland travelled in Asia Minor, in company with Mr. W. J. Hamilton, M.P..—who was then secretary to the Geological Society. An account of this journey was published, in two volumes 8vo., by Mr. Hamilton, 1842, under the title ** Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus and Armenia.” This tour resulted also in the publica- tion of several interesting papers on the eology of the districts visited, both by Mr. Strickland himself and conjointly with Mr. Hamilton. The principal papers published by Mr. Strickland singly were-—“ On the Geology of the Thracian Bosphorus.”—-“ On the Geology of the neigh- borhood of Smyrna.”—~and “ On the Geology of the Island of Zante.” He early devoted his attention to the study of birds; and during this journey he gave proof of his ornithological knowledge by adding to the list of birds inhabiting Europe the Salicaria Oliveiorum. He subse- quently devoted a large share of his attention to the study of birds :— as his papers in the “ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” and Miscellaneous I: ntelligence. 449 Sir William Jardine’s “ Contributions to as trap testify. His principal work, however, on this su bject, and the which will give him a place amongst the classical writers on the. “ornithology of this country, is devoted to the history of the Do Although as a zoologist, ornithology was his strong point, Mr. Strick- land had an extensive knowledge of the various classes of organized beings. Thus, several of his papers were devoted to accounts of the Mollusca, both recent and fossil, in various districts. One of his papers ers will see wae “ On the Peculiarities of a Form of Sponge (Hali- chondria sabere Mr. Strickland ‘paid a large share of attention to the terminology of natural history,—and was the reporter of a Committee appointed by the British Association to consider of the rules by which the athananer sig of zoology might be established on a uniform and permanent is. These rules were principally drawn up by him; and they have since © their publication been very generally acted on,—and have contributed greatly to simplify Natural History nomenclatur The general principles of classification could hardly fail to interest a mind so discursive as his,—and, abuonhngly, we find him at various times publishing on this subject. It must be obvious, that the labors ” which we have alluded imply an immense amount of industry,—but in the midst of alt his practical titled ** Bibliographia Zoologiz et Geologie.”” Three volumes of this great work ‘are published,——and the fourth and last is now in the hands of the printer. Mr. Strickland’s labor here was not merely that of edit- ing-—it embraced the contribution of a large mahe of additional matter, amounting to a third ora fourth of the whole. On the occurrence of the illness of Dr. rekehd, and his scm gag from the duties of the chair of geology at Oxford,—e —-every one felt the propriety of inviting Mr. Strickland to deliver lectures’ in hts place. Though youeg ait so important a post, and with a reputation in other departm of science, he was found able to sustain the fame of his predcotancr in hia brought to bear with great advantage the stores of his varied knowledge upon a science which is always susceptible of influence and maplicestion from the principles of other departments va all testify to Mr. Strickland’s phyeat as a wie ologist. In several of the geological papers, Mr. Strickland’s name is connect- ed with that of Sir R. I. Murchison :—especially in a work on “* The Geology of Cheltenham and its neighborhood.” He assisted Sir Rod- , and the proof-sheets of his new work on Siluria all passed through Mr. Seconp Seriss, Vol. XVI, No. 48.