OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Iti, 2 ep AND JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. SECOND SERIES. = VOL. XX.—_NOVEMBER, 1855. WITH AN INDEX To vous, xxx, Aon - AND TWO PLATES. ve Peres a xp ar. trt se il ww } ae a Ft j nd « os Se pos NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM & CoO. BE. HAYES, PRINTER: CONTENTS OF VOLUME Xx. NUMBER LVIII. Art. I. The Smithsonian Institution, - II. Description of a new species of Clathropteris, dissoeeeed in _ the Connecticut Valley Sandstone ; by E. Hircucock, Jr., M.D. III. On the Periodical Variations of the Declination and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle; by Prof. W. A. Norton, IV. On the Periodical Rise and Fall of the ae by Major LacHLAN,- - V. Remarks on the hore which joes on in tbe Ricasinne and Composition of Mineral Veins near the surface, with particular reference to the East Tennessee aid ied ai by J. D. Wuirney, VI. On a Universal Siidtoatoe’ for Microscopes by Prof. iy W. Barttey.—With a Plate, - - VII. On the Composition of Eggs in the par: series ; y Va LENCIENNES and Frémy.—Part III, VIII. Observations on the Extent of the Gold Spats of Califor. nia and Oregon, with notices of Mineral localities in Cali- fornia, and of some remarkable “cer of ee. Gold; by Wm. P. Buaxe,- - ix Raalyeis of Idocrase from Ducktown, Polk Co., Tena : by 2W. Matter, Ph.D., - X. Observations on Binocular Vision ; ; & Prof, Ww. B. Aicass, XI. Researches in Magnetisation ; by M. Jerome Nicktis, — - XII. Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicxuis—Annual Session of the Academy of Sciences, 102.—Spongy Metals used in therapeutics: Telegraphic messages simultaneous in two directions—Calcium, Barium, Aluminium, 103.—Piscicul- ture, 104.—Necrology.—M. Gauss, 104; L. G. Duvernoy, 105.—Magnetic force of Oxygen: Oxygen in the nascent oe dl 22 iv ae CONTENTS. - state ; Ozone, 108.—Attempts to insulate Fluorine : Alu- ‘Py ta minium, Silicium, &c. &c.:.Spongy Metals, 109.—Paris Sy ‘a Universal Exhibition, 110.—Photography ; Employmetit of é the Cyanid of Iodine: Artificial Alcohol, 111.—Changes in the scientific corps at Paris: Bibliography, 112. * SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. “ Physics.—On the Expansion = certain substances by Cold, W. J. Macauvorn Ran- KINE, F.R.SS., etc., 113—On the Nature of the Force by deh eee are repelled from ‘the Poles of a uk preceded by an account of some Experiments on Mole- cular Influences, by Joun Tynpaut, Ph.D., F.R.S., 114.—Further Rigemas pe 2 Remarks on = Measurement of "Heights by the Boiling Point of Water, by Professor J. D. Forses erasiedd and G vidoes —Herrerite identical with enc by Dr. F. A. GenTH, 118, —Analyses of the Meteoric Iron fro ezon, P. mM ° 3 Ss 3° 3 @o «. ix} So Low 4+ cations, Botany and 206 sin —Poetry ~ - oe World, by M. J. Scuteien, M.D., edited by ALrHonso Woop, M.A., 129.—De Vriese and Harting; Monographie des insrnigll ie Suis by Prof. Joun Danny, A.M., 131—Wheat from A®gilops, 134.—Botanical Ne- logy and Intelligence : Beacziption of a New genus of Crinvidea by LuxsrorD ss Ee YanvDELL, M.D., 135.— 2 omy.—Elements of Dien’s Comet: ere Planets: New Comet, 137.—Cause of the Partie Light, by Rey. Grorce Jones, Tntoll Fg, OR “tr ees ace to soa atceavety by Sir Jous F. W. ast + Geological Survey of Great Britain: American Association for the Advancement pe a. 144. panama 5.—Obituary—Sir Henry Thomas de la Beche, 145 ; G.B B. Greenough, 1 culus, and on the Caleulus of Verligaal by Epwp. BH. Courtenay ‘ ay, ee Meteorology, by Junn Drew, Ph.D., F.R.AS., Rag on the Agriculture and Geology of Mississippi, by B. L. Waites: Con tributions to the Natural History of th United States, by Louis Acassiz, 149.—Report on oes, by James D. Dana: No- tices of new publications, 151, 152. NUMBER LIX. Page. XII. Notice of the Pitch Lake of T rinidad ; ‘ns Mr. N. S. Manross. 153 XIV. On the arses ‘Pornaas Ohio, February 14, 1854; by Prof. O. N. Sropparp, - 161 XV. On the Rerephice! Distribtion of 3 Crstcen mm ine - Dana, - 168 CONTENTS. : Vil “xaKy. ae Notices of Edward ee and others ; Py Witriam Joun Hamttron, Esq., 5 XXXVI. Noticé*of Fossil Bones from ‘ial Red be wane of ile - Connecticut River Valley; by Jerrrigs Wyman, M.D., + 894 —— On the iam of Rain in the ee Zone ; E, - 397 XXXVIIL i nvsarese of M. incom Nuvu Usiversat Exposition at Paris, 402.—Zoological Society of Acclima- _ tion: Acclimation of the Angora goat, 405.—Academy of . Sciences: Bibliographical Notices, 406. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. " .—On the relations between the boiling points, specific volumes and chemical constitution of bodies, 407.—On a new class of Organic Radicals, 409.— On organic compounds containing ‘ietala. 410 ta the constitution of the ethers, 411. Miscellaneous a —Notices of two minerals from the Lancaster, Pa. Zinc mines, by W. J. Tay : On Singular Cloud-belts, observed in Georgia, by Prof. Wm. G. WILLIAMs, 112. tue combination of the Stauroscope and Compound Microscope pro- posed by Prof. von Kobell, communicated by O. Roop, 415.—Planetary Rotation : the Co _ Connecticut River Sandstone, by Prof. Hrrcucocg, 416.—Obituary.—Prof. J. F. Johnston : Notices of new work 2, 417, List of Plates in this Journal, yols. XI—Xx: Errata, 418. General Index of Vols. x1—xx, Second Series, 419. CORRECTION.—P. 161, to title add, by Prof. O. N. Sropparp. ERRATA.—P. 178, 19th 1. from top, for 1838, read 1853,—P. 274, for “ esa Pobel,” read “ Nieder-Pobel.” a a | “YALE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL. : “tanmistin AND NATURAL SCIENCE, LECTURES, 3 _ FIRST TERM. ; ‘Genesal Chemistry, - . ° Prof. BeEnyAMIN Raeuan, Jr. 4 SECOND TERM. : By, Prof. James D. Dan Chemistry of Building Materials, * Prof. BensAMIN Siutitay, Jn. Agekettarel Chemist - Prof. Joun A. Por THIRD TERM. Mineralogy, - Prof. James D. Dan Chem cay Eoplied to the Arts, - Prof. BensaMIN Stunt, Jr. Chemical demirate 3 phy, - Prof. Joun A. Port Poo SISTANT INSTRUCTORS. a __-‘Samvgt W. Jounson, First Assistant, | Cuan.es H. Poseek Second Assistant. _ Lectu = on a Parellel with by Professor OLMsTED, are also accessible to students urse—(from 9 a. M to 5 Pp. 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Course of Instruction —Surveying i in all its branches, with the use of instruments, and systematic exercises in the yw! 3-—Drawing, topographical, geometrical, mechanical, vache tectural; with shading and tinting; Desc criptive Geometry, Shades and Shadows, Per eve, Isometrical Secon a ations of ~~ tive Geometry to Masonry course of Surveyin sine. lation fee of $3. 7 September 12, January 2 and Md Alay £ and continuin ut three m onths, Students who pass a satisfactory examination in ithe er “of the Depart- ments, ae entitled to the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy, rat ee two door connected with the School. ale College, New Haven, July, 1855, * ov’ UTLINES OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, piepared for { ical L boratory at Giessen, by EINRICH. Wine, Profess a crinieotal Chemistry in the O aivarsie at Giessen. the third German edition, by DaniEL rere ™.D., . Paten Office, late of the pee of Liebig, Lowig, pe Will, and Lr H. Srerner, M.A., oe of” Chemistry Nat. Med. Colle - 8vo. Raven a ‘Gin . THE AMERICAN ALMANAC. A few: oe sets of this scarce work’ complete from the com mencement in 1830 to 1855, cloth lettered. $1,00 per vol. Prof. Peirce’s Course of Pure Mathematic. Extensively used in Colleges and Academies throughout the ( States. For testimonials Ss 5 Be the superior excellence of this see the North American -, a3 eae ee TREATISE ON PLANE AND SOLID OMETRY. New Ed. 12mo, plates 84. ; Lan ELEMENTARY TREATISE ALGEBRA, to ie added Exponential Equations and Logarithms. New Revised Ed. 1 Ill. ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON PLANE AND SPHE ICAL TRIGONOMETRY, adapted to explaining the oa Bowditch’s Navigator, and the Nautical Almanac, new Revised Edi 174 cuts, 8vo. $1,75. IV. CURVES, FUNCTIONS, and MOTION, containing An Geometry, the Differential Caleolus, Integral Caleo lus, and Anal: Mechanics. ae tania 12mo, 178 cuts, new edition. $2,50— in pe ~ lee Mi ae TREATISE ON SOUND; second volume of a C of Natural Philosophy, for Fiigh Sche and Colleges: 8vo. — Published by JAMES MUNROE ive CO., B x and CaMBRI Copies a for Examination at half the vanilee price. v. 1855. MINERALS AND FOSSILS. Tue undersigned would respectfully call the attention of the scien and lovers of Minerazogicat and Fossit Specimens to his Collectio! consisting in a great variety of both, all of which he offers for sale exceedingly low rates. Having been an extensive Mineralogist for upwards of twe nty years in his native country (Germany) (Prussia), he flatters himself be able to produce Specimens of rare interest, to all lovers of the stud With satisfactory references, would be willing to send samples any part of the United States. Expenses of transportation to be pF by requiring the samples, which [ can send in cases from lars u CH. W. A. HERRMANN, ay. 1 No. 1007 Banat New Yor = a F. LUHME & Co, oF Beruiy, Prussia, te PANTHEON BUILDING, 343 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. - ere t and offer for sale a age Bie 24 of CuemicaL Apparatus. Paxinoso- - HEMIAN HARD Grass ARE, UBES and Besaa rs—GAsHoLpERs of metal and Glass—Grapvatep Tubes and Cylinders—Cuests with grad- uated instruments for ALKALIMETRY, CHLORIMETRY, etce—MINERALOGI- _ cat Test Cases, PLattrner’s Blowpipe Cases, Reacent Cases—RE- _ AGENT BOTTLES with permanent enamel labels—Lamrs FoR ALCOHOL _ of every construction—WoopEn wake in great variety and of excellent ‘ "ee pAPaapalae blast furnaces—GrEomEtRic and CrystaL MoDELS 5S ale. € - lopuce furnished on application and special orders for Incorpo- ‘rated Institutions eed duty free on liberal terms. BLER, Agent of J. F. 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CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jn, é ann JAMES D. DANA, ie. corned wea “PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. “SECOND SERIES. 58. SyULY. 1855, * my WITH A PLATE £ AMERICAN JouRNAL or Science is published every two months, on the Ist fs of eo anuary, March, May, July, September and November, in Numbers a“ 152 pages on © making Two Volumes a year. Subscription price $5 a year, in advance ( Ist Ser., 1818-1845, 59 vols., including a General Index. Edited to 1838 by - rof. ILLIMAN ; after July, 1833, “ Prof. B. Suni an and B. se etna? od Jr. Price fo complete set, unboun 100 00 2nd re commenced Janary, 1316, bi Prof. B. Srudiebin, B. Siuuimas, Jt, and J. D. Dana. Price for the 18 vols. publiéhed, unbound, $36 00 Volume 10, of the 2nd Series, contains a ge&eral Index to the volumes 1-10. m LIMAN, Jr., and J. D. 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One Masmxns of Castleton, Vt. fale : TO CORRESPONDENTS. = —s—S™S Treelve copies of each orizinal communication, oulie eque ed at the dispasal of the author, Authors shout eateg a i i i, ar i . number of extra copies desired ; it is too late after "the forma are 25 ante aig AMERICAN . JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. = [SECOND SERIES.] Art. L—The Smithsonian Institution. We have been silent but not uninterested spectators of the . controversy which has been so rife for a year past respecting the Smithsonian Institution. Now, however, when the discussion appears to have drawn to a close, or at least when the arguments on both sides are well nigh exhausted, it seems proper, in view of the relations which this Journal sustains to science and to the public, that we should take this important subject into dispas- sionate consideration, and place our conclusions bitte record, The official documents with which, we have to do, are: The will of the founder, James Sm - The Act of Congress entitled “ Ao a . establish the onlin: Be Nyaa for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,’’ passed in August, 1846. e eight annual Reports of pe Board of Regents of the Institu- tion, made to Congress, from 184 1854. All these are included in — pee Annual Report of the Board, showing the operations, expenditures, and conditions of the Institution up to Jan. 1, 1854, and the proceedings of the Board up to July 8th, 1854.. nd further, as to the points in controversy : 4. Report of the special committee of the Board of Regents, Hon. Mr. Pearce, Chairman, relative to _ distribution of the income of the Smithsonian fund, made May 20, 1854, published in the Proceedings of ue’ Board, forming a part of the eighth annual Report, ~~ mentioned. . np Senuzs, Vol, XX, No, 58.—July, 1855. m= 2 The Smithsonian Institution. mittee, made subsequent to the adjournment of the rd of Rege and the presentation of their annual Report to Congress, but a t of Representatives’ edition of said Eighth Annual Re 6. The Proceedings of the Board oo at the annual meetin; e records, published in the Na tional Intelligencer of Jan. 17th, 1855. . ae. 7. A letter of the Hon. Rufus Choate to the President of the Se ate and the Speaker of the House of Representatives, resigning his of — fice of Regent of the Smithsonian Institution; and the Proceedings in the Senate consequent thereon. (Congressional Globe, &c. eport of the Judiciary Committee of the Senate, to whom we referred the inquiry whether any, and if any, what, action of the Senate is hecessary and proper in regard to the Smithsonian Institution ; - Feb. 6, 1855. 9. Speech of the Hon. W. H. English in the House of Repres tives, Feb. 27, 1855, on the Smithsonian Institution. 10. Report of Hon. Mr. Upham, Chairman of the Select Coramit of the House of Representatives, to which was referred the letter of t Hon. Rufus Choate resigning his place as a Regent of the Smithson) [ustitution, with instructions to enquire and report to the House wheth the Smithsonian Institution bas been managed and its funds expended accordance with the law establishing the Institution, &c. &c. (Print in the Boston Daily Advertiser, March 10; the official publicatio yet issued. apis ica 11. Hon. Messrs. Witte and Taylor’s Report from the same commit- tee. (Printed in the Boston Daily Atlas, March 16th.) ae and require us, after thus indicating the official documents which comprise the whole case, to enter at once u pon the consideration of the essential points of this unhappy contest. 7 This controversy has grown ont of certain widely divergent views which are entertained respecting the design and functions of the Institution. One party, that opposed to the policy actually a years is “the paramount interest of the Institution,” or we be, “‘ had the Institution been made, as Congress intended, a mi Sie i ay The Sataeohion Institution. 3 bi = Se reaicely a library?’* ‘This is a view taken by Messrs. oat _ sand Meacham, of the Board of Regents. Another party, c ‘prising a large majority of the present Board, maintains hale a library is not the end or purpose, nor an end of the Institution, but is one of the fictrotlesil or means by which the objects o the establishment are to be subserved ;—these objects being “ the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” as expressed in the will of the founder, and affirmed in the act of Congress which established the Institution and prescribed the way in which they are to be attained. Of the large majority of the present man- agers of the institution, coinciding in this general view, some would give the library more, others less prominence : but they all agree in principle as to their duties and obligations under the aw,—maintaining as they do, in opposition to the first-named of about $25,000 for the library, nor of anything like that ie except when in their judgment it may be most expedien fact, to use the language of one of the number, they are ‘‘ coed to making the library the principal or controlling feature of the Institution,” but “regard it as one of the i important instruments to be used in ‘accomplishing the desired en This latter view has constantly prevailed in the Board of Re- favored the amplest appropriations ever proposed for the library, have evidently done so in the exercise of a discretion over the amount, which they understood to be conferred upon them by the law. By good majorities the Board of Regents ose directed the action and operations of the Institution so as to make the library “ the paramount interest” or controlling aie of it, but only one among several means or instruments of increasing and diffusing knowledge. Hence the controversy, which has been carried on with so much spirit and feeling, in the Institution and else where. The voluminous minority Report of Mr. Meacham (Doe. No. 5, supra), and the able and eloquent arguments of Mr. Choate | oan to induce the Board of Regents to change their ourse, an appeal, in effect, was made to Congress, ip-a letter of resignation of his office of Regent by Mr. Choate ;—the result of which is to be found in the discussion which arose theretipon in the Senate (Doc. No. 7); in the Report of the Judiciary Com- mittee of that body (Doc. No. 8)—chosen from among its ablest jurists, —unanimously approving ‘thé action of the Board of Re- gents ; and in the two reports from the select investigating com- * Report of Mr. Meacham ; cena iba 5, in the enumeration given above a _ Mr. English, Speech in use of Representatives; document No. 9%, 4 The Smithsonian Institution. J mittee raised in the House of Representatives; that of its Chair- man, Mr. Upham (Doc. No. 10), disapproving, that of Messrs, Witte and Taylor (Doc. No. 11), fully approving the course pute _ sued by the Regents. : waar : 7 The questions at issue, it will be seen, are two, which should not be confounded, as they generally have been, at least in the pop- ular discussions of the subject. The charges brought against the ard of Regents and their Secretary, when examined, are found to be: Ist, that they have improperly exercised the powers con- Jerred upon them :—a charge which may involve nothing more than a difference of opinion as to the best means for attaining the — the que tioned action of the Board is illegal, it matters little whether would otherwise be expedient and judicious,—whether it would or would not tend most effectually to further the object in vie If, on the other hand, it should prove to be warranted by the law, we should have only its wisdom and propriety to consider. We have heard the charges: let us now look to the law. urport of the law, as its preamble declares,* is to accept the trust created and proffered by the testator, and to found an establishment for ‘“ the faithful execution of said trust according — to the will of the liberal and enlightened donor.” The whole of Smithson’s will which relates to this bequest is — comprised in the words; “I then bequeath the whole of my — property, subject to the annuity of £100 to John Fitall, and for the security and payment of which I mean stock to remain in this” country, to the United States of America, to found at Washing- ton, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an estab- — ~ lishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men The “act to establish the Smithsonian Institution,” consists of the preamble cited in the note below, and of eleven sections. ‘The first constitutes the E'stablishment,—a corporation in fact, — with perpetual succession, but without the corporate power Ol suing and being sued,—to consist of ten specified high officers * “James Smithson, Esq., in the kingdom of Great Britain, havin his last will and testament given bie whole of his property to the United ade Be America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an lishment for the Increase and Diffusion of knowledge among men; and the United States having by an act of Congress received said property, and accepted said trust, therefore, for the faithful execution of said trust according to the will o and enlightened donor, Be it enacted,” &e, Py edi Tha@dithconian Institution, - «6 The second section appropriates the accrued interest of the equest, or so much of it as may be required, for the erection of » be . suitable paildinae and for current incidental expenses ; and funds the capital, for the perpetual maintenance of the Institution. he third section creates a‘Board of Regents to conduct the business of the Institution, fixes the mode of appointment of the elective members of the Board (the ex-officio Regents being the Vice President and the Chief Justice of the United States, and the Mayor of Washington), as well as their term o e, sane ie the Board to appoint a Secretary of the Institution, who is likewise to be the Secretary of the Board of Regents, Be the manner of transacting business, and requires an annual report to Congress he fourth section directs a building to be erected. The fifth relates to the site and character of the building ; and requires it to have “suitable rooms or halls for the reception and arrangement, upon a liberal scale, of objects of natural history, including a mineralogical and geological cabinet ; also a chemical ae a library, a gallery of art, and the necessary lecture- roo The sixth section bestows upon the Institution objects of art and natural history belonging to the government. The seventh section enacts; “that the Secretary of the Board . of Regents shall take charge of the building and property of said Institution, and shall, under their direction make a fair and accu- rate record of all their proceedings, to be preserved in said Insti- tution; and the said Secretary shall also discharge the duties of , librarian and keeper of the museum, and may, with the consent of the Board of Regents, employ assistants ; re the said officers shall receive for their services such sums as may be allowed by the Board of Regents, to be paid semi- Sani on the first days of January and July; and the said officers shall be removable by the Board of Regents whenever, in their judgement, the interests of the Institution require any of the said officers to be ae = Section 8, enacts that the members and honorar the Institution (meaning thereby the establishment Saumaned y the first section) may hold stated and special meetings, “ for the supervision of the affairs of said Institution, and the advice and instruction of said Board of Regents ;” and continues :— “And the said Regents shall make, from the interest of said fund, an appropriation not exceeding an rast of $25,000 annu- ally, for the gradual formation of a libra y composed of valuable works pertaining to all departments of pate knowledge.” Section 9. “And be it further enacted; that of any other moneys which have “Saat or shall hereafter accrue, as interest upon the said Smithsonian fund, not herein appropriated, or not required for the purposes herein provided, the said managers are 6 The Smithsonian Institution. knowledge among men” is to be furthered. And if the lat il for? All this, it appears to us, is plainly left to the wise discre- tion of the managers of the Institution, subject only to the limi- tation contained in the eighth section, fixing a certain but very biek maximum limit to the sum which may be expended on the ibrary. The interpretation of this clause, however, is the turning point of the controversy. The Board of Regents have all along sumed this clause, directing an appropriation not exceeding The Smithsonian Institution. 7 average of $25,000 annually, for the gradual formation of a library, to limit their otherwise full discretion in one direction only,— to limit it upwards, not downwards. ‘Their course of action from the first shows this. However diverse the yiews that have been entertained in the Board as to the propriety of large or small ap- propriations for the library, we are not aware that this full power nd f a committee on the library (consisting of Messrs. Choate, Hawley, and Rush) appointed at the first session of the Board of Regents, declares, “that they see in the language of the act which the Regents are created to administer, and in the history of the passage of that act, a clear intimation that such a library was regarded by Congress as prominent among the more import- ant means of increasing and diffusing knowledge among men. This intimation they think should control in a great degree the acts of the Regents.” “ And, without pausing to inquire what precise average amount should be expended, the committee will at they have become satisfied that there would be no diffi- culty in judiciously expending, for a limited period, if it is other- wise desirable to do so, the entire sum indicated as the maximum in the act.” And the resolution they reported for the appropria- tion of $20,000 for a library was at that time adopted. Thus, in advocating the largest views in respect to the library that have ever been presented by a committee or sanctioned by the Board, —at the time and place when those, if such there were, who be- lieved the law to require the Institution to be made “almost en- tirely a library” would surely put forth the whole strength of their cause,—no claim is made for it as the “paramount object,” no right whatever is asserted to the maximum sum mentioned in the act; but the large appropriation they sought to devote to the library “ for a limited period,” is recommended solely on grounds of expediency ; although motives found in an intimation gather from the history of the act are introduced as sanctioning the pro- priety of their recommendation. We seek in vain for any inti- mation that they were bound to propose so large a sum as the did, or that they would have dene so had they believed a smaller appropriation more expedient at the time. e next action of the Board of Regents, a month later, when the committee raised “to digest a plan to carry out the provisions of the act to establish the Smithsonian Institution,” had made it us , * Institution, to aiding stimulating original researches in all se publication of transactions reports, and other publications of the and i 8 The Smithsonian Institution. departments of knowledge, to the payment for lectures deliver a substitute. This resolution, for which we are indebted to Mr. Meacham’s Dissenting Report (Doc. 20, 5), is as follows: ** Resolved, That it is the intention of the act of Congress sstablg ing the Institution, and in accordance with the design of Mr. Dy and objects of natural history and of elegant art, and the gradual pide tion of a library of valuable works pertaining to all departments of hu man knowledge, to the end t that a copious storehouse of materials of fuse the love of learning among men, and shall assist the original inves- tigations and efforts of ‘those who may devote eer to the pursuit of any branch of knowledge.” It merely affirms that the library, the museum, and a gallery — art constitute “one of the principal modes of executing and trust.” It does not deny that the “ active operations” ia tee a legal, or even a proper mode. ‘That denial is more recent. he experience of six years having rendered it doubtful whether this absolute division of the income into two equal — parts, irrespective of circumstances as they occur, was practically — the best mode that could be devised, in March, 1853, a special committee of seven was raised to consider this subject. This committee made its report on the 20th of May, 1854, by its chait- man, Mr. Pearce, ali the members concurring except Mr. Meacham, who had replaced Mr. Choate on the committee a few months previous. ‘I'he report, (Doc. No. 4,) after a general view of the | character, condition, and operations of the Institution, actual and ospective, submitted two resolves ; the first, repealing the resO- lutions passed in January, 1847, and then about to come into” effect, which required an equal division of the income between the active operations on the one hand and the museum and library 08 the other; the second requiring ‘‘ That hereafter the annual ap- propriations shall be apportioned specifically among the different — objects and operations of the Institution in such manner as may, — in the judgment of the Regents, be necessary and — for - each, to its intrinsic importance, and in co : ‘ 3 (2 .° The Smithsonian Institution. ae good faith with the law.” A restriction which the 2 ate had imposed on themselves, ——s to experience, is here pro- osed to be removed. n the. exercise of their 2A they had adopted a fixed and! nvarying apportionment, they now pro- best seeweds at the time, and in compliance in good faith with the law The consideration of these resolutions was postponed until the next annual session of the Board, in January of the present year ; and it was ordered “ that said report, and such report of a minor- ity of the committee as may be made in the recess of the Board, be printed.” .'The committee’s report was so printed, for the use the Senate and the House of Representatives. Up to this time, an interval of two months having elapsed, no minority report had been seut in,+so far as we can learn, and none could therefore properly be embodied i in the Annual ‘Report, “ showing the pro- pee of the Board up to July 8, 1854.” A minority ‘report the Hon. J. Meacham, (Doc. No, 5 ,) without date, and consist- ing of an elaborate review and criticism of the report of the Special Committee, is however appended to the House edition of the Smithsonian Report,—whether properly or not we need not inquire.* In this document it is for the first time officially main- tained (though it had been anonymously argued in the newspa- rs some time before, and apparently broached in the sessions of the Board as early as the spring of that year): 1, That the “compromise resolutions” of Jan. 16, 1847, were unauthorized by the law ; and yet ought to be continued in | force : : and 2, That their repeal by the passage of the resolves of the Special Commit- t that any one could wisely object oe ae an official document as this is, or ‘iti yds when laid before the Board of =e aun: Printin uestion being n neghegh this optim the tary, 0 "Printing ak oe ache to its being printed, with the sim- ple statement “ yg ie raters “that. it t does not form a part of the proceedings of the Board of Regents re Seconp Sxztzes, Vol. Leng" No. 58.— July, 1855. g 10 The Smithsonian Institution. tee would be a further illegality, unless accompanied by a resolve, that a compliance in good faith with the letter and the spirit of the charter requires that a large Peoppaon of the i income should | be a to the library. be noted, in passing, that the argument of Mr. Meach- am’s rt, and this resolve appended to it, do not present the very same issue, —unless we interpret the latter by the former, which, properly do. ‘The proposition, “ that a compliance in good faith ‘with the letter and spirit of the charter of the Smithsonian Insti- tute requires that a large proportion of the income of the Institu- tion should be. appropriated for a gradual formation of a library,” is one thing; but is not identical with the proposition, so elabo-— rately argued in the body of the report, that the enactment in the 8th section of the law, directing “an appropriation, not exceed- ing an average of $25,000 annually, for the gradual formation of — a library, composed of valuable works pertaining to all depart- ments of human— knowledge,” legally and morally enjoms the — shall amount to an average of $25,000 per annum, Dae ies con vinced that this is the best use of the income, or no 4 That an influential portion of the Board, jeatpasialiy during it earlier years, felt that the library was the safest, and ought. to be the most prominent, object of their fostering care, there is no kind of doubt. Some of these, on further experience, have changed their minds, One of them is Mr. Pearce, the author of the Spe- cial Committee’s report, who how so ably advocates the “ plan of active operations ;” although, as Mr. Meacham is careful to inform us, he strenuously supported ‘“ the library plan” in the otha upon the bill before the Senate ;—which clearly shows that he not understand the law to prescribe ‘ the library plan,’ but olga permit it. Another portion (of which Mr. Douglas may be taken — as a representative), looking to the history as well as to the words” of the act, hold that Congress “ did sanction the policy of a libra as a principal but not an exclusive feature in the Institution,”— “that the law contemplates the library as a prominent object in the Institution, and that at least a majority of the funds should be — expended in the building up of the library ;”—the intention of the — legislators, even when not prescribed in restricting terms, being held to limit, or at least to influence to a great degree, the discre- tion of the administrators. Such persons would properly adopt — the resolves spp to Mr. Meacham’s report, while they would — repudiate his argum The doctrine of ihe argument appears to be novel. Perhaps it pre-existed in a latent state, awaiting the heat of popular con- troversy to germinate it at a favorable moment: but we have al- — ee ee a ere Mee a ee The Smithsonian Institution. 11 ready shown that no trace of it is found in the published proceed- ings of the Board until about a year ago. The whole course of action has ignored it; and no menems has ee a protest against that course as illega al. e are at a loss to know whether Mr. Chioate Cae s this view of the law or not. His letter of resignation (Doc. No. 7), the only record of his views that has been pitbetaads ryt implies that he does. He declares that Congress matured a plan, and sketched its general features with great clearness and com- pleteness, in the law, the substantial meaning of which is palpa- ble and unequivocal in its terms, and that this plan has been vio- lated, and the law in effect repealed, by the action of the Board of Regents. Yet he dates the violation, not in January, 1847, when the compromise resolutions were passed, “ according to which [only] a full half of the annual income was to be eventu- ally applied in permanence to what I deem the essential parts of the plan of Congress,” but in January, 1855, when these reso- \adors were rescinded, and the annual appropriations required to be made specifically for each object, ‘according to its intrinsic importance and in compliance in good faith with the law.” It is hard to say how “henceforward the discretion of the Regents, and not the act of Congress, is to be the rule ' 80h iegemecci the income from what he “deems the essential parts of the plan of Congress,” while that which he denounces renders practicable the appropriation of the whole available income to what he con- . tends Congress meant it should be applied. Surely it is not the discretionary power of the Regents that is here complained of, but the direction in which they were about to exercise it. But what an anomalous discretion that must be which can be exer- cised only in one direction! These newly developed claims of “ the library plan,” however based, it is understood were eloquently argued by Messrs. Choate and Meacham before the full Board of Regents, at the annual session in January last, the Chief Justice in the chair; and the Mr. P. decision was strongly adverse to them r. Pearce’s resolutions, rescinding the so-called compromise, pete requiring s as annual appropriations, were carried by votes, the first of 8 to 6; the sec- ond of 9to 5. This was not the test question; for they Gant with propriety have been opposed, and indeed were opposed, by Re- ents who do not regard ite library as the paramount interest of the Institution ; while those who do so regard the library,—not on grounds of general Sepsdioncy, but on the ground that the law enjoins it,—would seemingly have been constrained to vote in the affirmative. The actual vote here is very important, and we must think decisive as to the true interpretation of the law, since the same view is implicitly maintained by both parties. The ma- jority voted to rescind the compromise resolutions, because they had no doubt of the right, and thought it most expedient, to do so. On the other hand, Messrs. Choate and Meacham’s vote to continug them surely implies that they thought them lawful! — Nor wale they shut up to a choice between two evils, as will be _ Seen by the proposition which they proceeded to offer. At any rate, their vote for the continuance of a rule of action which de- voted only half the income to the library, museum, and gallery altogether, is a complete answer to their argument, or at least to the argument of Mr. Meacham’s report. We dismiss, therefore, without further words, a doctrine which even its originators and supporters will not stand to. a The nicer questions remain: Though the act, interpreted by itself, does not enjoin such a large average appropriation for the library, may it do so, however, in virtue either of the intention of the testator, whose will is incorporated into the law as its ins _ tent (as Mr. Upham justly states), or of the intentions of any of the supporters of the act in Congress, to be gathered from recol- lection or from the printed debates? Or, can such intentions, avowed by the proposers of a clause of the act on the floor of Congress, but not effectuated in its terms, be held,—if not exactly to modify the obvious meaning of those terms, or to necessitate a 12 The Smithsonian Institution. ; | | | as a particular interpretation of them,—yet still to control somehow j exercise of the discretion which the clause confers on the Board _ of Regents; so as to make it the duty of this Board ‘to carry out such intentions in a general way, by expending on the library, not indeed the whole $25,000 said to be intended, but a large” though indefinite part of it? The affirmative of one or both of these propositions, 4 Ay we believe,.the whole case of ‘the have set forth the full strength of the case. Immediately, after the passage of Mr. Pearce’s resolves, which repealed former re- “ The question being taken on this resolution, it was lost, as follows: ** Yeas—Messrs. Choate, Douglas, Meacham, Stuart—4, j _ “ Nays—The Chancellor, Chief Justice Taney, Messrs. Bache, Ber- rien, English, Hawley, Mason, Rush, Pearce, and Totten—9.” The Smithsonian Institution. 18 So the question was decided against the claims of the library interest by the strong vote of 9to4;—the Board deliberately mr beehy (what no vote had ever called in question) that full er and: responsibility for the apportionment of the income aie the objects of the Institution is vested in itself, subject only to the terms of the law. This is a legal question, and an official decisidn on the construction of the law by the body re- sponsible for its administration, . A judicial ester: - hardly involve a higher responsibility. Of the nine Regents who af- | firmed this construction, all but two, we belies; are ceed of pry learned profession, whose business it is to construe law ; most them have borne the responsibilities of judicial functions; and a least three of them rank among the most eminent jurists of the country, viz, ~~ venerable Chief Justice of the United States— oard in virtue of his exalted judicial office,— and the two en kueeer Generals, Messrs. Rush and Berrien. Opposed to them are Judge Douglas, Mr. Stuart of Michigan (probably a lawyer), Mr. Meacham (late aclergyman), and Mr. Choate, whose forensic reputation is certainly unsurpassed. The ‘responsibility and the legal and moral weight of this de- cision satisfy our minds, and will doubtless satisly the public. Had its grounds been given (as they would have been in case o a like judicial decision), it would be great presumption in us to con — our critical analysis; and as it is, our remarks shall be brie 1. As to the intentions of the founder of the trust, and of indi- vidual promoters of the Act of Congress creating the establish- ment to execute the trust: which of the two are to be regarded, or most regarded, in the Construction of the law? Of course, the former; because the declared purpose of the Act is to exe- cute the founder’s will: the latter are of no Spupe aie except. as ancillary to the former, and of no force except as t y be embodied in the law. ‘The law can ab no intentions — are not expressed i in its provisions or preamble : and. the intention of this law is, to provide for the faithful aspeuiiane of the will of Smithson. t is plain enough that the law does not in terms provide that the establishment it creates shall be mainly a library. Does it in- tend this, however, in virtue of any expressed or/implied inten- tion of the founder? Is it'even supposable that Smithson had a library in view? The bequest was made “to found at Washing- ton, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establish- ment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” It has often been said, that any man who regarded a library as the obvious, or the most important means for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men would have been sure, in such a case, to have written ‘library’ in place of ‘ institution, or 14 The Smithsonian Institution. ‘establishment.’ But even this does not fully express the point. — ad Smithson been a book-collector, and left the will he did, who would have allowed that a library was intended? Is it not, however, equally preposterous to place this construction on these ~ words of a man who had no library at all; whose twenty-seven. published memoirs, it has been truly said, might every one of © them have been prepared, and probably were prepared, without — consulting a library; who during his lifetime labored to increase knowledge solely by oe researches in chemical and physical science ; and who bequeathed his fortune so that it should continue to furnish the means of increasing and diffusing knowledge in the world after his removal from it? In our minds, the only question is, whether a diversion of this fund mainly toward a library be an allowable use of it ; and whether, in the eh? tor clause of the act which, by fixing so high a maximum, would legalise . this use of it, net ress did not unduly stretch its prerogative over the trust. We reat however, in the hope and expectation that this clause will continue to be construed by its terms, and by the — intention of the founder,—cordially agreeing as we do with the whole Judiciary committee of the Senate, that “ this section can- not, by any fair construction of its language, be deemed to im- ply that any appropriation to that [maximum] amount, or nearly so, was intended to be required. It is not a perier to the Re- gents to apply that sum, but a prohibition to apply more; and it — leaves it to the regents to decide what amount ae vie sum limited can be advantageously applied to a library, having adue regard to the other objects enumerated in the law.” And the — Judiciary Committee proceed to say : ; «Indeed, the eighth section would seem to be intended to prevent the absorption ‘of the funds of the Institution in = Cig Smt of books. And there would seem to be sound rea for giving it that construc- knowledge’ in any other country, not even among the countrymen the testator; very few even of the citizens of the United pat wed a | receive any benefit from it. And if the money was to. be so appropri- ated, it would have been far better to buy the books and pete them at Id fy @ proposition, or consented that the United States should take to itself — and for their own use the money which they rae ie asa trust for ‘the increase and diffusion of knowledge among me 2. As to the intentions of members of Congress who promoted - the passage of the bill into a law in its actual form :—let all that | can be justly claimed for the library plan on this ground be con- — The Smithsonian Institution. 15 ceded. These claims are very elaborately presented in Mr. Meacham’s minority report (Doc. No. 5),-to which we refer our readers. ‘They amount substantially to this—First: Specific — plans of operation, se ih a in the original bill, or moved in amendments,—some of them prescribing the same ‘active oper- ations’ that the Hoatitntion has undertaken,—were voted out. Well and wisely done, no doubt. No one specific plan, no enu- merated set of operations, to be fixed once for all, could obtain the vote of a clear majority. Where various conflicting schemes are i Siege i is not difficult to outvote any one. ‘The ques- tion turns, u what is put in its place. We gather from ‘the parlimentary ee of the Act, that the real majority did not wish to anticipate experience, and fix details, but to found an Insti- tution, subject to a few general requirements; to give it able and responsible managers ; to devolve on them the duty of reconciling as far as they could the conflicting plans so vehemently ur urged b several different parties, and to apportion the income among the specified objects according to the dictates of their best judgment, enlightened more and more by a a So say the Judiciary Committee of the Senate. _ “It is very evident, by the law above ee to, that —— did not deem it advisable to prescribe any definite and fixed plan, and deemed it more proper to confide that duty “i a Board % Regents, carefully selected, indicating only in general terms the objects to which their attention was to be directed in executing the testator’s Ree “Thus, by the fifth section, the Regents were required to cause a halls, for the reception and arrangement, upon a liberal scale, of objects of natural pet including a geological and mineralogical cabinet, also a chemical laborato ory, a library, a galler y of art, and the neces- sons who might visit the Institution. It was by the express terms of the trust, which the At Batre was pledged to execute, to be diffused among men. This could be done in no other way than by publications at the. expense of ‘he Soak taton: Nor has Congress prescribed the sums which shall be appropriated to icant different objects. It is left to the discretion and judgment of the Regents And further, ‘No fixed and immutable plan, prescribed by law or adopted by the Regents, would attain objects of the trust. It was evidently the in- 16 The Smithsonian Institution. tention of the donor, that it should be carried into execution by an Insti tution, or Establishment, as it is termed in his will. Congress has cre ated one, and given it ample powers, but directing its attention pars ticularly to the objects enumerated in the law; and it e duty o that Institution to avail itself of the lights of experience, aa chang its plan of operations when they are convinced that a different one wil better accomplish the objects of the trust. The Regents have done so and wisely, for the reasons above stated.” i But, secondly, Mr. Meacham contends that the pti sh fixing the maximum expenditure on the library at $25,00 aving been introduced into the bill with the intention, avowe by its advocates in Congress, of making the Institution “ almos entirely a library,” therefore, “it seems impossible to doubt tha Congress in the charter of the Institution intended to indicate that the library ... should receive about $25,000, a year, and thai the ceesene diac and lectures should receive only about $6000 a year.” This argument, somehow, did not convince the Chief J oe and the rest of o lawyers ; who probably reflected —1, that the intention of these advocates might not be thi intention of the majority who voted for the clause, and still less the intention of Congress; many may have preferred to admit the clause, although involving the possibility of the diversion of th bequest toa library, rather than by its rejection to hazard aw passage of the otherwise satisfactory bill into which it was in serted :—2, that these advocates well knew how to express thei intention in the terms of the clause, had they been so minded the 8th section had they felt able to carry it ;—and, 3, that, sine it could no better be, they were content with the opportunity which Congress (we think nnadvisedly ) afforded them of accom- plishing their end in the Board of Regents, whenever they could convince this body that a library was a proper, and the best prac- ticable instrument for fulfilling the purpose of Smithson’s bequest. This they have not yet succeeded in doing. We cannot believe tory appropriating clause in the former bill, and the permissive one of the present act. But even if we suppose they did think that their intention was by some implication fixed upon the clause - in question, is that intention to override or qualify its terms? An exactly parallel case would have: arisen had the Board of Regents” be appropriated for a library ; the intent and meaning of which, in the mover’s mind, as expressed in the body of the report, eee & The Smithsonian Institution, 17 that this “large proportion” is an average of $25,000 a year. Would the Board have adopted the proposition with, Mr. Meach- am’s understanding of it, or merely in its obvious te rms ? Who ever heard of a legislation which devolves a discretion over the amount of an appropriation upon a Board of trustees, but yet tacitly assumes that this discretion shall not be exercised at all; or shall be exercised only within some narrow and undefined lim- its, to be gathered, not from the act itself, but from the intentions and motives of a few of its promoters; which again are to be athered from their speeches in Congress! And this on a point involving the construction of a will and testament, in which pa- role evidence is of no account. uch are some of the considerations which render manifest to us the correctness of that construction of the law which the pugned ) formally affirmed. It has been re-affirmed and sanction- ed, in the fullest terms, by the unanimous voice of the Judiciary Committee of the Senate (which is always chosen from amon the ablest jurists of that body), when referred to them by a mo- tion of the Hon. Mr. Clayton, made on the express ground that, “if the Regents are right in the interpretation they have given to the law, they should be sustained by the judgment of the Committee and the judgment of the Senate.” It has been adopted in the report of one part of the special committee raised Les the meres and it is searcely attempted to be controverted by t We wee devoted our attention principally to the question of the right rather than the expediency of the actual policy of the Smithsonian Institution ; because it is on this that the force of that which cannot be done, or so well done, by existing institu- tions; to turn to utmost account the means ‘of _— and in- i Seares, Vol. Xx, No. fo. 68—duly, 1855. 18 The Smithsonian Institution. upon a universal library at Washington (thus providing from foreigner’s bequest for a want which the General Government may be expected to supply, and are now supplying quite as largel as the whole income of Smithson’s fund would ),—to accumulat by degrees a “library of valuable works pertaining to all depart ments of human knowledge,” with special reference to those most needed by the investigator and enquirer, and not otherwise ac-— cessible, and to journals and transactions of all learned eacieninns in which the principal advances in knowledge are recorded ; to pr mote original researches in every department of enquiry ; to pub-— lish and freely distribute important ‘contributions to knowledge,’ ica; to gather eran a B Dettions, especially of our own nat- nd si i ches made by the Institution, or under its auspices ; solve important experimental problems in chemistry, physics, &¢., or to furnish instruments and facili ties for so doing ; — to con tinue the system of general international scientific. liter: exchange, by which every institution of learnin ante lenes the United States is enabled to carry on its correspondence, trans mit its publications to all similar societies in any other part of the World, and to receive theirs in return, almost without expense,— notice, in passing, one or two statements in the report (Mr. Up- hain’ s) which, to a considerable extent, sustains views adverse to. those of the Board of Regents. There are three new suggestions: in this report, of whose value our readers can form their own 0 ion. ‘T'wo of them look to alterations of the law, viz: that the executive affairs of the Institution should be administered by two officers of equal authority ; and that. the Institution itself might = made a bureau under a department of the General Govert- ent, instead of remaining as now, a trust administered by a indupeadae establishment. The third propounds a novel The Smithsonian Institution. 19 struction of the words of Smithson’s will, viz, ‘the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men,” which we give in full, to exemplify the straits those are reduced to who contend that the founder's design e Uph omy be attained by a rebiies at Wash- ington. Says 5 Mr. ‘“*'The words ‘among men’ were used merely to corroborate the idea expressed by the word ‘ diffusion.’ They do not necessarily imply that the Institution should confine meeit to world-wide ©. rations. The wor is not, as some seem to suppose, * mankind’ but * men’ and he diffuses knowledge ‘ among men’ as truly, and in as full a a sense, when he en- lightens the minds ‘of his neighbors, as of persons at the very farthest ole.” Really would not this construction be about as good a as now, even if the word ‘ mankind” had been used, instead of ‘men ?” And although the words “do not necessarily imply that the In- or should confine itself to world-wide operations,” —an od of confinement indeed,—do they not oe nt it should ez- tend itself “to world-wide operations?” Agait “The word ‘1ncreASE’ is held by some of the zealous combatants in the Smithsonian controversy to be identical with ‘ piscovery.’ although all the ideas it has received may be in the commonest text- ooks. There has been an increase of knowledge in the school, or the congregation, or the lecture-room, if ideas not ‘before known to them have been received into the minds of the hearers, even ; indeed it mat- ters not if those ideas have been recorded for thousands of years in lan- guages, classical or sacred, that have been dead longago. Knowledge een increased if one mind has received more, whether it be new or old truth. The language of Smithson is perfectly simple, and in its discovered yesterday. Knowledge embraces it all alike, and Smithson’s object was to carry knowledge where it was not before, and to increase it where it was; to spread it over a wide area and to a greater depth.”” We would only ask; if the communication of known facts and ideas from one to another constitutes ‘ the increase of knowl- edge” in the sense of Smithson’s will, then what did Smithson intend, and what does Mr. Upham mean, by “ the diffusion of knowledge?” To show the impropriety of publishing memoirs, like those in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, a fear is expressed that favoritism will be practiced, injury inflicted on some individ- uals through a condemnation of their treatises by “a secret tribu- nal,” resentments enkindled, and perhaps important discoveries be ~ suppressed. With more reason might the same complaint be 20 The Smithsonian Institution. ’ made against this Journal: for a greater amount of acceptable matter is offered us than we can publish, and we are obliged to — make our own selection; while the Smithsonian Institution, in” each case, calls in the aid of the sien experts it can find in the country, and holds their published names responsible for their” judgment. And the author of a rejected memoir could surely have his treatise referred to a second committee, or bring it before the world in some appropriate periodical journal, or give it to some one of our learned societies; which are willing enough, and gen" erally able, to publish any such really important contribution to kn nowledge, if not accompanied by numerous and costly plates, 2a + to publish as much as is 8 heme to bring the new ery or new ideas before the world. The publication of a detalla and of the needful Sp aksnak illustrations is indeed im- portant; and herein the Smithsonian Institution is of great use, by publishing valuable memoirs with pee which are be- yond the means of the author and of our learned societies: but this service is rendered, not so much se the author, who may al- the agency of the Institution, the present “Smnithsontal memoi * would all have been published, some in journals or transactions of societies, and some in respite books,—not, perhaps, in so- elegant a style.” This, we know, is not the case as respects some of the larger mennoht and if the rest had been so pub- lished, an equal quantity which the principal learned societies and | journals have in the meantime given to the world could not have — appeared. The suggestion that the Institution might be administered as a bureau of the Department of the Interior, strikes us as by no suggestion, that the Institution “ would be found to work most - saan under two ee executive officers, is likely 0 be seriously entertained. Nor can we agree with him that the Fresbat system is faulty, and “ necosearity surrounded with yes: great difficulties.”” The whole committee bear witness to “ zeal, sincerity, integrity, and high motives and aims” of “ those vere shggested and have labored to carry out that system.” ed c a fair trial, free from the embarrassments position” on the part of any one charged with the duty of car- The Smithsonian Institution. 21 our sense of duty to the public impelled us to labor for the sub- version of thé recognised policy of our employers, and to defeat the re-election of an ex-officio member of the Board; and we should think it passing strange to be allowed to do so. The state- ments of the two reports from the House Committee equally and effectually dispose of the case of Mr. Blodgett, which has also bee ded as a grievance in the public prints. __ The testimony quoted, in the last paragraph but one, from Mr. Upham’s report, is a sufficient answer to the allegation and insin- uation of unworthy motives with which most of the articles in newspapers and magazines, assailing the Regents and the Secre- bu he latest sessions, without the Knowledge or consent of a majority of its members while some documents that were before the committee ‘are omitted t [May 10th.] Fi & 22 El. Hitchcock, Jr., on a new species of Clathropteris. hac. Il.—Description of a new species of Clathropteris, ciate oN ered in the Connecticut Valley Sandstone; by E. Hir cock, Jr., M. Tue position of the sandstone of the Connecticut valley is of that with the exception of the footmarks, very few well charac terised fossils have been discovered in this formation. uring the last summer a specimen of a fossil fern was foun in the sandstone of Mt. Tom, in Easthampton, Mass., which seem: none so well defined as to indicate the genus to which they n undoubtedly seem to belong. . The generic description ef this plant is thus given by Bron niart: “ Folia pinnatifida, pinnulis elongatis, nervo medio val nervulis tenuoribus reticulatis notatas,” who considers the qu rangular abeces formed by the veins and veinlets as the eo characteris Only ae iasie is as yet described, “ meniscioides,” named © from the resemblance of the spaces between the veins, | to- meniscus. tis, inter se discretis, Sse inedalibus vel majoribus ; secundartis rachi subpersenditcntee ie A lineis distantibus ; vis transversalibus rectiusculis vel leviter arcuatis Sect: vulis tenuissime reticulatis, superficie foliorum planiuscu logical position of the European Species.—In 1828, Adol Brongniart regarded this fern as very characteristic of the sandstone, which (fern) had been discovered in these loca and he thus speaks concerning it: “This fossil fern, so re able in its structure, and by its well marked relations toa s group of living ferns, is not less so in a geological point of view. In reality since I have found it at Hoer in the arkose formation, all the fossil plants of which compel me to refer it to a positi¢ between the lias and the chalk, this same plant has been fot in two other localities where the geological position is well termined ; at Mt. St. Etienne near La Marche in osges, In EF’. Hitchcock, Jr., ona new species of Clathropteris. 23 formation which Elie De Beaumont considers as ah belong- ing to the lias; and at Pouilly in Auxois, by s. Bonnard tion ; both of which go to prove that this plant is one of the most important characteristics of the lias, and it is probable that it will appeat again in more localities where this formation exhibits itself.” latter sandstone formation however (that of the Youu) as it ap- pears belongs to the keuper, in which Alberti again notices this fern in Neuen Welt near Basle.”’+ In 1849, in his Index Paleontologicus, Bronn places the Cla- thropteris both in the Lias and the Keuper.t *"W. Granite. Sandstone. Trap. Sandstone. , Granite. E. a, Sonthampton hes mine ; “ sy hampton Seminary ; c, locality of Clathropteris; d, Mt. Tom; e, rt of foot-m ah de Connecticut river; g. Mt. Holyoke Seminary ; h, Hadle y; 2, Gra j, Roe “ie ; The cai of East Hampton is found in a coarse reddish sandstone, on the west face of Mt. Tom. The upper part of this mountain is trap, beneath which the sandstone crops out with an easterly dip of about 25°. The sandstone has a _ southeast- erly oe across the whole of the Connecticut valley. That east of the trap range is made up of finer materials, and is of a more slaty character than that on the west. Bassett’s s Quarry, where this ern occurs is somewhat west of the middle of the valley, as may be seen in the annexed section. In this section lately measured my father—Dr. Hitchcock of Amherst College—it is found that the thickness of the oe east of Mt. Tom is more than 8,000 feet, and that on the west, or below Mt. Tom is near! 5,000 feet. Supposing one half of this thickness to be accounted for by pb deposition on an inclined surface, there will still remain a thickness of some thousands of feet both above and be- low the locality of the fern. A thickness equally great for the ore of the Connecticut valley in measuring another sec- Brongn. Veg. Foss., p. 131 and 132. Lethea Geognosti : Index Paliont., vol. ii, p. 22. t ostica, vol. i, p. 140. 24 E. Hitchcock, Jr., on a new species of Clathropteris, ; tion across the valley at Turner’s Falls, 30 miles north of East_ Hampton. a. Fig. 2 exhibits portions of several fronds or perhaps only pin-" nules of the East Hampton fern. Some of these pinnules—al-— though much broken at their extremities—are nearly a foot long, — and 4 inches wide, so that probably they were originally at least” one foot and a half in length. = a = a 1" =— iN Clathropteris rectiusculus,—H. The pinnule on the left hand side of the figure, shows the del- icate secondary veins, which are usually obscure and therefore — this fern has not heretofore been recognised. 1 have presented to the Cabinet of Amherst College, a large specimen from E. Hamp- — ton containing numerous isolated fronds, and in one place showing — a large number most distinctly radiating from a center, like the : tree ferns of tropical regions. These radiating fronds are broken — off at their extremities, being only 4 to 6 inches in length. The specimen which is figured measures nine by thirteen inches, and is in the Cabinet of the Williston Seminary at East Hampton. g | Poi E. Hitchcock, Jr., on a new species of Clathropteris. 25 In the Cabinet of Amherst College is a fine specimen of a radi- ating Clathropteris (that is its apex) from the quarry of Roswell Field in Gill, Mass., and although nearly one quarter of the circle is lost, yet as many as 17 distinct fronds can be counted radiating from one stem. Although the reticulated character of this speci- men is rather obvious, it was not noticed till the more recent spe- cimen from East Hampton was discovered.* In the same cabinet is another obscure specimen of the Cla- thropteris from the banks of Connecticut river in Montague, two miles southwest of Field’s quarry, a sketch of which is given in my father’s final report on the Geology of Massachusetts, vol. ii, p. 452. : onclusions.—The above facts make it almost certain that a species of Clathropteris occurs in the sandstone of the Connecti- cut valley not far from its center, measuring across the strata, and near to the interstratified beds of trap both above and below. Now since this fern is found in Europe only in the upper part of the Trias, and the lower part of the Lias, it is very probable that it occupies the same geological position here. If so we ascertain the existence of a zone of rock in the Connecticut valley not far rom the junction of the Lias and the Trias. And since two measurements of sections across this valley show a thickness of sandstone strata both above and below this zone thicker than the Lias and the Trias of Europe, the probability seems very strong, that the equivalents of both of these rocks exist here, and not im- probably some others both older and newer. we can rely with confidence upon this geological zone, it will form’a convenient starting place for tracing out other older and newer formations. It will be seen that while the above conclusions sustain the opinion lately advocated with much ability by Prof. W. B. Rogers Am. Jour. Sci. Jan., 1855, p. 123), that the Lias sandstone exists in the valley of the Connecticut, it makes the opinion also proba- ees since advanced by my father that the Trias also exists ere. _ The radiations in the specimen above noticed appear to be dis- tinct and entire fronds, and so resemble those on fig. 2, as to make it probable that the latter also are fronds and not pinnules. * Ihave reason to suppose that this specimen has been mistaken for a Zamia. Stconp Serms, Vol. XX, No. 58,—July, 1855. 4 26 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination Anr. IIL—On the Periodical Variations of the Declination and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle; by W. A. Norv Professor of Civil Engineering in Yale College. (Continued from vol. xix, page 211.) Iw the calculations made on pp. 207, 208, of the relative effects of the ecliptic and radial currents, no account was taken of the possible effects of residual currents, that is, of the gradually st siding currents which may succeed those which are directly de: veloped by the sun’s action. I now propose to inquire into th nature and extent of their action, to make due allowance for ination. But I would previously remark that there is no occasie to distingnish the action of the primary from that of the second+_ ary ecliptie currents, so called, at the equinoxes, in considering the entire effect in the interval from 6 a. m. to noon or from nod to 6 Pp. M. (See -p. 205.) It is only when we are comparing hourly variations that this distinction need be made. a addit to this qualification of certain statements made o should be observed (althou igh the correction is of little conse quence) that the oyaional current, previous to 6 a. M., is in cs tds inclined to the meridian at the two equinoxes. If we confine our attention to the entire semidiurnal interv just ebtioned then the ecliptic and radial currents tend, bot the forenoon and afternoon, to deflect the needle in the same of the ecliptic currents at the equinoxes; then taking the om from Table I, (p. 194,) we have, for the forenoon, r+e=8’ r—e= 5-67, and therefore *= 7-16 and wed For afternoon, r+e=7"89, r—e=2"78; hen = 5" e=2"55 he two values of r differ from dah “echar becaus is of the action of residual currents. As a first, approximation t currents, let R= diff. of effects of the primary radial eurrents se cirenlation at the beginning and end, respectively, of either the forenoon or the afternoon interval, and ¢= effect of the residue all the radial currents developed during either interval ; R+2=7'16, R—r=5'33, R=624, 2=0°92. Ma king th same calculations with the data from Table II, (p. 208,) have, for the forenoon, r=7/59, e=1"91; for ‘the afternoot, 7r=4'50, e=2'-03: also R=6'-04, c=1'-54. “a 197. The average of the two values of ¢ found above, from Table I, is 2’-02. The difference of the two ii ons only 0-05. and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 27° At the summer solstice, we have, for the forenoon R+(e+z) =9'-69, for the afternoon, R— (e +2r)=3'80; whence R= 6:74, and e+r=2'-94. The value found for R at the equi- noxes is 624, and of x, 0-92; hence to find ¢ at the summer solstice, we have the proportion 6°24: 6°74:: 0°92: 2= 0799, Thus e=2"94—2=1-95. If we make use of Table Il, we obtain R=7'-01, c=1"79, e=2'95—r=1' 16. At the winter solstice, in the forenoon, R+c—e=1" 15, in the afternoon R—z +e= whence “a 38, e—2#=0/ 23, To find z, 6724 Attu; ¢=0° 21, -e=0’ Q342= 044. Table II gives R= 2-56, 2=0''65, e=x—0’23=0/:42. It is to be observed that at the two solstices the ecliptic currents cross the meridian at right angles, at the hour of noon, and that therefore the values of e just determined show the effects of the ecliptic currents on the declination at 6 a.m. or at 6 p.m. At the equinoxes these cur- eR have but mane if any sensible effect on the declination at 6 a.m. and 6 p. m., but cross the meridian obliqnely at noon, and rata the value of ¢ at the eqninoxes shows the effect of the a Ss currents on the declination at noon aving obtained these first approximations let us now proceed to a more minute investigation ;—taking into account the residual ecliptic as well as radial currents. Let R= deflection, in the semidiurnal interval, that would result from the variation in the intensity of the radial currents. i= effect, during same interval, of the variation of the ecliptic currents. r= effect at noon of the duets of the radial currents devel- oped during the foreno e= effect at noon of the reside of the ecliptic currents devel- oped during the forenoo 7’= effect at 6 p.m. of the Tliao of the radial currents devel- NBs during thie afternoon. = effect at 6 p. m. of the residue of the ecliptic currents devel- aul during the afternoon. mr= portion of residual radial currents at noon that pass off in the afternoon. ne= portion ey peopel ecliptic currents at noon that pass off n the afterno ee (nearly) ; py (nearly). At the E'quinoves; in the forenoon, we have (from = 0; : Aut. Eq., R+r+E—e=8"65; Ver. Eq., R+r— Hence E=1’-49, R—7 ‘I6te=r. r>e, whence R<7':16. Fa the afternoon the equations are, Aut. Eq., R+E+mr—r’—ne—e¢ = 7°89; Ver. Eq.. R—E+mr—r —ne—e=2"'78. From which we pies B=2'55, R=5'33—(mr—r'—ne—e)=5'33+-r(1—m)+ e(1+2), (nearly). No account has been taken of the residual 28 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination a action at 6 a. m. of the nocturual currents, but this must be very slight, especially as the effect. of the ecliptic currents is reduced to zero at that hour. Since this action must be the same at one Its only effect will be to increase slightly the value of R. f the determination of 7, we have the equations R= 5’-33+r(1—m) 1’'83—ne nae -- (1), R+r=7'16+e...(2); whence r=—>—— t the Summer Solstice ; for the forenoon, R+E+r—e=9" 4), Shi the afternoon, R-E+ mr—r—ne—e=3''80 . Me Whence E=2"-94— ren Leoene ..(6), R=6"744+—— ot (7). To take account of residual action of the nocturnal ct reuts, at 6 let z denote the effect of the residual radial ¢ rents at thet tig and y that of the residual ecliptic currents: and y will each te therefore, supposing these currents to pass off entirely during t forenoon, instead of ory (4) we have R+E+r—e+r+y 9-69... (8), and instead of (6) Ety=2'04 eet oh Be (9); also R=6-744——, + Or At the | ter Solstice, R-E+r—e= ‘: iss: tix R+E+mr—r—ne 1-62...(12); and'thus B=0934 mine (18), a R=1- yenee el .(14). If we take account of residual nocturnal currents in action at 6 a.m, E+y=0/23+ = lect Bes me. (15), R= 1384 es aa If we a Pee eqs. (6) and (13), accenting the letters cee ae Since E and E’ represent the effects of the ecliptic currents on the declination at the hour of 6 a. m. at the summer and wi ter solstice, respectively, this formula should give the deflec- tion of the ‘needle at that honr, due to the ecliptic currents the interval between the solstices. T'o take account of the resid- ual nocturnal currents we must introduce into the formula the as r+z2’ 2 eq. (13), we obtain S=E+E/=3"-17— terms * The exact value of this expression cannot readily be found, but we know that it must be a very small quantity. In the calculations which follow it is neglected. i i i and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 29 The determination of the deflection produced by the ecliptic currents, in the interval between the solstices, from formula (17) admits of verification. We have seen (p. 201), that, for the hour of 6 a.m., the entire deflection in this interval is the sum of the effects of the ecliptic and radial currents, and that for the hour of 6 p. m. the deflection during the same interval is the dif- ference of the eflects of these two systems of currents. Now let E= effect of the ecliptic currents at 6 a.m. or 6p. m.; R= effect of radial currents at the same hours ; e and r the effects of the residual ecliptic and radial currents, respectively, at 6 a.m.; and e’, r’, the effects of the two systems of residual currents which are in action at6 p.m. Then, (by Table I,) E+ R+e+r=4"-90, e’—e r+r E—R-+é+r’=1'-46 ; whence, E+e=3"18-5-- a . (18), Tt will be seen, when we come to discuss the variations of the _ horizontal force, that the intensity of the ecliptic currents is twice as great, at the hour of noon, at the winter as at the sum- mer solstice; but on the other hand these currents pass off, from the vicinity of the zenith, about 44 p.m. It is probable, there- fore, that the effect of the residual ecliptic currents at 6 Pp. m. is nearly the same at the two solstices, and accordingly that e’, which is the difference between the individual effects at oe sol- ger 5 _ stices, is a “small quantity in comparison with 7”. 3 mpd‘ g are a8 ere r also small quantities. If we neglect 3 and 5 we have D= E+e=3" 48-5 (nearly)... (19). This formula should give nearly the same value for the deflection as formula (17 The following Table contains the results given by the formule which have just mee investigated, corresponding to certain as- sumed values of ma rer Summer — — Betstives | R é 8 al m=1,n=1 ileal as eh Pa a5 rai 0 i033 area '97 ‘65 m=0, n=0 Verret 2 -02/0 -92/0 15,1 -53/0 0-15)2 45 2 82 m=4,n= baile gale erlt jolatels 2110 4810-2510 1812 53 2 m=3,n= = “41/6 5612-10) 1 -22/0 -20/ 1 -5510 -47/0 -27)0- le: 58 2 The process of it a is as follows: It was first a, that at the equinoxes the wy effects of the residual radial - r into equ. (3), we obtain the value of e, and thence the value of R has nearly the same value at the summer solstice as at the 30 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination equinoxes ; the same is therefore true of r. It will be seen in th sequel that the semidiurnal effect of the ecliptic currents, on th horizontal force, is twice as great at the equinoxes as at the su mer solstice ; from which it may be inferred that the actual } tensity of these conietie and therefore also the effect of the resi ual ecliptic str on the declination, (e) is twice as great the one epoch as the other. In the discussion of the vari tions of the horidbotel force it will also appear that the intensit of the ecliptic currents is nearly the same at the winter solstice at the equinoxes, but as these currents are in action at the zenith during only a little more than two-thirds of the semidiurnal interv at the winter solstice, I conclude, (taking all the circumstance into account, ) that the value of e will be reduced about one-hal at the winter solstice. To find r om the same epoch, we hav (p. 27) es 14: ve at eqnino at winter solstice. T approxima ues of r and abeing ne ound, eqs. (1) is (6 (7), (13), (14), wi: (19), give the value an equinoxes and s , as well as of S a Dic mt 7 ee on ere ie re "Tabl e that there isa pretty close correspon e between the determinations of S and D, except in the ca in a Pet m=o, that is in which the radial currents in existene : g the ities ne in obtaining the formule, and to the eokabiiay hate assul tions made are only approximately t rue, we cannot undertake decide which, among the different stippositions made with rega to the values of m and n, corresponds most nearly to fact. We can only infer it to be highly probable that the radial curren in action at noon pass off almost entirely during the afternoo Since the value of e is taken the same at cach solstice, in eq. (17) n(e’—e’)=0; the values of S and D given by eqs. (17) and (19) are therefore independent of m, and w we can draw no inference (p. 207). No account was taken of the residual currents, aud We now see (p. 27) that the value of E comes out the same, at the equinoxes, whether these currents be taken into account of ry The value of Ei for the forenoon is 1-49; 2x1” AQ “98. The average values, for forenoon and afternoon, (wheth we use Table I or II,) is 2’ 02, 2X2'02= af ‘04. The actual flection is 3/23, Pas eee and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 31 n the explanation of the deflection of the needle (at 6 A.M. ) in iis interval between the solstices it was implied that each of the two systems of currents had the same tendency to deflect the needle toward the west at the winter solstice, that it had to de- flect it toward the east at the summer solstice ;—that is that the tween the equinoxes and either solstice would then be half of the whole deflection ; Ane ae the deflection from the equinoxes _ to the summer solstice s 3/47, and from the equinoxes to the winter solstice 1:43. Both sets of currents are concerned i in pro- ucing this inequality. As for the morning radial currents they proceed from all the points of the photosphere which are exposed to the sun, but the character of the result may be ascertained by considering the more effective currents. These proceed, at the summer sclien, from the points which lie to the north of the prime vertical ; and at the winter solstice from the points that lie to the south of the prime vertical. The former system of points are nearer to the zenith than the latter, and hence the deflection, so far as it depends on the radial currents, should be greater at the summer than at the winter solstice. It will be seen on refer- ring to the Table on p. 29 that the effect of the ecliptic sabes is also greater at ‘the summer than at the winter solstice. ~ values of E at these two periods are about in the ratio of 4 to i The inequality in these two values seems to imply that the excess f the morning currents of the northern hemisphere over those of the southern hemisphere, at the summer solstice, is greater than the excess of the morning currents of the southern hemis- phere over those of the northern at the winter solstice. In ac- cordance with this conclusion we have the fact already alluded to that the individual currents of the northern hemisphere . at Jeast a portion of them) have a much higher intensity in the ter than-in the sammer. But it remains to be ascertained, a pore - the variations of declination observed at some sta- tion the southern hemisphere, whether the currents of the | soutbera savaihore do not experience a coceauontiah diminu- tion at the southern solstice. HORIZONTAL FORCE. Diurnal Va riations.—T he curve of ‘the diurnal variations of ima occur about 4 4. m. an p. m., and the minima about 10 A 10 p.m. It may be conceived, for the sake of more ready comprehension, as representing a flood and ebb tide in the ethereal sea of magnetic fo orce Maca fall flood tide lagging be- hind the sun about 4 hours, at noon and midnight, and the ebb * = te 32 W.A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination tide following the flood at an interval of about 6 hours. But it is to be observed that the fall and rise during the night are compar- atively slight, and that in the summer months the nocturnal} rise peach is altogether wanting ;—the decrease continuing from Ap.m.to 104. ™. é principal minimum is at 10 a. m. to 12 ™. ; the principal maximum is at 4 p. m. in the summer, and generally at 4toG a.m. in the winter. These phenomena may be referred to the sacs action of the two systems of electric currents, radial and ecliptic, by which the corresponding variations of the declination have been explained. In the present case we have the effects of the components of these currents, which cross the meridian at right angles, but in the case of the variations of de- clination, the effects of the components running in the direction of the meridian. ‘To consider first the effects of the perpendic- ular components of the radial currents; let us confine our atten- tion for the moment, to the sped current — from the point immediately underneath the sun. This is represented by Ph in Fig. 2 (p. : ; S being sipposid to ‘ay the point of the photosphere which has the sun in its zenith. During the whole of the forenoon it will = toward the west and the hori- zontal force will be diminished, and during the whole of the af- ternoon it will be directed toward the east and the horizontal _ force will be augmented. If we suppose Tapisasisy of she cur- rent arriving i P from the point S to be the same for all posi- A tions of S the parallel of latitude AB, PA will have? i kead | imum vale aie the sun is on the prime vertical at A, and again when it is on the same circle, at B, in the afternoon. Daring the forenoon it will decrease, and vanish altogether at noon. In the afternoon it will go through the same changes in the inverse or- der. The minimum of horizontal force should therefore oceur early i in the forenoon and the maximum late in the afternoon. ut in point of fact while the sun is moving from A to M the distance SP is ae and therefore the current propagated from 8 increasin he component Ph is also proportional to cos APS, and tiverelore at first varies very slowly. It may very _ well happen therefore that the minimum will occur sometime after the sun is at A, and the maximum sometime before he is at B. Again, instead of a single current proceeding from S, there is actually, according to our theory, a similar current emanating from all the points of the photosphere which are exposed to the suns’s action, and the minimum of horizontal force obtains when the resultant of all the actions of these innumerable currents, di- i 5 a7 — ® 4 is) * ® =. e.¢ o ~ tHE 7 o 4 > ° =] bes taal and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 33 same hour in the afternoon. The tendency of residual currents, so far as they may act, will be to make the minimum happen later in the forenoon, and the maximum later in the afternoon But the ecliptic currents play a no less important part than the radial, which we must proceed to consider. At noon, or near that i these currents will be perpendicular to the meridian, fe ont 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. their obliquity to the meridian wil “ its maximum, ‘These currents will always tend to Pie the horizontal force, and will act with the greatest effect when their obliquity is the least ; since their components in the diree- tion perpendicular to the meridian will then be the greatest, for the erie = that the currents themselves are then the most inter Their tendency therefore is to make the minimum of hcbawnadl force fall at or near the hour of noon, and the max- imum at about 6 a.m.and 6 p.™. Acting as they do, in conjune- tion with the vial currents, they will have the effect to make the minimum fall later in the. forenoon, and the poate maxi- mum later in the afternoon. The relative effect of the two sets of currents, it is reasonable to suppose, should however be differ- ent in different seasons, and hence the hours of maxima and minima Sats = as wer known to do, from one sea- son to anot To acer she comparative semidiurnal effects of the ecliptic and radial eurrents, denote them en eine by R and E, an aga soars of horizontal force from 6 a. M. to noon, and m= variation from noon to 6 p.m; pie m=RKR—E, m'=R+E; —m m = hd whence f=—5—s and R= ..-(20). It is to be observed that R is equal to the effect of 43 component, perpendicular to the meridian, of the resultant of the radial currents at 6 a. m., an nearly equal to that of this resultant itself; and that E is nearly equal to the effect of the ecliptic currents at noon. We here leave ont of view the residual currents. ‘To take them into ac- count let r= — ou horizontal force of residual radial enrrents at noon ; r’= same ye p.M.; e= effect of residual ecliptic cur- rents at noo n; = je e at 6 p. m.; & and /= effects of nocturnal radial and ecliptic ombeatiy respectively, in action at 6 a. Mm. (or eae of ~ ogee of them which passes off during the fore- n); ie proportion of residual and ge= the cea of colitis acu that pass off during the afternoon, t —E-r—etk+l, m'=R+E+?r’+pr+ge—¢ .. . (21), r=r’ (nearly) and e=é (nearly); £andZare emmparatively small ; the values of ; a and lie between o and 1, but are probably g greater ha ave then, ; m! —m ae 2 m-+-m pr+e'g—2 ee hs a A pre g—®) ) Seconp Sertzs, Vol. fy No. 58.—July, 1855. 5 (nearly), — 34 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination (nearly)... (22). From which it appears that both E and R are less than as determined by eqs. (20), and that the diminution 0 , by reason of the residual currents, exceeds that o quantity 7+e. currents because these currents now proceed from the portion the photosphere which is diametrically. opposite to the sun (p. 191 and are weakened by the currents proceeding from the points u derneath the sun; and that of the ecliptic currents because the . the southern he versed an i nocturnal ecliptic currents smentation of horizontal force a ter midnight ; but in some instances they only suffice to che e action of the radial ¢ the gradual subsidence of the residual currents consequen the sun’s action during the day. (See curves of variatiou of horizontal force during the summer months, at Toronto Hobarton, in the Hobarton Observations, Vol. I, p. 54.) Annual Variations. These as observed at Toronto, may be studied in Table | diurnal range, the amount of the range being considerably grea o March: change in the hours of the maxima and midima; especially in| hour of the principal minimum, which is at 9 or 10 a.m. fi of the horizontal force; the maximum being in June an minimum in December. Preparatory to the explanation of th Variations let us compare the mean semidiurnal effects of - radial and ecliptic currents in the different months of the yé For this we have (disregarding the residual currents) the | (20) (p. 33), which give the following results : Be .ce | Jan. “| Feb. March. | April, May, June. | July.) Aug. |Sept, | Oct.) 2 eR | i05 | 18 | 295 | 635 | 56 | 585 | 50 |.48 | 48 | 2 | E 11085 1 82 | 975 | 785 | 39 | 485 | 36 | 48 | 99 | 72 and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 35 These values of E show approximately, the comparative mean rn gee of the ecliptic currents at noon, in the several months, the values of R the intensities of the radial currents at 6 A. M. urnal effects of the two systems of currents. It appears that the intensity of the radial currents is twice as great in June as in De- cember, while the intensity of the ecliptic currents is twice as great in December as in June. It would naturally be supposed that the radial currents would be more intense in summer than in Winter; and it is to this fact that we are to attribute the vost in the diurnal range of the ee force from winter to s mer, If we take the range from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. it will be entirely to the action of the radial subband and will be4 tional to R. ‘The range from the morning minimum to the s gth passage across the prime vertical (p. 32), pe he's createst action to augment the horizontal fone bolo -the passage across the i TABLE I sa jee rna ng Variation of the Horizonta Pee in each Month of a Sit at " Toronto ; derived from Hourly Observations in the Years 1843 to 1 Astron. bee hit hes fie T tres ly ee mS rh | A o | Oct. to | Ann. yim an, iow ite Peek est Bs Bopt inc. Mar inc. ‘Means 00] 00) -00 ea 700,| 00 | -00 | 00) -00 | 00) “00 “00 | 00 0* (008 | 126/057 | 0 + 055 053] 0681039 014/000) 052 010 | 026 1 960 100 oe 074 098} 149068! 040/022, 095 | 0389 | 062 2 084 099,144] 138126 141) 205/110) 084/067;. 142 | 079 | 105 3 143/169 | 168 oe 171] 245|184| 112\096' 174 | 113 | 188 4 164,181 /178 161, 175) 253/155, 128/127, 185 | 135 155 5 73/17 173} 238|151/ 120/126 183 | 183 | 158 6 158/152 | 161 | 141) 144] 215]134 121/125. 162 | 122 | 1 7 129/144 | 139 122] 190)122) 120)124,, 142. |. 117 | 125 8 108/120 | 112 106 115) 178/111, 118/108 123 | 109 | 111 9 096 116 | 092 095) 103] 171|102/ 104/097 112 | 097 | 1 10 90,089 | 082 078 091] 164/097 086/086 099 | 088 | 089 11 nie 068 066, 069| 151/085, 085/084 081 | 081 | 0 iy eS 60,064 | 062 051, 068] 1391083| 075/060 074 | 068 | 066 13° 047/052 | 052 048 072/057! 062 | 058 14 9051041 | O51 041) 052) 1 079\069 051 | 058 | 049 15 pacar 041 030) 039) 111}073, 084/072 045 | 067 051 | 16 51K 027| 045] 134)061/ 091/068 057 | 069 058, 17 959 031 (Ot pas 4s 131}091 102 054 O57 | 077 | 062 | 18 | 1) 048) 119 115.067 057 085 | 066 19 | (108 036 ¢ 06 38/042 | 089 oad 036} 091} 103 8 O71 55 20 '088 026 OBR /029 028 | 030 ie: 023] 064)024) 070 035 | 050 | 037 21 (060 023 015 015,002 | ‘O14 016) 001) 020/900) 030/045 011 | 027 | ul4 22 |024.008 005 003 011/022 000 | 010 | 000 23 (000.000 000/901\020 020 017. 024| 016! 017 004) 000006 016 | 000 | 003 a Ig el Na a a ca ate ee ee ME & 36 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination in the relative intensities of the two systems of currents. In th summer the radial currents are more efficient than the eclipti but in the winter the ecliptic currents are much more efficient that the radial ; and the tendency of the radial currents is to produc a minimum early in the forenoon, and of the ecliptic currents t uce a minimum at noon. It follows therefore that the act Eo Aiteore should occur later in the forenoon in the winter tha in the summer. The increase in the mean monthly value of the horizontal for from the winter to the summer solstice, finds its explanation in th coe action of the ecliptic currents. In the course of a sing day the diminution and augmentation of the horizontal force t result from the action of the radial currents balance each othe and hence the popes in the mean daily values of this fo th to another, must be ascribed to the annual v rom one ation of the e€ Now these currents have the high est intensity in nter (p. 35), and always tend to dimm! the horizontal fore the mean daily value of this fo ical results furnish a stron wn oa of the troth, of this e planation. Mean annual intens yoft One, for the years 1843-8, ( or mean of the tos * mae intensity of sal Mia aie Feb., March, Sept., Oct., Nov., and Dec.= 94: tensity for “April, May, June, Joly, and Ang.= 49-0. Fro ” 941—753=188; 753—49-0=26:3. Again mean vibe “of hori 3 : zoptal force, at Toronto, from 1845 to 1851, (allowing for sect lar change, Toronto Observations, vol. ii, p. 91)=3: 53088 ; m horizontal force for the months of Jan., Feb., March, Sept., Oct. Nov., and Dec. =3-52973 ; mean hotizdntal force for April, May, June, July, and Aug. =3- 53250. Whence 3.53088—3:52973= _ OOLIS ; 3°53250—3-53088=-00162. Now -00162~-0011 1:409 ; and 263+18-8=1-400. From Sept. to March, inclusiv the ecliptic currents are the most energetic, and have pretty nea the same intensity. ‘The intensity in April is as high as the low est intensity during this interval. If we include April in months of highest : intensity, that is compare January, Februa March, April, September, October, November, December, W May, June, July, August, we have a still closer agreemen results, for the quotients come out respectively 2:00, and M VERTICAL FORCE. Diurnal and Annual Variations.