‘IENCE AND ARTS. . CONDUCTED BY ay PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jz., AND Jul ' JAMES D. DANA,” IN CONNECTION WITH ' PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDG RIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK os SECOND SERIES. VOL XX. MAY, 1886s. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XIX. NUMBER LV. és . a. Page. _ Agr. I. Account of some Volcanic Springs in the Desert of the Colorado, in Southern California; by Joun L. LeConte, M.D., 1 II, On the — Distribution of Crustacea ; ae JAMES D. Dan - ‘ 6 Pa IIL. aa to Hhisaraicee’ ; oe Dr. Fr . were ae ee | yy IV. On the Diamagnetic Force; by Prof. Tynpatt, - 24 \% ¢ V. Reply to some remarks by W. H. Wenham, ‘and Notice of \ ~. a new ae. of a na i Test- paced YY Professor \y J. W. Bar : 28 ay VI. On the aA of the Pe sod oe Fie colo Ob. servations at Hobarton and the Cape of Good Hope on the general theory of the Variations of eee Phenom- ena; by Professor Dove, - 31 VII. On iis Composition of Eggs in the re series of ae Part I. By A. VaLeNcIENNES and Fremy,~— - 33 VUl. The habe or Indian Method of Notation; by ne t. | McLeop, . - IX. On the Effect of ba ee of ‘ee REE es on ne Mean Level of the Ocean ; by rs iia Sir James Cuark Ross, R.N., F.R.S., ° 52 xX. Report to me Nopdiasa of Sciences, Paris, on the Reatpscak > relative to Earthquakes of M. Alexis Perrey ; by the Com- mission, MM. Lrovvinus, Lamé, and Evte'DE Beaumont, 55 XI. On the Periodical Rise and Fall of the — a Se Lacuian ‘ all XI. Synopsis of the {chitipalogieal Pui of ti Pacific slope of North America, chiefly from the collections made by the U.S. Expl. Exped. under the command of Capt. C. Wilkes, with recent Additions — with Eastern pets ; by L. Acassiz, - 71 pe Xa agra on Solution ‘end the Chemical ence’ ts : _ TS, Hun, he ise oe. me ae ac 1v CONTENTS. XIV. Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicxtis—Obituary; M. Brisseau de Mirbel, 103.—Astronomical Refraction: Con- stitution of the Sun; Solar Magnetism, 104.—Optics—Man- ufacture of Glass for Objectives: Polarization of the At- mosphere, &c.: Microscopes for Micrographic demonstra- tions, by Nachet, 105.—Aluminium and the Alkaline Met- als, 106.—Manufacture of Alcohol: Crystallizations, 107. —Introdution into France of a new species of Silkworm : Industry, Agriculture, and Productions of Algeria, 108. SCTENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. = Chemistry and Physics.—On the infl f the direction of transmi the pass- age of radiant hee ean crystals, 110 —On the condensation of gases “by slid bodies, and on the heat d gaged in t the = of beaten, 111.—Researches on the Ethers 112.—On the the amids, 113.—On some new pe telioieie: a. of the ctitenelis of i iron on Niconpisin and Nitrobenzin, 114.—Prof. TynpALL me Peculiarities of the Magnetic Field, 1 ' Mineralogy and Geology.—Analysis of Allophane from the Black oxyd of Copper mines of Polk County, Tennessee, by Dr.C. T. Jackson:. On the Boracic Acid Compounds of the Tuscan n Lagoo ns, by Emin ena 119:—On the Thickness vel the lee of the BES, : of the Connecticut Valley and the Coal-bearing rocks of Eastern Virginia and ‘North Carolina, by Prof. W. B. Rogers, 123.—Note on an indication of depth of Primeval Seas, afforded by th i f color in Fossil Testacea, by Epwarp Forzes, F.R.S., 126.—Arsenate of Lead ond Vanadats of Lead: Oa the Idenitity of Ripidolite of von Kobell with Clinochlore, by N. von Koxscuaroy, 1 — and Zoology.—Martius Flora Brasiliensis, fase. XII : The non-assimilation of "Nitro. by Plants: Lupulin: The Fertilizatio oe Ferns, 128.—Botanical Necrology : me) ie Vé i Conditions, by J. H. GLapstong, 130—Note on the Mastodon (?), and the Elephas primigenius, by Sir Joun pes ti 131.—Remains of the Mammoth and Mastodon in California, by W. P. Bhaxe: Discovery of Vivi ws Fish in Louisiana, by B. Dow- LER, M. a ng remarks by Prof. ja 133. Olean Animals, 136.—Mollusea of Irkuts : ....... of Urania: Comet, 1854, 1V : New Planets, 137. Miscellaneous i, —On the Means of Realizing the Advantages of the Air-Engine, Intelligence t Jou Macaquorn oh NE, F.R.S.S., ete., 137.—On Lightning Conduc- the Effect pies 399 Piaheoe eben’ sf bdvcoeeas of scngiaces Sub- the Weather th hee: fen, Franciscg, California ; by. on on At erie pressure ; from A. and H. Schla- i- Le F 4 3° e cen sr neat ale CONTENTS. Vv Alpen,” 145.—On the Artificial preparation of Sea Water for Marine Vivaria, o Dr. G, Witson: On the Results of Experiments on the Preservation of Fresh Meat, by Mr. G. Haminton, 146.—Magnetie Needle : Official Report of the United States Expedition Illustrations of the Birds of California, Texas, Oregon, British and Russian Co by Rev. eee Metuneuk: M.A., and Prof. TennaANT: Edinburgh New Phi Taeaaeloat Journ emoria sobre las Antigiiedades Neo-granadinas, Lage Exeavien pein CHOEA, 159, .—Denkschriften der Kaiserlichen Akademie der W u Wien: Economie Rurale, considérée dans ses rapports avec la Chimie, la Tiree et la Mét ogie, par J. B. BousstncauLtT: Traité des Arts Ceramiques ou des Poteries, ete., par ALEX. BronGniart, 2nd edit. revue et augmentée par M. A. Satverar, 151, '--Cours special sur I'Induction, le Dia amagnétisme, le Magnétisme, etc., par M. Mat- TEUuccI: Nouveau —_ de Navigation, etc., par PLANAVERGNE, 152, List of Works, 152. NUMBER LVI. he vs Page. Art. XV. Memoir on Meteorites—A Description of five new Me- teoric Irons, with some theoretical considerations on the ori- gin of Meteorites based on their Physical and Chemical char- acters ; by Prof. J. Lawrence Situ, M.D.,_ - - - 153 XVI. On = ese Rise and Fall of the Lakes ; he Mayor Lacu XVII. On yess Clinochlore of Achmaiowak by N. von , ge SCHAROV, - 176 XVIII. A brief notice of some facts gies with the “Duck Town, Tennessee, Copper Mines; by M. Tuomey, - - 181 XIX. On the Periodical Variations of the Declination and Direct- ive Force of the Magnetic Needle ; by Prof. W. A. Norton, 183 XX. Observations on the Ba higs epote of =" Seige Byee: gea; by Hucu M. Nex 212 I, ‘eg certain Physical cise of - Light of the Electric park, within certain Gases as seen Hope a Prism; by a D. Acree, M.D., ‘ - 213 XXII. Synopsis of the tobthyolbgiehl iia of the Pacific slope of North America, chiefly from the collections made by the U.S. Expl. Exped. under the command of Capt. C. Wilkes, ___with recent Additions and ~ sats with Eastern types ; __ by L. Acassiz, = - 215 2 XIIL Discovery of a Coal a on the Western ters ‘a the Lake of the Woods; by Henry R.Scuootckart, - + 232 XXIV. Abstract ofa qeeeneaen Journal, for the year 1854, vi CONTENTS. kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S. P. Hiprere, M.D., - - 234 XXV. On the Composition of Eggs in the animal s series; by A. VALENCIENNES and Frémy.—Part II. : - - 238 XXIV. Chemical Examinations; by Ezequien eiehwekens - 248 XXVII. Review of the Fifth volume of the one of New k, y E. Emmons, - 247 XXVIII. Contra ; by Prof. C. — - - 252 XXIX. On a remarkable change which has taken ise in the PS, composition and characters of the Water, supplied to the City of Boston from Lake Cochituate ; = Aveustus A. Haves, M.D., = - - “OF XXX. On Gum Mezquite ; ” Odeanls hie, M. D., - 263: SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, Chemistry and Physics.—On a elastic forces of vapors in vacuo and in gases at wagers tempers, bu on me ension of mixed vapors, 264—On butylic Alcohol, 268.—On the f Copper: On the action of iodid of amyl upon an ae of sodium and tin, 269,—New 1 Onenste radicals containing arsenic: Action of iodid of phosphorus upon glycerine, 270. Geology, B Zoology.—Darstellung der Flora des Hainichen Ebersdorfer und des Fidher Cshietbouie y H. B. Gernitz, 271 —A eget of the Cirripedia with fignres of all the species; "bs Balad. or sessi irripedes, the Verrucide, etc., by Cuares Darwin, F.RS., F.G.S., 272. RIT. Astronomy. —Elements of Euphrosyne (31), 272. a Inte Tiscisilaise tas tmospheric Elee trical Phenomenon, ey ha Warez, 272.—On the Clearness of the echt in Oroomiah, by Rev. D DDA| from a ‘est addressed to Sir John F. W. Herschel, 273 —Abstract of Hiiecclagiesl 8.—Dem i tinction ore to limit the Vegetable and Animal Sinedan ms, by Epwin LanKEs- ter, M.D., F.R.S., 232.—Letter on the Smithsonian iene by Prof. Acassiz, ad- dressed to this seat Charles W. Upham, 284.—On th called “ Fountain of Blood” of Honduras, by Dr. E. D. Norru, 287.—On a large Pinaud from the district of nie os Hail at Cuba; Gold near Reading, Pa.: On the Mountain Systems of America, .—Professor Edward Forbes, 290.—Faraday’s tures, 294.—Professor Brn’ Ten Lectures on Arts connected with Organic Chemistry : Outlines of Chem- lysis, prepared for the Chemical Laboratory at Giessen, by Prof. Hernrica Walt bie! auative Races of the Russian Empire, by R. G. ee M.D., F.R.S., CONTENTS. NUMBER LVII. Pag Art. XXXI. The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to rece ; by Dr. ALexanper Braun, - XXXII. A Research on Tellme; by F. Wouter “a0 J. Dean, XXXII. Memoir on Maiebitici ak Pescriviieis of five new Me- teoric Irons, with some theoretical considerations on the ori- _gin ‘of Meteorites based on their Physical and Chemical char- “ acters; by Prof. J. Lawrence Smiru, M.D., -_ - XXXIV. On the Variable Star Algol, or @ Persei ; by Fr. ki GELANDER, XXXV. Saher Tooth j in Missa cgnnton ; by jie C. Warren, M.D., > AXXVI. Supplement to the Minerlogy of A D. Dana, by ve Author.—Number I, - XXXVII. Review of Murchison’s Siluria, - XXXVIII. Barometric Anomalies about the Andes; as es M. F. Maury, U.S.N., - - XXXIX. Impressions (chiefly Tracks) on Alluvial Cy, in | Had- ley, Mass.; by Cuartes H. Hirencocx, XL. Emmons on American Geology, . Arr. XLI. Correspondence of M. Fei Rickias Pe is rela- tions which exist between the chemical composition of bod- ies and their physical properties, 407.—Limits of the vapori- ; zation of Mercury, 408.—Assimilation of Nitrogen by Plants : Action of some animals fluids on the fats: Calculating Ma- chine, 409.—Artillery in the 15th Century: Zoological So- ciety for Acclimation and Domestication, 410.—Silkworms, 411.—Anesthesis of Bees: Pisciculture: Production of Al- cohol, 412.—Photographic news: Bibliographical notices, 413, 414.—Obituary notice of Melloni, 414.—Death of M. Braconnot: Death of Joseph Remy, 415.—Monument to Arago: Correspondence of T. S. Hunr—On the Equiva- lent of some species: The so-called Talcose Slates of the Green Mountains: A newly discovered Meteoric Iron: Ores of Nickel from Lake Superior: 416, 417. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. the specific volumes of fluid compounds, 418.—On the em- Chemistry and Physics—On ployment of a solution of chlorid of iron in the galvanic battery, 420—On the law of absorption gases: On the mechanical equivalent of heat, 421.—A new Carbonic Viil CONTENTS. < _ Acid Apparatus, by ALrrep M. Mayer, 422.—On Bimucate of oo HS SaMUEL W. Jounson, 423,—On cat gei Magnetism, by Col. Sanine, 424.—O Stauro- — of Prof. Fr. von Kobel ineralogy and Geology. a ae Notes, by T. S. Hunt, 428.—Notice of a new Locality of Molybdate of Iron, by Wm. J. Taytor: Reaction of common salt in the formation of Minerals, by M. ForcnuammeEr, 429.—Gneiss : Meteoric Iron from Green- and: On the Sandstone and Coal of North Carolina of the age of the pe coal basin, by,Professor D. Oumsrep, 430.—Preliminary Geological Report of the - cific Sah d pitches passa og command of f Lieut. R. S. Williamson, b °y w. ai Bian, 433. N +h by Jamus Haun, 434.— Mikrogeologie ; Das Erd en und Felsen achaffento Wirken a unsichtbar kleinen selbstandigen Lebens auf der wate & eo G. ‘Enrensene, 435 — na i=") TN NP the State of ae wanders a te Es G. piace First ‘naar’ Report of the Geo ee Survey of the State of New Jersey for the year 1854: Geological Survey of Come. | ada, 438, Botany and Zoology. —Dr. Hooker’s Flora of New Zealand : Seeman’s Botany of the Voy- age of the Herald, 439.—Tulasne on the Uredinew and Ustilaginew : The Grasses of Wisconsin and the adjacent States, by I. A. Larnam, 442,—H. G, Reichenbach ; Pollinis Orchidearum Genesi ac Structura, et de Orchideis i in artem ac Systema redi- gendis : te erage Analytical Class-Book of Botany, by Frances H. Green and JoserpH W. C 443.—On Bathygnathus borealis, an extinct Saurian of the New Red gees at nie Edwards Island, by Josernx Letpy, M 44, Astr a of Polymnia: Elements of Amphitrite, piesa III, 1854: New Comet, 4 af Miscelianeous ae ee Stereoscope, 447.— A wonderful specimen of credu- lous ignorance ;—Fossil man and woman, 448.—Obituary.—Notice of the late Frederic _ W. Davis of Boston, 448,—The Physical ‘Geography of the Sea, by Lieut. M. F. Maury, L.L.D. : Report and Charts of the Cruise of the Dolphin, by Lieut. S, P. Lzz : Gram- Dictionary of the Dacota Language, edited by Rev. S. R. Rieas, A.M., 449. Fresnel’s Wellenfliche ; Axonometrical Spaitgoers of the most important Geometrical surfaces, Drawings of Descriptive Geometry, etc. by Frepisanp Enee., 450.—A i by M. Tuomey and F. S. Hozmes: Notices of recent publications, 451, 452, List of Works, 454, Index, 455, Pio 3 Team 6, 21 1. from bottom, for 1852, read 1853.—P. 160, 6 1. fr. top, for Gouch, * Vou. XIX. JANUARY, 1855, No. 55. Published the first day of every second month, price $5 per year. AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jn, AND JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WiTH PROF. ASA GRAY, oF CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR, WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. ae SECOND SERIES. No. 55.—JANUARY, 1855 | NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. ‘Tus Awerican Jovrnat or Science is published every two months, on the Ist of January, March, May, July, September an say etn in Numbers of 152 pages each, ¥ Subs i Ist Ser., 1818-1845, 50 vols. ., including a eee Index, "Edited to 1838 by Prof. B. Srntuiman ; after bh 1833, Py Prof. B. Srntran and B. a owl he ge plete set, unbound, 100 00 2nd Ser., commenced Maiaiee’ 1846, tig Prof, f. B. mae ey B. Hike cuam, i, and J, D. Dana... Price for the 18 vols. oousiateis wi unbound, $36 06 Volume 10, of the 2nd Seri i 1 Index to the volumes 1-10. - * B. Stuumtan, Jr., and x D. 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In October, 1850, being at Vallecitas, San Diego Co., California, it was my good fortune to make a vi isit, In company with Major Heintzelman and Mr. Matsell, to certain boiling springs; not simi- lar io any which have been noticed in our territory ; t only account yet given of them has appeared in a ne wrapeepery it seemed to me, that the rough notes taken while making the visit, might with slight changes be of interest to my scientific friends. Mysterious accounts had been given us of a ‘Volcan’ situated in the midst of a plain covered with salt, near the shore of a lake : and although most of the salt used by the inhabitants of the mountains east of Santa Isabel was brought from this lake, no very definite account either of the distance of the lake, or of the phenomena to be seen there, could be procured. It was only apparent that some awe-inspiring object had heretofore defended itself against the prying wars of man. Major 0 mmi and of the troops about to isit these Hei then ec be co at the Gila river, if avin de : — of unknown interest, kin ndly Sear me an peoninity of ning his. —H aving sec SE guides the interpreter from Santa Isabel, and the head chief of the ‘ Lleguina’ Indians ee near the Salt re oe of the moon 2 J.L. Le Conte on Volcanic Springs in Southern California. Entering almost immediately a small cafion, by which we as- cended a rocky ridge, we soon descended again into a narrow deep canon trending N.E.; this we followed for several miles, encoun- tering in our route many precipitous places, over which we had great difficulty in leading our horses. The rocks were meta- morphic, of a gneissoid and sienitic character, and the scanty vegetation was similar to that of Vallecitas; the most conspicuons objects being Larrea mexicana, Fouquiera spinosa, Prosopis, Agave and a variety of brittle and sae looking Opuntiz, both of the flattened and cylindrical for The cajion finally en aed a toe valley, in which were remains of some Indian huts, now abandoned from the failure of water. The valley opened abruptly by a gap through the most eastern mountain range, and at 8 a. m. we found ourselves on the edge of the great desert, though still considerably above the general level of its surface. An extensive but peculiarly uninteresting prospect was before us; an immense plain extended to the eastern Horie broken subenie the north by some slight. ae aga) masses rock lay around us on the mountain side; the mountain itself, appeared a wall of naked rocks, and it was only within a small circle of vision, that an earth colored vegetation could be observed ; as if the influence of our own living ‘selves had communicated a fictitious vitality to the spot where we stood, which soon would depart with us, and leave the ghosts of plants to shrink again into the rocks from which they had been evoked by our presence. At an indefinite distance towards the N. E. was seen a low range of mountains, near which a silvery surface with a slight fog rest- ing over it seemed to indicate water. This the guides declared was the Salt Lake, on the shores of which were the objects of our search, and confidently assured us that we should reach it before night. eo Halting here for breakfast, some excellent capon, and hard bread, washed down with a limited draught from our mn soon prepared us for the dreary ride ; the only resources to shor the way being very limited geology, and as may be inferred ‘ the nature of “the country, equally poor botany. It is no wonder that Government reports abound with names of plants, which Suggest nothing but linguistic difficulties, for there is little else in the va: ts of Western America to occupy the —— of the neebinens traveller; and with the determination of one resolved le with the dull *sublimity of incrgaas matter, a gs ks off and preserves a piece of some hideous veget- only charms are the ugliness of its 5 the lifeless- r, and the phse tae flower, and foliage a attractive : : on a aii ren Soe Ny Ten Sen a Sie aie Sel aies hy? Wea Se a, te ali Sa en , J. I. Le Conte on Volcanic Springs in Southern California. 3 greater portion of the eastern range of the Sierra: boulders fre- quently of immense size, but scarcely rounded, torn in former ages from the adjacent ranges of mountains, are cemented together by a small quantity * calcareous matter enveloping gravel of differ- ent degrees of fineness: this cement presents somewhat the ap- pearance of bad nici Outside of this conglomerate was seen unstratified drift. Beyond the mountains, can be traced on the esert a tertiary formation similar to that of San Diego, and above this stratified drift. These formations are nearly horizontal and form low ridges. The vegetation was still similar to that of Val- lecitas, with ‘the addition of a very large Echinocactus, of which several grew ‘since tk from one base : —- vaginata was also seen, and an Ephedra appeared with a specie of Koeberlinia. These gradually faded out, till at last nothing a but Pro- sopis, Larrea, and a plant at that season leafless. The desert contains three principle levels; of these the upper (consisting of the part near mountain ridges) i is covered with gravel, small stones © from the mountains, silicified wood and oyster shells; the middle level is sandy, and the lower one clayey, with great ‘numbers of fresh water shells scattered over its surface : among these the only bivalve is a species of Anodon, now found in the Colorado River, (A. californiensis Zea); the other species are small univalves, be- longing to Physa, and Amnicola. These clayey parts extend for many miles, and are evidently the beds of lagoons, which on rare occasions may be filled with water; they belong to the New River system of overflow, hereafter to be described. Having travelled rom the mountains a nearly east course, we encamped about 4 p.m. on the bank of a small stream running northwardly to the Salt Lake: the banks were precipitous, about twenty feet in height, and the waters disagreeably saline. This stream is evidently Ca- riso creek, which being lost in the sands a few miles from its source here reappears on the lower level of the desert: some rushes growing on the edge of the water ieee food for our horses. Starting the next morning at 3 a. m. we arrived about 10, at an, Indian villace situated on New River, which i is here near its term- ination, and probably when the supply of its water to the Salt Lake: at owe: there are only ‘two or three small pools near the village. New River is an important object to thoes? compelled to cross ° the desert, since from it is derived the chief supply of water, to be found between | Cariso creek and the Colorado. It is in reality a slough of the latter, which is only different from the ordinary ghs near the river by its greater length, extending by a very tortuous course 70 or 80 miles from the point where it leaves the river. The bed of the Colorado, like that of other rivers carrying a large amount 0 ‘ sediment, is above the lower portions of the ountr y which are Sf in time of overflow w supplied 4A J.L,. Le Conte on Volcanic Springs in Southern California. by these yc er however the annual rise of the river is not sufficient to supply iver with water, and should this occur for two bissee in a the lagoons along its course be- come entirely dry, and the difficulty of crossing the desert is much increased. : The whole course of New River is marked by a large species of ones called ‘ Kelite’ by the natives, a ‘careless weed’ by the emigrants; it furnishes almost the only food for cattle pe horses to be found in this region: the seeds cf used by the Indians in preparing a kind of cake, pe is quite palatable, when nothing else can be procured. The green leaves (if they ever are green) may be used asa salad, or boiled as a vegetable. The ground passed over before arriving at the village was in many places covered with a thin layer of sandstone, forming oc- casionally concretions like claystones; this sandstone has appar- ently been formed by springs similar to those seen afterwards. The dust was sometimes extremely fine and incoherent, so that the feet of the horses would sink from six to eight inches ; many pieces of pumice were also found stranded on the surface. The Indian village contained about fifty inhabitants, who re- ceived us in a very friendly manner, offering us melons, beans and pumpkins, which they raise in abundance. Visiting the village were some Yumas from the Colorado, who recounted to Major Heintzelman the depredations committed by the grand army of California, recently sent under one Major General Morehead, to avenge the murder of a party of ferrymen at the junction of the Colorado and Gila. Though these depredations were not remark- able, the Indians had apparently had enough of the war, and learning that a military post was soon to be established, they became very anxiousto make peace, until ae opportunity for safely committing some outrage should occur. After resting our horses, we started with an escort of seven or eight Indians, who used all the power of their eloquence to dis- suade us from going. Nevertheless, on our exclaiming -that we had come a long distance to see these volcanoes, and that we would seek them for ourselves, if they were afraid to accompany us, the debate ceased, and we rode on in a northwesterly direc- tion. After going about eight miles, we reached a soft muddy plain bordering the Salt Lake: the salt in consequence of a recent ower had almost disappeared, only a few crusts about half an ineh thick now anealgendsa The deposit is anid to be sometimes ig > tears , and now distant from us six or eight miles, hills "Rit ee = yn of which cit e. J. LL. Le Conte on Voleanic Springs in Southern California. 5 and pumice: several of these mounds are arranged in an are of a circle, but the general direction is a little west of south. Having arrived thus far, and given our horses in charge to some of the Indians, the interpreter again endeavored to dissuade us from further exploration. He said that on approaching the springs, the steam from which was now distinctly seen, devils in the shape of large black birds rose from the ground, and descended with overwhelming force on the head of the rash adventurer: he stated that a tradition still existed among the Indians, of one Juan Lonquiss (Longecuisse? perhaps a “Crapaud” trader) who had met this dreadful fate, and asked us in a pathetic tone, how he could return to his town, if we too were sacrificed in this way. We replied, in substance, that devils had no power over us, and that we were stronger than they, and that probably they were . aware of that fact, and would not appear during our visit. his seemed very blasphemous to their ears, and the whole © escort suddeuly dropped behind, leaving us to our fate. Advancing towards the place, whence the steam issued, we found in the muddy plain numerous circular holes containing boiling mud, and exhaling a naphtha-like odor. Many of them are encrusted with inspissated mud, forming cones 3-4 feet high, from the apex of which proceed mingled vapors of water, sal-am- moniac and sulphur. Four of them eject steam and clear saline water, with great violence, resembling in appearance the jet from the pipe of a high-pressure engine. The falling spray around these has formed a group of acicular stalagmites, composed of aragonite with a small quantity of silica and_some saline matter: many of these stalagmites are tubular in form. Another spring was a large basin filled intermittingly to overflowing with foam and clear saline water: around the edge were botryoidal masses of aragon- ite, like that forming needles around the cones. Near the cones, in little fissures, were crusts of sal-ammoniac,* some o: = * The saline crusts having been subsequently lost, I cannot be cer- tain that 1 Ne ey eccyoetac, sod tay tote Cie to that salt from the i € th ei! - ta ste i ie 6 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. course to the Indian village was unmarked by any incident wor- thy of note. The next day about 12, having taken a supply of musk-melons as our only food, we started for Vallecitas. ‘The afternoon was windy, and, a rare phenomenon in this region, one of them found a crater-like hollow, in which grow some very large canes. Shortly afterwards the strata of fresh water deposit thodon (G. Lecontei Conrad). About 4 p. m., we skirted along the northern edge of a long curved range of hills, the base of which was composed of strata of limestone dipping outwardly, and containing also Gnathodon ; around these hills and mounds were concentric lines of small stones from the mountains arranged by aqueous action About half past five, we encamped in the bed of Cariso creek, cy ibd dry; the night was stormy, but a melon apiece, and of a large mesquite fire soon made us contented. Leisiok at four the next morning, we reached Vallecitas in the afternoon, without farther adventure, worthy of being here nar- rated. Nore.—By the kindness of Capt. Davidson, I learn that while he was stationed at Fort Yuma, in Dec., 1853, a violent earth- quake occurred ; the ground in the vicinity of the Fort opened, forming fissures, rom which were thrown mud, sand and water: portions of the mountains several miles distant were seen to fall, and about forty miles S. E. of the Fort, in the direction of some springs, said to be similar to those herein described, was seen an immense column of steam. It is to be hoped that some of the officers then at the post will favor science with an account of the phenomena observed. mes D. Dan (Continued from vol. xviii, p. 326.) V. TETRADECAPODA. eee stating the conclusions from the tables* of the Tetra- decapoda, it should be observed that this division of Crustacea had bee leas thoroughly explored than that of the Podophthal- future ee must vary much the proportions f of the different regions. The coasts of Eu- within the reach of European z0- Arr. Il.—On the Geographical ae asta of Crustacea ; by Jam Pee | Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 7 ologists, and have been carefully examined; while voyagers through the tropics have usually contented themselves with col- lecting the larger Crustacea. In the genus Gammarus, not a tropical species had been reported, until our investigations, which rought ten or eleven to light, being one-third the whole number of those of ascertained localities reported to this genus. Some general conclusions may, however, be safely drawn from the facts already known, although the exact ratios deduced from the tables may hereafter be much modified. I. The Tetradecapoda are far more numerous in extra-tropical latitudes than in the tropical. 4 he proportion in the table is 521: 146; allowing. for future discoveries, it may be set down at 2:1, without fear of exceed- ing the truth. Il. The genera of extra-tropical seas are far more numerous than those of the tropical. Out of the forty-nine genera of Isopéda, only nineteen are known to occur in the tropics, and but four of these are peculiar to the tropics. ~ Out of twenty genera of Anisopoda, six only are known to be tropical, and but two are exclusively so. - Among the Amphipoda, out of fifty genera of Gammaridea, only seventeen are known to contain tropical species; nine are exclusively tropical, and but ten, including these nine, have more tropical than extra-tropical species. ‘The Caprellidea and Hyperidea embrace thirty genera, fifteen or sixteen of which include tropical species. : é _ The variety of extra-tropical forms compared with the tropical, is hence very great. IIT. Idoteidea, is . 8:1 : eee | thoideay.° 2g: 1 D Gammaridea are most strongly extra- ion being for the extra-tropical and tropical 8 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. species 34:1; while the ratio in the Caprellidea, is 3:1; and in the Hyperidea, 13:1. Out of one hundred and seventy-eight extra-tropical species of Gammaridea, sixty-six are Frigid zone species, besides two which have been found both in the Frigid and Temperate zones. The genera which extend into the frigid region are the following. The names of those more especially frigid, according to present knowledge, are italicised ; and the proportion of frigid species to the whole number of extra-tropical, is mentioned in decimals, where they are not exclusively frigid. Inotzipea.—Idotea (0° 3), Glyptonotus. Ontscoinra—Jaera (0°25), Jeridina, Asellus (0-20), Janira (0°5), Henopomus, Munna (0°66). YMOTHOIDEA.— Alga (0°4). Srrormpea.—Serolis - 2), Praniza (0°15), Anceus (0°25). Axcrurmea—Arcturus (0°5). TaNatpea.—Tanais (0° 5), Liriope, Crossurus, Phryzus, Dajus. CaPreLtmpEa.—Proto (0°5), pois (0°24), gina, Cercops, P MariDEa.— Dulichia, Siphonecetes, Unciola (0°5), Polncea, Ob 8), Laphys- - tius, Orchestia (0-07), Btgeephal, “Opis (0 66), ee Anonyz, (0° 9), Leucothoe (066), Acanthonotus, (0°75), Iphimedia (0), CEdicerus (0°5), Gammarus (0°38), — wage (0° a3 Pardalisea etme Michrocheles, Pontoporeia, Ampelisca, Pro- jibe state (014), Metecus, Tauria, Themisto, (3°0). The Spheromide are nearly all cold-water species, though not reaching into the Frigid zone. There are forty-nine known species of Spheromide in the Temperate zone, and but four in _ the Torrid. Serolis is a peculiar cold-water form, belonging mainly to the subfrigid and frigid regions. Orchestia is to a gronP) is giro a cold-water genus. e Hyperidea are mostly bigel ag genera. The species and genera of Tetradecapoda are not only most abundant in the presi regions, but besides, the indi- os visited by us, did we find evidence of as great profusion. Spherome were also very abundant along the shores. ~ Joreover, the species of extra-tropical waters are the “the tribe. In the oh id zone, there are Idoteide ches long, while the average size of the tropical three-four hap inch ; ‘there are ‘Sphe- Sie elon Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 9 the warmer seas afford only small species half an inch in length ; there is a Pterelas over an inch in length, while the Egide o the tropics are less than half an inch. The Gammari of the tropics are small slender species, not half the size of those of the colder seas. ‘I'he species of Serolis are an inch to two inches long. Thus, through the Idoteide, the Hgide, Serolide, Spheromide, Caprellidea, and Gammaridea, the largest species belong to the colder seas, and the giants among Tetradecapods, are actually found in the Frigid zone. Among the Hyperidea there is one gigantic species, belonging to the genus Cystisoma, which is over three inches long. It is reported from the Indian Ocean, but whether tropical or not, is unascertained. Of the species of this group examined by the writer, the largest, a Turia, was from the Frigid zone. II. Again, the Tetradecapoda of extra-tropical waters are the highest in rank. Among the Isopoda (which stand first), the Idotezidea appear to be of superior grade, and these, as observed, are especially developed in the colder seas, reaching their maxi- mum size in the Frigid zone. Again, the Serolide, the highest of the Anisopoda, are cold-water species. e Orchestie among the Amphipoda, although reaching through both the Torrid and Temperate zones, are largest and much the most numerous in the latter. are usually very smooth and often polished species. There are the spinous boreal Crangons, the species of which genus in the Dulichia are spinous genera. e | third pair of caudal stylets in some cold-water Gammari, which have the branches spinulous instead of furnished with a few mi- Palinuride and species*of Stenopus. Such facts, however, do ‘ot lead to any modification of the previous remark; for the tendency observed is still a fact as regards the several genera men- tioned ; moreover the spinous tropical species are few in number. _ Stoonp Szems, Vol, XIX, No. 55.—Jan., 1855. 2 10 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. VI. ENTOMOSTRACA. The Entomostraca have been little studied out of the Tem- perate zone, if we except the results of the author’s labors. The described species of most of the families are, therefore, almost exclusively from the temperate regions, and we know ‘little. of the, corresponding species or groups in the warmer seas. The following table presents the number of known species of the tor- rid and extra-torrid zones, omitting the Lernzoids :-— TABLE IY. " Torrid zone. Extra-torrid zone. Loruyropopa. Cyclopoidea, , ; : ‘ 120 76 Daphnioidea, s . : : a 46 Cyproidea, : , : ‘ ‘ 13 61 PHYLLOPODA. Artemioidea, : 0 10 Apodoidea, 0 3 Limnadioidea, 2 2 Pacitopopa, Ergasiloidea, ; - : : oe 4 Caligoidea, “ : : F . 16 33 Were we to leave out of view the researches of the author, the aalias of species and the proporen for the Cyclopoidea, in- stead of 120 to 76, would be about 3:50, thus not only revers- ing the ratio, but giving to a ‘Capper zone almost all the species of the group.* Moreover, no Daphnioids and few Cal- igoids have been yet reported from the Torrid zone, excepting those described in this Report. The author’s time when on land . = was devoted mainly to the department of Geology, onsequently the fresh-water Entomostracans were not as thorough collected as those of the oceans. He therefore at- tempts to draw no cciiel usions from the above ratios. A few facts may, however, be deduced with respect to some genera, hg especially those of the Cyclopoidea. The following table gives the number, as nearly as known, of the species of each rates of the Cyclopoidea, occurring in the torrid and extra- torrid zones. The number common to the extra-torrid and torrid zones is mentioned in brackets. * The whole number of Cyclopoidea described previous to a oe doit bier time the author's observations were completed, wi po dar oceanic s0ids, one hundred and fifty species of mone nit ‘not ten were known. We cee fom t thon ore of ingle mat still ee be done in the department of Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 11 TABLE V. CYCLOPOIDEA. Torrid. . Extra-torrid. Torrid. Extra-torrid. I Caranip2. 2. Harpacticine, . 1. Calanine, Canthocamptus, 2 4 Calanus, . 25 12 (3) Harpacticus, . 15 incalanus, 2 Westwoodia, . 1 Cetochilus, . 1 Alteutha, . . 1 Eucheta. 4 1 etis, : z fidina, cn) 2 8 Clytemnestra, 1 2. gor tomge Setella, 5 1(1) i 2 1 Laophon, 1 3. Ponteliina. ncea, : 1 ptomus, 2 Enippe, . 1 Hemicalanus, . 4 idya, : 1 Candace, . 5 1 8. Steropine. Acartia, via ek ¥ Zaus,: . 1 Pontella, 22 9 (3) Sterope, 7 Catopia, . 1 4. Notodelphine, IIL Corycamsz. Ni otodelphys, > 1 1. Coryceine, Coryczeus 18 1 Antaris, . ..,.8 1(1) Copilia, 2 : YOLOETO Sapphi . 15 5 ape 2. Miracine. Cyclops, . 9 Miracia, ~. 1 ? Psammathe, 1 . ? Tdomene, 1 Total Catantpa, . . 71 = 29.(6) = 1 Total Crctoripz,. . 10 44 (1) Total Conyczipa, . 39 8 (1) The properly oceanic genera include all the Calanide, ex- cept iy th Diaptomus and Notodelphys ; all the Coryceide ; with e single genus Setella among the Cyclopide. affords some extra-tropical oped and those which ar e most abundant in the colder waters re Calani or . allied. Se- prt trai genus than Calanus. The Coryenianil extent tropical; the genus Co. oryceeus is almost seindively so, while hirina is common in the Temperate zone. The Steropine are Frigid species. Although the Calanide are more varied in species within the tropics, they abound more in individuals in the colder seas. Vast areas of “ bloody” waters were observed by us off the coast of Chili, south of Valparaiso (latitude 42° south, longitude 78° 45/ West, and latitude 36° south, longitude 74° west), which were mainly due toa species of this group; and another species was equally abundant in’ the North Pacific; 32° north, 173 west.* ae have been reported as swarming in other seas, constituting i eee fren ts wath Pel (subgen. Calanopia) brackiata ; 12 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. the food in part of certain species of whale. Such immense shoals we did not meet with, within the tropics. Among the Daphnioidea, the genera Daphnella, Penilia, tee odaphnia, and Lynceus were observed by us in the Torrid z Of the Cyproids, Cypridinia, Conchecia, and Halotenie. ae oceanic forms, and mainly ofthe tropical oceans. The Caligoids spread over both zones. ——: and me theirus reach from the eactegal to the frigid seas; Nogagus, darus, and Dinematura are represented in both the Torrid a Temperate zones. GENERAL REMARKS AND RECAPITULATION. We continue by presenting a few general deductions from the tables, and a recapitulation of some principles. A survey of all the great divisions of Crustacea, shows us that exclusive of the er they are distributed, according to present knowledge, as follows: a. Torrid zone. 6. Temperate zone. c. Frigid zone. Brachyura, . ‘ 257 (34 a) ns (5 5) Anomoura, . 125 110 (15 a) tas ea... 5 Se 125 (16 a) 2 (2 2) Anomobranchiata, . 82 Isopoda, . : ° 56 ' 208 (1 a) Ks (3 5) Anisopoda, . 8 Amphipoda, . é 82 157 83 (4 5) Total, 1036 924 (75 a) 159 (144) Taking the sum of the Frigid and Temperate zone species (subtracting the fourteen common to the two) we have 1036 s cies in the torrid regions to 1069 in the extra-torrid, seventy-five of which are common to the two. This showsa nearly equal dis- tribution between the zones. But excluding the Brachyura, the numbers become 501 to 811, giving a preponderance of more than one-half to the Temperate zone.* * Adding to the numbers above, the species which have been maonieintty 3 left out uncertain locality, amounting to one hundred and eis in 4 cp also the Entomostraca, , as follows :— Brachyura, : is m - f - 8380 Anomoura, . ‘ s ‘. : x 262 Macroura, ; F ‘ : + 9F ——1389 ne gepaaaags Oyen, Sanne, Arughioniem) Ch 115 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 13 The species of highest rank among the Brachyura, Macroura, Isopoda, and Amphipoda, the four principal types in the above, belong to the extra-torrid zones; and in. subordinate groups or families, it is often true that the genera of superior grade are ex- tra-torrid, in contrast with the others which are torrid genera. Higher groups, characteristic of the colder regions, sometimes show degradation among those species of the group that are trop- ical; and the tropical sections also may continue the line of degradation by an extension again into the colder seas. s we descend in the scale of Crustacea from the Podoph- thalmia to the Tetradecapoda, the number of cold-water species increases, becoming in the latter group, three times greater than the warm-water species. It is an important fact, neverthe- less, that this increase of cold-water species is still no mark of degradation ; the particular facts that have been discussed, lead- ing to a very different conclusion. Other principles follow. These are— First, that the two types, the Decapodan and Tetradecapodan, are distinct types, to be independently considered, and not parts of a series or chain of species—a fact illustrated in the chapter on the Classification of Crustacea. Second, that the preponderance of cold-water species is the re- verse of what must have been true in the earlier geological epochs, when the oceans had a somewhat higher temperature ; or were to a large extent tropical. Third, that the progress of creation as regards Crustacea, has ended not where it begun, in multiplying the species of warmer waters and giving them there their superior developments, but in carrying species to a higher perfection in the colder regions of the Oceans. A preponderance of species in the warmer seas 1s per- haps to be expected, since warm waters have prevailed even more largely than now in earlier epochs. But it would seem, that the introduction of the higher grades of Crustacea required, not mere- ly the cooler waters of the present tropics, but even the still colder temperature of the Temperate zone, and therefore the condition of the globe. nv os athe isd tata aga eon Brachyura, ge “ = Macroura, : 57 Tpopoda, io Amphipoda, ies : i ; sine Entomostraca, ‘ 188 14 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. The genera of Fossil species commence with the Entomostra- cans and Trilobites in the Paleozoic rocks. Next appear certain Thalassinidea and Astacoid species, in the Permian system ; then Mysidea, Pencidea, many Thalassinidea, Astacoidea, and Anom- oura, in the Oolitic system; then a few Cancroids and Leuco- soids in the Cretaceous, which become much more numerous in the Tertiary system, along with some G'rapsoids. None of the Maioids, the highest of Crustacea, have yet been “aim gabe from either of the Geological epochs. The number pbilidividaals and the size are, for the pilieakigeiras greater in the Torrid zone than in the colder regions. But for the Macroura, the species of cold-water genera average nearly twice the lineal dimensions of those of warm waters; and the number of individuals also may possibly be greater In stating the conclusion respecting the Macroura, on a pre- ceding page (last volume, p. 325), we omitted to give in detail the mean sizes of the different groups. The following are the results, including the Galatheidea which are closely related to the Ma- eroura :— Mean length of Mean length of Torrid zone species. tra-torrid species. “ Galatheidea, ‘ # 0:3 inc ches, 8:0 inches. - 3 lassinidea, . eR as oo. Scyllaridee, ‘ : ou: co Palinuride, . j +320: °* 150: * Astaci Homarus, ‘ 140.“ Astacine, . 3 hs Nephrophine, . oy Crangonid, i : 2 2 = Palzmonide.—Alpheinz, ie 2 Sah Ps. * Pandaline, . 30 « Palemonine, . 23 “ teat ; Oplophorine, . 10 “ Penzide, - i 2 oe : 45 * The table shows that the torrid species, in none of the groups, average larger than the extra-torrid. The cold-water Palinuride are as large as the largest warm-water species, and will outweigh them; the cold-water Galatheidea, are ten times the average length of the warm-water; the Alpheine, Palemonine, and Pe- neide are at least as large i in the tem perate regions as in the torrrd. There is hence nothing i in the tropics to balance the Astacide, a group of large species, some of them gigantic ; nor the Crangonide, nor Pandaline. The genus Palemon, in the Torrid zone, averages larger than i in the Temperate, the ratio being 3-5 to 2-4; the for- mer aoe being reduced to 2-3 oe ne Palemonina, by the the other tropical genera are mostly quite small. Yet, ea ratio of 3:5 ced alec te little the balance il cl lai a a et i | Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 15 As to bulk, also, the Temperate zone probably has the prepon- derance ; yet our data are less definite. In the Galatheidea, the cold-water species are not only ten times larger lineally (which implies at least eight hundred times cubically), but they are far more prolific, swarming in vast numbers where they occur. The Thalassinidea are more numerous in extra-torrid species than tor- rid, as well as larger in size. The Scyllaride are mainly trop- ical ; but the species are not of common occurrence, compared with the Astacidz, which abound everywhere, and these, as well as the Crangonide and Pandaline, are all ‘T’emperate zone spe- cies. The Palemonine and Peneide probably preponderate in the tropics, and this may be also true of the Alpheine. Taking a general view of the whole, and considering the fact, that the extra-torrid species rather outnumber the torrid, we believe that the deduction above stated is correct. In the T'etradecapoda, the number of species, the inhioe and diversity of genera, the number of a and the bulk, are all greater in the extra-terrid seas than in the torrid, as has been explained on a preceding page ; and this is seein true of the Amphipoda. The tendency to spinose macs among the species of the colder temperate regions, or Frigid zone, has been remarked upon on page 9, as exemplified among ne Gammaridea, the Crango- hidz, nathoiies, and Maioids. (To be continued.) Art. III.—Contributions to heed ; by Dr. F. A. Genta of Philadelphia. (Continued from vol. xviii, p. 410.) 5. Tetradymite. Arrer making the examination of the Tetradymite from Da- vidson county, N. C. (Am. Journ., 2d Ser., vol. xvii, page 81), I was very desirous to reéxamine ‘the m mineral, which had been agi by Mr. Coleman Fisher, Jr., (Am. Jour., 2d gee vol. vii, Pp. 282). Fortunately Prof. R. S. McCulloh (who was at the time of its discovery at Commodore Stockton’s mines in Virginia, Melter and Refiner at the U. S. Mint) had preserved some of the same material, which was" analyzed by Mr. Fisher, and he very ee gave me all that he had for examination. This was sufficient or the whole investigation. ‘The pieces were of two sna sis: Tetradymite associated with quartz and gold, and Tetradymite in broad folia, sometimes one inch in diam- ster, Stnpinted in a decomposed micaceous slate. The latter mineral undoubtedly came from the Tellurium Mine, Fluvanna : county, Va. and is Hat eoayeed by Mr. Fisher; the former is 16 Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. probably from the same place, but may be from Whitehall Mine, potsylvania county, Va. Though I was most careful in selecting the material for this investigation, I found invariably from one half to two per cent. of quartz, gold and oxyd of iron mixed with it, which were de- ducted as impurites. In making the investigation I have found the method hereto- fore used for the separation of bismuth from tellurium, by sul- phid of ammonium, not to be as correct as is desirable, since there is always a considerable amount of tellurium remaining with the bismuth ; I therefore tried to find another m | would give more satisfactory results, and succeeded best with the following: The solution containing teroxyd of bismuth and tellurous acid was made acid by hydrochloric acid, sir to the hot solution bisulphite of ammonia was added. It was allowed to stand in a warm place for a day or two until all the. nlicaiena had settled ; this was filtered on a weighed filter, washed first with a mixture of diluted hydrochloric and sulphurous acids, then with sulphurous acid alone, and finally with water. lurium was completely precipitated and did not contain a weigh- able quantity of bismuth. The results of the analyses I. and IL afterwards corrected, and III. and IV. analyzed by this method. B.B. it fuses readily giving out a faint but distinct odor of selenium, leaving on charcoal white fe ern with a yellow centre. The sabetaed results were obtained : i IV. Calculated. coh cee Bete From Tellurium Mine. ? From Whitehall Mine. Bismuth, 5307 53°78 51:56 Not determ. 1 igh Leer Tellori 48°19 A707 49°79 46°10 Selenium, traces : Sulphur, none none none 037 These analyses show that neither of the specimens contained a weighable amount of selenium. The small quantity of sulphur (in No. IV,) 0°37 percct. is equivalent to 1-48 per ct. of tellurium, which if we substitute tellurium for pst would give 47°53 per ct. of tellurium. These analyses show that Tetradymite is tertellurid of bismuth, but that pe imciored Fees I showed for that from Davidson county) a variable quantity of tellurium may be replaced by sulphur. I have also observed that Tetradymite oc- _ curs at several localities in Cabarrus county, N. C., where I have found it in minute lead-colored scales, associated with gold and iron te in quartz at the Phoenix Mine and at the Boger Mine ; but, » I had sufficient material to determine the nature of the sale, I could not obtain enough for a quantitative oars 6. Bismuthine. tL tril Dacrean on ae Tt 1 foand pte oeeee ai speeimens from the Barnhardt vein me SF nN ee eee hy ee a ne Seed Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 17 (from 280 feet below the surface) sometimes contained a steel colored mineral in minute acicular needles, which are apparently rhombic. It was associated with gold, iron and copene pyrites. B.B. it gave the reactions of sulphur, bismuth and co r, an once I observed a faint odor of selenium. Afterwards I found that the chloritic slate of the same vein, in which the copper py- rites occurs, contains also a considerable quantity of almost mic- opic specks and stripes of the same color. On extracting some of the slate by aqua regia, the opi contained, hesides iron and copper (probably from the cop yrites), a considerable quantity of bismuth. Neither slime por send could be found. It is impossible to get a sufficient quantity of this mineral for analysis, or of sufficient purity to ascertain whether the copper, which I found, belongs to the mineral itself, or is owing to an admixture of copper pyrites—or, in other words, whether the mineral is “ Cupreous Bismuth,” or Bismuthine. Iam in favor of the latter opinion. 7. Aciculite.. A mineral between lead and steel-gray in color occurs in small masses imbedded in quartz and associated with copper pyrites and sulphate of baryta. Though it is ‘not found in long acicular needles, like the needle ore from. Beresofsk in Siberia, a qualita- tive analysis showed that it conan the same constituents, viz: bismuth, lead, copper and sulphu B.B. it fuses readily, giving of ‘sulpburons acid and covering — the charcoal with yellow incrustations; with carbonate of soda, after ~ and bismuth have been volatilized, a globule of Copper rei I therefore ' bolowe it to be “ | Aciculite.” 8. Barnhardtite, a new mineral. a. In compact masses; nocleavage could be observed. H.= 3:5; Sp. grav. (at 25° Cels.) = 4-521; lustre metallic, but some- what dull; color bronze-yellow ; streaks grayish black and slight- ly shining; opaque ; fracture conchoidal, uneven ; brittle; tar- nishes very soon, more readily in bata rh of moisture , assuming a peculiar brownish, eevee atimoc also ge Peieaty B.B. give pare ea pale -_ tes easily to an iron- black magnetic slobule ; with borax it gives the reactions of cop- nd iron ; ee: carbonate of soda and borax metallic copper. aboratory by Mr. Wm. J. Taylor (I), Mr. t was analyzed in. oratory by rea Peter Witeviee (i) at wi myself (1), ” a copper determination was made by Mr, Be Saale Ty ).* sey Se a hematite was mixed with the mineral ; “Seon Sm Va X08 Se 56.-Jek. 1855. 3 ~ 18 Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. : The following are the results : I. II. If. FY, Calculated. eee ae em aa eee From D. Barnhardt’s land. From Pioneer Mills. Copper, 47°61 46:69 48:40 4786 4 th Ge = 4814 Tron, 22°23 22°41 21:08 not det. Fe == 21738 Sulphur, 29°40 29°76 30°50 not det. r 5, =o SOB8 Silver, trace The composition is expressed by the formula: 2Cu2S+Fe2S;, which is between that of yellow copper pyrites=Cu2S+Fe:Ss and Erubescite =3Cu2S+Fe:Ss. | I have found this mineral associated with other copper ores at Dan. Barnhardt’s land (hence its name) and Pioneer Mills, Cabar- rus county ; Dr. O. Dieffenbach observed it at the Phcenix and Vanderburg Mines of the same county, and I saw it also amongst copper ores from the neighborhood of Charlotte, Mecklenburg county, N. C. It seems to be abundant in North Carolina, and is of course a very valuable copper ore. b. I will mention jak another copper ore, which also occurs on Dan. Baruhardt’s It is massive and caacribies copper pyrites, but is somewhat paler. ‘The material for analysis was te aie in appearance and seemed not to be a mixture es twos Bpee The analyses made by Messrs. Wm. J. Payor (1) and Charles } Froebel (II), gave the following results I. IL. : Copper, 40°2 405 5 equiv. Copper brevis 67 Tron, 284 28-3 4 28:12 Sulphur, 32:9 311 es Sulphur = 3221 The composition of this mineral may be expressed by the formula: (2Cuz:S+Fe2S3)+(CuS, + 2FeS.) Whether further investigations will prove this to be a distinct species or not, I am not able to say ; for the present I only wish to call the attention of mineralogists to this subject. 9. Gray Copper, (Fahlerz.) In the Am. Journ. of Sc., 2d Ser., vol. xvi, page 83, I have de- scribed the first mineral belonging to this group, which has been observed in this country. Since then I have found two new localities, where minerals occur belonging to this group, and a third one (Duchess county, N. Y.) was mentioned to me by Dr. From is Bidees Gold Mine, Buckingham county, Va.— ranular masses ; lustre metallic; color between iron-black ; streak iron-black ; opaque; =4. oe brittle ; ; —subconchoidal. face aneven= Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 19 alliaceous odor, and fuses with intumescence to an iron black, slightly magnetic globule, covering the charcoal with white in- crustations. With fluxes it gives the reactions of copper and iron, A preliminary analysis, made by dissolving the mineral in aqua regia, gave Mr. Wm. J. Taylor the following results : 4 40°64 pr. cent. Sitter, oe Gold, 2 ‘ : : trace Zine, ‘ : ‘ : , 3°39 irom. 5 F . : : 4:24 Antimony, . ° : : ° 510 Arsenic, Fr . = i - 16°99 Sulphur, . . . ; diesen 28:46 Quartz, : x Si 1-24 ~t is associated with quartz and auriferous iron pyrites . From Geo. Luderick’s farm, about 14 miles N. E. ‘of Con- pork (abies county, N.C.—The only imperfect crystal which I found appears to be a combination of = 2s" -@O; it is gen- erally found massive ; its color is between dark lead gray and iron black ; streak iron black, somewhat brownish ; fracture uneven, subconchoidal ; brittle. B.B. decrepitates slightly ; in an open tube disengages sulphur- ous acid and gives a snblimate of arsenious acid; on charcoal it emits fumes of an alliaceous order, and covers it with white in- crustations ; it fuses into a magnetic globule and gives with fluxes the reactions of copper and iron. It is found in quartz, pes tg with copper pyrites, iron pyrites, brown hematite and scor 10. Geokronite. (?) I received this mineral amongst others from Tinder’s Gold Mine, Louisa county, Va. t occurs in small irregular masses of a crystalline structure, With distinct. ern in one direction ; lustre metallic ; color aeyi Ser ines ; Sp. on (at 16° Cels.) 6-393. fames of. teroxyd of antimony, soueriug it with white incrus- tations, having a Baas centre of oxyd of lead; further reduced Yields a small globule of silver ; in an open tube it gives off snl- phurous acid and a’ white sublimate of teroxyd of antimony and A cae paces wed th bout 16 t i ho that it contains abou per cent. of ee 60 per cent. of lead, and 0-25 per cent. of silver. Associate eh iron Sd galena, aud blende. 20 Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 11. Garnet. From Yonkers, N. Y.—This beautiful massive red garnet, which I have found in many collections labelled ‘‘ Pyrope,” has been examined in my laboratory, by Mr. Wm. J. Taylor. B.B. it fuses to an iron black, shght'y magnetic globule ; with borax it gives the reactions of iron, and with carbonate of soda - those of manganese. It is acted ite by hydrochloric acid, but = completely decomposed. ‘The analysis gave the following sults. mee y 38°32 per cent. contains Oxygen 19:90 ie Alu ‘49 = “4 10°05 = 1 aed a of iron (FeO) 30°23 s « bee Oxyd of anese, 2°46 - : 1016 = 1 = gaia 6:29 “ * 2 31 3 . 1:38 fs 0°39 J b. Bab Grebuas Creek, Delaware county, Pa.—Under the head “ Pyrope,” Prof. Dana mentions this beautiful gem, stating his doubts, that it belongs to this species. The followin analy- sis, ome by Mr. Chs. A. Kurlbaum will, show the correctness of his vie B.B. 7 behaves like a; its composition is: eens . 40°15 per cent. contains Oxygen, 20°86 Sa TT “ 7 “ 9°71 = : od of 3 iron (FeO) 26°66 : . 5°92 Oxyd of Manganese, 185 . . 0°42 mee ioe Ue aes megosels, viggg PARE =e Lime, * . 1:83 : f 052 |} 12. Allanite. Though we have already numerous analyses of this mineral, we are not yet arrived to a certainty with regard to its composi- tion. This is owing to various causes, principally, I suppose, to the fact that analysts have in most cases not taken the necessary care to ascertain, whether the iron in allanites is in the form of oxyd (FeO) or in that of sesquioxyd (F'2Q:), or in both states of oxyd- ation. At my request, Mr. Peter Keyser made a series of analy- ses of American allanites. The separation of the oxyds of ce- rium, lanthanum and didymium from iron and alumina in all the analyses («) was made by sulphate of potash; in analyses (@) by oxalic acid; sesquioxyd of cerium was separated from lanthana and oxyd of didymium by very diluted nitric acid and the oxyd of iron by chlorid of gold and sodinm. All the rest of the de- terminations were made i in the usual manner. a. Allanite from gn county, N. Y.*—Massive, Apclenvage could be be detected ; H. 5:5; Sp. gt. (at 17° Cels.) =3-782 ; lustre — ome seri my note in the Am. Journ. of Sé, 28 é ” : Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 21 : — a gray ; color pitch-black: opaque ; fracture un- nchoidal ; brittle- ; B. B. it fuses with intumescence to a ew slightly magnetic glass. Dissolves easily in hydrochloric : The analyses gave the following vandis: x a B Contains oxygen. ilies, 6. 4 BERS 8217 3219 ° 1671 =1672 Alumina, . 1199 1200 1200 561 Ug 4 Sesquioxyd ofiron, . 6°30 639 6-34 190 §— * Oxyd of ir 10°55 10°55 2-34) d of minngunene; 051 not det. 051 O11 Oxyd of a . 15°28 1545 15°87 2-99 Oxyd of didymium, } ®79 phot tt nies tee we Magnesia, ; - 054 114 0°84 0°34 BANA Sdn ij) cir BRS 931 914 2-60 Soda, oe 1-00 1-00 0:25 Potach, ae 0-18 018 0:03 Writer, <--° 1:19 1-19 106 = 1-06 . Allanite isin near Eckhardt’s Parhidce, Berks county, Pa.— Iu color, Las appearance and its blowpipe reactions, resembles _ | very much the allanite from Orange county. > H. S6. Sp. gr. (at 27° Cels. ) = 3825-3: 831. | The analyses gave the following results: ' B Mean. Contains oxygen. Silica, 5 32.97 32°81 8289 17-07 0 * Alumina, 12-40 1259 12-49 ved Se Sesquioxyd of i iron, 710 756 7:33 S30 Sys -_ ; 902 902 200) i Oxyd re manganese, 0-25 not det, 0°25 0:05 a Oxyd of cerium, . 15°79 1556 1568 227 al! a, z i : . a ‘ é Ory of didymium, 10 17 1002 1010 eee” Magnesia, 1-91 1-63 177 =: O61 MN oo TSO 6°94 T12 © - 202 eo. k 0:09 009 0-02 Reveb = 5 ay 0-14 014 0°02 “ater, : 2°49 249 - 221 = 221 It is fon abundantly near Eckhardt’s Furnace, Berks County, | a a, associa’ with quartz, zircon, mica and titaniferous mag- - hetite, "6, AMtnit from Bethlehem, Northampton county, Pa.—Mas- sive; H.=5; Sp. grav. (at 16° Cels.) = 3-491; lustre resinous ; rar brownish black; streak gray ; opaaNe +: ‘fracture subcon- ¢hoidal, B.B. it decrepitates slightly and fuses with intumescence to an iron black magnetic slag. Hydrochloric acid dissolves it readily. _ Occurs in a decomposed granite in flat pieces of not more than lalf an inch in thickness; their surfaces are covered with a crust iydrated hee gen of iron and cerium, etc., resulting from osition of the allanite by the action o atmospheric 22 Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. The results of the analyses were: a <8 Mean. Contains oxygen. ree sc SSS 83°27 33:3L i 17°30 E750 mina, 14:54 14:13 14°34 6°70 — 998 Sesquinyd of iron, 10°71 10°95 10°83 ea ea Ox f iron, ; 4-20 7-20 1°60 pa a cerium . ..1342 IS 11 13°42 1:94 Oxy of of ‘didymiom, ; 2-76 2°64 270 «089; ie 0-95 15 Spe 0°68 a tae 1-27 11°28 11-28 ey 0-41 0-41 O11 Potash, , P 1:33 1°33 1:22 Water, - 3°01 8°01 2°68 sa 268 In the Bisnite from Orange county, the ratio of oxygen of YO: R203 :S8iO:, is equal to 1:08: 1-8, which is = 5:4:9, corresponding with the formula: 5k,Si+4#5Si, the allanites of Reading and Bethlehem give very ig the ratio 1:1:2, corres- ponding with the formula k,S8i+# The slight variation in the Grange county allanites of which the ratio of oxygen was found to be = 5:4:9 may be owing to small impurities of this See I believe that, when pure, it has, like the two others, and like all allanites which have been ex- amined with regard to the state of ee ve the iron in them, the ratio 1:1: 2, or the constitution of garn The quality of water in the allanites, resulting in all ec Bailey from a change, beginning in the composition of this mineral, as Pie sug- gested by Prof. Rammelsberg, was found to vary from 1-19 cent. to 3-01 per cent.; but if we take it into consideration, the composition of the Orange county allanite may be expressed by the formula 2(R,Si+#8i)+H; that of the allanites from Bethle- hem and Eckhardt’s Furnace by (&,Si+-#8i)--1. 13. T'ungstates in North Carolina. Tungstates having been found only at two or three localities in the United States, it was interesting to find them in North Car- olina at two localities, viz: Dr. Cosby’s mine, near Pioneer Mills, Cabarrus county, (a, 'b and c,) and at the Washington mine, Da- vidson a (d). am occurs in irregular lamellar masses in brown hem- atite sed in a hydrate of the sesquioxyds of iro manga- nese, which appears to be a result of the deconspagial of spathie iron. It is associated with scheelite, tungstate of copper, - eis of te | se Scheie i is found i in white, yohowiai white and brownish : e masses. ‘The Se Dr. Genth’s Contributions to Mineralogy. 23 c. Tungstate of Copper (? and Lime); a new mineral.— ? Amorphous ; massive and pulverulent ; sometimes (if massive) of the lustre of wax, but usually dull; color between siskin and pistachio- green. .B. in a tube gives water and blackens; on charcoal it fuses with intumescence easily to an iron-black slag, containing glob- ules of metallic copper; with fluxes it gives the reactions of cop- per and tungstic acid. Soluble in hydrochloric acid with separ- ation of tungstic acid ; the solution contains oxyd of copper and lime. I believe that the lime belongs to the constitution of this mineral, and is not owing to an admixture of Scheelite, with which it is associated, and that its composition is analogous to that of Volborthite, which it somewhat resembles, or a hydrated tungstate of copper and lime. d. Scheeletine-—Only one lump of quartz, which had a few crystals of this very rare mineral upon it, was found at the Wash- ington Mine, Davidson county, N. C. The crystals are quadratic octahedra P, some also in combina- tion with the plane oo P. The planes sometimes being curved, give the crystals a barley shaped appearance. . Color lavender blue and yellowish white ; lustre pearly—subadamantine ; brittle. - with microcosmic salt in the reducing flame gives an azure-blue glass; with carbonate of soda upon charcoal metallic fead. It is associated with pyromorphite, brown blende, iron pyr- ites, etc. ; 14, Scorodite. Iam not aware that another locality has been observed in the U. S., except Edenville, N. Y. It occurs also, coating the cavi- ties of quartz and brown hematite, associated with gray copper, i spe iron pyrites at Geo. Luderick’s farm, Cabarrus coun- y, N.C, _ Itis found there in aggregations of greenish white, brownish and leek-green crystals. Only rarely they are large enongh to distinguish their form, which is a combination of the planes \ +O rae le. 16. Wavellite. : This is another mineral of which only a few localities are re- corded in the United States. I,found it at the Washington Mine, Davidson county, N. G., in a talcose slate in globular concretions Witha ES DE SPT os iated witk tinolit , galena, blende, iron pyrites, silver, etc. 7 Conzecrioy.—In the article, Owenite identical with Thurin- | this Journaf, last volume, p. 411, for Schmiedeberg read 24 Prof. Tyndall on the Diamagnetic Force. Arr. IV.—On the Diamagnetic Force; by Prof. Tynpsuu.* Wiru regard to the character of diamagnetic force great diver- sity of opinion prevails. In Germany we have Weber affirming that diamagnetic bodies possess a polarity opposed to that of iron. Weber’s countryman, Von Feilitsch, combats this opinion in a. series of Memoirs recently published in Poggendorff’s ‘Annalen. He affirms that diamagnetic bodies possess a polarity the same as that of iron; and endeavors to bring the phenomena into har- mony with this view. In this country, on the contrary, we have Prof. Faraday, and it was believed, Prof. Thomson, neither of whom are prepared to admit the existence of any polarity what- ever on the part of diamagnetic bodies. These divergences were a sufficient proof of the difficulty of the subject, and the neces- sity of caution in dealing with a the author, therefore, thought it well to commence with the fundamental phenomena, and | ascending from them to the more complicated, to endeavor toob- tain, by strict adherence to experiment, a clear insight as to the real nature of ae: force by which certain bodies are repelled by the poles of a net. Spee an ate series of experiments made with different bodies, and under the most diverse circumstances, the author se- lected a few which clearly exhibited the law according to which the repulsive force augments when the strength of the repelling magnet is increased. Were the repulsion of a diamagnetic body __ dependent on any constant property of the mass, then its repul- : . ‘ : 4 sion must be simply proportional to the strength of the magnet; but it is proved by the concurrent testimony of experiments car- ried on in Germany, France, and England, that, for a wide range of magnetic power, the repulsive force increases as the square of the strength of the inflnencing magnet. This leads inevitably to the conclusion, that the repulsion of a diamagnetic body de- pends, not alone on the magnet operating upon it, but upon the joint action of the magnet and diamagnet. A piece of bismuth, for example, in presence of the magnet is thrown by the Jatter into a state of excitement, which varies as the magnetic strength varies, and in virtue of which the substance is repelled. ‘The next question to be decided is, whether the state of excitement evoked by one-pole, ina diamagnetic body, enables a pole of an ypposite quality to repel i 4 - To decide this, two cores of soft iron were so bent, two semi-cylindrical ends of the cores could be pl ae gether, so as t ia Seite a single. cylinder of the same diameter as ‘the : coer of the cores The cahoots Ate > Pe Pee 1 ig eae ? aa es ee aS, > ee ae Prof. Tyndall on the Diamagnetie Force. 25 were of the same or of opposite names. A bar of bismuth was freely suspended, so that both poles could act upon it simultane- ously. en the cores were excited, so that the poles were alike, the bismuth was repelled; when the .poles were of differ- ent names, the bismuth bar remained motionless ; all action upon it was annulled. This experiment confirms those of Reich, and proves that the condition, whatever it may be, which is evoked by one magnetic pole is neutralized by the other,—that each par- ticular pole evokes a condition peculiar to itself;—and here we obtain the first glimpse of the dual nature of the force under consideration. he next portion of the inquiry treated of the deportment of diamagnetic bodies when acted upon, first, by the magnet alone; secondly, by the electric current alone; and, thirdly, by the cur- rent and the magnet combined. en we speak of the deport- ment of bismuth in any one of the cases mentioned, no exact meaning can be attached to the phrase unless it be first strictly defined in what direction, as to the planes of crystallization, the mass has been cut. A bar of bismuth, in which the planes of principal cleavage are parallel to the length of the bar, and acted upon by the voltaic current alone, will set itself parallel to the current’s direction. A bar, on the contrary, in which the planes of cleavage are transverse, will set itself at right angles to the current’s direction, The former bar Prof. Tyndall calls a normal diamagnetic bar; the latter an abnormal one. The most perfect antithesis is observed in all cases between the deportment of the normal diamagnetic bar and a bar of soft iron; the forces which cause a deflexion of the former from right to left produce a defiex- ion of the latter from left to right. If the former take up a po- sition of equilibrium from southwest to northeast the position taken by the latter will be from southeast to northwest; a throughout all the experiments the same opposition of action is exhibited. By mechanical means, an abnormal magnetic bar and diamagnetic bodies in the magnetic field; but the thing which chiefly concerns us is the strong presumption which the voked in magnetic bodies by the action of currents, or magnets, or of both combined, to an influence, of the same nature but an- Szoonp Serres, Vol. XIX, No. 55.—Jan., 1855. 4 fe 26 Prof. Tyndall on the Diamagnetic Force. tithetical in its manner of 1 atbleate the deportment of diamag- netic bodies is to be referre The next section of the inquiry imparted clearer knowledge as to the nature of diamagnetic action. ‘T'wo helices were so placed that the ends of the soft iron cores which fitted into them were about six inches apart from centre to centre; the helices were at opposite sides of the plane which touched the ends of the cores. A helix of copper wire was introduced, and within it a bismuth bar 63 inches long and four-tenths of an inch in diameter was see suspended, so that the ends of the bar were opposite o those of the soft iron cores. A current being sent through the helix, if whe bismuth bar within it were excited by the current it was probable that the nature of the excitement would manifest itself in the action of the magnets upon the diamagnetic body. By working delicately the most perfect mastery was obtained over the suspended bismuth ; when the current through the helix flowed in a certain direction the ends of the diamagnetic bar were repelled by the electro-magnets; when the current flowed through, the helix was reversed, and the same ends were attracted by the magnets. The same effect was obtained when, instead of revers- ing the helix current, the polarity of the two magnets was re- versed. On comparing the deflexions with those of soft iron, it was found that they were perfectly antithetical. The excitement which caused the ends of the iron bar to be repelled caused those of the bismuth bar to be attracted All these experiments point irresistibly to the conclusion that, whatever the ideal magnetic distribution in iron may be, a pre- cisely opposite distribution occurs in bismuth,—or, in other words, that the diamagnetic force is a polar force, but that the aaa is the reverse of magnetic polarity. If, however this be the bismuth bar, when the current circulates round it, must hae its two ends in different states; but if in different states, then if we make the two poles acting upon the ends of the bar alike, we ought to have attraction at one end and repulsion at the other,— the result of their opposing actions being that the bar must re- main undeflected. The decisive experiment has been made, and ie revolt 3 is in perfect accordance with the conclusion just expres- when both magnetic poles are of the same name they com- Bexaly peoralize each other. Following up this inductive rea- n, is easy to see that, if what has been stated be correct, when ve bring two magnets with poles of the same name to 3 being: the same, then the repulsion of one end and other, instead of, as in the ae disposition, er, 2 AuEht to constitu ute a echanical cou muth bar, the direction of the for emanating from — —-- °° - 4 On the Diamagnetic Force. - Q7 tending to deflect the bar; and if two other poles of the same name, but of opposite names to the former two, be caused to act upon the bar the force of deflexion ought to be increased. this form the experiment was made before the Section. Four magnets were made use of; the two poles to the left were of the same name, and the two to the right were of the opposite quality. The result completely coincided with the author’s anticipations, and the bar was promptly deflected. hese experiments, without any exception, are all corroborative of the view, that diamagnetic bodies possess a polarity opposed to that of magnetic bodies,—but they do not prove that the phys- ical theory of Weber is correct. Indeed, it is scarcely possible that this theory can stand in opposition to the experimental evi- dence which can be brought to bear against it. One consequence of this truly beautiful theory is, that when the particles of a dia- magnetic body are caused to approach each other, the effect of their approximation will be to enfeeble the magnetic action along the line of approach. his view is opposed by the most direct experiments, which prove that the approximation of diamagnetic os ota has an effect precisely opposite to that deduced from the theory. a Prof. W. Tomson remarked, that as early as the year 1847 he C idge and Dublin Mathematical ures the inductive capacity of the substance, has positive values for all ferromagnetics, and negative values for all diamagnetics. Since the time when that Paper had been published, he never 1, as it appears, would result from the actual substance of a diamagnetic solid receiving by induction a @ perpetual motion, such to as opposed to the theory of the polarity of bismuth. Prof. 1omson_ Sp tacned that those views led to the conclu- ton, not that ismt th experienced no magnetic polarity, but that » 28 Prof. Bailey’s reply to Mr. Wenham. the actual magnetization of its substance could not be the reverse of that of soft iron, and that the surrounding medium (whether it be air or what we habitually but falsely call vacuum) must ex- perience magnetization similar to that of iron in the same position, and greater in degree than that of the bismuth. According to substance less magnetizable than air. Prof. Thomson further re- marked, that he had not perfect confidence in the truth of this couelnsion, as one of the assumptions on which the reasoning as founded admitted of doubt; but he had no doubt whatever of t ne Rests polarity of bismuth, however occasioned, being the reverse of that of iron. He concluded by expressing com- prt ceiuasaens with Prof. Tyndall on this point, and admiration of the remarkable combination of powerful and delicate apparatus, and the beautiful and well planned experiments by which Prof. Tyndall had so successfully demonstrated the antithesis between iron and bismuth to the Meeting. Art. V.—Reply to some remarks by W. H. Wenham, and Nolice of a new locality of a Microscopic Test-object ; by Prof. J. W. Baitey, U.S. Military Academy, West Point. In an article by W. H. Wenham, Fsq., of London, published in the Quarterly Jousila of ane A Science for July, 1854, I have noticed the following ap oig “These experiments [made by Me Wenham] will readily account for the difficulty of discovering the markings or structure of a severe test when mounted in balsam ; for as thus seen it may be inferred that no aperture exceeding 85° can be made to bear upon it, and this is even supposing that the largest aperture object-glass that has ever been constructed is used. Such being the case I am somewhat puzzled at an announcement that ap- pears to contradict this fact, coming from one that must be con- sidered as authority in these matters. I refer to Professor Bailey, - who, in a letter addressed to Matthew Marshall, Esq., dated Janu- ary 20th, 1852, first speaks of an American object-glass of very large aperture (1724°) and its performance on the most difficult tests known, aud then proceeds to say ‘In all these cases (and in fact whenever I allude to a test-object) 1 mean the balsam mounted he dry shells I never use as tests.’ is assertion seems to m me to be extraordinary, and very like saying that an aper- ture of 85° or 90° will do every thing that is required. I have invariably found that when very difficult tests are mounted in balsam I discover the markings, and certainly the reasons unt Fit it. Iti is to” be es that the Ameri- oe Prof. Bailey’s reply to Mr. Wenham. 29 object-glasses, that will render a smaller amount of aperture ser- viceable ; but however this may be, I think that Professor Bailey’s statement requires some explanation.” —Journ. Mic. Science, July, It is apparent from the above that Mr. Wenham has convinced himself, both by “reasons” and experiment, that I ought not to have seen the markings on delicate test-ohjects when mounted in balsam ; and that as he invariabl y found that he could not discover these markings, therefore some new and peculiar principle in ob- ject-glasses must have been discovered to account for the success of American opticians. In answer to this I would state that both in print, as well as in private letters I stand fully committed to the statement that I can resolve the most difficult tests known even when mounted in balsam. Iu 1849 I stated in this Journal, Vol. vii, p. 268, that “the resolntion of these tests mounted dry is so much easier than when in balsam, that objects thus mounted are of little value in testing the powers of lenses, although they may answer well when the end is to make out the real structure of the object itself.” In fact I have up to this time met with no object which, when mounted dry presents sufficient difficulty to rank as a severe test-object, while there are many which when balsam-mounted become very satisfactory. It is certainly no duty of mine to explain why Mr. Wenham has failed in his attempts to resolve the balsam-mounted speci- mens, particularly as the resolution of such tests is a matter of every-day amusement with microscopists in this country, and I believe Mr. Wenham does injustice to the microscopists and mic- roscopes of London, in representing the English glasses as inca- pable of doing as much. That the English lenses are capable of performing well on balsam-mounted objects of considerable diffi- culty I know by my own trials, some of which are referred to in the following paragraph from a paper recently published in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. vit, p. | eet would here state that in the spring of 1853 I resolved the Green- port Grammatophora [balsam-mounted] unmistakably by a 4 of an inch objective made by Spencer, and subsequently by a Z re- cently made by Powell of London for Dr. Vanarsdale of N. York.” As Mr. Wenham does not mention the names of the test- objects employed by him, I cannot say that they may not be more ‘ficult than any known to me; yet I feel no hesitation in chal- lenging him to produce an object resolvable when dry, which I Cannot resolve when balsam-mounted. I will also state that I, at Present know of no test-object more difficult than a supposed Variety of Grammatophora stricta, Ehr., from Halifax, N.S. This 1S a8 Much more difficult than the Providence Grammatophora, as the latter is more difficult than the Greenport specimens. Asa Supply of the last two varieties has been in London for two years they are probably known to Mr. Wenham and may have been py sae: Fate ic oe 30 Prof. Bailey on a new locality of Microscopic Test-objects. subjected to experiments by him. That the balsam-mounted specimens of all these objects can be satisfactorily resolved is well known to American observers, and the following statement given by Judge A. 8. Johnson in vol. ‘xiii, p. 32 of this Journal, is fully confirmatory of my own experience. Speaking of a new object-glass of 1743° niceties in July, 1851, by Spencer, the follow- ing remarks are made “The light failing t us as evening was: approaching we did not try in this way — the pa test or the Providence Gramma- tophora, but in the evening we saw both these objects [balsam- mounted] satisfactorily scents into dots by unreflected oblique light from one wick of a common bed-chamber lamp, burning oil, a homely but very effective method of illumination for objectives of large apertures.” It appears then that the resolution of balsam-mounted speci- mens of difficult test-objects can be accomplished, in spite of Mr. Wenham’s arguments and experience to the contrary. The error in his arguments will be sufficiently obvious to any one who will trace the course of a divergent pencil of rays out of the balsam instead of into it, as in Mr. Wenham’s experiments, and it will then be seen that large angles of aperture are as useful for balsam- mounted specimens as for others. I leave the defense of large angles of aperture to the professed optician, being well satisfied that, notwithstanding the extraordinary attempts made by certain i writers in England to underrate the value of the improvements made in this direction, no one who has once employed a properly corrected object-glass of large aperture will ever be satisfied with one of a different construction. SESS hcg eer mee semen cegiernenieieines i> rrrcmeannmageen.-— reel Naeger nv aebhievigamatin setgpaplessieesceoln On a new locality of Microscopic test-objects. a Smithsonian memoir published in February, 1854,* I have described and figured a species of Hyalodiscus from Halifax, Nova Scotia, which appeared to me to be admirably fitted for a test- object, in as much as its circular form with radiant and curved lines of great tenuity proceeding in all directions renders it unne- t cessary ever to change the position of the shell when in the field of view in order to secure the best possible direction of the light. Whatever its position, on account of the perfect symmetry of its orm and markings, some portion must always be in the best pos- sible position with reference to the oblique light used for its ex- amination. Unfortunately the Halifax specimens of this beautiful object appear to be quite rare, I am therefore happy to announce 4 nee Peavery upon various Alge from Monterey, California, of: an i tbls Sapp y of a species of Hyalodiscus closely allied 33 cies and answering equally well as a test-object. renie nt as a hae ys.cc pace nieg om s of the microscope. On the theory of the Variations of Atmospherical Phenomena. 31 Art. VL—On the bearing of the Barometrical and Hygromet- rical Observations at Hobarton and the Cape of Good Hope on the general theory of the Variations of Atmospherical Phe- nomena ; by Professor Dove of Berlin.* I nap hoped to have prefaced this volume with a discussion of the meteorological observations made hourly at Hobarton from January, 1841, to September, 1848 (of which the abstracts were published in 1850 in the first volume of the Hobarton Observa- tions), from the pen of Professor Dove, who had kindly under- taken, at the magnetical and meteorological conference at Cam- bridge in 1845, to participate to that extent in the reduction and application to theoretical conclusions, of the results of the Obser- vations at the British Colonial Observatories; but M. Dove's ap- pointment, on the death of Professor Mahlmann in November, 848, to the charge of the meteorological observatories in the Prussian states has materially abridged the time at that gentle- man’s disposal, and he has found himself unable to complete the discussion he had undertaken for the present volume without Oceasioning an inconvenient delay in its publication; the discus- sion will therefore be prefixed to the fourth volume; but in the mean time Professor Dove has kindly furnished for this volume the subjoined remarks (written in German) upon the bearing which the barometrical and hygrometrical observations, at the Colonial Observatories at Hobarton and the Cape of Good Hope, have had on the general theory which professes to explain the physical causes of the variatious which we observe in the atmos- pkerical phenomena of the globe. The testimony borne by so eminent a meteorologist to the importance and value of this por- tion of the observations made at the British Colonial Observato- nes, cannot fail to be highly acceptable to the Government which instituted it, and td the public who have paid for these establish- ments, as it must be most satisfactory to the officers and to their ~ assistants, by whose patient and unremitting labor facts of which opie _ The establishment of meteorological stations in distant parts of the globe had, generally speaking, for its immediate object, so to complete the partial knowledge we already possessed of the phe- _, {From “Observations made at the Magnetical and Meteorological Observator Hobart oa Von thsenney alan” Yel iij"Iotroduction —Phil Mag, Oct, 185, 32 M. Dove on the theory of the Variations nomena over a considerable portion of its surface, as to enable us to take a general view of their course over the whole globe; the result of those endeavors has even exceeded what was hoped for, as besides the information obtained respecting regions where our knowledge was most defective, fresh light has been thrown on those with which we had supposed ourselves already completely acquainted. Meteorology commenced with us by the study of European Europe were equally true of the temperate and cold zones of the earth in all longitudes, and if tropical America in like manner afforded a perfect example of the tropical zone generally, it would been first cultivated; but this is not the case, and a too hasty generalization has led to the neglect of important problems, while ) others less important have been regarded as essential and placed | in the foremost rank. It was necessary that the science should be freed from these youthful trammels, and this needful enfran- chisement has been effected by the Russian and by the English . system of observations. Russia has done her part in fresingy the ' meteorology of the temperate and cold zones from impressions : derived exclusively from the limited European type; and Eng- land, which by its Indian stations had undertaken for the torrid zone the same task of enlarging and rectifying the views previ- ously entertained, has besides, by its African and Australian sta- tions (Cape of Good Hope and Hobarton ), opened to us the south- ern hemisphere, and first rendered it possible to treat of the atmosphere as a whole. [ will now endeavor to show the import- ance of being enabled to take such general views, selecting as an example the annual variation of the barometer. The study of the annual barometric variation had long been singularly neglected, while the diurnal barometric variation had ' had devoted to it an attention quite disproportioned to its subor- i, dinate interest in reference to the general movements of the at- } mosphere. This otherwise incomprehensible mistake is excused ie the diurnal variation had manifested itself with great distinctness and regularity in tropical aang it naturally presented itself as an object of interest in Europe also. The annual variation, on . the other hand, is inconsiderable, both in Europe and the aw parts of America; and thus, while atmospheric phenomena were t pee gi as facts of which the Ladders ity alone was to be 4 ed, without seeking for physical causes, it was natural 1omenon, in which opposite effects resulting from two canes. counterbalance each other, should altogether ‘Tt is, ‘more r cable that no ee a of Atmospherical Phenomena. 33 should have been excited when the atmospheric pressure was not found to diminish from winter to summer, with increasing heat. Vhen, by the labors of Prinsep more particularly, the phenom- ena of the tropical atmosphere in Hindostan became more known, there was seen to be a great difference between the barometric ig = oO Ss S g i) Ss ou Pu Ss ° - Oo a ~ is) = Qs ig fos) < = a. - = oO oe io) = es: Qu N on) S es pS] So a. -_ > is) —r = Was atl immediate consequence of the periodical change of wind, i.e. of the monsoons. This erroneous view was completely re- futed when the barometric relations at the Siberian stations be- came known; for it was then found, that north of the Himalaya (which in the supposed hypothesis must have formed the limit of the phenomenon), the annual barometric variation was exhibited on a large scale, and over a region so extensive, that the shores of the Icy Sea itself could hardly be assumed as its boundary. A greatly diminished atmospheric pressure taking place in summer over the whole continent of Asia must produce an influx from all surrounding parts; aud thus we have west winds in Europe, north winds in the Icy Sea, east winds on the east coasts of Asia, an south winds in India. The monsoon itself becomes, as we see, In this point of view only a secondary or subordinate phenomenon. I have endeavored to establish the reality of the above phe- nomenon and its climatological bearings in several memoirs ; and I must refer for the numerical values to Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. lviii, p. 177; vol. Ixxvii, p. 309; and to the Berichte of the Berlin Academy, 1852, p. 285. Iwill here embody the results in distinet propositions, in order to show, in connexion therewith, the importance of the bearings of the Hobarton observations. At all stations of observation in the torrid and temperate Soons than beyond it, having in that region rather the character of a flattened summit or table-land, the elasticity continuing Nearly the same throughout the period of the rainy monsoon. Near the equator the convex curve of the northern hemisphere ecomes, first flattened, and then gradually transformed into the Concave curve of the southern hemisphere. In the Atlantic this transition takes place in a rather more northerly parallel. In re- gard to the magnitude of the annual variation, the following rule Szconp Srnizs, Vol. XIX, No. 55.—Jan., 1855. 5 34 M. Dove on the theory of the Variations appears generally applicable in the torrid zone: the annual varia- tion is considerable at all places where equatorial currents prevail when the sun’s altitude is greatest, and polar currents when the sun’s altitude is least; and inconsiderable wherever the direction of the wind is either comparatively constant throughout the year, or where it changes in the contrary sense to that above described. At the last-named class of places the rate of decrease in the mean annual tension of the aqueous says with spoken distance from a equator is more rapid than in the first cla all stations in Europe and Asia ‘the pressure of the dry air aulvenii from the colder to the warmer months, and every- where in the temperate zone has its minimum in the warmest month. _ If we compare the annual variation of the pressure of the dr ry air in northern Asia and Hindostan with the variation in Australia and the Indian Ocean, we shall be satisfied that some- thing more takes place than a simple periodical change of the same mass of air in the direction of the meridian, between the northern and southern hemispheres. From the magnitude of the variation in the northern henriepbers and the extent of the region over which it prevails, we must infer that at the time of diminished pressure a lateral overflow probably takes place ; that it actually does so may be considered as proved for the northern part of the region, by the fact that at Sitka, on the northwest coast of America, ‘the pressure of the dry air increases from win- ter to summer. It is not probable that the overflow takes place exclusively to the east, it probably occurs also to the west; and on this supposition the small amount of the diminution of the pressure of the dry air from winter to summer in Europe would be caused, not solely by the moderate amount of the difference of temperature in the hotter and colder seasons, but also by the lateral afflux of air in the upper regions of the atmosphere tend- ing to compensate the pressure lost by thermic expansion. As at the northern limit of the monsoon, at Chusan and Pekin, the annual variation of the pressure of the dry air is most consider- able, while at the northern limit of the trade wind in the Atlan- tic Ocean, i.e. at Madeira and the Azores, it is very small, it is probable that there is in the torrid zone also a lateral overflow in the upper strata of the atmosphere from the region of the mon- soons to that of the trades A, From the combined action of the variations of the aqueous vapor and of the dry air we now derive immediately the peri- odical variations of the whole atmospheric peoeenre: As the dry air and the aqueous vapor mixed with it press in common on the ometer, oe that the upborne column of mercury consists of one. by the dry air, the other by the aqueous va- ll understand _— as with increasing — of Atmospherical Phenomena. 35 ture, the air expands, and by reason of its augmented volume rises higher and at its upper portion overflows laterally,—while at the same time the increased temperature catises increasing m=) iu the atmosphere,—so it naturally follows that the composite result in the periodical variations of the barometric pressure relation to the periodical changes of temperature. It is only when we know the relative proportions of the two variations which take place in opposite directions that we can determine whether their joint effect will be an increase or a decrease with increasing temperature,—whether in part of the period the one variation may preponderate and in other parts the other variation. The following are the results which we are enabled to derive from observation. 5. Throughout Asia, the increase in the elasticity of the aque- ous vapor with increasing heat is never suflicient to compensate the diminished pressure of the. dry air, and the annual variation of barometric pressure is therefore every where represented in ac- cordance with the variation of the pressure of the dry air, by a simple concave curve having its lowest part or minimum in July. The observations in Taimyr Land, at Iakousk, Udskoi and Aiansk, show that this is true up to the Icy Sea on the north, and to the sea of Ochotsk on the east. On the west a tendency towards these conditions begins to be perceived in European Russia in the meridian of St. Petersburg, and becomes more marked as the range of the Uyal is approached. On the Caspian and in the Caucasus the phenomenon is already very distinctly marked ; its limit runs south from the western shore of the Black Sea, so that Syria, Egypt and Abyssinia fall within the region Over which it prevails. Towards the confines of Europe there by a slighter inflexion or secondary minimum; it is only beyond the Ural that the curves become uniformly concave, with a single summer minimum and winter maximum, which character they retain throughout the rest of the Asiatic continent, even to its €astern coast. In winter the absolute height of the barometer at the northern limit of the monsoon is very great. The still a: Siderable amount of the annual variations at Nangasaki, and the little difference between the curve of Manilla and that f Madras, show that the region in question extends beyond the astern coast of Asia into the Pacific Ocean ; in higher latitudes, however, its limits appear to be reached in Kamschatka. As the annual variation, which is greater at Madras than at Manilla, is found greater at an at Madras, the western limit of the region would appear to extend far on the African side. \ x 36 M. Dove on the theory of the Variations 6. In middle and western Europe the barometric pressure appears to decrease everywhere from the month of January to the spring, usually attaining a minimum in April; it then rises slowly but steadily to September, = sinks rapidly to November, _when it usually reaches a second minimum. In summer, there- fore, the whole atmospheric pvionire gains more by increased evaporation than it loses by expansion. . This over-com pensation is probably to be explained, as we have seen above, by the lat- eral overflow received in the upper regions from Asia. In Sitka the whole annual curve is convex, a result only found in Europe . considerable mountain elevations, where it is a consequence the expansion, and extension sia Hal of the whole mass of oe atmosphere in summer. The region of great annual barometric variation, on the: vs Asiatic side of the globe where monsoons prevail, ex tends much further to the north in the northern hemisphere, than it does to the south in the southern hemisphere; for the variation reaches . its maximum at Pekin, while at Hobarton, in nearly a correspond- ing latitude, it has already become inconsiderable; and it is gen- erally greater in the northern than in the corresponding southern latitudes. The exact contrary is the case on the Atlantic side and in the region of the Trades ; for here the annual variation, though nowhere very considerable, is decidedly greater in the southern than in the northern hemisphere, as is shown by the re- sults of observation at the Cape, Ascension, St. Helena, Rio Ja- neiro, and Pernambuco, compared with the West Indian Islands and the southern parts of the United States. Hence it follows, that if we compare places in the same latitude, we find but little difference between the annual variation in the southern Atlantic and southern Indian oceans, while in the northern hemisphere we have in the same latitude the very large annual variation in the north part of the Indian and in the Chinese seas, and the almost entire absence of aunnal variation in the Atlantic (compare Chu- san with the Azores and Madeira). The explanation of the last named phenomenon, 7. e. that of the northern hemisphere, by a lateral overflow in the upper parts of the atmosphere, seems so direct, that I think we may pronounce the irregular form of the annual barometric curve in the West Indies to be a secondary phenomenon, the primary causes of which must be looked for on st. 8. It is known that in the eruption of the Coseguina on the 20th of January, 1835, when the isthmus of Central America was en by an earthquake, not only were volcanic ashes car- ried to Kingston in Jamaica, a distance of 800 English miles in the opposite en to the trade wind, but some of the sam me ashes also fe 700 miles to the westward, on board the Conway, in the Paci Ocean. We infer, therefore, that in OE Eps STE ey SIG SEES 2 ie at a aad Eee NNR Simeas ag eNO iar hia iat ¢ ee ee ee ee of Atmospherical Phenomena. 37 the higher regions of the atmosphere in the tropics the air is not always flowing regularly from S. W. to N. E., but that this usual and regular direction is sometimes interrupted by currents from east to west. I think I have indicated the probable cause of such anomalous currents in the above described barometric relations of the region of the monsoons compared with that of the trades. If we suppose the upper portions of the air ascending over Asia and Africa to flow off laterally, and if this takes place suddenly, it will check the course of the upper or counter current above the trade wind, and force it to break into the lower current. An east wind coming into a S. W. current must necessarily oceasion a ro- tatory movement, turning in the opposite direction to the hands of a watch. A rotatory storm moving from S. E. to N. W. in the lower ‘current or trade, would in this view be the result of the encounter of two masses of air impelled towards each other at many places in succession, the further course of the rotation (originating pri- marily in this manner) being that described by me in il i memoir “On the Law of Storms,” translated in the Scientific Memoirs, vol. iii, art. 7. Thus it happens that the West India hurricanes and the Chinese typhoons occur near the lateral con- nes on either side of the great region of atmospheric expansion, the typhoons being probably occasioned by the direct pressure of the air from the region of the trade winds over the Pacific into the more expanded air of the monsoon region, and being distinct from the storms appropriately called by the Portuguese “ ‘Tempo- rales,” which accompany the outburst of the monsoon when the direction of the wind isreversed. The fact of the rotatory storms being of much more rare occurrence in the South Atlantic Ocean the Old World presents all the characteristic marks of the region of calms, being a centre towards which all adjacent masses of air are drawn. Hence there is no complete sub-tropical zone, in the sense of a zone encompassing the globe. The region over which the heated air ascends does not therefore move up and down, or north and south, parallel with the sun’s change of de- clination, but has rather a kind of oscillatory movement, in which the West Indies represent the fixed point, and the greatest ampli- 38 Composition of Hggs. tude of oscillation is on the side of India. ‘The northern excur- sion is much greater in the northern hemisphere than is the southern excursion on the side of the southern hemisphere. The European atmospheric relations, especially in summer, are there- fore essentially of a secondary nature; and we must regard: the little alteration in the atmospheric pressure in the course of the year in Europe as a secondary result, of which the explanation would not have been possible without the observations from Asia and Australia. Berlin, January 5, 1853. Arr. VIL.—On the waar of Eggs in the series Fd Ani- mals—Partl. By A . Vauencrennes and Fremy Anaromists who undertake new researches on the eggs of ani- mals, are obliged, while extending their a to the dif- ferent species of the animal series, to recur o the eriods, now distant, of the publications of Prevost and TAak and of Charles Ernest Baér. The discovery of the former confirmed the opinions of William Cruikshanks, founded on observations and exact ex- periments; and that of M. Baér, who succeeded in seeing the first rudiments of the ovule, even under the stroma of the ovary of mammals, made one step more in Ovology. That distinguished anatomist, while aiming to follow the evo- lution of the feetus, not only in the eggs of animals of that class, but in’ the different members of the animal kingdom, did not attempt to ascertain the nature of the liquids, more or less dense, of the egg, nor of those bodies held in suspension or dissolved in these liquids. same direction was pursued by those anatomists who have treated this subject before and after M. Baér. We should digress too much if we were to give a bisa of their success- ful labors. We believe it useful however to recall the course followed by the clever anatomist of Kenigsberg and by his successors, in order to explain how it is that no one has yet investigated what the microscope has discovered in the vitellus (the yolk) of different eggs. It seems to us beyond a doubt that ér saw the granular yolks of different kinds of ray fish and sharks, without ‘studying them in detail. He did not try to oneemer their real nature by the aid of chemical analysis. He ited himself in fact, to saying that the yellow consists of a tte liquid, of colorless grains of albumen, and of fat almost always divided into minute drops, This yellow is surrounded * white but M. Baér did not try whether it would coagulate : parca ee TINS 2 by Dr, J. Ro- Dall RE thems Ri ne i SaaS le te, la TO ate | Composition of Eggs. 39 . Baer. It is also believed that M. Strauss saw the vitel- lin granules, of which we. shall speak in our second paper, since he described in his beautiful work on the anatomy of the cockchafer, the yolk of eggs of these Coleoptera, as formed of a liquid pulp, composed of granules, and showing on the surface of the envelop of the egg a layer of globules. There are allu- Sions to these granules in the work of Bandrimont and Martin Saint-Ange, which was crowned by the Academy of Sciences. But these authors did not separate them from the rest of the yolk to make them the subject of special study; they pointed them out in the midst of the drops of oil which swim in the yellow of the eggs of frogs. Other naturalists who have studied the eggs of different Annelids, Helminths, Insects, Arachnids, Crustacea, Molluscs (either Cephalopods, Gasteropods or Acephalous), speak of globules, without distinguishing them from drops of fat, and, Which is more important for the subject of this article, without marking any vitellin substance. _ M. Dumas and Cahours were the first who clearly distinguished In the egg of a hen, a particular proximate principle, the yo acterised by its physical properties and by its composition as de- duced from chemical analysis. Their researches were not pushed further, and they were satisfied by calling by the same collective name of egg, all the products of the ovary that serve in any ani- mal, after its fecundation, for the reproduction of individuals like the parent animal which secreted them. . ‘ n examining attentively the eggs of numerous oviparous ani- mals, anatomists however have observed marked differences, which r thin vitellin membrane detected with difliculty under the micro- Scope taking its place; and as, one of us has observed, many r the attention of men of science to the investigation of this sub- Ject, by proposing to the meetings, questions relating more or less definitely to the particular composition of eggs. It has been for- tunate to find in many communications addressed to it, a portion 40 Composition of Eggs. Feeling ourselves the importance of making additions to the researches already brought forward on the composition of eggs, we have undertaken this task together, the questions which it raises being partly zoological and partly chemica subject so vast, which needs the continuous study of eggs of animals belonging to different classes of the animal kingdom, cannot be exhausted in one article; we are far too, from consid- ering our researches as completed. e propose in this memoir, to describe the differences ah exist in the composition of eggs, and to lay down some ger principles, to be developed in subsequent communications. 1. Eggs of Birds. What we have said at the commencement of this article suffi- ciently explains our silence as to the composition of hen’s eggs during the evolution of the fetus, and as to former researches relative to the membranes which envelop the first formation of the chicken within the egg. We will here examine only the nature of the two substances, the white or albumen, and the yel- low or vitellus, in order to start from this point of comparison in studying the eggs of other animals. We shall not follow strictly the order established by zoologists for the animal series, though we shall not depart widely from that order. ‘The composition of birds eggs has been clearly established by numerous authors, first by Vauquelin, Bostock, and then by Chev- reul, John, Dumas and Cahours, Lecanu, Gobley, Martin St.