—Nov. 185 450 Miscellaneous Intelligence. In 1845, Mr. Strickland was married to the second daughter of Sir William Jardine, Bart. :—both of whom, with Mr. Strickland’s father and mother, survive to lament his premature loss. In the above: brief sketch we have spoken only of Mr. Strickland’s scientific career, but he had moral qualities that endeared him to all who knew him. Few came in contact with him who did not recognize in him a conscientious, amiable, and excellent man. In him Oxford has lost a Professor whom she could ill afford to part with at this time. To him, they who hoped for the wider culture of natural science at Oxford looked as to one who had the power and the ability to take the lead. The scientific societies have lost in him a member who was unwearied in his assiduity to carry out their objects in all their purity. His means made him independent of his labors ;~-and all recognized in his exer- tions shes love of science and its objects which constitutes the true phi- losopher.—Athen., 1853, pp. 1094, 1125. 18. ge eo Report of the Suprinfendan of the Coast Survey; showing the Progress of that work during the year ending November, 51.—We allude again to this Rapes on the Coast Survey under Prof Bache, to express our pleasure in the improved style in which it has been issued. It is a document of great value, in a scientific point of view, and deserves good paper, types rand bindin , and these it now has. The valuable series of plates and sketches, instead of being folded into the octavo report make a 4to volum si sat themselves, which is convenient both for use and for their preserva Twentieth Annual Report of the rot ae Polytechnic sorietre 1852. 108 pp., with tables. Falmouth.—-Contains catalogues of plants and animals found at Falmouth, by W. P. Cocks, Esq. 5 e m ments in the mode of preparation of the latter, by Mr. H. M. Stoker. 20. The Book of Nature ; an elementary introduction to the sciences of Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry, Mineralogy: Geology, Botany, Zoology and Ebysiology. ; by Friepricn Scuorpter, Ph. D., Prof. Nat. ci., at Worms, etc. Ist Amer. Edit. with a sisey. and ee ad- , ) . delphia, 1853 ; Blanchard and Lea.—This volume, as its ie shows, covers nearly all the sciences, and ee a vast amount of inform- ation adapted for instruction. No other work that we have seen pre- sents the reader with so wide a mnge of Ae pti knowledge, with so full illustrations, at so che 21. The Ethnographical pam pee bl by Epwin Morais, Esq- Vol. 1. The Native Races of the Indian Archipelago, Papuans; by Georce Wixnsor is M.R.A.S. 240 pp. 8vo. London, 1853, B and ‘Australia. In this volume he treats of the Papuans 0 of ie Indian Islands, describing their features, tribes, | conditions, and implements, and various incidents in their history Miscellaneous Intelligeuce 451 since known to the whites, besides discussing to some extent the resour- ces of the countries a inhabit. The work is illustrated by maps, and by sketches on ston the natives, part of which are colored. The subject is to a featordda extent a novel one, and abounds in details of interest to the general reader as well as the ethnographer . Contributions to the Physical Geography of South Eastern Asia and Australia; by G. W. Eart. 48 pp. 8vo., with ama , but without many details by way of evidence, ora full display of precise ao in illustration of his subjects c=] at the session in 1853. . 8vo., 18538.—" report announces the commencement of a Geological jot of Illinois. The investiga- tions promise to be well carried out under the direction and labors o value, as nee of iron, coal, mines of lead, building ston tc. Its fossil remains are in ‘sap — and of high interest, ave already rich sollectioke have bee 24. American Handbook - the peli ay te giving the most ap- the proved and convenient methods for preparin chemicals and combinations used i rt, and containing tbe Daguerreotype, Elec- trotype, and various other processes employed in taking Heliographic Impressions; by 8. D. Humpnrey. pp-12mo. New York, 1853.