—It is first to be obse that, agreeably to the general theory which is under consideration, the dinrnal and annual variations of the vertical force are to © referred entirely to variations in the intensity of the ecliptic rents. ‘The radial currents which aoe from any point of and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 37 photosphere, ae pass near the zenith on opposite sides, ih neu- ’ tralize each o in their action on the vertical force, since they will be of ales intensity. But the ecliptic currents hai lie on take place in this difference will accordingly be attended with va- riations in the intensity of the vertical force. If we consider the entire set of ecliptic currents above the horizon it will be seen — that the perturbations of the vertical force will be chiefly pro= duced by the currents which are remote from the zenith ; for the proper tangential force of any single current will lie in the plane of the horizon if the current passes through the zenith, will lie in the vertical line if the GHirent is in the el fie. “and bh those which are above it, but aoe “ae ie effect. In the case of the horizontal force the pines above e and be elow the horizon have opposite tendencies. If it should s improbable that the differences of intensity of the a ia should be the oc- casion of sensible disturbanaaper se vertical force, when the di- rect effects of these currents on the horizontal force are slight, it is to be observed, iadarcon to the distinction just noticed, that the effect on the vertical force of two currents on opposite ~ sides of the zenith, at the distance of 30°, is one half of the en- tire force due to the difference of the currents ; also that the sur- ace of the atmosphere crosses the plane of the horizon under a small angle, and hence that the portion of the photosphere which is in most effective action is very large in comparison with that in the vicinity of the zenith which is principally concerned in modifying she horizontal force. If we suppose the height of the atmosphere to be about 60 miles 61 (miles) its surface will cross the plane of the horizon under an angle of 10°, and the length of an are extending 45° from the zenith will be about 60 wine while the length of its continuation down to the horizon will be about 640 miles. In studying the effects of the ecliptic currents ti € must observe that any current which passes to the south of the pie tends to augment the vertical force, and any current which to the north to diminish it; again that any current w hich, coming from the north, passes to the east of the zenith tends to aug- ment the vertical force, and any current which, coming from the same quarter, passes to the west of the zenith tends to diminish it ; also that in the case of currents coming from the south the effects are just reve ersed. The variations — by the vertical force on any particular day mnst depend on the law of variation of the ecliptic currents along the circle of ieetement (p. 200), on the ft 38 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination law of variation of the individual currents with the distance from the points at which they originate, and on the position of t diurnal circle traced by the zenith among the ecliptic currents, 0 on the sun’s distance from the zenith at noon. ‘The previous cussion has not revealed these laws, it has only served to confir the natural supposition that the intensity of each individual cul rent decreases in both directions from the point of original excit ment, aud made known the comparative intensities of the cu _ rents which pass through the zenith at noon in the differen months of the year. Avoiding, for the present, all speculation at an ticular instant the current which is at any given d tance fror int underneath the sun has the same intens as the current which passes through the zenith on that day which the zenith is at the same given distance from the point of a current depends of the point at which i gina phere which has the sun in its zeni should be the case unless there are inequa Adopting this supposition, then, we ma fror given in the Table on p. 34 that, beginning at a po from the sun, the ecliptic currents gradually increase in intens until we reach the distance of about 45°, but that from this po to 67° they retain pretty nearly the same intensity. Beyond 67° toward the horizon, we must conclude that the currents in ques tion, if they have their origin in any direct solar action, in all probability diminish in intensity. Whatever may be the law distribution of the ecliptic currents over the photosphere, at a moment, it is important to remark that, except as there may inequalities in the photosphere, it should be the same at alls sons; and therefore that the ads very i ] 9 nstance, entirely on the distane s “a hemispheres (e. g. at Hobarton as at Toronto), f the above conclusions ‘are correct then the difference of in tensity of currents on opposite sides of the zenith must beg at 6 a. mM. or 6 p.m. than at noon, and hence there should be a dency to a diminution of the vertical force from 6 a. m. to nooD aud to an augmentation from noon to 6 p.m. But if the eclip eurrents after their excitation subside gradually, from hour t honr, we shall have in action at noon the differences of all t residual currents consequent upon the forenoon excitation, and ai p.m. the differenves of all the residual currents result from the sin’s action during the whole day. The tendency these residual currents will be to make the vertical foree gr and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 39 at noon sei at 6 a.m., and greater at 6 p.m: than at noon, unless the currents in action at noon should pass off entirely during the afternoon, The effect of the residual currents at noon being ap- ng some unknown law, would be approximately proportional to the difference between the ecliptic currents at G a.m. and at noon, In the play of the two tendencies just mentioned I conceive that we have the general explanation of the diurnal variations was the ver- - tical force. , TABLE IV. Mean anal Variation of the Vertical Force in each Month of Md ronto; derived from Hourly Observations in the Years 1843 to | Astron, 9 Tr... “ua A AD r T. - A | ~~ fine 7 A T. to Ie ct, to P aacolecns a i y g i Nov, © san ine.| Mar. inc. . Sen 00} -00 | -00} “00 | -00 | -00 | -00 | -00 | “00 00 eo “00 | 00 | On 7 aa 006 | 086 13 | 015 | 1 011 011 024 ' 017 | O19 | ree, 017 017 ? | 5 030 028 | 025 | ei 99 ~ 34! 046) 0560: | 026 | 029 | 4 0} 052) 0 0 26 | 081 | | | 027 | 032 | 6 | 027 | 031 | q 02 | OBI \ 8 027 | 028 | pic Nee Ook 023 | 023 | 2. 021 | 618 | lI 014 | 012 | 12 008 | L06 13 006 | 062 | 1 004. | 000 ; 15 004 | OO1 | 16 000 | 001 | 17 * 0 oo2 | 005 | 18 005 | 010 19 008 } O11 20 013 | 013 21 ‘009 908 | 010 22 (01.0002 0034011 009 4 01 }024/020}007/012) 013 | 007 | 00% | 23 0031002 00 002 ah 009 001/ 014| 024 028/019!009/013/ 014 | 008 | 009 “The diurnal variation of the vertical force at Toronto in both pi t. e., from April to September inclusive, and from October 0 March inclusive, i is a double. penaryenon having two maxima two minima. The principal maximum takes place two hours earlier from April to September than rat ay iets to March, viz, at 5% from April to September, and at 7» from October to March. From this maximum the diminution is progressive to the princi- pal minimum, which also occurs earlier deo April to September than froma October to March; 7 ¢., between 14" and 155 (2 a.m. and 3 a. M.) from April to September ; j aah at 16" (4 4. M.) from October to March. The see ry minimum is at 22h (10 a. m.) in both seasons. The range of the diurnal Variation is sii MEET G RE IO runt 40 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination during ae de months when the sun is north of the equator, ¢ from April to September, than in the opposite season.” We fee seen (p. 38) that there are two causes in operation tending to produce a diurnal variation of the vertical force ; in the ronto the tendency to an increase, by reason of the eae clit a rents, prevails early in the forenoon over the tendency toa “Sgeencon the other tendency prevails and a secondary minimum uts. The range from 6 a.m. to 6 P.M. is entirely due to the residual’ currents. et c= effect on the vertical force of the difference of intensit of the ecliptic currents on opposite sides of the zenith, at noo c’= same at 6 a.m. or 6 P. M.; s= effect of sum of residual cut rents at noon, resulting from forenoon excitation, or of residt currents at 6 Pp Iting ffom afternoon excitation, m= rise vertical force in th | from 6 a. mM. to noo m’/= same 6 P supposing the residual oo" in ac tion at noon to continue withont ¢ pepetion until 6 P s—(e’—c)=m, s+(c—c)=m’ ; ;8=—9 Or supposing the residual currents at noon to pad off ing the afternoon, +(e) Ve e’—c=m'; s=m-+(ce’—c) . . . (24). The following Table contains the values of s and (c’—c) f each month in the year, com isi from equations (23) and (24), and the means of these value Jan. | Feb. | March.) April.| 3 es \ Win ne. |July.|Aug.) Sept. | eo 4 | See Pe ale | O54 45 1 3 | 165 is we 9 Ob oar hy ‘ 2412 3 Means, | 10:5; 13:5 | 14-26 | 17-25) 1425 | 6-75 | 18 | 15 24°75; 225 c!-c 4 105 | 105} 185 | 165 Lh 101) -25:, -2 cl-c | 1 1 20 22 28 : 26 | 20 | Means, | 7:5! 9°5 } 15°25 | 16:25! 23-25 | 18:75 | 20 15 | 575! 55 The means, which answer approximately to the supposition — that the residual currents in action at noon are reduced in inten- tical force at other stations, we find that there is a considerabl diversity. For example at Philadelphia, the maximum is generally at 2 p.m., and the force decreases from this hour to about mid- night, then increases until 2 a. M., and decreases again until 4 less after that hour. At Toronto this falling off in the angme amounts to the production of a secondary minimum. | and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. Al “At Hobarton there is one decided minimum throughout the year, and in the winter of the southern hemisphere but one max- imum. ‘The minimum is at 7 a.m. in the summer, and at 9 a.m. in the Winter. The winter maximum falls at 3 p.m. In the sum- mer there are two maxima, at noon and at 6 p.™., the latter max- imum being rather superior. Intermediate between these two af- ternoon maxima, is a small secondary minimum. e range of the diurnal variation is nearly the same at both periods of the year, and amounts to about four parts in a thousand of the whole Boe al tosphere, by reason of which the law of variation of the intensity of the system of primary ecliptic currents excited at a given hour by the sun is modified at particular localities, or what is more probable, the currents which have been developed subside more rapidly at some stations than at others. Thus we may explain the phenomena at Philadelphia by supposing that the residual cur- rents pass off very rapidly in the afternoon but are particularly effect- ive in the forenoon. The residual currents having passed off, the nocturnal currents come into sensible action, producing a second- ary maximum at 2 a.m; but at Toronto and Hobarton these cur- rents serve only to modify the diminution of the vertical force, re- salting” rom the slow subsidence of all the currents which are in Operation at sunset, ; IRREGULAR VARIATIONS. of o (sad = oO ae | oO i. = =. 4 pe] one te) ae ° =] 72) i) lt - =o oO 3 =) gg pj oO - —. i) &. oO 5 oO i - “A : “< s. systems of currents. The following are among the more promi- nent indications of the irregular action of the radial and ecliptic currents. always have this effect; 2. The westerly variations of declina- tion have a maximum both in number and value, at Toronto, 6 the east. At the hour of the minimum of easterly disturbance, 42. + W.A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination Toronto, for on this assumption the radial currents will, at 7 or 8 a.M., lie in the meridian, and proceeding from the south, will de- 4 flect the needle farther to the west than at any other hour, when — the supposed meridian of maximum excitation will deviate more or less from the meridian of the station. Again on the same supposi= tion, the meridian in bar preceding the sun some four hours, the currents originating on it and propagated to the zenith of the sta- tion will again lie in the erie of the station at about 8 pv. m., but they will now come from the north and deflect the needle toward 3p.m., when the westerly disturbance is also reduced to nearly its” minimum of frequency and value, the points of especial excitatio are — Pigs of the prime. vertical, and it is only the feebler .» When the poit near the prime ‘vertical toward the" west, 2 are in the position to have the greatest effect in a horizontal force. Again the dineirbaicellld a defect. p especially at from 10 p. m., to 4a. m., when the points 0 frequent disturbance are near the prime vertical toward the etsll ‘ and wheg the current propagated from them to the zenith should have hetyreatst effect in weakening the force. ini- at the hour of the maximum disturbance in excess. The disturl an¢es in defect preponderate over those in excess at all hours; i this fact, as already intim a we have an evidence of the opera- the most oe and oer ook cause the disturbenae in defect to preponderate then, The preponderance is but slight (1% to 1 for the years 1841-2). 4, The westerly disturbances of deel nation decline in numbers and value for about 12 hours bef and after the maximum, with but one or two slight irregularities: tions. Other indications pial be panied out bas, these. wilh su fice for our present purpose. : and Directive Force of the Magnetic Needle. 43 As to the exciting cause of these irregular currents, the occa- sional ecliptic currents can only be referred, it would seem, to par- oxysmal disturbances of the sun’s magnetic force ; which disturb- ances, from what we have already seen (p. 185), must be in some way connected with those mighty processes going on at the sun’s surface that reveal their action by giving rise to the appearance of dark spots on the disk. The irregular radial currents cannot be ascribed to the sudden angmentation of some impulsive force em- anating from the sun, for such a force would have its greatest ef- fect on the meridian over which the sun was, and thus the max- imum of westerly disturbance of declination would be at noon, — instead of 7 or 8 a.m. They may be supposed to have their ori- We might possibly be attributed to variations of atmospheric humidity. But there is another and more plausible supposition that may be made; it is that the irregu- lar radial currents have their origin in the sudden arrival at certain points of the upper atmosphere, from time to time, of some mate- rial emanation radiating from the sun’s surface ; and either by its ‘force of impact or by an electric action, developing electric cur- rents diverging in every direction over the photosphey. -If we . this meridian. when it reaches the earth, the same velocity as the ®arth in its orbit, then, confining our attention for the moment .to the circle of intersection of the plane of the ecliptic with the surface of 44 W. A. Norton on the Variations of the Declination, &. conception of the entire action of the solar emanations if we ob- serve that the effect is the same that it would be if the sun were constantly from 60° to 75° to the west of its actual position, and _ the earth had no orbitual motion. _.. This view of the origin of the irregular perturbations of the directive force of the magnetic needle connects theoretically these S. | previous publications, that in the idea of ma- m the sun’s surface, according to a certain e explanation of the Zodiacal Light; also ‘from the sun is probably the sub- hat it é stance of terrestrial Auroras ; in Cometary phenomena. Note.—The same effects which in the present discussior been referred to electric currents developed in the upper att here, would be produced by currents circulating at the earth’s surface in the opposite direction ; that is, the one set converging toward the,points of the surface which are exposed to the sui, and the othestrunning from west to east, and at the outset paral- lel to the ecliptic. But there are several objections to the ado can give rise to currents of positive electricity converging to t points on which the sun acts, and the tendency of any suppose electric force propagated from the sun would be to create diverg: ing instead of converging currents. Again if the sun has the tendency to develop in the crust of the earth currents runnin! the magnetic needle, when transferred to the contiguotis mole- cules of bodies conceived to be surrounded with electric atmos- pheres, appears to afford a sufficient basis for a satisfactory dy-_ namical theory of frictional and galvanic electricity, and of principle of magnetism in its various aspects. Major Lachlan on the Riseand Fall of the Lakes. 45 Art. IV.—On the Periodical Rise and Fall of the Lakes; by Masor Lacuian.* (Concluded from vol. xix, p. 175.) Leavine any further remarks on the foregoing for a future prob- able opportunity, I may here briefly observe, that I have long been persuaded that the severity of our winters is mitigated by the proximity:of the Lakes, and is not so much owing to the prevalence of winds from the northwest, as a mere northerly a point of the compass, or to the remarkable curve of the great iso- thermal line in this part of the globe, as to the winds alluded to sweeping down from a more elevated region, many parts of the extensive mountainous tract of eobntiy stretching i in that’ direc- tion being perhaps thousands of feet above the level of Lake Su- perior, and even the latter not being less than 600 = above that of the ocean. _ Nearly the whole of the conflicting evidence” Ficatine on the various points at issue having been adduced, 1 proceed to state freely, yet as briefly as sesiee> ite mode of proceeding adopted by me, in my endeavor to arr é convictions to which I have been thereby led with we to each of the three questions to be determined. o commence with. the first of these, namely, the traditional report of there being a septennial rise and fall in the waters of the ~ great Lakes, &c., I have to remark, that being unwilling to ad- mit any assertions on so interesting and mysterious a phenome- non without thorough examination and comparison with facts, I, after much reflection, determined to attempt to form from the materials in my possession a general comparativé*tabular view of the positively known, oa failing that, generally acknowl- edged, periods of elevation and depression throughout the whole of the Lakes, during the longest ascertai series of years; in the hope of thereby arriving at something like an approximation to the real state of the matter: but after laboring long and pa- tiently at the unsatisfactory task, I was at last obliged to abandon it and confine my synopsis to Lake Erie alone, and even then to add various “ Miscellaneous Remarks” for the mention of any ap- parent coincidence, or otherwise, in the state of the other Lakes — in this ‘ — to persevere till, after much labor, I so far ceed shown in the following copious yet imperfect Table, sihibiting not only the various progressive and retrogres- sive annual fluctuations in the level of that particnlar Lake during a course of sixty-three years, as ae ta by the different highly respectable authorities named, but also proving, incidentally, how far that long received traditional ae enon, the rise and fall of the Lakes generally every seven deeb is in accordance with the evidence furnished by recorded facts * From the Canadian Sousa’ July, 1854, 46 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. } ; Phen in view of the Rise and Fall of the Waters of Lake Erie, for sity 06 succession, as far as ascertained from the best sources of informati ach, within Date., ~———~S~S”*«CMomparattive Level 1790) 1st maximum ; being 5 ft. 6 in, above|Prof. Hall, ‘Gee “Whittlesey, - lowest level. Mather, , de. 1791 /1792-94| No selawiants: regarding these years. 1795, 96) lst m at described as low, : A eeaetly 2 baad | Weld, Whittlesey, de. on oNgq Rising, but fp mount not stated. Do. do, maximum. Higgins, Houghton, Whiting, é&e. a8 SIN frat whatever. 1806 ee Whittlesey, ce. clas ising. ne information. 1810,°11| 2nd minimum. Reported as 6 feet D | below 1838. sf 1812-14; W aters r: rising. Houghton, Higgins, Dearborn, — i Whiting, &e. Be. d maximum, but 2 ft. less than 1838. Do. do. do. 1816) Sa dast year. 1817, 18 25 Houghton, Higgins, de. 1819, 20 Houghton, Higgins Whittlesey, 1821) Rising rapidly: 1822 Do, di as: ‘Deatoen; MTaggart Do., but still low, 1823| Up to ‘to average or ww e1Do. 1824-26 Gradually se on ithie 2 fee “€ a maximum of 1838, ae 1827 °98\4¢h mea Lrimum a Be : oop ee ers Siecle as high as in ination 1; hi 1829) Stil hi high Dearborn, MToggart, 1830! As as in 1828. 1831 Subsiding rapidly. Whiting, ce, : 9? : 1832, 33 | 4 . e. ee though only down to } Whittlesey, Higgins, be 1834/R : : 1835) 2 a . inches below 1888. Houghton, Higgins, Mather, 1836/1 f |” Whiting, Whittlesey, dm 1838 eis maximum. 5 bik 3 eal above ‘ud zero. Amer. Jour. Sci, Prof. Dewey, 1839} 3 feet 8 inches above zero, * Buffalo Express. 4 1840 a 5 “ “ “ rs 84] 3 « 1 « “ a i ae ig 849| 3° « v4 “ “ “ .B. —In 843/-2 « § « ae hes Erie, from 1846 ‘ seu, Take | 844} Q « 1 “ “ “ Ontario follows at m git Babi So) . 4 of Seasiies I ver :— : 1846, 2 “ 9 « ih ites 2 ft. 2 bo pot ie B47) °2 * Qe: zero. aia S5d8) 2.8 SS be hf a oe 1940, 3. *% 1 * ey hat tel og 1850 9 « g “ “ “« j * 6.* * 1851} 2 “ qb « Oo is £18. “im Joly, = 1852 Rising rapidly. ie St - bth 1854 pid 1358 | 6th maximum ; very high, as in 1832. MEO Fe ala mptimetiany ery Yen the maximum of pre Major Lachian on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 7 Erie | in particular, state ye been as adi ~ ove tinie, saree ane to tg pe ga compared ith the lowest level k was estimated at n., and e ft.; and Prof. all sovutioieg: pil se of a higher uring 1795 and 17 eee ake Ontario Tegonbed as so high as to have drowned or- chards near Kingston of et growth, while the gravelly beach of Lake Erie near Cleveland was used road, and continued 80 for many years afterwards, _ In 1798, Lake Erie octal as higher than in Waters of Lake Erie, and of the others generally, Wigh from 1800 to 1802; and the level sang? estimated as similar to eae re 1806, lev reported, in general terms, a . The lev abe 1810 is compared with the feds of 1790 and 18388: which would a sais: about 2 ft, 9 in. below the mean lev - n. Dearborn states, from personal ibieags, that Lake Erie was, in 181 cha 2 feet higher than in 1813, and that the river Detroit was : wee high re ou > 1815 n , like eee tie year, Detroit and St. Clair Rivers riper full, beac the rise of Ontario regarded as generally about 2 feet higher than the 1819, an ebb and flow of from 14 to 18 iochest le at Green Bay by Major Storrow, and in 1820 by Mr. Schoolcraft, and in 1827 by Col. Whit ise In 1819 and 1820, the central and lower Lakes desc ried by Mes ‘Whittlesey as unusually low ; while Col. Whiting and Dr. Ho Lakes Huron and Erie described as heving ested their usual level during 1811, In 1823 ara raid rise of ‘ eet from 5 1838. n 1824, ice for a sia ae put of Lake Huron, and River Detroit in consequence eh 10 te An, ea t depression took place in Lake Erie and hg i the pets waters Screed back on Lake Huron. In other res- pect » the ¢ Lakes-s pear to have been in their usual pre sts In 1831, a similar occur- Messrs. Higgins and Be veep a that ‘the In’ 1827 and 1828, ce Ontario (and other Lakes) 2 Lae ve ish ean 1820 ; yet, according to Mr. M‘Taggart (who estimates extra height between 2 and 3 ist) id ar t o e n. Dearborn states that, though Lakes Erie and Ontario were so high, 9 Saperie 9g n ever known before. In 18380, the level of Take Erie ited at 2 feet os “1831, ‘Take Erie fell temporarily between 3 and 4 saat Aeved also ae Tn 1835, Lake considered 1 a3 8 fos 5 38) than in 1819; and afterwards in 1842. l the same as than the ro year. N. B— othe figure in the = Obeaparai e Level” eo Mr. Higgins. 838, i stated by Bigg ins tobe 5 ft. 3 in. above 1819, and Wy Buffalo Ad- in June and 6 ft. 9 in. in August: and according to Dr. re. le e 1838 ) a in 1840 it was higher than for 23 years bufore, wi the exception of : ee pri In 1844, all the Lakes considered low ; but during the night of 18th October, Lake Erie suddenly rose cose temporbiily at t Buffalo 13 ft. 8 in. ppb the harbor zero, Feaeed by a great storm. In 1845, d fall of coer a (accord- to P Xe D h wate! ut, t year, pos tes ro se i tornado, wit wa pee ete oval and im Lake Supe ; peed was 1} ft. high, and in next ya still be sare vein i 1846, Gull Tad ( a Tight a Say i In January, 184 sudden flux Yand reflux of Lake no he ee” Cobourg whan the Waders receded #60:St-and vetarped te seer ware & &. igh ; re Vibe Sage 8 times till it gradually aed ts tal appetrince On utlet of * weet Aria spn ed oh : bi 48 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. Lake Erie temporarily blocked up with ice, so as to leave the Table Rock at Ni ara Fails, and 200 ft. beyond it, dry. 8th April, a sudden temporary depressi of Lake Erie at Bu i empo alo to 22 in. below zero, caused by a strong gale from In 1851, Lake Hrie at Port Colbo 8 ft. high i very little change ; and in 1853 level nearly the same as in 1838 and 1 Lake Ontario 1 ft. 2 in. higher than in 1851; and in 1853, 9 in. higher, and calculated to be the same as in 1830 and 1838, and 4 ft, i 1853, the River St. Lawrence generally considered as very high General Remark.—It is estimated that the Lakes subside irregularly, betw the great periodical floods, at the rate of about 1 ft. 4 in. per annum; but tha comparative rapidity of the fad is as about 2 years, to 5 of the rise; and that the ew: i i h r. Mur "ron, in his Report of 1848, that its waters haye sunk considerably below form: _ ancient) levels, as indicated by water-marks, to the extent of 4 feet 10 7 at : 4 as appeared too indefinite for being admitted into. the column “ Authorities,” though not altogether to be rejected as wi but that, though in 1838 the whole of our inland waters pened to be simultaneously at an extraordinary height, it is ve problematical whether they will always be found in an elevate or depressed state at the same time. For instance, taking it f or other great flood in Lake Erie, or any other of the great Lake and that the next great flood was fortuitously in 1815; but the generally received opinion, that the intervals at which th extraordinary floods occur are, at the best, uncertain, and main dependent on the extra amount of rain and snow, and the | degree of evaporation during the summer 3 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 49 ticular year; and that though the rise and fall in the different Lakes may, under ordinary circumstances, be generally simul- taneous, it does not follow that such will always be the case; or in other words, that there may sometimes be a rise for a season, or part of a season, in one Lake, altogether independent of the others, arising from temporary obstructions at its outlet—a con- clusion which I have arrived at, after much inquiry, observation, and reflection, in addition to the evidence furnished in the fore- going Table,—as will be found more particularly adverted to im- mediately. 2udly. With regard to the annual variations in the level of the kes, and their general extent; and how far these also occur simultaneously, and are likewise owing to the amount of rain and snow compared with that of the evaporation; or what other cause :—I am free to confess that, ceteris paribus, and in accord- ance with the various authorities adduced, as well as all other in- formation which I have been enabled to obtain, the same obser- vation must apply to these variations as to the septennial fluctu- ations just noticed: but that while the extremes between the maximum and minimum range of the: great floods may be rated at about six feet, the average difference of level during a single year may be between two and three feet; and that as already stated, though the-rise and fall in all the Lakes may usually be simultaneous, one may sometimes be low while the others are high. As, for instance, it will be seen by a reference to the * Miscellaneous Remarks,” that in 1795-96, Lake Ontario was so high as to drown trees of many years’ growth while Lake Erie was described as so low that the gravelly beach near Cleve- land was used asa public road; and that in 1814, ‘the upper Lakes were full,” whereas “the centre and lower Lakes” were not so till the following year; and that in 1827 Lakes Erie and Ontario were between two and three feet above their usual level, » while Lake Superior was lower than ever known before ;—all which circumstances combined, with others yet to be noticed, have produced a conviction that each Lake is independently liable to irregularities of level peculiar to itself. Lallude to the well known, ut little thought of, fact, that during the winter months large boulders as well as smaller masses of stone and gravel, lying along shore, become firmly imbedded in the bordage ice, and on any rise of the waters, towards the close of the season, remain firmly attached to the moving floating masses, liable to be either ad 3 the Lake. Admitting such to be the case—for there is every year abundant evidence of the fact—it only remains to suppose that towards the end of winter, as frequently occurs, an accumu- Szconp Series, Vol. XX, No. 58.— July, 1855. 7 | 50 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. ad to it; and which may therefore require @ whole season, or even more, to be accomplished. Of the motive power of ice, I myself have had ample proof, in the frequent dis- lodgment of boulders of large size from one part of the Lake © shore to another, near my own farm; but more particularly of a vast rugged mass of limestone rock moved from eomparative deep water, some distance ont in the Lake, toa more shallow 7 part, so near the shore, that a large tree, dislodged from the high bank above by the undermining fury of the waves, happened to fall over in such a manner that its stem formed a very convel- jent though giddy bridge, from the beach to the stranger rock, and thereby allowed the latter to be afterwards used as a pleasant fishing station by my children. There are also, to my own knowledge, many instances of the removal of boulders in the different parts of the Rapids near Montreal. And among many examples of the almost entire temporary obstruction of the out- lets of Lakes Huron and Erie by the jamming of the ice, I shall append to this paper an account of one which took place in t Niagara River, between Buflalo and Fort Erie, in March, 1848, with which I was at the time so much struck that I was induced to write toa friend on the spot for further particulars, in hopes — of elucidating my long-cherishsd hypothesis; and such 1 have oubt would have been the case had I been able to be present myself to compare facts. Independent of that, however, the particulars connected with the obstruction in the Niagara* alluded to, were of so extraordinary a character as to deserve being placed on permanent record. af, * The account of this singular phenomenon is unayoidably postponed till some : = ae future time, Major Lachian on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. 51 With respect to the 3d debatable question—the daily oscilla- tions or other irregular transient tides observable in the different Lakes; | may observe that, making allowance for a greater or less degree of — pressure, I might perhaps be disposed to assent in few words to the now generally received opinion, that in other ier they may be ascribed to the influence of the pre- vailing winds upon their broad expanse, more or less modified. by their peculiar form and direction, and the relative bearing and na- ture of their extremities, ag well as by the often very Jagged and irregular outline of particular inlets or bays, and other inter-penin- — sular localities, such as Kewenaw Bay on Lake Superior, Green Bay on Lake Michigan, Bayer G Isle Peninsula and Long Point on Lake Erie, and th th of Quinté on Lake Ontario. But it seems to me that in so a I would be conceding too much, as, in my humble unscientific apprenension, I am disposed to think that though such may be the case to a general extent, it is not the less necessary to prove, by a long and regular course of minute observations, whether such be the fact or not, as well as how far the surface of such vast bodies of water may not at times be con- siderably influenced by ampbeie pressure on the one hand, or by lunar attraction on the other, giao at the times of th é is observable on the inland fresh-water lakes of Switzerland and elsewhere. In confirmation of this I would, as regards the lat- ter, beg to refer to the writings of Dr. Young, alluded to in an early part of these remarks, in conjunction with a valuable paper on the Lakes of Switzerland, by Colonel Jackson of the Royal Geographical Society, which lately appeared in the Canadian Journal, incorporated in a series of interesting articles on the va- riations in the level of the Canadian Lakes, from the pen of its learned editor, in which those oscillations (there termed seiches) are said to amount to no less than five feet. Nay, so interest- ingly appropriate to the present question do I regard a portion of the articie alluded to, that I am tempted, in spite of the already great length of this paper, to transcribe the following, as the con- clusion at which a learned German Professor has arrived on the happen at all seasons of ae Sone r and at all hours of the day; but that they are generally most severe in the spring and in the au- tumn. 3d. That the sate of the atmosphere seems to have a decided influence, it being remarked, that in proportion as that state is less changeable, so are the Seiches less frequent, and vice Me ae 52 Major Lachlan on the Rise and Fall of the Lakes. versa. The Seiches have always been considerable when the atmosphere has been loaded with heavy clouds, or when the weather, in other respects severe, has threatened to be stormy, and when the barometer has sunk. Ath. That though Seiches are more frequent in spring and autumn, they are.more consider- ble in the summer, and, in particular, "towards the close of the season. The highest that have been observed happened in the month of September. 5th. That the minimum of the Seiches has no precise term: their maximum seems to be five feet. 6th. That although the duration of the: Seiches is very variable, the greatest extent seems not to exceed 20 or 25 minutes, but usu- ally lasts a much shorter time. And 7th, That they are not pe- culiar to the Lake of Geneva alone; M. Vaucher having observed them on the Lakes of Zurich, of Annecy, and of Constance.” I cannot refrain from also quoting the following paragraph from the same , as much to the point :— “Tt appears Sicocstionsble that the phenomenon of the Seiches is due to an unequal pressure of the atmosphere in different parts of the Lake at the time, 7. e., to the simultaneous effects of columns of air of different. weight, or different elasticity, arising from cone: age of temp perare, or from mechanic cal and even eee oa must be wahieot to the same in and fp therefore present the same phenomenon ; and I Novotna, doubt A that correct observations will verify the presumption”* = ith respect to the irregular tides observable in the Baltic and Black Seas, and other great bodies of saline water of a similar character, it will be sufficient to give the following, —_ the | first-named sea, from a standard geographical work, as bearin intimately on the subject under discussion :— The Baltic being autumn or winter, at the time of heavy ra ins, or when the at mosphere is charged with clouds, though unattended with falling weather. The water maintains its height frequently for several days, sometimes even for weeks. Prevalent winds, flooding rains, melting snows, and many other causes were assigned for this very remarkable phenomenon ; but it continued to occur, inde- pendent of all these, till 1804, when Schulten, a Swedish physi- cian, after having collected all the observations that had _ made, found ‘that the greatest height of the water corresponds with the greatest depression of the barometrical column ; and conversely.’ The almost total absence of oceanic action in this * See Canadian Journal, vol. ii, pp. 27, 28, &c. Beast J. D. Whitney on changes in Mineral Veins. 53 sea leaves the cause thus assigned to operate with full power ; and if Schulten’s hypothesis be confirmed, of which there is now but little doubt, it will, in all probability, serve to explain similar phenomena observed in other close waters, as the Caspian, Lake Balkai, and the Lake of Geneva, to which Saussure has asses similar causes.” [An important paper on the fluctuations in the surfaces of the Lakes not referred to by Major Lachlan is published by Charles Whittlesey in Foster and Whitney’ s Report on the Lake Superior Land District, Part 2, 1851, p. 319. It reviews the facts, adds a large number of observations and sustains the conclusion that the rise is not periodical.—Eps. | — Pe al tT. V.—Remarks on the changes which take We in the Btrsinaeles and Composition of Mineral Veins near the surface, with particular reference to the East Tennessee Copper Mines ; y J. D. Wurrney. Ix the number of the American Journal of Science for March last, ([2] xix, 181,) M. Tuomey has given “‘a brief notice of some facts connected with the Ducktown, Tennessee, Copper Mines.” As region alluded to, I take the liberty of stating what I conceive to e the correct interpretation of the phenomena displayed on so large a scale in the Polk Courity, or Ducktown Mines. tr. Tuomey remarks as follows: ‘in every published account of the mines that I have seen, the impression is er ig the ore (5) is derived from the underlying portion of the bed (c) by de- composition.” No such impression could, by any pals Pa be derived from the descriptions of the East ‘Tennessee Mining re- gion which I have published. 'To show this, I quote from the reporty to which Mr. Tuomey refers, at the commencement of his notice, as follows: ‘On. penetrating beneath the surface, the sec- tion represented in the annexed figure is obtained. (See section accompanying Mr. Tuomey’s article.) Beneath the gossan, is found a bed or mass of black cupriferous ore, of variable thick- hess and width. This, as well as the gossan, is the result of the decomposition of an ore consisting originally of a mixture of the sulphurets of iron and copper, which was associated with a quartz- Ose gangue or. vein-stone. The place of the bed of copper ore marks the limit of the decomposition of the vein ; beneath it the sf + Report see East 7 i he and ae Copper Mining ; byJ. D. Whitney. New York, 1853. - 54 J. D. Whitney on changes in Mineral Veins. ore exists in its original condition.” It seems hardly possible that any one should ever have supposed the black ore to have te~ — sulted from the decomposition of any other part of the vein than that which lies above it, as below it everything remains in its original, unaltered condition. me The decomposition of metalliferous lodes in their superficial portions is a matter often noticed and generally expected by the miner, and there is nothing anomalous in this respect in the East Tennessee Copper region. The commonly observed facts are these: the predominating metalliferous ores which are wrought in mines, especially of silver, copper and lead, are sulphurets, sul- phur being the usnal mineraliser, although, arsenic and antimon mp ace feet and generally falls between 50 and 00 feet.. This decomp character: the oxydised ores are replaced by the sulphurets ; the J. D. Whitney on changes in Mineral. Veins. 55 ferruginous aspect of the lode disappears; the gangue becomes more solid, and the walls are better defined. These changes in the upper portion of the sulphuret-bearing lodes are usually conceived to be the result of the action of air and water introduced from the surface and penetrating gradually downwards. Through their joint influence the sulphuret of cop- per and iron is gradually decomposed and while the latter metal remains behind in the form of an impure hydrous oxyd, or gos- san, the copper is also converted into an oxyd and may remain in that state, or combine with the sulphuric acid furnished by the oxydatiou of the sulphur of the original ore, or with any other acid which may chance to be present, thus giving rise to the nu- thus far, from which copper has been obtained in any quantity Worthy of notice. i3 ' 56 J. D. Whitney on changes in Mineral Veins. Beneath the black ore is the undecomposed portion of the vein, — showing, in two or three points, where I was able to see it at the — time of my visit (1853), a hard quartzose gangue with particles of copper pyrites scattered through it, and associated with a consid- erably larger quantity of iron pyrites. here seems no reason to suppose that the ore which originally existed in the upper part of | the vein, from whose decomposition the black ore was derived, was any different in nature from that found below, although there may _ have been bunches of it considerably richer in copper. The de- posit of black ore is insignificant in dimensions, compared with the mass of gossan which overlies it, and when we consider that a large portion of the copper which was once disseminated through perhaps a hundred feet of. overlying vein-stone is now © concentrated into the thickness of perhaps two or three feet, on an average, it will bé seen that it is not necessary to suppose that the Neti > portion of the vein which is above the bed of black ore, ‘‘ doubtless once consisted of yellow sulphuret of cop- r,” as Mr. Tuomey supposes to have been the case. Certainly hardly doubted. The concentration of the black ore in one stra+ tum seems to have been due to the percolation of the surface wa- ter which was constantly carrying it downwards to the point where it was stopped by the solid portion of the vein. That the subject of the decomposition of veins is one which is thoroughly understood should by no means be inferred from the preceding remarks: there is, on the contrary, much in these phe- nomena which has not, as yet, been satisfactorily explained. We know, indeed, that the changes of the sulphurets with oxydised combinations do occur, for we see them taking place under our own eyes, through the joint action of air and water holding car- bonic acid in solution; but why in some mining districts the met- alliferous veins should be thus effected, while in others no change whatever has occurred, is less easily understood. Burat has ealled attention to this circumstance, and cited some instances in which the sulphurets remain entirely unoxydised up to the very surface. Thus the cupriferous veins of Mouzaia in Algiers pro- ject out from the surface like walls, being more permanent than the adjacent rock and the first blow of the hammer reveals the pyritiferous ore in its natural state. The same thing may be ob- served in this country. Throughout the Northern states the py- ritiferous lodes remain apparently in their unaltered condition ; J. D. Whitney on changes in Mineral Veins. 57 setts; and the St. Lawrence County mines in New York. In none of these has any marked change taken place near the sur- face. In one part of the Southampton (Mass.) lode a few oxydised . ores were found when the mine was first opened, but they were but small in quantity compared with the mass of the unaltered y ore, This state of things is a great drawback on the opening of the New England mines since the expense of a driving in the hard granite and quartzose rocks is enormous. In North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia, on the oe hand, the gneiss and slates are often found over a great extent of terri- tory completely decomposed and softened, so ate may be excavated with the pick and shovel, down to a depth of fifty or a hundred feet. I have known a shaft sunk in North Carolina in the rock to the depth of sixty feet in one week. Iu the veins of that State, the principal, indeed, almost the only, one near the surface is an auriferous gossan resulting from the de- Composition of iron pyrites, with which a little copper pyrites oc- Of this latter ore, the quality in several instan- crease with the depth of the workings. If the flon of the most importance is: what kind of ore and how much of it is likely to be found in sinking into the undecomposed veins beneath the level of the black ore. This, we believe, cav only be de- termined by actual trial. If in cleaving out the deposit of ore, which lies upon the hard veinstone beneath, there should be bunches of selves, why considerable quantities of the yellow ore of copper should not be found within areasonable depth. Still it is not im- 1é fissure veins they may be found to have been richest hear the surface and not me siyabte of being worked with profit in hard rock, | . — Suntzs, Vol. XX, No, 58.—July, 1855. 8 x 58 J. W. Bailey on a Universal Indicator for Microscopes. Arr. VI.—On a Universal Indicator for Microscopes ; by Prof. : J. W. Bawey, U.S. Military Academy.— With a Plate. In the Quarterly join of Microscopical Science, vol. i, p. 34, an ingenious contrivance for registering the position of microscopi¢e objects is described by Mr. Tyrrel; a modification of this, r. Aymot is given in a subsequent number (l..c., vol.i, p. 301); and a still better arrangement for the same purpose, suggested by 4 Mr. Brodie and applied by Mr. Okeden to his microscope, is de- | “ seribed at p. 166 of volume iil. of the same work. The last men- tioned device can scarcely be improved upon for convenience ; but we is one defect which is inherent to all these inventions, that they are essentially selfish contrivances, of no use to put ge owner of the particular instrument to which they The ree of the instrument I propose is more comprehensive “Finders” above alluded to; being no less than to make a Unive sal Indicator by means o ‘whic an observer can so register the position of “los number of objects mounted upon slides, that when these are s the latter may be able by meat c = of these objects as easily as if he had jects shall then be entirely inlepeuiiant of the original instr ment and observer, and applicable to any microscope, it will te to promote science not only by facilitating the interchange of ——— among naturalists, but it will give to each observer’s col- lection when properly registered, a ewe scientific value and utility which it could have in no other m The plan I have adopted is to make upon an engraved card what may be considered as a transferable stage having guide lines by meansof which the centre of the field of view of the microscope, and the position of a slide when any object upon it occupies this centre, may be giv: Plate I. shows the Indicator complete, The centre of the field — of view corresponds to the intersection of the horizontal line C,D, with the vertical line E, F. On the right and left hand of this — centre the vertical axes B, and A’, are placed at distances of {ths of an inch, and the axes A, and B’ are ee placed at the ‘dis- tances of ths of an inch from the ce The axes are then graduated as seen in the plate; the smal divisions being each ;';th of the standard inc The dotted lines Gg ‘A, I, give the outline of whet: will be t rer ferred to as the centre piece. ° J. W. Bailey on a Universal Indicator for Microscopes. 59 Should it ever be desired to reproduce the Indicator by engra- ving or otherwise, the dimensions above given must. be most ac- curately preserved. The dimensions her@ given were taken from the standard inch of the United States @elonging to the State of Yew York and preserved in the office of the Superintendent of Weights and Measures in Albany. It is the same as the English inch. The slides on which objects are mounted to be used with the Indicator must have guide-lines ruled on their under side as shown in fig. 1 and 2. The horizontal line parallel to the lower — — edge and passing through the middle of the slide is not continued — over the portion of the slide which is to be occupied by the objects” and their glass cover. The distance of each of the vertical lines from the middle point of the slide is one inch. Great accuracy in the distance between these lines of the slide is not essential when they are to be used with the ordinary form of the Indica- tor as above given, but it is desirable when they are to be em- ployed as hereafter described with a modification of the Indicator applied to a moveable stage ge The slides should all be marked with an arrow placed upon their upper and right hand corner, as shown in fig. 1 and 2, to point out the edge which must always be kept in front in using the slides upon the Indicator. _ The Indicator is to be used as follows:—Cut ont the. centre a thin bladed knife following the outline G, H, 1; then piece with Teplace the piece cut out, and make a hinge for it along the lin either b ; t ler so that when any object vy the fingers or a moveable ruler I oad aa ok the Microsc : in n the slides shall pass ope, the horizontal guide line upo Pa tsdicaior as temote from each other as possible. In some positions of the slide the axes A, and B’ can be used for this purpose; 1n others A, and A’, or B, and B’ must be employed. ; The horizontal line of the slide being arranged as just directed it will be found that at least one of the vertical guide lines of the al bal 60 J. W. Bailey on a Universal Indicator for Microscopes. — slide will intersect the horizontal graduation. By observing now the numbers at which the guide lives respectively stand, the + — record can be made. Sn ppose for example that the hirizeciil guide line rnled upon the slide intersects the verticals of the In- dicator at 43, while the right hand vertical of the slide cuts the horizontal series of numbers of the ludicator at 75; the eutry to made for this object in the register would be written thus 42/ and whenever that particular object is to be fonnd either by the same Indicator or any other copy of it, if the slide is placed at these numbers and the Indicator is properly centred, the object _tanst be in the field of view. In the same manner any number of ‘objects can be registered or found, If the slide happens to be so placed that both of its verticals intersect the graduated portions orizontal line C, D, the position of either one of them ill. ine upon the slide falls between two divisions of fraction of the division may be estimated with sufficient accuraey. b y the eye ora hand magnifier and entered ws the recorded position ae would mean © that the vertical lines of the Todicator were intersected at ith of a division of the scale beyond while the vertical guide line of the slide passed 4th of a diiioe beyond “the. number 34 of the horizontal scale, as nearly as could be estim: = It is convenient to let the lower edge of the lass slide. against a straight edged guide piece which can be moved paralle to the horizontal line of the Indicator. By pushing the slide along this edge, all the objects on the same horizontal can be found without changing the position of the guide piece. By moving the guide piece alittle forward or back another sweep across the slide may be made, and so on until every object of interest is foun By following ‘the directions above given it will be found that in the register. been employed in describing the method. It is believed that the explanation above given is sufficiently explicit to enable any one to use the Indicator; but some additional remarks will now be t was desired to ‘make the instrument capable of universal ap- plication; so simple that it could be adapted to any stage ; SO light and. yet so strong that it could be sent without injury by mail or otherwise to any distance; and lastly that the different copies na be perfect fac-similes of each other and reproducible J. W. Bailey on a Universal Indicator for Microscopes. 61 vat any time. All this is secured by having the Indicator engraved upon a steel plate and printed upon cards of uniform quality, and by taking the dimensions from the standard United States inch, preserved in the office of the Superintendent of Weights and Measures in Albany. In order to extend the use of the Indicator to all cases which are likely to occur, the graduation was ar- ranged with reference to slides three inches long and one inch wide, while it will answer equally well for smaller ones. When these slides are not covered with paper, and gnide lines can be ruled as above directed upon the glass itself, the graduations ne- cessary for their use would ouly extend upon the verticals 3 a | inch above and below the horizontal line, and upon the horizon- tal line only 4 an inch outwards from the points 40 and but in order to provide for paper covered, or opaque slides whose up- deft. Fora portion of the objects under the cover ‘ t of axes and numbers may be used at pleasure provided at the verticals are chosen as far apart as possible. Two verticals on the same side of the centre should never be used together, as a small error in observing the numbers would have more effect in displacing the object from the centre than if two axes at a greater distance had been em ployed. The reason for leaving a blank ungraduated space between 50 and 60 on the ho- rizontal kine was to allow a fac-simile of the Indicator to be en- graved upon the stage of any microscope, the blank space being left for the portion of the stage occupied by the aperture. — The guide lines upon the glass may be ruled with a fine pointed scratching diamond, and be rendered more visible by having graphite or black lead rubbed into them. Lines ruled im this man- ner will answer for all except very minute objects, but in conse- quence of the widening of the lives by the chipping up of the glass j e lines often employed for the etching as it gives lines wh ich are too smooth = difficult to see, a ebb will not retain the black lead if . ; 62 J. W. Bailey on a Universal Indicator for Microscopes. The power of the objective employed in determining the por sition of an object for registration, should always be the highest — which can be conveniently employed ; while in searching for au object already recorded, a power lower than that employed in the — spent may be used. The object then must be in the field — of view, and would be at the centre but for slight errors in man- Fo tion, or the want of perfect adjustment in “the mountings of — the object-glass. Care should be taken to bring each object ac- — f wi ew of my 4 inch objective made . Spencer, includes two aividiogs of the Indicator, and hence an error of nearly one divis- ion nigh t be made in placing a slide upon the Indicator by means ecorded numbers and yet the object would be found in happe’ 2 that in transferring a slide fram one Indicatot dicator with the slide placed at any recorded position until the ob- ject comes into the centre of the field of view, rte “secure the In- dicator to the stage in this new position, and all other object corded by the same Indicator ought to be brought to the centre the field of view by means of the numbers as registered. : ’ e convenience of the Indicator for individual use may be f injeenod by several slight changes. One of these consists in re~ moving the paper centre piece, and replacing it either temporarily or permanently by a glass plate bearing lines at right angles to each other ruled very lightly with a diamond point, and so adjnsted - as to coincide with the ig trices of C Dand EF through the centre. For all but the highest powers there is no objection to having these excessively minute lines permanently beneath the centre of the Indicator as they do not perceptibly interfere with — the light, and it is convenient to have them always in place. They: can be ruled upon a piece of mica or thin glass cemented — to the back of the Indicator, or the latter may itself be cemented — to a piece of plate glass and the central guide lines then carefully rul Even for the highest powers these lines can be use’ in recording the position of objects, which can then be found oe study by using an Indicator of the ordinary form. By a proper arrangement, a moveable stage, with screws for vertical and hori- | zontal motions, may be graduated so as to correspond to the In- dicator, and yet preserve all the advantages of accurate adjustment — which the screws afford. For this purpose it is necessary to ob- J. W. Bailey on a Universal Indicator for Microscopes. 63 serve that if the Indicator be placed upon the stage and accu- rately centred, with its guide line C, D, parallel to the front edge of the stage, and aslide be then placed upon the Indicator so that its horizontal guide line shall coincide with C, D, and the right hand vertical guide line stand at 70, (¢.e. in the position which would be recorded as 32’,) or its left hand guide line at £2”; then a motion of the stage itself bearing with it the Indicator and slide, or an equal motion of the slide upon the Indicator and fixed her, the distance between the guide lines upon the slide agrees accurately with that between 40 and 70 of the Indicator, the slide when placed upon. the moveable stage at either $3’ or $4’ will heed no.displacement for the whole series of numbers; but if this distance does not agree, the slide must be put with its left hand away with. , here are some objections, but not insuperable ories, to the moveable stage Indicator as above described. In the first place the stage as usually made has its motion too limited to corres- pond to the whole range of the Indicator, and secondly the guide lines ruled upon the stage for one object-glass may not answer for other powers on account of slight inaccuracies of mounting. _ The stages can doubtless be constructed to give as wide a range for motion as required, which will do away with the first men- tioned objection. The second may be removed by placing an Indicator upon the upper plate of the stage when the latter stands at $4 and adjusting it so that when well centred for the power employed the line C F shall be parallel to the front edge of the stage. The slide being then placed upon the Indicator with its ide li ; accuracy in the position of the guide lines upon the slides is done Suide lines at 32/ or 5. the remaining motions may be made with 64 J. W. Bailey on a Universal Indicator for Microscopes. the screws in the usual manner and the numbers may be read off from the stage scales instead of the Indicator The shail mentioned modifications are pxceliens for indi- — vidual convenience ; but for the general purposes of science, the comparable, transferable, reproducible Indicator, in its simplest form, must be preserved ; and it is only in that form that it de serves the name, suggested by a friend, of the Universal Indi- cator Asa proof of the utility and accuracy of the Indicator, and of its convenience as a means of scientific exchange, | may state ~ that numerous mounted slides of minute recent and fossil Dia- “toms have been exchanged through the Post Office by Judge A. 8. Johnson of Albany, and myself, and that each has found by the ordinary as well as modified forms of the Indicator all ‘the ells however minute, fragmentary or previously unknown, which the athe rhad recorded. Some of these objects were less t of an inch in diameter, and yet they were found y by means of the hi idicator. etermine whether different impressions of the Indicator when made on the é kind of paper were comparable, a set of objects was editeeds successively by seven different impressions made on enamelled cards some of whick were yatranged with the ordinary paper centre piece, and othe with. lines ruled upon glass. The numbers being reco jects when well centred upon one of these Indicators, the: slide wa then transferred to each of the other Indicators and each object b . ing brought into the field by its recorded numbers, the position was carefully adjusted so that the object should be well centred, and a record for each copy of the Indicator was thus made. On com- paring the different numbers it was found that the coincidence was almost perfect, the difference never exceeding } of one of thé divisions of the Indicator, an amount which might be quad- rupled before an would be thrown out of the field of view of my 4 inch objectiv The Indicator hevitig been put to so many and such severe tests I feel no hesitation in recommending it as a means of scien- tific intercourse among observers, and as a means by which col- lections of microscopic objects may be registered, arranged, a catalogued ; and an index to the whole so made that any particu- ar Specimen may be found at will either by the original o or any one into — hands the slides and accompanying regis ter may at any time come. The copy of the iota which accompanies this paper isnot given for use with the microscope, as the kind of paper u which it is printed is different from that used for the pe a Ine dicator, and therefore in consequence of unequal shrinkage a slight deviation is produced. The Indicator for use with the microscope : ie : : ii ak | pou! he is hf e ob- r Composition of Eggs. 65 is printed upon enamelled cards, and the different impressions have been found to agree so closely with each other as well as with the original plate that no appreciable error is perceived. I can not close this paper without expressing my warm thanks to Indge A. S. Johnson of the New York Court of Appeals, for his cordial sympathy and aid in testing the merits of the ludicator and for some excellent suggestions as to its best form for general use. I should also express my obligations to the engraver, J. E. Gavit, Esq, of Albany. who has spared no pains in making the steel plate from which the Indicator is printed as accurate as possible. - dl a el Arr. VIL.—On the Composition of Eggs in the animal series ; y Vavenciennes and F'rémy.—Part IILI.* 4 Eggs of Reptiles. ag In the two preceding memoirs, we have given the results of our observations on the eggs of Fishes. We have pointed out in these egos the presence of the proximate principles, ichthin in Rays and Sharks, ichthulin in the species of the uumerous fami- lies of osseous fishes, and have directed attention to the important fact, that this principle is gradually modified in proportion as the &8¢ approaches its maturity, and that it ends by disappearing in the egg when it is ready for fecundation, the ichthulin being hen replaced by albumen. ~ We now continue the account of our researches on the eggs of other oviparons animals. _ “88s of Tortoises —We have examined the eggs of two spe- cies of Chelonian reptiles belonging to two distinct genera. Some Were hatched by a land Tortoise from Algiers, which M. Dumeril as called Testudo Muuritanica. This female has lived for many _ years in France, at the house of a resident of Grandville. The second is the fresh-water ‘Tortoise of Europe, the mud Tortoise (la bourbeuse ) of Danbenton and Lacépéde, which M. Dumeéril calls Cistudo Europea. Although these two species of Chelo- nians inhabit different countries and climates, the resemblance in the constitution and composition of the liquids of their eggs is well worth remarking ; but there is a further similarity which we hardly expected ; it is that they have a great analogy to those of tn ournal de Pharmacie for August, 1854: translated by Dr. Rosengar- “tn. For Parts I and II, see last volume, p. 38, 238. D Series, Vol. XX, No. 56.—July, 1855. _ 4 mt 66 Composition of Eggs. to ichthulin. On treating their yolk with water, the yellowish oil of the egg is seen swimming on the surface of the liquid, — and is precipitated in little white grains. The water retains in solution albumen and the salts. The little grains can be easily — purified by washing in water, aleohol and ether. By these pro- cesses a material is obtained which 2 tran n granules break as they e3 > swell out. rs They are of all sizes, — er. to. very large dimensions. The grains of the Cistudo Europea Dum., are smaller than those of the land Tortoise, for the largest did not exceed 6 hundredths — _ of a millimeter, and they appear in general, to be more spherical than those of the other species. Although resisting under the ~ pestle, we have broken them, and found that they break into spherical fragments, from the circumference to the centre. _ : ash, well weakened, immediately dissolves emydin, while it acts quite feebly on ichthin. Acetic acid, which, as we: know, dis ee Its grains are dissolved in boiling hydrochloric acid, without giv: | ing to the liquid any violet color; this action proves that emydil 5 is not the vitellin of bird’s eggs Emydin submitted to analysis, shows the following com position :— : Proportion of azote. : ee Solid matter, 0°313|Solid matter, 0:370 Carbon, Resi 49-4 Water, ‘210\Azote, -0-0579|Hydrogen, . . 74 Carbonic acid, 0-568 Azote 156 | zote, . - ‘Oxygen and phosphorus, 267 This substance appears to us to be isomeric with ichthin. The Composition of Eggs. : 67 not contain grains of emydin; but in that case, the white, in place of being transparent and colorless, had a slightly yellowish tinge. There were visible in it, under the microscope, little grains o irregular form which seemed to have some analogy to the grains mydin of the vitellus. Lizard’s Eggs.—According to our observations on the eggs of the Lacerta “vert piqneté,” and on those of the Lacerta stirpium (Lezard des souches), their vitellus presents a certain resemblance in composition to that of the yolk of birds. We found neither grains of ichthin nor emydin. dder’s Eggs.—We have examined eggs of the Ringed adder — (Conleuvre a collier), and those of the Esculapian adder. Om analyses confirm those of MM. Martin-Saint-Ange and Bai mont. We found the vitellus of these eggs scarcely surrounded by avery thin layer of albumen. The yellow is formed of albumen and of phosphuretted fat, and it appears to throw down vitellin when washed with water. “ig sistency ; it is formed by a slightly albuminous fluid. The ents itself, like that of the adder, in the shape of a very albuminous liquid, holding suspended in it a considerable — : arked in no other species of eggs. The liquid, at first quite fluid, thickens gradually, and soon becomes completely gelatin- ous. This change of ‘state in the liquor is due to a body like Scope like a black punctation of extreme fineness, and then an 68> Composition of Eggs. abundance of vitellin granules, very small, transparent, varying in form, more commonly ronnded, insoluble in water and soluble in acetic acid. We repeated this experiment several times before he- ing certain of its character. The eggs of the T'ritons show a like composition, The exterior white is like that of the Frog’s egg. The citron or green vitellus, according to the species, contains fat and a considerable number of vitellin granules quite rounded, which we have studied in the egg taken in the oviduct near being hatched, and in the ovula still enclosed in the ovary. The exam- ination of these last has shown us this remarkable fact, that the _ vitellin grannies increase with the age of their formation. They “are very much smaller in the ovula than in the vitellus of the egg. These granules are also insoluble iu water and soluble im acetic acid, “The ege becomes hard when cooked in boiling water; it - then coutains -albuumen too, as well as that of the frog. We have alrea mentioned that MM. Martin- -Saint-Ange and Bandrimont inles o of the Frog ; they have even given their figure. ve ae also given some accurate observations on seggs, Toads and Tritons. (Zeitschrift fir : per MM. Siebold and Kdlliker, vol. Og ie iv, part 2, p. 236; 1852.) ‘The characteristics which we dese ibe, lead us to the conclu- © sion, that the granules eis in thes eeggs are of the nature — of ichthin, that is, that they are of a like nature with eof the Ray’s and the ae seggs. The simple view of the! grains under the lens of a microscope suggested this idea; their chara eo teristics confirm the identity, which has brought us to the estab- lishment of this curious and important physiological fact, that the Batrachians besides undergoing, in consequence of their metamorphosis, a primary condition of existence like that of fish, y 6S se composition has the greatest affinity to those of fis ‘This similarity holds even in the ovules, for we have already remarked that the granules of the ichthin from a Ray are smaller in the ovules than in the yolk of the egg of these fish. We there show, in fact, a like composition for the white surround- ing the vitellus, and the presence of ichthin, that immediate neW principle abundant in the egg of cartilaginous fishes. . Virchow whom we quote, has likewise observed the ules (Dotterplattchen) of the eggs of Ray and of fish (loe. cit-). We should mention too, that J. Miller has seen and drawn the granules of the smooth Ray and of the smooth Hound-fish ( Galeus pe) SPS Msc Mem. Acad. de Berlin, tome xxvii, page 221, pl. 5, 1842. We shall give, in the complete work which will be pablishae with plates in the Archives du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, 4 predecessors. detailed account of the researches Composition of Eggs. 69 Of the eggs of Crustacea.—Coloring matter of the Crustacea. The Crabs of our soft waters and Lobsters have supplied the eggs necessary for our researches. Lobsters, carrying from fifteen to twenty thousand eggs under their abdominal appendages, are the most convenient for the kind of researches which we have un- erlaken Their eggs do not contain ichthulin; no sort of granules are fonnd in them. ‘They are essentially formed of an albuminous and saline liquor, holding some fatty bodies suspended in it. albumen of the eggs of Crustacea seems to us different, in some —__ respects, from the albumen of other eggs. Its coagulation be- gins about 74° C.; the sindy of this substance will uecessari nd place in the work which we are now preparing on albumin- ous substances. ‘€ : We have also studied the Sea Lobster (Palinurus). This Crustacea, as plentiful as the ordinary Lobster (Homardus) on granite shores, and not touching the chalky cliffs,is very uncom- mon in the North. The Sea Lobster does not seem to pass the Islands of Ushant, and is not found in the British Chan- nel. Further, it is very common on the rocks of Bretagne. It lives ata much greater depth t 1an the common Lobster, for It is necessary, in order to take them, to let down the baited hooks to a depth of Prouty fathoms. ‘The eggs of these Crus- tacea are very small, hardly as large as a seed of the poppy. We _ Mave counted about 130,000 of them under their abdominal ap- Pendages. We had, in the early part of March, a living Sea Lob- ster, whose eggs were so developed that the two black eyes of the little foetus were distinguishable through the shell. We have to fegret that we could not save it alive, so as to see the young hatch, to follow the phases of their metamorphosis. Science already sses some observations made on the embryo of the Lobster, but it has none as yet registered on the development of the eggs of the Sea Lobster, and many other Crustacea. how it has not been conveniently studied, because the asta always presented it in a state mixed with fatty bodies, and besides, men of the eggs of Crustacea; by heating the liquid, the _— minous matter coagulates, carrying with it, in the shape of a lake, the coloring matter, which is then of a very beautiful red. The Precipitate is retaken by the alcohol, which dissolves the col- The detection of this coloring matter, in the egg of the Crus- ) ng matter, int tacea, is undoubtedly an interesting fact, if it be remembered that 5 © 5 he ‘i en i Saas, 70 Composition of Eggs. art has already an Sapp ag of this substance. The following method enabled u ob the coloring matter as it exists in Crustacea, still es el pee green color The green coloring matter of Crustacea i is soluble in albumen ; besides, when Lobster’s eggs are crushed, the albuminous liquid which passes by filtering, is strongly colored green, and holds in solution the coloring matter. The ordinary methods, such as the action of heat, that of neutral solvents, desiccation, &c., which are applied to extract this singular substance, present it already _ modified. In fact, when alcohol or any other agent is used, the substance which till then, was green, instantly turns red ; but by — and for our work, very fortunate circumstance, tl ~ | fe) em perature. which have affinity for water can rranetal ‘m_the ie. coloring matter of Crustacea into a red substance: the st thei hand, which do not combine with water, exercise no acti this singular coloring matter. The action of a vacuum rapi produces the red color. Simple rubbing immediately reddens the green substance. Alcohol, ether, the acids, effect the same change. — There are not, to all appearances, in the vegetable or animal or- ganization, coloring substances comparable with this of the Crus tacea; modifying with such facility under the action of the simplest agents. We tried to determine whether this substauce — presented the same characteristics when still fixed in the shell ¢ Crustacea; the result of our experience is, that in this case, the green substance bears itself just as it does when isolated. ‘Thus a Crab’s shell, which shows the green discoloration, becomes the moment it is rubbed with a hard body. It is not the heat de- veloped by the rubbing which effects this singular rans for it has been effected while the shell was very damp, and be- sides, it is manifested rapidly on a Crab’s shell placed gine the receiver of an air-pump and submitted to the action of the vac’ uum. The change of color by rubbing explains how anatomisls who have sought for the cause of the discoloration of Crabs whe? boiled, have always seen the red matter under the coat, as thin 3% the epidermis which they removed to observe the shell under the microscope. The simple rubbing of the utricles, touched by the | scalpel, sufficed to make the green color red. We are fortunate Composition of Eggs. 71 { thus to have been able to complete the history of one of the most curious coloring matters produced by animal organization. Of the eggs of Arachnids and Insects.—We submitted to analysis eggs of different species of spiders: they contain albu- men, fatty bodies and a large amount of a substance precipitated y water. Ant’s eggs gave us the same results. These re- searches are to be continued in the course of the coming season. Of the eggs of Mollusks.—The analysis of Snails’ eggs, which we shall complete next season, seems to show us that the eggs of Mollusks differ entirely in their composition, from those of other od animals. Those which we procured, presented no trace of fats they were made up exclusively of hyaloid membranes containir a viscous colorless liquid. This liquid contains in solution @ ganic azotized substance, not albumen, for it did not coagulate with heat. It is precipitated by acetic’acid and dissolves in hy- 5] by way of recapitulation, en- favor to state in some general propositions, the most important Consequences which seem to be the results of this first work. We have shown: st. That t ere exist fundamental differences between the com- Position of the eggs of animals, and that under this collective hame of egg, designating the product of the ovarian apparatus in- tended to contribute to the perpetuity of the species, very diverse bodies are comprised different as possible from one another. — 2nd. That among the vertebrated animals, the eggs of birds, of reptiles, and of fish, present in their composition, differences Which the simplest analysis cannot mistake, and besides that the °888 of Sauria and Ophidia bear great analogy to those of birds, eng the eggs of Batrachia resemble those of the cartilaginous es 3d. That the eggs of Arachnid and insects differ altogether, as “ge Composition, from the eggs of other animals. 5th. That this extends to the eggs of Mollusks. 6th. That these differences correspond not only to classes or orders; that they extend to natural families even, without stop- has | but further, that a Carp’s egg is very different from a Salmon’s bend that the egg of an Ophidian such as an adder’s, does not con- t ; a 2 i 72 W. P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon, 7th. That if the composition of different proximate principles — is the same in very nearly allied species, the form and the sie — of vitellin granules vary in a manner sufficiently appreciable to — be able to be recognised and assigned to each species. 8th. That the albuminous substances furnished by eggs of — birds, reptiles, fish, crustaceans, present in their cheinical proper — ties and in their point of coagulation, differences which permit us — to suppose that these bodies are made up of different proximate — principles. 9th. That an egg changes its nature,—that its liquids alter con- “siderably at different epochs of its formation, when detaching — Em selves from the ovary, and resting in the oviduct before being — . After having established in the eggs of different animals, nce veral new proximate principles, icthin, ichthulin, iydin, and comparing these results with those which mate principles’ which ‘wi name of Vitelline substance W. P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. 73 of the State and a portion of Oregon, reaching the coast between ape Mendocino and the Umpqua river in lat. 43° 45’.* The placers are therefore no longer confined to the State of California but extend into Oregon, not only to the Umpqua river but beyond it, throughout both Oregon and Washington ‘Territories to the parallel of 49°.4 Of this northern portion of the gold region there is however but little known, and the latitude of the Ump- qna river may be regarded as the northern limit of general min- ing operations for the present. On the south, the limits of the eld have been extended nearly to the Tejon pass at the head of the Tulare valley in lat. 35.0. This poiut is about forty miles south of Kern river where, occording to the recent intelligence — the placers are rich and are exciting considerable attention, This tiver rises in Walker’s pass (lat. 35° 39’), and flows westward over a broad area of granitic rocks to the Tulare valley, where it empties into the most southern of the Tulare lakes. South of the head-waters of this river the crest of the Sierra Nevada grad- ually deflects to the west and the breadth of the exposure of granitic rocks decreases, until at the Tejon, the slopes of the Great sin and the Tulare valley are only thirteen miles distant. The auriferous slates, (taleose slates,)are not found in the section at the Tejon pass, and this GAPE considered as the southern limit of the Sierra Nevada gold field. It is more difficult to determine even approximately the eastern and western boundaries of the auriferous area. ‘The elevated tions of the Sierra having been but slightly explored, its east- ern limits are not yet defined. Its western margin along the Sac- f the Sierra Nevada. The average breadth of the field for its 0 “ntire length may be said to be not less than fifty miles. rhe interesting to observe in this connection that when Prof. J. D. Dana, the ge- is Rx ‘ log) of the U.S. E rapidly over, the section of country in 1841, he noticed res ° o in parts of the range of country between the Umpqua and Sacramento,"— Am. li, 262. oe 's statement is made on the me (verbal communication) of Dr. John "ans, geologist of Oregon and Washington Territories. Stooww Seats, Vol. XX, No. 58.—July, 1855. 10 ia bon. bboy 74 W. P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. ¢ for convenience of description and reference that the whole gold region should be known by a suitable name, and that it should be separated into convenient geographical divis- ions.* Our knowledge, however, of the region north of the Cal ifornia line (or north of the U pqua) is yet so limited that it is” useless to propose any division beyond thé ger eral one of Oregé Mines and Washington Mines, which will naturally-be ado as explorations extend over those Territories. In California the gold district extends cases includes the following Counties: KI boldt, Siskyon, Shasta, Bute, Sierra, Yuba, Nevada rado, Sacramento, Calaveras, Tuolumne ner of the State were discovered. In 1854 ern and Middle mines was published in S * It is desirable that a name for the gold field be given to the great mountain chain of which the Sierra Nevada f W.P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. 75 selected as the dividing line between the middle and southern. I therefore suggest that these names be adopted for the areas within the boundaries that I have given. The Northern mines and those in Oregon are now very pro- ductive and important: the gold is considered to be superior in its quality and generally commands a high price among the pur- chasers. ‘The facilities for access and transportation to them from. the Sacramento valley and from the coast, are better than in the Southern mines. A large portion of the supplies is sent to the large quantity ; and as they cannot be se; Washing, its value in the market is Cons itis sometimes difficult.to ma an Francisco, op he black sand is found in enormous quantity, it is very deep, ames itregularly stratified by the tides. It is undoubtedly stir- “to a considerable depth by the surf during storms, and this is shown to be the case by the fact that the richness of claims that have been worked is renewed during high tides or a storm. Placers of San Fernando and San Francisquito—Santa Bar- ara ? Co.—This locality of gold has hitherto received bat little attention, although it was known to the Californians long before — the gold of the Sacramento valley was discovered. These pla- . cers are on the southern flank of the mountains that have a nearly fast and west trend from Point Conception to Sam Bernardino and from the southern boundary of the Great Basin and the Tu- $-.ore! lare valle eyes These placers are about fifty miles southeast of the Toe yes and eighty south of the Kern river placers ; they were wor a Hear the ranch of San Francisquito by Mexicans in ee were abandoned when the reports of the great discoveries at the 9. ‘ alcose slates apparently auriferous and resembling those of North Carolina, occur in the pass of San Francisquito and are traversed by quartz veins. It is reported that veins of aurif- frous quartz in that vicinity were worked simultaneously with the placers, ; 76 W.P. Blakeonthe Gold Region of California and Oregon. An occasional excitement is produced by glowing reports from — this locality, and according to recent accounts new placers have been found in the vicinity of Los Angeles. Although we are not yet aware of the extent of these placers, it may be safely asserted that they will not compare fal in area or richness with those of the Sierra Nevada. They are comparatively local in their ex- tent, but the region is worthy ‘of a careful examination. Gold of the Great Basin—Tulare Co.—Armagosa Mines. EB —A vein of auriferous quartz traverses one of the granite a : of the Great Basin vear the * neta trail to Salt Lake a ¥ bent 170 miles from Los Angeles. The vein has been pro- — ted and attempts to work ‘ tiie been made by several com- panel Caen in San Francisco, but it is now abandoned. The- s fonnd in wire- like. filaments ramifying through quartz a nd earboat of lime. I have an interesting specimen in ig of gold traverses a rhombohedron of carbonate of lime and eentetl des from its opposite faces. The form was re duced to a rhombohedron by cleavage The occurrence of ‘gold in place, in one of the ridges of the Great Basin, so far remove an the Sierra Nevada gold field, is an important fact, and rendets it more than probable that exten-— sive placers will be found throm tits length and breadth. Colorado River—-San Diego Co.—It en frequently re- ported that gold exists along the Colorado river not far from Camp — Yuma at the mouth of the Gila. I could not obtain satisfactory. evidence of the truth of this statement; but if it does occur, it is — far from water and vegetation and prospectors are obliged to carry — the earth they wish to test many miles before water enough to wash it ont can be foun On the western sine: of the mountains between San Diego and — the desert, there are good indications of gold at several points — west of Santa Isabel and near the travelled road. The region is bd the attention of prospectors, Coast Mountains, Santa Cruz Range. —According to J. B. Trask,* gold has been found in the Coast meee. in the coul- ties of Monterey, Santa Clara and San Luis Obi AURIFEROUS QUARTZ.—Quartz veins are found in sila numbers traversing the slates, the granite and greenstone racks of various — portions of the Sierra Nev ada gold field; but comparatively few — of them have been worked to any extent: Among those that — produce the most interesting specimens, the following may be — oti : Co., Lafayette and Helvetia Mine.—Beautifal a : and ingiilar masses of gold are found imbedded in snow-while — quartz in this mine. They are frequently intimately associa Re on the Geol of I ag Beet eed the Coast Mountains. Sacramento. Senate Doc, W. P. Biake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. 77 with brilliant crystals of white iron pyrites, and in other speci- mens the gold is entirely isolated from the sulphurets and is sur- rounded on all sides by the compact opaque quartz. Specimens of this character are sought after by jewellers and are cut and lished for ornamental purposes. n immense quantity of cimens for this purpose are mostly obtained from the placers, but ‘some of the purest and most brilliant are procured from this mine. Nevada Co., Grass Valley—Gold Hill Mine.—Extraordinary specimens of gold in large smooth plates have been found in one of the veins of this mine. They traverse a semi-crystalline — Specimens that I obtained, have many interesting mineralog- ical peculiarities and appear to throw light upon the phenomena of the deposition of the metal. ai | ina form favorable for collection. - Tuolumne Co., Marble Springs (Merced River).—An inter- sting quartz vein at this locality bears plates of gold, iron py- rites, galena and zine blende. These mineral are abundantly dis- seminated in a compact gangue of white quartz and form beauti- ful specimens for cabinets. Placer Co., Volcanoville—This place is opposite Forest Hill on the middle Fork of the American river, and is noted as the locality of one or more very rich quartz veins. They occur trav- ersing slates in connection with erupted rocks and contain iron pyrites and free gold, disseminated in irregular masses. Speci- charged with irregular filaments and ragged masses ee ecomposition and discoloration of the vein and the adjoining slates rendered it so obscure that it remained unnoticed while the claim was worked asa placer mine. I had the satisfaction of F és _ formed crystal. This may partly result from the custom among the miners of reserving any peculiar or remarkable specimens of _ of the rive 78 W.P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. which amounted to several dollars. Within a few weeks after this discovery, the owners of the claim were taking out 27 ounces a week, sometimes finding four ounces ina pan. The last accounts that I have received state, that sixty-five thousand dol- lars worth of gold had been obtained—all from an ordinary mining shaft fifty feet deep, and without the aid of machinery. CRYSTALLINE GOLD.—Good crystallizations of gold are compar- atively rare in California. A hundred pounds of coarse placer =] small size for breast-pins or for preservation as curiosities. Plare ., Forest Hill.—Interesting octahedral crystals have been found in the claims of the Messrs. Deidesheimer at this place. These crystals occur with placer gold 2500 feet above the level + but they are not much worn b Quartz crystals ‘are found mingled with the auriferous earth witk only their sharp edges and angles removed by attrition, which shows that the drift is\comparatively local and indicates the pres- ence of a parent vein in ‘the Vicinity. Most of the crystals have gold crystals, and some of them are‘verymuch dist are flattened parallel to a face so as to beeot plates. ieee an inch across the for a short distance above and below the basal ridges, culiarity of a series of similar parallel planes, lying like plates one within the other, is presented. The crystal is elongated in the direction of a line parallel with two basal edges and thus becomes a rectangular octahedron. The length of the longer base is one inch, and the shorter seven-eighths of aninch. I believe this to be the largest crystal 4 reported ; it may be called a skeleton crystal on a grand scale ge ‘< oO =) So S a i=) - — es) <2) a iz) = @ i) oy - = 7 oO a 3 D wn 3 5 © S 5 5 ~ = fas) — B . * hn o 3 co) 72) td [om ie a is) 5 etal oO o = a - i o 3 ° “v 9 = 4 =) - = is) po o = 3 2) ° Laur) 2 o - ~~] be S The filamentous and arborescent masses are frequently united to plates (as broad as the hand) which are covered with lines of | crystallization and are brilliant with numberless faces of partly ormed crystals. They are also combined with good crystals which are generally octahedral and have perfect faces. W. P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. 79 I hens a very beautiful specimen of this character in the form of a leaf: one side ‘is beautifully arborescent, and the other is studded with perfect octahedrons of various sizes and about twenty-five in number, including the smallest. They are geo- metrically arranged, all their similar edges being parallel. This is believed to be the most remarkable and beautiful specimen known. Its weight is 17 pwt. 10 grate Paes two and one quarter inches, width, one anda half 3 One of the foliated specimens in niga ‘alte ction, bears a crystal oat the form of a pentagonal dodecahedron with cavernous faces. a One of the largest specimens of this arborescent and foliated” gold that has been procured, was about twelve inches long about four broad. A part of the specimen was a plate three inches long, covered with triangular marks; the remain der was ar- borescent, and the whole appeared to have erows fro Another specimen slightly different in its charaete bly from another locality in the vicinity, was-ten inches long, three broad and about half an inch thick. ft" reighed 31 onnces, most beautiful mass o rked surface, consisting of a like a bundle of broken fern and was free from quartz ; forming a rich yellow color and a delicately ne net-work of fibres. It appes red leaves clocoly matted » ogether. pa ‘Spectmeéns are evidently from a quartz vein, but al- ryt ug have visited the locality, I have not been able tosee the ace from which they were taken, or to obtain any reliable in- » formation concerning their mode of occurrence and the associate minerals. Some of the peor ess ieg were ijncrusted with a thick scale of sesquioxyd 0 The locality is about three hales from Sutter’s mill—the point where the gold was first discovered. PLatinum.—The occurrence of this metal and its associates with the gold of. Port eerie! has been previously noticed in — Jour- #5 Series, + Seeds by zl sie, ‘Esqr., of New York, ~ ous shales and layers of flint and jaspery rock, which resemble *, 80 W. P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. an interesting fact that the metal is more common in the North- — ern mines, and that it is most abundant on the coast. Mercury.—Santa Clara Co., New Almaden.—The ore at this mine is a massive sulphuret (cinnabar) and its character and association have already been described in this Journal, vol. vi, p. 270, and xvii, p. 438, The rocks at the locality appear to be metamorphosed sedi- — mentary strata: ‘They crop out at several places below the mine — on the side of the hill, and consist of regular strata of argillace- we of San Francisco near the Mission and Fort Point. Ser-_ pentine rock is found in, and near the mine and trappean rocks e also found in the vicinity. Guadalupe Mine. - another locality of cinnabar about three miles from the Imad i Almaden mine, but it is not now worked. 7 Monterey Co.—Other localities aré reported in this county and — at one point a vein has been opened by parties residing in Mon terey. Ihave no definite information of its extent, but speci ‘ ; } xtent, b : mens of the ore of fair quality were exhibited in Monterey. PPE l the carbonate resulting from its decomposition, are found in many of the veins of auriferous quartz that have been opened in differ- ent parts of the State. e the blue and green carbonates occur with quartz in M at Alisal; also in Santa Barbara Co. and San Luis vein of copper pyrites occurs on the Basin about seven miles east of Johnson’s river. thoroughly opened. Its discovery is one of the results of geological reconnoissance in connection with the R. R. Survey. W. P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. 81 Copper pyrites is also found in a vein about seven miles below the summit level of the New Pass, which leads from the Great Basin to the valley of San Francisquito. This vein outcrops on the southern slope of a granite hill on the north side of the Pass, and is about 90 feet above the bed of the creek. The ore resem- bles in its luster and color the variegated copper pyrites, but is much softer. 1t is found in strings and narrow veins distributed through a hard quartzose gangue about fifteen feet thick: the thickest seam of ore, however, does not exceed two inches; but when several such were closely combined a thickness of eight inches of good ore was seen v his vein has been prospect cted and a small quantity of ore broken out. It is about sixty miles distant from Los Anggie PY the trail. Native Copper and Red Oxyd of Copper. When visiting Camp Yuma at the junction of the Colorado and the Gila rivers in Dec., 1853, several large masses of superior copper ore were shown to me b the officers of the fort. ‘This ore was brought from the adjoining State of Sonora, Mexico, and the vein is re- ported to be near Altar. It is within the limits of the strip of territory recently acquired by purchase and is therefore now in the United States. B peciggame teat ueptly brought in by emigrants who cross the Col at the hey below the fort. The ore is pe ally the red Poxyd of copper associated with the pure metal o 2 crusts of carbonate. The specimens that I saw ought 6 yield about ninety p.c. of pure copper. This is probably the ore that has recently excited so much attention in California, and has been reported to be highly charged with gold. alaveras Co.—Native Copper a ilver—A specimen of pure copper combined with silver is reported to have been found ina placer mine near Mokelumne Hill. ‘The specimen was ex- hibited in several places and sent to San Francisco, but 1 have not been able to obtain any reliable ee concerning it, or the circumstances under which it was RON oRES.— Mariposa Co., Bae oe —Limonite.—An outcrop of hydrous sesquioxyd of iron or limonite occurs near the banks of this creek, on the right of the road going south. It € ore outcrops in great solid blocks from two to four feet in diameter : it is compact, of a dark brown - and breaks with a smooth conchoidal fracture. The position and peculiarities of pyrites, and that it forms the “gossan” of a vein of sulphuret be- w the surface. The mass does not, however, present that ahi a and friable condition in which gossan is generally ound. ; - Seconp Serres, Vol. XX, No, 58.—July, 1855. i - cigs ata linge aaa 82 W.P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. Magnetic Iron Ore—A massive and fine-grained variety of © this ore is found associated with one of the auriferous quartz veins — of the county. Specimens that I have seen were colored green — by their layers of carbonate of copper. It has polarity and lifts small fragments. are Co.—Magnetic Iron Ore.