-Ange and Baudrimont, Scheerer. And in this part of our researches, we are satisfied to confirm the exactness of the leading facts an- nounced by the observers we have eticl and to determine with precision the specific characters of birds The white of birds egg is considered - almost all chemists as a principle itself pure, though this white has in it various salts and a sulphurous body which can be separated from the albumen | by different reagents without producing the aces of that substance, as was long ago shown by Chevreul. n examining the white taken from eggs a different kinds of birds, we have often noticed that this body has varying proper- ties. In some kinds, it is almost fluid; in others, it possesses a gelatinous consistency. The white of the egg of a hen is, after boiling, opaque, and of a pure color, white and solid. That o the wing becomes after cooking, transparent, opaline, green- ish, and so hard that it may be cut into little stones, used in cer- tain parts of Germany for common jewe __ These peculiarities are not enough to prove that the white of birds eggs is formed of different albumens, but they seem to show that attentive researches will enable us to point out new sie oa ties in these albumens, which have ve hitherto escaped chemists = ES ce PT polish Bind ce ee Oe tls aaa mn aaa Te Serer ‘ —_ a, eT Bee eee se ae Composition of Eggs. Al When endeavoring to follow in another paper certain of the modi- fications which are produced in the egg during incubation, we shall then return to the peculiarities which relate to the constitu- tion of albumen, and we shall examine, while supported by the labors of M. Chevreul, whether soluble albumen is to be taken as a pure proximate principle or not. The yellow of a bird’s egg is formed of a viscous liquid, holding suspended in it a fatty phosphuretted matter which shows some analogy to the cerebral fat. The viscidity of this liquid is due to the presence of an albuminous substance which has been care- fully studied by Dumas and Cahours, and which chemists call vitellin. Vitellin is always found in the yellow of a bird’s egg, associated with a certain quantity of albumen. The presence of albumen in the yolk of birds led us to modify the process which up to this time has been used in preparing vitellin. This mate- tial was obtained by drying with ether the yolk of a hen’s. egg previously cooked. To prepare vitellin, we treat the yolk of a water, while the vitellin is precipitated. The latter, washed with water, alcohol and ether, is nearly pure vitellin. While this substance thus obtained shows all the characteristics which catises the precipitation of the vitellin; this solidification is first observed on the surfaces of the liquid which are in contact with the air. While examining the properties of the albuminous body which characterises the yolk of bird’s eggs, and which has received the name of vitellin, we must first point out the resem- blance between it and fibrine. ‘The elementary analyses of these two substances give the following results: Fibrin. ‘ Vitellin. ‘i, Carbon, - ‘ i i - 525 \ 52-26 51°60 Hydro; “i a x - 70 724 3 Oo gi f : 3 - 165 1508 1502 Oxygen and Sulphur, f § 240 25:42 26:16 1000 10000 100-00 Vitellin and fibrin may be said to have the same composition ; t with two bodies of this kind, uncrystalline, insoluble in water, and which consequently are purified with difficulty, what chemist can answer, in an organic analysis, for the one-hundredth part of azote? As to the chemical properties of these two bodies, it Szcoxp Series, Vol, XIX, No. 55,—Jan,, 1855. 6° 42 Composition of Eggs. should be remembered that they are almost identical. They are in fact, equally soluble in the alkalies ; hydrochloric acid dissolves them alike, producing the characteristic blue. Before considering vitellin and fibrin as identical, we ought to submit vitellin to a test which in an unequi vocal manner characterises fibrin. We know, after Thenard’s nicer observations, that fibrin has the prope rty of decomposing oxygenated water and disengaging oxy- gen, like metallic oxyds; the azote obtained from the yellow of egg, should decompose oxygenated water, like fibrin, if it were identical with the latter. This experiment, —_ several times, has always given a negative result. Hence the azote-matter which exists in the yellow of bird’s eggs, nod which is precipita- ted when the yolk is diffused in a considerable amount of water, resents, it is true, an evident analogy to the fibrin of blood, but still differs from it in certain characteristics. Reviewing the facts as » bird’s eggs, established by us or by earlier observers , We may say, that aside from all the zoological and anatomical characters “of the shell, its form and its varied color, the membranes, thuse formed at the moment of laying the egg or those which are developed during incubation,—the two essential constituents, prepared by nature to nourish the chick in the egg, may always be known by the following characteristics. Ist. The white, ety rich in albuminous matter, is plainly sep- arated from the yellow by the vitellin membrane. _ 2d. The yellow, aie patty made up of phosphuretted fatty matter, of a little albumen, of different salts, gives an abundant precipitate of vitellin when suspended in enough water. This substance, perfectly characteristic of birds eggs, is not met with in any other kind of eggs 2. Eggs of Fishes. The extensive family of fish with cartilaginous skeletons, the “ Plagiostomes” of M. Duméril, has been divided by recent ich- thyologists into many families. The Ray of Linneus and o Lacépéde constitute the family Raiide; the torpedos or elec- trical fish constitute the family Torpedine ; the race of sharks subdivided into many others, is now the family Squalide. In the comparative study of these three families in connection with ovology, there are found fishes which are oviparous and ovo- viviparous. We have mentioned the researches of M. Ch, Ern. Baér on the nature of the liquids contained in the egg of the Car- tilaginee, where he saw granules which he took for corpuscles of albumen. But beyond proving that these grains are different in - from ‘conaiie neither he nor other anatomists have yet studied the eet the white or of the — the eggs of these C: it is a we | have enrne 8° a Composition of Eggs. 43 Of the Eges of the Ray.—The new laid egg of a Ray is cov- ered with a shell of a bronzed green, whose tissue is made up of short felty (feutrées,) fibres ; its general form is a rectangle, more or less elongated and curved on both sides; each angle is pro- longed in a crooked tongue (languette). The longer side of this rectangle extends into a very fine yellowish membrane, which looks like the shell. Carefully taking the egg out of the oviduet, the membranes are seen secreted in the interior of the great white gland which encloses the origin of the oviduct. The surface of each of them distended under water, is more than twice that of the shell. In opening this egg, there is a good deal of yellow contained in a transparent gelatinous mass which represents the white of a hen’s egg, although it is entirely different. The yellow is in the middle of this mass, in one of the transparent cells of the white, for the yolk, as M. Baér has very rightly said, has not a vitellin membrane of sufficient strength to be observed under the micro- Scope, and still less to separate the yellow from the white, so as to isolate it. So that in order to get the yellow matter entirely pure, it must be taken in an ovula nearly ready to detach itself from the ovary and to enter into the oviduct. We may now re- only traces of albumen. When these vesicles are exposed to the air for several days, they become empty, as it were, losing their gelatinous consistency, and then produce a slightly albumin- ous liquid which holds suspended some transparent membranes. Alcohol equally destroys the gelatinous mass by stopping the co- agulation of the membranes. Evaporating the white of the Ray’s €gg in vacuo, it is seen that it contains ouly traces of organic sub- Stances. The white of a Ray’s egg, then, proportionably small compared with the yellow, is different in all its relations from the albumen of birds eggs. , The study of the yellow of the Ray’s egg ought to establish differences still more remarkable between birds eggs and those of Cartilaginous fishes. The yellow of the Ray’s egg, under the microscope, shows that it is formed of a rather fluid liquid, hold- ug suspended drops of a fatty body of light yellow, and a con- siderable quantity of small white transparent grains of a reg- ular form. We have examined these grains in the different sorts of Ray-fish which abound in our Paris markets. Lggs of the Torpedo.—We have examined many torpedos from the shores of La Rochelle, through the kindness of Dr. 44 Composition of Eggs. Sauvé, a physician of that city. We have discovered that these larger nutnber of Sharks. Torpedos are ovoviviparous. We found in the oviducts of one, eight small ones, four on each side. Each foetus when nearly born, had in the interior of the abdo- men, a considerable portion ~ its vitellus (yolk). We were able to examine this liquid, and we found in it, with the microscope, grains similar in appearance S those in the Ray’s eggs, though their forms were distinct. This is the only ane of the Torpe- dos’ egg we are as yet acquainted with. We cannot therefore say anything of the white of the eggs of this npedten of Cartilag- inze and of their shell. Eggs of the Bounce Shark, (Catulus major, &c.)—The eggs of our Bounce are rectangular, much longer, but much narrower than those of the Ray. Its shell is hard, resisting, yellowish, horny, like the filament which starts from pe angle. One is usually found in each oviduct, as in our Ray, to which another soon succeeds, after the laying of that wth ‘s completed in the belly of the female. The ovary of the Bounce, narrower than that of the Ray, is like it also in its structure ; and under its stroma, there is a greater or less number of ovules of very differ- ent sizes, from those which are hardly perceptible to those vitel- lin spheres ready to detach themselves from the ovary to enter the oviduct. In opening an egg, the vitellus appears to occupy the greater part. Its vitellin membrane is even more difficult to see than that of the Ray: the white is more viscous, the mem- brane containing it much more delicate ; the liquid, however, only contains some traces of albumen. Alcohol produces similar de- struction of the gelatinous Hani stopping the coagulation of these membranes. ‘The white o egg of a Bounce is therefore very much like that of an egg ts a eae. The yellow of this egg re- sembles very considerably that of a Ray’s egg. The very fluid liquid which composes it, holds suspended drops of yellowish oil, and a quantity of little white transparent grains, regular in form, bnt differing from that of the grains of the different sorts _ Rays which we have examined. figgs of “Melandres,” (Squalus galeus, Lin.)—If the Bounce shows the same ovological condition as the Ray, other sharks are like the to orpedos, for they are, like these, ovoviviparous. We found in these eggs, by the microscope, a large quantity of little grains of a different form from that of our Ray, but still visibly analogous. Eggs of the Round- Fish, (Squalus mustelus. )}—Another sort of shark, the Emisole (Squalus mustelus, Lin.) gave us quite a mber of o ; for gestation was not far enough adva to engage the eggs in the oviduct. This fact, fortunate for our erERSEDneanrmmeentatinionanineninne Composition of Eggs. 45 labor, showed us that the yellow of the eggs of sharks, still in the ovarian capsules, offers the same composition as those of Ray’s eggs. Our observations are then established wholly by comparison. Eggs of the Angel-fish, (Squatina angelus, Dum.)—We were not able to obtain more than one female this year, and all its ovules were still in the ovarian capsules, under the stroma of the ovary, which, in form, texture and even color, is more like those of the Ray than the sharks. We carefully gathered the yolks about to develop; we found in them, as in the former, a fatt matter divided into drops, swimming in a viscous albuminous li- quid, with a great number of grains of peculiar form. 3. Of Ichthin. Our observations on the eggs of so varied species and kinds of Cartilagine, bring us to the immediate analysis of the different yolks, After ascertaining that the grains suspended in the liquid were insoluble in water, and that this liquid did not thicken with water, the next step became very simple. After taking proper precautions for running the yolk without mixing, into a large quantity of distilled water, the grains, which were denser than the water, fell to the bottom, and were washed by decantation, till the washing-water had no more trace of al- bumen or of salty matters. The grains were entirely freed from the fatty matter by successive washings in alcohol and ether. There remained after this treatment, a large quantity of grains, from which it is easy to get in some hours, several hundreds of grammes, which present under the microscope, every character- istic of absolute purity. The analysis which we will now briefly describe, then showed us that the vitellus of an egg of the Cartilagine is formed of a albuminous liquid, holding in solution some mineral salts, princi- pally chlorids and phosphates, and suspended white grains of an €ven and regular form in each species but varying in one species from another, and mixed with a small quantity of phosphuretted . fat. This fatty matter is soluble in alcohol and ether ; it forms with water a sort of mucilage; it shows some analogy to the fat-acid which is found in the stag, described by one of us as oleophos- Phoric acid. As for the white grains, they seem to us to consti- tute quite a new principle, whose properties and composition we Shall describe as ichthin. Ichthin is pleasant to the touch, and presents to a certain extent, the aspect of starch. We obtained it by our process, pure, under the form of granules from different Species of Cartilagine. : | From the Thornback or Clavated Ray (Raia clavata, Lin.), the rains of ichthin obtained from the yolk of a freshly laid egg, appear in the form of little rectangular tables, with round edges 46 Composition of Eggs. and obtuse angles; the largest are four hundredths of a a tre, perfectly transparent, but distinetly marked edges. They a identical in the yolks in the process of formation, and in the ova- rian vesicles, and whatever the size of these ovules from those which are only 0™-O1 in diameter, to the largest which are 0™-03. In the smaller ovules with diameter varying from U™-001 to 0°-005, the grains have the same tabular shape (‘en tablettes,”) but they were much smaller, and did not exceed two hundredths of a millimetre in length. tig these grains are of one di- mension in each ovule. But the differences we are about to point out, show that the grains sari with the development of the ovules, and that the vitellus, when they are little developed, has much smaller grains of ichthin than with those which are nearer the oviduct or more in the egg. The Ray from which, these yolks were taken were hardly 0"-50 long not counting the tail, with a weight of 4 or 5 kilogrammes. In our many exam- inations of different grains of ichthin, we met occasionally with some little tables almost square, others regular or irregular penta- e ural productions. We tried to crush these graius in an agate mortar, and found that generally they break according to the axes of the rectangles of these ‘tablettes,’ and not according to their diagonals. We studied the grains of yolk developed in the largest of our Ray such as in our markets go under the name of the soft or white Ray. This is the Raia oxyrhynchus of Lin- zeus. We must not forget to remark that individuals of this kind of Ray are even two metres long, not counting the tail, that sas attain the weight of 100 kilogrammes, and yet the eggs of s Ray give the smallest grains of ichthin. Those of the pate Ray (Raia fullonica,) and those of “la raie ronce” (Raia rubus,) are very much like those of “la raie bordée ;” the most noticeable difference consists in their smaller dimensions. ‘The largest are only three hundredths of a millimetre. In the eggs of these two sorts of Ray, the grains are very sn regular ellipses, but the rectangular form is still more common, ” "The vitellin grains of the marbled torpedo (Torpedo NE! from La Rochelle, are very different in shape from those of the Ray, the er being elliptical or cirenlar: there are no rectavgular grains; their transparency and their other physical properties are hes 1ey are only two hundredths of a millimeter, but too, some 2 Variations in she form. Sia tesefal-ps ~ i i \ ¢ on Composition of Fggs. 47 amination, we saw one of these ovoid grains pointed at both ends. Another had the two long straight sides, ternrinating in two iso- celes triangles; it was the figure of an elongated hexagon. he hound-fish (Squalus mustelus, Lin.), smaller than the “ Melan- dre,” has grains of ichthin almost as large as those of the latter. They are five hundredths of a millimetre ; their form is different from all the others. These grains are round, but often united in the most varied forms. The Bounce (la ronsette, Squalus ca- nicula, Lin.) has rectangular grains and obtuse angles, very like those of the Ray; their longer side is four hundredths of a mil- limeter. The angel-fish (l’ange, Squatina angelus, Dum.) has as large grains as the Squalus mustelus; they are elliptical like those of the shark, and as large, for they are six hundredths of a millimeter. We conclude then, from the comparison of the forms of these grains in the different species cited, that the oviparous species like the Ray and Bounce, have more or less rectangular grains, and are very much alike, while the Cartilaginous viviparous Species, like Torpedos and Sharks, generally have oval grains ; that if the development of the ovula influences the largeness of the grains of ichthin, the size of the fish has no effect on the size color: the two latter properties clearly establish the difference between ichthin, albumen and vitellin, All the concentrated acids dissolve ichthin; when they are dilute, they do not act upon it, excepting acetic and phosphoric acids, which immedi- ately dissolve grains of ichthin, even when greatly diluted with water. Solutions of potash and soda are slow solvents of ich- thin. It is insoluble in ammonia. Grains of ichthin when burnt, leave no ashes. When the ease with which ichthin can be obtained from the eggs of certain fish is considered, and when it is seen that grains of ichthin, by the regularity of their form, offer all the characteristics of a really pure principle, it is impos- sible not to consider it as one of the most interesting substances in the animal organization. Ichthin, when analyzed, gives the following composition : L It. HT. Iv. v. VI. Amount of material, 0-452 0427 0282 0-228 0332 0406 Water, - . . 0-975 0800 0195 07150 Carbonic acid, - - 0845 0800 0520 0420 Azote, 0049 0:062 The results give the percentages : oo. SB 510 502 50" steele | 7 eee 78 7-6 13 Azote, Bogie : ae Tae 15-4 48 T. H. McLeod on the Arabic Method of Notation. Its centesimal composition will then be: 510 " H67 Azl160 Phi9 O 25-4 It is easy to believe, that these regularly formed tables are small crystals. To remove doubts in this respect, we have had recourse to the kindness of M. Eas who examined our grains with a polarizing apparat This proved to him and to us, that the grains of ichthin are adit crystallized. Art. VIIl._— The Sah tac or Indian pies of Notation; by Tuomas H. McLro Tue subject of arithmetical notation in its relation particularly to the Arabic or Indian, the Roman, and Grecian systems, has ar- rested the attention of mathematicians from the earliest period of modern mathematical investigation ; but the mechanical structure, especially of the Indian, seems to have been overlooked, as well as the probable circumstances under which that structure originated. Barlow, in his Theory of Numbers, presents the following equation, N=ar" +br"-' + cr®-? + &e. ee” T where 7 may be any number whatever; ‘and a, b, c, &c. integers less than r, as expressing the scheme of the Indian method. It is undoubtedly a formula by which that method may be explained ; but that it exhibits its simple primitive mechanical structure, may be justly questioned. For in the first place it does not show the first position of 0 (zero) with any reliable certainty: the only pe we are left to refer it, from the explanations, is to 10, where it appears on the right cork which we apprehend is not its first place ; secondly, 7 appears ‘in the form of a power, which is nn- questionably true, but accidental; thirdly, it is asserted that r may be any number whatever, yet upon omens it will be found always to assume the form 10, whatever be its significance in the denary measure; and finally, it ean be in any manner supposed that the scheme had its origin in philosophy, as the ‘ formula would seem to indicate, bnt that it arose out of the cir- cumstances and necessities of the people from whom it sprung. aving finished these few restrictions, of which more might be made, concerning what mathematicians have said upon this ong we shall proceed to explain what we consider to be the simple primitive structure of the Indian method, and afterwards cara way of comparison to that of the Grecian and Roman ethor Sg a ern aoe The first peenlority . the Indian method is its 0 (zero), which stands as the origin of the scheme, as will be seen by writing it a 0,1,2,3,4,5, 6, 7, 8,9, where it evidently appears in its first place. * il next character- istic worthy of note, is the 10, wht deorn t appear among the T’. H. McLeod on the Arabic Method of Notation. 49 above figures; it is evidently made up of 1, and 0, but how from this circumstance does it get its significance? We conceive the way to be this: It is well known to land-surveyors and other lineal measurers, that the place where the measuring commences is but a point and has no lineal significance, and that the first unit of measure is at the distance of a unit from that point, and the second at two measures, and the third three, &c.; i. e. in measur- ing land the first pin is stuck at the distance of one chain, or measure, from the place of beginning, the second at the distance of two chains, the third at the distance of three chains, and so on. If then the place of beginning be represented by 0, and the sev- eral distances respectively by 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., the whole will be properly expressed. But when the pins are all exhausted and a tally is to be made, how is it to be done? Very naturally by placing down a 1, and a 0 (zero) (which has no lineal signifi- cance) to the right; the fact is thus recorded, and will read, one tally and no more; at the distance of one small measure (or one chain) from this point, a 1 tally and 1 chain will be marked down (11) and the expression will read one tally, and one chain more ; and so on to the second tally, which will be made and recorded by a 2 and a 0, to the right (20), which will read two tallys and no more. At the distance of one small measure or unit from this place there will be recorded 2 tallys and 1 chain more, or 21, which will read two tallys and one chain; at the distance of two small measures, the record will be 22, which will read two tallys and two chains, and so on. This we conceive to be the simple structure and probable ori- gin of the Indian method. In its structure it is strictly geomet- rical, using that term in its primitive signification. It will at once be perceived that the tally is not necessarily made at one small measure beyond 9, but that it may be made at any measure before or beyond that place; but in each case the point of repetition will always be expressed by 10, and this from the fact that it necessarily reads one principal or large measure and no more. This verifies the statement before made that r, in Barlow’s formula, will always be exy 10, and that its appearing as a power is accidental. 'The whole subject will be Ww 1 clearly exhibited by the following Table : 0: bv - Sriod See ee es fe 0 Uw & Me eS Oe le 20 21 2 83 UM SH 6 VW Bw DW BM ® 30 31 32 33 34 3 6 37 3 39 36 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 +48 «49 40 4p 50 51 2 53 3 5 56 UT USB lf Ce 60 61 62 63 64 6 66 67 68 69 65 6 Wows 7 IS 78 AS 79 0 7 80 81 82 8 8 8 86 87 88 89 86 8% 9 91 92 93 94 9 9% 97 98 99 8 Ye 0 61 62 68 04 6 6 67 98 89 66 % oO pl 92 93 a5 96 87 «698 89 88 Oe Szconp Sens, Vol. XIX, No. 55.—Jan,, 1855. 7 50 T. H. McLeod on the Arabic Method of Notation. It will here be seen that the repetitions do not necessarily begin at one measure beyond 9 but may begin at any measure before or after that point. It will also be seen how 10 obtains its sig- nificance. The Grecian Method, was also a method of large and small measures, but it had no 0 (zero), 1 (a unit) being the first figure in the sche eme, whence, it evidently had its origin in the consid- eration of sndividual objects and not in the measure of distances, i. e. it is arithmetical, using that term also in its primitive sense. It employs the letters of the Greek alphabet for its characters, the first letter representing a unit, the second letter two units, &c., to ten, which is expressed by 1 (iota), the tenth letter of the alpha- bet ; with this character the repetitions begin. A new character is introduced at each repetition, as at twenty, thirty, and so on to one hundred, to represent which a new character is added, when the whole is repeated; new characters are added for- each bun- dred afterwards, to one thousand, which is also represented b new character, as well as ten thousand, and one hundred thou- sand, &c. The scheme seems then to be simply this: one, ten and one,—twenty, twenty and one,—one hundred, one hundred and one,—one thousand, one thousand and one, &c. It is seen, con- trary to what has been stated, that any number could be expressed by this method, all that was necessary being to introduce a new character at the end of the roper repetition. If the Greeks did not express any number beyond 100,000,000, it was because they either did not understand the scheme of their notation, or because at this point it became unwieldy; the latter was probably the case. It will be also seen that the pag can commence and be carried on ~ any number what The R ethod, is rather a scutes of fives than of tens. It begins its asians with five, introducing a new character to express that number. It introduces new characters to express ten, fifty, one hundred, five hundred, one thousand, in each case making use of the previous figures in connection with the new ones to express the numbers beyon nd them. Thus: I, IT, Ill, IIT, ba VE Fn Vie Wn x Ki, Xi. “xen Ree ee AVE AVE, XV AVE, 2 ENV, FEE XXXT EL cee which evidently reads, five, five and one, ten, or two fives—for five hundred and one, one thousand, one ben sand and one, &e. It is also - that it had its origin in contemplating and re- cording individual objects like the Grecian method, as like it, it T’. H. McLeod on the Arabic Method of Notation. 51 is destitute of 0, and consequently its origin* is a number and not @ point. In comparing these three methods, especially the last two with the first, it is manifest that they had an essentially different source. {t is equally certain that the Indian method could not have origin- ated with the Chaldeans, who numbered their flocks and herds and counted the stars, in which operation the unit would hold the first place in their notation; from which circumstance it is not improbable that the Grecian or Roman method came from them, or perhaps from the Phenicians, from whom came also their al- phabets. But it is certain that we must look to some different part of the globe to find the makers of the Indian method, to some Egyptian people, to some land measurers, like the dwellers on the Nile-—who indeed may have been the very ones, In an ethnological point of view, if in no other, these circumstances may be of importance, for numbers, like some word -of a lan- guage, may hold in their secret embrace some untold history of As a result of employing different measures, as circumstances require, in numerical expressions, it will be found that any vulgar fraction can be made to assume the integral, or decimal form, a circumstance which is often overlooked. Take for instance the problem of finding the one-third of ten, or the dividing ten by three. The well-known result is 3:33333333 é&c., without a complete expression being attained; but the difficulty will be obviated by using a measure of three, when ten will assume the form 101 and the three, 10.+ When the operation is performed With these expressions, thus, 101-10, the result will be as seen, 10-1, which is a complete expression: but it should be observed that this is not read ten and one-tenth, but three and one-third, just as the same expression in the denary measure is read ten and one-tenth, the advantage gained being that it is a ho + When 3 asst 10, 9 will assume the form 100, a tly 10, being 1 saage thant 9, pe la ie form 101. Not that it should be considered to contain one hundred and one units, but that in the ternary measure it is the ex- Pression for 10. Barlow’s Rule for reducing numbers in the denary measure to any * measure is as fol ; : ; Divide the given number and several quotients as expressed in the denary meas- ure, by the posed measure, and note the remainders ; these remainders, read in an inverse order, will express the given number in the roposed measure. Thus change 1810 in the denary measure to the ternary measure: dividing 1810 by 8 8!ves 603 and 1 remainder; so 603 by 3 gives 201 and 0 remainder; 201 by 8, 67 and 0 remainder; and so on. Th T remainders afford for the result 2111001, for the ternary measure. 52 Effect of the Pressure of the Atmosphere on the Ocean. understood the Indian method, according to which it was devel- oped. Hutton observes that he had seen a book printed in Ger- many in which rules for operating with each measure to twelve was given, but does not intimate that he or the author regarded it as a development of the several measures of one scheme, but seems to consider it, as mathematicians in general appear to do, as so many independent methods. Could the several schemes, and especially the Indian, be properly developed in all their different measures, the subject of numbers would assume a more general aspect. Middlebury, Vt, September, 1845. Art. 1X.—On the Effect of the Pressure of the Atmosphere on the Mean Level of the Ocean; by Captain Sir James Cuark Ross, R.N., F.R.S.* Tue author states that, in September, 1848, Her Majesty’s ship Enterprise and Investigator having anchored in the harbor of Port Leopold in lat. 74° N. and lon. 91° W., a heavy pack of ice was driven down upon and completely closed the harbor’s mouth, thus effectually preventing their egress, and compelling them there to pass the winter of 1848-49, It was during that period that the series of observations here presented to the Royal Society was obtained; and, as the observations were made under peculiarly favorable circumstances, the author considers they will throw ight on. the movements of the tides, and on some of the causes of their apparent irregularities. Soon after the harbor had been completely frozen over, a very heavy pressure from the main pack forced the newly-formed sheet of ice, which covered the bay, far up towards its head, carrying the ships with it into such shallow water that at low spring-tides their keels sometimes rested on the ground. Under these circum- stances the movements of the tides became to the author an object of great anxiety, and consequently of careful observation, in order to ascertain the amount of irregularities to which they were liable in that particular locality. The first few days’ observations evinced much larger differen- ces in the elevation or depression of successive high or low-waters than could be accounted for by any of the generally received causes of disturbance ; and the author was at once led to connect them with changes of the pressure of the atmosphere, from per- ceiving that on the days of great atmospheric pressure high-water was not so high as it ought to have been, and low-water was lower than its proper height ; and that the reverse took place on days of smaller pressure. ny gs Roy. Soe. Lond, June, 1854; Lond, Edin, and Dub. Phil. Mag,, Oct. 1854, Effect of the Pressure of the Atmosphere on the Ocean. 53 As it was found that the usual method of -determining the mean level of the sea, by taking the mean of successive high- an low-waters, was inadequate to the detection of small quantities arising from a change in the pressure, a system of observation was adopted different from that heretofore practised, in order to determine the mean level of the sea on each day. In the first instance, simultaneous observations of the height of the tide and of the mercury in the barometer were made every quarter of an hour throughout the twenty-four hours. From these it was found that the mean level of the sea for each day could be determined with great accuracy, and that the variation in the daily mean level and in the mean pressure of the atmos- phere followed each other in a remarkable manner, so that a rise in the former corresponded to a diminution in the latter. Subse- quently, however, hourly observations were adopted. The peculiar advantages of the position of the ships at Port Leopold for making tidal observations are stated to have consisted in:— 1. The great width of the entrance of the harbor admitting the free ingress and egress of the water, combined with the large field of ice which covered the whole of the bay, completely sub- duing every undulation of the water. , 2. The steady movement of the immense platform of ice, rising and falling with such singular regularity and precision as to admit the reading off the marks of the tide-pole with the greatest exact- ness, even to the tenth of an inch. 3. The shallowness of the water and the evenness and solidity of the clay bottom admitting the fixture of the tide-pole with immovable firmness. 4, The whole surface of the sea in the neighborhood being, for the greater part of the time, covered by a sheet of ice, pre- venting those irregularities which occur in other localities from the violence of the wind raising or depressing the sea in as many different degrees as it varied in strength or duration. For fixing the tide-pole for the “Enterprise” a hole 2 feet square was cut through the icy platform, and a strong pole, nearly 4U feet long, was passed through it and driven firmly down sev- eral feet into the clay, being fixed by heavy iron weights, which also Tested on the clay and prevented any movement of the pole. It was placed in about 21 feet depth of water at the time of mean level of the sea. Another such tide-pole was, in like manner, fixed through a hole in the ice close to the “ Investigator,” for the sake of reference and comparison. Hourly observations of the height of the tide and of the ba- tometer were commenced on the Ist of November, and were con- tinued by the officers of each ship throughout the whole of the hine following months to the end of July. After forty-seven days 54 E'ffect of the Pressure of the Atmosphere on the Ocean. of observation an interruption in one of the series occurred in eon- sequetice of the tide-pole of the “ Enterprise” having been drawn up the ice, to the under part of which it had become frozen. The amount of displacement of the pole was easily determined bya comparison with that of the “Investigator,” but several days elapsed before it could be satisfactorily fixed at the same point in which it had been originally. The observations of these forty- seven days are those which are given in the paper, and their dis- cussion is the immediate object of the communication. It is stated that subsequent observations seem to show that, from the time of the interruption to the middle of July, there $a progressive elevation of the mean level of the sea, which although of small amount, was sufficiently evident from month to month to render the subdivision of the series desirable, in order that the individual observations of each separate division should be strictly comparable. The height of the sea and the corresponding height of the mercury 10 ‘the barometer, at every hour in each day, from the Ist November to the 18th December 1848 are given in tables. In these the arithmetic mean of the hourly heights of the sea for each day is taken as the mean level of the sea for that day, and the meau of the hourly heights of the barometer is taken as the corresponding height of the barometer. These mean levels and corresponding mean barometric heights are given in another two- column table, arranged in the order of the days of observation ; and in a third table these are arranged in the order of the heights of the barometer with the corresponding mean agora without regard to the dates of observation, for the purpose of showing the de- pendence which the latter have on the former On these tables the author makes the following remarks. The forty-seven days of hourly observations give for the mean height of the baromerer 29-874 inches, and of the mark of the mean level of the sea 21 feet O-21 in. rea pn wan hy { 30227,*and of corresponding level 20 feet 8-4 inch. anger ay paeeye oaks fe 9559, and of corresponding level 21 feet 5:4 inch. Diff +0:668 Diff. — 9-0 Thus a difference of pressure equal to 0-668 inch produced a difference of 9 inches in the mean level of the sea. As the ratio of 9 to ‘668 is 13-467 to 1, the author considers that the effect 4 the pressure of the atmosphere on the level of the sea is 13-467 times as great as the effect it produces on the mercury in the ba- rometer, or very nearly in the inverse ratio of the specific gravities of sea-water and mercury. He however states that this remark- able coincidence must be considered in a great measnre acciden- tal, for if a greater number of days’ observation be taken in order —_ Sr 1 SRR T INNS See Report on A. Perrey’s Researches relative to Earthquakes. 55 to deduce the mean greatest and mean least pressure, and the cor- responding mean levels, a different result will be obtained. From these observations however he considers that he has been enabled to deduce results which plainly point to the law which governs the effect of the pressure of the atmosphere on the mean level of the sea, and may be encouraged to pursue the investigation | through a more extended series of observations. in order to arrive at the most accurate conclusion that the observed facts may justify. In conclusion a formula is given for determining the correct height of the tide, or of the mean level of the sea:— Let L denote the correct height of the tide, or of the mean level of the sea; B the mean pressure of the atmosphere ; 4 the observed height of the tide, or of the mean level of the sea ; 8 the corresponding height of the barometer ; D the ratio of the specific gravity of mercury to that of sea-water : then L—=i+(@—B)D. Examples are given of the application of this formula. Art. X.—Report to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, on the Re- searches relative to Earthquakes of M. Alexis Perrey; by the Commission, MM. Lrovvitie, Lamé, and Exie pe Beaumont reporter.* 7 Te Academy has charged us, MM. Liouville, Lamé and my- self, with reporting on a memoir presented March 21, 1853, by M. Alexis Perrey, Professor in the Faculty of Sciences of Dijon, On the relations which may evist between the frequency of Earth- quakes and the age of the moon, and on a Note presented the of January, On the Jrequency of Earthquakes relatively to the times of the moon’s passing the meridian. When the memoir of M. Perrey was presented on the 21st of March, M. Arago was appointed on this commission. The death of our illustrious confrere, which happened soon after, left a va- cancy in the Commission; and subsequently to the reading of the Note on the 2d of January, one of our number, M. Lamé, was named for the place. : Arago, whom nothing escaped which bore on the physics of the globe, followed with continued interest the researches of M. Alexis Perrey. The Academy has not forgotten the care with * From the Comptes Rendus, xxxviii, June 2, 1854. 56 Report on A. Perrey’s Researches relative to Earthquakes. which he called attention to the Notes on Earthquakes addressed to him of late years by the learned Professor of Dijon, and he has often mentioned at our meetings the relations mo be- tween the frequency of. earthquakes and the age of the moon. The cause of the interest connected with these volenibo is easily understood. If, as is now generally supposed, the interior of the earth is ina liquid or pasty state through heat, and if the globe has for its solid part only a crust comparatively very thin, the interior liquid mass must tend to yield like the surface wa- ters to the pean ose exerted by the sun and moon, and there must be a ter to expansion in the direction of the radius acts of hae eo bodies ; but this tendency encounters resistance in the rigidity of the crust, which is the occasion of fractures and shocks. The intensity of this catse varies, like that for the tides of pm ocean, with the relative position of the sun and moon, and consequently with the age of the moon: and it should also be noted, that as the ocean’s tides rise and fall twice in a lunar day, at periods dependent on the moon’s passing the meridian, so in the internal fluid of the globe, there should be two changes in a day, the time varying with the same cause Without entering now into-more details, it will be easily con- ceived, that if the mobility of the internal mass of the globe plays a part in the production of earthquakes, there must be some dependance, admitting of study, between the occurrence of an earthquake, and the circumstances which uinenee the action of the moon on the whole globe or on any place or portion of it, that is, the angular distance with the sun, its onl distance from the earth, and its distance from the meridian of the place, or in other terms, the age of the moon, the time of perihelion, and the hour of the lunar day. These considerations which have not escaped M. Alexis Perrey, have beyond doubt inspired the idea of the two-fold work which we have been charged to examine; and they have obtained for the views, the interested attention of M. Arago and many other men of science. ‘They have involved on the part of the author the determination of the precise date, and period of the moon, for each earthquake on record and even for each shock of which earth- quakes may consist—a work of vast labor; the researches have been now continued for several years and are still in progress. In the memoir of the 21st of March, 1853, on the relations between the frequency of earthquakes and the age of the moon, the author devotes the first chapter to the tabulation and the nu- merical transformation of the results of observation. He has conceived four modes of tabulating the facts. In the first method, followed in his memoir presented to the Acad- emy on the 5th of May, 1847, the author reckons as a day of earth- quake each those on which the earth has been shaken, whether ee Report on A. Perrey’s Researches relative to Earthquakes. 57 it has happened only in one country or on the same identical or different hours in two or several countries, separated by intervals not participating in the movement. Noting then, after the Con- naissance des ‘'emps, to what day of the lunation, each day of earthquake corresponded, he brings together in one column all the days which pertain to the first day of a lunation; in a second, all pertaining to the second day of a Iunation, and so on. Thus he forms a table consisting of 30 columns, each column giving the number of days of earthquake corresponding to the succes- sive days of the moon. The numbers vary, and the law of vari- ation is the same in his first table comprising a register of 2735 days of earthquakes between 1801 and 1845, as in his later one embracing 5388 days between 1801 and 1850. In both tables, the number of earthquakes during days near the syzygies is a little larger than in days near the quadratures. In his second method, the author regards as distinct, the earth- quakes in different regions separated by an undisturbed region, and each day of earthquake is counted 1, 2, 3, &c., according as the earthquakes of this day were experienced in 1, 2 3, &c. separate re- gions. By this new mode of tabulating, the number 2735 is increased to 3041, and that of 5388 to 6596. The same law is observed in these new tables as in the first set: and similar also is the result obtained by dividing the half century into two quar- ter centuries. considering by this method 931 shocks felt in Ceutral America and mostly at Arequipa, as published by M. de Castelnau in the Sth volume of:his “ Voyage dans les parties Centrales de l’Amer- ique du Sud.” This table, without giving identical results with the proeting, leads to the fundamental relation already men- tioned. Finally, in-the fourth method of arrangement, the application of which is difficult and has not yet been made by M. Perrey, the collection of shocks in a country, preceded and followed by a period of tranquillity is regarded as a single phenomenon. To the nine tables formed by one or the other of the first three methods of tabulating, the author has added a tenth, formed by the first mode: it embraces four years, from 1841 to 1845, and only 422 days of earthquakes. Although this number is small the numbers lead to the same general conclusion—that is, the greater frequency of earthyuakes at the syzygies than at the quadratures, eae Szconp Serres, Vol. XIX, No. 55.—Jan., 1855. 8 58 Report on A. Perrey’s Researches relative to Earthquakes. This general law, although distinctly observable in the series of results, is however obscured by many anomalies. In order to eliminate these anomalies as far as possible, Prof. Perrey divides the 29°531 days of a lunar month into twelfths, sixteenths and eighths, and obtains, by proportional calculations applied to the number of the different tables constructed according to the solar ays, the numbers which correspond to each fraction of lunation. In his new tables thus constructed, excepting some minor anom- alies, the law above stated is more fully confirmed, that for a half century earthquakes have been more frequent at the syzygies than at the quadratures. M. Alexis Perrey has also enquired whether a relation exists between the frequency of earthquakes and the distances, at the time, of the moon from the earth. For this purpose he has tabu- lated according to the different methods of tabulation pointed out, the number of times the earth has been shaken, on the day of the perigee and apogee of the moon, the day before, night before, the following day, and the next following ; he has hence ascertained, by the groups of numbers thus formed, the total corresponding to the perigee, and also to the apogee. In order to facilitate a eom- parison of the results, he has taken the difference of the totals | thus obtained and divided by their sum, whence he has found | the quotients git) EB Ron ons ee eee | 165) 26, 935, B44; 292, 186) 212; 1075, which are all, above ;,, and the last nearly equals j,. It ap; pears therefore that the unequal attractions of the moon on the earth at its greatest and least distance from the earth, has a sensi- ble influence on the production of earthquakes. In the Note of Jan. 2, On the frequency of earthquakes as re- lated to the passage of the moon over the meridian, the author aims to discover whether the repetition of the shocks of earth- quakes during a lunar day, has, like the tides, a relation to the moon’s passing the meridian. He has submitted to this investi- gation, 824 shocks observed at Arequipa, registered by M. Castel- ( nau, after calculating the hour of each, with reference to the | oon. He has thus made ont a table, which he afterwards di- vided into 16 equal parts, and then grouped these by twos into 8 parts, using the mean lunar day of 24 hours 503 minutes. In this way, notwithstanding some large anomalies which cannot fail to | be presented in so small a number of cases, the number obtained = * by each mode of grouping, gave evidence of the existence in the | course of the lunar day, of two epochs of maximum number of shoeks and two of minimum, the former at the times of pe: moon’s passing the meridian—the superior and inferior—and t latter at intermediate intervals. Report on A. Perrey’s Researches relative to Earthquakes. 59 M. Alexis Perrey, by discussing the catalogues which he had formed, thus shows by three ways independent of one another, the influence of the course of the moon on the production of earthquakes. 1. That the frequency augments in the syzygies. 2. That the frequency augments in the vicinity of the moon’s perigee, and diminishes towards the apogee. 3. That the shocks of earthquakes are more numerous when the moon is near the meridian than when 90 degrees from it. The tables still present more anomalies, and the author has omitted nothing which should remove them, so as to bring out the law in all its purity. He at first thought of representing the frequency by diagrams like those for barometrical observation, a process by which the general march of phenomena is perceived amid the anomalies which tend to mask it. -We regret that this has not been done, as it speaks at once to the eye. M. Alexis Perrey has endeavored i to obtain his results by calculation, and has devoted to this sub- ject the second chapter of his principal memoir, and the second part of his Note of Jan. 2, 1854. Without attempting to follow the author in these analytical iscussions, we simply state here that, in order to represent the results of observation, he employs a formula of interpolation of the form, y= m--A sin (¢+-«)-+B sin (2¢-+-2)+C sin (8¢+7)+... in which m, A, B, C, &c., are constant coefficients of the same nature with 9; «@, 8,7, &c., are constant angles; and ¢a variable an- gle dependent on the lunar motion, which is equal to 0 degree for the new moon, 90 degrees for the first quarter, and 180 de- grees for full moon, &c. He then adapts the formula by known methods to each of his tables deduced from observation, by de- terminiug the constants which it includes. the law is expressed fully and clearly. All the curves have a marked resemblance, although not wholly similar :—an iden- tity could not be, for the results are only approximative and take a special impress from the groups of numbers which they rep- resent. The resemblance in the curves leads to two principal maxima, corresponding to the syzygies, and two minima for the quadratures ; and sustaius the general deduction, that for half a century earthquakes have been most frequent at the syzygies. 60 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. The Academy will perceive the importance of this conclusion, and may judge at the same time from the preceding, of the care with which the author has pursued the subject, he having brought together for the half century 7000 observations. ‘This number is however still small for the solution of a problem of this kind, and it is important to increase it both by adding the facts of suc- cessive years, and also by going back ie peat eanthrien, which the author has already commenced.* Art. XI.—On the Periodical Rise and Fall of the Lakes ; by Masor Lacuuan, Montreal. ‘ Few countries can boast of objects of more imposing natural grandeur or deeper philosophical interest, than are presented in Canada, in the vast extent and other striking Bitch vag of its magnificent inland fresh water seas, and their noble connect ng rivers and unrivalled cataracts, coupled with re He anom- alous nature of its climate and seasons compared with European countries in the same parallel of latitude: and an additional ge- ographical interest may be considered as attaching to it, in the magnetic meridian passing through it—the line of ‘No varia- tion” olen through part of its mediterranean waters.{ nvestigation of the causes and effects of these great phys- ical phenomena might well engage the attention of a whole life of patient observation and study; and such, doubtless, will at no distant day, be the case; but in the present state of things, in so young a country, all that can be expected is the occasional contribution of the unpretending philosophical gleaner ; and, as our great Lakes, in the hope of strengthening the arguments ad- duced by me in the paper which I had lately the honor of sub- mitting to it, in advocacy of the establishment of a system of simultaneous meteorological and tidal observations throughout British America—as not only a great philosophical desideratum, but also likely to prove of substantial service to the country, were it om to make us better SRS with the ~—_ benefits de- cordance with it a considerable sum was placed at his dis + Read before the Canadian Institute, March 18th, 1854; Canadian Journal, Jul 7" Tod jae to to ebjet treated of in thin p aper, a good ae “ap a ae re mek T. ©. Keef in : aed x t er, eS ee Oe eC rae Si = were eS “ 2 3 i ee Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 61 rived and derivable from the climatic influence of our mighty in- land waters.* In the introduction to my former paper, I was led to remark that it is now seventeen years since my attention was first attracted to these interesting philosophical subjects, by remarking the great difference in the newspaper reports of the temperature, direction of the winds, and state of the weather in different parts of the Province at the same time, as compared with each other, and by having been in the habit for seven years, at my residence on the banks of Lake Erie, of noticing the constant extraordinary fluctu- ations in the level of that noble Lake; at times consistiug only o slight irregularly recurring oscillations ; at others, showing a sudden change of level, apparently caused by the temporary im- pulse of passing storms; at others, evincing a longer coutinued State of elevation or depression, in evident accordance with the more enduring influence of winds blowing from the same quarter for days together ; and at others, and more especially and unac- countably, of a longer maintained rise of several feet above the usual level, sometimes lasting for a whole season, or even more, as was the case during the memorable years, 1838-39—regarded at the time by some of my neighbors as the traditional seven years’ flood. Being much struck with these singular phenomena, and yet not being sufficiently at leisure, besides feeling myself other- Wise disqualified for attempting a scientific investigation of their mie, I naturally felt, nevertheless, a strong desire to ascertain What h As a remarkable instance of the tempering influence of the proximity of the tioned, that in the i ia ene Lakes, it may here be men in the immediate vicinity of Cleveland, the te ture during ten years has in no instane ro, while at Co- Jur t d Cincinnati, from 120 to 150 miles farther south, it has fre- quently to and 10 deg. below it; and that orthern Ohio, generally, 62 Major saiiiaae on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. clusion that there was still much room for further — as all the Lakes did not appear to be always governed by simul- taneous influences ;* and therefore, that the only chance oy ar- riving at a correct ‘knowledge of the state of the whole matter, would be the adoption of some such course of long continued meteorological and tidal observations throughout the country, as that which I ventured to propose in my las st servations, as the more important branch of the great object in contemplation, I propose to confine myself, on the present occa- sion, to the no less interesting, though minor, part of the under- takin embieine at the institution of a simultaneous record of the daily variations in the level of the great Lakes, with the view of , throwing light on, and, if possible, deciding, the three following doubtful points: 1st, How far there is any foundation for the tra- ditional report, that there is a septennial rise and fall in the wa- ters of the Lakes, and if so, to what height; and whether such phenomenon takes place in all the Lakes simultaneously or oth- erwise. 2d, The amount of the better known annual variations in the level of the different Lakes; and how far these changes occur in each at the same time; and whether they are solely due to the annual amount of the rain and snow in the surroundiug country, compared with that of the evaporation during the sum- , How far the daily or other more frequent oscillations, or. irregular tides, observable in the different Lakes, are general, and arise from the temporary force and direction of winds passing over their surface, or are peculiar only to certain localities ; and whether they are in any sensible degree influenced by atmos- pheric pressure, or lunar attraction, or “otherwise. All which, it is hoped, would in the course of time be satisfactorily decided, by a daily record of the actual level of the Lakes, combined with that of the prevailing winds and weather, at a fixed number of stations, at hours simultaneous with the other meteorological observations. aking it, at all events, for granted that such will be the case, I proceed, as an indispensable preliminary step, to take a diseur- sive view of a yet debateable state of the question, as brought home to my mind by a comparison of the casual observations made by myself on Lake Erie, compared with the recorded opin- ions expressed by others, possessing either greater ability, or more leisure and better opportunities, for proseenting such an en- quiry,—as far as the very miscellaneous and disjointed memo- randa lated by me will enable me to do so. or i ml be vena Ramtninnet es tabular view of the Rise and Fall t ' } } } Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 63 In accordance with this intention I may, in the first place, re- mark, that though the phenomena connected with the various pe- riodical fluctuations in the level of the lakes appear to have at- tracted the notice of philosophic travellers near two centuries ago, they remained altogether uninvestigated till very lately. The minor tides or oscillations were first alluded to by Fra Mar- quette, the Jesuit, in 1673, and more particularly by the Baron La Hontan in 1689: and they were afterwards further noticed by Charlevois in 1721, and also by the British travellers, Mr. Car- ver in 1766, and Mr. Weld in 1796; but it was not till tweuty years afterwards that the whole subject began to engage the par- ticular attention of men of science in America, and especially of the talented individuals engaged in the Geological Surveys of the States of New York, Ohio, and Michigan: in this period, I find them successively noticed by Col. Whiting in 1819 and 1829, Mr. Schoolcraft in 1820, General Dearborn in 1826, and Governor Cass in 1828.; and more particularly by Professors Hall and Mather, Colonel Whittlesey, Dr. Houghton, Mr. Higgins, and others, in their valuable official reports, from 1838 to 1842; as Well as by various observant British officers and travellers, such as Captains Bayfield and Bonnycastle, and Messrs. McTag- gart, Macgreggor, and others, the purport of all of whose observ- ations will be found more or less glanced at in the sequel :—and yet, strange to say, these singular phenomena still remain in- volved in mystery ! It so happens that the observations of all the early writers on this interesting subject were confined to Lakes Superior, Michi- gan and Erie, and were directed more to the daily fluctuations or tides remarked at particular places, than to the actual existence of the traditionary great septennial rise and fall of the waters of the whole Lakes. Thus, for instance, Baron La Hontan, on reach- ing Green Bay, at the northern extremity of Lake Michigan, at its conjunction with Lake Huron, remarks that where the Fox river is discharged into that Bay, he observed the waters of the Lake swell three feet high in the course of twenty-four hours, and decrease as much in the same length of time. And he also noticed a contrariety and conflict of currents in the narrow strait which connects Lake Huron and Michigan, which were so strong that they sometimes sucked in the fishing nets, although two or three leagues off. In some seasons it also happens that the cur- rent runs three days eastward, two days westward, and one day to the south, and four days to the northward, sometimes more and sometimes less. : Jharlevois also noticed similar appearances; and supposes Lakes Huron and Michigan to be alternately discharged into each other through the Straits of Michilimackinac ; and mentions th that in passing that Strait his canoe was carried by the Current against a head wind. 64 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. But it was not till fifty years afterwards that we were indebted to that intelligent British traveller, Mr. Carver, for any great addi- tional light on this mysterious subject, as well as for other partic- ulars regarding the then unknown region of Laixe Superior, from information acquired on the spot. But as his remarks are alluded to by a subsequent equally respectable and trees EBoglish writer, Mr. Weld, who visited Canada in 1796, are content to refer to the interesting volume of the latter for ‘he following (much condensed ) appropriate observations.* “It is confidently asserted, not only by the Indians, pak also by great numbers of the white people who live on the shores of Lake Ontario, that the waters of this Lake rise se a pene nately every seventh year. Others, on the contrary, deny that such a fluctuation does take place; and, indeed it differs so mate- rially from any that have been observed in large bodies of water in other parts of the globe, that I am tempted to — it is merely an imaginary change. Nevertheless when it is consid- ered, that, according to the belief of the oldest ichabenaaaa of the country, such a periodical ebbing and flowing takes place, and that it has never been clearly proved to the contrary, We are bound to suspend our opinions on the subject. For instance: a gentleman who resides close upon the borders of the Lake, not far from Kingston, and had leisure to attend to such subjects, told me that he had observed the state of the Lake for nearly fourteen years, and that he was of opinion that the waters did not ebb and flow periodically ; yet he acknowledged the very re- markable fact that several of the oldest white inhabitants in his neighborhood declared, previous to the late rising of the Lake, that the year 1795 would be the high year; and ~ in the summer of that year the Lake actually did rise to a very un- common height. He said, however, that he had reason o think take the elas of here remarking that I might easily have separa seeming greater degree oe yeh are to this paper by continuing to make ie oc- — van refere =e to p s of epee ae i — os an econ observations in wn lan ; but fe dlink pub a oan on t that pe and Cae Saran « of exhibiting g the whole evidence on the question, independent of any opinion of my own, I have adopted a row the following and other hu ee A copied extracts and n Nig ict ac uncertain intervals during a course of more than fifte gh ~— Bast ently a times when opportunities of access to books were “ ike gels’ visit betw i e i Was no intention to alter or therefore be considered as | | | Ee ee Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 65 that the rise on this occasion was wholly owing to fortuitous circumstances, and not to any regular established law of nature; and that its being greater than usual was more imaginary than real; and he formed this opinion from the circumstance that when the Lake had risen to its unusual height in 1795, he had questioned some of the oldest people as to the comparative height of the water on this and former occasions, when they affirmed term risen periodically above their usual level.* hat Mr. Carver relates concerning this subject rather tends to confirm the opinion that the waters of the Lake do rise periodi- cally. “I had like to have omitted (he says) a very extraordinary circumstance relative to these Straits (of Michilimackinae, be- tween Lakes Michigan and Huron). According to observations made by the French, whilst they were in possession of the fort there, although there is no diurnal flood or ebb to be perceived in these waters, yet from an exact attention to their state a_periodi- cal alteration has been discovered. It was observed that they arose by gradual but almost imperceptible degrees till they had reached the height of three feet. This was accomplished in seven and a half years; and in the same space of time they as gently decreased, till they had reached their former situation. So that in fifteen years they had completed their inexplicable revolu- tion. At the time I was there, the truth of these observations could not be confirmed by the English, as they had then been only a few years in possession of the fort, but they all agreed that some alteration in the limits of the Straits was apparent.” “It is to-be lamented (added Mr. Weld jndiciously) that succeeding years have not thrown more light on this subject. . . . A long series of observations are neccessary to determine positively whether the waters of the Lakes do or do not rise and fall periodically. It is well known, for instance, that in wet seasons they rise much above the ordinary level, and that in very dry seasons they sink considerably below it; a close attention, therefore, ought to be Paid to the quantity of rain that falls, and to evaporation ; and it ought to be ascertained in what degree the height of the Lake is _* The destruction of these trees would depend more on the length of time bose were inundated, than on the mere fact of their having been temporarily flooded. Szconp Serius, Vol, XIX, No. 55.—Jan., 1855. 9 66 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. altered thereby, otherwise, if it happens to be higher or lower than usual on the seventh year, it would be impossible to say with aceuracy whether it were owing to the state of the weather, or to certain laws of nature, that we are as yet unacquainted with. At the same time great attention ought to be paid to the state of the winds, as well in respect to their direction as to their velocity —for the height of the water in all the Lakes is materially affected thereby. Moreover, these observations ought not to be made at one place only, but at different places at the same time. ... “Tt is also believed by many persons that the waters of Lake Ontario not only rise and fall periodically every seventh year, but that they are likewise influenced by a tide which ebbs and flows frequently in the course of twenty-four hours—as, for instance, in the Bay of Quinté, where it has been observed to rise fourteen inches every four hours. But there can be no doubt that this must be caused by the wind—no such regular fluctuation being observed at Kingston, and this Bay being a long crooked inlet, that grows narrower at the upper end; and therefore not only a change of wind up and down would make a difference at the upper extremity, but the waters, being concentrated there, would be seen to rise or fall, if impelled even in the same direction, whether up or down, more or less forcibly at one part of the day than another. . . An appearence like a tide must therefore be seen almost constantly at the head of this Bay, whenever there isa breeze. I conld not learn that the fluctuation had ever been observed during a perfect calm; were the waters, however, influ- ence = a regular tide, during a calm, that would be most read- ily see Reserving any comments on the foregoing pertinent extracts fora sates page, I proceed to remark, that such continued to be the unsatisfactory amount of inkenuation on this interesting de- batable philosophical question, till about 1819, when Capt. (af ter- wards Col.) Whiting, of the American army, at length recurring to the exciting subject, made, at the request of Governor Cass, a series of regular observations upon these oceanic appearances, during seven or eight days, in the month of June, serving to show that at that remarkable inlet, Green Bay, there is a daily rise and fall, but that it is irregular as to the precise period or flux and reflux, and also as to the height which it attains;* and yet such was the variety of opinion among local residents on the fact, that he is compelled to state, in the course of his remarks, that being led to suppose that the winter would-be the most favorable time for making such observations, when the superincumbent ice would nearly destroy the influence of the winds, and show the unassisted operation of the tide, he made enquiries as to its ap- e during that season, when one gentleman informed him * See American Journal of Science, vol xvi, pp. 90 and 91. Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 67 that no tide was then discernible, while another, equally intelli- gent, assured him that it was very apparent, aud that there was a regular elevation and depression of the ice! From all which conflicting circumstances (as correctly ob- served by, I think, Mr. Schoolcraft in the same article) there was reason to conclude that a well-conducted series of experiments would prove that there are #o regular tides in the Lakes; at least, that they do not ebb and flow twice in twenty-four hours, like those of the ocean; that the oscillating motion of the waters is therefore not attributable to planetary attraction; and that it is very variable as to the periods of its flux aud reflux, depending upon the levels of the several Lakes, their length, depth, direc- tion, and conformation, upon the prevalent winds aud temperature, and upon other extraneous causes, which are in some measure variable in their nature, and unsteady in their operation. Colonel Whiting further remarks in another interesting article on the supposed tides and periodical rise and fall of the North American Lakes,* in which is given a table of observations kept at Green Bay, in six weeks, July and August, 1828, that an ex- amination of that record would satisfy any one that planetary in- fluence had little or nothing to do with the changes of elevation in the waters there noted; and that it was as certain that the fluc- tuations in some places appear to be independent of atmospheric as of lunar control; as, by consulting that table, there would probably not be found one instance where the time of high water tallies with the moon’s southing, admitting the usual retardation, And further, that it would also be seeu that the changes of eleva- tion were independent of the course of the wind ; for that the fluctuation continues, notwithstauding the winds remaining the sane e, therefore, came to the conclusion that, reasoning from our knowledge of the great inland waters of the other hemi- Sphere, we should take it for granted that the North American kes have no sensible tides; the Caspian, Black, and Baltic Seas vomimissioners state the intervals to be once in about eleven years; and that no actual observations appeared to have been *® See American Journal of Science, vol, xx, pp. 205 to 219. # + See close of this article—R. L. . 68 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. - made on the progress of the elevation, as to whether there were preceding seasons of a character to produce it; and, therefore, after noticing various well-known periods at which remarkable elevations and depressions took place, such as in 1800, 1815, 1820, 1828, and 1830, by way of proof of the periodical return of that phenomenon being regular or otherwise, he was obliged to come to the conclusion that, as far as facts go they are cer- tainly in favor of the popular theory, but that it rests on these facts alone, and is in many other points of view improbable and absurd ; and that we are therefore constrained to suppose, though destitute of the light of actual observation, that the fluctuations observed must have been cansed by unusually abundant rains and course.* : Having, in a previous page, quoted largely from Mr. Weld, I now proceed to notice the judicious remarks on the rise and fall of the Lakes by another intelligent British observer, Mr. McTag- gart, who, writing in 1828, sets out by at once affirming that “there are no tides in any of the Lakes—none, at least, from the moon’s influence; but that the floods of spring generally raise them from three to four feet. It is stated that. Lake Ontario rises i he fallen for many years before; and that there was little sunshine throughout the season; and I, consequently, concluded that the exhalations from the: Lake were-not so copious. There was an- other circumstance that puzzled me. _ Lake Ontario, and indeed, all the Lakes were up to their very highest surface marks, but the rivers flowing out of them were not. Those surface marks were very obvious on the rocky shores of the Lakes, drawn like so many chalk lines by Nature herself. ‘“‘ Rivers do not rise exactly from the same cause as Lakes. If in spring the snow melts off the country on a sudden, and the ‘ozen swamps break up and disembogue their contents, then the rivers will rise to their utmost height as water pours into them on all sides; but when the sun has effected this, they begin to fall. Lakes swell, it is true, from the same cause, but not with the same comparative haste; their surface being of great extent, the floods can only,spread over them by slow degrees; and if the sky keep * See American Journal of Science, vol. xx, pp. 218, 219. le i es Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 69 cloudy and the weather moist, so that little evaporation goes on, the surface of the Lake will continue to swell, while that of the river will fall—as the country on either side is drained—nothing tending to keep up its flood but the mere discharge from the Lake. Rivers and Lakes are never at their utmost pitch of flood at the same time; neither are they ever at the lowest ebb at the same time; for when the floods of a river have subsided to a cer- tain extent, the intense heat of the summer sun, setting upon the shelving sides of the rocky channels, and even upon the bed of the river itself, tends greatly to promote the absorption of the waters, whereas in the deep wide Lake this action cannot take c lace. “The unusual rise of the waters of the Lakes in some seasons, which some observers state to be seven feet above the common level, seems to be only rationally accounted for by the absence of evaporation, and greater quantities of rain than generally prevail. Once in every seven years it is said to rise thus; but 7, like 3, is a number open to superstition,* not to be always relied on, and it would not be surprising if this flow were to happen once in six, or even in ten years. It will yet, likely, be discovered that when Lake Erie has its brim flood, the others have theirs also during the Same .season; and when powerful suns are excluded from drinking them up, by the intervention of drizzling clouds, and His exclusion extending over an immense surface, we shall cease to marvel at these wonderful septennial floods. It has also been remarked that the winters after these seasons have had little snow ; but meteorology on this score remains to be further prosecuted, ere the theory dare be advanced, that it is from the moisture absorbed Mm cercumjacent regions during summer that the snows of wiuter are supplied.” Passing from the borders of Lake Ontario to the regions of Lake Superior, Iam next enabled to refer to some equally per- €mptory observations on the same subject, made by that eminent British hydrographer and geologist, Capt. Bayfield, on the spot, in the course of 1825-26; from whose valuable and interesting paper on the geology of the latter Lake I extract the following particulars :+ “There is no regularly periodical rising or falling of the Lakes, as has been asserted, whether it be from the influence of the Moon, or any other. They rise and fall from accidental causes ; such as a very severe winter without the usual thaws. The springs are locked up all winter, and the whole accumulated snow re- mains until the spring, when the weather, becoming suddenly * Tt wa 2, in hi ss at the New York Agricul- bees Roeiety Sestiny ar Beceins Pn thes dae Metiand is exposed on the Binion cae thirteen centuries, to one sea or river flood, every seven years t See Transactions of the Lit. and Hist. of Quebec, vol. i, pp. 1 to 43. 70 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. warm, dissolves it at once. Hence it will generally be found that after a very severe wien the waters of the Lakes will be much higher than at other tim Heavy gales also raise the water in the upper parts of the cain aud also cause currents in various directions. ‘The rise, however, in Lakes Superior and oe from this or any other cause, never exceeds a few Whether a gradual diminution of the waters “of Lake superior is now going on, is a point on which no one is qualified to give an opinion ; for vo observations have been made or recorded to ascer- tain the interesting fact. Any diminution must be always imper- ceptibly gradual, and would require constant, accurate, and regu- larly recorded observations during a great number of years to render this indisputable. The streams which discharge into Lake Superior amount to several hundreds in number, and the quantity of water supplied by them is many times greater than that discharged at the falls of St. Mary, the only outlet. There is, however, no reason to imagine from this that the quantity of water increases; for it is absolutely necessary that there should be a supply very far exceeding the discharge, to replace the inimense expenditure arising from the evaporation from so exten- sive a surface.” Adhering to my intention of reserving for the present .any com- ments on the above, as of other quotations, I now revert to the next isa writer on this important subject, namely, General Dearborn, who, in the 16th volume of the American Journal of Saisie; cairo referred to, observes that “it is not sufficiently certain ra tides may not be produced in the great chain of Lakes, in the same manner as they are in the ocean;” and in proof cenne? quotes an elaborate theory of the distinguished Dr. Young (illustrated by three diagrams) which had at that time been sanctioned by the scientific for more than twenty years, n only presuming the possible existence of such tides, but fornishiig the means of demonstrating thatsuch is the fact in deep and bro Lakes, and even going so far as, where the area and depth of a lake is known, to givea theorem by which the maximum rise and fall of the waters and the time of its oscillation, or in which a tide wave might pass over it, can be ascertained.* But the General at the same time admits, with regard to ‘the periodical increase and diminution of the whole volume of water in the kes.” that he is in possession of no definite facts, save what was contained ina letter from Captain Dearborn, stating, that whilst stationed at the Sault Ste. Marie, on Lake Superior, he had himself observed for three successive days an ebb and flow of one-and-a-half feet, in the conrse of about two-and-a-half hours —. Dut ey he Hesated it to the winds; and that he sup- Philosophy, ib ELE Pinca sage Mekenh. ee aE NTR tee seamen ETS L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 71 posed that the rise and fall which takes place during periods of from three to seven years, to be possibly the effect of increased depth of water in the Lake, caused by an unusual amount of snow on its borders and tributary streams, or an uucommon rainy sea-, son; and that it even appeared from an extract from the New York Advertiser, that a gentleman just then (1828) returned from atour to the West, had informed the editor that the waters of Lakes Ontario and Erie were then nearly a foot higher, while those of Lake Superior were considerably lower than ever known. The General was therefore led to suggest that, to obtain full, and exact data as to the rise and fall of the different Lakes tde- guages should be placed at a number of points an the shore of each, both in their narrowest and broadest dimensions, and the changes carefully observed for a whole year, or at least for several months, and accurate tables kept of the times and extent of each flux and reflux, in which the position, as respects the meridian and the phases of the moon, and also the course of the winds should be noted ;—a plan which, it will be perceived, is very similar to that proposed by myself in my late paper on the estab- lishment of simultaneous meteorological observations. (To be continued.) Arr. XII—Synopsis of the Ichthyological Fauna of the Pacific _ Slope of North America, chiefly from the collections made by the U. 8. Expl. Exped. under the command of Capt. C. Wilkes, with recent Additions and Comparisons with Hustern types ; by L. Acassiz. . CypRINorDs. Would leave the impression that nothing like them is to be found in any other part of the world. 72 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. The family of Cyprinoids presents peculiar difficulties when- ever we attempt to characterise its genera, as is too well shown by the conflicting views of those who have written upon this subject. This difficulty arises chiefly from the uniformity of its repre- sentatives, greater than is observed, in most other families, and also from the necessity of resorting to dissections to trace their most important characteristics. In a paper published in 1834 in the Mémoires de la Société des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel, I have however shown that reliable characters may be obtained from the pharyngeal teeth, and the more recent investigations of Heckel upon this subject have confirmed my statements and extended them over a large number of genera and species unknown to science at the time I published the results of my first investigations. At the time Heckel published his valuable remarks upon Cyprinoids, he seems to have been but scantily provided with American representatives of this family. It is this gap in our knowledge f intend to fill here in connec- tion with a more full description ‘of the species collected in Oregon and California by the naturalists of the expedition of Capt. Wilkes. e propriety of establishing new genera among Cyprinide will appear very questionable to the ichthyologists who have traced the almost endless divisions to which this family has of late been submitted. Nevertheless I feel compelled to introduce some new divisions among them, to classify several fishes which have been collected by the United States Exploring Expedition, and some others long known from the eastern parts of this con- tinent. Few Cyprinide have as yet been described from the fresh waters of the northwest coast of America, and the species brought home by the Exploring Expedition form an interesting addition to our knowledge The first question which arises a examining these fishes is North America, or do they resemble those of western Europe, or are they in any way related to the Asiatic types? As soon as knew that species of that family had been preserved among the collections of the Exploring Expedition, my first care was to examine their generic relations, and, to my utter astonishment I found that they do not belong to any of the numerous genera established by myself, Heckel, Prince Canino, or McLelland for the species of the old world, and tha t, with one exception, they correspond as little to any of the types ‘which occur in the eastern oa of the North American continent. They constitute in fact a benoit group of species, remarkable for the de- ~lopalar ot their lips, and the horny aseraien which protects L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 73 the outline of the mouth. Their pharyngeal teeth also, as far as e to ascertain, have a peculiar structure. Even if the subdivision of the Cyprinide into genera had never been extended beyond the limits marked out by Cuvier, three, at least of the species from Oregon should be admitted as new types of this family, for which genera I shall propose the names of Mylo- cheilus, Ptychocheilus and Acrocheilus. TRIBE OF CATOSTOMI. . fourth of which embraces our Catostomi. This tribe is very natural, if we exclude from it the genus Exoglossum, the true affinities of which are with Chondrostoma and not with Catos- tomi as Heckel admits. The true Catostomi have very remarka- ble pharyngeal bones, with a large number of compressed teeth, arranged like the teeth of a comb, upon the inner prominent edge of these bones, and gradually increasing in size from above down- the te Heckel subdivides the family of Cyprinoids into ten tribes, the f the homology of the two becomes at once obvious. See fig. 2, a anda”. The pharyngeal teeth correspond to the armature Upon the inner curve of the branchial arches; they may, how- ever, be either simple epidermic serratures or papille, or assume the structure of genuine teeth and become soldered to the bone Upon which they are formed, as is the case also with the maxil- lary teeth of so many fishes. Notwithstanding the similarity of the general arrangement of the pharyngeal teeth in all Catostomi, there are still such differ- ences in their form and number, and especially in the shape of their inner edge, that these peculiarities afford additional evidence of the propriety of acknowledging several genera among them, most of which have already been indicated, though very indiffer- Srconp Series, Vol. XIX, No. 55.—Jan., 1855. 10 74 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. ently characterised by Rafinesque. In order to ascertain beyond a question the generic value of these characters | have examined the pharyngeals of every one of the species described in this bly found that within the limits within which the genera are circumscribed here, they present a peculiar type for each genus, reproduced in the different species with slight variations in the size and proportions of the tecth, the strength of the arch aud the length of its symphysis. Thus far the whole tribe of Catostomi must be considered as parece setcheiaively to North America, the true relations of the Catostomus Tilesii, founded by Valenciennes, upon the descrip- tion of the Cyprinus rostratus, from Northern Asia, by Tilesins being still doubtful, or wanting at least the only confirmation acceptable in our days, that is based upon a direct comparison of original specimens. Catostomi are found as far south as Texas and along the alana boundaries of Mexico, as is shown by the descriptions of several species published by Messrs. Baird and Girard in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for 1854, but 1 have been unable to ascertain whether they inhabit the waters of Cuba It is a very interesting fact that while ‘America has no native representation of the tribe of Carps, some of. its Catostomi, the Carpiodes, Ichthyobus and Bubalichthys, remind us strongly by their external appearance of the true Cyprini of the old world, whilst others, the Cycleptus and Moxostoma resemble more the Borbus of Europe, Asia and Africa and the Tinca of Enrope, which are also entirely wanting in America, and still others, the Catostomi proper have not even analogous representatives in the eastern continents. Carpiodes, Raf. 1. The body is very high and strongly compressed, the narrow ridge of the back forming the outline in front of the dorsal is very much arched, and regularly continuous downwards with the rather steep profile of the head. head is short, its height and length differ but little. The snout is short and blunt. The small mouth is entirely inferior, and surrounded by narrow thin lips, which are more or transversely folded. The lower jaw is short and broad. The pharyngeal bones of Carpiodes are remarkably thin, com- pressed laterally, with a shallow furrow along the anterior margin on the inside, and another more central ove ou the outline of the arched ‘surfaces ; the teeth are very small, compressed, equally thin along the whole inner edge of the bone, forming a fine comb- of minute serratures ; their cut — rises above the ase ES —— = eee . —~ L, Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 75 inner margin into a prominent point. Fig. 1, a, represents the inner surface of the right pharyngeal, 6, the dental edge of the two pharyngeals in their natural position, eand d, magnified teeth in profile. The anterior lobe of the long dorsal is slender, its third and fourth rays being prolonged beyond the following ones itito ong filaments. The lower fins are all pointed, rather small, and hence distant from one another. The ventral ridge of the body is flat. ‘The scales have many narrow, radiating furrows upon the anterior field, and one, more deeply marked, ina straight line, across the lateral fields, or limit- ing the lateral and posterior fields, hardly any upon the anterior field, the waving of the broader concentric ridges producing only a radiated appearance upon that field. Tube of the lateral line straight and simple, arising in advance of the centre of radiation, which is seated in the centre of form of the scales. Cuvier referred erroneously the type of this genus to his ge- nus Labeo, in which he has been followed by DeKay, whilst — Valenciennes founded upon it his genus Sclerognathus. Rafin- having the priority, must therefore be retained. Moreover Valen- Clennes describes as a second species of that genus under the hame of Sclerognathus Cyprinella, a fish from Lake Pontchar- train, which belongs to Rafinesque’s genus Ichthyobus, as | shall now below. In recognising the generic differences which dis- tinguish these two fishes, Rafinesque has really been much in advance of more recent observers, though the characteristics he ascribes to them are very loosely and imperfectly drawn. ie I know now four species, of this curious genus, oue of which in- habits the fresh waters of our middle States, emptying into the At- lantic, the Catostomus Cyprinus of Lesueur; another occurs in Lake Champlain and the waters of our Northern States, emptying into the St. Lawrence, the Catostomus Cyprinus of the Rev. Zad. ‘fompson ; a third is found in the Ohio, and its tribntaries, and has heen described under the same name as the preceding ones, b Dr. Kirtland in his “ Fishes of the Ohio.” [have lately obtained a fourth from the Osage River; through the kindness of Mr. George Stolley, which I have inscribed as Carpiodes Bison in my notice of the Fishes of the Tennessee River.* It occurs also in the Mississippi, above its junction with the Missouri, as I have ascer- tained recently from specimens forwarded to me by Dr. Rauch of Burlington, lowa; whether it is found farther south, 1 do not MOW i 5 * See this Journal, 2nd Ser., vol. xvii, p. 356. 76 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. In my enumeration of the fishes of the southern bend of the Tennessee River, I made a mistake in preserving the name of C. Cyprinus for the Ohio species ; but having known that species for many years, I took it as the type of the genus the more read- ily, since Rafinesque has established the genus Carpiodes from hio specimens. Yet this species, C. Cyprinus, was described by Lesueur from Pennsylvauia specimens, so that the name of . Cyprinus belongs to it by right of priority, and the name of C. Vacca which I have applied in my notice of the fishes of the Tennessee River to the Pennsylvania species, must be considered as a mere synonym of Catostomus Cyprinus of Lesueur, and the Ohio species must retain Rafinesque’s name of Ca jodes velifer. Lesueur himself had already pointed out in the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, vol. i, p. 110, the differences he noticed between some specimens obtained in the Ohio River, by Mr. Thomas Say, and preserved in the Museum of the Academy of Nat. Sci. in Philadelphia, and those from the Chesapeake Bay he described under the name of C. Cyprinus. Upon these in- dications, Rafinesque founded his Carpiodes velifer, Ich. Oh., p. 56, without perceiving that it is identical with his*own Carp. Carpio ; though he had already a few lines higher in the page called it C. setosus, referring that name erroneously to Lesueur. Again page 51, Rafinesque describes the same species once more, from a drawing of Mr. Aububon, under the name of Catostomus anisopterus, referring it to his subgenus Moxostoma, though he points out himself its true affinity to C. velifer. With these ma- terials before me, I was very anxious to obtain also original spe- cimens of the fish described by Rev. Z. Thompson, under the name of C. eyprinus, from Lake Champlain. To that gentleman himself, LT am now indebted for the means of comparing it with the species described by Lesueur aud Rafinesque, and I find that it is still another species for which I propose the name of C. Thompsoni. hese species, though very similar in general outline and com- pression of body, instantly strike one on comparing them as dis- tinct; the different form and size of scales give to each a very peculiar appearance. In Carpiodes velifer, which has the largest scales, their hind border is very broadly arched or rounded, whilst in Carpiodes Thompsoni, it forms a very blunt or open angle. Hence in the former species, the posterior margin of ‘a row 0 scales extending obliquely from the dorsal to the ventral region is strongly waved, but in the latter species it is straight. In Carpi- odes velifer the radiating lines on the opercle are more prominent, and the subopercle is longer and not so broadly rounded at its lower angle, and the anterior lobe of the dorsal is higher ana much more slender than in Carpiodes Thompsoni. C. Cyprinus is more elongated than either, and C. Bison, from Osage River, is é +cat ena ee L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 77 the most elongated of the four species, and its snout is most prominent. Valenciennes states that C. Cyprinus occurs also in ke Pontchartrain, Louisiana; but this is incorrect.- He has mistaken my C. T'aurus, which belongs to the genus Bubalich- thys, for the true Cyprinus of Lesueur. This result shows how important it is in identifying fishes from distinct water basins, not to trust implicitly to descriptions for comparison, but to resort as far as possible to original specimens. 1 shall have full opportu- nity below to show also how dangerous it may be to take for granted that because fishes occur in distant regions, they must differ specifically, and to describe them as such. Whether Carpiodes tumidus, B. and G., from Texas, belongs to this or the following genus, or to Ichthyobus, I am unable to ascertain from the description published by Messrs. Baird and Girard in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, 1854, p. 28. am entirely at a loss to understand why Rafinesque should have referred his Catostomus xanthopus with C. Cyprinus and Velifer to his subgenus Carpiodes. It certainly does not belong to the same genus as the description shows, in which the dorsal is said to be “hardly faleate with 14 rays,’ Ihave scarcely any doubt that Rafinesque had an old specimen of Lesueur’s Catos- tomus nigricans before him when he described his Cat. rantho- even as far as Osage Rive ees Mr. George Stolley, and also in the middle Atlantic tates. Bubalichthys, Agass. At the time I vindicated the propriety of restoring some of the genera established by Rafinesque among Cyprinoids,* I did not Suspect that the genus Carpiodes as I then represented it, still con- tained two distinct types, though I had noticed that some of the Species had the anterior margin of their dorsal greatly prolonged, Whilst in others it hardly rises above the middle and posterior Portion of that fin. Having since examined the pharyngeals of all the species of this tribe which I have been able to secure from different parts of the country, I find that those with a high dor- sal, which constitute the genus Carpiodes proper, have in addi- ton Very thin flat pharyngeals with extremely mitute teeth, Whilst those with a low dorsal have triangular pharyngeals with * See this Journal 2nd Ser., vol. xvii, page 353. 78 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. larger teeth, increasing gradually in size and thickness from the upper margin of these bones towards their symphysis. The differ- ence in form of these bones arises from the circumstance that the slight ridge upon the outer surface of the arch in Carpiodes is plane, meeting under an acute angle. This structural homology is satisfactorily traced by the difference in the external appear- ance of these two planes, the posterior one being full as the pos- terior half of at outer surface of the arch in Carpiodes, whilst the anterior plane is coarsely porous, indeed studded with deep. pits analogous to the porous character of the anterior half of the onter surface of that bone in Carpiodes. The teeth them- selves are compressed; their grinding edge is rather blunt, slightly arched in the middle, and provided with a little cusp along the inner margin which is hardly detached from the crown.and does not se above its surface, as in eH Ichthyobus and Cycleptus. boKigs 2, a, represents the right ryugeal seen from behind, a/ boiipehe crest of teeth, a’ the armature of the anterior edge of the inner curve, 6 one of the lower, ¢ one of the middle, and d one of the upper teeth. In this genus the bulk of the body is not placed so far forwards as in Carpio- des, thé greatest height being midway between the head and, tail. The up- per outline of the body i is less strongly arched in advance of the dorsal ; the head is longer than high, and the snout not more prominent than the mot The mouth opens ig dowuwards aud forwards, the low jaw being nearly as long as the up The lips are small and Gemininteds The anterior rays of the dorsal are not separately F peoloileed beyond the rest of the fin, though its anterior margin is higher than its middle and posterior portion. The lower fins are as in arpiodes. A Zs Ay okt DD) PN yy ‘The scales have many narrow radiating furrows upon the an- terior field, none across the lateral fields, and few upon the pos- terior field, converging to the centre of radiation to which the tubes of the lateral line extends also. For this new eae I pro- pose the name of Bubal sia eg to recall the name of Buffalo fish, commonly appl its species. To this genus belong the species I have ascribed as C us Urus from the ‘Tennessee River,* C. Taurus from Mobile River, and C. Vitulus * See this Journal, 2nd Ser, vol, xvii, p. 355 and 356. EL. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 79 from the Wabash, and also the Catostomus niger of Rafinesque and Catostomus Bubalus of Dr. Kirtland from the Ohio, but not Cat. Bubalus, Rafinesque, which is the type of the genus Ich- thyobus described in the following paragraph. I have another new species from the Osage River, sent me by Mr. George Stol- ley. This shows this type to be widely distributed in our west- ern waters; but thus far it has not been found in the Atlantic States. I have some doubts respecting the nomenclature of these species which are rather difficult to solve. It will be seen upon reference to Rafinesque’s Ichthyologia Ohiensis, p. 55 and 56, that he mentions two species of his subgenus Ichthyobus, one of which he calls C. Bubalus, and the other C. niger; the second he has not seen himself, but describes it on the authority of Mr. Audubon as “entirely similar to the common Buffalo fish, his C. Bubalus, but larger, weighing sometimes upwards of fifty pounds.” Dr. Kirtland, on the other hand, describes the C. Bu- balus as the largest species found in the western waters, and adds that the young is nearly elliptical in its outline aud is often sold in the market as a distinct species, under the name of Buffalo Perch. If there was only one species of Buffalo in those waters nerically from the broader, high-backed being the smaller species, I take it to be Rafinesqne’s C. Bubalus, the type of his genus Ichthyobus, which is more fully charac- terised below, whilst the larger species, Rafinesque’s C. niger, can be no other than Dr. Kirtland’s C. Bubalus, “the largest spe- cies of the western waters.”’ It seems therefore hardly avoidable to retain the name of C. niger or rather Bubalichthys niger for the common Buffalo, though Rafinesque, who first named that sh, never saw it, or if he saw it mistook it for his own Bubalus, and though Dr. Kirtland, who correctly describes and figures it, names it C. Bubalus, for such is the natural result to which the history of the successive steps in our investigation of these fishes le But our difficulties here are not yet at an end. Among the splendid collections L have received from Dr: Rauch, I found two perfectly distinct species of Bubalichthys, one with a large mouth, and the other with a small mouth, and one of Irhthyobus, ving together in the Mississippi River, in the neighborhood of ington, lowa, and the next question, probably never to be 9 ~~ 3 =] = 2 = ca —) 2 a. .* Dr. Kirtland and Dr. Storer, who follows him, are certainly mistaken in refer- ring C. niger of Raf, to Cat, elongatus of Lesueur, as the description in the Ichthy- ologia Ohiensis clearly shows. 80 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. - solved, will be, if they all three occur also in the Ohio, whether — Ra finesque’s C. niger was the big-mouthed or the small-mouthed Bubalichthys. Judging from the figure, given by Dr. Kirtland in the Boston Journal of Natural History, vol. v, pl. 19, fig. 2, I be- lieve his C. Bubalus to be the small-mouthed species. I myself have however only seen one specimen of the big-mouthed spe- cies from the Ohio, and that in a rather indifferent state of pres- ervation, for which I am indebted to Prof. Baird, and none of the small-mouthed species. Should however all three, as is possible, occur as well in the Ohio, as in the Mississippi, to avoid introdu- cing new —— I would call the big-mouthed species B. niger, preserving for afinesque’s specific name,—the small-mouthed, 13. Bubalus, eieinn for it the name which Dr. Kirtland has _ it, even though the species of Ichthyobus must bear the sam specific n name, being that originally applied to it by Raf- Sosecuib. Tt may be that either my B. Vitulus or my B. Urus is identical with Dr. Kirtland’s C. Bubalus, but until I can obtain original specimens of his species, this point must remain unde- cided, as it is impossible from mere descriptions to institute a suf- ficiently minute comparison. ‘he specimen from Osage River, I shall call B. Bonasus. Compared with one another, these species differ as follows: B. niger (the big-mouthed Buffalo) differs from B. Bubalus, (the small-mouthed Buffalo) by its larger mouth, opening more for- wards, its more elongated body, the first rays of the dorsal rising immediately above the base of the ventrals, and its anterior lobe being broader, and the anal fin not emarginated ; B. Bonasus differs from B. Bubalus and from B. niger in having the mouth larger than the first and smaller than the second, and from B. Bubalus by its less emarginated dorsal, which renders its larger lobe broader, anal fin not emarginated, opercle larger. A farther comparison with the southern species could only be satisfactory if accompanied by accurate figures. I therefore turn now to the genus— Ichthyobus, Rafin.* In the form and position of the fins, as well as in the general outline of the body, this genus is very nearly related to Buba- lichthys, but in the structure of the parts of the head, it is quite dissimilar. he mouth opens directly forwards, and is large and round. The lips are small, smooth and thin; the upper one is not thicker than the intermaxillary itself and tapers to a narrow dge. At the symphysis of the lower jaw, which is larger than in any other genus of this group, the lower lip is hardly more than a thin membrane eomree its small lateral lobes. Rafines incorrectly Ietiobus; as its name means Bull or sul nb oa bes it ue to be eae Ichthyobus, as I have already universalis, p. 194. L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 81 The eye is small, and the opercular pieces very large. The scales have many narrow radiating furrows upon the an- terior field ; none across the lateral fields, few upon the margin of the posterior field and these not extending to the centre of radia- tion. Tubes of the lateral line straight and simple, arising nearly in the middle of the posterior field. The pharyngeal bones are neither flat, as in the Carpiodes, nor triangular as in Bubalichthys, but present an intermediate form ; the outer surface of the arch standing outwards, and presenting a porous outer margin. The peduncle of the symphysis is much longer proportionally and more pointed than in Carpiodes and Bubalichthys. The teeth are very numerous, small, thin and compressed as in Carpiodes, but the lower ones are gradually larger than the upper ones. Their inner edge is slanting out- wards, and not uniformly arched as in Bubalichthys, or truncate as in Cycleptus, the innermost margin rising somewhat in the shape of a projecting cusp. ig. 3, a, represents the right pha- ryngeal of [chthyobus Rauchii, from the inner side, 6 and 6’ lower teeth from both sides, ¢ a tooth from the middle of the comb, and d, one from its upper end. Thus far a single species of this genus has been accurately described by Valenciennes, under the name of Sclerognathus Cyprinella, from lake Pontchartrain, near New Orleans; but as I have remarked above, the genus Sclerognathus ean not stand, since it includes two distinet types, for*both of which Rafinesque has already introduced unobjectionable names. One of these genera is founded upon the Catostomus Cyprinus of Lesueur, and will retain the name of Carpiodes, as characterised above, the _ yin is the subject of this paragraph, for which the name of c all other fins much larger, and the scales not higher than long; from Burlington, Iowa. Received from Dr. Rauch, to whom [ am indebted for a very large collection of fishes from the Missis- Sipp!, and its tributaries in the State of Iowa. : Ichthyobus Stolleyi.—Body higher than in Ichthyobus Rauchii, Profile steeper, and hence snout blunter, opercular bones larger, fins proportionally of the same size. From Osage River, Missouri. Szconp Szares, Vol. XIX, No. 55.—Jan,, 1855. 11 82 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. I have obtained this species from Mr. George Stolley, who has made extensive zoological collections for me in the western aud southern parts of the State of Missouri especially along the Osage River and its tributaries. Cyclepius, Raf. As in many other instances, Rafinesque has named, but neither defined nor characterised the genus to which I now call attention. He has not himself even seen the fish upon which the genus: is founded, and refers to another genus a species which cannot - separated from this. Moreover the characteristics of the as given by Rafinesque are not true to nature. Yet, aaa standing these objections, I do not feel at liberty to reject his generic name ; siuce it is possible to identify the fish he meant by the vernacular name under which it is known in the West. There is another reason why Rafinesque’s descriptions of our western fishes ought to be most carefully considered and every possible effort made to identify his genera and species, the fact that he was the first to investigate the fishes of the Ohio and its tributaries upon a large scale, and that notwithstanding the loose- ness with which he performed the task and the lamentable inac- curacies of his too short descriptions, his works bear almost upon every page the imprint of his keen perception of the natural affinities of species, aud their intimate relations to one auother ; so much so, that even where he has failed to assign to his genera any characters by which they may be recognized, yet, when the species upon which they are founded can be identified, we usu- ally find that beta are good reasons for considering them as form- ing distinct gene The trouble ik Rafinesque is, that he too often introduced in his works species which he had not seen himself, and which he referred almost at random among his genera, thus defacing his well characterised groups, or that he went so far as to foun genera upon species which he had never seen, overlooking per- haps that he had already described such types under other names. he genus Cyclepius affords a striking example of all these mistakes combined together. In his remarkable paper upon the genus Catostomus, Lesueur describes and figures one species from the Ohio River, under the name of C. elongatus peculiar for its elongated cylindrical body, and for its long dorsal fin beginning half way between the pectorals and ventrals, and extending as ‘back as the insertion of the anal. This species Rafinesque introduces in his subgenus Decactylus among the genuine Catos- tomi, without perceiving that it belongs to his own genus Cy- eleptus. This ae arises undoubte edly from his belief that in tus th wo dorsuls which indeed he mentions as ofthis gos but this statement i is erroneous: the (aera: pela Saal L v L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 83 rays of the dorsal are in fact, enclosed in a continuous membrane, the anterior rays only being much longer than those of the mid- dle and posterior portion of that fin; occasionally these long rays split, and accidentally separate from the following ones, when they seem to form two dorsals. The character of this genus, as far as the dorsal fin is con- cerned, consists in reality vot in its division, but in its great ex- tension along the back, and the elongation of its anterior rays. The anal is very small in proportion to the size of the fish, and inserted far back, so that the length of the abdominal cavity is greater than in the genera Carpiodes, Ichthyobus and Bubalich- thys, with which Cycleptus is closely allied by the peculiar form of its dorsals. Again, Rafinesque remarks that the mouth is terminal, round and small. This requires also to be qualified. The mouth appears terminal and round only when the jaws are protruded to their utmost extent; when closed, it is rather cres- ceut-shaped and entirely retracted under the projecting, pointed snout; the lips are covered with numerous projecting papillz and spread horizontally.