- Much practical ogi is embraced in this little work and it will be valued by thos snranaied in the art of which it treats. Some of the chemistry poise pecans a revision. RNAL OF Unrrep States AGRIGULTURAL bi a Published Quarterly. Jour ine Ni ws July, 5: eg ., 8vo. Philadelphia, 18 * wie Gazerre; edit eng: ohn. Davis, M.D., Practising Phy- fs Has sida Pablahe d nth $1,00 per annum. Vo 1. I, No. 1, September, 1853, pp. 32. E American Corron Pianter ; A Monthly J ournal devoted to Improved Plan- ation Economy, Manufactures, and the Mechaite rts; edi N. B. Cloud, M.D., La Bn ee a tsi ores a uar ssu thly at $1 per y and mo Quarterly Journal publis shed under the direction of the Chaska per Selena oanty ms al Society, Pennsylvania. No.1. Septe ber, 1S 32 pp. 8vo. $1 per ani : bet RT Aa’ Base ISH Assoctarion gy 1852 diag: 1853. of Cassel, Germany.— —The number of expensively illus- trated ‘inti weeks published by Mr. T. Fister, lead us to mention his name in this place. Among the works issued by e the following :—Dunker — yon ley: i Weber's TTerlirflora der niede rrheinischen e Rém e ef es Les} w S Ln J af “hs 749 2 - 3 = n a oorum Primordia; L. sates Symbole a ad Histor. Heliceorum; Menke u. Pfeiffer’s eis, f. Malacozoologie ; L. Pfeiffer’s Bli- hender Cacteen ; ib. Monographia Pneumonopomorum viventium, ete. INDEX TO VOLUME XVI. A. Academy of Natural Sciences, Ppiledetpica, Mipiereati of, noticed, 152, 304 ant nilie, 2 ZOiC, 2 camphoric, 415. se are Tegeneration of, 414, a hee tart ce, 415, Acids, fer mposition or piste i om 116, Acoustic Spaeth i a ie Bo 8: rches o notices of reorte on rae es 279, 418. notices of works o' seg oology, 283, 4 427. es from California, Air in vegetable mould, composition of, ue Alexander, E: H.,, on Hassler’ r’s Experimen Alhaties, on 1 determining, J oe Smith 53, Al s of _ sueeraa na Altitudes, se American Anotaas for the Advancement of Science, notice of Cleveland Meeting, American Academy of Arts and Sciences, ian 8, hew series, vol. v, parti, noticed, Ammonia in rain-water, Anesthetic properties of Sewaatos. 272. mero | on determining the alkalies in, ei Analyses of minerals, F. A. Genth, a, 167. - . and Brush, 4 1, 365. ssil bones, eene, 16, Anatomy a W.T. Burnett's no- st of works i in, 266, 403. aidiceet electro-magnetic, 107. Fey a: ic ne 412 notices, 136, — weights, on Berzelius’s researches on, Aurora borealis, light of, without polarization, Pere of, ce August 11, 1853, 288. of ~ ec Suing 2, 1853, H. seen at Perryville, G. W. e, 446, healer Australia, interior of, A. Petermann, 442. Barnard, F. A. P., my Expendy of heat in we Hot-air E nine, 218, 292, 431 propos ed modification of maeente en- gine, < le on a method of taking Daguerreotypes for the stereoseope, 348. wpeop in c expenditure of heat in the hot- air e en. Birometis Pech across South America, 295. ae manufacture of, from the carbonate, k, L. pes "berarpci notice of, and list of works sainie ee Berkely and Cura, re Fungi, noticed, 428. s||Berlin on zirconia, n phevomen na of cone t, 406. _. Berzins bograph f, H. Rose, 1 173, 305. eorie der + Befructhung, etc., no- “eg 393. Blake, reply et Mr. Hendri . Blake, W. P., on Lanthani e, 228. racic acid in mineral erie , 114. Boston Society of Natural History, ‘Proceed- ings of, noticed, 152, Botany,—on genus Tetrae le ay, 97. arasitism of Comandra poe etm 250. Botanical works, ae 129, 422. 