—This ore occurs in a bed or — vein about three feet thick in a low ridge of white reba limestone at the summit of the pass known as the Cajiada de las U ore is compact but not crystalline, when role shows a brilliant fracture anda granular surface, and does not break with flat faces, like the massive magnetic ores of New — rack and New Je sey. ‘ w Pass—Magnetic Iron Ore.—Specimens of very pure and € ystalline magnetite were picked up in the valley of this it is s associated with hornblende, :icieabacinamedtivad garnets : Placer CoN V ‘oleanovtlle. —Large boulders of compact mag- ‘the bed of the creek that flows by the side — of the great vein of ‘auriferous quartz at that place. These boul- — ders are so large and abundant that it is probable a vein of ore — will be found iu sites in that vicinity | Sa and ¢ revices in the serpen- tine rocks of San Francisco are seat aiusy, with sm but brilliant octahedral crystals of magne di ‘not giv reactions for chromium when examined Bafor the blow Sulphuret of Iron.—Good crystals of pyrites are cbedinal n the talcose slates in various parts of the mining region. ‘At Georgetown, Placer Co., it is abundant in minute cubic crystals. — They are obtained free from rock or gangue as one of the prod- — ucts of gold washing, and as they are very brilliant and of un — form size they are worthy of a place in good collections. : Curomic 1ron.— Monterey Co.—Massive chrome ore of excel- lent quality was shown me in San Francisco and reported t0 — be from a short distance south of the Mission of San Juan. It isal — Sep he: fact that it is almost identical in its appearance with the — ore from “ Wood’s pit” in Maryland and like it, is partly covered — with pea coats and crusts of emerald nickel. ‘The extensive aMeiBation of this mineral in California has been noticed at length by Mr. P. 'T. ‘Tyson in his report.* Antimony.— Tulare Co.—A large vein of the sulphuret of an- timony, (antimony glance,) exists in the high granitic range that borders the Tulare valley on the south. It is about eighty miles | from e Angeles and is most readily visited-from the Tejon. BY — observations with the barometer, I found the outcrop of this vein to be at an altitude of abont 6000 feet above the sea. It is on the side of a precipitous ridge a granite and not favorably situa- ted for examination. [ts thickness was estimated to be ten feet * Ex. Doc., No. 47. Bist Cong., Ist Session. aver — W. P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. 83 or more. A steep chasm or channel extends from the top of the ridge to its base, and is partially filled with rocks and the debris of the vein. Solid blocks of the ore were found with this ac- cumulation, having been broken out from the vein above; one of m was twenty-seven inches long and sixteen to eighteen wide, The ore is associated with quartz, and where it has decom- posed, an abundance of antimony ochre is found, together with crystals of selenite. Specimens of quartz traversed by long pris- matic crystals of the ore were obtained.* _ Saur.—Salt is found in small quantity as an incrustation or ef- florescence on the soil along streams or on the margins of ponds — in nearly all parts of California. It appears * most abundant — in connection with the tertiary strata and in th@streams that flow from them. It is doubtless the fact that a great part of the in- crustations called soda, consist principally of common salt. ulare Co.—Caiiada de las Uvas.—There is a small shallow lake near the central part of this Pass fed by springs and streams from the adjoining valleys and ridges which are partly of tertiary strata. During the summer season the water of this lake evapo- rates, and its bed becomes covered with a white crust of salt which glitters in the sunlight like’a field of snow. Taheechaypah Pass.—A lake of a similar character to the one just described is found in one of the elevated valleys of the Si- actin, HOE TH is Pass. At another locality in that vicinity » and-near the margin of the Great Basin, salt occurs ina thick bed, from which over one hundred mule-loads have been taken, and carried to the T'ejon Indian reservation for the use of the Indians. This salt is perfectly white and amorphous, being reduced to a fine powder by simple pressure. It is sufficiently pure for table use. Dry salt lakes are also found near the termination of the Mo- jave river in the Great Basin, and at many other places through- out Southern California. os Angeles Co.—Salt is now manufactured in large quantity from sea-water by solar evaporation on the coast near Los An- geles. ea Lower California.—A dry salt-lake has been discovered about 250 miles south of San Diego and near Marguerita bay. It forms a thick bed and is very pure, being well crystallized in large hopper-shaped crystals. It is reported that the locality has been purchased by capitalists and that the salt is being shipped from there in large quantity. YP — Transparent plates of selenite are common in the soft unconsolidated tertiary strata in various parts of the state. At some localities it forms seams or beds several inches thick lying conformably with the stratification. In Tulare Co., at Ocoya * A more detailed notice of tis totality gr be oe in the spat Prelimina i EDK ing t eport of a Reconnoissance i : ee ee Wis Hass Doe. 120. 1s coe eae 84 W. P. Blake on the Gold Region of California and Oregon. creek these transparent plates are found in the Miocene strata; some of them are combined with the fibrous variety, and form beautiful cabinet specimens. Good crystals are also found in this — county, at the antimony localities. Thin transparent plates are numerous in the Miocene strata bordering the Colorado Desert, and on the borders of Carrizo creek they are found lying loose upon the surface where the strata have been worn away by the rains. Seams of gypsum are numerous in the tertiary strata of Benicia. “decom position a lime of the beds. imens of sulphur can be ob- y‘anNapa Valley. It occurs — r soil and tufaceous deposits — around the springs, and is in small crystals, forming drusy surfaces. _ - Beryt ?— Tnolumne Co.—Small and well formed hexagonal ” erystals having the hardness and color of beryl have been obtained — from the ‘Tuolumne river three or four miles from Jamestown. The specimens that ] saw were apple-green, and one of the small- est was emerald-green and transparent. The largest crystal was nearly 4 of an inch in diameter and terminated at both ends with the planes R, and —3, as in tourmaline. I was unable to retail’ the specimens for further examination. 3 Tourmatine.—San Diego Co.—Black tourmalines of unustal size (from six to eight inches in diameter) occur abundantly in the huge feldspathic veins that traverse the granite ridges bor- dering the elevated valley of San Felipe, in the mountains be-— tween San Diego and the Colorado desert. These crystals are ct. F'e_pspan.—Ortuociase.—San Diego Co.—Good crystalliza tions of this mineral can be found in the granite veins near the — road between Santa Isabel and San Pasquale. They are associa ted with tourmalines and garnets. | _Anpatusite, Mariposa Co.—This interesting mineral was found — in great abundance in a conglomerate that caps the hills along — the Churchillas rivers (San Joaquin valley) at the crossing of the — road leading to Fort Miller. : * See also this Journal, [2] xix, p. 433. Analysis of Idocrase. 85 Very fine crystals of unusual size occur in the gravel along the bank of the stream. icked up several that were two inches long and three quarters of an inch in diameter. ‘They have a delicate pink or rose color and some of them are translucent. The peculiar tesselated appearance displayed in a cross section o crystals of this species, is exhibited by these specimens in a beau- tiful manner, Caxcrre.—Crystallizations of this mineral are found at the Quicksilver mine, (New Almaden), at the Pass of Jacum, San Diego Co, and on the surface of the Colorado desert north of — Carrizo creek, where some transparent crystals were picked we Pv It also occurs in beautiful stalactites and me crystals in the great cave in Calaveras Co. » Art. IX.—Analysis of Fdocrase from Duckioon, Polk Co., Tenn. ; by J. W. Maurer, Ph.D. Tue specimen of this Idocrase examined ccna among some other minerals from the Ducktown copper mine, in thin bladed crystals imbedded in a mixture of copper and iron pyrites. The crystals were from half an i h to two inches in length, about , 1,0, l-w, and o-o, the last being most developed, and the - others very small. The mineral was nearly colorless, exhibiting transparent. H. =6°5; sp. Analysis gave the following results, a little copper present be- ing calculated as copper pyrites (derived from the gangue), and the necessary amount of iron subtracted from the total quantity of oxyd of iron weighed: Atoms. ilica, - - - 38°32 . $46 Alumina, + - - 2568 ae =< Protoxyd of iron, - 8-13 22 | Lime, : ~ ° < - Qe39 907 gro Magnesia, - - - 36 018 Copper pyrites, - ~ ae 9979 We have here a slight excess of alumina over the amount re- quired by the formula 3RO, SiOs+Al20s, SiOs, and a slight defect of protoxyds. The fragments of mineral were selected with great care, and contained no visible particles of gangue— hence the copper found in the analysis may perhaps, as in Cyprine, belong to the Idocrase itself, in which case the protoxyds would be __ increased by tbe copper and iron calculated above as copper pyrites. "Fs z a 86 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. Art. X.—Observations on Binocular Vision; by Prof. Wu Liam GB. Rocers. : % 7 among the most important contributions ever made to the science of physiological optics. Nor has the knowledge ofthese beauti- _ ful and curious results been confined to the circle of scientific in- _quirers. The diffusive intelligence of the age has converted the stereoscope into a,popular source of instractive recreation. But — much as has beeline, especially by Wheatstone and Brewster, towards forming a true theory of binocular vision, it must be ap- * ing and varying the exper conclusions previously made kno’ subject. It will be seen that the m I have fallen are in some respects new, a this process in all respects satisfactory may require further obser¥- ations and greater subtlety of metaphysical interpretation, but I trust that the facts and conclusions which I have to present W! throw light on some obscure points of the subject and will pel haps disclose features’ of it which have not hitherto been noticed. PART FIRST. 1. On the place in which we perceive objects that are binocu- larly combined. The learned Dr. Smith of Cambridge, in his “Complete Sys W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 87 servations in binocular vision, he is I think entitled to the credit of having first perceived a chief condition of these phenomena ut the law of the apparent place of objects binocularly com- bined is so fundamentally important as to call for other and bet- ter modes of proof. One such, remarkable for its completeness, has been described by Sir David Brewster (Phil. Mag., 3d Series, Vol. 24), and I may be permitted to add the following simple ex- periments for the same Js which I have found very satisfac- tory and easy of executior , fess — | f SERS OEE” ai a rs On alight strip of wood about 3 feet long au i; inches wide, two lines are to be drawn diverging from nd at such an an- on gle that their terminations at the other onde 1all be a little nearer one another than the pupils of the two eyes (fig. 1). Three steel pins each about 24 inches high and surmounted by round heads }th inch in di fc then be fixed perpendicularly in the hem a eye, and by b in the left. If now we direct our attention to the remote pin r we see what appears to be another pin thicker and taller than r, coinciding with it or very near it. This is the binocular resultant of a and b as seen by the two eyes con- verge To obtain this effect in the most satisfactory manner the un- practised observer will find it useful to conceal the surface of the while directing the eyes steadily towards r to perceive the resultant image of a and b, we gently peg the instrument in its plane around a point midway in a b, we see the remote pin behind and sometimes in front of it, but always very near. This the eyes sicaddity upon ‘the image while moving the instrument, id it gives us a clear impression of the place of the resultant as coincident with the point to which the optic axes are converged. It is important to observe that while viewing the compound im- age in this experiment, we see, on the right of it, the image of = 88 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. the right pin as visible to the left eye; and on the left of it, that of the left pin as seen by the right eye ; and, provided the eyes be steadily fixed on the resultant, these lateral images appear lie at the same distance and to have the same magnitude as the resultant. The following emg of this experiment is easily repeated, and illustrates the same law of binocular combination in a very simple and kahit manner. Omitting the remote pin and fixing the two others about 18 inches from the near end of the iy = bs through the g R situated in the rye oft ther in the same direction, a appear within the apartment between him and the glass ro at oid changes he cal not fail to notice that it ieee a consts Ay distance, from the eyes, and has for its position the point of me e of the optic — axes. This éffect is even more striking when the bright surface front is that of a globular astral lamp. In this case by com mencing the observation at a distance of 12 or 15 feet from the lamp we see the binocular image on the near side of this object, but as we slowly approach we ‘observe the image apparently a etrating the luminous globe, and at a less distance still we see i beyond the lamp as if we were looking through the glass at areal object in that position. In the preceding eases the resultant is formed by con verging the optic axes to a point more remote than the two objects to be united, but it is easy, by a different arrangement of the pins, 10 prove that the same law holds for the position of the binoculat 2. W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 89 cacageee image placed between the two lateral ones at or very near By giving the een a slight vibratory motion around the end a we cause the pin rto pass alternately to the right and left at a small distance behind or before the i image, while the lat- ter is seen to maintain its position at the point of intersection of _ the optic axes. By making r the centre of the vibration we pro- duce a like movement of r in regard to the image. In either of the modes of adjustment which have been de- scribed this instrument is be used as a stereoscope. It is true that those observers, who by any practise have acquired the power of convergiug their optic axes steadily upon near and remote combine the corresponding pictures and obtain the fu scopic effect. But most persons find ong difficulty: in| ing the necessary adjustment, and n istatice of some guide-object as the pin r in a proper vould By placing stereoscopic drawings of suitable dimensions in an Sarighe position against the pins oe (fig./1), and directing the eyes to or beyond the remote pi in this case should be taller than the others, we see. ‘T Meultant perspective image at the place to which the axes are converged ; or if we rest the cae against a (fig. 2), bth converge the eyes tor or to S it readily fentbd: before or behind it, we see the result- ant image perfectly formed in that position. It is hardly neces- ry to say that, in the former case, the points of the twin — which are to be united, should be at a less distance apart t that which separates the centres of the eyes. When the liathiil is exactly equal to ab (fig. 1), the image will be formed at or nearer the eyes; ed less it must be i pie a b. 2. Of the apparent distance and magnitude of the lateral or 1 gate aea jigures. ~ in the latter than the components. But if we fix the eyes Sroonn Sears, Vol. XX, No. itis 1855. 12 90 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. ee ee nS steadily on the resultant, we see the two other images take their places beside it in the same plane and of the same magnitude as — its principal section if it represent a solid. In making this experiment, it is best to use identical figures, such as two equal bodies about an inch in diameter whose centres are 14 inches apart. If, while the three figures are thus visible in the same plane, the eyes be suffered to glance sideways for a moment, the component figures retreat or advance from the plane of the resultant, and a renewed effort is necessary to bring them back to it. At first some difficulty is experienced in retaining comes easy, at will, to shift the components into or from the plane of the resulta at the same time to observe the change of — their apparent magnitude Bee presents itself in the case of the two im- us as the pencil. in the latter the glo sition. W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 91 % As the lateral images tend to withdraw the eyes from the com- pound one situated between them, and thus to distract the ob- server’s attention, it is necessary, for the most satisfactory results, to exclude these from the view. In the simple form of stereo- scope about to be described, this is effected in such a manner that by suitable adjustments we may obtain the resultant image either at a greater or less distance from the eyes than that of the draw- ings from which it is formed. It will be seen that in general plan this apparatus bears some resemblance to the phantascope of Prof. Lock atter however is only adapted to the formation of acompound image between the drawings and the eyes, and it — does not exclude the lateral pictures. ha 3. Description of the sliding stage Stereoscope. ll This instrument is represented in fig. 3 where AB strip of light hard wood about 3 ft. long and from 23 to 3 gy -4 d D of the broad to which are attached two square pieces C t same material each about 6 inches square, fittin aidutly upon the strip by slits at B and 7 so as to be ajunibieat vain distances from A. InC is cut a rectangular opening m about 14 inches wide and 2 inches long. A narrow slip is fixed on the stage D at o and another on C at p for the prirpose rting the dia- grams when the instr ts held in a slightly inclined position with the end B a little downwards. . a iG ay re) When the diagrams are to be combined at a point farther from _ the eyes than their actual distance they must be placed at ” on the stage C and the instrument turned around so as to bring above m. Should the distance between their corresponding points be much less than the interval separating the two eyes, the union will be readily effected by bringing A close to the face, midway between the eyes, and looking past the diagrams towards the moveable pin S or to some point between it and m, which in the rapid adjustments of the axes is almost instantly found. In this use of the instrument the part Ar of the central strip con- ceals both the lateral images, the right eye being permitted to see only the right hand figure and the left eye that on the left hand, and these by a due convergence of the axes are united ina single stereoscopic resultant. When the component diagrams are farther apart or when the stage itself is moved to a greater dis- tance from A, i the point of convergence proper to their union is 92 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. more remote than S. But in this case the union is easily effected — by directing the eyes past m to a point in the wall or other distant — object in the room, and approaching or receding until a — ; convergence is attained. After a little practice even this becomes — unnecessary, as we can then at will direct the eyes as if gazing upon objects at various distances behind S In this mode of combination, the picture of the object. proper to the right eye 1s viewed by that eye and - picture proper 10 the left eye by the left, just as with the common stereoscopes. Hence the drawings intended for the eter instruments may be used in this, provided they are so close to one another as to bring the points which are to be united, nearer together than the cen- _ tres of the eyes. The ordinary twin-figures on black paper can to very easy catuhiiation by. dividing the paper trans- versely so as to separate the figures and then placing them on the . the greatest distance om A at which a double drawing on the r can be used, but it be moved up nearly to r with- — pi disturbing the paper, as in’ th -interva the strip is cut away to anarrow stem. When separate dra eae employed ee : may be moved with the stage to any desired nb Band A. intersection in common. ‘This, which is a peculiar adaptability of the present instrument, leads as we shall hereafter see, to some _ curious stereoscopic effects en we propose to form the resultant figure somewhere be- tween the drawings and our eyes, it is necessary to place the twit picture or the separate drawings on the stage D, and to adjust the. to such a position that looking through the opening m™ with the right eye we see only the left hand drawing, and look- ing with the left eye we see only the oe hand drawing. yy both eyes be then directed toward the o ing, we observe in Of — * it, hanging in the air, the beautifully clear binocular re- — suit The resultant figures thus formed has a relief just the reverse — of what it would be with the same drawings placed on the upper stage of the instrument, for in the present instance the right ey views the drawing proper to the left eye, and the left that proper" to the right. Hence by simply shifting the paper from one slag@ W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 93 to the other we have the opportunity of alternating these stereo- scopic effects In these experiments the apparent magnitude of the resultant exceeds that of the drawings when the upper stage of the instru- nent is used, and falls short of it when the. drawings are placed on the lower stage, the change in both cases being determined by the relative distance of the resultant and the. drawings from the eyes. 4. Of the unusual adaptation of teat ee and refractive power by which we see the resultant im A feature of great interest in the preceding win. i is clearness and precision of the resultant image. ( true whether the image be formed between the eyes and 1 gram or at a greater distance than the latter. In the One case the lines are more slender and in the other case broader than in the drawings, but this is only a part of the eo dancin or enlarging influence due to the relative dista the resultant and the drawings from the eyes, and does net affect the distinct- ness of the combined image. In order that each point of th ng figure may be thus clearly seen, the eyes must be in condition sttited to the accurate convergence of the ra s falling upon them from the correspond- jis points of the ings; that is, they must for the time be ad- usted in refractive power to the distance of the diagrams and not to he distance at which the binocular resultant is seen. At the me time the convergence of the optic axes to a point nearer or more remote than the. pictures has the effect of determining our perception of the combined image at that point. 94 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. are converged to an accurate focus on the sentient surface of — each eye at the inner extremity of the optical axis. t that this may be so, the eyes must be adapted in refractive power to the — divergency of the pencils or in other words adjusted to the dis- tance of P and Q the actual sources of the rays, although from the convergence of the axes to R we are led refer the combined © image of these points to that position in s : In these conditions therefore it appears that the act of vision is attended by a peculiar and unusual relation of the optical adjust- ments. For while in the ordinary mode of viewing an object with the two eyes we adjust both the refractive power and the ~ axial convergence to the same gpa viz, that of the particular Int -o which or the mom ‘ ta a a. of the drawings at the same time that we axes to the point behind or in front of them in which — figu This capacity of the eyes to de — Wheatstone in conne hy vith a peculiar class of experiments with his stereoscope (Phil. Mag., 4 series,.vo , but it has not — received from writers on physiological opties the Peeniice to which, from its relations to constrained binocular vision in gell- eral, iB would seem to be entitled. The mode of union of the two adjustments of refractive pow and axial convergence which has been habitual from infancy cat — ciation of roped ee that I would ascribe the ‘pect sense of constraint which at first accompanies the above met- tioned experiments in binocular vision. This feeling of constraint so embarrassing to an inexperienced observer ceases after we have learned by a little practice to ee rate the two optical adjustments as above mentioned. We thet find no difficulty in combining the drawings into a precise clear resultant, and fixing the attention upon it as steadily anu" an actual body i in the same position. W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 95 _ 5. Of the unusual adjustment of refraction and axial con- vergence with Brewster’s and Wheatstone’s Stereoscopes. The sense of unnatural tension above referred to is not confined to observations with forms of Stereoscope like that just described. It more or less attends the use of all stereoscopes however perfect their construction, or accurate the disposition of the drawings. It may indeed be stated asa general proposition that whenever a perspective resultant is formed by the binocular vision of plane drawings, there are certain parts of the resultant which cannot be seen without a separate adjustment of the refractive and the axial convergence of the eyes. As this condition attending vision with _ ordinary stereoscopes even in the best arrangement of the draw ings, appears not to have attracted the notice of writers on the subject, the following illustrations of it may prove interesting. In fig. 6 are represented the essential parts : of the refracting stereoscope of Brewster now so familiarly known in this country and Europe. P and Q denote correspond- , ing points of the drawings which by the use’ me of the semi-lenses C and D are to. apited into one. When these points ate properly adjusted as to their distances from D and from each other t best % ki J esti ; + by orditiary tnconstrained vision. In this * case the conical pencils proceeding from P and Q have their virtual foci coincident at ¢ m BR * * ns justment this coincidence does not take place. Thus if P and @ be moved farther from each other to P and Q, the virtual focus of | ata point V beyond R, those for s and ¢ intersect one another at a point X nearer than R. reosco der to unite m and nm we must make the same separate adjustments of refraction and axial convergence as when using the upper pits and forming the resultant beyond the drawings—and to combine _ sand ¢ we must proceed as if using the lower stage and viewing the resultant nearer than the drawings. But it is obvious that i ee 96 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. q the best practicable adjustment of the lenses and diagrams can only secure the direct optical coincidence of the virtual foci first referred to for certain, points or lines of the drawings, and must leave all the rest to be combined by the method of constrained a unusual adjustments of which I have been speaking. The same thing « occurs in using the reflecting : ero Wheatstone (fig. 7), if after adjusting the diagrams so as to — cause the right and left i images to appear side by side instead of being coincident, we then by constrained vision bring them to gether so as to form the resultant in a position nearer or more Te — mote than the plane in which they are situated. Thus if mand — “n denote the virtual foci or images of P and Q, formed by reflex ion from the inclined mirror 4. : C and D, these by ordinary Y i pres to the eyes at A an as separate ob- jects actually at ™ id n. But readily x . fas oe unite them beyond-R b suming the line VR to bi- sect the angle of the mirrors and Hi] to be parallel , A oo to VR and equidistant from , it, and supposing PQ, to be at right angles to it, it is evident a P an , considered as points in the drawings, will have their vite tual foci ‘optically coincident at r, and will be seen as oue in position. If however we move them backwards on. the ee : from PQ, their images will be found at m and n, and so moved forwards to P»Qz2, the same distance in front of PQ, images will take the positions » and m, the reverse of the tel When however we adjust them in the position P2 and Q:, the BE ahd images will be seen optically a at ca and so if at P iss they will form a united image ai Bios these relations we draw the sues conse that sur posing the stereoscopic drawings to be duly adjusted in ‘the slides : the points situated at P and Q and such other pairs ints are equidistant from PQ in opposite directions will all be uo pair by pair in different positions on the line HK; all Bnet points situated in front of PQ or behind it, or on ee oe ee Ae “ceeds that of HK from AB. _ ‘Seconp Segis, Vol XX, No. 58.—July, 1855. 18 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. - 97 of it but at unequal distances from it, will form Separate virtual foci on HK. The former will of course be seen united by the natural process of vision as if the coincident foci were real ob- require for their union the convergence of the axes to some point either nearer or more remote than the pair of images, at the same time that the refractive power of the eyes is maintained in its ad- justment to the distance at which the images are placed, 8, R $ placed at PQ. In this adjustment the images of L and M will be optically united on HK at a point z on the left of the centre of the line and at a distance equal to the radius of the circle, and the images of N and O will be united at a point y at an equal distance from the middle of HK towards the right. All the other corresponding points of the two exterior circles will be optically united in the vertical plane of HK, so as to form an equal resuilt- ant circle in that plane, having its centre in VR. Turning now to the smaller circles it is obvious that the corresponding points @ and b form separate images at m and n respectively which in Virtue of the forced or unusual adjustment are united at 7, In the same way we are presented with the resultant image of ¢ and datsina symmetrical position on the opposite side of VR, and thus the resultants of all the corresponding points of the two smaller circles unite to form a circular image in the position rs parallel to and behind the resultant circle at ry. The diameter of this image is greater than that of the component circles ab or cd in the same proportion as its distance from the eyes at AB ex- iar tes "eth. iss i 98 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. It thus appears that in the positions above chosen for the dra ings, the combination of the two smaller circles into one in the — indeed is the condition under which we see — tive resultant not included in the vertical — in-w ich the images of the drawings — ifr \venti reflecting — oked overlo the eye to distinct vison at different distances are presumed This statement as we have just seen is true only of those parts of the resultant which lie in the vertical plane of HK, but in rega? to the rest and by far the greatest part of the perspective fig the “ordinary relations” mentioned by Prof. Wheatstone are preserved. I would remark in conclusion, that this necessity of depar from the usual adjustment of the eyes is no doubt one of the sons that so large a number of persons having sound and equa! balanced eyes, are unable on first looking into a stereoscope, © perceive the resultant figure clearly and steadily, and that € experienced observers are obliged in the case of certain figures ot considerable effort in order to effect the binocular combr IOTE, Yo ot, J. Nicklés on Magnetisation. 99 Art. XI.— Researches in Magneltisation ; by M. Jerome Nicxxis. N two memoirs, published in the numbers of this Journal for January and March, 1853, treating of the elongation of magnet- ised bars and of the influence this elongation sca on the at- tracting force, 1 have admitted that the attraction will increase with the distance that se changed, we vary the distance between the olar branches of a bifureate electromagnet. For, on increasing this distance, the mass of the iron of which the electromagnet consists is increased, or, What is the same, the polar brane es are elongated, which Occasions a tendency to augmentation of force; the chances of heutralisation between the two poles are diminished, whence re- sults another tendency to increase of force. og eee is €asily seen that the two tendencies are not of. the.same armature is altered: for it is evident that the armature inter- cepts more magnetic rays when the poles are remote than when they are very near. eer rs: n the course of my researches on circular electromagnets, I have often verified this conclusion, and as the laws of these elec- tromagnets are the same as those which govern bifurcate electro- Magnets, it may be seen that the separation of the will also have some effect on the power of these magnets. All phyicists are not of this opinion, and M. Dub besides others has just pro- nounced formally the contrary opinion, as a result of experiments Whose precision I do not intend to quests. °C 9 e4 he facts which I have made known, while they do not con- tradict the results of his observations, weaken the force of his conclusions. To test it most satisfactorily, I operated, as he, with bifurcate electromagnets. ‘The apparatus employed was a * And not only in electromagnets which are wound with wire through all their length, 28 M. Dub observes in. Poggendorf’s Annalen, wol. xc, The samme error is _ Contained in the Jahresbericht of Liebig, &c., 1853, p. 248, ‘ ., ap us 100 J. Nicklés on Magnetisation. horse-shoe magnet (fig. 1), one leg of which is moveable and may be removed at pleasure. The joining piece, by which these 7 two bars are made a horse-shoe magnet, is a rectangular iron bar, — of convenient length, having a groove in the direction of the — . j , So that the two poles — rone of their sidesif — r one another. would give ; besides, as the legs may be indefinitel y separated, tt 18) easy to place them in extreme conditions, and so decide the que> — tion at a single trial. Ihave used a constant current, a needle being employed to test it. Distance between the poles, Current a. Current 6. 8 leaves of paper (3 mm.) 14-15 kil. 52 kil. 120 mm. 18 is 65 “ each 47 meters of wire 1mm. in diameter, and finally that the armature z, was a cylinder of iron 15 mm. thick and 30 cel- timeters long. J. Nicklés on Magnetisation. 101° Distance between the poles. Current a. Current 6. Current ¢, Current d. i tad ag bee paper, “ kil. 10 kil. 17 kil. = 45 kil. 0:0005 14-15 22 52 0025 .- : ‘ 1 16 23 55 0-045 i oe Ap 18 25-26 58-59 0-120 - > . 9 18 27 65 0:220 ‘ : 7 18 27 @ 66 0-280 - 5 15 27 66 These results ‘establish another analogy between the bifurcate electromagnets and the rectilinear, It is seen that the numbers which express the magnetising power increase at first regularly as in the last ;* that they then decrease after passing a pes point, variable with the intensity of the current or with the | wis netism developed, and whose range augments with these 1 sities, The residual magnetisms of the electromagnets employed ex- hibits the same relation after the Mbp of — current ; the armature falls spontaneously w are at a small distance from one another ; it remains = enspiltied. when this dis- tance is increased ; finally it falls Spe when the separation has reached a certain point. SS nalogous facts have , Eve with a circular electromag- nit construct ted L thas? consists _- 2) of two disks of iron ‘aa’ 9 centimeters in diameter, and 2 in thickness, excavated to a depth of 8 millimeters ; these. two disks are put on an axis m, 35 m. in diameter ; the helix A is wound on the middle of this axis, aud the helix made narrow so as to be enclosed by the disks ; 102 ? Correspondence of J. Nickles. Dist. between the circles, ' Current a. Current 5, ontact, - - - mosh Wale 14 kil. Thickness of a leaf of paper, a St 5 1 mm. - - - - - .5 10 2% - - - . a 9 12-13 10 -# : - - ee B65 14:6 es These facts sided: to ths aiding explain the results ob- tained by M. Dub, as well as the conclusions which he draws. — This physicist, not having sufficiently extended the limit of the © separation of the legs of his electromagnet, his limits varying tween 24 and 5} inches, obtained nearly invariable numbers, like ~ aagnich: I mye obtained under the same circumstances a ae : y le hi which corresponds to the disal commonly used. lecessary abso! eed to reject an arrange ment like that given in the wor titled, American Electro magnetic Telegraph, an arrangement ich See abst the poles should be brought almost in contact, ~“"\\ Art. XII. ae of M. Jerome Nickles, a Paris, March 1, 1855.—( Continued from vol. xix, p. 416.) MUNG AM Aes, et Annual Session of the Academy of Sciences.—Distribution of Prizts. —This session was opened, as is usual, with discourses and historia eulogiums. The distribution of prizes next followed. The Cuvieriat Prize, which is given only for works of the first merit, was presed' to M. J. Miller, for his Researches into the Structure ind Development — of Echinoderms; one of those works ‘“ which have contributed most 10 ‘ the philosophy of the science, to — ogeny, zoology and general physiology, since the death of Cuvier.” This is the second time thé Cuvierian Prize has been given, it havieg been awarded for the first time in 1852 to Agassiz, for his work on Fossil Fishes of the nerves on tbe nutrition of bones.” Medals were peace ‘0 all : the astronomers .who have during vie year 1854 discovered pee : to MM. Luther, Marth, Hind, Ferguson, Goldschmidt, and Chaco: Three awards were given for i pide oa in the processes used in Arts that are injurious to health—one for the substitution of poumin' ie Spongy Metals in Therapeutics.— Telegraphic Messages. 103 for wood charcoal in preparing moulds of clay for receiving copper, bronze and melted cast iron, proposed by a poor armorer, M. Rouy ; a plan now generally adopted in the founderies in France, because it is not so hurtful to the workmen, although starch is dearer than charcoal wder. Another award was made to M. Mabru for a process for pres serving milk in its natural state, which is simply this—tin canisters hav ing a small tubular opening are filled full and then kept. for some time in a water-bath to drive off all the air, and finally hermetically sealed. = Spongy Metals used in therapeutics.—We have already spoken of the spongy metals which M. Chenot has obtained by reducing the ni ized ores by means of a gaseous mixture of hydrogen and of oxyd of carbon produced through the decomposition of steam by incandescent charcoal. M. Chenot now proposes the use of these Sponges OE He poe In a trial which he has made, the blood was im % o o oO 5 = fo) QQ o = onl “@ < Qu. ° oS ag @ ° ° 3 s done the last year As Bee were obtame spat chemical way, the electro- 2 nn Rearing in fp "These e facts call to mind what | Aastha _during the last year on 5 Cae it is because the chemical action demands es its exercise less M. Zantedeschi, of Italy, who Austrian experiments, observes that not only contrar Pudge ay r ted; but also that light and physiological effects may be obtained by opposing two equal induced currents ora of great exactness made b M. Gaugain with Rubmkorff’s apparatus have demonstrated that this cannot be, and that two equal induced currents } eee: * and synchro- means of the pile. Its sais ae bilan when heated, it fuses and burns with a bright has prepared barium and ati in the same way, and he is no ; “aude their properties. Mirna, : os : “4 104 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. The production of aluminium is encouraged by the French goy ment, who wish to procure a large quantity of this metal in orde use it for cuirasses and other purposes, for which it is especially fitt by its tenacity and lightness. The chemical establishment at Javel near Paris, has engaged to furnish a certain number of kilograms of alu- minium per week. ih Pisciculture—The Piscicole Institution at Huningue (Haut-Rhin) dis tributed last year (1854) several thousands of fertile eggs of salmon, — trout, &c. large part of them were sent to the establishments — conta i Ramsbottom, under their direction, has established Yon the borders of the river Tay, and M. Ayrton, as the Dee. e h government continues to sustain the establishment a Huningue. hey make it also a school, where those who wish to le the methods of manipulation may enter as pupils. 2 of M. J. Nicklés, dated May 2, 1855. Necrology. ntific world has of late suffered greatly by the loss of eminent men—Mathematic in the person of M. Gauss, | and Natural Science by the death of Duy: oy, De la Beche and Greenough. of pet _ M. Gauss died on the 23d of February, 1855, at thes years. He was Free Academician of the Academy of Sciences at succeeding to the place of Sir Jos. Banks. Germany what is known in F ae - _ ° —% 3 fo%) — I Md re) 9 a r= a - =| @ < re) a! = q ro) 77] a =e a a =) S o 3 3 vy It was for the purpose of making himself accessible to Sreater number that Gauss took up the investigation of the E s rs By Biographical Notice of . Duvernoy. 105 Telegraph and from 1833 to 1836 he made, in connection with his pu- sae Wilhelm Weber, the earliest useful experime ents in Electro-tele- .G. Du 18 t Montbéliard (department of Doubs) the 6th of August, 1777. Till the age of fifieen he remained with his parents and received his early education under the eye of his father. He then one to Stuttgard, where he remained only a short time, because the province of Montbe- liard having been added to the French Republic in October, 1793, young Duvern noy was required to we to France under the penalty of being considered as having emigrat He continued his studies at the Academy of Strasburg, then filled ‘with the recollections of the the hie d wh pupil the chemist Braconnot. He there pursued the study of the and natural sciences and had already made great progress in the in 1799 he was called into active military thes gi physician in the army of the Alps, the left wing army of ltaly. An epidemic typbus which broke out in the army gave him tunity to distinguish himself by his courage and devotion. The distin- guished Parmentier, struck by the high courage and spirit of the youth- ful Duavernoy, wished to withers oe 7m ibe hazards of war and ob- ! wing year. The earliest published abl laborer ae from this time, his latest me- one geet before his death. The interest which which re in 1799, under the title of ‘ padre sur les corps organisés et les sciences ‘qui en sont objet.’ On his return to Paris he finished vee studies and achieved his medical diploma by his thesis ** Sur Phystér Here ington abe real scientific life of Duvernoy, with the date-of his connection “with that illustrious man who lived to found the sciences of out the general nests which precede the cha eplers of descriptions in sig e rest was the work of our young anatomist twenty-s x Having at command the rich collection which Cuvier had destined for this gigantic work, he dissected constantly, prepared his descriptions, his master only cht ote the proo “sheets. Cuvier ofien mentione the value of the aid given him; he thus says in volume iii. of the “ Le- 'Sxcoxo 8 Sznims, Vol. XX, No, 58.—July, 1855, 14 Fe Lo. a tive place. A deep 106 Corrsphots of J. Nickles. 29 66 39% gons,” “‘j’avoue cet’ouvrage comme le mien, tout en reconnai years. This great labor did not hinder M. Duvernoy from publishi during this period nine memoirs on different subjects of physiology, pathology and comparative anatomy. Such labors demande absent himself, the great naturalist confided to M. Duvernoy the direc tion of all his scientific affairs. Th e toopen to M. Duvernoy a career of increasing heless he abandoned all, and again retired to honora curi is wife and children had remained in his ness seriously affected his health, and on the ), he abruptly left Paris, abandoning a future Ye and happiness in the joys of his family. 30th of December, 18 renown to find again his ppily, two of his daughters remained who with their se ond — received all his affections and consoled his old age to the end of life. . Biographical Notice of M. Duvernoy. 107 ods, the first of which he passed at Strasburg and the second, which terminated with his life, in Paris. Before 1827, Duvernoy had never in- ar and he began the labors of his Professorial Chair with a re- vie of the progress of natural history in the first twenty-five years of this rtaliped: thus resumed his labors which were never again interrupted. he course with which he opened his career at Strasburg served as the point of a for a original researches. In 1828 he remodeled, ac- cording to his own i the oe of mammals, while in a se- ries of 27 memoirs mp oat down to 1838, he described a crowd of anatomical facts, and cleared up ae obscure points in Physiology. To the monograph ‘* des Musaraignes” ; his studies * Sur le foie,” the dis- covery “* Des cceurs accessoires de ‘la Chimére arctique ;” ‘ De Por- In 18% it expiate his absence of twenty — But he. very soon gave his atten- tion to the completion of his grea ore ier had left incomplete a second edition of his Comparative y- Davernoy in 1837 com- menced the revision of the hvch he had edited in 1805. He made volumes was finished in 1846. Nominated Dean of the Faculty of ciences at Strasburg in 1833, he did not resign these honorable duties until 1837 when — was entrusted with the chair of Natural History in the College of France. He was replaced by Dr. Lereboullet in the chair of Strasburg, fehs still holds it with distinction. His duties at the College of France commenced in 1838 and continued without interrup- hoped to put in print this last fruit of all his scientific studies, but death intervened to prevent. In the period from 1838 to 1850 he pr —— six- e new theory - the development of t -D was in succession, ihameipuniens of the Institute, and Free Acadsinitiend he occupied the chair of Cuvier at the College of France and at the Mus uséum d’Histoire Naturelle. On the 4th of De- cember, 1854, he was seized with an attack of suffocating bronchitis. hese ae farewell and cre them his lo M. Duver noy desired to be 108 Corrasg thence of J. Nicklés. a F ; ol it is represented by 0-18 at the temperature of flect that the earth is surrounded by a mass of air equivalent ‘to a stratum of mercury 76 centimeters in hei ht, we can a similar mass submitted to the incessant variations 0 pressure and te ature, o e what is the real magnetic is fluid mass we find that itis equivalent to an immense shell of iron of a thickness of oth of a mil- imeter, covering the entire su he globe. M. Becquerel’s re — rul n confirmed lay* and by M. Matteucci by different methods, M. Plucker having reached r results by the use of a method of his own—a by wei atin and Dr. Simonin of Nancy, some general facts of the highest interest — anied byan almost complete absence of ozone in the air; this is Submilting pure oxygen to the electrical current. Ps e following is a new mode of pre ring it in abundance (or at least a similar body) capable of oxydizing silver, of decomposing iodid + It will be remembered that in 1849 much was said in the medical journals of this land, on the relation between cholera and ozone, the absence lera, United States.—Eps. Aluminium, Silicium, &e. 109 Pe ae ee ae of potassium, of burning ammonia, of disengaging chlorine from hy- _ drochloric acid, and of forming water with hydrogen. This simple pro- n this process possesses the properties named above, and it has the characteristic odor which is known as the Lobster odor. M. Houzeau assistant to M. Boussingault, is the author of this process which he dis- covered during a series of researches’ on the preparation of oxygen from the peroxyd of barium by heat. fusion and in order to submit it to the action of the pile, M. my in- troduces it into a tubulated retort of platinum which is then submitted to the heat of a good forge fire. A platinum wire communicates the cur- rents from the positive pole and enters the fused fluorid ; the negative pole action was entirely from above downward since no portion of the up- : per part of the compressed metal in this case suffered. mgt 110 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. Possibly it is to this cause that we must refer the explosion so often no ticed in the manufacture of potassium and sodium, the cause of which great Greenwich circle expense of the British Mr. Piazzi i ‘i omical ins ruments. The new gnetic and me Paris under the direction of Mr. Welch. The Bureau of Ordnance exhibit the great theodolite which it has ernployed in triangulation, ané examples of charts on different scales. The department of geological charts has also prepared a collection which will give a complete idea of — its labors. The men of science in England at first felt some repugnance — bine, James, Willis, Lord Rosse, Wrottesly, Snow Harris, Wheat Lassell, Grove, Warren de la Rue, Arnott, Gassiot, Brodie, and Frank- | land. Many of the great institutions figure also in the list, viz., Univer § spital for the Photography.— Artificial Alcohol. 112 Bichat. A celebrated juggler, Robert Hondin, will exhibit an electrical pendulum in which he has surmounted two important difficulties, to. wit, the disturbing influence of variations of current upon the motion of the pendulum, and the destructive influence of contact breakers. The construction of this pendulum bas given to horology a new mechanism out negative proofs on colledion and upon 2 a in the manner em- employs this agent in place of the the process of M. Blanquart-Ewrard lodid to prepare sensitive papers for positives in the shade and ds ; ording-to t anqua i 0 ‘prepares a dry collodion of excellent quality, this chlorid he a oye pr _ To 100 grammes of ordinary non-sensitive collodion he adds 50 centigrammes of dry and finely pulverized perchlorid of iron, having no acid reaction; he boils it for a quarter of an hour, and adds four drops of tincture of iodine and filters the mixture. ‘The glass being perfectly of the production of alcohol by means of water and illuminating gas. ult es ertheless M. Biot doubts the possibility of this change, because it re- intimate molecu ructure of the substance should be _ changed, a change to which we have no analogy in the transformations itherto made known. This difficulty however does not appear to MM. Trhuard and Dumas as insurmountable ; since in treating cane sugar * 112 Correspondence of J. Nickles. with an acid, its molecular constitution is changed so that its rotatory power over the polarized ray is reversed from right to left, why then should it be impossible to convert left-handed rotaton to right-handed? ate changes in the scientific corps at Paris.—A considerable move ment has taken place among the Rusia, ~~ living’ in Paris—or who | pass the larger part of their time in that ¢ Fay of the Parole of Sciences. at Miltheiiten: M. Desarns has been ap: — i nied Professor of Physics to the Faculty of Sciences at Paris. M. Fou: been nominated as Physicist to the Paris Observatory. M. — 3 made Professor of Botany at Clermont. M. LatLemanp to AVRE bs si Professor ém mu des végétaut par Bog Pemys grand in £, s par auteur. New work i ~ > (which he describes with care in his work), M. P. Laurent has beet a able to observe better than his predecessors, to group facts and phe — nomena which had previously escaped notice, and to reunite in one spe cies — which have before been regarded as wholly distinct. is volume has made a great sensation among micrographers, U! happily rare in France. The second and. last volume will not be less curio Mecailves analytique, _ Lagrange. 3d edition revised, corrected and annotated, by M. Bertrand; t. ii, Paris, Mallet-Ba chelir —We have already announced ‘the publication of the first volum this work. The second volume treats of Dynamics. It is dcaitbuded by sev" eral —— either by Lagrange himself or his contemporaries. (Euvres Complétes de Fr. Arago, t. iv, containing the historical Eo logies of ‘Malus , Gay-Lussac: the biographies of Coperni Brahe, Galileo, ‘Newtoo; Kepler, Huyghens, Cassini, Laesdllés Roemet : and a great number of other astronomers and physicists. Scientific Intelligence. 113 4 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Puysics, : 1. On the Expansion of certain substances by Cold ; by W. _ Macquorn RaNnkINE, Civil Engineer, F.R.SS., Lond. and Edinb. Ge. (Phil. Mag., [4], viii, 857.) —During the discussion which followed the reading of the Rev. Prof. Powell’s Report on Radiant Heat, at the meeting of the British Association i in Ia54, it appears, from the report the means reconciling the dynamical theory of heat with the fact of the expansion of water, antimony, cast iron, wilis Lectin ls cold, at and near their freezing points; and t me servations were made in reply by Professor Powell and Prof. “Williams, i) The question is one’of much importance, and oe for the onion _ of every one who has been instrumental in maintaining the gills _ theory of heat. Having been prevented by test from attending the __ meeting of the Association, I beg leave to offer t ing remarks pa The theory of thermo-dynamics, strictly speaking, is a system of ey eed all of which are deducible from a following tis laws : al p q airy of heat which disap- els otaal’ change (dV) of the vol- sive pressure (P) with temperature at constant volume; that is d to say, tT, 0. When this product is Basile it represents heat which disappears ; when negative, heat w Neither of those eng indicates ‘any particular relation between the pressure, iolume, and temperature of a given mass of a given sub- stance as more probable than any other. ‘Ibe nature of such relations must be dcieivnigen for each substance by pseedainale before the two ed to f matter (such as the hypothesis of molecular vortices), so as to de- duce the two laws of thermo-dynamics from those of ordinary mechan- ics, that hypothesis must lead to many consequences besides those two laws ; and it is necessary that those consequences i gould not be incon- istent with any of the phenomena of the relations between the tem- f those consequences was ted by Mr. James Thomson, and “Ac antsy @ by. Professor William Ties at a time when the e theory A ther- 10-dynamics was in a yery imperfect state, viz. that the freezing-point of water is lowered by pressure Szconp SERIEs, Vol XX, No. 58.— July, 1855, 15 B 114 Scientific Intelligence. perature, volume, and elasticity of bodies. No such inconsistency has hitherto been proved ; but even were such inconsistencies to be prove no objection toa molecular hypothesis can affect the certainty of the ~ two laws of thermo-dynamics, which, though at first anticipated as the — results of a hypothesis, have now been independently established by ex- _ periment. : With respect to the molecular mechanism that may be supposed to — give rise to the expansion of certain liquids in cooling, near their stance, the author finds, except a to be always diamagnetic, and uat The influence of utboee, curious ae the shape of pointed and flat poles is stu nomena of rotation, pe observed by M. Pla to the action of two co mence at the foundation of fe eis the present case is the follow repulsion oe in virtue of a state y is first thrown? This asmuind | is answered i in a manner “shi admits of no dou bt. It is proved that the repulsion « diamagnetic bodies increases in @ quicker ratio than the strength of the magnet which produces the pulsion. Within wide limits, iictead, the repulsion, instead of being ‘ . y of the Nigane of diamagnetic bodies with the attraction of - netic ones: both are found subservient to one same } Physics. eet It is next proved that the diamagnetic excitement produced by one pole of a magnet is not the state which set a pole of an opposite quality to repel the substance :—that each pole induces a condition pe- culiar to itself, or, in other words, that the “excitement of diamagnetic bodies in the magnetic field is of a dual cha hese points being ean, a Selnthinnss co mparison is instituted alone ; secondly, when operated on by the current alone ; and, thirdly, when operated on by the magnet and current combined. "A bar of iron was, in some of these cases, compared wit th a fire of bismuth, but it of re __ A bar of this substance, cut in a certain manner from the crystal mass, exhibits between the poles of a magnet apes: the same visible _ deportment asa bar of iron, while it is wall known that pele _ deportment of Appt is opposed to that of iron. Th ea n his _ examination of the points before us, divided eping ie bar nid two 4 distinct classes, and classified diamagnetic bars -same manner ; one class he called normal, and the other class abnormal, A normal _ paramagnetic bar is one _ poi its i pole to pole in the magnetic field, anda normal d e which sets its length is hasan magnetic bar, ih ‘equa han ; while an ab- ets its length axially. magnet nit the current fat right angles to the line joi ca poles. on the contrary, is one pre sets its | a cial current, the former sets its et and -c found that the tiapostidt of forces which produces a deflection from tight to left of the tis well known that a bar of iron surrounded by a helix in whicha tw phenomena of attraction and repulsion at its two end ich we give the name of polarity. contains ount of experiments made with the view of ascertaini whether si phenomena were exhibited by a bar of pure bismuth A cylinder of t r substance, 64 inches long and 0-4 of an inch suspendec copper wire, so that it could vibrate freely from side to side. ‘Thee i of two electro-magnetic cores were brought to bear upon the two ends — i as so arranged that the two magnetic poles — acting upon the bar might be of the same or of oppusite qualities, The — helix being first excited by a strong current, @ current less power was sent round the electro-magnetic cores, of considerably eo aa 3 pa action verted into repulsion. the current in the helix was changed, the recession was sto 2 Physics. 117 Pursuing the argument further, a south pole and a north pole were caused to act simultaneously upon each end of the bismuth bar ; sup- posing one end of the latter to be repelled by a south pole, then, on the assumption of diamagnetic polarity, the same end would be attracted by a north pole ; and permitting both poles to act upon it simultane- ously from opposite sides, we may anticipate that the force tending to turn the bar will be greater than if only a single pole were used. TT test this conclusion, four electro-magnetic cores were made use of ; the two poles to the right of the bismuth bar were of the same name while the two to the left of the bismuth bar were of an opposite quality ; with this arrangement the mechanical action upon the bar was greatly aug- mented, and the te oe anticipation completely verified. The bar employed in these experiments is unusually large, but it does not mark the oration limit of success. All the results obta with this bar were obtained with another solid cylinder of bismuth 14 inches long and 1 inch in diameter. e norrespoeiem experiments _. were made with bars of iron, and it was always found that the ar- . rangement of forces which caused the attraction of es of the par- ¥ amagnetic bar caused the repulsion of the ends of t lamagnetic one 3 __ while the disposition which caused the repulsion of the ends of the par- amagnetic bar produced, in the most manifest manner, the atéraction of the ends of the diamagnetic one és of | polarity, the only difference e paratively intense action of LS wi , aint In the case of a magnetic Pi Si duced in favor of the polarity of the former body that cannot. be matched. by proofs of equal value in every respect of the polarity of the latter. The objections that have heen and possibly may be used against di- amagnetic polarity, are next. considered, and some observations are ade on the constitution of the magnetic field. The relation of our of di 7a to Ampére’s hypothesis of molecular currents is stated ; and in conclu- sion, the author dwells briefly upon those points of diamagnetic action wherein ane views of M. Matteucci differ from his own. — Bui = Biapeersens as and Remarks on the Measurement of Heights by a Boiling Point of Water; by Professor J. D. Forbes, (Edinb. N. Phil. J., [2], i, 174.)—This paper is in continuation of one printed in Sis xv. of the Edinburgh Royal Society’s Transactions. The object Of itis to test the correctnes of the method of observation and of cal- _ Culating the results, then proposed, and to. compare with those of : > Baa recent authors, particularly of M. Regnault of Paris, and of Dr. _ Joseph 1D. Hooker. The author finds the results of his subsequent — in 1846 j in the ee up to heights considerably above 10,000 fe et, to agree well with those previously published, made in 1842. They combine if tat the rate of 1° for 543 feet of ascent (in na standard “mea grt here at 32° of temperature), which » differs only 6 feet (in defect) from his previous determination. The “ soa deviation of’ the individoal results: from the formula is only +), a degree -hoog saan regard to sign). ae 118 . Scientific Intelligence. Barometer. Boiling Point, Difference from Difference from Regu Inches, Fahr. my formula, formula, 20°77 194-28 + 0:22 + 0:32 20-79 19434 — 0:08 +001 22°40 197-94 — 0°04 +0:12 22°67 198-51 — 008 + 0 06 23°15 199-52 — 0:07 + 0:06 23°35 199-94 + 0-01 + 0:15 23°89 20104 —Ol1l1 + 0:03 23°99 201-24 — 0-09 -+ 0.08 i 24:02 201°31 + 0:04 — 0:20 24°105 201-47 — 0:17 + 0.03 25°14 203°51 + 0:04 + 0:19 ee 28 "4.9 209°54 — 0-0 — 0.0 The oo with M. Regnault’s table is also extremely close; and considering the ordinary limits of error of such observations, the — writer considers it nearly indifferent for elevations under 13,000 f fe which method of Iculation be use j th sspects from that commonly use a ane the ) eters were satisfactor n carefully examining r. J ph Hooker's detailed results, (obli- : gingly communicated by him,)- hich that naturalist considered to incompatible with Professor Forbes’s formula, it is shewn that the incon: _ sistencies of observations are so considerables” alijeda. diel to a decided preference to one formula rather than another, for the pur- of representing them; but that up to heights of at least 13,0( servations as well as any other; and the rate of diminution is almost the same as that deduced from bint Forbes’s observations, ora low- ering of 1° for 538 feet of ascent. pee The author has little doubt ie M. Regnault’s table, (which was not — published when he last wrote,) does really represent the law according : to which water boils more accurately than the simpler linear formula, though the difference is in most cases insensible. For all ordinary heights (or up to 12,000 feet) igre s =i — be more accurately represented by the formula, =~ wher h—517 T-+-T?. Il. Mineratocy anp Gerozoey. “h Herrerite identical with Smithsonite ; ; by Dr. F. A. Genta, (Proce roc. Acad. Nat. Sci., vii, 232.)—Wh en Herrera described an apple- Mineralogy and Geology. 119 — acid, all mineralogists who were conversant with the laws of chemical combination, considered it as nothing more than a mechan- ical cnn, though the description appears to have been that of a sim- ple substance. Afterwards Del Rio pronounced it “* carbonate of zinc, with some nickel and cobalt,” and this being a very probable composi- tion, which also answers very well to the physical properties, it was generally considered a Smithsonite, though, (no other examination hay- ing ree made of it,) as doubtful. |] have received, through the kiitinehe of Dr. J. L. LeConte, a genuine and perfectly pure piece of the mineral, hich I gst carefully examined. He composition, Herrera has the merit of having correctly discovered in it the presence of carbonic acid ; Del Rio, that of having fannis in it the ozyd of zinc. With regard 10 the other constituents, both th mi en. A qualitative analysis has shown that this mineral contains car- bonic acid, oxyd of zine, oxyd of copper, oxyd of manganese, m sia and lime, but no mann of any other subsiance. The uantitative analysis was made with the usual methods. BB. in a tube it blackens and does not give “imate, which condenses in transparent drops,” (as Herrera aigie®.) b one at all. On charcoal in the reducing flame it blacke ngs: and covers es eh white incrustations, having a steel-blue margin, w are yellow as long as hot; d whi : : : pees hen civic in an agate mortar, metallic copper. fee it gives distinctly the copper reactions. Dissolves in acids Sic hy. with effervescence. After weighing, I have carefully examined ll the separated substances for their purity, but pea traces of tellu- rium, nor those of cobalt and nickel, could be detected. 0:6226 gers. of the mineral gave : 0-3783 ors. of oxyd of zinc, or = - - sr 76 p.c a t > 0137 “ “ oxyd of copper,or - - 20 * Cu Q; 0:0062 “ “ protosesquioxyd of manganese, or 0-93 Me 0; 0:0025 “ * pyrophosphate of rie or 014% MgO; 00092 “ “ carbonate of lime, or 0-83 “* CaO; Herrerite is pent Bering but a cupreous sintthgokilie aad its compesition the follo Carbonate of zinc, - . . ee reg a per cent. ee 7! * manganese . ° ee fe ” “ _* magnesia, eee “ ed * lime : . * = 1-48 2 6 2. Analyses o at Meteoric dees nt, ae ince of Sonor Mexico ; by Dr. a A. Genta, (Proc. a from Tucson, ‘Nat. Sci., 1855, vii, 317. ‘ —The masses of Neue: Iron of Tuezon, first ory to notice by Dr. »» J. L. Le Conte, (Am. Journ. Sci, 2d Ser. xiii, 289,) and afierwards more ally desribed by Prof. C. U. Shepard, (Am. Journ. Sci., 2d Ser., xviii, i Ror, 120 Scientific Intelligence. 369,) are also mentioned by Dr. J. L. Smith in his Memoir on Mel 4 ites, published in the last number of the same Journal, March, 1855, in by Lieut. Jno. G. Parke, of the U. S. Topographical Engineers. Sey- — eral months ago | had finished the following . analyses of the same mete- orite, (which will be found to agree very well with those of Dr. Smith) but various circumstances have heretofore prevented my presenting tothe Academy the results of my examinations, which were made with pieces taken from the wapdiy presented to the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences, by eermann. o the descriptions of this meteorite Sen = ~~ C. U. Shepard and Dr. J. L. Smith, I —_ . add only a . The pieces whic h I ‘have examined were Tait: ace as Prof. Shep- ~~~ -ard remarks, but sionedased sonst a in nitric acid, and also immediately pre cipitated metallic copper from the solution of the sulphate. On dis- i. it in chlorohydric acid, only a slight odor of carburetied hydro: reeptible, and no gas evolved, which precipitated an ammo f phiorid of copper ; a very er quantity of Schre- ed in form of a brownish pow On ae ofithe solution by nitric acid i in a water-bath and sub- ances we a small residue of siliceous ma This dissolved aoe, a b voila onate of soda, leaving a resi- due, which I took for a fel spathie ns eS quantity obtained, — careful to obtain the whole quantity of cobalt and nickel, and have there- fore not separated the sesquioxyd of iron by carbonate of baryta, which The following results were obtained ; * It. Ill. Copper, : 0:008 not estimated. _ not estimated. Iren, ¢ - 83:472. not estimated. 83:637 Cobalt, oe OAD ty 0-366 Nickel, - -» 9-441 8-689 id Chrome, + not estimated. 0-174 Alumina, - - aces. traces. traces. Magnesia, - - 2:593 2030 2-147 ime, - . 0-463 0-550 not estimated. “4 - not estimated. not estimated. eT Potash, - not estimated. not estimated; 0-098 Phosphorus, - 0-103 not estimated, 0°150 4169 Silica, . - 2-889 not estimated. ? Labradorite, - 1-046 — ieticktamae Mineralogy and Geology. 121 3. On the Physical Geology of the ——— ee Captain Ricnarp Sreacuey, F.R.S., F.G.8., (Jour. Geol. Soc., 49.)—The author basis in a previous communication to the Sockety.* described the ge- Attention was first directed to some of the more a points of the physical structure of the great mountain mass, of which the Hima- laya forms a portion. Among these were especially noticed :—Ist. The general form of the section of the mass, which shows that ar Hime the summit of which forms the table-land of Tibet, while tha northern slope is a mountainous region, marked on our maps as the Kone , simi- lar to the Himalaya, and terminating in the great plains of Central Asia. « The parallelism to one an other, and to the outer e ‘the moun- a tain area, of the great ridges or lines of elevation ; as ne great valleys or li . . . e to their mineral character and geological age. 3d. The ar sane he drainage, in accord- ance with which the crests of the. ipo Sod southern slopes of the Rape mass form two main lines of water-shed, proposed to be termed he.‘ Turkish. and tm Water- sbeday” to the north and south of which, a alone, the Brahmaputra and the Indus, which are discharged from the Mountains at two distant points, at opposite ends of the chain. 4th. The Constancy maintained for great distances along the length of the agp both in the geological structure, and in the elevations to whic Mountains rise; which last character is Series, Vol. XX, No. 58.—July, 1855. oP 122 Scientific Intelligence. above the general level. Assuming the general unity of the upheavement of the whole area as evident from the consideration of the form of these fissures would open, and all the subsequent effects of the upheave: ment, m interi . Our suppositions on this point by the phenomena actually observed in 4 Consexion with the ruptures at the surface ; and, in the present case, a ture already noted —." at the moment of rupture, wa of a beam supported and cen * On this hypothesis we should expect to find the chief longitudinal important, but-in a less ruptures in the centre of the area, with others important. egree, along the margins, while there would be two portions intern diate between the axis and the e ges, where the tendency to rupture would be a minimum. Further, as the tendency to transverse rupture is proportional to the amount of the elevation, it would havea minimum g € Comparing these theoretical views with the observed facts, we find:— _ Ist. The exist verse fissures, in every part of the mountains. a 2nd. The more open character and greater importance of the long — tudinal fissures in the centre of the area, as evinced by the direction of rivers on the Tibetan table-land. oe. 3d. The existence of an important line of fissure alung the outer — margin of the Himalayan slope, as proved by the narrow fringe of the latest formations that every where skirts the foot of the mountains, which — it is impossible to suppose could have been raised as they are, excepting im Connexion with some larger mass. a h. The occurence of two lines of least rupture running parallel (0 the margin of the area, and intermediate between it and the axis, ind ‘2 cated by the Indian and Turkish water-sheds ; these features being de> pendent for their existence, not on any superior elevation that the attain over other parts of the chain, but only on their continuil ia on the few transverse fissures by which they are broken through. — Mineralogy and Geology. 123 oth. The few transverse fissures along the outer margin of the area, which affords a probable explanation of the accumulation of the drain- certain obliquity at the same time does exist, which, however, must be sg more closely examined before more can be said of it, eaalial . _ this rock in the tertiary deposits of the Tibetan he eruption was certainly antecedent to the middle of the och e-land, show that t tert e iary _ papre Southern edge of the mountains there is nothing to prove the boundary of the land and sea, until the Tertiary period, when the coast- line is found along the general line of the existing outer hills. Still, the existence of fossiliferous beds in the salt-range in the north of the Punjab, apparently synchronous with those of the Indian water-shed, seems to render it probable that there was a Southern sea, contempo- taneous with the Northern, extending over the existing planes of North India, from the remotest times, and leaving an area of dry land between them, on what is now the Himalayan slope. The probability of this area of dry land is further shown by the almost total absence of fossils in these regions; nor does the existence of fossils at one single point in _ Aashmir, where only they have been found, indicate more than an irregularity of the outline of the land, such as might have been antici- pated. Turning next to the question of the dip, which, asa general rule is everywhere towards the axis of the elevation, it was stated that there e : which the resultant of all elevating forces will act ; and hence, in any ent subsequent elevation the weight of the mass will tend to make it re- hse, 124 Scientific Intelligence. volve, by the relative descent of the centre of gravity, and ascent of the 4 point of application of the elevating forces, which will evidently tend to — increase the dip. 63 a The dip of the outer hills, however, which is almost everywhere — towards the interior of the chain, just as is the case with the rest of the — * mountains, cannot be attributed to these older movements, for these — ranges are among the most recent of the whole; nor is there, at first sight, any very evident connexion between the dip that they nite m. The the outer hills, when the ocean extended over the plains of Northern ~ India. An upheavement of the mountains alone, the general sea-botiom remaining unmoved, would naturally terminate at the fissure, and anar row fringe of the younger beds would be raised on the flank of the older’ — mass, to which a dip the same as that of the older mass might be im ndency to revolve already explained. The repetition — of this process w make a succession of ranges, such as are seen 0 the outer hills, apparently dipping under one another and the older beds, of the fragments of whieh they are evidently made up, in an inverse order, ; eo a ae : The paper concluded by a recapitulation of the progress of the Him- alayan chain, as far as it could be traced, from the earliest geological period to the present time. In this was pointed out the probable exist- ence of land with mountains already of considerable altitude, in the still swept over the whole of the existing plains of India; while the : Caspian probably extended over all the steppes of Western Turkista®, tothe foot of the Hindu-kish. To the north of the Himalayas, the : Northern sea appears to have covered the table-land of Tibet, occupy: — ing long fiords or estuaries between the mountain-ranges, which had al ready commenced to rise. to the basin of the Caspian, which sea was now separated from that ot — Aral. But the Indian Ocean probably still covered the northern pi Mineralogy and Geology. 125 of India, nor was it until long after that it retired to its existing shores. Finally, the evidences of the diminution of the Himalayan glaciers in the existing epoch, which are to be met with at all parts of the chain, were continental, the summer tem tures would be raised, and the fall of snow diminished. ‘This, therefore, might have had the effect of causing the snow-line and glaciers to recede, although the actual elevation of the mountains had been increased about 1000 feet. 4, Eruption of Vesuvius, (from letters in London Daily News, dated Naples, May 5 and 10, 1855.) —Saturday, May 5.—Uaving purchased our torches at Resina, we turned out of the high road into the compara- tively narrow and heavy route which begins the ascent. It is formed of loose volcanic dust and pulverized lava; and hard work it is indeed 4 ail the weary horses to get along. Ours acted most prudently by refusing to advance, so that, dismounting, we took to our legs. woman might have gone up alone, so dense were the crowds either coming or guing; for be it known that apart from curiosity :nany felt nota litle relief at _ the eruption, as though it had saved them from the disasters of an earth- quake, and were full therefore of joyousness. As we got close under the mountain we experienced something like disappointment, for the ele- vation on which the Hermitage stands - id from our view the fire and » smoke and the streams of lava which even from Naples formed so mag- nificent a spectacle. As we got higher and higher the glare of light reflected on the sky became visible, and by the time we had got to the So —_ ° > oO p =. < Ki @ o La ° = ~~ S Qo, om S 3 3 - = i=] p> 3 (=) 3 g9 - = Fe ° = +O n Cal ' Mh, Patan 4 ie 126 Scientific Intelligence. Of course all calculation must be mere guess-work, as who can meas- 4 ure a fiery flood? I never witnessed such mighty results = pow : it into its head to walk. There was a solid plain which we might have — crossed some eight and forty hours before now going full drive overa precipice some thirty or forty feet deep, and then stealing onward, as it now is, through chestnut groves and vineyards and villages, and threat- ening places of some consideration. Above the precipice the stream— or rather two streams, which are united at the cataract—flows through a plain in a serpentine form, and following buck its course we arrived at the foot of the cone. Half he thin crust trembles under your feet. You ma ’ see the stones dance With the tremulous movement; the part immediately round the crate Mineralogy and Geology. 127 scene of most stirring interest after an interval of two days. e whole length of this usually quiet road was like a fair, and such was the throng of carriages which were moving on in three lines that it was with difficulty we ever arrived at our destination. As we approached the menaced neighborhood the inhabitants were removing their goods, and on a bridge in the middle of the little township of Cercolo (through which in the winter time thunders down from the summit of Vesuvius Where I walked on they imb me at first, and still strikes me as the most majestic feature in the whole scene, is the slow, silent, irresistible motion of that fiery flood. Active almighty power Without an effort! Sweeping everything before it, overcoming every _ Sistible manner as before. ‘There was a spot beneath my feet where a _ fall of mason work had been built to break the violence of the winter es i : Oe any 128 Scientific I ntelligence: floods: to this spot all eyes were directed. The fiery river would fll over it in an hour; as yet it was distant from it seventy yards per radually it rose in height and swelled out tts vast proporuons, and vant masses fell off and goes forward ; then it swelled again as po, matter came pressing down ind, ne so it broke, and on it rolled again and again till it had peste at the very edge. There was a gen- — eral buzz and murmur of voices. aee royal family stood opposite to me oe with the crowd looking on with —_ anxiety. a we small lum mps fell down; then poured over a pure > lige of metal — like thick treacle, clinging sometimes mass to mass, from its glutinous " character, and last of all tumbled over gigantic lumps of scoria. Then — on it moved once more in its silent regular course, swelling up and 2. road, the — had-all been ordered off, and the bridge ken were cut off completely. The sentinels verted from the sen of St. sede Massa di Pollena, which stand on either side and have as yet only ed pi tially. Cercolo, through which, however, the stream is rolling will be sacrificed. The expectation is that the lava, should the eruption con is literally seamed = lava and many fear a violemi explosion as the final scene of the tragedy. Manual of Elementary Geology, or The Ancient Changes of ihe Earth and its Inhabitants as illustrated by geological records ; by Sit Cuartes Lyetz, M.A., F.R.S., &c. 5th edit. greatly sslre - illustrated with 750 woodcuts. Bost Little, Brown & Co. tended investigations of the author the various re- kearehes ee yor geologists. It is the ablest nnd 2p 8 work of the kind in the English language ee The edition jseued by Mowers . Little, Brown & Co., is the English $i edition, and not a reprint, gon therefore all the perfections of the orl ginal work in the cuts and letter press. 6. Fossils of South Cerslisis ba Prof. M. Tuomey and Prof. F. 8. — a Charleston, 8. C.—No. 2 of this elegant work has just Botany and Z cology. 129 7. Naturgeschichte a — und der damit in Verbindung ste- henden Erscheinungen, v EORGE LANDGREBE; Mitgliede mehre- rem gelehrten Geselleshafien. “9 vols., Svo. Gotha, 1855.—Dr. Land- grebe has given in this work condensed accounts of all the volcanoes of the world in the first volume, and general views on their distribu- H Journal, and also the Geological Report by J. D. Dana, in which a large part is devoted to the subject of volcanic islands and phenomena 8. Lehrbuch der a ~~ Ghasthotiochen Geologie, von Dr. Gustav Biscuor. Bonn. of this excellent work on Chemical Geology, has recently been 9. Uebersicht der Resiolints mineralogischer Forschungen im Jahre 1853, von Dr. Apotr Kenneott. Leipzig, 1855. T. O. Wei . return to it again in a future number of this Journal. 10. Versuch einer Monographie des Borazites ; Eme tra ssliche ange- wandte Darstellung des jeizigen Standes der Krystallologie und ihrer nevesten Richtung: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte dieser Wissenchaft und zur maeuinian a Steinsalz-La ‘atten und ihrer Bildung; von PE mon _ —— R. K, “seat wheter Gesels- und des Naturforschenden Vereins zu Mos- burg, lent work on Russian Mineralo A large number of new forms of crystals are carefully figured in the 4to plates. With part 9 the sec- ond volume of the work commences. We shall make citations from the Sales at another 2. Die sebigischs ee des mittleren ee: von bene Amerika, von Franz Fortrer.e ; ; mit einem Vorworte von W. Haid ger. 22 pp., Svo. ‘Wien, 1854.—The geological map of South rye: lca accompanying this pamphlet is nearly two feet square. It is col- ored to represent the geological formations, and combines a results of the observations of various travellers. The details are more fully and exactly given with respect to Brazil, as stated in its title. Ill. Borany anp Zootoey. pl. * Poetry of the Vegetable World: a Popular Exposition qd the nee of Botany and its relations to Man; by M. J. ScuLe1bEN, ty I Sa of Botany in the University of Jena. Illustrated with en- ravings. First American, from the London afition of Henfrey. Edi: by M. that it appears under a false title. Prof. Schleiden, at the solicitation >of friends, committed to the grote, in 1847, a discursive course of pop- Hlasslectures res upon the Plant and its Life. His interesting and very 17 Seoos gree Seles en estate “ai 1855, 130 Scientific Intelligence. characteristic volume, entitled ‘* Die Pflanze und ihr Leben; Populdre ortrage, was admirably translated? in England by Mr. Henfrey, : published by Bailliere in 1848, under the English title of “* The Plant; — i 3 in a series of Popular Lectures.” The English publisher — has beautifully reproduced the plates and the vignettes; and Mr. Hen- — frey’s known ability is a guarantee that the text is faithfully rendered. — In causing the book to be reprinted in this country, where it had already become pretty well known, Mr. Wood has taken what we must call the unwarrantable liberty of altering the title, as above. . s the object of the change is more than we can imagine. Perhaps the factitious title was thought to be a more taking one than — the real. So, indeed, it lately proved. in the case of a friend of ours, who was taken in by it. Having purchased the new book by its title, he found, to his chagrin, that it was only a reprint (with the pretty vig- ere engraved frontispiece left out) of ‘* The Plant,’’ translate by Hen i i hap makemmesregret that we had neglected to indicate this danger when 28 the American reprint made its appe e in such a guise. We ft absolve Professor Wood from any equivocal intention in the matter; but. taking liberties with Bs itle-pages is neither proper nor sale. he omission of the vignettes at the head of each lecture and of the en graved frontispiece might have been excused if the fact had been men- tione The graph h relates to them in the author’s introduc: — which elates to the tion is duly given, as is a reference or two in the body of the work: but the pictures themselves have silently venth 1; and gasps. of Abe -not detect the omission. So also Mr. Henfrey’s name has alm ished from the title page of his own literary production. We likewise miss Henfrey’s sensible advertisement, stating that he had confined him- — se!f to the simple rendering of Schleiden’s language into English, ference beyond the remark that: ‘In bringing this volume before the — casionally Sentences too long and involved, and sometimes too mu encumbered with epithets to suit the genius of our language. In Botany and: Zoology. 131 cases, we have frequently ventured to substitute a more simple'version of our own.” If e noticed are specimens of the sub- stitutions referred to, we can only say that the objection of fidelity to the language and true spirit of the original is removed by the Ameri- can editor as far as possible under the circumstances; but the sim- plicity of the new version is more apparent to us than its propriety or taste. A. G. 2. De Vriese and Harting : Monographie des Marattiacées. Ley- den and Dusseldorf. 1858. Elephant 4to, pp. 60, with 9 plates.—The systematic part of this work is by Prof. De Vriese of Leyden. The botanists. The number of species appears to be unduly multiplied. To one of de Vriese’s new species from Luzon must belong r. Brack- enridge’s Angiopteris attenuata, of the Ferns of the U.S. Exploring Ex- pedition,—a volume long since printed, but the publication of which is unaccountably delayed. Poe A. Ge Pritzel: Iconum Botanicarum Index Locupletissimus. Berlin. ~ 1854. pp. 1183, imp. 8vo.—A most useful volume, containing referen- ‘York: Barnes & Co. 1855. pp. 612, 12mo.—Prof. Darby is a dis- Unguished teacher, and he has devoted much pains and study to the Preparation of the present work, especially to the structural and physi- ological part of it. In this department he has been an original observer ; While in Systematic Botany,—which has many more votaries in this coun- try, pursuing it to a certain extent,—he would probably claim to have bs he book is d, and ext-book for the Colleges and High Schools of the Southern States. th 4, ee 132 Scientific Intelligence. rightly understand it, the stem of a Cycas or a Cereus should exhibit — the endogenous and a corn-stalk or asparagus-shoot ne exogenous, structure. But this 1 is not the place to discuss the questio s The vitality of an erroneous statement is truly dondertid: A century ago Adanson published his account of the great Baobab trees of Sene- was pointed out eleven years ago, b sh late writer (in the Nort American Review for July 1844): nevertheless the current statement __ ity or pretension. Prof. Darby has now ona it with an addition which caps the climax of absurdity. He says siedueiiiakd copying ae work, we know not what one :— emark able case of the deposition of external layers of dicoty- ledonous stems is iigeis'ed of the Baobab-tree Rpepsartenes digitata) and 0 w cut his 1 ined the same trees, and fo uad the names with more than 300 layers of wood deposited over them, gh) We had long ago shown that Ad any such thing, and that the current accoun ver ee to have found ng this was arte > prese in part of the ehenieanh. century, and who S was never out England in his life, is said to have cut his name upon two Baobab-t at the Cape de Verde Islands in the year 1400! The old notion of spongioles at the extremities of root on which have no existence as described—is adopted on p. 39: but in the description they are confounded with the root-hairs, which are not the sengie'e of De Candolle, nor are they * composed of lax cellular tis- sue,” ane only definite and free portions of superficial cells prolonged into S. So far from the origin of adventitious buds having “ completely eluded the research of philosophers,” no part of organogeny is better known. The facts of the case are to be found however, not 1 n the tatement that the leaves of Pines, &c., “‘do not forma single Spire afte ta compound one, consisting ot three or four spires running parallel to each other,” shows that the writer has not discriminated be- — tween the real spiral on which the leaves are ee and the apr parent or secondary spirals ee a at conspicu- ous when the leaves are approximated. A moment’s perant to the subject would enable Prof. Darby . express aa elementary facts is of phyllotaxis both correctly and clea A The fall of the leaf by an sstinielasion has surely been much better explained by investigations of the facts of the case, _ no - ans | Botany and Zoology. 133 very recent date, than by Lindley’s crude and imperfect hypothesis, which is most satisfactory to the auther. For the want of a notice errata (which are numerous, owing to the printing of the work ata great distance from the author’s residence) we cannot ascertain what species is intended, on p. 60, by Magnolia heterophylla. ut what surprises us most is to find, now and then, in the course of a chapter which is on the whole clear and satisfactory, some gross absurdity like the following : “« Raspail asserts that the pollen is a production of the internal surface of cells within the theca, to which the grains are attached by a funicle. This is denied by other botanists.” (p. 7 This is all that is given on the subject of the formation of pollen,— a elementary a treatise ; but whatever is stated should have some resem- —_ lance to or compatibility with what is true, or what i .. ee generally thought to be true. Whereas this statement is worse than ae continue to adopt. Yet, as he has evidently given particular attention to physiological questions, he ought to have known, before the year h he cannot be wholly ignorant, which have negatived every es- hen, 134 Scientific Intelligence. sential point of the hypothesis, and every Presiimption that may have existed in its favor. The aly additional remark for which we have room relates to a question of taste. We are confident that our excellent friend, on being made aware of the idea which his paragraph, No. 241, conveys solely through the unfortunate choice of a phrase, will in another edition no longer speak of our Savior as yielding His assent to the —— of a quotation from Young’s Night Thoughts Wheat from Egilops.— —The announcement by Prof. Dunal, “of Montpellier, two or three years ago, that M. Fabre, of that vicinity, had converted Aigilops triticoides into ae - cultivation for several generations, excited a lively sensation, wh as not yet subsided Prof. Dunal appears to have satisfied himself san A: gilops triticoides, le ee | its ancestor, LE. ovata,—a common "athe on the southern t of. Fr Ge Oe ee re eee, Fae Ss ecount has called forth many detailed arious views have been maintained : but at length. ‘i nis of M. a of Besancon appear to have -M.G n’s os is published in the An- nales des Sciences Naturelle for , No.4. He remarks, i in the first place, that the so-called s scsi gions Seabee is only of sparse and occasional occurrence ; that it is seldom if e ya od ala abounds as a wild plant ; that intermediate states between Z&. ood ita 4&. triticoides do not occur, as they are apt to do between races or y elies of any species ; but that . triticoides itself varies in certain spects and according to the kind of wheat which is cultivated in the neighborhood ; and, finally, that the wild 4. triticoides usually pro- duces very little seed. From these considerations he was naturally led to suspect 4. oe to be a hybrid, oe from the accueil fecundation of Z. ovata by the pollen of wheat. And this ye he has verified by aes experiment ; ; that is, he has raised 4. t coides from seeds produced by i ora the ovaries ot fi, rela by wheat pollen. At the same time, and in the same manner, M. Go- dron produced a new and analogous hybrid by be aekaoting " Bgilops triaristata with the pollen of common wheat; as well as another by impregnating ovata with the pollen of Bearded Spelt (Triticum Spelta, barbatum). It seems, therefore, most probable that M: Fab Evilops-wheat owed its origin to the accidental fertilization of the a ovata—by the pollen of its male parent, wafted from adjacent wheat fields ; the cross-breed returning to the male type in the usual manaet under such circumstances, This evidence, however, does not convince Dr. Lindley ; ; who 1 that M. Godron and others have not explained what the origin of whea' has been, if it is not a aoe condition of Agilops: irae er — which we must say is by no means incumbent upon M. G f had accomplished his object pote he has shown, as he has ‘cleat! ‘i dons aling 3h Fabre’s famous experiments do not prove oAigilon/ jor eet et BP as Botany and Zoology. 135 the original of wheat ;—although in his opinion the two should be ranked in the same genus. Can Dr. Lindley indicate the wild original known Graminee } A. G. - Botanical Necrology and Intelligence.