—these are moreover continuous around the angles of the mouth, so that the upper and lower lips are hardly separated by a small fold, and the lower lip is slightly emarginate “04 middle, while in other genera of this tribe it is actually obed. The pharyngeal bones are strong, their anterior surface being flattened and their greatest diameter being the transverse one, as Ichthyobus, as is also the case in Bubalichthys, and they are gradually increasing in size, and relative thickness from the upper part of the arch to its symphysis, but they are much fewer and farther apart than in the latter genus. ‘Their inner edge Is trans- Verse, rather bluut, though the middle ridge is somewhat project- ig; the lower teeth are so shaped that their inner angle Is hardly higher than the outer, while in the middle and Upper teeth it is gradu- ally more projecting, and from the middle of the arch upwards forms & prominent point arch- ed outwards, ig. 4, a, represents t 8 the righ pharyngeal of ens 84 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. from the posterior side, 6 and 6’ being two lateral views of the lower teeth, and ¢ a view of an upper toot The scales are considerably longer than high, with a rather prominent posterior — numerous radiating furrows upon the anterior and poster r fields, me across the lateral fields; the concentric ridges of, the dee field are not only broader that those of the other fields, but instead of running parallel to the margin of the scales they are curved in concentric gothic arches between each two radiating furrows. Heckel mentions this genus under the name of Rhytidostomus, but Rafinesque’s name Cycleptus has the priority. Properly it ought to be called Leptocyclus, according to its etymology, (see my Nomenclator eae Index Universalis, p. 109,) but under this form no- ould recognize it as Rafinesque’s name, I shall therefore not ae rhe change. I must leave it doubtful whether we have more than one species of this interesting genus. I have before me specimens from Cincinnati, kindly forwarded to me by Prof. Baird, and others from St. Louis, Missouri, for which 1 am in- indebted to Dr. George Engelmann, but they differ so much in size, those from Ohio being young and those from Mississippi rather large, that I am unable to decide whether the differences they exhibit are specific or merely characteristic of theirage. In the St. Louis specimens the peduncle of the tail is shorter, the lobes of the caudal fin broader, the scales of the sides of the body less pointed behind and the caudal fin not so deeply forked. Should these differences prove specific, the name of Cycl. nigres- cens proposed by Rafinesque may be retained for the St. Louis type, and that of C. elongatus for that of Cincinnati; should they the same, the name elongatus, applied by Lesueur for his Ca- tostomus elongatus, having the priority over that of Rafinesque, must be preserved for bot h. The preceding descriptions show that instead of four species of Catostomi with a long dorsal, mentioned in Dr. Storer’s Synopsis of the fishes of North America, as Catostomus elongatus and Bu- balus and Sclerognathus Cyprinus and Cyprinella, we have not than four distinet genera of this type: Carpiodes, Bubalich- thys, Ichthyobus and ‘Cyeleptus, numbering together sixteen or seventeen species, fourteen of which I have been able to deseribe and a to compare with one another, having specimens my own collection. It isa I fect worth mentioning that the whole of this type is wanting in the waters of the Pacific slope of our continent, from which indeed a ee” species of the genus Catostomus proper far. known th Moxostoma, Raf. ost authors refer the species of this genus to Catostomus proper. DeKay however refers them to Cuvier’s genus Labeo, L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 85 though they bear only a remote resemblance to it. I have been unable to trace the etymology of the name Moxostoma. It may be a misspelling for Myzostoma, but in that form the name is already applied to a genus of worms. The species of this genus contrast greatly with those of all other genera of the family of Cyprinoids, by the total absence of external openings in the lateral line, visible upon the scales. There is indeed no row of perforated scales upon the sides of the body to mark the main course of the system of tubes, pervading the skin in most fishes, and the pores traversing the skin which covers the skull and cheeks, as well as the lower jaw, are so minute as to line is distinctly marked by a series of tubes traversing a promin- ent row of scales along the sides, and extending through the mas- toids to the forehead, and along the preopercle to the symphysis of the lower jaw. This total absence of an externally visible lat- eral line is compensated by the presence of a few deeper radia- ting furrows in the posterior field of all the scales.* The longitudinal diameter of the scales exceed greatly the transverse, but the scales are imbricated in such a manner that the portion visible externally appears higher than long. The centre of radiation is placed in the middle of the scales; there are no radiating furrows upon the lateral fields, those of the pos- terior field are fewer and deeper than those of the anterior field ; the concentric ornamental ridges of the posterior field are also much broader and farther apart than those of the lateral and an- terior fields. The scales are smaller upon the anterior portion of the body than upon the sides. Another remarkable peculiarity of this genus consists in the great difference there is among the aduits in the form of their fins in the different sexes. The young also differ strikingly from the adults both in form and coloration : the mouth is not surrounded by such thick lips, nor turned so far downwards, so that they may easily be mistaken for young Leucisci, and as they are marked with a broad, longitudinal black band extending from the snout through the eye to the end of the tail, they bear the closest resemblance to the Cyprinus atronasus of Mitchill, (my Rhinichthys atronasns) and have more than Once been mistaken for that species. This lateral band which I have observed in the young of all the four species of this genus, Which I have had an opportunity of examining, gradually fades * In the bserve another extreme in this system of tubes, every scale from eee deitig verated by a tube, as the lateral line alone shows GHEE in moet fishes: 2, other tahea, & ‘yptosus, have sti arrangem te ides the perforations of the scales of the lateral line, there are in this fish, ai rows of eee holes above and below the lateral li and alo the base dorsal, and below the insertion of the pectoral, all of — ch converge towards the upper angle ofthe thoracic arch aad open int the sinus 86 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. and finally vanishes entirely in specimens of about three inches in length. Such a young specimen of our eastern species been described by Lesueur as Catostomus vittatus. The body of Moxostoma is elongated aud somewhat compressed; though stouter than that of the Ptychostomus and Catostomus proper ; its greatest depth is above the ventrals. ‘The head is small; the small mouth opens obliquely for- wards and downwards: when open the lower jaw is quite prom- iuent. The lips are small and transversely ridged ; the lower one is slightly bilobed. The dorsal is over the ventrals ; its length considerably exceeds its height in the males; in the females these dimensions are more nearly equal. .'The pectoral and ventrals are more pointed and longer in the males than in the females. The lower margin © the anal fin is bilobed in the males, while in the females it is sim- ply ron aoe ; in both sexes, the anal, when bent backwards, reaches the c ‘The phar nineacandl bones have a greater resemblance to those of the genus Ichthyobns, than to any other of the tribe of Catos- tomi; the symphysis however i is shorter, and the teeth are neither so minute, hor so numerons ; they increase also more rapidly in size fram above downwards, and are more strongly curved in- wards; their cutting edge is slanting outwards, the innermost edge rising into an acute point, which is more prominent in the middle and upper teeth, than in the lower ones. Fig. 5, a, repre- sents the right pharyngeal of icantins oblongum, 6 one of the lower teeth in profile ; ¢ another in the same position ; d the same, from the sharp side. Former investigators, unconscious of the marked differences which exist in this genus between individuals of different sexes aud ages, in different seasons of the year, have described a num- ber of nominal species, which may now safely be reduced to their — relations. DeKay, in his Natural History of the State of New , describes the species so common in the Eastern States, un- ine no fewer than five different names, as Labeo gibbosus, Labeo elegans, Labeo esopns, Labeo oblongns, aud Catostomus tubercu- latus, and mentions it a sixth time under the name of Catostomus Vitlatus, given to the young by Lesueur. or Storer in his synop- sis of the fishes of North America, has it under five ditierent names, as Cat 1s ibbosus, oblo us, techie, esopus, vittatus. The oldest ae applied to this. fish being that of C Rea lea L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 87 rinus oblongus, introduced by Dr. Mitchell in his Report of the fishes of New York, the specific appellation of oblongus must of course be preserved for it. Since DeKay has represented four forms of this species, I may avail myself of his figures to give an idea of its variations: Catostomus tuberculatus, P|. 31, fig. 97 represents the male in the spawning season, with tubercles upon the snout, a long dorsal and a lobed anal. DeKay mentions its appearance in April. Labeo oblongus, P|. 42, fig. 136, isan adult male in winter, with a long dorsal and a lobed anal, but without tubercles. DeKay observed its appearance in December. Labro gibbosus, Pl, 32, fig. 101, is a younger male, with less deeply obed anal; Labeo elegans, Pl. 31, fig. 100, is a young female in Winter dress, with a shorter dorsal, trapezoidal anal and a more slender form. Dekay observed his specimens in October and November; Labeo Esopus is an adult female with a somewhat emarginate anal, broader than the preceding ; Catostomus vittains, Lesueur, with “a black stripe passing from the snout through the eye to the candal fin, dividing the body equally” in the young. T have traced all these differences in specimens taken from the same pond in different seasons of the year. Lesueur, who first described Catostomus gibbosus and tuberculatus, already remarked that these species may be founded upon the two sexes of one and the same species. Instead of availing himself of this hint and ascertaining its correctness, DeKay has ouly increased the confu- sion by describing three other forms as so many additional spe- cies, and he has unfortunately been followed by later compilers. This Species ranges through the States of Massachusetts, Con- necticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, I have obtained specimens from the Susquehanuah through the kindness of Prof. 8. S. Haldeman, from Carlisle, Pa., through Prof. Baird, from Chestertown and Havre de Grace, Maryland, through F. R. Williams, Esq. and Dr. Wroth. I entertain seri- ous doubts as to the identity of the form found in Lake Cham- plain. The other species of the genus are Catostomus Sucetta, Les. (Cyprinus Sucetta, Lacep. ), from Charleston, and other locali- ties in South Carolina. This species occurs also in Georgia. I ave received specimens from that State from Athens, through the kindness of Prof. J. Le Conte, and from the Altamaha, through G, Belknap, Esq. , The third species is the Catostomus (Moxostoma) anisurus, Raf, from the Ohio, which I have found as far west as the vicin- ity of St. Louis (Missouri), and of which specimens have been kindly forwarded to me from the Scioto River, by J. Sullivant, 88 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. which I shall call Morostoma tenue, as it differs from the others, by its more yey sapier form, and less prominent differences be- tween males and females. I would unhesitatingly refer also Ca- tostomus congestus, B. ee G., to this geuus, from the characters assigned to this species, were the oo line et described as run- ning straight along the middle of the side, when the absence of a lateral line is the most prominent character ‘of the genus Moxos- toma. Not having however seen a specimen, I must leave it for Messrs. Baird and Girard to determine whether it is a genuine Ca- tostomus, as the genus is now circumscribed. Ptychostomus, Agass. In respect to form of body and the structure and position of fins, this genus does not differ from Catostomus proper, but may be distinguished by the following structural peculiarities. The lips are marked by transverse ridges or folds, and hardly bileiess below; they are not papillated as in Catostomus proper. generic name of this type is derived from this character - _ lips. ‘The head is shorter and stouter. The dorsal is longer than it is high, but in the males it is longer in proportion than in the females. The anal of the male is also broader than that of the female, and its lower margin lobed, while in the female it is tra- pezoidal and narrow. Such differences between the sexes do not exist in the species of Catostomus pro The scales are as large on the anterior as on the posterior parts of the body; their vertical diameter about as great as the longi- tudinal, so that the scales are nearly quadrangnlar with rounded edges ; the ornamental concentric ridges not longer nor broader n the posterior than upon the lateral and anterior fields; the radiating furrows few, only one or two in the posterior field, and one on each side, limiting that field from the lateral fields; those of the anterior field are more numerous, and yet not crowded. Tube of -the lateral line arising in the centre of radiation or far- ther back upon the posterior field The pharyngeals are strong, their entire edge spreading like a wing, and that spreading margin is sep- arated from the symphysis by a deep emargination. The teeth, increas- ing rather rapidly in size from above ownwards, are more apart from one another than in the preceding genera, and arched inwards as in Moxostoma ; the inner edge of the lower ones square, its inner margin rising into a broad cusp in the middle and upper teeth. Fig, 6, 4 Ce the nght a of Ptychostomus macro- ous from its inner surface, Hone of the lower teeth, e aad d tooth {rele the middie and “Upper part of the arc’ >. a L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 89 I know four distinct species of this genus from personal exam- ination, all well described and figured by Lesueur and Dr. Kirt- land, viz: Catostomus Aureolus, Les., Catost. Duquesnii, Les., vatost. macrolepidotus, Les., and Catost. melanops, Rafin. The Catost. Sueurii, Rich., Fauna Boreali-Americani, I have not seen myself, nor the Catost. Carpio, Vad., but from their description, and from the figure given of the latter by Valenciennes, I am inclined to believe that Cat. Sueurii is founded upon the male of Catost. Duquesnii. It cannot be a distinct species, since three species only of this genus are found within the natural boundaries of the fresh- water fauna of New York :—Catost. aureolus, Catost. Duquesnii, and Catost. macrolepidotus, one of which, C. aureolus, has himself accurately described. Rafinesque’s Catostomus eryth- rurus is identical with Lesneur’s Cat. Duquesnii. As to Catosto- mus melanops, Raf., it is a well characterised species, which Dr. Kirtland has for the first time satisfactorily described; but the Species Valenciennes described afterwards under the name of C. fasciatus from specimens sent him by Lesueur under that name, 18 synonymous with it, as is also his own Cat. melanotus. Judg- ing from the form of the anal, and the position of the dorsal, I believe that Catostomus insignis, B. § G., which I have not seen, also belongs to this genus, though no mention is made in their description of the character of the lips, so important in this tribe, as Lesuetr has already shown. he black dot at the base of each scale, brings it near Ptychostomus melanops. _ The geographical distribution of these species presents some Interesting peculiarities ; for three of them, C. aureolus, Duques- nit and macrolepidotus are found in the Canadian Lakes, and yet | they do not cover the same areas, C. aureolus, extending chiefly northwards, Catostomus Duquesnii westwards, and C. macrolepi- dotus eastwards ; C. mela on the contrary, is only found in the West and Southwest, and not in the great Lakes. If, upon close examination, Catostomus insignis should prove to belong to this genus, it would furnish additional evidence that the Pty- chostomi with dotted seales are the southwestern type of the genus, Stoonp Sznims, Vol. XIX, No, 65—Jan. 1855. 12 90 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. . Hylomyzon, Agass. The name of this genus isa mere translation of the vernacu- lar name of ils type, the Mud-Sucker of the West, framed in im tation of Petromyzon, but expressing its habits of living in the mud. The body is stout and heavy in front, and tapers off rap- idly from the shoulders towards the tail ; behind the dorsal it is nearly cylindrical in form The short quadrangular head is broad and flat above, its sides are vertical. The eyes are of moderate size, and elliptical in m; the superorbital ridges are elevated above the general level of the head. The mouth is inferior, and encircled by broad, fleshy lips, which are covered by small granules or papilla. The lewer lip is bilobed. ‘The dorsal is over the ventrals, and nearer the head than the tail; its height and length are nearly equal. The pectorals and ventrals are broad and rounded, the anal fiv is slender aud reaches the caudals. The scales are largest on the aiterior portion of the body. They are slightly longer than high; the ornamental conceutric ridges of the posterior field are broader and farther apart than those of the lateral and anterior fields ; no radiating furrows upon the lateral fields; those of the — and posterior fields rather remote, about equal i in bumber. Tube of the lateral line arising from the centre of radiation. The teeth are compressed, so that their sharp-edge projects in- wards ; at the same time they are slightly arched inwards and in- serted obliquely upon the pharyngeal bones. They increase gradually iv size and thickness from above downwards. The more projecting, the inner point however projecting more than the outer one. Fig. 7, a, represents the right pharyngeal of Hy- w]e. - lomyzon nigricans, b and c¢, one of the lower teeth from two sides, and d one of the middle teeth in profile. _'There is no species in the whole tribe of Catostomi which has described under so many names as the type of this genus. It was first described by Lesueur under the name of Cat. nigri- caus, from specimens obtained in Lake Erie. At the same time he described specimens from Pipe Creek, Maryland, under the a a a w ; oo? L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 91 name of Catostomus macuiosus, suspecting however, what is true, that this may be only a variety of the former. Soon after- wards Rafinesque described the same species from the Ohio and its tributaries, under four different names, as Catostomus fascio- laris, C. flexuosus, C. megastomus, and C. xanthopus. Again, his Exoglossam macropterum, for which he afterwards proposed the generic name Hypentelium is only the young of the same species ; finally Valenciennes, though copying the description of Cat. nigricans and C. maculosus from Lesnenr’s paper, describes anew original specimens of the former species, which Lesueur had sent to the Jardin des Plantes under a new name, as Cat. planiceps. We have thus eight specific names for a single spe- cies, the only one thus far known of this genus. In order to sub- Stantiate this assertion. | ought to state that though there are no marked differences between males and females in this genus, which may lead to the establishment of nominal species, as in the genus Moxostoma, the young and adult differ greatly in their coloration, being first strongly banded ‘transversely, then more mottled, and afterwards the bands and blotches of dark color fa- ding into isolated specks and finally disappearing entirely, the lower fins, and the abdomen becoming in the same proportion more brightly tinged, especially in the spawning season, as the upper parts of the body grow lighter. ‘hese four stages have misled Rafin- esque to distinguish four species; his OU. fasciolaris, about eight inches long, with small transversal black lines, is described from a Juvenile specimen, his C. flexuosus from ten to ticelve inches long, more plain, is described from nearly full grown specimens; his C. megastomus, yellowish beneath, appearing in shoals in March. is drawn from a male in the spawning season ; his C. xanthopus, with lower fins yellowish is a younger male; his Exoglossum macrop- terun is drawn from a very young specimen with fully protruded mouth, Thus we account for all the nominal species of Rafin- esque. That he should have taken no notice of Lesueur’s de- scriptions, is the natural consequence of the assumption upon which Rafinesque works throughout, that the fishes of our west- = waters differ uniformly as species from those of the Atlantic: reams. The mistake of Valenciennes arose from another Source. It was the habit of Lesueur to send to the Jardin des Plantes, original specimens of all his species, carefully labelled, Whether he had published descriptions of them or not, and we ud in the great Histoire Naturelle des Poissous, many species de- seribed by Cuvier and Valenciennes, uuder Lesnenr’s name, even though the latter had never himself published any notice of them.* Of Catostomus nigricans, Lesueur sent two dried speci- * How honor : with e some Naturalists are run- tng. for the questionable eraetn of being the Ast to name species, uibg even "Sorts of unw hy tricks to secure them. 92 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. mens to Paris from the Wabash, the labels of which seem to have been lost; at least Valenciennes, who describes them as Cat. planiceps, says he received them from Lesueur without a name, not recognising that they were original specimens of the Catost. nigricans of Lesueur, as the description of Valenciennes clearly shows them to be. Hylomyzon nigricans has the widest geo- graphical distribution of all our Catostomi. It occurs in the northern and middle Atlantic States, in all the great Canadian Lakes, with the exception of Lake Superior, through all the mid- dle western States as far as Missouri. Its southernmost localities are Lebanon, Tennessee, from which place I have received speci- mens — Prof. J. M. Safford, and Huntsville, Alabama, . H. Newman, Esq., sent me also several specimens. Its ra cnet range is in the Osage River, Missouri, from which Mr. G. Stolley has sent me quite a number. I have repeatedly aud most carefully compared with one another the specimens from the remotest then without finding the least specific differeuce between t Catostomus. I have retained the name of ae for the type to which it was originally applied by For e body is elongated, {emai ae slightly compressed. The snout is short and blunt, and projects but little beyond the mouth, which is inferior. The lower jaw is short and broad; the lips are fleshy and dames bilobed below ; their surface is conspicuously granulated or papillated. The head is considerably longer than high. The dorsal is large, and mostly in advance of the ventrals; its length is greater than its height. The anal fin is long and slender, and reaches the caudal. The sexual differences so conspicuous in the genus Moxostoma and Ptychostomus, are hardly to be noticed in-this genus. The other fins are of moderate size, and more or less pointed. The scales are much smaller on the anterior than on the pos- terior portion of the body; nearly quadrangular, with rounded angles, but somewhat longer than high; the ornamental concen- tric ridges of the posterior field broader than those of the lateral _and anterior fields; the radiating furrows more numerous than in Hylomyzon and Ptychostomus, and encroaching upon the lateral fields, where in some species, they are nearly as numerous, as upon the anterior and posterior fields. ‘Tubes of the lateral line wider than in Hylomyzon and Ptychostomus, extending from the centre of radiation to the posterior margin. The pharyngeals are stout and compact, ri outer margin not ea Pi as in Ptychostomus; the teeth are blunter and larger tively than in ey other genus of ine tribe, increasing i | Opn emt L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 93 more rapidly in size from above downwards, so that those of the middle of the arch are already of the same cast as those of the lower part of the comb; their crown is blunt and the inner edge rises into a blunt cusp. Fig. 8, a, represents the right pharyngeal a of Catostomus communis, } being one of the lower teeth, ¢ one from the middle of the arch and d a side view of the same. _ This genus has representatives over a much greater geograph- ical area than any other of the tribe, some are found even as far north as the fur countries of North America, others iu Lake Su- perior ; farther south they occur in all the fresh waters of the United States as far as Texas and the northern boundaries of Mexico, whence Mr. John H. Clark has obtained several new Species described by Messrs. Baird and Girard in the Proceedings of the American Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for 1854, page 27. I have myself received a new species from N. Mexico, through the kindness of Dr. Henry of the U. S. Army and another from Georgia through Prof. J. LeConte. Sir John Richardson mentions their occurrence in the Columbia River. I have myself received a new species from San Francisco, Cali- Catostomus from the old world. As the species of this genus are Closely allied to one another and their distinguishing characters could not be plainly illustrated without figures, I will not enter Into more details about them for the present and limit myself to enumerating them and describing the species from San Francisco. rhe first species known is that which Lesueur has called Ca- tostomus Hudsonius, the Cyprinus Catostomus of Forster. Next Richardson (my Cat. Aurora), an entirely different species. There are however still some difficulties about these northern species to be Solved, as it remains doubtful whether there are three or four Or only two species ranging from the great Canadian Lakes north- ward. [ am unable to find any difference between Catostomus | ently admitted. Catostomus Clarkii and Ca- tostomus plebeius, B. & G., are distinct species. 94 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. their Catostomns congestus and insignis I must refer to car rema.ks under the head of Moxostoma and Prychostomus. Catostormus Bostonensis, Les., Cat. pallidus, DeKay, and flore- alis, pair are so closely allied that 1 am unable to distinguish them; I have however seen only one specimen of the latter. As to Cat, Peels Val., it has not been seen since Tilesius described it under the name of Cyprinus rostratus, and its true affinities remain still doubtful. Catostomus occidentalis, Agass. This species resembles very closely C. communis, in general ontline and appearance, but differs from it in the following re- spects. ‘The head is less square ; the profile steeper, but the snont is more pointed. The sides of the head are nearly triangular instead of trapezcidal and converge more rapidly forwards. ‘The longitudinal rows of tubes upou the top of the head are more waved. The mouth is smaller; the hind margin of the lower lip is perpendicularly under the anterior nasal opening. The lower border of the eye and the posterior angle of the opercle are on the same esha line. ‘The centre of the eye is nearer the anterior edge of the upper lip than the hind or lower angle of the subopercle. "The opercle aud subopercle are larger and longer aud together form one-half of the side of the head. The lowest angle of the opercle is less acute, and its hind angle smaller ; i its waving border is directed more forwards and backwards. The pectorals are broader; the dorsal is longer, considerably emarginated above, its last rays shorter and its upper angle more acute. ‘The ventrals are more pointed The scales on the anterior part of the body are smaller. TRIBE OF CHONDROSTOMI, There lives in Europe a remarkable fish of the family of Cyp- rinoids which was first described by Linneeus as Cyprinus Nasus, and in which I recognised about twenty years ago the type of a distinct genus, Chondrostoma. ‘This fish differs so strikingly from the other Cyprinoids that Heckel in his synopsis, considers it as the type or a distinet tribe, to which he ascribes the follow- ing characters ‘Os inferum in aciem cartilagineam attenuatum, labiis et plica menti deficientibus ; rostrum incrassatum ; preopereulum he gens oceiput. Pinna dorsalis snbelongata, analis brevis, utraque i osseo nullo. 'Tractus intestinalis longissimus tenuissimus. "The cartilaginous lips, with a sharp edge of the lower lip at least and the ehideltike teeth, with a narrow flat grinding surface, supported upon pharyn eals the outer margin of which has a r 7 ‘in seer Ae of mig nigral ve lateral: a truly characterist this tribe as a ra LL. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 95 Thus far, America has not been known to produce any repre- sentation of this type. I for the first time called the attention of Naturalists to its existence in our waters in my “Notice of a cel- lection of fishes from the southern beud of the Tennessee River,”’* but the scanty materials | had then in my possession did net allow ine to make a thorongh comparison between the representatives of the old world and those of the new, and even now Iam unable to extend my investigations to the Asiatic and African species described by Buchanan, McClellan, Sykes, Russell and Valen- ciennes. But even between the American and Enropean mem- bers of this tribe, most of which I have now before me. there are marked differences aud striking analogies. In the first lace, I would remark that the genus Exoglossum of Rafinesqne, which is entirely peculiar to North America, thongh placed near Catos- tomus by ail ichthyologists who have had an opportunity of ex- amining it, in reality belongs to the tribe of Chondrestoma, the very peculiar shape of its mouth being only the extreme of the feature characteristic of that genus and arising from the redne- tion and discontinuity of the lower lip near the symphysis of the two branches of the lower jaw and the great projection of the symphysis itself. The pharyngeal teeth moreover have no re- sembiance to those of Catostomus, either in their form or in their arrangement, but approximate closely the common type of Leu- sum, contains also exclusively American species, next deserves to be noticed here. Since Rafinesque, Dr. Kirtland seems to be the only ichthyologist, who has observed the type upon which this genus was founded. We find an excellent figure of it, accom- panying his paper upon the fishes of the Ohio and its tribntaries, published in the 3d vol. of the. Boston Journal of Natural History. lhis genus seems at first to resemble more the type of Leuciseus than that of Chondrostoma by its general form, and yet the at- tenuated, sharp, somewhat truncated lower lip, and the thickened snout leaves no doubt as to its real affinity with Chondrostoma. The fish described by Dr. Kirtland as Exoglossum dubium, of which Valenciennes’ Exoglossum spinicephalum is the male in the Spawning season, is another representative of this tribe, still more approximating the European -genus Chondrostoma, but differing rom it, in having only four pharyngeal teeth on each side, in- Stead of six, and which I shall call Campostoma. Finally, among the fishes collected by the U. S. Exploring Expedition, under the command of Capt. Wilkes, there is a species found in the Colum- bia iver, coming nearer to Heckel’s genus Chondrorhynchns, than to my Chondrostoma, which however constitutes another Senus peculiar to the Pacific slope of North America, which I shall call Acrocheilus. * Printed in this Journal, vol. xvii, 2d ser. p. 357. 96 L: Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. It appears thus that far from being deficient in representatives of the tribe of Chondrostomi, North America has a greater num- ber of them and more diversified ones than Europe, belonging to four distinct genera: Exoglossum, Raf., Pimephales, Raf, Cam- postoma, Agass., and Acrocheilus, Agass.; to which must be added two other new genera to be described hereafter, founded also upon North American species: Hybognathus, Agass., and Hyborhyn- chus, Agass.- I am unable to say whether the genus Cochlogna- thus, B. and G., belongs to this tribe or not, as I have had no opportunity of examining it seahcitas Agass. The type of this genus has a general resemblance to the type of my genus Chondrostoma, inasmuch as the mouth opens trans- versely under the snout, and has a hard cartilaginous or rather horny edge. But it differs from that genus in having a solid rim along the upper lip similar to that upon the lower, and in the character of its scales, which resemble more those of the group of Barbus, than those of the common type of Leuciscus or Ca- penn a genus I would characterise it by the peculiar structure of the cava of the mouth, which in the lower jaw constitutes a transverse broad flat plate, very similar in appearance to the dental plates of Myliobates, being thicker along the outer edge and tapering gradually along the inneredge. This transverse plate i is square and cut at right angles externally towards the symphysis of the two jaws. In consequence of this peculiar structure of the margin of the mouth and its armature, the lower jaw is as it were cnt transversely, and has in no degree the rounded outline about the symphysis of its branches which is observed in most Cyprinide. ‘The membranous fold which extends from the sub- operculum along the interoperculum towards the symphysis of the lower jaw is limited by a deep furrow which terminates some- what behind the horny plate of the lower jaw. Along the inner edge of the intermaxillary bone there is a similar transverse bony plate which is, however, much narrower and rounded, folding over that of the lower jaw when the mouth is shut. Sideways and above, the intermaxillaries are surrounded by a fleshy lip which is bent forwards at the angle of the mouth to unite with the edge of the horny plate of the lower jaw. The upper max- illary bone forms a slight projection behind the angle of the mouth in a depression arising from a membranous fold upon the sides of the lower jaw, and below and behind the first suborbital bone. There is not the slightest rudiment of a tentacle in the angle between the lower termination of the intermaxillary and upper maxillary. But what is particularly striking in the struc- ture of this’ fish i is the circumstance that the horny covering en- | L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 97 cireling the mouth is deciduous, at least in specimens preserved in alcohol, showing that the attachment of this indurated edge is the same longitudinal direction throughout its thickness, so that the plate breaks very readily at right angles with its own greater diameter. The nostrils, two on each side as in all Cyprinidae, consist of a tubular opening in advance and a large crescent-shaped opening ind, The opercular apparatus and the branchiostegal rays, present ho peculiar characters. The branchiostegal membrane however unites with the skin under the chin on the anterior margin of the humerus, so that the branchial opening does not extend to the sides of the tongue bone. The dorsal begins opposite the insertion of the ventrals, which are themselves somewhat nearer to the anal than to the pectorals. The dorsal exteuds as far back as the anterior margin of the anal. It has three small rays in advance of the longest simple ray which is followed by ten branching rays, the last of which is properly a double ray. | these rays are deeply divided longitudinally and trans- versely articulated. The caudal is very powerful, and remarka- le for the many simple rays which it has along the base of its two lohes, there being seven above and seven below, gradually creasing, so that the longest reaches nearly half the length of the longest sim ple ray which edges the fin above and below. ‘The inner rays are all deeply divided longitudinally and transversely articulated. The number of rays in the upper and lower lobe is equal, eight in both. ‘There seens however to be a middle ray, So that properly speaking there are seven rays in the upper lobe, one in the middle, and eight in the lower lobe. ’ The tail is deeply furcate. When the fin is shut, the inner- Most rays overlap each other, so that the caudal appears much Narrower than when fully expanded, but the outer rays in both obes remain in one plane, and do not overlap each other at all. The anal consists of two simple short rays in advance of the long the fins shnt until [ began to study the Balistidee, I am unable to say how far in varions families, the closing of the fius varies ; bat it isa point to which the attention of Zoologists should be directed in future, as it will no doubt afford interesting characters . Szcowp Senses, Vol. XIX, No. 55.—Jan., 1855. 98 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. in addition to those exhibited by the structure of the rays them- selves. As faras [ can ascertain, it has been admitted among ichthyologists, that the change of form in the fins arose from the rays being brought close together, or stretched asunder ; I find, at east, no mention in any description, of rays overlapping each other, as [ have shown it to be the case among Balistidee, and as is also the case among many others. In the Seomberoids, for instance, the rays of the vertical fins are remarkably spreading when contrasted with those of the Balistide, or those of the genus Acrocheilus described here. The ventrals are rather large, some- what similar in their rounded form and the thickness of their rays, to the ventrals of the genns Tinea; the first ray especially is thick and simple. It is fellowed by eight artictlated rays. he pectorals are also somewhat rounded, but not so much as the ventrals, the upper angle projecting more, "Their first ray is also thick and simple, and is followed by sixteen articulated rays gradually tapering, the last of which, however, are simple. In its general form, the fish upon which this new genus is founded, has considerable resemblance to the European Chondrostoma Na- sus, and [ should not be surprised at all if, upon a superficial ex- amination, it had been identified with it, notwithstanding the generic and specific differences, to which I have already alluded. ‘The scales. however, present a striking difference. They have not, as iu Chondrostema, the ordinary type of Leuciseus, but re- semble rather the scales of Barbus in their elongated form, their small size, their many radiating furrows diverging in every direc- tion, and their ornamental pigment cells which are especially nu- merous along the posterior margin. ‘Ihe ceutre of radiation is far in advance of the centre of form. ‘The lateral line arises above the posterior and upper angle of the operculum, and is first slightly bent downwards, so that it follows in its conrse upon the side, @ direction vearer the abdominal margin than the back ; but npon the tail it is strictly upon the middle of the side. ‘The tubes of these scales arise in the middle of the anterior field, aud taper towards the middle of the posterior field, where they terminate. The scales along the back. npon the neck, between the pectorals, aud along the lower margin of the abdominal cavity, are much smallerthan upon the middle of the sides. There is a naked space behind the pectorals in which the muscular swelling of the base of that fin is received, when the fin is bent backwards. There is also a narrow smooth space above the ventrals; along the base of the dorsal and anal the scales do not extend quite to the base of the rays, but upon the candal they cover their base completely and even extend somewhat along the sides of the middle rays. Water pores besides those of the lateral line, are very distinct upon the neck in advance of the scales. The whole surface of the skin covering the skull seems also to be perforated by a set L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 99 of smaller pores, but larger ones follow the margin of the pre- operculum, aud the lower jaw as well as the suborbitals and mas- toid bones. Unfortunately the two specimens collected in Columbia River are deprived of their intestines, and in one of them only, were the pharyngeal boues, withtheir teeth, preserved ; but these af- ford further evidence of the correctness of my view in consider- ing these fishes asa type of a distinct gents peculiar as far as is now known to the northwest coast of America. . There is but a single row of teeth and only five teeth in that one row on the left aud four on the rizht side. The isolated teeth stand ona eylindrieal peduncle swelling into an obligne club-shaped crown, which is elongated externally into a sharp hook, but the inner surface is cut obliquely like the incisors of Rodents, and resen a flat grinding surface resembling closely the dentition of Chon- drostoma and Chondrochilus, differing however in the more club- shaped form of the teeth, and the sharp terminal hook, and also the smaller number of teeth iu one row. Fig. 9, a, represents the right pharyngeal of Acrocheilus alutacens seen from behind, b the sume seen from its inner margin, ¢ one tooth in profile from its Upper side, ¢ another from its lower side, and e the same from the inner side to show the grinding surface. As a further resem- blance to the geuns Choudrostoma, L should mention the eir- cumstance, that the peritoreum is also blac Acrocheilus alutaceus, Agass. aud Pick. Caught at Willamet Falls, and in Wallawalla River. Nose Prominent and rounded. ail rather slender. Candal large. Dorsal mnch larger than the anal. The color light brown above, (there being a white and Very fine line on the edge of each scale,) blending into yellowish brown upon the sides, and passing into pure white upou the ab- domen. Gill-cover golden brown. wsal and caudal of the same color as the sides of the body. Pectorals orange, gradually paler towards the base, Ventrals as the pectorals, but more uni- formly Orange. Anal also orange, but more bright and reddish. It occurs in the rapids and falls of the River. Is caught by the natives whule fishing in the Falls for Salmon. : (To be continued.) 100 JT. S. Hunt on Solution and the Chemical Process. Arr. XIIL—Thoughts on Solution and the Chemical Process ; by T UNT By solution, as distinguished. from fusion or volatilization, we understand in chemistry the production of a homogeneous liquid by the combination of two or more bodies, one of which must itself be in a liquid state, while the others may be liquid, solid, or gaseous. ‘The solveut action of acids and alkalies upon bodies insoluble in water is by all admitted to be chemical in its nature ; but according to Leopold Gmelin, “mixtures of liquids, and so- lutions of solids in liquids, (as of acids, alkalies, salts, oils, etc., in water and alcohol,) are by Berzelius, Mitscherlich, Dumas, and hers most distinguished modern chemists, regarded ” not chemical ere they take place in definite proportions.” “Mitscherlich attributes such unions to adhesion, Dumas to @ solvent power intermediate between cohesion and (chemical) affinity, aud Berzelius refers them to @ modification of affinity, while proper chemical combinations according to him result not — 1g from affinity, but from electrical attraction.” —( Gmelin’s Hand- book, English ed., vol-i, p ) The learued author of the Handbook objects to these views that “they restrict the idea of a chemical compound within too narrow limits,” and he elsewhere implies that the force which ai a solution is a weak degree of chemical affinity. (Id. vol., The judicious Turner also speaks of ordinary solutions as 8 of chemical union ;* and Mr. J. J. Griffin has insisted upon the same view.t As these writers have not however suflfi- ciently dwelt upon the important principle, rejected by so many names of authority, that all solution is chemical union, we pro- pose to offer some considerations upon aqueous solution, and endeavor to show that the process presents all the phenomena of chemical combination. First, in the fact that the resulting saturated solutions are perfectly homogeneous; secondly, in the coudeusation and more or less perfect identification of volume observed in the process ;{ (some anhydrous salts dissolve in water without increasing its volume.) Thirdly, in the change of tem- perature which attends the process ; thus oil of vitriol, hydrate of potash, and many anhydrous salts evolve ya when dissolved in water, while sal-ammoniac, nitre, and many hydrous salts pro- duce ald by their solution. dee in the change of color which mnths the solution of some salts, as the chlorids of nickel, . bad Elements of Chemistry, pore ape ~ f L.B and D. Phil, Mag. 3d Series vel me p20 + paper, Considerations on the Theory of Chemical Changes, ete, this Sobral (2h pak ean te Phil. Mag. (4), Gog, and Pharm: Centralblast ’ ee 4 ae eis: i : T. S. Hunt on Solution and the Chemical Process. 101 It mnst not be forgotten that the liquid state of these aqueous combinations is often an accident of temperature; alum and the rhombic phosphate of soda are liquids at 212° F., and bi-hydrated sulphuric acid is a crystalline solid below 46° F. The ease with - which many of these compounds are destroyed by evaporation, and even by changes of temperature, is not to be urged as an objection to the chemical nature of the union. We need only compare the corresponding silver salts with the chlorid and iodid of gold, or the hydrochlorates of morphia and ammonia with those of caffeine and piperine, which lose their acid by a gentle heat, to learn how variable is the stability of admitted chemical compounds. Chemical affinity may be very feeble in degree. According to Gay-Lussac one part of oil of vitriol will absorb from air saturated with moisture, fifteen parts of water, or more than eighty equivalents; terchlorid of arsenic requires eighteen equivalents of water to dissolve it, and the saturated solution unites with as much more water, evolving heat and forming a stable solution.* According to the experiments of Mr. Griffin in the paper cited above, the condensation which takes place in the solution of the acid is still perceptible with 6000 equivalents of water to one of SOs. ‘There appears however to be with many ale. ture, p. 453. See also p. 67, where Stallo insists same view. To Hegel bela es the merit of having first among modern osophers obtained a just conception of the nature of the chemical process, al- though in its application on misled by the received terminology of the science, f 102 7. S. Hunt on Solution and the Chemical Process. Solution being then identification, the discussion as to whether metallic chiorids are changed into hydrochlorates when dissolved in water, is meaningless. Such a solution is a unity, in which we can no more assert the existence of the chlorid or of water, than of chlorine, hydrochloric acid, or a metallic oxyd, although these and many others are conceivable results of its differentia- tion. If the solution be one of chlorid of potassium, evapora- tion resolves it into water and the chlorid, but if chlorid of alu- minum, it is decomposed by boiling into water, hydrochloric acid, and alumina, or in the case of the magnesian salt, into hydro- chlorie acid and an oxychlorid. The precipitation of the sulphates of cerium, lanthanum and . lime from their solutions by heat, and of most other salts by cold, is chemical decomposition or differentiation, Dilution may also effect decomposition in solutions; we have already said that the combination of terchlorid of arsenic AsCle, with 36 is sta- ble at ordinary temperatures, but a further addition of water canses the solution to divide into aqueous hydrochloric ngs and crystalline oxyd of arsenic. The precipitation of chlorid of an- timony, and many salts of bismuth and mercury by wa ae is an analogous process. ‘lhis decomposition of the solution of chlorid of arsenic is an example of what is called double elective affinity, (attractio electiva duplex,) and is generally explained by saying that the attraction of arsenic for oxygen, and that of chlorine for hydrogen, enable the chlorid and water to decompose each other. But these elemental species do not exist in the solution, although they are possible results of its decomposition, and to explain the process in this manner is to aseribe it to the afliuities of yet un- formed speries have elsewhere asserted that double decomposition always involves union followed by division,* although we cannot in every case arrest the process at the first stage. "Under some changed conditions of temperature and pressure, the decomposition may be the counterpart of the previous union, and thus ih aa the original species, as in the case of mercuric oxyd, which i composed into mercury and oxygen ata temperature a little oe that at which it was formed. When the division takes place in a sense different from the union, giving rise to new species, we have double decomposition. In the case of chlorid of arsenic, the aqueous solution exhibits the first stage of the process. A similar condition of austable union is observed in many other ite stances; thus binoxyd of manganese gives with cold hydro- chloric acid, a brown solution, but the combination is by a gentle heat resolved into chlorine gas, aud a rose-red solution of proto- chlorid of manganese. So a mixture of equivalent parts of * Consderations on the Theory of Chemical Changes, ete., cited above, a ‘ Correspondence of J. Nickles. 103 chlorid of Bonwoy! and benzoate of soda combines at a tempera- ture of 130° C., to form a limpid solution, and it is only on rais- ing the temperature that the precipitation of sea-salt indicates the commencement of that decomposition which yields at the same time anhydrous benzoic acid * It is ouly when looked upon as a momentary combination followed by a decomposition, that the theory of double al ai becomes intelligible, aud in ac- cordance with known facts From the narrow limits of temperature which often inelnde the two processes, and from the ease with which light, warmth, friction and pressure excite the decomposition of such bodies as the chlorid of nitrogen, the nitrite of ammonia, the oxyds of chlorine, and the metallic fulminates, we may couceive that within still narrower limits, and under conditions as yet unde- fined, many bodies may exhibit affinities for each other, which are reversed by avery slight change of condition. In this way we may explain many of those obscure phenomena hitherto as- cribed to action by presence or catalysis. Montreal, Nov, 10, 1854. Art. XIV.—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicklés, dated Paris, Nov. 3, 1854. Odituary.—The patriarch of French Botanists, a Brisseau = Mirbel, has j just died at an advanced age. For many vears he had been dead to science as well as to his family and friends, He. came out, tke many others illustrious in science, during the French Revolintion, and w active in promoting the progress of the Scien nce of seperti at the com- e of the microscopic anatom my of plants. The microscope which more than a century before had furnished important results to Grew and Mal- pighi, had long been left, in France especially, among a appara- M. tus, and was hardly applied to the Natural Sciences. irbel, engaged in this fertile line of research, with very imperfect instruments, and from the commencement of his investigations in 1801, aimed t found the department of the comparative anatomy of plants, by siudy- ing for this object a number of families of acotyledonous and monoco- tyledonous plants. In early youth he devoted himself with success to painting, and w intimately acquainted with the celebrated artist Girard. His kn owl- edge of painiing was afterwards of great use to him, tiga him to ; ro etch well what he observed, as may be seen especially in his re- Searches on the structure of the seed and embryo of different ‘aie of the family of —_ alm, etc. - Mirbel w member of the Academy of Sciences from the year 180s. His irk nite « Eléments de Botanique” in 1815, led to his * Gerhardt, Ann. de Ch. et de Phys. 3me Serie, tom. xxxvii, p. 299. 104 Correspondence of J. Nickles. appointment as Professor in the Faculty of Sciences at Paris, suc- ceeding Desfontaines. This was the first period of his scientific life. His intimate friend Duke Decaze having been named Minister of the Interior (in 1816), he accepted the position of general Secretary, which he held till. 1824. If he did not publish works during this time, he performed an important service to science by using his influence in bringing back from exile men of science who had become victims of political vicissitudes at the Restoration ; and through him also funds were given to the Museum of Natural History, to render the institution useful to travelling naturalists, eturning to private life, he took up again his researches in physiol- ogy. His new labors possessed a novelty, an exactness, and perfection, which was hardly expected of a savant, who had been so long a stran- ger to the progress of the science. What was especially surprising, was the profound difference between his new views and those of his youth, and also his noble frankness in acknowledging any inexactness he casion of spirited discussions with M. oe ichaud, then young, whom science has lost during the present year. M. Mirbel did not long con- tinue in this new career. He fell into imabeellity, and continued in this state until his death. Astronomical Refraction.—A memoir by M. Faye, in which he en- deavors to show a defect in the existing theory of astronomical refrac- tion and proposes a formula for correcting it, has led to an interesting discussion which has already continued two agua All the astrono- mers and the principal physi icists have taken part. M. Biot does not restrial refraction. M. Faye has nanan many partisans, and the issue of the discussion does not appear doubtful. Constitution of the Sun; Solar Wicichen 8 Thomson, one of the physicists, who with Carnot, Clapeyron, Joule, Meyer and others, have most largely contributed towards establishing the relations between heat and mechanical wr as extended his researches to the heat emitted by the sun; and he observes that this heat pga a res toa development of mechanical force, which, in the space of about 100 movement of all the planets. ‘The author examines successively the different sources of heat, and ends by concluding that the solar heat sa ve no other than a meteoric origin, and that it results from the on of meteors which fall into the sun—an idea first put forth by M. Waterson at the meeting of the British Association at Hull. What rma e value of this hypothesis, we may ask whether it would aes simple to admit that the solar heat eatals simply from the Fotatory movement of the sun; Mr. Thomson admits himself that is necessary to the production of the heat. It is con of sun moves on its axis, and what use is this intervention meteorites, which nothing j justifies ? 4 Optics.—Microscopes for Micrographic demonstration. 105 This idea of deriving the heat from motion, which was rejected more than thirty years ago, suggests the hypothesis which assigns an analogous origin to terrestrial and hence to planetary magnetism, an hypothesis of which we have spoken on several occasions in this Journal.* But, at that time, the question of solar magnetism was still under discussion, which, researches undertaken by M. Secchi, director of the Observatory at Rome, have now established on evidence. The sun, which is a source of heat, and a source of light, is then a source also of magnetism ; attained ; there are always numerous streaks in the mass, which cause - Peyronny, captain in the corps of Engineers at Cherbourg, pro- poses to avoid these difficulties, by giving the crucible a rapid rotatory movement around a vertical axis ; the centrifugal force tends to bring all the bubbles of air about the centre of the melted mass, whilst the streaks caused by the stirring mostly disappear, and those remaining are circu- lar and feeble, and also little objectionable if the axis of the mass be made the axis of the lens. t we have not, properly speaking, an ratus for measuring easily and rigorously the quantity of polarized light contained in a ray or in ven luminous field. rnard, Pro ro sics at Bor- and also profiting by the discoveries of Babinet and Beer of Bonn, M. Ber- n constructed an instrument of extreme delicacy, which is man- aged with great ease, and requires but two minutes for an observation. directed with a needle. The microscopes of Nachet realize this object, have been employed by Prof. Milne Edwards for a year in his lec. -- _-*® January 1854, p. 116, and November, 1854, p. 386. Stconp Szares, Vol. XIX, No. 55—Jan,, 1855. 14 106 Correspondence of J. Nickles. tures at the Faculty of Sciences of Paris, and the Museum of Natural History. . In one of these rir elicit made for anatomical demon- strations, two persons may see at once the same — ect. e two im- “i t whose edges form with the edges of that a right angle. The image reversed behind the objective is thus righted by the first prism, so that - the qidieutey can direct his needles towards any part of the object with- out difficu In other dics pas, three or even fou btained through as many ocular tubes, by substituting for the OR prism below the ob- jective, either three re ecting prisms placed around the optical focus of and Milne Edwards and other micrographers say that such instruments have been very useful in their demonstrations. Aluminium and the Alkaline Metals.—The persevering efforts of M. H. Sainte Claire Deville and M. Bunsen, lead us to hope that alumin- ium will soon become a useful metal. The last advance has been made by means of the pile causing it to act on chlorid of aluminium. _ It is an important step ; but still the process is expensive. Deville, not ex- pecting to reach a cheaper method by means of the galvanic battery, has endeavored to use the old method by sodium, and has sought to re- duce the cost of preparing this last metal. He can now prepare this metal at a cost of 25 francs the kilogramme ($2 15 cts. the pound avoir- dupois.) The following is the process :—Mix together for a thousan parts, Dried carbonate of soda, 714 parts. Carbonate of lime, 108“ Pulverized charcoal, bs dee Reduce the whole to a paste with oil, and put it into an iron retort, like that of a mercury bottle. A musket barrel two decimeters long is ‘ fitted to the extremity, to which is adapted one of Donny and Mareska’s i receiving vessels. e retort and barrel are heated to redness: the ‘ sodium is immediately reduced, volatilizes, and is condensed in the re- cipient The only peculiarity of this process is the carbonate of lime, which serves to prevent the mixture from entering into fusion: it wa s through a perusal of the memoir of MM. Donny and Mareska, secmorsing € that these chemists recommend the use of crude tartar which contains ‘lime, that Deville was induced to study out the reason for this preference ; he soon discovered it, and proved that he was right, by adding to the ordi- Pee ie: 15 ees cent. of chalk. lso prepared metallic chromium, by oe the method gees in a preceding number of this Journal, and which depends on ;a very high temperature in an ordinary furnace. T Manufacture of Alcohol.—Crystallizations. 107 mixture employed is oxyd of chrome and carbon, the former in slight excess. The metallic chromium resulting was of extraordinary hard- ness ; it scratches glass like the diamond. Manufacture of Alcohol.—The disease of the vine and the conse- quent dearness of wine, has directed attention to different methods of finally turn the sugar manufactories into distilleries, we now hear of the alcohol of Indian corn, alcohol of couch grass (** chiendent’’), alco- hol of asphodel, which have begun to be manufactured in the colony of Process. We cannot say that the process will be economical. Crystallizations.—We have just seen at the Sorbonne, in the labor- atory of M. f the magn SO°RO4+S0%KO+6HO ; the different alums; the double chlorids ; quite Germa M. Dumas employs him in his laboratory and has given him a commission to form a collection of the principal artificial crystals—an example which should be followed ow crystal- cial products should be studied with the care which mineralogists have devoted to native crystals. The many | avoided when the forms shall have been referred to types whose exact Position is known, and whose crystallized form can be verified. ee hie 108 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. This og ea is — — for scientific instruction in France, since the new programme of Chemistry which has just been prescribed to the Feleutes of 1 i Faculty of Science, contains ques- tions relating to isomorphism, polymorphism, isomeromorphism, and in general all that relates to the relations between chemical composition and crystalline form. Introduction into France of a new species of Silkworm.—The “ So: ciété Zoologique d’Acclimatation,” alluded to in a former communica- tion,* is highly prosperous. It has made numerous laudable attempts to acclimate useful animals from different parts of the globe, and to domesticate wild animals. Ithough too recently formed to pro- nounce on the full success of its endeavors, it is already in possession of facts which give great ho . OF these, is the acclimation of the g pen Bombyx Cynthia (* chenille du ricin’”) a silkworm of India, which, ac- cording to Roxburgh, furnishes a silk so firm that clothes made of it will last a life time. The honor of having introduced this Bombyx belongs to M. Milne Edwards, the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences of Paris, who has made experiments also on the hatching of the eggs of these silkworms. As the Ricinus (Castor-oil plant) grows wg wonderful facility in the south of France and Algiers, attempts have been made for a long time to introduce the Bombyx Cynthia. But the —- with which the rope. A series of circumstances has led toa triumph over the diffi- culties, and some decisive trials place the success beyond doubt. he cocoons have a russet color. At one extremi ty there is an opening - which the caterpillar er in order to facilitate its escape on passing to the butterfly state. The threads of the cocoons are so agglutinated that at first it seemed impossible to divide them ; but M. Guerin Menne- ville has succeeded in proving the dividing possible after boiling the co- coons in alkaline water. There are experiments now in progress at Algiers, to ascertain the value of the silk per acre of Ricinus com- pared with that of an acre of mulber 5 Industry and Agriculture of Algeria.—We cite some facts from an interesting report made by Marshall "Vaillant, Minister of War, on the agricultural and industrial condition of our French colony of "Algeria in 1853. Fertility of Algeria.—In 1853, Algeria furnished to France over a million bestolitare (over three millions of bushels) of cereal grains, valued at fourteen millions of francs. It has produced the tender wheat . blé tendre”) of the best quality weighing 86 to 88 kilograms ‘in place of 76. _ Sosa in Silk.—The superior quality of the Algiers silk, attested by two medals at the London exhibition n and by the price it brings at * Mis Jounal, vl ' Productions of Algiers. ; 109 Cultivation of Madder.—The madder of Algiers is known to be more highly esteemed than that of Cyprus. It follows from calculations made from several columns that the cost is 70 francs the 100 kil., while it brings 140 to 155 francs. Cochineal.—The success of the cochineal insect at Algiers is no longer doubtful. . A hectar planted with 13,000 feet of cactus gave a crude product of 10 to 12 thousand francs of which only 2000 should be set down for expenses: there are actually 29 “* nopaleries ” (planta- tions of cactus) and 500,000 feet of cactus. Cultivation of Cotton.—The cotton of Algiers took 11 prizes at the t which are of the highest ‘price, (because America can furnish only 30,000 bales [?] ) and also which give the largest return. Eu- ropeans and Arabs are engaged in the work, and during a single year the plantations of cotton ‘have increased ten-fold. Oils.—The olive tree in Algeria grows to the height of our largest forest trees. Certain countries, and especially Kabylia, are covere with it. Since 1852 the commerce in oil has rapidly increased. Eu- overnment Nurseries.—The objects of the government nurseries are to produce a large number of young trees and give them to the colonists at a small price, and experiment on the cultivation of exotic industrial plants and endeavor to acclimate them in Algiers. To them we owe the cultivation of cotton, madder, the trades in cochineal and silk; and probably also the acclimating of the coffee and tea plants. Through them the oases have received the rice of China, which grows at the foot of the palms without requiring special care. Value of the Forests.—The forest country of Algeria as now known, comprises about 1,200,000 hectars. Species of Cork Oak constitute a large part of these forests, and already. 12,000 hectars of this wood have been explored. On the line of the Tell there are forests of cedar _ Some of which are 4 or 5 meters in circumference ; there is good tim- ber for the construction of ships, and also other kinds, like the pine, juni- per, arbor vite, olive, black walnut, etc., which do not yield in quality to the trees of Ameri Coral Fj explored in 1853 the vicinity of Bone and Calle and collected on an ge kilograms per boat. At the price of 60 francs per kilo- gram, the value of the fishery was 2,152,800 francs. Large banks have tecently been discovered on the coasts of the Province of Oren. __ We stop here with our citations. The rest of the Report refers espe- cially to commerce, administration and war. 110 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMIsTRY AND Puysics. he influence of the direction a transmission upon the passage of ruin heat through crystals—Knostaucu has published the sec- ond portion of his very elaborate and skillful Neapa rare of this inter- sei subject. We shall give his results in his own wo adiant heat penetrates certain crystals of the oan biaxial systems, like Dichroite, Topaz, Diopside, &c., in different quantities in different directions. It ses, for instance, most freely through di- chroite in the direction of the middle line, less freely in a direction per- pendicular to the plane of the optic axes, and least freely of a direction parallel to the supplementary lin lue topaz, on t contrary, it pa in the smallest proportion in the direction of the middle line, more abundantly perpendicular to the plane of the optic the crystal, exhibit different properties in their behavior for example toward diatherma anous hon In this particular different crystals ex- tion. Thus’ rays of heat whoee wheres ‘of polarization coincides with &e. ae of heat polarized in different planes often differ from each other in their capacity to penetrate diathermanous bodies after their passage through the crystal. € comparison of the rays polarized in the same sense and transmitted in the same direction exhibits the great- est variety, not only in different crystals but even in those belonging to the same nip 2 sete as yellow and blue topaz, In on the same substance, as for attiagis mica, the quantitative as els as ot oninaiive differences of the rays polarized in in different planes increase with the thickness of the layers penetrate When the heat passes successively through two plates of the same crystal, e. g. Pistacite, phenomena are observed analogous to those already mentioned according as the planes of the optic axes coincide or are crossed. II. When the rays of pe pass through certain crystals of the opti- cally uniaxial systems, as amethyst, idocrase, &c., quantitative as l as qualitative differences are gphbind according as the rays penetrate the crystal in one or another direction. However great these differences are in the cases of transmission pat- allel and and perpendicular to the axis, no difference of any kind is per- oa in the behavior of rays of heat which, whatever may be their are all — at re eee to the axis. cy “ Ee rN ee rs i i | \ 4 Chemistry and Physics. 111 ‘Tn this particular, uniaxial differ from biaxial crystals, in: which the rays of heat exhibit differences in three directions at right angles to each other. If the heat is polarized, differences are observed even in the same direction according to the position of the plane of polarization. Transmissions perpendicular to the axis exhibit however in this case corresponding peculiarities. is only when the rays are transmitted along the axis that their passage and quality are independent of the position of the plane of polarization. amethyst and idocrase differ, under otherwise similar circumstances, diathermanous substances All these observations correspond completely with those which the author formerly made with rock crystal, bery! and tourmaline. III. Even in crystals belonging to the regular system like colored of heat produced by the absorption of gases by porous solids, an Compared the quantity of heat thus set free with the latent heats of va- porization and liquefaction of the gases in question. ‘The author _ le gases are absorbable in the following order: ammonia, muriatic acid, sulphurous acid, protoxyd of nitrogen, carbonic acid. | ses may be classed in the same order relatively to the - amount of heat disengaged during the process of absorption to satura- gra ceeds the latent heat of liquefaction of equal weights of the same gases. _ Thus the latent heat of sulphurous acid is 88°3 units, while its heat of absorption is 150-1 units: the latent heat of protoxyd of nitrogen is 100°6 and its heat of absorption 1483. In the case of carbonic acid 112 Scientific Intelligence. the heat of absorption is oe stil than ok - of solidification, the former being 148°8 and the latter 1388-7 u (4.) In the case of certain sisi the sum ng the heat i for the same weights of gas absorbed, is the same, whatever be the nature of the carbon, which in this case only affects the rales of the gas fixed in its pores. This result taken in connection with the others seems to shew that the thermic effect is not due to the liquefaction of the gas, but to some §pecial action, since the introduction of a smal calls capillary affinity—Comptes Rendus, xxxix, 929, Oct. 16, 1854. . Researches on the Paige =. Vamemeiee has studied the action which acids when confined in close vessels exert u upon the compound (ls ). Some of the compound ethers by means of hydric ether and a (2.) es formation of the ethers by means of alcohol and acids. (3) Decomposition. of the ethers under the influence of water and yor" Whew ether and different acids are heated — in strong 08 te toa opens of from 360° to 400° C., water is set free andac und ether is formed. In this manner the eal produced “iy alii butyric and chlorhydric ether. When ether, butyric and sulphuric acids are distilled together, butyric ether is formed in ablations while at the same time olefiant gas is generated. Acetic ether was formed by a precisely similar process. 2. When alcohol is heated in closed tubes with the fatty acids, which as is well known are the feeblest of the organic acids, the corresponding ethers are readily produced, although the combination is never total. In the presence of a strong acid, however, the combination is most abundant. At 100° enzoic, acetic and butyric ethers. Stearic ether was formed in very small quantity at the end of two hours, but when acetic acid was added combination, whatever be the respective and reciprocal excess of the reacting bodies. Berthelot aN i this with great probability to the decomposing action exerted on the ethers by the water set at liberty in decomposition itself, the intensity of the action being augmented by the presence of acids. Thus water heated to 100° during 102 hours with stearic and oleic ethers pine to decompose them, regenerating stearic and oleic acids. 1 240° a nd ao: some hours of contact, water i f [ ' p Chemistry and Physics. . 113 portion of acetic ether. In like manner benzoic acid at 240° produces the decomposition of acetic ether, traces of benzoic ether being formed at the same time. From this it appears that the acid which produces the decomposition may itself enter into combination with the alcohol; the phenomenon is then the replacement of one acid by another. This replacement is particularly well marked with fuming chlorhydrie acid. In 106 hours at 100° this body produces the decomposition of acetic, butyric, benzoic and stearic ethers, the acids being set at liberty and chlorid of ethyl formed. The analogy between the double decomposi- tions thus produced and the examples furnished by inorganic chemistry is sufficiently obvious. —Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, xli, 432, Au- gust, 1854. On the cyanic and cyanuric ethers and on the amids.—Wortz has published an elaborate and most interesting memoir on this subject, from which we shall extract those results which appear most striking and important. Cyanic ether brought in contact with water yields car- bonic acid and diethyl-urea: the reaction is represented by-the equa- tion 2C6HsNO2-+-2HO = CioHi2N202 + 2CO2z. Water of ammonia dissolves cyanic ether with disengagement of heat and formation of ethyl-urea, Thus CeHsNO2-+ NH3= CeHsN202. The compound ammonias exert a similar action, which the author proposes to consider In a separate memoir. ydrate of potash and cyanic ether yield car- bonate of potash and ethylamin, thus CoHsNO2+2KO, HO=2KO, CO2 +-CsHiN. Alcohol and cyanic ether yield ethylurethane, CioHiiNOs, which with caustic potash yields carbonate of potash, ethylamin and alcohol, a decomposition exactly analogous to that of ordinary urethane. With sulphuric acid ethylurethane gives ethylamin and sulphovinic acid : in its pure state it is an oily liquid boiling between 174° and 175° Cyanic ether and acetic acid react readily at ordinary tempera- tures, carbonic acid is disengaged and ethylacetamid is formed: the feaction is represented by the equation CaHs ' CiHs01-+CcoHsNO2=2CO2+N ? CiH3O2. Caustic potash decomposes ethylacetamid into ethylamin and acetate of potash. It is obvious that ethyl acetamid may be regarded as ammonia in which one equiva- lent of hydrogen is replaced by one of ethyl! and a second equivalent of hydrogen by one of acetoxy| CaHsO2z, With anhydrous acetic acid, : (CaHs cyanic ether yields ethyldiacetamid, N { CsH302, in which all three sO equivalents of hydrogen are replaced by other radicals. a oom 2 and cyanic ether give carbonic acid and ethylformiamid, N lg Wurtz has found in like manner that cyanic ether attacks a great num- ber of acids, the products being amids, the constitution of which may easily be foreseen. he constitution of cyanuric ether is represented by the formula CisHisNaQs,. or it is isomeric with cyanic ether ; it is a colorless crys- talline body fusing at 95° C. The author believes that there are how- Szconp Szars, Vol XIX, No, 55.—Jan,, 1855. . 114 Scientific Intelligence. ever other cyanuric ethers having a different constitution. Cyanate of methyl is prepared by the distillation of 2 parts of sulphomethylate of potash with 1 part of cyanate of potash. It is a light, colorless, very irritating and suffocating. Its formula is C2H30, CyO, and its most remarkable property is the facility with which it is transformed into cyanurate of methyl, a change whic aa place spontaneously when the ether is left to itself in a closed t his change sometimes takes place in the course of ibaa ie tence in a few minutes, and is accompanied in the last case by a sensible evolution of heat. The cyanurate of methyl is a solid ¢ crystalline body, fusing at 175°- 176° and boiling at 274°. It is very remarkable that its boiling point is higher than that of the cyanurate of ethyl which is 253°. With caustic, potash both these compounds of methyl _ carbonate of pot- ash and methylamin, as the author long since s Gerhardt and Clan oo referred the sae which contain oxy- eanrhen und NH being ies to replace the two equivalents of oxygen na double molecule of water. Thus the formation of acetamid is rep- CiHs02 oe Or NHa= C90: NH ++ 2HO. For the further development ie this theory we must however refer to es perma memoir.—Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, xlii, 43, Sept. resented by the equation 5. On some new Ethers.—Ciermont has studied in Wurtz’ labora- tory the action of iodid of ethyl upon — salts of silver, and has obtained several interesting ethers. Jodid of ethyl heated in a closed tube with pyrophosphate of silver yields iodid of silver and pyr rophos- phate of ethyl. The new ether is a viscid liquid, of a. burning taste and peculiar odor, soluble in water, alcohol and ether, and becoming promptly acid on exposure to moist air. Its formula is POs, 2CsHs0. lodid of ethyl acts in like manner upon tribasic phosphate ot silver, producing iodid of silver and the already known tribasic phosphate © ethyl, POs. 3CsHsO. Carbonic ether may be produced by the action of iodid of ethyl a carbonate of ape! It is too well known to be reproduced from gun cotton by means of the acetate of iro He then shews that the acetate exerts a ate action upon o honda and nitro-naphtalin, and that the products of this Fenelio® are anilin and naphtalidin. The clgeing processes answer for the production of these two bases quantities and with the ‘greatest facility, (we ane . Sater Chemistry and Physics. 115 select from various methods given by the author those which he found most advantageous). For the preparation of anilin, 1 part of nitro- benzin, 1-2 parts of iron filings free fi a n- centrated commercial acetic acid are introduced into a capacious re- t tic acid must be free from mineral acid and its quantity must be sufficient to completely cover the iron. The action quickly begins without heat and becomes so violent that the liquid boils and exc a concentrated solution of caustic potash is to be added to the distillate; hydrated anilin separates upon the surface in a very nearly pure state. The quantity of anilin obtained by this process is almost ? of the nitrobenzin employed, an the author states that anilin the action has ceased the retort placed in a sand-bath so that the belly shall be eatinlataly covered. The acetic acid distills over first; the naphtalidin comes over at 300° and-condenses in an oily liquid beneath the acid which protects it from the air. ‘The two are to be separated by & second distillation, and the naphtalidin preserved in a tightly stoppered ttle. It is remarkable that the compounds of protoxyd of iron oe prs acids do not decompose the nitro compounds.— Ann, de os et de Physique, xlii, 186, Oct. 1854. 7. Prof. Tyndall on some Peculiarities of the Magnetic — (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1854, Ath., No. 1405.) —The Professor said, a piece of soft iron suspended bien eeeit’ the flat poles of an electro-magnet set wa asad dimension from pole, the residual rt ih of the cores being suffi- cient to produce the effect. This is the normal deportment of mag- hetic bodies, but it is by no means ania: By mechanical agency, by pressure for exa mple, the structure of a magnetic body can be so modified that its shortest horizontal dimension sets from pole. Prof. Tyn- dall exhibited actions of the kind where the body operated on was com- Pressed magnetic dust. In such a body two opposing tendencies were at work,—the tendency due to length, which sought to set the length axial, and the t tendency due to structure, which sought to set the: line east ois to the length axial. Between the flat poles the latter ten- Fy n a=) — 2°] Qa, ° 2. fo] t=.) =] s Ee =] - rh: ae oO i= "SS 2.3 = oe o — an] =. - =. wa = io) >) 5 ° ~~ ta) tendency which was a ue to structure, and to draw the mass into the axia — But in raising or lowering the body operated on out of the Phere of this local neath by bringing it into a position where the distsibutio on of the magnetic field resembled that existing between the flat poles, the body forsook the axial position and turned into the equa- torial. The complementary phenomena were exhibited by bismuth. A tiorn tmal bar of this substance sets its length at right angles to the line 116 Scientific Intelligence. from the poles; but Prof. Tyndall exhibited a bar of this substance, which set between the flat poles exactly as a magnetic body. Sucha bar, however, between the points are equatorial. On raising or lowering it, however, it forsook the equatorial position and set axial. In this case the local repulsion of the ends between the points caused the bar to set equatorial, the influence of length thus predominating over the influence structure ; but removed from the sphere of this local action, the di- rective tendency of the mass triumphed and caused the bar to set axial. The bar in this case was cut with its length at right angles to the planes of most eminent cleavage of the bismuth:—it is a proved fact, that these planes while the influence of form is annulled, always set at right angles to the line piercing the poles, and hence where they are trans verse to the length, the bar will set axial. These phenomena were ex- amined ina great number of cases; bars were taken from substances possessing a directive tendency, and it was so arranged that the directive tendency due to structure was always opposed to the influence of length; between the points the former tendency succumbed to the later, while mens examined by Prof. Tyndall were all diamagnetic ; each of them was repelled by the poles of the magnet; cubes of each when suspen- ded with the fibre horizontal set between the excited poles, the fibre perpendicular to the line which unites the poles. Thinking that wood on account of its structure, would exhibit those directive phenomena which had been demonstrated in the case of the bodies mentioned at the commencement, bars were taken from nearly forty kinds of wood, the fibre being at right angles to the length of the bar; in the centre of the space, between two flat poles, all those bars set their length from pole to pole. But Prof. ‘Tyndall afterwards observed the remarkable fact, that homogeneous diamagnetic bodies did the sume. Bars of s¥ magnets of hardened steel, as by suddenly bending them, or sir ‘The Rev. Dr. Scorzssy stated, that, by subjecting to force ordinary nets of hardened stee! y St y bendi striking ba Chemistry and Physics. 117 them in particular modes, they may have their poles reversed or be de- prived of their magnetism, or hardened non-magnetic steel may be in- stantly rendered magnetic ; and he considered that these facts, which he had long since made public, should be kept before the mind in such investigations as the very oriyinal and interesting facis just brought un- der the notice of the Section.——Prof. Farapay after very briefly, yet lucidly, explaining to the Section the leading distinctions between para- magnetic and diamagnetic bodies, and their behavior in the magnetic field, said, that it was conceded on all hands that the explanation was erroneous which Pliicker had given of the phenomena which he first discovered connected with the branch of research to which Prof. Tyn- dall had just been directing their attention, and which he was so ably hunting down. But when he said the original explanation of Pliicker Was erroneous, he did not mean that as the slightest disparagement to that philosopher. It was well understood by all who had any preten- sions to scientific knowledge since the days of Bacon, that it through the mist of error that the most important discoveries had to be made, and that in pursuing any research it was much better in the first Stages of the inquiry to have erroneous views, than to be without any Views that would tend to connect the scattered facts. For his part, he was not ashamed to own that he wasa learner, and that in almost every instance it was through the clouds of error that he arrived at the conclusions which satisfied him most. nd as his mathematical skill and acquirements were o means such as to entitle him to despise Instruction, he should feel particularly grateful to his mathematieal niends present, Dr. Whewell and others, if they would explain to him magnetic field, if it was known.—Dr. WHEWELL explained how the force would be distributed upon the old theory of magnetic lines ; but he said he was aware, and he believed it was now generally admitted, that this theory must be greatly modified, if not given entirely up. But as in a locality not only visible, but in every way convenient for experi- 118 Scientific Intelligence. ; mental purposes; yet it is absolutely impossible that the force can be rigorously uniform through the smallest finite bulk of the magnetic field in any such arrangement, or, generally, in any locality external toa magnet. If an experimenter wants a rigorously uniform fiel force, he can have it only in the interior of his magnet; and he must be contented not to see the action he experiments on at the time it portant fundamental properties of electrical force. It would be easy to make a hollow electro-magnet, in the interior of which the experimenter could observe with the minutest accuracy the bearings of all kinds and shapes of bodies in a rigorously uniform field of force. Ail that is ne- cessary to make such a conductor is to take a hollow papier-macheé globe, say six feet in diameter, and roll a galvanic wire over its surface in a succession of close parallel circles, -having their planes at equal distances from one another. hollow non-magnetic body o shape, cubical for instance, may have a rigorously uniform distribution without seeing them at the time they are taking place. Interesting 5 - 1 => oO OQ @ =] - + = be e =] vr ° Leas | > oO ch = id = =. oO = = = - = 3) 3 . imum or minimum points, can possibly give a uniform distribution of latenaity through ever so small a finite bulk of the field. ry Boas Mineralogy and Geology. 119 II. Mrneratocy anp GEOLOGY. 1. Analysis of Allophane from the Black oxyd of Copper mines of Polk County, Tennessee ; by Dr. C. T. Jackson, Assayer to the State of Massachusetts, &c.—Description.—This mineral occurs in the great veins of black oxyd of copper of Polk County, Tennessee, encrusting the black oxyd of copper, and is especially abundant in the mine worked by Mr. Congdon. It occurs in botryoidal and reniform concre- tions with a crystalline aspect somewhat resembling concretions of Preh- nite in appearance. Its color is honey yellow. Lustre resinous, particularly on fractured uantitative analysis on 2 grammes of the mineral.—One gramme of the mineral heated to full redness in a platinum crucible, loses 0° gramme of water. One gramme of the mineral that had not been ignited was decomposed by chlorohydric acid in a platinum crucible, and then the usual process of analysis for the separation of the different ingredients was pursued, and the following results were obtained : Water, 0377 = sie RS ec. je So BAY BAL crak dis. occ 4 Magnesia, . g ; : 4 ; 0-002 P. hosphorie acid, . e : S 3 ‘ traces Phosphoric acid 2. On the Boracie Acid Compounds of the Tuscan Lagoons; by Emu Becut, ( Berg- und hiittenmannische Zeitung, Oct. 18, 1854.)— Since the publication in the American Journal of Science of descrip- ions and analyses of some Tuscan minerals containing boracic acid, which had been described and analyzed by Prof. Meneghini and myself (as communicated to Prof. Dana by Prof. Meneghini), I have further in- vestigated the subject with some new results interesting to mineralogical 120 Scientific Intelligence. science and illustrating the products of Tuscany. It is known that at certain places between Volterra and Siena there are springs or lagoons of hot water issuing from natural or artificially made craters, which coniain a id proportion of boracic acid compounds. These Soffioni or Bulika en, as the exhalations are called, sometimes change their place of coon i making another at some point of easier outbreak. The rock about some of the older openings has yan iaggay ee alters pecim of this kind from an old lagoon of the peiaoan. pepe was ob- poe by Professor Savi and is now in the Museum at Pisa. It affords on different parts three distinct mineral species. One of them is a borate of soda, and has the following constitution : Boracic acid. Soda. Water. pat sapped eevee 43°559 19254 = 87187 trace = NaB?+6H The formula differs from that of borax, in having 6H in ge of 10H. The second species is borate of lime, which afforded m Bor. acid. Water. Si, Al, Na Mg 51°135 20'850 26'250 1750 trace = Oa 8? + 4h It is poveny: hydroborocalcite, which cael only in containing 6H. cic acid compounds, the fh pe da and hydroboro- calcite, are ae similar in physical character and chemical relations, and may be varieties of the same spec : The third species, finally, afforded a e above mentioned specimen, has an ochre-yellow color and is rare Heated it loses water an becomes black. B.B. fuses with diffict ity. In chemical characters, it is a borate of iron mixed with hydroborocalcite and hydroboracite. e existence of borate of iron in concretions at the Tuscan lagoons was remarked by Beudant in 1882. Both Dufrenoy and Dana, in their mineralogical works have mentioned these concretions under the name Lagonite, without giving an analysis or formula. the collections of Tuscan minerals of John Targioni, I detected an fers yellow mineral, which gave the tests of the iron borate; an afforded on analysis— Boracic acid. — ofiron. Water. Si, - ~ Mg 47-955 36°260 14016 “l The Lagonite therefore is no longer a hypothetical cole but one well characterised, and having the composition Fe B HH. Sometime since Signor Larderell in an old lagoon, found a druse which was peculiar in its physical and chemical characters. The min- eral was in yellowish-white rhombic tables of 110° 6’, and by polarised ss tube, a strong ammoniacal odor is given.off: B.B. fuses easily 7a a ea glass, which on treating with alcohol, gives a green CO olor thi ci chade characters I concluded that it was a borate of ammonia a species hitherto unnoticed, except that Erdmann in the analys!s ° Sassoli e presence of some ammonia. Careful analysis “Boracie acid, d of Water. “69-244 se 8or .sgaso == NHK 44H eee See ee Se Mineralogy and Geology. 121 This species I have named Larderellite, after Sr. Larderell.* On boil- ing the Larderellite in water, ammonia is given out, and a new crystal- line salt is obtained, having the formula NHO+86+oHf. Berzelius obtained by neutralizing boracic acid and ammonia, a salt crystallizing in hexagonal prisms containing according to Gmelin N HO4 B4 It differs from ee one pel in composition and strikingly in crystal- line form. It appears that one and the same salt may be obtained, with different prapertioce of water, by employing different tempera- tures; and thus is easily explained the analogy between the borate o soda of the lagoons and borax, the borate of lime and hydroborocalcite, the Larderellite and Berzelius’s borate of ammonia. In the same wa according to Berzelius, the sulphate of the protoxyd of manganese crystallized at the temperature of 6° R., gives the formula MnS+7H, but between 6° and 20°, the formula iin 3+ 6H; and between 20° and and 30°, MnS+4. The interesting point in this subject is that these compounds of manganese differ widely and irreconcilably in crystal- lisation, showing the influence of the water of crystallisation on the crystalline form Laurent takes boracic acid for monobasic—as the borate of oxyd of methyl = C?H%O, BO? + HO, BO®; and the borate of oxyd of ethyl = C+H50, BO? + HO, BO® ; and borax for a neutral salt, in which ee equivalent of base is replaced by 1 of water, whence the formula of Na O, HO, 2B0*-+9HO or 2((Na, H)B)+ 9F.. This view is sree by many examples among other boracic acid compounds, which are described in Wohler and — s Annalen. oe acta s theory my formulas become, for th Borate of lime, (Ca, H)B+3H Borate of soda, (Na, H) B+ 5H Larderellite, (N HO*4+H)B+H [The author closes with some observations on the condition of the boracie acid of the la agoons. On the Thickness of the Ice of the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales, and other Points bearing on the Glaciation oat the Country ; Prof. Ramsay, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., Athen., No. 1405.)—Prof. Ramsay es hills remained uncovered by the sea ; and when the mountains again Tose, a set of smaller glaciers was formed. The thickness of the ice in existing Swiss airs was known to be very great; in the Grindel- wald it had been ascertained to amount to 700 feet, and in other in- ices was picbakls thicker. The observations of Agassiz and Prof. James Forbes on the height. to which grooved and polished surfaces Span up the sides of Alpine valleys, had led to the conclusion, that the rs had once been much more extensive; and that in the glacier of the Aar, for example, it must have amounted to 2,000 feet. The same d I have vine Another hydrous compound of boracic acid an ammonia ve since noticed Secor Sie, Vol, XIX, , No. 55—Jan. 1855. 16 122 Scientific Intelligence. method of observation had been applied to North Wales; and it had been ascertained that in the Pass of Llanberris the grooves and round- ings of the rocks extended to a height of 1,300 feet above the present bottom of the valley. The drifted deposits which overlie these rounded surfaces must have formed during the slow depression which followed, and the glaciers bit still have existed, since these deposits, though marine, are stil a moraine character. The cold climate continued during the poned: of depression, and for some time after it ; and there was beautiful evidence in the side valleys of the gradual decrease of the glaciers until they died away amongst the higher mountains, in the form of moraines stretching across the valleys, one within the other. The scratches made by the first set of glaciers passed down the val- leys; those of the smaller glaciers crossed the first obliquely. 4, On the Foliation of some Metamorphic Rocks in Soottantté by Prof. E. Forzss, (Ibid.)—It was of great importance to geologists to dis- tinguish between lamination, cleavage, and foliation: the first resulted from original planes of deposition: the second was a superinduced structure, dividing rocks into lamine of similar constitution, not colnci- ~ with the lines of bedding; thirdly, foliation was the division of a ock into lamin of different mineral condition. Cleavage had been atest, by Prof. Sedgwick, its first definer, to electrical action; by Mr. Sorby, to a mechanical Siena and by Mr. D. Sharpe, to mechanical and chemical influence. The foliation of mica she or separation of its mineral constituents into distinct layers, had been sometimes poet ted to metamorphic action on layers of different er ; Mr. Dar win bad considered it identical with cleavage, and due to the same ause,—the one passing into the other: the same view has been main- tained by Mr. Sharpe. Prof. Forbes agreed with those who considered The author then referred to examples of foliated structure. In a roaa- side quarry at Crianlarich, near the head of Loch h Lomond, where the metamorphism of bands of fossils. In the upper part of the quarry the limestone becomes foliated with mica,—the foliation being at first paral- Jel with the bedding, then becomes wavy and contorted, is affected by small faults, and contains nuclei of calcareous spar and at length passes into a mica slate. At Ben Os there is a calciferous band in the mica slate, © ation curves round Mineralogy and Geology. 123 Foliation has also been noticed in the baked rocks of Salisbury Crags. Prof. Forbes concluded, 1, that foliation was a superinduced structure ; 2, that it was distinct from cleavage ; 3, that it was not of mechanical origin, but a chemical phenomenon ; 4, that it was, perhaps, induced by more than one agency. , 5. On the Relations of the “ New Red Sandstone’’ of ithe Connecti- cut Valley and the Coal-bearing rocks of Eastern Virginia and North Carolina; by Prof. W. B. Rogers, (Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1854, p. 14.)—Prof. W. B. Rogers exhibited a series of fossils from the middle secondary belts of North Carolina, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts; chiefly, he said, with the view of calling attention to the evidence afforded by some of them, of the close relation in geo- logical age between what has been called the New Red Sandstone of the Middle States and Connecticut Valley, first designated by Prof. D. Rogers as the Middle Secondary Group, and the coal-bearing rocks of Eastern Virginia and North Carolina. : rof. Rogers referred to the existence in Virginia of three distinct belts of these rocks. e most eastern of these, extending almost continu- ously from the Appomatox River to the Potomac, includes the coal- fields of Chesterfield and Henrico Counties. The middle tract, about ing southwestwardly across the State, and for a few miles beyond its limits, into South Carolina. This area, first mapped by Prof. Mitchell, includes the coal-bearing rocks of Deep River. The western belt ex- tends, with two considerable interruptions, entirely across Virginia, be- ri 7 + ener Uist vate 124 Scientific Intelligence. the P. minuta of the European Trias, but one of them strongly resem- bles the P. Bronnii of the ane although of larger dimensions. Prof. Rogers remarked upon the uncertainty which exists as to the true nature of the small shell-like tc. which being assumed as molluscs, have been referred to Bronn’s genus Posidonomya. But, whatever may be their zoological affinities, the sea now under consideration have great interest, as affording furt means not only of comparing to- gether the mesozoic belts of North Carolina and Virginia, above refer- red to, but of approxim see more justly than heretofore to the age of the so-called New Red Sandstone, or laser rocks which form the pro- : longed belt lying further towards the we n the report of Prof. Emmons, cabiahed in the autumn of 1852, mention is made of the remains of Saurians in the Deep River de- posits, as well as of the Posidonia and Cypris, and of an Equisetites, @ Lycopodites and other allied forms, together with a naked, rather spi- nous ist regarded by him as a cellular cryptogamous plant. In view of the general identity of the fossils thus far found in the Dry River and Middle Virginia belts, with those of the most eastern de- posit in Virginia, viz., that including the coal of Chesterfield, Prof. Ro- rocks include c one or more thin seam coal, the same Cypridz Posidoniz are found in great SLES some of the fine- eee shales and black fossil slates. The latter were noticed as earl , by Dr. oyd, while on the Virginia Geological Survey. “egaving this fossil, ‘of which specimens were also obt ained about the same tim Keuper, Prof. Rogers had, many years ago, announced the probability - | that a part or all of the great western belt was of the age of the Trias, instead of being lower in the Mesozoic fa Specimens = the Posidonize and Cyprid, from both belts in North Carolina, and from the eastern and middle belts in Virginia, were eX- : hibited by Prof. Tews at the Albany nee of the America n Asso- | immense numbers of the same Posidon and Cypride, crowded pace fine argillaceous shales, and at sane points he had met, in the more. = rocks, v i ag te impressions, which, meg obscures — are strongly ves of Zamites. Mineralogy and Geology. 125 In the same belt in Pennsylvania, in the vicinity of Pheenixville, early last spring, Prof. H. D. Rogers discovered Posidonie in great mbers in a fissile black slate, and on subsequent examination, the same beds were found to contain layers crowded with the casts of Cyp- ride. Along with these are multitudes of Coprolites, apparently Sau- rian, resembling in size and form the Coprolites found in the carbona- covery at various and remote points of its course of Posidoniz, Cyp- ridz, and Zamites, most or all of which are identical with these forms in the eastern middle secondary areas of Virginia and North Carolina, makes it extremely probable that these rocks, formerly referred to the New Red Sandstone, and of late more specially to the Trias, are of Jurassic date, and but little anterior to that of the Coal Rocks of East- ern Virginia. crustacean remains throughout the series of deposits extending from the base of the Permian to the lower limits of the Odlite. But on en- tering the latter, the Cypride re-appear, and become very abundant there, there being no less than twelve species known to belong to the lite formations of Europe. ; omparing the silicified wood, found in the western and eastern euce Huttonia. As this particular structure does not appear to have been met with below the Lias, and occurs in that formation, it furnishes another argument in favor of the Jurassic age of all these rocks rof. Rogers added, that he had not found in the New Red Sand- Stone of the Connecticut Valley either the Posidonia or Cypris, al- though he had met with obscure markings which he was inclined to refer to the latter. He had however satisfied himself that one of leaf of a Zamites, On the whole, therefore, Prof. Rogers concluded that the additional fossils from the coal-bearing rocks of Virginia and North Carolina tha: and there could be little doubt, he thought, that the same conclusion ee Would apply to the New Red Sandstone of the Connecticut Valley. 126 Scientific Intelligence. . Note on an indication of depth of Primeval Seas, afforded by the remains of color in Fossil Testacea; by Epwarp Forsss, F.R.S., Pres. G. S., (Proc. Roy. Soc., March, 1854.)—When engaged in the investigation of the bathymetrical distribution of existing mollusks, the author found that not only did the color of their shells cease to be strongly marked at considerable depths, but also that well-defined pat- terns were, with very few and slight exceptions, presented only by testacea inhabiting the littoral, circumlittoral and median zones. In the Mediterranean only one in eighteen of the shells taken from below 100 fathoms exhibited any markings of color, and even the few that did so, were questionable inhabitants of those depths. Between 35 and fathoms, the proportion of marked to plain shells was rather less than one in three, and between the sea-margin and 2 fathoms the striped or mottled species exceeded one-half of the total number. In our own seas the author observes that testacea taken from below 100 fathoms, even when they were individuals of species vividly striped or banded in shallower zones, are quite white or colorless. Between * 60 and 80 fathoms, striping and banding are rarely presented by our shells, especially in the northern provinces; and from 50 fathoms shallow-wards, colors and patterns are well marked. : The relation of these arrangements of color to the degrees of light penetrating the different zones of depth, is a subject well worthy of minute inquiry, and has not yet been investigated by natural philuso- phers. as to prevent our having much difficulty about ascertaining the probable bathymetrical zone of the sea in which they lived. ut in palzeozoic strata the general assemblage of articulate, mollus- ean and radiate forms is so different from any now existing with whi we can compare it, and so few species of generic types still remaining are presented for our guidance, that in many instances we can searcely venture to infer with safety the original bathymetrical zone of a deposit from its fossil contents. Consequently any fact that will help us ™ elucidating this point becomes of considerable importance. _ Traces of coloring are rarely presented by pa i leeozoic of few examples in which they have been noticed. : in his ‘ Geology of Yorkshire,’ represents the carvon! omaria flammigera (i.e. carinata) and conica, 8 eM Pg Ys Sahay ee. uke ae Mineralogy and Geology. ° 127 — with color, and Sowerby has figured such markings in P. cari- nala and P. rotundata. In the excellent monograph of the carbonif- of pattern-coloring are faintly shown in the figures of Solarium pentan- gulatu amy and distinctly in those of Pleurotomaria carinata and Patella bits cabinets of the Geological Survey of Great Britain are some finely. -preserved fossils from the carboniferous limestone of Parkhill, near Longnor in Derbyshire. Among these are several that present unmistakable pattern-markings, evidently derived from the original coloring. They are— leurotomaria carinata and conica, beri wavy blotches, resem- bling the coloring of many recent Trochid An unde scribed Trochus, showing a spf band of color. Metoptoma pileus, and Patella? retrorsa, both with radiating stripes, such as are presented by numerous existing Patellide. Natica plicistria, with broad mottled bands. Aviculo-pecte en, a Rt unnamed species, a spotty markings on the ‘ale in the m of many existing Pectin ido spteien sa btobiives, pes ? Beautifully ae with radiating, well. Badined stripes, varying in each individual, and resembling the patterns presented by those ares Avicule that inhabit shallows and moderate viculo-pecten intercostatus and elongatus also exhibit markings. Spirifer decorus and Orthis resupinata, show fine radiating white lines. Terebratula hastata, with radiating stripes. The analogy of any existing forms that can be compared whl those enumerated, would lead to the conclusion that the markings in these than 50 fathoms. In the case of the Terebratula, which belongs to a genus the majority of whose living representatives inhabit deep water, it may be noticed that all the living species exhibiting striped shells are exceptions to the rule, and come from shallow w In the British Museum there is a seraritalle spotted adele of a ome _ Terebratula, Shctight by Sir John Richardson from Boreal pose ens of the Turbo rupestris, from the Lower Silurian Lime- Stone of the Chair of Kildare stat Dublin, exhibit appearances that Seem to indicate spiral bands of color. 