14, Boussingault, on the air in vegetable mou 114. on geo in sa ois Me AS Boye, H., aurora of Sept oisie Sait option! gures on Hokachivated surfaces of eis als, 148. British Association, notice of meeting for 185. Bronze for sheathing of ships, 407. Brush, G. J., reéxamination of American min- Reviews = Pym in A on the blood-co rpuselebolding calls, and their —— to the sple on spermatozoa, etc., 393. notice of Paget’s Lectures, . C. ee Academy of Natural Sciences, no- Abend mine, 137. INDEX. Catitoning infusoria of, Ehrenberg, 134. Cambaceres, - ” use of fatty acids for illu- ao miners A53 E. Se W., work by, noticed, 450. a at a? ae Camp horic ac nla Cann. meteoro pe C. Smallwood, 77. Carbonic acid in ma F whiorl: 362. Carbonizing wood by steam, 270. Caoutch Cassin’s Illustrations of i Birds of Cali- fornia, etc., no’ we Charcoal formed by st — mis stry, Berzelius’s giv a in, 1, 178, Barshggeko, on a supposed, at 'Lowville, N. Eh hrenberg, on infusoria of California, 134. Electric machines, on inductive, 111. Electro-magnets, eioclat. J. Nicklés, 110. Electrie light. M. Quet Elevation of the Ohio niv ver, 124. Elevations in Vermont, height of, 4 Engravings reproduc ced by vapor 7 ‘jodine, Ericsson’s engine, I’. A. P. Barnard, 218, 232, Ether used in locomotion, 408. r wide or, ae og on dyeing, Chloroform, use of, 272. in locomotion. Cinna of California, 137. ities, on 5 ical reactions important to health o Pe remarkable, Coal o estan ‘ane Bristol Co., Hlitehoock. 3 al fields, me of, and fossil reptile in Nova Scotia, C. Lyell, 3 Od Cobalt, passivity of, J. Makes Oty avo noticed, andra umbellata, parasitism of, A. Gray, Comet, a Seat of 1853, dof 1853, 13F 430. third f 1853, 289, 431. & r 185 Contact. phenomena Comeeall Polytechnic Scrat: Report of, no- tice Cotton from m pyroxyline, 406. Coral Mforwations. lana, 357. Crustacea, on neuters among, Ag rton, Ad vie a Peigive noted, Bh. Pepatule ono roduced a4 the Mainiogtetad surfaces of rewster. Currents of the ocean, of North Atlantic, Gccevehes 438. DR. Daguerreotype Handbook, S. D. Humphrey's, noticed, 451. Daguerreoty pes for the stereoscope, a method aan, cosctaantat 348, 447. Dan of Ve tatinn a morp: sioes, on Coral Reefs and Islands, Report on Crustacea by, n iste sk a otermal chart of the ocean by, 15 on the consolidation of Coral formations, in reply to Prof. Horsford, 357, 447. 7 upposed change of ocean anit, Darlington’ s Flora Cestrica, noticed, 129. Didymium, Ma ap fae on, 413, Doveningy A. J., Rural Eoays of, noticed, 302. oncel’s anemometer, 107. ine. researches on, Chevreul, 268, E.! Flora Cestrica, hene and eu- ak. F. cher, T'., works published by, 4. run fossil, tooth of, J. M. haya We. Fishes, note on researches on viviparous, from California, L. — Darlington’s, noticed, 1 Fossil ichthyodorulite of the Nia gara in = on, J. Hall, 1 epti ile of Nova Scotia, C. Lyell, 3 Sen urian e from Prince Elms Isl and, 283. bones, analyses of, F. V. Greene, 16. G. mg hoy Bnisery. modification of Bunsen’s, u Galvan: fay discoveries of Berzelius, 4. Geinilz, H. B., Graptolites, noticed, 281. Genth, F. A., Contribass ms to mineralogy, 81, 167. Coomraplacil ap? aay for Library of Con- a, E. unt, 436. S Disaeation of marine gory chart for illustrating, J. D. Dana, 453, Geology, notices of works on, ao, 418. Geological Report on Wisconsin, ‘on and gg cng noti¢e of, Sur of Illinois, Report on, noticed, 451. Gibbs, W., Mae abstracts by, 115, 410. note to J. L. Smith’s _— on the de-. composition n of chlorids, Glyce Gold i oe "British Islands, 420. eat nugget of, from Aus tralia, 298, a disease, penia-sulp hid of calcium for reyenting, ; ray, A.,o sivacton, 9 notic: "es of works of Darlington, Ra Lietiny. Mohl, Hofmeister, Pepeb-std Hooker, Ward, 129- notices of works of Harv rvey, Torrey, Gray, Leidy, Berkely and stem! 422, on — parasiti umbel- lata, Plone Wrightiane by, noticed, 426. reene, F. V., analyses of fossil bones, 16, HH: Hall, J., sok by, 0 on Paleontology of New York, noticed, 127 454 rt, T. S., letter on Almaden Mine, 137. Harvey s Nereis Boreali-americana, noticed, Heat, specific, of gases and vapors, 115. Hlectoeoylus of the Cephalopoda, 260. Herapath, T. <7 on nitric acid as known to Hippuric acid, +) capa! of, 414, Hitchcock, E. Sdn by, 0 sme points in 37 ia on development of Zostera, n 131. Hooker's say a eye noticed, 132. Hocker nte Jav ae noticed, 131. ee