—We have to record the death of two distinguished botanists, viz, Dr. MotKensoer, of Leyden, an accomplished muscologist, the author, in conjunction with Dr. Dozy, of the Bryologia Javanica, a work recently commenced, and of which five fascicles have been published. The surviving author, Dr. Dozy, informs us that he shall continue this excellent work, notwithstanding this great calamity, if it shall meet with a sale sufficient to defray the expenses of production. Dr. Molkenboer died in September last, at __ - the 25th of February last, at the age of sop rs. Itis said oP pt Dr. Meyer has been offere ks 2 given, and among the rest that of the remarkable individual which am about to describe. It was found in Grayson County, Ky., near some mineral springs which have attracted considerable notice on ace count of their medicinal qualities. A very slight examination of this Crinoid, I think, will satisfy any paleontologist that it must form a new genus, ; CROCRINUS, (axgoo, extremus, and xgivov, lilium.)—Body goblet- Shaped, constituted of about 16 series of plates generally hexagonal, and increasing in size from the base to the summit, each series includ- ing from 20 to 25 pieces, the last supporting 5 large arm-bearing plates, Which give origin to 20 rays composed of a double row of tentaculated Joints; pelvis undivided? large, circular, saucer-shaped ; column round, Consisting of thin, serrated joints gradually expanding towards the base of the cup. : The specimens of this crinoid yet discovered have not enabled us to determine with certainty the position or character of the oral orifice, or the number of pieces composing the pelvis. Its claims to anew ~ Arrangement of its plates. nel 136 Scientific Intelligence. Acrocrinus Shumardi.—But one species of this crinoid has been found. In this, the plates are thin, smooth, and without ornament. The body of the largest specimen from the pelvis to the rays is two inches in length. Alimentary canal round and diminutive. @ AN 5 K A igure AR The figure represents the specimen described, showing the body flat: tened and somewhat mutilated, with one ray and a part of the column al tached. An interesting feature in this specimen is the presence of a ull vaive mollusc ( Capulus) on the summit of the crinoid, in a position to have been grasped by the arms of the living animal. In the paper to W! ich reference has been made, we ventured the suggestion that the encrinilé was probably devouring the sheil-fish at the time when it perished, 4 the disproportionate size of the prey to the eater caused a doubt 43 — the correctness of this opinion. Since that time however we have fous | S : from ties vir ‘ - Astronomy. 137 numerous speciniens of encrinites with univalve mollusca in a similar position, and now no longer question the truth of our ti conjecture. Locality.—Carboniferous limestone, Grayson Coun y, Ky., associated with ASchiasls; Pentremites florealis, Vobtwcrade spinosus, Owen and Shumard, and numerous undescribed Crinoides 1V. Astronomy. Elements of Dien’s Comet, (Compt..Ren., t. 40, p. 636.) —The — fe parabolic elements of the comet discovered Jan. 14, by Dien of the Paris Observatory were computed by Mr. Oudemans ee the observation at Berlin of Jan. 15, Kremsmunster Jan, 28, and Ley- den Feb. 17, Perihelion paeee 1854, pots We 074, M. my Gren pene Long. perihelion, 165° et qnx. asc. node, - - - - 238 i9 8 1855, Jan. 1 ea a : - - - - - 34 10 57 23 ge digite vemenialct ra a ian dicedt: y 2. New Planet, (Astron. Jour., No. 84. ) Mr Chacornac « of the Paris i s been eleventh magoitu e, and itan bsteroid, forms the thirty-fourth of the up or this planet has been computed by Lesser Bhakeviitonet ; ie: id 44 140 204° 57 §"3 7° 27 5GM1 Paris. 13,10 2 54:1 203 36 35°4 6. 38 57 2 herreaganieng 20, 10 49 20:7 202 12 53-3 -5 49 36°6 Ber 1855, nee pores se Ex oe Mean anomaly, - 38° 53”-0 Long. perihefion, - - - 157 a 19 +7 } Mn. Eqnx. asc. : - 184 1 45:3 1855-0 Angle of excentricy, ‘ : 6: SA: 620 Ticlinatio . rs 5 10 10°5 g. semi- axis major, - - . 0°426961 ss Mn. daily motion, # love 2:909565 3. New Planet, (Astron. Jour., N ig a thirty- -fifth member of the tained by Professor Riimker hom &. anet’s R. A. Planet’s Dec. 1855, April 21 10 1318-6 180° 57’ 461 = -5° 10’ 167 i 0 40 13:0 49 21:3. -5 10 45 w Comet, (Astron. Journ., No., 84).—Dr. Schweitzer Seo ered s clescopie comet at Mouse on the lith of April, and observed it as follo = 1855, ae ee ee eee 15, s - =) “JQ 20 -13 40 Sens Sy, Vol, No. SaTe, 1855. i8 138 Scientific Intelligence. 5. Cause of the Zodiacal Light; by Rev. Georcr Jones, Chaplain U. 8..N., (Astron. Journ., No i U8 Slances our transitions, for weeks together, were very rapid, thus giv- ing me opportunities for observing whether any paralle! could be made or not. I was also fortunate enough to be twice near the latitude of 23° 29 _._ Rorth, when the sun was at the opposite solstice, in which position the observer igh ing east and west. Whethe z d t At an early period I began to query whether the moon, when neat its full, might not give a Zodiacal Light: and at last when I had gained tions of what I think must be considered a Zodiacal Light produced by the moon. I have also two records of a distinct Zodiacal Light pro- duced by the joint action of the sun and moon, i.e. at the hour whet the moon, then near its first quartering, was about 65° above the west Si eee You will excuse my prolixity in stating these varieties of observa tion, for the conclusion from ali the data in my possession is a startling ; one. It seems to me that these data can be explained only by Miscellaneous Intelligence. 139 supposition of a nebulous ring with the earth for its centre, and lying within the orbit of the moon. This conclusion seems to evolve itself, —lIst, from the simultaneous midnight east and west observations, which preclude the possibility of a ring around the sun within the earth’s orbit ; mines. For more than two years I never failed to see this Light, eve- ning and morning, when the moon and clouds did not interfere: and, _ except one evening, I have continuous records of this kind. _ ~~ could get no parallax; but, on the contrary, as we went south, the boundaries of the Zodiacal Light changed with us to the south among the stars ; and.so vice versa, towards the north, caused, doubtless, by _ the ring’s presenting new portions of its wide reflecting sutface to the sun’s light. r V. Miscetnangous INTELLIGENCE. 1. Contributions to Meteorology.— Mean results of Meteorological Observations made at St. Martin, Isle Jesus, Canada East, (nine miles west of Montreal,) for 1854; by Cuartes Smattwoop, M.D.—The _ geographical co-ordinates of the place are 45° 32’ N. Lat., and 73° 36/ _W. Long. Height above the level of the sea, 118 feet. ~ Barometric Pressure.—The readings of the barometer are all cor- rected for capillarity, and reduced to 32° F. The whole of the means so obtained from three daily observations taken at 6 a. M., 2 r.m., and Pi. The mean height of the barometer in January was 29-516 inches, in February 29-520, in March 29-024, in April 29-440, in May 29-731, in June 29-814. in July 29-916, in August 29-910, in September 30-001, in October 29-949, in November 29-764, in December 29-540 inches. inches; the lowe t was in March, on the 161 y and was 28°607, inches; the yearly mean was 29°677 inches; the mean yearly range was equal to 1-907 inches. The atmospheric eo r was f marked by its usual fluctuations, the final trough terminated on the 25th day. ee Thermometer.—The mean temperature of the air, by the standard in February 12°20, in March ~ > » ea | 3 S 3 »v S | ~~ 2 is] Mm = Cee i=) pone ~~ »_ —36° 20 (below zero). ‘The mean temperature of the quarterly peri- ods was, Winter 18° 26, Spring 40° 25, Summer 69° 43, n 6" 46. The. yearly mean was 41° 57, and the mean yearly range 136° 30. 140 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The greatest —— of ss sun’s rays was in — and fas 140° 2, the least intensity was in December, and was 58° 0, an lowest point of secoacll mages ths was —36° 9, (below zero) i in De- The mean humidity (saturation being 1-000) was, in January "843, in February ‘825, in March ‘840, in April *835, in May °723, in June 780, in July -709, in August “714, in September ‘7831, in October -874, in November ‘878, in December °850. The yearly mean was ‘804, which was minus -021 of last year. ain fell on 80 days; it was raining 231 hours 16 minutes, and amounted to 40-505 inches, and was accompanied by thunder and light- ning on 14 days. 1 observed no yellow matter in the rain, which fell this year. ‘The amount of rain which fell in a was 1-067 inches, in February 0°150, in March 0-910, in April 7°886, in May 3:418, in 8384 a in July 0-174, in Pogust 2265, in September 6°167, in 4-844, in November 5°130, in December 0:11 es. on 53 days, it was snowing 222 hours 6 alam and alg: Bem eT es, no 4 amounted to97:45 inches on the surface. The monthly. fall wasas fol- lows: i Pecnnt was 17:98 inches, i in February 23-96, = March 28°61, in April )3, in October 3:10, in November 1°10, in De- cember 18°67 inches. ie first snow of the winter 1853-4 fell on the 15th day of October 1858, anc the last fell on the 30th day of April 1854; the whole amount of snow which fel ell in the winter 1853-4, swinuidil to 116°81 inches. The river Jesus was frozen over on the 28th day of November. The last steamer left Montreal (on “the S t. Lagrenge) on 8 ‘Mon he 22d day of April 1854. The winter 1853-4 fairly set in on the Ge ee day of December. ae the 7th of December 1853; the first steamer arrived a The amount of evaporation was measured regularly from the Ist of May 4°13 inches, in June 2-95 inches, in July 5:12 inches, in August 4:70 inches, in September 3:11 inches, in October 1-49 inches. This period includes what I consider could be taken with cata approach- dryness the amount of asm see in the month was 5D: 12 inches, — the amount of rain which fell amounted only to 0'174 inches, the tem- perature was 8° 2, above that of last year. Very few birds were seen in the fields, owing to the scarcity of water, and vegetation suffered very much from the ‘unusual dronght. The mean humidity of the month was “709, while that of the corresponding month of last year was ‘727, of 1853, - The most prevalent wind, during this year was the N. E. by E. ; least sivelent was the 8. S. E. In the winter quarter the most pt - lent wind was the N. E. by E. and the least jou In the wig quarter the most prevalent wind was the N. E. by E. and the least S. 8. EB. the summer quarter the most prevalent ean was the 8. W. by W. and the least so the E. In the autumn quarter the most prevalent wind was / . S. W. and the Jeast E. The ets velocity of the soe was on the 4th day of Decem ber, and was 40°17 miles ener z Miscellaneous Inielligence, : 141 mean of the maximum velocity was 19°53 miles per hour, the yearly mean of the minimum velocity was 0:16 miles per hour. The quarterly means were as follows: winter maximum velocity 17:06, minimum ve- locity 0°12; spring maximum velocity 19‘86, minimum velocity O-2t ; summer maximum velocity 55°51, minimum velocity 0-00; autuma maximum velocity 13°80, minimum velocity 0°31 miles per hour. rows wintered in this place although the winter was very severe, wild geese, Anser canadensis, were first seen on the 20th day of April; swallows, Hirudo rufa, were first seen on the 12th of April; whe, Alosa, were first caught in this neighborhood on the 30th of one i fie -flies, Lampyris corusca, were seen on the 12th day of June; frogs, Rana, were first heard on the 2nd of May. The ‘ Rossignol” (the harbinger of the Canadian spring) was hia “ be heard on the 16ih of March, and snow-birds were last seen on the 27th of April. ” The Aurora Borealis was visible on 50 nights as follows : eg omens 8th, 2.40 a.m. Faint palin light, —23d, mM. L ral arch faint.—28th, 6.30 P Dark segment at the ie distinct and bright, abe Pr alg: a: I visible passing from west to east through the const ¥ 6.55, the upper arch less distinct; 9.15, aun Tight diffuse ; 10.0, upper arch vanished, frequent and brilliant. streamers to the zbnith; 11.0, lower arch very bright and Re i ffuse.—2 9th, 8.0 P.M. Faint ' auroral light in the horizon ; 9.0, idem, dark segment at the horizon ; 10.0, idem. Aurora might have been seen on I] nights this month. February 10th, 10. M. Very faint auroral light—Illth, 4 a. M. Bri t auroral arch at the horizon, frequent streamers.—16th, 9 P. mM. iant arch, dark segment at the horizon, auroral light of a bright, color; 10 p.m., dark segment vanished.—24th, 7 r.m. Dark. pas at the horizon, surmounted by a very bright arch of auroral light ; P.M., arch exten de to near the zenith of a very pale color and ex- tending from east to west.—27th, ys P. M. Two penn arches e au- of a green and yellow color. Zodiacal light ie brig dacinit sl - Lunar halo, diam. 35° 6/.—16th ,10r.m. Heavy cu cumulo- stratus at the ey auroral light visible 1. = ~~ Aine SCIENSIFIC INTELLIGENCE, Physics —On the Expansion of certain substances by Cold, by W. x ) oe -» 113.—On the Nature of the Force by which Bodies are _ (For remainder of Contents, see third page of © THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF io if ™ . SCIENCH AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY 5 : PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN,. B. SILLIMAN, Jr, AND ; pe JAMES ‘D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. ~ SECOND SERIES. No. 69.—SEPTEMBER, 1855. NEW HAVEN THe Auentcan JourNnat or Science is published every two months, of January, March, May, July, September and November, in Nambers of 152 psec making Two Paliahte ayear. Subscription price $5 a year, in advance. Prof. B Sinumaw; after July, 1833, by Prof. B. 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XIII.— Notice of the Pitch Lake of Trinidad ; by Mr. N. S. Manross. ecent falls au Spain ten Miles distant. , These mountains consist mainly of highly inclined and con- torted strata of talcose and. micaceous slates containing veins of Somewhat crystalline quartz. The flanks and spurs of the range however exhibit a dark blue limestone, much veined with white, in which there are caves of iderable extent. These so far as _ Stcoxp Sunies, Vol. XX, No, 59.—Sept, 1855. 20 - 154 On the Pitch Lake of Trinidad. I could ascertain, are the only ancient rocks, as they are the only mountains in the island A road leads up from the landing to some sugar estates beyond the lake. It ascends a gentle slope of hardened pitch which - where left to itself is covered with a dense growth of reeds an bushes, but where broken up by cultivation produces abundantly the usual tropical garden fruits. ie ‘ On the Pitch Lake of Trinidad. 155 In no part of the ascent from the shore of the lake does the less fracture. In places where the surface is not protected by vegetation it becomes so far softened by the sun as to be still making progress downward. On nearing the lake the ascent becomes steeper, amounting to perhaps twenty-five feet in the last ten rods. Here the pitch is bare or but slightly covered with grass. Its appearance is not that of a sudden simultaneous overflow in a single smooth stream, but that of a great number of streams each but a few yards or rods in breadth. These independent streams have jostled one another strangely in their progress. ‘Their surfaces are wrinkled and drawn out into all manner of contortions, and where the edges meet, small ridges have been thrown up and the pitch broken into fragments not unlike the scoriz of lava currents. These fragments of pitch were on fire in several places, having been kindled by a fire which ran through the “ bush” a few weeks before. It is fortunate that the pitch when compact will not kindle, or in other words will not burn without a wick, for otherwise the entire region inclu- ding the village of La Braye might suffer the fate of Sodom and » The distance from the landing to the lake is three-fourths of a mile, the rise ninety-six feet. = direction of the principal stream from the lake is due north. On ascending the last slope of this pitchy glacier a singular Scene meets the eye. A black and circular plain of pitch half a mile in diameter lies flush with the edge of the stream. It is Surrounded by a dense wall of forest in which various species of tall palms are most conspicuous. The lake itself is entirely bare of vegetation, except about twenty small clumps of trees which are arranged in a sort of a circle about half way from the center to the circum- erence. the water was so far reduced that it was easy to pass over all parts of the lake by leaping the channels. At other seasons this is more difficult. | 156 — On the Pitch Lake of Trinidad. These channels have heretofore been described as crevices or cracks in the pitch. This description is however incorrect for the material though apparently almost as pa as stone is yet far too plastic to admit of any thing like a fissure remaining open in it. Excavations from which many tons of pitch have been taken for exportation are closed up again in the course of a few days or. weeks, not by streams of pitch flowing into them but by the grad- ual closing i in of the sides ahd bottom annels are produced and maintained by the following singular process. Each of the many hundred areas into which the lake is divided ira an independent revolving motion in this wise. In the center of the area the pitch is constantly rising up —not Sanne: out in streams, but rising en masse. It is thus constantly displacing that which previously occupied the center and forcing it towards the circumference. The surface becomes covered with concentric wrinkles, and the interior structure somewhat laminated, while the upper lam- inze at the center of the area are torn into ee by the expan- sion like the outer bark of a rapidly growing tre Where the edge of such an expanding area sabete that of the ad- joining oné the pitch rolls under to be thrown up again in the center at some future period. The material is rarely soft enough ie meet and form a close joint at noe top but ee with a rounded edge and at a considerable a The spaces thus left between the different areas are often five or six feet deep and three or four yards re at the top, diminish- ing of course to a mere seam at the botto Where three or more of them meet a ec shaped cavity is formed in some cases twelve or fourteen feet dee It is difficult to conceive of a motion like this going on ina material sane of stony hardness, but that such a revolution is constantly ae place over the entire surface of this ake can- be dou Another curious proof of it is afforded by numerous pieces of wood which being involved in the pitch are constautly coming to the surface. ey are often several feet in length and five or six inches in diameter. On reaching the surface they generally asstime an upright position, one end being detained in the pitch while the other is elevated by the lifting of the middle. They may be seen at frequent intervals all over the lake standing up to the height of two or even three feet. They look like stumps of trees, protruding through the pitch, but their parvenu character is curiealy betrayed by a ragged cap of pitch which invariably covers the top and hangs down like hounds ears on either side. a Pega then to which a close observation leads us in regard to the present condition of this singular lake is, not that it has siddouly cooled down from a boiling state as heretofore de- fepihetes ak ar Soars ’ On the Pitch Lake of Trinidad. 157 scribed, but that, solid as the material is, it is still boiling although with an indefinitely slow motion. As the descent of the glaciers may be considered the slowest instance of flowing in nature so the revolutions of the scarcely less solid bitumen of this lake may be set down as the slowest example of ebullition. The water which fills the crevices of the pitch is clear and very pure, especially towards the margin of the lake. It is the favor- ite resoft of all the washerwomen for miles around. So completely does the lake occupy the summit of the penin- sula on which it is situated that water was observed flowing from the connected network level at eight nearly equidistant points of the circumference. s the water is flowing now the pitch has formerly flowed from the lake in nearly all directions. It covers almost the whole pen- insula like a mantle, reaching down to the sea and forming almost three miles of coast. The entire surface covered by it is estimated at three thousand acres. The lake itself contains one undred acres. At the village of La Braye the stream of pitch has been dug through in several places, averaging from fifteen to eighteen feet in depth. Its depth at other places is not known. owards the center of the lake several detached areas are met with which are still quite soft. These have a glossy black sur- ace.- None of them are more than two or three rods in breadth. Those adjoining are rough and hard though not as hard as those hearer the margin, he surface of these softer areas yields under the feet. On Standing a few minutes one feels that he is gradually settling down, and in the course of ten or fifteen minutes he may find himself ancle deep. In a few places indeed where streams of fluid pitch were oozing through the more indurated surface, a few minutes standing would Sink one to the knees. agreeable odor. A strong smell of bitumen is perceivable in the air. 158 On the Pitch Lake of Trinidad. Streams of gas issue from below, sometimes rising through the water but more frequently hissing and gurgling from small open- ings in the pitch above water level. It appears to be chiefly sul- ' phuretted hydrogen, smelling strongly of that gas and instantly blackening a silver coin laid among the bubbles. When inflamed it burns with a pale yellowish flame. he surface of the pitch is whitened in places by a deposit of sulphur. The temperature of one of the streams of gas was 97° Fah., the highest heat which I observed upon the lake. The water in some of the crevices was 95°. In such cases it appeared to be rising at one end of the opening, flowing along, and descending at the other. I have no doubt that the mere surface of the pitch is sometimes heated by the sun to a higher degree than this. But the copious streams of gas would certainly indicate the fact if a much higher heat existed at a moderate depth below. The pitch where most fluid had a temperature of only 95°. It is evident that the bitumen does not owe its fluidity in any great degree to heat. It is true that the already hardened pitch may be melted by a sufficient heat, but that which 1s already fluid remains so at all ordinary temperatures. Wherever it oozes out in streams it flows down over the hardened surface into the nearest channel of .water (which may have a temperature not above 85°), where it creeps along the bottom in a stream that looks like a huge serpent. The fluidity of the pitch is evidently owing to the oily matter which it contains. 'The whole thing seems more like a vast fountain of coal tar than anything else. The gradual hardening which has evidently taken place is due to oxydation and evap0- ration of the less fixed ingredients,—a process which the revolv- ing motion heretofore described must greatly facilitate. In one of the star sbaped pools of water, some five feet deep, acolumn of pitch had been forced perpendicularly up from the bottom. On reaching the surface of the water it had expanded into a sort of center table about four feet in diameter but without touch- ing the sides of the pool. The stem was about a foot in diame- ter. [ leaped out upon this table and found that it not only sus- the water on the lake, An alligator shuffled off from one of the areas at my approach. In two instances I scared birds resembling On the Pitch Lake of Trinidad. 159 deposited upon the naked pite In the course of several days spent in examining the lake and the region around it I walked several miles along the sea-shore both to the northward and to the southward ‘of the lake. To the southward the shore is made up of bold cliffs upon which the sea is making rapid inroads. The strata consist of indurated clays of brilliant red and yellow colors. They present also thick veins of porcelain jasper. Strata of loosely coherent sandstones also abound. These are more solid and durable where they are impregnated with bitumen which acts asa cement. Rounded pebbles of pitch and porce- lain jasper form a beach at the foot of the cliffs. é out a mile and a half south of the lake 1 observed numer- ous beds of slightly indurated clay filled with the remains of leaves and vegetation. A little further on appears a bed of brown coal and lignite about twelve feet thick. It has such a dip and direction that if continuous it would pass under the lake at a great depth. But the strata are here much contorted and some even thrown into upright positions. Pebbles of pure asphaltum are thrown up by the waves at this point and not far off the beach is blackened by brilliant titanic iron sand. - Nearer the lake and to the southwest of it, a large spring of petroleum breaks out under the sea. The escape of gases from this vent is sometimes so violent as.to spout a column of water several feet high. d over the place in a boat but at the time. there was no ebullition although a strong odor of bitumen pervaded the sea reeze and acres of the sea were iridescent with the floating oil. The rocks on the beach opposite were varnished of a bright glossy black by the petroleum. [ filled a bottle with it by skimming it up from the water with a palm leaf. Many springs of petroleum oécur in the interior, within a few miles of the lake. ‘T'wo veins of pure asphaltum enclosed in clay were discovered about three-fourths of a mile from the same night hawks from their nests is rather from their eggs which were as yet unknown, distance under the sea. About a mile to the northward of the lake another bed of brown coal crops out upon the shore. It is about twenty feet 160 On the Pitch Lake of Trinidad. thick. Other and perhaps much thicker beds may exist in the vast mass of stratified materials which make up the bulk of the island. From the occurrence of such considerable accumulations of vegetable matter so situated as apparently to pass under the lake, it seems reasonable to regard them as the source of the pitchy matter which rises in such quantity there. Indeed many pieces of wood may be observed in the beds of brown coal which differ in no respect in their appearance from many of the pieces thrown up in the lake itself. These beds of vegetable matter are probably undergoing a slow distillation by volcanic heat. It is true there are no evidences of volcanic eruptions in the vicinity of the lake nor any materials of volcanic origin scattered on the beach except perhaps the titan- iferous iron sand. But at Cedras, twenty miles to the southward, there are active mud volcanoes. I did not have opportunity to examine them or to ascertain their character minutely. But the fact of their existence as well as the disturbed condition of the recent strata, together with the proximity of the island to the coast of Cumana where earthquakes are frequent and severe, ap- pears sufficient to show that the island is not entirely free from volcanic action Various attempts have been made to apply the inexhaustible store of bitumen afforded by the lake, to some useful purpose. Mixed with sand and pebbles it is much ‘used for pavements and the ground floors of houses at Port au Spain, a purpose for which it is admirably adapted. It has been employed to advantage as fuel by the American _— plying on the Orinoco. It is thrown in sap: furnaces ong the wood, fusing too readily to be used a » With ten per cent of rosin oil it forms an excellent pitch for vessels. The Earl of Dundonald has purchased a init tract of the pitch lands including twenty six acres of the lake and has insti- tuted various experiments with the view of substituting the bitu- men for India rubber and Gutta percha in the manufacture of water proof fabrics, covering of telegraph wires, &c. Ju ging from the specimens of = aco cloth, tubing and telegraph wire which were show e by his agent at Port au Spain, (Mr. as F. Stollmeyer, ) chen efforts bid fair to be quite suc- a seems only necessary that the required amount of intelligent ———— should be directed to the subject in order to render this erful reservoir of bitumen a source of great individual pro ly of essential service to mankind. wa eS ee Se : | On the Harrison ( Ohio) Tornado. 161 Arr. XIV.—The Harrison Tornado, Ohio, February 14, 1854. Ir is of interest in illustration of the subject of storms, to notice briefly the Harrison tornado, as its — differs in some respects .from the Brandon storm. an its operations were chroni- cled as being of such a wonderful aid unheard of character, that the writer was induced to visit the scenes of its ravages, to examine and record the facts, of whatever nature they might be. During no season since, perhaps, the stclomade of the state, ave so many visitations of the kind occurred; and the opportu- nity afforded has been uncommonly favorable for investigating the phenomena of these storms e tornado under consideration, commenced, as far as can be learned, in Dearborn Co., Ia., 10 or 12 miles west of Harrison, in North Latitude 39° 10’ and West Longitude 70°. Its course was N. 72° 32’ E., ravaging the country, at intervals for 50 miles. Its most marked characteristic was a diffuse and feeble action at the circumference, and intense energy at the axis. Occasion- ally it struck objects along its axis with the spite of a fury ; closely Pasig pO oe in its sudden and destructive effects, to the blast a huge cannon. The most striking examples of its violence mee found at the Graham place. est of Harrison the country was very much broken; and generally wherever the tornado ascended a hill or crossed its top, it left the forest untouched; but the moment it began its descent, everything fell before it. It frequently rose from the earth, or ‘was so broken up by the eer encountered, that extensive tracts were passed without injur Its destructive effects were pining confined to a path varying from 200 to 600 feet in breadth. At the Graham place it was three-fourths of a mile broad; at Mr. Wakefield’s woods 66 rods; and at’ Dr. Bowles, from the ex- treme point on the right, where fences in the open fields were prostrated, to the left where nae were thrown down, must have been a little more than half a Careful observations were nate at the Graham place, by the writer assisted by the Rev. M. Golliday of Harrison; also at the latter place; and at eon Wakefields; and a somewhat hasty €X- amination at Dr. Bow The Graham aah () stood in the edge of a forest which ex- tended to the west, with open ground on the east. West of the house (see plot) about 4th of a mile, a narrow and deep valley runs North and south. Lateral _— intersect this nearly at right angles from the east. ‘These are also deep and narrow gorges, extending about one-fourth of a ‘alte back from the main valley, forming sharp and well defined ridges between them. At the Sgconp Serres, Vol. XX, No. 59,—Sept,, 1855. “me sara gh | anit iS) Wy Res f 9 NX i ‘\ AY Wan ane i Y AB, Topography of the Graham place, and plot of the senile Breadth 4 mile. OD, Plot of survey across Wakefield's woods: Breadth On the Harrison (Ohio) Tornado. 163 head of one of these valleys and just where the descent into it begins, stood a small frame house. The action of the win e house and the’ forest around, was extremely complex; and while sendin across the track with a compass, the whole effect seemed like a riddle designed to puzzle meteorologists. On this account the survey was minute and protracted. he path was divided into sections of three rods each. The plot gives but a cases a single arrow on the plot represents the mean of from three to ten bearings. The topography of the place is also represented as the complex action referred to, is believed to have been owin to the nature of the surface. The arrows give the directions of the currents which simultaneously or in succession swept over this ill-fated place he storm approached the house nearly from the west; and yet it was struck on the eastern side, by the current from the south- east. The proof of this is explicit. The whirling mass of vapor, attended with a thundering roar, was seen by Mr. Graham ap- proaching from the west: he shut the door,’a few moments of awful suspense followed: then a winded over the east door was driven in with a loud report; then the door followed; and the next instant the house was torn from its foundations and shivered to fragments The tenants bruised and bleeding, and with tattered garments, were found in different positions. The dotted arrows indicate the directions in which the frag- ments were carried. ‘They were strewed over the ground for about 30 rods west of the house, and lay between N. W. and W. 6°S. Apa om of. the roof was carried W. 6° 8.; the chimney — W. 11° 'N.; a piece of a stove was picked up 30 rods N. W. ne these same bearings were portions of chairs, tables, bedsteads, boxes, boards, timbers, &c. It is a singular fact and shows the violence of the wind, a scarcely an article or a tim- ber could be found in an entire s The barn (2) which was built my logs, fell to the N. W.; sev- eral trees near it in the same direction West of the house large trees lay between W. and W. 30° N. The bearings and positions of these are shown by arrows. Min- gled with these are arrows with cross bars pointing easterly. hese represent trees with their limbs lying above the other trees which had been thrown towards the west ; and in a few instances fragments of the house were found beneath them his proves that the wind which first swept over the house ee — _ east, and afterwards it came with equal he est. The latter action; that from the west, was Tautitoes since by the passage of the axis of the storm. 164 - On the Harrison ( Ohio) Tornado. One remarkable feature of the storm at this point, which will strike the meteorologist upon a bare inspection of the plot, is, that the current which destroyed the house should have been so far in advance of the axis as to carry fragments 30 rods to the west, be- fore it curved into and mingled with the axis. A second feature is that such unparalleled violence in the over- throw of the house, should have been exhibited by the outskirts of the storm. When the house fell, the axis could not have been less than 40 rods from it. Usually in narrow tornados, a point 40 rods from the axis is out of the range of violence What effect the contour of the ground may have had in pro- ducing these results, I leave meteorologists to judge. ‘The por- tion of the tornado which struck the house, can be easily traced up the valley, which lies near the right hand border of the storms path. It passed up the valley and when near the head, plunged down the slope, and bridging over the bottom with fallen trees, ascended the opposite side, and gradually curved round into the axis. Portions of the house which were. first swept around west- ward into the axis, were subsequently carried by it towards the east. A tea spoon was found E. 30° S. from the house, half a mile distant. A part of an eve-trough near the same place. A piece of a chest easily identified, was carried N. E. two miles, and fell a mile north of the track of the storm. If the tornado had the form of an inverted cone, like the miniature whirls so often seen, then the transportation of this stick upwards an outwards is easily explained. Other explanations might indeed be given; but they are scarcely necessary unless the rotary action be denied. Five miles east of the Graham place, the tornado descended 2 high and steep range of hills which enclose the Whitewater rivet on the west, prostrating as usual the forest in its descent. In crossing the valley, it passed through the south part of Har- rison. Fortunately the track of destructive violence was here narrowed to two or three hundred feet he roof of a large church was raised perpendicularly into the air, and carried over the steeple towards the east. A tin ball two feet in diameter on the top of the spire was nearly torn from the iron rod which passed through it. There was no bruise upon it to indicate that it had been struck by a hard body. The roof of a carpenter’s shop was taken off and the posts broken just below the upper story. The lower story was thrown down, and the upper fell back upon the fragments without further injury. Two workmen were in the upper part, and were not aware of their descent till the door, which led to a flight of steps on the outside of the building was opened. It was supposed by some intelligent observers that the effects produced upon the shop and some other buildings were indicative : ee ae eS EE Moe tee a On the Harrison wees Tornado. 165 eres in before the roof went off: the gable end of the church ell Where both walls gave way, one as far asI could ascertain fell in and the other out. e wall of a small house was sprung out on the north, so that the ceiling was detached. A lady who was in the house at the time — that the south door was first driven in with great Violen The ¢ exception referred to was a brick house: A portion of the south wall fell outwards, but whether a current of air had _ found its way to the inside through a door or window could not be ascertained. Five miles east of Harrison the tornado struck a dense forest. On account of the level surface and the open country around, the _ Position was deemed a favorable one for giving a truthful record of the mode of the storms action. Here as at the Graham place, the track was divided into sections of thier rods each, and the bes of the fallen trees taken with a compass. These bear- ings are carefully laid down in the plot. The original division _ of this part of the State into sections of a mile square by the United We by a means of determining accurately the “course of the Tn renee ave sections, the tornado diverged to the north one — anda half m : SN SE hae eM RET Pee dN : : y 4 in sel Rea The fehewiig table gives the bearings of the last survey; and is inserted for the benefit of those who may be desirous of exam- ining critically the law of storms. The order of the bearings is the same as in the tables belonging to the Brandon storm,—from _ tight to left across the track. SURVEY ACROSS WAKEFIELD WOODS, | __ Whole breadth, 66 rods.) ~ Boatings. | Whole breadth, 66 rods. | _Bearings. 1B: 6° So ; 7th section of 3 rods, ok Ist section of 8 rods, aie ih f 15)N. 45 4iN. 45° E, Bah 55 5|N. 52° E, a 6/E. Sd « . 7 : si. Pee 4th “ < 9|E. 9th 10)N. 45° E, : 11 E. . ° | 19\N. 5° RB, |} 1oth * 13]N. 78° 166 On the Harrison ( Ohio) Tornado. TaBLe— Continued, Whole breadth, 66 rods. Bearings. Whole breadth, 66 rods. | Bearings, ( 26|N. 55° E. ae 50° E. 15th section of 3 rs 40,N, 20° W. . 28\E. over 27 41\N. 6° E, lith section of 3 rods, + 29/N. 49\N. 6° E, 30\N. 20° E. 16th “ 43'N. 6° E { 31)N. 45° E. 44S, 68° E 12th « 32 E. twisted ith * | 0 83/E. 6° S. 18th 45'N. 20° W. 34/E. 10° S. 19% ws Lgth. <@ < 20th i. & 46 N. 68° W. 36.N, 10° EK. Bist * . . 47S. 10° E oS eTIN 16° | eed te al 14th 738 N. 5° W. beg truth ; from some circumstances I am inclined to believe that it is a little too high. A few general remarks will close this article. 1st. This storm was remarkable for the occasional exhibitions diameter would penetrate earth five feet nine inches. A shot three inches in diameter, nearly the resisting surface of the scant- ling, would under similar circumstances penetrate three feet nine inches. This is but three inches deeper than the scantling was driven. While the weight of the timber in question would have been greater than the weight of a three inch shot ; on the other hand the form of the end was not so favorable for penetration. What portion of its velocity was due to falling cannot be tol with accuracy. As it fell within thirty rods of the building from ABR a i eit a ie Le On the Harrison ( Ohio) Tornado. 167 which it was taken, it could not have ascended to a great beight. It entered the ground at an angle of about 45°; and if from this we estimate the velocity acquired from falling, to equal one-half of the whole there is still left a velocity of 500 feet per second due to the wind. ‘The effects of such a wind would be fearful indeed : it would move at the rate of 340 miles per hour. 2nd. The involute form of the curve described by the wind as it approached the axis appears more marked in this than in the Brandon storm. ‘The plots of both Surveys indicate this, more especially that at the Graham place. At the same time the cy- cloidal curve is easily made out. The reverse action of the loop is clearly exhibited at the Graham place; the direct and reverse at Wakefield’s. Most of the prostrations at Wakefield’s on the right of the axis, were not made by the front of the storm, but took place when about one-half of the cycloid had passed over. Some of the trees were turned outward, showing that they stood till struck by the heel of the storm. ' 3d. The plunging action of the tornado was a remarkable fea- ture. The ground west of the Whitewater was favorable for observing this, as it was intersected by deep ravines. Ascending slopes were touched lightly in general, or not at all; while the descending were often swept with fearful violence. I am not aware that this peculiarity has been mentioned by other observ- ers. ‘The explanation does not seem difficult ; but too much space has already been occupied to state it here. : In conclusion the writer would take the liberty to suggest to observers, that he has found it important to carry his observations beyond the track of greatest violence. hough no trees nor houses may be thrown down, yet valuable evidence to show the mode of action can oftentimes be obtained. Mr. Laird’s house in the vicinity of the Graham place, was on the left of the axis, but too far from it to suffer any injury. The wind was violent but left none of the ordinary marks which could determine its direction. Mr. Laird however stated to the door which had been locked, was violently driven in. The di- ‘Tect and reverse stroke of the loop seem pointed out here. ‘The action of a tornado along the axis only, affords but confused data to elucidate the laws which govern it. 168 On the Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. Arr. XV.—On the Geographical Distribution of Crustacea ; by James D. Dana. (Continued from vols. xvi, xviii, and xix.) Havine in the preceding pages on the geographical distribution of Crustacea, treated of their distribution according to zones temperature, I now take up the other branch of the subject.— The Distribution of Crustacea according to Geographical rovinces. Tn presenting a series of tables in which the distribution of the Genera is given, I divide the surface of the globe, for marine z0- ological geography, a ae sections, the Occidental, the Afri co-European, and the tal ; the first, including the east and west coasts of pedis ad adjoining islands ; the second, the eastern side of the Atlantic Ocean, the coasts of Europe, and also of Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope ; the third, embracing the Indian Ocean, and its coasts and islands, the East Indies and the Pacific Ocean, w ith its coasts and isla nds, exclusive of the western coast of kena kid the neighboring islands. ‘The to- tal number of species in each is given in a separate column. make further groupings or subdivisions, by which the several portions of these great regions are distinguished. These general tables are not here copied from the veserk s Report, and vital ee ae therefore need not be giv Th wing is an abstract of corti Sof the results The aitisidh A, 65 ar the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and islands of America ; B, the European and West African ir and islands, from Cape ‘Horn to Greenland inclusive ; and C, t coasts and islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (America jr clude I, BRACHYURBA, MatrorpEs. A. B ©. Maiinea, = - - - 69 - 24(1a)f - 63(19ft Parthenopinea, - - - 1 ee ite: Oncininea, ‘ . - 0 2 0 s 2 Total Maioidea, - = - 70 29 (1) 104 (1) CANCROIDEA, Cancride, - - - 10 - 3 - — . . pls Sea aigycs 199 (18) is - i 7 = 5 i 52 (1 b) > octunii, Platyonychide an f é : Podophthalmide, 13 19 (1 a) 54 (1 a) Telphusinea, - - - . £08 - 7 Cyclinea, - - - Po ee - 0 Total Cancroidea, - 54 35 (2) 243 (3) * The discrepancies between the enumeration here and the summaries of the pre pes Sogenae arise from species omitted in one or both, on account of the wnoer — of th — row amg hat 1 + la ~ceitltialedine e rspe aR te 3 under A; and 10, ¢ of the | 63, is id is identical with a species under is, bolo ; Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 169 GrapsoIpEA, - - ; 51 - 18(5) - 124(5a) LxucosomEa, - - : 9 - 12 - 48(16) CorysTorpes, - - - 6 - 5 - 8 Total Bracuyura, 190 99 (8) 526 (10) Ii, ANOMOURA. A. RE. 0. Dromidea, - - - - 1 ~, iad - i6(idb Bellidea, - - - 2 - O - 0 Raninidea, - - - 1 - 0 . 5 Hippidea, —- . ; ae Poke) : 7 Porcellanidea, - - - 24 ae ae - 19 ithodea. - - - 5 - I1(la)- Se Paguridea, : . - %...-. 21(1e) - 61(T 5) Aigleidea, - = - 2 - O - 0 Galatheidea, = - - ’ o- MAT as 5 Total Anomoura, - 71 49 (8) 115 (2) . Til. MACROURA. A. B. ©. Thalassinidea, —- - - Ree es : 9 (15) Astacidea, - ie es 29 - 9 e Caridea, - ~ - - 40 = WTBa) - 85 (35) Peneidea, = - - - at - 28 Total Macrouna, 80 102 (8) 148 (4) Ivy. ANOMOBRANCHIATA. A. B. 0. bores - - - eee - 82(38) Myside ! - oF 18 : 15 Awinhio midds . - : Do ice 9 mp ES Total ANOMOBRANCHIATA, Pe tes 43 58 (3) Vv. TETRADECAPODA. A. G Isoropa. * Idoteidea, —- - . re ee eee . 6 (16) Oniscoidea, - - fet pe eet EO) Cymothoidea, - - ee us $1 0a) -7 (2) Total Isopoda, "8 164 (2) 59 (3) ANIsopopa, = - oc tie %3, 40 38 DA. Caprellidea, — - » . eager © Sec Gammaride , - 55 - 14 - 51 Hyperidea, = - - - 9 27 17 Total Amphipoda, = - a7 165 4 Total TergapEcaropa, - 160 857 (2) 189 (3) The table affords the following lists of genera of the three grand divisions, according to the present state of the science. — Seconp Sznres, Vol. XX, No. 59.—Sept. 1855. 2% 170 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 1. GENERA EXCLUSIVELY AMERICAN OR OCCIDENTAL. Coast on which found.| Coast on which found, 1. Maioidea, 3. Grapsoidea. Microrhynchus, - west. Cyrtograpsus, - - east. Salacia, - - 2 ca, ~ ‘west and east. Libidoclea, - - ‘west and east, Gecarcoidea, : east. Libinia, - ie ie choca - west. Pelia, . - west. Pin - west and east. Rhodia, - - " Pinnotherelis, | “ west. Pisoides, - - a Haliearcinus, - - west and east. Thoe, - - west and east. 14 [Leycosoi Chorilia, - . west. Platymera, - 5 Wether Seyra, - : Hepatus, - - west and east. Othonia, “ - P Guaia, - 3 «“ cS Mithraculus, = - west and east. | 5 orystoidea. a =e 3 Telmessus, - - west, rypodius, - - * eltarion, - - east. Oregonia, - : west Pseudocorystes, - Inac ae rs ss 6. Anomoura. A i ettla, - = Ol - - ‘wes Epialtus, svest and east. wa - Leucippa, - - ss Ranilia, 2 2. Cancroidea. Albunhippa, = west. Pilumnoides, - - west, Echidnocerus, - Trichodactylus, —- east. Macroura. Arenzus, - Ri get . Cambarus,. - - west and east. Potamia, - - west and east. Paracrangon, - - west. Orthostoma, - 4 east. fEglea, - - i Acanthocyclus, - _ west. Cryphiops, - : ie 2. GENERA EXCLUSIVELY OF THE AFRICO-EUROPEAN DIVISION. 1. Maioidea.—Lissa, Stenorhynchus, Amathia, Eurynome. - Cancroidea.—Perimela, Portumnus, Polybius 3. Grapsoidea.—Gonoplax, Heterograpsus, Brachynotus, ‘Hyme- a 4. Leucosoidea.—llia 5. Corystoiden—Thia, eee: 6. Anomoura.—Hom as Hate Aik Caloeiitis Ephyra, Gnathopbyllum. 3. GENERA EXCLUSIVELY ORIENTAL, OR OF THE THIRD DIVISION. 1. Maioidea.—Macrocheira, Paramithrax, Micippa, Lahaina, Naxia, Hyastenus, Pyria, Cyclax, Camposcia, etn esa Tiarinia, Perinea, Halimus, Menzthius, Stenocionops, Huenia, Xenocarcinus, Parthenope; eaten he atocarcinus, Ccieandeas: Enutyn olambrus. . Cancroidea.—Atergatis, Liomera, Liagora, Medzus, Halimede; al us. : Grapsoidea.—Curtonotus, Cleistostoma, Macrophthalmus, _ oh laecius, Scopimera, Doto, Eriocheir, Platynotus, Trich hopus, Sarmatium qiclice, Gecarcinicus, Xenophthalmus, Xanthasia, Hymenicus, Elamen@ as ctiris. 4. Leucosoidea.—Mursia, Orythia, Thealia, Matuta, vivant, Leu- Pores Nucia, Nursia, Myra, Ixa, Iphis, Arcania, Oreoph rus, Tlos, See ge Eee eS eT ee Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 171 5. Corystoidea.—Kraussia, CKidia, Dic 6. Anomoura.—Caphyra, Raninoides, ‘Raning Notopus, Lyreidus, Cosmonotus, ore Diogenes, Aniculus, us. 7. Macroura—Laomedia, er oe othoe, Callianidea, Callisea, The- nus, Ibacus, Amadbided Parken hrops, Cyclorhynchus, Atyoida, Alope, ipus, Harpilius, Anchistia, Sclecataacithe Hymenocera, Oplophorus, Regulus, Stenopus, Spongicola, Acetes, Eucopia. 4. gens COMMON TO THE AMERICAN AND ge ee ig DIVISIONS, BUT NOT IN THE THIRD, OR O 1. Maioidea. phase preoscn Leptopodia, sae Gea 2. Cancroidea.—Atelec 3. Anomour a— Mania rete: 4. Macroura.—Homar 5. GENERA COMMON TO THE AFRICO-EUROPEAN AND ORIENTAL DIVISIONS, NOT YET FOUND IN THE OCCIDENTAL, . Maioidea.—Inachus, Doclea, Maia, Acheus, Lambrus. Cancroidea.—Actwa, Actzodes, Thalamita, Portunus, Telphusa. . Leucosoidea.—Cycloes, Ebalia, Dorippe. Anomoura.—Latreillia, Cymopolia, nip ties - . Macroura.—Nika, Lysmata; Caridinia Ot ee OO DD 6. GENERA COMMON TO THE THREE DIVISIONS. 1. Maioidea.—Pisa, ii (mainly Occid.), Aca « 2. Cancroidea.—Xantho, Panopeus (mainly Occidental), ‘Pilutnnve, piiphia, Lupa, iphieiee Carcinus, Platyonychus Grapsoidea.—Grapsus, Goniograpsus, facto (sparingly Euro- “Aah pee, bos tage Pinnothera, o la Anomoura.—Dromia (sparingly Occid.), Asbutine: Porcellana, Lithodes, Paguristes, Rattibaries, ee (mainly Orient.), Clibana- Tlus, Gala me ea, 5. ura.—Gebia, Scyllarus, Panulirus, Palinurus, Astacus Crangoo, ‘Alpheul, Betzeus, Hippolyte, Pandalus, Paleemon, Sicyonia, the three divisions. ‘The may be much changed by — 1. SPECIES STATED TO BE COMMON TO DIVISIONS 4. ~ B., OR THE AMERICAN AND THE AFRICO-EUROPEAN WATE "Hyas coarctata: Massachusetts and Long Island, in ited States ; France ; England ; Shetlands. Leptopodia sagittaria: Canaries ; behue Indies ; Valpara Panopeus Herbstii: Mediterranean; Key West, South Teabolita, and New York in United States, 172 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. Carcinus menas : teen at Nice ; Crimea ; England ; Mas- sachusetts, United Sta pepe us pictus : Madeive Peru and Chili; (also various Pacific islands Planes minutus: Atlantic ee and occasionally found on both the American and Eur uropean co Goniogr ome arius : Canaries ; Mapa lear ~ Algiers, Nice, Italy ; Crimea ; Brittany ; ; and probably at Rio Janeiro, Brazil. Sesarma pénicilite Key West and South Gardlidi 5 oa United States ; and in South Africa, according to McLeay Acanthopus planissimus: West In dues ‘Canaries ; Madeira ; Cape Town and Port Natal, South Africa; (also various tropical Pacific islands lagusia squamosa: West Indies; Key West, South Carolina, in United | States ; Canaries ; Madeira (also, Isle of France ; Indian Ocean; Plagusia tomentosa : : Chili; 3° Town ; (also New Zealand). Albunea symnista: Canarie ; Mediterranean (also Pondicherry) ; and if the A. oryophthalmus is ihe same species, it occurs in the West Indies, and on the coast of South Carolina. Lithodes Maia: Great Britain ; Shetlands; Norway ; coast of Mas- sachusetts (rare). Bernhardus streblonyx: Great Britain; France; Mediterranean; c Cenobita diogenes: West Indies; Mediterranean, (Hawaii: Crangon vulgaris: Great Britain; France; United States ; San ca angon boreas: ele A ; Iceland; Greenland ; Massachusetts also, Kamtschat alus annulicornis : Socilind and Shetlands ; Norway ; Iceland; Mimachinatie s (rare) onodactylus chiragrus: Mediterranean; Key West; (also, Red Sea; Port Natal, South Africa; Isle of France: East Indies; Swan River, Australia ; Pacific Ocean, at Feejees, Tongatabu, &c.). 2. SPECIES COMMON TO B. AND C., THE AFRICO-EUROPEAN AND ORIENTAL SEA Mithraz dichotomus : Mediterranean ; “paie & Achaus Cranchii: Mediterranean ; Japan (pro si lay same species)- Actea rufo-punctata ; Canaries and Mediterranean ; Isle of France, Indian Ocean. Thalamita admete : Canaries ; Port Natal, South Africa; Red Sea; Indian Ocean, and Eas t Indies: Pacific Ocean, at the Fejees, Samoa, Hawaiian Islands, Wake? s Island, &c. ilumnus legge Dora ; Red Sea. Grapsus sus pictus : 5 he apsus stri rigosu Canaries South Africa; Red Sea; East Indies. iograpsus me, sor: Canaries; Port Natal, South Africa; Red ah Bat Indies. Planes minutus: Atlantic; Japan. Acanthopus planissimus : see above. Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 173 Plagusia tomentosa: Chili; South Africa; New Zealand. Plagusia squamosa: see above. Cycloes granulosa: Canaries; Japan (probably same species). Remipes scutellata: Ascension Island; Swan River, Australia; St. Christopher’s. Lysmata seticaudata: Mediterranean; Japan. Alpheus Edwardsii: Mediterranean ; Cape Verdes ; Port Natal, South Africa. Pandalus pristis: Mediterranean ; Japan. Squilla mantis: Mediterranean ; Canaries; Tschusan. Pagurus striatus : Mediterranean; Japan. 3. COSMOPOLITES. The above lists include the following species occurring in the Occidental, Africo-European, and Oriental seas. Grapsus pictus. Bernhardus streblonyx. Acanthopus planissimus. rangon boreas. Plagusia sqamosa. Crangon vulgaris. Plagusia tomentosa. Gonodactylus chiragrus. These are cosmopolite species.* The G'rapsus, Acanthopus, Plagusia, squamosa and Gonodactylus preéminently deserve this name, being found both north and south of the equator. e thrive in the hottest equatorial waters, and have their extreme limit in the temperate region. The temperature they admit of is hence at least from 56° to 88° F. The other species are cold-water species. Plagusia tomentosa belongs to the southern subtemperate region, being reported from ape Town, New Zealand, and Chili, and the rest are found in high northern latitudes, and probably pass from the Atlantic to . the Pacific Oeean through the Arctic Seas. Besides the above species, a few are found in the West Indies, which occur also in the Oriental Seas, but are not yet known from the European or West African coasts. These, which also may be styled cosmopolites, are as follows: Mithrax asper: East Indies; probably the same on the Peruvian Coas ; Atergatis lobatus ; Red Sea and Indian Ocean ; West Indies. i arpilius maculatus: East Indies ; South France ; Japan ;_ Various Pacific Islands from the Paumotus to the Feejees and Hawaiian Isl- ade West Indies ; Eriphia gonagra ; East Indies ; Port Natal ; Key est Menippe Rumphii: East Indies ; Rio Janeiro and the West Indies. Chlorodius exaratus : Pacific Islands ; East Indies ;, West Indies. Lysiosquilla scabricaudis: Indian Ocean; West Indies ; Brazil ; South Carolina. 5 * The Plat ipustul possibly be another cosmopolite, for it is reported from Table Bay! the East rahe, Japan and Valparaiso, — Bat we believe nae paraiso species to be different from that of the Indies, and have so 174 Geographical Distribution of Crastacea. From the survey already made, it is apparent, that the three grand divisions of the seas and coasts adopted in the preceding table, have very few species in common, and they correspond to a natural geographical arrangement. They constitute three kingdoms, to which two should be added, oo for the Arctie Seas, and the other for the Antarctic. These kingdoms are I. The Occidental Kingdom, embracing the Atlantic and Pa- cific coasts of America to the frigid region, or some point in the subfrigid region. Il. The e European Kingdom, extending from Cape Horn (or Cape Agulhas) to the Shetlands inclusive, ‘and embracing the ad- joining islands. Ill. The Oriental Kingdom, including the east coast of Africa, _ the south and east of Asia, and the is lands of 9 Indian and Pacific Ocean, exclusive of as American continen IV Arctic Kingdom, including Norway, Tesi Green- land, the Alascha Archipelago, and adjoining parts of the coasts of America und Kamtschatka, with other Arctic lands. V. The Antarctic Kingdom, embracing Fuegia, the Falk- lands, Southern New Zealand, and the lands or islands of the Antarctic Seas. It will not be understood that the torrid species in one of these kingdoms resembles the temperate more than do the torrid of an- other kingdom ; for this is far from true, since the distribution of genera is to a great extent determined by temperature, as already shown. But taking the range of species of the kingdoms through, there is a striking difference oti the kingdoms in species of the same temperature region o Each of the first three kingdoms are F aatuisily divided into three subkingdoms: a north, a “middl e, and a south, correspond- ing severally to the North Temperate, Torrid, and South 'Tem- perate zones of sea temperature. The impottauce of these di- visions will be a subject of further remark beyo he summary of the results in the predsaiig ‘table, presents some striking facts We observe, fist, that there is a ratio of 1: 1:5 between the Maioids of the A and C divisions (that is between those of the Occidental and ‘Oriaian seas, as just explained), while the ratio is about 1 : 44 for the Cancroids. So also, while the ratio of the A and B divisions together pee ge and. European) to C (Ori- ml) is for the Maioids, nearly 1:1, it is for the Cancroids, i &. Here is a wide ailtecines Sane ‘the Occidental and foal seas a8 regards these groups. This last ratio is for the Corystoids nearly that for the Maioids, or more exactly, 1: 0°75; for the Grapsoids it is 1:2; for the Leucosoids, 1:22. eho Arctic and Antarctic Seas are here merged in the other kingdoms, with which they are most nearly associa Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 175 If we compare these ratios with those which the same groups Sustain as regards temperature, as exhibited on a former page, we discover that there is a very close parallelism ; showing plainly that the prevalence of Maioids in the Occidental Seas must be _ owing to the comparative prevalence of cold waters; and the _ prevalence of the warm water groups, the Cancroids and Leuco- _ soids, in the Oriental Seas, is owing conversely to the grea extent of warm waters. ; Again, the ratio between the A and B divisions together of the Macroura, and the C division, is nearly as 1: 0°8, which sustains — the same conclusion as to the influence of temperature. __ The corresponding ratio for the Tetradecapoda is as 1: 0-26. _ But as this group, owing to the smallness of the species, has not _ been thoroughly investigated, except in European regions, di- rectly under the eyes of European observers, we cannot use sat- isfactorily the facts they present for deducing general conclusions, _ or for characterizing zoological districts or provinces. Still, it _ should be observed that the facts conform to the same principle. It is hence of the highest importance before comparing the zoological character of different coasts, that the temperature- regions of those coasts should be ascertained. Comparative tables of the East Indies and Mediterranean, or of _the Peruvian coast and the East Indies, or of the southeast and southwest coast of Africa (and so on), would Jead us far astray, if this element were left out of view ; for a difference of temper- _ ature region, implies a difference of genera and species, independ- _ ent of other considerations. On these grounds, whole continents, or sides of continents, may have a common character and differ Widely from other continents in the same latitude. If we look at the American continent in this point of view, We at once perceive a striking peculiarity. All the coasts - perate region, and so also, the coast of the United States, north of Cape Hatteras. (See Chart, this Jour., vol. xvi.) : ~ Now contrast America with the Oriental Seas. The whole 1s room for many distinct provinces within the same temperature Tegion. The fact is more striking, if we consider that the At- 176 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. lantic east of the West Indies contains no islands in the Torrid zone, besides St. Helena, Ascension, and the Cape Verdes, all of which are of small size. Again in order to compare the coasts of America and Europe, we must observe that the warm temperate region is represented along the former by a small district from Northern Florida to Cape Hatteras, while this region does not reach at all the latter, and only the Canaries in the Eastern Atlantic are within it. over, the temperate and subtemperate regions have no existence on the North American coast at Cape Hatteras; while on the Eu- ropean side, the former embraces the larger part of the Mediterra- nean, and a portion of North-western Africa, and the latter includes the Atlantic coast of Portugal. But north of Cape Hatteras, the coast of America is rightly compared with that of Europe, north of Portugal. To compare the coast of Asia and Europe, we first observe in the same manner the temperature regions, There is in fact a striking similarity with the coast of the United States. Yet, the torrid and subtorrid regions are confined to limits much nearer the equator ; and the warm temperate, although embracing as many degrees of latitude as the warm temperate on the United States, does not, on the China coasts extend farther north than the sub- torrid region of the Florida coast. The temperate region hardly has a place on the coast of China, while the subtemperate occu- pies the Yellow Sea. North of this Gulf, the coast corresponds mostly with the coast of the United States, north of Cape Cod. It is unnecessary to adduce other explanations, as the chart fur- nishes all that is needed for a ready comparison between the dif- ferent coasts. The propriety of uniting in one kingdom both coasts of Amer- ica, the eastern and western, and thus shutting off the latter from the great Pacific Ocean, may at first appear unnatural. “Yet it is supported by all facts bearing on the subject. There are no spe- cies known to be common to Western America and the Middle Pacific, excepting two or three cosmopolites. Moveover, the gen- era are to a great extent distinct, and where so, they often occut on both sides of the continent. The genera of Podophthalmia peculiar to America are mentioned on a preceding page, and also the particular coast on which they occur. _A review of some of the facts will exhibit in a strong light the zoological resemblances of the two sides of the continent. Of Cancer, there are four species found on the west coast of South America, three on the west coast of North America, and two on the east coast of North America. : f Hepatus, there is one species common to the West Indies and Brazil, a second, found at Rio Janeiro ; a third at Valparaiso, Chili; a fourth on the Carolina coast. | : i j 4 ; Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 177 Eibinia, in the same manner, has its species on the Atlantic and Pacific coast of the United States, and the coasts of Western aud Eastern South America. Mithrar is as widely distributed. Epialius occurs in the West Indies, California, Brazil, Galla- pagos, and Valparaiso. Potamia has two West Indian and one Chilian species. Elurypedius of Southern South America has its representative at Puget’s Sound, in the genus Oregonia. Again, the Libinia dubia of the West Indies, is hardly distin- guishable, according to Prof. L. R. Gibbes, from the ZL. affnis, Rand., of the California coast. JZ. spinosa of Brazil, is also found in Chili. Leptopodia sagittaria occurs in the West Indies, and also, according to Bell, at Valparaiso; Acanthonyx Petiverii(?), inthe West Indies, Brazil, and Gallapagos; E/pialtus margi- natus, on the coast of Brazil and at the Gallapagos (Bell); E’pz- altus bituberculatus, in Chili, and at}Key West; Uca wna, Guay- aquil and West Indies; Albun@a scutellata, West Indies and San Lorenzo, Peru; Hippa emerita and talpoides, both on East and West America, North and South. It is obvious, therefore, that the east and west sides of America are very closely related, and differ widely in a zoological sense, from either of the other kingdoms. _ We observe further, that nearly all the genera peculiar to Amer- ica are cold-water genera. They are mostly Maioids; the large group of the Cancroids, which belong mainly to warm waters, does not include a single genus exclusively American, and of the family Leucoside, of the Leucosoids, there are only three known Species. We also perceive why the western coast of America has no _ Zoological affinity with the Pacific Islands. The temperature of their waters is widely different ; and, moreover, the oceanic cur- rents of the tropics run from the American coast to tbe west- — ward, and are a barrier to migration eastward. The relations of the American or Occidental to the Africo-Eu- ropean kingdom are of much interest. The two kingdoms are Widely different in most respects. ce gain, there are several genera common in Europe, not known in America, as Inachus, Maia, Acheus, Portunus, Ebalia, La- treillia, Athanas, in addition to those included in Table 2. ample: the great genus Cancer occurs in both of these kingdoms, Szconp Sznizs, Vol, XX, No. 59.—Sept., 1855. 23 178 W.P. Blake on the Grooving and Polishing of Rocks. and is not known in Oriental seas, except in New Zealand and Tasmania. So also the important genus Homarus; besides Hyas, Herbstia, Leptopodia, Atelecyclus, Munida, and Grimo- thea. 'The genus Homarus has one species on the coast of the United States, one on the coast of Europe, and one at Table facts, where ascertained, show to be well characterized. In some cases, a further subdivision may be desirable, and when so, the subordinate divisions may be called Districts. In each Kingdom, the Provinces of each zone together may constitute a Sub-king- dom, as the Torrid Subkingdom, Temperate Subkingdom, &c. Arr. XVIL.—On the Grooving and Polishing of hard Rocks and Minerals by dry Sand ; by Witutam_P. Buaxe, Tue phenomena about to be described were observed in the Pass of San Bernardino, (California) in 1838.* This Pass is one _ of the principal breaks through the southern prolongation of the Sierra Nevada, and connects the Pacific slope with the broad is 2808 feet above the Pacific, and the width of the gap at that point is about two miles: from this the ground slopes each way very gradually, the grade or descent on the east, for about 28 miles, being on an average, 69 feet per mile. On this eastern declivity of the Pass—the side turned toward the Desert—the granite and associate rocks which form the sharp peak of San Gorgonio extend down to the valley of the Pass in a succession of sharp ridges, which being devoid of soil and of vegetation, stand out in bold and rugged outlines against the clear unclouded sky of that desert region. It was on these projecting spurs of San Gorgonio that the phe- nomena of grooving were seen. ‘The whole surface of the gral- ite, over broad spaces, was cut into long and perfectly parallel grooves and little furrows, and every portion of it was beaut fully smoothed, and though very uneven, had a fine polish. For a moment it was impossible to realize the cause of all this abra * A brief notice of these phenomena is given in the writer's Preliminary Geol gical Report, ace ying the Report of Lieut. R. S. Williamson, of a Reconnol® sance in Ualifornia, House Doc. 129, p.27. Washington, 1855. ; » eS ere a av in eee Sea ne ee : F W. P. Blake on the Grooving and Polishing of Rocks. 179 Wherever I turned my eyes—on the horizontal tables of rock, or on the vertical faces turned to the wind—the effects of the sand were visible: there was not a point untouched, the grains had en- graved their track on every stone. Even quartz was cut away and polished ; garnets and tourmaline were also cut, and left with polished surfaces. Masses of limestone looked ds if they had been partly dissolved, and resembled specimens of rock-salt that have been allowed to deliquesce in moist air. These minerals Were unequally abraded, and in the order of their hardness ; the Wear upon the feldspar of the granite being the most rapid, and the garnets being affected least. Whenever a garnet or a lump of quartz was imbedded in compact feldspar and favorably pre- sented to the action of the sand, the feldspar was cut away aroun the hard mineral, which was thus left standing in relief above the general surface. A portion however, of the feldspar, on the lee side of the garnets, being protected from the action o sand by the superior hardness of the gem, also stood out in relief, forming an elevated string, osar-like, under their lee. When the surface acted on, was vertical and charged with sarnets, a very peculiar result was produced ; the garnets were left standing in relief, mounted on the end of a long pedicle of gton about San Francisco, where they are all bent from the per- Pendicular in one direction, or in some places lie trailed along the ground. All these little fingers of stone pointed westward, in the direction of the valley of the Pass, to which the wind conforms. € experienced this wind before reaching the point of rocks and 180 W. P. Blake on the Grooving and Polishing of Rocks. the sand drifts: it blew with great force and seemed to be a great air current, as uniform in its direction and action, as the great cur- . rents of the sea. It flows into the interior with singular persist- ence and velocity, sweeping down over the slope of the Pass, not in fitful gusts and eddying whirls, but with a constant uni- formity of motion unlike any of the winds of our Atlantic sea- board, or of the plains. The Pass would in fact appear to be a great draught-channel, or chimney, to the interior, through which the air rushes inland from the cool sea, to supply the vacuum caused by the ascent of a column of heated air from the parched surface of the great Des- ert. This Pass is the only break of any magnitude in the moun- tain chain for a long distance, and as an air-channel, holds the same relation to the Colorado Desert as is sustained by the Golden Gate, at San Francisco, to the broad interior valleys of the Sac- ramento and San Joaquin. , The effects of driving sand are not confined to the Pass; they may be seen on all parts of the Desert where there are any hard rocks or minerals to be acted upon. On the upper plain, north of the Sand Hills, where steady and high winds prevail, and the sut- face is paved with pebbles of various colors, the latter are all pol- ished to such a degree that they glisten in the sun’s rays, and seem to be formed by art. The polish is not like that produced by the lapidary, but looks more like laquered ware, or as if the pebbles had been oiled and varnished. On the lower parts of the Desert, or wherever there is a speci- men of silicified wood, the sand has registered its action. It seems to have been ceaselessly at work and when no obstacle was encountered on which wear and abrasion could be effected, the grains have acted on each other, and by constantly coming in con- tact have worn away all their little asperities and become almost perfect spheres. This form is evident when the sand is examined by a microscope. We may regard these results as most interesting examples of the denuding power of loose materials transported by currents ina fluid. If wecan have a distinct abrasion and linear grooving of the hardest rocks and minerals, by the mere action of little constant current in the more dense fluid-water? We may col- clude that long rectilinear furrows of indefinite depth may be made by loose materials, and that it is not essential to their forma- tion that the rocks and gravel, acting as chisels or gravers, should be pressed down by violence, or imbedded in ice, or moved for- ward en masse under pressure by the action of glaciers or stranded icebergs, Wherever, therefore, we find on the surfaces of moun- The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 181 tains, not covered by glaciers, grooved and polished surfaces with the furrows extending in long parallel lines seeming to indicate the action of a former glacier, we should remember the effects which may be produced during a long period of time by light and loose materials transported in a current of air; and which consequently may be produced with greater distinctness, and in a different style, by rocks moved forward in a current of water. The effects produced by glaciers, by drift, or moving sand, are doubtless different and peculiar—so different and characteristic, that the cause may be at once assigned by the experienced ob- server, who can distinguish between them without difficulty. It is, however, possible that after a sand-worn surface, such as has been described, has been for ages covered with moist earth, a de- composition of the surface would take place sufficient to remove the polish from the furrows and leave us in doubt as to, their origin. If it were possible, it would be exeedingly interesting to ascer- tain the length of time it has required for the little grains of sand to carve the surface of the granite ridge to its present form. How inappreciably small must be the effect produced by a single grain! And yet by their combined and long continued action mighty effects are produced. That.the action of the grains sin- gly, is not visible, is proved to us by the polished surface, for no One grain cuts deeply enough to leave a scratch. Ages have doubtless elapsed since this action of the sand began, and we cannot tell how deep the abrasion has extended; cubic yards of granite may have been cut into dust and driven hefore the wind over the expanse of the Desert. Arr. XVIIl.—The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Spe- . Ces ;* by Dr. ALexanpeR Braun.—Translated from the Ger- an by Cuartes Francis Srone. » Parr ILt As I attempted to show in Part I, whatever seems arbitrary and indefinite in the existing views of what constitutes the Veg- etable Individual has its ground in the nature of plants them- selves, which, in their realization are resolved into a plurality which they are not eapable of reducing to as complete an unity as animals are. As we ascend in the natural kingdoms, individ- * Das Individuum der Pflanze in seinem Verhiltniss zur Species—Generations- plge, Genrationswechsel und Generationstheilung der Pflanze, by Dr. A. Braun, Pro- ssor of Botany in the University of Berlin, dc, dc. yi 182 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. uals increase in importance, until they reach their most perfect independence in Man. Hence, if we would appreciate them justly in the lower departments, in which their character is less defin- ite, we must try to comprehend the less perfect structures by starting from the more perfect ones: to appreciate vegetable in- dividuals we must start from a comparison of animal individuals. From this point of view we perceive at once that the cell can- not be regarded as the proper individual in plants, otherwise it would have to be considered in the same manner in animals. Cell-formation is a property common to plants and animals: but in animals it appears far more obviously as a subordinate element in the organization of the whole body, than it does in plants; since the animal cell, in most cases, is not so independent, nor s0 determinate, nor so permanently isolated as the vegetable cell. or this reason, too, it is rarer to find thé animal cell considered perhaps, be interpreted in the same sense. The “stories” of the axes, the internodes with their leaves, might claim to be com- pared with the animal individual with more justice than the cell, especially if leaf-formation really took place as the defenders of such doctrines have represented: that is, if every successive le were produced as a new structure out of the old one (out of is base which becomes the internode), and if the whole stem wele thus merely a concatenation of leaves shooting out of and grow ing above each other. But this is not so; the rudiment of the stem as an uninterrupted growth (“continuance”) is form be- Jore the leaves, while the latter, emerging as developments of the upper surface of the stem, are evidently members dependent upon and belonging to the axis, and forming with it one whole. Hence the structure of the internodes may be more aptly compared with the lateral structure of the animal body, and that of the leaves with its terminal structure. Thus we arrive at the shoot; we must investigate the question, whether it should be considered as what corresponds best with the animal individual, or whe we must ascend still farther, up to the whole plant-stock. The Shoot as the Vegetable Individual. The first and most common view is that which considers the individual in plants, as in animals, to be merely each single Sp& cimen, i.e., each representative of the species which appears be one whole from the connexion of its parts. ‘To some extent Et Get are ae ee eee ea a The Vegetable Individual in its relation to species. 183 this view is correct, for in a forest of trees of the same genus and species, in a meadow, or in a cornfield, each single tree, each stock of grass or of grain, appears as a single member of its spe- cies, as each single beast does in a flock of animals forming a community. But the question arises whether these individual beings, regarded as such in this superficial way, can each be con- sidered individuals in the same sense. When the flocks or socie- ties of animals are numerous, as in an apiary, each hive or swarm will appear as an individual member of its species, and the more so in proportion to the closeness of the connexion between the members of such a community. any flocks of animals whose members are organically connected during life, have until lately been considered to be individual animals; an n the separation of the individuals is more complete, such conceptions 2 184 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. the paradoxical words of Schleiden:* ‘ No tree has leaves.” ~ The leaves, in fact, never grow out of the woody portions of the tree, but only on its herbaceous extremities, which grow upon ation. 'T'hiscommon ground, namely the woody stem, which is almost lifeless in comparison with the herbaceous parts engaged in active growth, is annually covered with a vigorous sheath un- der the protecting bark, and this sheath is the ground of the nour- ishment of all the vegetating herbaceous extremities. This sheath is the so-called cambium, a layer of active, living tissue which, contemporaneously with the lignification of the herba- ered in its turn in the following period of vegetation with a new layer, which, again, will be the immediate supporter of the new generations. ‘The history of the grand development of nature on the surface of our globe presents an analogy which may per- haps serve to set this relation in a clearer light. The successive geological formations superposed during the course of countless ages, present, buried in their depths, the traces of as many forma- tions of the organic world, each of which carpeted the then st- perior stratum of the earth with a new life, until it found its own grave in the succeeding formation, when a new uprising of or- anic life took its place. In the same way the stem of a tree is a multistratified ground, in whose layers the history of earlier growths are legibly preserved. ‘The number of the woody layers indicates the number of the generations which have perished, i. €-, ment of a vigorous season, an indistinct one of a bad season, 4 sickly one (which is often found among healthy ones) indicates the unhealthiness of the foliage of that particular year. The son of vegetation. The relations indicated above compel us to recognise a SUC cession of generations in trees, shrubs, and perennial herbs ; and * Beitr, p-152, where the following view of the arboraceous stem, as 4 common ground —— many individuals is developed ; but this whole view, after all, needs to be corrected by a precise limitation of its meaning by what follows it. The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 185 thus our first idea of them as individuals is necessarily modified, Another remark may be made here which confirms our idea thus modified. Natural death closes the life of the individual.* The development of the life of individuals in organic nature has a goal, an acme ; after it has attained this goal its course draws to anend. ‘This is not the-case in the tree and the perennial herb. True the tree is destroyed by time; but this seems to result more from external, and in part mechanical causes, than from any in- ternal decrepitude. The more numerous the generations which the tree builds up, one above the other, the greater is the distance of the growing extremities from the source of their nourishment ; the thicker the supporting trunk the thinner is the layer of cam- bium which connects the new shoots with the extremities of the root by which the nourishment is absorbed. This increased dif- ficulty of communication between the upper and lower extremi- ties is probably the cause of the decrease of vigorous growth af- ter the plant has arrived at a certain age. But in most cases ex- ternal casualties are superinduced, which accelerate the termina- tion of the tree’s life. It is injured by wind and weather, the de- cay of the injured part spreads through the whole organism, vari- ous fungi fix themselves upon the tree, and are especially fatal when they attack the roots. Oftentimes the tree breaks down under the weight of the productions of its own vital powers, the 4% luxuriance of its fruit. hese statements are corroborated by being called “Neustadt an der grossen Linde” (Neustadt of the great Linden), whose wide-spreading branches were supported al- ready in 1408 by sixty-seven stone pillars, and this number was af- terwards increased up to more than one hundred.+. The hoary tree still flourishes, having survived its many scientific admirers, among whom was my predecessor, to whom Botany is so greatly indebted, Who visited and described it a few years ago, (in 1849).f Natural ., «Cf. Schleiden: Beitr., p- 151. “The idea of individual life necessarily implies as saeetinguishin char teristic individual death, k diti Aree Sa ong onl Se. __Although this remark is not universally true in many ng, 2 Cg : = lusion adopted it for the light it is calculated to throw on the nature of e skin, ting, and the organic changes.in the body). Of on this point Roeper: Linnea, 1826, p. 439, and the following remarks ] j ia nummularia, Adoxa, ete., the preceding ones on Caulerpa, t De Candolle: Physiol. Veg. I, p. 988. ° re elie innerungen an die grosse Linde bei Neustadt am Kocher (Flora , 1859, 0. Skconp Serres, Vol. XX, No. 59.—Sept., 1855. 24 186 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. supports are chat efficacious in preserving trees than even artifi- cial ones; since they not only prop the branches, but conduct Beirinh trent to them by a shorter road, as is actually found to be the case in Rhizophora Mangle, in various species of figs, [Ban- yan, &c.], and other tropical trees, whose branches high in air send down strong roots into the earth. A similar example nearer home, though indeed on a much smaller scale, is found in the Ju- niperus Sabina. Its branches, which spring from a low stem, curve down to the earth, strike numerous roots, and raise them- selves again, so that the comparatively feeble stem may carry a creeping crown of considerable extent, like a thick wood contin- ually spreading, and which may continue to flourish in its parts, even w and nourisher of the whole colony and the succeeding new growths, which are constantly receding from it, has finally ceased. A remarkable specimen of this tree stands in the Royal Botanical Garden at Schoneberg, which, if not as old as the Garden itself, which was laid out in 1679 under the great Elector, — William, certainly dates as far back as Gleditsch’s time, and directorship co commenced in 1744. The main stem is not more hae 33 inches in circumference at eight inches above the ground, close under the place where the first branches ee nO the cen- nef ese of the crown which belongs immediately to the stem, only nine feet high, and has been dying off during several pt while the maximum diameter, from S. to N. E., of the undred-rooted crown, which has s spread out a sr the ground by the declination of mi branches, measures 35 feet; the entire cit- cumference of the crown, which amounts ri at 100 feet, would be still more orididerable if it had been permitted to spread on every side, and if the branches on the N. E. side had not been removed at an early day. What has just been said of trees admits of no doubt as regards perennial herbs (plantz redivive) with subterranean creeping stems or stolons. Such plant-stocks as those of the well-known Paris, Anemone nemorosa, Convallaria majalis, Asperula odo- rata, are pee ac exposed to none but a casual death. * All ple individuals. * The same relations of great unlimited age are found in which form stocks, Of. Ehrenberg: Abh. d. Acad. for 1832, p. 382, 420, where among © others, stocks of Mzandriz and i are refe _ to, larger than a cord of wood—which may readily be supposed to have been seen by Pharaoh. T pass over the onshore pon inti mately connected with this — whether the composite plant-stock itself, with all its subordinate e generations, W 2 its pos sible e divisions, —viz., the individual i in the meet comprehensive sense (in hich Galle- ife, though not easy to } on account of the narrow space of time seNSE: -R © our direct experience. The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 187 At first sight the case seems to be different in re haplobiotic* plants, which terminate their existence at the end of the simple process of development, with the formation of flowers and fruit ; and this they do whether they exist one year, as Adonis astivalis and ante Nigella, Papaver Rheas, Hrigeron Canadensis,t+ or for two as Oenothera and Verbascu cum, or for many years,{ as Agave Knsty: plant], the East Indian Corypha, and the Mex- ican Fourcroya,$ which suddenly puts forth its flowers only after 400 years of extremely slow growth, and ends its life with the formation of its first and long-deferred fruit. The development of these plants, when compared with that of the first mentioned ana- biotic plants, seems at first to comprise only one generation, and to depend upon the development of one individual. But here, too, a closer examination shows conditions incompatible with the nature of the simple plant (the individual). One constituent element in sents a multitude of parts which bear no essential relation to the whole plant. This is true of a large part of the ramifications, of branches which may exist in one case and not in others, and * De Candolle calls geet: gidtog pein” and haplobiotic te mono- carpic, terms which are om their ambiguity. With an ually in propriate choice of terms ce “fivides the first ; (Phys. Veg. I, p "13), mg ous. earpie and rhizoearpic, according as the ati hich produces the fruit is perma- ies off down wths; for he mere re -allone, but by a portion of the stem. is one of the ost rema —- a wan ¥ hon hialegiael ideas has engendered, that De Candelle should have regarded th pape aye: and most natural circumstance in the ride life,—its death after gt ving attainol the goal of its development,—as an n a t ness of the flowers and seeds. Réper, however, in a note s translation of the above work , justly remarks that there are shtruals with double eas which die off to the ground although t °y produce no seeds. ht may convince ourselves selene a doubt that the flowers, on the c ontrary, are much less rapacious than the la parts of the plant, that they even shut the sho th off from the afflux of too t; for many plants develop vegetative branches close under devies Ower, as e.g, Stellaria media, Datura, ral ete. In such cases the _ flower- stalk, which cuts itself off from almost all far + afta of nourishment, remains der, while the portions of the goed - rotiaee Veneath and the branches which spring from it, gorged with succulent r, enlarge more and more, and attain a most Size. on satay are plan nnue Honates So, too, many vernal plants, as Paige Oardamine hir- Sita, Spergula Morisonii, oe Be weeds of Fees inter corn, e. g., several species ares, Bromus j Corypha umbraculi roy i: Rhea Hort. Mal. iii, pl. 1-12. This is also the Fo : in hog = ic Metrorylon and Eugeissona, according to Martius (Hist. m, p. 1 : me, On Pease longeva, cf. Zuccarini in the Nov. act. nat. cur., xvi, 2, p. 666 and 188 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. which are proved to be unessential by the plant’s losing no essen- tial function when deprived of them. For even when the plant does not produce them, it can fully pein memo the object of its individual life ; it can produce flowers and fruit. A glance at the examples just now adduced, Nigella, Puvase: Rheas, Adonis, etc., will make these statements obvious. ‘The branches of these plants, each of which, like the stem, is crowned with flowers and fruit, are evidently only — repetitions of the simple plant, absolutely identica the main stem, and hence to be ranked as equal to it in ari nastons i €., equally to be viewed as particular individuals, and with as much reason as in Zoology we concede individuality to the branches of the coral-stock (polypi- dom), which are now universally acknowledged to be individuals, and which offer an analogy of decisive importance for ascertaining the nature of the branch in vegetables. In view of this analogy Dee Deepa plants as aggregations of individuals. ow turn back, and apply what has been shown to be the case ine ssa annual herb to the shrub and the tree, each of whose annual generations now appears more distinctly than before to be, in their peculiar connexion, not one individual, but a world of individuals developing in the same period of vegetation and upon the same stem. ‘T’o this intent many of the early botanists have expressed themselves, as I stated in the Introduction. Thus, B. e. g., Says of branches, that they shoot forth from the stem ‘as if they were so many plants rooted in it ;’’+ and Goethe :f “lateral branches may be regarded as particular ne which are rooted upon the maternal stem, just as this stem is upon the earth.” Among moderns, Unger, at the Close of his investigations into dicotyledonous stems, sa . . Buds and the brane ays they develop are individual plants, which live by preying saci the maternal stem.”$ Similar expressions are used by Schlei- h. d. Akad, 1835, p.247. .... “ Hen a polyp-stoc is a mass of ani- sale We have no sntietans ory comprehensive expression for our idea of a are What an individual is remains — peters Sty hem are erent agEres oF > eplriemd which may be compared w pabetoskn The of ena y des ey by. Birenberg i = the Abhandl, for 1832, ‘ens i Fag folowing emark “ The cora structure i . saaaie a mere structure compos f many heads, or with s e fur cations 3, ae Cavin maintained ; cts stem with animal flowers, a x £m e vst it: s a body of families, a living tree of consanguinity, the single animals t longing 23 it and tal devel Pine cha the omplete vd, | t Versuch d. ae d, Fz zu erkldren, p- 59. The words “just as” in the passage quoted imply too much, and remind us of Du Petit-Thouars’ unfounded doctrine == the area ieR of f the woody prema of the stem by the ‘roots’ of the buds whicli ae Ueber “4 Bau u. — des Dicotyledonenstammes, p, 177. Here, too, “preying” is too strong a -_ 3 he Salad” asad ; : The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 189 den ;* they are most definite in Réper’s works.¢ Linnzus ex- pressed the same thought in the words “ gemme totidem herbe.”’ And I am thus led to make a particular remark, which is intended at the same time to modify in some degree what I said before in relation to the annually renewed generations of trees. It is in- deed true that branches of trees and perennial herbs, especially in temperate climates, first appear as buds; and in a more extended Sense we call in general every young branch a bud, even if its parts are not, as they usually are, compactly arranged and folded together ; still, all buds are not the rudiments of branches. Lat- eral buds are the only ones from which branches originate, and therefore they alone are to be regarded as new lines of develop- ment,—as individuals. Terminal buds, on the contrary, are noth- b if Grundz,, ii, p. 4, “New identical individuals develop upon the maternal stem .) Continuing the growth,” etc. Here the expression “continuing the growth,” is + Proper, for the shoot does not “continue” the growth at all, but is a new growth from a new rudi ‘ et perpendicularis (caulis, ramus, ramulus, flos) individuum vegetabile vocatur.” This is the t defi- tion I kn but ment, t “ Omnis gemma solitaria aut ejusdem continuatio immediata ” nite description I know of ; for in this passage not only the eS 80- ” is app 2 to a one state of a shoot or of its ,and therefore cannot be a suitable expression t is to be regarded as the vegetable individual. : : ing. by be J pl 46,) aptly expresses these relations by calling the bud the continuation of the “series of formations,” lateral buds begin- hings of a new “series of generations.” In contradiction with these terms, however ’ the bu organ” as as it is connected with the na pga og: 4 term inapplicable to the bud as it is to the developed branch, of which it is the Adolescent state, 190 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. inclined to malformations than the lusty giants of the rich soils. Not unfrequently we find diminutive speciments of Hrythrea pulchella s, ramosissima which are branchless and perfectly sim- ple, as they terminate with a flower after four or five pairs 0 leaves. More vigorous specimens produce two branches out of the axils of the highest pair of leaves, which after a single pair of leaves terminate in the same manner with a flower ; and branches of the second order may be also emitted from the axils of the two leaves preceding this flower; and so on. In the first order of ram- ification the number of flowers amounts to three, in the second to seven, and so on; in the seventh, which is not unfrequently at- tained, it amounts to 127! Here, if we would consider the stock or specimen as the individual, and the flower as the superior termination of the vegetable organism, comparable, say, to the head of the animal, this variation in the number of the flowers would be as astounding as if we were to learn that an animal might have 3, 7, 15, 31, 73, or 127 heads, according to circum- stances. ‘The same thing occurs in Radiola linoldes. Erigeron Canadensis, which often grows to the height of a man and bears "as many branches as a tree, presents dwarfed specimens scarcely two inches high and of a perfectly simple form.