7. Arsenate of Lead and revetias of Lead.—Beautiful specimens of these two minerals have been detected by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith among the pein coming from the Wheatley Mine near Pheenix- ville, Penn. A ful | description of gl ae = given in his next pa- per on the reéxamination of American 8. On: the Identity of Ripidolite of von ‘n Kobell with Clinochlore ; by N. von Koxscnarov.—M. N. von Kokscharov has sent us an elaborate Paper on the Clinochore of a ahoiansiwdh and its identity with Ripido- tle, which is crowded out of this number and will appear in our next. 128 Scientific Intelligence. Ill. Borany anp Zoo.oey. 1. Martius, Flora Brasiliensis: fasc. XII. Dec., 1853. (folio. 5 This part of Professor Martius’s elaborate Flora of Brazil, which h een long in reaching us, comprises the Urticinea, which are slaborated by Prof. Miquel of Amsterdam, who had already we ae an excellent and much-needed monograph of the Fig tribe. e leased to ty every kind of intermediate form that, in Prof. Migeels opinion, they are not to be definitely separated. His Urticineew accordingly embrace four suborders, viz,—the nore ia (including Moree), the Ulmacee, the Urticee, and the annabine All but the last of these 16 genera and a large number of species; the Ulmacew by Celtis and Sponia; and the Urticinee by 6 genera. The descriptions are fi trated by 45 elaborate folio plates A. The non-assimilation of Nitrogen by Plants.—M. Bovssta0is has published, in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 4th ser., tom. i, o. 4 and 5, the details of an interesting and well-devised investigation upon the vegetation of several plants, of different families, from whic ammonia and all azotized organic matter were excluded ; and he finds that under these conditions there is no more nitrogen in iz resulting s ng t assimilated by plants in such cases. Another memoir is promise illustrating the conditions under which this element is assimilated on plants are grown in a sterile soil in the open air. . a we in.—The sorpnecl on the bracts and ovaries of AB “Hop, acorn surrounded below by its cup. The account of these corpuscles hs hypo by Raspail appears to have ‘little more » faeaae in fact ae A. a incainalit l, aches who discovered the two Eads of organs 08 the prothallia, or seed-leaves of Seunineting Ferns, affirmed that he had seen the the moving spiral spermatozoids, of the anthe- Botany and Zoology. 129 ridia enter the canal of the archegonia (called by him ovules); but his observations were not thought altogether trustworthy in this and in some other particulars. But Hofmeister, one of the ablest vegetal anato-- mists, and the most experienced and trustworthy in this kind of investi- 5 Sciences of Saxony, April 22, 1854) that he has seen the moving sper- abisiwcide, not only in the canal of the archegonium of Ferns, but even (in three instances) i in the cavity of i its central reall, in which the germinal cessation was accompanied (and probably caused) by the coagulation of the albuminous nibsaaiies of the fluid contents of the central cell.” (Henfrey’s transl. in Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., No. 82.) In several instances he has seen maitre spermatozoids, lying by the side “ the partially developed germinal vesicle. A. 5. Botanical Necrology.—The year now closing has been a fata l one to an peor number of scientific men, and especially to botanists. Ja addition to those mentioned in the last number of this Journal, ee name of M. Mir ape 0 of the most me gee of 1801 5 the autumn of 1848. He ants afterwards retired from his earn Sorship at the Jardin des Plantes, on account of enfeebled health, and has continued with his mind totally pene by disease until his ue on the “na of September. He was one of the luminaries of a generation. A comparison of his Traité edaatonts et de Physiolo- gie Vegetales, and his Elémens de Physiologie Végéiales et de Botan- tque, with the similar treatises of the present day, will well show the Progress that has been made in the science during the first ges of — i r ayer : Traité @ Organogénie Végétale Comparée, he, 14. Imp. 8vo. Paris: Victor Masson, 1854.—This elaborate work is to form’ two volumes of letter-press, and an Atlas of 150 plates, of the Same imperial Svo. size. It is issued in monthly numbers, each of about Pages of letter-press and 9 or 10 plates. The latter are crowded ig en sade — having 30 or 40 separate figures. The each natural order of slain’ is treated in succession and illustrated by detaile from one or more genera; the figures exhib- Serres, Vol. XIX, No, 55.—Jan,, 1855. 17 130 Scientific Intelligence. iting the whole development of the principal organs of the blossom, from their earliest appearance to the completed flower-bud. Such in- vestigations are of high importance ; although they are not likely to modify very materially views soundly based upon comparison of floral characters. Still they often furnish data for elucidating obscure points of botanical affinity or morphology, or a decisive test of the correct- an ingenious hypothesis ;—data which M. Payer sometimes turns to good account, although he cannot be said thus far to evince any remarkable aptitude for the discussion of such questions. We no- tice here and there points brought forward as new which have been elsewhere published for some time. A. G. %. The Micrographic Dictionary; by GrirritH and Henrrey. (Van Voorst, London.)—Parts III, IV, and V, have reached us since our last notice of this valuable work: the latter ending, on page 128, with the article Ceruminous glands. The articles which strike us as most inter- esting and important are those upon Angular aperture, Blood, Bone (which is admirably illustrated), and the Cell, especially that on the Vegetable cell. A. @ 8. The Individual in Plants, in its relation to Species, is the title of a recent Memoir by Professor Braun of Berlin, of so much general interest, and so ably handled, that we hope we may be able to publisl a copious abstract of it in a future number of this Journal. A. G. 2. the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions ; by J. H. GuapsTonE, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., Athen., 1405.) grows unnaturally tall, and there isa poor development of leaves 1? da , becoming more manifest as the darkness is more completes f ~ . cela i Na al i a ls | Ml aia al ell al _ from Botany and Zoology. 131 . and the yellow ray exerts a repellant influence on the roots, giving the wheat a downward and the pea roots a lateral impulse. A few exp of wheat and peas in oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid gases, as well as in ordinary atmospheric air, and in air from which carbonic acid was at all times certain to be removed. ‘The results confirmed former observations on the necessity of oxygen. ’ Prof. Mituer, in thanking the author for his valuable researches, made some remarks on the interesting results that the investigation had brought to light; and drew especial attention to the remarkable fact stated in the paper, that the blue rays retarded the action of germination at first, although they probably accelerated the growth of the plant af- terwards,—the act of germination being attended with the absorption which was found to be an excellent fertilizer for grasses, had compara- tively little influence upon leguminous plants. 10. Note on the Mastodon (?), and the Elephas primigenius ; by Sir Joun Rictarpson.*— Mastodon (2)—At page 102 of the Zoology of the fragmentary shoulder-bones found at Swan River. The depression in question was most likely designed to afford a firmer attachment to the central fasciculz of the infra spinatus muscle; and * From a communication made by Sir John Richardson to Dr. John C. Warrem whom e above was received for this Journal. t Description of the Mastodon giganteus, by John C. Warren, M.D., Boston, 1852, 132 Scientific Intelligence. infra spinal surface. From this fact one might be led to conclude that the concavity in question is merely an individual peculiarity, and does not occur generally in the species; but it is rare to meet a mere osteo- logical variety so perfectly alike in form in the two limbs as it is in our Swan River scapule, and, as we presume it to be, in both shoulder- Mr. Koch’s skeleton, when first brought from America for exhibition in this country, had its parts not only misplaced, but composed of the bones of more than one individual, there being at least five vertebrae too many in the spine. It may therefore be, that the two scapula now forming part of the skeleton of the British Museum Mastodon, and the two detached ones, are in reality bones of the American fossil Elephant, of which a cranium of great size was purchased by the Museum irom Mr. Koch. Dr. Warren has shown that the Mastodon giganteus and the great fossil Elephant were coeval (op. cit. p. 142); and Mr. Koch may have dug up the remains of both animals from the same deposit. Not the least doubt rests on the authenticity of every part of Dr. War- ren’s skeleton of the Mastodon,—the account of its discovery and dis- in this case the comparison is less satisfactory, from the surface having partly scaled off in the Yukon fossil, The circumferences of the proximal articulations are not perfect in either bone, but the parts which remain present no dissimilarities. Dimensions of tibie alipers. Length of the medial face of the shin bone from the brim of ss {he kmee-joint to that of the ankle bone, .. tin 186% Length of the fibular face from the brim of the knee-joint to * KT. < So. a Io il ti ee tal F f the British Museum. i ~ Botany and Zoology. - 133 11, Remains of the Mammoth and Mastodon in California; by W.P. Braxe.—A large tooth of the Elephas primigenius was found about,a year since on the shores of the Bay of San Pedro (the sea-port of Los An- gelos) California.* It was washed out of a bank by the undermining Bay, in the direction of Los Angelos. During my recent visit to the mining region of the State, I ascer- tained that teeth of both the Elephas primigenius and the Mastodon, had been exhumed at several places from the auriferous flats. In Calaveras county, at the mining town called Murphy’s, several teeth of the Mastodon have been taken out froma depth of about thirty feet below the surface. They were imbedded in blue clay, and asso- ciated with auriferous gravel and fragments of talcose slates. Two of = — have been preserved, and I was permitted to make drawings or them. I conversed with a miner at this town, who had found what he sup-. posed was a number of teeth connected together. His partners being anxious to have a specimen to send home, the mass was “split up” and a tooth given to each owner in the claim. This specimen was un- doubtedly a tooth of the Mammoth, and the plates were mistaken for Single teeth. A large tusk was taken out of Texas flat about two years ago. It was allowed to remain exposed to the weather outside of a miner’s e Specimens share a similar fate; or they are hoarde who fancy they have an extraordinary value, and who will hardly part with them at any price. 12. Discovery of Viviparous Fish in Louisiana; by B. Downer, he N. O. Med. and Surg. Journal.)—In the month of Octo- r, 1854, through the politeness of J. C. B. Harvey, M.D., of Tchoupi- toulas street, I received a small osseous fish, caught in the New Orleans nal, which connects the city with Lake Pontchartrain. This fish had been placed in a basket containing crabs, one of which wounded it slightly in the abdomen near the cloaca, thereby exposing several foetal fish enveloped in a delicate membrance. The parent fish, which had been rudely thrust into a narrow-mouthed phial of spirits, retains after immersion for two weeks, the original rigor mortis, and the same re- mark applies’ to the fcetuses, though they have been soaked in water: Some of them have been forcibly straightened. On the 17th of Octo- ber, in the presence of, and assisted by Dr.’s J. Hale and M. M. Dower, T enlarged the wound and proceeded to dissect a somewhat globular mass of fcetuses bounded by the intestines before, and separated from * The specimen was found by a brother of Capt. Ord, U.S. A, from whom I pro- cured the specimen for description. { 134 Scientific Intelligence. them by an indescribably thin, diaphanous membrane ; this mass was further bounded above by the spine and ribs, below and behind by the posterior inferior abdominal walls, bulging backward of the anal orifice and fin. ‘The exterior envelop of this oblong globe consisted of a very “er pelucid, extremely delicate and apparently laminated and floccu- nt membrane, like the amnion of the human embryo in the early state ; it did not forma simple sack, but consisted of many duplications like the arachnoidal BB among the sinuosities and convolutions of the uman brain, sending its prolongations as the hyaloid membrane does, through the vitreous mass of the eye. This uterine membrane (ovisac it may not be termed) contained viscera ; but the parent fish, and still more its inclosed organs, were too minute to admit of full demonstration during a necessarily hurried ex- amination ; moreover the wish not to mutilate the parent fish very much prevented a fuller dissection of the foetal mass in situ. Each feetal fish was doubled laterally, oe to the right, some- times to the left into the globular form, the al fin which is inclined to the lancet shape, though blunter, Seeahiie = one eye and one side of the mouth ; each fish in situ, and even after forcible extraction from its bed was infolded in a = some were drawn i united by pedicles to a common stem, somewhat like an umbilical c These fetal fishes pleneatied a perfect eae of close packing. perceptible force was required to dislodge them from their beds. The concavity left by their ——— appeared to be lined with a smooth, black, peritoneal membra The intestines which were V very minute were crowded forward by the rounded mass of foetuses which occupied the greater portion of the ab- dominal cavity. No ova were discovered. The ma vernal fish not being much mutilated, is reserved for a more detailed technical description, which my leisure and the limits of this Journal will not admit of at Without attempting fully to describe even the dermal skeleton, I may observe that this tiny fish is a most symmetrical one. Its minuteness fo) foetuses it weighed only seven grains, though not disembowe Thorough desiccation would probably reduce its weight one half or more. ‘The fish exposed for two hours in the shade on a damp day, was but slightly desiccated. It was weighed by Mr. Macpherson, apoth- ecary, in my presence; but fearing a mistake I had it weighed the second time, with the same Sate If each foetus should weigh but one grain, the aggregate would be more than three times greater than that of the mother easurements in inches: Length including the caudal fin 2 inches; greatest circumference 1}; width vertically $5 oe of thoracic fin 43 the caudal fin does not expand from its base or proximal end, but terminates ovally, its length 4; the anal but little expanded 3; the ven- tral is too minute for convenient measurement, being almost ine without a lens ; the dorsal which is single, has but a slight vertical wi Botany and Zoology. 135 arising from a base 4 of an inch, nearly opposite, though a little for- ward of the anal. The teeth are advanced, nearly ranging with the lips, being very nu- merous, close and small, though scarcely discernible without a magni- fying glass. Lips thin, the under one slightly projecting ; angles of the mouth not depressed ; eyes medium size ; head flattened at the frontal inner rows inclining to the central, having also, one, perhaps more rows behind, which are shorter. he predominant hue of this fish is a tawny or fawn color; the opercula silvery; head metallic gray; muzzle blackish, slightly pro- There are six rows of rather quadrangular black spots, more particu- larly marked in, the posterior half of the body, averaging twenty-five spots for each row. ese black spots, resting ona tawny ground, leaving intervals something larger than themselves, give a picturesque appearance, forming stripes of alternating hues, the three upper of which slightly curve corresponding to the arching back; but each be- _comes straighter, the fourth and fifth being nearly straight; the sixth or lower row follows the abdominal curve, and disappears at the anal fin; the other five rows gradually converge without coalescing at the origin of the caudal fin. At the origin of this fin the spots are displaced out of a line. By this arrangement the six rows of alternating black and tawny leave in the longitudinal direction six other continuous tawny stripes, all of which except the two interrupted ones, lost at the anal fin, Converge without mingling in the tail, all being about equal in length. The colors fade somewhat into a greyish yellow around the thoracic fins, which are nearly central between the dorsum and abdomen, being on a level with the eyes, and about one line from the opercula. here are six or seven rows of scales. The spinous rays of the fins are about twenty-five caudal, twelve anal, fifteen dorsal, ten thoracic. The fcetuses are half an inch long, all alike, exactly resembling the These fetal fishes were probably sufficiently developed at the time of the parent’s death to live independent of the mother. appears from the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for 1854, that Dr. Gibbons, of the Academy of Natu- | Sciences of San Francisco, “claims priority of description of vivip- arous fish,” in behalf of the gold-shimmering waters of California, and 136 Scientific Intelligence. consequently, that State takes precedence over Louisiana. Agassiz, whose sounding (fishing) line has passed the living waters to the most ancient paleozoic rocks, says, in regard to the California viviparous fishes, that “‘a country which furnishes such novelties in our days, bids fair to enrich science with many other unexpected facts.” The remarks of Dr. Dowler upon a viviparous fish of Louisiana, contained in the above notice, add a few points to the unpublished facts connected with the history of that family. The fish itself is not new ; it has already been described and figured in 1821 by Lesueur in the 2d volume of the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences in Phil- adelphia, under the name of Pecilia multilineata. It belongs to my family of Cyprinodonts.* 1 have had ample opportunity of observing large numbers of this fish during my stay in the South in the spring of 1853, in Mobile and in New Orleans where it is found everywhere in the lagoons in the immediate vicinity of these two cities, and not only of as- certaining that they are viviparous as I have already mentioned in this Journal for July, 1853, (p. 135,) but also of tracing the whole develop- ment of the embryo from the first stages of the segmentation of the yolk to the hatching of the young, which were freed from the abdominal pouch of the mother in the month of April. The date of the observations of d sentatives of the great type of Vertebrates. My Heterandria formosa, for instance, when full grown, is not quite an inch long and does not weigh more than five grains. An adult male weighed 334 milligrams. Cambridge, Aug. 22, 1854, L. Agassiz. 13. Perforating Animals.—M. Valenciennes observes that there are several Echini that perforate rocks like the Lithodomi. He also states that he has endeavored to obtain evidence of the presence of acid oF perforating in different perforating animals, but has never detected the slightest alteration of litmus paper while in contact with them ; and he admits that the action is wholly mechanical, proceeding from the ince* sant friction of the fleshy foot or some other part of the animal.—L’In- stitut, Oct. 11, 1854. . ) * See Agassiz’s Re he a Py. yee | , vol. y, part 2d, p. 47- a” Miscellaneous Intelligence. 137 14. Mollusca of Irkutsk.—M. Maack has recently sent to the Acad- emy of St. Petersburg, 27 species of mollusca, both land and fresh-water species, and it is remarkable that all the species without exception, are those of Europe, and pertain even to the mostcommon and most widely distributed species ; only four of them had not previously been observed in Siberia. —L’ Institut, Oct. 11, 1854 IV. AsTrrRonomy. 1. Elements Rh Urania (30), (Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci., tome xxxix, p. 644.)—Mr. Oudemans has computed the following elements of this planet from the Regent’s Pale observations of July 22, and those of Leyden of August 12 and Se Epoch wk ooo. aerwcnce) pe if Meananomaly,- - 208° 13) 37" -4 Long. perihelion, - - - 26 42 59 re Aes Eqnx. asc. neds - - - 307 57 51-155) 1854-0. Tnclination . - Lon 41 3 Angle of excentiiy, - - 8S 5439 2 Mean daily motio : : - 979-715 Semi axis major, - - - 2°35833 2. Comet, 1854, 1V, (Astron, Journal, 77 and 78.)—Mr. Van Ars- dale has been anticipated in the discovery of this comet by Mr. Klin- kerfues, who saw it on the 11th of September. The oe parabolic elements of its orbit are published by Dr. B. A. Gou T. 1854, Oct. 27: ry Greenwich M. " Perihelion passage, - of 19 a") eat 7 ong. asc. node, =—- - + 824 35 33 -9§ 1854-0 Inclination, : : « -,. 40° 39 23.4 Log. q. - - 9-903504. 3. New Planets. st itr new Saisie have been discovered in Paris : one Oct. 27, by Mr. Goldschmidt, which has been named Pomona (=), and the other Oct. 29, by Mr. Chacornac, named Potymnia i=) Thei positions at that time were: (32) R. A. . 24™ and Dec. a 55/ (33) sc h 94m 1 ee 6° 58’ V. MisceLtangous INTELLIGENCE. 1. On the Means of Realizing the pagers me of the Air- Engine ; by *Wictiam Jon Macqvorn Ranxing, Civil Engineer, F.R.S.S., Lond. and Edin., fin The paper consists of four sections. In the first are that, as the efficiency in with the distance between those limits, and as it is easy to employ air with safety at temperatures far exceed ing that at which the p re of steam would cease to be safe and manageable, the ae ala theoretical efficiency of air-engines, con- sistent with safety, is much higher than that of steam-engines. For ex- ample, at the temperature of 650° Fahr., at which ope oe has Suconp Senms, Vol. XIX, No. 55.—Jan., 1855 % bs 138 Miscellaneous Intelligence. been successfully worked, the pressure of steam is 2100 lbs. the square inch, while that of the air is optional, being regulated by a density at which the air is employed. In the second section, the various causes of waste of heat and ate in steam-engines are classified, and the actual efficiency of steam-en- gines is compared with their maximum theoretical efficiency, and also with the maximum actual efficiency, which may reasonably be supposed to be —— = jae steam-engine, by means of any probable mechan- ical improve The fo lowe ae estimates of the consumption of bituminous coal os a cat quality, per horse-power per hour :— or a theoretically perfect engine ye ci: between such limits temperature as are usual in ngines 1.86 Ibs. 2. Fora os acting steani-engine ame to the utmost prob- EMM on cece cece cree cee n cca caten seer esenesens 2.50. “ 3. dr a well constructed ~ ae worked ordinary double actin ng engine , On an ay £00 © to the peesinstion of coal of the athe quality per horse-power per hour :— Actual Consumption. Oommpien. of a i rfect Eng ine oe: Feurvia ce ceo lbe. 0.73 ths. Engine, weer e 280° * 0.82 ia is ‘eu vied that an air- ~~ has actually been made to work successfully, and to realize an econ my of fuel considerably sper limit to which it is probable t ihe economy of double-acting eek: engines can ever be brought. Stirling’s engine, as finally improved, as pact in its dimensions, easily worked, not liable to get out 0 order, and consum oil, and required fewer repairs than any Stirling’ S air-engine, as com a with a theoretically perfect ait- engine, sauee two-thirds of its fuel, and Ericsson’s somewhat more. Two obvious and powerful causes of that waste of fuel are traced—l. Deficiency i in extentof heating surface. 2. The communication of heat the furnace to the working air at those periods of the stroke whe2 it is not performing work. The necessary conclusion is, that the more completely we remove those two causes of waste of fuel, the more nearly shall we apnrens mate to the theoretical extent of the econom my of the air-engine—an ex Miscellaneous Intelligence. 139 tent far exceeding that to which the economy of the steam-engine is restricted ; and the more fully, in short, shall we accomplish that which has hitherto been very imperfectly done—to REALIZE THE ADVANTAGES OF THE AIR-ENGINE. The fourth section describes the improved air-engine of Messrs. James d J.M In thi e e the degree of condensation at which the air is employed. e air re- ceivers of an experimental engine were completed some time since, without practical difficulty, notwithstanding the novelty of their con- struction ; but the erection of the engine has been retarded by delay in the execution of the cylinder, fly-wheel, shaft, and other parts, which are similar to those of a steam-engine. Independently of the amount and value of the saving of fuel, which will result from the introduction of the air-engine, it possesses the im- portant and incontestable advantage, that even should an air receiver burst (which is very unlikely), the explosion would be harmless, for its force would not be felt beyond the limits of the engine itself. Red-hot air does not seald.—Proc. Brit. Assoc., Sept., ; 2. On Lightning Conductors, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., Athen., No. 1405.)—Mr. Nasmyrn described a Lightning Conductor for Chim- fore safer than those in common use. e present practice is to fix the conductor outside the chimney by metal holdfasts, by which means Supports fixed on the top. A conductor of this kind had proved e cient in storms which had severely injured other sie we in the neigh- borhood that were protected in the usual manner. n experience of eighteen years had tested the superiority of the plan. Prof pay, on being called on for his opinion, said that he re- 140 Miscellaneous Intelligence. discontinuous series of such metallic fastenings, there would be great - danger of the stones being displaced by the electric discharge. When such fastenings are used, care should be taken that they are connected together and with the earth by a continuous metallic conductor. Some persons conceived that it is desirable to insulate the conductor from the wall of a building by glass, but all such contrivances are absurd, since the distance to which the metal could be removed from the wall by my clouds to the earth. On being asked whether a flat strip of copper was K not better th opper rod, Prof. Faraday said the shape of the con- ductor is immaterial, provided the substance and quality of the metal are the same. 3. On the Effect of Pressure on the Temperature of Fusion of differ- ent Substances; by Mr. Hopxins, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., Athen., No, 14 —The author began by statin top of the substance within the cylinder, while its presence deflected @ small magnetic needle outside, but the instant the melting of the sub-. 2] “ g @ 5 ms Q. La) ba od o pa. 3 a ~ = o oa oe - c es = - a @ 5 2 9Q i] @ o. QO 3 19) $2) = ta] 3 os 7 = = i] oa - ° ing force; but as these two compressing forces are equal, the friction Mr. Hopkins then gave the results following are the most important :— its first position: this, together with the friction is equal to the compress Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141 ubstances experimented Pressure in Ibs. to Temperature, Fahr., upon. the square inch. at which it liquetied. Spermaceti, - 0 7,79 11 880 124° | 140° | 1765° ax, = - - 0 | 7,790 11,880 1485 | 1665 | 65 Sulphur, -~— - 0 7,790 41, 235: | SSS ys Stearine, - - o | 7790 | 11,880 | 158 | 155 165 exceedingly rapid rotatory motion on it i ut to this clock-work frame it could be attached, or detached from it, instantly. This revolv- ing mass only about three inches wide, and four of them were mounted in frames a little differently. rst was mounted in the pinion to appear on the outside, so that it could be laid hold of, or grasped firmly in the hand, if the pinion were not touched, while the tion. B this modification of the gyroscope, the author afforded to the audience i en- to turn it round either in his fingers, to the right hand or left, or up or down, or in his hands if he swung itround. So that the idea was irre- Which had a will of its own, and which alwa our will to Change its position. The second modification presented the mass sus- pended in a stout ring, which was furnished with projecting axles, like the ring of the gimbal. ‘These axles could be placed in a small frame of wood bushed with brass. ‘This smal! frame, when placed on a piece of smooth board, could be turned freely round by turning the piece of rd on which it rested as long as the gyroscope was not revolving, tlon being sufficie fric ent to cause the one to turn with the other; but, * See this Journal, xv, 263. 142 Miscellaneous Intelligence. , when the gyroscope was set rapidly revolving, in vain you attempted to turn the frame, by turning the board on which it rested, so determin- ately did it endeavor to maintain its own plane of rotation, as quite to overpower the friction. Inthe third modification of the gyroscope it w demonstrated the necessary effect of com one rotatory motion with another, he then proceeded to demonstrate palpably that the earth’s revolving motion affected the gyroscope in isely a similar way. would permit the instrument, by its weight, to fall instantly, as soon as the support of the hand was taken from it. But, upon imparting to * Next, to show the motion of the earth sensibly, he placed the gimba gyroscope suspended freely by a fine silk fibre in a stand with the lowe steel point of its support resting in an agate cup ; a long light pointer projecting from the ring carried a pointed card which passed over @ duated card arch of a circle placed concentrically with the gyt g' ay ee Seope ; upon imparting rapid rotatory motion to the gyroscope, t en dex was seen as the earth moved to point out the relative motion of the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143 plane of rotation exactly in the same way ; the law of the motion being also the same as that of the well-known pendulum experiment. Lastly, ‘he set the ring gyroscope in motion, and by placing a small pointed piece of brass at the end of the axle on the ring, the instrument went immediately through all the evolutions of a boy’s top on the floor, hum- ming meanwhile loudly also. 5. On Meteoroliies and Asteroids; by R. P. Gruc, Jr., (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1854, Athen., No. 1405.)—Mr. Greg brought forward some facts respecting meteorites and asteroids, not hitherto noticed, in favor of the theory that they are identical in nature and origin. After stating some arguments against the theory of the atmospheric origin of aerolites, Mr. Greg proceeded to give an abstract of some results he had Jately obtained in analyzing a very complete catalogue of aerolite falls. It would appear that since the year 1500 a.p., there are authentica- ted instances of falls of aerolites, the month of whose fall is known. é number for each month being as follows :—For January 9, Febru- ary 15, March 17, April 14, May 15, June 17 falls,—tfirst half of the year, 87 falls; July 18, August 15, September 17, October 14, Novem- r 16, December 8 falls,—second half, 88 falls. Giving an average of 14°6 for each month. The most important thing to notice is the lon, that the meeting with aerolites is rendered most probable. This 1s what would appear really to be the case, for the earth is at her great- est distance from that luminary on the side of the summer solstice, i. e. in June and July, precisely the months shown to be most abundant in aerolites, _ Mr. Greg then referred to a recent number of the Comptes Rendus, In which there is a paper by Le Verrier on the asteroids. M. Le Ver- ner shows’by calculation that the sum of the mass of the fragmentary planets called asteroids cannot exceed one-fourth of the earth’s mass : and also shows it probable that their mean mass or system is at its peri- helion, and consequently nearest the earth, at the time when the earth herself is on the side of the summer solstice. This would appear agne ta : shows following the order of their distances from the sun :—Mercury, oT: Venus, 5°8; Earth, 5-9; Mars, 5°2; Aerolites, 3-0 3 Asteroids, (?), ‘Waplter, 84 ig introd.- renfe tiny 5 courbes u: intercatlees dans te texte. —— Lecons ae Trigonometrie rectiligne e et “aver ie 2a sition, entierement fat Syvo. Asay a intercal. dans le texte. Paris. 1854. ipa bl Schulze (J. €.) Recueil de Ta’ ise 80 Bos = phoma cc ona etc. 2 vols ae oy the Prevention ¢ of one Cnet — considered. Daler rene ca Beso Vogt (C.) Lehrbuch der Geologie u. Petrefactem- ae aS; _ CORE caches Gi Fe - orien records to the — pete 8yo. 395 1854. cata rarnier E. A.) Aigiters opener” $a edl- Z pesos rb rme au dernier eres ed baagess! ie s 36 aes, . Tomlinson. ‘Geiaseaes of eid ay chanics, . ea 2 ae 4 ee ¥ 130 i Super-royal Svo, Clo as Trigot (Profess D'Ombres et de Late, ecoles, des architectes et des mecaniclen@s vrage divise en quatre parties; Ist. sn rt 8 2d. bbe rend bp bres; 4th. 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Gino Ns, M.D., 1 44 —Observations on Atmospheric pressure ; frots 3 " : . Lyne neher: Gathfors ria, Tesi " * Ore few 7 itish ‘and Rus Ow s Circle of the Stiences—Crystallog ed hy ead oben nag eae AS gaat ennanT: Edin burgh sates Bae : of Wiel ELL, 150.— VV is onsidérée dans 8 ae tappre avee la chim “8. OUSSINGAULT: Traité des Arts ( “ay tyaretes ART, 2nd edit. r ours special sur | pales ve le Diamagnétisme, “Te Meresuune: ete. -; par TEUcc1: Nouveau Systéme de Navigation, ete., par PLANAVERGNE, 152. List of Works, 152. ART. - ken sens of some Volcanic Springs in the Desert of the UNT, XIV. Correspondence ‘of M. Janome Nieszas—Obitu wae : M Brisseau de Mirbel, 103.—Astronomical Refraction: Con- Stitution of the Sun; Sular Magnetism, 104. —Optics—Man- ufacture of Glass for Objectives: Polarization of the At- mos nce of a new species of Silkworm: ustry, Agriculture, and Productions of Algeria, 108. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, , in Southern California; by Joun L. 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Lawrence Smrru, M.D., Professor of Chemis- try in the Medical Department of the University of Louisville. (Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, April, 1854.) 1. Meteoric Iron Jrom Tazewell County, East Tennessee.* T'HIs meteorite was placed in my possession through the kind- - of Prof. J. B. Mitchell of Knoxville, in the month of August, . Nothing could be ascertained as to the time of its fall; it is stated ‘Mong the people living near where the meteorite was found, that a light has been often seen to emanate from and rest upon the hill,a belief that may have had its foundation in the observed fall this body. The Weight of this meteorite was fifty-five pounds. It is ofa flattened shape, with numerous conchoidal indentations, and three annular Openings passing through the thickness of the mass near : _* Notice of the discovery of this iron was given by me in 1853.—v. Ls, yrs _ Stooxn Sauzes, Vol, XIX, No. 56—March, 1865. 154 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. the outer edge. ‘Two or three places on the surface are flattened, as if other portions were attached at one time, but had been rusted off by a process of oxydation that has made several fissures in the mass so as to allow portions to be detached by the hammer, although when the metal is sound the smallest fragment could not be thus detached, it being both hard and tough. Its dimensions are such that it will just lie in a box 13 inches long, 11 inches broad and 54 inches deep. The accompanying figure gives a correct idea of the appearance of this meteorite. 1 The exterior is covered with oxyd of iron, in some places 8° thin as hardly to conceal the iron, in other places a quarter of an inch deep. Its hardness is so great that it is almost impossible to detach portions by means of a saw. Its color is white, owing to the large amount of nickel present ; and a polished surface when acted on by hot nitric acid displays in a most beautifully regular manner the Widmannstattian figures. The specific gravity taken on three fragments selected for their compactness and purity; 38 from 7°88 to 7-91. : The following minerals have been found to constitute this meteorite: Ist. Nickeliferous iron, forming nearly the entre “mass. 2nd. Protosulphuret of iron, found in no ineonsiderable quantity on several parts of the exterior of the mass. 3d. Schr Pe NE a Cea ART yi Hey er 4 AP ty J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 155 that had been opened by a sledge hammer, and in the same crev- ice Schreibersite wag found. Chlorid of iron.is also found deli- quescing on the surface ; some portions of the surface are entirely free from it, while others again are covered with an abundance of rust arising from its decomposition. : sides the above minerals two others were found, one a sili- ceous mineral, the other in minute rounded black particles ; both, owever Were in too small quantity for any thing like a correct idea to be formed of their composition. » The different minerals that admitted of it, were examined chemically, and the following are the results: ickeliferous fron.—The specific gravity of this iron is as already stated, from 7-88 to 7-91. It is not readily acted on by any of the acids in the cold; nitric acid, either concentrated or dilute, has no action on it until heated to nearly 200° Fahr., when the action commences, and continues with great vigor even after the withdrawal of heat. “With reference to the action of sulphate of copper, it is passive, although when immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper and allowed to remain for several hours the latter metal deposits itself in spots on the surface of the iron. pletely. When boiled with hydrochloric acid the iron dissolves with the liberation ‘of hydrogen, leaving undissolved the Schrei- bersite ; but by long continued action this latter is also dissolved with the evolugion of phosphuretted hydrogen. The following ingredients were detected on analysis of two Specimens : F 2. on, : sabi ; 82°39 83-02 Nickel, 15°02 14:62 bali, . ‘50 pper, 09 -06 Phosphorus, 16 19 Chlorine, 02 ur, Silva. ; ame” 84 a, : ; : 24 98°55 99°57 Tin and arsenic were looked for, but neither of those sub- Stances detected. The magnesia and silica are doubtless com- 82°59 1741=100°00 156 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 2. Protosulphuret of Iron.—This variety of sulphuret of iron found with meteorites is usually designated as magnetic pyrites, leaving it to be inferred that its composition is the same as the terrestrial variety. Without alluding to the doubt among some mineralogists as to the true composition of the terrestrial magnetic pytites, I have o only to say that most careful examination of the sulphuret detached from the meteorite in question proves it to be a protosulphuret; a conclusion to which Rammelsberg had already come, with reference to the pyrites of the Seelasgen iron, which latter pyrites I have also examined, confirming the results of Rammelsberg. This pyrites encrusts some portion of the iron, and in places is mixed with a little Schreibersite. It presents no distinct crystal- line structure, has a grey metallic lustre, and a specific gravity of 4: The Seelasgen 2 hdae gave me for spans oo“ 4-681. The specimen of pyrites in question gave, on analysis Tron 62°38, sulphur 35°67, nickel 0-32, sate pi silica 0:56, lime 0-08=98-91. The formula Fe S requires sulphur 36:36, iron 63°64. The magnetic property of this mineral is far inferior to that possessed by Schreibersite. 3. Schreibersite-—It is found disseminated in small particles through the mass of the iron, and is made evident by the action of hydrochloric acid ; it is also alee in flakes of little size, in- serted as it were into the iron, and owing to the fgct that in many parts where it occurs chlorid of iron also exists, this last has caused ‘the iron to rust in crevices, and on opening these, Schrei- bersite was detached mechanically. This mineral as it exists in the meteorite in question, so closely resembles magnetic pyrites that it can be readily mistaken for this latter substance, and I feel on the contrary prove to be Schreibersite that can be easily re- cognised by the characters to be fully detailed a little farther on. Its color is yellow or yellowish white, sometimes with a green- ish tinge; lustre metallic; hardness 6; specific gravity 7-017. No regular crystalline form was detected; its fracture in one direc- tion is conchoidal. It is attracted very readily by the magnet, even more so than magnetic oxyd of iron; it ek Seg polarity and retains it. I have a piece ;3, of an inch long, #, of an inch road, and 1; of an inch thick, which has retained its polarity over six months ; unfortunately the polarity was not tested imme- diately when it was detached from the i iron, and not until it had come in contact with a magnet, so that it cannot be prono as originally polar. rt see ir } J. Lawrence Snuth on Meteorites. 157 Before the blowpipe it melts readily, little blisters forming on the surface from the escape of chlorine, and blackens. mag- net is a most ready means of distinguishing the Schreibersite from the pyrites commonly found in meteoric irons, for although the pyrites is attracted by the magnet, it is necessary that the latter should be brought quite near to it for the effect to be produced, whereas if the particles exposed to the magnet be Schreibersite, they will be attracted with almost the readiness of iron filings. Hydrochloric acid acts exceedingly slowly on this mineral when pulverized, with the formation of phosphuretted hydrogen. Nitric acid acts more vigorously and readily dissolves it when finely pulverized. The composition of this substance has in all cases but one, been made out from the residue of meteoric iron, after having been acted on by hydrochloric acid, which accounts for the great variation in the statements of the proportion of its con- stituents. Mr. Fisher examined pieces of Schreibersite detached from the Braunau iron, with the following results: Iron 55-430, nickel 25-015, phosphorus 11-722, chrome 2-850, carbon 1-156, silex 0°985 = 98-158. The results of my analyses do not differ very materially from this; they are as follows: 8 2. . 57-22 56°04 56°53 Nickel, - 25°82 26-43 28°02 Cobalt,’ : ; 0°32 0-41 0-28 Copper, . : . trace not estimated. Phosphorus, 2 13°92 14°86 Silica, : 162 Alumina, - 4 163 Zine, = : . trace not estimated. Chlorine, 018 100°66 99°69 158 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. This mineral although not usually much dwelt upon when speaking of meteorites, is decidedly the most interesting one asso ciated with this class of bodies, even more so than the “nickolifats ous iron. It has no representative in genus or species among ter- restrial minerals, and is one possessed of highly interesting prop- erties. Although among terrestrial minerals phosphates are found, not a single phosphuret is known to exist ; so true is this (that ' with our present knowledge) if any one thing could convince me more strongly than another of the non- terrestrial origin of any natural body, it would be the presence of this or some similar phosphuret. It is commonly alluded to as a residue from the ac- tion of hydrochloric acid upon meteoric iron, when in fact it ex- ists in plates and fragments of some size in almost all meteoric iron; and there is reason to believe that it is never absent from any of them in some form or other: what is meant by ‘“ some size” is, that it is in pieces large ey to be seen by the naked eye, and to be detached mechanical In an examination of the meteoric specimens in the Yale Col- lege Cabinet, more than half of them have been discovered to contain Schreibersite visible to the eye, that had been considered pyrites. Among them, the large Texas meteorite was examined, and although none was visible on the surface, a small fragment of the same mass given me by Prof. Silliman, contains a piece 0 Schreibersite of over a grain weight. e reason why it has not attracted more attention, arises from its resemblance to pyrites; I tad fei hb state a ready manner of telling whether it be such or tach a small fragment, ata hold a magnet capable of sustain- ing five or six ounces or more, within half an inch or an inc of the fragment, if it be Schreibersite it will be attracted with great readiness ; the magnetic pyrites requiring a very close ap- proximation of the magnet before attracted. This, with some little experience, becomes a ready method of separating the two. It is not, however, to be expected that this method alone, is to satisfy us, when other means can be appealed to for distinguishing this mineral ; the following is one which is readily accomplishe with the smallest fragment. (half a milligramme). Melt in a small loop of platinum wire, a little carbonate of soda, add the small- est fragment of nitrate of soda and the piece of mineral, hold the mixture in the flame of a lamp for two or three minutes; place the bead of soda in a watch glass, add a little water and filter ; to the filtrate add a drop or two of acid to neutralize the excess of carbonate of soda; evaporate nearly to dryness; add a drop of ammonia, and then a drop of ammoniacal sulphate of magnesia, when the double phosphate of magnesia and ammonia will show self, and the crystalline form will be Séognined under the micro- pe. ee et J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 159 the operation can be carried on in a small platinum capsule. This reaction can also be had by acting on the mineral, however small the piece, by aqua-regia, evaporate until only a little of the liquid is left, add a little tartaric acid, then a drop or two of ammonia to supersaturate the acid, and lastly a little ammoniacal sulphate of magnesia, when the crystals of the double phosphate of mag- nesia and ammonia will appear strong evidence of its being an original constituent of the mass, and not formed since the fall of the mass. Chlorid of iron was apparent on various parts of the iron by its deliquescence on the surf tlace. 2. Meteoric Iron from Campbell County, Tenn. This meteorite was discovered in July, 1853, in Campbell County, Tennessee, in Stinking Creek, which flows down one of the narrow valleys of the Cumberland mountains. It was found by a Mr. Arnold in the channel of this stream, and having been obtained by Prof. Mitchell of Knoxville, he kindly pre- Sented it to me. It is a small oval mass 24 inches long, 12 broad, and ? thick, with an irregular surface and several cavities perfo- The iron composing the mass was quite tough, highly crys- talline, and exhibited small cavities on being broken, resembling very much in this respect, as well as in many other points, the ttommony Creek iron; a polished surface when etched, exhib- ited distinct irregular Widmannstattian figures. The weight is 4 ounces. Specific gravity, 7-05. The low- hess of the specific gravity is accounted for by its porous nature. Composition— : Tro) n, . e ° . . . 97-54 Nickel, § , : ti ae ee Cobalt, . : : nd Copper, too small to be estimated. _ Carbon ‘ : : : ae somhones, 2 ‘ ‘ ; . ee Ca, > i . . . . . . 100752 Chlorine exists in some parts in minute proportion. The amount of nickel, it will be seen is quite small, but its composi- ton is nevertheless perfectly characteristic of its origin. 160 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 3. Meteoric Iron from Coahuila, Mexico. This meteorite was brought to this country by Lieut. Gouch, of the U.S. Army, he having obtained it at Saltillo. It was counts were given of the precise locality, but none seemed very satisfactory. When first seen by Lieut. Gouch, it was used as an anvil, and had been originally intended for the Society of Ge- ography and Statistics in the city of Mexico. It is stated that where this mass was found, there are many others of enormous size ; these stones, however, it is well known, are to be received with many allowances. Mr. Weidner, of the mines of F'reiberg, States that near the southwestern edge of the Balson de Mapimi, on the route to the mines of Parral, there is a meteorite near the road of not less than a ton weight. Lieut. Gouch also states that the intelligent but almost unknown Dr. Berlandier, writes in his journal of the commission of limits, that at the Hacienda of Venagas there was (1827) a piece of iron that would make a cyl- inder one yard in length with a diameter of ten inches. It was said to have been brought from the mountains near the Hacienda. It presented no crystalline structure, and was quite ductile. meteoric mass in question, which is at the Smithsonian Institution, is of the form represented in the figure, and one well J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 161 the lines, resembling the representation we have of the etched surface of Hauptmannsdorf iron. Schreibersite is visible in the iron, but so sire in the mass, that it cannot be readily detected by mechanical means. Hydrochloric acid leaves a residue of beautifully brilliant patches of this mineral. Subjected to analysis, it was found to contain Tron 95°82 Which corresponds to Cobalt, a Nickeliferous Iron, 98°45 Co ae r; minate quantity not estimated. Schreibersite, mas npepaore ~ 100-00 iron is remarkably free from other constituents. It is es- Becially interesting as the largest mass of meteoric iron in this country next to the Texas meteorite at Yale College. 4, Meteoric Iron from Tucson, Mezico. e have had several accounts of meteoric masses which exist at Tieson Dr. J. L. LeConte having made them known some few years ago. Since that time Mr. Bartle tt, of the Boundary Com- mission, has seen them and made a drawing of one which he has kindly allowed me the use of, as well as the Lege ade GF notice of them, which is however, quite brief. This mass is nsed for an anvil, resembles native iron, and weighs about six Wabdred pounds. Its greatest length is five feet. Its exterior is quite smooth, while the lower part which projects from the larger leg is very jagged aud rough. It was found about twenty miles dis- tant towards Tubac, and about eight miles from the road where we are told are many larger masses. The following figure (3) represents the appearance of that meteorite. ince my communication last April, I have obtained fragments of the meteorite from Lieut. Jno. G. Parke, of the U. S. Topo- graphical Engineers, who cut them from the mass at Pixon, and to whose kindness I feel much indebt Some of the fragments were entirely covered with rust, and nished. The Widmannstattian figures are very imperfectly de- veloped, owing to: the porous nature of the iron, the pores of Which are filled with a stony mineral. The specific gravity €n on three specimens were 6:52—6'91—7" ‘13. The last was the most compact and free from stony particles that could be — and upon that se chemical examination was made this w ted to the American Association for the Advance- ety of § Bebiec, “Mr I Bartlett’e vale and instructive work, entitled “ Personal bas pe’ of Explorations j in pest New Mexico, California, Sonora, and Chihuahua, has been 0 me octavo volumes . by the Fea: Kota New ori ana we are od comang tate publishers for the use of Mr tt’s fine —J. L. §. _ Secon Srrizs, Vol Xl XIX, No. 56.—March, 1855. 21 162 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. On examination it is seen to consist of two distinct parts, me- tallic and stony; the latter was only in minute particles, yet it was impossible, among the specimens at my disposal, to finda piece that was without it. On analysis, the following ingredients were found: Tron, ‘ A . 85:54 Which represent the following minerals: Nickel, . ‘ 5 Cobalt, ° . s : "61 Nickeliferous iron, . 93°81 Copper, . : : 03 Chrome iron, : : Phosphorus, : 4 "12 Schreibersite, "84 Chromic oxyd, . 21 living, . 506 Magnesia, . ‘ 2°04. a ; 3°02 100712 Al trace 100°12 3. ee rn Some few particles of olivine were separated mechanically, and readily recognised as such under the magnifying glass in con- nection with the action of acids, which readily decompose it, fur- nishing silica and magnesia. Some of the olivine is in a pulver- | ulent condition, resembling that of the Atacama iron. The nick- . eliferous iron of this Tucson meteorite also resembles that of the : Atacama iron; calculated from the above results, it consists 0 | Iron 90/91, nickel 8:46, cobalt 63, copper, trace= 100-00. | This meteorite* is one of much interest, and it is to be hoped that some of our enterprising U. S. Topographical Engineers _ * Since my noti i i i Am. Sey Scatter ere beeper the Am. Assoc. He seems inclined to think that the stony material might be chlad- nite, although he could form no definite conclusion on this head. From what bas J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 163 will yet be able to persuade the owners to part with it and bring it to this country. 5. Meteoric Iron of Chihuahua, Mexico. For the description of this meteorite, I am indebted to the fragment of it for examination from Dr. Webb, who detached pieces from the mass; but when applied to, they were no longer in his possession. It exists at the Hacienda de Concéption, about fen miles from Zapata. “The form is irregular’ Its greatest height is forty-six inches ; greatest breadth thirty-seven inches ; circumference in thickest part eight feet three inches. Its weight a given by Senor Urquida, is about three thousand eight hun- dred and fifty-three pounds. It is irregular in form, as seen by the figure ; and one side is filled with deep cavities, generally round and of various dimensions. At its lower part, as it now stands, iS @ projecting leg, quite similar to the one on the meteorite at Tucson. The back or broadest part is less jagged than the other Portions, and contains fewer cavities, yet, like the rest, is very Wregular,” n said in the text. it will be seen to be olivine, the chladnite of the Bishopville stone not being attacked by acid, or only to a very feeble extent, by boi mar gul- Phurie acid. And I would here remark that from some investigations just made, chladnite is likely to prove a pyroxene.—J. L. s. (To be continued.) 164 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. Art. XVI.—On the Periodical Rise and Fall of the Lakes ; by M agor Lacuian, Montreal. (Continued from p. 71.) Sucu continued to be the state of the question, till the institu- tion, by the American States, of those great patriotic works, the Geological Surveys of New York, Ohio, and Michigan, when the subject being taken up by the talented individuals employed in that duty, as far as their other immediate avocations would permit, with that spirit which ever distinguishes the lovers of science, I was enabled to glean many interesting additional particulars from their official reports, though, unfortunately, none sufficiently con- clusive to solve the great philosophical problem so long under dis- cussion. Among these I, of course rank first the eminent Amer- ican geologist, Professor Hall, from whose elaborate work, put forth under the enlightened auspices of the State of New York, I extract the following valuable remarks on the elevation and de- pression of the great Lakes:* “The fluctuating level of the waters of these Lakes has long excited attention ; and many speculations have been hazarded to account for the phenomenon. The somewhat general belief that the periodical rise and fall in their waters occupy seven years ap- pears not to be founded on authentic observation. Sand-bars and beaches, or the inlets of certain bays, are regarded as the land- marks; and these being liable to fluctuation from accumulation and removal, it follows that no hypothesis, founded on such ob- servations, can be of any value. . . is nevertheless true that there are important. fluctuations in the Lake levels, which are unconnected with the temporary influence of winds. The tity of snow fallen during certain seasons has been considered a small degree of sunshine, the amount of evaporation being thus diminished, the Lakes remain ata high point. These causes, though perhaps satisfactory, and without doubt true, at least to a certain extent, do not always appear sufficient to account for the fluctuations which have been noticed. T'wenty-five or thirty years ago the beach of Lake Erie was a travelled highway beyond eetelo: but at this time it would be quite impossible to travel 10 iC SHC... -s * See Hall’s Geology of New York, pp. 498 to 410. - | Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall-of the Lakes. 165 ues for a considerable length of time, while the maximum con- tinues only fora year. . . single individual has informe — about 1788 or 1790 the Lakes were nearly as high as in “The annual fluctuations in the level of the Lakes are doubt- less due to the nature of the seasons, depending on the quantity of rain and snow, and the amount of the evaporation ; but it is extremity of the Lake, and a corresponding depression there takes The prevalence of a strong easterly or northerly wind in the same way drives the waters to the western and southern parts of the Lake, and a much smaller quantity flows down the Niagara during such period. The same effects take place in a greater or less degree in all the Lakes—the rising at one extrem- ity and the sinking at the other, till the wind subsides, when it tesumes the equilibrium, and in so doing presents a beautiful ex- hibition of the long swells which are observed in the ocean after the subsidence of a high wind.” Professor Hall was well seconded by Professor Mather, after- wards chief director of the Geological Survey of Ohio, and sub- . Sequently (in 1845, ’46, and ’47) a resident on the shores of Lake uperior, observant of the meteorology and change of level of at Lake, from whose reports and other writings I extract the following particulars respecting Lakes Erie and Superior : “A tradition exists that there is a periodical rise and fall in Lake Erie, through a certain number of years. If it is true—and there are reasons for believing that it may be so, to a certain extent— * See Geological Report of Professor Mather for 1838. 166 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. it is evident that the present rise (1838) is higher than has oecur- red for many years before, for extensive tracts of forest are now overflowed, and timber killed in consequence, the trees of which indicate a long period of growth. he causes that may concur to produce such a variation in the level of the Lake are :—Ist, An obstruction to the drainage to the usual quantity of water, in consequence of which, if the usual supply continues, the water must rise. 2d, The increased or diminished supply of water, de- dependent on the wetness or dryness of the season, the relative temperature, and amount of evaporation, both from the surface of the Lake and the country which receives its drainage waters, and the amount of water supplied by the Lakes above, as Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior,—the amount of water contribu- ted by ‘which is due to the same general causes, with the possible addition of an increasing water-way from the cutting down o their outlets, and pouring down an additional supply. 3d, An- other possible cause may be taken into account in the varying level (or upheaval) of the solid earth itself—examples of which are mentioned-in various works on geology, as to be seen in part of the coast of Sweden, where it is said to be slowly rising at the present time.’ To this the as well adds ;—“ It is considered an object of great importance to determine what are the cuuses of this effect ; and it was therefore intended, if the Legislature had made an appropriation corresponding to the estimate, and with provisions to the Bill which was reported last Session, to have set in train a series of observations in several localities on the Lake coast, and in different parts of the States, so that by the period for the ‘close of the survey, a determination of the causes of the rise and fall of the Lake might have been attained. All the aid which the various branches of meteorology could have secured would also have decided the question as . the small tides, which are said to be very sensible in some place To the foregoing remarks’ of robo Mather, I may be per- mitted to add that it is much to be regretted that any circum- stances should have prevented his excellent suggestion from being carried into effect ; but that such having unfortunately been the case, it now remains for the British province of Canada to have the credit of completing so desirable a work, on a far more eX- tended scale. ‘urning again to Lake Superior, I am happy to be able to quote'the following (abridged) remarks by the same writer :* ae great rise and fall of the level of the waters of the great ae aseries of years has been long noticed. The ess due to a greater quantity of snow and rain, oF \ Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 167 of a lower mean temperature and diminished evaporation during the period of rise, and the reverse during the time of fall of the water-level. During 1838-39, the waters were higher than they had been before for at least two centuries. This is demonstrated by the large tracts of land that were inundated which were cov- ered with forest trees, many of them the growth of ages. These trees were destroyed by the overflow around Lakes Erie and Hu- - ron, and on the Ste. Marie river, between Point Detour and the Sault Ste. Marie. “We have no accounts of Lake Superior at that time; but there are facts that indicate a marked variation within a few years. In 1845 a rock in the middle of the entrance of Eagle Harbor, showed itself only in the trough of the waves; and the narrow outlet between the west end of Porter’s Island and the main land at Copper Harbor, was of such depth that loaded boats could enter without touching the rocks. In 1846, the rock at the mouth of Eagle Harbor was one-and-a half feet above water ; and boats could not get into Copper Harbor. In June, 1847, the tock above-mentioned was still more above water, and the outlet to Copper Harbor could be crossed by stepping on the projecting Points of the reef, without wetting the feet; an uring some depressions of the water by barometrical waves, it was laid almost entirely dry. From the 18th of June to the 6th of September there was a rise of full twelve inches. It has been observed on this lake that the water is lowest in spring and highest in autumn. is is readily explained by the fact that in winter most o the ordinary supplies of water from the drainage of the surrounding country are cut off, by being converted into ice and snow; while €vaporation from the, surface of the Lake by the dry northern Winds continues to carry away a very sensible quantity of water. During the Spring, on the contrary, the snow and ice melt, an the accumulated stores of winter flow into the Lake in greater quantity than to compensate for the evaporation and the drainage atthe outlet. . . During a century past the waters of Lake Uperior cannot have been more than four feet above the level of 1847, for any considerable time, as is evident by the growth of tees of two feet in diameter at Porter’s Island, which would have died had the ground around them been inundated for any great ngth of time. . +0 descend once more to Lake Erie. Iam next indebted to Col. Whittlesey, Topographer to the Geological Survey of Ohio for eatowing, confined to the annual and daily fluctuations in * See Colonel Whittlesey’s Report for 1838-39. 168 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. “The general belief among navigators and residents on the Lakes appears to be uniform against the existence of any law by which these fluctuations are governed or may be predicted. The scanty information collected tends to the conclusion that these general elevations and depressions are fortuitous, and the result of accidental disorder in the seasons throughout the Lake country. It is, however, well established that there zs in Lake Erie an an- nual tide, independent of the general state* of the water, which rises from eight to fifteen inches in the mean. The minimum occurs about the time of the breaking up of the ice, late in winter. and the maximum late in spring or early in summer and fall. In the winter less change is perceptible; but early in spring it rises very fast, and with great regularity, till it reaches the maximum. All measurements should be taken subject to this change; but I am unable to fixa mean surface for the year, or to give a probable at ee e geographical position of Lake Erie in refer- ence to the prevailing winds is the cause of irregularities in the annual rise and fall of the waters. Its general course elng northeast and southwest, discharging at the north, the steady west wind of the fall accelerates the flow of water from this Lake, at the same time retarding its supply from the other lakes. “It has been asserted that there exists in the Lakes, as in the Ocean, a daily or Zunar tide. Whether it is true when applied to uron, Ontario, or other lakes, ts not perhaps entirely settled. The observations I have been enabled to make on Lake Erie, and tion, that there is no tide upon Lake Erie. t will be perceived that I already happen to possess more ac- cumulated information on the vicissitudes of Lake Erie, to which my own attention and reflections had been more particularly di- rected, than of all the rest of our great Mediterranean seas put together; and I have now the additional satisfaction of turning to the investigations of my more immediate neighbors, the State Geologists of Michigan, and more especially of their talented chief, the lamented late Dr. Houghton, and his able assistant and topographer, Mr. Higgins. From the first Report of the former, however, I can only ven- ture to point to the following naked paragraphs, on the change © elevation in the waters of the Lakes, as equally applicable to Can- ada and to the American States.+ * Stagé is the word used, meaning “level,” I presume—k. t. + See Geological Report of Michigan for 1839, p. 20 to 22. ee sa nett Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fail of the Lakes. 169 “'The great interest which this subject possesses, in connection with our Lake Harbors, as well as with those agricultural inter- ests connected with the flat lands bordering the Lakes and Rivers, may be a suflicient apology for introducing the following facts and reflections upon the subject. An accurate and satisfactory determination of the total rise and fall of the waters of the Lakes is a subject, the importance of which, in connection with some t our works of internal improvement and harbors, can at this time scarcely be appreciated. “Much confusion is conceived to have arisen in the minds of a portion of our citizens, in consequence of a confounding of the regular annual rise and fall to which the waters of the Lakes are subject, with that apparently irregular elevation and subsidence which only appears to be completed ina series of years; changes that are conceived to depend upon causes so widely different, that, while the one can be calculated with almost the same cer- tainty as the return of the seasons, the other can by no means be calculated with any degree of certainty. _ “Tt is well known to those who have been accustomed to no- tice the relative height of the water of the Lakes, that during the winter season, while the flow of water from the small streams is either partially or wholly checked by ice, and while the springs fail to discharge their accustomed quantity, the water of the lakes IS Invariably low. As the spring advances the snow that had fallen during the winter is changed to water, the springs receive their accustomed supply, and the small streams are again opened, their banks being full in proportion to the amount of snow which may have fallen during the winter, added to the rapidity with which it may have been melted. ‘The water of the Lakes, in Consequence of this suddenly increased quantity received from the immense number of tributaries, commences rising with the first Opening of the spring, and usually attains its greatest eleva- ‘on—at least in the upper Lakes—sometime in the month of June or July. As the seasons advance, or during the summer and a large portion of the autumnal months, evaporation is in- creased, and the amount of water discharged by the streams les- sened, in consequence of which the water of the Lakes falls very gradually until the winter again sets in, when a still greater de- Pression takes place, from the renewed operations of the causes ‘ready mentioned. nt, as it manifestly is, upon causes which are somewhat uni- ®rm in their operation, must not be confounded with that eleva- Stoonp Sems, Vol. XIX, No. 56—March, 1855. 22 170 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. tion and depression to which the waters are subject, independent of causes connected with the seasons of the year. These latter changes, which take place more gradually, sometimes undergoing but little variation for a series of years, are least liable to be no- ticed, unless they be very considerable ; but with respect to con- sequences, they are of vastly more importance, since they are subject to a larger and more permanent ra “That the waters of the Lakes, from ec, ae settlement of the country have been subject to considerable variation in relative space of seven years, and subsiding for a similar length of time: a belief which would appear to be in consonance with that of the Indians, and with whom, it no doubt originated. It is not wonderful that a subject, the causes of which are so little com- prehended by our natives should be invested with an air of mys- tery, or that an error once propagated, in consequence of the long series of years required to bring about any considerable change could scarcely be eradicated. While the idea of that septennial rise and fall must be regarded as founded in error, it is neverthe- less true, that from the earliest records, the height of the Lakes has been subject to a considerable variation, t usually rising very gradually and irregularly for a series of years, and after that falling in a similar, but more rapid, manner. Dr. Houghton concludes a “ie of other excellent elucida- tory remarks by observing, with regard to the succession of pre- vious cold and wet seasons which produced the great rise in 1838 at, “when we take into consideration, in connection with the causes enumerated, the fact that during the wet years evaporation must have been less than during the dry ones, ‘it may be fairly presumed that sufficient oe causes have existed to produce all the results noticed; and we may add, should such a succes- sion of dry and warm seasons Elion: we may look with certainty for a return of the Lakes to the former low level.” In consequence of the great length of the foregoing quotation, I must be content with giving only the following abridged an disjointed particulars on the same subject from Mr. Higgins’ s Re- ports of 1839 and 1841 :—*‘l'hat interesting question, the peri- odical rise and fall of the Lakes, has given rise to a variety of curious speculations. The inference drawn from the following ata, is pened, will not be altogether inconclusive. Calcula- amount of ‘tsitace drained ; and if our climate, as is alleged, shows a successive series of cold and moist years, and of warm and dry ones, mutually following each other, variations in the volume oA water cannot but be great. Taking into account only the cen tral and Pade dais of the St. Lawrence valley, from Niagara Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fallof the Lakes. 171 to the northwest angle of Lake Superior, embracing all the coun- try whose streams are tributary to the Lakes, the surface drained is calculated (as shewn by a table of sections) at 248,775 square miles, besides 86,760 square miles occupied by the Lakes; and it is further calculated that the enormous accumulation of water dis- charged through the River Detroit during high floods, allowing acurrent of only one mile an hour, is not less than 95,135,000 cubic feet per hour, or 1,585,558 cubic feet per minute. The floods on Lake Ontario, however, are generally the highest by about two feet; and for this obvious reason, that it receives the successive accumulations of all the Lakes, from the Niagara to r. testimony to be adduced: “The preceding year (1840) was the second since the unusual elevation of the waters of the Lakes, since which time there had been a remarkable coincidence in the tatios of subsidence, the more unlooked for when taken in con- hection with the causes which tend to equalize the amount of falling water in the form of rain, snow and dew, with the con- stant action of evaporation.” : fet ag ot & “The diminution in a given quantity of water exceeds by Such expanded areas of water, subject to such influences should be greatly affected. The wonder is that they do not oftener Present greater fluctuations. ‘The equal and almost unvarying “The semi-annual alterations observable in summer aud win- ter arise from other well known causes. In summer the supply 's unchecked, and the consequence is an increase to the height of ®xactly the semi-annual fluctuations have never been thought neccessary. Besides it is not uncommon for ice in large bodies ‘0 collect at the outlets of the Lakes, and for a time prevent the usual discharge, as was the case at the outlet of Lake Huron in Connection with a west wind in 1824 and 1831, when the depth in the Detroit River opposite the City of Detroit was diminished over ten feet.” * * * * oS 172 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. “ Besides all this, the effect of winds acts sometimes in favor as well as against the other irregularities. The geographical po- sition of the Lakes is such, that allowing them to prevail from the same point at the same time over them all, which is by no means always the case, they produce a variety of results. A west wind forces the waters of Lake Erie into the Niagara River, at the same time that the waters from the foot of Lakes Huron and Michigan are forced into the straits of Michilimackinac, and there again are met by the waters of Lake Superior, through the straits of Ste. Marie. Hence the straits which connect Lakes Huron and Erie have all the indications of a tide, though irregular as to time, as well as to the amount of its elevation and depression ; and it has often both risen and fallen in about the same proportion and sometimes in the same periods as the lunar tides of those Rivers which empty into the Ocean. But when even these tides take place, either in the Lakes themselves, or in the straits con- necting them, they are fortuitous, and the results of accidental disorder common throughout the ‘Lake region. Another feature may be observed in the Lakes, differing in nothing from the ground swell of the Ocean—the reaction of the water, after having been pressed by the wind a few days or hours in one di- rection ;—the most favorable point for noticing which is at an outlet or bay, and Lake Superior having the largest surface pre- sents the most favorable traits of such reaction Having thus nearly exhausted my scattered extracts and notes, derived from American authorities, it now remains to refer to a w more memoranda on the same interesting subject, ee fice British writers, such as Sir Richard Bonnycastle, Mr Gregor, Mr. Talbot and others. Among these I turn first to Sir Richard’s work on Canada, from which I have taken the following disjoi nted extracts.* ‘he Lakes of Canada have not engaged that attention at home, which they ought to have done; and there is much infor- mation about them which is adead letter in England. Their rise and fall is a subject of great interest. The great sinking of their levels of late years, which has become so visible and spree os commerce, deserves the most attentive observation. The can writers attribute it to various causes; and there are as spon theories about it as there are upon all hidden mysteries. Eyvapo- ration and condensation, woods and glaciers, have all been brought into play. If the Lakes are supplied by their own Riv- ers, and by the drainage streams of the sania forests ; and all this is again and again returned to them from the clouds whence arises the sudden elevation or the sudden depression of such enormous bodies of water which have no tides? Where do the Lakes receive that enormous supply which restores * See Bonnycastle’s Canada in 1840, pp. 276, 291 to 300. edie sare : a, Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 173 them to their usual flow? or are they permanently diminishing ? I am inclined to believe that the latter is the case, as cultivation been rivulets, and even rivers of some size, as their banks cut through alluvial soils plainly indicate. * * * Perhaps, whenever a cycle of years occurs, in which the northeast wind them. But what vast atmospheric agencies must have been at Work when such wonderful results on the smaller Lakes have n made evident !” “ What a useful thing,” further observes Sir Richard, “it would have been, if scientific navigators, or resident observers had registered the rise and fall of the Lakes in the years since Can- came into our possession.” i ong other unconnected notes I find also some judicious re- marks, extracted from McGregor’s British America ;* but from these I must be content to quote only the following, as referring a hypothesis which 1 have long been disposed to regard as not altogether irreconcilable with the geological formation of the asins of the middle and lower lakes, though perhaps not so with the structure of the Lake Superior regions; it being doubted Whether, notwithstanding the great annual evaporation, the vol- ume of water discharged by Lake Erie does sufficiently account for the vast united supply received by it from the immense triple urces of Lakes Superior, Michigan and Huron. * See McGregor’s British America, vol. i, pp- 131 to 133. . Sid 174. Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. “‘ As the temperature of the climate in America depends chiefly on the winds, the formation of that continent is evidently the cause of the frosts being more intense than in countries in paral- lel latitudes in Europe; a consequence arising principally from the much greater breadth of America towards the poles. inds change their character in America. Northeast winds, which are cold and dry in Europe, are wet and truly disagreeable in America. Northwest winds are, on the contrary, cold and dry, and are fre- quent during winter in America, much about the same period that northeasterly winds prevail in Europe. One great, if not the principal, cause of cold in America, is the direction of the mountainous ranges and basins of country which conduct or in- fluence the course of the winds. While the sun is to the south of the equator, the winds less under solar influence prevail from the northwest, following, however, the great features of the con- tinent. The winds blowing over the vast regions of the north are always piercing and intensely cold. The return of the sun, again, by the diffusion of heat, agitates the atmosphere and alters e winds, which blow from a contrary direction, till the equl- librium is produced. This, however, does not appear to require much time, as no wind blows scarcely forty hours together from any one point. \ ‘The comparative depths of the Lakes forms another extraordi- nary subject of enquiry. ‘The bottom of Lake Ontario, which is 452 feet deep, is as low as most parts of the Gulf of St. Law- rence, while Lake Erie is only 60 or 70 feet deep; but the bot- oms of Lakes Huron,* Michigan and Superior, are all, from their vast depth, although their surface is so much higher, on a level with the bottom of Lake Ontario. This is certainly not impos- sible ; nor does the discharge through the Detroit river—allowing for the full probable portion carried off by evaporation—appeat by any means equal to the quantity of water which the three up- per great Lakes may be considered to receive. All the Lakesare estimated to cover 43,040,000 acres. The great Lakes occasion- ally rise above their usual level from three to five feet. These overflowings are not annual nor regular. They have occurred about once in seven years, and are probably the effect of more rain and less evaporation during the seasons in which they take place. Sir George Mackenzie observed occasional overflowings of two to three feet in the Lakes northwest of Lake Superior ; so that they are not peculiar to the Lakes of the St. Lawrence.” Having at length nearly exhausted my miscellaneous quota- tions and notes, [ propose concluding that main branch of my task with the following appropriate remark, derived from a note et. i - { Lakes, it is oper to note here tha that of Lake Haron has, ater al, been lately ascertained y the American Coast Survey to be not more than 420 instead of 860 feet !—s.% Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 175 at page 133 of the Ist volume of ‘Talbot’s Canada, as not only bearing on the now generally admitted influence of prevailing winds on the temporary fluctuations in the level of the Lakes, but also as adverting to the almost equally demonstrable fact, that the singular severity of our Canadian winters, and more particu- larly those of Lower Canada, compared with European countries in the same parallels of latitude, is altogether uninfluenced by the vast extent of our Lakes ; on which subjects the author referred to, quoting an American author, states as follows :— “Professor Dwight has proved that the height of the river (Niagara) both above and below the Falls, depends on the quar- ter from which the wind blows. Lake Erie, he says, is regularly raised at the eastern end, where the Fall commences, by ever wind blowing between northwest and southwest. A strong west- erly wind elevates its surface six feet above its ordinary level. The rivers must, of course, be proportionally elevated ; and at the outlet must, when such a wind blows, be six feet higher than the usual water mark. * * On the contrary, when the wind blows from the northeast (the only easterly wind which in this Tegion is of any importance), the waters of Lake Erie must re- cede of course, and fall considerably below their usual level, and the river be necessarily lower than at any other time.” The same author, in another part of his work (pp. 339 to 342), femarks as follows, with regard to the climate of Canada differing from that of European countries in a similar latitude : Winds, and the amazing extent of the Lakes, ‘lhat the severity of the weather in Winter cannot with any propriety be attributed who reflects that the shores of those great inland seas enjoy a ‘ame parallels of latitude, however remotely situated from them. Fruit trees thrive well and bring their fruits to great perfection ong the northwest extremity of Lake Ontario, in lat. 43 deg. 30 min., and along the north shore of Lake Erie; and yet at 35 miles from the latter place, and in lat. 42 deg. 20 min., this fruit cannot be cultivated; and I have also seen snow three feet in depth a degree south of Lake Ontario, while at the same time it did hot exceed six inches in the immediate vicinity of that Lake.** (To be continued.) = : , ' stablishment of a system of meterlogieal cbar ny We ce ts foot of page 293 i gees 176 N. von Kokscharov on the Clinochlore of Achmatowsk. Arr. XVII.—On the Clinochlore of Achmatowsk ; by N. von Koxscuarov.* © Tue green mineral of Achmatowsk, remarkable for its dichro- ism and its perfect cleavage, was for a long while regarded as idence with the chlorite of Werner. Von Kobell} first re- ked the difference from that species of both the Achmatowsk aulevite and another of like characters from Schwarzenstein, and gave to them the name ripidolite (from gas, feather and dbo: from Westchester, Pa., has been described by W. P. Blake, as “Sahin which is not different from the Achmatowsk Speci The ‘crystals of Achmatowsk according to von Kobell are hex- agonal. All other mineralogists have adopted this view. At the suggestion of my esteemed instructor, G. Rose, I made in 1851 many measurements of the crystals, and in my paper I also de- scribed it as hexagonal.f {The author here observes that his former measurements were made with great care with the reflective goniometer; and that although discrepancies with calculation were observed, and the planes were not always simple in their crystallographic signs, the habit of the crystals appeared to be hexagonal, and this view was hesitatingly adopted. He then proceeds, as follows. observations on my labors of G. Rose and M. Kenngott, and especially a letter from J. D. Dana giving a description of the Clinochlore and its analysis by Mr. Craw, led me to suspect pam the crystallization of the Achmatowsk chlorite was mono- clinic.§ As the Achmatowsk mineral has now proved to be monoclinic and its name has been the occasion of some perplexity in the science, I propose to retain the name Clinochlore for the species, including with it also the Schwarzenstein mineral; and I have consequently placed this name at the head of this article. Read before the Akademie der beter seci zu St. Petersburg, Sept. 20, ase and ep emg in bene xiii, of their Mem + Jour. Chem., xvi, 4 839. ¢ Ver fo der K. K. Min Ges, St. Petersb., 1850 and 1851, p. 163, and Pogg. Texxy, 5 § [The notes in the original ma ee a rom the letter of J. ek oe here omitted.—Ebs. ] N. von Kokscharov an the Clinochlore of Achmatowsk. 177 The clinochlore of Achmatowsk is a | O(P)_ very beautiful mineral species. It ac- |i-~(yJ %(~) companies handsome crystallized varie- | | #(m) | ties of garnet, diopside, apatite and other |1-« (i)} 1 (0) species, in which this locality is so very 23 (s)| rich. Many of the crystals are tabular, “er while others are lengthened in the di- = o— () rection of the vertical axis, and often rin as (8) they are in druses. A large part of the it aoe i crystals are unfit for measurement by | 2iQjer roth the reflective goniometer; but there are pod) Fad 2, a -2 (w) Observed Planes. sults. The planes observed are as here enumerated.* The most important combinations are as follows : l—0, ~4-0, 2,1,@, 33, 4-0, bee < a ry a | i ig 8 8 ~ oa 8 Nha WS 8 oe > 8’ 9 8! VL—0, 2,1,@, 4-6, wm. ViL—o, 2-@ 3 l-m 3 4-m 3 2, @, 2-3, w-3, -6-3, 4-.@ ® VIL—0, l-w,4-0, lw, 2-3,0-3, 40. tical axis or @ on 6. ies The planes are here presented in a table according to the method of J. D. Dana, the several zones of planes; the Ist column being the zone parallel to the orthediagonal ; the 2nd, the Fand ental zone; the 4th, that parallel to the clino- Th ¢ for half the orthodiagonal, and C for the inclination of the ver- jam e symbols are ntially ann’ pt that the letter P is dropped. The Sditaee used okscharov on his figures Iso given : : by are a en.—Only pa of the figures of the memoir are here copied. In figure 2, the lettering is altered, i ud with the notation, only 4 is wiritten for # ; O, I, 1, 42, ii are respect- ond P, M, ©, t, h, of Kokscharov—D.] ND Series, Vol. XIX, No. 56.—March, 1855. 23 178 WN. von Kokscharov on the Clinochlore of Achmatowsk. Also, # for the inclination of the clinodiagonal terminal edge on the axis a; », for the same on the diagonal 6; 9, for the inclin- ation of the orthodiagonal, terminal edge on she. axis a; X, for the inclination of a face of P on the clinodiagonal section; Y, ibid on the orthodiagonal section; Z, ibid on basal section. And also: ace Se AP and ate vf, for the corresponding angles in the negative hemipyramid :—we then find @ 2) S6= 2477156 = 1: 1°73195* = 62° 50’ 48” X = 60° 44’ ¥=48* 5 Balt? GF X= 70" 22! e317 1 Y Abr Fa eg ee PEG Of o —49° 32’ o—= 60" OC fl 24° 42) > = Ser, §/ angle o being 60°, therefore the plane angles of the basal ‘tides are 120° and 60°, or when the acute angle is replaced, a regular hexagon. This hexagonal character is also strongly shown in the hee of the zone me. whose intersections with three crystals, which are common in the clinochlore ot Achma- towsk, have a still greater similarity to a ci aay pris It is also to be observed that the angle C, 62° 51, is ents half the angle of M: M, or 125° 37’—half of 125° 37’, being 62° 483. In the crystals, the hemipyramids of the fundamental series are mostly more or less striated parallel to their intersection with P(0), and seldom smooth and shining so as to afford good meas- urements. The faces of the clinodiagonal zone m-% , are rather smooth and lustrous; but the face P, and the planes of the zone m-3 are the brig test and smoothest. The following angles are obtained by calculation from the values of the axes given, except- ing those with an asterisk which are measured angles oP 102° 77 (102° 6/t) mm 125° 24 sh 140° 39’ oM 143° 57’ 182° 35/ cP 107926" on 163° 34’ uP 127° 43°" cn 150° 20° ot 122° 0/ 166° 14’ ct 1 8/ ou (over M) 130° 10’ wa 155° 49’ 48° 11’ - fees “ 121° 28/ ut 124° 337 ew (over x) 138° 30’ uh 118° 18? wP 114° 4’ “ah oy 127° 53’ uu 133° 24’ wi 152° 38’ =a 118° a2! (118° 28’¢) dP 118° 59’ (119° 5’+) wt 151° 297 174° 58’ wh 142° 15’ pag yd 2° dt 124° 33’ we 170° 19’ mt 124° a (24? 4 't) dh 115° 56’ wn seat inf MP 1 sm ae Gis 57't) Mt ee 124° 4/t) MhiN7 MM oa. ae (125° 88’) i: M= 125° 37’; M:P=118° 57’; ateccietingiics <7 ae i N. von Kokscharov on the Clinochlore of Achmatowsk. 179 ie ee a kk (over P) 47° 25/ yo 145° 57! v2 150° 10’ tP 108° 14/ yk 22° oe vt 150° 597 th 161° 46’ aged gt ig wh 1479 1? tt (over h) 148° 337 zt 148° 127 vv 65° 57! éP 108° 58/ zy 129° 59! KP 118° 49° io 150° 44’ 2P 125° 7 (125° 4/#) kh 156° 18' in 148° 35’ tM 151° 45’ k (over h) 132° 35! iy 161° 47/ For the forms, X, Y, Z, etc., have the following values: es Bs Z i Q o Form % 68°57’ 62°41’ 61°28" 59°17’ 57°59’ 60°29’ 60°00 = 19 2 w-3 32 59 3-0 23 42 66 18 40 18 14 71 46 1-c 41 04 6 05 oe 59 17 BT 52 4-c9 o 16. 10iaee 4-0 7 5T 54 53 Cleavage very perfect parallel with the base. G.=2-774 accord- ing to G. Rose. H.=2-5. Strongly dichroic, being green in the direction of the vertical axis and brown or hyacinth-red trans- versely, and the colors seldom so different in other dichroic spe- cles, Streak-powder light greenish-white. The largest crys- tals often only translucent on the edges; the smaller subtrans- Parent. Flexible in thin plates buat not elastic. ie _ Although the basal plane is usually smooth and shining, there IS in some crystals an unevenness which indicates by its stellate appearance a regular composition. In the erystals of Achma- towsk, this compound structure is quite common ; Since the faces of the form 2 are inclined to the clinodiagonal sec- ton 60°, and to the basal plane 89° 43’, the three erystals will Meet at angles of 60°, and have their basal planes inclined to one another 179° 25/, or very near 180°.t The large erystals are often So made up of a mixture of small crystals with their basal planes Srouped in rosettes, as happens in the specular iron of St. Gothard. * Observed angle. : t It might be suspected from such twins which the plane §P may make an angle of 90° with the vius); but the appearance of salient and reéntering ang g are like those of Aragonite, that t base, {as in the mica of Vesu- 180 N. von Kokscharov on the Clinochlore of Achmatowsk. According to G. Rose, the Clinochlore of Achmatowsk has the following characters: B.B. on charcoal intumesces, becoming yel- lowish brown and opaque: in the platinum forceps, fuses with a strong heat on the outer edges to a black glass. In a tube under- goes the same changes as on ial giving little water with no fluoric acid. With borax dissolves easily to a clear glass, colored fuses with difficulty. With sulphuric acid wholly decomposed. 8 lyses by von Kobell (J. f. pr. Ch. xvi, 470), Varrentrapp, (G. Rose, Reise n. d. Ural, 1842, ii, 127 and Pogg., xviii, 189) and Marignac (Ann. de Ch., De 430). Fe Mn Mg Tf Insol. i gi-14 17°14 3°85 0°53 3480 12:20 O8==100 1 2. 30°38 1697 487 et e807 12°63 83 3 80°27 19:89 #e 4-42 sea 8-138 12°54 =100° - Varrentrapp deduces the formula, (Mg, Fe)? Si+Al SiteMg H?. This composition does not differ from that of the Clinochlore of Pennsylvania I shall hee to revise my comparisons of the described chlorites, after this reference of the Achmatowsk mineral to the monoclinic system, with the exception of the Schwarzenstein chlorite (ripi- dolite of v. Kobell), as they cannot stand, since we do not know_ to which zone the ea: planes of these chlorites belong. I may here observe that none of the angles obtained, by Frobel and age ae in Pennine, are yet found in either of the zones of the wsk chlorite. The same is true of the Kammer- erite. Thet it slance of the clinochlore crystals to hexagonal forms, renders it desirable that there should be a revision of the erystallography of all these minerals. The optical characters of our crystals have not yet been fully studied. Ican only state that the lamine of the Achmatows clinochlore examined with the tourmaline, allows the light to pass when the axis of the tourmaline plates are at right angles— in Which respect it does not differ from biaxial crystals. There is a strong probability ihérafon that the optical characters are like those of the Pennsylvania Clinochlore. In this last, Mr. W. P. Blake, examining a triangular plate, found that the two axes lie in the same plane which was at right angles with one side of the triangle; and this plane therefore lies in a clinodiagonal sec- tion. According to lake, one of the optical axes is inclined at an angle of 27° 40’, and the other at 58° 13’, making the angle between them 85° 53’ and 94° 7’. Mr. Blake has observed in another specimen a second system of axes, the aig of which makes an angle of 60° with the first, ich indicates that the specimen was a compound crystal. M. Tuomey on a Copper Mine in Tennessee. 181 [The paper closes with an enumeration of the measurements of crystals of the Achmatowsk Clinochlore witha Mitscherlich’s go- niomer, by which the angles were obtained. he mean for P: M from 12 measurements of one crystal was 113° 58’; (the extremes 113° 574’ and 113° 5832’) from another 113° 56’; from a third 113° 564’; giving for the mean of the three 113° 563 For M: M from No. 1, 125° 38’, for No. 2, 125°37’. For P: 0 from crystal No. 3, 102° 64’; from crystal No. 5, 102° 6’; from crystal No. 3, P:n=118° 28’; from No. 6, P : t=108° 11’; from No. 2, M: t=124° 34; from Nos. 2 and 3, t:n=124° 32’; from No, 4, 124° 30’; from No. 4, P: x=125° 4’. From No. 7, P:d=119° 5, m:i=150° 0] | Arr. XVIII.—A brief notice of some facts connected with the Duck Town, Tennessee, Copper Mines ; by M. 'Tuomey, State Geologist, Ala. Kwnowine that Dr. Curry of Nashville, and Mr. Proctor of the Tennessee Mines, are preparing a memoir, that will include the history, geological and economical relations of these mines, I in- tend to confine myself to a fact or two that I observed during a hurried visit to the place, and which may be worth being placed upon record. Notwithstanding the excitement produced by the discovery of t mines, the current accounts of the richness of the ore, and great thickness of the beds, are not greatly exaggerated. In a short but very lucid report, Mr. Whitney has presented a clear view of the state of some of these mines which he was Ocoee river, exposed an admirable section of 24 miles in length. he . +e mines are situated at t : Junction of the silurian and meta- LER, morphic rocks,—or as Mr. Whitney = | suggests, the cupriferous slates may be altered silurian strata. ‘ q The accompanying cut presents { the position, and relation of the | Metalliferous beds at all the mines: %, Upper portion of the bed com- sed of a porous, amorphous mass of red and brown oxyd of iron, the S0ssan of the Cornish miners, iron hat of the Germans, which is the tesidue of the ore’ after the copper 182 M. Tuomey on a Copper Mine in Tennessee. has been dissolved out. This process, the solution of the ore, is constantly, though, of course, slowly going on, as may be seen at the works, and hence the very variable thickness of the ore b. From portions of the bed every trace of copper has disappeared, down toc. The copper ore J, is a bluish black altered sulphuret. That the alteration is due to heat is rendered highly probable by the vesicular structure of the ore itself, as well as by the joints with which it is intersected, and which correspond in direction with those of the surrounding rocks of the country. In every published account of these mines that I have seen, the impression is left, that the ore b is derived from the under- lying portion of the bed c, by decomposition. Now ¢ has been reached in all the mines, and invariably consists of arsenical iron, with rarely more than one per cent. of copper in the form of yel- low sulphuret, and consequently could not furnish by decompo- sition or any other conceivable process, an ore containing 20 per cent. of that metal. This lower arsenical iron portion ¢, of the bed is found every- where immediately underlying the black ore, at no great distance below the surface, and is frequently met with even in the levels driven in the hill-side. he whole of that portion of the bed above ¢, doubtless once consisted of yellow sulphuret of copper, and the part below ¢: as at present, of arsenical iron. uring the metamorphism of the slates the sulphuret was altered to the black ore, and subse- quently the soluble salts derived from this ore, were dissolve out by the simple process of leaching, the residual gossan, of tron hat being left in the upper portion of the bed, and the still unbleached ore, resting on the arsenical iron. It is remarkable that this same arsenical iron with a little cop- per, is found in some of the shafts sunk, in exploring for copper in Alabama. ; The solution of the question, What is below the arsenical iron ? isa most interesting subject in connection with the value and future prospects of the mines, At one place a shaft has been sunk in the arsenical iron, to a depth of 10 or 12 fathoms with- out showing any encouraging change, and at another a shaft has been commenced calculated to cut the bed, 50 fathoms below the present level of the mine, or, as it is called in the mining Tre- ports, for the purpose of “ proving the yellow sulphuret.” These experimental shafts, if continued, will be of the utmost import- ance to the whole copper region, including portions of Georgia and Alabama. Should this arsenical iron terminate, at a moder- ate depth, in the yellow sulphuret, then indeed may Tennessee t of such mines as are not found in the history of mining W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination, §c. 183° Arr. XIX.—On the Periodical Variations of the Declination and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle; by W. A. Norton, Professor of Civil Engineering in Yale College. throughout the greater part of the northern hemisphere the north end of a needle thus suspended is depressed below the plane of the horizon ; and that throughout the greater part of the southern hem- isphere the south end is depressed below this plane ; also that this inclination or dip of the needle gradually increases from the mag- netic equator, where it is zero, in both directions to the magnetic poles, where it is 90°. Such then are the varying directions of the directive force of the magnetic needle at different points of the earth’s surface. The two ends or poles of the needle are solicited IM opposite directions ; the north end downward, and the south end upward. It suffices in discussing the perturbations to which the earth’s magnetic force is subject, whether of direction of in- tensity, to confine our attention to the action upon one end of the needle, for example the depressed end,—(north end in the north- Sorce, and the vertical force, acting upon the needle ; or the hori- zontal and vertical magnetic intensities of the place. These two forces, together with the declination (or deviation of the line of direction taken up by the horizontal compass needle, from the true north and south line) constitute what are called the Magnetic E'le- ments of the station. Each of these elements changes in value as We pass from one station to another. It is well known also that at any one station they are not at all times unalterably the same ; but are subject to variation from hour to hour, from day to day, and from year to year. The changes from hour to hour during the . tions ton to the term annual variation, of a magnetic element. But, € present paper I shall generally use these terms in the most 184 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination comprehensive sense ; that is as comprising all the variations that occur during the day, whether we compare them hour by hour, or by longer intervals. There are two classes of diurnal variations of the magnetic elements—viz, those which are Periodic and those which are Irregular, or more properly Occasional. Thus any one element, as the declination, regularly increases during a certain portion of every day, and then as regularly decreases during another portion of the day. Changes also occur, toall appearance fortu- itously, at any hour of the day; so that their occurrence cannot be predicted for any one hour. Still it is now known that the irregular variations, so called, are under the control of certain tain parts of the day the liability is to an increase, at other parts to adiminution. If we compare the amount of the declination, or other element, at any hour of the day, with the same at the same hour of the following day, we find that a change has oc- curred, and if we do the same throughout the year we discover that the element in question, or its amount at a particular hour increases during half of the year, from a certain day, and de- creases during the remaining half; in other words, it undergoes a regular variation, the period of which is a year. ‘The amount of the change of the declination, or horizontal or vertical force, that takes place during a day, also varies from’ one season to another. Besides the periodic variations whose period is a day, or half a day, or a year, there is another class, recently discovered, it 1s hose period is about ten years (10 to 11 years hus, found that the amount of the alternate increase and decrease of the declination durin is greater some years than others, and that it alternately augments and diminishes during a pe- riod of ten or eleven years. It is an interesting and very 1m- portant fact, in a physical point of view, that this period has been found to be identical with that of a change which has been ob- served to occur in the number and magnitude of the spots on the sun from year to year, the maximum and minimum of the one 282; the . and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 185 that the irregular variations, so called, undergo similar changes during the period just mentioned—the solar period, as it may be termed, by way of distinction. It is now about twenty-five years since the project was conceived, by Baron Humboldt, and partially carried into execution, of cover- ing the earth with magnetical observatories, at which “simulta- neous observations should be made of every regular and irregular excitement of the earth-force.”” Since the year 1840, maguetical aris to Pekin ;” provided with the magnetometers contrived by Gauss in 1832, These are large maguets delicately suspended, and carrying a small mirror, in which the observer, looking through a small telescope firmly fixed on a stone pier, sees the reflection of the fixed scale, and thus observes with great precision the smallest movement of the magnet. The horizontal force magnetometer is brought by the i=} 3 pak] = Qu =< be oO oO 3 & =. ms o = =) 5 of this force. The vertical force magnetometer devised by Dr. Loyd of Dublin, admits of motion only in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic meridian. The bar rests by a knife edge, on agate planes, and is adjusted by a ball moveable upon a fine Screw, so as to deviate a little from the truly vertical position. sian Observatories scattered over the Russian Empire, which were erected about ten years earlier. Hourly or bi-hourly observations have been’ made at these and at many other observatories 1n Eu- Tope and elsewhere, for many years; and on certain days, called Term Days, they have been noted as often as every 23 minutes, e have now several volumes of Reports of the magnetical and Meteorological observations made at the British Colonial Observ- atories, with abstracts, discussions, &c., published under the di- rection of Colonel Edward Sabine. Annual Reports of the ob- servations made at the Russian Observatories have also been pub- lished, under the superintendence of Professor Kupfter. Reports of the observations made at the Girard College Observatory, aud also at Washington, under the direction respectively of Professor Szconp Sznims, Vol, XIX, No. 56.—March, 1855. 