Prot Reply a n the Co: fornt ae a ri eograpiea Neeenr a: Lib. of Congres Hint, ee, phamiiel action of solar radiations, INDEX, Lyceum Ao Nat. Hist. of New York, Annals ' of, noti yell, Cs ‘on ’Fossil reptilian remains of Nova Scotia M. Magnetic attraction, on use of, on railroads, J. Nickles, 337. Magnetical investigations, Scoresby’s work d, 418. on, notice Ma nite vate of salts of, 416. ae ‘anross, N. S., artificial formation of miner- era's Geological map of United States, Marignac on ae bapa” 413. rsh, D., notice of cabinet for sale, 298. Man ry, M. F., observatians on barometric ressure across S. Amer Metacetic acid, 102. eteorie Sto xna , 148 Oe Pee “apes al Kept ‘at Beloit, Wis., S. P. Lat. nt T s., Cee es 2s c Wideman ag 85 Smallwood, minerals, 203. Minerals, pie formation of several, NV. S- Man 186. I. reé serch ation of American, J. L. Smith, and G. J. Brush, 41, 365. Hlumination, fatty acids used for Mineral species, on ey constitution ane Loge Indian population of British shakin 199. alent volume of some, 7’ S. Hun Infusoria of Californi , Ehrenberg, 1: Insects, on destroying by gaseous injectlons, MINER 06. Allaite of £ Orage Co., N. Y., E. L. Rea- Jodine, vapor of, used in copying engravin and designs, 113. ee # Tridium, new compound of, 412. Bay ete ism of sphene and euclase, dD; Isotherinal chart of the ocean, J. D. Dana, wrote De Spermatozoorum, etc., noticed, Kins s pas Ge 8 Anatomie, etc., no- ive Lakes in Vermont, level of, Lathrop, J. Le Metcorlogial Journal kept at Beloit, Wis., 1 pratt A. pbc: Bs ‘notic of, 1 Lead mine at wai is i. D. Bnciey s Re- ame om Indian population of British! Leidy, J., on Nebraska a, and other fossils, 231. bi and Fauna within living animals, ee sel of pees in Vermont, 445, Light of auro! , 148. —_ mical a action of, 416. "s Folia Or chee, ec 130. es upon Anatomy and) ion with vapor 0 of Ether, 408. new radicals containing tin, 116. ad Physiological Coote A * ilite, — sis of, E. L. Reakirt, 84. Aponty Gre pra: Smith and Brake 45. ‘o., N. Y., Smith and er Linneite, 366. Bru: Carr herd a co oat nalysis of, Smith and Brush, era e, Ci nai of sie 13ts Clinochlore, 4 Caznmingtoite a hornblende, Smith and rus. Danburite, analysis of, Smith nad Brush, 365. Dysyntribrite, Smith and Bru tet Eleolite of Arkansas, analysis gre — 1, analysis of, pte and Gibbsite” en ses of, — and Brush, 56- ayers iN. Carolina, F. A. Genth, 81. Hudsonite, analyses o of, "Sonith and Brush, Hydrous anthophyllite, Smith and Brush, magn fie pan Pend ast tire Lanthanite, from Pennsylvania, W. P- Tonal of} N. Carolina, Smith and Brush, pac hing analyses of, Smith and Brush, Jenkinsite, analyses of, Smith and Brush, Nopesme of Monree; Cty Smith and Brush, 46. . INDEX. MINER Mica of yea Co., Pa., Smith and Brush, lo ‘Ur: rolite, Smith wep Brush e of Da nbury, sited ‘of, Smith ush, 44. Gen h, 167. so identical with Thomsonite, Smith Brush, Peta mith and Brush, 373, Rhodepiy ilite Mental with Rhodochrome, ad Bru of Bel ot oe isomorphism of, J. D. Brarinoanss of 7 Rorenth and Sterling, Smith and Bru Tetradymi aS Carolina, FP. A. Genth, 81 a decical w wire Saponite, 363... Warwickite nae L. Smith, Mineralogy, contributions to, F. A. Genth, 81, Mit fice of Sweden, ville -“ oe 1849, 142, Mining Magazine, noti seri ag science, pie bag Journal of, notice ao ii, Inundations of, notice of work on Uet, Jr., 120. Mobi or on cellulose as basis of all Vege- table Membranes, Mosambigue, Peters on bags of, 285. Motive power, on ssed air used, 278. b ns of ether and chloroform, 8, 4! Maelo ele sment, new, in the theracie mus- s of Insects, 262. N. Newport on the impregnation ef the ovum in hibia, noticed, 393. Nickles, 347. motion on railroads, 33 : on the passivity of Nickel and Cobalt, Nisoos, on copying engravings by the vapor of iodine, 115, Nitric acid known to the ancient Egyptians, | Noctiluc phosphorescence of, 69. Nova