* After devel- oping two early deciduous cotyledons it presents about 13 leaves on the stem, which are followed by a terminal capitulum of 21 involucral bracts and about 34 flowers. One middle-sized speci- men about three feet high presented nearly 100 branches of the first order, out of which branches of the succeeding orders pro- ceeded, together bearing about 2000 heads, and hence (reckoning the head at 34 flowers) 68000 flowers.+ I may here remark, that such unessential branches may be sep- arated and reared independent of their parent stem; on which fact depends propagation by artificial divisions, which is so variously employed in horticulture. The most remarkable case of this artifi- cial division is recorded by Miller: in the year 1766-67, he ob- tained 500 stocks of winter Rye, by dividing one stock and re- peating the operation three times; these 500 stocks emitted 21,109 spikes, bearing together 576,840 grains. Nature herself, as well as art, in various ways may effect such an independent Strawberry by its runners; o th eG tuberosus by their tubers; of bulbous plants by their bulbs; of the 4 * Not counting the florets, which also are properly so many branches. Similar cases occur in most annuals. The forms o j with simple spikelets instead of rich panicles, are well-known; less known and less remarkable are the depauperate specimens of Umbellifere with one single unifloral me of which of Scandix Pecten are in my possession, I have also spect mens i i Solanum nigrum, one and a half inches high, with a solitary terminal flowe- 4 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 191 Garlic by the bulblets formed in the process of flowering, and fall- ing off like seeds; of the varieties of the beautiful Achimenes by the amentaceous or the strobiliaceous deciduous shootlets, are well-known examples of this process; and thousands of others ay be adduced.* e gardener can not only separate individuals, but unite them upon one stem. This is true not only of individuals of the same species, but even of those of different species ; sometimes even of different genera of the same family. The Lilac is not unfre- quently grafted upon the Privet (Ligustrum), the Pear upon the Mountain Ash (Sorbus Aucuparia), the Peach upon the Al- mond. By the insertion of a bud (inoculation), or of a developed sproulet (grafting), we are thus enabled to pluck different kinds of roses from the same bush, to gather different kinds of fruit from the same tree. It would evidently be a contradiction in this case to consider the whole tree, or the whole bush, as the indi- vidual ; for we should then give the name to a compound of sev- era species, or even of several gener In attempting to comprehend oe vegetable individual in its simplest form, we have thus far spoken of unessential branches only, and have aieciel to show that they cannot be regarded as mere parts of the individual. But there is another kind of ning-Primrose, Larkspur, Orchidee, etc., whose lateral flowers are Just such essential branches. If we demand that the individual should be a complete representative of the characters of the spe- cies, as is implied in the usual view, then we must add to the Principal axis such gamers: as these,—without which the process of vegetation is not concluded, and on which, in fact, the most essential and iieieauie parts of the plant make their appear- will only adduce a few more of these e examples, babies bigs ens be bese Fay indefinitely Besides the Garlic (Allium sativum) in many oth j ineale; Lilium bulbi shoots Separate close to the base. ae eparatio oy i i i ner in Pista, by the separation of fthi-staled . alata and m™, root-lea ap be es fu ia Bas in Saxi ag Pe he ee Fe cmeetadcno oe bales lants. Inferior leaf buds pee ot _ re placed ri ee recpin tolons become free the death of the aE in F; s, etc. and swell ni Sut and form little lumps. Cf. on aps his sutject Wy Wydler ror, 1853, p. 17-24), 2. B go ZS, S 8 > eg" s 5 192 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. ance,—and call these parts of the same individual. In this sense Schleiden’s view of the simple plant might perhaps be justified, although, as he starts from different premises, he does not con- sider mere floral branches as particular individuals. He says: “If nothing but organs of reproduction, or Ravan spring from the bud we still call the plant a simple or Here, however, we arrive ata reise nee which shows us that we cannot carry out the idea of the vegetable individual with the requisite definiteness in this way, since we thus regard essen- tially similar branches, now as individuals in themselves, now as mere parts of individuals, As I have already remarked, Schlei- den allows individual importance to branches which are identicalt with the main axis; those on the contrary which produce flow- ers alone, and in this respect differ from the main axis, he regards as mere parts of the simple individual, This distinction when analyzed is perfectly nugatory ; since it only lays down two ex- tremes, between which there are an infinite number of gradations. Strictly speaking, there are no branches which are perfectly iden- tical with the main stem, as is evident from the fact that no anch begins with cotyledons, as the main axis does.{ Besides, the foliaceous leaves on the branch are almost always fewer than those on the main axis, and generally ae in proportion as the point is higher where the branch origina The arrangement of the leaves on the branches, also, often differs from the arrange- ment on the main axis, as e. g., in most of our broad-leaved trees, —in the Elm, mee Chestnut, Linden, ete., in which the ph lotaxis on the main axis, and often at a later period in the so- —_ fe = called “ water-shoots” ( Wemstrachorsen is spiral or decussate, — Al- while on the branches, it is, on the contrary, distichous. In nus viridis the phyllotaxis is rsoliahors on the main axis, and dis- there are 3-4-leaved whorls; on the branches the pairs of leaves are nearly decussate ; this is also the case in Lysimachia vulgaris- In the same way in Equisetum the number of the rameal vert -cillate leaves is always inferior to that of the cauline ones, While thus on the one hand the vegetative branches are nowhere el tirely similar to the stem from which they spring, on the other hand it appears that those branchlets which seem to be at flow- ers only are usually more numerous than they seem to in most cases one, two, or even more small leaves (tls), a present beneath the flow r, Which may easily escape n notice account of their ainsi: size, “es their existence may * Grundz, ii, p. 4 + Gru i, p.4 id beat oy cotyledons of the branches, rodegst hae been com ilo- This comparison is partly justified in view of the commencement of phy rt — on the braneh ; which often resembles that on t xe main axis, whilein regard form and consistency almost all resemblance disa The Vegetable Individual in tts relation to Species. 193 be often ascertained with certainty even in those cases in which they are not visible when the flower has reached its complete de- velopment.* If we are to deny individuality to those buds (branches) only which are composed of a flower alone, as a strict interpretation of Schleiden’s language demands, we should have to draw a most unnatural and often impracticable line of demars cation between branches which, physiologically speaking, are per. fectly homologous (floral branchlets which really have no bracts), and those which bear imperceptible or even suppressed esr bracts. If on the other hand we would reckon the latter also among the branches which are not individuals,.then it te be contended that there is such a series of gradations in regard to number and vigor in the leaves which precede the rameal flower, that it is impossible to draw a dividing line even in this manner. The above-mentioned distinction between unessential and es- sential branches seems to afford a better stopping-place, no matter t, all ae, Sonetant LS iage aha of pty eet Orucifere, Capparidece, edna Balsa , Orchider, r have any bractlets. Among monocotyle- donous plants in pone cases there 7 pint one aaithet erect the dicotyledonous the parts of a lateral flower depends in fact upon yinigeleasie x aws of rameal ras when they do not harmonize i se laws we ogy aids us fest int confirming our began ns, as e. g., in the families Berg hularinee, ak without ote ails sasiatiohaara: bractlet ts anitig ree stble 2 appent in an normal growth. Not unfre geese in oth fag perm eee in its normal Gate presents no bractlets, but in we infert tion and the position = = calyx relatively % the axi wages : ha — bractlets de- i) Ss 23 rey 3 > Bs as bee a eo EE oe 33 ° *B 6. nm % i: e, BS a # zt un ct i ceolum 8, whi them i sent resets 0 ce of ence rmal state. We =, the wer-stalk, while the flower remained unchanged in all other acon, Their ever, on Baa im dicated by the poe of the guincuncial oly’ relay ts the axis, as well as confirmed be: forall for Tr m ciliatum RB. Endl. Nov. Gen. t. 38) in its ce evelopment has two round and potty ted brates on the the flower-stalk. I have mentioned the history of development last, not to disparage study, but because the morpho ust be ie amet tly on eo gaoaee Ales me: =) - ‘ Sie ars ea eee he liable i are present in th th not develop. To know wha at parts ome exist we should “th rms ot See the leit 03 a cell ora group of cells fore it rises to view above t of the stem, Srconp Srams, Vol, XX, No, 59--Sept. 1855., 26 194 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. ; whether the branch bears nothing but a flower or not. We might say, all essential branches must be regarded as individuals since they repeat the process of specific development laterally, and can become independent plants, as layers, whether natural or artificial. ‘Those branches, on the contrary, which appear as necessary mem- bers in the line of development which is advancing towards flower and fruit, and which therefore complete the series of formations belonging to the species, and without which the plant is either unable to eke out its vegetable life or to accomplish prong must be regarded as members of one and the same history 0 velopment. Let us take a case where the main stem bears wae proper leaves, Spiciebine of the first order only bracts, _ those of the second order only flowers and fruit, as is really t in Plantago, Melilotus, Veronica officina lis and Chemateah j here it is evident that these three divisions cannot be isolated ; that all three must necessarily be present in order that the specific life may attain a complete representation in one individ ual.* Notwithstanding the importance of this discrimination between essential and unessential branches, it cannot, when analyzed, es tablish a distinction which will enable us to decide upon their im- portance as individuals; for even those branches which appeat unessential, in relation to the formation of flowers and fruit, may yet be essential to the plant in other relations : as when they ap- pear as characteristic elements of the vegetable structure, or whet they play any important part in the economy of the plant, as I have shown in eztenso elsewhere.t Nay, more; one and the appear either as essential or as unessential, according to circum- stances. en those branches which conduct the structure to @ higher stage of its development appear in great numbers on 4 principal axis, as e. g., in indefinite racemose or “— inflores- cence, the lateral branchlets appearing as flowers are then 1n- sage te / speaking, necessary to the plant’s fall ‘completion es of formations, and in this sense essential ; but theif sentir is immaterial as regards this completion ; and this the ant itself shows in producing either a larger or a smaller nut ber of them ; sometimes the number is reduced to one.t There fore, properly speaking, only one lateral flower is essential ; and we may arbitrarily consider any one of the number to be t this es- sential one. Hence each of them may be regarded “indifferently as essential or unessential. ‘This is not the case in those racem™) and spikes which — a terminal one as is the case in many * [But z! hy assume (as here supra) that the species must attain a complete ag Capa on ina — viniividuel in vovelalian? ?—since this is by no means the case her (unisexual) animals, where there is no doubt as to what corporeally con- iris the ind ,—that is, in the very c ce we derive our idea of 1 pe ualit oe arison our author is endeavoring to app ly case of plants. a a. te Verjiingung, p. 41, et. seq. E. g. not unfrequently in the raceme of Lathyrus odoratus. The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 195 Campanulace, e.g. in Campanula rapunculoides. Here all the lateral flowers are unessential: yet if the terminal flower is cut off, the lateral branchlets which bear the flowers at once be- come essential. Such a change is not always artificial, for it often happens naturally, as there are plants in which the terminal flower may be either present or absent. Agrimonia Eupatoria, and Campanula rapunculoides, are examples of this variability.* We can cut this Gordian knot only by deciding to consider every — branch as an individual, however appearances may be against it, provided that we have other grounds sufficient to regard branches as individuals. ‘The genesis of branches justifies us in so doing ; for each branch is not a direct continuation laterally, is not a development belonging to the stem (like the leaf), but is a cen - Its centre of formation has been known since C. F. Wolff’s celebrated “'Theoria Generationis”’ (1759) under the name of “punctum vegetationis ;’’ it is about what is In * Agr imonia Eupatoria bears usually one spike without any terminal > in Weak specimens, a terminal flower not unfreqnently makes its eemrydiet (Bot pens before the upper lateral flowers. This has been observed Wydler (Bot. Zeit. 1844, p. 642). Campanula rapunculoides case is just the con : Its looser spikes are usually terminated with a flower, while denser ones el of bracteal leaves, without any termin r. Dietamnus resembles Agrim “a; while Triglochin (especially 7'r. itimum) on the other hand imitates Cam- panula. Even in plants in which the essentiality of the lateral position of the Wer 1s expressed by their zygomorphic develo te *ppearance in some cases; they then re “ obanche, anda Digital; ; (deserib d by Vrolik, Flora, 1844, No, 1), which propagates by seeds, and is now widely disseminated in our gardens, 196 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. common life the “ heart,” of the plant, or, at the first appearance of the lateral shoot, the “eye.” The whole future of the plant slumbers unseen within it; leaf after leaf arises out of it, step by step, ata measured pace, prescribed by law, until (in case the shoot is destined to conduct the development thus far) the series con- cludes with the last formation, that of the carpels, which close over the dying point of vegetation and form the fruit. In this progress the centre, always keeping the lead, is ever advancing, rising more and more, and leaving behind it an axis arrayed with the organs already formed. Hence we may designate the vegeta- ble individual as the sum of the parts belonging to one axis. Just as the body of the animal has only one trunk and one head, the shoot has but one axis and one apex. As the trunk of the ani- mal has a second extremity opposite to the terminating head, and gradually dwindling down till it forms the tail, so the perfect shoot has a second extremity opposite to that which terminates with the most perfect structure (the fruit), and dwindling down to an indeterminate end, the root, by means of a punctuim vege tationis turned downward.* the point of vegetation. Let us examine this case more closely. If a shoot is divided transversely, under certain circumstances th upper part, on which the punctum vegetationis (‘the heart”) 18 e imbibing organ, was the part of the plant which corresponds to the upper part, to the head and * Aristotle, on the contrary, considered that the root, being th O r mouth of the animal; and he regarded the stem as the inferior part. He found the noblest part of the plant is exhibited, Besides, the peculiar and 6 ge nimal’s head, its involved structure terminating the organism, is by 2° means to be found in the root end of the plant; but it is seen in the opposite ad which terminates with flower and fruit. The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 197 favor of this view the fact may be adduced that a similar phe- nomenon occurs in the normal process of development of plants and animals. As there are animals which may spontaneously lose the posterior extremity of their body during the course of their development, as e.g., Cercaria, Comatula, frogs, etc., so there are also numerous plants in which the posterior extremity gradually dies off, and is cast aside, during the course of growth, while the anterior end of the shoot, which bears the punctum veg- etationis continues to unfold; as is seen in the growth of many mosses, especially of Peat-mosses, in the creeping and climbing rootstocks of Ferns and Aroidee, in the long creeping stems of ysimachia nummularia, the little subterranean creeping root- stocks of Paris, in most plants which possess a radix premorsa, as e. g., Succisa pratensis, the perennial species of Plantago, in Tormentilla, etc., with which the perennial bulbs of monocoty- ledonous plants agree in all essential respects ; and finally, this is especially remarkable in Utricularia, and in Selaginella incres- centifolia, whose apices only form close’ buds, and last through the winter, while all the remaining parts of the shoots perish. If the shoot is indivisible transversely, it is still less so longitudin- ally. There is nota single case to prove that a shoot longitu- dinally divided can as such continue to develop; nor do we know apex, as I have already described it in the case of Erythrea pul- chella. As a normal formation no immediate division of the walle occurs among Phanerogamia; for the phenomenon known as “ fasciation,” which might be adduced here, is always a mon- Sitosity.* "The stalk, or axis of the shoot, is hence indivisible in * Fasciation depends upon a real division of the punctum vegetationis into two Parts of equal importance ; in the simplest case it produces a simple division into parts. Here neither of the two parts can be regarded as a branch of the other, If repeated bifurcations follow each other in the same plane, and in unbroken con- pry! the well known “ribbon and fan” like forms arise which gage usually enc in single api two parts lying in different plane are reduced by the i _Very rarely more than two parts lying aa pepnts ticed in the capitula of Composite. The rarest phenomenon which bears upon our sub- Jéct is the ann iation, in which an annular r ari he Point of vegetation, of which I shall speak more at large in the following Part, when 198 The Vegetable Individual in tts relation to Species. the higher plants, in the same sense that the body of the higher animals is indivisible.* The only phenomenon which might be described as a division of the stalk is leaf-formation. This, how- ever, is not a division into new stalks, but a formation of subor- dinate parts belonging essentially to the stalk, as it were an eradi- ation of the stalk itself, which may be aptly compared to the for- mation of the extremities in the animal body. We may there- fore justly describe the shoot, or the vegetable individual, as an indivisible axis,—as an axis with its appertinent radii which are inseparable from, and regularly neers by, its own development. With the first appearance of the branch a new axis is formed, and a new system of subordinate radii appears. However completely the branch may contrive to interweave itself with the trunk dur- ing the course of its development, it always owes its origin to an accessory point of vegetation which develops into a particular axis. ‘The vegetable individual thus presents in its nature a cet- tain analogy to the mineral individual,—the crystal,—as well as to the animal individual ; for the crystal i is determined by the re- lation of its parts to one and the same system of axes. As soon as this system of — holds another arise there results another individual, which may be distinguished even when two or more individual crystals hescesncs so as to form ieee crystals, or stel- late crystals. n the preceding considerations on the indivisibility of the axis I described the leaves as. its radiations,—as members of eral members of the stalk as the leaves? It would lead me too far from my subject to make a fundamental critical investigation into this question, and to examine the existing views of the ode of formation of leaves and branches, especially as investigations into this subject have not been complete enough to enable us t0 obtain reliable results. I can therefore only allow myself a tw hints in this place. The leaf originates in the earliest period of the formation of the stalk ; and its rudiment is contemporan with the first stages of the formation of tissue in the punctum x compare the relations of growth i in the ie A division of the indicia correspond ding to dicthotomy, i homo mologue eryptogams also occurs in the anima Ving do m, as appears especially 1 in many cm als, ar nn ! at eit ete. Ehrenberg explains the form of Dedaline asa result of incomplete termin individuals in pone in appearance it resembles — coxcomb-like forms ciation as they occur in a remarkable way in some monstrous Cacti of the Mammillaria rae Eehi inocactus, as well as in Celosia snide well-known as an mental p t., * co criticisms upon this may be given at the close of the whole memoir. 44] The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 199 vegetationis. A leaf can never be formed at a later period from the developed axis. It is a necessary consequence of the manner in which the leaf originates, that an absolute dividing line cannot be drawn between leaf and axis ; for the subsequent position of the leaves upon the organism affords no standard of appreciation, especially as most of them do not mark the basis of the leaf, which loses itself in the axis. Earlier, before the extension of the axis begins, the rudiments of the leaves are always closely pressed to- gether, so that they appear as a peripherical development of the axis itself, occupying the whole upper surface, and dividing it into clearly defined planes, which may be recognised even in the eveloped state, in those plants whose foliaceous pulvini are dis- tinctly marked, as e. g. in many Ferns, most acerose plants, in Cacti, and particularly in Nymphea and Victoria where the pui- vini may be distinguished even in the interior of the axis. ‘The primitive vascular system of the axis enters directly into the leaves, and ramifies there ; while the woody layers of the stem, which are found later, have no connexion with the leaves. With branches the case is totally different. In their origin and devel- opment they always succeed the leaves ; and even at a much later period, when the leaves have been long cast off, shoots may ori- ginate in places where, at an earlier period, no trace of a rameal rudiment, or of an eye, was to be found. If we now consider the axillary shoots,—i. e. those branches whose position is pre- determined by the situation of the leaves,—at an early period we shall find their rudiments, even though they develop very late or not at all, in the form of a circular and slightly prominent gibbos- ity, which may be compared with the apex of the axis; or rather, it is an accessory punctum vegetationis forming near the apex. The circumstance of the epidermis of the axillary shoot’s being a continuation of that of the stem, is explained by the early date at which it originates ; for this takes place at a time when the surface of the axis has not yet lost its flexibility. The eye is shown to be an independent centre of vegetation by its subse- quent internal and external conformation ; for it not only devel- * Unger : Ueber den Bau des Dicotyledonen-Stammes (1840), p. 65, et 66. 200 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. tion is not predetermined by the leaves. Originating at a later period, they take their rise not from the surface but from the cam- bium layer,—the internal tissue which preserves the faculty of producing new growths. Hence if they would come to the light of day they must break through the bark. Their origin has been particularly described by Trécul.* W. Hofmeister, however, as I have already remarked, succeeded in tracing it in Equisetum back to the first cell, a cell in the interior of the stem. As is the case with axillary buds, such adventitious buds sometimes remain undeveloped for a long time (ten years and more) without losing their vital activity; a fact to which attention has lat tely been called by C. Schimper,t in a report on exostoses. When this is the case they not id he lnm develop into spherical or conical. wood-kernels, which continue to exist without any connexion with the ligneous body of the maternal stem ; this is especially the case in Beeches and Poplars. out of places where they do not usually appear. ‘There are shoots from the stem, the root and the leaves. In herbaceous stems they appear in situations determined by the leaves (in the axils of the leaves), while they may be found anywhere on old woody stemst as adventitious buds, or on any part of the lig- nified roots of most di icotyledonous woody growths, apd even n some monocotyledonous ones, as in umbraculifere.§ Shoots ‘appear less frequently on the roots of herbaceous plants.|| Shoot formation from leaves has often been discussed and described in regard to many plants, especially Bryophyllum, nai ne pra- _tensis, Drosera, Malazis paludosa the A fine example of this -is shown by a Chelidonium ma ius ar. heeinaiadians reared by Bernhardi in the Botanical Garden at en from whose leaves * Trécul: Recherches sur (orig. des bourg. adv. Ann. des sc. nat., viii, (1847) P- 268. + In Sept., 1852, in the Versammlung der es > Wiesbaden. rely seat tered shoots appear on the herbace especially 0 the first internode under the cotyledons, as ee sme Tuphor’ 7524) first showed inde phorbia, and Bernhardi f Lina specim Begon dipetala iadsianbed in our [Berlin] Boterent ‘Gaodag which i is pro bly the same boa as the B. phyllomaniaen of Martins, wrnee the case of a plant which DY oa a roultitude of shootlets in the whole Neat on; rtd rise from the which is not yet ha Sdened: 4 soon after th of the 5 Atiadke to Rheede, Corp aphe Redan ie sends forth b routshooks when the stem dies off a the Se has ripened, ji ve often observed them in Tinsits vulgaris, Helichrysum arenarium, Rumes cetosella, sedis Jurinea Pollichii, Nasturtium sylvestre et Pyrenaicum ‘According to ydler, they often appear in Viola sylvatica, On Different Centers of Primitive Civilization. 201 floral bractlets cca partly unifloral, partly multifloral, without any preceding lea Shoots may be allured by the ‘ga ardener out of most aed: which do not wither too soon.t Finally, the little budlets in whose bosom the germ of the new plant is formed and developed, and which we call seeds, are a kind of shoots, which in most cases owe their origin to leaves, — out of which they spring (on the margins, which unite to form the placenta) or more rarely, out of their whole inner fertile (To be concluded in our next number.) Arr. XVIIL—On Lager Centers ad g igniies Civilization ; : mas H, McL We have already called attention in a previous number of the Journal of Science to the radical difference of the Indian, oe cian and Roman Systems of Numerical Notation. We w again refer to those several Syste d in addition, to the Leake tian, Mexican ant Chee in pire tae to different centers of primitive civilizat t will be retained that the Indian System commences with a0 (zero), and is made up of principal and subordinate meas- ures, and has its origin probably in land or lineal measuring ; that the Grecian System is a system of principal and subordinate meas- ures also, but has no 0 (zero), its first figure being a unit, mak- ing use of mere characters to express its large measures, and has its origin in the contemplation of individual objects; that the Roman System also has no 0 (zero), its first character being aunit, and is rather a system of fives than of tens, peters anew char- acter (V) for that number, one for ten (X.), which may be reg as a double V, one for fifty ‘(Li , one for one Kondied (C), one for five hundred d (D), and one for one thousand (M), expressing ibe inter-— mediate numbers by repetitions and combinations. he Egy tian System commences with a unit which it represents by a single downward stroke, adding an additional stroke for each suc- cessive number to ten which itdenotes by a triangular figure (A i ; this figure is repeated for each successive ten to one dred. The scheme will be seen by the following representation : 30 1, Tf, I, 0, WW, WI, MIT, I, nun, 4, Ah: bah, AAAS, te. * 4 of te leaned, one which footed in dune. 189; in Lasatowm fn” fond, fact, in several species of this Umbellifera, one or more, Ee Gok | two, shoots in the Les of division of eos leayes, which after producing a few weak leaves bore a small umbel, (Lat er note.) eit Kirsehleger, (Flora. 1 1844, No. 2) notices a fine example of this in, Gloxinia spe- oy "oss of Science for January, 1855, Art. vii. Seconp Sanres, Vol, XX, No, 59.—Sept., 185. 26 202 Additional Note on the Arachis hypogea. “'The Aztecs expressed the digit one by a small circle, thus, O. Months were expressed by a peculiar symbolic figure for each, taken from natural or artificial objects. Duplications and combi- nations of the circle were made adjacent to the symbol so that the day of the month’ was exactly denoted. These were also the formulas for other transactions.”* The Chinese System con- sists of thirteen distinct characters and is a system of juxtapo- sitions. The wnt, which is the first figure in the system placed adjacent toa certain character denotes one hundred, two units <= Art. XIX.— Additional Note on Arachis hypogea; by Grorce Bentuam, Esq.+ Arachis among Hedysarea. This paper was published in eighteenth volume of the “Linnean Transactions,” a W * Extract from a private letter from Hon. H. R. Schoolcraft. + From Hooker's Journal of Botany, No. 77, 177. Additional Note on the Arachis hypogea. 203 which is unfortunately far too expensive and bulky to have any circulation among foreign botanists. The conclusions I had come to became known to them only by abstracts contained in botani- cal journals or other compilations, unaccompanied by the observa- tions from whence they had been deduced; and my proposal for associating Arachis with Hedysaree has been more than once treated as absurd, without however any facts or arguments being brought forward in opposition. Recently again a writer in “Sil- liman’s American Journal,” Mr. Hugh M. Neisler, whose article ‘1s reproduced in the last number of “ Taylor’s Annals of Natural History,” adduces some observations of his own in support of a denial of the existence of the two kinds of flowers in Arachis, although he also had not seen my paper, the details of which would probably have led him to perceive his mistake. At the time I wrote it I had only had dried specimens to examine, but these were numerous and good, belonging to several species of Arachis, and to about twenty species or marked varieties of Sty- anthes, | e si i appear several together, in short, close spikes, in the axille of the leaves. In the upper axilla, the barren but apparently perfect flowers are the most numerous; but even these are generally ac- companied by one or more of the minute fertile ones, and the lat- ter, which are always without calyx or corolla, become more nu- merous in the lower axilla. The withered perfect flowers re- main long sticking about the spike, and may sometimes be found apparently adhering to (but not connected with) the point of the fertilized ovary of the female flower, and borne along with it as its Stipes lengthens, as mentioned by Mr. Neisler; but I always find Within the tube of these withered flowers their own dried up, bar- fen ovary, with its unfertilized ovules, and if Mr. Neisler willcom- pare these barren ovaries with those of the female flowers before the ders, such as istinee, Violacee, Malpighiacee, etc. 204 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision Art. XX.—Observations on Binocular Vision ; by Professor Wituiam B. Rocers. PART SECOND. Conditions under which two or more right lines are optically . united. form a simple binocular resultant, and I have shewn that this is not confined to experiments like those with the sliding-stage apparatus, but occurs, although to a less extent in the use of the common stereoscopes. The observations which I am about to de- scribe have been made chiefly with the former instrument because of the facility it affords for multiplying and varying the experi- ments and because after a little practice it enables us to obtain the Brewster and on which they have published differing views. The nt combination of pairs of corresponding points’ in the two draw- the interpretation. While these enquiries have in many respects satisfied me of the correctness of the views of these philosophers, they have led me to regard in a different and somewhat new as- pect certain parts of the process of binocular vision involved it, the questions above alluded to. 6. Of the combination of parallel right lines either vertical of oblique. ' ‘Two equal parallels (fig. 9 or fig. 10), when placed on the Upper stage of the stereoscope may be united in a position far- ther from the eyes than their true place, or when adjusted on the W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 205 lower stage may be combined in a position nearer than their true place, and in either case the resultant is a single line parallel to the components and including them co-extensively throughout its whole length. 9. 11. Unequal parallels (fig. 11) may also be united into a paral- lel resultant, but in this case the component lines are not co-ex- tensive throughout the resultant. By marking their extremities with dots or short lines we can observe the limits of each, and we then perceive that as long as the eyes and the diagram pre- serve their relative position unchanged, the two lines are not co- incident, even when they are very nearly of the same length. But by turning the head or the diagram so as to rotate the plane of the optic axes in relation to the figure, we may cause either the upper or the lower ends of the parallels to coincide according to the direction of the movement. When the upper ends are thus brought together the lower ones are seen to recede from one another; when the lower ends are made to coincide the upper ones separate to their greatest distance—the interval in both cases being marked by the dots on the resultant. The dotted line (fig. 11), shews the direction parallel to which the line joining the two eyes must be placed in order by a due conyergence of the Optic axes to unite the points a and 8, and the angle made by this line with the horizontal measures the angular movement of the head or the diagram necessary to bring about the coincidence. When the parallels are nearly coincident, the adjusting motion of the head is so slight as to be made almost unconsciously. Thi movement is, I think, one of the causes of the apparent union of unequal figures described by Prof. Wheatstone, and in that con- hection will be referred to in a subsequent page. 7. Vertical rotation of the eyes associated with their converging movement. : My experiments with unequal parallel lines have led me to ob- Serve effects accompanying the convergence of the axes to points either beyond or within the limits of distinct vision which indi- cate a rotation of the eyes in opposite vertical directions. As sim- ilar phenomena are noticed by a friend whom I have induced to repeat the experiments, I infer that they do not arise from any ab- 206 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. normal adjustment of my own eyes, and I therefore deem them worthy of mention in this place. In attempting to unite unequal parallel lines by converging the axes beyond the plane of the diagram, I find it easier to bring about the terminal coincidence above described, when the lower of the dots is presented to the right eye than when opposite the other. The effect is very obvious when fig. 12 is adjusted on the a r 8 b upper stage of the stereoscope, so that a and the right half of m are presented to the left eye, while 6 and the other half of m are opposite the right eye. Fixing the long line in a horizontal po- sition in the plane of the optic axes, I cause a and s to approach, and in doing so I find that they either unite at once, or are readily brought together without shifting the head or paper. But when I make the same effort with b and r, 1 can only bring the latter below the former, and find it requisite to turn slightly the head or the diagram in order to unite them. It would therefore seem, -that when converged beyond the limit of distinct vision, my eyes tend to revolve vertically in special directions, the right eye turn- ing very slightly downwards and the left upwards. hen I direct my eyes to a point much nearer than the limit of distinct vision the evidence of vertical rotation in connexion with the converging movement is very remarkable. Too observe this I adjust the lower and upper stages of the apparatus to the distance of 12 and 7 inches respectively and placing (fig. 13) oa b 13 - a c the lower stage in such position as by cross vision to present b and ¢ to the right eye and a to the left, I converge the axes a lit- tle below the aperture. As the two parts of the figure approach one another, I see a and b coming nearer to the same horizontal Jeve] and when the due convergence of the axes is attained I ob- serve them to coalesce completely. But retaining the figure 4 the head in the same position, I find it impossible to bring about aunion of aande. In order to do this I must either turn mY head so as to depress the left eye below the level of the other, of I must turn the diagram in the opposite direction. When this latter motion is used to produce the coincidence of a and ¢, I find on subsequently inspecting the figure that I have been compelled to depress a considerably below the level of «¢. A like effect appears when I view (fig. 14) as in the preceding experiment, In this case a and b instead of combining takes the W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 207 positions shown in (fig. 15), where the line presented to the left eye appears in a higher position than that presented to the right, although when directly looked at they are seen to be on the same level. By inclining the diagram so that a (fig. 14) shall be lower 4. 15. D a _ than 6, the resultant parallels (fig. 15), approach one another, and _ when the proper inclination is attained, (in this particular case about eight degrees, ) the two lines unite to form a single inclined resultant. The following experiment, very easily repeated is one of many of the same kind which I have made to test the peeuliar adjust- ment of my eyes when strongly converged. Placing myself in a seat about 15 feet from a window, with my eyes ona level with one of the horizontal bars, I direct my view to the end of a pen- cil or other small object held before me at the distance of distinct vision, I then observe whether the two images of the horizontal bar form one line, and if they do not, I adjust the position of my* head until 1 find them entirely free from vertical displacement. Without moving my head [ now converge the optic axes to some point much nearer than the pencil, and I see the two images of the horizontal bar at different levels, the right image being lower than the other. _ In all these cases of convergence toa point nearer than the limit of distinct vision the effect is obviously such as would arise from a rotation of the right eye in an upward and of the left eye in a downward direction. It thus appears that in converging my eyes towards a point beyond the limit of distinct vision, there oc- curs a very slight displacement of the two images in opposite verti- cal directions, indicating a motion of the left eye upwards and o the right eye downwards, and that in converging them to a point nearer than the same limit a much greater displacement occurs corresponding to a much more considerable rotation of the eyes in the reverse directions. movement seems to furnish a much simpler and more probable explanation. eae a 8. Combination of pairs of vertical lines. If two pairs of equidistant and equal vertical lines (fig. 16) be _ Placed on either stage of the stereoscope so that a and 6 shall be 208 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. presented to one eye and ¢ and d to the other, it is easy bya proper convergence of the axes to unite a with ¢ and 6 with d. The two resultant lines will of course be vertical and will be in a plane parallel to that of the diagram, and they will be situated behind or in front of it according as the union has been effected by converging the eyes beyond the diagram or before it. hen the intervals of the vertical lines forming the respective pairs are unequal (fig. 17), the union of a with 6 and of ¢ with d 16. 17. i a r c d a 6 ec 3 forms two resultant verticals which lie at different distances be- fore or behind the plane of the drawing. Supposing the union in the present case to be effected behind that plane, the resultant of ac will be more remote than that of bd. If the combination is * produced in front of that plane, the resultant of a c will be nearer to us than that of 6 d. When the intervals between the verticals are nearly equal, the change of convergency requisite in passing from one resultant to the other is so quickly brought about that we can scarcely pe!- ceive that the two resultants are not seen each in perfect single- ness at the same moment. If however the difference be great, as when a 6 is one inch and cd half an inch, although we can readily unite a with ¢ and 6 with d, a considerable effort is ne- cessary in passing from the one convergency to the other. Hence as soon as we form a distinct single resultant of ac, that of bd becomes double, and when again 6d are united into one line the resultant of ae becomes double. The same effect occurs when the inequidistant vertical lines form parts of any of the twin drawings of a more complex kind which are usually pro- i“ for stereoscopes, as will be pointed out under a subsequent ead. is proved by the fact that, however intently we fix the view 08 one of them, the other appears clearly visible as a single line, a0 when the attention is directed to a point between the two, the singleness of each is perfectly preserved. _Sir D. Brewster, in one of his valuable papers on binocular vision, maintains that in order to see an object distinctly the optic - W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 209 axes must be successively conveyed on every point of it. In the case of objects having relief, and in that of the perspective figures of the stereoscope, I am convinced that this process is, to a certain extent, necessary. But the observations above cited show that the principle of successive vision does not apply in the case of parallel resultant lines in a plane at right angles to the direction of view, or in that of actual lines or points situated in that plane; it, being understood in both cases that the objects observer appears to admit the latter view; for, in his beautiful observations on the binocular combination of the series of plane figures upon carpets and paper-hangings, he says: “these figures being always at equal distances from each other and almost per- fectly equal and similar, the coalescence of any pair of them, by directing the optic axes to a point between the paper-hangings and the eye, is accompanied by the coalescence of every other or”? 18. The conditions of this simultaneous binocular union are illus- trated in (fig. 18), where @..bandc...d represent the two pairs. “ equi-distant points, or parallels. Here a and c are united at 7, the point to which the optic axes are supposed to be conveyed, and at the same time 6 and d are combined at s. Asa bandcd rs hence r and s, the two resultants, are practically at equal ‘stances from a d, or from the line joining the centres of the two eyes. 10. Conditions of vision of a physical line in a vertical Position, : When a straight wire, or other physical line, is held in a vertical Position before the ey2s, the visual conditions under which it is Stconp Srnies, Vol. XX, No. 50—Sept., 1855, 210 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. seen as a single line are very simple. ‘The optic axes being con- verged to one point of it, the images of the point formed in the two eyes are referred to the point itself, and as the same converg- ence serves a like purpose for the pairs of images corresponding to other parts of the line, the union of the two images of the line is simultaneous throughout so much of the length as is dis- tinctly visible. When the line is of considerable length, a sensi ble change of convergence is necessary in tracing it upwards or downwards, and in these directions it assumes the character of a perspective line, the visual conditions of which will be referred to hereafter. Thus the optical signs of a vertical line are uniform convergence of the optic axes and a simultaneous and perfect un- ion of the two images of the line. It is obvious that the same characters belong to yall short lines situated in a plane perpendic- ular to 2h plane of the optic axes. But lines oblique to this plane, or in other words, perspective lines, are seen under very different visual conditions, the consideration of which belongs to the following section (B) 11. Of the biiseular union of mutually inclined lines. If we place on the upper stage of the stereoscope a card on which are drawn two lines converging upwards at £ small angle (fig. 19), so that ac may be pres ted to the left eye and bd to the bake pe 2 t if we unite them by converging the axes beyond the card, they will form in that a perspective resultant correspondin with the other in place and length, but Eavibe the reverse a tude, that is receding in the upward direction. If now we place the card on the lower stage and combine the linesae . y cross vision in front of the figure, we obtain a perspective resultant which when the component lines converge upwards recedes in the upward direction, and when these lines are reversed recedes as it extends down wards, It is scarcely necessary to remark that in all these experiments the betapaiiies attitude of the resultant is a simple consequence of the unequal intervals between the corresponding parts of the component lines, requiring various degrees of optical convergence to effect their union. Thus in the first experiment the upper en of the resultant, formed by the union of a and ce, will be situated behind the diagram at the point of convergence of the visual lines passing through these points from the left and right eye respect ively, and the lower end of the resultant will be placed at the W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 211 point of convergence of similar lines, extended through d and d. Hence the lower end of the resultant will be at a greater distance than the upper end ; and for a similar reason, the intermediate paits of points in the compouent lines will be united at various inter- mediate distances, and thus the resultant will appear as a perspec- tive line receding as it extends downwards. A like explanation obviously applies to the other cases above described. Such is a general account of the formation of the perspective resultant by the union of inclined lines. But there are features in this phenomenon which from their bearing on the theory of binocular combination are deserving of a more minute and varied examination. Asa first step towards this the following experi- ments are of interest as showing the chief conditions in the for- mation of the perspective resultant and illustrating the different degrees of completeness of the effect. 12. Comparative results with lines differently inclined. Diagrams well suited for this comparison are represented in figs. 20, 21, and 22, in each of which the lines are separated be- j\ fA low by an interval of {4 inch and have a vertical height of the same amonnt. The inclination of the lines in fig. 20 is 40°, and in the others 30°, 20°, and 10° respectively. Confining my re- marks in the first place to the effects observed when the upper stage of the stereoscope is used and the binocular union Js pe duced beyond the diagram, I begin with fig. 20, the lines of whic make an angle of 40°. ° Having placed the figure properly on the stage, J first ae the visual convergence so as to bring together the upper ends 0 the lines, and maintaining this convergence, steadily I see the ae lines combined into the figure of an inverted \/.” It en bya change of convergence unite the two lower ends and retaining the adjustment I observe them to form a \/ in the erect alte In the same way by intermediate degrees of convergence 212 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. ues in the plane of the paper, or more properly in a parallel plane behind — in which the diagram is actually placed. If now by suffering the eyes to range up and down along the sandenen I combine the corresponding points in somewhat quick succession, I observe the various phases above parts to fol- . ow one another rapidly and at the same time I see the compo- nent lines assuming in part or wholly, the appearance of inter- secting lines in relief. ‘This effect, however, recurs only tran- onic succession as to Soinis about the perspective e is is more readily done with fig. 21, whose Neos are inelined at an angle of 30°. On first viewing these lines placed on the upper stage, I sometimes see a resultant consisting of intersecting subside to the ie plane. It is easy by giving the eyes free range along the resultant to continue this perspective effect, and again by shespelilie them to a slow change of convergence, to pro- duce all the phases of intersection in the parallel plane without any appearance of relief. Fig. 22 Bianeing along a part of the figure have been ‘carried through 23. eS tasice # pa 10°, the appearance of the resultant is sometimes that of a single perspective line and sometimes that of two such lines intersecting but very close to one another. It is important to remark that the latter effect always presents itself when we endeavor to fix the co nvergency of the axes, and that when we succeed in main- taining this direction, even for a few moments, the perspective lines, as in the preceding cases, lose their relief and present them- selves in some phase of intersection in the parallel plane. W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 213 Owing to the small inclination of the lines in figure 23, a very slight fluctuation of convergence is sufficient to effect the suc- cessive union of many corresponding points, and this taking place involuntarily and almost instantaneously, gives us the perspective _ single or double resultant as the first or natural binocular effect. The effort necessary to prevent this slight and spontaneous fluc- tuation of convergence is such that unpractised observers find it difficult to bring the intersecting lines into the parallel plane. On first view they are apt to regard the result as a single perspective line, and it is only through a close and more deliberate inspection that they discover the two nearly coalescing intersecting lines of which the perspective figure consists. It is however, easy after some experience in these experiments, to maintain suc rfect fixity of convergence at different stages of the binocular combi- nation, as to give the resultant the form of intersecting lines in the parallel plane. similar gradation of effects is presented when the figures just referred to are placed on the lower stage of the stereoscope in the same order as before, but with this general difference that each corresponds in result to lines of less inclination on the upper Stage. ‘Thus I find that fig. 20 combined by cross vision in front of the lower stage, presents appearances like those above de- scribed in fig. 21; and so fig. 21 gives the perspective lines proper to fig. 22 on the upper stage, while this latter on the lower stage gives the almost single perspective line of 23 in the upper. this comparison the upper stage is supposed to be 15 inches and the lower 31 inches from the rear end of the instrument. This different grade of effect with the same figures, according as the lines are combined in front or behind their actual position, is evidently dependent on the much greater range of axial rotation reqttired in the former than in the latter case in order to combine successively given parts or the whole of the inclined lines. ‘Thus in fig. 24, if L and R denote the centres of the left and right eyes respectively, a d the lower and 6c the upper ends of the lines placed on the upper stage, anda’ d’ and W/ ¢ the same points of the figure as placed on the lower stage, it is obvious that aand d will be binocularly united at s and 6 and ¢ at r; also that a’ 3 214 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. pair of inclined lines on the lower stage = brings them into the same relation to the of lines less inclined to one another placed on the upper stage. From a comparison of the results above described we may I think, draw the follow- ing conclusions : First. The eyes are disposed naturally or from habit to incessant slight changes of con- vergence which are effected unconsciously and with great celerity. Hence the con- _ tinuance of any given state of convergence implies a constrained state of vision and re-_ Wires a special effort of wil Second. Great variations of convergence require a sensible and even considerable time, and are not spontaneous, bas the result of ———- effort. Third. The successive union of corres- ponding points belonging to lines slightly nclined to one another, is effected almost in- ron gee and without risa effort. ich points in lines having a much greater Sdelinasion is effected slowly and by a + nena exertion. Fourth. In the binocular combination of two mutually inclined lines no perspective effect is produced so long as the convergence of the optical axes is kept unchanged. , Fifth. € apparent relief or perspect- iveness of the resultant presents itself only where contiguous corresponding points of the two lines are combined in rapid succes- sion. Hence it never occurs when the lines are greatly inclined to one another, and it al- ways shows itself in greater or less extent when their inclination is so small as to re- quire an inconsiderable change of converg- ence Siz th. This perspectiveness is seen as well when the resultant is obviously com posed of two intersecting lines, as when it appears as a single line, and it is destroyed whenever by voluntary praia we suspend the usnal or spontaneous changes of convergenc In referring the perspectiveness of the seadtaa line or lines to the rapidly successive union of corresponding points, I would not W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 215 be understood as assuming that all the points of the component lines must be thus successively combined. It will hereafter, I think, be shown that this is neither necessary nor of usual occur- rence. But I wish to give prominence to the fact that such a un- ion of corresponding poiuts through some portion perhaps or very small part of the two lines is requisite to the formation of a per- Spective resultant. This view differing almost equally from that of Sir D. Brewster and Prof. Wheatstone, will be considered in more detail under a future head. ees The involuntary and rapid changes of axial convergence within _ certain small limits, which as we have seen, forms an interesting feature in such observations, does not seem hitherto to tracted special attention ; and the fact that the resultant has a perspective position even when the lines forming it cross ‘one an- other at a considerable angle, has not I believe been referred to by previous observers, although as will hereafter appear, it has an important bearing on the theory of binocular perpective. 13. Review of some experiments of Prof. Wheatstone bearing on the doctrine of successive vision. : n commenting upon the doctrine of successive vision by points, Prof. Wheatstone remarks, that were this entirely true ‘““no appearance of relief should present itself when the eyes re- main intently fixed on one point of a binocular image in the ster- eoscope. But in performing the experiment carefully, it will be found that provided the pictures do not extend too far beyond the relief when this condition is fulfilled,” (Phil. Trans.: 1838). The result here described is obviously at variance with the state- ments above made in regard to the resultant of two inclined lines viewed under a fixed convergence of the axes. But without in the slightest degree doubting the general accuracy and the great Ingenuity of Prof. Wheatstone’s observations, | am compelled in the present instance to dissent from his description of the phe- - nomena. In multiplied trials with his reflecting stereoscope and the refracting one of Sir D. Brewster, as well as with my own apparatus, in the course of which 1 have submitted to examina- tion most of the linear diagrams commonly used, I have invaria- bly found that by converging the axes steadily on one point of the image the lines situated laterally near but behind or before it In the perspective, are made to appear double, and that by contin- uing the same fixed convergence these lines are made to /ose their relief aud to take their places in a plane at the same distance as € point to which the eyes are directed. hese effects are most striking in the case of figures having Considerable depth of perspective and in which the lines and an- gles of the posterior surface are nearly covered by those of the anterior, as in binocular drawings of polyhedral crystals. Con- * 216 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. verging my eyes fixedly to the near apex of such a figure I see the remote one double and the oblique edges diverging from it also double ; and in the same manner I find it easy to double ev- ery one of the angles or edges by fixing the eyes on the angle or the figure. When the image is a truncated square pyramid with its plane of truncation nearest the eyes, by looking intently on one of the vertical sides of the base I see the corresponding side of the smaller square double, or by fixing my eyes upon the lat- ter I see the former double. In any of these cases a continuance of the same convergence causes the angles and lines in question to appear in the same plane. Among the figures suited to illustrate this effect I have found none to: present more striking results than the square pyramid or the truncated cone, with the addition in each case of a vertical line drawn through the centre of the base. The twin drawings adapted to produce these forms are represented in figs. 25 and 26. 25. 25a, “CORDS seme mera if, after obtaining the perspective resultant of fig.-25, I look in- tently on the apex of the pyramid so as to see it at a single point, of the pyramid is converted into two lines diverging from an an- gle of the base. By continuing the same degree of convergence the image loses its relief and presents the appearance of fig. Her In the case of the truncated cone (fig. 26), on directing the axes to the vertical line in the base so as to see it distinctly single, the small end appears as two intersecting circles; fixing the View on the centre of the small end the vertical line in the base becomes double, and the large circle appears indistinctly as tw intersecting circles. In either case a fixed convergence destroys W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 217 26. 26a. DOP@ the relief of the image. When this is done by fixing the view ou the base, the resultant is the plane figure represented in fig. 26a, in the other case the figure is the converse of this. It may be added than among the linear drawings common! used with the stereoscope there are some in which these effects are less observable than in the above instances, and others in which the attempt to obtain a clear view of either the nearer or verged, it may be laid down asa rule in the selection of such figures for the stereoscope that the most satisfactory drawings are those in which there is no anterior line crossing a posterior one and in which when two such lines are parallel they are not situa- ted in or near the same vertical plane of view. _ Asa very different degree of convergence is required for uni- ting the lines proper to the near side of the perspective image from that necessary for the remote side, more or less time must be consumed in passing from the one to the other. Hence in many cases even the most practised observer is unable to make this transition with sufficient celerity to have a clear perspective im- pression of the whole, and to this cause is no doubt due in part, the difficulty experienced by most persons unused to the stereo- Scope, in embracing distinctly the form and relief of the entire Image 218 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. conditions, and then only approximately, that either the image or the wire is seen as a single line. In order to repeat the experiment under various conditions, I use the following arrangement. Fixing a strong sewing needle midway in a small cylinder of cork and firmly fastening into the cork one end of a thin stiff wire or knitting needle, so that the two needles shall be at right angles, I secure the former im- movably in a horizontal position across the opening of the upper stage of my stereoscope very near the inner edge of the opening. I can then adjust the long wire to any inclination, and the friction of hod sos on the horizontal needle will retain the wire in its positi Taking fig. 21 or 22 as the subject of ipl madman I place the drawing on the farther stage and move the other back or forward until a notch in the near end of the wire is brought to coincide precisely with the point of binocular union of the two lower ends of the component lines. I now unite the two upper ends this is mie the wire is say to coincidence with the perspec- tive image. By sliding the stage a little nearer, we may see the image just behind the wire, and by moving it the opposite way it will appear on the near side of the wire. Whether coincident or in either of these positions, both the image and the wire will appear as two perspective lines intersecting at the point on which the eyes are for the moment fixed. By continuing the same convergence, we cause the wire as well as the coincident image to subside from the perspective po- sition, and we see them each resolved into two intersecting lines in a plane parallel to that of the diagram. Fixing the eyes of the near end of the wire or of the binocular resultant, they each appear in the plane in the form of a \/; gazing intently on the remote end they present themselves as a \/ inverted. If we direct our eyes intently on the plane of the paper we see the wire as two black wires covering or adjoining the inclined lines of the diagram With lines ding seat as in fig. 23, we obtain similar effects; but as might be inferred from what precedes, whether we regard the wire or the eoinciiean4 image, the divergency of the goer ing perspective lines is less remarkable than in the prece cases, and a more perfect and continued fixity of axial aireetibe is requisite to destroy their relief. A very interesting effect is observed when the diagram is 8° placed on the farther stage that the wire after being adjusted as above, leaves uncovered a portion of each of the inclined lines. this case the perspective figure is composed partly of the te W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 219 sultant of the uncovered portions and partly of the wire, the for- mer appearing as the continuation of the latter. We may I think conclude from these experiments that the coincidence of the wire with the resultant of the inclined lines, instead of proving this resultant to be impressed on the eyes asa single line, merely shows that in respect to relief both it and the Wire are viewed under the same visual conditions. It is to be remarked that for these experiments the lines of the diagram ought to be as slender as is consistent with great distinct- hess and the wire as thin as it can be made without a loss of ri- gidity. When the lines are broad or the wire thick there is an appearance of singleness near the point of intersection due to the overlapping of the two images which in the case of slightly in- clined lines may extend through much or all of their length. 14. Tapering form of the perspective resultant. In repeating these experiments it will be observed that while the wire coinciding with the perspective resultant.ap changing thickness throughout its whole length, this resultant seems to increase slightly in diameter from the near to the remote end. ‘The cause of this difference although obvious, is not un- Worthy of remark. In the case of the wire the retinal picture in each eye is of course wider for the near than for the remote end, and would if uncorrected, convey the impression of an object ta- eyes. ‘Thus the diameter of the resultant disc or lines actually subtends the same angle in both eyes for every part of the length. and in this ease the enlargement towards the farther extremity is _ Very obvious. 220 On the identity of Sanguinarine and Chelerithrine. A simple mode of obtaining the same effect in a yet more man- ifest degree is the following. Adjust two slender cylindrical rods six or seven inches long, so that, while they nearly touch at one end, they spread apart about an inch at the other. Hold them before the eyes R, L, at the distance of distinct vision in a verti- cal plane transverse to the line of view and with the angle down- ward (fig. 26). Then form the binocular resultant by directing the axes beyond them with varying convergence. ‘This result- ant stretching away from the angle obliquely towards the wall will be seen to increase in diameter regularly from its near to its remote end. From these facts it may be inferred that in order with the stere- oscope to obtain a perspective figure, all the lines of which shall corresponding parts of the component lines should be proportioned inversely to the distances at which they are to be united. (To be continued.) —— Art. X XI.—On the identity of Sanguinarine and Chelerithrine, and on the direct determination of Nitrogen; by Dr. James Scuuex of St. Louis, Mo. I wave used a small portion of hydrochlorate of Chelerithrine which I received in 1843 from my friend, Prof. H. Will of Gies- sen, and which the discoverer of that alcaloid had prepared him- self, to make a few analytical experiments as to its composition. As the salt was not found to be free from impurities, it was dis- solved in water, precipitated by ammonia, washed, dried, dissolved in ether, the filtered solution treated with animal charcoal, and the chelerithrine precipitated with a solution of pure sulphuric acid in ether; the sulphate of chelerithrine was washed with ether, dried and dissolved in water, when it yielded with ammonia 4 precipitate of pure Chelerithrine, which absolutely showed the same properties and behavior as Sanguinarine. ; On the identity of Sanguinarine and Chelerithrine. 221 Of the pure substance dried at 105° C., 0-356 grammes burned with oxyd of copper and oxygen, fur- nished 0-918 carbonic acid = 70°34 per et. of carbon and 0-167 water = 5°21 per ct. of hydrogen. The direct determination of nitrogen gave 5-07 03925 gramm. of the double salt of the fa dedehloraee of chele- rithrine and chlorid_of platinum yielded 0-707 of platinum: thence the atomic weight = 341:74. Accordingly the composition of Chelerithrine is: 70 Carbon, - - - ‘34 Hydrogen, - - - - 5-21 Nitrogen, - - - . 5-07 Oxygen, - - - 19-38 ' 00-00 _ The composition of Sanguinarine I found :* Carbon, 70:03 69°82 70:02 Hydrogen, 5:27 5°08 5:14 Nitrogen, 5-23 Oxygen, 19°14 100-00 The atomic weight was found in three determinations 32277 ; 362°7 ; 346-4, or taking the mean =343°9. From all this it appears that Chelerithrine and Sanguinarine are one and the same substance sie area to the formula Css HieNOs, This formula e! ives Carbon, - - - 70-80 Hydrogen, - - - 4:97 Nitrogen, - . - . 4:35 Oxygen, - - - - 19-88 - 100-00 It will be perceived that the above formula inéludes one equiva- lent of carbon more than the one I formerly deduced from the _ analysis of Sanguinarine. or the preparation of one or the other of these alcaloids the féllowing method is the simplest and cheapest. Digest the root of the plant Sanguinaria Canadensis (or Cheli- donium majus) with water strongly acidulated with sulphuric = and precipitate with ammonia, wash and dry the precipitate, solve in ether, and treat with animal charcoal. After filtration iii alealoid is precipitated with a solution of pure sulphuric acid in ether. Itis pure sulphate of sanguinarine. * Annalen d. Chemie und Pharmacie by Liebig and Wohler, B. xu, p. 233. 222 J. P. Cooke on the Law of Definite Proportions For the determination of nitrogen I do not use the bicarbonate of soda but the following apparatus, from which a current of car- bonic acid is passed through the combustion tube. & A is a Woulfe’s bottle containing diluted muriatic acid. B, a similar bottle with pieces of chalk and water. C, Chlorid of calcium tube, part of it filled with chalk; a piece or two of pumice stone separates the two substances. , Combustion tube. Condensing the air in bottle A by blowing through the mouth- piece a, some of the acid passes into B and sets carbonic acid free, cock could be omitted, but the little expense hardly justifies such a simplification. SS SS + Art. XXII.—On an apparent Perturbation of the Law of Defin- ite Proportions observed in the Compounds of Zine and Anti- mony ; by Jostan P. Cooke, Jr., Cambridge.*—With a plate. Ix a former paper in this Journalt I described two new com- pounds of zinc and antimony Sb Zns and Sb Zn which I named respectively, Stibiotrizincyle and Stibiobizincyle, because they te- semble in their composition the metallic radicals of organic chem- istry, and because the first decomposes water rapidly at 100°C. I there stated that crystals of Sb Zns could be obtained contail- ing a much larger amount of zinc than that required by the law” * Abstract from a Memoir of the American Academy, New Series, vol. v, p- 337 + This Journal, vol. xviii, p. 234. : in the Compounds of Zinc and Antimony. 223 of definite proportions, and that this change was not accompanied by any alteration of crystalline form. A similar variation of com- position was afterwards observed in the crystals of Sb Zne, and it is the object of the present paper to describe the law of the va- riation in both cases and to explain its cause. n the course of my investigations on this subject, crystalliza- tions were made or attempted of alloys differing in composition by one half to five per cent., according to circumstances, from the alloy containing 95 per cent. of zine to that containing 95 per cent. of antimony ; but only two crystalline forms were observed, that of Sb Zns and that of Sb Zn2. Well defined crystals, like those described under Sb Zn2 in the former paper,* were ob- tained from the alloys between 43 and 60 per cent. of zinc; and ing point of antimony is much above that of zinc, the fluid zine acted on the solid antimony as a solvent, dissolving the pure metal, but not the impurities, which rose to the surface forming C This scum seemed to take with it some of the anti- mony and thus caused a loss, which, together with the impurity, was found by experiment to be about three per cent. of the an- timony used. This resulted in raising the per-centage of zine in the alloy at most about eight-tenths of one per cent. The alloys below 43 per cent. of ziric were made by melting the antimony first, and then adding zinc. By this method the loss of antimony as very greatly diminished, and, counting the impurity, was found to be only about one per cent. and a half of the antimony used. In preparing the alloys this loss was always allow ” and the crystallizations were all made as nearly as possible under the same circumstances, so that any unexpected cause of error should affect all equally. The crystals formed in the alloys were all analyzed in my laboratory under my direction and immediate Supervision, and the greater part of them by myself. The rest Were by my assistants, Mr. F. H. Storer, Mr. C. W. Eliot, and Mr. C. S. Homer, to whose care and accuracy I take pleasure in bearing witness. ‘Their work is in all respects as reliable as my own. The results are collected in the following table which will explain itself. * This Journal, vol. xviii, p. 234. 224 J. P. Cooke on the Law of Definite Proportions Analyses of the Crystals formed in the Alloys of Zine and Antimony. STIBLOTRIZINCYLE, STIBIOBIZINCYLE, Composition Composition of Composition , Composition of of the Alloys the Crystals by Name of the Alloys the Crystals by Name by Synthesis, nalysig. of the | by Synthesis.| is. of the Perct.'Perct.|Per ct. Perct Su Analyst. | Perct.|Per ct. Per ct.\Per ct.! Sten Analyst, of Zn.|of Sb./of Zn.|of Sb. : of Zn.lof Sb, of Zn.|of Sb. : 70°40|29'60/64:15)35°77| 99°92 Cooke. _ | 33-00)67 00,35°37|64'57| 99-94 | Cooke. 66°50/33'50/61°00| 39-00 #100-00 |Cooke. do. | do. '85-40/64-60 +100-00) Cooke. 94 |Cooke 32°50\67°50 84°62/64°92 64°50 3560/53 50/41°44 | 99°54 | Storer + +| + + 155-49/44-49) 99-01/Homer. | do. | do. [84:61|65-39|+100-00) Eliot. | 60°60/39'40/55°00/45:09| 100-09/Homer. | 31°50)68-50 33°95 58°60 41°40/50°39/49-29] 99°68/Eliot. | 29°50/70°50 33°6 v DU 00D to vy . 54°70 45'30/48°26|51'42; 99°68/Storer. | 27°5 52°70, 47°30/47'47|52:53/{100°00|/Cooke. | 26°50/73°50 32-08/67-60 99:68) Storer. . * Uv 50°70 49°30/46°89/53'11/{100-00\Cooke. | 25°50'74:50 80 51; 99°94|Storer. do. | do. |46-45/53:'55|/¢100°00|/Cooke. | 25-00/75-00 29°'88/70-20| 100-08| Cooke. 8'70 51°30/48°66 51-34) + 100-00} Eliot. 24-50'75 50 28°76|71-24) 100-00|Cooke. ’ . 5 . rs a J (=) or wo 9 2 ny . 6°77 53 ; BIT1° 8 . 44°80 55°20/44-26 '55°73/+100-00 Eliot. 22°50'77°50 26°62|73'27| 99°89/|Storer. 43°80 56°20 44-04/55°96 +100-00 Cooke. 21°50,78'50 24:°83|74-74| 99-57|Cooke. 42°80 58°20/43'15 56°93, 100-08|Cooke. 20°12'79°88 20°58/79'42| 100:00|Cooke. | do. } do. |£3°0856'5 99°56|Cooke. | do. | do. {42°83 57-24 100:07| Cooke. ee ee Curve of Variation in Composition.—In order to compare to- gether the composition of the crystals and that of the alloy in which they form, I have resorted to the usual method of Analyt- ical Geometry, and in the plate illustrating this paper, the lower horizontal line is the axis of abcissas, and the vertical line at the extreme left the axis of ordinates. The first has been ing been all made in exactly the same* way. The po termined by analysis are indicated with dots, and the double line ts e It has already been stated that the crystals of Sb Zns are ob- tained in their greatest perfection from the alloy of 42°8 p. © of zinc. ‘They are then comparatively large, generally aggreg * In this analysis the antimony only was determined. t In this analysis the zinc only was determined. e in the Compounds of Zinc and Antimony. 225 ted, and, as the three analyses cited in the former paper prove, have the same composition as the alloy. On increasing gradually the amount of zinc in the alloy up to 48:7, the crystals continued to have the composition of the alloy, and the only difference, which could be observed in their character, was, that they were smaller and more frequently isolated. Between these limits, the whole mass of the alloy exhibited a strong tendency to crys- tallize, and, by pouring it, as it cooled, from one vessel to another, it could be crystallized to the last drop. The portion a, b, of the curve is therefore a straight line equally inclined to the two axes. On increasing the amount of zine in the alloy to 50-7 p. c., the amount of zinc found in the crystals was only 46°89 p. c., and above this it was uniformly less than it was in the alloy ; but no closer relation between the two could be detected, owing un- doubtedly to the unavoidable irregularity in the crystallizations of the alloys, which contained more than 50 p. c. of zinc. This arose from a peculiar pasty condition, which the fluid mass as- sumed, at the point of crystallization, apparently caused by the separation of the excess of zinc. Definite crystals however were obtained even from the alloy of 60 p. ¢. of zine, which contained p. ¢. ; above this, the crystals became less and Jess abundant, and gradually faded out, alihough the alloy even of 86 p. c. of zinc exhibited a radiated crystalline texture ; and a trace of this structure could still be discovered even in the alloy containing only 4 p. c. of antimony. It might be supposed that on return- ing to the alloy of 42°8 p. c. of zinc, and increasing the amount of antimony we should obtain crystals containing an excess of antimony ; but so far is this from being true that the slightest excess of antimony entirely changes the character of the erys- tallization. On crystallizing an alloy containing 41°8 p. e. of zine Not a trace of any prismatic crystals could be seen, but in their place there was founda confused mass of thin metallic scales, which, as will soom be shown, are imperfect erystals of Sb Zn2. Thus it appears that although perfectly formed crystals of Sb Zn can be obtained containing 55. p. c. of zinc they can not be made to take up the slightest excess of antimony. In order to obtain crystals having the composition of Sb Znz, that is, containing 33°5 p. c. of zine, it is necessary to erystallize an * this point large com- hen erystals are obtained sable ae to the large crystals of a Secon Senms, Vol. XX, No. 59—Sept. 1855. 226 =©6: SJ. P. Cooke on the Law of Definite Proportions are smaller and more frequently isolated than those containing exactly two equivalents, A similar fact, it will be remembered, is true of the crystals of Sb Znsz. At the alloy of 33 p.c. of which exhibits itself in a proneness of the crystals of Sb Znz to an excess of zinc. ‘he line &7 has been continued with dots in order to show that the influence of Sb Zne extends as far as the alloy of 42'8 p.c. of zinc. On returning to the alloy of 31:5 p. ¢. b Gnz until the amount of z the alloy had fallen to 27 p.c., so that the tendency towards the\¢heoretical composition was so great, that in the alloys between 31:5 an of zine, crystals alloy of 20:2 p.c. of zinc, very imperfect crystals were obtained having almost the same composition as the menstruum. At the same time, the crystals became less and less perfect and finally disappeared altogether in the alloys below 20 p. ce. of zine. e portion of the curve k mn h, is the most important result of this investigation and therefore deserves especial notice. It has been shown that crystals of the form of Sb Zne, or at least crystalline scales of the same character, are formed in the alloys between 20 and 43 p. c. of zinc, the first per cent. corresponding to Sb Zn and the second to Sb Zns. Half way between these two points, that is the alloy of 31:5 p.c., is the point where cryS- tals having the calculated composition of Sb Znz are first ob- ined. ere the variations in the composition of the crystals of Sb Znz exactly proportioned to the excess of zine or of anti- in the Compounds of Zinc and Antimony. 227 mony in the alloy, as is the case with Sb Zns, then the curve of variation would be the straight line formed by the continuation of the line a 6. From this line 6h the course of the curve is deflected by the force which determines the union of the ele- ments in definite proportions, and which for the want of a spe- cial term, I will call the Chemical Force. This is so strong that the curve runs parallel to the axis of ordinates through the dis- tance km. Beyond this point, the influence of the excess of an- timony in the alloy becomes stronger than the chemical force, and the curve gradually bends towards the line hb which it finally meets at h. In the portion hv of the curve, the analyses are best represented by the are of a circle, of. which the radius equals h e or one-half of A 6, and to which the line Am is tangent. In the portion 2 m the points determined by analysis may also be con- nected by the arc of a circle of which the radius o’ n equals the dif- ference between the radius 0” and twice gn, so that the two cen- tres are at the same distance from the line ak. The whole curve is evidently the result of two forces; one acting along the chord in the direction b h, a force tending to increase the amount of anti- Stead of extending to e, changes frog# this directi k, and after- fluence of Sb Zns as suggested above, the reason of this difference between Sb Zn2 and Sb Zns in this respect is not clear; but as Some evidence that it is not accidental it may be stated, that the distance & ¢ equals c#, the last point being the one, at which the tangent line mk extended meets the curve. Another remark- of the curve of Sb Zne from the line a h, viz. kd, mf, and ng, ay simple multiples of the first; ng is twice and m / three times 228 J.P. Cooke on the Law of Definite Proportions By making hypotheses in regard to the nature of the two forces, which have generated the curve just described, it would not be difficult to obtain for it a mathematical expression ; but as such hypotheses, in our ignorance of the nature of these forces, would be premature, I must content myself with giving its geometrical construction on a chart ruled like the plate illustrating the me- Let the coérdinates of any point of the curve be, x = per cent. of zinc in the crystals, and z = per cent. os zine in the al- loy. In order to construct the curve of Sb Zns, find a point (a) of which e = z = 43 p.c. (the calculated i cent. of Sb Zo) and draw a straight line a 6 equally inclined to the two axes in the direction from the origin. T'o construct the curve of Sb Znz, produce the line ad in the opposite direction to the point xz = z = 20, which will be the lowest point of the curve. Find next a point (k).of which ¢ = 33:7 p. c. (the calculated per cent. of Sb Zna is 33:5) and aie p. ¢., which is one-half of 43 +20. ‘Through this point draw a line mk parallel to the axis of ordinates and intersecting the line abhat c. The line m tis the tangent, ee me line 6 A the chord of the required are. On the line mi take ci = = ck, and 7 is the point at which the are should touch the Sant Erect a perpendicular on the tangent at the point ¢, take o¢ = 3 bh, and from o as a centre, with a ra- dius = 01, describe the arc hi. Also from the centre o let falla perpendicular o g on the chord } A, and pense it to a point o’ making o It will intersect the arc at (m). From o/ as a centre with a radius o’ m describe a second arc n m intersecting the tangent at m. Finally, draw from &, a straight line & é, paral lel to 6h, then the broken line 1k mmnh will be the required curve It will be noticed that the tangent ehh has been drawn on the plate through the points determined by analysis is two- tenths of a per a3 in advance of the line which would corres- pond to Sb Znz. This position is essential to the equality of k ¢ i ci, if we retain as the value of the radius of the larger are R=3bh. If the analyses should have given erroneously too much zine so that the true position of the line should be at r= 33°5 per cent., then this equality would be destroyed, and the con- ditions for finding the centre o would be reduced to the coérdi- nates of the point A, the length of the radius and the position of the tangent, from which by a very simple construction the curve might be drawn. It should however be remarked that the posi- tion of the tangent in advance of the line x = 33:5 is in accord- ance with the fact, already noticed, that the crystals of Sb Zuz have throughout a proneness to an excess of zinc caused appa- rently by the infuence of Sb Zn : but it is also true that the Fonte of the error in the zinc determinations is in the same it in the Compounds of Zinc and Antimony. 229 Before discussing the conclusions to which the facts already stated seem directly to point, it will be well to see how far the variation in composition corresponds to a variation in the proper- ties of the two compounds. ‘Three classes of properties have been examined in this connection, viz., Specific Gravity, Crystal- line Form, and Affinity for Oxygen, which will be treated of in ee er. Specific Gravity.—The specific gravities of all the weiner: Selec: as well as that of the zinc and antimony used in the investigation, were taken with the greatest care. The deter- minations were made with a nicely constructed specific gravity bottle, as this method was found susceptible of greater accuracy than any other, when the temperature was observed with precis- ion. In calculating the specific gravity, the weight of the water was corrected for the temperature, so that the unit is in all cases distilled water at 49°C. A similar correction could not be made for the temperature of the substance, as the coefficients of expan- sion of the dts are not known. ‘The results of the deter- ion all made by myself are collected in the following table n the column headed “ Sp. Gr. by Experiment.” In the column Specific Gravities of Crystals, formed in the Alloys of Zine and Antimony. Composition of the Alloys, |Composition of the map coer sles ‘Exper 1 Zi a = ~~ = Cassa Per ct, Tet. of Zn, Per rct. of Sb.) \Pe ret. of Zn.| Per ct of Sb. Ant timony, liz G ee 715 4-00 7-069 4184 0:065 13°80 6898 7-086 0188 23°40 6-769 7-039 0-270 29°60 64:20 35°80 6-699 6982 0-283 33:50 61:00 39-00 6°628 6°967 0339 35°50 58°56 4144 6596 6956 0:360 STD 55°53 44-47 6506 6-941 0-435 39°40. | ® 55.00 45:00 6440 6939 0-499 414 039 49°61 6396 6-917 0-521 43°40 49°95. 50:05 6388 6915 0" 51°30 .| 48°66 51°34 6404 6909 0505 53°30 |, 4677 53°23 6376 6900 0-524 55204} 44°268 55°14 4 6341 6888 0'5: 57°20 3-09 56°91 6327 6882 60-00 6-386 6867 O481 65-00 6404 6844 0 67-00 35°37 64:63 6-401 6°82 0° 70°50 83-62 66° 6-384 | . 6837 72°50 3°85 66°15 6383 6838 | 0455 73:50 32-08 67-92 6400 | 6829 74-00 31-07 68°93 6418 | 6824 06 44°50 69°57 6428 6°82: 0394 1550 28-76 q1-24 6-449 6813 | 0364 17-50 26°62 13°38 6453 6803 0°350 78°50 24-83 4517 | 6-467 6-795 0328 90-00 6-603 6°725 0°122 95-00 - oo 6655 6-701 0046 100:00° g 66717 6677 0°000 * Alloys not crystallized. 230 J.P. Cooke on the Law of Definite Proportions headed ‘ Mean Sp. Gr. of Zine and Antimony” are given the cal- culated specific gravities of the same crystals on the supposition the two metals had undergone no expansion on uniting. The last column was obtained by subtracting the numbers of the former from those of the latter, and therefore shows the relative amount of expansion. On examining the table, it will be found Ist. Than the union of antimony and zinc is accompanied by ex- pansion. 2nd. That the specific gravity of the crystals varies slightly with the composition. 3d. That the two minimum spe- cific gravities correspond precisely to the composition of Sb Znz and Sb Zns, so that the specific gravity increases and the expan- sion diminishes as you depart on either side from these two cen- tres. Ath. That the specific gravity of Sb Zns is smaller than that of Sb Zne. We find then that the specific gravity deter- minations confirm in general the results of the analysis pointing out the same two centres of crystallization. Crystalline Form.—It has already been stated that only two crystalline forms can be obtained from the alloys of zine an timony, that of Sb Zns and that of Sb Znz. A large number of crystals of Sb Zns from different alloys, and therefore containing different proportions of zinc, were carefully measured for the pur- pose of ascertaining whether the angle wasat all affected by the va- riation of composition. Fortunately four different crystallizations afforded excellent crystals, the angles of which could be measured toa minute. ‘T'he crystals contained respectively 43:15, 4414, peared to be very constant for in all cases where it could be accu- rately measured the same value was obtained. As none of the crystals of Sb Zn2, containing an excess of antimony, could be measured with precision, no constant variation of angle could be bg and on the other hand it could not be proved to be inva- riable. Affinity for Oxygen.—The affinity of the crystals of Sb Zns, of different compositions, for oxygen, may be estimated by com- paring the amounts of hydrogen gas evolved in a given time on boiling alloys of the same composition with water. ‘The results in the Compounds of Zinc and Antimony. 231 ef such experiments were given in the former memoir in a table, a mere glance at which will discover the two following facts— Ist, That up to 40 per cent no great increase in the amount of hydrogen evolved is obtained by increasing the amount of zine in the alloy. 2nd, That at the alloy containing 42 per cent. of zinc there is an immense maximum confined at most between two per cent on either side. General Conclusions. —Before stating the conclusions to which as I think the facts now established directly point, it will be well to consider the only two admitted principles of chemical science which could possibly be brought forward to explain similar varia- tions. They are, first, that of impurities in crystals; second, that of isomorphous mixtures. It will not be difficult to show that the variations in composition of Sb Znz and Sb Zns cannot be caused by either of these principles. It is a well known fact that crystals trequently talke up impuri- ties which are either dissolved or mechanically suspended in the menstruum in which they form, and it might be supposed at first sight that the excess of zinc or antimony in Sb Zns or Sb Zne, ore the same relation to their crystals that the sand does to the thombohedron of calcite from Fontainebleau, or oxyd of iron and chlorite to crystals of quartz; but, in the first place, in all cases where a considerable amount of impurity is present the crystals are either imperfect or else the angle is considerably changed at times even as much as two or three degrees; and secondly, as such impurities are merely mechanical, the amount in the crystals would in all probability be proportional to the amount present in the menstruum at the time of their formation. Now in shows that it is, by the chemical force. * 232 J. P. Cooke on the Law of Definite Proportions A theory that the variation in composition resulted from the mixture of two or more isomorphous compounds would be even Jess tenable than the one just discussed. For in the first place it would be necessary to assume the existence of two other com- pounds of zinc and antimony isomorphous with Sb Zn2 and of one other, if not more, isomorphous with Sb Zns. Not only would such an assumption be contrary to all the analogies of chem- istry and therefore require strong evidence to sustain it; but in the second place it can almost be demonstrated that no such com- pounds exist. ‘The crystals having the calculated composition of either Sb Zns or Sb Znz are marked as has been shown by stri- king peculiarities, and with one possible exception similar pecu- liarities were not observed throughout the whole series of erystals which have been examined. The crystals containing 50 per ct. of zinc and of the composition of Sb Zns were found to havea slightly smaller sp. gr., than those just above or just below them, but the difference is so small that it may be accidental, and as the crystals exhibited none of the other peculiarities, which charac- terize crystals having the calculated composition of Sb Zns or Sb Zna, I could not attach sufficient weight to the one cireum- — stance to feel authorized in admitting a third compound of zine and antimony. Admitting however the existence of Sb Zns yet, as exactly the same angle has been observed in crystals con- taining 55 per cent. as on those containing 43 per cent of zine, it would be necessary in order to explain the variation in compo- sition by the principle of isomorphous mixtures, to assume the existence of still a third compound isomorphous with Sb Zns, and containing more zine than Sb Zna, which would increase can not be explained either by mechanicafsimpurities in the crys- tals or by the mixture of isomorphous compounds. eee ae in the Compounds of Zinc and Antimony. 233 curve as it has been Wid down on the plate as the proof of the Sxconp Sznies, Vol, XX, No. 59.—Sept., 1855. 