24 186 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination Bache, and Lieutenant Gilliss, during the years 1840-1845, have also been published. To separate the regular from the irregular variations, and ascertain the changes that occur from one season to another, &c., the means of the magnetometer readings at each observation hour, for periods of a month, three months, half a year, or a year, are calculated and published in a tabular form: and their variations are also graphically represented by curves, the abscissas standing for the observation hours, and the ordin- present discussion, In my first investigations on the present sub- ject, commenced several years since, I undertook to determine how far the diurnal variations of declination, &c., might be rep- resented by changes of temperature, directly and indirectly. In be traced as subsisting between the disturbances of the mag- netic needle, whether regular or irregular, and meteorological changes of any kind, occurring at the place; and that accordingly if the principle of terrestrial magnetisn exhibits grand features of correspondence to that of terrestrial heat, in its normal aspect, its more prominent variations, on a nearer view dissimilari- ties stand revealed, which indicate that another direction must be taken if we wish to gain an insight into the real physical cause of maguetic disturbance. Granting that the perturbations of the earth’s magnetic force occur without any reference to meteorolog- ical changes that happen at the earth’s surface, or in the lower atmosphere, we are led to conclude that the seat of magnetic dis- turbance is located either in the upper regions of the atmosphere, or is coéxtensive with the magnetic matter that pervades the at- mosphere and is distributed through the crust of the earth. Taking up the former idea, I advanced certain reasons for sup- posing that the sun could only act by some emanation, and un- dertook to follow out the consequences of a supposed emission of some form of magnetic matter from the sun, and the flow in every direction over the surface of the atmosphere of the streams of this matter that would descend upon the equatorial regions. In the present memoir I have adopted the idea that currents of electricity are excited in the upper atmosphere, by the sun’s ac- tion, and flow in every direction along its surface ; also that cur- rents are developed by the sun which flow in a direction parall to his equator, or nearly parallel to the ecliptic, and from East to West. The conception I have formed of the nature of this ac- : is that it consists i 5 in the propagation by ethereal waves of a and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 187 the wpper atmosphere. : Before entering upon a particular examination of the diurnal are the same in different parts of the earth. The following are the principal results which have been obtained on this point : l. The laws of the diurnal variations are essentially the same at all places to the north of the Torrid Zone; they are also the ‘he laws are the same in the Southern Hemisphere with- out the Torrid Zone, as in the Northern, if we observe that in same local hours the north end of the needle is moving in oppo- Site directions at stations in the two hemispheres, without the tropics. _3. At stations situated between the Tropics, the laws of the diurnal movement are not the same throughout the year, as they are very nearly in other parts of the earth; at certain local hours the needie moves in the one direction or the other accord- ing as the sun is north or south of the equator. may here state that the theoretical views advanced in the togress of the present discussion all have their foundation in one €nt points of observation, and which will equally well explain the laws of all the variations of the horizontal and vertical forces. IE so, it can hardly be doubted that the hypothesis is either a ver- itable reality, or has its counterpart or equivalent in nature. If _ itstands the test of quantitative determinations, the conviction _Of its truth will be strengthened 188 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination It may be well to meet at the outset an objection that may oc- cur to some of my readers. It is implied in what follows (al- though not perhaps of necessity) that the atmosphere derives its principal electric excitement from a solar action upon its upper re- gions ; when it has generally been supposed hitherto that atmos- pheric electricity has its origin in the evaporation going on at the earth’s surface. But in fact t, the old theory of the origin of at- mospheric electricity has no longer any basis to rest upon. Ac- cording to Becquerel, and other able experimenters, electricity is a generated by He on unless salts are present in the water. e years since M. Riess and M. Reich showed that the elec- ainy attending diastiod proceeded from the friction of the water against the sides of the vase. This fact is proved anew by the researches just published of M. Gaugain, although the results differ in the details from those of the German physicists.” If the act be admitted that the atmosphere is electrically excited by some action of the sun, our views of certain meteorological phenomena must be modified, and we may derive new light with regard to some of these phenomena hitherto enveloped in mystery. It should be observed that the idea of the magnetic needle, at the earth’s surface, being disturbed by electric currents circula- ting in the upper regions of the atmosphere cannot be regarded as an hypothesis, since we know from observation that the needle is disturbed by the Aurora Borealis, and that this phenomenon is electric excitement, and electric currents, is the only known ter- restrial cause of magnetic disturbance. DECLINATION, It is to be recollected that the estiostion at any particular place may be either East or West; and that in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as in the Norio it is defined by the posi- tion of the North end of the needle with rene to the North point of the horizon. Diurnal Variations. The laws of the diurnal variations of declination are graphic- ally represented in the annexed diagram, (Fig. 1.) On examining it it will be seen that the needle has its He habe of declination, or in other words, that its north end has its most ane position a.M. At this hour it begins to move towar e west, and continues to do so until 1 p.m., when it has icacd to its maximum of westerly deviation. It now begins to return tow the east, or its declination decreases, and this movement continues until 10 p.m. when there is a second minimum of declination. Hemnl0 Pmt Rx, there isa ly movemen and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 189 1—Curve showing the Mean Diurnal Variations of the Declination at Philadel- j 844, phia, for the year 1 556 \~/ = Ue Li O%123 45 6 7 8 9 101112131415 16 1718 19 20 21 22230, Increase of numbers at the side corresponds to decrease of declination: Oh answers to midnight. and from 24.m. to Sa.m.a greater easterly movement. Thus the declination has two maxima, viz., at lp.m, and at2 a.m, and two minima, at 8 a.m. and 10 p.m. The principal maximum sat | p.m., and the principal minimum at 8 a.m. The principal disturbance occurs during the day, and consists in an increase of declination or a westerly movement, from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m, and a decrease of declination, or an easterly movement, from 1 to 10 P.M. The disturbance at night, is of the same nature, but much less in amount ; that is, the north end of the needle first moves toward the West and afterward toward the Hast. B M s A Ss’ Now let P (Fig. 2) be the point of the upper atmosphere di- tectly over the station of the needle, EW and PM the parallel of 190 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination latitude and meridian traced through this point, S the peint of the photosphere directly underneath the sun, at a certain hour in the forenoon, AB the parallel of latitude followed by the sun in its diurnal ‘motion, and SP the are of a great circle followed by the electric current flowing from § to P. “e this current be decomposed into the two equivalent currents Pd and Ph, the one lying in the meridian MP, and the other in the parallel of lati- tude EW. The variations of the current Pd, as the point § moves westward along the parallel AB, serve to explain the prin- cipal westerly and easterly movement of the needle, while those of the current PA serve to explain the variations of the horizon- tal force during the same hours To understand the effect of a current in its action on a magnetic needle, we have only to recall to mind Ampeére’s rule, viz., to suppose ourselves lying along the gaient circulating from the head toward the feet , and facing the needle, then the north end will move toward the right ; or we may, in the present case, rea bir ourselves to be standing, (in a Vertical position,) on the line of the current, and to be looking toward the needle from the sida from which the current flows, then the circular action of the current on the north end of the needle will be in the direction of the motion of the hands of a watch. It follows that when the meridional current in the upper South, it will be impelled toward the East. It is manifest that tHe meridional current Pd will increase enter the hour of noon, noon. The Eylestion < the fact that the turning ee ae current will be directed toward the south; but as the sun, OF rather the point of excitement underneath - it, moves westward this current will decrease, and vanish altogether when the sun is over A, and hence from the cause under consideration the motion should ‘be westward. After the sun has passed B, the meridional current will again be directed toward the south, but it will now be on the increase, and hence the Range: motion should con- tinue. The reason of the morning easterly movement will ap- pear in the The similar Secéascal movements of the needle may be ex- plained in a similar vg if we suppose that there is another point of excitement on the photosphere from which electric cur- and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 191 rents flow in all digections, diametrically opposite to the point directly under the sun. If the electric excitement of the upper atmosphere by the sun be indeed a consequence of the propaga- tion of avibratory motion (or impulse) by ethereal waves, then I conceive that the concentration of the separate currents (individual pulses) at the point diametrically opposite the sun would give rise to a certain increase of excitement, and to currents of a cer- tain intensity flowing in every direction outward from this point along the surface of the atmosphere. The resistance experienced by the individual currents flowing from the point under the sun, together with the diminution from the very law of propagation, should cause the intensity of the electric excitement at this second point to be less than at the first ; and accordingly the needle should be less effected at night by the passage of this point along the upper atmosphere than during the day by the passage of the point di- rectly underneath the sun. If the entire mass of the earth should be partially transparent to the wave or force propagated from the sun, then a certain degree of excitement would be produced, at the point diametrically opposite to the sun, by the sun’s direct action. I infer from certain theoretical considerations, on physical grounds, that the radial current proceeding from the two points of maximum electric excitement should be attended with trans- Verse impulses (or circular currents) of a feebler intensity. Such ra I have hitherto regarded the point of the photosphere directly under the sun, as the only point electrically excite by the sun’s action, and from which the currents flow; but on theoretical 8tounds other points upon which the solar emanations fall should 192 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination be excited in a similar manner and send off radial, and possibly feebler transverse currents. There is however, one possible con- ception that might be formed of the nature of the sun’s action, which confines the radial currents entirely to the great circles di- verging from the point underneath the sun. This is that these tions. A longitudinal impulse propagated along the ray proceed- ing from the sun, by its obliquity to the surface of the atmos- phere would give rise to a current flowing away from the sun, But such considerations are foreign to the present inquiry. ‘Taking up now the idea of a general electric excitement of the upper at- mosphere which receives the sun’s rays, we are to consider the various points of the parallel of latitude followed by the sun, (AB, Fig. 2,) as acquiring more aud more electric intensity, (that is more and more intensity of electric vibration,) as the sun ap- proaches them, and as declining in intensity after the sun has passed to the west of them. It is not reasonable to suppose, however, that the diminution of intensity should begin at the moment of the sun’s passage through the zenith of the point, for any current excited by the sun’s impulse must decline gradually. An hour after this passage, if the sun were to cease to act the moment it reached the zenith, a certain portion of the current then in existence would still be circulating ; and hence it follows that the current flowing from the point in question will continue to increase until the diminution of the sun’s impulse overbalances the portion of the current that remains undestroyed by the re- sistances. The current that follows the meridian of the station of the needle (coming from M, Fig. 2,) should then increase meridional components are directed toward the south; the east- erly motion will therefore continue. During the latter part of the night the points that lie to the east of the prime vertical (PA) acquire a greater intensity of excitation from hour to hour, but as the obliquity of the current that proceeds from the shifting pomt of maximum excitement, to the prime vertical, increases, the tendency will be to a westerly deflection. This will be dimin- i by reason of the greater proximity of the points immedi- tely to the east of the prime vertical. In fact, in the summer * and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 193 months, as the sun’s action is more in advance on the parallels of latitude to the north, and as the currents from these are nearer and inclined under a larger angle to the prime vertical than those from the parallel under the sun, it may very well happen that the needle will be deflected toward the east. We must take into ac- current from the effect of resistances as the distance traversed in- creases. Early in the forenoon the determining points fall to the West of the prime vertical (PA), and a decided westward move- ment should obtain. shall show in another connection (see p. 202) that the ecliptic currents play an important part in the forenoon ; tending to pro- uce an easterly movement in certain morning hours, (in the summer, ) and subsequently a displacement toward the west. The oscillation of the needle first to the east and then to the west, during the forenoon, is a result of the joint action of both sys- ems of currents. ; We have hitherto regarded the two component currents which, by their changes of intensity and direction, determine the varia- lions of the declination and horizontal force, as lying, respectively, in the geographical meridian, and in the line crossing the meridian at right angles. Strictly speaking, the primary currents should be decomposed into two currents following the magnetic merid- 1an and traversing this meridian perpendicularly. In this region of the earth the two meridians are inclined to each other under a small angle. For the sake of simplicity I shall continue to con- sider them as coincident. It will be easy in any special case, 'o allow for the effect of their actual inclination. Annual Variations. Under this head are com prehended all the inequalities of declin- ation, and of diurnal variation of declination, whose period is either an entire year or any fraction of a year. The laws of all such equalities may be deduced from the following table, taken from Vol. Il of the Toronto Observations. (See next page. € most conspicuous inequality is that of the diurnal varia- tion. The diurnal range changes materially from one season to, another. Thus, in the year 1846, the mean daily range during 194. W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination TABLE I. peers hn 7 Mean (West) Declination at Toronto at every Observation Hour in every th of the year 1846, derived from three years of hourly Observations. Toronto Time. | . | | Astronomical| Jan. | Feb. |March|ApriJ.| May. |June. | July. | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec, Reckoning. | | | er ee ee a ee a Ra te; He M. ‘ , ’ 7 ’ i i ’ 4 i 12 3 = |80°31/30°63/30-07/30°21 30°25 /30 : 12 §/28°9 13. 3 30°33/30-76|/30°17 29°85 31 3) Vvt 2700} 0U 74 30°03] 29°72 2 31-08 29:2 14 3 ./29°64/30 65/29 99/30°67/31-48/31°10/30°60} 30°75 130 06/29°17 30°95} 29°7 15 3 © |29°74/30-00 30-05/30°07/30°78)31-27 6429-60 30°14)292 16 3 28°98 '30°20) 2994/2943) 36/30-49}30°46/28-75/29-05 30°30} 29°83 Ve-3 29°62|29°28)29°77 "| 67/29:09!28-66}28'71 2991)29°5 18 3 29°43) 29-26|/29°28/ 28- 13,267 %1}25-93/26:02126:36|29:53]29°37 2959)308 19° 3 29°07|2 93) 8°63|27 1/25 68|25°13)24 54/24: 19 30° 20 29:56 29-21/30°14 20 3 28°15/2 42/27°50/27°80 25°71 25°22) 24-48123-97}98-40}28-58 28-21} 28 96 vay 3 28:33 29°47 vat ped | ou! ecy-0 7 so 98|26:20)29 58 28 28°36 28°53 22 8 = {29°46/30°35/28-97/30°57/31-29/29°'38 28-96 2 29°78)28:'8$ 28 3 |81°35)32°18/32°32/33°83/35:08/32°96/32°80|34°25 |35-00/32 i 2 31:87|30°37 0 3 |38:19/33'80/34-95/36:49/37 01 |35°62/35°58/37'43/38-18]34-82 33:91/31°98 1 3 |38°76|34-42/36°51/37-81/37-77/37°32|37-05 | 38 86| 3783/3773 37-48)/35°59 +2 3 3°38/34°10/36-54/87-68)37-22 |37°30/87°15| 38°31 1374213518 3502 33°54 8 3 = |32°76/33-21/35°84/36 91/85 96|36'49/36'43|36'44|35°45|34-02 3395/3272 4 3 |31-60/32°38/34-49 9/35°17/34 13/35°12/35°15/34-48/33'33|33-23 33°34/31°99 5 3 /80°82/31-98/83 832 17'33:23|32-70|31-41|32-57 82°52|3122 6 3 30°48/31°3 3032 17/31°93/31-4 8 67 31:47 30°36 7 3 /80:0(/30-94 31°32 3093 fF 31-40)31-11 31-43) 30-88|30°73|31° 33 2998|29°57 8 3 28°81/29-93 30°7 S008 a9 pl ab 30°56 3071 43 3 12} 28°90 9 8 28:92 29°53 29°60/50 08 30°34 31-08|28°30/30-40|29°61 2857/2877 10. 3 29-57{29- 97/2 29°98/30°77/30:°59 30°31, 2129°52/29-70 29° 70 29 08)2831 11 $8 29:56 30°16, 29°14 29°88 see a0 20-4 29 51/3062 /30°21 20°42 28:54 i Means. |30°80 30°91, 31-19|31-54/31- 47131 16(30°92/ 31-04 |31°60/31 3106 31 “01/3022 The corrections have been applied for the secular change, reducing to the mean epoak July 1st, 1846. autumn. The pr eae of the mean diurnal variation in the opposite seasons of summer and winter, are exhibited in the fol- pens © curves. ( hee 3 and 4. s the difference in the amount of the daily range it may be ad ‘thas the diminution of declination in the morning hours is much greater in summer than in winter, and is comprised within a shorter interval of time; also that the turning point, from the easterly to the westerly motion occurs earlier in cpp than in winter. The greater diurnal range in summer 1s 4 con- sequence of the relative depression of the morning ee and elevation of the afternoon maximum. (See also Table I.) The depression is greater than the elevation. The morning minimum is 3°40 lower in June than in December, while the af- ‘ternoon maximum is 1-74 higher in June than in December. At ahe hour of noon the declination is 3/-64 greater in June than in December. It will bag xf. be seen that the needle ought to Sot farther to ‘thi n the morning hours in summer than in winter, when. We oeec:, that the points of deecimina esctibas t these hours _ Rg m I | m 6 ie ) Bi ia ci NY Pee So ae ee chet (iy ™ ¢ ™m 4. Se —— — and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 195 Diurnal Variation of the Declination, Toronto, 12k 13h 14k 15k 16h 17h 18h 19h Qh Qh Bn Q3r Or 1h Qh Bk 4h Gh Gh Th Sh Qh 10k 11h 12h ree. é 113k 14h 15k 16h 17h 18h 194 QOh VIA Qh 23i Oh Ir 2h Bh 4h 5h Gh 7h Sh Qh 1Oh 11h 12h Fig. 3. April to August, inclusive——Fig. 4, October to February, inclusive, 01 answers to noon. Scale (i725 towl’ of are. Ascending curve is increasing declin- ation (West), descending dl ing declination: mm, line of Mean Declination. lie to the east of the prime vertical and to the north of the equa- tor in summer, and to the west of the prime vertical and south of the equator in winter. On the other hand about the hour of noon, en the points in question are in the vicinity of the meridian, the West declination ought to be greater in summer than in winter. We shall see that the ecliptic currents conspire with the radial in pro- ducing a relative depression in the morning. In like manner each System of currents tends to make the turning point, from easterly to westerly motion, occur earlier in summer than in the winter. To consider now the action of the radial currents alone; we have to observe that on all the parallels of latitude to the north of the equator the sun has a greater altitude at a given hour in the fore- hoon, in the summer than in the winter: hence the points in those Parallels, which lie to the west ofthe prime vertical, have a higher electric intensity in the summer. Thus, at Toronto, the turning Point in December is 9 a.m., in June 7 a. m.; now 9 a.m. in De- cember is 14 hours after sunrise, and in June 44 hours. The sun’s Htitude also increases more rapidly in June than in December. ere is another annual variation, which has recently been brought to light by Colonel Sabine. It consists in this: If a Comparison is made of the values of the declination at the hour 7 A.M. among themselves, it appears that “at the north- €tn solstice the north end of the magnet is at the eastern extreme of a periodical movement, which apart from, and independently of; all other movements whatsoever, has its opposite or west- er eXtreme at the period of the southern solstice, and returns iNto itself at the next return of the northern solstice. It is there- - ges Strictly an Annual Variation, or a variation whose period is Year, Its amount is, at Toronto, about five minutes of declin- 196 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination ation.” What is remarkable, we are also assured that an annual variation of the declination at the same hour of 7 to 8 a.m, “ most precisely similar in character and amount,” obtains at Ho- barton, which is nearly diametrically opposite to Toronto, and also at the two intertropical stations of St. Helena and the Ca of Good Hope, and is probably therefore a general phenomenon. It will be seen upon a little examination that it is a simple con- sequence of the shifting of the position of the radial current pro- ceeding from the point underneath the sun, which may be taken as the representative of all the radial currents in action at the hour in question. To show this let us first suppose the station to be on the equator. At the hour of 7 to 8 o’clock a.m. the point of maximum excitement will be on the 6 o’clock hour cir- cle, as it lags an hour or two behind the sun. (See p. 192.) Now let EQ, Fig. 5, be the equator, as traced on the photosphere, P > Ls] the zenith of the station of the needle, N the position of the point of highest intensity at the time of the northern solstice, 00 the 6 o’clock hour ciycle, and S the same point at the time of the southern solstice. NPE=EPS=234°. The meridional com- ponent of the current along NP will be directed toward the south, that of the current SP toward the north. The former will displace the north end of the needle toward the east, the latter toward the west by an equal amount. (A transverse eur- Tent, in the present instance, could have no effect, since It would be equally inclined to the meridian at the two solstices, and solicit the needle with the same force toward the east.) and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 197 Next suppose Toronto (N. lat. 435°) to be the station of the needle, and represent it by P’ in Fig. 5. P/E will be the prime vertical on the photosphere; and P/EQ= 434°, PE= SU? and NE= SE = 233°. From which we have, NP’= 74° 5, NP’E =17° 30’, SP’-E=17° 30’, SP’=105° 55’. Current NP’ impels the north end of the needle toward the East, and SP’ toward the West. The meridional component of current NP’= to 2 NP sin 235°.* Going through with the calculation we find vg a '_ Same for the months that precede and follow the solstices. This fact as the result of observation is exhibited to the eye in Fig. 6, Which is a transcript of Fig. 1, p. 20, Vol. II, of ‘Toronto Ob- servations), From the cause now under consideration the same effect should occur at the hours following 7 to 8 a.M.; but it should be less in amount from hour to hour, because the angle P'S is less and less as the arc NS is carried farther to the west by the diurnal revolution. ‘This fact is also shown in the dia- aay tte ares NP’, SP’, NP, is meant the force of the currents proceeding from NandStoPandp? ’ it The effect of the currents proceeding from sin NP’ : Br e's .) Point, as N, varies with the distance by reason of the divergence of the individ- * Currents, which follow arcs of great circles, because of the effect of resistances individual currents, and oe also from the very nature of the prop- ; intensity of a galvanic current varies inversely as the square root of - fhe length of the wire traversed. 198 W. A. Norton onthe Variations of the Declination 17h «618k = 19R ROK IK RRR BKK lA 2h 3h 4h Fig. 6 oronte RS A oy eee) err 17k =: 18h 19h 20h Qik 92h C 3h These curves show the deviations of the declination, at the ified hours, in the mon om the mean declination in ae the months and at all the hours, 7¢p- resented by the Horizontal line MM. An ordinate lying above MM shows that the dec- lination tc at that hour is less than the mean, one lying below that it 1s greater than th ay; 2, June; 3, July; 4, August 5, November ; 6, Decem- ber; 1, silane 8, February. Scale 0in5 to 1! of ar gram, (Fig. 6). It should disappear at noon, and recur in the afternoon, ,but we shall soon see that antagonistic causes come into operation in the afternoon, which prevent the same result ‘om being realized. We shall see also that the ——. 7 to 8 a.m, and the forenoon hours geverdly, 38 ssing from the summer to the winter months, is not wholly deete the shift- ; of the radial current from the north to to the an ee e of the J vertical, as we have on sidered it. — eT. ad : a and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 199 We must now direct attention to the existence of another form af electric current in the photosphere of the earth, already briefly _ alluded to, from which several interesting eflects ensue. Thisisa current, or rather system of currents, induced by the sun’s mag- netic action on the photosphere, and running in a direction paral- lel or nearly so to the ecliptic and from east to west. I conceive them to be developed by the inductive action (the simple propaga- tion of an impulse probably) of currents traversing the sun’s sur- ace in a direction parallel, or nearly parallel to hisequator. The physical theory of their excitation does not fall within our pres- ent inquiry. The following discussion will, I think, serve com- etely to establish the fact of their existence. To have a clear conception of their diurnal and annual change of position, we may regard them (or at least those which originate in the lower latitudes) as represented by a single current followiug the direc- tion of the ecliptic traced on the earth, and observe’ that this is carried around with the sun during the day; and at a given hour of the day goes through in the course of a year the same changes of position that it does during aday. It is also to be observed that the force of this current will be the greatest at or near the point directly underneath the sun. At either equinox, and at the hour of noon, this current will be inclined 234° to the meridian of the station ; at the vernal equinox passing from the north to the south to the north side. The meridional component of this current will then be directed from north to south at the vernal and from south to north at the autumnal equinox. The north of the needle onght therefore, to stand farther to the west at the autumnal than at the vernal equinox, at.the hour of noon and thereabouts, at all stations. In fact there isan excess at Toronto, at noon, of 3/-23.* (See Table I.) In what precedes I have only considered the action of the ecliptic currents near the equa- t. In point of fact, the sun acts upon the high as well as the low latitudes, and develops at each point of its action a current Which sets out in a direction parallel to the ecliptic and follows the course of a great circle. The more northerly currents may mM general be approximately represented by a single current pass- ing through the zenith of the station.t Throughout the year, * This i equality of declination, which has its positive maximum at the autum- nal and negative maximum at the ve Served that, other thines being the same, the effect of a current will be the greatest ‘when it nan..: 41 ae ea ve ek ge E through ra 200 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination the current developed within the Torrid Zone (or rather within a few degrees of the ecliptic) may be represented by a single cur; rent following the course of the ecliptic traced on the earth’s pho- tosphere. At the equinoxes the northerly currents will cross the meridian at noon, under larger angles than this single ecliptic cur- rent, but their tendency will be the same in the inequality just the entire system of currents now under consideration. At the solstices the currents will everywhere, at the outset be parallel to the equator, and the circle traced through the various points from which they proceed at any one instant, will be a meridian and correspond to the solstitial colure. The entire system of cur- rents will pass through the pole of this circle, lying on the equa- tor 90° to the west of the circle. As the earth rotates the circle of excitement with its pole will be carried toward the west, and the inclination of each of these currents to the meridian of any particular station will vary continually. The currents in question will also pass through the other pole, 90° to the east of the circle on which they originate, but they will flow from this pole toward the circle, and from the circle toward the other pole. To the west of the circle they are leading currents, to the east of it following currents. The two poles will i in all cases be diametrically oppo- site to each other, and on the ecliptic. The starting point of the current that passes through the zenith of the station also varies continually. At 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. this current issues at the pole, at noon its starting point is in ne zenith of the station. At the equinoces the circle of excitement will coincide with the circle of latitude (that is circle through the pole of the ecliptic) which passes through the equinoctial points. The currents will set out move along it toward the west.. At the vernal equinox the pole will follow the course of the A 28 Tropic. During the year it will move along the ecliptic from west to east, keeping always 90° behind the sun. It will therefore pass pean yp from one deppic to the other, as the sun does, but be on one of the tude. At6 a.m. and 6p.m., on the day of the autumnal equi- nox, the current which traverses the zenith of the station origin- — ates at a point on its meridian 234° beyond the pole ; at noon at a point a few degrees to the south and east of the station, a crosses the meridian under an angle of 73°. At the same hours the day of the Sanat equinox, the current in question peas at the point on the meridian 233° ~ this side of the pole ; at noon a few degrees to the south and the mes ‘and deviates © from the meridian , lie —— ‘Stice, and S. 0 and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 201 At the Solstices, at the hours of noon and midnight, the eclip- tic current will have no effect on the declination, since it wi cross the meridian of the station perpendicularly. But at 6 a. m. ' and thereabouts it will tend to produce a deflection of the needle from East to West, in the interval from the northern to the southern solstice; and this in both hemispheres. For at the northern solstice, it will, at this hour, cross the meridian under an angle of 664°, and tend from north to south, but at the south- ern solstice it will cross the meridian under the same angle from ‘South to north. The extratropical currents are at this hour more oblique to the meridian, than the intertropical (just represented by asingle ecliptic current); but their representative current wil have the same inclination to the meridian at the one solstice as at the other, passing from N. of E. to S. of W. at the northern sol- f E. to N. of W. at the southern solstice. These currents will therefore conspire with those that originate between the tropics in producing an annual oscillation of the needle, from the one solstice to the other. The observed oscillation of about 5, at 7 to 8am. (see p. 195), is therefore to be regarded as the sum of the effects of the entire system of radial and ecliptic cur- tents. It is to be observed that each set of currents has traversed an arc of nearly 90° before it comes into operation at this hour. The same effect, though less in amount, should occur at each of the successive forenoon hours. In the afternoon the tendency is everywhere reversed ; the ecliptic currents are therefore now an- tagonistic to the radial (see p. 198), and tend to counteract these currents in their tendency to produce the same species of oscilla- tion as in the morning hours. In this way we may explain the comparatively small oscillation that occurs toward 6 p. m. (a fact which is conspicuously indicated by the curves of Fig. 6.) To- ward mid-day, and afterwards, the stronger meridional currents, When the sun is at the nearer solstice, has the effect to make the West declination in both hemispheres, greater at the northern than at the southern solstice. We shall have corresponding results if We compare any two months equally distant from the equinox. At intertropical stations they will also be similar if the com- Son is mad of the equinox, at which the sun is on the same side of the Zenith of the place. (This qualification is made only with re- g curves, constructed from the ob- answers to the former in- _Srcoxp Srntes, Vol. KIX, No. 56—March, 1955. 26 202 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination of the declination at the several hours from the means for the year at the same hours. An ordinate lying above m m shows that the needle is at that hour to the east of its mean annual po- sition at that hour, and an ordinate lying below mm shows that the needle is to the west of its mean position. ie 17h 18h 19h 20h 21h 22h 23h Oh lh} 2h 3h 4h LAX ZU | moa SAL le ice v ae Re A 17h 18h 19h 20h 21h 22h 23h Oh 2h Sh 4h 1, Aug. 16 to 31; 2, Sept.1t015; 8, Oct.1 t0 15; 4, Oct. 16 to 31. The ecliptic currents play an important part in modifying the diurnal variations. Let us first see what should be their effects in the northern hemisphere at the time of the swammer solstice. If we follow the solstitial colure to the point 234° beyond the pole, we reach the last point excited ; this will move from east to west along the polar circle. I find that about 13 hours before 6 a. m. the current from this point will pass through the zenith of Toronto, crossing the meridian under an angle of 34°. At midnight it will cross the meridian perpendicularly, 233° south of the pole. Soon af- ter midnight the currents from the various points of the are con- necting the point in question with the pole, cross the meridian Un- der a very large angle and far to the north, and they should have but little effect ; but as their angle of inclination to the meridian decreases there will be a tendency to an easterly displacement, -which will go on increasing up to the hourof 45 20™ a. m. The points of meridian passage of the currents in qnestion will now, some of them fall to the south of the zenith, until finally at 6 4. ™ these currents will all pass through the point of intersection of the meridian and equator; which is now the pole of the solstitial colure. Between 4: 20™ and 6 a. m. their obliquity will be m- creased, their meridional components will be augmented, and the easterly motion should continue. The amount of the movement should be somewhat diminished by the southerly progressiol the points of meridian passage of the currents. ‘To consider DoW the effect of the remaining currents ; it suffices to investigate = tion of the currents of the northern hemisphere, since those of * : f be and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 203 the southern hemisphere cross the meridian under the same angle, but in such a direction as to afford a meridional component in the opposite direction, and being of less intensity, only tend to dimin- ish the effect produced by the currents of the northern hemis- phere, without altering itscharacter. The ecliptic currents of the northern hemisphere, now to be considered, proceed from the va- rious points of the solstitial colure lying between the equator and ole. Before the hour of 6 a.m. the point of meeting of these currents will lie on the equator and to the east of the me- ridian of the station. The currents after intersecting at this point pass on and cross the meridian south of the equator. As the point of concentration moves westward the obliquity of the cur- rents to the meridian, at their respective points of passage, will lucrease, and hence the needle will be deflected still more toward the east. After 6 a.m. the obliquity will diminish, and a ten- dency to a westward movement will obtain. is will be more or less diminished by the continued augmentation of the strength of the individual currents, as the circle of excitement is brought tendency. This tendency to a westward movement will con- unue until noon, and during the afternoon until’6 p.m. The ac- . tendency to a diminution in the early morning hours, 204 W.A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination from any action of radial currents; we. have already seen gone the slight effect of these is the reverse at this season. course of the forenoon, the ecliptic currents of the natehad hemisphere will come into preponderating action ; because after 6 a. m. the points of meridian passage of these currents will move north, toward the zenith of the station, while those of the south- ern currenits will decline toward the south. The radial currents of the northern hemisphere will also come into action. From both of these causes combined, the declination begins to augment before the hour of noo At the equinoxes the resultant of the entire set of ecliptic currents ‘would be a single current following the course of the ecliptic trace on the photosphere, but for the fact that the currents of the two hemispheres cross the meridian under somewhat different angles, and in different points (except at the hours of 6 a. m. and 6 Pp. M.). At the autumnal equinor, before 6 a. m. the currents of the southern hemisphere cross ie meridian to the north of the tropic of Cancer, and after 6 a. m. the same is true of the currents of the northern hemisphere. aah to 6 a.m. we may represent the whole system of currents b a single one in the ecliptic, and another crossing the northern tropic, at the point of general concentration, in a direction from S.of E. to N. of W. For the sake of distinction we will call the former the prima and the latter the secondary current. After 6 a. m. the secondary current crosses the tropic in a direction from N. of E. to 8. of W. Now at the earlier hours the obliquity of the secondary cut- rent to the meridian, continually, but slowly, (p. 209,) increases, and hence the needle has aslight tendency westward. The primary current now crosses the meridian from N, of E. to S. of W., an its obliquity rapidly omee and hence an Lowes tendency westward. Later than 6 a.m. the secondary current, now in the northern hemisphere, aaperianots a slow diminution of obliquity, _while the obliquity of the primary current, which now runs from .of E. to N. of W., rapidly increases. Both currents therefore conspire as before to urge the needle westward. ‘To this west- ward tendency in the morning hours is perhaps opposed a slight tendency in the opposite direction from the action of the radial currents. ‘The facts in the case will be seen on glancing at the September column of Table I. The movement is wes after 4 or 5a.m., except from 7 to8 a.m. The easterly mo- tion at that hour may perhaps be due to the progression north- ward of the points of meridian passage of the currents, oe with the ae aha of their individual intensities by re the westward movement of the circle of excitement. pee in ‘the forenoon the shifting position of the ecliptic currents, both primary and secondary, tends to keep up the increase of declina- tion from hour to hour. At noon th heAiiesinncse tinea’ Sea e and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 205 pends on these currents, should be at its maximum. During the afternoon the primary ecliptic current becomes less and Jess ob- lique to the meridian, in a direction, S. of E. to N. of W., and hence the needle tends to shift its position toward the east. The secondary current is opposed to this; but its effect will be weak- ened in. the latter part of the afternoon, by the progression south- ward of the point of meridian passage of the curreut. ‘The pri- mary ecliptic and the radial currents, therefore, unitedly impel the needle toward the east, while the secondary current urges it in the opposite direction. The hourly change, so far as it is due to the primary current, will be greatest early in the forenoon, and late in the afternoon, and least at noon; so far as it is due to the second- ary current, it will be greatest toward mid-day, and least at 6 4.M.and6».m. From the effect of both currents it should be greatest, a short time after the middle of the forenoon. It should be less at the middle of the afternoon, because the secondary current is now opposed to the radial. Table II. (p. 208) gives the hourly change from 9 to 10 a.m. in September 3725, and from 2 to 3 p.m 2. ; _ At the vernal equinor the point of concentration of the ecli tic currents is on the Southern Tropic ; the secondary current, previous to 6 a.m. will be much less oblique to the meridian, and after that hour much more oblique than at the Autumnal Equi- nox. The primary current will now, in the earlier hours, run from S. of E. to N. of W.; its obliquity will diminish from hour to hour, and hence there will be a tendency toward the east. After 6 4. m. the current goes from N. of E. to S. of W., and its obliquity increases so that the tendency continues to be the same. In the’ present case the secondary current is opposed*to the pri- Is the least possible in the morning hours. On turning to the forenoon than in the afternoon. The actual deflection from se 206 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination four hours of noon, because it is then that its position changes most rapidly, (p. 209). At the same hours the primary current is in its position of minimum action. ‘Table I. gives for the de- flection in September between 8 a.m. and 12 m. 9°78, and be-' tween 12m. and 4 Pp. m. 485. At other periods of the year the general character of the effects of the currents may be readily ascertained if we reflect that in the summer months, the currents of the Northern Hemisphere pre- vail throughout the day, while in the winter months the currents of the Southern Hemisphere come into prevailing action in the morning hours, from 4or 5 a. m. to 8 or 9 a.m.; and that toward the equinoxes the effect of the primary ecliptic current is greater than at other seasons. We see therefore that the curves for the summer months should resemble that for the day of the sum- mer solstice, and the curves for the winter months that for the day of the winter solstice; and that the curves for March and September should be somewhat different. (See Fig. 6, also Hobarton Observations, Vol. I, p. 34.) The change froma west- ward to an eastward tendency at the hour of 6 a. m. in the win- ter months, is observable in the curves 5, 6, 7, 8, of Fig. 6. Pre- vious to 5 a. m. there is a slight eastward tendency, except in the curve for January. This I ascribe to the easterly deflection that follows the meridian passage of the point of maximum electric excitement diametrically opposite the sun. This point should be particularly effective in the winter, because its declination is north. ‘The opposite change of tendency, viz., from east to west, at 6 4.M. is to be seen in the curves 1, 2,3, 4. That the. westerly motion does not actually begin at that hour I suppose to be owing to the action of th® radial currents, which tend to urge the needle to- ward the east early in the forenoon. The greater part of the movement in this direction previous to 6 A. m., is doubtless attrib- utable to the same action of the radial currents. If we compare any one curve with the others, we find that the differences and correspondences which subsist, are in almost every instance such as the theory calls for. Thus, at 6 a.m. the the station (Toronto) in August as in June, and it is possible that this may over-balance the diminution of the obliquity of the currents. . Again, from the predominance of ‘the: currents of the Southern Hemisphere, there should be an espe- ial tendency to a westward displacement of the needle, at the ‘. nee omt IER = ee ¢ and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 207 our of noon, the declination is greater in Angust than in June because of the greater obliquity of the ecliptic to the meridian; —the increase of this obliquity prevailing over the diminution of the action of the radial currents. In the winter months the mid-day declination should be the least in December, because the tendency of the radial currents to deflect the needle toward the west i then at its minimum. In November the declination at noon should be greater than in January or February, because the ecliptic crosses the meridian in November in a direction from S. o N: of W., and in January and February from N. of E. to 8. of W. It is a consequence of our theory of the combined action of radial and ecliptic currents, that in the middle of the day the dec- lination should be greater at the autumnal than at the vernal equinox. This fact has already been noticed (p.199). Jt fol- lows also that the declination should be nearly the same both at 4.M. and 6 p.m. at the equinoxes. The actual difference at 6 A. M. is only 0/25; at 6 p. m. the declination is 1/9 greater at the Vernal than at the autumnal equinox. This excess of 1/9 is probably in part due to the irregular disturbances, so called, for these are much greater at the autumnal than at the vernal equi- Nox, and at 6 p. mu. and for several hours after the easterly disturb- ance preponderates over the westerly. It also may be in part at- tributable to the more northerly position, in the latter part of the alternoon, of the point of meridian passage of the secondary eclip- ic current. Another consequence of our theory is that the increase of declination from 6 a.m. to noon should be greater at the au- tumnal than at the vernal equinox; because at the former the three Currents are combined in their action, whereas at the latter the re is opposed to the othertwo. The actual numbers and effect}, and y= primary current; then c+y=8"'65, z—y=95'67, %=7'-16, y=1-49, We have an opportunity of verifying this de- termihation of the effect of the primary current. The difference 78. -7'-89—1°-49=6/-40= rad. — sec: ; 278+1'-49= 4°27 =rad, — sec. With Table II, we get the results, 4-63, 4-38, 208 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination If we make a comparison between the hourly variations at vt equinoxes, toward the middle of the day, similar differences ught to obtai We have, therefore, an inequality of hourly kez of declination, which has its maximum positive value at the autumnal and its maximum negative value at the vernal equinox. At the summer solstice all the ecliptic currents tend to deflect the needle in the same direction, as they shift their position at a given hour ; and in the forenoon they have the same tendency as the ra- dial currents, in the afternoon the opposite tendency. Taking the numbers given for June (‘Table II.) we have r+ y=12"34, r—y= 6-11, c=9/-22, and y=3"12. «& represents the effect of the radial currents and y the effect of the ecliptic currents from 7 a. M. to 1 p.m, and also from 1 p.m. to7 p.m. If we compare 6 4. M. to 12m. with 12m. to 6 Pp. m. we have 2 =7'02, y=2'-94. The ecliptic cnrrents will have some effect in modifying the reed variations of declination, but we will not enter upon the study of their more minute effects on the present occasion, ‘The fiend table contains the mean hourly variations of the declin- ation for certain hours of the day for a period of six years, from 1842 to 1848, which is half a solar period. TABLE II. Mean hourly variations ‘of the Declination at Toronto during a period of sit sae , From July, 1842, to June, 1848, inclusive. Jan. | Feb. |Mreh.| April | May.'June.| July.| Aug.| Sept | Oct. Nov. ] Bes ETE |e) eB |e |B | &. | W.. W.| W.| 17. to 181. 0:06] 0°00} 0°54] 0-94! 1:53} 2°31) 2-01] 2°64) 1:28, 0°29 0°02 0-05 Bat BAe | EB ete. LE eh Pe 18. to 192, 0°56} 0°42) 0°94) 0.44! 0°97! 1-00! 1-47] 1 68! 1-25) 0°51 0°60) 0°28) . a ) E..| ©. | W.| E. | w.| W.L EB | Be 19n. to 20n. 1:04] 0°54] 1-12] 0°15) 0-03) 0-251 0-19] 0-06) 0-94| 0°98 0°75) 0°31 . | w.| wW.l ww. | w w.| w.| w.; W.| E 20x. to 21n, 0°42] 0°84! 0°02} 1-00) 1°83) 1:55 1-70| 2°30] 1:66] 0°18 0°16) 0°61 WwW. | W.| Ww. | Ww.) Welw 7. w. | w.| we, W. | W. Q1a. to 22a. 1:11 1°15} 205} 2°18] 8 28} 2°87) 2-85| 4-03] 3-25) 168 1°52) 0°66 Ww WwW. | WwW. | Wo] OW. v.| Ww. | w.| W.| W. 22n. to 234 1:76] 1°98] 2-93] 3-05! 3°40) 3-68] 3-38) 3-49] 2-99] 267 221) 1°68 Ww W.'| Ww. | W./ Ww. w. | w. ; w.| W 23n. to Or. 9-16] 1°50] 2°74 2-48) 2°18] 2°67] 2-74| 2-98) 1-92) 200 1°67) 1°66 Ww W.|w.|wW.|w.!|w.|w.| BB | w.| WwW.) Ww Or. to In. 0°87] 0-23) 1:43) 1°23) 0-86) 1-37) 1-42) 0-98) 0°21) 0°43 0°76) 0°96 Ww. Ww Eom | ERS oWs oe ME eee 8 lk. to 2a. 0:06] 0-00! 0-01] 0-06) 0:29) 0-02! 0:12) 0°68) 0-83] 0°24 0°29) 0°01 E|Bkl&£|E)e;E| Ss BE | 8 | BE | ©. Qh. to Ba. 0°59} 0°84! 0°67| 0°86) 1°10} 0-92! 0-84! 1°82/ 1°82/ 1°06 1°11) 0% E. BE. | 5 BE. | E Ee. | |) al ee 3h. to 4h. 0°91) 0 86] 1:11] 1°66 1°71) 1-59) 1°29} 1°86] 1:79) 0:94 0°73) 0°95) BI B28 BE. EB : i 4n. to Bn. 9°84) 0°46) 1:10) 1°53). 1°70} 1-82) 1 se, a ae ja ae _ Br. to 6h, 061 one 1-03] 1-05) 1-01) 1-10 2 a3 E E 7, placed over Sirection tes U de nerteaad Sasea is nde eer s: = ae Deke ae lcm lalaalda and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 209 In what precedes the law of variation of the angle included be- tween the ecliptic and meridian, from one hour to another, or from one season to another at a be given hour, has been assumed. I propose now toestablish it. Let ER (Fig. 8) represent the equator, ES the ecliptic, and DSR a merid- lan; put ESR=S, ES=L, SER=»=234°. ° R Then cot # sin LdL tang L tang S= at d (tangS)= te 7 = cot o. —— ai. : ; tang L Thus the hourly variation of tang S is proportional to — For L=19, 119, 22°, 33°, 45°, 55°,°65°, 75°, 85°, d(tang S)= ‘O17, +197, -436, -765, 1-41, 2°50, 5:07, 14-4, 131. The corres- ponding values of S are, 663, 66° 53’, 68° 3’, 69° 58’, 72° 55’, 76°, 79° 35’, 83° 35’, 87° 5U’.. The variations of the angles cor- responding to the above variations of the tangent are as the num- bers 1, 11, 22, 33, 44, 53, 60, 64, 64. If the hourly variations of the obliquity of the ecliptic current, as one or another part of the i § } ; t BolensB50: 950 g50 age age 33° ae we 1° Eq. ecliptic is on the meridian, be represented by the ordinates of a cutve, we have a curve of the form shown in fig 9; nearly straight toward the solstitial point and again nearly straight in the vicinity and least at the equinoctial points. A curve showing the hourly change of declination that would result from the actual change of position of the current, would then differ from the prece- ing in being slightly more curved toward the solstitial point. The law of variation would be the same if we take apy individual ecliptic current, instead of the primary current (so called ) just con- sidered, for this does not depend on the value of the constant, cot #; it would also be the same for any single current taken as the rep- resentative of the ecliptic currents more remote from the equator. { appears to me that the two laws recently made out by M. Secchi are deducible from the theory of ecliptic currents, taking Szoonp Saris, Vol, XIX, No. 56—March, 1855. 27 210 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination into acccount the law of variation of their angles of inclination, to the meridian, just established, but as I have only seen a meagre statement of his researches (in the Comptes Rendus) it would be premature to enter into a detailed discussion of them in the pres- ent paper. It remains to discuss the peculiar variations of declination that occur at intertropical stations, whic een signalized by Col. Sabine. In the first volume of the Hobarton Observations we find the following statement; “the cee variation between the hours 2 a.m. and 10 a.m, at St. Helena correspond in respect to the direction in which the magnet moves in the months from April to August with the phenomena of the Northern Hemisphere, and from October to February with those of the Southern Hemi- sphere.” Similar phenomena are observed at the Cape of Good Hope he comparison between the diurnal movements at short idtervals before and after the equinox is-:made in Fig. 7, p. 202; the same opposition of movement in the forenoon is here seen to exist very near the equinox. These curious phenomena may readily be referred to the action of the ecliptic and radial currents. hen the sun is north of the equator the currents in the Northern Hemisphere predominate, and when he is south of the equator those in the Southern Hemisphere predominate. Now we have already seen (p. 202) that when the sun is considerably north of the equator the tendency of the action of the currents of the North- ern Hemisphere, is to impel the needle eastward previous to 6 or 7 a.m. and afterwards toward the west, and that when he is south of the equator the tendency of the action of the currents of the Southern Hemisphere is the reverse at the same hours; aud such are the actual diversities of movement that have been observed. The curves representing them for the months near the solstices, as observed at St. Helena, have the same form, and have the principal turning points at the same hours as those of Fig. 7. As the station (St. Helena) i is in the Southern Hemisphere, the cur- rents of the Southern Hemisphere, when they predominate have a more energetic action than those of the Northern ere ere, when in most effective action. Toward noon, (when the sun sses to the north of the zenith,) the radial currents from within the tropics will increase the tendency toward the east. In case the sun is north of the equator, the radial currents in question and the predominating currents from the high latitudes are opposed to each other, at that hour, but when he is ; south of the equator they con- = Oi to produce an eastward movement. e see therefore that the deflection toward the west, late in the forenoon, in the former position of the sun should be less than the deflection toward the east in the latter position. In the afternoon the radial currents that come from points within the tropics will again be in oppo- sition to the predominating extratropical currents when the sun a and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 211 is considerably to the north of the equator, and in coincidence of action when the sun gets to the south of the equator. (See ig. 7.) Let us take now the special case represented in Fig. 7. same effects will occur that we have just considered; they will only be less in amount. But we may also discern effects pro- duced by the primary ecliptic current. Before and after the equi- nox this current crosses’ the meridian under a large angle, early in the morning, and by the rapid shifting of its position tends to deflect the needle more and more toward the west during the fore- noon. During the afternoon the tendency is reversed. It is thus Opposed to the intertropical radial current during the greater part of the day both before and after the equinox. At the earlier date, at which the sun is north of the equator, the primary current crosses the meridian early in the morning in a direction from N. of E. to S. of W.; and at the later date it runs at the same hour in a direction from §. of E. to N. of W. The needle ought therefore to have a greater west declination early in the morning after than before the equinox. That such is the fact will be Seen on inspecting Fig. 7. It is to be observed that the easterly movement of the needle from 6 to 7 a. m., when the sun is north of the equator, and west- erly movement at the same hour when the sun is south of the equator, is attributed to the action of the radial currents. When the sun has a south declination the westerly tendency resulting from the action: of the radial- currents, from 6 r Sa. M., should be relatively greater at St. Helena than at Toronto. Ac- cordingly the radial may prevail over the ecliptic currents at that hour, at St. Helena, and the ecliptic over the radial at Toronto ; compare Figs. 6 and 7. y t may be stated in general terms that the peculiar phenomena of the diurnal variation of the declination which have place at St. Helena and the Cape of Good Hope, and probably at inter- tropical stations generally, receive their explanation in the alternate preponderance of the extratropical currents of the Northern or Southern Hemisphere, according as the sun is north or south of the equator; together with the modifying action of the ecliptic and radial currents that are developed between the tropics. (To be continued.) ‘ 212 H. M. Neisler on the fructification of Arachis hypogea. Art. XX.—Observations on the fructification of the Arachis hypogea ; by Hueu M. Netster, Columbus, Geo. In studying our Stylosanthes a few years ago, my attention was attracted by a note in Torrey and Gray’s Flora of North America, ol. i, p. 354. viz., “Mr. Bentham in a paper on the affinities of Arachis, read before the Linnzean Society in 1838, gives an account of the two kinds of flowers in Stylosanthes, and shows its affinity to Arachis, which he considers a genuine Hedysarea.” I presumed that he supposed the Arachis to have two kinds of flowers, but, wishing to inform myself accurately as to his views, I mentione _ the subject to Dr. Torrey in the course of our correspondence, who remarked in reply; “Mr. Bentham says, that Arachis has two kinds of flowers. Those that have all the parts, do not per- fect their fruit, the ovary never ripens. The fructiferous flowers, have neither calyx, corolla, nor stamens, but consist at first of a ers, which I at first (supposing Mr. Bentham’s views of course be correct) regarded as barren. But after close and repeated ex- aminations, to my surprise, I found them in all respects perfect, and what at first sight I had thought a long peduncle which withered with the flower, proved to be a slender, tubular calyz, through which there was no difficulty in tracing the style to 4 minute conical germ, situated between two bracteoles—and 10 all respects identical with those in the axils below. And after examining a few plants, I succeeded in finding germs elongated to two or three inches with the marcescent calyx and corolla still adhering to their points, and stimulated into growth beyond @ doubt by the perfect and fertilized ova. Younger plants just get- ting into bloom showed petal-bearing flowers in the lowest axils a =.= Le Se eT Se emma alia * D. Alter on the Light of the Electric Spark. 213 tification. —— Arr. XXI.—On certain Physical Properties of the Light of the Electric Spark, within certain Gases as seen through a Prism ; by D. Aurer, M.D., of Freeport, Pa. In a former communication, I noticed the peculiar character of the light produced by interrupting the galvanic circuit, between different kinds of metal. I also mentioned that several bright Spectrum. In the other gases it is feeble, except in the bands before mentioned. The quantity of light in the red band of the Spark, in hydrogen, is quite remarkable, being so great, that the s e aran Ceive the cause of the difference in color, in the flashes of light- hing—for when the electricity has a watery conductor, in much of its course, it will emit red light, but when it passes through 4ir, the light will be white; as in the spark through that medium, ~ 214 On Daguerreotyping dark lines in the Solar Spectrum. the bands are well distributed among the colors of the spectrum. The colors also, observed in the aurora borealis, probably indicate the elements involved in that phenomenon. ‘The prism may also detect the elements in shooting stars, or luminous meteors. Since from the preceding observations, it is evident that the electric light, whether from the interrupted galvanic current, or rom the common electric machine, is principally resolved into several bright bands by the prism; and that the light, thus pro- uced by one elementary body, differs in the number, brilliancy suggested by Prof. Graham) of chemical affinity? If so, are there only two poles, a chlorous and a zincous, to each molecule—or, are there as many poles or combining surfaces as are indicated by the number of bright bands of its refracted light? And (if the undulatory theory of light may be depended on) would not these bands give an indication of the size of those surfaces or poles! On Daguerreotyping the dark lines in the Solar Spectrum. —Being desirous to know whether corresponding lines exist in the actinic rays, L adopted the following method. The sun’s rays were admitted into a dark chamber, between the edges of two pieces of sheet brass about eight inches in length and separated te the thirtieth of an inch, at one end, but in contact at the other. Near the outside of the aperture thus formed, was placed a large lens, five feet in focus. Near the focus of the lens in the chamber, the rays pass through a prism and through a secon lens of about 20 inch focus, which shows the dark lines very distinctly on white paper, at its focus, for rays coming from the slit. The prepared Dag type plate, placed in the focus and exposed for oue or two seconds, produces the effect. In the Dagu ype, which I send you there are two spectra caused by filing the brass slips so as to cause an aperture on side of the point of contact. Ihave placed the letters on the lines as given in Brewster’s Optics, 1837, page 79. They ‘would corres- oe with Prof. Draper’s (see this Journal, March, 1848) if the occupied the place of I. I could not see the spectrum farther than the breadth of the second broad line at I in the direction beyond that line, when looking through the prism and slit at the sun. But by receiving the spectrum on paper stained with alcoholic tincture of turmeric, several dark lines can be seen beyond these and the blue appears _to be changed to violet down to the line F. é | | | | | | Gp Die See SO aie tO ea ep! ee Cee ee ee ee EE EE Se L., Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 215 Arr. XXIL—Synopsis of the Ichthyological Fauna of the Pa- cific slope of North America, chiefly from the collections made by the U. S. Expl. Exped. under the command of Capt. C. Wilkes, with recent Additions and Comparisons with East- ern types; by L. Acassiz. (Continued from p. 99.) Exocxiossum, Raf. Tuus far a single species of this remarkable genus is known, which was first described by Lesueur, under the name of Cyp- rinus mavillingua in the first volume of the Journal of the Acad- emy of Natural Science of Philadelphia, p. 185. Lesueur how- ever already suspected that this species would constitute a sepa- rate genus, but until the discovery of another similar species he would content himself with referring it to the genus Cyprinus. His expectation of such a discovery has however not been real- ized, since the three species soon afterwards referred to this type by Rafinesque, who first introduced for it the name of Exoglos- Sum, and those described at a later period by Kirtland and Va- lenciennes do not in reality belong to it. This is another among the many instances which show that the importance of generic peculiarities does not necessarily depend upon the number of s cles in which they occur. Rafinesque states that he had thought of calling this genus Glossognathus, but that this name appear- ing to him rather harsh, he has proposed that of L’roglossum, or the sake of euphony. Valenciennes remarks that he would have preferred that of Glossognathus, which he had himself intro- duced for this genus, before he read Rafinesque’s paper. As mat- ters now stand, we can have no choice, the name of Exoglos- Sum standing by the right of priority and general acceptance.* Kay is certainly wrong in referring this fish to the genusrCa- tostomusgwith which it has no generic affinity, as I have already shown. In calling the typical species E'voglossum Lesueurtanum, Rafinesque has paid a deserved tribute to the able French natu- Talist who discovered this fish; but in so doing, he has acted con- trary to the universally acknowledged law of priority, which re~ qutres that specific names once established, should never be changed, unless they are absolutely objectionable, which is by no means the case in this instance. Ido therefore not hesitate ae goring the specific name of mavillingua, first given to this Valenciennes de ribes specimens from Pennsylvania. I have * T have intr, is and sitnilar other remarks in my paper, not merely with reference to hee ee consideration, but chiefly as hints to American Zoolo- sts, who in their writings seem not always to take sufficiently into consideration .J€ traditional rules which have guided Naturalists since the days of Linnzus, * 216 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. through the kindness of Professor S. 8. Haldeman from the Sus- quehannah River; from Carlisle, Pennsylvania, through Prof. Baird; from Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania, where it is called Cuttlips, or Niggerfish, through J. R. Lowrie, Esq. ; from the Ju- niata River, where it is called Daychub and Niggerchub, through Prof. Th. C. Porter, and from Nichois, Tioga County, New York, where it is called Mullet, through R. Howell, Esq., so that its geographical range appears much wider than was known before. As to the other species referred by Rafinesque to the genus. Exoglossum, it may easily be ascertained on comparing his figures and descriptions, that neither of them belong to this tribe a synonym of his own Exoglossum arinulatutn with a less marked caudal spot. ese nominal species have nevertheless been in- troduced by Valenciennes into his Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, » upon the authority of Rafinesque, and hence reproduced by Dr. Storer in his Synopsis of the Fishes of North America. The RI a L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 217 towards the centre, but occupy near it a broader field than usu- ally and diverge towards the posterior margin in such a manner that the concentric ornamental ridges of the lateral fields and of the anterior field are not intersected by them. The pharyngeal teeth are arranged in two rows, the outer one with four somewhat compressed teeth, curved inwards, termina- ting with a small hook and provided with a small grinding sur- face upon the inner margin. The inner row has only a single tooth, more conical than the outer ones and much smaller. The msertion of these teeth lower upon the branch of the sym- physis than usually is also quite characteristic. sum maxillingua, 5, ¢ and d, the lougest tooth of the outer row from three sides and e, the smallest in profile. Pygmeus, Fundulus fuscus and Hydrargyra fusca. All these descriptions relate only to two species of one and the same genus, which however belongs neither to the family of Cyprinoids, nor to that of Cyprinodonts 1n which the inter- maxillaries form the whole margin of the upper Jaw, but con. * j : i e Leuciscus pygmeus of DeKay fees eee no dae tenibad Road el of New York, without whi would hardly ae ee even the identity of a that fish with DeKay’s own Hy _ Skconp Serres, Vol. XIX, No. 56.—March, 3855, 28 Pa 218 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. stitutes a North American representative of that curious type first described by Gronovius, under the name of Erythrinus, from the Brazils. The genus Erythrinus, divided by J. Muller into two genera: Erythrinus proper and Macrodon, was referred by him to his family of Characini and afterwards raised by Valen- ciennes to the rank of a distinct family under the name of Ery- throids, to which he has added the genera Lebiasina Val., from Lima, Pyrrbulina Val., from Surinam, and Umbra Kram, from Hungary. My genus Melanura is the North American represeut- ative of the European Umbra. It may be characterized as fol- lows: Body elongated, compressed ; dorsal far behind, extend- ing over the space between the ventrals and the anal, as far back as the anal itself; ventrals when bent back reaching the anal. Mouth opening forwards; lower jaw ‘longer than the upper, armed as the intermaxillaries and palatines with small recurved velvet teeth; no teeth in the upper maxillaries which form the sides of the upper jaw ; pharyngeal teeth like those of the jaws, but smaller. Cheeks, opercle and top of the head covered with scales. A few large pores along the preopercle, the mastoids and on the top of the head. Gill openings very large; mem- brane connecting the four branchiostegal rays overlapping one another below. No Pseudobranchie. Caudal fin rounded. Hy- drargyra limi, A7rt., is another species of this genus, and Professor Baird has discovered others in our western waters, which he has forwarded to me for comparison and description.* ‘The first spe- cies mentioned above, must retain the specific name given to it y Rafinesque» I shall therefore call it Melanura annulata. The little figure given of this species by Mr. Thompson, in his History of Vermont, p. 137, is very characteristic. ] Camposroma, Agass. As stated above, the Exoglossam dubium of Dr. Kirtland, thongh closely allied to the typical species first @escribed by Lesueur is not generically identical with it. It is true, its pharyngeal teeth have the same general arrange- ment, there being an outer row of four teeth on each side, and an additional small tooth within that row ; but the teeth them- selves inserted in a cluster abreast of the rather spur-like lateral — dilatation of the pharyngeal, are more elongated, hardly hooke at all, and their inner margin presents a long narrow grinding sut- ace, very similar to that of the genus Chondrostoma proper. T e American fish differs however, in having two rows a teeth, while Chondrostoma has six teeth in a single row. sides, the form of the mouth is very different in the two, being square in Chondrostoma and arched in Exoglossum dubium. ___* have received another from Davenport, Iowa, through the kindness of Professor ‘Sheldon. I shall describe all these fishes comparatiy pen another occasion, and f ‘ : ig. 1, a, right pharyngeal of Ciamposto- Ma anomalr L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 219 This shows plainly that however closely allied, they are types of different genera, and I shall introduce the name of Cam postoma for the American form. ‘The scales bear a close resemblance to those of Exoglossum ; their longitudinal diameter however pre- vails over the vertical and the radiating furrows diverge more graph, I shall not enter into further particulars respecting this genus, remarking only that the species of Campostoma assume a very different appearance in different periods of the year, accord- ing to their sexes; Exoglossum spinicephalum of Valenciennes, for instanca, being the male in its breeding dress of the same spe- cies Dr. Kirtland has described under the name of Exoglossum dubium. Leuciscus prolixus Storer again, is synonymous with every respect with it. This name anomalus being by many Species, were the dorsal not described as having 15 rays. Some of the species described lately as Chondrostoma from the Old World may belong to this genus. represents the Saba sides, and e, the same from ¢ the Inner side to show the a Stinding surface. 1 b * See this Jourval, vol, xvii, p. 357. 220 L. Agassiz onthe Ichihyological Faunaof Western America. Pimephales, Raf. This genus was established by Rafinesque for the reception of asmall species little known then as now to anglers single specimen from which he drew the generic as well as spe- cific characters of this fish was taken at Lexington, Ky., witha small hook. The peculiar features of the fish mentioned by Rafinesque in his description, leave no doubt respecting its iden- tity. The large irregular black spots of the anterior base of the dorsal, its first, simple, shorter, obtuse, hard ray, together with the blackish head and blunt snout, readily distinguish it from any other fish of the same family in the vicinity from which it is de- scribed. ‘The generic characters as given by this naturalist, are: Body oblong, thick, and scaly, vent posterior, nearer to the tail, ers scaleless, fleshy all over, even over the gill covers, rounded, convex above and short. Mouth terminal, small, toothless, with hard, cartilaginous i Opercle double, three. branchial rays. Nostrils simple, dorsal fin opposite the abdominals, with the first ray simple and eshing eas. Abdominal fins with eight rays. This generic diagnosis exhibits most of the defects of dhe greater number of such descri tions. ‘T’o mention that the body is scaly, the head scaleless, the mouth toothless, the branchiostegal rays three in number is only to repeat as characters of one what in reality belong to all the genera of the family. I am sorry to add that this practice of referring at random to families, a ie or Species the characters observed, is continued to this day by the magority of our Naturalists. * Most of their —— a viduals without much Hisesnae What Rafinesque says of the nostrils being simple 1 is absolutely false, as in all Cyprinoids there are two openings of the nostrils on each side of the head; the upper-one is crescent-shaped, the lower or anterior one oval ; both close together. The name proposed by Rafinesque i is abbreviated from Pimele- kephale, which means fat-head, an allusion to the round fat head. In the Ichthyologia Ohiensis, Rafinesque gives Flat- Head as the meaning of the name he proposes for the genus: but this is evidently a misprint for fat-hea This genus is very closely related to Campostoma, in which how- ever the scales on the back in front of the dorsal are as large and as well arranged as those behing this fin, while in Pimepheles they are very much reduced in size, crowded and irregular in for m and arrangement in front of the dorsal. The spine in dorsal, as well as the rounded form of all the fins are also ¢ acters which distinguish this genus from Campostoma. But what - Cand e, are profile and side views L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 221 particularly characterizes this genus externally is the short, coni- cal head, the height and length of which are nearly equal. The snout is broadly rounded both vertically and laterally. The mouth, which is terminal and not beneath the snout, opens slightly upwards. The lower jaw is short, arched in front and nt upwards, giving ita somewhat spoon-shaped form. At pres- ent, we know of ouly one species belonging to this genus, which — Rafinesque described under the name of Pimephales promelas. He never saw more than one single specimen of this remarkable fish, which he obtained from Mr. W. M. Clifford, of Lexington, Kentucky, in 1820. It is not mentioued in the great Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, by Cuvier and Valenciennes. Dr. Kirt- land, to whose indefatigable ardor we are indebted for so much valuable information upon the fishes of the Ohio, seems to be the only Ichthyologist who has noticed this fish from personal ob- servation, since it was first described by Rafinesque. Dr. Kirt- land describes it from three specimens caught in Trambull County, Ohio. I have myself had the good fortune to obtain a large number of specimens in the smaller brooks west of St. Louis 1n Missouri. The species fully deserves the specific name given to it by Rafinesque on account of the contrast between the al- Most black color of the head and the light tint of the body. The largest specimens I have seen did not exceed three inches and a half in length. to consider their number of generic importance. ‘T’o some ex- ad ~ | 3 a =. oO i] - = & @ 4 fos) ix) =] 3 ~n _o = =) ~— wey oy S bmi | $ 5 i 7 is?) © - i pharyngeals is particularly promi- hent in this genus. Fig. 12, a, rep- Tesents the right pharyngeal of P#- ™eéphales promelas enlarged from the outer surface to show this pro- Jection, } represents the same bone from the dental side, in natural size: of the teeth without hook, - 222 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. and e, one hooked tooth in profile. The scales of this genus are also very peculiar; their longitudinal diameter is much shorter than the vertical, as in Plargyrus, and the centre of radiation is much nearer to the anterior, than to the posterior margin ; the concen- tric ridges of the ornamental layer of the outer surface are close together, and only interrupted by radiating furrows upon the pos- terior and lateral fields of the scales. e tubes of the lateral line short, broad and curved downwards upon the middle of the posterior fields of those scales. Hyborhynchus, Agass. In respect to the arrangement of the scales, and the structure, position and form of the fins, this genus does not differ fro imephales ; it is chiefly distinguished by characters of the head and the pharyngeals. ‘The head is long and flattened above ; the profile descends suddenly on reaching the nostrils, forming @ very blunt, gibbous snout, (whence the generic name Hyborhyn- chus). The mouth is small, beneath the snout, and cut horizon- tally. The lower jaw is flat, broadly rounded in front and shorter than the upper jaw. The sides of the head are vertical phales, with a narrow, flat grinding surface and a slightly arched t ‘ig. 13, a, represents the right pha- 13, long, and the centre of radiation very forwards as in Pimephales; but the ra- diating furrows are not so numerous, and the tubes of the lateral L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 223 Quincy, Illinois, to Dr. I. H. Rauch, for others from Burlington, Iowa, to Prof. J. M. Safford, for specimens from Lebanon, Ten- nessee, to Col. B. L. C. Wailes for others from Natchez, Mississippi; Ihave myself caught specimens at Beardstown and Lasalle, Illi- nois, I received from an unknown contributor, with many other species, one specimen from Rome, New York. I find it also among Professor Baird’s specimens from Westport (Lake Cham- plain) and among mine from Lake Huron. This most extraor- dinary range is hardly covered by a single species, and yet I can find no specific differences between the specimens even from the most remote localities. I must remark however, that from some I have only a few rather indifferently preserved specimens. Hybognathus, Agass. In this genus the body is more of a fusiform shape than in Pimephales; the head is triangular or wedge-shaped, and the snout hardly blunt ; the profile not descending suddenly on reach- ing the nostrils. The top of the head is convex and rounded at the sides instead of forming a prominent ridge. The mouth is small and terminal ; the lower jaw is quite thin and flat ; its symphy- Sis is angular and prominent, being surmounted by a slight tuber- _ ¢le, in allusion to which I have called the genus Hybognathus. ~ The upper jaw partakes in a less degree of the angular outline of the lower jaw, which is shorter than the upper, and fits within it. The dorsal and anal fius, though similar in form, yet differ from those of Pimephales, in having the longest simple ray the longest ray of the fin, making the anterior and outer angle pointed. The pectorals and ventrals are slender and pointed ; the caudal is deeply forked. The scales are as large on the back and Anterior portions of the body as behind the dorsal and ventral fins. Scales subtriangular, owing to the greater vertical diameter, the Prominent posterior margin and the very forward position of the centre of radiation. Ornamental concentric ridges closer together upon the very Narrow anterior field. No radiating furrows upon this, and the = Na ¢ and d, a the side, still more magnified. 224 L. Agassiz on the I chthyological Fauna of Western America, Hybognathus nuchalis, Agass. For specimens of the species which constitute the type of this genus, I am indebted to Dr. Watson of Quincy, Illinois. - I have also received some from Dr. Rauch of Burlington, Iowa, and others from Dr. Engelman of St. Louis, Missouri. The largest specimens are nearly four inches long. The dorsal and ventral outlines are arched equally. The length of the head is one-fifth of the entire length or a little less than the greatest height of the body. The eye is of moderate size, and slightly elliptical in form, its hinder margin is nearer the posterior angle of the oper- cle than the end of the snout. The opercle is higher than long, its lower border is convex, the posterior emarginate. € upper maxillary does not reach the vertical line of the anterior border of the eye. The dorsal begins at.the highest part of the back slightly in advance of the ventrals; its height is greater than its length, and is not emarginated behind ; its last ray as to length, is to the longest ray of the fin as 1 to 2... The anal fin is one-third smaller than the dorsal. The lateral line is straight, except over the pectorals, where it bends upwards, and ends above the opercle. There are four rows of scales between this line and the ventrals, and five above it. ck, dark olive color, with a darker stripe from the neck to the base of the dorsal, extending also along the back, between — the dorsal and the caudal. A greyish, diffuse, longitudinal band above the Jateral line; sides silvery. © : P. 1,14; D.2, 1,62; V.1,7; A. 2,1, 62; 0.4, 1 9,8, [ 6. In the method adopted by Valenciennes, all the fishes of the fam- ily of Cyprinoids described above from the North American cont- * ce eee ee TS ae ae RR ig L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America, 225 ture of heterogeneous types, and must be subdivided not only into genera, but even into tribes. But before expressing any opinion upon the closer affinities of these more restricted genera it is ad- visable to illustrate successively their structural characters and to compare them with one another. I begin wit Chrosomus, Raf. The genus Luxilus of Rafinesque embraces two different types, which he has himself separated as subgenera under the names of Chrosomus and Luzilus proper. These two types differ in so many structural peculiarities that I do not hesitate to consider them as different genera. These differences are indeed so obvi- yet upon careful comparison such ditferences are observed between them, that no doubt can remain respecting the propriety of con- sidering them as distinct genera, if structural peculiarities are at all indicative of generic differences. In the first place Phoxinus 488 two rows of pharyngeal teeth, the onter, numbering four or five teeth, the inner, one or two, whilst Chrosomus has only one tow of five teeth. Moreover, in Phoxinus the point of the teeth 8 strongly hooked, and their inner margin entire, while in Chro- Somus that margin is flattened into a grinding surface, the teet terminating however with a small hook. . yprinus Smithii of Dr. now si Jor ee Ye om ova ree St Cee Since ling else but our common Hyodon. __ Stooxp Sznres, Vol. XIX, No, 56—March, 1855. sg 226 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America, Fig. 15 and 16 rep- resent the pharyngeals and teeth of these two genera side by side: 15, a, the right pha- ryngeal of Chrosomus erythrogaster, band c one tooth in profile and from the grinding surface. Fig. 16, a, the right pharyngeals of Phoxinus varius of Europe, b, c, d, a tooth of the outer row from three sides. In my paper upon some new species of Cyprinoids from the Lake of Neuchatel, printed in 1835 in the Transactions of the Nat- ural Historical Society of that city, I characterised the genus Phoxinus as follows: “Body cylindrical, stout, covered with very small scales. Pharyngeal teeth pointed. Caudal furcate.” Heckel in his Ichthyology of the Travels of Russegger, has addet the following particulars: Dentes raptatorii 2-5; 5-2. Os anti- cum ; labia teretia; cirri nulli. Pinna dorsalis et analis brevior, illa pone pinnas ventrales incipiens. Squame minime mem- branacez, adherentes, vix se invicem tegentes. The facilities 1 have had for comparing Phoxinus and Chroso- mus, which are representative genera, respectively limited to the Old and New World, enable me to furnish further information upon their peculiarities, which is the more needed as the descrip- tion of Rafinesque is very brief and incomplete. : The bluntuess of the head and the shortness of the cylindrical body of Phoxinus is very characteristic and contrasts in a striking manner with the more pointed head and fusiform body of Chro- somus. In both these genera the scales are very small, thin, membranaceous and hardly appressed to the body, which circum- stance has misled Heckel into the statement that the scales hardly cover one another; yet they are imbricated in the usual manner ; but they are not arranged in quite so regular rows as in most other genera. Phoxinus and Chrosomus are in fact with Moxostoma the only groups I know in the family of Cyprinoids in which the lateral line is not regularly continuous from the upper angle of the opercle to the base of the caudal. In Phoxinus it breaks Up for the most part, not far behind the tip of the pectorals, but re= appears generally above the ventrals for some short space, and here and there single perforated scales may be traced to the end of the tail; in Chrosomus it is more continuous, extending usu- ally without interruption as far back as the space between the ventrals and the anal, and then more interruptedly back wards. The scales themselves differ so far that they may be recognizee, even when isolated ; in Chrosomus the concentric ridges upo? the surface of the ornamented layer of the scale are closer to- gether and interrupted at regular intervals in every direction !F D L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 227 the centre, in such a manner as to give rise to radiating furrows diverging on all sides In Phoxinus the ridges are fewer, and they are only distinctly interrupted upon the posterior and lat- eral fields of the scale, and scarcely at all upon the anterior seg- ment, so that the anterior margin exhibits few furrows, if any. The tubes of the scales in the lateral line are also different. In Chrosomus they are narrower, more tubular and closed, and not extending far beyond the centre of growth of the scales; in Phoxinus they have the appearance of broad chamels occupying almost the entire field of the scale from margin to margin. ‘The number of teeth assigned to Phoxinus by Heckel is not quite so constant as he seems to believe; I find occasionally only four teeth in the outer row instead of five, and only one in the inner row instead of two; but I have never seen two rows in Chro- somus. ‘T'he form and comparative size of the fins are about the same in the two genera; they differ only in relative position, the dorsal being placed farther back in Phoxinus than in Chrosomus. The mouth is terminal and yet when it is closed, the snout pro- jects slightly beyond its crescent shaped outline ; this feature is particularly marked in Chrosomus. * However, when outh 18 opened the lower jaw of Chrosomus projects more than that of Phoxinus. Neither of these fishes have barbels. In Chrosomus as Well as in Phoxinus, the males differ from the females in hav- ing brighter colors, especially in the spawning season. he Rutilus ? ruber of Rafinesque, which he has himself hever seen, and of which he says that it may belong to his genus Ratilus, or to any of this tribe, a slender fish, only two inches ong, Compressed and of a fine purple red, can be nothing but Chrosomus erythrogaster. ‘There is no other fish in the Ohio ba- SiN aiswering to this description. Piychocheilus, Agass. There are few Cyprinide in which the mouth is widely cleft ; few which have a slender appearance and whose form indicates Swift motion, Among the best known of that character I may any of the many genera which have been estab- Cyprinide. Its mouth is far more widely open 228 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western Amer ica when the mouth is open. The lower lip is also very fleshy ‘around the symphysis of the two branches of the lower jaw, and presents the same folds; but, upon the sides it tapers into a thin membranous fold deeply separated, by a furrow, from the skin covering the lateral branches of the lower jaw. his fold unites ~ at the lower extremity of the intermaxillary bone, and presents in many respects a remarkable resemblance to the folds of the membrane of the lower jaw in Murenide. ‘The skin covering the tongue and extending between the inner sides of the two branches of the lower jaw, is also remarkably folded. As such characters occur in no other genus, 1 am well justified in consid- ering this as a peculiar type of the family. There is not the slightest indication of a tentacle at the angle of the mouth be- tween the intermaxillary and upper maxillary bones. The branchiostegal rays, three in number as usual, seem at first rather short, and broad, but, upon close examination it is found that behind and above the part of these bones which is seen eX- humerus, so that the branchial fissure does not extend to the side of the hyoid bone. : One of the most striking features of the fish is the great elon- gation of the head, which, in outline, truly resembles that of Lu- cioperca. ‘The body is cylindrical and slender, tapering slightly toward the caudal, so that the tail is very strong and powerful, affording another evidence of the energetic movements this fis ean perform. The dorsal and the veutrals are rather backwards; the ventrals much nearer to the anal than to the pectorals. The pectorals are rather large and elongated, and by no means so broad proportionally as the ventrals. They consist of one hard ray, and sixteen articulate rays, the two lowest of which are sim- ple. In the ventrals there is in advance one simple ray, followe by eight branching rays. In the dorsal, which has the same form as the anal, there are two small rays in advance of the large simple one followed by eight branching rays, the last of which 1s a double ray. The anal has the same structure, but there is one ray less. In these two fins, when shut, the rays overlap each other. This is also the case with the central rays of the caudal, in which there are nine branching rays in the upper lobe, a0 eight in the lower. A large simple ray on each margin and seven or eight smalltays near the base. The lateral line considerably curved behind the operculum, follows at first the middle line of the body, but is nearer the abdomen than the back, upon the sides of the abdomen, and resumes its medial position upon the tail. The scales have the ordinary appearance of Leuciscus scales, ‘but are rather smaller than in the common Leucisci, It is a great einen, “ol 4 4 6 & & | L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 229 pity that neither pharyngeal bone nor intestines have been pre- served so that the relation of this fish to the ordinary Leucisci cannot be well ascertained. I have preserved the characteristic of this genus as I had writ- ten it four years ago when I had only the specimens of the Ex- ploring Expedition before me, without any trace of pharyngeals or intestines, that I may be able better to show how correctly we may judge of certain structural peculiarities not within our reach from other facts we may have observed. The 17. predatory habits of the type of this genus were inferred from the form of its body and from the shape of its mouth. Now we know also the teeth from another species sent me from San Francisco by my friend 'I'. G. Cary, Jr., Esq., the case is perfectly plain and 1 am confident in asserting that the species of Ptychocheilus | areamong the most voracious of the whole family of Cyprinoids, exceeding probablyjall others in their rapacious dispositions. Fig. 17, a, represents the right pharyngeal of Ptychocheilus major, from behind; 8, one ° of the teeth of the outer row magnified twice. 24 Ptychocheilus gracilis, Agass. & Pick. The back bluish grey. Silvery upon the sides. Head and cheeks golden color. Fins yellowish orange. The middle of the caudal grey. From Willamet Falls, Oregon. Ptychochetlus major, Agass. _Tam unable to indicate the colors of this species, but it is easily distinguished from the preceding by its larger scales. rom San Francisco, California. Mylocheilus, Agass. It seems to be a characteristic feature of the Cyprinide of the Columbia River, to have their mouth clothed with a hard grind- ing sheath similar to the horny covering of the Turtles. e have seen the Acrocheilus provided with a flat horny chevron upon its lower jaw, and a similar but narrower sheath upon the inner margin of the upper lip. In the genus Mylocheilus the mouth has a different shape. At first sight it does not differ at all from that of the common Leucisci, or rather from the type which repre- Sents the European Leucisci on the shores of North America, and of Which Dr. Storer’s Leuciseus pulchellus is this type, which differs from the European Leuciscus in having a small tentacle, : European Gudgeon upon the angle of the upper jaw be- 230 L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America, tween the extremity of the intermaxillary and upper maxillary bones. In addition to this peculiarity which our Mylocheilus has in common with the Eastern American Leucisci, our fish has a horny sheath surrounding both the upper and lower jaw, so that we are led to consider it without hesitation as a new generic type, peculiar, as far as we know at present, to the Northwestern coast of America. A close examination of the pharyngeal system of teeth fully sustains the impression, first received from the exam- ination of the jaws, that Mylocheilus constitutes a distinct genus in the family of Cyprinids ; for its teeth differ entirely from those of the common Cyprinide known at the present day. Far from in one main row of five, in which the anterior teeth are the largest, and the posterior are much smaller and somewhat compressed and hooked. Oné tooth is wanting in the left row, but its base of insertion shows that it has recently fallen off. In addition to those teeth, there is above on each side one small tooth similar in form to the common small tooth of Leucisci; underneath on each side, one or two immature teeth sticking in the gum. e it not for the circumstance that the two arches of the phary ngeal bones are free and movable upon their symphysis, one might sup- pose this apparatus to have belonged to some Labroid Fish ; 80 great is the resemblance of its rounded teeth to those of that fam- ily. The horny plate against which this apparatus moves U the basilar bone is ovate, lanceolate. The arches of the gills are provided, on their inner margin with tufts of small teeth form- ing canals which alternate between the adjacent arches, the upper ones of the first arch only consist of strong hooks. The nostrils are large ; the anterior, tubular; the posterior crescent-shaped. Water-pores seem to be fewer than in Acrocheilus. I perceive only those larger ones which follow the shoulder bone, the mas- toid, the preoperculum, the suborbital, and the lower jaw. The branchiostegal membrane unites in advance of the humeral bone, so that the branchial fissure does not extend to the side of the hyoid bone. he pectorals are large, and longer than the ven- trals, the latter placed nearer to the anus than to the pectorals. The dorsal begins in advance of the ventrals which are opposite the middle of that fin. There is one strong simple ray, 19 the anterior margin of the pectorals, followed by seventeen branching and articulated rays, the last of which however are simple. ventrals consist of one simple ray and eight branching one’ ———_ L. Agassiz on the Ichthyological Fauna of Western America. 231 When shut, the rays of these fins are brought close together, but do not overlap each other as is the case with the rays of the dor- sal and anal and with the middle rays of the caudal. The dorsal has a narrow base, as has also the anal, both fins having the same structure, differing only in size. There are two small rays in ad- vance of the long ray of the dorsal, followed by seven branching rays the last of which, however, is a double ray. e anal has precisely the same number of rays. The caudal is large, furcate, and has eight smaller rays along the upper and lower margin ; then, on each side, a large simple ray. The upper and lower lobes are apparently equal; there is, however, one ray more in the upper lobe, that is to say, nine above and eight below. The inner ones overlap each other when the fin is shut. The scales are of medium size and have the common appearance of Leucis- cus scales. The lateral line slightly bent downwards behind the operculum, follows about the middle of the side. The intestine has twice the length of the abdominal cavity, and is a simple tube tapering from the stomach backwards. The air bladder as usual, consists of two divisions with a tube opening into the pha- tynx. The humerus forms a widely rounded angle above the pectorals, Fig. 18, a, represents the right pharyngeal from behind, 4 from Within so as to show the crown of the teeth from above, ¢ repre- sents the same in profile to show the insertion of the teeth; @ and d’, represent the same tooth, the second above the symphysis, from two sides showing how much it is compressed ; ¢ is a side view of the outer or upper tooth of the main row. Mylocheilus lateralis, Agass. & Pick. Greenish blue above with a reddish line upon the sides. Upper fin greenish. The edge of the caudal reddish. Pectorals and ventrals orange. The horny plate of the mouth is of a brown- Orange, : Caught in the Columbia River at Fort Vancouver in Oregon. (To be continued.) a 232 H.R. Schoolcraft on a Coal Basin near Lake of the Woods. Arr. X XIIIl.— Discovery of a Coal Basin on the Western borders of the Lake of the Woods; by Henry R. Scnooucrart. Facrs observed during the several expeditions to ascertain the sources of the Mississippi river in 1820, and in 1832, under vite authority of the government, denote t this stream to originate the geological drift, or erratic block stratum, resting on silu- rian strata. This drift composes a wide crescent-shaped range of high lands, sweeping round from the Otter-tail lake to the sources of the St. Louis river of Lake nn nad which consti- tute the northern rim of the valley. It forms a well defined water-shed, which pours its drainage south tite the Gulf of Mex- ico north into the great Lake Winnipek ; and southeasterly into Lake Superior. The French denominate it Hauteur des Terres. From the principal lake, which occupies its summit, it has, since the era of the last ne a referred to, been called the Itascan summit or water-shed. Mr. Nicollet who ascended it, in 1836, cred its extreme altitude to be 1680 feet above the Gulf of Mexic The surface acetate of immense heaps and wave-like deposits of oceanic sand, and comminuted sandstones and schists, with boulders of both the sedimentary and igneous rocks. Although the silurian series are generally concealed by these deep an wide-spreading deposits of the drift era, yet, they appear in hori- zonta — o at the Naiwa rapids at the foot of the Itascan range ; on the Metoswa rapids, below Queen Anne’s Lake; ana, very sistintly at the Pakagama Falls, at the “oe be the great sphagnous plateau below the inlet of Leech Lake The whole column of formations is mnatitate: sofort’ y the igneous group of rocks, heavy boulders of which lie tumbled together in many of the sub-valleys, as if they could not have Fin transported far from their parent beds. Whether the silarian strata be, however, imposed directly on the igneons, or exist in juxtaposition with them, is not certain. This only can be stated, in regard to the general arrangement, that in descending the cnan- nel of the Mississippi from Itasca Lake, the sandstones, grits, 20 quartzite are hear at the localities mentioned. At a point, where the river has worn its channel 550 feet into the geologics formations, (Dis. Sources Miss., p. 582,) the pyrogenous rocks are ound in place, in its bed and on its banks. Such are the ap- pearances near the influx of the river De Corbeau, in latitude Ab°, and below that point. Rocks of igneous character have crossed the track of the Mississippi below this point—covering @ belt of from the small river ee near the Crow Wing branch, to the inflax of e Sac o Mr. Norwood, in his geological visit in ~on i ont find rocks in place above the De Corbeau, and did not Vie IE H. R. Schoolcraft on a Coal Basin near Lake of the Woods. 233 ascend the river above Sandy Lake inlet. (Owen’s Geol. Rep. . of 1852, p. 293.) hese preliminaries will enable the reader, better to compre- hend the following remarks. In mere point of altitude, the Itasca summit is not above the coal measures on the Alleghanies, which, by the best atlases, do not exceed sixteen hundred feet. (Black’s Atlas, Edin.) he basin of the Lake of the Woods, is, however, at a lower point, occupying one of the northern plataux of this continental water-shed. Reports of the existence of coal in this remote basin, while I resided in the West,—taken in connec- tion with the specimens of its mineralogy, brought to me from time to time, by the aborigines, did not sustain the conclusion. Noth- ing of the kind had been observed by the Commissioners and Surveyors, acting under the treaty of Ghent, who visited the lake to establish the national boundary, in 1823. Among these officials, Were Maj. Joseph Delafield of New York, and Dr. John Bigsby of Nottingham, tngland—both zealous students of natural his- tory. ‘The only rock-specimen brought to me by the aborigines, proved to be a species of black steatite, a material which is much valued, by them, in their pipe sculpture and this afforded no evi- dence of the propinquity of coal-bearing strata. Neither were such strata observed by the late Mr. Keating, who accompanied Maj. ng in his expedition through the lake in 1823. The first evidence of the silurian rocks in that quater, comes from Dr. Richardson, who passed through that lake in 1848, in the search after Sir John Franklin. He observes that in crossing the pyrogenous summit* between Lake Superior and Lake Win- nipek, in the direction of the Rainy Lakes, silurian strata occur on both flanks of it. He further observes, that Dr. John Bigsby presented a species of Pentamerus to the British Museum, which he had procured at the Lake of the Woods. He informs us that the eastern margin and island of that lake, are granitic, and hence infers, with good judgment, that Dr. Bigsby’s fossil was proba- ly found on an arm of its western coasts. (Aretic Searching Exp., p. 47) It is on the western coast of this lake, that recent information of a reliable character assures me, that large deposits of coal exist. he formation lies south of the national boundary line of 49° Which crosses the Portage du Rat. t is not the result of experience, to pronounce a country absolutely barren of resources, which has an uninviting aspect, but Which is at the same time, unexplored, or imperfectly explored. © importance of coal in that quarter of the continent can hardly be over estimated. Immense tracts of fertile plains, without for- est or fuel, exist along the valley of Red River, at Pembina, and * He infers the summit to be a development of the beds of granite of the Thou- - Lawrence. ‘Skconp Seems, Vol. XIX, No. 56—March, 1855. 30 234 Meteorological Journal, kept at Marietta, Ohio. at points north of it, to which such a discovery must be of ines- timable value. These extend south, quite to the St. Peters, or Minnesota, up to which, the transportation would be wholly by water. By the route of the Rainy Lakes, and the old Grand Portage to Pigeon River, the article could be readily introduced into the basin of Lake Superior for mining and smelting purposes. The absence of coal and the deficiency of wood in that quarter, now drives its ores and mnetallg masses to very distant points to “ smelted. Washington, Dec. 9, 1854, Arr. XXIV. ia abcirael of a adiencdurted Journal, for the Year 1854, kept at Marietta, Ohio; by S. P. Hitprets, M.D. THERMOMETER. S 1 SAR g ae z 28 ; ia | , : : a2 Prevailing | | MONTHS. a Blas al fo Winds. , i a | 3 r= 218 5 Pag ed 2 hates | SF dct a = | 8 ‘i s és | & £ bo 8 )3i218)2\3\8 ° }3\8 g = |=! 5 | | O )ote |e | “etl . «+ (8066/69) 2 34/-17| 3/25 Sw. 50-00 28°80 F20 eens - . « (3766159) 14 19|> 9 2133) s.w., 8. &E, 29°80 28°80 1:00 Mar ‘ . 47°55 73) 19) 20, 1 4)25) w.d& N. Ww. | 5 28°80 0°85} April” 66)85| 22) 15 542\w., 8. W., N. E. 29°90 29°00 0° Mes oY 6250/95; 84 20, 11) 212) s, x. &E. 0 June... /20°83}98) 43) 19| 11 3166) w. dN. Ww. 29°55 Ys ae . ‘ - |7666/98) 56 28] 8 20 w. & N. Ww. 29°60 29°35 0% August 73°66/95 50 96 5) 366, y.w.GE. 2955299504 September, : 7| 42) 9 2/16) w., x. w. ds 8. 29°88 29 120° ber, - + |58'18)81} 31/16) 15] 482} w.,y. dw. /29°80!28'85 0 ek - « « {41-33/66! 23) .27) 18] 2/991 ww. 29°85 28°55 1:30 December, + _|8222/55\ 8 13) 18] 3/00} x. w.& w. 29°70 28:90 080 Moan for te year, -. |6420 231)134'38180! Remarks on the year 1854. THe year just closed has been one that will long be remem- bered for several striking features; the most prominent of which were the long continued an excessive heat, accompanied by un- exampled drought. No preceding year has witnessed such ; em- bracing so vast an extent of country and so unremitting in sever ity. It ranged in longitude from the foot of the Rocky Moun- tains in the West, to the state of Maine in the East, and in latitude the region of country between the parallels of 32 and 42 degrees. le he space it was felt with the greatest severity ; but varying what in intensity, in different localities. The central pore of ome lilinois, Indiana and Ohio seem to have sustained the foc of its force. Collections | of aes ec the courses of ies pare tly dan aa Se a a a ea a eee at se Rieter Meteorological Journal, kept at Marietta, Ohio. 235 showers along their borders. This was evidently so in the south- ern portions of Ohio where showers were so distributed as to pro- duce good crops of Indian corn; especially in the vicinity of the Ohio and Muskingum rivers. In the hilly portions of the state, where the soil is argillaceous, and the ground not ploughed more than five or six inches deep, there was nearly an entire failure of this staple crop. The superior advantages of deep and thorough tillage was hever more strikingly seen than in the results of this year. potato crop was a failure ; as much from the excessive heat of the summer, as the drought; the tubers being in many instances partly cooked, becoming soft and spongy in texture. The result was the almost entire destruction of this important article of food, and raising the price to a higher figure than known since 1838, when the potato disease prevailed so extensively. The wheat crop was excellent over all the western states; having attained its growth before the severity of the drought commenced. In some districts the grain was entirely destroyed by insects; the wheat fly or mil- ler (‘Tinea granella), a species different from the Hessian fly, or touched by the sickle. ‘The grass crop was good, attaining its gtowth before the want of rain was felt; but the pasturage in the latter part of the summer was a failure. Sweet potatoes, now an iMportant crop in Southern Ohio, were less than usual in quantity, \t of a most excellent quality. T'he long continued heat being Congenial to their habit, and perfecting the saccharine portion of this delicious esculent, in an unusual degree. The fruit crop was rather a failure, small in amount, and inferior in quality. he heat changed winter apples into autumnal ones; causing them to decay at a much earlier period than heretofore. 236 Meteorological Journal, kept at Marietta, Ohio. the hogs luxuriated and fattened, in a wonderful manner; so that mauy farmers, whose corn-fields returned nothing for their labor, had cause to thank God, for such an abundant supply of nutri- tious food in this season of scarcity. Hogs and sheep prefer nice white oak acorns to corn, as more agreeable to them, and fatten- ing them full as certainly. Temperature.—The mean temperature for the year is 54°20, being an increase of 1-46 degrees over that of 1853, and 2 above the mean heat of this locality. From the long continued warmth of the summer and early autumn, we should be led to expecta higher rate than we actually find ; but the seasons are so governed by the permanent laws of climate, that no very serious, or injuri- ous changes can take place. : Rain.