Scotia, fossil reptile of C. Lyell, 33. i Obituary—A L. gcd 149, Berzelius, a. de Jussieu, 426. rs, 427, Ocean, tonipaaabale e of, e D. Dana, 153, 314. Ne * ct on the continents we a des 28 change o i North yee temperature and cur- Gceanic currents, 318. Ohio; fossil tooth of Getalodus — in, 142, e, 116. m. containing metals, new series of, containing tin, 116. Owen’s Geological Report on Wisconsin, eas Miunages Ozone, note on, Paget, J., Lectures, ae 428. Pcaciny of New York, by Jas. Hall, vol. ii, noticed, 1 Palladiom, new Hanis containing, 410. Petermann, A.,on Australia, 442, pistes W. CH. - on Mosambigne, noticed, Phosphorescence, de aig id on, 69, Photography, 273, on application ms to representing micros- copical objects, 14! Phycit fe be — 104, 114. rips “et ey 25) (26,) or Syore Phoceea oserpine, 136, 1 fon ( growth of, in jaz , 132. and animal life, on preserving the bal- ance between in seawater, R. Warrin ington, te n, Scoresby on, 4 Poisectene — Pn 298. Powder char 271. Price, hid n for destroy- ing Oidium, rien Prizes proposed by the Société d’Encour- agement, 4 Pyroxyline, spss of cotton from, 406 Q. Quatrefa, ‘Ete on enekss oo: oon 69. Quet on grees Quinidine, 1 Quingquinas, ‘alicaloids of, 414, R. Racemic acid derived from tartaric, 415. M. Pasi ag socal —* , new organ ining tin, 116. Railroads, on magnetic " sureetion for Bese. on apemen grades in, . yentataeey ammonia i nel, H. W., work eh on Fungi, noticed, Repiile, fossil, of Nova Scotia, C. Lyell, 33. ges , descent, etc., of Ohio, Mississispi, ete., Rose HH, biography of Berzelius, 173, 305, Ss. Sa afora, J. M., tooth of Getalodus, 142. urian bone, fossil, from Nova Scotia, Prince ae mete = raps 283. rents of, haa 438. Schédler’s of Nature, noticed, 450. ‘coresby’s S peesstoal Investigations, noticed, 418. on the theory of an arctic basin, 446. 456 Scoresby, Temperature and currents of North B sone ti 438. acid in, ‘i Shnanten for s ships of bronz 407. Shooting stars of A st 185 53, 288, 431. Small wg pspeetnns to meteorology, a Smith, J. L., and G. J. gree reéxamination of American minerals, Smith, J. motte 8 the alkalies in minerals, 53, on the su oe new element, Thalia, 95. Warwickite a nativ e boro-titanate, 293, on oo estas of nitric and © acids Soils, socials of matters extracted from) fertile, by ba oe to Sollit, on eparnte th Tele escopes Somerville’s Phys ical denen ag citek 301, ie berg" ge Geology of, by Verneui it and) . og: = ale ons 0 omg on the bood-eorpasele-hliin eee and their relation to the, Lore Stere eoscope, ona method of taking Daguer-| reotypes for, 348. Storer, D. H., His istory of _ fishes of Massa- icaia: by, noticed, 1 Sugar, manufacture of, i Ty Tartaric acid transformed into racemic, 415. * eet Re fy a9 a Sollit, 437. re , the conical conden- aed ‘the ocean, J.D. Dana, 153, N. Atlantic, Scoresby, 4 eect ne a supposed 5 sag of ocean, J. Pic apron to the History of; ‘Tin, _ et Senne 116. T lantes eae eis on cht we | Ward, NB, 0 INDEX. | ‘Upham, J. B., acoustic architecture, 21. a8 Vermont, a hoe Z. Thompson "oe = d Collomb on Geology bj ‘Spain, WwW. Waltershausen, W. S. von, on Rocks of Sicily | and Iceland, — 418 wth of plants in glazed cases, stieed, i Warrington, n preserving the balanc 4 ce | between animal and vegetable organisms Wheatley’s mine Whitlock, G. C., on be normal of curvature, 31. Works and memoirs on Anatomy and Phys- tt,| iology, ti of an ge oes Works on Bota noticed, bees on Zool "list of pes + 283, 427. Wyman, J., color, neryous system of Rana pipiens, 251. am -onia, Berlin on, li ght, pata: til, ag pg earth, surface raphy, Zoology of Mosambique, 28 nervous system of ne: pipiens, J. Wy- sds West man on the seat = bs sugar formation of the animal body, viviparous po neg —— genus 3; 3s. 227. sen —. of a _layer of trans- iohanal y striate mu orrey, J. geen Calitorniea, ee on Batis ticed, 424, 426, roidéa of — 263.