30 234 J. P. Cooke on the Law of Definite Proportions validity of the explanation of the variation in composition here advanced. It is worthy of remark that while the curve of variation may be said almost to demonstrate that the law of definite proportions may be disturbed in its action, it also most clearly sustains the in- tegrity of the law itself; for, as may be seen on inspection, the chemical force is sufficiently strong to retain the curve of Sb Zn2 parallel to the axis of ordinates through a variation in the men- struum of nearly five per cent., and it is only when the excess of antimony present in the alloy exceeds six per cent. that the force which it exerts becomes strong enough to disturb the action of the law. What the nature of the disturbing force is must be for the present a matter of theory. Iam inclined to think that it is mony ani retain the calculated composition under.a considerable variation esure que p augmente jusqu’ a p=~@ , 0 It will be noticed that the difference between these needles 1s precisely the same as the difference between the crystals of Sb Z4ns containing a small and a large amount of zinc, and I think i + in the Compounds of Zine and Antimony. 235 that no one after reading Rieffel’s paper can doubt that the com- pounds of copper and tin vary in composition like those of zinc and antimony. 2. ‘The mineral Discrasite, a compound of silver and antimony, crystallizes in trimetric prisms, of which Jon J=119° 59’.* The analyses given below are copied from Dana’s System of Mineral- ogy, changing slightly the order. Sb Ags = Antimony 28-5 Silver, 71-5=100. Sb Ags = Anti- mony 23, Silver 77=100. 1. Andreasberg (foliated granular), Antimony 24-25 Silver 75:25=99.5, Abich. 2. Wolfach (coarse granular z: 24 4 6=100, Klaproth. 3. Andreasberg (foliated granular), % 23 nef SAA A Femme ASU : * * “ “ 29 “ —718=100, Vauquelin. 5. Wolfach (fine granular), - 16 “ 84==100, Alaproth. It needs no comment on these results to show that Discrasite is homceomorphous with Sb Zns, and varies like it in compo- sition. 4. It is stated by Staedeler$ that crystals of the compound of grape sugar and common salt can be obtained containing for every equivalent of grape sugar one or two equivalents of chlorid of sodium and also of intermediate composition. He states more- Over that “Calloud, who first observed that the grape sugar of honey combined with chlorid of sodium, found that the amount of the latter varied between 8-3 and 25 per cent.” Staedeler re- fers the variation in composition to a mixture of the compound of one with the compound of two equivalents of chorid of sodi- um which he assumes to be isomorphous. He adds that it may be caused by “enclosed crystals of chlorid of sodiam althongh the eye could not distinguish any heterogeneous constituents. _ All the above compounds are examples of weak chemical affin- ity accompanied by large variations in composition without any * Dana’s System of Mineralogy, 4th ed., vol. ii, p. 35. + Poggendorff’s , 115. American Journ. of Science, vol. xix, p. 355. i Chemical Gazette, vol, xiii, p.44. 236 J. P. Cooke on the Law of Definite Proportions change in the general crystalline form. It is not meant to assert that the variations are identical in character with those of Sb Zns and Sb Zna2, but only that there is a strong probability that this is the case, which in the first two instances amounts almost toa certainty. If variations in composition of such magnitude are possible when the force of chemical affinity is weak, it is highly probable that some variation may occur when the force is strong, and, whatever view may be taken of the cause of the variation it will now become a matter of importance to ascertain whether many discrepancies in analyses hitherto referred to imperfections in the process, may not be owing to the same cause which influ- ences the composition of the crystals of zinc and antimony. For _ this purpose, it will be best to make several analyses of the.same compound, prepared under circumstances differing as widely as possible, and then to apply to the results “ Peirce’s Criterion for © the rejection of doubtful observations.” Such investigations will be greatly simplified by tables prepared by Dr. B. A. Gould* for facilitating the application of this criterion to which I would - refer all chemists who are inclined to take up this line of inves- tigation. J am well aware that in announcing the existence of perturba- tions of the law of definite proportions I am calling in question one of the most fundamental dogmas of chemical philosophy, and that the new doctrine will have to encounter prejudice on this very ground. This law is so intimately associated in many minds with the atomic theory, that, to such, absolute definiteness seems to be its essential characteristic ; nevertheless, I can not no case in which there is absolutely none. This same character which pervades the other BA a laws of nature, I claim for * Astronomical i vol. iv, p. 8 + Ihave used the onsale ‘sre: to designate a class of laws of nature which are empirical in rane character inasmuch as they are oben? not mye although their de tp has not been discovered, but w to which empirical is co pnby- epellid: * Arg Presid * in the Compounds of Zinc and Antimony. 237 the great law of chemistry. The definite proportion I regard as a maximum toward which the chemical force strives, a maximum from which the deviations in. most cases are small, although in subject, which the 7 has aimed to establish, is supported by the analogies of natu When the a ptemieal law has been discovered, of which the “ane atees law was merely the outward manifestation, as Kep- ler’s laws were merely the phenomena of the law of universal gravitation, the very variations have been seen to be necessary consequences of the law itself, and if even the dynamical law, whieh governs chemical phenomena, shall be discovered, it is most _ probable that the variations from the law of definite proportions will become as much a matter of calculation as the perturbations of Astronomy. In both cases the perturbation is apparently due The argument from analogy becomes stronger, when we co > sider the oe numbers. I have shown in a former a civ that these numbers may be connected by a very simple numeri- eal law, but here, as in other cases, we find merely a tendency to- wards the law, not an absolute agreement with it, the differences between = theosetical and the experimental equivalents being in many cases too ae to be covered by errors of observ gun cesses it will be noticed that they seldom perfectly agree ; so Whatever view may be taken of the subject it will now become a matter of the highest importance to ascertain how far, if at all, the determinations of the chemical equivalents have been influ- enced by similar causes to those which have produced the varia- tions described in this memoir. This influence can only be de- tected ne multiplying the determinations, by as many different processes as possible, and submitting the results to a rigorous Miathouiatigdl scrutiny. : If the doctrine of this memoir is correct and the chemical equivalents are redlly liable to variation it will have an important ery _” # This Journal, vol, xviii, p. 229, 238 On the Oscillation of the Pendulum. influence on chemical philosophy. ‘The atomic theory as at pounds, and therefore that it would be premature to dwell on these obvious consequences of the principle until it has been sub- stantiated by further investigations. In conclusion, { would ex- press my obligation to the gentlemen who have assisted me in the labor of the investigation which on account of the large number of analyses has been very great and could not have been conclu- ded so soon had it not been for their great industry and zeal. Arr. XXIIL— Demonstration of the Apparent Motion of the plane of Oscillation of the Pendulum, due to the Earth’s Ro- tation ; by J. G. Barnarp, A.M., Brevet Maj. Engineers U.S.A. Let P be the pole of the earth, and C be the central point of a dial represented by the circle mnq* over which the pendulum swings; the whole projected upon the plane of the equator. 2. LM iP = af. > i: * The dial circle would of course, be pith Sin dh en ellipse; but for convenience is represented dah akg On the Oscillation of the Pendulum. 239 In the reasoning which follows the radius Cm representing the semi-oscillation of the pendulum is supposed, as indeed it always is, exceedingly minute compared with the earth’s radius; it is also very minute compared with CC’ which measures the rotary movement of C during a semi-oscillation. being the centre of motion, the bisecting point of each are of oscillation, its rotary velocity about the earth’s axis will evidently be that of the pendulum itself. Even if we suppose the pendulum as commencing its series of oscillations at either of the points g or m and thence having their rotary velocities, the very first vibration will check or accelerate it to that of C. While the pendulum is moving from, C to m, suppose the centre of motion C to move to C’ by the earth’s rotation; the point m of the dial; will only have the velocity due to the radius of the earth’s small circle Pm. Its motion will be mm’ while that of C is CC’ due to the radius PC. But the pendulum having the rotary velocity of the point C will advance, in rotation a distance, from its original plane mq, equal to CC’. Instead therefore of striking the dial circle at zm’ it will strike it in advance of it a distance m/m” equal to CC’—mm’. That is to say, the distance the pendulum advances each vibra- tion is equal to the difference of the arcs of the circle described about the earth’s axis by the points C and m, during the vibration. he foregoing proposition has been derived from the considera- _ tion of the pendulum vibrating in the plane of the meridian. But it can be established in a more general way by considering a semi-vibration in any other plane Cm’. (Fig 2. In this case the pendulum will gain in the direction of rotation upon the point m/ (where it would strike the dial circle, if the earth was motionless) a distance om” in the direction of rotation due to the difference of rotary velocities of the points C and m/ orz. Such an increment in the ordinate from x will cause an increment mm’ of arc the same as just found for the vibration in the plane of the meridian. — _ For, call V the rotary velocity of C, the time of a semi-oscilla- ion, ¢ : the radius PC=R’ and that Pm=R”. (Fig. 1.) “ut The rotary velocity of the point m will be ey and the dif- R/—R” 2 Jerence of velocities of C and m, V ftom - The distance m'm’’ gained by the pendulum will therefore be (in case of vibra- : : z ) R/—R” tion in t e tneridian) = Ve (=a): bate fag min) = vs a £ Sok 240 On the Oscillation of the Pendulum. For the case of oblique vibration (Fig. 2), call mz =z (x being an abscissa of the dial circle), and the ordinate zm/=y. | ; R”+zsin re Gi The point of the dial m/ will have a velocity = ( being the latitude) and the difference of rotary velocities be- R” + ssin © ; R and the distance tween it and C will be v(1 om/’ gained, in the direction of rotation, by the pendulum, will be, vi(1 Bai i) eae But the increment of abscissa om’ corresponding to the incre- ment of ordinate om” will be determined by the equation of the circle, these increments (being very small) being as the differ- entials of y and z. : ut ee \ ean Call r (= ] the radius of the dial circle, then Py ancl if Gigi cane om! : om’: :dx : dy: : V2rx-«? : r—zx; hence PEL BO nse i 7-2 R’+zsin \ Vv 2rx—2? R’/—R” , as seca \auice r= —— and hence 1 £ R’42rsin® r—z . V2rr—zr? 8500 1 ag) ypLPEH Hence R/_-R” ‘ OT ie gS (R'-R’'-esin®)? 2 sin & jes ; mm!” =om" bom’ =V272 Re mR BEE or: which, being developed, reduces to (R’—R”)? 2/2 ” FS 4; . V3e “he hence a eS an expression the same as obtained for the case of vibration in the plane of the meridian, and constant for all positions of the plane of vibration. : It is then proved that, at each vibration, the plane of vibration will shift on the dial through an angle whose arc, on the dial cit- cumference, will be equal to the difference between the ares of rotation described during the same time by the centre and eX- tremity of the meridional diameter of the dial. After a complete revelution of the earth, the length of the are of the dial passed over, or which measures the angular change of plane of vibration will be, evidently, equal to the difference be- On the Oscillation of the Pendulum. 241 tween the total circumferences of the two small earth’s circles, just mentioned. 3. Let Pmc be a meridional section, EO the equator, ® latitude of C, and half the angle subtended by the chord of vibration Cm, and R the earth’s radius. ‘and R” are the radii. of the circles of rotation of the points C and m; then R/ =Rcos#,R”= Ros (+4) and ww. SS, ~ x x circumference R’ =27R cos ‘ R”=2-R cos(®+ %’), We have proved that the length of the arc of the dial moved over by the pendulum in 24 hours is equal to the difference between these circumferences . cire R’—cire R”=2aR (cos 6— cos (P+) )= 22R (cos S— cos ®cos o + sin Hsin &) Where ® (as is actually the case) is extremely minute, cos’ 2 is sensibly =1 and the above expression becomes circ R’/—cire R’=22R sin @sin &, Bat Rsin #=Cm and 22R sin is therefore equal to the circumference of the dial circle. bt *R sin ® sin @ is therefore equal to the dial circumference, or 360° multiplied by the sine of the latitude. : In other words the plane of oscillation will move in 24 hours through an angle equal to 360° x a piprinal nn o8 a result arrived at by other methods and prove y observation. as he foreyroies dein oneeseeit is rigid; it is based epee sim- Ple fact that the pendulum has (with its point and axis . ca sion) a rotary motion of its own, around the axis of the Kew a and that while this rotary movement is preserved unchang > € oscillation of the pendulum is governed by the same laws in re a ence to its axis of suspension as if both were motionless in pe 4 Supposition on which all the investigations of the emule Sravitation, as applied to the earth and heavenly bodies, alg ieee t assumes nothing unless it be, that the mere one mo which the direction of the axis of suspension and 0 age - gether undergo, will not permanently alter the direction of t chord of the arc of oscillation.* Srconn Serres, Vol. XX, No. 59.—Sept., 1856. 31 242 Reéxamination of American Minerals. Art. XXIV.—Reéramination of American Minerals: Parr V. —The Minerals of the Wheatley Mine in Pennsylvania.— Anglesite ; Cerusite; Wulfenite ; Vanadate of Lead ; Pyro- morphite; Mimetene; Galena; Copper; Copper Pyrites ; Malachite ; Azurite; Blende; Calamine ; Hematite ; Fluor Spar; Cale Spar ; Sulphur, &c. ; b Lawrence Smirs, y J. _ “. MLD., Prof. Chem. Med. Depart. University of Louisville.* ¢ ? . (Communicated to the Am. Scientific Association, August, 1855.) Berore describing the minerals of this mine, it is well to saya word with reference to its location, and also to quote some re- marks on the geology of the surrounding country by Prof. H. D. Rogers. Although this is departing from the plan usually adopted in this series of papers, still the occurrence of all the minerals, here described, at one locality, cannot but render the geology of the place interesting to mineralogists. his mine is situated in Chester Co., near Phcenixville, Penn- sylvania, and is one of several interesting developments of a thorough and very able exploration of this region by Mr. Charles M. Wheatley. At the request of Mr. Wheatley, Prof. Rogers made a geological examination of the metalliferous veins of this district, and the following remarks are taken from his report. ** These veins belong to a group of lead and copper-bearing lodes of a very interesting character, which form a metalliferous zone, that ranges in a general east and west direction across the Schuylkill River, near the lower stretches of the Perkiomen and Pickering Creeks in “ The individual veins of this atet numerous group, are remarka- ble for their general mutual parallelism, their average course being about N. 31°—35° E. by compass, and not at all coincident with that of the belt of country which embraces them. ‘They are true lodes oF red shale and sandstone strata. “‘ This vein varies in thickness from a few inches to about two anda __* Lam indebted to Prof, J. D. Dana for th matical descriptions of the crystals given beyond—v. x s. a Reézamination of American Minerals. 243 red shale are characterised by containing the ores of copper. But the zinc ores, viz., zine blende and calamine, prevail in greater or less pro- portions in both sets of veins, existing, perhaps, i ina rather larger rela- ue amount in the copper-bearing lodes of the red shale. gneissic strata of the tract embracing this group of lead-bear- ing veins, seem to differ in no essential features from the rest of the thirdly a thicker bedded granitic gneiss, composed not unfrequently of little else than the two minerals, quartz and feldspar. enetrating this quite diversified formation are innumerable injections of various kinds of granite, oS trap, and other genuine igneous rocks. The i rsaers as throughout this region generally, consist for were i but ofien partially conforming with its planes of bedding for a limited space, and then branching through, or expiring in it in trans- stronger lead-bearing veins, particularly in their more productive por- tions ; but this materia | belongs, in all probability, not to the ancient —. which filled long aces Tents in that formation with the lead ore es a their associated minerals.” h gneissic strata and their Sac injections, throughout this dis- trict display’ a_ softened, partially decomposed condition, extending many age to a depth of twenty fathoms.” “OF the dozen or more lead and copper lodes of greater or less size brought to light in this quite limited region of five or six miles length and two or three miles breadth, the greater number are remark- ably similar in their course, rangin —35° E., and 8. 32°— +; and what is equally worthy of note, they dip, ‘with scarcely an exception, towards the same quarter, or south- eastwardly, though in eethe instances so steeply as to approach the perpendic ney? “There is no marked difference in the general character of the vein- Stones of the several mineral lodes, nor any seuieet to pamwene asa class those of the red shale from those of the gne The minerals found bes these — are quite numerous, and among them, there are specimens of species hardly equalled by those coming from any seni locality. Prof. Silliman, in ma in lead mining, and tual by 4 any thitg to be seen in the cabinets of Buto 244 Reéxamination of American Minerals. 48. Anglesite. This mineral is found abundantly and in beautiful crystals at this locality. The magnificence of many of the specimens ean only be realized by seeing those in Mr. Wheatley’s pode The crystals are remarkable for their size and transparency ;—in some instances, they weigh nearly half a pound being as trariep melee as rock crystal in nearly every part. Crystals with termina- tions at both ends have been-obtained five and a half inches in length by one and a half in js tapaane ; perfectly limped erys- tals an inch in length are quite commo The following are some of the Sveti: 1.—0, @, 1-0. 2.—0, 4-H, w-H,1, ¢,1-2,1-0, w-H. 8.0, $B; $0, a; 1-9; 2:4 4.—0, 4-0, w-®, 3-3, 1, w, 1-2, 2-4, 1-5. Sometimes the crystals of this mineral are full of cavities, £8 of a milk-white color; but these do not differ in compositi from the colorless and transparent forms. It also occurs in circu- lar crystals. It is sometimes colored. There is a black variety produced by the more or less perfect admixture of the sulphurets of lead and copper (containing traces of silver) in the mass of the crystals, whose form is not altered. There are crystals of a delicate green color arising from carbonate of copper, and others of a yellow color oxyd of iron The transparent and colorless variety is remarkably pure. Its sp. grav. is 6°35. On analysis it afforded, Sulphuric acid, : . ; : aera O61 Oxyd of sie, S - - : - 73°31 1322 Silica, - - - - 20 100-29 99°83 oo very precisely with the formula Pb8. call attention to the method of analyzing this oe as jearibed 4 in another paper, for it was eo in the moist way by dissolving it first in citrate of amm ; The anglesite of this mine is found oui ieiike associated. It is common to find it in geodic cavities in galena, the cavities being lined with hematite varying in thickness from ,), to $ an ine neh or more, and often this hematite contains singloaits intimately - mixed in the mass. It may occur in crystals occupying a portion of the geode, or it may fill its entire capacity, assuming the form of the cavity. It is also found compacted in the galena without the appearance of any cavity or the presence of any other min- mi acicular crystals occur diffused through the galena. also on copper pyrites, with a thin layer of hematite inter- Reéxamination of American Minerals. 245 sulphate appears to have formed. It is also found on fluor spar without associate. Some of the most beautiful specimens are where large crys- tals of anglesite are covered with crystals of carbonate of lead, these latter frequently penetrating the anglesite. 49. Cerusite. The crystals of this mineral, though not as large as those of anglesite, are yet exceedingly beautiful, both in size as well as transparency ; the twin crystals are often two inches broad, trans- parent and presenting the appearance of the spread wing of a butterfly, some of the single crystals are an inch in length and half an inch thick. A transparent crystal weighing five grammes, gave a sp. grav. of 6-60 and on analysis furnished Carbonic acid, - - - - - 16°38 <) 22 5 Oxyd of lead, RAIA asia at Ciel e es t = PbO 100714 of cerusite. It is found on galena without the association of any other mineral—on green and blue carbonate of copper—on pyro- Morphite which often covers the entire surface of the cerusite crystals, imparting to them an opaque yellowish green color—on of maganese in snow-white crystals, without any other as- sociate—on hematite in a similar manner; mamillary masses of the hematite sometimes pass through the crystals Some few spe- Cimens have been found consisting of crystals of galena, with a number of very fine hemitrope crystals of cerusite on the sur- face. The cerusite is occasionally covered with an exceedingly thin coat of oxyd of iron giving the crystals a dark red appear- ce, and some of them again with a very thin layer of pyro- _ Morphite, as delicate as if it had been put on with a brush. The cerusite is sometimes colored, black, Soil and yellow, in 4 manner similar to that mentioned under ang’ 50. Wulfenite. __ This mineral is found in small erystals of every shade of color from a light yellow to a bright red; it has been found in some 246 Reexamination of American Minerals. abundance, forming, from the manner of i: its occurrence, very beautiful specimens. — The crystals present a variety of modified See forms, tabular and octahedral, one of which is here figured. Other forms are 0, 1. Uae eed © —— _ 0, 3, w-o. (Fig. 1.) Specific gravity of a dark yellow variety, 6-95. € composition of both the yellow and red varieties was ex- amined ; the difference of color is due to the presence of vanadic aeid inthe red varieties, and the intensity of color is proportional to the amount of vanadic acid, which in no instance is muc more than one per cent. i * The analyses afforded i z y Yellow variety. Red variety. Molybdiec acid, - ee 88°68 37:47 Vanadie acid, - - - - — 1:28 Oxyd of lead, - - - - 6048 60:30 The second corresponds very nearly to 97 p. ct. of molybdate and 3 p. ct. of vanadate of lead. As the last substance varies in Wulfenite occurs alone on crystallized and cellular quartz, or associated with pyromorphite, whose beautiful green color is of- ten very much enhanced by the contrast of the yellow and red Sometimes the wulfenite forms the mass, and crystals of py- romorphite are sparsely disseminated over the surface. It isa | found in decomposed granite—on carbonate of lead and oxyd of manganese—also associated with vanadate of lead. 51. Vanadate of Lead ( Descloizite ?) This species has never before been remarked among American minerals, although the chloro-vanadate (vanadinite) was first dis-_ covered in Mexico. ‘This adds another to the list of curious min-— erals from the Wheatley mine. It was noticed about a year ago in the form of a dark colored crystalline crust, covering the sur- face of some specimens of quartz and ferruginous clay associated with other minerals. Observed with a magnif ing glass, it is Seen to consist principally of minute lenticular erystals, grouped together in small botryoidal masses; the crystalline structure 1S perfect. Thus seen, the color of the mass is of a dark e, Reexamination of American Minerals. 247 almost black. When seen by transmitted light, the color is dark hyacinth-red and translucent. The streak is “dark yellow. From the difficulty of obtaining any quantity of sufficient purity, noth- ing accurate can be stated with reference to its specific gravity and hardness ; and for the purpose of analysis, I was obliged to use material, which although containing pure crystals of the van- adate, was yet mixed with crystals of molybdate of lead and other impurities. The chemical analysis is an imperfect one, yet the best that can be made from the mineral as it has sgpnoes found. It is as follows: Vanadie acid, - - 1170 sak east ac - - - +4 - 2014 wy oe Oxyd 0 : : : B01 Oxy ot hon and manganese, i ‘ : é 64S Os ak. copper, - - - - - 1:13 Oxy: Ppe : ; . ; . $4) Water, - - : Pea Z 2-94 99:08 If we subtract the amount of oxyd of lead requisite to form Wulfenite with the molybdic acid present, we have left 22-82 per cent. which is combined with 11-7 of vanadic acid, making a compound corresponding to, Vanadic acid 66:1, oxyd of lead 33-9= 100. This result is not considered precise ; it corresponds however, more nearly with the composition of Descloizite as given by Da- mour (P bt ¥=V Pb...70-7), than with Dechenite by Bergmann (Pb V=V 45:34 Pb 54:66). e composition of Descloizite cannot be considered as hav- ing been fairly made out, for Damour’s results are deduced, as mine have been, 3h a ey impure material, and may on future hi as yet been found only in small quantity at this mine, asso- ciated with oxyd of manganese and wulfenite, the crystals of this latter substance being more or less covered with minute crys- tals of the vanadate. 52. Pyromorphite. There are several shades of color belonging to this mineral, a green so dark as to be almost black, olive-green, pea-green, leek- green, greenish yellow and all intermediate shades. It is a very abundant ore at the Wheatley Mine, and large quantities of it are smelted. Specimens of great beauty are found occurring in bo- tryoidal masses with columnar si a gi hexagonal a plumose 248 Reéxamination of American Minerals. A dark green variety gave a sp. grav. of 6°94. No analysis was made of this mineral, as it will be embraced in an examination of the American pyromorphites to be published at some future time. It is found in decomposed granite, on quartz crystals, occasion- ally covering their entire surface; in cellular quartz with molyb- date of lead; in large masses of grouped crystals with small crys- tals of yellow and red molybdate inserted on crystals of sulphate and carbonate of lead, and forming a coating to large surfaces of galena. 53. Mimetene. The specimens of this mineral that have been found, although few in number, are remarkable for their beauty of crystallization. Some of the crystals are nearly colorless and perfectly transpat- ent, others of a lemon-yellow, either pure or tinged with green. The form is that of a perfect hexagonal prism, 2. the edges of the summit most commonly trun- cated, often to such an extent as to terminate the erystal with a hexagonal pyramid, ( fig. 2). The crystals are sometimes as small as.a hair, |. and a quarter of an inch or more in length, and ain they are so broad and short as to form hexagonal plates half an inch across. A specimen of the lemon-yellow variety was examined ; it gave asp. grav. of 7-32, and was found to contain, Arsenic acid, - - - ‘ - — BELT orine, - - - . . ‘ 2°39 Oxyd of lead, - - - - - - 67:05 ead, - - « = fo o 6:99 Phosphoric acid, - - : = - re 14 99°74 corresponding to, Arsenate of lead 80-21, chlorid of lead 9:°38= Pb* As + 4PbCl This specimen of mimetene is seen to be almost free from phos- phoric acid, containing only about 7; of a per cent., in this res- pect resembling that from Zacatecas as analyzed by Bergmann. This mineral is found in granite or quartz. It is also associa- ted with pyromorphite and sometimes the two run together, 80 as to present no distinct line of demarcation between them ; some of the specimens consist of the two minerals, the pyromorphite forming one entire surface, and mimetene the opposite surface, a between, various shades of the mixture. It has been found with galena and carbonate of lead. 54. Galena. The compact, fibrous and crystallized varieties of galena occur at this mine. Fine crystals are found, either a perfect cube, cube - Reéramination of American Minerals. (249 with modified edges and angles, octahedron and rhombic dodeca- hedron often very much flattened out and occasionally rounded sulphur. The galena is argentiferous, giving an average yield of thirty ounces to the ton. It is found associated with quartz, calcite and fluor spar, frequently inserted in the crystals of these substances ; it is also.a common associate of all the minerals of this locality. f frequently contain sulphur. i ate oa 55. Copper. Ps, Native copper is found only in delicate films on hematite, or quartz crystal, and forms an interposing layer between the hema- tite and copper pyrites. 56. Copper Pyrites. Copper pyrites is found in some cases in sufficient quantity to be worked as an ore; some of the masses are of considerable size weighing three or four hundred pounds. Fine crystals are ob- tained, both tetrahedral and octahedral. It affords on analysis Sulphur, - 4 Copper, - * - - . - 32°85 Tron, - + - - - - 29°93 Lead, - - - - - « 25 It occurs alone and associated with the other sulphurets. It is found in various parts of the vein, there being no special point of deposit. 57. Malachite. Malachite occurs in small reniform masses, consisting of fibrous crystals, and of a bright green color; also in silky tufts of a very light green color, which are associated with azurite and car- ear ge id, n1-46 xyd of co - - : * 2 e Agha are 9-02 Oxyd of iron, - - - i aa hak y ‘12 affording the formula Gu 6+Cu H Srconp Senres, Vol. XX, No. 59.—Sept., 1855. 32 250 Reéxamination of American Minerals. It is associated with the various ores of copper and Jead of the Wheatley mine, and sometimes so thoroughly diffused through the sulphate and carbonate of lead as to give them a uniform green tint. It is not found in any quantity. 58. Azurite. This mineral, although rare, is nie in beautiful crystals some measuring from 4 to $ inch a of a deep blue color, and highly polished faces. Its sp. grav. is 3°88. € analysis gave, Carbonic acid, wie - re 24°98 Oxyd of copper, - - - - - 69-41 - - - - . : - 5°84 100-23 giving the formula 26u 6+6u H. This species occurs in similar associations with the malachite. It is however rarer. 59. Zine Blende. Blende is found in considerable quantity both massive and crys- saaeas Some of the crystals are exceedingly beautiful, and of e, being three or four inches in diameter and with very brilliant surfaces. The colors are dark hair-brown and black, the brown being transparent. The specimens from this locality are hardly surpassed by those from any other mine. A specimen that was analyzed abba the as results : Sulphur, - : 33°82 Zine, = , : . . : - 6439 Cadmium, - - . = c ‘98 Copper, - - ‘ : ns = = 32 Lead, - 7 BS * ie ‘ “78 10029 It is proposed to examine yet other specimens, to see if there may not be larger amouats of cadmium contained in some of m. This mineral occurs in fluor spar, cale spar and quartz, more or less mixed with the other sulphurets. In some instances it is very peculiarly interlaced in the rocks; thus we have specimens con- sisting as it were of four layers, ‘na mely, granite, then compact crystallized quartz #ths of an inch thick, then the blende an inch thick, on that a layer of crystals of calc spar, and on this last fluor spar. 60. Calamine. Calamine is found in delicate crystals of a silky lustre, forming in some instances snow-white tufts on fluor spar, blende and car- bonate of lime. It isalso found on cellular quartz. Some of the Specimens are quite handsome, having a blue and yellow color from the presence of carbonate of copper and oxyd of iron. No analysis was made of any of the specimens. Reéxamination of American Minerals. 251 61. Brown Hematite. This ore occurs in concretionary masses of a dark liver color, and compact structure, associated with nearly all the minerals of this mine—it very commonly forms a lining to cavities in galena, in which are found crystals of anglesite and cerusite ; sometimes it lines cavities in the rock that are completely filled with cubical alena. Acicular concretions of the hematite are found travers- ing crystals of anglesite and cerusite. A specimen of the purest hematite gave for its composition Peroxyd of iron, - - . - - 80°32 Oxyd of copper, - - - - ° - "94 Oxyd of lead, : - - - - 151 a : ; ‘ : . - 14°02 Silica, ; : : : ‘ a: 100-21 62. Fluor Spar. The remarkable feature of the fluor spar of this mine is the ab- sence of color; all the specimens yet found being colorless and transparent. ‘The crystals are very perfect and beautiful, yet small; it is sometimes in globular concretions, of crystalline structure radiating from the centre. he cube, which is the more common crystalline form, is sometimes very much modified by the truncation of the edges and angles. A specimen that was ex- amined gave a sp; grav. of 3°15, and the following composition : Fluorine, - . 48°29 Calciu - - - - - - - 5081 Phosphate of lime, = - - - - - a trace It is associated with cale spar, and in some instances in a remarkable manner, mentioned under the head of calc spar. Galena and blende are interspersed through it. Its occurrence in the mine was first noticed at the depth of three hundred feet, and since then it has been found abundantly. , 63. Cale Spar. » There are a variety of interesting forms and associations of this mineral. The two most common are the dog-tooth spar an the hexagonal prism with a three-sided summit, and occasionally the hexagonal prism with flattened its lik gonite. Some- times slabs of this mineral are found, with a surface of eight or shape throughout the entire length ; again, these slender forms 252 Reétxamination of American Minerals. from the side. It sometimes happens that these slender crys- tals are crossed by one of the same diameter, and less length, firmly attached in the manner of a cross. But of all remarkable crystallizations is one, where the small prisms are so arranged as to form a perfect double spiral arranged around an axis, (fig. 3); the specimen is three inches in length 2. and ths of an inch in diameter, with the space of a 4th of an inch between each turn of the spiral. The spiral arises from one crystals are sometimes curved in a very remarkable manner. Another thing to be remarked in connection with the calcite of this mine, is its singular associations; thus, we find groups of hexagonal prisms where a small cubical crystal of fluor, about the z'sth of an inch, is inserted ina small pit in the summit of almost every crystal (fig. 4) without the occurrence of fluor spar on any other parts of the crystal. These crystals + r | 1 Sh *\ = is) = ° S = Qu ~- fon fe.) o. o i o fo) =) o- = n” sS ~o = 5 ona bot ie) o = =] ° - The summit never closes entirely at the centre , the fluor spar remaining visible on one side, Ue al and where there is no crystal of fluor spar the | extremity of the dog-tooth spar is frequently seen. Other groups of calcite crystals, have minute crystals of iron pyrites in the three faces of the summit, arranged near and per- a, 6 fectly parallel to the alternate edges as seen in figure 5. Every oe in the group is thus furnished with a set of crystals | me i Reézamination of American Minerals. 253 In another group of crystals the pyrites in equally small crys- tals is found in three lines on the summit of every crystal run- ning from the apex towards the edges, exactly bisecting each face as seen in figure 6. In this instance, as well as in the former, the pyrites is inserted entirely beneath the surface of the crystal, which is perfectly smooth. The calcite is found in large crystals in dolomite, and is associated with most of the ores of the mine. It sometimes gives rise to pseudomorphs of molybdate of lead and carbonate of lead; these pseudomorphs are mere shells however, retaining the form of the calcite. 64. Sulphur. Sulphur occurs in the form of small pale greenish yellow crys- tals; they are transparent and disseminated through cellular ga- lena which appears to have undergone partial decomposition ; the galena in which it occurs is frequently associated with copper and iron pyrites and in some rare instances with carbonate and phosphate of lead. The other minerals occurring in the Wheatley mine are finely crystallized quartz, oryd of manganese, iron pyrites, sulphate of aryta, indigo copper, black oxyd of copper, and dolomite. the other mineral veins in this region, none have yielded the beautiful mineral species furnished by the Wheatley vein. "he Perkiomen vein, five miles from the Wheatley vein, has fur- nished fine capillary copper, indigo copper, fine acicular crystals of sulphate of baryta, crystallized copper, and some crystals of sulphate, carbonate and yellow molybdate of lead, but these last were small and bear no comparison to those described. It was hoped that something might be learned concerning the formation of the minerals of this vein, but the difficulties and un- 254 On the Meteorology of Oroomiah. Arr. XXV.—On the Meteorology of Oroomiah; by Rev. D. T. Sropparp.* Tue village of Seir, where we reside, is in the province of Oroomiah, in Northern Persia, in latitude 37° 28’ 18” north, and in approximate longitude 45° east from Greenwich. ar about 40 miles from the boundary of Turkey and 150 from that of Russia. The village is on the grassy slope of a mountain, which rises 2834 feet above the neighboring city of Oroomia and 7334 above the ocean. The side of the mountain on which we live faces the northeast, and is consequently somewhat bleak in winter. The snow also lies upon it in the spring long after it has disappeared from the southwestern side. cle the plain on three sides, while to the east lies the lake of Oroo- miah, studded with islands and reflecting the pure azure of an Italian sky. ; This plain is watered by three rivers of moderate size, which come down from the Koordish mountains, and are distributed by a network of small canals and water courses over its whole surface. Without artificial irrigation but few crops can be brought to maturity, although here and there wheat fields are cultivated on the slopes of the neighboring mountains, which are wholly dependent on the rains of the spring and early summer, and some- times yield a tolerable harvest. The principal productions of the plain of Oroomiah, the an-_ nual mean temperature of which is of course considerably above that of Seir, are wheat, barley, corn, millet, flax, tobacco, rice; cotton, castor oil, apples, pears, plums, grapes, (which are culti- vated in immense vineyards) cherries, apricots, nectarines, peaches, melons, pomegranates, almonds and the jujube. The fig, with care, may also be cultivated, but is often destroyed by the co wibter, re The lake of Oroomiah, the ancient Spautes, is about ninety miles long by thirty broad}. Its water has been thus analyzed by President Hitchcock : * From a letter to Professor D. Olmsted, dated Seir, Oroomiah, January, 8, 1855. + Its elevation above the ocean is 4100 feet. % i ; ae aie % i ae - 0°74 Chlorid of manganese, = - - - Chlorid of sodi - : - - 9058 102°75* In the water of this lake it is impossible for a man to sink, the specific gravity being 1:155, and those who bathe in it come out encrusted with salt. In the summer, its shores are also fringed with a broad, white margin of salt, produced by evaporation. The lake exerts of course a marked influence on the climate of wind from the lofty mountains of Koordistan, which rise some forty miles west of the lake, to the height of 10 or 12 or perhaps 13 thousand feet above the ocean, and generally retain on their summits, even in summer, deep masses of snow. The amount of ‘watery vapor is thus probably much greater in Oroomiah than in many parts of Persia, which present almost the barrenness of the Arabian deserts. It should be mentioned in this connection that all the moun- tains in Northern Persia are destitute of trees, and many of them rise to a great height in naked rocky summits. Indeed, in the valleys and on the plains, it is rare to find any trees, except those planted by the hand of man, and a stranger, as he looks down on the luxuriant plain of Oroomiah, can hardly be made to believe that the millions of trees before him are entirely an artificial * See an article in the Transactions of the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists, I 1. ‘Thermometer and Wet Bulb Hygrometer. onthly means of Thermometer] Mouthly means of ot Hygrometer, y Dill. between ‘Therm, & Hygt. Therm. Therm. : " Greatest change in Sunrise . | dorise 2 eo. | 10 My Mean, (Sunrise) 2 p,m. | 10 P.M. m.| Mean. | highest? Pate. | jowest. te Diff. twenty-four hours, 40° 40°: |41°8 19 79-8 495 42-76 65° 99d & 24th 830° 15th 135° 20°, 2°45 47°-13|49° 6°'65/11%43) 99°77) 99-28 77° 12th |41°5 | 4th |35°°5 filg°, 8th. Age 52°) (BBo7- Teale 10°43 78° 16th |52° th 126° 428°, 5th, 595 56°3 (5795 H10°6 |17935|139'84/189-98 86°5 5th 59° 10th (279-5 P20°, 8th & 9th. Ong 55° 569 [12° 6 |199-00)159-97/15°:82 89° 2d 58° jaist 19 18°, 4th & 5th. teas) 2 153%s 79-62) 13°°85/109-97/109°81 76° od 52 80th {24° l 29 2d. 0.4 45°5 146%5 | 571 11099 | 795 | 79-83 65%5 6th |44° 26th 21°+5 HLS, 16th & 17th. bas | 8797 8899 | T9t 6% 1 8 3 59° od 29° 20th {30° 15°-5, 9th & 10th 7 sve, lev nc: gee eects. wos [4805 4th ‘80th [229-5 [15 th & 27th. saclets Be 2, Pay a a aa 41° 24th 17°5. 28th |23°-5 J18°, 25th & 26th. 398 hoe, ae eal yan sete. « es ae 58° 26th 12° 110th |46° 14°'5, papain 599 1489-1 pine ox ave Be tis olen eo 57°5 | 22d 15th |34°°5 4259, "otth & 28th 45°-64'5 | | [29-3 9 142°5 [49% § 892 7 G8 1 8%H5 1 494 649 26th $20 ¥st [32° Lae 27th & 28th. g° 48°29 1488 $998 4 79-5 | 89 | 49-7 1709 24th 142° 8d |28° ieee 54°38 [55° 69 GSE | 8° 8°-9 80° 2%th |49° Ist 131° oe 27th & 28th, 8O4. 5728 15895 | 792 11899 |10%4 11096 84° 24th 56° {10th |28° Whe abe 7°°6 59° 1 160%3 | 97 11593 |12°5 |12%4 83° 16th, 20th 62° | 4th 21° 0°-9 56°4 [569 | 6° 7) 7°68 | 18 9° Ist |66°. {17th |28° 3 11th & 20h OF4 15 48°°9 49% 5 | 392 1 693 | 491 | 496 6795 4th 33° 29th |34°° ri87°1 |4 B7™5 [99%] 7 OF6 | 89S | 19-6 |.19-7 154° 22d 30% 5 | 6th \24°°5 +d iat 14th, 15th. 188%1 |3 of ae reer be de os a 29th [27° | 9th|21° 10°, repeatedly. 24°-7 |8 Choa let cages wee sae Le ood oars 143° Ist 0° (80th {88° 418°, 17th & 18th. February, (29° (8707 311 29% S Peataepustiogaey [ie cis sever |ecees [eceee fosees 45% [20th, 29d /11°°5 | -Tth |38°°5 [17°, 14th & 15th, |March, "2993 |39°-3 R195 ioe 4... Bea poe Ge Bee Bed. Ra oe SARs 49° 24th, 25th] 9°75) 9th |39°°25}1 19°'5, 8th & 9th, 3) gsi, 45°25 ,55°°36 483 49°-61 | Sa eld 4 | cS S23\00 tod baad aye ae { N.B. The wet bulb was so often frozen during the winter months that the observations were irregular, 9% ‘youuooig fo h.5070.103)9 Ay 24} UC (3-4 2. Barometer, Clouds and Rain. ‘geet “jdog—6¢ ON ‘XX TOA ‘suramg anooag ¥ Co r= 1852. Monthly means ks Barometer.|Barom,. Aron. ] | Clouds, 0-10. phi Rain and Punrise|2 P, M . M.| Mean, [highest Dat Das st Date. Diff |Sunrise; 2p. m. (10 p.m.) Mean. | d melt’d snow Paks - 6 ew te ee = | 24-577194F- 168! sist “87 24 177 24-30: re 20th & oa st, |23°897| 27th & 28th, |-488) 5- 65 43 53 . OY, » - - + + * + | 24 283/24-301) 24-304] 24-296] 24-4 13th, 24-085 2d. *336/ 3: 43 2° 31 3 June, - - - = + = - =| 24-225/24 211) 24-211] 24-216 o43i1 2d, 24-094 19th, 247, Observations imperfect. ly, - - - <= = = = | 24:193/24-193) 24-189] 24-199] 24-303 st, 24-049 8th, 254| 04 03 ‘01 03 | 26 August, - + -. >» | 24:246/24-247| 24-235] 24-249] 24 417 26th, 24.097 4th, 320} 20 0 23) 20 plember, - - - . - | 24:330/24-325' 24-322| 24-325] 24°45 30th, 2418 19th, 270; 1 4 1 1 12 , > 7 7 + © © 124°444124-433 24-44 439} 24°5 7th, 24°30 17th, 230} 14 . 1 1 6 November, - - - 336|24-333 4| 24 334) 24-47 | — 24-21 th, 260) 3+ 4 4 3 Laci, ~ = = = = =| 24-850)24-361) 24-350! 24-353] 24°59 13th 24-22 1ith, 370} 36 ' 38 | 4: 2 January, 1853, - - - - | 24330/24-325 24-329| 24-328] 24:47 | 19th & im, 24-18 d, 3 8 | 3 3 2 February, - - - - - -/24290\24 24°313) 24-301) 24°60 20th. 3°97 th, 630) 4:7 8 4 44 1 1-42 March, - - = + = - + | 4240/2417) 24 324| 24-290] 24°51 : 23:91 Mth, BE 7 | 34 | 4 0 1-41 Annual ual s+ + = + | QE287/2F 284 24-287) 2T-286 | No. of cloudless days, - 75 24-245) 24-230| 24- 3vth, 40 rey eal | 5 ¢ | 38 0 5:22 24-295) 24° 7 12th, 24:15 |4th, sh & 2h, S229 . 41 41 1 2-43 24-213] 24°36 | Ist & 15th, | 24: 31| 09 }- 2:2 16 8 “43 3} 24 209} 24:37 18th, 24-12 Mt ~ 5b. 10 : 0-6 0-9 12 ‘00 4278) 24°284| 24°38 | «© 22d, 24°14 8th, 24 13 fs 15 6 “48 ‘277| 24-283] 24°37 | 5th, 6th, &e., | 24-05 llth, Se 13 y 6 1:7 4 65 415) 24-414) 24°53 28th, 24:19 27th, 34 |) 25 4 3:2 3:4 l 1-48 “335! 24-333] 24:49 16th, 24:17 21st, 32| 44 : 4: 47 2 “95, *297| 24-298] 24-42 | 23d & 24th, | 24-08 6th, 3, 6 bo | 54 1 1:29 0} 24-271) 24°49 | 10th & 11th, | 24-02 3lst, “47 | 5.2 4 3:2 42 4 169 9} 24-080) 24°41 21st, 23-79 17th, 62) 45 € 47 5-1 1 4°25 24°137| 24:44 3d 23-88 Ist, 56 a4 64 29 4:2 0 6:71 245194055,” | m’t o during the year, -- + | 2553 in. 271) 24-97] No. of cloudless days, - 40 ‘ypuuooig fo hsoposoajayy 242 UC "Barometer highest during the two years, 24:60, February 20th, 1 : 23: 79, February 17th, Bok "Tapes range,------ ‘81, Amount of rain rnd melted snow for the arth oun December 31st, 1855, was 258 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. As a general rule I have been very pes and regular in taking the observations and have neglected to record but few each month, excepting those on the be [ think therefore, if the results are erroneous, it is rather owing to a defect of the in- struments than to a want of faithfulness in using them. In re- gard to the barometer, I have sometimes suspected it was injured in the transportation from America, but my doubts were in a measure removed by finding that it agreed with the Aneroid Ba- rometer of Chevalier Khanikoff and that the measurements of the height of Oroomiah above the ocean are nearly like those of pre- vious observers. The barometrical records are carefully corrected for wget, being reduced to the foregoing point ; but, as I did not know the bore of the tube, I could not make the correc- tion for enpiIRaciay The diameter of the bore must however vary from ith to 3th of an inch. All the instruments have been in a favorable position and about ten feet from the ground. In one respect, at least, my labor is quite incomplete. As the tables now stand, some general notion may of course be formed of the tension of vapor, by noting the difference of the ther- mometer and hygrometer. But, as the barometrical pressure is always to be taken into account, and the pressure at this altitude above the ocean is much less than in the United States, a general inspection of the tables might lead the reader to very erroneous conclusions as to the dryness of this climate. I should have re- uced these observations, if I had had the means of doing so conveniently. I leave this for those who may be interested in the resu aus Art. XXVI.—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nickles, dated Paris, June 29, 1855, Aluminium and Sodium.—Aluminium has already been a into the industrial arts. In the session before the last of the Academy of Sciences, M. Dumas exhibited in behalf of M. Deville, large eas of the chlorid of aluminium, and of the metals sodium and aluminium, three hundred kilogrammes of chlorid of aluminium had been already made, showing that it may become a material of manufacture on the large scale. os has been proved that sodium, while superior in energy to potas- sium, may be prepared by Deville’s process, with no difficulties not sercideriel to the manufacture of the latter metal.. Numerous trials have also shown that it may be ve in fusion in contact with the air without inflaming, and that it may be run out of the apparatus which furnishes it, A metal like sodium, brought within the reach of science and the arts, must soon come into extensive Aluminium and Sodium. 259 M. Dumas also remarked on the fact that the study af element had introduced a new process into the arts for the reduction of ores—that from the chlorid of the metal; and that this method nade be important for other metals not yet brought into use. He also mentions the sono- ronze, having a quality of tone not hitherto observed in any metal in the pure state, which is another peculiarity of this curious metal. He stated, in reply to oe sale that the materials employed in making 1 kil, of aluminium—viz., the ammoniacal alum, the alumina which is pitigee from it, ahiorine, carbon, carbonate of eh chalk, are all of low price. The whole cost is reduced to 32 francs, whieh is very small, end we consider that the expense of sodium, when experiments in aluminium were begun, was 1000 francs per siege which alone would make the price of alumi cs, M Balard, who is familiar with industrial applications, stated that he had gone through with the steps of the proce: el, and was sips pared on a large The chlorid of aluminium is prepared at the Javel works by the re- e cined—which is easily effected in a gas retort. T tion of the chlorid is produced ina r of masonry, lined with earthen are. The chlorid contains a crs iron, seus: is removed entirely in treating it for yreveatis: b ing its to pass over points oy - ag fas) ~~ “= ° [ magl io) Q SS ° ee Qu. ry @ Q ~~ i— i a box | 8 ‘2 ag Cd 2. < = rad oOo a. n vapor of the chlorid of 7 dopaaaae on leaving the apparatus, ee colorless transparent cr 0 preparing the i there are used— maha carbonate of soda, - : er parts. Dry coal of Charlero roy, 450 which are pulverised, mixed with care, roe eiaesd to a red heat in & pot Wheatst stone long since showed that aluminium was as strongly nt tive as platinu M. Hulot, director of the galvanizing wot zine, the latter amalgamated some considerable time previously, when charged with water acidulated with a twentieth of sulphuric acid at 6 fi that from a couple of platinum and zine, excited to t After six hours, the current had lost a fifth of its original force. he ery was not completely polarised at the ®: ou the Current still preserved . t auarie of its first force. To restore its oo ro-negative character to the aluminium, it was necessary only to Merse it an instant in ake acid and then it. According to the Messieurs Tissiers, pure aluminium is easily distin- guished from the impure, by its greater whiteness, its indistinct traces of ery stallization, and rarely one or two well defined hexagons on the 260 Correspondence of J. Nickles. surface of the ingots, while the impure has a bluish tint 080 zine, and if the whole is not crystalline the upper surface is much more so than in pure aluminium, and the form is also quite different. heoiviing to one of the most extensive galvanising establishments of Paris, the metal works as well as silver. It may be whitened easily by dipping the piece in a concentrated solution of soda or potash, and passing it then into nitric acid. This acid acts differently according as it is itself pure or mixed with chlor- vious “jon ing. Fulminating power of Silver in the state of Sponge.—Correction. —The sponge of silver and not of silicium possesses the property fulminating ‘under a heavy peas suddenly applied—a property on which a remark was a the last number in connection with the observations of M. Che Physiological and ficebe oma Sc dpe of Carbonic Acid.—Some weeks since M. Herpin, of Metz, stated the following facts to the Aca- demy. Dr. Struve took the a esrint waters for a painfu! affection of the leg. He had been unable for several weeks to walk without a crutch. Dr. Struve had the notion one day of exposing his leg to the He con eued this ahi for some time, and has since experienc no aie of his co here are now in Ger many special establishments for baths, douches, and the inhalation of carbonic acid. sa ording to M. He erpin, the first On the occasion of this communication, i Boussingault related how Herpin. He was aren in the Quindiu, New Grenada, a ~_ of the attempted to descend in it in order to ascertain the temperature 5 had hardly entered the crevice when he felt a suffocating heat, which he estimated to be at 40°C., and a pricking in the eyes; respiration being difficult, he ascended quickly ; ; his face was red and his pe rspira- tion abundant. fier a while he descended again with his thermome- ter, aA was surprised % find pp bbe of only 193°C. ‘The ex- tret mperature was 22°C. The gas was composed of 95 per cent. of catonis acid and 5 p.c. of snsauphaite air and sulphuretted hydro- Thermogenic Apparatus.—Gas from Peat. 261 gen. It was hence the carbonic acid which caused the sensation of heat and the irritation of the eyes. At two other times, in 182 8 A served that the workmen who work long in the solfataras of the Cor- dillera, in contact with the carbonic acid, experience an enfeebling of the sight, and some of them become blind. Dr. Herpin confirmed the fact with regard to the action on the eyes action by interposing muslin. When the eyes have an inflammatory tendency, it irritates the organ and even vi neighboring parts; the heat sometimes produces ins a conges Thermogenic Apparatus.—For some ae pee there has been a ma- conical r which is reduced to vapor fills the void space between the inner walls of the heater and the outer of the conical tube. Into the conical tube is passed a cone of wood, covered throughout with a braid of hemp rolled sp . The cone of wood is traversed by an iron axis, and fills exactly the exterior capacity of the tube, so as to rub constantly against its w It is put in motion by a fall of water from the t. Martin, so as to make about 400 turns per water of the Pig a thermometer placed within the boiler indicates at the end of a certain time a temperature of 130°C. he boiler is strengthened in ihe ordinary way, with safety stop-cocks, a float, ma- nometer, &c. The vapor reaches hardly a pressure of 24 atmospheres. A greasing apparatus conveys cainsingtly to the envelop of the cone the ¢ oil required to sustain the motion. eee, This machine holds 400 litres of water. To be set in action it re- machine is at work at the Seren Palace of Paris. : : Gas from Peat.—There is much discussion in connection with the renewal of the engagements of the city of Paris with the gas compa- nies. Attention has thus been called to the gas from peat, which for some time has been manufactured at Pari . Leon Foucault has been ce manufacture o is more simple than that of coal. € peat, if put into an iron retort, heated to a low red heat, affords immediately a “nisl of permanent gases, and vapors which condense 262 Correspondence of J. Nickles. giving a very small flame, nearly like that from brandy. The oil from the peat is a viscous blackish nit of strong odor ; it is subjected to a new distillation, and resolved wholly into a permanent gas and hydro- gen very richly carburetted. This mixture is strongly llaceinanaee iving a flame six or eight times brighter than the first and of m lively Eiestoe. The two are mixed, and a gas of satel 3 pe acter ar renns which is delivered over for consumptio ault has made his trials with a yin HS method which will soon age made known. Its unit was not a single wax-candle, but a collection of seven candles, arranged in a hexa onal manner with y this method, a mean of five determinations gave for a burner of peat gas a light equivalent to 234 candles; and the same burner with coal gas 6,3, candles. The illuminating power. of the pure oil from peat—the illuminating material ‘ par excellence””—has been found, at equal pressures, 705, the intensity for coal gas being 100; and with equal volumes their age eee are as 75 LOM: number now for the Ja of the opera is 898. There has hence been, from 1715 to 1855, a rise of nearly a tone in = diapason of the or- chestra. This rise has taken place mainly in the present century, and most rapidly in the last 25 years. The following facts will give some “idea o the change. ‘ (1) The Za of the Royal Chapel es 5 ee XVI. corresponded to bi vibrations ; (2) in 1808, the Ja of a flute of Holzappe!, as esti- ted by Delezenne, was 853; ees diapasons of the same e och 848 servatoire ; (4) j in 1834 the i at the Opera gS to 8674 vibrations, at the en 870; (5) in 1855, finally, i la of the operas is 898 vibratio Thus since 1823 A i rise has been nearly a semitone ; and it is there- fore not astonishing that tenor voices should be so rare. his rise in the diapason has not reached its limit. In fact, since wind instruments have e had great importance in the orchestra, they have necessarily, in consequence of their sonorousness, imposed their tone *on stringed instruments. But the diapason of these instruments tends the fullest sonorousnese, it is papa to give the strings a ‘tension very _near that which is necessary to break them; and consequently, a3! she Zincography. — 263 cords are improved in quality, they tend more and more to raise the tone, especially as the instrument admits of this increase of tension without changing its model. ere is also a permanent cause for the rise of the diapason in the method used for tuning. In fact, itis done by the file; and filing a diapa- son heats it: at the moment it is in tune with the heap Ae is thus hen thi mean scale of the piano; the /a corresponding, will then, in the system of equal temperament, correspond to 890 vibrations, which is very near the actual da of the Conservatoire, or the mean Ja adopted by the _ manufacturer. ‘This method will have the advantage of connecting in- directly the scale of sound with the decimal system. parts of the surface which have been covered with the lithograpie & ss. On Horseflesh for food.—M. I. Gzorrroy St. Hrzarre, the President of the Zoological Society for Acclimation and Professor at the Mus. d’Hist. Naturelle, &c., ina course of lectures on animals useful to man, 8 just devoted two lectures demonstrating the advantages « horse- for food. After speaking of the predilection of the ancient Ger- * e mans for horseflesh, he has inquired into the av rsion now so general. Continued among these people until driven out asa part of paganism by the spread of Christianity. Yet in spite of the efforts of Pope Greg. ory Ill. and his successors, the use of horseflesh continued for a long time in Scandinavia. The race of white horses is still found pure in the stables of Fredericksberg belonging to the King of Denmark. 264 Scientific Intelligence. The nomadic tribes of Asia retain still their relish for horsefleshi al- though they have an abundance of cattle and sheep. Among the people of Europe, who have anew taken up the use of horseflesh, the Danes were the first. During the siege at Copenhagen in 1807, it was authorized by the government, and since then it has con- tinued to be eaten. In the Capital of Denmark, there is a butcher's froy St. Hilaire concludes that horses may be used as wholesome, eco- nomical and nutritious fo ‘whatever concerns the imponderable fluids. The questions of practi- tice to M. Ohm in giving to him the priority in the discovery of the law of currents—a discovery which M. Pouillet had succeeded for some f. vl in taking to himself. 7 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry anp Puaysics. fiant gas and 900 gr. of sulphuric acid yielded in this way 52 gr of alcohol, corresponding to 45 gr. of absolute alcohol. The process: appears to depend on the formation of sulphovinic acid and its su ed betw: eer of the salts of the acid having the constitution CeH7O, HO, 2503 ac — : * Chemistry and Physics. 265 cording to the circumstances and modes of preparation. In conclu- sion, the author states that when propylene gas is exposed to fuming muriatic acid it is slowly absorbed. The action takes place more read- ily ata higher temperature. The product is a neutral liquid insoluble in ing 3 eqs. of hydrogen, then we shall have H Oz HY CeHs \0. H Oz It is clear that this tribasic alcohol must yield 3 species of ether, since if R represents the radical of an acid, 1, 2 or 3.eqs. of hydrogen in the above formula may be replaced by 1, 2 or 3 eqs. of R. Thus the three. species of stearine will have the formulas, C3,H,;0 O2|Cy,H3,0 102);C, Hass] O2 : 857 | OgH, }02 Cells 502 /Coll, | Os CsgHas Oe cH, }02 H } JO2 H J 02 \C 3502J, JOz Monostearine. Distearine. i ‘ while there will be three chlorhydric ethers having the formulas bed H CeHs O2 H CeHs O2 CeHs . H O2 Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl ‘ Cl Monochlorhydrine. | Dichlorbydrine. _Trichlorhydrine. All these combinations, as well as a triacid nitrate, a biacid sulphate and a uniacid phosphate, have been obtained already. As the radical CeHs is tribasic and equivalent to 3 eqs. of hydrogen, we ought to ex- O2 : pect an ether having the formula a } 0% and this has been ob- ho mit tained by Berthelot and Luca. In conclusion, Wurtz points out tha there ought to exist 8 glyceric ammonias, in which 1, 2, or 3 eqs. of NH may be supposed to replace 1, 2, or 3 eqs. of Oz, just as ethylamine nso be considered as derived from alcohol by replacing Oz in CsHeOz y as i : considered as water with a single double or treble equivalent, a certain number of equivalents of hydrogen being replaced by other radicals. We may consider glycerine with the formula CeHs0z+3HO, as hay- Sxconp Srrres, Vol, XX, No. 59.—Sept. 1855. 34 266 Scientific Intelligence. ing the same relation to alcohol with the formula CaHsO+-HO which SbOs-+ 3HO bears to +HO. e 3 stearines above mentioned will “os on this view the formulas CoeHsO3+Cs6H350s, 2HO, Colls03-+2Cs6H250s, HO. CoHsOs+48Cs6Hs5O0s ; while the gly- cerine ether of Berthelot and Luca will be CeHsOs-+CeHsQs, or more simply CeHsQs, bearing the same relation to CsHsO which SbOs bears to ZnO. We ought to expect by the action of dehydra- ting agents upon glycerine to obtain the body CeH4Q2, since CeHsOs, =CeH40O2z, and in like manner we should have the reac- tions CeHs03, 3HO—5HO=CeHsO, and CeHsO2, 3HO-6HO= eH2. Moreover we should have the acids CsoHeOs, and CeHsQOi0, produced by successive substitutions of Oz for Hz just as acetic acid is produced from alcohol by a similar substitution.—w. G On some new bodies sage to the Propionyl Series,—Zin1n has communicated the results of an investigation of the compounds of Propionyl which possess mie interest and importance. It will be re- » membered that propiony! is the radical of propionic acid and is homol- ogous with acetyl, its formula being CeHs. By the action of the iodid of this radical upon the salts of silver, Zinin has succeeded in prepar- ing an entirely new class of ethers of which the acetate, benzoate and carbonate are described. Acetate of Spe seis CeHs0+4C4H 20s (not to be confounded with acetate of propyl, CeH70+CsHsOs) isa color- less liquid, lighter than and but pee eel in water, but soluble ia all proportions in alcohol and ether. 1t has a neutral reaction, a sharp odor like that of acetate of ethyl, anda ans akesan! taste : it boils at acing the ibies and eyes. ‘The author does not give the constitution of this body, but it is doubtless the propionic aldehyde, the Teaction in oI HO=KO, CaH:03+CeHs0, HO The io d of propionyl readily attacks mercury—much more easily than the vodide of methyl and ethyl. The product is the iodid of a new radical and has the formula CeHsHgel; it is therefore analogous to ethyl-mercury, methyl-mercury, &c. By double decomposition with the salts of silver it gives well defined crystalline salts, Hence the analogy between propiony! and ethyl is clearly established.—Bull. de os iti xill, 360-363. Chemisch. Pharm. Central Blatt., May; 4. On the artificial formation of Oil of Mustard.—Ziniw has made the interesting discovery that the volatile oil of mustard is the sulpho- eyanid of propionyl, and that it may easily be formed artificially ed distilling an alcoholic solution of sulpho-cyanid of potassium with thelot’s iodid of propionyl. (Am. Journal Sci., xix, 270). The oily fluid which separates from the distillate on the addition of water when Chemistry and Physics. 267 redistilled gives a liquid passing over between 145° and 150°, and pos- sessing all the physical and chemical properties of the etherial oil of ustard. The reaction is represented by the equation CeHsI+- Se=CeHsCy S2+KI.—Bull. de Petersburg quoted in Journal fur prakt, Chemie, No 8, 504, 1855. [Nor nds which i m Thus CeHslI distilled with a solution of KS should give CeHsS and KI. I will furthermore remark that the body having the constitution Ci2HiiI, and which may be called iodid of capronyl, must give by distillation with RS the oil of assafetida, which ina pure state appears to be simply C1218. Zinin’s researches have done so much toward completing the theory of the compound radicals of the acetyl type, that it is worth while to ex- amine in this place the parallelism which exists between the acetyl and ethyl series. ‘To do this we shall place the types of the two series in a tabular form. Ethyl, CsHs Acetyl, CiHs Ether, CsH;O Ac. oxyd, CsHs0 Alcohol, CsHs0, HO Aldehyd, CaHs0, HO Chlorid of ethyl, C4HsCl Chl. of ac. CsHsCl Acetate of ethyl, C1HsO,CsH2Os Acet. of ac. CsHs0, C4sHs0s Hydruret of ethyl,CzHs, _ Olefiant gas CaHsH, C4Hs CsHs Ethylamin, N H Acetylamin, N H H H Tersulphid of ethyl CsHsSs Anhydrous acetic acid CaH Os. Acetic acid C1404, and the oil of the Dutch chemists CsH«Cl2 elements. The current passes from a point of gas-carbon through the fused chlorid to an iron wire as thick as a knitting needle. After a few seconds a small silver-white fused regulus forms and adheres to the wire gaining in a few minutes the size of a small pea. he mass is iron spoon, and withdrawing the s and 1] wire electrode together so that the metal shall remain covered with a varnish of the fused ant 2 268 Scientific Intelligence. chlorid. The spoon is then to be cooled under naphtha and the metal scraped off with a penknife. As these operations may be repeated every three minutes, an ounce of chlorid of lithium may be reduced ina short time. Lithium is a white metal having the color of silver, buta freshly cut surface presently becomes yellowish from oxydation. Fused at 180° and quickly pressed up between two glass surfaces, lithium gives a mirror which perfectly resembles polished silver in color and lustre: its streak upon the touchstone is gray while that of calcium, barium, or tium, with a violent evolution of gas; concentrated. sulphuric acid has however very little action in the eclé. Silica, glass} and porcelain, are reduced by lithium under 200° C., but by calcium and strontium only at a red heat. The density of metallic calcium prepared from the pure chlorid, was found to be 1:5778 as a mean of three experiments: the corresponding atomic volume is 158. The density of strontium as pre- pared from the pure chlorid and hammered out was found to be 2°5416 which corresponds to an atomic volume of 216. The author’s former . The dependance of the reducing power of the galvanic current upon its density, to which Bunsen first directed attention, has been Very tly shewn in the present investigation. The best arrangement 's | Gonsists of imilar to that formerly described, and porcelain cru- Mineralogy and Geology. 269 cible containing a porous cell, the fused chlorid standing much higher in the cell than in the crucible. The chlorine pole is a sheet iron eyl- ~ collect under it without paler thei cath itself.—Ann. der Chemie nd Pharmacie, xciv, 107, April, 1855. W. G. II. MINERALOGY AND GEOLocY, 1. Hunt’s Wilsonite a Seapeli extract from a letter from E. mer measurements and the apparently obliqu ge of the mineral or rock-mass. Before your letter reached me, | had arrived at the genereao Dy in repeating my earlier ipa icui that this oblique Structure arose from rock-cleavage, so to say, Or, as you express it, from the Reaence of joints. Being determined, if possible, to set the matter at rest, I took steps to ceaagi some ores specimens of the sub- stance; and these I have now broken up and subjected to a very close examination. I find, that beaten the ke more facile ac there are others in the same general or aver yea direction, but with exceedingly variable inclinations. All ef these arise from a kind o composition parallel to the principal oo and hence the variable measurements, and the error ae which I was led in eohisidering. the substance to oe several of de sapssarogy that I have oe ee and hence, of course, Lt ual 90°. substance is fully proved, and the viaavage directions shewn to be those of Scapolite. and i exactly in the sa ne, and giving with a an ee. 126° thereabouts—an impossible angle (as being | 135°) unless Caused by composition, You ay remark the pemianiy in suas cottirin the: statements of Prof. Chapman.— J. p. p. 270 Scientific Intelligence. looked upon the Wilsonite as an altered species of some kind, but 1 thought its affinities lay more with Anorthite (or Latrobite) ‘than with Scapolite. lt yet remains to be seen, however, if the Latrobite really belongs to the “Asiobehiue: 1 cannot help suspecting its identity feldspars and Scapolite, are by no means rare: witness, Waltnstedi’s Tunaberg mineral, saan spar, glaucolite, elc. The aliered condition of the mineral necessarily precludes us from drawing any safe dacbaibaes from its composition. few remarks may, nevertheless, be ventured upon: but I should first premise that the amount of water, oe Ses with that of the intermixed aise varies to the extent of p. c. in different specimens. term when compared with the generality of altered scapolites; espe- _ cially when potash is present as a superadded base. Take, for r in- . a stance, the Algerie, the yellow Scapolite from Bolton, ete. This may — justify us in considering all the other ingredients as adventitious atters, replacing the original lime ; and, in that case, we obtain, with. very ile “Dasietele for the Ca, Al, Si, the oxygen ratio 1:2°5:4, as give below Oxygen. Ratio. Silica, - - 47-50 - - 24°66 = < - 4 Alumina, - - 3117 - - 14:57 - - - 2°5 Lime, ~=.'- - 21°33 - - 609 - - - 1 100°00 This ratio, as you have shewn in your Mineralogy, II, p. 202, is com- mon to many sca lites. noti renoy in his Traité de Minéralogie, vol. iii, has the following okerrnsiond in reference to Amphodelite, with which trobite is no ace ‘The specimens of Amphodelite which I have had an opportunity to study pare nie de vo Their newt ages meeting at an meh of 94° 19’, which he concludes that 1s primary is an oblique rhomboidal pris ica Peniea pee however, that the cleavage of this iinet ie is, by no means, good ; that the angle of 94° is not far removed from a right nate so that ps two may yet be brought ns (ab el Toronto, Canada West, July 13, 1855, 2 uarlz ; by: M. Descoizeau —M. Senarmont has acer and right-handed characters of the cryaiellige too ae a gener law which has since taken a position of great importance, through the labors of MM, Pasteur end Marbach. Still its application to quartz was not without some anomalies ; and although these irregularities, through » Mineralogy and Geology. 271 the labors of pean Haidinger, and especially G. Rose, have been brought under a regular law, the subject bas not been exhausted. The He has many new planes, stati the number of sera rhombobedrons trom 13 to 60, and of plagihedral planes from 23 10 66. In the rhom- bohedral series, he finds only 17 which coexist with the corresponding inverse rhombohedron ; and in x plagihedral series, only 8, that have * preponder: of the regular Apt js shown. to, be. in a gyal Py State, paring the a of external perturbative influences. The among the more commo ms. M. Descloizeaux has given his measurements of these exceptional cases without disguising the discord- ances between calculation and measurements. The pretentions, now common with regard to the absolute exactness of crystallographic shea, leading to - use of the method least squares for estimating the probable errors, are a pure i Ho: sion, — is easy to show that artificial crystals are pate in angle by extraneous causes, foreign to the molecular forces ; and it is bo pang that natural crystals should have escaped like. influences. Whe number o inutes is somewhat uncertain, ites not reasonable Aa fea so much value to seconds: a number is reached ; en anomalies are 8 grea to ascertain the limits of variation, and not blindly to assume an illusory coincidence in accordance with the abstract law o! he uew faces d ined by M. Descloizeaux have much i ine thus far ibe ee ute ci usion, and york suggest Some probable inductions. loizeaux next takes up the macles of quartz. He shows ca that the physical laws express only the limits of stable equilibrium 272 Scientific Intelligence. towards which the condition always tends, but from which it may diverge considerable from external causes, without destroying alto gether the equilibrium. The subject of composition by complete interpenetration and the sol- dering of crystals occupies much of M. D izeaux’s memoir. The crystals are united irregularly, almost as if melted into one another, the union being in an exceedingly complex manner. These forms were well illustrated by Mr. Gustav Rose. M. Descloizeaux has examined them by secti in various directions, and studied both their crystalline appearances and their optical characters, finding m e The various appearauces are shown in the engravings. The ef- same structure, and almost always show a more or less complicated arrangement of plates of contrary rotation. The planes of composition are usually parallel to the faces of the pyramid, more rarely to the rhombic faces of Haiiy ; sometimes paral- ron. The arrangement of quartz of inverse rotation in layers parallel to certain faces of the crystal seems at first 10 accord with the law o a isters the facts. The plates are numerous and of the highest bitereste->L’ Institut, No. 1117. ; oe 8. Note gn Heulandite and Scapolite from Arendal, by E. Zscuav. —From the chemical composition of the varieties of these minerals which occur at Arendal may be noticed an interesting analogy. The following analyses (1, 11) of Scapolite are by von Rath, and (11) of Heulandite by Sjogren. i ai. Si 45°05 46-82 Si 58-41 Al 25:31 2612 Al (16°56 Fe 202 1:39 : Ca 789 Ca 1730 17-23 Mg Mn & alkalies 054 Mg 0°30 °.:26 H 1653 55 (097 Na 645 6°88 . H 1:24 033 sae iaraca? Sphere = i anaemia. eas i (Ca, Na) Si2z24 Si. Oa Si+41 Sit+eH. Mineralogy and Geology. 273 4. On a Twin Composition between Mala- cone and Xenotime, Apatite, or Monazite ; by Ernst Zscuav, (communicated by G. J. Brusu.)—It isan interesting question whether crystals of different kinds can form twins Xenotime ; the two are homceomorphous, : 1 being 138° 45’ in Xenotrme, and but little less in Malacone (138° 15’). lalacone also occurs at Hitteroe compounded with apatite and mon- azite. The Oon 1 in apatite is 136° 47’. pit ; _ Subsequently Prof. Dana pointed out its homaeomorphism with Datho- lite, and suggested that Prosopite might possibly be an altered Datholite. Through the kindness of M. E. Zschau of Dresden, | was put possession of a number of crystals of Prosopite, which, although pre- senting the same crystalline furm, had-such a diversity of physical char- acters, that [ was led to give them a chemical examination, to ascertgyn. if possible the true composition of the unaltered mineral. segs: Fe wing to the small quantity of the mineral at my copmand, the results obtained are for the most part incomplete. The physical and chemical characters of the crystals were as follows : Color light violet and transparent to white and opaque. H. from 4 to so equal to 71°44 milligrammes or 50°4 r. centof calcium. re- sult of the decomposition by sulphuric acid was completely soluble in water and the solution gave no reactions for any other base t lime. The crystals which had a less brilliant color and a diminished hardness contained more or less of a hydrous silicate of alumina according to the extent of alteration they had undergone, the results of complete al- teration being pure kaolin as shown by rer. : nall of the crystals that contained even traces of water, alumina was also found; and although silica was not in each case detected, there * Poggendorff’s Ann. xc, 315. Szconp Series, Vol. XX, No. 59—Sept,, 1855. 35 274 Scientific Intelligence. kaolin can be so distinctly followed. (Where fluor-spar predominated in the mineral silica might be easily overlooked as when decomposed by sulphuric acid, it would be evolved in the form of gas in combina- tion with the fluorine. I confess I had neither apparatus nor sufficient quantity of the mineral to investigate this point as accurately as it de- served, massive fluor, in others imbedded in Hematite. In connection with the above results, my attention was called to the fluor of other localities, particularly that of Zinnwald and Graupen. At Zinnwald the cubical crystals of fluor are sometimes altered into a substance resembling Speckstein; on analysis this so-called Speck- ‘silicate of alumina. _tregret that it is not in my power to give a series of quantinyes more by the cleavage, which cuts through the crystals without any reéntering angle or line of interruption. The cleavage af- fords in fact regular tetrahed d octah as spar; and no one of the faces . ctahedrons with the same facility of cleavage in one crystal was Mineralogy and Geology. 275 parallel to it, or to any other occurring plane. Moreover the cleavage planes had no symmetrical arrangement with reference to the axes of symmetry in the crystal. . Aithough, therefore, the violet crystals are monometric fluor spar in cleavage and other characters, I am not satisfied that the external form is monometric in origin; it may be pseudomorphous after some spe- often uneven,) incline to one another, 113° 30’. I obtained also 12:12 = 74° 30’, 1:13—= 150° 45’; it: (unlettered plane) 104° 30’; 2:2 =131° in one crystal ; 1383°—134° in another; (and the latter crystal afforded also 2% : 2% = 118° 15'.) In one specimen there is a plane replacing the edge iz : 2i, giving for the inclination on 2¢ approximately 149° 30’; it is probably the plane 6%, following the lettering in the figure. The plane 23 is usually uneven; and there is sometimes an- other between it and 27. : One of the Prosopite crystals is violet fluor at one extremity and white like a kaolin at the other. jole on Geology of country East of Cascade Monntains, Oregon, (extract of a letter from Geo. Gisps, Esq. dated Steilacoom, Washington Territory, May 7th, 1855).—Dr. George Suckley, Assistant Surgeon U.S. A., stationed at the Dalles of the Columbia, Oregon, has recently ds of basalt. The limestone appears to be protected in places by a layer of river stones and gravel, and elsewhere to be metamorphic. The order of position descending is as follows, Ist. Sand and superfi- cial soil 1 to 10 feet ; 2nd, basaltic rock 3 to 10: 3d, cobblestone and nic remains, in that region has been the subject of remark. This dis- covery will throw much light on the character of the interior sea which once occupied that basin sigue ee Statistics of Coal, including Mineral Bituminous Substances em- ployed in Arts and Manufactures ; with their Geographical, Geological and Commercial Distribution, and amount of Production and Consump- tion on the American Continent, with Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manufacture, by R. C. Tartor, F.G.S. on, etc., etc. 2nd edition. and Agric. in Delaware College, &c. 640 p and numerous wood-cuts. Philadelphia, 1845: J. W. Moore. first edition of this work was issued in 1848. Since that time the able 276 Scientific Intelligence. author, Mr. R. C. Taylor has died, and this second edition has been the subject ‘of Coal, both scientific, practical, and commercial, a result of exlensive personal knowledge of Coal mines and Coal, as well as of the literature of the subject. Me ecaasti the subject of iron, particu- larly the iron trade—as it is so often a part of the industry of ac region—came in incidentally and added greatly to the useful char- acter of the work. In preresee the new edition, the work has been rendered more especially American, by enlarging the American part both with respect to the subjects of Coal and Iron, while the chapters treating specially of other parts of nol world, have been omitted. These additions have been made with c d Elfanes: and the work is in itself a library on Coal, Coal Sownations;, all kinds of combusti- ble of different parts of the country and the world. New maps on the Coal formations of lowa, Wisconsin, Illinois and Alabama have been added from the publications of Dr, Owen and Prof. Tuomey. Ill. Botany. 1, Sexual reproduction in the Lower Cryptogamia.—The reprint of Henfrey’s Report in the numbers of this Journal for January an 455 tute of any integument; but after some hours a membrane of cellulose begins to form on their surface. In experiments upon these dicecious j v be submitted to the action of the antherozoides, SO come into direct contact with the naked spores ;—or the latter may 3 kept aeatine from the former. In the first case. the spores are fecun- dated and germinate : in the second, they do not germinate a On ee the spores in water containing some antheridia, the antherozoides re seen under the microscope to attach themse Ives in great numbers to ae surface of a spore, and even to communicate to it a rapid rota- tory movement, lasting for about half an hour,—which movement, 2s Thuret satisfied himself, was caused solely by the conjoint action 0 of the Botany. | 277 vibratile cilia of the attached antherozoides. The latter continue their usual m diminished vivacity, for some time after nm =) < o 3 14) =] a la ~ 2 oO S gg ir ~ > membrane of cellulose; and on the same or the following day, or sometimes later, the first partition appeared, dividing the spore into two cells ; one of these began to form a slight protuberance at a point per- pendicular to the partition, which soon gp into a hyaline slender lament,—a sort of radicle, by which the germinating planilet is attached,—while the cell at the opposite onmentts enlarges and divides to produce the rudimentary frond. On the other hand, spores under t antheridia, remain unchanged for several days, and then are decom- posed, or else they become: covered with a cellulose coat and then make always with the same result, Thuret announces it as an ernie’ fact, that the spores of Fucacee are incapable of germinating reproducing the species without the concurrence of the antheroznides oreover, no ae aa could be produced when the spores o Species were mingled with the antherozoides of another of the same or alli g the usual reluctance to hybridism ;— tra i answers that nothing authorises him to think so, as “ey has never found any evidence of such penetration ; while in certain species he has proo that the spores were fecundated by antherozoides which were arresied by a Lssgneaee! external coating produced by the dissolution of the epispore or other In a second shine this memoir, published in Ann, Sci. Nat., ser. 4, vol. iii, No. 1, M. Thuret gives the result of his continued observations upon the fructification of the Florideous Alge. n these, the antheridia, (which were first discovered by Ellis in 1757), have now been detected in the greater part of the species of all the principal groups; but t Contained corpuscles ee to the active antherozoides of the Fuca- cé@, are not found to e hibit movement, nOF 16 Oe furnished these plants. Their general occurrence, and their position and struc- tu u 18 not known by observation, Thu ascertained that the spores may and often do geroiee azenee any get with the corpuscles. Bi later in we ven by sesh i Ann. 278 Scientific Intelligence. cilia like those of the Fucacee, and moving wisi in the same man- ner. is observations upon the cundation of Fucus vesiculosus confirm those of Thuret. Dr. Pviigetiche ais also found indications of bisexual reproduction in the green fresh-water Alg@; and in Vaucheria he thinks he has confirmed Vaucher’s original idea that the ‘horns’ perform the function of anthers. ‘These, according to his researches, are really berger their contents being converted into minute vesi- cles, the +4, of a line in diameter, furnished with two unequal cilia, by which, when set free by the bursting of the horn at the apex, they move rapidly in all directions, ‘* great numbers (twenty, thirty or more) mak- ing their way into the opening of the spore- -fruit, and coming into con- tact with the tough mucilaginous layer bounding the contents. era spermatozoid sa a uent sige of the cell-membrane of the s ie i eim maintains here emoir on the structure of sha cell in plants, that Ne primordial utricle of Mohl, the protoplasmic layer, does use the coat of cellulose or permanent cell-wall to be formed upon its surface, as Mohl maintains, but be- comes actually transformed into the cellulose coat! We wait ake or how Mohl will regard this view. 2. Trécul; Formations Secondaires dans les Cellules Véebealéeies An elaborate memoir, in Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 4, vol. ii, illustrated by numerous figures, of which the principal conclusions are ; that the vege- table cell can produce secondary formations or deposits on the outside as well as the inside of the primary membrane; some thickening in one way, some in the other, and some in both ways ; that the spiricules, reticulations, rings, &c., are originated by the primary membrani which pre i branes are not due to sedim entary m matte npc by the is contained i in the cells; and that the cavities “igh co ntiguous wood tte last, is reproduced by Henfrey, in an English translation, i g. Nat. Hist. for May and June, 1855. With the thor- rr which shicnewriebe Prof. Mohl’s researches, he first combats, apparently with complete success, Nageli’s view of the utricular nature of chlorophyll- granules, showigg that they have no’ investing mem rane istinet from the contents, still less a cellulose coat com mparable with the cell-membrane. He still believes that the grains of chlorophyll! do not belong to the ternary series of producis: at all, but consist of a soft or more starch-grains are imbedded, and which owes its green hue hue the iene of an extremely small quantity of green coloring matter, seemingly only or principally in its outer layer. By demon- Botany. 279 strating the occurrence of chlorophyll in cells which contained no starch, or the growth of the green globules after the starch-grains have vanished, and in other cases the simultaneous increase of starch an h chlorophyll grains in the same cells, Mo as shown the groundless- of Mulder’s hypothesis, that chlorophyll is formed of starch altered by deoxydation, and 1 olution of oxygen by green foliage is merely the result of this supposed transformation of starch into green coloring matt a e maintains th propriate evi- dence, he has a abundantly piglet coche the p rincipal mass of chloro- phyll-grains to consist of a substa allied to protoplasm, which certainly cannot originate from a se of the constituents of tarch. G. 4. The Seeds of Magnolia.—In a paper read before the ieee © Society in November r last (of which 2 specie is given in Ann. and M i d to question the pie > a! ~ & ~ oS “ eo a] el 2 = herp 3 ~~ S e from the first, and has the vessels of the rhaphe imbedded in it, thick- ening still more as the seed grows, becomes the red fleshy envelope, ace ment; the inner coat e anwhile remaining thin, nd forming a delicate membrane more or less closely adherent to the albumen view, ateeernes is correct only as respects the innermost ts of the A.G 5. Bertoloni: " Miscellanea ie fase. 13 & 4. Bologna, 18 These fasciculi contain each ana cademical lecture, and the characters a the specimens collected og years ago in Al by Dr. Gates, and distributed to su enumerate the seven plants here named, escribed, and figured, ee show what Signor Bertoloni makes of them. (1.) His Nicotiana humilis a new species with opposite leaves! is Dipteracanthus ciliosus, N ( ersea longipeda, of “which the. author may truly say, “ Non reperio inter debe hactenus evulgates,” since it is evidently Chryso- anus oblongifo (3.) Trichosienma aenpbeclaines isquckily of the right family and wergy tis T. lineare, Nu 4.) adie tubu lose is Macranthera fuschioides, Torr. A hag: Eeeericm punciulosum is H. cistifolium, Lam. (H. opacum, orr. & (6.) oa Plumieri is A. Cruv-Andrea, Lin Sold ) Empetrum aciculare is Ceratiola pesiaes, Michx. A, G 280 Scientific Intelligence. 6. Prof. Braun; ‘ On the oblique direction of the ligneous fibre, and the twist of the trunks of trees occasioned thereby ; 2” read before the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, and published in its Proceedings.— This twist of the wood of many trees is a phenomenon well known to wood-cuiters, shingle-makers, carpenters, and others, but almost entirely neglected by botanists. The distinguished geologist, the late Leopold von gate appears to have first directed the attention of scientific men to it; and De Candolle, in his ila petea poten (1827) was the first fear gers spoke of it. Little has since been done to substantiate or elucidate the phenomenon. In the se aeitas before us Prof. Braun gives the result of a great many observations made by himself in Ger- many, by his brother in France and Spain, and by the writer of this notice in the Mississippi Valley. trees show this _obliquit of the woody fibre more or less. In others both directions occur with about equal frequency ; while in not a few no twist is dist inctly observable. Sometimes the same direction “Prova in the majority of the species of a ea or even sg a whole mily : in other cases 0 opposite directions occur in the same genus oF Parity 3 : a it is curious to remark that in some instances per my a species of Europe and America twist in opposite directions. In a instances the fibre of a young tree is twisted in one direction ; that “ the old tree in the opposite direction. In speaking of the direction, it is wnecessary to come to an under- imaginin pect in = eeuite of. the coil. Thus viewed, the vine turns to the /eft, the hop-vine to the right, &c. Linnzus ad others, however, have adopted the opposite, or subjective view, and regard the bean and other leguminous plants as turning to the right, as they appear to an observer standing before the coil. The twist of the fibre may be discerned in splitting the wood, or in its cracks when the bark 19 gripped off, or in the course of the fissures made by lightning. Very often the bark itself, at the ape or super- ficial lines of the trunk, indicate the direction of the wood within very distinctly. We make a few extracts from 167 species observed. in Pinus Strobus, eae Victie. the Tasha of Bara , th ‘eB ropean and American Salices, Populus pyramidalis, Conse Fe Florida, Liriodendron (in Indiana and Illinois, though in rete specimens the twist was me to be the other way; but more observations are required), the Peach, Plum, and Cherry trees, aed in the European Cercis Siliquastrum, ‘the only Leguminous® tree known to twist to the right. The twist to the left hand is the more common: it occurs I most Conifera, especially in Juniperus Virginiana, Tavodium dis- tichum, sylvestris (of which young trees twist, however, in the Opposite direction), Picea excelsa, &c., Betula and Alnus, Osirya "= Botany. 281 garis and Castanea Americana (both in opposite direction to the nearly allied species of the Old World), Quercus Robur, Populus angulata, Catalpa, Aisculus Hippocastanum, the Pear re and more than apy other the Pomegranate, also most Leguminous Most American Oaks, the Sassafras, Acer tec the Apple-tree, &c., twist about as often to the right as to the le ft. he cause of the apparent twisting is not easily ascertained. It is not occasioned by an actual twisting of the whole stem, but belongs to the growth of the successive annual layers. Prof. Braun connects it with the growth of the wood-cells, of which the ends, at their formation assume a certain obliquity ; so that this twist of the wood is conneete With the intimate nature or disposition of the cells themselves. But and high angle.* Any one who may take an prea n these investi- gations is requested to institute observations and make memoranda, noting the number of ae observed, as well as the sedis and — of the twist observed, if any. 7. The Wellingtonia 7 rapes a —In a communication to the Bote Society of France in une, 1 . Decaisne has confirmed the vie which we had ‘a deuaind, in this ae and elsewhere, that the gigantic Coniferous tree to which Dr. Liadley gave the name of Wellingtonia On the same branch often presents both imbricated and distichous leaves ;—that in the structure of the fruit and seeds the common Red- wood and the so-called Wellingtonia are ‘identical, the only difference being that the cones of the latter are e larger raethat the structure is not like that of Sciadopitys ;—and finally, that the wood of the two trees is similar, both abounding with the red coloring matter, soluble in water, from which the Red-wood takes. its name: M. Decaisne, how- ever, arty not to have seen the male flowers, which, as we formerly remarked, are alone — to confirm the perfect generic identity of Wellingtonia with Sequ m M. Boursier a Ne Riviere, the French consul in California, M. —.. has likewise received specimens of a new California Conifer, * Our on Tupelo, or Pepperidge, or Vyssa would be a = subject he investigation , Since the obliquity of its wood is genera shea! considera et ond the la yers of a certain num ro ee ion from those of she receding la A. G. Bullets ‘ ida ts ta Soviets _Botanique de rance, fondée le 23 _ abe Vol. 1, p. 72-—Th shed in pes iy mubers, each of 44 to 60 pages, 8vo. : We =e momibateg the = aiane and two fascicles of the erg ‘of this publica- tion, and find it full of interesting matter, oa somes activity and ability with Which this Society has begun its work. M. Brongniart was the first President, and eded by M. for the current Seconp Series, Vol, XX, No. 59.