—The amount of rain and melted snow was 38,5 inches which is more than the excessive drought of summer would seem to indicate ; showing also in this respect the permanency of the laws of distribution of moisture and the descent of aqueous vapor, that arises by evaporation from forests and the surface of the earth. The mean quantity for a year will probably remain nearly the same but may be differently distributed amongst the several months; less in summer and more in the winter and spring, requiring in some portions of the west the construction of reservoirs for irrigation during summer droughts, as is practiced in ew Mexico and some countries in Asia. . The Ohio river became unusually low by the Jast of June, so that navigation was much. impeded. ‘During the summer months and all the autumn, busi- ness on the river in a manner ceased, greatly to the Joss of manu- facturers and traders. Immense quantities of iron and coal lay piled up on the banks of the Ohio, until the ice closed the river, early in December. Flat boats with produce could not float to their usual markets below; the yards of dealers in coal and fuel were exhausted in the cities and towns that depend on navigation for a supply and great suffering was the consequence of this low stage of water for so long a time. : Winter.—The mean of the winter months was 33°-13—which is rather mild. The mercury sunk to 8° above zero in December and to 2° in January, which were the extremes. During. this season there fell about nine inches of snow, at different times; the greatest fall being not over six inches. It was a singular fact that the deepest snow, eight inches, fell on the 17th day of April; and at head waters about Pittsburg, over a foot. Also on the 29t! of the month at Marietta, four inches, a very rare occurence. — _ Spring.—The mean temperature of spring was 539-24, which is above the average. The supply of rain was abundant, being nearly twelve inches, or about one-third of the amount for the whole year. In April there fell with the melted snow five and 4 half inches, furnishing a liberal supply for the growth of early ¢ such as grass and wheat. . e ‘ Meteorological Journal kept at Marietta, Ohio. 237 Summer.—The mean of the summer months was 739-55, which is three degrees above the mean average, but only one de- gree above that of the last year, which was very hot. There was some change in the distribution as to months, June having only 70°-33 this year, and 74°-60 in 1853; while July in 1854, had 76°66, in place of 719-15, in the preceding year. August varied less; being 73°-66 in place of 719-55. During some of the hottest days in July, the temperature was 98° on the north side of my house, protected by the shade of a tree; and 140° in the direct rays of the sun. Under thick shady trees it rose to 100°, and continued all night above 90°, in the dwelling house, in several places. “ Hot enough to roast eggs,” is au old vulgar saying. I tried the experiment—a common hen’s egg was painted black, put in an iron vessel and placed in the rays of the sun at noon. In two hours the white was cooked quite thick—the yolk in the centre not mnch changed. An acquaintance of mine blis- tered the ball of his thumb by picking up a small iron bar, that had been lying in the sun’s rays. Many fields of late planted corn were much damaged by the heat of the sun scorching the leaves on the S. W. side of the hills, and killing the pollen of the blossoms, so that the silks could not be impregnated, render- ing the grain abortive. Autumn.—The mean temperature of autumn was 569-50, Which is nearly three and a half degrees higher than in 1853, and above the annual average. It arose from the heat of Septem- ber 69°-96, which is nearly ten degrees above that of some years, and six above the mean for this month. The severe drought con- ‘inued into the autumn, eutting off the fall crops of turnips, cab- ®, &c. The yield of Indian corn was much lessened in hp but bore the drought better than any other grain. It is Ohio is fully one-third less than the average. - Floral Calendar.—February 8th, Robin seen ; 10th, Bluebird ; March 12th Hepatica triloba in bloom; 15th, Early Hyacinth, -h ready to open; 24th, Crown Imperial ready to bloom; n; 17th, Snow eight inches deep in the wood- ; 18th, Pear blossoms full of melted snow and frozen. tian capsule, it falls into the lower or oviduct portion of the sac, 238 -. Composition of Begs. rosea; 17th, Syringa fragrans; 2lst Locust tree; 25th, Karly strawberry ripe; 27th, Autwerp raspberry in bloom; 28th, Bulb- ous Tris; 30th, Syringa Philadelphica; 31st, Roses generally in bloom. June 29th, Catalpa in bloom. Art. XXV.— On the Composition of Eggs in the animal series ; by A. Vavencrennes and F'rimy.—Parrt II.* WE referred in our first article, to the observations made pre- viously on birds’ eggs. Taking these eggs for criterions, we exhibited the results of our researches on those of cartilaginous fishes of the family of Squalide (Sharks,) and of those of the Raiidz (Rays). We remarked that the white shows hardly any traces of albumen, and that the yellow contains a substance insol- uble in water, suspended in the liquid in small tables, of forms varying according to the species; we explained its characteristics and its composition, and we called it Ichthin. We continue the explanation of our researches on the eggs of animals, completing what we have to say of other kinds of fish. Of the Eggs of the Csseous Fishes. The larger number of osseous fishes are oviparous. The ovary and the oviduct are in one large common sac, rounded toward the top, narrowed toward the bottom, and enveloped in a fold of the peritoneum, which the anatomist can separate from the real membrane of the passage of the ovario-oviduct, these two oblong pockets are reunited a little before their exit, behind the rectum. h organ is suspended above from the intestines by a ligament- ary fold of the peritoneum. The lower portion of the abdoml- nal region of this sac is smooth and without any fold of the mem- brane. On the upper or dorsal part, there are numerous scales, or lobes on which there are developed, in their own capsules, the thousands of ovulz afterwards to be laid. These ovarian folds are divided and subdivided into secondary, tertiary, and quater nary lobes of forms differing with the species. They float 10 tufts and bunches, and in developing themselves, become those familiarly known masses of eggs. When the ovula is ripe, (to ake use of the technical word,) it detaches itself from its ova * From the Journal de Pharmacie, é&c., June, 1854, p. 415. Composition of Eggs. 239 i Sa Ra hai, 9 Be ewes ai eee ecg tee and after staying in this oviduct a long ora short time, it changes its nature there, and then it is laid in places along shores, sandy or rocky, in kinds of nest chosen or arranged by the instinctive faculties of the mother; after which it is hatched. As to the ovula or the egg changing the composition of its liquids during its stay in the oviduct:—this ovula while still shut up in its ovarian capsule, is more or less opaque, on account of the fat which it contains. Detached, it becomes transparent, the yolk surrounded by its albuminous matter is clearly visible, unless its Vitellin membrane be of appreciable thickness, and the ichthulin of which we shall soon speak, is replaced by albumen. Thus the egg which shows only some traces of albumen when still at- tached to the ovary, becomes very albuminous when it is free in the oviduct. In the larger number of fish, the ovary is double. We have spoken of the prodigious number of eggs layed by some of them, and we could cite numerous examples. The number in- creases in proportion to the size of the females and the smallness of the eggs. As they are almost all of the same weight and size, We weigh the ovary and by counting the number of eggs in a gramme, we can estimate pretty closely, the entire number devel- . Oped in the ovary. It is in the thick-lipped Grey Mullet (Mugil Chelo, Nob.).that we have found as yet the greatest quantity. One of this species of the length of 0-60, contained 13,000,000 *e88; a Codfish (Gadus Morrhua, Lin.) of one metre, gives 11,000,000; a Turbot (Pleuronectes maximus, Lin.) of 0™-50 length, lays 9,000,000; we estimated 6,000,000 in a Plaice, (Pleuronectes maximus, Lin.) of the length of 0™-30; the carp, Whose eggs are the largest, gives only 600,000 or 700,000, when from 0™:15 to 0™-50 long. ther fish with only a single ovary, have a much smaller number of eggs, than those named. Having made an estimate on a dozen large perch of the rivers in Holland, Belgium, Picardy, and the neighborhoods of Paris, we found for ’ mean 71,000 eggs; Bloch gave nearly twfte as many. We dis- Covered in the eggs of the osseous fishes immediate principles fntirely different from the ichthin of rays and sharks. The Study of carps’ eggs enabled us to appreciate these differences. arps’ Egos.—On studying under the microscope an ovula of a carp slightly advanced, it is seen that the liquid holds sus- ed in it a number of little drops of fat slightly colored, in the midst of which are to be seen swimming transparent granules, tabular in form, which recall those of the vitellus of the ray. The — Dorado, vulgarly the Redfish, (the Sea-bream, Cyprinus is another species of carp whose ovules present similar Small grains mixed with drops of oil. | Ichthidine,—In spite of their resemblance in form, the granules of which we speak, are not formed of ichthin; for in treating the ovula crushed from a carp with a small quantity of water, the 240 Composition of Eggs. grains gradually decay and in a few minutes entirely disappear. e substance which constitutes them is then soluble in water, while ichthin is insoluble. Admitting, for a moment, that these grains are formed of ichthin, their solubility might be attributed to the action of the albuminous liquid existing in the carp’s egg, which would thus show the property of dissolving the ichthin of Rays. To verify this hypothesis, we introduced some grains of ichthin from a ray into the liquid of the crushed eggs of acarp; the whole was submitted to the action of water. We then saw the granules of the carp’s eggs gradually disappear ; those of ich- thin were not altered by the water. It thus seems to be demon- strated that there exists in the eggs of certain Cyprinide, a sub- stance soluble in water, which presents itself in the form of rect- angular grains. Although it has been impossible to give to this observation all the exactness desirable, for the soluble grains could not be isolated, yet we think we ought, while waiting for more satisfactory results, to give a name to this substance, and we pro- se that of Ichthidine. When we employed saline solvents, large number of the eggs of birds which we have been in the habit of examining while they were in the state of ovule, re- tained in the ovary. *We have established its presence in the Labrax lupus, the thick-lipped Grey Mullet (Mugil Chelo, Nob.); the Mackerel (Scomber Scombrus, Lin.), the Turbot (Pleuro- nectes maximus, Lin.), the common Sole (Pleuronectes Solea, Lin.), the Breton Sole (Solea armorica, Val.). We have estab- lished its existence, and in great abundance too, in the eggs of Salmon, already detached from the ovarian lobes, and fallen into the abdominal cavity. It seemed to us at least important to study it carefully, and to ascertain its composition. We have given It the name of Ichthulin. The liquid obtained by pressing the eggs of Salmon in a cloth is treated with distilled water, the albu- men dissolves, and the precipitation of the ichthulin is effecte¢- ey — is then purified by being washed with alcohol _ and ether. | | . | | 4 | ) ‘a eS PSR Gir sciilyons Composition of Eggs. 241 At the moment of its precipitation the ichthulin is viscous and resembles gluten. But the action of the alcohol and ether canses it to lose its viscosity, and it becomes then solid and powdery. The ichthulin, which in its physical properties differs in every respect from ichthin, is very like it in its chemical characteristics. It is, like the latter, soluble in acetic and phosphoric acids; it dis- solves too in hydrochloric acid, without producing a violet color. Its composition is as follows : 7 , Il. Solid matter, - - - 0-283 | Solidmatter, - - - 0253 eS en 0-205 ee tage Carbonic acid, - - - 0545 Carbonic acid, - - - 0495 Proportion of Azote Solid r, 0.838 Azote, = 2 gnbtas Per centages. Per centages, Carbon, = - rm 2 £ 525 Carbon, - = = 5 53:3 Hydrogen, - _ e - 80 Hydrogen, - - 83 Azote, a - - 15-2 ephew, - . = - 06 Bilphur, 10 Oxyge . - = 29-7 _ Prom these analyses it follows that ichthulin differs in compo- Sition from ichthin : ‘jit approaches on the other hand that of albu- men, and like it, contains sulphur and phosphorus. From these facts, it follows that the egas of fishes of the family of Cyprinide, when only a little developed, contain, witha soluble substance ich- thidin, a liquid strongly albuminous holding in solution mineral “a'ts, some ichthulin, and suspended in it phosphoric fat. After o taining these results, it seemed interesting to compare with eggs inthe state of ovule the composition of eggs of the same sort completely formed, detached from the ovarian lobules and free in the oviduct. ‘This examination has brought us to the establish- ment of this very important physiological fact: that is, that the Composition of eggs undergoes, with the age of their develop- ment, important modifications, even before the laying, and dur- ing the time that they remain in the oviduet. It is in fact, a re- sult of our analyses, that the eggs of the Carp, entirely formed, contain no longer traces of ichthidin; that the ichthidin gradually ‘Sappears, and that when they are become entirely traysparent, these eggs are formed wholly of a liquor strongly albuminous, Which holds suspended in it phosphuretted fat. ‘The examina- hon of Carps’ eggs while young, has also shown us, that to study th ggs of these Cyprinide, it is necessary to guard against put- ting them in contact with water, which often dissolves bodies Whose presence it is important to establish, and which in other Cases, precipitates substances as the ichthulin, which were at first dissolved in it, Skconp Serres, Vol, XIX, No. 56.— March, 1855. 31 242 Composition of Eggs. Perfect eggs (eufs mirs) of the Mullet, Trout, Pike, Whi- b.—W to profit by the season for spawning. We found in the ovary of the Plaice and Pike, and of the others, eggs entirely formed, not containing ichthidin at any period of their development, but very rich in ichthulin in their early age. Detached from the ovary, and free in the oviduct, they no longer showed us the least trace of ichthulin ; they then consist of a very albuminous liquid, con- taining a considerable quantity of phosphuretted fat. This quan- tity of albumen explains why the eggs of all these kinds of fish become hard by boiling. Eggs of Salmon.—Salmon’s eggs do not contain rectangular grains soluble in water. Those which we have examined were free in the abdominal cavity, they contained much of ichthulin and very little albumen. Their color, reddish yellow, is due to the presence of a considerable quantity of phosphuretted oil. Submitted to the process of boiling, they become opaque, but re- main always soft, even if kept a long time in boiling water. This is easily understood, since they have only a very slight amount of albumen. Their opacity is caused by the water brought into them, which thus stops the precipitation of the ichthulin. ls’ E'ggs.—The eggs or rather the ovule of the eel, taken in fish kept in fish-ponds are much too small to enable us to make researches of any extent on these curious productions of the organs of generation. We have been able however, to assure ourselves that. they contain perhaps still more fat than the eggs of Salmon, and they do not seem to have more albumen, for they do not harden by boiling. We have not been able to see in them the least trace of ichthidin, Our researches supply a very simple method of observing the eggs of the eel. It is sufficient to boil for a few minutes one of the ovarian lobules: then the eggs swell without hardening, the distended membranes become more apparent, and with sufficient enlargement, one easily sees the ovule which are hardly one or two hundredths of a millimeter. If, as we do not doubt, our further observations confirm those which we now publish, we will thus give an easy method, and a sure one too, to ascertain whether the female has kept its eggs long enough in its oviduct to perfect them, and whether they are in a condition to be productive. It will suffice to take a few from the body of the fish, to crush them on a glass-plate, and to add a little water. If there is no precipitate of ichthulin, the egg is perfect, for it only contains albumen and phosphurett fat. If ichthulin is precipitated, it will be*necessary to restore e fish to the water, and to wait awhile before proceeding Gr -eundation. We point this out as the most certain m persons who wish to try artificial breeding. - E.. Uricoechea’s Chemical Examinations. 243 After having established that the eggs of fishes contain sub- stances insoluble in water, ichthin and ichthulin, which have both of them, properties different from the vitellin of birds; we have inquired whether the albumen of fishes’ eggs is the same as that of birds’ eggs. Although we reserve the detailed account of this examination for a succeeding memoir, we are prepared to affirm that these two albuminous substances often present in their properties notable differences. In fact, the albumen of the eggs of certain fishes dissolves without any discoloration in hydro- chloric acid, and it begins to coagulate at about 45°; while the albumen of birds’ eggs, dissolves, as we know, in hydrochloric acid, and gives to the liquid, a violet-blue color, and it does not coagulate below 63°. Are these differences sufficient to admit really, in the animal organization several sorts of albumen? Can the blue color produced by hydrochloric acid, be considered as a Specific characteristic of albumen? In short, may not the min- eral salts contained in the albumen in different proportions, exer- cise an influence on the point of coagulation of this substance ? These are delicate questions whose importance we appreciate, and which we shall treat in a special article to be devoted to albuminous substances. (Zo be concluded.) Arr. XXVI.—Chemical Examinations; by Ezequren Uricorcuea, of Bogota. 1. Chemical Examination of the Oloba, and of a new body, Olobile, contained in tt. The Oloba, a fat, has been known in New Granada for a very long time, and I have no doubt that the aborigines were the first to use it, for we know well that they used the palm-wax for Ulumination, as Pedro Ciezor De Leon* tells us. The tree which produces it is the Myristia Clobat of about 20 Mariquita, west of the River Magdalena, a place well known for its silver mine. The use of Oloba is to my knowledge, exclusively, in veterinary icine, especially in the cure of skin complaints with horses, for although Garcia de Alonzot made in 1808 some experiments With reference to using it for illumination, I believe nobody has followed them up. * Cronica del Peru, Part I. : fe a et Bonpland, Plantes Equinoxiales, tome ii, p. 8. Semanario de la Nueva Granada, (2d ed.) 1848. p. 341. 244 E.. Uricoechea’s Chemical Examinations. Playfair examined the well known Mochat butter, and discov- ered the myristic acid in it. It was very probable that in the butter obtained from another plant of the same genus the same constituents were to be found. Having received, however, some Oloba, direct from New Granada, I determined to examine it. When fresh, the Oloba exhales, on being melted, a very unpleas- ant odor owing toa volatile oil. The quantity that I received, however, had lost a good deal of this peculiar odor. : oba was seen at once to be composed of different fats, a white one and a brownish-red, which although in close contact, irregularly disseminated through the mass, could easily be distin- guished from one another. To free it from impurities it was melted and filtered througha fine cloth, on which it left pieces of palm leaves, and a brownish- of course being the first to unite which have the strongest allu- ity. This is a very easy way of separating the fatty acids, and has been called “the method by fractional precipitation.” After the first precipitation was completely separated, in this case always as crystals, it was filtered and into the filtrate another poruon of acetate of magnesia in solution was thrown. ‘This was repeat until the magnesia salt gave no precipitate even after standing for a long time in a cool place. Then acetate of lead was substitu- ted; and when this, employed in excess, produced no more change, ‘ammonia was added. In this way the different acids were s¢p@- * The Centigrade scale is to be understood through this paper. E. Uricoechea’s Chemical Examinations. 245 rated, I examined, however, only that one which was combined with the magnesia, the lead salt being left, for want of time, for a future examiuation. The magnesia salt which fell from the alcoholic solution was decomposed by hydrochloric acid, and the fatty acid after being crystallized two or three times from its alcoholic solution had a constant melting point at 53°. Playfair gave as the melting point of myristic acid 49°, but Heintz in his masterly examination of the spermaceti* obtained for the melting point of this aci 53°8, with which, my own observation, made before Heintz’s article was published, agrees very well. o be sure of the identity, an elementary analysis was made. 04275 gram. of substance gave 1-152 gr. of carbonic acid and 0:4750 gr. of water, or At. Calculated. Found. Carbon, - “ ae | 73°68 73°50 Hydrogen, - i a ae 12:28 12°34 Oxygen, - - . 4 14-04 14:16 100-00 100:00 The analysis.as we see, agrees exactly with the formula C2* H?*Q* which Playfair gave for myristic acid, and which Heintz has recently confirmed. . In the first and sometimes in the second of the partial precipi- tations another substance is found which I have named Oxosite (Oloba and Bhy, ) ; Y It is less soluble in alcohol than myristic acid, but more readily soln ether; these particulars, and its crystallizing out first from 4 mixed solution are properties by which a separation from my- nistic acid is easily effected. It crystallizes in beantiful (square ?) prisms, colorless, transpa- tent, and with a strong vitreous Instre. Melts at 133°; on cool- ing a few degrees, it solidifies to a crystalline mass ; and on heat- ‘ng again the melting point remains the same. ‘This reaction is 80 very different from that of Olivile, that it suggested at once the Supposition that this was a new Ae Two elementary analysis were made in order to test this con- clusion ; 1. 02804 gr. of Olobile gave 0-7524 of carbonic acid and 01603 of water. i - 01793 gr. of Olobile gave 0°4801 of carbonic acid and 0°1027 of water, or I, Bae Carbon, ». = - 43:19 72°86 Hydrogen FA a - - 6-35 oo Oxygen, - ¥ ci i - 2046 100-00 100°00 # * Pogg. Ann, vol. xcii, p. 441. 2AG6 EF). Uricoechea’s Chemical Examinations. Which leads us to the formula C2 *H1305 ; Calculated. Mean of I. and IL. Carbon, - - 24 43,09 73°02 Hydrogen, - - 13 659 | 641 Oxygen, - - 5 20°30 20°57 : 100-00 100-00 proving it to be a new body. For want of material, I have not studied the products of decomposition, which, no doubt, are analogous to those of Olivile, and no other reactions except its solubility in ether and alcohol, insolubility in water, melting point at 133°, and its non-volatilization were noticed. I hope af- plant, so much used and apparently so beneficial at home. This first result obtained by me, is that Oloba contains a volatile oil, a fixed one, myristic acid in combination with glycerine, and Olobile. 2. Analyses of two Gold Idols of the Aborigines of New Granada. My studies on the antiquities of my country, the result of which I have laid before the public,* gave me occasion to analyses of the’ gold idols in my possession. It is impossible to tell their age; yet it is certain they were made before the Spaniards conquered the country. The exact locality also is unknown, although they were sent to me from Bo- gota; but there is very little doubt that they were made by the Chibcha nation (called also Muiscas) and among them, the tribe which was known under the name of Guatavita, and whose 1n- habitants were renowned for working in gold. now of the lake Guatavita, that for ages, millions of gold idols were thrown into it as offerings to the gods in time of need. We also know that a powerful cacique every year entered the lake, bathed in turpentine and gold dust, and in the middle of it, after throwing in the largest amounts of gold, he himself followed the gold into the waters where they had disappeared, and bathed ; which story gave the name “El dorado” to ourcountry. The dians of this nation then, were the gold sculptors, and the alloy they mixed was the one I examined. The external color of the metal of these idols is different; some are light yellow and others copper-red. On heating We alloy it blackens at a red heat, becoming covered with the black oxyd of copper. On washing it with hydrochloric acid, the color becomes yellowish white, probably by the formation of chlorid of silver; for by washing it again with ammonia it becomes cop- per-red. aepaemoria sobre Jas Antiguedades Neo-granadinas, Berlin, F. Schreiber & Co» é Sepa ere Review of Emmons’s Agriculture of New York. 247 The analysis of such an alloy is so simple that I need only give the results, ' I, Tl. Id, - - - 54638 4591 Silver, « 2 s 16°31 10°55 Copper, - - . - - 29°31 43°70 100°25 All the analyses that we possess of native gold from New Granada* give no copper; which makes us at once suppose that the aborigines knew the art of alloying, for they could find cop- per in the native state in several parts of New Granada as for ex- aS coin, in their exchanges. — Arr. XXVII.—Review of the Fifth volume of the Agriculture of New York, &c., by E. Emmons.t ‘Ignorance per se is not a crime, its heinousness depends upon — the use which is made of it.’-—American Journ. Sci. and Arts. P eee Mineralogy, and Coleccion de Memorias cientificas por Joaquin Acosta. a 8. p. 43-50, - - pe tN. Bien or New Yorn: Agriculture of New York, comprising an account of the classification, composition, and distribution of the Soils and Rocks and of the climate and agricultural’ productions of the State, together with descriptions of more common and injurious i ; by E. Emmons, M.D. Vol. V. Y> 1854. The volume is devoted to the last topic, “The Insects of New York.” . 248 Review of Emmons’s Agriculture of New York. the money which has been expended on the volume before us, could have secured an original memoir, that would have been useful both to the scientific student and to those seeking for information in a popular form.* The plates contain figures of many of our common insects of each order. The figures are in general recognizable, but the exe- cution is disgraceful. The references are frequently es and more often imperfect, even for the most common spec As the plates appear to be the most important part of the book, and a review of the whole would be tedious, we will begin by agri some of the si errors conveyed by the ‘fignres Coleoptera. To go through the other orders would require ae patience than can be properly claimed either of our readers or of ourselves; moreover, as the order of Coleoptera has been better studied than any other, and information regarding it is more accessible to both the student and the compiler, a glance at the part of the work devoted to it will probably enable us fairly to appreciate the method porsued by the author. Pl. 2, fig. 8, ‘Clerus apiarius.’ The name belongs to a Buro- pean insect ; the figure if not copied from a European work, may represent our somewhat allied Trichodes apivorus Germ g. 2, ‘ Buprestis dentipes’ is B. punctulata Sch. (trans- versa ai and belongs to the genus pire B. vee Germ is a Chrysobothris. Fig.8, ‘ Buprestis ——’ is an Elateride, not eet in the text. Fig. 10, Dyticus Harrisit ’ is D. verti- calis Pi. 8. “The very abundant Clytus colonus is aed: while C. erythrocephalus is left unnamed: fig. 4, of the reference 1s marked 5 on the plate, while 4 is omitted : we thus have 13 ref- erences to 12 figures. Fig. 9, ‘ Hlaphidion’ is irrecognizable. . Pl. 10, fig. 5, ‘ Scarites ——’ is the very common Passalus inter- ruptus, atid i is tibted among the corrections (p. 256) as “ allied to Sinodendron,” but its name is not given. Pl. 11, fig. 3, acne 12-notata’ is Hippodamia convergens Guérin. Fig. 1 1, ‘C. binoculatw’ is (text, p. 137) described as C. trioculata: the description of C. memes p. 138, we may _remark in passing, is altogether wron . 12, figs. 10 and 11, * Platycerus piceus? in recent times is placed i in the genus Ceruchus. Pl. 14; fig. 5, ‘Chrysomela tremula.’ Why is this European species introduced into the Natural sristory of lew York? It has been frequently figured in its own country. Pl. 14, fig. 4, ‘ Galleruca ——’ is the well known Gallernes Need brotica) 12-punctata : in the text, p. 129, it is noted as Crioce _* Even a few plates added to Dr. Harris's admirable treatise On the Insects of usetts negbaiae to Vegetation, would have given to the farmer, as well as to the scientific observer all the necessary information regarding our injurious specie. Review of Emmons’s Agriculture of New York. 249 ’ 12-punctata, and on p. 134, reappears as ‘ Adimonia e diately following the description p. 134, is placed Lema trivittata, » thus putting it in a group to which it does not belong. Per con- tra, the same insect appears on page 129, as ‘ Crioceris (or Lema) trilineata (Oliv. ). Pl. 17, fig. 6, ‘ Cicindela campestris’ is C. 6-guttata; we are at a loss to understand the motive for introducing the European C. campestris in a Zoology so well provided with species of the genus. If another figure was wanted to fill up the plate, there are several American species well worthy of the place. Pl. 17, fig. 14, ‘ Cicindela ,’ isthe well known G. unipune- tata, but probably, to quote the words of a former collaborator on the Survey, is ‘ extra-limital. Pl. 17, fig. 15, ‘ Cicindela? (Maryland), is Megacephala vir- ginica, and is so noted in the corrections on page 257, with many others not introduced in this review. 19, fig. 9, ‘ Anisodactylus agricollis’ (!!) Pl. 20, fig. 8, ‘ Chlenius lithophilus.’ Particularly bad, if it be the species intended. PI.20, fig. 11:4 Omophron labratum’ is O, americanum Dej., and fig. 12, ‘var. tesselatum’, is nothing like O. tesselatum Say. The forms are strangely caricatured. Pl. 21, fig. 4 ‘ Lampyris ungulata’ should be L. angnilata, and fig. 5, ‘ZL. scinfillaris’ ought to be L. scintillans: neither fig. 7 or 8 belong to Dictyoptera, but if not placed in Digrapha, they should have been left where they were found, in Lycus. l. 21, fig. 9, ‘ Dicelus dilatatus,’ and fig. 13, ‘ D. elongatus.’ These have been reversed in some w y: the references in the text (p. 49) are right. Fig. 10 is anything, rather than Spheero- ders stenostomus. ~ Em . 23, in two places we find Necrophagus for Necrophorus. Pl. 25, fig. 3, § Platycerus piceus ; for another insect under the same name, vide pl. 12; fig. 5, ‘ Osmoderma scaber’ seems Intended for O. eremicola; fig. 6, ‘ Pyrochroa flabellata’ is very - 31, fig. 1, ‘ Cantharis atrata’ is a duplicate of pl. 25, fig. 4. Each figure appears to be worse than the other, but the strongest impression is left by the one last looked at. Can fig. 4 be * ophagzus Hecate’? Fig. 8, ‘ Hister conformis’ is H. abbre- Viatus Fabr, ‘H. conformis Dej.,’ belongs to the genus Sapri- hus, and was described and figured in the Boston Journal of Nat- ural History, so that no excuse can be offered for the confusion. Fig. 10, not ‘ Tenebrio molitor, but a species of Iphthinus; fig, 13, « Copris ——’ is C. anaglyptica Say. ‘Stoop Suhtes, Vol. KIX, No. 64—March, 1855. 32 e 250 Review of Eemmons’s Agriculture of New York. Pl. 34, fig. 1, ‘ Podabrus modestus’ is Telephorus carolinus, What can fig. 2 be? It is marked ‘ Stenocorus cinctus,’ but the resemblance is not apparent. Fig. 3, ‘ T’elephorus ——’ is Nacer- des melanura, an Cdemerite described by Linnzus, found in all our cities, and now carried by commerce from Europe over the greater part of the globe. Fig.7, ‘Saperda ’ we have already had on pl. 16, as S. calearata. Fig. 8, ‘ Monohammus pusillus’ is Graphisurus fasciatus. Fig. 9, ‘ Cerambyx (undescribed)’ is Dorcaschema nigrum, long ago described by Say. Fig. 11, ‘ Lep- tura ——’ is Toxotus cylindricollis Say, alsoa well known species. Having thus mentioned some of the more conspicuous errors in the plates, and referring for others to the list on page 257 of the text, we may now turn our attention to that portion of the work, It is, as was stated before, mostly made up of extracts from other works; with what skill these are placed together will appear shortly. In the mean time we regret to be compelled to call attention to the fact, that while on page 25, it is stated that the anatomical figures have been copied mostly from the Naturalists’ Library, we find the plates (A, B and C), on which these figures appear, credited to E. Emmons, Jr. Could not the lithographer be trusted to make the copies? Why should the expense of repeating the drawings be thrown on the State ?- That under a liberal grant from the Legislature, such as has been expended in the New York Survey, our entomology should be illustrated by copies of foreign figures of foreign species is at least discreditable; but what can be said, when an author permits a person in his em- ployment, to affix his name to these foreign labors? Continuing our exposition of errors, we find that on page 31, the reader would be inclined to believe that Mr. McLeay has di- vided all beetles into 1, Geodephaga and 2, Hydradephaga: this is not so. Page 35, for ‘ Cicindela guttata’ read C. sexguttata. Page 39, Div. 5 of Carabide, ‘ Bembidiides’ are placed under those having the ‘anterior tibia without a notch near the tip’: on page 53, a contrary statement is made, that ‘the anterior tibie are always notched on their insides near their tips. 7 Page 41, the explosive power characteristic of Brachinus and closely allied genera, is here extended to the whole section of Brachinides as defined by Westwood. Page 42, ‘Polystichus (Bar.)’ is placed as a synonym of Galer- ita, and the description of the former copied from Westwood. Polystichus was never applied to North American species, but was established by Bonelli (not Bar.) upon certain small European _ Msects, previously placed in Galerita. ; _ The system of arrangement pursued by the author, will be better illustrated by an example, than by any criticism. Com- ee. iA ge, Review of Emmons’s Agriculture of New York. 251 mencing therefore with the genera of Harpalides (p. 45), the suc- cession is : Agonum, Harpalus, Pangus, Amara, Agonoderus, An- isodactylus, Chlenius, Trechus, Calathus, Anchomenus, Dice- lus, Spheeroderus. Then comes the family Carabides with Cy- chrus, &c. we will take Agonoderus (p. 47). ‘ Head subquadrate, thorax subquadrate, slightly narrowed behind, elongate: the thorax equals in width the base of the elytra. age 55, we have ‘Dyticus’ ranked under Haliplides. Page 60, ‘ Dermestes lardarius’ is placed in the family Cu- cuiides, ‘ Page 61. The generic description of Staphylinus fails in two of the three species placed under it : the one to which it applies, 8. cyanipennis, is not a Staphylinus, but a Philonthus. The names of authors are usually omitted, references to their works under synonyms or names are never given. Where the authorities are mentioned, ‘ Anchomenus extensicollis (Steph.) and ‘ Necrophorus pygmeus (Rich.), show what reliance may be- Placed on them. middle, scutellum none: abdomen nearly square, clypeus biden- heulated ;” this will compare favorably with Agonoderus above. the reviewer js a thankless one ; but if it will prevent books of like merit or rather demerit from appearing in future ‘ by author- ity,’ it has not been performed in vain. Indignant protests from Students of Entomology, should at once dispel the illusion, if Such there be, that this volume is an exposition of the present Condition of their science in this country. 252 C. Dewey on Caricography. Arr. XXVIIE.—Caricography ; by Prof. C. Dewey. (Continued from vol. xviii, p. 104, Second Series.) No. 246. Carex lucorum, Willd., Kunze Suppl. No. 47, fig. 39, non Sart., Car. Am. Sept. Exsicc. no. Spica staminifera unica; spicis pistilliferis 2-3, subglobosis, sessilibus, bracteatis ; fructibus tristigmaticis, ovatis vel subglobo- sis, subtriquetris, pedicellatis, hirtulis, nervosis, prolongo-rostratis, bidentatis, squama ovata oblonga acuta sublongioribus. Culm triquetrous, slender, erect and subscabrous on the angles; leaves narrow linear, scabrous on the edge; fertile spikes two or three and sessile, ovate and few-flowered ; stigmas three, and very long; fruit oviform, tapering below or stipitate, rostrate above, - two-toothed ; the beak large and about half the length of the whole fruit, and deep-split; pistillate scale ovate, oblong and vanica, Lam., and to C. marginata, Schk. It has the same red- dish scales, but is easily distinguished by the peculiar shape of the fruit and the beak. As this species is very distinct, and should be recognized by our botanists, I have derived the preceding description from Kunze or their benefit. The plant has probably been confounded with . emarginata, Schk. Kunze states that it was raised from American seed in the Botanic Garden at Berlin, and afterwards the plant also was received from a collection made by Rugel at Bergen on Broad River, North Carolina, May, 1841. 4 Though I labelled some specimens, a few years since, by this name, I am not confident of their identity with this species of Willdenow. The fruit of C. nigromaginata, Schw., is too unlike that of this species as given by Kunze. Nore.—C. marginata, Muhl. and Schk., has been considered to be C. Pennsylvanica, Lam. The former was described in vol. xi, p. 163, First Series, and the latter referred to it. A more exten- sive comparison of specimens over our wide country from New . England to Kansas Ter., has led me to capclude there are tw Species under these two names, manifestly distinct. As the one as been described, as above, the other is here given. No. 247. C. Pennsylvanica, Lam. Encycl. Spica staminifera unica cum squamis oblongis obtusis ; pis- tilliferis 2-3, ovatis, sessilibus, inferiore bracteata, fructibus ér7s- _ tigmaticis, oblongo-ovalibus vel ovato-oblongis, trinervosis, sub- _ triquetris, brevi-rostratis et bidentatis, tomentosis, squamam Ov tam subacutam subeequantibus. ' C. Dewey on Caricography. 253 Common over the United States, and the plant usually desig- nated by this name, with which C. marginata, Muhl. and Sehk., has been confounded. - marginata, named and described by Muhl. in his Gram., and sent by him to Schk., who described and figured it in his Reidg., Part 2, p. 49, fig. 143, is a short plant, 4-8 inches high, (a span high, Muhl.) stocky, with leaves erect and longer than the culm even before the fruit matures; spikes few-fruited and ses- sile, with fruit distinctly globose and short rostrate and sub-stiped ; ile C. Pennsylvanica is about twice as tall, 8—15 inches, slen- der, with short leaves till late in the season; spikes with more fruit, and the fruit oblong or long-oval, plainly triquetrous. _ Both appear easily distinguishable from C. varia, and other spe- cies of the same family. No. 248. C. Persoonii, Sieb. Herb., H. Aust., No. 282, secundum ang in Linnea, vol. vill, p. 539. — vitilis, Fries, Nov. Mant., iii, p. L387 et Summa Veg. Scand., p. 223. — canescens, I.., var. alpicola, Wahl. — canescens, L., var. brunnescens, Koch. — - - = var. spherostachya, Tuck. Enum. — spherostachya, Dew., Sill. Journ., vol. xlix, p, 44, er. prima. — gracilis? Schk., Part 1, p. 48. _Spiculis 3-5, ovatis, approximatis in apicem vel infra subremo- tis, alternis, sessilibus, paucifloris, bracteatis, inferne staminiferis ; Tuctibus distigmaticis, ovatis, submarginatis, substriatis, oblongo- lanceolatis vel tereto-rostratis, convexo-planis, glabris cum rostro fisso, squama ovata hyalina longioribus ; eulmis sub- orsunr prostratis, vitilinsculis ; foliis planis margine scabris. them is the split on the back of the beak, which in the abundant Specimens of our country is a character after, not always, clearly 254 C. Dewey on Caricography. C. Persoonii, Sieb., is the proper name due to the plant. This species is wholly different from C. disperma, Dew., for which GC. vitilis, has been substituted by Dr. Boott. But ‘this has stamens below, and C. disperma above ; and the fruit and scale of the latter are very diverse from those ‘of the former. In our country, C. Persoonii, Sieb. the C. vitilis, Fries, can not be con- founded with C. disperma, Dew. 'The above characters show that this substitution can not be sustained. The somewhat vine- like form of C. Persoonii, for which it was pe C. vitilis by Fries, is directly opposed to such confounding of names. It is to be noticed also, that C. disperma is not confounded > with C. gracilis, Ehrh. by Dr. Boott, or with the very different C. gracilis, Schk., Part First, p. 48, fig. 24, which is described by Schk. with stamens below, ane not ‘above, and which is probably a minor form of C. spherostachya, the C. Persoonii, Sieb. given above ; see the remarks on that species, vol. xlviii, p. 44, in this Journal. No. 249. C. tenaz, er nk in MS. Boott, Richardsoni Arct. E xped. C. Chapmani, Sartewellii, Am. Sept. Exsic. Spica staminifera unica brevi; spicis pistilliferis 2-3, ovatis vel brevi-cylindraceis, densi-fructiferis, inferiore subpedicellata ; fruc- tibus éristigmaticis variis infra subteretibus, longo-conicis, ve brevioribus et bidentatis, multinervo-striatis tomentosis, squama ovata acuta duplo longioribus. Culm a foot high, erect, with leaves short and flat ; staminate spike short, with ‘oblong and acutish scales ; ; pistillate spikes ustl- ally three, lowest pedunenlate, ovate or short, cylindric, clneeaas : pid stigmas three ; fruit some tapering downwards, ventricose idle, ong o r short conic and often bidentate, villose, oe Reved or stip: pistillate scale ovate, acute or mucronate, half. the length of the ‘fruit Florida: Dr. Giepiae who long since ean it from _&, dasycarpa Muhl. and gave it the above rom C. dasycarpa, whose fruit is ovate, oats ane rather obtuse, scarcely nerved or striate, it is easily separate Nore.—The following views of the pon iee of the species to be mentioned, are presented, in the hope of throwing some light upon a difficulty long felt in our colin C. loliacea, L. et Wat iL. C. gracilis, Ehrh., Lang in Linnea, vol. viii, p. 542, No. 56. Sill. Journ., vol. xi, p. 306, Serie prima. Culmo tenui gracili scabriusculo, foliis planis margine subsca- briusculis ; spica composita, spiculis 3-4 rotundis paucifloris gyn@- candris (infra ers) remotis; fructibus oblongo-ellipticis _ Nervosis obtuse er rostratis, ore integer imo. Lang ut supra. aS C. Dewey on Caricography. 255 This description is given from Dr. Lang, a laborious and dis- criminating Caricographist, because it was made after extensive examinations so late as 1847, and published after his death in the Linnea by Dr. von Schlechtendal for its singular merits in 1852. On examining recent specimens from Lapland, I find little to change in the description of C. loliacea in vol. xi. The scale of the fruit is not “ acute” but subacute, and the fruit is very obtuse, J In the words of Dr. Lang, “ Fructus ita obtnsi ut apice fere ro- for information. ‘This was immediately given, and the letter shows that C. gracilis, Ehrh. is considered to be, and actually is, the true C. loliacéa, Lin. After stating that Ebrhart published no characters or descriptions of his XII decades of dried Specimens, but merely attached to each plant a schedule or label containing the number, the name and the author, and the locality, © he adds the following : “In the collection of Carices of Schkuhr himself, which our University possesses, under the name of C. gracilis is present a Single specimen of that collection of Ehrhart on whose label is ‘78, Carex gracilis, Ehrh., Upsalie.’ | __ “Hence there is no doubt, but that Ehrh.’s plant is the same with that of Schk., nor can there be a doubt, that this C. gra- cilis, Ehrh. (of which I possess two original specimens in my own herbarium, marked with the same Ebrhartian label) is clearly € same with C. loliacea, Lin, as Schk. has himself already said, and all the more recent botanists agree ; and indeed as I maintain from comparison of specimens from Sweden, Norway, and Russia with those of Ehrhart.” : : . AS C. gracilis, Ehrh. was placed by Schk. with his C. loliacea, it ls evident that Schk. considered the plantas the C. loliacea L., and of Wahl., for he uses the description of both on C. doliacea, L., in his Part Second, No. 47, p. 18; and, having done this, the Wonder is, that Schk. should also have quoted his C. gracilis, Part First, p. 48 and fig. 24, as a synonym, when the description and figure prove the plant so utterly different from C. lolacea, L., mM Nearly every particular. By the letter of Dr. Schlechtendal, 3 donbt is removed, and the synonymy made certain. ._, Still farther: C. tenella, Schk., Part First, p. 23, and fig. 104, ___1also given by Schk., Part Second, p. 19, as a synonym of C. loliacea L, This is another great mistake, but is corrected by the later authors. Thus, C. tenella, Schk. is described by Fries in > _ 256 C. Dewey on Caricography. his Sum. Veg. Scand., p. 224, with a direct reference to the same figure, 104 Schk., and fully distinguished from C. loliacea, L. The spikelets of C. tenella have stamens at their summit, while the other has them at the base. By Dr. Lang in the Linnea, vol. viii, p. 518, C. tenella is described under the name of C. Blyttit, Nyland, and the same fig. 104, Schk., quoted. Lang remarks that this species “was formerly, and still is confounded with C. loliacea, L.,”” but is i incosnn: “ toto ceelo” by the position of the stamens ’ fron C. loliacea. Hence it is evident, that C. gracilis, Ehrh., is not C. tenella, Schk., Part First, p. 23. The only remaining difficulty in the synonymy is whether C. disperma, Dew. is the same as C. tenella, Schk. The separation of C. gracilis, Ehrh. from C. tenella, Schk., does not of course decide the suber case either way. Mr. Tuckerman in his Enum., p. 19, says, “‘Haud tamen licet, etiam si certum plantam nos- tram Sehkubeik €. tenellam esse, nomen Deweyi mutare, quia auctor ipse C. tenelle nomen suum aboluit.” But the name, ©. tenella, is perpetuated by later writers. Let, then, C. disperma, ew., be absorbed in C. tenella, Schk., when their identity is es- tablished. This may be accomplished or not ere long by com- parison of specimens at home and abroad. In the mean time the following J deserve Nie In Sum. Veg. Scand., Fries ferent from C. tenella. Yet C. dis sperma differs from C. loliacea “toto ceelo”’ by the position of the stamens, and when the sta- mens are visible can not be mistaken for C. loliacea, L. Neither can their fruit be confounded. ries also gives the following characters of C. tenella, Viz. “fructibus ovalibus obtusis erostratis obsolete nervosis, squama ovato-lanceolata acuta triplo longioribus,” several of which are not pad in C, disperma. m these considerations, the following synonymy are my ies 1. C. aes. 1. et Wahl., Schk., Pars 2, p. 18, excl. synonymus: C. gracilis, Ehrh., non C. tenella, Schk. C. loliacea, Fries et Lang. 2. C. tenella, Schk. Pars 1, p. 23, fig. 104, non Pars 2, p- 18- pe Nov. — ili, et Sum. Veg. Scand. in Linnea. _ 6. Blyth, Npland feisty te oa Eee re foun to be, Water, - 11.640 Foreign Matters, - - - - 0°236 Bassorin, - - - - 0°206 Arabin, . : - - 84 967 Ash, - - - - - 3°900 100 049 Geren was also sought for, but not found. The ash was estima- ted by burning a een quantity in an atmosphere of oxygen and weighing the resi The ultimate anatyae made also by effecting combustion of the carefully dried gum in oxygen Bas, yielded, in two separate experiments, the following numbers ‘ 2. Carbon, - - - 4368 43:10 Hydrogen, - = - - 611 650 Oxygen, - = 47-26 47-40 “ - 3-00 100 00 1000 These proportions approximate very closely to those obtained from gums Senegal and Arahic by Guerin and Mulder. The general appearance, too, of the gum is similar to that of gum Senegal, and the dark inferior qualities of gum Arabic. In chem- ical properties, also, it is allied to them ; - being insoluble in abso- lute alcohol, pattially soluble in common alcohol, and readily forming with hot or cold water a very adhesive mutcilage. It is in fine, a true gum, ane promises, in its physical and ‘chemical behavior, much of the advan tage, expected by its discoverer, as an economical substitute for gum Arabic or Senegal. University of Maryland, Baltimore, January, 10, 1855. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry anp Puysics. to 1850 and now first made public. e author divides his commun cation into five parts, The first contains the results obtained on the elas- tic forces of saturated Belge furnishe a a certain number 0: selected from — those which are ea ie ena in a state of eae in quantity, and , and ata Sdeieschitla dodite::. —— a | Chemistry and Physics. 265 The second part treats of the elastic forces of the vapors of saline . Solutions and of their application to the study of different phenomena of molecular physics and chemistry. _ third treats of the phenomena of the vaporization of liquids in oe The fourth of _ ig of experiments on the elastic forces of va- pors furnished in vacuo by volatile liquids displaced or superposed. : The fifth mohntiog ve result o eriments undertaken to decide \ whether the tension of a vapor in vacuo yslepend or not on the solid or liquid state of the body which furnishes it. The methods of observation employed*to determine the elastic forces of vapors in vacuo are the same as those which t e author used ia . , , ether, bisulphid of carbon, chloroform and oil of turpentine, for ev ery 10 de egrees Centigrade. Thes et Shien in the following table, the tension being expressed in millim Alcohol. Ether. _—_Bisulph. of carbon. Chloroform. easiest 19 mena —21° 31 see. ' —20 3:3 69-2 Laan ae = q +20 6°50 113-2 ies see q 1273 182:3 1278 oe 21 ; 10 24-08 2865 199°3 1304 2°3 7 20 44:00 4348 298-2 190°2 43 f 30 78-4 6370 4346 2761 40 134-1 6 6175 364-0 11-2 50 2203 12680 852-7 5243 iis 60 850-0 17303 11626 4380 269 70 539-2 23095 1549-0 9762 41-9 80 8128 2030°5 1367°8 61-2 90 1190-4 3899-0 26231 18115 91:0 100 1685-0 4920-4 $321°3 23546 134-9 110 2351°8 6249-0 41863 3020°4 1873 ‘ 120 32078 a 51211 3818-0 257-0 130 4331-2 Bert 62606 47210 3470 140 5637°7 mcs ts se 462°3 15 7257-8 te — — 045 152 46173 chen aig — cee 160 ne Sg isto —— T1T2 ' 170 oe fe ae. 989°0 e fe, remarks that these results were obtained partly by the 1e re om mically pure. for the el astic force of the vapor x aps gives an extremely delicate method of judging of the Cae a of _ @ Volatile substa author found it par to obtain a eecieny pure ee Wal arr, SoM Search 18 266 Scientific Intelligence. on bisulphid of carbon, but difficult to get pure ether and alcohol, while chloroform always contains many substances mixed with it which canno be separated. Thus the tension of its vapor as directly determined was 342-2 at 36°, while by the method of ebullition it was found to be 313-4 at the same temperature. Some liquids change their molecular structure when long boiled under high pressures, and of this change oil of turpentine furnishes a remarkable example. ther liquids appear to undergo molecular changes when left to themselves for a long time in hermetically sealed tubes: ether is a curious instance of this. With respect to the second part of the subject, as indicated above, through the cover of which four closed tubes passed, two into the liquid his results, of which however our limits permit us to give but one. In w the vapor would have had if it had been produced by distilled water boiling under the same pressure. i 2 5 3. 4, : ah 9. 3. 4, ° ° ° 82:52 52:0 47°88 47°84 457-22 99.88 99°90 13661 6158 68-20 5816 180715 12986 12663 12616 21944 ‘180 . 6878 68°61 218235 13680 13292 18242 286°43 44-94 84 270213 14279 14085 13981 43419 8754 85:09 85:07 312369 14791 145°57 145°00 It will be seen from this table that the thermometer plunged into the ic corresponds to the vapor of pure water under the same pre small difference may be attributed to radiation from the hotter liquid and to small drops of liquid projecte the boiling saline soluti found that, at a distance of 3 or 4 centimeters above the surface of the ‘Solution, the thermometer was always wetted and consequently licate the temperature of the vapor of pure water.. When pee is Chemistry and Physics. 267 bulb descends toward the surface the temperature rises but the bulb dries and this drying takes place only in the layers of vapor immedi- volume, and thus at a certain height above the surface of the liquid has only the temperature which it would have if coming from pure water. As it was found impossible to determine the temperature of the ebullition of saline solutions so as to deduce from these observations certain results, the author directed his attention to the elasti forces vapors w an Ma vacuo. The apparatus employed was the same as that used by the au- . thor in his former researches on the tension of the vapor of water and consisted of a vessel of 600 or 700 C. C. capacity communicating with @ mercurial manometer. The whole apparatus was placed in a large Vessel — with water kept at a constant temperature. ‘The vessel was e ent temperatures. A small glass bulb previously filled with the liquid e of the vapor im the air, the third the elastic force of the vapor in vacuo, and the fourth the difference between these two tensions, ” mm, mn 4) ‘ 94232566 1109 29710 38002 8:1 1442, 84015 845°3 L/S: Se RS. Bata 1937 414 23° 43950 1456 61 1222 31130 3150 37 » Precisely similar results were obtained with a different form of ap- Paratus, with different vapors in air, and with the vapor of ether in dif- feren, gases. With this second form of apparatus the author also stud- Sure of the atmosphere which ‘My of liquid in : 268 Scientific Intelligence. sel. The author’s conclusion is that the law of Dalton on mixed gases and vapors may be regarded as a theoretical law which would proba- bly be verified with all rigor in a vessel the walls of which should be formed by the volatile liquid itself of a certain thickness, but this law is inaccurate in our apparatus because the hygroscopic affinity of the matter of the vessel brings the vapor to a tension which is variable and i i ‘bus volatile liquids in vacuo, the author finds that two volatile liquids which are not capable of dissolving each other give in v a tension of f acuo vapor equal to the sum of the tensions which these substances presept separately. It is however only in this case that the law of Dalton 1s at ence of small quantities of foreign substances which in the case of the liquid acid are disseminate throughout the whole mass and therefore exert but a slight influence on the tension of the vapor. In the act congelation however, the impurity separates from the mass, and there- fore must exert a much greater influence on the tension.—Compies endus, Xxxix, 301, 391, 345, August, 1854. ; siderable quantity by the fractionated distillation of certain varieties of . mon a h fusel oil ie * a - Chemistry and Physics. . 269 at common temperatures decomposes it, forming various hydrocar- bons. Chlorid of zine gives with the alcohol, butene CeHs, hydruret of butyl CsH10, and liquid earburets, By the action of potassium on iodid of butyl the author obtained butyl CsHoe, (or in Gerhardt’s view, see ) ; it is a colorless oily liquid. The chlorid, iodid and bromid of buty! were found by the usual processes ; they are liquid and resem- ble corresponding compounds of amyl. he iodid of buty! readily re- acts with the salts of silver, and in this manner many of the ethers of this radical may be obtained. Wurtz did not succeed in preparing the oxyd of butyl in a perfectly pure state ; it appears to be a liquid having an agreeable odor and boiling between 05°. T Special notice in this pluce.. B distilling sulpho-butylate of potash with cyanate of potash, dissolving the distillate in alcohol and then dis- tilling this mixture with caustic potash, the author obtained butylamin. s8rig In a pure state this ammonia N 2? His liquid and boils at 69°-70° ; Solutions must not be too dilute. If these conditions be observed a very Accurate result is obtained.—Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, xci, 237. {It will be observed that this method fails entirely precisely in the case 40 which it is most desirable to have a very accurate and expeditious od for determining copper, namely, in the assay of copper ores. —W. G.] the action of iodid of amyl upon an alloy of sodium and tin.— Grong has studied and described an extensive series of new radicals ‘ ee tin and the elements of amyl, and obtained by the action of amyl upon an alloy of tin and sodium. As however, these 270 acne Scientific Intelligence. radicals do not differ essentially in properties from those already de- scribed by Lowig and other chemists, we shall content ourselves with giving their formulas and names, Am being employed as a symbol Methstannbiamyl, - . - Sn2 Ama Methstannamyl, + - - - Sn2Amsz Methylenstannamyl, - - - So Am2 Stannamyl, - - - . - SnAm Bistannamyl,_ - - - - Sn2e Am and tin, but that while the amyl compound corresponding to ethstann- ethy! Sos Ams is wanting a radical is here met with to which the ethyl series affords no parallel, namely, Sn2Am4.—Journal fur practische Chemie, 62, 34. . New organic radicals containing arsenic—Canours and Bre- ig have still further extended our knowledge of this very interesting =(C2Hs)sAs.I+CsHeAsl. With the iodids of ethyl and amy! sim- ilar results are obtained, and the iodids of two new arsenic ammoniyms are formed having the formulas (C2Hs)2(CsHs)2As. I and (C2Hs)2 (C1oH11)2As.I. These results in connection with those of Landolt already mentioned in this Journal, leave no doubt as to the constitution of cacody! which must be regarded as Dimethyl-arsenic.—Comples acteristic of the type R’R4 of the ammoniums. This appears to the case with the antimony and arseni niums so far studied, and I therefore suggest that careful experiments should be made to de- termine whether these compound ammoniums which can readily be prepared in the laboratory and at moderate prices may not answer in intermittent fevers, &c. as well as the expensive salts of quinine.— Ww. . Ge 6. Action of iodid of phosphorus upon glycerine. —BERTHELOT and de Luca have observed that when crystallized iodid of phosphorus Plz is distilled with glycerine propylene gas is evolved, while water and ioda ted propylene CeHsl distill over. The proportions of is — Geology, Botany, Zoology. 271 vary with those of the materials employed. Jodated propylene is a colorless liquid boiling at 101°C. It is rapidly colored by the action of air and light, and then emits very irritating vapors : its density is 1-789 at 16°C i A solution of ammonia after forty hours action at 100° com- pletely decomposes iodated propylene ; the product is a volatile alkali, which according to the authors, has the formula CeHoN and ap- pears to be propylamin CeH7.NHe2 (?). Heated with mercury and ehlorhydric acid the iodated propylene is decomposed, yielding pro- pylene; the reaction is represented by the equation CeHsI4+-HCi+ 4Ho—CeHe+HeeCl+Hgel. The authors recommend this process for the preparation of propylene. Propylene unites directly with iodine when the mixture is exposed to the sun’s light, and yields a heavy colorless liquid having the formula CeHel2; the authors term it W. G. Gordius curbonarius G. near the Nemapodia tenuissima of Emmons g. 1); also the coal plants Calamites transitionis P-» C. Rémeri Gép., Sphenophyllum furcatum Lind.—Sphenopteris 272 Astronomy.— Miscellaneous Intelligence. 2. A Monograph of the Cirripedia with figures of all the species; the Balanide or sessile Cirripedes, the Verrucida, etc.; by CHARLES Darwin, F.R.S., F.G.S. 684 pp., 8vo, with 30 copper plates. 1854. London. Ray Society —The volume by Mr. Darwin on the Lepa- didz or pedunculated Cirripedes, published in 1851, was noticed in a for- mer volume of this Journal, and also his memoir on the Fossil Lepa- didz, published by the Paleontographical Society. We welcome with peculiar pleasure its successor which completes the subject. Mr. Dar- win’s works are the result of great labor and extreme care, and have a which has the high value of giving figures of all the species, as well as good descriptive details. Ill. Astronomy. 1. Elements of Euphrosyne (31), (Astron. Jour., 79.)—The asteroid discovered on the first of Sept. last by Mr. James Ferguson, has re- ceived the name Evuryrosyne. The following elements of its orbit have been computed by the discoverer from Washington observations of Sept. 2,6, 10, 29 and 30: Oct. 5, 7, 30 and 31: Nov. 2, 4 and 5; ergs three following normal places referred to the mean equinox M. T. Berlin. R. A. Dec. Sept. 5-0 1b 51m Q]s-79 2° 54! 49/-11 Oct... 5:0 1 28 11-00 2 26 54°78 Nov. 4:0 0 56 39-88 -0 57 56°13 Epoch 1854 Sept. 14:0 M. T. Be Mean anomaly, - - 300° 57’ 52”-62 Long. perihelion, - - 94 0 87 -73) Mn. Eqnx. ° “asc. node, - 31-24 24 ais 56'0 Inclination, - - . 26- 28.21 3 Angle of excentricity, - 12 31 23 °7 t Log. mean daily motion, 2°8008456 f* semi-axis major 0°4994407 IV. Misce,Ltaneous INTELLIGENCE. ee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 273 ton and Cambridge), my attention was attracted, when about half way across (the bridge is 2483 feet long), by a loud hissing noise proceed- ing from the iron lamp-posts, which, for a moment, | supposed to be use steam from the snow melting on the lanterns, but, afier ex- amining several, found this to be a mistake. Afier some time I felt a Succession of sharp pricks on my forehead, and raising my hand to night at 9.10 Pp My ignorance was equal to. Ispent more than half an hour in the Storm, amusing myself with such tests as occurred to me, and hoping woe phenomenon, but failed even to meet haloes rink Ree » On the C. tmosphere in Oroomiah; by hev. € Clearness of the Atmosp OME Heschel, dated Orao: 274 Miscellaneous Intelligence. you an idea of our geographical position, I have noted, above, our lati- tude and approximate longitude. As | wish also to give you a glance at the physical features of this region, let me invite you to come with me upon the flat, terraced roof of m my house, where | am sure you will be delighted with the scene before you. Standing at an elevation of more than a mile above the ocean, and a thousand feet avove the adjoin- ing country, you may look down upon one of the ncaa and most fertile dreds of villages, is verdant with thousands of orchards, and rows 0 poplars, willows and sycamores by the water-courses, and in the early summer waves with innumerable fields of golden grain. Here the peach, the nectarine, the apricot, the quince, the cherry, the pear, the apple, and the vine, flourish in luxuriance, and give the appearance of a variegated forest. ond the plain, you see the lake of Oroomiah, reflecting the purest azure, and studded over with numerous islands, while further on rise Hincued lofty mountains, their outlines projected on the cloudless Italian sky, and forming a beautiful contrast with the plain before you. The city of Oroomiah, about six miles distant, ping is so embos onto’ in trees as almost to be hidden from view, is the pro able birth-place of Zoroaster; and the mounds which are so con- spicuous in different parts of the plain, and which are formed entirely of ashes with a scanty soil upon them, are supposed to be the places where the sacred fire was ever kept burning, and the Persian priests The temperature of this elevated region is very uniform, and the greater part of the year very delightful. During the months of June, July, August, eee er, and sometimes October, there is little rain, and .the sky is rarely overcast. Indeed, I may say that often for weeks to- gether not a cloud is to be seen. As a specimen of the climate in sum- mer, I send accompanying this my meteorological —— “es the month of August last. The observations were taken at our house on Mt. Seir, but do not differ essentially from those taken on the meg at the sa season, except that the thermometer is here a few degrees pes “and the air pee alr drier, especially at night. e has ever travelled in this country, without being ae tig at the Saiucaie with which distant objects are seen. Moun s fifiy, traveller ; and the clump of trees indicating a village, which seems rise only ‘two or three miles before him, he ‘will be often as many hours in reaching. Tn this connection, you will be interested to know that the apparent convergence of the sun’s rays, at a point diametrically opposite its dise, which, if I mistake not, Sir D. Brewster peeks: of as a very rare phe non, is here so common that not a week passes in summer when os whole ps Ho at sunset is se striped with tens © very much like Miscellaneous Intelligence. 275 But it is after nightfall that our sky appears in its highest brilliancy and beauty. hough accustomed to wate e heavens in different Persian summer evening. Itis not too much to say that, were it not for the interference of the moon, we should have seventy-five nights in the three summer months, superior for purposes of observation to the very i i When first came here, I brought with mea six-feet Newtonian telescope, of five inches aperture, of my own manufacture ; and though the mirrors have since been much tarnished, and the instrument otherwise injured, laa, it occurred to me that I was in the most favorable circumstances Possible for testing the power of.the unassisted eye, and | determined at.once to make some experiments on the subject. My attention was, i derable time, with no daylight was fading into darkness, and thought I would watch yself. re visible is hardly more than ten minutes. The planet itself soon mes so bright that they are lost in its rays. I will not stop to discuss the question, in itself a most uleresting one, why they are visble at all, when stars of the third and Surth magnitudes are not distinguishable, but merely give you the facts jn the case, knowing that you will reason on them much better "han Lean. Both the fixed stars and the planets shine here with a beau- tifully steady light, and there is very little twinkling when they are Y degrees above the horizon. - 276 Miscellaneous I ntelligence. i ing come to a satisfactory conclusion about the sateslines of Ju- lat h Havi piter, | turned next to Saturn. This planet rose so n the night that [ had not seen it while watching Jupiter, and I was Signi to know whether any traces of a ring could be detected by the naked eye. To my surprise and delight, the moment | fixed my eye steadily upon It, the elongation was very apparent, not like the satellites of Jupiter, at first suspected, guessed at, and then clearly discernible, but such a view Ss was most Meal a made me wonder that I had never made the discovery before. [ can only account for it from the fact that, though I have looked at the planet here with the telescope many times, 1 have never scrutinized it carefully with the naked eye. Several of ; my associates, whose attention | have since called to the planet, at once told me in which direction the longer axis of the ring lay, and that too = any previous knowledge of its position, or acquaintance with other’s opinion. ‘This is very satisfactory to me, as independent ps a testimony. I have somewhere seen it stated, that in ancient works on astronomy, a tgs long before the discovery of the jaa Saturn is represeaiae of an oblong shape, and that ithas puzzled astronomers much fo Afier examining anton I turned to Venus. The most I could de- termine with my naked eye was, that it shot out rays unequally, and appeared not to be raat but, on taking a dark glass, of just the right opacity, I saw the planet as a very minute, but beautifully defined, crescent. ‘To. guard against deception, I turned the glass in different ways, and used different glasses, and always with the same pleasing result. It may be that Venus can be seen thus in England, and else- where, but I have never heard of the experiment being tr ied. Let me say here, that I find the naked eye superior for these pur- poses to a telescope formed of spectacle glasses, of six or eight magni fying power, This is not, perhaps, very wonderful, considering that in direct vision both eyes are used, without the straining of any one 0 the muscles around them, and without spherical or chromatic aberration, or = interposition of a dense medium am an entire stranger, and at the same time am desirous of hav- Shien statements make their full i impression on your mind, it is proper for me to say that I was shah ae several years a pupil of Professor his special friendship ; “iets at I bs ; associated for some time in ob- servations with young Mason, whose early death you have spoken of as a loss to the astronomical world. And though, no doubt, very many persons have more accurate habits of observation than myself, a pircu of fifteen years has done much to train my eye for researches like t : 36,) in spea® ing of he _extinetion of Tight . ee soci Yo i : “ The leew th through a pes alle atmosphere © light in g from the zen Miscellaneous Intelligence. 277 5°2 milés will be -303. I was much astonished at first discovering that the air had so great absorbent powers, and many ideas are suggested by the fact.” My letter is already becoming tedious, but I will venture to trespass on your patience further, by naming a few test-objects, which will en- able you the better to compare the advantages of our position with your own, 1. 5 Cephei. This I have looked at repeatedly with my naked eye, and though I cannot be sure that I have seen it double, I put it down, in astronomical language, as ** strongly suspected.” 2. The two small stars in the neighborhood of the pole-star, and in the general direction, of y Cephei (thus , *.) are seen distinctly, and almost every night, as a single point of light. 3. 4and 5 . 0 tinetly seen. They appear somthing like this (- ro 4 Barometer reduced, Fahrenheit’'s Thermometer. Sunrise. 2pm 06 610P.M ' ‘Sunrise. 2 P.M. 10 P. 24246 = 24-247 24-235 67-4 79°45 —71°-37 ral average, 24-242 : I average of the three ob- ; bg a * ‘0, Barometer highest, 24°417 servations, 72°-74. ° lowest, ‘097 Hygrometer—wet bulb. rd Sunrise. fe et 18 P.M. 4 ° eo. °, Difference, -320 j 60°43 95°37 General average from the above, 6°:87 Ave di fH ter and Thermometer, 15°-87. oe Sioncne yo “at 2p. m., 19°02. _ Greatest change of Thermometer in 24 hours, 18°. __N.B. The daily observations differ but ee from the weekly aver- ge. One day follows another with great uniformity. 278 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 3. Abstract of minh git: Observations made at Burlington, Vt., - in 1854; by Z. Taompson.—The location where the observations were made, is one prs east from Lake Champlain and oa feet above it (346 above the sea) in Lat. 44° 29’, and Long. 73° lsot. THERMOMETER. BAROMETER, Months. Mean. ; Highest Lewnt | Range.| Mean. ,Highest., Lov::. R nge. ° ° fe) ° Inches. | Inches. Inches. | Taches. January, . . | 1957] 53 ATT 70 29-74 | 30-41 | 28°85] 1:56 February, . | 1631] 46 19 58 29:80 | 80°41 | 2918 | 1:23 F 30°18 | 56 6 50 29°61 | 80:08 | 28°84 | 1-24 April, 89-21 9 4 52 29°73 | 80:27 | 29:22} 1:05 ay, 5717 | 83 27 56 2966 | B0-0L | 29 7 June, . 64:03 40 46 29°64 | 29°93 | 29°35 58 y, 73°95 | 993 52 47% | 29°75 | 29°98 | 2951 AT ugu 68°85 | 91 4 49 29°72 | 30:00 | 29-41 59 September, 60°10 | 95 34 61 29°77 | 30:18 | 29-20 etaber, da (-6810.| 76 30 46 29°17 | 30°17 | 29°08 | 1:09 November, . | 37°63 | 63 13 50 29°53 | 30°21 | 28°80 |- 1-41 December, . | 17-76 | 42 et 63 29°64 | 8046 | 2884] 162 Annual result, | 4471 | 993 |! -91 | 1203! 29-70 | 3046 | 28:80] 166 sens a Sl WINDS, | WEATHER. snow. | WATER. ___ Mont N, |N.E. E. |8, &] -S, |S. W.| W. [NW Fair. | Clouty. Inches. | Inches. January, io/1 0/2} a1])1|4| 2| 20) a | 14 | 182 February, Siebel Tee | 4 ot. ah 17 1°65 March, OhES hit tial 4p ndeey Is q 169 April, . 16 GE) Ba” 9 Best oe aS 1l 12 3°60 |May, . 9}/1]/1]/2/412} 1/1] 4] 26 5 0 62 wane, oS .. L5«) F°(,04 O-) 2S 1} oe] 8s 4 0 2:88 July, . SO it E bd ed | Ge 80 1 0 1:60 August, SPL Spe oe | 4 ae 99 2 0 061 September, { 10/2 /0/1/15) 0/0/] 2] 26 4 0 444 ober, SPIE ETISEO | 1!) sees 8 1 2:26 November, 620.0 Seb he aes |. G 15 15 6 217 ber, Gliete | Wee Bt 81.4 | 18 18 21 111 111 12 18 13 145 | 10 '29 | 32 265 | 100 78 25°45 | The results in the ae tables were Siig: from three daily observations, made at sunrise, | Pp. m., and 9 p.m.* The warmest day in the year was tha 4th “of July, the mean nies of which was ll and the coldest was the 22d day of December the mean of which e fall of water in rain and snow was 7°59 inches less than in 1853 and 6-96 inches less than the average fall in the ae ‘anetn years; and it was 0-89 inches — than in any one of those years, 26:35 inches in 1849 being the leas * T continue m "ep haan at these hours for the easy — of the results, with the results of my former observations, extending back twenty years an and made ' urs. y journal the oe temperatur eat Th and 2 and 9 e Smithsonian system of Meteorological erature uced from th last i Lh sh im that former. acgree Ob- a, Bina eed —s —l—C — Miscellaneous Intelligence. 279 During the summer of 1854, this section of country is believed to have suffered more from drought than in any former season since its settlement, and the fall of water in the three summer months was never re known to be so small. The following table exhibits the amount of water which fell in those months in seventeen consecutive years. By this table it will be seen that the Year) June. / July.) Aug. ; Total. amount of rain in the three summer Weer eres ery grey months of 1854, was 3:23 inches Jess 270! 626} 1-91] 11-87| than in the same months in any one of 2°84 pe 3:51 | 1053 | the preceding sixteen years, and less than *O% 4°62 z ° oa Ns 943) one-half the average for those months 458 | 2%91 9-09 So for the same period. During the con- 208} 5:51 3-46] 11-39 | tinuance of the drought, fires prevailed 2:08 | 451| 237] 896] extensively, destroying large Quantities 3°63 | 508 | 048 | 919] of lumber, growing timber, fences and aie a ie ieee buildings, and the atmosphere was, most 141! 1-73 569] ggg | of the time, densely filled with smoke. 318{ 503/ 089{ 9-15| In consequence of the drought, the sum- 783 | 3°81} 1%2/1356| mer crops were greatly injured and that fo. 499 | 1°50 | 11°25 | of potatoes nearly ruined. oa | 222] 346] 882| Phe fall of snow in 1854, was sev- 288 ' 160] 061! 05-9 hi. ; iMches less than in 1853 and twenty-five inches less than in Sleighs run, more or less, for three or four weeks, but the sleighing Was lowest September Ist, being seven feet five inches below high ing a change of level amounting to six feet one inch. Robins and Bluebirds were seen March 12th, Song Sparrows the 15th. Red Plum in blossom May 16th, Cherry 18th, Pear 20th, Crab Apples » Common Apple 25th. : The Aurora Borealis has occured less frequently than in some pre- +, 10° high and well defined at 9 P. M. E25 30th, a low arch of light in the N. E. at 94 p. Mm. a h _ with streamers reaching up half way to the exhibition of the aurora; at 9 P, M. a narrow ~ 280 Miscellaneous Intelligence. belt extended from E. 8° S., overhead to N. 25° W. bending a litle south n average width of about 24° and well de- fined. 23d, Another ~— i ee at ape: M. an arch extended —e - = ie") © a) a @ x =) = a me arches in _ Naz in these the flitting motions of the light were very y loth, An ill defined auroral eae 08 in the N., 18° high—sky be- spatle i nearly black ; 19th, slight auro = ly 19th, Slight aurora in the N. W.; 27th, a low auroral arch eN. Seedkks 13th, Auroral arch quite low; 2lst, slight auroral light; 26th, ae posit light and several shooting stars y the foregoing notes, it will be seen that the aurora borealis was f very rare occurrence during the last half of the year, it having been observed only five times after the 19th of May, and not once in the last three months. During the entire year it was observed only twenty-one times. In on years its occurrence has been annually between thirty and forty tim . Denictiityation of the Theory of ts Pendulum Experiment ; by . J. L. Dace.*—Let TABL, fig. 1, be a circular table, over the ‘iitie of which K, let n dia ter of the table, i it will a ac a disturbed by =y inter- pe fering caus itself has the same m motion, in addition to that by which it vibrates : then the relative positions of the pendulum and the table remain as before. The point of suspension will continue to be over the ce entre from time to time, has contained several excellent a compact, geom: metrical dem pote own, like the pithy Beis: many teachers ers, who For felt the need of a simple and concise truly, : BW vaca rele Penfield, Geo. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 281 of the table; and the pendulum will continue to vibrate over the same befor _ diameter as t us suppose that the pendulum, its point of suspension, and the centre of the table, are all moving as in the last case, with equal velo- City, in the same direction, as towards E; but that the point A of the table, is moving in the same direction, that is towards D, with a greater velocity. In this case, the point A will leave the pendulum which the table is a solid, the excess of velocity at A over that of the centre K, will tend to give to the whole mass a rotary motion around the centre. ence, if another pendulum be supposed to vibrate from the same point of suspension, over any other diameter, as NO, its relative direction will change with the same angular velocity as the former; and the di- ameter over which it vibrates, will appear to recede from NO to MP. es » fig. 2, represent a me- - Tidian of the earth. Let the table, perir=e * fig. 1, be supposed to touch this me- i ridian at K. From the extremity A ey Point A: and a endulum, vibrating over any other diameter of the table, to change its relative direction, with the same angular velocity. &circle around the point K, the radius of which is AK. Hence, 24 hours : time of ferole n::AE:A But the angle AKE is equal to the angle KCG (which is the latitude of the point K) each being the Complement uf CKG, Hence, AE: AK :: sine of the latitude: radius. We have therefore the following proportion, __ Sine of latitude : radius :: 24 hours ; time of revolution. sonD Sznres, Vol, XIX, No. 56,—March, 1855. 36 282 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 5. On the distinctions supposed to limit oe bigest and Animal Kingdoms ;_ by Epwin Lanxester, M.D., S, (Notices of oitaae ings of the Roy. Ins., Mar. 24, 1854. —In c From ei the Lecturer made some general remarks on classification; and pointed out as im- portance of accurate definitions in order to constitute the classes, fami- lies, genera, and species of the naturalist. e importance of defining mal and vegetable kingdoms consiste our imperfect knowledge of the characters of species which exist ere on what might be called the limits of the two kingdoms. The history of the attempts at defining animals and plants, for systematic purposes, would afford the best idea of the nature of these difficulties. The definition of Linnzus, that see grow, plants grow and live, animals grow, live, and feel, was first examined. In order to apply this definition, the terms growth, life, and foalliat, required explanation. Growth simply indicated increase. The term /ife could not be defined in such a manner as to render it in- applicable to the physical phenomena of the inorganic world and at e same time embrace the lowest forms of organized beings. Feeling of the Dionea muscipula, the stamens of the barberry, wise the closing and unfolding of flowers, from those of the animal om, h were the distinctions attempted to be made by one who saagealed the use of the microscope. One of the most obvious distinctions between the organic and inor- ganic kingdoms was the presence of the cell in the former. Under eytoblast, primordial utricle, and endoplast, had been recognised by all vegetable physiologists. This substance, composed of protein, was 8 actively motile in the plant as the animal. It was this substance which gave motility to the cells of Protococcus, the fibres of Oscillaria, the spores of various ae and aa and probably also to all other movements observed amongst plan When cilia were originally Jecoredes as the agents of movement in oe and upon the internal | organs of higher animals, bee were al life. These organs were now. Ts as eR a Mutual Miscellaneous Intelligence. 283 nature there could be little doubt since the researches of Williamson and Busk, The possession of what were called eye-spots in doubtful organisms had been brought forward to decide the animality of these beings. Such eye-spots were present as red points in certain stages of the growth of Volvox, and other undoubtedly vegetable organisms, and according to Henfrey, were due to the relation of the contents of the cell to light, - — in no way the agents of vision in the cells in which they are ound. The definition of Aristotle, that animals possessed a mouth, whilst plants had none, had b i Soria, as the Diatomacea, Desmidea, and Volvocinea, it was more than ever applicable. There were, however, certain exceptions ; and these were found in the Foraminifera, the Diflugia, and other low organ- isms which had no permanent mouth. me of these have the power of formingsa temporary sac for the purposes of digestion. Chemistry had from time to time offered its aid to the naturalist. At one time, the possession of cellulose by the vegetable kingdom was con- - | bers occupying a certain time and place,—resembling the succes- ! sive relative forms through which the individual passes. F'or | the organic individual does not manifest itself in one single per- | manent form, but in a succession of forms, now gradually con- ee, nected, now broadly interrupted; and these last, especially 10 plants, may attain to an independence, which gives them the character of a subordinate species. ‘To this analogy between ' dividuals and species it may be objected, that, in most cases; # _ very remarkable BR cif Hie is connected with the suce ua orms of the individ ea urn and compare the Be which treat of the plant’s il. Botanik (2nd Part), as we have ; ent, a fi he whole science. - The first ividuum als Organismus, » The Vegetable Individual, in iis relation to Species 299 iY Sa z character.* But, however important this fact may be, still we tay assert of the individual as well as of the species, that it com- pletes the cycle of its existence in a succession of subordinate generations, while, on the other hand, we may affirm of the spe cies, that like the individual, it exhibits a determinate cycle of development.t In comparing the processes of propagation with the process of the formation of the individual, cell-formation, which lies at the foundation of both, reveals the intimate con- hection which exists between the small and the great spheres of development; while the numerous cases which admit of a double explanation (since they may be ascribed with almost equal jus- 7 tice to the inferior cycle of development of the individual, or to an the superior one of ¢ke species) establish the close relationship of both.» The akove-nsentioned circumstance, that the cycle of de- ___Velopment does not present as gradwated a progress in‘ the species . as it does in the individual, scenas to suggest that the’most relia- Re. ble view of the analogy between tke species and the individual BS is that in which the species is not compared with the whole cycle | 2 of the individual’s successive development, but with the single x Sleps of the metamorphosis (which of course has its own sub- C ordinate members), and in which the species itself is regarded , 88 an inferior “momentum” of a still more comprehensive cycle the present investigation. | must first care- determine i sphere of the individual. The individual idered by itself: it must be viewed no individuals because, as GSppert com- the: wever, we m gard vegetable individual at important subject, but root, stem a other organs, power). Link, 1 Cy p. eee 44 * = 300 The Vegetable Individual, in tts relation to Species. in the successive generations to which it belongs. This succes- sion may be similar or dissimilar, simple or complicated by divi- sions, continuous or graduated by cyclical changes. It is by this that the phenomena of fissiparous and alternate generation may ( be explained. It is only by a consideration of these relations that | the nature of the individual itself, as a subordinate sphere of the species’ development, can be rightly comprehended, and that the single individuals in their worth and importance, 3n their relations to each other and to the whole realized cycle of the species, can be understood. Preliminary heal io on Vegetable a different s in regard to We must determine what constitutes the vegetable individual, before we can pact its relations to the whole cycle of gen-_ eration of ‘the sies. But it is this determination itself which presents so phi difficulties; and these difficulties become the greater, the further we push our investigations. Individuality in plants seems as obscure and ambiguous, as in animals (at least in their higher orders,) it appears clear and simple; so that, as Steinheil remarks, it escapes us just when we are upon the point of seizing it ;* and investigators might even conclude that we can , realize no other individuality than that which is manifested in the totality of the species. The first obstacle to our comprehending the vegetable individual as a single sphere of conformation, a @ | morphological whole, is the disconnected and: ‘separate character ey which obtains in the most heterogeneous modifications of vegeta- ble organisms. For no where jn the vegetable kingdom do we reeive that indissoluble ¢ tion, and those pervading recipro- cal functions, which in the animal kingdom-we are accustomed to associate with the nig of an individual organism. Nev erthe- less, by starting from a comparison with animals we get an yer site point of departure for a co iehension of the plant’s indi- nomgaties Among the higher animals, the individual appears member of a race produced by sextial generation ; and this eat may be applied to plants, except in the very lowest for to which sexual generation does not apply at all, or not tively. Without at present discussing the question w vegetable Ss aid gen thus conceived is truly bale imal individual, may here state, that 1) ried out to its sotiabntiai involves the i on pS a not by sexual generation, but 1 vision, are not individuals ‘bat. am dates dove organes skal wiecatn eae de sant Vindivid Ase ae eee ualité végétale (1836), p. 9. - ai The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. 301 in fact contended.* Botanists have often asserted that it is the individual} alone, which is reproduced by slips (branches, buds, tubercles etc. ), and their opinion coincides with this view. Still, those derived from seeds? The former take root, ramify, blos- *som, ripen their fruit and seeds, just as the latter do, so that ina physiological sense they are complete individuals. For exam- ple, let us cast a glance at the weeping-willow (Salix Babylonica). tis well known that this tree, which was originally brought from the banks of the Euphrates, is always propagated by slips; for with us it never bears seeds—not because our climate 1s unfa- vorable, but because in our gardens there is no fructifying male tree.§ According to Loudon (Arboret. Brit.), the weeping-wil- : low was sent to England in 1730, by a French merchaut named _. ¢Vernon. It was planted in Twickenham Park, whence it spread rapidly over England and the continent. The tree, from which the first slips that were brought to Europe were taken, was most probably a cultivated one itself, raised from a slip. However this may be, could the descent of all our weeping-willows be traced, 1 would undoubtedly lead us back to a willow, a female willow, grown in its native covntry from a seed. And so, on this ac- count, we are to regard all the beautiful weeping-willows of our gardens and our cemeteries—and surely they are perfect trees— hot as individual stocks, but as the disjecta membra of a primary trunk, now hidden in mythical darkness! In other cases this pri- as _* Gallesio: Teoria della riproduzione Vegetale (1816),a work, which I am sorry t ‘Say Thave not been able to consult myself. Huxley (upon Animal Individuality, in q _ the'‘Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist. June 1852), holding corresponding views, regards __ allthe animals which spring from an egg by al ,as dividual, or, as he expresses it, as a representative of the individual by successive coéxisting sep- arable forms ;-~regards as such, for example, the sum total of all the A phides, a duced in successive generations, by non-sexual increase, from the first “nurse a 1 xual reproduction as the criterion t f their view. Elem. as a nea * fae: af 3 " ina § m propagent, : v. p “pe S ceecanane? Si astichess to “ propagent,” cannot icher und Unger: Grundziige der Bot., p. 85, say, “ In these. buds drop off isa tru pagation radoxical; for how can we imagine e multiplied wi ies bei Juced? I have re multiplied without the spec r to show hat is here meant, by representing non-sexual propa- ation subordinate to the cycle of sexual reproduction (ct. Ver- ie th rieneed garde er can distinguish them, but certainly not t] tae is very canadkobint e.g.in Araucarie raised from Pa : dt atciding the disagreeable seed-down. For the same d, in China they cultivate the male tree only, y 4 302 The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. mary trunk is known with perfect certainty. It can be proved by history that many hybrids and varieties have been produced in one single exemplar; though they now ornament our gardens far and wide, having increased by means of slips, as they do not bear seeds. This was-the case of the famous Cytisus Adami, which sprung, shortly before the year 1825, from the mingling’ of C. purpureus and C Laburnum. The single parent- -stock, the view just stated, they all form but one individual ! To support such a view, its partisans adduce the fact of certain individual particularities being preserved (in dicecious plants espe- cially the gender), when propagated by slips. In general this is rue, and for practical gardening, e. g. for musa privet of the. finer kinds of fruit, of the greatest importance; but exceptions are not rare; among which the well known inciviind of Cytisus ami into its two primary stocks is one of the most striking and remarkable. In our “gardens the rule is that from slips the flo wers. Since up oi tg aaa no male passionate had duced.t Besides these cases, a curled varieny of weeping Saliz crispa or S. annularis of the gardens, is as it is a mere garden plant, has probably been pr oak [ sel a acne i hon be true that we sometimes obtain hanging branches from several kinds o S the slips iicrtcd, we should have one of the * Cf Verjii 397 and 3. In another place I shall cot this since been investigated. me tree was che aie @. Schimper in 1827 re upon it = ‘Tiburgensis, Vo z GA — found in — Flora. ee ne . The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. 303 ble examples of the goat of a singular peculiarity by non-sexual increase t even if such exceptions did not exist, and if in every case a series of peculiarities which are extin- guished in seminal propagation were continued by grafting, yet we cannot perceive how we can seriously refuse an individual pcm ence to such stocks as these, produced, it is true, by no propagation, but still completely separated externally, devalesicis in different places and under the most dissimilar relations, and ex- hibiting subordinate differences indefinitely, though with certain similar characteristics. But if we were to make any concessions on this point we should be carried irresistibly on to others. Most of the modes of non-sexual propagation thus far consid- ered agree in this particular; that some shoot of the plant, whether it be undeveloped (eye, bud), or developed (branch, sucker, layer, &c.), is separated from the parent-stock by natural development itself, or by artificial means. As the nature of the separable part | is not changed by the separation, it is no great step to attribute | individuality to the shoot, (or as it is commonly called, the bud, ) even when it is not separated from the stock. Each single plant- stock could then be no longer regarded as an individual in the usual meaning of the term, but as an united family of individual Shoots ;—a view which seems to be of high antiquity ; as passages i are found i in Aristotle* and Hippocrates}, which are interpreted | in this sense. In later times, this view has been more or less, ad- | vocated, especially by De la Hire a a Darwin$, Batsch, f Goethe, Roper, Schleiden|} and oth | é But, even in this narrower view of woreuble sesnkornguc 4 _ } Same difficulty meets us; for the shoot itself is divisible, and ne os rocks may be produced by its parts: i.e. by the pr a of the * CE Wimmer: Ph ats. a 3 pe ie ose $s nt go Ae tagti et 113. es cannot discover that e licit ackno ent individuality which is said by Schultz As “a ‘OSC te 24) to se found in Antote, either in nse’ ns, or even ollec in totle re- Iti is the: that Anistotle re mode speaks of the divisibility of parts s of plants may cotie to exist; that on this iba ount eines wate tion “Ge Ba ips ), and by Iai 1 bud-forma 1 rapaBAacrévey tS ; ot state hie opinion of the which de- rk roa Ms plains vel ta a in a by saying that “Tandon: atologie, p. 5. pennies 233. De la Hire regards all oe irae baddon ovules. ‘vias of thew ovules, the asad the the wood; more or less of them come to ma- 0 eire # — ce torn from the branch - a tree, or sty (1800), 1. “Ita it be inserted into the bark of iy misma a plant seni hecpec | ke its al This Nee a brad ge being, and parent there- individual ws of thes ators more at large in the next section, ” 304. The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. stem and its leaf or leaf-whorl.* Besides, the several members of the shoot are not ten. eine creations, but, developing successively ont of and over each other, they constitute a suc- of its stemlet with one or two leaves (cotyledons). Thus the shoot itself came to be regarded as a succession of individual be Nera members, built up one above the other, like the stories of a house. The earliest traces of this view may be found in Darwin s Phytologia ;} it was developed at a later pat in vari- ous ways and with various modifications : e.g. by Agardly}, En- gelmann,$ Steinheil|| and Gaudichaudl—the last of paren calls the member of the shoot elevated to the rank of an individ- ual vegetable being, “the phyton,” and ascribes to it not only a stem and leaves, but even a root, by which he imagines it is connected with the preceding phytons, as the first phyton ee embryonic plant) is connected with the ground. Steenstrup** and Forbestt employ a similar view for their ans of alter- nate generation in plants with that in the lower animals. But this restriction of vegetable individuality od ae stop here ; for even the members of the shoot, the “ phyta” or “sto- he view rabies Be tings ” back bh the shoot as ‘han 9; wher well-defined sem-:member oe herbaceous P as are descri fitied eae aye ds, and hene t Agardh: Essai ~ réduire | -: Ph ysiologie oidiehe a be) principes fondamontar, 1829, (ann. ~*~ Sci. t., tom. x ae . : de y™ thol. ays, ( 1 83 2) p-1 Sia ? ndividualité dans le re vigétale. 1836. q ngewe og cherches mie t Oromcgeaia, la Physiologie ne pt On alternate Generation (1842), fora ried poe this pa ener work te: be supposed to be in every one’s hands, wt ew On the @ Morphology ogy of the reproductive payetom of Sotitarian dae mon Mag. of ‘at. Hist., v. xiv, fe Ea die Metamorphose der Phlanse wd th re Widereacher. Linnea, + Af der Crarpfanse, (Wir Jahres 1848), * ee The Vegetable Individual, in tts relation to Species. 305 _ atively independent members) this much at least is certain (and it is the important point here), that each of these two parts is capable of producing new growths by itself, yes, this capacity is enjoyed | even by different determinate or casual parts of either member. It is well known that the leaf of Bryophyllum produces sprouts in every notch on its edges, while on the other hand, caducous leaves of many bulbous plants (e.g. Eucomis regia, according to Hedwig, Ornithogalum thyrsoides according to Turpin )* pro- duce new plants in the form of bulblets on any portion of the whole of the upper surface. The petiole itself under certain cir- cumstances, has the power of producing the so-called adventi- tious buds, not only on the portions determined by the position of the leaf (leaf-axil), but sometimes on any other portions; a ~ power enjoyed by the root in many cases. Hence parts of plants, Otherwise most dissimilar, when they contain cambium, ma have the power of reproducing the plant.t This is the founda- tion of the Schultz-Schultzenstein-ian doctrine of anaphytons ; viz., those vegetable members “which, even when separated from the plant, continue to live, bud, and develop,”{ and which are hence regarded as the individuals proper, as the true element- ary forms or morphological elements ; and it is by various com- binations of these that the organs (commonly so-called), raot, stalk and leaf, are formed, by the repetition of which the whole plant is built up and indefinitely renewed. : But where are the limits of the anaphytons? How shall lines be drawn to include all the buds of the root, stalk and leaf, from which new formations may spring? Aub. du Petit Thouars} who had already developed doctrines similar to those of the ana- phyton-theory, attempts to draw the line between individuals by i means of the cellular tissue, regarding every vascular bundle as ' an individual, since it has in itself, and independently of all oth- ers, the means of its growth, its preservation, and the reproduc- tion of new bundles. But it is difficult to perceive how, in such a View, the labyrinth of anastomosing bundles, (not less compli- ted in the majority of petioles, than in most reticulated leaves, ) ———— llc tll eee i #3 z siologie, where several examples are adduced. fo ater feat enphysiologie, whe nh wt ci vedio "will nod every one of their parts. (ravtaxt yap Exe xar pifay xal xatkovt duvéus. Vit. 6, p : die Anaphytose (1848) and, System der Morphologie (1847). The noted is face Foul a tee work, Verjiingung im Pflanzenreich (1851). vark made above, when treating of the members of the petiole, holds good e phyta can by no means grow into new plants themselves ; is produced as a germ, which is not identical with e un individu ..... mémoires, il fant aller plus loin, car je crois que , puisqu’elle a en soi, indépendamment des men de conservation et de réproduction.” , No. 57.— May 1855. 39 igs 306 The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. can be disentangled and resolved into separate individuals and why the same independence and the same rank should not be allowed to the parts of the vascular bundles. And how shall we regard the lower plants, which have no fibres at all? If our conclusions. are to anything more than mere arbitrary Sa AIORS: we must go still farther; and we ~" find no as it is of sexual at The cell has a better right to be considered as the vegetable individual than any other subor- dinate member of the plant; when connected with other cells it still continues to be an ’ independent sphere of formation, sharply defined and, in youth at least, completely isolated.t Be- fore the universal law of cell-formation was known, and before botanists had succeeded in reducing all the elementary organs of view, the cell is the rent individual. °$ he most reliable authorities have agreed that new cells can never be formed externally to, but only within, other cells al- ready formed,{ so that cell-multiplication must be regarded as a propagation, while all the cells of the mature plant must be re- garded as the progeny of the first embryonic cell. Besides, each and every plant is at first a cell; and there are single-celled plants in the strictest sense of the term, in which the first formation of new cells is that destined to reproduction ; i. e.: the germina- ting cells or spores.** Again, there are other plants i in which the cell-generations contained between the first generation (which Earlier investigations into the origin of shape buds had — sz Brora that, in its phe: tion, each new shoot arises from a single cell. The a proof of this fact, was given Re Ho ae Se pin ate eh Unters chung der Coniferen, p. 94), in Hquisetum. The propagating cells on the foliage an an eigesof of the leaves of liverwort, which develop into new plants, ha ve long seh _ a e Cryptogamize belong here, as they are cells originating sa ae ane EP Pollen zelle, and the embryonic ned meee germinating cells,—as well as those of the archegonium of the on rC t Malpighi himself (Ana m. Plant, my 5) e calls cells utriculi, or caceuli, though i naire ae wood ‘and ig t-cells as “ fibre,” the vascular one as “fistula” and the cells containing m p as “va sa specialia.” As early as 1806, a mer’s rile ili, ec 439), ma expressed himself very ae? = in igieab> lated positr and the independence of cells: “ Quaevis tit ogapon rece: : g: dniiins, Codiolium. eae e er mead ae natio ee = a re iS 2 The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. 307 an individual seems to be decided by these facts; that of the entire plant, asa superior whole composed of individual cells, seems to be settled, and a firm foundation for the doctrine of veg- ‘etable individuality to be gained. But let us try to obtain a clearer view of some of the most important of these facts. The view which regards all cell-formation as a process of reproduction rests n observations of the formation of free daughter-cells (blastidia) in the contents of the mother-cells (matrices ),—the so-called free, or endogenous, cell-formation. Schleiden, who dis- covered this process, and Karstent the most decided and original of his followers, regarded endogenous formation as the universal law of cell-formation. By this view the whole doctrine was turned in a wrong course, from which it could only be gradually recovered by the discovery, or rather the farther investigation, of another mode of cell-formation, which Nageli designated as “wandstindige,” Unger as “ merismatic,’’ and Mohl as “ cell-for- mation by division of the primordial utricle.” But even at this day the misconception caused by generalizing the view that new cells are formed within old ones, en entirely removed. I have alreadyt called attention to the fact that cells are divided Which have no cell-wall, which is often the case among the lge.§ In several genera in which numerous spores are formed ind subsequent divisions there is no formation of new cells éz old ones, of daughter-cells in mother-cells, and hence no repro- Uction, in the sense of one or more individuals being produced _™ an old one. The entire mother-cell is converted into two filial cells; the filial cells are nothing but the mother-cell divided. And this is essentially the case in every cell-formation by division : ‘or the wall of the mother-cell (within which the division gener- aaier Palmellacese, Desmidiacex, and Diatomex. Cf Braun ; Verjiingung, p. 132, cts every mode of cell-for- cell originates at its first fi 308 The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. ally takes place) certainly is not the living mother-cell, but merely its cast-off garment, its perishing shell. Cell-formation by divi- sion (called the “‘merismatic” or “ wandstandige”’) is that which obtains through the whole realm of vegetative development; while free cel!-formation occurs only in fructification. Thus, the same phenomenon, which, regarded as endogenous cell-formation, seemed so favorable to the importance of the cell as the vegeta- ble individual, when more justly comprehended only brings us back to the divisibility of the vegetable organism, repeated in the most heterogeneous spheres. But still more: even the cell whose contents are not converted by division into new cells, but re- main simple, presents phenomena which can hardly be reconciled with their view by those who regard such a cell as an individual, tents of the cell (amylum, chlorophyll and other pigment-vesicles, spherules of fat and, finally, the granules of the viscous cell-con- tents, whose chemical nature it is difficult to determine) ; and sec- ondly, the fibres, which compose the cell-membrane according t0 the old view advanced by Grew and lately revived by Meyent * Of, Nageli’s important paper on this plant (Zeitschrift fiir wissen. Bot., i, p- 194) especially the exposition of the above-mentioned relations beginning p. 158. + A new species from the vicinity of Lake Neuenberg in Switzerland, remar’ * et ee ee ieations, eames at the bottom of the branches, as well as for the shaped suckers at the ends. is well as for the club-shay Seep The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. 309 and J. Agardh.* These parts, it is true, have often been regarded as the elementary formst of plants, or their primary « individual- ized” bodies ;{ the attempts, however, to represent them as the true and real vegetable individuals are not numerous; and they astonish us by their daring rathgr than entice to imitation. Turpin, who commenced by considering plants to be composed of different kinds of individual cells, which he compared with various lower plants (especially the Algee-genera Protococecus and Conferva), afterwards expanded his views, so as to regard the cells themselves as individuals of a second rank; while he consid- 1 ered the true primary individuals to be the granules of the cell- contents, from which, in his opinion, the cell (cell-wall) is gene by agglomeration. Mayer of Bonn, basing his theory u molecular motions, sannidiadh the smallest granules of the tial ik tents as individuals ssessing animal life (biospheres) which } build up plants for their dwellings. “Like hamadryads these Sensitive monads inhabit the secret halls of the ithe -palaces we | call ‘arr and a8 silently hold their dances and celebrate their ~ Orgies,’ Diether than this we cannot go: if we did we.should have to ve specific vegetable life, and, instead of investigating its most 4 minute spheres of formation, the visible cel s, vesicles, granules i Or Monads, turn to the spigiide individual of brute matter, so as to consider plants as phenomena of appellant and repellant, co- herent and incoherent atoms. If we must understand by an in- * J. Agard: ~ i Veg. Lead tenuissimis contexta (1852). Notwithstanding the im “can author’s new investigations, they still need a more searching Fer pation mien ts-directly contradict well-ascertained facts, e. g.: the di- rect transition o of | the bres from the outer to the inner layers of the cell-wall. e whole theo ory of the formation of cells by the uninterrupted growth of fibres cannot be admitted in view of the — independence of the formation of tbe cell-w: cee Bs So eg” eas oe ® 3 & "B er 1. " olec visible, Tilia it pre wah armas g goog ten ny Ce ions f Kiiteing : Phil mets i, p. 125, 129, does not regard ths cell as the elementary eS ts, but as complete d structure itself, ee ee ch he comprehen hhends under the name molecular tissue,” a says, preset in themselves many lower veda forms, Plants hys. der The cell is represented a eae ‘ bat nih es oa 1 fibres and granules within it 3 a : . y . 77 . = id ies, Sorte nombre dou (Mem. dt Monde, sv, 1827, p 805): “ Ai la membrane de Ia lomérations de ces derniers constituent les i sear crete rg et enfin, celles-ci achévent oe i ‘i . en os P. 49, Iam acquainted through Meyen’s Pflanzenphys., hys., Tee “ Individua.” 310 The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. dividual, a being perfectly simple and indivisible, this is our last refuge, in which we may indeed reach an individual, but not a vegetable individual ; for this would then be identical with the material individual common to all corporeal existence. But, even if we could give up all hopgg of a specific vegetable individual, doubt would still linger round these physical individuals ; for even the existence of the universal primary particles of bodies,—the material individuals, the atoms,—is not conclusively established. No eye has seen them; we do not even think of considering them as objects of direct perception; we only accept them as an hy- pothesis, to eke out our theories of motion and of chemical affinity, and to enable us to compute their relations. The question might easily be asked, whether the same phenomena may not be as well explained by assuming the continuity, expansibility and penetra- bility of matter. However this may be, the question concerning the existence of atoms certainly lies beyond the limits of botan- ical investigation; and if the existence of vegetable individuals on this question, the botanist must despair of proving it. Thus the question at which we have now arrived is this: can we speak of individuals in botany? and this is identical with an- other: are plants mere products of the operations of matter (i. €., of a substance self-moving, uniting and separating by an innate force), and hence non-entities, or mere phenomena resulting from, or produced by, the blind forces of nature ; or may we ascribe to plants an independent existence in nature, notwithstanding their connection with the external world ? what we call plants are nothing but complex chemical and physical processes, then we can no longer speak of their individ- uals and species in the sense the words usually bear ; for the mere phenomena of the operations of the primary substance, which have no other efficient principle than the forces of this substance, cannot be regarded as self-existent beings, or aS Pe- culiar (specific) kinds of these beings, or as single (individual) modifications of them. This is, in fact, the result towards which the later physiological investigations are hastening, grounded on the positive results of investigations in the physical sciences. Even vegetable physiology cannot resist this tendency of science, although it struggles more or less against these conclusions.* The operations by which plants, and all organic beings, form and pre- serve their organisms, were formerly ascribed peculiar vital forces; but the physiology of our day would recognize in the vital unctions of the organism the same forces by which the processes of inorganic nature are perfomed. Thus physiology becomes _* Even Schleiden, the most prominent and most decided of the representatives tendency, seeks to counterbalance the deadening effects of the purely ag | i ihr Leben; last lecture: d. Es of this ; > rialistic view by an esthetic one (Die Pflanze und COMA | ae be, ea ee BSSigsralte nowpeticrapenao The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. 311 physics and chemistry, or, according to the usual conception of the physical and chemical processes themselves, the “ mechan- ics” of organic nature in the most comprehensive meaning of the term mechanics. And thus the life of the enchanter is un- veiled, who had seemed to be the immediate cause of his own works; the lofty partition-wall between organic and inorganic nature falls, aud one common foundation is laid for investiga- ting all material processes in every realm of nature. This impor- tant result is reached: the existence of the higher orders of nat- ural phenomena, which had been regarded as the peculiar realm of Life, is referred to the same natural causes (the same mate- tial substance and the same kind of forces) by which the lower orders, those of “inanimate” nature, have their being and per- form their functions. Still further conclusions may be attempted, and it is in the nature of scientific progress that these attempts should be made. As physical forces seem to be everywhere indissolubly connected with matter, and as a fixed regularity dis- plays itself in their operations, men were found bold enough to consider the totality of natural phenomena as the result of orig- inal primary substances, codperating with determinate forces, according to the laws of a blind necessity ;—a natural mechan- ism revolving in its endless orbit.* Though this view seems to explain all the phenomena of na- ture from one principle, in fact it precludes any real explana- If the “ mechanical” (physical and chemical) forces of nature are hecessarily active, then if any motion is to take place, the first im- pulse, the proximate cause, cannot be explained by the nature of the motion ; it must be another principle above necessity ; and this 1s true not only of nature as a whole, but also of every particu- lar motion in nature as well. Thus not only the first impulse, but the universally apparent final cause, remains an inexplicable rid- dle in the doctrine of blind necessity. Hence the insufficiency of the « physical” theory, compared with the “teleological’’y is Peculiarly obvious in the realms of organic nature, where i these views are developed, e. g.: in both of nF ‘Phyuok, des Sotyecdaals in nzen u. Thieren, (1851), ns (1852); in the last mentioned work we find sen- miracle of nature is the interchange of interchanges of attrahent and Sk gente belongs, after ‘ar ee y, ber dic Uebercinstimmung in der Structur m d. Thiere u. Pflanzen, (1839), especially p. 221-225 ; onthe other side, Zschricht d. Physische Leben, (1852), in sections ii and iii. ad 312 The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. final cause of each particular life appears so distinctly. The ad- vocates of the physical view perceive this; but they explain the fitness of means to ends in nature as a whole, and in its individ- ual parts, by supposing matter, with its blind forces, to have been created by an intelligent being.* But we can regard this as a germ of an explanation only in proportion as it is also granted, that the intellect of the Creator lies not only behind and without nature and her processes of development, but that, as if incorpo- rated in nature, it is taken into the destiny of each created being, in proportion to its individuality. But this, again presupposes the admission of a substantiality of nature fit for such an hypothe- sis ;—a substantiality not grounded on mere matter, like a blind force ; but which, on the contrary, must comprehend matter as subordinate to itself, and must realize itself through matter :—an assumption which modifies the physical view essentially, and would seem to be a modification of some ideal, or teleological theory. Without underrating the great importance, which the phys- ical view possesses for vegetable physiology, still we must confess that we cannot find in it the key to a conception of vegetable in- dividuality: for, after all, this must be sought for, not in the ex- ternal conformation, but in the essence of the plant, determined from within. This leads us from the last negative results to an been usually done. We must seek a decision in the essential concatenation of all the steps in the plant’s development forming one whole, according to one idea. ‘This is the tendency of the concluding remark of Nageli, to which he is lead by the rela tions of growth and propagation in Caulerpa ; when he says that indivisibility of form is not an element essential to individuality, —which, indeed must be constructed upon a new, and somewhat ss material a basis. Link calls attention to this same unity, which is expressed in the whole development of the plant, which forms the essence of its individuality, in the following true words: ‘‘ We cannot recognize an individual unless we are con- vinced that it remains the same in different periods of its exist- ence.”{ Now the question is just this: how can we percely' * “The fitness of means to ends, in every orga’ this individual , cannot be denied; but in, of the not consist in the fact that e¢ dividual force tending towards a certain end. TMeans to ends in the inorganic w being.” Schwann, l. c., p. 221, and, in almost the same t Link: Elem, Phil, Bot., Ed. ii, p. 11. Bhs The Vegetable Individual, in its ela titie to Species. 313 such a oneness of essence amid these soning of form and mate- rial? How do we perceive that, with all its mE 6 the t remains after all really one and the same individual ? _ Every development presents a succession of phenomena, — while they present themselves in a regular order, also s oe ; 3 ° &. gq By Ss » oe =] Re) $0 +e ps) st og 2 =. o = te _ 2 © pe] oo oO ro °° =) 8 conceived of, not only as an idea which i the whole pro- cess, or as a force determining the specific type of this plastic Succession, but also as a living essence, comprehending the idea as its internal determination, and the force as the means of its realization j—an essence which precedes and shapes the external existence ; as intentions sr and determine acts.{ If, in ac- * Du Petit-Thouars, \. c. ,» p. 284: “ Lindividu est un ¢tre dont toutes les parties sont gphencgty dun Re dchg unique d’existence.” a Elim. Phil. Bot, ie i, p. 3. “Nos individuum vocamus, quod ab uno eodemqu row int erno dete ei eae ad idealem potius quam ad realem respic! ientee oe Ueber d. Begriffe v. Gattung, a u. heat (1838), p. “ “Iti is this in- wile which r poe ‘the individual ; and in natural ees every body i in wt as it really exists as a single being, whose existence is deter- mined by a peculi udurclting vital principle.” Spring afterwards disting es systematical ro the phy siological individual: in the former one moment of the e latte i Si assemblage i by a casual observer as so many septic atical individuals—Still, a reed eee Must protest against such a purely subjective distinction of systematical and physi- ological individuals. However much ep mbryos os of mosses resemble Confers rve, or ma i e the ignorai a, Le epra, Must be given up by the systematist himself. True, Mh age a be amie spon at 3 ‘ later point in this inquiry to decide, whether a ephere of evelopment which really belongs to the individual can present itself to us so — that the divisions them- selves attain to the im — of ——. individu } Aristotle describes the internal essence of plants as ‘a Pb ara ¢ soul,” (Sperrim os, 108 CGrrer oduaros whi “3 aK cc Of int on Phe hs rist. ri Frag ii — e pl. = anima. The charge of ant st o! i rit ¢ of e p of lif his knowledge of nature must be connected with his coeeees of knowledge at the present stage of ethan meanly we ae this know a his : pen teger ‘Rol i Pas their exist “way? But év "Secon 3 Sein, XIX, No.7 ite Yi 1855. 314 The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. cordance with this idea, we regard external development as the revelation of the internal essence, which exhibits its purport in the processes it undergoes in connexion with the world without it, and whose realization is thus produced by a determinate sphere patiintion, This leads us to the aaa made at a arya ical determination of the vegetable individual. The usual defi- nition, and one entirely in accordance with the physiological point of view, is that an individual is a perfect representative of the character of the species, possessing all the functions neces- sary to the continuance of the species. Now if we would con- ceive of a physiological individual, in the broadest meaning of the term, we should certainly be compelled to demand that our conception should be such as to exhibit not only single phases, but all the phases of the specific life during its entire develop- conceivable that a higher being hauls mente the lower beings? We say: hydrogen d oxygen form water; but it would do as well to say, water forms itself out of of od meee aap is “Pst which & is cc to man,— necessary t when he proceeds from the data of his own existence. Shall the elements I Dats 4 ast ree claim to be acknowledged as real existences than man 5 — as n & 3 re 2S & 456 E 4 > z 4 hended ne, as yet, ha even of a poss bility of peor from the things themselves merely, why the ele- seomey pa i: form a mineral kingdom, a vegetable kingdom, an animal king- dom And why do they not fulfill their task after an e eternal immutable manner, since eg a fulfillment is one of their necessary, eternal, and immutable prop- erties! Why have ois succeeded in composi; sal epoch ? ‘ Why have they not from eternity produced in man’s brain the e- ory of their actions, and thus, in accordance wlth their et. eternally man anifested lorified themselves? The mo st industrious in inv into vio relations of It would be a strange contradiction, if the investigation of realms into which the human mind can gt ie rob us paves rat i nearest surest, the ir Spe rg a nt investiga But he who has not he foundations of pret pa ee Sea care tne The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species. 315 ment ; that it should realize all the capabilities of the specific be- ing, and thus present to us the whole plan, the whole destiny of the species. If we examine the preceding conclusions from this point of view, it will be evident that single cells cannot be such individuals ; for, although the whole construction of the plant and all the functions of its life are carried on by means of the cells, still, viewed as a connected whole, the cells are only single Stones, single elements, in the great mechanism of the organism. Any single member of a plant (as the internode and leaf) corres- and tricecious,* relations, and farther, to the varieties, especially to those which do no ss essential organs and functions, which belong to the species as such; e. g.: those varieties whicl never bear blossoms (Ball-acacias), or which never produce fruit (congested blossoms), or which never perfect seeds (currant- Stape, cultivated bananas and bread-fruit trees). Besides, t Stock is exactly similar to another: we ascertain only the limits of the possible relations of the specific form by a comparison o many stocks, As in animal physiology the solution of the prob- lem of the life of many animals depends upon their social relations (societies composed of couples or of flocks, or of self-governing States), so in vegetable physiology it depends upon characteristic physiological tein cee th plants live single and dispersed, or in Societies. For example, in considering the life of turf-mosses we must determine whether they grow in great sods or in on aia and of grasses, whether they form meadows; or of trees, forests. Even the relations of geographical distribution, which are discov- ered by a comparison of all the stocks, depend upon the physio- * Triecio ; améng Phanerogamise (Ceratonia, some Kinds of Sasa tat ass maresnaenenoone the Cryptogamiw ; perhaps we may add the Floridize, In Polysyphanio violacea [have found three kinds of sere min. a ay ca da of development in the same place : (upon the same thread in * 316. The Vegetable Individual, in its relation to Species, logical character of the plants: plants of sensitive and inflexible constitutions are found only within narrow limits; while plants of adaptive and pliant constitutions are more widely distributed, be- come migratory plants, and by degrees spread over almost all parts of the earth, if their seeds possess the necessary properties. From these considerations, and many others which might be adduced, it is obvious that there are no determinate limits to a purely physiological conception of the vegetable individual; and that we ma and the definition of the individual until it coincides with that of the species itself. How then can we steer a middle course, betweer the mor- phological view, which results in indefinite subdivision, and the physiological, which ends in indefinite expansion? The physio- logical view has shown that none of the divisions or spheres of formation, which have been regarded as the individual ones, fully realizes the idea of the species; and that each needs the others to render this idea complete. The morphological view has shown, in the same manner, that there are subordinate and comprehen- sive spheres of development, none of which exhibits complete independence, since all appear in unequal degrees, as more or less perfeet members of the entire succession of the specific develop- ment. If we would discover the individual under such circum- stances, we must not demand of it all that belongs to the species ; for this is completely represented only in the totality of the indi- viduals, not in any single individual. We must answer this ques- tion: Which member of the graduated potential series in the sphere of development subordinate to that of the species deserves preéminently the title of individual? And we shall be compelled to reply: "That which exhibits the most complete independence and definiteness. Good use has decided in regard to man (ant the higher animals), and it justifies itself by the fact, that what 1s usually termed an individual undoubtedly possesses great organic independence: and this is true both of its subordinate spheres (1. @ the members of the organism, down to the cells) and of those by which the individual is comprehended (family, state, race, etc: By means of comparison and analogy, the signification of the more doubtful spheres of development among the lower animals and plants may receive some new light from such a view. I pro- pose to attempt this in the second part of this Investigation, but now {I will only subjoin a few general remarks. f the unity in every development, The more complete this sub- ordination, the more perfect is the individuality; for it is only this subordination to the unity which binds up the multiplicity the conformation into an indivisible organism. .'The less com- ie * Se ‘ Successive development, we may say, is the peculiar nature of independent, and more divisible among themselves. Thus the vegetable organism is a dividual, rather than an individual ; a multiplicity* rather than an unity; i.e. a whole whose parts hold € same relation to each other as individuals to each other, but which present spheres as indivisible as the whole itself. This is the doctrine of the relative} individuality of plants, which Stein- il has especially noticed. According to this doctrine, different orders of vegetable individuals, as it were different powers of indi- Viduality, are distinguished. In the same manner DeCandollef distinguishes the cell-individual (Pindividu cellulaire, in which bourgeon, after Darwin); the slip-individual (?individu bouture) ; the stock-individual, or the vegetable individual (Cindividu végé- ag “Planta est multitudo.” Engelmann: de Antholysi, p. 12 ; ,, | Steinheit : pecially p. 4 and p.17: “Les végétaux ne peuvent arriver a Vindividualité absolue ; ils se presentent a nous dans un état, won peut désigner par le nom @individualité relative ; ce qui distingue cette rtie de la eréation du régne Feiweing thy ott Vindividualité est nulle, et du régne animal, on elle est presque toujours DeCandolte : Physiologie Végét., p. 957. The author does not attach much im- : to his division, as he says he has assumed it for convenience of expression, and to avoid the usual confusion of language. His son Alphonse DeCandolle consid ers it quite an arbitrary matter which part of the plant we call the individual: “Les ‘ sont éyi ment des étre og weet mais jusqu’ ot veut-on les décom- . Reser, pour que les élémens s’appellent des individus? C'est une chose arbitraire ‘ui dépend de Vidée par laquelle on se laisse dominer” (after Steinheil, p. 6). 318 Messrs. Wohler and Dean on Tellurmethyle. slip-individual is essentially the same as the bud-individual (i. e. shoot-individual), we have four degrees of individuality, in which at least one more might have been easily inserted, between the cell and the shoot-individual, i. e.: the member or “ story’’-indi- vidual (Gaudichaud’s phyton). With this view Schleiden’s divi- sion is connected: he distinguishes the cell as the plant of the first order ; the shoot as that of the second, which he calls the simple plant (a term borrowed from C. F*. Wolf, who used it in the same sense) ; the whole stock as that of the third order, which - he designates as the composite plant By a searching investigation into the shoot, I shall endeavor to decide whether all these rela- tive individuals can be considered individuals with the same Jus- tice ; or whether, after all, one of them does not deserve the title preéminently, corresponding to the animal individual. In either ease Geethe’s words may be applied with perfect justice to plants and their individuality : : : Freuet euch des wahren Scheins, Euch des ernsten Spieles ; Kein Lebendiges ist ins Immer ists ein Vieles. 4 Herder, in speaking of the works of the Creator, says: “ Every one of Thy works Thou makest one and perfect, and like itself alone.” This sentence presents the other aspect of existence, by which the multiform is one ; and every unity in the one-sidedness and incompleteness of all single manifestations, is after all a perfect whole. These words lead us to the internal essence of things, re- ferring us at the same time to the primary ideas, which Nature comprehends and realizes in Life. 0 be continued.) = Arr. XXXIL—A Research on Tellurmethyle; by F. WOnLER and J. Dean. (Read before the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, by Prof. Horsford.) Tr was not difficult to foresee that a compound of tellurium would be formed with the radical of methylic alcohol after the corresponding ethyle compound had been described. In this little research which we propose to offer in the following pages, W® only desire the credit of having made the first step, and of hav- ing overcome the difficulties which are inseparably connected with the investigation of a body possessing such an excessively disgusting odor. f Pre The preparation of tellurmethyle is conducted in a manne’ sxactly similar to that employed for obtaining tellurethyle ; iamely, by distilling telluret of potassium with a moderately con- Be SFOS@ at, USL lexxiy, 69. = “— Sees a. en, ee ie one a = ci’ —_ Ay Pharm, * der Gottingen. B. vi—Ann. Ch. : | & } t: 3 Messrs. Wohler and Dean on Tellurmethyle. 319 centrated solution of soem ce of baryta. The reaction goes on very easily of its own accord, very little heat being re- quired, and the distillation is continued as long as oil drops are seen to go over with the wate Tellurmethyle is a pale oan yellow, oily, very mobile liquid, heavier than water with which it is not miscible. Its smell is about 82°C.* Its gas is ore like that of tellurium itself. Exposed to the air it smokes feebly in consequence of oxyda- tion. Set on fire it burns with a clear, luminous, bluish white flame forming copious vapors of tellurous acid. Tellur rmethyle, C:H;Te, behaves like tellurethyle, as a radical, or so to speak as ametal. It forms a basic oxyd and the corresponding haloid com- pounds. Its elementary analysis was considered superfluous, as its constitution can be safely ot oo from its compounds, which are also.much easier to analyz Oxyd of Tellurmethyle—C: "HsT'e0. —This is formed when t@lurmethyle is heated with somewhat strong nitric acid. At first it is partially dissolved imparting a reddish yellow re to the liquid, then there takes place a strong reaction, and we a colorless solution of oxyd of tellurmethyle, nitrous ead ges being evolved. After careful evaporation, the salt is obtained in colorless, prismatic crystalst. It is easily soluble in water and in alcohol. By heating it is decomposed, flashing like gunpowder. tis the material for: the formation of all the other compounds. We found however that the simplest method for preparing oxyd of tellurmethyle was not from this salt, but from the ae or ine compounds, by decomposition with oxyd of silve he pound was covered with a little water, and oxyd “of silver freshly precipitated by means of baryta water, and well washed, S mixed with it in excess. The decomposition stews in- Stantly and is attended by spontaneous warming 0 In the fluid filtered from the iodid or chlorid of silver, ayia of urmethyle is contained in solution. Ge? Oxyd of tellurmethyle is, when evaporated to dryness, indis- tinctly crystalline, Exposed to to the air it evaporates, absorbing * ° the e her oe thensetiyie ata sip beige a ener eee Ss Pus tise: ethane plunged int» this, but into shh of techick the very thin tube containing the aus pe das was placed and heated. ¢ 80° C,, as the boilin t, according t gh) sc ccambcabubate Met be abo Penne point of scaiccmathyast cael not yet determined by experiment wed about 99) x_iSemetines, bably either by the of too much or too strong an acid, we obtained by Dane not a etal salt, but a transparent, amor- Phous mass. In this case it coritained, as it appeared, in consequence of the decom- Postion ofa part of the methyle, fellervos sckd, either merely as a mixture or in 320 Messrs. Wihler and Dean on Tellurmethyle. also carbonic acid. It has a disagreeable taste but is without sm ts solution reacts strongly alkaline upon red litmus paper. of sulphate of copper a voluminous blueish precipitate. From its solution, sulphurous acid precipitates oily drops evolving the peculiar smell of tellurmethyle. Hydrochloric acid precipitates white chlorid of tellurmethyle, and hydriodic acid, the red iodid. . Sulphate of oxyd of tellurmethyle, is formed by the immedi- ate saturation of the base with the acid ; ‘it crystallizes in trans- parent, somewhat large and regular cubes, is very soluble in wa- ter, but insoluble in alcohol. The other salts we were unable to form from lack of material ; we could only observe that the salts of oxalic, tartaric, acetic and formic acids were very soluble. Chlorid of Feliurmethyle—C2H sTeCl.—It is formed as a vo- luminous white amorphous nitrate, it contains tellurous acid either in admixture orin combination. With bichlorid of platinum it gives no pre- cipitate. % ' . Oxychlorid of Tellurmethyle—C2H 3 TeO + C2H;TeCl.— This is formed by dissolving the chlorid in ammonia, after evap- orating a mixture of chlorid of ammonium the oxychlorid is obtained. These can be easily separated by means of strong al- cohol. The oxychlorid forms colorless short prisms. Hydro- chloric acid precipitates from its solution the chlorid. Bromid of Tellurmethyle—C2H:»TeBr.—It is formed in the same way as the chlorid, which it very much resembles and with which it is perhaps isomorphous. It forms shining, colorless prisms and melts at'89° ©. ; Todid of Tellurmethyle—C2HsTel.—If colorelss hydriodic acid, or a solution of iodid of potassium is dropped into a solution of the nitrate or chlorid of tellurmethyle, a bright .citron yellow precipitate is formed, which after a few moments changes to 4 vermilion color. If the solutions are mixed while still warm, . the precipitate becomes immediately red and crystalline. Af drying it forms a vermilion colored, crystalline powder. ‘The iodid was used for determining the constitution of tellurmethyle. The carbon and hydrogen were estimated by combustion with oxyd of copper ; the iodine by dissolving the compound : tices Messrs. Wohler and Dean on Tellurmethyle. 321 1 . and’ precipitation with nitrate of silver; the tellurium by.decom- posing the compound with aqua-regia, evaporating to dryness, re- dissolving and precipitating. with sulphite of ammonia. 0:265 grm. gave 0:0525 grm. CO» and 0-0386 grm. HO. 0:2665 grm. gave 0-305 germ. Agl. : 02721 grm. gave 0-085 grm. Te. Orin 100 parts. se Found. * | ae ee aes ee H; 1°45 - ~ - - 161 Te 31:12 - - -~ = 31-24 I 61:62 - - * - 61°54 100-00 99:79 lodid of tellurmethyle is but slightly soluble in cold water, much more so in warm; it dissolves in large quantity and im- parts a reddish yellow color to alcohol. om both liquids it crystallizes in small, shining, vermilion colored prisms, which are largest when obtained from an alcoholic solution. They ap- pear to be rhombic octahedrons. If the cold alcoholic solution is@nixed with about an equal volume of water, the iodid is pre- cipitated as a citron-yellow precipitate, but after a few moments, One Sees in the fluid a disturbance, and soon the entire precipitate whilst still in suspension is changed into glittering, crystalline Plates of a vermilion color. This body, like iodi mercury, has two different states, one yellow and one red, connected prob- ably in both cases with a dimorphous condition. All endeavors have failed so far to preserve and crystallize either in the yellow orm. By spontaneous evaporation of the alcoholic solution in which it is certainly contained in the yellow form, red crystals are obtained, and it is not fusible without decomposition. At about 130° C. it is changed into black iodid of tellurium. A cyan- ogen compound we were not able to obtain; at least by dissolving oxyd of tellurmethyle in aqueous hydrocyanic acid: by evapora- tion the base remained unchanged. ere appears also to be a sulphur compound which we were unable to study farther from lack of material. If hydrosulphuric acid gas be conducted into a solution of the chlorid of tellur- methyle, a white flocculent precipitate is formed, which becomes the air a most insupporta- vs : Sun ma 322 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. Arr. XXXIII.—Memoir on Meteorites—A Description of five new Meteoric Irons, with some theoretical considerations on the origin of Meteorites based on their Physical and Chem- ical characters; by J. Lawrence Smitu, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Medical Department of the University of le. Louisvi (Read before the American Association for the Ad t of Science, April, 1854.) (Continued from p. 163.) Some Theoretical considerations connected with Meteorites. Unver this head no mention will be made of the phenomena accompanying the fall of meteorites, as their light, noise, burst- ing, and their black coating ; which arise after the bodies have entered the atmosphere, and are brought about by its agency. This omission will affect in io way the theoretical views under consideration, and the introduction of these particulars would uselessly increase the length of this memoir. The lessons to be learned from meteorites, both stony and mge- assumption, we certainly have the proof, as far as we may ever expect to get it, that materials of other portions of the universe are J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 323 and ‘chrome iron affording in their crystalline form angles identical with those of terrestrial origin. t perhaps of all the interesting facts under this head developed by meteorites, is the universality of the laws of chemical affinity, or the truth, that all the laws of chemical combination and atomic Constitution are to be equally well seen in extra-terestrial and terrestrial matter; so that were Dalton or Berzelius to seek for the atomic weights of iron, silica or magnesia they might learn them as well from meteoric minerals as from those taken from the bowels of the earth. The atomic constitution of meteoric anorthite or of pyroxene is the same as that which exists in our own rocks. eeping in view then the physical and chemical characters of meteorites, I propose to offer some theoretical considerations Which to be fully appreciated must be followed step by step. These views are not offered, because they individually possess particular novelty ; it is the manner in which they are combined, to which especial attention is called. Physical Characteristics to be noted in Meteorites.—The first physical characteristic to be noted is their form. No masses of rock, however rudely detached from a quarry, or blasted from the side of a mountain, or ejected from the mouth of a volcano, would present more diversity of form than meteoric stones: they are rounded, cubical, oblong, jagged, flattened, and in fine they pre- Sent a great variety of fantastic shapes. Now the fact of form I conceive to be a most important point for consideration in re- gard to the origin of these bodies; as the form alone is strong proof that the individual meteorites have not always been cos- I pass to another point—namely the crystalline structure ; more especially that of the iron, and the complete separation in nod- Metal, combining only with a limited portion to form particular Minerals ; and did we aim to imitate such separation by artificial Processes, we could only hope to do it by retaining the iron ina Plastic condition for a great length of time. Also, no other agent than fire can be conceived of by which this metal could be kept in the condition requisite for the separation. _ If these ae ah, reference to the crystalline structure be ad- Mitted, the natural suggestion is that they could only have been thus heated while a part of some large body, 324 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. Another physical fact worthy of being noticed here, is* the manner in which the metallic iron and stony parts are often inter- laced and mixed, as in the Pallas and Atacama irons, where nickeliferous iron and olivine in nearly equal portions (by bulk) they will. be passed over. Mineralogical and Chemical points to be noted in Meteorites. —The rocks or minerals of meteorites are not of a sedimentary character, not such as are produced by the action of water. This is obvious to any one who will examine these bodies. A mineralo- gist will also be struck with the thin dark-colored coating on the surface of the stony meteorites. The coating, in most, if notgn all, instances is of atmospheric origin, being acquired. after the meteorite enters the atmosphere, and as such, no fnrther notice will be taken of it; but I will proceed at once to notice the most to various active and extinct volcanoes. It is useless to dwell on this fact, as it is one well known to all mineralogists who may have examined this matter, and none have given more especial atten- tion to it than Rammelsberg who in a paper published in 1849, ails his examination of a great variety of lavas, and tra ed | the perfect parallelism between them and stony meteorites. He showed that the Juvenas stone has the same constitution as the | Thjorsa lava of Heckla, both consisting substantially of augite ‘ J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 325 The inference to be drawn from the last character is very evi- dent, it is highly significative of the igneous origin of these bod- ies, and of an igneous action similar to that now existing in our volcanoes. Yet another point of resemblance to certain of our terrestrial igneous rocks is the presence of metallic iron, for lately Mr. An- rews has proved the existence of metallic iron in basaltic rocks, but this will not be insisted on, as the quantity of iron discovered in basaltic rocks is so minute as only to be detected by the most delicate means of investigation. : Ever since the labors of Howard in 1802, the chemical consti- tution of meteorites have attracted much attention, more espe- cially the elements associated in the metallic portion, and although we find no new elements, still their association, so far as yet hickel. With our more recent method of separating cobalt from nickel, very accurate and precise results can be obtained as relates to the cobalt; the copper exists always in so minute propor- ion that the most careful manipulation is required to separate it. _ Another element frequently, but not always, mentioned as asso- ciated with the iron, is phosphorus. Here again my testing of thirty specimens lead me to a similar generalization concerning Phosphorus, namely, that no meteoric iron is to be expected with- out it; my examination has extended as well to the metallic par- ticles separated from the stony meteorites as to the meteoric irons Proper. It may be even further stated that, in most instances, the Phosphorus was traceable directly to the mineral Schreibersite. These four elements then, Iron, Nickel, Cobalt and Phospho- tus, I consider remarkably constant ingredients. First in the me- teoric irons proper, and secondly in the metallic particles of the Stony meteorites ; there being only some three or four meteorites cee hundreds that are known, in which they are not recog- _ As regards the combination of these elements, it is worthy of Temark that no one of them is associated with oxygen, although all four of them have strong affinity for this element, and are never found (except copper) in the earth uncombined with it, exreps Where some similar element (as sulphur, &c.) supplies its place. _* The traces of iron found in basaltic rock already alluded to, forms too insignifi- - “ant an exception to be insisted on —v. L 8. ~* - 326 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. The inference of the absence - ae te in a gaseous condi- tion, or in water, is drawn from such substances as iron and nickel being in their metallic rel as has been just mentioned : but it must not be inferred that oxygen is absent in all forms at the place of origin of the meteorites ; for the silica, magnesia, pro- toxyd of iron, &c., contain this element. The occurrence of one class of oxyds and not another would indicate a limited supply of the element oxygen, the more oxydizable elements as silicon, magnesium, &c., having appropriated it in preference to the iron. Many other elements worthy of notice might be mentioned here, and some of them for aught we know may be constant in- aredients, but in the absence of strong presumption at least on this head, they will be passed over, as those already mentioned suffice for the support of all shaciatieal views to be advanced. I cannot, however, avoid calling attention to the presence of carbon in certain meteorites, for although its existence is denied by some chemists, it is nevertheless a fact that can be as easily established as the presence of the nickel. The interest to be attached to it, is due to the fact that : is so commonly regarded in the light ‘of an organic element. It serves to strengthen the notion that carbon can be of pure mineral origin, for. no one would be likely to suppose that the carbon found its way into a meteorite either directly or indirectly from an organic source Baniog thus noted the predominant physical, mineralogical and chemical characteristics of meteorites I pass on to the next head. Marked points of similarity in the Constitution of Meteorite Stones.—Had this class of bodies not possessed certain sae ties distinguishing them from terrestrial minerals, much dou would even now be entertained of their celestial origin, and “Ae rious would be the explanations made even in those cases where the bodies were seen to fall and afterwards pinay Chemistry It is the object of this part of the. roe o explain more prominently perhaps than has yet been done, how it is that chem ay pecs ith suc certain bodies; and I propose ‘to: go even ‘a ‘step ) farther, a see if the chemical chemical constitution of the meteorites can indicate. from * what part of the heavens they may have come. oc emsieetieinemaemen J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 327 in color. The stony meteorites are usually of a grey or greenish gtey color, granular structure, readily broken by a blow of the mer, and exteriorly are covered with a thin coating of fused material. The mixed meteorite presents characters of both of the above ; a large portion of it is constituted of the kind of iron al- teady mentioned, cellular in its character, and the cells filled up with stony materials, similar in appearance to those constituting the second class. Although there are some- instances of bodies of undoubted Meteoric origin not properly falling under either of the above three heads, still they will be seen upon close investigation not te interfere in any way with the general conclusions that are at- tempted to be arrived at ; for these constituents are represented in the stony materials of the second class from which their only es- sential difference consists in the absence of metallic particles. hese, and then compare the results with what may be known of the stony meteorites, and in every instance, it will agree with some Mineral or minerals found in this latter class, as olivine or pyrox- ene, most commonly the former ; but in no instance is it a min- eral not foupd in the stony meteorites. If these last, in their With the metal constituting the metallic meteorites. — _ As to those mixed meteorites in which the metallic and stony seem to be equally distributed ; their two elements are rtions P t representatives of the two classes just described. Examined oe 328 Pf Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. in this way there will be no difficulty in tracing the same signa- ture on them all, endorsing the above as their true character, and almost serving to tell us whence they came. They may emphatic- ally be said to have been linked in their origin by a chain of iron: There is one mineral which there is every reason to believe constantly accompanies the metallic portions, and which may be regarded as a most peculiar mark of difference between meteor- ites and terrestrial bodies. Jt is the mineral Schreibersite (see first part of this memoir) to which the constant presence of phos- phorus in meteoric iron is due. This mineral as already re- marked has no parallel on the face of the globe, whether we con- sider its specific or generic character, there being no such thing as phosphuret of iron and nickel or any other phosphuret found among minerals. These facts render the consideration of Schrei- bersite one of much interest, running as it probably does through all meteorites, and forming another point of separation between meteorites and terrestrial objects. : Another striking similarity in the composition of meteorites 1s the limited action of oxygen on them. In the case of the purely metallic meteorites we trace an almost total absence of this ele- ment. In the stony meteorites, the oxygen is in combination with silicon, magnesium, &c., forming silica, magnesia; &c., that com- ine with small portions of other substances to form the predomin- ant earthy minerals of meteorites. When iron is found in com- bination with oxygen, it is found in its lowest state of oxydation as in the protoxyd of the olivine and chrome iron, and as mag- netic oxyd. i aia Without going further into detail as regards the similarity of composition of meteorites, they will be seen to have as strongly marked points of resemblance as minerals coming from the same mountain, I might almost say from the same mine, and it is not asking much to admit their having a common centre of origin avi that whatever the body from which they originate, it must con- tain no uncombined oxygen and I might even add none in the form of water. eh 38 What is this centre of origin? Physies does not point it out, and although the chemist cannot explore the elementary constitu tion of any other great celestial bodies than the earth, he can ex amine those smaller celestial masses which come to the earth and from his results stand on a firmer basis for theoreticakconclusions- Origin of Meteoric Stones.—In taking up the theoretical con- siderations of the origin of meteoric stones, it is of th utmost consequence, to reflect well before we confound shooting stars and meteoric stones as all belonging to the same class of eS ; a view entertained by many distinguished observers. It is doubt- f eir having bec confounded that but eek a origin of these less owing to the fact of their ha made in J. Lawrence Smith on’ Meteorites. 329 the shooting stars. It may be a broad assumption to start with, that there is not a single evidence of the identity of shooting stars (as exemplified by the periodical meteors of August and November) and these meteors which give rise to meteoric stones, and this conclusion is one arrived at by as full an examination of the subject as Iam capable of making.* Some of the prominent reasons for such a conclusion will be mentioned. _ Were shooting stars and meteoric stones the same class of bod- les, it is natural to suppose that the fall of the latter would be most abundant when the former are most numerous. In other howers have been sometimes seen, ought to have been attended with the falling of one or more meteoric stones; whereas there is not a Single instance on record where these showers have been accom- panied with the falling of a meteoric stone. Again, in all in- stances where a-meteoric body has been seen to fall and has been observed even from its very commencement, it has been alone and Rot accompanied by other meteors. Very little reflection will Serve to convince any one that an objection to the identity of the two classes of bodies based upon the above fact is of great Weight. - Another strong objection to considering the bodies of the same * Prof. D, Olmsted in a most interesting article on the subject of meteors, to be found in. the so cone of os ae Journ Science, p. 132, insists upon the e between shooting stars and meteorites, and the time and attention he has ) the phenomiena of meteors give weight to his opinion.. ertes, Vol, XIX, No, 57—May, 1855. 42 330 J. Lawrence Smith on Meieorites. velocities.* Not even their effect on striking the earth, will furnish any data whereby to calculate their velocities before entering the atmosphere, for this medium must offer such enormous resistance to bodies penetrating at great velocities, that these velocities must be reduced to but a fraction of what they originally were, and it is a question whether a body entering our atmosphere at ten miles a second would penetrate the soil to a much: greater depth than one entering it at five miles a second, for the increased velocity of the former would cause an incre eased resistance in the atmo- sphere and therefore have received proportionally a greater check before striking the eart Another fact tending to prove a dissimilarity between shooting stars and meteoric stones, is that the velocity of no one of the shooting stars has been observed to be so low as to allow of their being considered satellites to the earth; their average velocity is 164 miles a second and it requires a reduction to less than six miles a second for them to alt a a path around the earth. Now. assume what we may as to the original orbit of the. meteoric stones, and as to their ale velocity—let their orbit be around the sun and their velocity 16 miles a second—there is one thing we know, namely that these bodies do enter our atmosphere, an it is but right to assume, often pass through the atmosphere with- out falling to the earth, sometimes passing through the very Up- permost portion of that medium, at other times lower. Wha : becomes of their original assumed velocity after this passage? Ss it can be so — as to be drawn to the earth’s surface, and shes stopped altogether in its passage, their velocities may be changed to any velocity from 16 miles a second to zero, accord- ing to the amount of resistance it meets with ; and what is equally true in this connection, is, that when the velocity falls below six miles a second (or thereabouts) they can no longer escape from the attraction of the earth and resume their solar orbit, but must revolve as a satellite around the earth until ultimately brought to its surface by repeated disturbances. The deduction from the above fact, is as follows: that as the most correct observations have never given a velocity of less than * Under this head I will merely note what is considered one of ve ioe established, ly th cases of the determination of velocity of a meteoric stone—name of the Weston esti ceed yi miles @ sec- ed hie the duration the mete- we J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. S31. the uppermost limit of the atmosphere, destroys their velocity and disperses the matter of which they are composed. Other grounds might be mentioned for supposing a difference between shooting stars and meteoric stones, and ave dwelt on it thus much because it is conceived of prime importance in pursuing the correct path that is to lead to the discovery (if it ean be made) of their origin. It is also of no small value to the beautiful and probable theory of shooting stars that we should separate every thing from it that may tend to affect its plausibility. Various theories have been devised to account for their origin. One is that they are small planetary bodies revolving around the sun, and that at times they become entangled in our atmosphere lose their orbital velocity by the resistance of the atmosphere and are finally attracted to the earth. They are also supposed to have been ejected from the volcanoes of the moon: and lastly they are considered as formed from particles floating in the at- mosphere. The exact nature of this last theory, is understood by reading the views of Prof. C. U. She , as € in an in- teresting report on meteorites published in 1848. The author* says—‘ The extra-terrestrial origin of meteoric stones and iron masses, seems likely to be more and more called in question with the advance of knowledge respecting such substances and as ad- ditions continue to be made to the connected sciences. Great electrical excitation is known to accompany volcanic eruptions, Which may reasonably be supposed to occasion some chemical changes in the volcanic ashes ejected ; these being wafted by the ascensional force of the eruption into the regions of the magneto- polar influence, raay there undergo a species of magnetic analy- * T must in justi Prof. | say that since his paper was written he has informisd ine thet he ao. Baty acta Se views; and I would now omit the criticism of them gid they not exist in his memoir uncontradicted and also were they not views stifPentertLined ly some. 332 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. “ Any great disturbance of the forces maintaining these clouds of meteor-dust, like that produced by a magnetic storm, might lead to the precipitation of portions of the matter thus suspended. If the disturbance was confined to the magnetic dust, iron masses would fall; if to the diamagnetic dust, a non-ferraginous stone ; if it should extend to both classes simultaneously, a blending of the two characters would ensue in the precipitate, and a rain 0 ordinary meteoric stones would take place. “The occasional raining of meteorites might therefore on such a theory, be as much expected, as the ordinary deposition of mois- ture from the atmosphere. The former would originate in a me- chanical elevation of volcanic ashes and in matter swept into the air by tornadoes, the latter from simple evaporation. In the one case, the matter is upheld by magneto-electrie force ; in the other, by the law of diffusion which regulates the blending of vapors and gases, and by temperature. A precipitation of metallic and earthy matter would happen on any reduction of the magnetic tension ; one of rain, hail or snow, ona fall of temperature. ‘The materials of both originate in our earth. In the one instance they are elevated but to a short distance from its surface, while in the other, they appear to penetrate beyond its farthest limits, and possibly to enter the inter-planetary space ; in both cases, how- ever, they are destined, through the operation of invariable laws, to return to their original repository.” This theory, coming’as it does from one who is justly en- titled to high consideration, from the fact of the special atten- tion he has given to the subject of meteorites, may mislead, and for that reason objections will be advanced which will doubt- less entirely set aside this notion of terrestrial origin, and to this end [ would consider two fundamental principles of it. First of all it must be proved that terrestrial voleanoes contain all the va- rieties of matter found in the composition of meteoric bodies ; there is no doubt that many of the varieties are ejected from vol- canoes, as olivine, &c., but then the principal one, nickeliferous iron has never in a single instance been found in the lava or other matter coming from volcanoes although frequently sought for. But the physical obstacles are a still more insuperable difficulty in the way of adopting this theory. In the first place it is con- sidered a physical impossibility for tornadoes or other currents of air to waft matter, however impalpable, “beyond the farthest lim- its of the earth and possibly into interplanetary space.” Again cause th J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 333, which the consolidation of these bodies are assimilated in this theory) they should fall perpendicularly or nearly so, from their points of condensation. And lastly (under the head of physical objections) how can bodies so formed be precipitated in such very oblique directions as many are known to have, and that too from st to West and not from the North.. We pass on to a concise statement of some of the chemical ob- jections to this theory of atmospheric origin, and if possible, they are more insuperable than the last mentioned. Contemplate for a moment the first meteorite described in this paper ;—here is a mass of iron of about sixty pounds of a most solid structure, highly crystalline, composed of nickel and iron chemically united, Containing in its centre a crystalline phosphuret of iron and nickel, and on its exterior surface a compound of sulphur and iron also in atomic proportions, and then see if the mind can be satisfied State of things that must exist to form bodies in atomic propor- tions, where no agency is present to dissolve or fuse the particles concerned. One other objection and I am done with this theory. The particles of iron and nickel supposed to be ejected from the volcano, must pass from the heated mouth of a crater ascend through the oxygen of the atmosphere without undergoing the slightest oxydation, for if there be any one thing which marks he meteorites more strongly than any other it is the freedom of the masses of iron from oxydation except on the surface. Buta still more remarkable abstinence from oxydation would the 334 J. Lawrence Sinith on Meteorites. ever reasonable the admission of this orbital motion immediately before and for some time previous to their contact with the earth, the assumption of their original cosmical origin would appear-to have no support in the many characteristics of meteoric bedies as enumerated some pages back. The form alone of these bodies is any thing but what ought to be expected from a gradual condensa- tion and consolidation; all the chemical and mineralogical charac- ters are opposed to this supposition. If the advocates of this theory do not insist on the last feature of it, then the theory amounts to but little else than a statement that meteoric stones fall to us from space while having an orbital motion. In order to entitle this planetary theory to any weight it must be shown, how, bodies formed and constructed as these are, could be other than frag- ments of some very much larger mass. As to the existence of meteoric stones in space, travelling ina special orbit prior to their fall, there can be but little doubt when we consider their direction and velocity; their composition proving them to be of extra-terrestrial origin. This, however, only con- s in part to their origin, and those who will examine them chemically will feel convinced that the earth is not the first great mass that meteoric stones have been in contact with, and this conviction is strengthened when we reflect on the strong marks of community of origin so fully dwelt upon. It is then in consideration of what was the connection of these bodies prior to their having an independent motion of their own that this memoir will be concluded. Lunar Origin of Meteoric Stones.—It only remains to bring forward the facts already developed, to prove the plausibility of this origin of meteorites. It is a theory that was proposed as early as 1660 by an Italian philosopher, Terzago, and advanced by Olbers in 1795, without any knowledge of its having been before proposed; it was sustained by Laplace with all his mathematical skill from the time of its adoption to his death; it was also advocated on chemical grounds by Berzelius, whom I have no reason to believe ever changed his views in this matter, and to these we have to add the following distinguished mathematicians and philosophers: Biot, Brandes, Poisson, Quetelet, Arago and Benzenberg who have at one time or another advocated the Lunar origin of meteorites. Some of the above astronomers abandoned the theory, among them Olbers and Arago, but they did not do so, from any sup- posed defect in it, but from adopting the assumption that shooting stars and meteorites were the same; and on studying the former and applying the phenomena attendant upon them to meteor ites, the supposed lunar origin was no longer possible. a ~ On referring to the able researches of Sears C. Walker on the a Pe ar eal NRT te ie ae J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 335 Soc., Jan., 1841), that astronomer makes the following remarks about Olbers’s change of views. “In 1836, Olbers, the original proposer of the theory of 1795, being firmly convinced of the cor- regtness of Brandes’s estimate of the relative velocity of meteors, renounces his selenic theory, and adopts the cossica/ theory as the only one which is adequate to explain the established facts be- fore the public.” phenomena of shooting stars. Had Olbers viewed the matter in Ist. That all meteoric masses have a community of origin. 2nd. At one period they formed parts of some large body. 3d. They have all been subject to a more or less prolonged igneous action corresponding to that of terrestrial volcanoes. Ath. That their source must be deficient in oxygen. Sth. That their average specific gravity is about that of the moon From what has been said under the head of common charac- that at one period or another has cast them forth ? The latter it Seems are the only opinion that can be entertained in re- ee canis ae cases character of the minerals composing Meteorites, nothing remains to be added to what has already 336 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. been said; in fact no mineralogist can dispute the great resem- __ blance of these minerals to those of terrestrial volcanoes, they ' having only sufficient difference in association, to establish that although igneous they are extra-terrestrial. The source mus also be deficient in oxygen either in a gaseous condition or com- bined as ir water: the reasons for so thinking have been clearly stated as dependent upon the existence of metallic iron in mete- orites; a metal so oxydizable, that in its terrestrial associations it is almost always found combined with oxygen and never in its ‘ metallic state. , What then is that body which is to claim common parentage of these celestial messengers that visit us from time to time? Are we to look at them as fragments of some shattered planet whose great representatives are the thirty-three asteroids between Mars and Jupiter and that they are “ minute outriders of the as- teroids” (to use the language of R. P. Greg, Jr., in a late commu- nication to the British Association), which have been ultimately drawn from their path by the attraction of the earth? For more reasons than one this view is not tenable ; many of our most dis- tinguished astronomers do not regard the asteroids as fragments of a shattered planet, and it is hard to believe if they were, an the meteorites the smaller fragments, that these latter should resemble each other so closely in their composition; a circum- stance that would not be realized if our earth was shattered into a million of masses large and small. If then we leave the asteroids and look to the other planets we find nothing in their constitution, or the cireumstances attending them, to lead to any rational supposition as to their being the ori- ginal habitation of the class of bodies in question. This leaves _us then but the moon to look to as the parent of meteorites, and the more I contemplate that body, the stronger does the convic- tion grow, that to it all these bodies originally belonged. : It cannot be doubted from what we know of the moon that it is in all likelihood constituted of such matter as compose meteoric stones ; and that its appearances indicate volcanic action, which 4 when compared with the combined voleanie action on the face of | the globe, is like contrasting Actna with an ordinary forge, 5° é great is the difference. The results of volcanic throws and out- § bursts of lava are seen, for which we seek in vain any thing but . a faint picture on the surface of our earth. Again in the support of the present view it is clearly established that there is neither atmosphere nor water on the surface of that y, and conse- quently no oxygen in those conditions which would preclude the existence of metallic iron. tie Another ground in support of this view is based on the specific gravity of meteorites, a circumstance that has not been insist on, and although of itself possessing no great value, yet in cop- Junction with the other facts it has some weight. - J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 337 In viewing the cosmical bodies of our system with relation to their densities, they are divided into two great classes—planetary and cometary bodies (these last embracing comets proper and shooting stars), the former being of dense, and the lagter of very attenuated matter ; and so far as our knowledge extends, there is no reason to believe that the density of any comet approaches that of any of the planets: this fact gives some grounds for connect- ing meteorites with the planets. Among ‘the planets there is also a difference, and a very marked one, in their respective den- sities; Saturn having a density of 0-77 to 0-75, water being 1-0; Jupiter 2:00-2:25; Mars 3:-5—4:1; Venus 4:8-5-4; Mercury tween 7 and 36; Uranus 0-8-2-9 ; that of the Earth being 5-67.* If then from specific gravity we are to connect meteorites to the planets, as their mean density is usually considered about 30,t they must come within the planetary range of Mars, Earth and Venus. In the cases of the first and last we can trace no connection, from our ignorance of their nature and of the causes that could have detached them. y This reduces us then to our own planet consisting of two parts, the planet proper with a density of 5-76, and the moon with a density of about 3°62.t On viewing this, we are at once struck with the relation that these bear to the density of meteorites, a relation that even the planets do not bear to eac r. _ As before remarked, I lay no great weight on this view of th density, but call attention to it as agreeing with conclusions ar- rived at on other ground ews : : The chemical composition is also another strong ground in fa- Vor of their lunar origin. ‘This has been so ably insisted on by Berzelius and others that it would be superfluous to attempt to argue the matter any further hete; but I will simply make a comment on the disregard that astronomers usually have for this argument. Inthe memoir on the periodic meteors by Sears C. Walker, already quoted from, it is stated, “ The chemical objec- tion is not very weighty, for we may as well suppose a uniform- ity of constituents in cosmical as in lunar substances.” From is conclusion it is reasonable to dissent, for as yet we are ac- quainted with the materials of but two bodies, those of the earth and those of meteorites, and their very dissimilarity of consti- * ie thane estimates of the densities of the Planets, the author is indebted to eirce, __ + Although the ave specific gravity of the metallic and ‘stony meteor- ites is greater, yet the Anite vaseline the former in quantity, the number 3°0 is * sity of 30. os _--Stooyn Sates, Vol. XIX, No. 87—May, 1855. a 4 * 338 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. tution is the strongest argument of their belonging to different spheres. In further refutation of this idea it may be asked, Is it to be expected that a mass of matter detached from Jupiter (a planet but little heavier than water) or from Saturn (one nearly as light as cork) or from Encke’s comet (thinner than air), would at all accord with each other or with those of the earth. It is far more rational to suppose that every cosmical body, without necessarily possessing elements different from each other, yet are so constituted that they may be known by their fragments. With this view of the matter, our specimens of meteorites are but multiplied samples of the same body, and that body, with the light we now have, appears to have been the moon. This theory is not usually opposed on the ground that the moon is not able to supply such bodies as the meteoric iron and stone; it is more commonly objected to from the difficulty that there appears to be in the way of this body’s projecting masses of matter beyond the central point of attraction between the earth and moon. Suffice it to say, that Laplace, with all his mathematical acumen, saw no difficulty in the way of this taking place, although we know, that he gave special attention to it at three different times during a period of thirty years, and di without discovering any physical difficulty in the way. Also for a period of forty years, Olbers was of the same opinion, and changed his views as already stated for reasons of a different character: and to these two we add Hutton, Biot, Poisson and The important question then for consideration is, the force re- quisite to produce this velocity. The force exercised in terres J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 339 which the bodies started (stones with a specific gravity of about 3°00) must have exceeded 2000 feet a second to permit of an ab- sorbed velocity of 1250 feet through the denser portions of our atmosphere. Now suppose the force of the extinct volcanoes of the moon to have equalled that of AStna, the force would have n more than sufficient to have projected masses of matter at a velocity exceeding 8000 feet a second ; for, the resistance to be overcome by the projectile force, is the attractive force of the moon, which is from 5 to 6 times less than that of the earth, so that the same projectile force in the two bodies would produce vastly greater velocities on the moon than on the earth, discard- ing of course atmospheric resistance of which there is none in the moon.* But doubtless, were the truth of the matter known, the pro- jectile force of lunar volcanoes far exceeded that of any terres- trial voleanoes extinct or recent, and this we infer from the enor- Mous craters of elevation to be seen upon its surface, and their gteat elevation above the general surface of the moon, with their borders thousands of feet above their centre; all of which, point to the immense internal force required to elevate the melted lava that must have at one time poured from their sides. I know that as mulate. Although his hypothesis is ingeviously sustained, still, Until stronger proof is urged, we are justified I think in asuming the contrary to be true, for we must not measure the convulsive throes of nature at all periods by what our limited experience has enabled us to witness. pad As regards the existence of volcanic action in the moon with- out air or water, I have nothing at present to do, particularly as those who have studied volcanic action concede that neither of these agents is absolutely required to produce it; moreover, t Surface of the moon is the strongest evidence we have in favor masses Cé hot smaller bodies, either planets or satellites, as they pass by the earth and through our atmosphete, have portions detached by the those bodies is proved. Are we to suppose that each meteor- le falling to ee earth is thrown off from a different sphere *it gti hy same force ‘to produce an initial velocity of 8000 higganec ala d earth; and the difference of rate at the end of the first f/ 340 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. which becomes entangled in the atmosphere? If so, how great the wonder that the earth has never intercepted one of those spheres, and that all should have struck the stratum of air sur- roundiug our globe (some fifty miles in ene and escaped the body of the globe 8000 miles in diam It is said that the pos 6 has never intercepted one of siiese. on: ; for if we collect together all the known meteorites, in and out of cabinets, they would hardly cover the surface of a good sized room, and no one, of them could be looked upon as ia. ontel mass upon which ‘we might suppose the others to have been grafted ; and this would appear equally true, if we consider the known meteorites as representing not more than a agnedecines part of those which have fallen. If it be conceived that the same body has given rise to them, and is still wending its path through space, only seeming by its repeated shocks with our atmosphere to acquire new vigor fora new encounter with that medium, the wonder will be greater, that it has not long since encountered the solid part of the globe ; but still more strange, that its velocity has not been long since destroyed by the resistance of the atmosphere, through which, it must have made repeated crossings of over 1000 miles in extent. But it may be said that facts are stronger than arguments, and that bodies of great dimensions (even over one mile in diameter) have been seen traversing the atmosphere, and have also been seen to project fragmeuts and pass on. Now of the few instances of the supposed large bodies, I will only analyze the value of the data upon which the Wilton and Weston meteorites were Cal- culated ; and they are selected, becanse the details connected with them ane more accessible. The calculations concerning the latter were made by Dr. Bowditch; but his able calculations were based on deceptive data,—and this is stated without hesitation knowing the difficulty admitted by all of making correct observation as to size of luminous bodies passing rapidly through the atmosphere. Experiments, that would be considered superfluous, have been in- stituted to prove the perfect fallacy. of making se but a most erroneous estimate of the size of luminous bodies, b y their appa- . rent size, even when their distance from the observer and the true size of the object are known ; how much more fallacious then, any estimate of size made, where the observer does not know the true size of the body, and not even his distance very accurately. In my experiments, three solid bodies in a state of vigorous incandescence were used ; Ist, charcoal 04 canvases electri- city ; 2nd, lime heated byt the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe ; 3d, steel in a state of incandescence in a/stream of poche gas. They of li observed on a clear night at different distances, a aie body of li . i washout bord ents Hel pyiaa wit J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites, 341 out going into details of the experiment the results will be tabu- lated, ctual diam Apparent Apparent diam, Apparent diam, as seen at 10 in. diam. at :00 yds. at + mile, at 4 mile. Carbon points, yo ofan inch, # the diam. moon’s disk, 3 diam. do.do, -3t diam. do.do Lime light, xo tide y ts > et the" ee Q 6 Q T4 Incandes. steel, oy ce’ ee } ce Ot aes «8h 1 igh tha jia “cc If then the apparent diameter of a luminous meteor at a given distance is to be accepted as a guide for calculating the real size of these bodies the Charcoal* points would be 80 feet in diam. instead of ,%, of an inch. ime 6 “ BO se ts The steel globule “ 25 « “ “< Pi «0g It is not in place to enter into any explanation of these decep- tive appearances, for they are well known facts, and were tried in the present form only to give precision to the criticism on the Supposed size of these bodies. Comments on them are also un- necessary, as they speak for themselves. But to return to the two meteorites under review. That of Wilton was estimated by Mr. Edward C. Herrick, ( Am. Journ. of Science, vol. xxxvii, p. 180) to be about 150 feet in diameter. It appeared to increase gradually in size until just before the explosion, when it was at its largest apparent magnitude of ath the moon’s disk—exploded 25° to 30° above the horizon with a heavy report, that was heard about 30 seconds after the explo- Sion was seen. One or more of the obervers saw luminous frag- Ments descend toward the ground. When it exploded, it was three or four miles above the surface of the earth ; immediately after the explosion, it was no longer visible. The large size of the body is made out of the fact of its appearing one-fourth the ap- parent disk of the moon at about six miles distant. After the ex~ periments just recorded, and easy of repetition, the uncertainty of such a conclusion must be evident ; and it is insisted on as a fact easy of demonstration, that a body in a state of ony cence, (as the ferruginous portions of a stony meteorite, ) mig exhibit the apparent diameter of the Wilton meteorite at six miles Istance, and not be more than a few inches or a foot or two in diameter according to the intensity of the incandescence.t Besides, if that body w ge, where did it go to after as so go 7 throwing off the supposed small fragments? The fragments were | ’ Esti e of yf ed (Am. Journal of * Estimate made according to a table given by Prof. Olmsted ( Science, vol. xxvi, p. 155) for estimating the diameter of meteors on comparison with the moon. alee _t It ought however to be stated, that in i this and the paper above referred to, Mr. Herrick ‘essly mentioned es of fallacy, en as far as practica- ble ta guard against them, and gave apres careful result as necessarily open to = : 342 J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. seen to fall, but the great ignited mass suddenly disappeared, at 30° above the horizon, four miles from the earth, when it could not have had less than six or seven hundred miles of atmosphere to traverse, before it reached the limit of that medium; it has already acquired a state of ignition in its passage through the air prior to the explosion, and should have retained its luminous ap- pearence consequent thereupon, at least while remaining in the atmosphere: but as this was not the case, and a sudden disappear- ance of the entire body took place in the very lowest portions of the atmosphere, and descending luminous fragments were seen, the natural conclusion appears to be, that the whole meteorite was cogtained in the fragments that fell. s e Weston meteorite, it is stated that its direction was nearly llel to the surface of the earth at an elevation of about 18 miles; was one mile farther when it exploded ; the length of its path from the time it was seen until it exploded was at least 107 miles ; duration of flight estimated at about 30 seconds, and its relative velocity three and a half miles a second; it exploded ; three heavy reports were heard; the meteorite disappeared at losion. As to the value of the data upon which its size was estimated, the same objection is urged as in the case of the Wilton meteor- ite; and it is hazarding nothing to state that the apparent size may have been due to an incandescent body a foot or two in di- ameter. Also, with reference to its disappearance, there is the same inexplicable mystery. It is supposed from its enormous size that but minute fragments of it fell; yet it disappeared at the time that this took place, which it is supposed occurred 19 miles above the earth, (an estimate doubtless too great when we consider the heavy reports), Accepting this elevation, what do we have? A body one mile and a half in diameter in a state of incandescence, passing in a curve almost parallel to the earth, and while in the very densest stratum of air that it reaches with a vigorous reaction between the atmosphere and its surface, and a dense body of air in front of ‘it, is totally eclipsed; while, if it had a direction only tangential to the earth, instead of nearly parallel, it would at the height of 19 miles have had upwards of 500 miles of air of vari- able density to traverse, which at the relative velocity of 3g miles a second (that must have been constantly diminishing by the resistance) would have taken abont 143 seconds. It seems _ Most probable that if this body was such an enormous one, that it shoul en seen for more than ten minutes after the ex- plosion, for the reasons above stated. The fact of its disappeat- ance at the time of the explosion, is strong proof that the mass itself was broken to fragments, and that these fragments fell to earth ;—assuring us that the meteorite was not the huge body esented, but simply one of those irregular stony fragments i . yr J. Lawrence Smith on Meteorites. 343 strong evidence of this irregularity in its motion, which was “scolloping,” a motion frequently observed in meteorites, and doubtless due to the resistance of the atmosphere upon the irreg- ular mass, for a spherical body passing through a resisting medi- um at great velocity would not show this. In fact, if almost any of the specimens of meteorites in our cabinets were discharged from a cannon, even in their limited flight the scolloping motion ‘ would be seen. This then will conclude what I have to say in contradiction to the supposition of large solid cosmical bodies passing through the atmosphere, and dropping small portions of their mags.g ‘The contradiction is seen to be based ; first, upon the fact tha§#heme- teorite is known of any very great size, none larger than the granite balls to be found at the Dardanelles along side of the pieces of ordnance from which they are discharged ; secondly, on the fallacy of estimating the actual size of these bodies from their apparent size; and lastly from its being opposed to all the laws of chance that these bodies should have been passing | through an atmosphere for ages and none have yet encountered the body of the earth. ier To sum up the theory of the lunar origin of meteorites, it may be stated— That ihe moon is the only large body in space of which we have any knowledge, possessing the requisite con- ditions demanded by thephysical and chemical properties of me- leorites ; and that they have been thrown of from that body by volcanic action, (doubtless long since extinct,) and, encountering 20 aseous medium of resistance, reached such a distance as that e moon exercised no longer a preponderating attraction—the * detached fragment, possessing an orbital motion a velocity, which it had in common with all parts of the moon, but now more or less modified by the projectile force and new condi- tion of attraction in which it was placed with reference to the earth, acquired an independent orbit _— or ee wage pects si necessarily subject to great disturbing imfiuences / | ree fie: ar dlnegmdee’y and be intercepted by the body of the Slobe, 344 The Variable Star Algol. Art. XXXIV.—On the Variable Star Bae, or § Perset; by Fr. A RGELANDER.* Axcot, or ? Perset, is aad one of the most remark- able of all the variable stars, on account of the shortness of its period, in general, and capeetally the ‘Hort time during which it continues at its minimum,—on account of the comparative pre- cision with which this minimum may be determined,—and the regularity with which the star goes through its period. This . regularity is so great that Wurm, even in the year 1819, that is to say, thirty-six years after Goodricke had discovered the peri- odicity of the variation of light in Algol, was able to represent all the observations by a uniform period, and did not venture to decide whether this period had become longer or shorter.t Nev- ertheless, the values of the duration of a period computed by him- self at various epochs, indicate the former of these —— From the earlier observations, comprising a series of 16 months, he found the period to be 2¢ 20h 48m 59s; after sixtealt yas nution of the time indicated by these ance: ‘hat been put beyond all doubt by modern observations, which have also shown that the amount of this diminution is not ‘proportional to the time, but is continually growing larger and larger. A collation of the duration of the period, as obtained by combining the nearly con- eous observations and-discussing these series according to the method of least squares, will show this very distinctly. we assume as the a oad bee that of the minimum which _occure d 1800, January 2, ing, Paris civil time, the first col- “umn of the following table 0 of periods gives the number comple- ted since this principal epoch; the second, the time; the third, the duration of the period which holds for this time, accompanied by the probable uncertainty of this latter determination. Periods of Algol. No. of minimum. Date. (.. hength of period. oe Ce a ae 2 —1987 1784, May 27 220 48 5942 —- £032 — 1405 1788, Dec. 21 5874 +009 — $25 | 1793, July 11 58:39 +018 751 | 1805, Nov. 25 58-45 + 0-04 42398 1818, Apr. 13 5819 +010 +3885 | 1830, July 3 6797 6441 | 1842, Sept.20 | 55°18 0°35 im.) 1848, July 18 | 5337 +008 me glance at this table shows immediate!y that the snverels obser- eo eee bei represented neither by a uniform nor by a from the Astronomical Journal, No, 80, January 1855. _—- 8 tronic ura for 183, 120, = The Variable Star Algol. 345 diminishing length of period. They might, however, be repre- sented by having regard to the third and fourth power of the time; or, still better, by introducing a correction to a uniform period, which should progress according to sines and cosines in such a way that the p** minimum after the epoch # would be given by the formula, E+ap+bsin (np + B)+esin(2np+C)+..... But the endeavor to develop the constants, even taking account of the first term only in the series of sines, proves fruitless, owing to the insufficiency of the data; of which, indeed, we have a tolerable number for the last century, but which since then are so scarce, that for the first forty years of the present century I am only aware of 19 observed minima. In the last few years certainly the attention of astronomers has been again more di- tected to this remarkable phenomenon; but if we are soon to ar- tive at an accurate knowledge of the phenomenon itself, and of the rules according to which the period varies, the number of ob- servers must be very considerably increased. Out of the 127 or 128 minima which occur in a year, there are scarcely 40 for which or 8™, For comparison-stars I use ¢ and 9 Perset, and « and 3 Trianguli. The star 9 Persei indeed is itself somewhat variable, but its period is longer, and it is especially favorablee on account of its proximity to Algol, and because it is very nearly equal to is star when at its minimum. Ina comparison of Algol with @, the little variations from uniformity in the transparency of the air, which always exist to a greater or less degree, will exert the Smallest possible influence. ; Concerning the manner in which the comparative brilliancy o ‘ars is to be observed without the aid of instruments, I have Spoken in detail in another place ;* and will here only briefly re- — ._ * Schumacher’s Jahrbuch fiir 1844, p. 191 et & Szconp Srares, Vol. XIX, No. 57—May, 1855. 44 346 The Variable Star Algol. peat what I have there said. When the weather is misty, when clouds are flying, in bright twilight or too close vicinity to the moon, such observations should not be undertaken. It is especially important to avoid the impression of any other light, and, when the moon is up, to place one’s self in such a position that the moon will be hid by some object. Before pg. the eye should be for some time accustomed to t arkness, in order that the pupil may be dilated as much as tte Then look alternately at the two stars which are to be compared, and en- deavor to receive the image _ that part of the eye in which it is seen the brightest. On the other hand exercise the most zealous can never be seen at once in their full brightness. After the eye has thus been directed alternately to the one and to the other sev- eral times and a distinct judgment formed as to their relative bril- liancy, write this down in Sets I denote a decided difference in the brightness of two stars by the expression “a grade,”—set down the differences of Tach se as 2 grades when I can im- agine a third between them, and of a brilliancy decidedly differ- ent from either,—as 3, when the difference is so great that two others can be thus interpolated in imagination between them ; and soon. A greater difference than 4 grades I do not estimate, since this mode then becomes too unsafe; but do on the other hand, estimate half, and in some cases bven quarter grades. In recording, the letter denoting the brighter star is first written own, then the number of grades, and dast the letter of the fainter star. The precision which may be obtained in this way, after a little practice, is very considerable; the probable uncertainty amounts, for a single estimate, to about half a grade, and this 1s much diminished by comparing the star which is to be deter- mined with many others, especially when some of these are brighter and others fainter As to the computation of the time of the minimum of Algol from the observations at hand, I do not content myself with put- ting for this the time of least brilliancy ; : but use for this purpose all the observations made for half an hour before and after the minimum, ky taking the mean of the times at which Algol man- ifested the same difference of brightness from the comparison- stars during its seers and increase of brilliancy, os then the mean of se means, as the final result. ‘Treated in this way, the sheer vatiegel afford mele? itciniot., fi that the probable error of an observed minimum does not amount to SO much as 6 minutes, and el antes of a quater of an hour from the mean are extremely rare. _ Since the number of observers has increased within @ short time, a series of minima are available which have been inde- dently determined by different t observers, and, in part, at The Variable Star Algol. 347 different places; thus affording a means of learning the real errors of observation. Since the autumn of Jast year I have collected 8 minima, which have been determined by several ob- “servers, the number of the several observations amounting to 33, From these 33 observations the probable uncertainty in the de- termination of a minimum by a single observer is deduced as 5-625, But during the same time there were, besides these, 9 other minima obtained froma single observer. These observa- tions, 42 in all, I have, in order to be more independent of the length of the period, combined in two means, compared the sev- eral observations singly with these, and thus found the probable etror of such an observation to be 5™-895. ‘This error is some- what larger than the preceding; still the difference lies consider- ably within the limits of uncertainty of both determinations, and consequently cannot warrant us in inferring that the period 18 subject to irregular variations, but merely that, if such exist, they can only be extremely small. The assumption of such an itregularity, amounting to but little more than 1", would bring the two numbers into perfect agreement. 0 make the agreement in the several results more clear, I will here give the 24 minima observed during this autumn and win- ter, after reducing them by assuming the period 24 20h 48™ 53, to one principal epoch, namely, the minimum of Oct. 8. The atinexed table contains in the first column the number of pe- tiods elapsed since 1800, Jan. 2 ;—the second, the time as ob- ; Minima of Algol. No. minimum] —O pe em. } bserved Paris time. Observer. |Equation cali idl Reduced time. A we he m. s. | h. m. s. 6959 Aug, 20 1128 27 A. +027 | Oct.8 51955 11 30 27 $d. 21 55 6966 Sept. 9 1323 1 B. +259 34 50 Jo 25.-3 K. < 86 62 6967 Sept.12 965334 | B +3 20. 16 51 10_ 2 93 Sd. 25 40 1015 9 A. 38 26 10 16 54 Oo. 40 11 Sept. 29 14 53 52 B. +511 25 42 Oct. 2 1143 45 K. +527 26 58 1146 3 A. 29 16 1146 4 B. 99 17 11.58 19 M. 41 25 12 044 0. 43 57 127° 18% Sd. 45 65 Oct. 23 1318 28 Sd. + 6 55 20 58 Oct. 28° 7 157 A. +712 26 58 7 739 K. 82 40 71130 H. 86 31 71848 N. 43 49 Nov.14 11 51 46 B. -+-'7 35 23 52 ) 7 101981 A. +7 2 20 0 10 23 10 Sd. 23 39 10 25 31 K. Oct.8 526 0 348 The Variable Star Algol. » Fy served, reduced to mean Paris time by applying the difference of longitude ;—the third indicates the observer; B. denoting Mr. Bruhns in Berlin; H., Prof. Heis in Miinster; N., Dr. Nell in Manheim; O., Dr. Oudemans in Leyden; Sd., K., and A., Dr.» Schénfield, Dr. Kriiger and the author in Bonn. The fourth column contains the equation of light, and is that quantity which is to be added to the observed moment in order to correct it for the difference of time which, in the different distances of the stars from the earth, is required for the light to reach us. Finally, the fifth column gives the time, reduced to the principal epoch. o obtain from these numbers the most probable result, we should not take the mean directly, but if a@ denote the probable irregularity of the period, and & the probable error of observation, each one of the n observations of the same minimum will receive the value 1: (na?+6?). But since, as we have already seen, a? is at any rate very small in comparison with 62, and the number of observations yet too small to determine a with any degree of accuracy, the simple mean will still afford the most trustworthy result. This is, for the epoch 6976, Oct. 8, 5% 30™ 27:0 M. T. Paris. The period might, according to the table already given, be assumed for the next year as about 24 204 48™ 5155. B since the above result for Ep. 6976 compared with that which 18 observations furnish for Ep. 6870, namely, 1853, Dec. 8, 72 7™ 2456 M. T. Paris, gives the decidedly longer period 24 20% 48™ 53°8-+ 1s-04, I have, in computing the following table of minima for the year 1855, combined the period 24 20% 48™ §2s with the epoch for 1854, Oct. 8. According to this, the first minimum of the year occurs Jan. 2, 08 38" 57s M. T. Washington, and the subsequent ones which occur in the hours of darkness, are stated below, an already corrected for the equation of light, so that the time for observation is directly given. Minima of Algol visible in America, 1855—WasHINGTON MEAN TIME. h. m.} h. m. | h. m. h. mn. h. m.| h Jan, 7 1813 Feb. 32 15 19 July 1 16 "SlAug. 22 6 S71Oct. 15 17 59 Nov. 30 15 1015 1} 2512 8 4 1252/Sept. 21749] 18 1449Dec. 3114 13 1150 5 41 1438; 21 21 36, 6 8 16 8 40 Mar. 17 1354 24 1431 1127 24 825 9 dl 19 529) 20 10 43 27 11 20 11 816\Nov. 7 1629 page= | roe 30 8 9 25 16 19 10 13 18 pears Feb. 2 1335 Apr. 12 9 16/Aug. 13 16 11 2313.7] 1310 7 aaah 5 1024 May 19 1552 16 1259|Oct. 9 56 29:7 _ 8 713 June 11 14 22 19 948 4 645 27 18 11 Bonn, 1854, December 9. a cere * Supernumerary Tooth in Mastodon giganteus. 349 Ant. XXXV,—Supernumerary Tooth in Mastodon giganteus ; by Jonny C. Warren, M.D. Tue jaw which contains this remarkable tooth was found in the autumn of 1854 at Terre Coupie in Michigan, while digging a cellar, at the depth of six feet from the surface, in a sandy de- posit, Other portions of bone were discovered in the same place but not presenting anything remarkable. Fortunately it fell into the hands of an able geologist of Milwaukie, J. A. Lapham, Esq., who was competent to discover the peculiarity of the case. He wrote to me, gave some account of the bone, and being encour- ed by my reply sent a description of it to the Boston Society { Natural History, which has been published, and afterwards procured the specimen for me. he measurements of this jaw are as follows: Length of right ramus on outer side, —- - 26 in. Ts ‘“ ‘“ “ inner ‘“ - - 28 in. ii * dental surface, Hiits oT conte s oe, 16- - 22 in. Distance from teeth to beak of symphysis, 8 in. Circumference of thickest portion of right ramus over ridges of penultimate tooth, - - - - in. Length of left symphysial portion.) - - - 8 in. The number of the teeth is three. The first of these counting from before backwards has the form and magnitude of the fifth tooth in the lower jaw of the Mastodon giganteus. Its superior orcoronal face is quadrangular, excavated on its middle portion from excessive use, its internal edge though much worn elevated Compared to the external, which is more worn. The three ridges of the crown are nearly obliterated by wear, but we are able to discover the enamel which partially circumscribed each ridge. The whole of this surface has a beautiful smooth polished ap- pearance of a dark color excepting the enamel ridge just spoken of. The fangs are, in number, two supporting the anterior ridge and united in one common mass, and four supporting the poste- nor ridges also united in a common mass. ‘The extremities of ‘Ne fangs are absorbed, so as to leave the tooth loose in its socket, and undoubtedly it would have been extruded had the animal Sometime longer. There is no appearance of cavity in the = for the anterior fangs, and two-thirds rior for the posterior fangs. In the alveolus of the outer is found a portion of 350 $Supernumerary Tooth in Mastodon giganteus. bone, which seems to have been broken from the extremity of this fang. This tooth is slightly penetrated by oxyd of iron, increasing its weight. It measures from before backwards over the centre of the grinding surface four inches; transverse width anteriorly three inches, posteriorly three and a half inches; inner edge antero-posteriorly four and a half inches; outer edge an- tero-posteriorly three and a half inches. The basal cingulum is more prominent on the outer than on the inner side, and measures in circumference thirteen inches. ‘This tooth, it appears, is fully characterised as the fifth tooth in the lower jaw of M. giganteus. The tooth behind this is an ultimate molar of the right side of the lower jaw. It is not removable from its socket, like the tooth last described, though not entirely fixed. Its crown is well worn though not so much as in the preceding tooth; it is divided into four ridges, has of course three transverse fissures and eight cusps, two cusps on each ridge. The cusps are all worn, the anterior ones very much, the posterior slightly. The longitudinal groove separates the cusps of the ridges from each other. There are no papilla. The worn surface is oblong in the transverse direction, and not rounded like the Mastodon Andium, nor lozenge-shaped as in the M. longirostris. The ridge of enamel surrounding the cusps is an eighth of an inch in diameter, rather thicker than in these Mastodons usually ; the cingulum is prominent on the outer edge, and flattened on the inner edge of the tooth; it measures eighteen inches in circumference. The anterior extremity of the away. ‘The posterior extremity is composed by a talon with a a checked its development. The two teeth already described having all the characters of the fifth and sixth teeth of the Mastodon giganteus, the tooth behind the sixth is a seventh, and is the only instance of the kind I have ever seen or heard of. This tooth is situated behind the sixth, and nearly in a line with it, but projects outwards from one to two inches more than the other, while its inner face is sur- | by that of the sixth tooth three quarters of an inch. The anterior face is in contact with the posterior face of the sixth tooth to a certain extent, though not exactly ; there being a slight deviation as mentioned in the position of the seventh tooth, the two surfaces in question do not correspond. The posterior face of the seventh tooth is imbedded in the bone, so that it cannot be seen, nor described ; but the buried part of it seems to have the teat of ain, oT be, oxterank foes oh DREIAR epeceapons witht he root coronoid process. Its superior face presents aree ridges crossed by a longitt Supernumerary Tooth in Mastodon giganteus. 351 : in the exposed part are of course six in number, but although ss developed, and above the tooth in front, they are very slightly Ww The principal wear is in the outer anterior cusp. tooth, like the last described, is slightly movable in its socket: in magnitude, it is about the same as the sixth tooth, and is greater than the fifth. In construction, it resembles the sixth more than the fifth, having a fourth ridge and a well marked talon. Its cingu- lum is accessible on the inner and anterior faces, but not on the outer and posterior, the last being in contact with the bone. The crown may be said to be well developed, and evidently has been in use; of course the tooth may be taken out of the category of teeth imbedded in the bone, as the sixth tooth is before it is fairly cut. In another jaw, in which the fifth tooth is fully developed, those in front have disappeared, and the sixth tooth is undevel- oped, but displayed by cutting away the bone so as to bring its our ridges into view. ; It is obvious from what has been stated, that this tooth is a repetition of the sixth, a superadded tooth, increasing the num- each other by two transverse furrows which are deep. The cusps i | ment of it remains, and this the symphysial part which does not | Contain any teeth, the four teeth occupying the situation in front having wholly disappeared in both sides of the jaw without ving a trace of their sockets. _ The remainder of this jaw has nothing very remarkable about it. The texture of the bone is moderately sound, and may en- dure for a succession of ages. The condyloid process has been broken off, and also the coronoid, but the cavity for the implan- tation of the temporal muscle is preserved, and the angle of the jaw is perfect. The symphysis is entire, of a wedge-like form rather than foliated, and presents no mark of the cavities for the etracaulodon sockets ; of course it is likely to have been the jaw ofa female. The front part of the symphysis measures 1n a per- Pendicular direction five and a half inches, and the back part Seven inches; the latter is broader than usual, and gives more Space for the lingual fossa. he orifices for the issue of the sub- maxillary and mental vessels are larger, the forefinger being read- ily admitted into the posterior opening. ‘The canal on the left Side is one inch and three eighths in diameter ; on the left portion 18 a trace of an alveolus four inches long. Tr ee _ After a careful examination of the appearance of this jaw in its integral state I thought it best to uncover the extraordinary tooth, and ascertain its situation and extent. This was done not without hesitation, as it might alter the relation of the parts and bring into doubt the existence of an additional tooth. On the ‘Mer face of the bone three incisions were made, two vertical 352 Supernumerary Tooth in Mastodon giganteus. three inches long, and these were united inferiorly by a third ho- rizontal incision siz inches long. Then by cutting through the alveolar process, which passed across between the first and second fangs, the large internal plate was removed with some additional projections. When this bone was raised, we found a great molar tooth equal in size to the sixth tooth. The surface of the crown was in superficial extent full as large as that of the sixth; the an- terior part rather larger than that of the other. This crown had four ridges, and a talon with a longitudinal furrow through the centre. The ridges had each two cusps, which are unworn ex- cept the two anterior; the posterior ridges, not having been fully developed, were not covered with enamel: the talon was of good size and had two or three cusps. Each of the ridges was sup- ported as usual by a pair of fangs, the two anterior separate, the two posterior coalesced into one mass. The anterior fangs passed under the posterior fangs of the sixth tooth. The length of this tooth was seven inches; the width anteriorly four inches; the cingulum measured in circumference sitteen and one half inches ; from the point of the fang to the tip of the corresponding second internal cusp seven and one half inches. From the anterior face of the anterior cusp arises an additional projection or cusp. The bone was somewhat shattered in the operation of exposing the tooth, but not sufficiently to disturb that organ, which remains in its original situation, and has never been displaced. e naturally ask, whether this additional tooth is to be con- stance of the kind has occurred in the Mastodon giganteus. The M. longirostris has been shown to possess in addition to the six teeth a small vertical premolar above the second and third milk molars in the upper jaw, which gives its even teeth; no suc’ tooth has been discovered in the lower jaw as yet ; and none such in the upper or lower jaw of M. giganiteus. No instance of a great supernumerary ultimate molar has wee found in any species of Mastodon thus far with the present eX ception. Anomalies of the teeth both as to number and — well known to exist. But the laws which govern the dentition O° the Elephant and Mastodon are different from those which regu ee | Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. _ 353 dentition in other animals. These two pachyderms having im- mense teeth develop them, as we have elsewhere said, succes- sively from behind forwards, to prevent the jaws from being over- charged with the weight at any one time. On the whole, we are disposed to consider this as the result of that law, which, in con- sequence of the hardness of the substances used for food, gives these animals an unusual power of dental development, which may be displayed from circumstances not known to us. Se ee ae Arr, XXX VI.—Supplement to the Mineralogy of J. D. Dana, by the Author.—Number I. Iy continuing in this Journal the semi-annual reviews of min- eralogical researches, I propose to give them the form of Supple- ments to the last edition of my Mineralogy, believing that they will thus prove more convenient to many mineralogical readers of the Journal. The following abstracts cover the first six months since the publication of the work: they are given as briefly as is consistent with their object; and if deemed too Concise, they may be taken as an index to the papers where the subjects are discussed at length. My own observations or criti- cisms are enclosed in brackets. he new facts which have been brought to light, suggest no essential modification of the general arrangement of the work. ome minor changes in the grouping of the species are proposed, such as the following :—Boltonite according to Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, should be united to Chrysolite: also, as the author shows yond, from the observations of Haidinger, Partschin should probably be placed near Allanite and Epidote, if not united to one or the other; Mosandrite also should follow Epidote ; Keilhauite, should follow Sphene, the probability of this relation, announced by the author, having now become a certainty on crystallographic as well as chemical grounds. Important contributions to American mineralogy have been recently made by Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, Dr. F. A. Genth, and G. J. Brush. Observations on some American, minerals have also been published by Dr. Kenngott of Vienna (including analyses by M.C. von Hauer, ) whose “ Mine Corrections, serve only to multiply doubts, at least in Europe if Not in this country. ~ Thave adopted an alphabetical arrangement, and distinguished Species pats ee as new, by putting the name in large Szconp Szates, Vol. XIX, No. 67—May, 1855. 45 « 354 Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 1. New Mineralogical Works. QuEN : Handbuch der ory yon Fr, Aug. Quenstedt, Prof. zu Tibin- am ond a wid caclai part. 0 Kry setae zum Anfertigen von repre ee ok. von Ds Aol K Kemgot, ‘Wien, 1854. Heft 2. A collection of figures to assist in making models ry convenient and excellent. eas eae te und sei nee he in der Chemie, Mineralogie und Geologie, von Dr. Theodor Scheerer, Prof. K éngl. Siichsische n Bergakad - zu Freiberg, 130 pp. 8vo. Nip mania 1854.—The work presents a review of Dr. Scheerer's latest results in Isomorphism and Paramorps. gues a se KR der Mineralien, by G. H. Otto Volger. Zu- rich, 185: 2. Notices of Species.* anpirr, Breit—Achtarandite is a pseudomorph after Helvin according to Bicithaces Lieb, u. Kopp Jahersb., 1853, 856. Acrcurire [p. 81].—A mineral, probably aciculite, occurs in North Mogirtye: at Gold Hill in Rowan Co., according to Dr. F.-A. Ge nth, Am, J. Sci., [2], xix, 1 p 2 Og) ses of Allanite from Orange Co. N. Y ia Parone, Be Berks Co,, Pa., and Bethle ss Pa., 3935, G. J. Brush. LLopHANE [p. 336 Aci iey of allophane from Polk Co., Tenn, by Dr. C. T. Jac ss Am. J. Sci, [2], xix 1885, 85) [p. 451].— nr of alstonite, by C. v. Hauer (Jahrb. Geol. Reichs, oe 6571 Ca 3429 Bi trace = a — Bad 600 um, (M ), [p. 38 ia oneals by Dr. J. L. Smi a specimen Pi the region n of the Salt Lake, Utah, Rocky Mts., Pec J. Sci. oy xviii, 379. uxiTE [p. 505}.—Analyses of oe from Bilin, Bohemia, by von Hauer (Jahrb. =. Weichs- "1854, 83, and J, f. pr. Ch, lxiii, 36) : Fe . on M. Hf (ign.) 62:0 23°82 trace 1-00 . nied 12:40 = 99°42 62°41 24°65 — 0°65 ee 12°28 = baci Analysis 1 gives vee Hauer ‘ad oxygen ratio for the Silica, alumina and water, $72 :3:2°974 = (a me :1, which is the ratio of the Gimolite "of Argentiera eae Pitabtly atenetf arte dat composition of augite. ALUSITE. rp 257].—Analyses of Andalusite from Brazil by Damour (Ann. des Mines {5}, iv iv, 53): a ug Al Be Mn z 36°75 6115 154 ir, == 9944 I. 87-32 61-74 0-81 — = 99387 M 37-08 61-45 117 == 99°65 whence the formula Al* Sit. Specific gravity 3:160 Anticorirs [p. Mes cca states bt derwre Ann., xcii, 495), that the analyses Antigorite by him d be rh DON Avarire [p. 396].—A locality of apatite in tra -siaobs elino'oblegs to ‘halle , 2 miles below St. Roch, , Canad, (r. (T. S. Hunt, in Logan's Rep. Geol. Cana 1852-3, 113) The rock consists of glasey feldspar and black hornblende i small grains: the apatite is abundantly disseminated im hexagonal prisms, more oF “— of * : Searle enn Notices, referred to beyond, _ No. 10, in the Kz Wissensch., Wien, 1854, xii, 161; 1; No. 11, ib, p- 281 No. 12, : fo, (the la No. that las reached ow) i ieee Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 355 - Apmros Chlorite-like mineral [p. 297].—Analysi yv. Hauer (Jahrb. geol, Reicha, 1 1854, 79, and J. f. pr. Chen, Fait $0) i. agg Si 26- k #12027 = Fe 82:91 =Mg a 00 «=r «10-06 = 99°32 affording the oxygen ratio for the poclanres, peroxyds, silica and w: 5:417: ors 3°95, or a nearly 5:4:6:4. Von Hauer appears to peel he ratio 5 4 and deduces the formula 51 H4+Rs Si*, and remarks on the near- ness of the Sater to that of chlorite (Rose), as written by Kenngott. e ama occurs in calcite and specular iron Zs minute, lustrous, erystal- line lamin, of a degp olive-green color. Rather ly decomposed by muriatic [Taking 0 one 5:4:6:4 which the analysis a the a — —— A the bases and the silica (excluding the water) is 3:2 ae fs which would give the ara formula aoe #1) Si eta in she R3 an é here to one another as 4:5; or including these proportions (4R*4- gays? The ratio ‘Adopted by von Hauer, 4, gives for the oxygen ratio of the and silica 8/6 = 4:3, which is he ratio ted chlorite (Rose). Thus the liberty taken with ree analysis in deducing the ratios is sufficient to transfer the mineral from one of these species to the other—p T SO eLAN and SCLEROCLASE, von ig nes es —Description and analysis by W. S. von Waltershausen (Pogg., xciv, 123):—Occurs with the Du- frenoysite in the Binnen Valley in dolomite. at trimetric: a brachydome of of the a a ¢ "Pb Ac. Fe I Lead gray; - = 2 393 pA 98556 44564 0424 0448 = 99°922 IL 405 24658 25°740 47586 0938 -———-== 98922 atte © ac bic CaN DAD. 20458, DeOT Wate OE a anapees Atomic ratio for the base8, arsenic and Bas ge in I, 0:36:061:1-29; in IE, 038:0555:1-24; in DL ogs: nips 185. As the ratios do not corre @simple formula, von Wal reg ng of t i aoge ney ae g Pb: SPAS? $3 (A) and 2PbS+As? 83 (®) and clelates hat I contains A ai ~ mr Insol. in mur. wey 1856 45:05 trace 363 = 981 poate | Yow insoluble portion, von Phat Steinmann’s and Richardson’s an are as fi £ 1963 Fe phi: TL 32°72, von Hauer. 4 * a8 8 32°38, Steinmann. 3. 82:19, Richardson, giving alike the fo: — Fee $+12H = spt adt acid 21°17, sesquioxyd of iron 47-07, water 31°76=100. Catcrre [p. 435, 508.]