—Sept., 1855. 36 282 Scientific Intelligence. which he refers to Chamecyparis, and names C. Boursieri, distinguished by its short leaves, very closely imbricated, oval, acuminate leaves, furnished with a gland about the middle. Decaisne distinguishes from our 7'axodium the Mexican tree, under the name of Taxodium Montezuma. As Be ) 8. Does Sea-water kill Seeds ?—A question which has an important bearing upon the actual or possible dispersion of many species over fore upon the problem whether the same organic being was created at one point, or at several or many widely separated points, on the face of the globe. It is commonly believed and stated that seeds—those of ter: and so general is the belief, that no one, so far as we know, has made the experiment until now, when the distinguished naturalist, Mr. Darwin, has shown that seeds of various kinds will germinate promptly after prolonged immersion in sea water. The account of his simple but well-devised experiments is given in the London Gardeners’ Chron- icle for May 26th, 1855. We copy the principal part of it. **As I had not the least notion when I began, whether or not the seeds would be all killed by a single week’s immersion, | at first too only a few, selecting them almost by chance from the different great natural families; but [ am now trying a set chosen on philosophical principles, by the kindness of Dr. Hooker. ** The sea-water has been made artificially with salt procured from ich h “*(1) Seeds of common Cress (Lepidium sativum) have germinated well afier 42 days’ immersion ; they give’ out a surprising quantity of water, however, several have come up after 30 days’ immersion. (4) Lettuce seed has grown well after 42 days; (5) of Onion seed only # wore - Botany. 283 few have germinated after the same period; (6) Carrot and (7) Celery seed well afier the 42 days; (8) Borago officinalis, (9) Capsicum, (10) Cucurbita ovifera, have germinated well after 8 days’ immersion ; the simum: only one seed out of a mass of seeds (which gave out much slime) came up after the 28 days, and the same thing happened after 14 days; and only three seeds came up after the first seven days’ im- mersion, yet the seed was very good. (13) Rhubarb, (14) Beet, (15) Orach, or Atriplex, (16) Oats, (17) Barley, (18) Phalaris Canariensis, have all germinated excellently afier 28 days; likewise these six latter after 30 days in the ice-cold water. (19) Beans, and (20) Furze or 0 doors, and likewise after 30 days in the ice-cold water. (22) Trifolium incarnatum is the only plant of which every seed has been killed by seven day’s immersion; nor did it withstand 30 days in the ice-cold salt water. (23) Kidney Beans have been tried only in the latter water, and all were dead after the 30 days. ; * As out of these 23 kinds of seed, selected almost at hap-hazard, the five Leguminose alone have as yet been killed (with the exception of the Cabbage seed, and these have survived in the ice-cold water), one is tempted to infer that the seeds of this family must generally withstand salt water much worse than the seeds of the other great nat- been accelerated. With respect to Convolvalus tricolor, not inclu ed in the above list, I may mention that many of the seeds germinated and came out of their husks, while still in the salt water, afier six or seven days’ immersion. ; “To return to the subject of transportal, I may state that in ‘ John- tion of the winged kinds), when once shed, are so likely to get washed into the sea as are whole or nearly whole plants with their fruit, by 284 Scientific Intelligence. being carried down rivers during floods, by water-spouts, whirlwinds, slips of river-cliffs, rok. Lagaegeaa during the long lapse of geologically modern ages. It s be borne in mind how eat pods, cap- land. When landed high up by the tides and waves, and perhaps driven a little inland by the first inshore gale, the pods, &c., will dry, and opening will shed their seed ; and these will then be ready for all the many means of disposal by which Nature sows her broad fields, and aan have excited the admiration . “rae observer. But when the seed is sown in its new home, then, as I believe, comes the ordeal ; will abe old occupants in the great sruggl for life allow the new and solitary immigrant room and susten t would be well to submit to this Beatin the seeds of a consid- erable number of those very species ape naturally occur in two or more widely separated areas. And also to take the seeds of indi ah individuals, rather than of those of iors -cultivated plants, which las certainly possess augmented vegetative power, though perhaps el may not offer increased resistance to the action of salt water. We have just learned from Mr. Darwin that some of ee seeds have germinated after $2 and 85 days’ immersion in sea-water, namely, those of Radishes, Beet, sci Capsicum, Oats, Cucurbita, Rhubarb Lettuce, Carrot, Celery, and 9. Ravenel; Fungi Darvliniaat Exsiceati. Fasciculus III. John we sell, Charleston, S.C. 1855.—This fasciculus appears to be an im- rovement on the preceding ones, sist in its almost entire exemp- tion from Saga errors, by w the others are so much de- faced. The index has a muc mentee: appearance. The specimens are Dew oucch fot and in pre tate eareig for illustrating the species. and Xylaria Edipus, Mont. , ae, by Hon. T. M. Peters of the sane State. This latter gentleman has been particularly successful in the insta what can be done for the adv ent of science in t leisure igi of professional life. Mr. Ravenel has himself given v orm Corticium and Sphericee; ane poe AVE epiphytes orn’ upon Tox srineie viz: Uredo Towicodendrt, Berk. and = Saabs ‘revipes, - R. This last has a very suspicious iciigt0 Urom and u some character more im- portant than the aaa of a Said aid be found to distinguish Pileolaria, this new species will present a good reason for uniting two- genera. Astronomy. 285 e have not made any pA rites of the wer in 4 lsa the supposition of extreme pa me ess, But as these two errors exist in the volume through Mr. nel’s too great reliance ~~ — we will share their Sapo tbility wih him. a 1V. Astronomy. 1. Comet, 1855, Il, (Astron. Journal, No. 85).—A new comet was discovered at Florence on the third of June last, by Dr. Donati. It was ig seen ae next day at Gottingen by Dr. Klinkerfues, aa at Paris by Mr. Die Dr. Donati was unable to detect nucleus or tail, and estat it as se Paictian than the nebula in Hercules. i panda sn ah _— 5, 6,7, Mr. Bruhns has com- puted oa following elem Perihelion passage, 188s, map 29, sia ase M..T. Long. perihelion, - 15! 18-4 asc. neile, - - - a6 52 43° 1 Inclination, : : - 22 58 27: 1 L : - 9°745678 og. g, “ Motion retrograde, Aa on ihe Faces lang Ses of August 9th and 10th, 1855 ; by ag p C, Herricx.—The wing observations made at New Ha- en, Pehosssisut, ae that he sates display of August has occurred this year with the usual characteristics. he evening ~ Thursday, ager 9, was clear and beautiful. Be- tween 104 25" p. m. of the 9th and 24 30™ a. m. of the 10th, three hundred and rete -five different aati stars were noted by three ob- phat viz, Prof. Alex. C. Twining, Mr. Christopher D. Seropyan and myse Many of these meteors were brilliant, and about four-fifths of all Were conformable to the usual apparent radiant, or point of divergence, hear the cluster in the sword-handle of Perseus. The following table Shows the number of meteors seen per hour in the different parts of the mys and also the number of those which were conformable to the lant: 108 25m to 1Jh p.m, E. 18, of which 12 conformable. Ss. W 14 7 W. 17 12 N. N. ile an 11) to midni : 37 27 midnight, z i: oe 4 N. N. W. 16 13 — 79 — 62 286 Astronomy. Midn. to 14 a. m. (10th), E. 42 37 ¢. ws 30 27 N.N. W. 26 — 98 — 86 1h to Qh E. 53 44 Ss. W. 26 24 N.N. W. 31 — 110 — 92 2h to 2h 30m E. 22 16 aw. 14 10 N. N. W. 13 9. — 49 — 35 During the night of Friday, the 10th, the sky was somewhat embar- rassed by clouds during the whole period, about one-sixth part being on an average obscured. Observers: Prof. Alexander C. ‘Twining, Mr Francis Bradley, Mr. Ch. D. Seropyan. Different meteors seen, 4wo hundred and ninety, as follows: 10h 30™ to 11h p.m, N.N.E. 11, of which 7 conformable. . 1 14 > S. E. iD 14 —— 45 — 35 114 to midn., N.N.E. 40 34 W. 34 27 S. E. 35 26 e — 109 — 87 Midn. to 12 a.m, (11th), N.N.E. 53 AT Ww. 32 26 S. E. 51 AT — 136 — 120 able. Professor Twining watching alone, and having the sword-handle of Perseus in the centre of his field of view, observed from 1 55™ to 3 a. m. of the 12th, fifty-eight meteors, of which forty-five were con- formable. The visible courses were shorter than on the two previous nights, and fewer trains were left. The night of the 12th wasalsoclear. Prof. Twining, watching alone, from 15 30™ to 2h 45™ a.m. of 13th, observed thirty-six meteors, of which twenty appeared to diverge from the constellation Perseus, and eight from some point near the zenith. Tuesday night (14th) was nearly clear. Between 1» 10™ and 2" 10" A.M. (15th) observations were made by myself with Charles C. Herrick, and thirty-three different shooting stars were seen, viz, 16 in N.N. E. and 17 in the west. Of these most were so remote that the place of radiant could not be well determined. Of a few the divergent point 4 tee” NS Re gene eee ey ee NER Cn RAE eS) Oe SO SE My ET Se ey ep Ry Miscellaneous Intelligence. ; 287 was about a degree vertically above the cluster in the sword-handle of Perseus, and many of the others were generally conformable to that vicinit On the same a Prof. Twining observed sixteen meteors, from 3" 8™ to 3b 40m On the night of ee 9th, the place of the radiant, or centre of the area in which the visible paths of the meteors traced back would inter- sect, was in my judgment about R. 5°, North decl. 56°. The position of this point among the stars seems to have undergone no very certain change since 1837 and 1838, before which it was not so well a. ed. t midnight onward we saw on the first night of observa- tion, "(ath), a one light hardly a degree high, along the northern hori- on, which we supposed might be e the Aurora Borealis. At 1 a. m. this spicuous, yet ill defined, appearing in position and extent as at this period in former years. A faint illumination of the Northern horizon was also observed on the night of the 10th, but on account of clouds its character could not be certainly determined. ew Haven, ‘heats, 1855. V. MisceLtnaneous INTELLIGENCE. 1. The Smithsonian Institution.—Note.—lIn our article upon this Institution, in the July number of the Journal, on p. 10, we find that of action of the Hon. J. A. Pearce, of the U. 8. Senate ;—having been misled by placing a reliance on the correctness of certain statements in ‘Mr. Meacham’s Report,” (p. 258,) which, it appears, we ought not to have done. It certainly involves no unfavorable pepe ie a peteap: stee change his mind on further experience, an change Stances, And, assuming the full i ta of “Mr. fecheasia any other then proposed, and afterwards, as a Regent, cordially sustain the plan of operations actually adopted : and 2nd, that t — so sey proved that be not understand the law as it passed to pre- d, however, that Mr. oe ce steadily supported the cto ee was Sinalie adopted from the time of its adoption to the prese ——a plan which commie the library idea with the scheme of Bientiie inquiry and investigatio Mr. Meacham’s sia in giving (p. 257) first a summary o Choate’s arguments for the amendments introduced by him into wa bill _ Teported by Mr, Tappan, and immediately following this by the state- that *“ Mr, Pearce also advocated the views of Mr. Choate ;” and 288 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Institution shall consist of works on science and the arts, especially such as relate to the ordinary business of life, and to the various me- chanical and other improvements and discoveries which may be made.” Moreover, as between Mr. Tappan’s general plan, then before the Sen- ate, which provided for the appointment of a staff of salaried profes- sors, and for an institution mo@eled.on the plan of the Imperial Jardin des Plantes, menageries and all,.t¢ be supported on the small income of Smithson’s bequest, and’a planjcontemplating mainly a library, it is not surprising that a person of she sound practical judgment should have preferred the latter. © ~~ Perhaps it is worth noticing,,finally, that the several extracts from Mr. Pearce’s remarks on thi dsio aSSgiven in Mr. Meacham’s Re- port (inclusive of three lines, not put. under quotation marks) actually comprised his whole speech, and indeed more words than the full report in the Congressional Globe contains. : 2. Introduction of Bombyx Cynthia into Europe.—The introduc- tion of this Silkworm into Europe, which is apparently attributed to Prof. Milne Edwards, in the January number last, took place as fol- Pa te. ee eee ae A eS | eee ‘ - Prrers, C Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289 about their cottages and fields.’ American Association vt the Advancement of Science—The ninth meeting of the American Association was held at Providence, ORREY be during the week commencing with August 15th, Dr. Jonn T : ing the President of the meeting. . meeting was appointed to ceri was elected President for tHat meeting and the ensuing year. he contributions to the van ‘ z, in addition to the Address of the Tetirin Pidaiden: J. D. Dana eport on the ae of Or- ganic Chace, by Dr. Wousors Gras, were as follow (1.) Astranom ‘and. Mathematics. On oe by Geonretsical: Construction. By Tomas Hitt, of Waltham, Mass. New ‘Tables for determining the values of those co-efficients of the Researches in Analytic se te arte ce i of curves. By Bensamin Perrce, Cambridge. sean of Adam’s Prize Peobigia for 1857. By Bensamin Peirce, mbrid The determination of Pm eae by Occultations of the Pleiades. By Bensamin Peirce, "he Multipliers of Differential Equations. By Bensamin Pernce, mbridge. The paenaty on the vertical right cone. By Bensamin Perrce, Cambridge The motion of a Heavy Body on the circumference of a circ oe Riles uniformly about a vertical axis. By Bensamin Peirce, mbridg Racictance to the motion of the Pendulum. By Bensamin PEIRCE, . Cambridge Cotliribaiions to the Atmospherology of the Sun. By Dr. C. H. P. rid On the emer of the Planets, and on some of the. conclusions resulting from this temperature. By Prof. Ex1as Loomis. On the mean distance from the Sun, ficlinanibn of Orbit, and Equa- torial characters of the Asteroid Planets. By Prof. SrepHen ALEXANDER. On the physical phenomena presented during the Solar Eclipse of May 26, 1854, By Prof. STEPHEN ALEXANDER. Saicas Senies, Vol. XX, No. 59—Sept., 1855. 87 290 Miscellaneous Intelligence. On the colored projections from the edge of the sun, as observed during solar eclipses. By Prof. J. Henry. Some additions to the new mode of opts tegr svalemse: in Right icsoaion and in Declination. By Prof. O. M. Mircue On the Zodiacal Light. By Rev. Geo oot Chaplain U. S. N. (2.) Physics and Chemistry. Notice of earthquake waves on the Western Coast of the United jets on the 23d and 28th of December, 1854. By Prof. A. D. Bac Rastaints Cotidal lines of the Pacific Coast of the United Siates, from observations in the United States Coast Survey. By Prof. A. D Notice of Tidal Observations mde on the coast of the United States in the Gulf of Mexico, with type curves at the several stations, and their decomposition into the curves of diurnal and semi-diurnal tides. By Prof. A. D. Bacue. Discussion of the secular variation in the Magnetic Declination on the Atlantic and Gulf Coast of the United States, from observations in the 17th, 18th, and 19th Centuries. By Cuas. A. Scuort, United States Coast Survey. A method of producing pecebsiie fluid mirrors for Reflecting Tele- scopes. By Georce R. Per On our sense of the oetiaal, =i Horizontal, and our percnnion + of Distances. By Lieut. E. B. aie A On Binocular Vision, By Prof. W. B. Roe On the Ala ge or Ss as and the composition of Rotations. By Prof. Wm. B. Roc Im raniotie in the Electric Telegraph, whereby two or more termi- nal stations can make Ents use of the same wire. By Moses G. Farmer, of Bosto Description of a new apparatus for =e SK aes and a pre- cious metals from foreign substances. By Epwa E On a method of analyzing the Solphate, Aimees and ‘Molybdate of Lead. By Prof. J. Lawgence Smit (3.) Geology and Mineralogy. On the stratigraphical position of the coal- -bearing rocks below the upper Red Shale and we tes oe of the Middle and South- ern States. By Prof. Wittiam B. Roe , orn the Coofigaratign of Ae soil of pe England. By Prof. A UYOT On the occurrence of iron ores in the Azoic System. By J. D. eee. n some new localities of minerals. By Sanpenson Satu. On some crystallized furnace products. By Sanperson SMITH. Contributions to our knowledge of the Geology of Nebraska and the Mauvaises Terres. By Prof. James Haut. Notes upon the genus Graptolithus. By Prof. James Hau. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291 On the Development of the Septa in the genus Baculites, from the extreme young to the adult state. By Prof. James H On the cutting and polishing of Granite and ye materials by drift- ing sand in the Colorado Desert. WP. Notice of remarkable specimens of éeyalatiiaa and arborescent gold, from California. By W. P. Brake. n the deposits of fossil microscopic organisms at Monterey, Califor- nia, ‘vith specimens ; observations on the characters and probable Ge- ological age of the Sandstone formation of San Francisco, California ; on the Cinnabar Mine of New Almaden, California. By W. P Biaxe. . STEVENS. Se a of Iron formed in Coal ‘since the Drift Era. By R. P. ac losicits from a series of facts respecting the erosions of the Earth’s surface, especially by rivers, By Prof. Epwarp Hircucocx. arks of Ancient Glaciers in’ New England. By Prof. Enwarp Hircucock. Notes on the Geology of Western India. By Rev. E. Bure emarks on the Geological formation of Table Mountain, Cave of Good Hope. By Rev. E. Burcess. n the occurrence of Proboscidean remains in Wisconsin. By Ep- warp DanieLs On the character of the Lead deposits of the Upper Mississippi. By Epwarp Daniets. the occurrence of silicious grits as veinstones in the Lead mines of Wisconsin. By Epwarp Dani ome observations on ee other outerop of the Illinois Coal form- ation. By Epwarp Dan P On minerals of “iis Wheatley Lead Mine. By Prof. J. LawREnce MITH. (4.) Zoology and Botany. On gradation among Polypi. By Lours Acassiz. On the System of Zoology. By Louts Acassiz Notes on the nature of the coverings of the seeds of ae er and on the dicecious character of species of Planta By Prof. A. Gray. ‘i Motions effected by plants result from the contractions of cells. By rof. A. Gr eee upon the grove of mammoth trees of Calaveras Co., Califo and ona peculiarity of tbe nee of the red wood (gen us "Sequria) of California. By Wm. P. Bu ss Meteorology. On the Storm of Oct. 7, 1854, near the coast of riod and the rte of its bein with other cyclones. By Wm. C. Rep- FIE On ‘thestorm: whieh was experienced “hig St ced United States about the 20th of December, 1836. By Prof. Evias On the Winds. By Capt. CuaRLes Wits, U. 292 . Miscellaneous I, ntelligénce. (6.) Miscellaneous. On the frozen wells of Owego, Tioga Co., N. Y. By Prof. Joun BrocKLE oles on the ie os Gunpowder Explosion. By Prof. Denison OumsteD, of New On the effect of hima radiating substances with combustible ma- terials. By Prof. JosepH Henr Account of Experiments on the alleged spontaneous separation q Alchohol and Water, made at the Smithsonian Institution. By Pro Henry. Mode of testing ui ae materials, and an account of the marble used in the extension of 1 apito ol. By Prof. He an Index o esos on endicots of Mathematical and Physical Science. By Lieut. E. B. Hun ae ¥ On the use of ps stole toda ‘for facing the steep slopes of parapets, terraces, &c. By Lieut. E. B. Hun r, UL Contributions.to the Slory of Sight. By Dr. T. C. Hitearp. Laws of reproduction considered, with special reference to the mar- riage of near blood relations. By Rev. Cuares Brooks. 4. The Climate aa San Francisco, for the year 1854; by H. Gis- sons, M.D.—The gan with very fine weather. ‘On the 5th, was a severe poet ie > which damaged the shipping in the harbor. ie few cold mornings followed, and on the 12th the rains set in. that date to the 24th, rain fell on 9 days, to the depth of 4} saa The rains were valid, and several times a accompanied with hail, and snow covered the distant mountains. The coldest weather on cord was at this time. On the 19th, 20th and 2lst, the thermom- an stood at 31,25 and 31. At noon on the 20th, it rose no higher M. 45°26, being the coldest month on seth nite bs. e. since ere win- ter of 1849-50. The greatest heat was 69, the extreme of cold . The prevailing winds were N, NE, and It should be mentioned, as a rare ‘inadiehoc: that Ns fell on the morning of the 15th, so as to cover the ground and it lay for an hour. In the winter of "49-50 the ground was covered vk hail or snow in like manner. raty was rather warm. The — at Sunrise was 47° 193, at 9 . 50°86, at noon 59-21, and at 10 p.m. 49-07. The extreme was 69, of cold 38. Rain fell on no ‘idee than 13 days, and in the caahon Ss, NW aad N, in the order ‘named as Our high wind occurred from SSE. Miscellaneous Intelligence. \ 2 March was of moderate temperature. The mean at sunrise was 47-23, at 9 a. m. 52:06, at noon 60-97, at10 p. m. 49-45, The ex- treme of heat was 72, of cold 38. Rain fell on 10 days 3:17 inches, a “erage supply for March. Most of the rain was duringacold storm e 13th, 14th and 15th, the wind blowing moderately part of the tit me sieaia Northeast, which is a rare direction for a rain-wind, The Westerly winds increased in frequency, as usual in this month. Those from S, NW and N, divided among them one-half the month, There were no high win he warmest April on my book was that of 1854. The mean at sunrise was 51°10, 9 a. m. 59°83, noon, 68:43, 10 pv. um. 52°90. The extreme of heat was 83, of cold 45. Rain on 6 days, 3:31 inches, nearly two inches of which fell on the 28ith,—the last rain of the sea- son. ‘The sea-breeze came nearly every day, though with moderate force. On 10 days the winds were from other quarters than West. During this month the hills and fields assumed the array of flowers which marks a California landscape in the s was a very unpleasant month, cold and winagioalea cloudy and threatening rain. On one day only Pe was rain, and then but two- hundredths of an inch, in the form of mist. he mean weg: at sunrise was 48-95, at 9 a.m. 59-00, ioe noon 64°61, at 10 p 6 —being three degrees below April. The mercury rose no he than 73, and the lowest extreme was 43. There were light frosts on sev- Sacramento on the 6th. e winds were westerly on 25 days. On8 days they were high. June, also, was a cold bi rather below April in nee Mean at sunrise 50:10,9 a.m. 61-83, noon, 66°80, 10 vp. m. 51°50. The warmest day was 74, and ‘an peal morning 47. There was an unusual tendency to rain, and several times a few large drops deigned . eee the law of the season. On the 17th it rained moderately for wo hours, four-tenths of an inch electitie: in the gauge. On the 131 nee a heavy storm of rain and hail in Utah. On 23 days the wind was 87, which is near the extreme heat of our climate. The lowest ex- treme was 46. The first week was beautifully clear, but afterwards there was scarcely a morning or evening without cloud and mist. The wind bt constantly West, and on six days it was high. August was a trifle below the average temperature. Mean at sun- rise 52-42, 9 4. m. 62°39, noon wees 10 P. mM. vsslona oa were two toes above. 80, the highest being 85. The minimum temperature was Mer climate can afford. ‘The mornings were generally cloudy and the €venings misty. A light shower of rain fell on the 27th. At Los An- eles and San Diego it rained heavily on the 20th and 21st, and on the 294 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Trinity river there was a eiprstor storm on the 26th, with heavy rain and snow on the mountain pea September, commonly the aioli month in the year, was do: as cold as August. Mean at sunrise 53:30, 9 a. Mm. 61:43, noon 67°73, 10 p. m. 54-40. here were two warm days, on one of whiet the mer- cury, rose to 87. ‘The greatest depression was 6. Cloudy mornings and misty evenings prevailed, and sea breeze blew with great con- stancy and with more force than usual in September. This month sel- dom passes without rain, but on the present occasion the only rain was a trifling shower on the 15th. There was a heavy rain at Los Angeles about the same tim The weather of October was generally agreeable. Mean tempera- ture at sunrise 53°32, 9 a There were three days above 80, the ~kda being 83. The mini- mum temperature was 46. ~ It was the warmest month of the year ex- cept July. The winds were light, and distributed to W, NW, N, and S, the first predominating. The most extraordinary featare of the month was its frequent rains. Rain fell on no less than 10 days, quan- tity 2-12 inches. ‘The first rain was on the 4th. At Marysville the ground was covered with hail on the 23d. At the close of the month the hills around the city sei to look green, and the wise men pre- dicted a very rainy winte The climate of No sn was. fine. Mean at sunrise 50°67, 9 ’ a was most uninterruptedly clear. A single rain fell, amount- ing to four-tenths of an inch, and the wise men ab et: their predic- tion and promised a very dry winter instead of a wet on ecember furnished a continuation of the fine woatinsl of © Novem- at sunrise 47-03, 9 a.m. 51-32, noon 60-65, 10 p. m. 49°39. There were a number of slight frosts, and ice formed in favorable situations, though the minimum tempereure was 38, The warmest day was 71. s which was quickly —— over to the new year, sabia three-tenths of an inch to Decem The mean iemperaur of the whole year sums wh? as follows: Sun- rise 49-68 ; 9 A. He ll; noon, 64- 57; 10 P 51-76. degrees warmer than that of the corresponding latitude on the Atlantic coast, though it exhibits neither the extremes of heat or cold incident to the latter. ee extreme of heat in 1854 was 87. There were only twe Ive days year at or above 80, of which one was in April, 4 in July, 2 mek ol Miscellaneous I ntelligence. 295 August, 2 in September, and 3 in October. In 1851 there were 9 days at or above 80; in 1852, 13; and in 1853, 11 The extreme of cold was 25. There were three days in the year when the mercury fell to the freezing point, all in January. In 1851 the thermometer fell to the freezing point on one day only. In 1852, 35 was the lowest depression ; and in 1853, it did not sink below 40. warmest month in the year was July, then October, then Sep- ater. then August, he April, and June stands the sixth in order, and only two degrees above November. In neither of the three years preceding, was July the warmest month. In 1851 the warmest months occurred in the following order: August, October, September, June, July, April. fre 1852, September, July, August, June, October, No- vember. In 1853, October, September, i May, July, August. To the daily eae of the cold ocean wind in the summer is owing this great variation from the order of the cenit as to comparative temper- ature in other climates anuary was the valdass month, then February, then December and “next March. In other years December sometimes takes the precedence of January. February, which “ ag Atlantic States is often the cold- est ‘op in the year, is not so n fell on 54 days in the ib “92: 12 inches in depth. This is our ' cas supply, though only half the quantity that falls in the Atlantic States. In 1853, the quantity was 19-03 inches; in 1852, 25-60 inches ; and in 1851, only 15:12 inches. The old inhabitants tell of occasional seasons when scarcely any rain has fallen, and when the catile have perished from want. Such very dry seasons are said to recur at inter- vals of 8 or 10 years. The greatest amount of rain was in February—next comes January, next April, then March. This differs from the ordinary arrangement. Taking the last four years into view, December gives the most rain, and March comes next, while the intervening months are comparatively ry. In fact we have the early rains, beginning in November and con- tinuing through December into the early part of January, and ia later rains, ginning in March, and continuing at times through ightning is seen at t San Francisco on an average three or ee times @ year, and thunder is less frequent. On the [5th January, flashes of lightning were ersptig in the evening during a cold rain storm from South; and on the 22d Fe ideas under similar circumstan- ces hgnining was again oat But no thunder was audible in either —_ eek ia] > ; 3 QO is) 1853. No exhibition of Auroral light was observed in the year. Since my residence here, from Aug. 18 have seen the Aurora Borealis only on two occasions, once in January and once in February, in the year 852. Earthquake shocks were distinctly felt on the mornings of the 9th of January and 21st of October. 5. Iron ore of Dodge and Washington Cos., Wisconsin.—Dr. Per- CIVAL, in a report on this ore, states that it oceurs in a bed 7 to 15 feet thick, lying pay two strata of limestone, ** that below cents cor- 296 Miscellaneous Fntelligence. responding in its physical characters and fossils to the upper shell bed of the Blue limestone of ~ mineral district, and that above to the nesian limestone. ‘The iron is argillaceous and mainly is lenticular ore (called also nial or shot ore). ‘The iron ore layer has a slaty structure. It is usually overlaid by a thin layer of a very dark blueish and hard compact ore, breaking with a conchoidal dipee sem e bed is one of great value, and of inexhaustible extent, and occ in a densely timbered country.—Rep. by Dr. J. G. Percival, dated Milwaukee, 1855. 6. Clouds.—Photography has been used successfully in Paris in ta- king views of clouds. They have been obtained by Bertsch in hardly a quarter of a second ina test which leaves nothing to be desired. They are adapted to resolve, as M. Pouillet states, all the important questions relating to their form, distribution and height. . Pouillet measures the height by means of two photographic apparatuses, placed at a dis- tance from one another.—L’ Institut, No. 1118, June, VPo Beedle Scientific Association.—The first Bulletin of this So- ciety, for January and February of the current year has been issued, in a pamphlet of 14 pp., 8vo. It contains a translation by Mr. I. O. MerepitH of a paper by Mr. Desor on the Falls of Niagara. 8. Ositvary.—WNotice of the late John Graem a —By the death of John G. Ellery, science has lost one of its most energetic and * indefatigable workers, who could ill be spared from his 1 favorite field of investigation. ied on the 2nd of June, 1855, at Gold Hill, Rowan Co., N. C., of one of those virulent pac incident to the climate He ha been engaged there for some months in a Geological Survey, having direct reference to the value ai Fiat economical mode of working the gold, silver, and copper ore of that region, and was just about to retura to New York, when he was prostrated by sickness. Mr. Ellery was educated in part at Hamilton College, N. Y., and af- terwards graduated at Amherst College, Mass. Havin chosen the de- partment of geology and mineralogy as the great study of his life, he turned his attention afier leaving college, to the study of chemistry, as the groundwork of his preparation, for the special object of his pursuit. His studies were completed at the Royal Academy of Mines, in Frei- berg, Saxony, where in an unusually short time, he not only familiar- ized himself with the principles * mineralogy and a but also mastered the practical departments of Mining and Metallurgy. He was well versed in the departiaeak of analytical chemistry, and under Plattner bade especially proficient in the use of the blowpipe. It was his ambition to fit himself for developing the van ks resources of his own country, and to this end his efforts were unwearied. His devo- tion to science as well as his true manliness of Shsiacie won for him — as well as here, the highest respect and confidence of his teach- His career since his return from Europe, though brief, had been fall of promise. He had already accumulated a fund of information with regard to the mineral resources of North Carolina that would soon have been made ee to the public, had “ not fallen thus prematurely. = who knew h » fee deep to theditbel ves and to the world: but belies ‘these, a wide circle of * ae 2 eee eee eS ge Se eee re wo SES Se a an RT ee eR One eee The ee Te a) ee a Pee a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297 kindness of heart, his self-sacrificing spirit, feel more deeply than them. Werner, at Freiberg, having been entered on the books of that cele- brated Mining Academy in 1790 mong his numerous memoirs pub- his associates.—Athen., July 7, : ndrew Crosse.—Mr. Andrew Crosse, the enthusiastic and somewhat made credulous and incredulous—died the other day at his residence near to Own observations relating to regions hitherto little explored, and also various accompanying reporis occupying 500 pages of the volume. | In the Report of Mr. George Gibbs, it is stated that Mount Baker, ways, Mount Hood and Mount Adams being the others. Respecting ood and Mount Adams, they have a characteristic tale to the effect that they were man and wife ; that they finally quarrelled and hrew fire at one another, and that St. Helens was the victor; since _ when Mount Hood has been afraid, while St. Helens haying a stout Srconp Serizs, Vol. XX, No. 59.—Sept., 1855, 38 298 Miscellaneous Intelligence. heart, still burns. In some versions this story is connected with the slide which formed the Cascades of the Columbia, and by damming up the water inundated the forest, th mains of which are now visible along its margin. The date of this event Lewis and Clark fixed at about thirty years before their arrival. It is very probable that it may have been due to an earthquake, as earthquakes, though not frequent, are known upon the coast. The Indians have no tradition of an eruption of lava; they have only seen smoke and ashes come out of the moun- tain. They add that a bad smell came from it, and that the fish in the streams died. Around the foot of St. Helens, they say, the ashes are so deep and soft that horses cannot travel.” Mr. Gibbs gives the following account of the Coal of Bellingham Bay : * [ visited the coal-beds on the D’Wamish and at Bellingham Bay, but I had no time for making more than a very superficial examination. That on the outlet of D’Wamish lake is situated immediately upon the water, a few rods below Tobin & Co.’s mills, and about a mile from the lake. The outcrop is exposed to the eastward or river side, and dips to the water at an angle of about 15°, being broken off towards the | *Wamish, at Stévenson’s claim. It is intended to trans- port this coal in scows to the town of Seattle, about sixteen miles dis- tant by water. ** Two beds had been opened at Betlingham bay, and the coal was e tirely wanting. Some of the outcrops of coal appear to be at the edge of faults, but the thickness of the formation itself was not examined. «“ Another bed, a little to the north of this, belonging to Captain Fauntleroy and others, presented much better indications. Its thickness Miscellaneous Intelligence. 299 been found on Samish bay, and Mr. H. A. Goldsborough saw it u the Stoluckwamish in workable seams, but not accessible to water ees portation, The coal at Bellingham bay, must be lightered on board of move’ the water being shallo wt a copsidenpble distance from the hartiany, se the coal as no —— ng to the true coal, D’Wamish and Bellingham bay mines, was abandoned only from its not wet accessible to tide-water.” eport of Exploration of a Route for the Pacific Deiieanis near She. eaih and 39th Par allels of Latitude “th the Cee of the Kansas to Sevier River in the Great Basin ; by Lieut. E. G. Bec ee Third Artillery. Also Report, by the same, of pater on the line of the 41st Parallel of North Latitude, 1854,—Both reports contain much important information concerning the geography and productions of the routes a port of a Reconnoissance and Survey in’ California, in connec- tion au. aa aloeiies for a Practicable Railway route from the Mis- Sissippi river to the Pacific Ocean, in 1853 ; by pistie R. : WILLIAMSON, U.S. A., Corps of Topographical Enginee 80 pp., 8vo.—Lieut. Williamson’s Report includes the Geological beta of W. zB, Bla ke, no- ticed in o preceding volume of this Journal, 33. ‘ 12. Report of Exploration of x Route for the ‘Pacific Railroad, near the 32d samailal of latitude from the Red River to the Rio Grande 3 ; by oe Captain Joun Pore, eas of ‘Topographical Engineers. H. 129.—Besides the general account of the country wsyiabe the volume contains a short Geological Report by Jutes Marcov, an at- Jo * alogue of the Plants, by Dr. Joun Torsey, with descriptions we a few new species. The evidence of Jurassic rocks on the Rocky moun- tains which Mr. Marcou presents is wholly unsatisfactory. Cretaceous eds were found as far as the ‘ upper cross Timbers” in longitude 97° 30’ oot latitude 33° 40’. rt of Explorations for a Railway Route near the 35th Par- allel of labs from the Mississippi river to the Pacifes Onenes 2 Lieut. A. W, Wuiprte, Corps of pee Fo i: » A., Cor oO ngineers. Tuezon eens Engine meteorites ate saber have been described in this Journal by Prof. Shepard and Dr. J. Lawrence Smith. The Re- “port contains information on the region passed over with a table of cal- culated Barometrical heights. 300 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Examination, by direction of the Hon. Jefferson Davis, Sec- 15. An retary of War, on the Reporis of Explorations for Railroad Routes of from the Mississippi River to the Pacific, made under the Or the War Department in 1853-754, and of the Explorations pare it vious to that time, which have a — upon the subject ; = Capt. A. A. Humpureys and Lieut. G. K. Warren, Corps ‘Topo sh- ington, 1855. H. Doc., 129. ere ealoatie: review of the om collected in different Explorations of the Rocky mountains, with reference — Pacific Railroad reute.—Also a Report - the Secretary or WaR ae several Pacific Railroad Exploratio n In se ee to Practical awe, with a collection of As- f. .D., &e. on. -T could eleomeeee s—besides being bulky and very expensive, is out of dat This want it has been the aim of Prof. Loomis to supply. Amateur observers, surveyors, scientific travelers, and students of practical astronomy generally, a welcome the present work as one especially ted s. The chapters on pamdiients are clear, comprehensive and practical. Demonstrations accompany the mathematical formuls, so that the stu- dent has, at every step, the means of satisfying himself of the accu- racy of the methods adopted. This characteristic * the work will give it especial value as a college text-book. The accurate pie to tion of eclipses and occultations, and the detartninntin of longitudes fro given. Great care seems to have been taken to render not only t catalogue, but the other tables, and the work generally, as reliable as possible. The author’s known habits of discrimination and scrupulous accuracy are a sufficient guaranty that in this particular the book will be found am free from fault. he wo ing intended only as an introduction, and containing less than 500 pages, no one will expect it to treat of the higher and more intricate b he es of practical a such as the computation of e classes for whom it was pre; red it can safely be recommended, as bersies for their purposes, no superior ther. * in the English language, if, indeed, i in any ot , * Miscellaneous Intelligence. 301 17. The Relations of Chemistry to Agriculture, and the Agricultural Experiments of Mr. J. B. Lawes; by Justus von Ligsic. ‘Translated by Samuet W. Jounson, at the author’s request. pp., o. Al- bany, N. Y., 1855.—This little work is a translation of a recent agri- cultural treatise by Prof. Liebig, by one who has the full confidence of its author, both in his knowledge of agricultural chemistry and of the language in which it is written. Mr. Johnson has resided at Munich for the past year and a half, where, while pursuing his studies, he has had constant intercourse with the eminent Profesor of that Uni- versity. 18. A Treatise on Pneumatics, being the Physics of Gases, including vapors: containing a full description of the different Air Pumps, and the experiments which may be performed with them; also the differ- ent Barometers, Pressure Gauges, Hygrometers, and other Meteorolog- ical Instruments, explaining the Principles on which they act, and the modes of using them. Illustrated by numerous wood engravings, by Martin H. Bove, M.D., A.M., Prof. Nat. Phil. & Week: &e. 116 i precision and clearness, and will be found a valuable and convenient work. It is well illustrated with cuts, and contains tables for Barometric and Hygrometric calculations, including tables for the tensions of va- _ por of water, calculated from those of Regnault, being reduced to English measures and the Fahrenheit scale. ie 19. Fossil Footmarks in the Red Sandstone of Pottsville, Pennsylva- Nat. Sci., Phila- the tracks duplicated by the hind foot falling into the impression of the forefoot, but a little more i vance. As these tracks have alread r. Lea argues that the rock is Devonian. It is No. XI. 0} Rogers, a formation generally regarded as above the Catskill group, and constituting the lowest portion of the beds of the carboniferous age, probably synchronous, with some part of the carboniferous lime- Stone. The typography of this work is beautiful beyond any thing hitherto published in this country, well comporting with the majestic size of the page. 20. Fossils of South Carolina; by M. Tuomey and F. S. Houmes. Charleston, S. C., 1855. John Russell.—T he appearance of the first number of this beautiful work was announced in a former volume of this Journal. N 3, 6, sustain the same elegant style of ty- Pography and plates. Each species described is figured, and the litho- graphs are remarkably fine in drawing and eng g. These numbers 302 Miscellaneous Intelligence. mend the work for its beauty as well as its science, and would urge all to —— for it, who wish it complet . The Natural History of Man: ego tt Inquiries into the Modi- Fae influence of Physical and Moral Agencies on the different Tribes of the Human Family; by James Cownes PricnarD, M.I)., F.R.S., M. &c.: 4th edition, edited and enlarged by Epwin Norris, of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Lesiitd: lilustrated with 62 colored plates, engraved on steel, and 100 eeaig eg on wood, In two volumes,*of 720 pages, 8vo. 1855. London, H. Bailli¢re.— The great value and interest of Prichard’s “ Natural Histone of Man” has long been acknowledged. It is the only work in our language that takes up this eee in so extended and thorough a manner, and the original work, or any modifications beyond what was required by the new information adde 22. Queke we Practical eee on the use of the yee 8d edition, forming vol. vi, of * Library of Illustrated Standa i- entific Works,”’ 556 pp., ag with 10 plates and many w dou Lon- don, 1855. H. Bailliére.—This edition of Quekett’s Treatise on the Microscope, a work already familiar to our readers, has just been is- sued in superior style by H. Bailliére. 23. Human Longevity and the amount of life upon the Globe ; by ¥: dhs neta perpetual Sec’y. to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, &e, Second edition, translated from the ieee s by CHarLes MARTEL. 198 pp., 12mo, 1855. London: H. Bailliére—We have derived from this book both amusement and instruction. "The author extols the hap- py calmness of old age, and argues from physiology, hygiene and anal- ogy that the natural period of man’s life is one hundred years, and that if his life is cut short before that term he is killed—he does not die be- fore the full century, Taking into view the fact that the perfect union of the bones with the epiphyses takes place in man at 20 years, and re- garding this anatomical sign as a proof of complete alanine me a close of the period of youth—and further assumin gt nisin of a growth as one-fifth of the whole duration of life, he Ce at one hundred years as the full term of life for man. He observes, by way of analogy, that— j In the Camel this union takes place at 8 years; period of life 40 years. Horse e ‘ 5° 6 grees | x, . . 4 66 ec 690 Lion, - : - are cilia ‘4 og, a ‘ i 9 se “ 10 a ae - - 18 mon. « 9tol0 Rabbit, - . Pes ee “ 8 Guinea Pig, - A as &“ ee _ The book will repay a careful peru nnals of the Astronomical (pee of Harvard College, vol. i, Part I], 1852-1853. Printed from funds resulting from the will J Miscellaneous Intelligence. 303 Te Se ee Es eleventh magnitude, with as many of the twelfih as could be conven- iently added without interfering with the other observations. The methods of observation and reduction, and the instruments, being in many respects new, full descriptions are given as introductory to the Tables. 25. Chemical Examination of the Baker’s Bread of Philadelphia ; . WetHeERILL, Ph.D., M.D.—Dr. Wetherill observes after 24 analyses, that although he found that adulterations were employed ina very few instances, the bread is generally quite pure. Alum was de- tected in two samples and copper in one. Saleratus was found to be in very common use among the bakers. 26. Report of the Commissioner of Patents (CHartes Mason, Esq.), for 1854: Arts and Manufactures. pp., 8vo, with a separate y Srencer F. Barro, Assist. Secretary S. I. From the ninth Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1854, 40 pp., 8vo. Washington, 1855.—This valuable Report embraces various notes on the localities habits and characters of the species of fish, 67 in all, observed by Dr. Baird on the Coasts of New Jersey and Long Island. : 28. A Geological Map of Wisconsin; by J. A. Larnam, of Mil- waukie, Wisconsin.—This colored map, measuring 11 inches by 14, indicates in colors the outlines of the principal rock strata of the state of Wisconsin, mentioning the rocks by their western names and without _ indicating their eastern equivalents. 29. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 8th Meeting, held at Washington, D. C., May 1854, 316 pp. 8v0.—T'o be had of Prof. J. Lovering, Cambridge, Mass., P ermanent Secretary of the Association, or J. P. Putnam & Co., New York City. Eieuta Annu. f the Regents of the University of the State of New : York’ on the Ciaran the State Cabinet of Natural History and of the Histori- ; iquari ection annexed thereto. Made to the N. Y. Senate, Jan. 15, 1855. 70 pp, 8vo. Albany, 1855. 304 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Srxry-Erentu agg Rerort of the Regents of the University of the State of New York. Made e Legislature — 1, 1855. re Le i Albany, 1855. —The Appendix phir Spee me eorological i info Jouy Patties: A Manual of Geo "Praction 1 and Th feesia with a geolog ical map of Great Britain and Gainers S hderaane of fossils, scenery, &e. 8v ‘ i riffin Co. 128 . Linp.ey: Ferns of Great rea £2 so ree represented of - size and colored by sighs? soma ts LY. e been 8. each, ondon: Bradbury & Evans, 11, Bouverie str . C. Simon: pear cera of Planietary life, or Neptune’s light as great as” - &e. Fea London: T. Bosworth. r. LARDNER : : Mazeum Of Science sik Art. Vols. I. to VL. completed ; continued Panty eee : Walton & Maberly.: AY: Experi mental Researches in Electricity, Vol. IIL 1855. London: Taylor & Franc cis. ok a of the British Marine Testaceous Molluses. 8vo. 1855. iamiea: EP Tas Voo 8. Mrs. Loupox, asst by George Don, F.L.S., and David Wooster, late curator of the Ipswich Mung um : Now edition of Loudon’s Pecyclopate & of Plants- gs 12.000 Ww ood-cuts. 1855. London: Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans. £3. Bene 6d. Ransome’s Ipswica Museum: Portrait Gallery of Celebrated Scientific Men. 60 Lithographie Po na 22 nie by 15. London: S. Highley. 17s, each; or the com- oie “£ : J. Van Voo 6d. HARLES Focinow, Esq.: The Ferns of iret Britain, iutratd wy John E. Sow- Vol. 49 obs. 1 pl. London: J.E. Sowerby. 27s. colored ; rtly colored NATHAN PeREIRA: pave lip on Polarized Light : ond. so realy veg a res “her, Baden Powell. eee 8yvo., with woodeuts. London own, pbc & vst Sag £3 13: . Son Das Mikroscop und seine cor ibe 3 insbesondere fiir Pilansen- Anatomie, ond | elt 206 Ppp-, 0, with 5 plates. Berlin. & Hamre: Mon WARDS ographie des Polypiers Fossiles des Terrains Paleosiques 4to, with cceeiin tes. % Juvenunn : Fossiles de ch = IV (Ec! chinnderinda, Leyden: 1854. Picret: Materiaux pour la Paleo eke Suisse, &c. 4to, with plates Sur les Tempétes Electriques et la uantité de Victimes que la foudre fait annu- ellement aux Etats-Unis d’Amerique et ie Ane de Cuba, par ANDRES Por ie ras Ha- vane). 15 pp. large 8vo. Versailles berg Shronoogique ac hoa a de Terre ressentis a ge de Cuba de Annales Voyages, 16804 par M. Anpre Pory. (Extr. des Nouvelles June 1868 ‘ "96 pp. 8vo. Mémoire a = fréquence des Chutes de Gréles 4 I'Ile de-Cuba, des cas eurent lieu de 4 a 1854, et des eae rsa minima de la Glace et de la blan = chervdes ae cette ile; parM André Poey. 20 pp., 8vo., Paris, 1855. : : x Qua y JOURNAL OF THE Groxocica, Sociery, Vol. X, Part 2, May Pas | 50. P: s Bostox Soc. Nat. Hist, Vol. V, p. 200.—The following pers were dameks in July for the ensuing year. Joun C. Warren, MD., President ; T. Jacxson, M.D., and D. Pa: ners Srorer, M.D., Vice-Presidenta, S. L. Apnor", MD. Corresponding S Secretary, ate. —p. 201, On a new locality of the so-called Po- sidonomya of t e Me esozoic rocks, in Virginia; and on the effect of Trappean rocks re mieic bane are “ oo OF T t. Sct, Pattaperpata, Vol, VII, No. ix—p. 840, Description of a new "olase ain the Red Sandstone near Pottsville, Pa., rae cardia Leidyi), es peor ; dsaac Lea—p. 342, Habits of the Moose man.—p. 346, Notes on the Anke of the U. States; J. L. LeConte.—p. 6 Synop- sis of the Hydrophilide of the U: States ; J. L. LeConte—p, 316 Deseriptions of f the new Marine Invertebrata from the Chinese and Japanese seas; WV. so) Soe es) el sl mw) Bl RS Bl ST SL eh ee es ss 2 a 1c T T 7 I / ] i | gs | | | | ij = LS: | “it | | oy : a | a | | { | \ | | i a | . ] T | ii a | we iis ASE Te As des e | aH aaa a Saal | ee | | | | : | i | | | | | a Soe Re. : 4 : 4 | cf i 4 q ere! RES) RSE Sa ae — | -V" aT as ae =} t ] T i | | es | : - mas [ | i | | hole an 2. eases Fee ae | SE: | | } | | | | | | | L ! % | = : aR eae ORT ms cre | GRA Penta GC, 2abeee Bee Bs i | Bynes id Fa Saad Fags 3 Bae [ toneb ie Pon | H ] | | | | | t | i | | | + i= / 1B T T | | j Bale tals Neg OF Bat Sih Bil BB Bt ss er | a Ao BR | et be i i } | | | | H + BY ae LL a) SAE | S 9 bs | | | | egns T i | by A ‘ | | x f | ai eee aa | : 2 | if | age oo CRYSTALS FORMED IN THE ALLOYS OF ZINC AND ANTIMONY. x 4 ARIATION IN COMPOSITION OF THE SS , CURVE EXHIBITING THE \ Le | | | a | | ae Oa Se 2 | | | co | * : | Bat pb Lae a — | i ae : : Ti - | om am ial (ee Jai Be De ete | alae eb breht 4.» pote ba RL mmc Pi 8B: | BEHGGs is ies Cees Se Ee ee ee ee are ee ee me caus be ; oo ; a EROS CE ee eae PI. Ne ae a Baan | 2 eben TEL Be cs et ee | | E Ee | in tae Pt tt oe mat Pre Lee a : pAlb CCN Hee SRE ao ee | Be tea AS, ws Se oe | ae ; a } ' Se ' ies Si. ESE } Se ere | i Wi nae | | | | & | ey oNlints ae a Se a a ta | a 1 OF in \ | | | | if ty be | ++ tN Bema? afl ea a oh ov Al A a ae! Baits “i oe ia EE Ea lee BEe@e” a : ) FP ; TF | r | | eo = |e) } 1 | | N : | aS ee oy 6 | | | M 1 4 Ws e | | ng = ; : # t -+- t = ssa i le a: Si a a ea a ‘Ki ake i a ‘aa af Ra UR ah Ns \ jd a | : ae en | : a | | . | \ : N. - ze N 42 abe | a y ; a ODE CN a | | | HG aie ee a é i : wo : na —\ 4 ES + . —— Maes at CRS he Rnd a Bek ! ( ‘ : as FO BS we , 4 His Br eee Eo : | A "| Pole Weis et) ! “e : | ra oo ee Be | a 1 ‘ dian pea are) eee a ee ohne el See eee See ee ee ae —4+—+— | + ttt ot eS a 3 el Ch SE ae cs a a Ss Bes He) | i i [nd hice + + Ed oa 3] 3 EA a BS EA BS a A i Si ai a ES Bi Per Cents of Zinc in the melted Alloys in which the Crystals were formed. 1 YALE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL. ° CHEMISTRY AND NATURAL SCIENCE. LECTURES. FIRST TERM. General Chemistry, - - - Prof. Bensamin Situiman, Jr. SECOND TERM. Geology, - Prof. James D. Dana. Chemistry of Building Materials, Prof. ay a Sia Jr. Agricultural Chemistry, - Prof. Jonn A. Por THIRD TERM. its ogy, - Prof. James D. Dan Chemistry applied to the Ants, - Prof. Bensamin Sunes, Jr, Chemicai Philosophy, - Prof. Joun A. Porte SSISTANT INSTRUCTORS. Samvet W. Jouyson, Fire. Assistant. | Cuar.es H. ‘Ponrxn; Second Assistant. 2 s on Natural Philosophy by Professor OmsTED, are also accessible to students in this Deparrinent: Parallel with the above courses, instruction in Chemical Mineralogy and Practical Anolysis will be given at the Aeatyuenl Laboratory, during the whole year. oom study of chemistry and the other branches weet is not essential to admission. eae and use of apparatus beloneing to the sage $50 per term. * Average cost of spperssus: and materials to be pur by each ode ee Lecture = esa students, free; 3; to others, pase Se . = BS ho 0 sick course, Mission Fee Assays, eas Ch d Geo] ogi 1 investigations generally, will be undertaken on reasonable term: ENGINEERING, WHELLIAM A. NORTON, Professor of Engineering. ALONZO T. MOSMAN—Assistant. ey einen es of — tecture ;—Analytical Geometry, and the Differential pe eae i—Me- nics, with Applications to Machinery and Engineering ;—the Frelavcuk ;—Use of yt Aoneterns Instruments for the determination a &e. e student may pursue a partial or a full course, at his option. studies required for admission to the Pk pee aye, re, a igcbr, Geometry, on uy: iti Fee for the cones yond the matricu- September 12. January -. and May 1, and costinning mont Students who pass a pi Acorn examination in either of the ab rs ve Depart- ts, are entitled to the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy, aha eing two nect i Yale College, New Haven, July, 1855. 2 : NORTON’S ; LIBRARY AND IMPORTING AGENCY, 5 CLINTON HALL ASTOR PLACE, NEW YORK. THE subscriber would invite the attention of LIBRARIANS, CLERGYMEN, STUDENTS AND BOOKBUYERS GENERALLY, to his facilities for supplying BOOKS at low prices. Through his Agents in London, aris, Berlin and Amsterdam, he is enabled to supart either in quantities or by the single volume on the very best rms. Particular attention paid to orders from Colleges and Public oe sage Catalogues furnished gratuitously. CHARLES B. prprr: ~ Sept. 1855.] athe ‘Libraries. MICROSCOPES—SURVEYING AND OTHER INSTRUMENTS. Messrs. JULIUS & WILLIAM GRUNOW, y OF NEW HAVEN, CONN. Pa , Messrs. J. & W. G. make to order Acnromatic Microscopes of superior excellence in all respects, and of every variety of form an price. —ALso— Surveying and * dsthihbieicls Instruments, whose superior excellence of ner carga construction and accuracy, have eee: frequently acknowledge For quality of their instrume ents, Messrs. J. & W. G. are per- mitted ~ refer to the Editors of this Journal. To Profs. D. and . Norton of Yale College; Prof. W. Gibbs of New York Free Aca ademy ; Profs. C. R. Gilman and A. Clark, M.D., of the Crosby Street ee el, New York; Dr. H. Vanarsdale, Morristown, N.J.; Prof. J. L. Riddell and James 5 M.D., New Orleans, and Dr. J. L- Smith, 5 PRA GG Ky. ed Catalogues sent to order. (July, 1855—tf pele TE aes ee ae Pe ime a ee eee ee ter 3 CHEMICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS, INSTRU- MENTS, ETC. J. F. LUHME & Co., or Bertin, Prussta, PANTHEON BUILDING, 343 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. This well known Cuemican Estasiisiment, has opened a MaGa- ZINE for the sale of their goods in New York under the management of Mr. H. GOEBLER at 348 Broadway ; where they keep on hand and offer for sale a great variety of Cuemican Apparatus. PxiLoso- PHIcAL InsTRuMENTS adapted for all departments of Paysican and CHEMICAL RES ae for EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATIONS MicAL THERMOMETERS of every description; HypromeTers HEMIAN HARD GLASS Ware, Tuses and Beaxers—GasHoLpers of metal and Glass—GrapvaTeD Tubes and Cylinders—Cuests with grad- uated instruments for ALKALIMETRY, CHLORIMETRY, ete—MINERALOGI- _ AGENT BOTTLES with permanent enamel labels—Lamers FoR ALCOHOL of every construction—WoopEN ware in great variety and of excellent ges SP emmetata blast furnaces—GeomeEtric and Crystat MopELs, etc. Cale se ues furnished on application and special — for Incorpo- rated ge gt imported duty free on liberal term ddress H. G@ ORBLE LER, Agent of J. F. Tie & Co, 343 Broad- way, pe fork. March, 1855. [tf] _ x a ee rele GENERAL INDEX TO THE FIRST SERIES OF THE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. IN ONE VOLUME OF 348 PAGES, 8vo.—Price, $3. A Few copies remain = ee in the hands of the Publishers. Enquire of Suttrmman & D See further, second page Si Cover. New Haven, March 1, 1851. A MINERALS AND FOSSILS. THE undersigned would respectfully call the attention of the scientfic and lovers of Mineratodicat and Fossit Specimens to his Collection, consisting in a great variety of both, all of which he offers for sale at exceedingly low rates. Having been an extensive Mineralogist for upwards of twenty-five CH, W. A. HERRMANN, May, 1855.—ly] No, 1007 Broapway, New York. a Tw in Composition betw en Malacone and das te, or Monazite, by Siar Tacuke On Prosopite, er GEo. J. —_ oho a seta of coun- tty East of Caseade Mountains : Statistics of Coal, 275. Botany. —Sexual reproduction in the Lower gamia, Trécul; Formations ‘Secondaires dans les Cellules Vegétales : aware r Chiowophyly STs ~The seed of Magnolia: Bertuloni ; eggs ag Botanie Prof. Braun; on the oblique direc- tion of the eter fibre, ete., 280.—The Wellington of Lindley, 251—Doee Sen: water kill Seeds? 282 pai Pe cals Fungi Caroliniani Exsiceati, 284, Astronomy.—Comet,’ 1855, che = rt on the Shooting Stars of Au ost th and 10m, 1855, by Epwarp C. “Hie cm. 285, os es ; Miscellanies. —The a ian Institution, bi Satna of Pete i Cynthia into _ _ . Europe, 288.—American Association for the Advance preston ce, 289.—The Cli- _ mate of San Fra emis , for the Bid 1854 a by. H. Giz 32.—Iron_ 2 tion, 2 2B. Obtuary.- Notice of tlie late John Graem El pie 296.—Mr. ‘ Weaver: Andrew Crosse, 297.--Report of Exploration of of a Route for the P. acific. Rail. , by 1. 1. Stevens, 297.—Re eports of Explorations of various routes for the Pacifie kc i om y L——A Loomis, LL.D., 300.—The Relations of Chemistry to Agriculture, and the Agricultural Experiments of Mr. J. B. Lawes. by Justus von Lrepic, translated by SamveL W. Jounson: A Treatise gn Pneumatics, by Martin H. Boye , M.D., A.M, : Fossil Foot- marks in the Red Sandssone of wae Mera! ecresoos if Isaac a i ossils of South Carolina, by M. Tuomery menace —The Natural Hist of Man, by James Cow.ss PricHarp, M. ae ponerse ee use of the Microscope : a man oom gevity end i the amount of life upon the Gabe. by P. FLourens: Annals of the Astronomical Observatory at Harvard College, 302.—Notices of new publica- ina 08. oe Let Works, 303. _ CORRECTION.—P. 161, to title add, by Prof. O. N, Sropparp. BOTANICAL EXCHANGES. ___, Te undersigned having spent some = in Europe, where he made = extensive apes igiea (the larger proportion being from _ tral Germany,) is now prepared to cae his nes he with Amer- ens of plants peculiar ii Sept. 1855. aes A Geological Map of the State of ¥ according to to the | gle low. \t is an ex- parent A gee *pely 2g The nert No. of this Journal will be published on the first ( CONTENTS: XIII. Notice of the Pitch Lake of Trinidad ; oF Mr. N.S. NROSS, XIV. Of the Hsrrisas Tornado, Ohio, February 4, 1854 ; by” Prof. O. N. Stopparp “XV. On the ee Riaribeies of Crustacea, by Sass D. Dan XVI. On ay Gate on Polishing of hard Rocks and Mine rals by dry Sand; by Wit LAKE, XVI. The Ns yey Todividual in e relation to Species 5 by r. ALEXANDER Bra ; XVIIL. ‘On Different Gentes of Primitive eleiiiadslian by Taom . McLeEop, XIX. Additions Note on Arachis hypogee by Gronss _-.. by Jostan P. Co a pla XXIIL Demonstration of the Apparent. Motion of the pheie” and from fo... AMERICAN. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. "he i [SECOND SERIES.} * iw, ue a. tue Sy Th Ant: XXVIL—On the Eagre of me Toien-Tand' ny D. . 7 Maccowan, M ag or the tidal linen called from its Bre aes tion a “‘ Bore,” can be. surprised at the account g by Arrian of tide near the mouth of the Indus, or at the astonishment. anifested by Alexenmaeas d-his army when they first béheld its 101 Haye ch of the Ganges, -where I first saw re. it presented no feature calculated to excite wonder; but “Tsien aa it strack me as being one of the grandest apa PPariseciions of the wi Branch of the sida pres Sodio. BE Society, 12th Pamuany, ¥ His manl heart, age = 2 Was sual! above : n 4 tainous penit: ula in Canton province © sfc ta fa — isa -, cis Be cced ovat g its thunder storms, aa ee ean aaah anes the me aipite regions in @ anner 10 awaken awe and superstition Standard Ency- ing yarious authors on ee ee ack are found, — light aang n being struck. also, hatchet-shaped things eke up which sre wef alt, “The oS insets Mes aang @0.—Nor., 1865. 39 fat Sreattee To the first named marvel, the wot -Chih-kiang owes its name: that it has not been mentioned in the Travels ‘of Marco Polo, is to be accouited for from the eirenm- ad stance, that the phenomenon did not occur during.any of his vis- its to the city of Hang-chau: otherwise it would not have re- ~ mained until the present day undescribed, nor would a distin- ~~ guished geographer have stated, that “In the North Pacific wé have ne the bores of a Hooghly nor the terrific tides of a bay of Fur The ‘T'sien- -tang river, originally called Chih-kiang, talked its 4 tise in a mountainous region where the provinces of Kiang-si, Fuh-kien, and Chih- kiang are long conterminous, and after pur- suing a northeasterly course, disembogues_ into the Hang: -chau Bay, a short distance below the city of that name. It is oat " 221) miles long, flowing thore than two-thirds of its way throngh 4 a ga ae country; the remainder, draining a low alluvial plain. A considerable quantity of silt is conveyed by it to the i sea, thus Hing the Yang-tsz’ and Yellow Rivers in extending this part of the continent eastward. Being broad, shallow, and — rapid. it is navigated with difficulty by flat bottomed vessels ‘ _ which seem admirably constructed for that purpose. ‘They are _drawn by boatmen agaiust the stream, with ropes several hundred eet in length attached to the topmast, those on board being en- ‘ip poling. At Hang- chan, it is abont four miles wider a th. éonf err of a river, however, has little effect in giving rise to acne the canse of these phenomena must be songht for in — the form of its estuary, where is presented ina remarkable de- . greethe peculiar features necessary towa sudden elevation of the tidal wave,—a shallow and gradually eoteiming bay, su bject ie en bie at the embouchure of a river more or less oben aia. y= fields are often furrowed by thuuder as if t n oe In a temp consecrated to the Thunder Date the People minal pi ne a dru 1, drawn thither on urpo — constructed, which it is supposed he beats "doa a storm ; ° oid iti is Abe that s a drum covered wi ith Ga per has been s — [for one. covered with le: shat "the peals of thunder have been less seve ne — was placed on the top of a mountain, and a boy left there as sie a e thunderer—a sort of sacrifice to hi Shani * Tang-chau is not far a the Hea: piace of Confucius, a peninsula | of pers tung Promontory. Thither it is believed the ee of the departed re ' moned to judgment. in adie, Innumerable accounts are given. of phere ghosts, which are for a seer at liberty in that region. The “ oe lantern,” Jatuus, is often Sa ther + Vide Johnston’s Phoysical Atlas of Natural Phenomena. usually val aaeae work contains a few slight errors in treating of Page terra ine The lofty mountain a: passing through the entire length ef > nosey Or the Chart of the mountain chains of Asia. A very large space in the U e, me eastern a part of the Chinese coast, where the continent converges beat s ie the Pacific, as if to form a cape; its northern. headland’i ‘is Yang- tsz’ Cape, an alluvial flat, formed by the great river of that name; ‘ the opposite headland is ofa very different character, being formed ~~ by the terminationg at Ketow Point, of the Nain-ling chain of mountains. Thus, on one side the shore i is so low, and the bay ' so shallow as to render it perilous to navigators, while at the other, there is a bold evast and deep water. From Ketow Point to Yang-tsz’ Cape, the distance is sixty miles, which is the width of the estuary. A line intersecting it, drawn from the mouth of the river, would be about seventy- “five miles. A portion of the Chusan Archipelago, is included in the sontheastern part of the bay. Although these islands are generally separated. by deep channels, the descent of the submarine ground on this part of the coast is extremely gradual, owing to the ever accumulating detri- tus of the great rivers. The bay itself, is very shallow, and con- stautly decreasing in depth, the channel being wholly obliterated towards the T siev-tang. At its southern boundary it receives the water of the ‘Va-hiah or Ningpo river, whete the tides are in no of the T'sien- tang, Chang-ngo is disembogued, in which river the ~~ ped have a great and rapid | rise and fall. vigators are well acqnainted ial the force of tidal ctirrents “the Chusan islands, and in the other part of the bay,;_ . there is a rapid increase of their velocity as youradv the. fnnnel-shaped frith, where sey rush at sixteen miles an hour. In the neighborhood of Chapoo,, where they are more modera vale flow is ‘between el nd twelve knots, with a fall of-tw enty- eight feet. Vessels approaching this part of the coast are thus in _ danger of being lost among sands without sighting the low shores, Captain Collinson, when bap 1 Fike to find a chanuel to Wi oe chau in the H.C. Steamer Phlegethon, experienced a of “eleven and a half knots, when pe wie miles distant rl the Chapoo Hills, and two from the shore. ‘Traversing the river [estuary] which at this point is about fifteen miles wide, there was ‘ho continuous channel found, although there were some deep spots. When the Phlegethon was exposed to this ude, she had au anchor down, with a whole cable, (having previously Inst an anchor and cable in eee to hag up,) Was. U ; _ power of steam, with sails set, and was still driving.” Whales = are not unfreqnently Pict iu by this vortex, and left donundering - 0n the strand or in shallow water by the receding wave; scme : a the accidents recorded of the uufortuuate Celacea are worth voting + = a aD: J. Macgowan on the Eagre of the Tsien-Fang. : _ © At the upper part of the bay, and about the mouth of the river ithe Eagre is scarcely observabte, but owing to the very wee descent of the shore, and the rapidity of the great flood and ebb, the-tidal phenomena even here present a remarkable appearance. ' Vessels, which a few moments before were afloat, are suddenly Jef Righ and dry ona strand nearly two miles in width, which the r es wave as quickly floods. It is not until the tide rushes beyoud the mouth of the river, that it becomes elevated toa lofty , wave constituting the Eagre, which attains its greatest magnitede opposite the city of Hang-chau. Generally there is nothmgs in its aspect, except on the third day of the second — _ month, and on the eighteenth of the eighth, or at the spring- -tide boyt the period of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, its great “ntedsi y being at the latter season. Sometimes, however, during “éthe ‘preva ence of easterly winds, on the third day after the sun — and moon are in conjunction, or in opposition, the Eagre courses up the river with hardly less majesty than when paying its ordi- nary periodical visit. On one of these unusnal occasions, when _ I was travelling in native costume, I had an hartge ccd of wit- - nessing it, on Decem mber 14, 1848, at about 2 p Between the river and the city walls, which are a mile distant, dense suburbs extend several miles along the banks. As the 1our of flood-tide approached, crowds gathered in the streets ronning at rightangles with the T’sien-tang, but at safe distances. M : position was a terrace in front of the Tri-wave Temple, which | afforded a good view of the entire scene. Ou a sudden, all traffic: in the eines mart was suspended, porters cleared the front _ street of every description of merchandise, boatmen ceased lading and wets their vessels, and put out into the middle of the stream, ‘so that a few moments sufficed to-give a deserted appear- ~ ance to the baibaeae part of one of the busiest cities of Asia. The centre of the river teemed with craft, from gmall boats to huge a q tf = barges, including the gay “ flower beats ” Lond shouting from the "fleet annonneed the appearance of the flood, which seemed like a glistening white cable, stretched athwart the river al its — mouth, as far down as the eye contd reach. Its noise, compared by Chinese poets to that of thunder, speedily drowned that of the — boatmen; and as it advanced with prodigious velocity,—at the E rate, I should judge, of twenty-five miles an hour,—it assun the appearance of au alabaster wall, or rather of a cataract four — or "ke miles across, and about thitty feet high, moving bodily ward. Soon it reached the advanced guard of the immense anctlishaige of vessels awaiting its approach. Knowing that ‘ Bore of the Hooghly, which scarce deserved mention in connec- : tion with the oue before me, invariably overturned boats which — were - ay managed, I could not but feel apprehensive for the floating multitude: as the — wall of water he "4 ¢ 6, of 1 Teton. 7 : 3 bs ee 2 D. J. Macgowan on the Eagre c y Em ; The as it were, to the summit with perfect safety. Os was of greatest interest when the Eagre had passed about one- half way among the craft. On one side they were quietly “repo- sing on the surface of the unruffled streain, while those nether portion were pitching and heaving in tumultuous confu- sion on the flood, others were scaling with the agility of salmon, the formidable cascade. This grand and exciting scene was but of a mioment’s duration,—it passed up the river in an insfant, but from this point with gradually diminishing force, size, and velo- . city, until it ceased to be perceptible; which Chinese acconnts represent to be eighty miles distant from the city! From ebb‘to | flood tide, the change was almost instantaneous; a slight flood* continued after the passage of the wave, but it soon began to ebb. Having lost my memoranda, [ am obliged to write from re- collection: my impression is, that the fall was about twenty feet; the Chinese say that the rise and fall is sometimes forty feet at Hang-chau. The maximum rise and fall at spring tides is proba- bly at the mouth of the river, or upper part of the bay, where the Eagre is hardly discoverable: in the Bay of Fundy, where the tides rush in with amazing velocity, there is at one place a rise of seventy feet; but there the magnificent phenomenon in queshon does not appear to be known at all. It is not, therefore, where tides attain their greatest rapidity, or maximum rise and-fall, that this wave is met with, but where a river and its estuary both pre- sent a peculiar configuration. ae . Dryden’s definition of an Eagre, appended in a note. to the verse above quoted inthe Threnodia Augustalis, is, “a tide Swell- ing above another tide,” which he says he had himself observed in the river Trentag#-Such, according to Chinese oral accounts, is the character-of the ‘T'sien-tang tides,—a wave of considerable height rushes suddenly in from the bay, which is soon followed by one much larger. Other accounts represent three successive waves riding in; hence the name of the temple mentioned, that of the Three Waves. Both here and on the Hooghly, I observed but one wave; my attention, however, was not particularly di- rected to this feature of the Eagre. The term should perhaps be on ~ oO 310 D. J. Macgowan on the Bagre of the Tsien- Tang. : - volume of water splashed over the banks into the head of the, — ' grand canal, a few feet distant ee The earlier records of the Chinese would seem to indicate that the beauties of nature had failed to make deep impressions on their ipiaginations; but from a remote period. men of letters have portrayed nature with true poetic feeling, and in delineating land-— seape Shey have particularly excelled. An object, theretore, of such sublime grandeur as the Eagre, occurring frequently at the Athens of China, could not fail to attract the pencil of the Iner- ati; it has thtefore often been the theme of poetic scholars. No one, uot himself capable of clothing the “perception of simili- tude in dissimilitude,” age Wordsworth expresses it, should at- tempt a version of their artistic effusions; yet an account of this tidal. phenomenon would extremely defective, unless it were presented, to some extent, from a Chinese point of view. It has been already mentioned, that the Chinese regard the Ea- gre as one of the wonders of their world, and that it gave name fo the province. As might be expected, therefore, it is blended with their mythology. It is not a little remarkable, however, that it should be popularly ascribed to the spiritual energy of a shin (or god), who lived so recently as. five hundred and forty ears before our era, or about twenty years before the birth of © Confucius. At that period the T'sien-tang was the boundary of two belligerent kingdoms, Wi and Yueh. Fu Chai, king of the foriner, incensed against his minister Wa T'sz’si, for opposing the tegyns of a treaty, submitted by Chung, ambassador of Ki Tsien, king of Yueh, sent him a sword, with which, understanding his — master’s will, he committed suicide by eutting his throat, a method still pursued by sovereigns in. China towards officers of distinetion who have incurred their displeasure. This incident in ancient history is recorded iu the spring and autumn annuals of Confucius ; but in a work, entitled “ Spring and Autumn Annals of the quondam ambassador Chung, whose cadaver he took w! him tothe estuary. Since that period, it is stated Wa Tsz’si has been the god of the Eagre, his periodical indignation being @X- hibited by its violence ; hence the sacrifices and prayers ofc presented at appointed seasons to propitiate his anger. Monarchs of almost every dynasty have honored him with titles, so that they fill half a page of the work in which they are recorded. : SS Ps ase tee ae ee era ce? VR PaaS. 8s. ON Ay eae BPP eer en eA Ps a Ss teal ae er we ex -%, 4k” chee gee : : x ae D: J. Macgowan on the Eagre of the Tsien- Tang. Bil i Since the apotheosis of the faithful statesman, their peneliant . for hero-worship has led the people to multiply the tutelary divin- - ities of the tide to a great extent. us it has lords many and | many, so much so that a Pantheon has been erected at ods - Haining. the Temple of the Tidal gods, in which, besides a-gentral - image of Wu Tsz’si, there are fifteen others ranged in rows on tice in this sketch. ; The Tidal King Temple, isin the country. “Tie shin (or god) was an officer named Stone,” who, in 828 a.p., undertook the restoration of a dyke, which an Eagre of unusual violence had overthrown; and failing in the conStruction of the founda- tion, drowned himself from chagrin. , ‘‘ He afterwards became a shin,” (or god,) and three centurie€Jater, on the occasion of acombat between the people and rebels, who were attempting to capture Hang-chau, his name was seen inscribed on a streamer in the darkened sky, where also unearthly noises were heards The enemy instantly succumbed. Again, a hundred years later, when an extraordinary Eagre destroyed the dykes, oecasioning great loss of life and property, the waters retired through prayers and sacrifices to his maues. In consequence of this, a Budhist priest was appointed to the charge of his temple, that a regular religious service might be kept up to his houor. he Temple of Unanimity. “ Its shin is Luh kwei,” a mil- itary officer who flourished in the twelfth century. He fell on the field of battle, and “became a god” Not Jong after, when the dykes were overthrown by a violent tidal wave, his shin led soldiers from Hades and forced back the tide. Subseqnently, when it returned with-gfeater force, extending to the city walls and flaoding the country, he re-appeared accompanied by three damsels bearing streamers. By their united labor, the stones, which had been carried away, were brought back for a fonnda- tion. To commemorate these services, the title of Great Mound Earl, was conferred npon him by the Emperor, who also ennobled the fair attendants. The temple has, besides several stone images, those of the three fairies aud twelve horary shin (or gods), for _ alternate officers in the government of the tide. One more example will suffice: It is of a temple some distance from the city, erected in honor of a tea merchant, who, above ‘seven hundred years ago, devoted a large part of his property to _ the construction of a dyke, which was overthrown soon after its completion. In despair he cast himself into the swelling wave, which wafted his corpse from place to place; wherever it rested, sand was thrown up, and thus a foundation was provided for an- other embankment. Posthnmons titles were conferred upon him, aud a temple erected in which divine honors are 312 _D.J. Macgowan on the Eagre of the T'sien-Tang. a. _ Despite tle superstitions of the populace, which had the tion of government, there have been philosophical minds, who, — without discarding popular myths, speculate on the natural catise of the phenomenon, and propound theories for its explanation. From a summary of these, contained in the Topography of the Prefetture, the following, having reference also to tides in general, have been selected :— Ist, A consequence of the contracting and expanding of the Spring of. Nature. « © 8 2nd, An enormous Pereetmeonienine into and emerging from oceanic caverns causes theiriebb and flow. * 3d, The Budhist theorys*which attributes them to the trans- formations of the Divine Dragon. * = : th, A consequence of the Sun rising out of the ocean. ay. n ae 7th, From the phases of the Moon. According to Plutarch, Pytheas of Marseilles first ascribed tidal oscillation to this or ter. 8th, Pulsation of the Earth’s blood—wa conscious, than persons in a boat are of the tides. In confirma-_ tion and illustration of this theory, the fact is adduced, of the rise and fall of the pilous surface of the dried skins of certain sea animals simultaneously with the tide! By others, the reciprocal action of the dual powers was referred to, as explaining all tidal phenomena. One, like Pliny, says the sun and moon draw the waters after them. Some, however, more shrewd than the rest, sought for the cause of the peculiar tides of the Tsien-tang, ia the configuration of its embouchure, an idea which is combatted by another writer as un- tenable, because the Ningpo and Chang-ngo river present the same features (which is a mistake), and have ne Eagre. It is owing, says this author, to the greater quantity of water which comes into that river. The learned adhere to one or the other of these theories, the populace to that of the serpent, all classes believing. that the gods already named are actively concerned in the matter. It should be remembered that until Newton cleared up the sub- ject, very criide notions prevailed respecting it in Europe. Although the inhabitanis of this region are the most timid in — the empire, there were among them, at one period, many who from mere bravado would plunge into the frightfnl wave. A proclamation against the custom still exists, from which it appears that many lives have been lost in attempting this exploit. After — appealing to that regard which all should entertain for the body Mbherited from their see ‘the document aie 200 € le not to go voluntarily to the dread abode of the--Sea Dragon ; _ and admonishes them that their souls, should they perish in this ~ manner, will sink into eternal perdition under the Nine Springs of Hades. “ Life has its natural limits, why nof await tie last _ day fixed by the decree of Heaven? Parents, wife, and children, will be seen gazing from the dione. bewailing your fate, and no condolence canbe offered them.” Condi ign’ punishment is threat- ened against all who should sepia the admonitions. The geological changes resultidgge: 3 reat tides are less than’ might be ex pected, owin degradation of the land by tidal and fluviatile action elsewh nike. Occasionally the land suffers the loss of. considerable portions of soil, but it is speedily replaced by the same power,.‘and is ever extending , by accumu- lations of detritus. There ha¥e however been some marke physical ehanges effected within the historic period, by the com- bined action of the Eagre, and of the two great rivers of China, _ Until about the eleventh century, there was a ledge of rocks _ projecting above the surface of the stream, near Hang-chau city, nown as Losah rock, a Sanscrit term employed by Budhists to express devilish. Herice that part of the Tssien-tang, taking its name from this obstruction to navigation, was once called the Devilish River. It was large enough to be a place of resort on certain festivals—religious and Thespian. A poet of that period playfully i inquires how it happened that the great oes whilst opening the river, omitted to perforate a rock a de in len Fi- nally it yielded to the attack of the fierce Eagre, and oe disappeared. A smaller rock measuring only 16 feet high, 14 long, and 6 wide, disappeared 145 B.C. Two years after, it was brought into sight again by the same force which had removed it, when it disappeared altogether. am-pu, once a mart of coe importance, the port of - what, at one period at least, was the metropolis and capital of the | empire, mentioned by Mareo Polo as a extremely twenty-five miles from the city, frequented by all the ships, that bring merchandise from India, is now an insignificant walled vil- _ lage, in a of the receding of the sea, and the filling up of the bay. More than fifty miles distant, another city, Cha-pu, _ has Sprung up near the sea, which, for along time to come will be _ the port of Hang-chau; but the Yellow River and the Yang-tsz’ _ are surely, and not slowly, depositing silt, which will render it in its turn inaccessible. Chinese ingenuity has long been exerted, but with indifferent Success, in preserving their alluvial plain from the wasting action of the Eagre. The earliest mention of dykes is about the com- _Mencement of our era, when an engineer — T'sau, under- _ Sxconp Senizs, Vol. XX, No, 60—Nov, 1855. Sey Se eae mam Se a eee Bes - . Be th eae ee et 0 5 et as ee r Pe a Fo a Ie ae ge: + ie 2 ¥ : Bae aha WE gg : a ps eae? ‘ ® Pa gp SS i a i 9814 DJ. Macgowan on the Eagre of the T'sien- Tang. * com ; oe took. the work. Offering a thousand copper cash for every bushél of earth brought for the embankment, he induced laborers to cole lect in immense numbers, who on being required to bring stomes instead of earth, soon disappeared. From this circumstance the ug work was called Tsien-tang, the cash or money dyke—a name subsequently applied to the district, and finally to the river, its present designation. to the Prince Wii Shuh, 930 a. p., whose court was at Hang-chau. This Viceroy, according to the records of the Sung dynasty, also with large stones ; and on the foundation‘thus laid, the embank- superior to that of this prince. The contrivance is not unlike that which western engineers have*found most effectual in pro- tecting river banks. dis is work endured only sixty years ; a tide carried much of it away, laying the country under water, and occasioning devasta- tion. An imperially appointed officer, aided by the military, was occupied seven years in vain attempts to construct a nt embankment. At length he was dismissed, and his successor, by employing the method mentioned above, completed the work in one year. Jt however was not owing to superior skill or energy that he accomplished it, but to one of those sudden shifts of the loose bed of the estuary, which have given rise to so many SU- perstitions. According to the statement he made to the emperor, who had expressed a desire to know how the work had been so quickly finished, the engineer, after praying to Wi T’sa’-si, had the satisfaction of procuring his aid; for the next day the waters retired, having raised several miles of yellow sand, which ena- € id - ne . RENO . < D. J. Macgowan on the Eagre of the Tsien-Tang. Pie d him to accomplish the undertaking. Nevertheless disasters, ate m the washing away of embankments when a violent storm ~ urred simultaneously with the Eagre, are recorded during ~ every reign. It was found necessary to have soldiers stationed on its entire length to mark the first point of loosening. In 1026 a. p., an officer named T'siang constructed a stone dyke several miles in length, of such excellence and strength, that about seventeen years after the grateful people of Hang-chau erected a temple to him on the embankment. he emperor Kau-tsung, in 1131, ordered ten iron plates, each weighing above one hundred and thirty pounds, to be employed.as charms against the mischievous spirits, in hopes that they would thereby be induced to respect the dykes, which were kept up at so much cost. They were sunk at convenient distanees, in front _ Of the embankments; but on the following year, iron charms _ and stone walls were all carried off, and the loss of life and prop- ‘erty was unusually great in consequence. _On the following year, the experiment was again tried, the monarch himself writing the charms, according to the forms of the Tauist sect. These iron plates were deposited in chests of choice wood workmanship, and sunk by Tauist priests with great ceremony. ‘The result is not mentioned, but the record goes on detailing numerous repairs fol- oWing successive disasters. During the period of the Mongolian reign in China, the de- structive action of the tides was remarkable. Kublai, the first emperor of that, the Yuen dynasty, caused repairs to be made ; but they could not have been effective, as soon after it is recorded that more than twenty thousand men endeavored in vain to re- Store the breaches of a few miles. Disasters occurred every year, and repairs were going on incessantly; at length a Mongolian officer (judging from his name) informed the emperor Tai-ting of e experiment made with Tauist charms; and as his majesty approved of the propsition for repeating them, they were doubt- less tried. os Ei Just as the Yuen dynasty was drawing to its close, the reigning emperor called upon the head of the Tauist sect to perform his arts to stay the flood ; and on the failure of these, he had two hundred and sixty Budhist priests engaged in trying the virtue of their ceremonies for the same purpose, and with the same result. At length after a general consultation among imperial officers, / A Sh ae eR ee ee era ae ee the whole pulation was either called out to labor, or required to subscribe funds. Budhists and Tauist priests, 1t 1s stated, were hot exempted. Embankments, were accordingly constructed, superior to any which had preceded them ; and to commemorate the event of their completion, the name of the city In-kwan, at the upper part of the estuary, was changed to Ning-hai, or the _ “sea tranquillized.” , a i ee Ea aie * § ap ec . Eagre of the Tsien-Tang. iat 316 D. J. Macginndh oD oe nk the No extensive repairs were called for until twenty years af but from that time, the fall and rebuilding of dykes are frequen mentioned. After one of these disasters, an ox was sacrifice the shin of the eastern sea, the repairs at this time required thir- teen years’ labor, and nearly the whole province was called on to aid in defraying the expense. : A typhoon, in 1578, which lasted three days and nigkts, caused with the tide extensive losses. Roaring or howling noises are mentioned several times in connection with sea storms; they were peculiarly alarming in that typhoon. Salt water covered the fields for many miles, drowning many of the inhabitants. In reconstructing the dykes, unusual care was taken to have stones hewn in such a manner as to afford mutual attachment and sup- ort: five were Jaid lengthwise, and on these, five more were placed crosswise ; the wall was then carried up, the stones, which were five feet two inches long, and one foot eight inches in thick- hess each way, being placed alternately sideway and endwise to- wards the stream. Some details are given of the cost of these stones. The quarrying and dressing was three mace of silver, one mace for boat-hire and seven candareens for portage,—that is, about seventy-five cents for each stone. The dykes which Isaw _ on the T'sien-tang were perpendicular walls; the Chinese, how- ever, are perfectly aware-that a slope towards the water gives ad- ditional strength to an embankment ; a sea wall at one part of the — . bay near Chin-hai, is placed a portion of its way at an angle of E thirty degrees. C In the reign of Kang-hi in 1665, after a typhoon, like the for- mer of three day’s duration, and occurring with an Eagre, the dykes were generally overturned, with much destruction of life and property. In rebuilding them, iron clasps were employed to nt. which had carried off several miles of country, and were sacri- ficing to the gods for succor, when another tide suddenly brought the whole back again! Kang-hi’s successor Yung-ching (1723-36, ) endeavored by the use of huge amulets and numerous religious ceremonies to appease the gods, although he did not neglect the embankments. Find- ing that five iron oxen which had been placed at different points of the river and estuary were not likely to prove efficacious talis- mans, he ordered the erection, at his own expense, of a great temple dedicated to the Hai-shin or sea gods, in the city of Hat- ning. A stone slab or monument contains the imperial rescript — in relation to the structure. “I find,” says his majesty, “that of er Mae FRO ee » a D. J. Macgowan on the Eagre of the Tsien-Tang. 317 ancient sages sacrificed to the gods of the hills and spri os, ccount of their power of delivering and succoring men; it proper therefore to seek their favor. They should be revered a In the second year of this reign, when the dykes were overthrown, [sent officers with funds to examine and restore them. I apprehend that the people in general are wanting in reverence for the shin ming [gods], and that they are often wanting in piety ; I therefore urge you to decorous and respectful demeaor in everything that regards them, and hereby enjoin on the officers to impart instruction to each family, in order that all may be aroused and quickened. Of late years the gods have silently vouchsafed protection, enabling the people to repose in safety, _ and though this year the tides have been very great, threatening _ general ruin, yet they happily abated without damage to the em- _ bankments, entirely in consequence of the mysterious protection which the gods, having regard for us all, have vouchsafed. I therefore make a special gift from the privy purse of one hundred thousand taels of silver (about $130,000) for the erection of a sea god Temple, that they may therein be honored and recom- pensed. Let the civil and military officers measure off the ground, =! ——— OE TR oy 5 o> is) bee od <— % io) oo ta?) © i ag Ss gQ (nal Pg ==] ies) © "S ® re) S Qu 4 i) ba a7 S ag °o rR ie) r=) po =) S re ov ae o “ — mn g n es) a G 5 5 Laas ° weal a @ x 8 cy 3 oO a ae [= ia] n o = 8 on 5, Qu sh gabaeaaa pe te between the corresponding points . of the two retinas,” In this tei! a: visual action and the consequent per- ception are analogous to those above described, and the explana- tion of the result is in all respects the same. As however too general a conclusion, has I think been drawn from it by the in- _ genious author, and as it has been the subject of an entirely dif- _ ferent interpretation by Sir D. Brewster, I propose to consider it more in Using a drawing of the proportions represented in fig. 38, and placing it on the upper stage of the stereoscope so that a may be opposite the left and 6 oppo- site the right eye, it is easy by a quick change of convergence to combine @ with c. ‘The perspective resultant thus formed is seen intersecting the plane of the diagram and the line bin the point O. If we carefully graduate the convergence so as to mark the different stages of the phenomenon we may bring a to touch the upper end of ¢ then to cross it successively nearer the middle, then to coincide with b then to cross on the other side of the centre, and lastly to touch the lower end of c. When this is done slowly the line a is seen in the various positions represented in fig. 39, always parallel to 8. ae Phil. Trans., 1838, Part 2, or Phil. Mag., April, 1852. Szconp ‘a Vol. XX, No. 60.