—Analyses of different limestones of the Tyre, se pe yon Hubert, Jaleb, dey cook Reuhe i, 729, and J. f. pr. Chem., Ixii, 225 Also analyses $e limestone and dolomite from the Saltz Alps, by v. Lipold, haa pr. Chem., 228. A liar earthy calcareous rock from the tufa of Pico Crux, Madeira, afforded E, Schweizer 6 f. pr. Chem. Lxiii, "201), 8 large — of silica in the soluble state. The fo Ghenta were the results of the analys Si MeG Gad Be, be = Organ. rs H 20:38 “3 5 cede 4°76 10-00 oT = 9048 The 5°39 p. c. of magnesia are re; mon i bination with silica. The limestone of Canical, Madeira. which is a modern formation of caleareous sands containing shells mainly of existing species, according to the same analyst, Consists of Cad s429, Mg@ 5-48, Phosphates 1°00, nitrog. org. subst. 4°66, H 2°41, Sand 1:48=99°32 wags [p. $16].—Analysis by v. Hauer eh oe, met. No. 12}: FL i 8615 ea 0-87 20°76 133 rd 74 mt 10028 tale ponding’ to # Sit1;H. Orystallization trimetrie ; in groups of acicular crys a ee lyfis Fenticalwith that of alanine —o J mineral associated with challite (see p. 326 of a ra Neo, telo agt nee i ard yon Hauer (Kenngott’s Min. Notiz., s Mn K__ ign 44-1] 1090 ies & ie trace trace adage eerie i, Nome op tho ratie 49:12:10 acon ie 6363 e much neare 20 21:38 sgt Von Po oo te all dy A lek Grou fp. 88) of chiolite, from “5 ie eee Pe ‘measured by Kenngott (Sitzungsber., xi, 980 The form, ac- ite Ul kate the acute 358 Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. edge of the prism is truncated, giving the angle on the ne — — te These results are wide from those of Koks charoy, who describes the fi Curoropat or Une eaowe [p. 504].—The analysis on p. 5: of Min. is mean me two fag The resu afore t he oxygen ratio for the pootoxyds sl and wa- ter 1 Bhi: : 84,° In the or dice of Brandes and Biewend, Kenngott su theca the iron yee ave been protoxyd instead of paras (the latter the result of these chemists) and obtains thus the o wi ratio CHLOROPHYLLITE ger i of a crystal of chlorophyllite are given 15].— by Kenngott (Min. * No. 11), and the conclusion arrived at from the sage. Oe it was originally iolite, a < which the unaltered iolite often assoc places beyond doubt. Curysottre [p. 184] -dadieaiiesttoa on chrysolite by Dr. Scheerer, Handw. Chem- Lieb. Pogg. eng 1853, A ting fro m an Iron Furnace at Easton, Pa., afforded Dr. C0. T. Jatkson (Proc. Am. Mn Mn 1 * 370 14°90 3°50 Dr. Jackson observes that ae iron and manganese were Aabrgs24 al | prong and this gives reese formula No he wrt Si. The erystals clov color like axinite dral. {The = sale 3 is that Pr of chryeolite. Crystals of this icles and probably the none, from Easton, received by the writer fem Dr. E. Swift, are eo a macrodome of f 139° ‘40’, The first angle corresponds to the prism 1% in chry- solite which equals 99° 6’, and ea last approaches i2, which equals 130° 2’—p. Curysortt [p. 282].—Analysis of chrysotil from serpentine at pe N.J., by E. L, Reak eign the dreto of Dr. Genth, Ame. J J. Sci.,. [2], xv p- 293].—M. N. de Kok enoeelN access anaaiatie peiots. yon pr: of Achmatowsk, and come ti he cansiadita that the form 18 t the species is identical with adipose which last name he ay for it. Noo oO opti characters are given. Akad. Wiss, St. Petersbnrg, 1854, and Am. J. Sci, [2], xix, 176. Cutxtontre [p. 297, 505].—Analyses by Plattner (Breith. Min, ii, 385) of a speci- men from Amity : Cortarrre [p. 387].—Dr. J. L, Smith obtained in his analyses the formula ‘ J. Sei., [2], xviii, 375. Couzerantre [p. 206].—In aie altered agin according to esaars aa Sitzungs- ber. xii, 714. One specimen examined was vg t composition not ascer- tained ; form a sqnare or perhaps rhombic prism. H.=6°5, G.==2'85. Cunan [p. Acta ae by Dr. J. Lawrence dine agreeing with Prof. Booth’s, Am. J. Sci., b Aha _ pm ane gravity by a new determination, 2-958, G. J. Brash, alline form of the datholite of Andreasberg has Datnotite {p. 334].—The eryst been studied by R. Hess (Pogg. Ann., xciii, 880). He obtained for the inclination of O on it 89° 56°2/ in one crystal, and 89° 59-2 in another; and fro m_ these and. his e at th inw He obtained for 7: Z (see Min. tor te ing, and this Jour., xvii, 215) iS +i [The jatholite of ysis of crystals from the Gabro Rosso, Mt. C Caporciano, Tuscany, by Bechi, (Am. J. Sci., [2], xiv, 65): at Tee EI Bi 0852 Ca 35°341 Mg 2121 B 22-033 ig te fen) “iis: Bechi the leg Soe Sis abet gH? = B arom, Oa 9590, Mg ese sre water is a remarkable Pp ; Ries . [The bier 0 ‘of the Lod 5 a or bs *S A wi e vi ll ond a ° = a: com 3 to s o <4 4 2 I —y _ ae a > a ; Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. — , 359 Detvavxire [p. 427]—Analysis by von Hauer (Jahrb. k. k. geol. hag 1854, 68, and J. f. pr. Ch. Lxiii, — an e percentage after excluding the silica 6 a 20°98 5203 194 19°08 = 99-98 ) 19:04 = 99°99 Von Hauer thence et Mok formula Ca? D4 + Fes B + pic Dramonp [p. 24].—A large diamond of pure water, from the Province of Minas Geraes, Brazil, has been described by Dufr eS It isa cae with bevelled edges, voce weighs zi 4 carats. It is called the “Star of th terre Theré are impression of diamond crystals in it, showing that it is aie at a cluster that were formed Gdether probably ina géode’ like quartz aie LInstitut, No. 0. 1096, and Am. J. Sci. 2], xix, Draspors [p. 128) ra locality of diaspore at the Topas vein, Trumbull, Conn., mentioned on page 483 of Min., may be added at page 1 Dotomrre [p. 441 ]—Analysis and description of “4 oe of the Binnen Val- by ley, in the Alps, containing the Dufrenoysite, é&c., Waltershausen (Pogg., xc, 115): Structure sacchar = 1; . rion ‘composition 6 45-966, Ca 29852, Mg 20488, insoluble 3:314—=99:220, 0 atly 1 of Ca G to 1 of MgG. Besides i Dufrenoysite, the dolomite aathing ually phere peieaatl, x0 realgar, arsenomelan, ete. Dorrenorstre (p- 77] cranees of Dufrenoysite by W. 8S. y. Waltershausen (Pogg., xciy, 120) ; As Ag Pb Cu Fe 27546 = 80-059 1:229 2-749 87746 0°824 = 100153 affording von Waltershausen the formula, the iron being supposed to be in the condition of mixed pyrites, [R? S++ As? S?] -- RS in which R is mainly copper. on Waltershausen a that in Damour’s analysis the mineral must have mixed with arsenomelan (q. v.). He was careful to analyse the monometric a G. =4:477, mean of 8 dete terminations. ats 2963, 1 0 26°84, Ca and Na trace, TE 1246=9 P. 823, is the deduced percentage corresponding to i rmula—Glottalite an Thom Mr. dle as imp 426] Sg ted to coe (Sitzangsber, xii, 26), the Ehlite from ay ae the Rhine, is similar in to liroconite, being trimetric; the sum- ; ait dome, of two planes meeting in Evxourz [ ea with an angle of 120° nearly, — : cleavages, Meeting at an cats of 60°; anda ao at cide cr ie with th e; optically according to Dam ee L. Semann. (Communicated.) Evxesrre [p. 358] PR i tion and ‘rile by David Forbes (Edinb. N. tee J. 121, i, 62), "Mineral tin Aaewt Tromoei oo as i orway. ic; per et wo, eS as M-O , ih in een ae tie FERC = 126°, o-e 7 i = 154° 307, Dahl: ~:0-% 117°, 0: 0 : we oxy 4 in color when cold’; in the reducing flame e unchanged even 08 faning pl me a glass greenish-yellow while hot, nearly eolotoss ‘on cool- i ‘or manganese although containing both of these metals. Ob Ti dl Mg H 3858 1436 312 127 O19 2936 331 198 522 288 = 10037 Oxygen 453 579 145 O88 O07 587 O47 O49 geo a columbic acid is srited with See Shans SS The oxygen in the columbic aci Mtge hic) dedact om weight of tantalum. rati = sod taser, excluding the water 1032" 938. 360 Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. {If the titanic acid ea pine with the bases (see Min.) the ratio is rig 15°07, Nar allowing for so umbic acid with the titanic acid, may poir io :8; this would give the gan R Cb or (#8, R3) Cb?, which is sean ets to hd of t setae ere is some approximation to the form of tantalite, the oc- curring pris m being 12 ise in euxenite, and 122° 54’ in ite; or, taki er view of their Apia positions, the angle 117° above may correspond to O: 3% in tantalite which is 117° 2’, But without eee crystallographic examinations it would be premature to assert a near relation.—p.] Fevpsrars [p. 228]—A review of the various ag of aes 1 oer of Ain feldspar and a lite fami =e x minerals is bd hae by Scheerer in the Handw: d. Chemie, Braunschw 3, and an ractin Neues Jahrb, 1854, 593. paces [p. 184] Bs, A Sa of cle as been referred to gibbsite. Haidinger sustains it as a good species in the Recabesbat, xii, 188, giving the fol- i ; Usual i i i i ia, wi 112°, Crystallization trimetric, optically biaxial. H.=15; G.=2'33 (Kenngott). pine tnge nay pearly. Color snow- -white, surface often ellowish. Composition ac- eer — S+1 OH = sulphuric acid 17°18, alumina 4415, wa ter 3866. ‘aihiysin ati 1647 “RL 455 H 38127 = 9927 pS mineral is _ near bpp ne particularly paraluminite, [p. 5091. di, by some refe jen to abeenaee has been exam- here it occurs with mie iolite, ee linic ; p wand Sack ection, and in a second inclined 129° tc to ‘the former, allel to the orthodiagonal. Color black ; Pa rown, Lustre weak; waxy or pearly. Subtranslucent. H.=5.0-5°5; G. ==3'4- 3°53. In a glass i : erik: apes tube sm er without much change. B.B. hs ‘a a semimetallic slag, which “s Fe Mn Ca Si H 1282 407 6885 6°82 017 017 16°87 Kenngott remarks that it is probably not vivianite, but more nearly related to the triphyline group. le saes aie a cars of this name from Iceland, mentioned in Glocker's Mineral- ogy, is AY imger psestigess to Kenngott (Min. Not., No. 12). H. =65; G.=2?4. Greenish black in the mass and vitreo-resinous. Composition according to v. B Si Al Fe ta Oa Na H(ign,) 67470 13°375 1785 trace 8025 tr 1380 2870 9600 = 99405 The eo ratio afforded for R, #, Si, a is 21:6: 344: 81. —The follo stad ecto Pent nate. 6.6 Mr. George J. Brus’ biznes sage cola ‘a letter date rate 1855. “ Note on Abich’s analysis of Fs Pte en Abich’s monograph 00 the Spinel group,* the writer has observed some errors in a calculations of the analysis of Franklinitet which, it may be well to note. In this analysis, A —_ obtained 68°88 ¥e, which, considering the iron to exist in the mineral as as magnetit® (Fe #e), he erroneously m: makes equivalent to 47-52 Be a 21:34 Fe, the corre num , pees beet gen: Bat Me he calculated as « 40 grm. Mn; jit should be 0515 grm. which on 2°690 grm. mineral use pr analy gives 12 19°14 Mn, or 2129 ¥n, instead of f 1644 Mn of 1817 Mn, Resist iy by A The analysis ce 2 et Oh ges 8 4593 2067 2129 1081 O74 040 traces = 99°84. ‘ ied ee ee) | Supplement to Davia’s Mineralogy. 361 ARNET [p. 190].—Black garnet or melanite occurs with feld at . Ches- die ~~ Pa. The aplome of Keim’s mine, Pa, is rather a tether geek et than true Aalyse of the fine r red garnet from Yonkers, N. Y., sometimes called pe, and also of clea mad from Green’s Creek, Delaware Co., Pa, by F. A. Genth, Am. J. Sci, [2], xix, ae er ion by Kenngott (Min. Not. No. 11). A zeolitic mineral needles, which have cleavage para oor 1 in a ramen prism, near pn os Ping (¥. rephe of fracture rovich), amy wey reddish ‘ G. =2-21. tube yields meinen r, age gs opaque white “BB. g Hei. esces Pa fuses seit to a clear colorless glass, and shows a siliceous skeleton on ollng: ' latinizes readily in heated muriatic acid. Mean of analyses by C. v. Hau . Si Al Ca kK Na MHatign Hat 100° 0 - 4699 2684 436 045 968 pt 0°49 = 99°37 a 2489 1253 124 O07 2 The xygen at = the protoxyds, peroxyds, rnd wai water, ” Peet v. Hauer, is 0305: :2°629 0: 184, foe Schick You: Hauer writes 2:6:15:5, and ie duces the formula O(N, Ga) Xl-+- 531 Si. From the Kilpatrick lle ind Dunbar- ton, Scotland. grec reat - fae ratio as given in the second line in the rar ne we a er 12: 9°38, or nearly (supposing a small deficiency > seer 76:2, yg ‘tio oe natrolite ; whence galactite is probably atrolite, — > Syd —Probably occurs at Tinder’s Gold mine, Louisa Co., Va., ac- sai am Am. J. Sci, [2], xix Sot ht, —Anal of ciaueediies Som Greenies. by von Hauer Cir get Reichs, 1654 6, and J. f. pr. Chem, Ixviii, 27), with also the analyses Stromeyer (Gott. ge gel . Anz., iii, 1993, hie se Pfaff (Schw. ‘Tabb, xly, 103): Si Fe Mn Me K H > Kangerdluarsak, be 2660 — 630 trace _ 4°84 676 = 99°36, v.Hauer. £ 27:24 4°39 ST ‘6; Hiatt. # Aulinracaru, ins pedi 5 om M 116 1:20 620 4:89 = 96°71, Strom. 82°5 15 65 55 =—98°0, Pref wy ratio we is silica, al umina, protoxyds, and water, 4 oe aner de deduces exactly 4: 2-05 :0-92:1-00, which affords him the formula R* Si+Al* So-1 5H) considerably from the bi analyses, Stromeyer observes that mare maite- ¥ ae : n aie ar ae — ant K Kenngott have taken the ground that gicseckite is altered cleolite or nephe The mineral analyzed b Age n Hauer became brownish red er heting and if was partly soluble in muriatic acid. D [p. 7].—At Sapo gold i is i (Comms a by G. J. Brush.) Gyroure [p. 3061 — Accordin, L, Semann, a specimen of gyrolite examined , by him was mixed or inter iit with onan: presenting all the cparedere od peeelte End be enema tbat pescli, mei its alkali, takes a 23h tellivnad galena a Harrmeronrre ial diva tice Hea Min Not, Ne. rae aye oa a sift mcs Al Ga Na Hatign Hi at100° C. 45-07 26:21... 11:82 we 4) ~ 12°93 Ccipedtacannhag “4 the fis 1:8:6:8, composition is : velo be at of mewlite i and H —This name in D 3 Mineralogy, arose from,a mis-reading“of a label of Tstasctih Een (ommuniate Hetyry [p, 194).— (P . Ann. xciii, 455, ‘afforded the i, iuloying pots ec ohigh aE cg mgs D ogg ei. _ 3318 He 1146 Mn 4912 Fe 400 = 10342, Ramm 33-26 12-03. 40°45. 556 | ign. 1159751, Gm. = Son en a SF 1855. 46 362 Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. : Supposing the 5°71 of sulphur combined with manganese (of which it ores 977 — é., ie makes 15:48 sulphuret of manganese), the analysis becomes, according to elsber ie Mn $1 §iss1s Bel 650 Fe 4:00 = 10057 giving the lewd Mn S + [(Mn, tes ee Be Si and not according with the garnet formula. [Although this does not peels sustain the writer’s formula given in his Mineral- ogy, a comparison of the perc — corresponding - his formula with the above may be of some interest ; the percentage is as follow MnS 146 Si 3 341 Beos M hoe Hae 100.—p,] Helvin has been obtained at Brevig, Norway, in a zeolitic gangue: L, Semann. (Communicated.) Hereromenrite [p.199.]—In the Jahrb. k. k. geol. Reterte: - 18538, at p- 155, C. v. Hauer published an aa * heterpmerite from as given in the Min., » P- 169. In Kenngott’s Min. Notizen, No, 10, Kenngott Sabah a differ- ent result bg Hauer as follows: el gi Be,. tgp 36° 39 22°25 B84 ‘81 trace 456 055 = This analysis gives the npaik ee nie for the ve rotoxyds, “sage and vale, 34:36, which if taken at 3:3: is the ratio of idocrase, to which species Kenn- refers it, as had arg dona saes the dankyeie in 1853, _ Kenngott in this paper reviews the analyses of idocrase, comparing the proportion of the porte and peroxyl but not, what is of more importance, the oxygen ratio of all the bases and si Horns E [p. 1 Wendeaatl éldite ep 5 to yes ap Not., No. a} is a var ‘ety sgh Auasipchre ee mixed with ce: e. y. Hauer of a specimen containing 38°27 p- c. of carbonates Hupsonite [p. 160 bi = Sesion observes (Min. fac No. 11) that the Hudson- ite has a aa — to a prism of 124°, like hornblende, and is near heden- bergit pite, in composition. fOn og this mineral, ip is like sahlite in structure, we the sales es of lamination, an ort leavage distinctly inclined about 106° to the base, an another v: re much i e, but i nea en making an eb; in g i angle with the diagonal of about 135° ; the last appears to putes te to the lateral faces of the prism of pyroxene. No clea vage Parallel to a prism of 124° Js 8P" ci am The o deduced by Goa bay from his recaleulations of the analysis of Brewer, is the same given Wy the writer, that is 14:91:30-42—=1:2 for oe oxygen of the protoxyds and $i The recent “ay of Smith and Brush, Al Fe Mn Ca Mg K Na ign. 38° 04 10-42 3049 060 1035 300 248 se 1:95 Oxygen, . 20°63 4°87 670 013 2°96 1:21 0-41 gives for the oxygen ratio for ths xyds and silica (41 ade) 11-84 : 25°50, erties is i iate between the fernbieads apd re ato former requir- ing 11°84: 26-64, the latter 11-84 : 23-68, ‘The mineral ir disnaas Peco 8 know, had pina appearance of purity.—p.] HYALOPHAN, von Waltershausen—Description and analysis b; von : hae 3 lin, figure 421 of 0 orthoclase, Min., p. 242) ==120° 36, Be li =130° 5 Mgt: li: Te=lil® 55’. By calculation, C (or iacliaaton of vertical = 64° Color white. =65; G.=2°711-2832, Crystals single, or in groups of to o tre Analysis (mean result): * Ca Mg Na Ba 5 H 548 24127 49929 1570 0420 6742 14403: 2702 0650=994 giving the eho et ee Silica 24-03, alomaiina ee ie : ie in oe + tag of the 7 Tones Valley * A = Sufplement to Dana’s,Mineralogy. 363 Un this formula, the first member has th oxygen ratio 2: . the second 9:3, a wide dive ersity. Con: nsidering the a ratio of the bases and silica, w e ob- serve that this ratio, according e above, i 1s 24:67:12, or Asses: 2:1, which is the ratio in staurotide, as if the arte might possibly come under the e general fo ‘orm- ula (BS, R) Si i? a is remarkable that the crystalline form should be ere iden- tical with that of orthoclase, suggesting the idea of a pseudomorph,—against which view ae tha hardness of the mineral and its bright faces seem to i op- analyses) rtapdie g to wre I2, apaiti ataxity S707 a 8° ©. orange at 300° C. but resumes its yellow color on cooling. Tnwosmine [p. 19]—-Claus found palladium in the erg of the yi Ketruaurre [p. 341 pt er ae ig by D Forbes (Edinb. N. Ph. J., [2], +) Monoclinic, according to crys’ sooks obtained by Mr. Dahl at Arkeroen, Nor- way, [ + lbs. ; Were rough and the ——- were meas- ured pd Bes the common goniometer. wire generally Ming (Sg.2). "G. =558 ut 60°F. Analys i Ti Al Be Ca Mn 3133 28:84 808 052 1956 478 687 0-28 = 99-41 a 15°06 1118 3875 082 556 he 152 0-06 The analysis ieakiause dade a eguenwaitce & given Mica from Entec erp, N. Y., “it is well for me to state in the absence of Prof. Shep- dge ard, that first know rica of Breithaupt's species pite from a letter wri a te tno i to Proi, Shepard, and which I had pie Pleasure of reading. In that letter he first ys ie toa ee yel- from N, : 1 serpenti specimen of which had sent to him not long be- fore. ‘portion of thi same apesinen Is in Pot. Sh er apecineds o at the time alluded to, and from entire similarity to other known specimens of the riage and those me ale there cre Fav ce ‘emnallest donbt of our correctness. ** a: ad, that all the wi as from that of Northern New York, which I ha and examined with reference characters, belong to the piles ‘gMigopite with an- ‘les from 7° to 17° Se nea a 366 Supplement J9 Dana’s Mineralf&y. 121° 15’. In fact no mica affords satanic for the presage ty. rism (if not =: an a other ange but 120° and its ore 60°; this is angle of the basal cleavage sectio in all cases. seless to consider a er "theoreti mentioned by B thaupts for Kenngott writ tere made no such argument if he had been aware ‘of the facts. The error as to the optical characters arose from the examination of too thin a te. The annexed figures b % 8 2 ¥s ES.s. <5 = s * jor) moreover are very similar to the phlogopite of = wards, Pope's Mills, other localities, as ow wri- has especially observed. rs 11 appear to occur in idocrase, while th e latter is ubatiamare of garnet. There is here a subject for further investigatio It i unnecessary to follow Kennett in his review of the analyses —p.] Picranatorme [p. 318]—The crystals of picranalcime, a specimen of which the writer has received from E. Bechi, are as clear and glassy as any analeime and show no i oie of alteration.—p, Prronstone [p. 248 —The e of Delesse Siehice ge fe Steere St. Natolia, Sardinia, afforded S Al Fe n "th Mz K Na _ Hand organic 6259 1659 317 055 116 226 648 314 390= = 99°83. Resembles a black pitch and is associated with trachyte A review Ff bag ina of pitchstone is given by Scherer, Handw. Chem. Ligh Pogg., &c., 18. See also Fluolite. PITKARANDITE—* A paramorphie amphibole species,” Scheerer, P Xciii, 100. biti that of augite. Calor leek-gr + zen, light a dark. From aca in Finland. Composition according to R. Richte Si Al Fe Mn be Mg Ht 6125... 04> =1PH .. 088 917. 1330 re = 10019 Oxygen, 31°80 019 2°82 018 2°62 5°32 whence Scheerer deduces the oxygen ratio for the silica and gee 3198 pire =11:4. [Excluding the water the ratio is 31°80: 10-94 go es 12: 43: ed taking for the eae weight of silica 566° 88. bina is most y adopted, 1 it becomes 32°45: 10-94, which is very closely 3:1, the ratio of some steatite. —p.l Prarina moet og 12] ee ant Pisa is not a pr of Plata, silver, but signi fies sil of Bogota, Inaug. Dissert. * Both the Vrooman’s Lake and Stoned Sokgs jneisins, oni Satta micas are of similar character, Sak eeioseix Spegeteel ees ee specimen came from Natural Bridge—o. SiPplement to Dana's Mineralogy. 367 Piumpocarctre [p.4 88].--Von Haver obtained in an analysis of plumbocalcite from Leadhills, Scotland, 92°48 carbonate of lime and 7-74 carbonate of lead =. “ale Gi =2-772 ; H.==3°0, White to pale reddish-white, Kenngott’s Min. Not., Potrtattre [p. nia -—H. Rose states (Pogg. Ann., xciii, 1) that according to an examination of the mineral from Vic i “A —— (that a renee by Berthier) ~~ “a Dexter, the gray variate as well as - pre of polyhalite, mixed with hydrous silicate of magnesia and alum analysis = the vols halite of Hallein by Behnke, and of that of Aussee Br Mn Dest afford NaS NaCl iat G 1, 42°29 18°27 27-09 2:60 .,.. 2°38 sth. 610= 2. 45:62 1897 28-39 061 O81 032 6°02 Mg0 5 o Bs 0- a 97,D.: Analysis 1, contains also 1-35 p. ¢. of basic a of sesquoxyd of iro we [p. 502].—Scheerer in Poggendorff’s Annalen, xcii, has made some additions to ‘his observations on scales but withoat any pear Sn analysis. A somewhat similar mineral from Schlackenwald is described. Pyrropuyzuire [p. 303]. —Analysis by Dr. F. A. Genth, of pyrophyllite from Crow- der’s Mtn., N. Carolina, in Am. J. Sci, [2], xviii, 410. The e analyses lead to the form- ula Al? Sis +271. Prrrres ths ].—Specific gravity of 52 crystals, according to von Zeparvih between 3” tra aud 5°185, the lowest, of crystals ae aed altered to limonite: pol- ished crystals 4-8-5-185. Kenngott’s Min. Not., No. PYRORETIN, Reuss.—Pyroretin is a new fossil resin from the Brown Coal forma- tion near Aussig in Bohemia, described by A. E. Reuss Sg ada xii, Hh BS It occurs in cream sometimes an inch thick and in nodules; is brittle; + Breasy resinous in lustre; hardness of gypsum ; streaky ode wader ‘al Sh aia easily with a reddish yellow flame and a e burning am amber, leaving a black coaly re sidue. Heated, it blackens and srils poets and begins to intumesce from incipient deco: omposition, and on cooling forms a black asphal Foe teas mass. Begins Rs melt at 100° ©, and if kept at this temperature gives off oxygen. Analysis by Stanék; Carbon 80°02 Hydrogen 9°42 Oxygen 10: 056 crrerpond San nino, o Hes Oy: It is near the Beta of the Pin ‘dn to Johnson, which ga a e Oy, a 9 Os, diferng g ely by 1 atom of ices S geaeen Soak ses Se depenith ed again on [p- a —Analysis of augite from Sasbach, ve ‘% Tobler, Keo Ch. wa ne Fe «* Ga Mg Na K H 44-40 783 1181 oil 2260 1015 218 065 103 = 10072 rye, 23:52 365 262 002 646 392 055 O11 9 Tf the alumina meee silica, the formula is that of augite, the oxygen ratio being 1368 : 27°37 = 1: _ Uther new analyses, Lieb. u. Kopp. vanes 1853, 797. ~ Kenngott has observed the prism o~$ in a diopside from Schwarzenstein in the Tyrol, (Min. Not., No. 13.) This mineralogist has reviewed in the same paper ses of ne wi > alumina. Rooxs.—A on the original a of some gard rocks, Speco sbagrame published in the Halle “Zeitschr. fiir die gesammten Naturwissen- maf, Sept 1864, iv, 194, a acneti site monet ame Sow! by Ir. 2. Soe ipiel ght The Rm obpnd id te at instead = 36°36, 63°64, A ulphur 35°67, ‘ro pier esses ntact G.=475. Am. ae azotend Rate sa Oenehlons 368 Supplement Jo Dana's Minerallley ALINE EFFLORESCENCE from the Desert of Atacama.—F. Field, Quart. J. Chem. Soc., vii, 308. A few miles to the east of the port of Caldeca in the north of Chili, the soit for many leagues around is white with a saline efflorescence looking like a re fall of snow. An analysis sieeed a anne Cli963 Na27-17 Ca 672 Mg4i5 H1280 ° with traces o Sets er = and carbonates of lime and a which corresponds to the following, part of the sodium being united to the chlorin pad 41-17 Gad 16°32 Mg$ 1375 NaCl 15°60 tt 12:30 = 99°74 with, it for along time. Soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid with searcely percepti- ble shhh ot Slightly alkaline to test paper, owing probably to a trace of car- is ; it posits r per of caittaatene of soda. One pound of ihe soil produces more than its own we ed of crystallized sulphate of soda. ; Ligeti sag of a pioutil from near Perth, Canada, by T. S. Lire [p. Font U a ee Rep. Geol. Surv. Canada, 1852-53, p. 268) found in a boulder; =5'°5; G,=2'640-2° ‘87, color jae Stay 5 subtransluce Si Al © Me ign. 46°30 26° rod 0:60 : 12°88 3°63 a 88 + 30, 2°80 = 99°59 nee fr y scapolite in th ge proportiop of potach and also the mag- nesia ee 419, 511].—Occurrence in Cabarras Co., N. C,, FA. Genth, Am. J, Sci. [2], xix, ScotecirE fos 328)—. prey of scolecite from the E. — by W. L Taylor in the laboratory of Dr. F. A. Genth, Am. J. Sci., [2], xviii, SeLapontre (Terre Sante —-The analysis, p. 511 of 3 is panera ain in the . d. Mines, [5], iv, 851. ' SERPENTINE [p. bas 11}—The crystals of Dre ee from East were ex: amined and pronounced pseudomorphs after hornblende and “aogite +e G. Rose (Pogg., Lxxxii, 511). The angles of the e augite ge given by Rose, agree 4 with those of ea one only gave a hat of O74, which was 1°48! _ Hermann has since measured the homblenie a Poee. ee 287), and ained ~ and finds divergence from unaltered h ao (instead - 148° 30’), and OQ: ii=112° 4’ T (ostend of “104° 50 ’). He regards these hornblendic and augitic forms, as new species of serpentine eo not pseudo- mor} [ writer has received a hornblendic re crystal gong Dr. E. Swift of Easton, which gives for -1:-1, 148° 15’~148° 30/, tery Ahr -prcomarnch. A niometer (with the reflection va ba light of a candl a 104}-105° for the edge —-1:-1 on éé (an uneven pases ‘plane) sit thew tt 8 rnd mon goniometer; (it is 106° in homnbl variations fr angles are therefore evidently irregularities, and there is no Bo et 9 reason a re- garding the crystals as other than pseudom Dr. Swift observes that there are se eile of augite and hornblende of similar form in the same vicinity—-] Severire {p. 504).—Analysis of re from St. Sévére, in France, by ©. ¥- Hauer (ahrke | Reichs., 1853, 826) : Bi4a42 “2 36:00 Ca065 H 1840, (of which 2:95 lost at 100° C= 9947 98 parts of silica, 7 alumina and 17-17 water. water. Amorphous and ei with a white ola Stiver Grancr.—The ore of Prince’s Location, on, Lake Sopra, pon silver in thin in caleite with quartz, silver See ee ase and erythrite; ae mamers s of the crude ore afforded T. 8. eee Leen containing Logan’s Report Geol. Surv. Canada). eto wn by De F. “ee Supplement to Dana's Mineralogy. 369 Sruerutire and Rertyrte or Prroustone [p. 248].—Anal Delesse (Ann. d. Mines (51, 451): of ne cage Si Al kh rein 72°20 1565 164 050 062 098 171 552 1129949. .G.==2'459 2. Retini 70-59 13-49 =e 030 O70 181 429 352 vidonae ane en the 2 given are from the same mass. The formation of spherulite within the retinite is regarded as an iMpure crystallization of ‘icupa Sropumene [p. 169].—Specific gravity of variety from ae 3182: J. L.Smith. 2). —A oe sulphur of Radoboy in Hungary, owes its color bod cording o Magn s (Pog Ixli, 657) to mixture ‘ith a bituminous eax impregnating a tittle i: material, the whole amount of this material being ee YLVAN oe oa OA) Bennet lee compared (Sitzungsber. Akad. Wien, xi, 977) all the an sylva anite and shown that the ratio between the telur rium (eluding ns muting) ond the other’ poles varies between 2°48:1 : n being abou Shere tp. aye, ss x —Anal. yses by Dr. F, A. Genth of tetradymite from Flu- vanna Co., Va. Sci., [2], xix, 16. The oa correspond closely with the, formula Bi Te? = =r 48°06, ‘bismuth & Terranepkire (Gray Copper, or Fahlerz) ip 82, 512.]—Analysis of the mineral from stone Gold Mine, Va, and Cabarras Co., N. C., F. A. Genth, Am.J. Sei., [2], xix, 1 Taververre dP te ._Owenite identical with Thuringite, Dr. F. A. Genth, Amer, J. Sei, [2], x Tuxestates.— Wolfram, Scheelite and Pen —— of Copper, [Min., p. 502], * North hy F. A. Genth, Am. J. [2], tYRITE, D. Forbes—Resembles_ euxenite. Occurs i in os having a square. avage none. H. =65; C=s0 at c0° FS 5°56 of a massive piece. Color. aus Ths e same asin eoxen Sag “x Ca Y Ge Fe H 4490 5:66 a 29°72 5°35 303 6°20 4°52 == 100-25 Oxygen, . 264 0-2 O77 O35 138 402 Taking the atomic weight ee tantalum for that of columbium, the oxygen oe bases and silica 1 is 5°23 . 11°31, [which is that of Columbite]. Occurs with e ite ene a apitaars called Hampemyr, Norway ckiTE [p. 895]—Analysis of vast by T. S. Hunt,* (Amer. J. si, oe xi, ci, 359): a Ti 31-5 Be aie fre 81 ine pa nae pas ae mn ae oe he small In loss in the analysis, ticks for want of aus oe was avon “hestigate is fae tone sagt i rig coring 0G ho sh small ey of wari 3 of 3'423, (Communicated. = On ae the proportion of ior of boracie es gemma wickite should be stated at 15 to 20 per . : * Mr. pon Cleeladsie was instituted as a species. on ¢ the large crystals of the Warwickite, w suggests, partial The composi- thachtaiia ene sd stealer all other examin- Pe em tee eng pe Deeg the mineral was a distinct species. Stooxp Senms, Vol. KIX, No. 57.~May 1855. 47 370 Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. ‘ pa prc Ze, [p. 88].—Analyses 1, 2, by R. aeinsiiee (Pogg. p sigpens xciii, Seer and 472),—and 3, R. Schenck (Ann. Ch. u. Fhe Sulphur, 16°15 15°87 1664" ae 51°83 50-62 5251 — pper, 81°31 = 99°29 33:19 = 99° 68 30" 85=100 Sclneider deduces the formula 2€u S+ BiS?, 4 atiiding for the double atom of bismuth ; or (8€u S + Bi S?] an x ris su posing t to contain some metallic bismuth. Schenck gives the formula 2 =p = Sulphur 19:28, bismuth 5014, ¢ i ja ‘In his analysis, he iets? - 54 of iron which he excludes as mixed sul. san of iron. Wo (rape of a wolfram from Neuhaus Stollberg near Stass- Pel ge 8 ete (Pogg., xciii, 474) : W 7657 Fe 18-98 <9 4°90. Ga 070 — Mn trace = 10095 The protoxyd of iron and a are ‘to one another as 4:1. » XENOTIME [p. 401].—The xenotime of ‘Georgia contains, according to Dr. J. Law- rence Smith 421 quichlorid of iron. The solution of the sesquichlorid must be acidula- 2 ry Go % = > rat) = mt | ga [a] “= 2 os r=) 5 ond | ° = io) Q oh — ow & oS = = s 2 Ss cy) i] ' the electromotive force was 1°3958. From these results it is clear that the chlorid of iron battery stands between Bunsen’s and Daniell’s in point of constancy. has greater power and constancy than Daniell’s while it is perfectly free from the offensive vapors which render the use of the nitric acid batteries so annoying.—Ann. der Chemie und Phar- « €, Xcil, 2 ym : « . [Note.—Would not the solution of the sesquioxyd of iron which is * obtained by the. spontaneous oxydation of a solution of green vitriol in air answer the above purpose as well as the sesquichlorid? Its con- ducting power would in all probability be much better and it would cer- tainly be cheaper. Moreover the protosulphate of iron formed by the reducing process in the battery might be exposed to the air a second ume and thus reoxydized and again employed.—w. ce. ] _ 8. On the law of the absorption of gases.—Bunsen has communicated _ & most admirable and elaborate investigation of the subject of the ab- » » Sorption of gases by liquids. As however it is impossible to do it jus- lee by any abstract, we must refer our readers to the original paper in | the Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, xciii, 1, Jan., 1855. =. the pressure will become (1-+-a) H Tf we give this air the heat p ¢ without permitting it to expand, the tem- where a is the coefficient 000367 If we then open a communication 422 i, Scientific Intelligence. with a vacuum m4 have the same temperature and the same quan- tity of heat in spite of the dilatation, and if the volume of the vacuum is the fraction a of the cubic metre the pressure will again become H. Now take again a cubic metre of air at 0° and under a pressure H, and let C denote the specific heat under a constant pressure, Give to this air the heat p C, permitting it this time to dilate under = pressure which it supports, We thus obtain a volume 1-++aat 1° under a pressure precisely as in the preceding case in which ening we have only intro- duced the quantity of heat pc. But in the first case there was no ex- ternal work, while in the second the dilatation a under the pressure H their initial and terminal states, they both contain precisely the same quantity of heat. We have therefore a right to conclude that the heat p(C—c) is becloneoe employed in producing the work a Conse- aH — By taking the num- p(C-¢) 7 bers H=10334k, p—1'-293, C —0-1686 according to Laplace, and e=0-2377 according to Regnault, we find 424 4 kilogranametres for the mechanical equivalent of heat.—Comptes anes xxxix, 1131, De- cember, 18 Ww. G quently the work of the unit of heat is 5. A new Carbonic Acid Apparatus ; communicated be Arrep M. Maver, of Professor Morfit’s Laboratory, University of Maryland.— Having lately invented an apparatus, for the es- timation of carbonic acid in carbonates, or rather made a modification of Will’s and Fresenius’s apparatus, I have ae it might be of some service to science ; d I therefore ‘ictnd you a drawin (half-size) a the dimensions marked. The following i is the description of the drawing. Ais a flask, at the bottom of which is placed the carbonate with a little water. B is a short piece sing footn the tube B thr ough the cork of the flask. Bis another hole perforating the cork of the flask, After the carbonate is introduced into the flask Ur), the tube (B) is nearly filled with eon acid, and being attached to the cork A’ by the tube Di is inserted into the fteskst The tube E ee brium is restored in B, but the air in A being in mah in tee fia pear the acid sleet over eit the sy- ? ; i The acid with t : Chemistry and Physics. .. 423 CC through the sulphuricacid, where it is thoroyghly dried, and out through the tube D. This is repeated until no more gas is disengaged ; hen the piece of wax.is removed from the tube E, and the airis drawn | h the apparatus by suction at D. When all the gas is out of the flask it is weighed; the loss of weight indicating the amount of CO2. the advantages which | think this form of apparatus has, are com- pactness, lightness, more convenient to weigh and in general easier in manipulation. Baltimore, Feb. 13, 1855. posed of one equivalent of acid and two equivalents of oxyd of the: alcohol radical. Afterwards Malaguti observed that an impure solution of the vinic ether sometimes decomposes, alcohol becoming free, and a bimucate of ethyl-oxyd or mucovinic acid is formed in the solution and may be Separated in the crystalline state. This acid forms salts with bases. ; _Last winter in the laboratory of Prof, Erdmann at Leipsic, and at | his suggestion, | undertook the study of thé compounds of mucic acid / with amyl-oxyd and communicate herewith the imperfect results of my Investigations which have been necessarily suspended. Applying amyl- alcohol in the process of Malaguti, I obtained a crystalline ether, but nly in a few of many trials, and w n operating on small quantities. | When, however, fuming hydrochloric acid was added to the mixture of . mucic acid, amyl-alcohol and oil of vitriol, and the whole digested at a | moderate heat for some hours. the new body was prepared without diffi- | culty. The brown semi-solid mass thus obtained was washed with alco- | ol so long as that Jiquid ran off colored, and was then several times recrystallized from hot alcohol or water. As thus obtained, this ether | usually appears in the form of a bulky opake mass of indistinct crystals ; from a not too concentrated hot solution it separates as distinct trans- parent needles on slow cooling- When dry, it is tasteless, has a fatty feel, and is scarcely wetted by water, more easily by alcohol. It gives a : distinct acid reaction when laid on moist litmus-paper. By combustion | with oxyd of copper the following results were obtained on distinct Preparations, which agree with the formula C1oH110, HO, Ci2HeOss. a Calculated. Found. | icp aes , 2. : Caz («182s 47-14 46°99 es on Pe. a 4593 46-03 280 100-00 30000 100-00. ‘ * Fei the “ Jour. fiir Prakt. Chem. :” ebbitinandented to this Journal by the author. gal dah 3825 gm, gave ‘573 gm. COs and ‘212 gm. HO.—2d, 2623 gm. gave -4491 $M. 00g and -1723 gm, HO. 7 424 é Scientific Intelligence. The substance is accordingly bimucate of amyl-oxyd or mucamylic acid. When pure, its solution is not precipitated by salts of lead, silver or baryta, nor by ammonia. With the latter, as with caustic pota ash and soda, it instantly decomposes, amyl- Bicol being set free. Its boiling aqueous solution smells faintly of fusel oil, owing to gradual decompo- sition ; its cold solutions become mouldy in warm weather but do not appear to undergo decomposition. It is incapable of expelling carbonic acid from its weakest combinations. The mother og ae sometimes eas = a ae white pci with ammonia which may have been mucamid, thus making the existence of the neutral ether sectehios That body was ie however ohtnitel sep- arately. I: is not a little remarkable, that while in the ethyl series the neutral mucic ether is easily obtained, and the acid ether rarely and by chance, in the amyl series we nome is of easy preparation, while the neutral compound is not obtai It is further roaiashable: that this ether, so stable in solution and in - ‘the presence of alkalies, is, unlike the analogous ethyl compound, im- peer Hf ta by soluble bases. On Terrestrial Magnetism ; by €ol. Sazine, (communicated for ae Journal, by “i eawecx. \—Col. Sabine, V.P.R.S., communicated to the British Association, 25th September, 1854, a very remarkable and important paper on terrestrial magnetism. rc will be recollected that at the meeting of the Association in 1838, a request was made to the British eon that it should cause Ca on the phenom- ena of magnetism by officers of the army and navy to be made at fixed stations, and i means of sag expeditions. The request was promptly acceded to, and Col. Sabine, who was and has continued on duty at Journal will have seen that various Americans have entered zealously into the same pursuit, and the observations of others are intercalated biped aa form a part of, the observations, whose sensi we are about As carly as 1825, Col. Sabine had inferred that an influence was ex- erted by the sun ane moon on terrestrial magnetism. In a set of ob- same time, the diurnal variation reached.5° ; but that when they were at right angles to each other this quantity fell as low as 20’. The sagacity he exhibited in his inference from this isolated set of ob- servations has been sustained by the laborious and patient observa- tions and discussions of fifteen years. Some quantities so minute are developed in the researches, that a less time would hardly have served to separate them from the larger quantities in which they are involved. results set forth by Col. Sabine are as follows : (. ) The sep a following in all places the order of solar time, and being at aximum about two hours after noon, changes its sign at the time | on two equinoxes. Thus, while the maximum eenersicn (core magnetic meridian is eastward in all places amount Chemistry and Physics. 425 the 22d, and is completed in about ten days, after which the maximum daily variation is to the westward, and at a mean equal to the eastern variation of the preceding six months. (2.) There is an annual variation in the intensity of terrestrial magnet- a ism, of small amount indeed, but affecting both the northern and south- ern hemisphere i in oy same manner, the intensity being greatest when the ~< is in perigee, and least when it is in apogee. Pe It being wall’ known that all the i instruments in magnetic ore jon are from time affected by disturbances, or storms as the ¥ = fe & - Gee described by D. D. Owen from the gold region, near Nevada city, California. It consists of deep yellow, silky tufis, formed by groups of delicate, acicular crystals, coat- ing and oie ng the cavities of dark ferruginous quariz. This quartz forms numerous —* n micaceous and granitic rocks, ina eee where gold bas been A qualitative analysis showed in %e It has been as yet impossible to obtain sufficient of the mineral for a eros’ or Waeraley analysis. 3. Reaction of common salt in the format als; M. = erat HAMMER.—-On fusing together phosphate of lime Hihe phosphate "i | and chlorid of sodium (four parts to one of the phosphate) be seed wa ‘ am I oncl Spi sie the formation of minerals.—Pogg. Ann., xci, 568. 430° Scientific Intelligence. 4. Gneiss. a Anaivace, by F. Schonfeld and H. E. Roscoe, (Ann. Ch: u. ati xci, 302.)—1, a mica slate from the right shore of the Eisack G. =3:'1410; 9, gneiss from Cachoeria da Campo, Brazil, en naetNg of — hice. quariz, and mica, yellowish-gray in , G. =2'6128; 3, so-called protogine, from the Bou sia of Ment lanc, a sh feet below the highest peak, G. =2:7 4, gneiss ‘from Norberg, Swe- den, consisting of flesh-colored ances bec and grayish-black mica; 5, ibid., a fine grained mixture of orth “pre and quartz. Si Al Fe Ga Mg Na H 1, Mica slate, 6945 1424 654 266 1:35 352 402 052== 10130 Gneiss, 67° ‘08 ~ 4°5 $87 1:54 508 298 0438-10182 Protogine, 71°41. 1445-258 «249 LL) 277) 805 1:25 = 9971 4 sneer 14564* 1305 285 326 0 “8 2 1. 364 ——==h010 7655 1286 085 247 012 529 303 —-= LIT “5. Meteor Iron, from Greenland. neni ant hammer describes this mass ; itis 7 inches long, 7 high and 54 broad. Specific gravity. 7-00-7 Rinck. Hardness like that ef steel. With nitric acid romp s fine Wi ye figures. Composition (Pogg. Ann., xciil, Fe 0339 Ni1s8 "Qos banat S067 Phols C169 Si 0380857 ‘The | proportion 9f ca n is peculiar 6. Orie Sandstone and Coby North C Carolina of the age of the Richmond ceal basin ; by Prof. dD. OumsTeD. *—| The following observa- tions are from the Geologi “ Report on North Carolina, by Prof. D. Olmsted, published in 1824, the first of all the State Geological Re- ports, made in this country. ‘The facts have not appeared in this Jour- nal, and as the Report was long since out of print, we republish them. The author, at the time when the investigations were made, was Pro- poe of Chemistry and Miseralogy 1 in the Universtity of North Car- olina Freestone and Coal formation of —_— and Chatham.—* The formation is very i embracing a great number of beds of ey cellent freestone, varying arnong themselves in color and reer but nearly all extremely well suited to the purposes of architecture. e sandstone extends from Oxford in a southerly direction, quite through the State. Its length, within our own State, is about 120 miles. The breadth of the formation varies considerably in different places. most toa point; on the Neuse, its breadth is about 12 miles ; between Raleigh and Chapel Hill, it is 18 miles; not more than 8 miles on the ape Fear, but soathiwned of that, it grows a little wider. Its average breadth may therefore be stated at about 12 miles. On this supposition, the whole area of the formation is 1440 miles. In going from Oxford to"Chapel Hill, thé traveller passes nearly on the line of its western boundary. This runs onward, at the foot of Chapel Hill, a mile and a half east of the University ; meets Haw River about three miles above Ha ay wood, and Deep River five miles northwest of Tyson’s Mills. Thence it Popes through Moore County, by Richland Creek ; thence Mineralogy and Geology. 431 | Montgomery by Cheek’s Creek; and finally through Anson, a few ; above Wadeésboreugh, into South Carolina. The eastern bound- ary will be indicated with sufficient exactness, by mentioning the points where the roads meet¥, that diverge westward from Raleigh. On the road to the Fishd on the Neuse, the sandstone begins to appear i F BByce’ ’s Mills, and five from the Fishdam, on the road. On the Westegn road to Hillsborough, the line of the forma- sia passes a little east Brassfield’s. The same line is met with on «Red | is Bhi nortan color of the sandstone ; st ‘several shades of this are exhibited, and a a light gray and a dally ellow are not un- frequent colors. All these varieties are often contained in the same bed within a few feet of each other. A similar ‘diversity prevails* in the texture ~& this rock. bs is sometimes Very fifely-grained, some- times very coarse: in one place, the grains ‘are very closely ce- mented reethier, forining a A Katd, firm rock ; in another, they cohere » an id the rock is 2 eee aaah and destitute of strength. It is important to note all th cir¢iimstances, to show that there is much reason for examining with cary and pains in | materials for building or other pu Agr " “This region of sandstone embrages beds of that conglomer- ate rock which is used for mailistingie “But he most eg ate lo- tars of the millstone grit occurs on tga Greek, in Moore County, ‘Pe will justify some degree of minuteness in speaking of it. ‘This excellent bed of millstone grit is exposed to view directly on the bank of the Creek, forming three horizontal strata or layers, each compo of large tabular massés. The lowest stratum is of the best quality for millstones. It consists of a hard, grayish red sandstone, in which are thickly imbedded water-worn Ca of white flint or quartz. his formation may be considered as a continuation of the Rich- mond coal deposit, and both are 7 hélieved to be a continuation of a long and narrow deposit of sandstone which extends from Connecticut niver to the Rappahannock.* Indications of coal have been observed in va “* Mr. MClure, the di hed President of the American Geological Society, “has traced above oe of sandstone for an extent of 400 miles to the bap e supposes it to terminate on the south. Of the Richmond ba- sin he remarks, that “it would not be far distant from the range of the red sandstone formation had it continued so far south.” Our sandstone formation, which lies in the ‘same ro} ne. eager ce were as age h not are od pec ionsie to diferent atta 432 Scientific Intelligence. rious parts of this range. The mine in Chesterfield County, between the James and Appomatox Rivers, in Virginia, has been wrought to some extent, and furnishes at present a considerable article of com- * * merce. “In the third place, in addition to the foregoing presumptions that coal might be found in the district of country under consideration, we have it in our power to say, that coal has actually been discovered in this region, and that a bed of considerable extent has been opened not far from the Gulf on Deep River. “It is about fifty years since this coal-bed was first discovered. g cording to Mr. Tyson, the proprietor, is about one foot. The water and rubbish with which the pit was encumbered, did not permit my as- certaining the facts respecting it so much from personal observation as ] desired, but the respectable proprietor assured me, that waggon loads of the coal could be obtained with ease. The coal is highly bitumin- ous, burns readily ‘with a bright flame, and is, I think, of much the same quality with the Richmond, or the Liverpool coal. ‘** With regard to the extent of this coal mine, I have no means of judging with much certainty. On the road from Salem to Fayetteville, by way of Tyson’s Mills on Deep River, the traveller crosses a numbe of ridges of that shelly kind of black slate which is the accompani- ment of the coal, and may be considered as a symptom of it wherever it occurs. This however passes under a soft red rock, called by geol- ogists slaty clay, which extends southward towards Moore Court House, and nothing is seen of the black slate on the south side of the River. * “Coal is found also in the County of Rockingham, and the subject will be resumed should a subsequent Report lead me to speak of the geology © + oe does p unsuitable for making good quicklime, it would probably be found a use- Sis kind of manure. These soft and marly kinds of limestone, when pul- better quality, may be Mineralogy and Geology. ; 433 “The color of this species of limestone is never white, but is dark, varying from gray to black. It is frequently nearly of a slate or, and is sometimes fetid, especially when two pieces are rubbed together. * * *. ore at Wilcox’s Old Furnace ; and that traces of it were found to the distance of seven or eight miles south of Deep River; but I cannot learn that any one has discovered it, except in detached nodular at ' Works on Deep River. It consists of iron mixed with a large quantity of clay, but is so easily quarried and broken up as to become in many stances a profitable ore. * * * “*To sum up what has been said, it appears that the district of coun- try which contains what I have called the freestone and coal formation of Orange and Chatham, affords materials for various purposes of arch- tecture, for millstones, for grindstones and whetstones ; that it em- braces of bituminous coal of unknown extent 3 and that, both fi inciples, hopes may reasonably be entertained that the same region will yield a supply of limestone and iron ore, and possibly of sali and ani”? : 6. Preliminary Geological Report of the U. S. Pacific Railroad Survey, under the command of Lieut. R. S. Williamson, Corps of Top. Eng., 1853; by W. P. Buaxs, Geologist of the Survey.—This Pre- liminary Report is to be followed by a detailed account of the regions examined, and we defer an extended notice till the latter appears. Part of the facts have already been published in this Journal. We cite some observations on Bitumen Springs,—p. 68. It is an interesting fact, which I believe is not generaily known, that there are numerous places in the Coast Mountains, south of San Francisco, where bitumen exudes m the ground, and spreads in great quantity over the surface. These Places are known as Tar Springs, and are most numerous in the vicin- ity-of Los Angeles. It is also common to meet with large quantities of this material floating on the Pacific, west of Los Angeles, and nerth- Ward towards Point Conception. I have seen it, when, passing this point, floating about in large black sheets and masses. They are probably the product of submarine springs; or they may be floated down by Small streams from the interior.* Some of the springs that I examined near Los Angeles were nothing more than overflows of bitumen or asphalt from a small aperture, around which it had spread out so as to cover a circular i ete mineral oil, iving to the surface the beautiful prismatic hues that are Produced when oil is poured on water. . Skconp Szems, Vol, XIX, No. 57.—May 1855. 55 A34 Scientific Intelligence. space of about thirty feet in diameter. This had hardened by ex- posure, and was covered and mingled with dust and sand, which quickly adheres to its clean and. _ surface. The outer portions were hard as a pavement; and the mass was highest towards the centre, where it was soft and fluid, like sinstiel pitch. It was _ evident that all the hard portions had risen in a — state, and by the heat of the sun had been gradually spread out over the surface. Bein constantly exposed to the dust, it had become so ecm incorporated with the asphalt that the compound had all the consistency of an artificial ad- mixture. er spring that I have described is one of several similar att on ank of a small brook about seven miles from Los Angele I gtr up and resin the stream just mentioned ead a_ short distance, on each side, and found one or two natural exposures of the edges of nearly horizontal shales of a light color, and very thinly stratified. The lowest layers were charged with bitumen, and were of various shades of brown and black. These shales were pone silicious, and were overlaid by a stra- and san bably beach-shi 7. Notes on some Fossils of the so-called Taconic System described by Dr. Emmons; by James Haut, (from a letter to one of the Editors of this Journal.) —Nemapodia, Emmons. Some years since it was dis- covered by Dr. Fitch that the Nemapodia was the track of a slug or worm over the rusty-looking surface of the rock. To the naked eye the surface appears simply of a brownish or grayish brown color, the lor ne due to granules which are removed by the passage of the nima Nereites.—The Nereites are from Maine, ne belong to slates prob- ably of carboniferous or devonian age. None of the fossils of the Maine slates referred by Dr. Emmons to the Fcaplee eg are iden- tical with those of the one Taconic rocks of New Yor some mollusc, which was afterwards filled with mud. Dr. Fitch in 1848, in his wpe poe Survey of Washington Co., demonstrated that it was the track of some marine animal, and pro oposed for it the un- wieldy name Helminthoidichnites, calling one species, a line wide, H. marina, and another half as wide, H. tenuis. He shows that the worm has pushed before it sometimes a grain of sand, until the ma was piled 2 as to be an obstruction and then the animal rose over _ Trilobites.—The Trilobite Olenus ( Elliptocephalus) Asa heidi and ancther species, have lately been found in the slates of Vermont in such : a Felatixe position to the limestones below, as to leave no doubt as to ‘their age. Dr. Fitch found Trinucleus concentricus int ' sof Mt. in Washingtor Co., reputed Taconic ; and. Prof. Adams found other Hudson River fossils i in the same paar s Mineralogy and Geology. 435° Fucoids—The F. simplex is undoubtedly a -graptolite, and is appa- rently identical with a species in the unaltered slates of the Hudson _Tiver group. The F. rigida (which is the same as F. flexuosa) is be- yond doubt a Hudson river species. Becraft’s mountain, east of Hudson, 3 miles from the Hudson river, ; slates? The facts show plainly that the slates below, are no other than the Hudson river slates, as I have before ed 8. Dolomisation.—M. Delanotie denies that dolomisation is a result nying the alteration of rocks: and takes the ground that crys- 9. Mikrogeologie: Das Erden und Felsen schaffende Wirken des ’ unsichtbar kleinen selbstandigen Lebens auf der Erde, von C. G. Euren- BERG. 1 vol. folio, with 41 plates. Leipsic, 1854. Price $72.—A large Portion of the text, with 41 folio plates of this magnificent and long ex- pected volume is now published, giving the results of fourteen years of zealous and unwearied labor on the part of the distinguished author in Waters, as well as the solid strata of the earth. e author states in the introduction, p. ix, that his great work, “ Die Infusionthierschen,” pub- lished in 1838, is to be considered as an introduction to the present vol- umefand we notice in various parts of the present work that not on of the much controverted positions assumed in the former work has been - The term Polygastrica is retained; implying of course that the 436 Scientific Intelligence. The author divides all the microscopic forms connected with geology into the following classes : A. Silicious, B. Caleareous. - Class 1. Polygastrica, Class 5. Polythalamia, + olycistine, ee litharia, * 3. Phytolitharia, ‘© 4, Geolitharia. ai . he classes just mentioned are treated of in the present volume with reference Ist, to Freshwater formations; 2d, to Marine deposits; 3d, to minute life transported by the atmosphere. The published portion h noun of the text which amo a specimens, and with a few exceptions represent the objects as magnifie which we overlooked. We must however beg leave to differ from the ‘author with regard to the origin of the plants which he evidently SOP- poses to have grown at the bottom of the ocean, and which he has repre- * Mineralogy and Geology. 437 Hygrocrocis Erebi. These plants are beyond a doubt merely minute fungi or moulds which have developed themselves in the damp bottles at es expense of the sizing of the paper in which the soundings were , or of the organic matters contained in the mud, In one of ' bottles of similar materials these plants have developed into con- ‘picuous patches of mould with tufts of spores, and we have oes no doubt that the minute peony in these soundings which we on ook for the ova of Polythalamia (see Smithsonian see tong - yan edge, ii, 13) are merely the spores of these Fungi. The text so far as published is full of detailed and interesting accounts of foreign localities of microscopic beings of freshwater origin, and the plates promise a rich treat when the text for the remaining portion shall be completed. Our own country is largely represented by figures of fossils ‘i numerous localities, but the text relating to them is not yet Bublieh excellent as far as = go; but are at fault in some res ects in conse- quence of the use of too Jow a magnifying power, and the frequent reference to apertures where none exist. We think too that some, but by no means all, of the changes, suggested by recent writers on these minute bodies, are worthy of adoption. When the portion of the text which refers to North America reaches us, we propose to make extracts for this Journal of the most interesting portions. In the mean time, we commend this volume to all lovers of the microscope, and of geology, as a rich mine of carefully arranged facts, presenting in one connected Series the proof oe the vast influence of microscopic life nenenets air, earth, and oc . W. B. ip Ranioeation: *; the Red River of parmnned in the year 1852 by Ranpourn B. Marcy, Captain Fifth Infantry U. S. pein assisted by Grorce B, M’CiEuLan, Brevet Captain U. Ss. Engine 286 pp., 8vo, with numerous plates. Washington, 1854.—This is a each Report, pe in its napeeiine “pat which gives details of the country, and ne regions, and are intersected by quartz veins and dykes of gfeenstone. ‘They are the nla high mountains in the Red River Ree gh Dr. Shumard, in his Geological aa an account €stern the direction of Fons Seen 100 miles, with an average breadth of 50 miles. The beds correspond to the upper part of the Europ@an chalk. They are seen fall of fossils, and at Fort Washita, ammonites Were observed three oak in diameter.--Beyond the Witchita mouniains, there were ranges of high bluffs which resembled fortifications i rine their blue €ven height and regularity ; they consisted of layers of red a clay thickly eaenwinennah ppow-white.gypeum. Some masses of Sypsum at their base were 10 feet in diameter. On the Red River, 438 Scientific Intelligence. from Cache Creek to Sweet Water Creek there are two terraces, be- sides the lower ais, subject to inundation; the lower is 10 to 20 feet ic ; the other fe he Appendix fishies Reports on Minerals by Prof. C. U. Shep- leontology, by B. F. Shumard ; on Reptiles, by S. F. Baird and C. Girard, containing descriptions of new species, with many fine plates ; on Shells, by Prof. C. B. Adams; on Orthopterous Insects, Arachnidi- ans, Myriapods, by Charles Girard ; on Botany, with several plates, by D J orrey ; on Ethnology, by Capt. Marcy, an rner. ll. An Report on the Geological Survey of the State of Wis- consin; by James G. Percivat. 102 pp. 8vo. Madison, Wisconsin, the mineral district was hardly possible. The Report still shows much labor. The rock strata of the lead region are described ; and consid- erable information of value is pisen. respecting the lead mines. Dr. pp appears to be inclined to the view, not hitherto admitted, that he lead occurs in veins, instea deposits or beds, which veins may be traced far below the recognised lead-bearing rocks. We shall look with interest for facts on this important point which the progress of the Survey may bring out, deferring for the present an extended notice of the subject. 12. First Annual Report of the Geological —— 8 the Siate of — New Jersey for the year 1854. 100 pp., 8vo. New wick, 1855. —This Report embraces Reports by Wm. Kircuent, bes ‘Superintendent on the northern section of the State, Prof. G. H. Coox, assistant Ge- ologist, on the southern section, Henry Wurtz, Chemist, and BERT S. VIELE, arte oo Engineer. The observations presented in this Preliminary Report, are pense ofa died character and relate to the marls and beds of o Mr. Cook recognises in the i awen strata, three distinct beds of greensand marl, alternating with strata of sand; the lower marl bed is about 80 feet thick, and contains as fossils, Exogyra costata, Gryphea convera, Ostrea falcata, Terebratula Sayii, Belemnites Americanus, etc. The second and third marl beds are = near 50 feet thick. The second contains Gryphza convexa, and at one place vast numbers Terebratula Harlani, with other species. re the third bed, fossils are rare, and appear to differ in species from those below 13. Geological Survey of Canada; Report of Progress for the year 1852-53. Printed by order of the Legislative Assembiy. 180 pp-; pave Quebec, 1854.—No Geological Survey on this continent has been on with more thoroughness-and with results of higher importance aoe the science than those of Canada under the direction of Mr. W. E. gah. There is great precision in his observations, and par nce in his statements; and it will be a work of great honor to Canada when the Sur- vey is throughout completed, and the Final Report, fully inact with plates of fossils and sections, is published. ‘Much more time will yet be needed | ly on the geology ofthe United States, and and thoy have already Tal doubt epee aaiomos oman a Boiany and Zoology. 439 TU. Botany anv Zootoey. corrections, manifesting the authors scrupulous care and indefatigable activity to the last. We notice with interest the statement that the small rof Monimiacee “should be transferred to the neighborhood of Maspoliacen: to which it is closely allied, whereas it has no real affinity with Laurinee.” We hope soon to have to speak of Dr. ee s la- bors upon a different field, namely, the Indian flora 2. Seemann’s Botany of the Voyage of the Herald. Part 6, (1854, et tab. 51-60,) brings to a als ee the flora of the Isthmus of Panama. 8 usual, the author introduces new observations here an ie upon the botanical history and economical uses of important erce that name are plaited in the Isthmus; by farthe greater portion is made in Manta, Monte Christi, and other parts of Ecuador. h are worn almost in the whole American Continent and the West Indies, and would probably be equally used in Europe, did not their high price, amounting often to 150 dollars for a single one, prevent their importation. They are distinguished from all others by consisting of only a single Piece, and by their lightness and flexibility : they may be rolled up and has to go th Severa processes. The leaves are noone our afore they — om their ribs and coarser veins apeborsiccs and the rest, without bein is now rea ready tar use, epee re in aie state is sent to “different phiécs; espe- vd to Peru; where the Indians manufacture from it, besides hats, Neem cate I cigar-cases, which fete fetch sometimes more stil £6 a piece. The plaiting of the hats is done on a block, which is placed upon the 3 eee zanmenigy tig es and finishes at the brim. Accord. ing tthe quay of the hats, more or less time is occupied in their 440 Scientific Intelligence. completion ; the coarser ones may be finished in two or three days; the finest take as many months. The best times for plaiting are the morning hours and the rainy season when the air is moist: in the mid- dle of the day and in dry clear weather the straw is apt to break, which when the hats are finished is betrayed by knots, and much diminishes their value.”—p. 204, Vegetable Ivory.—This consists of the seeds of the Phytelephas macrocarpa; a palm-like ee but not, it appears, a member of family of Palms. It is now taken as the type of a separate group, more closely allied to the savilted than to the Palmea, Seemann in- corporates into his account the whole history of our knowledge of the tree and its useful product, from its discovery by Ruiz and Pavon dowa to his own personal observations, which have enabled him to complete the botanical characters, &c., and has introduced a translation of Mor- ren’s account of a microscopical investigation of the structure of the ivory ;—of which we give a condensed abstract : Passing by the tegumentary portion, “ the albumen, or vegetable ivo- ry itself is composed of concentric layers of a white substance, thin por- tions of which are transparent in water and perforated with an infinity of holes, the sections of so many cavities. The latter are irregularly , and also prolonged into arms or rae which give a starry appearance to the cavities, many of them being 5-10-rayed. Here and there may be seen a little spheroidal cavity; finally the tubes ap- ar to be each of them tipped with a small swollen head. Throughout the albumen this structure is more or less regular, offering a beautiful study to the vegetable anatomist. Gonextlt ly the. starry cavities are arranged in a quincunx, so that the interval between two of them cor- responds to athird. A little attention enables the observer to see that those rays which are terminated by a little head always answer ws one another. * * Itis evident that these star rry cavities sepreso apne This iv rory; as Morren obocemes, is nothing but the albu- as ivary itself. Solid as iti is, in a germination it reverts to the pulpy and aes condition (as was seen by Hooker in the stoves of Kew - and nourishes the forming embryo just like the albumen of seed. In its native country the still soft young seeds are getty eaten by bears, hogs and turkeys; and in the earlier fluid state it forms a delicious rage. — Pi: was among the first plants = Columbus met in northern Veraguas, where it ; ~ Botany and Zoology. 4A} the arrival of the first European, together with the circumstance that it grows to all appearance wild in various parts of the ¢ ountry, may be looked upon as almost conclusive of its being indigenous.”— Sarsaparilla.—Seemann appears clearly to have proved that Swede officinalis, H. H. K., S. papyracea, Duhamel, and S. medica, Schlecht.— all yielding officinal sarsaparilla,—are botanically one and the same Species. It grows on the slopes of mountains, to an elevation of 5000 feet above the level of the sea, in South America, between the 20th de- gree of north, and the 6th degree of south latitude, and the 110th and 40th degress of west longitude. The “ Jamaica sarsaparilla,” it ap- pears, is not the produce of that island, but is received there from the Spanish Main, and thence shipped to Europe and the United Siates. The * Lisbon or Brazilian sarsaparilla” is distinguished from the former by pharmacologists chiefly by having fewer rootlets or “ beards ;” but it is evident that the rootlets have been rem oved by some sis 20 me- w DS * tepommaht value of the roots they dig up, we should soon get all our Jamaica ie are and in a few ome have difficulty s" in obtaining even a specimen of what is now termed Lisbon sarsapa- | rilla”” As to porns chief aidécion of the pharmacologists, into the mealy and non-mealy sorts; “ any body opening a bundle of Jamaica Sarsaparilla may pick out as many roots as he chooses, mealy at one end and non-mealy at the other.” As to the ele pe of the form of the cells of the ‘liber,’ which have been considered by physiologists as form od marks of distinction between the ¥reaparillas of Cen- tral America and those of South America, our author cites from a pa- ’ per by Mr. Bentley, in the Pharmaceutical Journal for April, 1833, the results of recent microscopical examinations which invalidate these characters also ad rather few Graminec and Cyperacea@ of the Isthmus are elabora- ted by the venerable Nees yon Esenbeck, and this is announced as ' probably the last ar labor of a career as an author which began ‘ i forty years ago. ‘The Ferns, here numerous in species, are elab- characters discovered and turned to Finjserekt account by fine? in’ Sification, founded on the structure and mode of ri alot the semi seco fronds. In a note, Mr. Smith gives further information di out the Lomaria eriopus of Kunze, or Stangeria paradora, which E reel to be a true Cycadaceous plant, “ presenting a new feature in that order on account of its simply forked venation rising from a true midri rendering untenable the character which is: bord relied upon for disingvishing fossil wiih fossil Filices.” / : ‘From t ‘ eee to the ‘Flore of Northwest- Beweilts mmeads to ye Acourtia — ie oF sod 4 pea ‘ ty Br ae as e 55 NAS? WEBTES, Y ALA, s10, ah 1855. 442 Scientific Intelligence. Tulasne, on the Uredinee and Ustilaginee.—Nearly two num- a 2 and 3) of the second volume of the botanical portion of the An- which are those microscopic 288) that attack and inhabit living plants Monae herbaceous and even woody stems, immature fruits, .), some of which, known to us by the name of Rust, Blight, and the like, at do a vast deal of damage. As an instance we may al- lude to the malady of the grape, which for the last year or two has so seriously diminished the product of this important culture in the south of Europe, Madeira, &c. This memoir, like its aggre: (in 1847), _ of which all successful remedial or preventive measures will have to be based. As Fungi, even of these tribes, are beginning to be studied in this country with much zeal, we have only to call the atten- tion of our mycologists to this able paper, and to say that the general physiologist will also find it of no small interest, from the light it sheds ‘some of the simplest forms.of vegetable existence. M. Tulasne devotes much cieoige to a curious complication which occurs in these otherwise so simple plants; the lowest organized forms being almost uniformly intimately associated with those of a different and higher or- ment; some have contended that one species was here parasitic upon aaniher. itself a parasite ; while others look upon these cases as a kind o Penorphie in fructification, comparable with what is known to occur in a good many Phzenogamous plants. The latter view is penieene med M. Tulasne, and its correctness is nearly demonstrated. he Grasses of. Wisconsin and the adjacent States ; by : ‘A. mrs) Milwaukie: in the Transactions of the Wisconsin "State Ag- riculiural Society, vol. iti, for 1853. Madison, 1854. —Both as to the matter which they contain and Lie manner in which aA are edited ane “etme ww Botany and Zoology. 443 are creditably executed from original drawings by Mr. Lapham him- : g 8 __ self, and they will afford invaluable assistance to the student of this ult but very important natural order of plants,—most important and the domesticated animals. A, G. 5. H. G. Reichenbach: De Pollinis Orchidearum Genesi ac Structura, et de Orchideis in artem ac Systema redigendis. Leipsic, 1852, pp. 38, 4to. tab. 2.—We ought earlier to have noticed this elaborate essay of ieps, a genus of Ascomycetous Fungi established by Tulasne, who has cleared up the great confusion which prevailed respecting the na- ture and history of these vegetables, or vegetable productions. The ergot is not a metamorphosed seed resulting from diseased conditions, hor a mere diseased form of the seed associated witha parasitic fungus, as thought by E. Quekett, Leveillé, Phoebus, Mougeout, and Fée, but a real fungoid structure. The first sign of the attack of the fungus upon he flower of a grass is the appearance of the sphacelium upon the out- side of the nascent pistil ; it soon penetrates the wall of the ovary, grow- ing with it until it forms a fungoid mass of the same shape as an ovary, obliterating the cavity of the latter. At this time it is soft, while, Stooved on the surface, and excavated by irregular cavities, which are Connected with the external folds or grooves: the surfaces of these are all covered with parallel linear cells, like a hymenium; and from the ex- tremities of these arise elongated, ellipsoid, or oval cells, about 1.5000" in length. These become detached, and when placed in water germi- hate and emit filaments. These bodies are spermatia, stylospores, = éomidé d | | e spur det ie Tulasne.—( Micrographic Dictionary, by Griffith and Henfrey, — 6.) 6. Trigonocarpon.—Mr. Jos. D. Hook : ture and chibieotatants that the fossil fruit of the coal era called Trigo- AA4 Scientific Intelligence. ture and Physiology; by Frances H. Green; Part II, Systematic Botany, illustrated by a Compendious Flora of the Northern States; ‘ by Joseph W. Conepon. 328 pp., small 4to. New York, 1855, D. Appleton and Co.—An elementary and well illustrated text-book for the young student of Botany. ‘athygnathus borealis, an extinct Saurian of the New Red Sandstone of Prince Edward’s Island ; by Joseru Leipy, M.D., (ex- tracted from the Journal of the Acad. of Nat. Sci. Philad., vol. ii.)— n the last visit of the enthusiastic and distinguished geologist Sir Charles Lyell, to this country, he informed me that Mr. J. W. Dawson of Pictou, Nova Scotia, had received from Mr. D. McLeod, for disposal, a frag- ment of a jaw of a large saurian animal, which was found in the New Red Sandstone Formation of Prince Edward’s Island. Mr. Lyell sent place, and was purchased by Messrs. Isaac Lea, William S. Vaux, and f, and the Academy, in the cabinet of which it is now very appropriately arranged at the side of the only other known attached by its inner surface to a mass of matrix of a red granular tieulated with it much in advance of its usual position in saurians. ne is every where marked by smile deli ramina. Z row of foramina, visible in the specimen, for the ae Fl) een ee ee Botany and Zoology. 445 which appears to correspon nd with the internal menta tal foramen. of the Iguana. Just posterior to this foramen there is a deep vascular groove, which in the ail condition of the specimen may have proceeded from another fo’ The teeth in ao relation to the dental bone, are placed upon the inner side, and rest against the alveolar border, which rises in a parapet external to them. Whether the parapet is supported by abutments be- tween the teeth, as in Megalosaurus, I cannot certainly ascertain from the inner side of the jaw being so closely adherent to the matrix. The dental bone, if it be considered complete in its length in the spetimen, is capable of containing a series of twelve —— posterior to and inclu- ding that situated most anteriorly in the foss As the teeth were worn away or broken off they were replaced by Others produced at their inner side, as is indicated in the specimen by & young tooth, —— is situated internal to, and is concealed by, the largest mature t The ihn Se crowns of the fully protruded teeth are exoreing at their base for several lines above the alveolar border of the j compressed, conoidal, and recurved, but compared with a we of Me- galosaurus they are not so broad, compressed, nor recurved, and they are more convex externally, and a are less so internally. They resem- ble much in form those of the recent Monitor ornatus, but are less con- vex internally. he transverse section of the crowns of the teeth, except that of the first, is antero-posteriorly elliptical, with the inner side less convex and the extremities acute and in most instances slightly incurved. The anterior and posterior acute margins of the crowns are minutely Crenulated ; and the crenulations commence just below the tip and de- scend as far as the enamelled base In comparison with the teeth of “Clepsysaurus sn er those of the fossil under examination are broader and more compressed, an except the first one of the series, present an acute, cteingpilied margin anteriorly and 9 0S page in the former animal they are acute and crenulate only posteriorly.—[We omit part of the details. ] rom the extraordinary PE depth of the dental bone above de- Scribed to its length, and from its northern locality, I have erm for the menting lacertian to which it belonged the name of Bathygna- realis. This interesting fossil is the second authentic dimiiveaey of saurian bones in the New Red Sandstone Formation of North America ; the first being those found near Hassac’s Creek, in Lehigh Co., Pennsylva- = by Dr. Joel Y. Shelley, and described by my friend Mr. Isaac Lea, ader the name of Clepsysaurus Pennsylvanicus.t “In relation to the exact locality and geological position of the Bathy- 8 hus borealis, Mr. J. W. Dawson has furnished me with the following “The fossil was found at New tetedien, on the northern side of the Island, Lowe satagee to the depth of nine feet in red sandstone, with calca- attached to ment, similar to the matrix to the fossil. The total * bocMSi waka WBE + Ibid, v., 171, 205 ; Jour, Ac. Nat Sci, ii. 446 Scientific Intelligence. depth from the surface was 21 feet 9 inches, and the discovery was made by Mr. D. McLeod of French river, New London, when digging a well, ; “The sandstone in question belongs to a formation which occupies nearly the whole of Prince Edward Isiand, generally dipping at a small angle to the northward. It includes thin beds of coarse, concretionary limestone, and at the southern side of the rete where the oldest beds of a formation x there are beds of etd clay or soft shale, and ee | ip ae te case the red sandstones which conformably overlie them will be equiv- alent to the New Red of western Nova Scotia and Connecticut, and robably Triassic or Permian. The present specimen is the first ani- Red Sada tones Sot some parts of Nova Seer, associated with cyberia and marine limestones, which were formerly confounded with the New . See a eg the writer in Proc. of Ac. Nat. Sci. Philad., ii, 272; and Papers in Journal of London pra Society, iv, 50.” This jaapants is ‘iene’ by a fine plate 1V. Astronomy. 1. Elements of Polymnia, (33) (Compt. Rend., , p- 1019).— The elements of this planet given below were cape by Mr. Bruhns from the observations at Paris, Oct. 28, and at Berlin, Nov. 3 and 9. Epoch ad 0-0 M. T. Berlin. Mean anomaly, - 10° 26’ 8” -5 Long. pablaises . é - 22 25 58 -4) Mn. Eqnx. - ode, - - - lin 2 2 18550. . ni fnicfinations : - -- 1 22 20.6 Angle of exconticiy, - - 12 58 2-1 Mean daily motio - pea ile 235 se semi-axis hate! 376356 nts of Seng hile iets (29) (oy Rend., t. 39, p. 1060.)— ¢ Ms. “Yvon Villars u has computed a set of —— of this planet ) making use of all the observations collected during its appearance. Epoch 1854, itil 0-0 M. T. Paris. Mean anomaly, - 123° 51’ 0-85 Long. vesietany Ret isd eel EY BS } Mo. Eqnx. — Inclina slots senclgasiadesit - 6 7 41-08 _ Angle (sin = excen.), - af ges eth AB -SE IG Mean ti motion, ee te 86948241 _ Semi-axis - 2°5536647 Period of scleeal aapilelion: ils ee 4-y's080810 Fon Koco ce hrm an esi has been computed for la d published in the Compt. Rend., Rend., tome 40, p. 244. ee La ee ee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 447 3. Comet III, 1854, (Compt. Rend., t. 40, p. 199).—The parabolic el- ements of this comet given below were computed by Mr. Santini by means of Argelander’s observation of June 11, and those of the author of June 26 and July 10. Perihelion passage ae febpaptiores M. T. Berlin. “Long. ‘eae - 62° 13’ 35” -9 ) Mn. eqnx se. node, - - - - 347 39 36 34 1854 Jon: 0-0 feiclination n, - - 108 41 0 “4 Log. perietion dat, ttt - - 9811640 4 Comet, (Compt. Rend., t. 40, p. 200).—A new comet was dis- bivcied F, Jan. 14, by Mr. Dien, an assistant in the Imperial Observatory at Paris, and by Mr. Winnecke at Berlin, in the neighborhood of 7 Scor- Pionis. Its position Jan. 15, 18 4m 168, was R. A. 226° 5! 15” and Dec. —27° = 5”. Its apparent motion in 24 hours was R. A. +45 and Dec. —4’. VY. MisceLttangous INTELLIGENCE. 1, ote onl Stereoscopes.—The annexed figure is a perspective view of a very ingenious application of the stereoscope to daguer- Treotype iisdliloing A patent for this improvement has been recently Stanted to J. F. Mascher of omgeaaes ® Attached to the main central rim of a locket, there are two lids with — otype = res on them; these lids are hinged on pa aide of the h are also two sspplerbentery: aa each containing a lens, which are also hinged to the rim as s , but are fitted to fold iii the pic- Person a ieehicg dischales the or will see but one picture, solid and life-like. ae ag has applied double convex lenses to these sun na and thus it can be carried ene in the pocket, both as an ornamental and useful memento of affectio More information may be obtained by fieieddeinicd tn J. F. Mas- cher, Heath Herhdeeasave, Philadelphia, Pa.—Sci. Amer 448 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 2. A wonderful specimen of credulous ignorance ;—Fossil man aud woman.—A Cincinnati paper of March 23, contains a narration of the discovery of some ‘** very curious petrified human bodies” found in Pennsylvania in the bed of a stream, which is one of the branches of. — the nr Wh river, The account says: ‘These remains are sup-_ posed to ose of a man and woman, who by the wonderful petri- factive ‘aoe have been turned to solid ‘stone,” and they are regarded as “ irrefragible proofs of the existence of man upon this revolving globe long before the pepode wan commis, oe — trilobites first made their appearance.” * But ‘the man is the great curiosity Its feet are now wanting ; its bod y and legs are prear stone, and its head of quartz and gneiss”! Thus, according to the narrator, the whole science of geology is upset, over and over. The writer continues, * It is assumed that when first found the feet were on this male petrifaction, but as they seemed slaty and of a coal-like tex- ture, they were burned by the women, who prefer utility to scientific discovery.” * * * “It is certain the man when alive must have inhabited the sone for a period, and if, as we think is evident, he was buried with his head downwards, and at just such a depth that his eae came in the patie: and his body in the sandstone formation, [he . Osrtuary.—otice of the late Frederic W. Davis of Boston —We have to record the death of one - our excellent practical chemists and metallurgists, Freperic W. Davis of Boston, who died at his father’s house of typhoid fever’on the 12th of December last, at ihe age of 31 years. Mr. I)avis received a good education at the school of Mr. Green of Jamaica Plains in Roxbury, and was then placed under the scientific instruction of Dr. Charles T. Jackson, in whose laboratory he pursued his studies with great diligence and success, for three years. he accompanied Dr. Jackson in his early explorations of the copper re- gions of Lake Superior and distinguished himself as an e's and and ae the crude copper rere he found time to suki many inter- esting and important metallurgical researches, and manf scientific ob- servations and experiments on the formation of artificial ce both in the furnace and in the roasting heaps ofc copper ores. >a a new mineral, composed of the su sulphurets of zinc and copper, which was found i in ony tee ys crystals in the roasted ores. He pointed ao Som deus vepeesiad.chlgcibcebagh patie: works oom ven aa 8: - _— as se ey? 1 ae ee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 449 flux another, and thus to obtain the largest yield of metal at the least expense Science and the arts have met wijh a great loss in the death of this > excellent young metallurgist, whose labors were calculated to render : : fficient services to mankind and to raise the business of the working - read : . ° furnace to the rank of a truly chemical art and science. _ His numerous friends and acquaintances well knew his worth as a an, and a friend, always generous, considerate and kind, and never wanting in public spirit when occasion called him out, he was both re- spected and beloved by all who knew him. Cv Bo. di Boston, February 17, 1855. 4. The Physical Geography of the Sea; by M. F. Maury, L.L.D., Lieut. U.S. N. 274 pp. 8vo, with maps and plates. New York, 1855. Harper & Bros.—Lieut. Maury in this volume on the ocean, brings together under a popular form many of the results and discus- sions brought out in his Sailing Directions and other publications, and the work cannot fail to find many interested readers. The following are the subjects treated of: The Gulf Stream; The Atmosphere ; Red Fogs and Sea Dust; On the Probable Relation between Magnet- ism and the Circulation of the Atmosphere; Currents of the Sea; The open Sea in the Arctic Ocean; The Salts of the Sea and the Influence of Molluscs and Corals on the Circulation of the Ocean; Equatorial Cloud-ring ; Geological Agency of the Winds; Depth of the Ocean; Basin of the Atlantic ; Winds; Climates of the Ocean; Drift of the Sea; Storms; Routes for Vessels. While the work contains much in- struction, we cannot adopt some of ils theories, believing them unsus- tained by facts. 5. Report and Charts of the Cruise of the Dolphin: made under the direction of the Navy Department; by Lieut. S. P. Lez, U.S. Navy. 332 pp., 8vo, with maps and plates. Washington, 1854.—This volume contains the sea observations made during a cruise in search of several shoals in the Atlantic Ocean. The sea and air temperatures are given with fullness and many other points of interest receive attention. The low island’ called Las Rocas, 84 miles due west of Fernando de No- ronha, was found to be a Coral Island, having a regular lagoon. The reef is 14 miles. from east to west and 1} from north to south, and is Covered at high tide, with the exception of two small islets, Sand and Grass Islands, situated on the west side of the reef, and some scattered rocks on the other sides; these dry spots are 10 to 15 feet above the reef The reef is generally level, although 33° 48’ 57” west. , Grammar and Dictionary of the Dacota Language, edited by 450 Miscellaneous Intelligence. he grammar is carefully elaborated, and the etymological portions of the dictionary exhibit a thorough acquaintance with the language. Such works should be continued by the Institution and Indian —- and would be very creditable if done as well as this. But there a several defects to which it is proper to call attention, that they may be ri hereafter I oolighs Dakota part the accent is not indicated, so that after finding a word he ere, we must turn to the first part to enable us to pro- nounce it, thus requiring an examination of two alphabets for one word. This work is founded upon the labors of various missionaries for eigh- teen years; it received the approbation of the Minesota Historical So- ciety, and the Board of Foreign Missions ; and it was submitted to Pro- fessors W. W. Turner and C. C. Felton. Yet the explanation of one n in bon, or the English n in drink.” This renders the pronunciation of a large number of words doubtful, the French nasal, as in dain, ending with a vowel, has no affinity with English bang, ending with a consonant. Judging from the cognate Konza it is 8 sage that doth these sounds occur in Dacota. In the presence of such a fact, no dependence can can ——r are not mentioned, ies they are of the greatest im- portan The orgie is preted although perhaps open to improvement. Whilst philologists are endeavoring to ameliorate the orthography of for- eign languages, Mr. Se sie prefers an English so from which nothing but typographical abortions can resu ult. For example, let us write an Indian word containing the English syllable paw ; followed by A in hut. This word will then stand “ pawh” in English orthography. Another Indian word is composed of ta in tart, follow ved by wh in when, giving the English orthography, $tawh. Notwithstanding the appa: rent resemblance, pawh and tawh have not an element in common, their finals being as distinct as their initials. The fine art department of Mr. Schoolcraft’s great work is also defective, a large sum having been spent in engraving the almost worthless sketches of Captain East- man, instead of devoting it to ethnological illustrations of eet value. oe: 7. Fresnel’s Wellenfldche ; Axonometrical Projections of Whe most important Geometrical surfaces, Drawings of Descriptive Geometry, serving in the same time asa Catalogie of Models carried out accord- ing to pie en Projections; by Ferpinanp Encet, with 11 plates- of a notice of this sti work, we give git in a con- densed form the introductory remarks by F. Sonchimerenl, Professor at the University of Halle-—The ie of models éf Mr. Engel, and his drawings, are of special i ho in the study of the higher Geome- try and Optics and merit general attention. The model of the Ae of a, he him most a Hitherto | it had been thought sufficien ‘in gi ea of the surfaces with their two sheets, to jpiiela ‘means of wire. Mr. Engel was the first to Miscellaneous Intelligence, — 451 succeed in modelling the surfaces in wood. His model, as it is dis- Exhibition in London gave Mr. Engel the prize medal for this model, Sir David Brewster being the Chairman of the Jury and Sir John Her- schel one of its members, Mr. Engel’s models 3 to 12, represent the five Principal classes of surfaces of the lea order, with their circular sections, right lines and lines of curv : numbers 13 to 20, rae sent cones, combinations of tare eat cantaeide: &c. ; several helicoids and screws; 28 to 30, three retilinear screw lavas (not belonging to the family of pa hl just mentioned) ; 31, 32, two developable surfaces ; 35 to 37, refer to the theory of spherical curves and their polar curves, etc. The drawings are made with great ex- aciness. S. S. H. 8. A Catalogue of British Fossils, comprising the Genera and Spe- cies Aiiherto described: with references to their Geological Distribu- tion and the Localities é in which they have been found; by Joun Morris, F.G.S. Second Edition, considerably enlarged. 8vo, London, 1854.—- Mr. Morris’s ‘Catalogue’ affords us the results of the numerous exam- inations of the fossils of the British Islands, both by native and foreign palzontologists. ‘These researches, scattered through numerous wor rks —-periodical, monographic, and miscellaneous—-were of limited value until brought within the reach of geologists in such a compendious form as the work now ores us. However well acquainted one may be with the bibliography and nat- ural history of one or more groups of fossi] creatures, yf r bivalves, cephalopods, fishes, or any other,—and however readily he may ex- change his knowledge with his fellow-workers in paleontology and give assistance to the practical geologist, yet, fromthe loss of time in hunting up references and figures of fossils,—the uncertainty of memory,—the mislaying of note- books, and a hundred osher reasons, we well know that geological work cannot satisfactorily proceed without our having at hand a trustworthy book of reference to all described and figured spe- cies of organic remains. ome ten years ago Mr. Morris produced such a work, thereby sup- plying the want then felt, and which the partial lists of Fossils already Compiled could not meet. Since 1843 geologists have extended their Tesea. er new localities, and in par e organic king- dom previously but little studied; and an enormous increase of palson- t al observations h n the reayile: That these ine eg beid attention to the several groups 0 fossils ; and the assistance ren- im 3 fipeo depp ramen iit the author freely acknowledges in the Welce. « he assigns to each his due, and carefully notices the public. and ss collections from which he has gathered information and received assistance. A52 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Many of the palezontographical notes and memoirs recently published, especially in the case of monographs, have done much to the correction of the nomenclature of 9 Bet. oe Pigg Mr. Morris has fully peti himself.—Mag. Nat. Hist., 9. Fossils of South Carolina by M. rahi and F. S. sarige. = 1. 8 pp., 4to, with 2 4to lithographic plates. Charleston, S. C. John Russell.—It is especially gratifying to see the pont at a work, under so good auspices and on so liberal a plan, on the Fossils of South Carolina. We wish it rapid progress towards completion, and abundant patronage. The number issued contains descriptions and figures of * Pleiocene” Fossils, including 2 corals, and 7 echino- derms. The plates are beautiful. 10. A History of the British Marine Testaceous Mollusca, distribu- ted in their natural order on the basis of the organization of the ani- mals, with references and notes on every British species; by WILLIAM CuarRKE. 536 pp., Svo. London, 1855. John Van Voorst.—The au- thor of this work describes the characters and habits af the animals at considerable length, and partly as a result of original observations. e volume has therefore an importance beyond the ‘limits of the coun- eA of which it treats. some of Common Life; by Jas. F. W. JouNSTON, M.A., F. z S., F.G.S., &c. Nos. iv and v, The Narcotics we indulge in ; The Poisuris we adtedt s The Odors we enjoy; The Smells we dislike ; What we Breathe atid Breathe for; What, how, and why we Digest. In a former notice of this work, we expressed our opinion of its scien- tific ability and the popular i interest thrown into every subject prrpen » he author argues against the use of opium like one who personally valued the indulgence. 12. The Year Book of Facts in Science and Art, for 1854; exhib- et the most important discoveries and improvements of the past year, n Mechanics and the UsefukArts, Natural Philosophy, Electricity, Chetniathy Zoology and Botany, Geology and Geography, Meteorology and Astronomy ; by Joun Timps, «F.S. A., Editor =e ‘The Arcana = Science and Art? and author of Curiosities of Lond 2 , 12m London, 1855. David rie Penh aiag om of ‘this wneful ricer is a portrait of G. B. Airy, the Astronomer Complete Treuitoe on Fish- sivetding; Including the Reports on the subject made to the French Academ ench Govern- gravings. New York, 1954. D. Apple eton 4 Co.—Artificial Fish- breeding has already tidee undertaken in several oe of the country, “ot carried on with great success. This work is most opportune, &0 ust the thing needed to spread a knowledge of this important subject over vate land. It is popular in style and full in its details. 14. Adipocire and its Formation; by C. M. Wernenttt, M.D. —From the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, vol. xi. 25 pp., 4to. Philadelphia, 1855.—This valuable paper contains the results of both chemical and ee examinations of adipo- Cire, and and also an account of experiments upon the decom mposition of scular fibre peed heart) with reset with a view to the forma- ¥ i | } i Miscellaneous Intelizentei 453 15. An Essay on the Contagious character of Malignant Cholera, with brief instructions for its Prevention and Cure; by Bern. Byrne, M.D., Surgeon U.S. Army. 2nd edit., with addition! notes by the author. 160 pp., 8vo. Philadelphia, 1855. Childs & Petersen. p. 16. The World a Workshop, or the Physical relationship of Man to the Earth; by Tuos. Ewxank, author of “* Hydraulics and Mechan- ies.” 198 pp., 12mo. New York, 1855. D. Appleton & Co.—This work is written for working men, and to them dedicated “asa testimony of respect to the dignity and omnipotence of enlightened labor.” It presents a view of nature mainly from the utility side, and at the same time is characterised by a high moral ton 17. The Florist se Horticultural Journal, a monthly magazine of Horoalture, Agriculture, Botany, Agricultural Chemistry, Entomology, Anson, Editor. Philadelphia, vol. iv, No. 1, Jan., 1855. Each number of this Horticultural Journal contains 32 pages and is illustrated by one or more colored plates. The following per- sons are announced as among the contributors: John Le Conte, Esq., Profs. J. P. Kirtland, R. E. Rogers, 8S. S. Haldeman, W. B. Rogers, with John Cassin, W. D. Brackenridge, &c. 18. Seventh Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York, on the Condition of the State Cabinet of Natural History, and the Historical and Antiquarian Collections, ee thereto. Made to the Senate, Jan. 18, ee PP Pee Albany, 1854.— This Report contains a valuable append the Ser idan of New York, by Seisiecigi F. Barrp, illustrated by Sipehrhe of 30 figures on two es. 19, Wiediuck der krystallographischen Chemie, von C. F. Ram- MELSBERG. 410 pp., 8vo, with 401 wood-cuts. —Prof. Rammelsberg has here issued an excellent work on the tg vaieaggi of various chemical products, giving figures of most of the forms, and the angles in full. , Atexts Perrey: Note sur les Pigachlecicnts de Terre ressentis en 1853, (From Bulletin of the Acad. Roy. Belg. xxi, No. 6).—Note, ibid, a Supplements pour les années antérieurs. Mem. de l’Acad. de Dijo 1854. Tecumesth relatifs aux Fremblements de Terre au Chili, 208 pp., large 8vo. emg : la Soc. Imp. d’Agriculture, d’Hist. Nat. et des Ans utiles de Lyo ns la Séance du 3 Mars , 1854.—A very complete and Peonte pom of the various accounts of eathquakes in Chili. 1. E. Desor: Une ley Ascension, (Extrait de la Revue Suisse de Janvier, 1854) 25 pp., 8vo. ge atel, 1854.—On an as- cension of the Galenstock in yo Alps in 1 climat des Etats Unis, et de ses ses sur les habitudes et les = Extr. des Actes de la Soc. Helv.°des Sci. Nat. session de 1853 3 a "Paeretinciy. ) —— Notice sur les Echinides du Terrain nummulitique des alpes, d Actes Soc. Helv., &c. Session de 1853.)—These | nummulitic beds are gg to have close affinity with the Calcaire grossier of Paris, in their , and not with the lowest Tertiary or Suessonian of D’Orbigny. | hal A54 Miscellaneous Intelligence. E. Desor: Les Cascades du Niagara, et leur Marche rétrograde, avec une carte et une coupe géologique (Extr. des Bulletin Soc. Sci. Nat. Neu- chatel, tome iii.)--M. Desor, in his interesting memoir, concludes that the Falls of Niagara recede at a rate nearer 3 feet per century than 3 feet a year. He also argues that, in consequence of the position of the shale below, the height of the falls will increase, as they recede, so as to be much higher after receding two miles than now. ‘The dip of the rocks to the south is stated at 0° 17’ or 25 feet to the mile, near the Queenstown heights, or 0° 10’, or 15 feet to the mile, from the present position of the falls to Lake Erie. Pro OF Fe, — Soo, Nar. Hist., vol. vy, 1855.—p. 81, on the Teasbintostdie. . Girard.—p. 82, _ n some points in ee Bical “of rthe Masto: ‘ao and Fossil lephan Sir ey Richardson. —p. 84, Remarks on Batrachian footprints; J. Wyman.—p. 88, On Svenieaks natalis; C. Girard—p. 90, Parasitic pl: © denleheiits to Sieh fly; J. Wyman.—p. 92, Note on the chemical composi- is ee ae a g, ig gS He yr 8 nel oO g g er) fe*) oS = | Unt Census, by J. D. B. DeBo ow, Samadontsina of 3 fe Unite States Cens be,“ 400 pp. 8vo. 1854. HE Sse Journal or tHE GxronocicaL Socrery, vol, xi, Part 1, No. 41. fares 1, 1855. HL. T. Sratwron: The Ent omologist’s Manual for 1855. London ~~ ee by the late Edward Forbes, F.RS., with a Prtrat aad Memoir. London, 1 .M. Starx: A Popular History of British Mosses. tenet: 1855. Reeve. Tue Pk sires Propucrion or Fis; by “Piscarius.” London, 1854. Reeve. o] . INDEX TO VOLUME XIX. A reine ef og Paris, 407 . Nat. Sci., San Francisco, Proceedings pic, on Boracic acid compounds of Tus- y, ll "ibid, “Philad., Proceedings of, 152, 296. They anesthesis 0 Acelimation, Society fur, 410. Bitumen Springs in Californ Adipocire, Wetherill on. noticed, 45%. Blake, W. P., Elephant : oot ‘Mastodan of Agsesis siz on Fishes of Western America, 71, California, 133. notice of Geol. Re \Boracic acid compounds ® of ‘a Teed La- goons Botany, Caricogra aphy, C. Dewey, 252. Be oe ctifiea wen of Arachis hypogea, H. as butylic, Wurte, 208, a fe fee Green a car Congdon’s Class-Book, no- geria, industry and ctions - > Vegetab Algol, on the variable star, F. Argelander,|\potaniea e pobeab yong? Ee a A ne CT eagles omie Rete, ete., 2, lib, Bovcrpoatnne Huestiie,. a rg ot reales Leidy, viviparous fish in Louisiana, 133. on Smithsonian Institution, 284. Air-Engine, W. Bir kine Alcohol, mmanufaetare of n of, from ‘Asphodel and Scilla, ' ps, height tof perpetual snow in, Ror Alpine of Tennessee, C. T. ee 5 8 2 o's Ten Lictwes aaa stay a ertain physical properties of light, Braun, A., on the cater on tividual, 297. ed, Aluminium and the alkaline metals, j05, _||Brongniart, Arts Ceramiques ete., notie gee (29), 4 pong y oe venice of, S. W. Johnson, 423. es, barometric anomalies about, F. Butylie alcohol, Wurtz, 268. Calculating Machine, 409, a —_ Bitumen in, 433. an Aneathesis of Be 412, and vyuntitic c, 113. ic springs in, J. L. ng 7g - 144. peatic method of notation, T. H. McLeod, 48. go’s work s, publication of, 413. Carbonic acid apparatus, ‘A. M. Mayer, 422, gol, apere , cre pene containing, 270. Caricogtaphy, ©. iron of, one Hunt, 417. very in the cen Dewey, Astronomical Refraction rh 104. ‘tieee J., Birds of California, ete., by, no- Atm yy ere el Oroomiah, D.|\,, cccxqucitinn. uh. phagdant A oh rhe aie ties, tee between, Dumas, 407. tmospheric phenomena, variations of, Dove, ‘Ctvinedin, Detwiri ot. 1, 272. | Sch Clarke’s Page Marine Testaceous Mol- ine lagintweit, lusca, 452 pressure, effect of, on ‘eeal of ocean,!oo, nah pee 1. of tbe Woods, H. R. School- Atmosphere, polarization of, 105. os = sandstone, of North Carolina, Cochitaate water, A. A: Hayes, 257 Codeine, valent of, T. S. Hunt, 416. crystallization — D. Dana, 416. Bacon, J., on Cochituate water, 261. Meier, J. W, W, reply to W. H. Wenham, an ad 456 INDEX. Condensation of gases by _— ge 111. Copper mines of Tennessee, M. Tuomey, lh a limestone, magnesian, 7. S. Huni, be Sones Disciple Monthly Review, Peal s s Linge Age (Christian a Foreign Review, Maus of Poreiga pee, ‘New Englan Edinburg Monthly Review,| Ame {of e, Method: ~ Qhar "Review, Pa leteer, Haat’ _ = Merehant 8 Magazine, 'Princeto Keview, _ wood’s Magazine, omm. Review, Am Biblical | Repusitory, Fraser 8 Magazine, Snichevhodker Magazine, Ch ureh R — , Dublin poate’, Ma nena New England Magazine lam rterly N Am n Revi ie a. ine, Iie and Theological Resievs; ‘Disctieen Quarterly Rev’ w, Site's - Regi |Mon. and Quar. Chr. Spectator New Yo ee bre a States i = |Spirit of the Pilgrims, Souther ae s American Museum pots Theological Review. American (Whigs Review, Paipentina Aiatin of volumes—some fifteen in n number — has been seiointk d indexed by an ex- amination of each ar icle, and reference has been made under the subject of which the arti- Cle treats. ‘The whole is ar se siphabetiealy, so that by turning to any subject, the periodical, the volume, and the page where it has been discussed, can be immediately aan tant tmp rk has been to give, with the reference to an article, the name of the writer. Yh i a nares setecaking Bde Pie with no little difficulty; yet the Work tind ‘contain the names of the authors “of many tho usand —— that were con- tributed a ing Reviews and in several : of whieh . es North American Review—the Nasa 's name of every article will be given. “o Eins dex i is student and lis dow = Heese: 1353, and is an indispensable book of reference omplete in | 1 vol. Bva., GU0 pages. i be t th ry mar othe above ark uld b to the publisher “CB B. NORTON, 71 ‘Chaniers st, (Irving House,) ae aoe A “ CHEMICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS, INSTRU- : oy ETC. J. F. LUHME & Co., or Beriry, Prussta, PANTHEON BUILDING, 343 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. This well known Cuemica, EstaBiisnment, has opened a Maca- z¥NE for the sale of their goods in New York under the management of Mr. H. GOEBLER at 343 Broadway ; where they keep on po and offer for sale a cei variety of CuemicaL Apparatus. PxiLo CHEMICAL RESEARCH and for EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATIO ine CHEMICAL ‘Taxon of every description ; He pnoterae in every on of superior accuracy, reading actual densities to 0-005: CHEemicaL iene for analytical use—also a cheap and supe- rior Balance for ordinary Laboratory work ; Fine Scaves for Drveaists’ use. Every variety and form of Chemical and Druggists’ Grass WARE AND PoRcELAIN, including an extensive ge of the celebrated Bo- HEMIAN HARD Guass Wane E, Tuses and Beaxers—GasnHoupers of metal and Glass—GrapuaTED Tubes and Cylinders—Cuests with grad- uated instruments for ALKALIMETRY, CHLORIMETRY, etc—MINERALOGI- caL Test Cases, Puarrner’s Blowpipe Cases, Reagent Cases—Re- AGENT BOTTLES with permanent ename! labe fem FOR ALCOHOL of every construction—Woopen wake in great variety and of excellent quality—Cuemicac blast furnaces—Gerometric and CrystaL MovELs, etc. etc, Calologues furnished on apEloeEye and special orders for Incorpo- rated Institutions imported duty free on liberal terms. A ss OEBLER, Aosth of J. F. Lunme & Co, 343 Broad- way, New York. March, 1855. [tf} MICROSCOPE FOR SALE. One of Nachet’s best instruments with five Objectives, viz., 1, 2, 3, 5and 7; three ocu- lars, achromatic and oblique light condensers, polarizing — , two micrometers, diaphragms, goniometer cin Smith's plan for crysta measuremenis, dissecting &c. &c.- This instrument is of the largest size and ve ction, and s built to order without limitof price. It is in perfect condition nant is offere or sale e from no fault or defect in the instrument itself, — h has seagar the ern ot some of the soe ng intry. it will be sold at its Paris cost without duty or ex- arto wR Editors of this Journal. DIAGRAMS OF CRYSTALLINE DEPOSITS AND same CALCULL For the pei on Lectur in Physio lar Siiediaa in bes, commonty oc Mineralogy and Geology.—Mineralogical Notes, by T. S. Hunt, 428 .—Notice bel a new Locality of Molybdate of Iron, by Wa. J, Tartor: Reaction of common in the » formation of Minerals, by M. Fuscameadie. 429.—Gneiss : Meteoric Iron = Green- land: On the Sandstone and Coal of North Carolina of heey the Richmond coal basin, by — D. rience 430, he org Geological Report of U. S. Pa- cific Rail nmand of t. RS. Williamson, wee oe Buaxe, 433.—Notes on some ; Fousils of ‘ie: so-called era System vy Dr. by James Haun, 434—Mikrogeologie ; Das Erden und Felse gid Wirken des unsichtbar kleinen selbstandigen Chins auf der Erde, von C, G. Es rensere, 435.— Gasienike of the Red River of Louisiana in the year 1852, by Ranpourn B. — assisted by Ggorce B. M’CLELLaN, 437.—Annual Report on the Geological S of the State of Wisconsin, by James G. Percrva: First Annual Report of sce. logical rea of the State of New Jersey for the year 1854: eee of Can- ada, 438 Sicipinid Zoology —Dr. Hooker's Flora of New Zealand : ammalmage sa taro ld, ‘Usti The Grasses of The next No. of this Fournil wtil be published on the first of July. CONTENTS. Page. Art. ie lesa a “ee a in its relation to rs : ANDER B 7 xt A “esearch on Tellurmethyle ; by FE. Woaten aad : 318 XXXIIL. ate on a ccrites A Side ripiion of ive new Me- teoric Irons, with some theoretical considerations on the ori- gin.of agrees Sigs on their ace and.Chemical char- acters ; WRENCE 322 XXXIV. = the Variable iss Algol, or b Persei ; by Fr. ‘ GELAN 344 - XXXV, Re ecrecie acy Tooth i in Mastodon giganteus by Joun C. Warren, M.D., 349 XXXVI. Supplement to the Mineralogy of J. D. Dana, by the Author.—Number I, 353 XXXVIL. Review of ‘Marcbisoo’ 3 Si tari ia, 371 XXXVUE. eo ete about the tae by Lieut. M. F. Maury, 5 XXXIX rapreanibes flicty Tracks) on Altavial Clay, in 1 Had- ley, Mass.; by Cuartes H. Hircne 391, XL. Emmons on American Geolog “ - 397 ¥; XLI. Correspondence of M. Jerome Niceis 0k the_ rela- tions which exist between the chemical composition Of bod-— ies and their physical properties, 407.—Limits of the vapori= _ gation of Mercury, 408.—Assimilation of Nitrogen by Plants: ~ . Action of some animals fluids on the fats: Calculating Ma- chine, 409.—Artillery in the 15th Centu ury Zoological So- ciety for Acclimation and Domestication, 410.—Silkworms, 411.—Anesthesis of Bees: — Iture: Production of Al- cohol, 412. —Photographie news: Bibliogra raphical notices, 413, 414. etiay notice of ‘Meloni, 414.—Death of M.. Braconnot: Death’ of Joseph Remy, 415.——Monument to eT. S8.H Arago: Correspondence « s. owen the Equiva- lent of ies: “The = ed‘ Slates of the a Green Mountains: A newl pag Madors Tron : Ores of Nickel from Lake Sane: : 416, 417. SCLENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. eccmesia Physics.—On the specific volumes of fluid compounds, 418.—On the em- ployment of a — of chlorid of. iron in the galvanic battery; 420. oe the law of — the absorption On the mechanical equivalent of heat, 421.—A new Carbonic — = stat ce eae! M. Marr, 422.—On Bimucate of eas by Samvet Bice. Ny 423,—On, es Magpie; by Col. a 424.—On the Stauro- scope of Prof. Fr. von Kobell, Pernt at seth pe of Cote)