—Nov., 1855. 42 e b J 330 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. If however we produce the intersections in somewhat quick suc- cession, we: have a perception more or less distinct of the per- spectiveness -of ‘each of these intersecting lines, while a and ¢ tending to coalesce causes the former to lose its parallelism to 6, When the perspective effect is fully developed we perceive a and c only as they are united in the resultant. The axial movement has connected the ‘sense of perspectiveness with each of them causing each to be perceived in the binocular direction. ow it must be remembered that this perspective position and binocular direction being the result of successive combination of points in the two lines, is produced as well when the contiguous points thus united lie near the centre as when near the ends of the lines. But in the former case, that is, where the points about O in ¢ are united with those about O in a, the line & must form its image centrally in the right eye when a@ forms its image in like position in the left. In these circumstances therefore the retinal images of a and 6 fall on corresponding points, at the same time that the former line is perceived in the binocular perspective po- sition intersecting but not coinciding with the latter. In this momentary phasis of the experiment, it is obvious that the result is at variance with the law of corresponding points. When how- ever the parts of a and ¢ which the eyes successively combine are not near the centres of these lines, the image of 6 will be formed away from the retinal centre of the right eye, while that of the combining points of ¢ will be in that centre, and the im- age of a will be in the retinal centre of the left eye. In this case the law of corresponding points requires that a and 6 should ap- pear distinct from one another as they really do. Thus therefore at is only when the resultant perspective is Sormed b combining the central points of the component lines that this experiment con- tradicts the law in question. But the characteristic feature in this class of effects is not so much the departure in certain conditions from the theory of cor- responding points, as the general fact of which this is but a par- in the same eye. In explaining the experiment of Wheatsone, above referred to, Sir David Brewster, if I rightly understand his remarks, (Phil. Mag., June, 1844,) ascribes the disappearance of a as a vertical line to an actual invisibility of the vertical image, or part of it, caused by its proximity on the retina to the image of the other component line. Of the fitful vanishing and reappearing of pa of the figure long since noticed in such cases by this eminent ob- server, 1 am abundantly satisfied from my own experience ; but fg alate: “ =F a BS W.B. Rogerson Binocular Vision: ‘OBA I cannot see in the phenomenon, even were it of- constant occur- tence, an explanation of the appearances in question. Such a view seems to me inconsistent with the.fact always observable in | these combinations when not too rapidly ads, that the vertical and other component lines assume a p€rspective attitude while still intersecting one another at an appreciable angle, that in this position the former has already lost its appearance of parallelism to the other vertical, that the two intersecting perspective lines in spite of an occasional disappearance in part, continue each esters ally visible until they have so closed upon one another as to a pear coincident, and that even when thus united the presence ar both of them in the resultant is shewn by the continued visibility of the dots or other marks intended to distinguish them. In this experiment, various special phases of combination be- tween the lines a and ¢ present themselves, according to the di- rection and range of the axial movement by which the vis- ion is effected. Sometimes the upper halves only, and ye pg the lower halves of the lines, are united, presenting an effect.i tical with that of fig. 36, previously described. But these el other features of the experiment being unessential to the present inquiry, need not be considered in this place. They will be treated of hereafter in connexion with a variety of analogous eam belonging to the class of alternating or changeable combinations. 20. asain of lines lying in the same horizontal di- rection. When two equal right lines, 6 40, lying in the same horizon- 7) tal aiiion at right angles to the ce of view are united binoc- ularly either behind or in front of their real position they form, as might be expected, a resultant parallel to the components. The same convergence which serves to combine any two correspond~ and 6 an two lines. When therefore the lines are so short as to be dis- tinctly visible throughout their length without a change of axial direction, the formation of the resultant behind or before the components and parallel to them must be regarded as simultane- ous throughout. In the case of unequal horizontal lines the results are very different. Here the combination is to a certain extent succes- Sive involving a —— of convergency and giving rise to a per- spective resultan Sir David ects in discussing the question of the coinci- dence of unequal figures adduces the first observatiou on this sub- 332 WB. Rogers on Binocular Vision. : > . ene ‘ject of which ‘I. have seen any description.* “The best way,” e says,. “to make this experiment is toetake two lines AB ad, (fig. 41,) of unequal léhgths, and with a large pin to perforate Revit Di Ggpme figs: oA - ‘ A a 6 the lines at AB ab so that when we attempt to unite them we shall see with perfect distinctness their four luminous extremi- ties. When‘the point a is made to pass into A, I have never suc- ceeded in making 6 pass into B. Whenever there is an appearance , Of this either turn round the paper or the head so as to separate the ines and it will be invariably seen that if a springs out of A, 6 will think more satisfactory explanation of the optical coincidence of — the unequal lines. Drawing the two lines in very opaque ink on somewhat thin letter paper, of the lengths of one inch and eight- tenths of an inch respectively, with perforations at the ends, I place the paper at the distance of distinct vision between the eyes bright window or the globe of a solar lamp, and by the usual binocular effort bring the two lines together—either behind or in front of their true place. — - At first, if the axial movement be slow, I see the two lumin- ous ends of the shorter line vibrating on the longer one, and if bring aand A to coincide I see 6 and B separated, or making the axes meet in front of the paper, 6 and B are united at a greater distance than a and A, and hence the resultant recedes towards the right, ahs do Se % = ES rf ROGER, Mae VO aay PRE a EE eer Spt W. B. Rogers on Binocular Visioh 333 In this experiment the resultant appears as nearly single as in ‘ the case of two slightly inclined lines (p. 21260 that unless we pause to fix the gaze on one of the ends,we cannot ‘observe a “want of coincidence at the other extremity. The fhoment how- same time the resultant subsides from its perspective position. When the coincidence of the two lines is such as to present the perspective effect, I cannot observe the disappearance of one or other extremity as mentioned by Sir D. Brewster. Asa test © of this I place a small dot on the outer edge of the perforations at A and band I find that these marks always remain visible while the resultant is seen in perspective. I may add that such a disappearance would not explain the seeming coincidence of the unequal lines in a perspective resultant, but that on the con- trary the formation of this resultant, as in the case of mutually inclined lines requires the actual though not simultaneous union of the corresponding ends. The effects above described are readily obtained by using lines marked at the ends by short cross lines or by dots placed below or above them, and effecting the combination either without a stereoscope or by placing the figure on the upper or lower stage. 42. i i j L j _ ee ~—. — Fig. 42 represents the proportions of the lines which I have found convenient for either of these methods of operating. With this I obtain at once or very promptly, the binocular coincidence and the perspective effect. The dotted lines below denote the perspec- tive directions, the arrow heads marking the nearer ends of the re- sultants. The upper of these indicates the resultant when the lines are united by using the upper stage or by looking beyond the pa- r, the lower when they are united by the lower stage, or ata plane nearer than the paper. : When the lines are not, as in the preceding experiments, strongly marked at the ends, the effect of the combination is va- iable, presenting sometimes a partial superposition of one line or the other without relief and sometimes a perspective resultant I find however that by using broad lines strongly contrasting with the paper, I can in general obtain the latter result quite promptly, but the effect is more fluctuating and difficult to maintain than when the ends are conspicuously marked. It is to observed that in all these experiments the perspective effect is directly dependant on the successive union of the cor- “ee 334 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. responding ends of the lines, and that thé'tsvo resultant points or short Vertical lines thus formed are produéed in the same way as the two resultants of; unequally distant verticals treated of under a preceding head. The intervening points of the horizontal lines being all alike are not, as in the case of the extremities, marke out in corresponding pairs, and therefore may be combined binoc- ularly in various ways, according to the rate of variation of the axial convergence in the interval between the terminal combina- tions. On a close examination of the resultant, I find accord- _ingly, that while the actual amount of its relief remains constant, the intermediate parts of the line do not always appear in a straight direction between the near and remote end. ‘Thus sup- posing the combination to be made in front of the paper MN (fig. 43) and that C and D represent the points at which the corres- 43- ponding ends Aa and Bb appear combined, I observe some- times that the resultant loses the clear and satisfactory character - : evanescent appearances are I think produced by variable con- verging movements in the same interval. rom these experiments, we are I think entitled to conclude that unequal horizontal lines not greatly differing in length may be combined so as to form a perspective resultant, the right and left ends of which are at unequal distances from the observer. This result, which appears to have escaped the attention of pre- ceding experimenters, is of importance from the light thrown by it on the binocular union of unequal figures. In this connexion it will be referred to under a future head, but in the mean time the following example of its application to this question may properly conclude the present division of our subject. angles (fig. 44), either-avith- —s € spective position, of which - the near vertical edge, x J. LeConte.on the Descent of Glaciers. 335 - On combining the twérect- ia ht out a stereoscope or by using the upper or lower stage of the sliding instrument, I find *. that the resulting figure al- ways presents itself im @ per- s might be expected, appears shorter than the remote one. When the most perfect and steady effect is obtained the upper and lower © edges appear as straight lines and the whole perspective figure seeming to be a plane. But sometimes in beginning the observa- tion and occasionally when the eyes have grown fatigued, these lines assume the concave direction mentioned above, and the re- sultant figure has the aspect of a bent or warped surface. Imay add that the perspective effect is clearly seen when the same figures are combined by means of one of Wheatstone’s or Brew- ster’s stereoscopes. Notr.—In the preceding No. on page 216, the right-hand figure of the twin diagram 25, should have been reversed as in 26. (Zo be continued.) Art. XXIX.—Remarks on the Rev. Henry Moseley’s Paper, “On the Descent of Glaciers ;’ by Joun LeConre, M.D., Professor of Nat. Philos. and Chem. in the Univ. of Georgia. Tue Abstract of the Proceedings of the Royal Society for April the 19th 1855, published in the “ Philosophical Magazine ” for July, 1855, (4th Series, vol. x, p. 60 et seq.,) contains a very ingenious communication from the Rev. Henry Moseley. In this paper it is shown, by the application of established mechanical principles, that a solid body resting upon an inclined plane, whose ngle of inclination is /ess than the limiting angle of resistance, upwards. The effect of its extension will, therefore, be to cause the lower of the two bodies to descend whilst the higher remains at rest. ‘The converse of this will result from contraction: for Ba 336 | J. LeConte on the Descent of Glaciers. when the contractile force becomes suffiggent to pull the upper It follows, therefore, that if the connecting rod is heated and then allowed to resume its former temperature, both of the bodies will descend the plane by an amount equal to the whole linear elon- gation of the rod. This will be repeated as often as there are oscil- . lations of temperature, until step by step, they reach the bottom. suppose the A and subject to extension rom increase of tem- CB will descend, and the rest CA will ascend ; the point C where they : separate being determined by the condition, that the force requi- site to push CA up the plane is equal to that required to push CB down it. When contraction takes place, the converse of the above will be true. The separating point D will be such, that the force requisite to pull DB up the plane is equal to that required to pull down it. DB is obviously, in this case, equal to CA in the other. Under these conditions, the determination of the lengths of the parts CA=DB and CB=DA, becomes a simple mechanical problem, from which Mr. Moseley deduces the formula, tan2 : ’ 2=4L(1— ant), (1), in which, z=CA=DB L=length of rod AB t=angle of inclination of plane a=limiting angle of resistance. Let c be the elongation per linear unit under any given increase of temperature ; then the distance which the point B will be made to descend by this expansion, =c(CB =¢e(L—z) tan? By (1) =HLe(1+ tana If we conceive the bar now to return to its former temperature, contracting by the same amount (c) per linear unit; then the point B will by this contraction be made to ascend through the space =¢(DB)=cr a J. LeConte on the Descent of Glaciers. 337 The total descent @) 0 yf the point B, by the elongation and contraction; being obvtously equal go’ the sexcess ‘of its ‘descent above its ascent, is, wit determined by fee equation a d=4Lel +5, tan a ~4Le I=; tan a : tan a 4 sd-Le. ona’) His attention having been first drawn to the influence of varia- tions in temperature to cause the descent of a sheet of metal rest- ing on an inclined plane, by observing that a portion of the lead which covers the south side of the choir of the Bristol Cathedral, ° which had not been properly fastened, had descended bodily eighteen inches into the gutter; Mr. Moseley proceeds to show, by the application of the foregoing formula (2), that the cause “assigned is adequate to account for the fact observed. Thus far Mr. Moseley’s reasoning is perfectly satisfactory aud in accord- ance with what might be expected from one of the clearest and best writers on mechanical philosophy: but when he attempts to apply these facts and principles to the solution of the mechanical problem of the motion of glaciers, the physical aspect of his rea- soning is singularly exceptionable. It is to this portion of the pa- per, that the attention of the reader is bectage o- directed. After referring to the recent experiments of MM. Schumacher, Pohrt and Moritz, which show that the linear expansion of ice for a given increment of temperature, is greater than that of any other solid body hitherto examined; Mr. Moseley remarks, “Ice, therefore, has nearly twice the expansibility of lead, so thata sheet of ice would, under co circumstances, have descended a plane similarly inclined, twice the distance that the sheet of lead, referred to in the rboedioe article, descended. Glaciers are, on an increased scale, sheets of ice placed upon the slopes _—. and subjected to atmospheric variations of tempera- re throughout their masses, by variations in the quantity and ve stipe of the water, which, flowing from the surface, every- where percolates them. That the must, from this canse, descen into the valleys, is a aia certain.” (p. 64.) To show the ade- quacy of this cause, he applies the formula (2) to the Glacier de Léchaud, the Glacier du Géant, and the Mer de Glace. From the data in relation to length and inclination, furnished by the meas- urements of Prof. J. D. Forbes and others, assuming the mean daily variation of temperature to be 5°°321 Centigrade,* and the linear expansion of ice for an interval of 100° Centigrade to be aa * eT a a. ge ee a = Ace ee * This is the mean daily range of temperature, according to the observations of De ote in the month of July, at the Col du Géant ; and, of course, has refer- ence to the air and not to the mass of the glacier. icon Sertss, Vol. XX, No, 60.—Nov., 1855. 43 # 338 Ji Be Conte on the Descent of Glaciers. 0:00524,—he obtains, by the formula (2), numerical results, rela- tive to the daily motion, sufficiently accordant (considering the — nature of the problem) with those given by observation. i Without stopping to investigate whether a mass of matter hav- ing the structure and internal constitution of the glacial ice, woul supply the same mechanical conditions as a metallic sheet or bar ; it seems to me, that, whilst Mr. Moseley’s reasoning may be per- fectly applicable to ordinary cases of solid bodies resting upon in- clined planes, its application as a cause of Glacial motion is pe- culiarly unfortunate. There are physical considerations which render this cause totally inoperative in the case of glaciers. be Hi ory is founded on a mistake as to a physical fact, arising from a strange oversight of the peculiar laws of latent heat. Itis not a fact, that “variations in the quantity and tem- perature of the water,” which percolates from the surface of the glaciers throughout their entire masses, would subject them to corresponding variations of internal temperature. For the water cannot permeate the capillary fissures without melting the ice, un- til its temperature is reduced to 32° Fahr. In other words, it is im- possible for water to remain in contact with ice, and both of them retain their respective physical states, unless they are both at the temperature of melting ice. If warm water begins to descend, it melts the superficial ice and its temperature is speedily reduced to 32° Fahr. If the interior mass of ice is below the freezing point the water will solidify, and thus arrest the circulation :—so 3: It appears very clearly from the thermometrical experiments of Prof. Agassiz, and from the observations of Prof. J. D. Forbes, that from 28° to 32° Fahr., is the habitual temperature of the great mass of a glacier; that the most rigorous nights in winter propagate an intense cold to but a very small depth ; and that the temperature of the interior and lower parts is not sensibly lowered, even by the prolonged cold of winter. Hence it follows, that even during the winter, the cause which the theory demands (va- _ riations of temperature), is practically inoperative, when consid- = "te J. LeConte on the Descent of CPRiers. 339 ered in relation to the great mass of the glacier.* - Moreover, it is only during the cold season, that the superficial stratum of ice participates in the atmospheric oscillations of temperature ; and yet, this is the season in which the motion of the glacier is Jeast rapid! By some strange fatality, when the mechanical cause which the theory demands is least active, the effect, for which it is to afford an explanation, is at its maximum and vice versa. at an inconsiderable slope.” ‘“'This motion,” continues Mr. Moseley, “which Mr. Hopkins attributed to the dissolution of the ice in contact with the stone, would, I apprehend have taken place if the mass had been lead instead of ice; and it would have been but about half as fast, because the linear expansion of lead is only about half that of ice.” (p. 67 ment, it is impossible to ascribe it to a similar cause ; for Mr. Hopkins expressly states, that the motion took place only during the melting of the ice,t and consequently, when its temperature, by virtue of the laws of change of state, must have been con- stantly at the freezing point of water. There can be no satis- actory solution of the mechanical problem of the motion of gla- ciers, which does not contemplate the peculiar laws of latent heat, as well as the structure and other mechanical conditions of the glacial masses. Athens, Georgia, Aug. 20th, 1855. * But even if—contrary to all observation and to all just theories of the propa- gation of heat,—we su »pose the cold of winter to penetrate to any sid i into the glaciers, the’ vast amount of latent heat which must be extricated by the solidification of the first portions of water which permeate the cold mass after the thawing season commences, would very soon eleyate its temperature to the 1 point; after which, its temperature could undergo no variation from the percolation e of water. + Vide Phil. Mag., 3d Series, vol. xxvi, p. 4, 1845 Re ers 340 On the Crystallization of Platinum. Arr. XXX,— ‘On the Crystallization % Platinum from Fusion ; by J. W. Maurer, Ph.D. Havine recently prepared some bichlorid of platinum as a re- agent»by dissolving scraps of platinum foil, wire, etc., in nitro- muriatic acid, I poured off the yet strongly acid solution before the whole of the metal had disappeared, and washed and dried the re- maining scraps. Among them there were five or six small beads of platinum which had been melted off from the end of a wire (of about th inch in diameter) by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe flame. I was surprised to observe that these globules, which were spheri- eal and quite smooth and brilliant before the acid had acted upon them, afterwards presented distinct traces of crystallization, re- sembling to the eye the little polyenes! beads of phosphate of lead which are obtained by fusing that salt before the blowpipe. Some of the ease faces were plane or nearly so, but most. of them were slightly rounded like ,those of many crystals of dia- mo hey presented for the most part the peculiar lustre of a metal with - —" striz on the surface, but some of the facets were brillia The prevailing he seemed to be the tetrakis-hexahedron, of which there was one very distinct example, and beside this, faces of the octahedron and perhaps of the cube with truncated angles— combinations of the cube with the octahedron—were recognisable on other beads. Some of the globules were apparently groups of minute crys- _ tals, while one or two seemed to be distinct individuals. e The weight of the largest was not more than grm The crystalline faces were no doubt fe | visible by the dissecting action of the acid in the same way that the structure of a lump of alum may, as is well known, be brought out by partial solution in water—the chemically homogeneous mass offering at different points a greater or less resistance to the sol- vent, dependant upon the positions of these points with reference to the crystalline axes, just as the actual hardness of resistance offered to mechanical abrasiens differs at different parts of the sur- face of a crysta The asstimption of distinct crystalline structure by platinum under the circumstances mentioned, is remarkable from the ex- tremely high melting point of the metal, thes anal aged ee in each bead, and therefore the very short tim must have passed from the liquid to the solid oteaee _ On an Index of Papers devoted to Physical Science. 341 Art. XX XJ.—On an Index of Papers on subj of Maithe- matical and Ph: ons Science; by Lieut. E. B. Hunz, Corps of Engineers, U. 8. A Tue history of science exhibits a continual tendency tawards specialisation. The sphere of each laborer becomes more and more limited as the area of research is expanded and distributed into well defined specialities. ‘The same thing is observable in Scientific research which in the mechanical and chemical sae is familiarized under the name of subdivision of labor. ‘The advantages and disadvantages of the specialising adadid are equally observable in the domains of science and of man nufactures. The restriction of investigation and of industry to limited fields of exercise, has the effect to produce the highest skill within those fields, at the price of narrowness of conception and priva- tion of power concerning all other spheres of action and research, The man whose life is spent in heading pins becomes almost preternaturally skillful in the manipulations of that manufacture, ut this man in any other opr 8 industry is a blanderer and abigot. So too the man of science who assiduously cultivates a chosen speciality becomes sees preéminent, but in so doing, he is in great danger of losing his grasp on those aiphabeoes which transcend his particular field, and of becoming no impotent but bigoted relative to those branches of research which he has not pursued. As the microscopist restricts his field, but intensifies his vision within that field, so the cultivation of a Speciality withdraws into a single study the diffused powers o the original mind. The microscopist and the specialist find the he difficulty in seeing the parts in their relations to the whole. roblem is more important to the scientific investigator than that of rightly coérdinating his general and special cu culture. If generalisation too largely prevail, his life will probably be ex- ae but fruitless. If a speciality absorbs all his powers, there will be an abundance of ignoble and innutritious — If he Som, how properly to combine the general and the special, he is likely to bear such rich and lasting fruit as i made the names of Newton and Leibnitz, Euler and Grange, Cuvier and Agassiz, and all of their illustrious kindred, such rsp sources of strength. The power to generalise and the power to specialise must coéxist in the true magnate of science. a things may be done by men anne in either ; but not the great- the special, harms his own nature, It may be said that power in specialities can only thus be attained ; that specialist devotees * Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at vidence, August, 185 342 E.. B. Hunt on an Index of Papers are essential tothe progress of science; that science like another Juggernaut, demands the sacrifice of the man himself to his chosen pursuit. Whoever thus reasons has already sacrificed his humanity to his speciality, and is but shouting the praises of Brahma. Nor is it easy to adopt a theory of scientific castes, which would make of the specialists a lower and necessary grade, whose business it is to gather materials for the generalising noble to arrange in their true order, around some latent principle which he alone is privileged to see. That some minds are thus noble by nature and by training is certain enough, but it is hard to believe that many who could be of any assistance as specialists, cannot also do some part however small, as the generalizers of their own field and of its relations to others. The present age of science may with great propriety be called the monographic age. We have reached that period when every subdivision of research needs to be presented in the form of a monograph. While it is still possible for the student of any sin- gle subdivision to pursue it in all the original papers treating thereon, it is quite impossible for the investigator of a more eX- tended area to study the contained and related subjects in their whole range of original papers. 'T'o him it is quite essential that the various subdivisions of research should each be digested by thorough masters of their component contributions, and brought out in their orderly, well balanced proportions. The true, the proven, the mature, has need to be separated by adept mono- raphers from the false, the speculative, and the crude. The contributions of many successive investigators, each tending to place their common speciality on higher ground, and to bring it out in more perfect definition, have all to be digested by one who ‘is qualified to take the judicial point of view, and to use aright the privilege of moderns, who, as Bacon says, are the ancients of knowledge. The model monograph is one which presents the known sub- stantive facts of the subject treated in their natural order and relations with all attainable clearness, completeness and brevity, and which gives such an insight into the nature of all original memoirs thereon, as will enable investigators to recur to such originals as may be important for their special purposes. Already the mathematical and physical sciences have hundreds of subjects needing to be monographed, while comparatively few are yet 80 adequately presented under this form, as not to need either a neW monograph or a revision of the old. ‘The great number of inves- tigators now at work; the late remarkable increase of periodical publications and memoirs devoted to scientific subjects ; the sub- dividing or fissiparous tendency of modern science and its sig proclivity to annex fields of empyrical practice and make them — rational or strictly scientific ; these and other causes have throw8 — devoted to Mathematical and Physical Science,” a nearly all the. ‘provinces included within the present domains of Science, into the precise condition to need the services of well furnished monographers. An invaluable result of such a presentation of these eons would be found in the aid which investigators would thus re- ceive, towards keeping up their general scientific culture, vias turning too much away from their specialities. ere seems no » s hss means of an le RE expend of their monographie aids, of all positive results stated as far as possible in t 10n _ language of science, will become continually more pressing. It _ will be only by the aid of monographs of various degrees of generality, that the entire domain of science can henceforth be at all surveyed by any single investigator narrowest fields, being first duly digested into monographs, wl ae the ma- terials for monographs of higher generality, a om these, step by step, the ascent will be to that universal ale ee which shall draw within its compass all the high generalities of that great epic cosmos in which science will attain its far off final consummation. When physical science becomes thus organized and digested, we shall no longer be constrained to behold the ardent mind, borne away by vied pais speculations beyond all basis of fact, or the far more revoltin mind, cramped within a petty peaciatay, and Gialeial ay ignoring all the vast Sian of vital generalities, simply because it transcends its own dwarfed and grevelling comprehension. only worthy type of scientific mind is that which at the same aioe pursues special and general truth, which can see grand generalities —- ng the minutest phenomena, and which can trace in the loftiest generalities the simple conan of an infi- nite series of kindred special — The entire character of the active investigating mind of the coming giaecation will be much influenced by this monographic tendency and need. The extent to which we shall digest into rar wholes the now dispersed and fragmentary materials on a long array of sub- jects in mathematical and physical science, will eee measure the shnaamsct: aguas of that just union of the generalizing aud the specializing power whence alone can spring a true pro- gress in we philoso wt s now presented, are essential preliminaries to a full SE iesttantiag of the bearings and workings of an index of papers on mathematical and physical science. This subject is one which _ the naturalists have better appreciated than the mathematicians : ‘ ai % | and physicists. The proof o “which, the. genius tis will be seen in that laborious werk” ssiz inaugurated and which pre- fxthe depaytments included, Natural History ' ng essentially descriptive sciences, are less fitted for the -elassifieataon of the subjects included, than the more abstract or logieg:inathematical-and plrysical sciences. A logical arrangement by stbjects, at least for Natural History, will scarcely a's pow be proposed by those interested, though it is possible that Exggelman’s Bibliography of Natural History which distributes - authors alphabetically under a limited number of general. heads, may yet serve as a model for indexing papers or memoirs in the same field. —« ‘ In proceeding to examine somewhat the subject of an index of all original papers in mathematics and physics, it may be well briefly to state the circumstances which have led me to consider it. As an Assistant in the Coast Survey, I had on several occasions to make special investigations, in which it was desirable to examine all good relevant authorities and original memoirs.. How to do this was the question. 'To range over series after Series, index after index from beginning to end, would surely bring to light all such papers. But this is a labor of truly appalling magnitude and not to be thought of for each minor research. It only remaine to start with such papers as I chanced to know of, or could find by the few indexes of series at my command. ‘hen following up all the references which could be gleaned from these sources, I could go on till they were exhausted. By that time any man of moderate patience would himself be exhausted, and indisposed to beat up, for farther game. Yet what guarantee is there in this pro- cess that the very best papers may not entirely escape one’s knowl- edge. I found from experience just this result; nor do 1 suppose that any person can be sure of having examined all those printed rs on a given subject of physical science, which are essential to a full comprehension of its history and development. He may find a vast deal more than he likes to read and yet leave the best of all unknown. ‘This is peculiarly true of those just entering on a career of research. Veterans bear in their memories some traces of the leading papers published during their lifetimes, on all subjects even likely to enlist their activity. But the neophyte has no such aid, and does not even know how to get at the most accessible memoirs. A great loss of time in turning over leaves for the want of specific references is common alike to young and old. Thus for instance when I wished to find all the published descriptions of automatic tide guages, I spent a great deal 0 time to find what could be read in five minutes, and am by no h th die tematic examination of all the principal series “ek f geientifie memoirs é * eo ebm a - devoted to Mathematical ame means confident that I have seert ff foreign guage. Every persons experienee r illustrations, I did not many tintes repeat t and periodicals for the purpose of: extracting such titles of papers he best description of the best ienge must,abound i as I judged proper for a special index on subjects directly related. to the various Coast Survey operations. This project met ‘the , ae hearty approval of the Superintendent, who has doubtless perienced its need more than any other person. He authori my proceeding with its execution and has furnished every en- couragement. Ihave already examined considerably over 1000 volumes of Memoirs, Translations, Scientific periodicals, &c., and it is my expectation to advance this index so far as to per- _ - ing inetnsle in the Coast Survey Report of this yéar n Appe It will be impossible for me to exhaust thes field, but fortunately a supplement can at any time be added with the contributions of succeeding years, in which gmissions from the first index may be supplied. This index wHl be ar-- ranged by means of a detailed classification under subjects, and- will embrace various heads of interest to cultivators of physical science at large. Though the principle of relation is that of. paob- able use in the Coast Survey operations,,the ground covered will be of considerable extent. Such. a fragment alone, though rather laborious, : —e not think worthy to bring before this Association, were it not that it d served to indicate a far more catholic plan and one meme ich if executed will prove a signal benefaction to all cultivators of mathematical and physical science. This plan is simply an exten- sion of the one already defined, so as to arrange in one general repository, all titles of papers on mathematical and physical science. ‘The ground occupied by the index of Agassiz and his collaborators should be included so as to aggregate in the two works, references to all scientific researches. Engineering, Ma- these titles being duly extracted, and when necessary annotated, would admit of classification into several volumes, each contain- nc nag Institution. In the | to be accomplished by that Institution is included a igie of this Sxconp Serres, Vol. XX, No. 60.—Nov., 1855. ad a * Physical Science. 345 _ ¥ 346 E. B. Hunt on an Index of Papers very character. Prof. Henry having as he declares found partic- ular advantages from using the mathematical and physical index arranged by that clear-minded philosopher, Dr. Thomas Young, on a somewhat similar idea, was not likely to forget this among plans for the increase and diffusion of knowledge. It is indeed a plan e such eminently deserves the aid of that Institution. Were the work done and well done, the Institution would undoubtedly undertake its publication. But done it is not, and the question is how to accomplish its proper excution. Could I have command- ed my own time, the performance of this work would have been a congenial labor. In spite of that precariousness of station which is my professional prerogative, I was much inclined to this under- taking and probably should have begun it, had not the assignment of triple public duties made it simple folly to venture it. Thus with the best intentions I am obliged to forego this expectation, and have brought the subject here in the ho more favored by circumstances may be induced to undertake so needful an enterprise. I will gladly lend any aid in my power, to any one who is both fit and willing thus to work for the good of science. How far assistance and compensation might be al- lowed by the Smithsonian Institution in the execution of this plan is, of course, not for me to say. From the real value of the pro- posed work and the interest felt by the Smithsonian officers in its accomplishment, it is fair to infer that no reasonable aid would be enied which the means of the Institution would authorize. Its valuable collection of memoirs and transactions would be of pe- culiar value in this connection. ere is one excellent suggestion for which I am indebted to Prof. Baird. This is that an Index of American Scientific pa- pers would be a useful and proper beginning for such an underta- ing. The exceedingly scattered and anomalous vehicles through which American investigation have reached the present time, will make this portion of the search rather peculiar, and it is on this account much more needful. In truth, we do not know the re wealth of our own science, especially those of us who are young in such pursuits. Europe too isin a state of deplorable ignorance rela- tive to our investigations, an ignorance which has considerable ex- oo; for how can we expect foreigners to ferret out science from Patent Office and Coast Survey Reports or other public docu- ments, Regents Reports, State Legislative documents, or ind from any except the standard journals and memoir series. ‘Thus there are very good reasons for an American Index, as preliminary to a general one, with which it could be regularly incorporated. e work now proposed is certainly one of great labor. It will require several years and an examination of various libra- ries for its completion. Our own libraries will not offer all the ae i i ; 7 i: is Za Fj 4 ; devoted to Mathematical and Physical Science. 347 Ps materials needed for its completion. English, French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian, Hungarian, Russian, Swedigh and Latin 1 i sacked before t delicate exercise of judgment in accepting, and réjecting titles will be required. There will be sundry questions such as these— Shall any anonymous papers be included? Shall rs in the, library magazines be selected? Shall titles be given in full and literally, or cut down, modernized, translated or anotated? Shall translations be included ? all reprints into more accessible se- ries be referred to? &c. It has been my practice to include the date in each title, and to give the limiting pages of each memoir as an indication of the fullness with which its subject is treated. The labor of classification will be one demanding a truly cos- advantages. But whatever system is adopted, an alphabetical need not further enlarge on this plan. Should there be any who has capacity and courage to undertake the great enterprise indicated, farther hints would be superfluous for him. Should there be several who are willing to associate their labors, each taking certain series, and so together exploring the whole, it will not be difficult to concert such a general plan. The greatest difficulty of such an association would be in securing thorough codperation and uniform execution. The means of classi tion would of course be by movable slips, and thus most incongrui- ties of plan would be avoided by making the classification the work of one. When we look at an individual labor so valuable as Poole’s Index of Periodical Literature, we cannot doubt that the labor now proposed is destined ere long to enlist far greater industry and talent, and that if seriously undertaken it must succeed. 348 Onan Index of Papers devoted to Physical Science. Dr. Young’s Index, contained in the volumes of his works, would afford valuable aid towards conceiving the plan, though it is very far from perfect, and of too old a date to permit the continuance of its classification without much change. 'The proposed Index seems to be one of those undertakings which the current of events will render too indispensable not to be ere long begun. If so extended as to embrace Engineering, Machines, and the Technology of Art: and Manufactures, (Chemistry in all its ap- plications would of course be included,) it will become sufli- ciently valuable to many merely practical interests to enlist their active support. Our Patent Office might well afford to defray all the cost of such a work in those departments over which exam- inations for patents are required to be made If for a moment we conceive the result attained and the entire compass of reference to Mathematical and Physical papers brought into a systematic body, under specific subject-headings, we $ better realize its value. The course of investigation on any par- ticular subject would be made simple and direct. By yearly ‘supplements we might be kept informed of new papers beyond our ordinary range. The investigator would proceed to exhaust pers of value on any snbject in hand, and would know when he was done; that he would start thoroughly furnished for making additions to existing knowledge instead of wasting his y noptic presentation of all its important elements and results which would enable us to give each speciality its true value and rela- tions on the general chart of scientific coérdination. Our gene- ral views would keep pace with our special investigations, and our minds would attain that harmony of culture, characteristic of the well developed man. Alike versed in those grand generali- of pious duty to retrace nese too neglected record tablets. ‘ Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 349 Art. XXXII—On the Geographical Distribution of Crus- tacea ; by James D. Dana. (Continued from page 178.) | he relations of the Mediterranean region to Japan are men- tioned by De Haan. The genera strikingly Mediterranean which occur in Japan, are Latreillia, Nika, Caridina, Ephyra, Sicyo- nia, Acheus, Pandalus, Lysmata ; and the species of the last three, together with Squilla mantis, are probably identical, viz., Pandalus pristis, Lysmata seticaudata, and Acheus Cranchit, which last is at least hardly distinguishable, according to De Haan, from the A. japonicus. ortunus corrugatus is also closely like a Japan species, according to De Haan. e Cy- cloes of the Canaries is another of the Atlantic species, allying the Atlantic region to Japan, as above mentioned. ea | also an Oriental genus, represented in the Occidental kingdom by Libinia. It has but one described species out of the Oriental ingdom. DECAPODA COMMON TO THE CELTIC PROVINCE AND THE MEDI- TERRANEAN.* : 1, Brachyura. Porcellana platycheles, A. Mai nado. A. “ ongicornis, A. Saag malaria 3 Bernhardus Prideauxii, A. “ lanata (Gibsii), A. e trebl Achzeus Cranchii, A. ° _ Streblonyx. Stenorhynchus phalangium, A. Galatta ae: Eu asper ; Perimela denticulata, A sd squamifera, Xantho floridus, A. 8. Macroura. rivulosus, A. ; Pilumnus hirtellus. Callianasea subterranea. Portunus pusillus. ae ee ae ie Pal vulgaris, A. 4 semanas, 2 Hianiesie vulgaris, A. “ depurator (plicatus), A. Nephrops norvegicus. 8 marmoreus. Crengon laseiidin ry “ corrugatus, A. “ vulgaris. . holsatus. « — eataphractus, A. arcinus mzenas, A. Nika edulis, A. Portumnus lati A. Al et mY mi we A vens, A, oniograpsus varius, i estes’ A. Pinnoth bi ‘ = ks om PO Palemon serratus, A. nya Pasiphwa sivado, 2. Anomoura, Penzus sulcatus (caramote), A. Dromia vulgaris, A. * Those species that are reported by Lucas from Algiers, are followed by the letter A. y also occur elsewhere in the Mediterranean. 350 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. The genus Xantho, in X. rivulosus and X. floridus oid reaches its extreme cold limit in the Celtic Province. Nephro norvegicus, although more properly pertaining to the next one ince north, occurs also within the limits of this; and it has even been taken in the Mediterranean. Stenorhynchus phalangium and Portunus pusillus, reach south into the Mediterranean and north to the Frigid zone; Portunus holsatus, Galathea strigosa, and Forceliane platycheles, south to the Canaries and north into the su id. Tuiening Cape Agulhas, we soon come into a zoological world - widely different abe that of the Atlantic coasts. The coast im- mediately east to longitude 30°, belongs still to the male zone, and constitutes a distinct province, which we call the Algoa Province (from Algoa Bay), the length of which, pee from Cape Agulhas, is full five hundred and fifty mile Passing beyond this, we reach the Natal sale 1 and here We recognise at once the seas of India and the Pacific Ocean. Krauss mentions eighty-one Natal species of a aga not thirty of which are peculiar to this region. Twenty ar e foun in the Indian Ocean, eighteen in the Red Sea, thirteen in ig ee eight in Australia, five} in the Isle of France, besides three Euro- pean species, and three American. e observe further that, twenty-two of the species of Podophthalmia occur in the Pacific Islands, among which are four species supposed by Krauss to be peculiar to Natal, viz., Pagurus (Clibanarius, D.) virescens, Kr., Pagurus ( Calcinns D. ) pinton Galene natalensis, Kr., Platy- onychus (Kraussi ‘ay rugulosus, Kr., all of which occur at the ee Islands.* he E'uropean species, one is the cosmopolite Gonodactylus nee Latr. ‘The others are Alpheus Edwardsii, and Gam- marus pulex, Fabr. Megalopa mutica and Hi olyte ensiferus, also reported from South Africa, do not occur at Port Natal. The American are the cosmopolites Goniograpsus pictus, and Gono- dactylus chiragrus, together with Eriphia gonagra, Edw. The Sesarma reticulata, Say, and Pog tomentosa, Lk., also South African, are not from Port Nat range of the tropical and subtropical waters. The African sec- tion here includes the east coast of Africa, with the adjoining islands ; the Indian, the East Indies, southeast and east coast 0! : Asia, and Eastern Australia; the Pacific, the Pacifie Ocean.7 * The Galene hawaiensis, D., is so closely like the G. natalensis, that we believe there is not sufficient reason for considering them distin mye stands for Isle of France; E.L for East Tatas Haw. for Hawaiian Isl- Jap. for Japan; Nat. for Natal; Feej. for Feejees, * Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. EB 351 SPECIES COMMON TO THE THREE + ae THE AFRICAN, THE , AND THE PACIFIC. achyu alappa_ tuberculata—Nat. ; I. Fr. ; Asigee Ei ook. R d Sea; E. ee E, L; Feej., Tonga, Haw. i be: ee "|Oalappa fornicata.—I. Fr.; E. L; Feej. “eseatios is imbatus .—Red Sea; E.L.; Atergatis sae. aa E. ae tones _ Anomowra Paumotus Carpilius maculata ps Fr.; E. I.; Jap Samoa, d&c., to Paumotus. Carpilius ter > Sy —R. Sea: E. 1; Jap.; 1c acinus elegans. —Nat. ELS Wake’s, Pagurus difformis.—I. Fr.; E, a Biri Pagurus punctulatus. —E. L; Calcinus tibicen.—Nat.; E. is yf ee a ist hirsutissim: ea aa Samoa. Chlorodius niger.— Feej., Tonga, Sami Trai A ap fercuineace i Sea; E. L; Pa- e Paumotus. reine o> sieges = —Nat.; E. 1; Fee ot Gaaee obita Nat.; ; BL, Jap.; ‘eet : 0a, aE -ses a oemndhaolisae *Birgus latro—L. Fr.; E. I ag Samoa, Scylla serrata—Natal; R, Sea; E. 1; Swain’s, Paumot tus. Jap.; Samoa. 8. Macrou Lupa Sa Weep Heese ages: I Fr; R. Sacto: ogo antarcticus. a Wes E. LL; Sa Sea; E. 1; | m a, Paumotus. Thalamita ance —Nat.; R. Sea; E. L Pana penecillatus—R. Sea; E. 1; Samoa, Wake’s, Haw. | so seo crenata. —Nat.; R. Sea (S.); E. Hippolyte marmoratus.—E. 1; Pacific; aw. Cleiostonn Boseii—Nat.; R. Sea; [E. Loe hispidus—L Fr.;- E. L; Pau- ; Feej motu Pod a SRO ee | 4, Anomobranchiata. . his brevicornis. iu ids oe De ee ee stylifera—L Fr, ; Feej. ; —Nat.; 'E i oe Tai Pa Pauinotil, Haw. [also Wrens ea pn tah L ¥y, 'R: Of tI t 1e aes species, a few occur in both the torrid and sub- torrid regions of these three sections s of the Oriental kingdom, aris , in the Erythrean, Natalensian, Indian, Liukiuan, Polyne- sian, ad Hawaiian Provinces. These -are :—Lupa sanguino- lenta, Podopthalmus vigil, Calappa “tuberolat aseepe planissimus, Calcinus tibicen, C. el G chiragrus. Grapsus pictus is not snclsteds it has not been 2% ported from the eastern coast of Affica. The above list must be much increased as the species of the different regions are better understood. Some of the species have a range 0 of over twelve thousand miles. Many species common to Natal and Japan or the Hawaiian Islands, are given in the above list. We add be- low a list of — ope COMMON TO THE NATAL AND THE LIUKIU. PAN AN (SOUTH HAWAIIAN PROVINCES OF THE a ‘REGIONS, me NOT var OBSERVED IN THE TORRID REGION INTERMEDIATE. Micippa thalia. and Jap. |Charybdis granulatus.—Nat. and Jap, Xantho affinis, De aH Net. and tT ep eat prymna.—Nat. and Jap. Xantho obtusus, De H.—Nat. Gelasimus re Be t. and J Jap. us petreus, De H—Nat, (L Fr. Fash Gelasimus lacteus, De H.—Nat. and Ja) "6: ( Ocypoda cocicun ake and Jap. 2 a (N.); EL; Meccven peony Fr.; Jap.; Wake’s, oe te 4 352 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. Seweme picta—Nat. and Jap. Dromia hirsutissima. ‘as _ and Haw. Sesarma affinis.—Nat. and Jap. Calappa spinosissima.— and Haw. Sracacia rugulosa,—Nat. oe: ee Doto sulcatus, Nat. ae R Sea. Galene natalensis.—Nat. a The species of us Bik while somewhat related to those of southeastern: Australia, have rather close relations to those of Chili, and also some resemblance to those of Britain. The gen- era Ozius, Hemigrapsus and Chasmagnathus are common to both New Zealand and the part of oe referred to. The ilowive genera characterize both Chili and North New Zea- and :—Cancer, Ozius, Cyclograpsus, chain and Beteus ; oo the Cancer Edwardsii and Plagusia tomentosa appear to be common to the two provinces, while the genus Cancer is not elsewhere known out of America and Northern Europe. Pale- mon affinis of the Bay of Islands, as Edwards observes, is hard- ly distinguishable from P. squilla of the coasts of France and belong rather to the cold temperate than subtemperate sities i the Australian and New Zealand seas. Portunus in- tegrifrons is reported from Tasmania (Yan. Diemens Land). Ozius joie Xantho of the British Chan he occurrence in New Zealand of this repressotatia of a cold water Xantho, of the Palemon affinis so near a European species, of Cancer and Portunus, which are found together only in British seas, shows a striking zoological relation between these antipodes—a relation plainly dependent on the similar insular character and oceanic temperature of the two regions, Britain and New Zea In the Soothe: Polar seas, the species have often a wide range, and probably pass from one ocean to the other through the Polar oceans. Thus Crangon boreas, Carcinas menas, Pagurus streb- lonyx, Hippolyte aculeatus, are not only found on opposite sides of the Atlantic, but also in the North Pacific. Origin of the Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. The origin of the existing distribution of species in this de- partment of zoology deserves attentive consideration. Two great causes are admitted by all, and the important question is, how far the influence of each has extended. The first, is origt- . nal local creations ; the second, migration. Under the first head, we may refer much that we have already said on the influence of temperature, and the restriction of spe- cies to particular temperature regions. It is not doubted that the species have been created in regions for which they are es- pecially Pea that their fitness for these regions involves an adaptation of structure thereto, and upon this adaptation, their Bae y : 7 aH Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. . B53 characteristics as species depend. ‘These characteristics are of no climatal origin. They are the impress of the Creator’s hand, when the species had their first existence in those regions calcu- lated to respond to their necessities. The following questions come up under this general head :— 1. Have there been local centres of creation, from which groups of species have gone forth by migration? 2. Have genera only and not species, or have species, been re- peated by creation in distinct and distant regions? ow closely may we recognise in climatal and other physi- cal conditions, the predisposing cause of the existence of specific more generally diffused. ; A direction and also a limit to this migration exist, (1) in the currents of the ocean, and (2) in the temperature of its different regions. Through the Torrid zone, the currents flow mainly from the east towards the west; yet they are reversed In some parts during a certain portion of the year. But this reversed eur- rent in the Pacific never reaches the American continent, and hence it could never promote migration to its:shores. y the middle and higher temperate regions. But the temperature regions in these latitudes are more numerous than in the tropics, and species might readily be wafted to uncongenial climates, which would be their destruction; in fact they could hardly es- cape this. Moreover, such seas are more boisterous than t nearer the equator. Again, these waters are almost entirely bare for very long distances, and not dotted closely with islands like 70 subtorrid region in winter. On the China coast, at Macao, there Secoyp Seeies, Vol. XX, No. 60.—Nov., 1855. 45 354. Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. is a temperature of 83° in July, and in the Yellow Sea, of 78° to 80°. But such northward migrations as are thus favored, are only for the season; the cold currents of the winter months de- stroy all such adventurers, except the individuals of some hardier species that belong to the seas or have a wide range in distribu- Sea-shore Crustacea are not in themselves migratory, and are thus unlike many species of fish. Even the swimming Por- tunidee are not known voluntarily to change their latitudes with the season. The following isa me recapitulation of the more prominent ~_ bearing on these e distribution of individuals of many species through he shied miles in the Torrid zone of the Oriental seas. 2. The very sparing distribution of Oriental species in Occi- dental seas. 3. The ae total absence of Oriental species from the west coast of Americ a deol wie distribution within certain latitudes of the species we have called cosmopolites 5. The occurrence of closely allied genera at the Hawaiian Islands and in the Japan seas. . The occurrence of the same subtorrid species at the Ha- waiian Islands and at Port Natal, South Africa, and not in the Torrid zone insgemmpcinte; as Kraussia rugulosa and Galene na- roe The occurrence of identical species in the Japan seas and at Port Natal. 8. The occurrence of the same species (Plagusia tomentosa) in South Africa, New Zealand, and Valparaiso; and the occur- rence of a second species (Cancer Edwardsii (?)) at New “Zeal- - and Valparaiso. . The occurrence of closely allied species (as species of Am- has and Ozius) in New South Wales and Chili. The occurrence of the same species in the Japan seas and aA Mediterranean, and of several identical genera. The occurrence of a large number of identical species in on British seas and the Mediterranean ; and also in these seas and about the Canary Islands. 12. The occurrence of closely ai if site identical, species (as of Palemon) in New Zealan the seas also of certain genera that. are elsewhere ecaiierig British, or com- mon only to Britain and Amer 13, An identity in se ocelec of Eastern and Western Ameri : The following are the conclusions to which we are led by the facts.— ete Moe WERE e en Reg Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 355 . The migration of species hi island to island through the tropical Pacific and East Indies may be a possibility; and the tree + ters is congenial through all this range, and the habits of many canola although they are not voluntarily migratory, seem to admit of it. ‘The species which actually have so wide a range are “ah Maioids (which are to a considerable extent deep-water Species), but those of aa penis and some, as Thalamita ad- mete, are swimming s Wi. The fact, that Sor ‘tov of the Oriental ms occur in the Occidental seas, may be explained on the same ground, by the barrier which the cold waters of Cape Horn and the South Atlantic present to the passage of tropical species around the Cape westward, or to their migration along the coasts. “ogee the diffusion of Pacific tropical species to the West- ern ican coast is prevented, as already observed, by the onward aioe of the tropical currents, and the cold waters that bathe the greater part of this coast. en we compare the seas of Southern Japan and Port Natal and find species common to the two that are not now ex- isting in the Indian Ocean or East Indies, we hesitate as to mi- gration being a sufficient cause of the distribution. It may, however, be said that — of such species westward through the Indian Ocean ma iy h casionally taken place; but that only those individuals dest were carried during the season quite through to the swbéorrid region of the South Indian Ocean (Port Natal, etc.), survived and reproduced, the others, if continuing to live, so soon running out under the excessive heat of the inter- mediate equatorial regions. That they would thus run out in many instances is beyond question ; bat whether this view will actually sag for the resemblance in species pointed out is :, 2 MY. When further, we find an identity of species between the _ Hawaiian Islands and Port Natal—half the circumference of the globe, or twelve thousand miles, apart—and the species, as Ga- lene natalensis, not a species found in any part of the torrid re- gion, and represented by another species only in Japan, we may well. question whether we can meet the difficulty by appealing to Migration. It may however be said, that we are not as yet thor- oughly acquainted with the species of the tropics, and that facts _ may hereafter be dieoovaed that will favor this view. The identical ae are of so peculiar a character that we deem this improba' ¥: The ‘existence of the Plagusia tomentosa at the southern extremity of Africa, in New Zeal land, and on the Chilian coasts, may perhaps be due to migration, and especially as it isa south- 356 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. ern species, and each of these localities is within the subtemper- ate region. We are not ready however to assert, that such j jour- neys as this range of migration implies are possible. The oceanic currents of this.region are in the right direction to carry the spe- cies eastward, except that there is no passage into this western current from Cape Horn, through the Lagulhas current, which could have survived the boisterons passage, and finally have “he a safe landing on the foreign shore. The distance from Zealand to South America is five thousand miles, and there is iat ‘present not an island between VI. Part of the difficulty in ) the way of a transfer of species between distant meridians might be overcome, if we could as- sume that the intermediate seas had been occupied ~ yer or islands during any part of the recent epoch. In the case eae alluded to, it is possible that such a chain of interrupted co nication once had place; and this bare possibility reskele np force of the argument used above against migration. Yet as is wholly an assumption, we cannot rely upon it for ileal that migration has actually taken place, Vil. The existence of the same species on the east and west coasts of America, affords another problem, which migration can- not meet, without sinking the isthmus of Darien or Central America, 'to afford a e across. We know of no evidence whatever that this portion of the continent has pe beneath the ocean during the recent epoch. An argument against such a sup- position might be drawn from the very small number of species that are identical on the two sides, and the character of these spe- cies. Libinia spinosa occurs at Brazil — a and has not been found in the West Indies. Leptopodia sagittaria, another vai occurs at Valparaiso, the West Indies, and the Canaries. that in all instances the distribution here is owing to migration; nor will it be admitted unless other facts throw the weight of probability on that side. IX. But when we find the same Temperate zone species oc- curring in distant provinces, these provinces having between them no water communication except through the Torrid or a zone, —n offering no ground for the supposition that . on has existed during the recent epoch, we are are led Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 357 to deny the agency of voluntary or involuntary migration in pro- ducing this dissemination. An example of this, beyond all dis- pute, is that of the Mediterranean Sea and Japan. No water communication for the passage of species can be imagined, An opening into the Red Sea is the only possible point of intercom- munication between the two kingdoms; but this opens into the Torrid zone, in no part of which are the species found. The | two regions have their peculiarities and their striking resemblan- ces; and we are forced to attribute them to original creation and not intercommunicati X. The tiie gy Beir are not merely in the existence of a few identical s ere are genera common to two seas that occur sth else in the Oriental kingdom, as Latreillia, Ephyra, Sicyonia, &c.; and species where not iden- tical have an exceedingly close resemblance, Now this resemblance in genera and species (without exact identity in the latter) is not explained by supposing a possible mitercommunication. But we may reasonably account for it on the ground of a — in the temperature and other physical conditions of the seas; and the well-known principle of “like causes, like effects” crass itself upon the mind as fully meeting the case. Mere intercommunication could not produce the re- semblance; for just this similarity of physical condition would still be necessary, And where such a similarity exists, creative power may multiply analogous species; we should almost say, identity of genera in @ given ba and even Ke, specific structure or of subge If, then, ihe similarity i in the characters of these regions is the occasion of the identity of ap and of the very close likeness in certain species (so close an identity is sometimes strongly suspected where not tae we must conclude that there is a — of actual identity of species, through original creation, This, in fact, becomes the only admissible view, the actually identical species between Japan and the Mediterranean are ex- amples. XL When we find a like resemblance of genera and species able from the common P, squilla of Europe, and is one example of this resemblance. It may not be an identity; and on this ac- 358 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. count it is a still better proof of our principle, because there is no occasion to suspect migration or any other kind of transfer. It is a creation of species in these distant provinces, which are almost identical, owing to the physical resemblances of the seas; and it shows at least, that a very elose approximation to identity may be consistent with Divine Wisdom. The resemblance of the New Zealand and British seas has been remarked upon as extending also to the occurrence in both of the genera Portunus and Cancer. It is certainly a wonderful fact that New Zealand should have a closer resemblance in its Crustacea to Great Britain, its antipode, than to any other part of the world—a resemblance running parallel, as we cannot fail to observe, with its geographical form, its insular position, and its situation among the temperate regions of the ocean. Under such circumstances, there must be many other more intimate re- semblances, among which we may yet distinguish the special cause which led to the planting of peculiar British genera in this stances are alike; and we must determine by special and thor- ough investigation, whether one or the other cause was the ac- tual origin of the distribution in each particular case. Thus it must be with reference to the wide distribution of species in the Oriental tropics, as well as in the European temperate regions, and the Temperate zone of the South Pacific and Indian Oceans. XII. With respect to the creation of identical species in dis- tant regions, we would again point to its direct dependence on @ near identity of physical condition. Although we cannot admit that circumstances or physical forces have ever created a species (as like can only beget like, and physical force must result sim- ply in physical force), and while we see in all nature the free act of the Divine Being, we may still believe the connexion between the calling into existence of a species and the physical circum- eta See Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. 359 stances surrounding it to be as intimate nearly as cause and effect. The Creator has, in infinite skill, adapted each species to its place, and the whole into a system of admirable harmony and perfection. In His wisdom, any difference of physical condition and kind of food at hand, is sufficient to require some modification of the in- timate structure of species, and this difference is expressed in the form of the body or members, so as to — an exac sine : of adaptation, which we are far from fully perceiving or ¢ mpre- hending with Hd present knowledge of the relations of nope to their habita When sna we find the same species in regions of unlike physical character, as, for example, in the seas of the Canaries and Great Britain—regions physically so unlike—we have strong reason for attributing the diffusion of the species migration. The difference between the Mediterranean and Great Britain created independently in the two could have been identical, or even have had that resemblance that exists between varieties; for this resemblance is usually of the most trivial kind, and affects only the least essential of the parts of a species. The continental species of Crustacea from the interior of dif- ferent continents, are not in any case known to be identical; and it is well understood that the zoological provinces angdistriets of the land are of far more limited extent than thos ocean The physical differences of the former are far more sting than those of the latter. As we have observed elsewhere, t ties of climate are greater; the elevation above the sea may wee! widely ; and numberless are the diversities of soil and its condi- tions, and the circumstances above and within it. Hence, as the creation of each species has had reference most intimately . pao and all of these conditions, as well as to other prospective ends, an identity between distant continental regions is seldom to be found, Comparatively few genera of Insects have as wide a range as those of Crustacea; and species with rare exceptions, have very narrow limits. Where the range of a species in this class is great, we ina on; but = bisa studied tae ‘abs is admitted as the true expla- nation. Throughout the warmer tropical oceans, a resemblance in the physical conditions of distant provinces is far more common and more exact than in the Temperate zone. And hence it would seem that we could not safely appeal to actual differences as an ar- gument against the creation of a species in more than one place in the tropics. The species spread over the Oriental Torrid zone ’ - ; “wie 360 Geographical Distribution of Crustacea. may hence ke supposed to owe their distribution to independent creations of the same species in different places, as well as to mi- gration. Yot we may in this woderrate the exactness of physical identity required in regions for independent creations of the same spe cies. We know that for some chemical compounds, the condi- _ tion of physical forces for their férmation is exceedingly delicate ;_ and much more should we infer that when the creation of a living terial employed in the creation. The few species common to the Oriental and Occidental torrid seas seem to be evidence on this point. The fact that the Oriental species have so rarely been repeated in the Occidental seas, when the conditions seem to be the same, favors the view that migration has been the main source of the diffusion in the Oriental tropics. As we descend in the order of Invertebrates, the species are less detailed in structure, with fewer specific parts and greater simplicity of functions, and they therefore admit of a wider the contrary, to the highest groups in Zoology, the argument re- ceives far greater weight; and at the same time there are capa- bilities of migration increasing generally in direct ratio as we aS- cend, which are calculated to promote the diffusion of species, and remove the necessity of independent creations. Migration cannot therefore be set aside. It is an actual fact in nature, interfering much with the simplicity which zoological life in its diffusion would otherwise present to us. Where it we except oceanic species, are no travellers, and keep mostly to narrow limits. XIII. There is evidence in the exceedingly small number of Torrid zone species identical in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, that there has been no water communication across from one t the other in the Torrid zone, during the period since existing species of Crustacea were first on the globe. XIV. As to zoological centres of diffusion for groups of spe cies, we can point out none. Lach species of Crustacea may have had its place of origin and single centre of diffusion many and perhaps the majority of cases. But we have no ree i ee son to say that certain regions were without life, and were pe” | On the Bristol Copper Mine. : 361 pled by migration from specific centres specially segected for this ~ end. If. such centres had ‘an existence, there is”at present no . by eri which is most favorable to its developm ent: _. Should thus conclude that the Ranina dentata, for one was ~ created in the subtorrid region and not the torrid, as it attains its largest size in the ine er. By pursuing this course with reference to each species, we may find some that are especially fitted for almost every diferent locality. Hence, we might show, as far as reason and observation. can do it, that all regions have had their own special creations. The world heen all its epochs in past history, has been furnished with life accordance with the times and seasons, each species: being ada to its age, its place, and its fellow spe- cies of life.* Arr. XX XIII.—Notice of the Geological position and character of the Copper Mine at Bristol, Bae edd by Professors B. Sutumay, Jr., and J. D. Wuirtney.t Situation.—T his well known mine is situated in the north e the Station House of the Hartford and Fishkill Railroad is located. e persevering enterprise with which this mine has been ex- plored, the rich character of its ores, the extent and costliness of its former workings, and the general impression, lately much Nor is its economical value diminished by the scientific interest attaching to the peculiarly complex nature of the eposi Geological position and nature of the deposits.—This mine is worked in a “contact deposit,” between the sandstone of the Connecticut River Valley, now supposed by geologists to be of Liasic age, and the older metamorphic rocks, commonly called primary, “but in all probability of the paleeozoic system. The direction of the line of contact of the two formations at the mine is about NE an acts in this Journal from the author's ae relating to the Geo- graphical ‘Distribution of Crustacea, which are here concluded, are contained in vol- umes xvi, xviii, xix and xx. The map illustrating the subject of Oceanic tempera- ture, the Zones and et Provin ei is in volume ar This article is taken from a “Report of an examination of the Bristol vy . +. . the death of his old master, Prof. Jameson, was announced in this metropolis. The universal voice of science was not slow in re- ready to congratulate him on the prospect of thus reaching the highest goal which a true naturalist could desire, we looked for- ward with regret to the prospect of his removal from our circle. Nor was this grief altogether free from a feeling of shame, that this vast city, with its wealth, its display, its riches, its public and private associations, its great collections, its lavish expenditure, and in many respects its unbounded liberality, could propose no prize, no reward to the scientific man worthy to be placed in speedily destroyed. Prof. Forbes was appointed to the vacant Chair of Natural His- tory in the University of Edinburgh. He had thus obtained the great object of his life. An intimate friend, writing in one of the private individuals, he would have been enabled in a few years m house filled with the treasures of many years’ collecting, fell to pieces before our eyes, and nothing remained but the broken frag- ments and the shattered scaffolding, to be again dispersed an scattered, without system and without order, until they should be again hereafter collected together with infinite labor and fatigue by some future master-mind. Szconp Serirs, Vol. XX, No. 60.—Nov., 1855. 49 ae cod * ; = ~ 36 - Biographical Notice of Sir John Franklin. 72 ° % The fate of Sir Joun Franxtin has long been a mystery to his * courftrymen: he has probably long ceased to be a member of this . Society. It is, however, only during the course of the past ses- sion that any authentic information has reached this country that the gallant explorer of the Arctic regions, with his adventurous followers, had ceased to exist. Far from their ships, which, in the extremity of danger and a hard struggle for life, they must have abandoned, and after vainly endeavoring to reach a more southern and hospitable region through a trackless desert, their remains were discovered by travelling Esquimaux, from some of whom portions of their property were obtained. These were rescued by the intrepid Dr. Rae, who had gone in search of them overland, and who brought back the melancholy certitude of their fate. ‘heir bones now lie whitening on the Arctic shore, or be- neath fields of eternal snow. By what means they reached that spot, or how they perished, will probably never be known; but their memories will ever be cherished as of men who risked and sacrificed their lives in the performance of duty and of scientific inquiry, and I trust I may also add, as the last installment of valu- able lives sacrificed to a vain and chimerical attempt to discover that which, could it ever be discovered, would be alike unprofit- able and unavailable. é Rear-Admiral Sir John Franklin was born at Spilsby in the year 1786, and performed his earliest service in the navy in the first year of this century, as a midshipman on board of the Polyphemus at the battle of Copenhagen. Sailing afterwards with Capt. Flin- ders to Australia, he acquired that skill in surveying and that power of observation which characterized his subsequent career. After serving in the engagement against Admiral Linois in the Straits of Malacea, he next acted as signal-midshipman of the Bellerophon in the glorious victory of Trafalgar ; and, lastly, to- wards the conclusion of the great war, his gallantry was again displayed conspicuously in the naval attack upon New Orleans, for which conduct he obtained his lieutenancy. A peace being established which promised a long duration, Franklin sought to be employed in the most adventurous service in which a seaman could then be engaged. He obtained, through the patronage of Sir Joseph Banks, the command of the survey- ing vessel, the Trent, being one of two ships under the orders of Capt. Buchan, destined to penetrate into the Polar Seas; on that occasion Franklin not only reached the high latitude of 84° 34” N. lat. in the meridian of Spitzbergen, but evinced a strong de- sire to be allowed to proceed onwards alone, in the endeavor to effect a through passage. : The undaunted and inflexible perseverance which he exhibited in his explorations off the coast of North America, between the years 1819 and 1822, both inclusive, is well known to the public - = 3 Biographical Notice of Professor Jamesdh: 357 through the clear and emphatic productions of his own pet” As geologists, however, we must specially remember, that the fock- specimens then brought home by Franklin, and his associate, the . eminent naturalist, Richardson, first revealed to us the structure - of those distant and inaccessible regions. . n his return to England, however, Franklin felt so strongly the want of better geological knowledge on his own part and on that of his officers, that when appointed to the command of the next Arctic expedition, on which he sailed in 1825, he took his first Jessons in our science at the museum of our Society, accom- panied by his distinguished companions, Back and Richardson. At these morning meetings our much-respected former President, Dr. Fitton, was the instructor, assisted b r. T’. Webster, then our Secretary ; Sir Roderick Murchison, who has informed me of these circumstances, being then also one of the learners. — The intimacy thus commenced continued till Franklin’s last departure from the shores of Britain in 1845; for whether he was treading unknown tracts of North America, or commanding the ainbow frigate in the Mediterranean, or performing the duties of Governor of Van Diemen’s Land, our deceased member, having them also many specimens or descriptions which might, he thought, advance human knowledge. As Sir John Franklin united the warmest heart and kindest manners to a solid understanding, it naturally followed that his friends took an intense interest in promoting all those endeavors to rescue him and his followers from their last perilous voyage, and in encouraging every effort directed to that end, whether made by the government or by the magnanimous Lady of the missing chief. 'The successive Presidents of the Royal Geographical So- ciety, and particularly Sir R. Murchison, stimulated our rulers to make every possible research which might lead to the timely dis- covery of the absent voyagers. How some one of the earliest of these efforts might have succeeded, had it taken a southerly direc- tion from Barrow’s Straits, is indeed now established by the mel- ancholy announcement made by Dr. Rae ; for, although the party was supplied with provisions for three years only, we now know that a large remnant of the force had certainly sustained life for five years. The late Professor Jameson was the third son of Thomas Jameson, Esq., and was born at Leith on the 11th July, 1774. In his early years he showed a strong desire to become acquainted with natural objects, the study of which he evidently preferred to that of books and letters. His first attempts were made in stuff- 388 Biographical Notice of Professor Jameson. + ing birds, and in collecting animals and plants on the beach of eith and its vicinity. A strong desire to travel was the result of his favorite pursuits, and his father ultimately yielded to his often-repeated wish to enter on the profession of a mariner; but his friends interposed, and suggested that by adopting the study of medicine, he might equally be enabled to study the works of nature. He yielded in his turn, and was appointed assistant to . the late John Cheque, Esq., surgeon in Leith. He commenced his study of natural history in 1792, under Dr. Walker, then Pro- from his intercourse with Sir Joseph Banks, Mr. Dryander, Dr. Shaw, and other leading members of the Linnzean Society. With the exception of comparative anatomy, he now abandoned all idea of pursuing his medical studies. His attention was directed to the sciences of ornithology and entomology, then of chemistry, and subsequently of mineralogy and geology, including a thorough knowledge of analytical chemistry. In 1797 Prof. Jameson paid his first visit to the island of Arran, and in the following year he blished his work on the ‘ Mineralogy of the Island of Arran and the Shetland Islands, with Dissertations on Peat and Kelp,’ It was the first good geological account of these places and forma- tions, and soon acquired a well-merited celebrity. He subse- quently visited other portions of Scotland, and in 1800 published his ‘Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles,’ in two vols. Ato, illustra- ted with maps and plates. This work contained the first sketch of the geology of the Hebrides and Orkneys. But the real period of Jameson’s celebrity as a mineralogist and a geologist dates from the year 1800, when he left his native country for Freiberg, where he remained nearly two years study- chiefly indebted to the reports of Werner’s pupils, especially to those of Jameson, for our knowledge of Werner’s general views, so fully developed in his lectures, and there only.” Jameson also observed, in a passage which is too important not to be quoted on this occasion, pointing as it does to the very fundamental princi- ple of all our modern geological investigations, that ‘ Werner taught that mineralogical and geological characters, and charac- ters derived from organic remains, were to be employed in deter- mining formations, and that probably the same general geological arrangements would be found to prevail throughout the earth. But,” he added, “the truth or falsity of this view in regard to the Biographical Notice of Professor Jameson. 389 mitted, it is te Werner that we are principally indebted for our present highly interesting views of the natural history of fossil organic remains ; and in confirmation of this opinion, Prof. Jame- son at a subsequent period vindicated the geognosy of Werner from the attacks made upon it by the Edinburgh Review. In 1804 Jameson returned to England in consequence of the state of his father’s health. Shortly afterwards, on the death of Dr. Walker in the same year, Jameson was appointed Professor of Natural History; and from that period, by his admirable lectures, founded in a great measure on the sound mineralogical and geo- logical views of his friend and master the Professor of Freiberg, he raised the Edinburgh school of Natural History to the proud preéminence it has occupied for the last half-century. In the same year, he published the first part of the first volume of his ‘Mineralogical Description of Scotland ; his other labors, how- ever, prevented the completion of the work. In 1808 he founded at Edinburgh the Wernerian Natural History Society, of which he was elected perpetual President. in 1809 he published the ‘ Elements of Geognosy,’ a work which contributed more to introduce the doctrines of the Werne-_ rian school into England than any other publication ; and this time may be dated the antagonism between the Wernerian aud the Huttonian doctrines, as advocated by the northern geolo- gists. Nor was the spirit of partisanship thus engendered alto- gether useless, inasmuch as its final effect was to call attention to the study of, and to diffuse a more general taste for, geology. In- dependently of this, the modifieation of the Neptunian theery as adopted by Werner, and in which form Prof. Jameson introduced it to the notice of his countrymen, has been proved by the test of modern science to be more consistent with the phenomena of Nature than the Plutonian views of its adversaries. It has served of the earth’s crust, in harmony with the numerous organic re- mains which they contain, and which never could have been reconciled with the doctrines of the Huttonian theory. In 1818, at the suggestion of Professor Jameson, a translation of Leopold von Buch’s ‘ Travels through Norway and Lapland in 1806, 1807, and 1808,’ was published by Mr. Black,—Jameson himself adding to the interest of the work by an account of the author, and by various notes illustrative of the natural history of 390 Biographical Notice of Professor Jameson. Norway. In 1816, another edition of the ‘System of Mineral- ogy’ made its appearance in three volumes; and at the same time a new edition of his ‘Characters of Minerals’ was called for. he was the sole editor. It extends to seventy volumes, and is one of the most valuable repositories of scientific information in Brit- ain. It will ever form one of the most durable monuments of his talents and industry. But while Jameson was thus exerting himself in Edinburgh to propagate sound and correct views respecting the geological phe- nomena of the earth’s crust, another distinguished naturalist was laboring in another capital to bring about the same results by the help of comparative anatomy. In 1821, the immortal Cuvier published his ‘ Discourse on the Theory of the Earth,’ as an introduction to his ‘ Researches on Fossil Bones.’ To Professor Jameson we are indebted for the publication of a translation of this work made by Mr. Kerr. this work Jameson observes :—‘‘ The notes I have added will, I trust, be found interesting, and the account of Cuvier’s ‘Geolog- ical Discoveries’ which accompanies them will be useful to those who have not an opportunity of consulting the great work.” This popular work produced an excellent effect in this country, for Cuvier was but partially known in England until this essay appeared. It rapidly ran through five editions: in the fifth, Pro- fessor Jameson entirely remodelled it, extending it from 190 to 550 pages. . During this period he also contributed many articles to the ‘Encyclopedia Britannica’ and to the ‘ Edinburgh Encyclopedia ;’ and on the return of Captain Parry from his Polar Expedition he drew up, from the specimens brought home, a sketch of the ge- ology of the different coasts discovered and touched at by that enterprising navigator. But it would be occupying too much of your time, to enumerate the various works which flowed from his ever-ready pen. I cannot, however, conclude this notice without briefly alluding to one point respecting which Prosessor Jameson deserves the greatest praise, both for what he effected and for what he endeavored to effect. The present Museum of Natural His- tory in Edinburgh is the result of Jameson’s unceasing industry and efforts. The collections which existed before his time were almost entirely removed by the Trustees of his predecessor, Dr. Walker; and the nucleus of the present magnificent collection was Professor Jameson’s private property, when he was called to fill the chair of Natural History. He labored incessantly to ren- der it worthy of the place; but the means placed at his disposal, 1 by the Town Council and the government, were inadequate Biographical Notice of Arthur Atkin. 391 to the task, and it was not without great private outlay that Pro- fessor Jameson raised it to its present state. In fact it may be said that the present Museum was founded, created, arranged, and exposed for public exhibition by the head and the industrious hands of Jameson alone.. Professor Jameson died in Edinburgh, at the age of eighty, on the 19th of April, 1854. The name of Arruur Arkin is associated with the earliest days of the existence of our Society. In that Charter which forms the basis of our constitution, his name occurs as one of the found- ers of this Society. e was born at Warrington, in Lancashire, on the 19th May, 1773. The grandson of John Aikin, D.D., eminent for his learning and abilities, he evinced at an early age a decided love for literature and science, and from his father de- rived a taste for zoology, for chemistry, and for English botany. An early acquaintance with Dr. Priestly, of whom he subsequently became a favorite pupil, and whom he assisted in the arrangement of a new laboratory, confirmed him in his predilection for chem- istry. In 1797 he published an account of a tour in North Wales, made in the previous year in company with his brother Charles and another friend, under the title of ‘Journal of a Tour in North Wales and part of Shropshire, with observations in Mineralogy and other branches of Natural History.’ At a subsequent period, in conjunction with his brother, he delivered lectures on Chemis- try and Chemical Manufactures, of which a syllabus appeared in 1799. In 1807 he published ‘A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy,’ 2 vols. 4to; and in 1814, ‘An account of the most recent discoveries in Chemistry and Mineralogy.’ But before this time Arthur Aikin had become conspicuous as one of that distinguished band of scientific men who contributed to the formation of the Geological Society of London, and founded it in 1807; soon afterwards his knowledge of mineralogy and chemistry must have contributed to his being appointed one of the Secretaries of the Society. In the first volume of the first series of our Transactions, published in 1811, his name appears as one of the Members of Council. In the second volume, pub- in 1814, he appears as one of the Secretaries, as well as in the the first volume of the first series there is an interesting paper by him, entitled ‘Observations on the Wrekin and on the Great Coal Field of Shropshire ;’ and in the third volume is another with the title of ‘Some Observations on a Bed of Trap occurring in the Colliery of Birch Hill, near Walsall, in Staffordshire.’ These papers, like all those published by the Society at that period, were of a h more mineralogical character than those now consti- tuting the bulk of our publications. Paleontology had then made but little progress. Its value and importance in assisting our 392 Biographical Notice of Dr. Stanger. knowledge of the relative ages of rocks was hardly recognized, nor amongst the illustrations which accompany the early volumes are there any figures of organic remains. At a subsequent period he was appointed to the Secretaryship of the Society of Arts ; this circumstance is supposed to have led to his retirement from the office of Secretary to this Society ; but he continued for many years longer to serve on the Council, of which he was a member for the last time in 1830. One of the earliest members of the Society who knew him well thus writes to me of him:—‘ He mentioned that in early life he had been a minister of the Unita- rian persuasion, but resigned his cure on conscientious grounds. He was a corresponding member of the Academy of Dijon, &c. He died in London, on the 15th April, at the advanced age of eighty. Dr. Srancer, the able and energetic naturalist of the ill-fated Niger Expedition, was born at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire, in 1812. He took his degree of Doctor of Medicine at Edinburgh, and subsequently visited Australia. He afterwards superintended, under the direction of the Government, the construction of roads near Cape Town, then returned to England, and settling in Lon- don, commenced the practice of his profession. But the pursuit of natural history had greater charms for his enterprising character. In 1841 he joined the Niger Expedition under Captain H. Trotter, R. N., and was one of the few of that gallaut but unfortunate band who were not struck down by the devastating fever of the country. It was mainly owing to his energy, assisted by Dr. M‘Williams, that one of the steamers was brought down the river. In 1845 he was appointed Surveyor- Biographical Notice of Dr. Fischer. 393 authorities and inhabitants of the district. His loss is the more to be regretted, inasmuch as it disappoints those hopes held forth y my predecessor last year, in allusion to the geological discov- eries to be expected from Dr. Stanger, who was to have underta- ken an official geological exploration of the province of Natal. * * * * * * * The only loss we have sustained amongst our Foreign Associ- ciates is that of Dr. Gorruetr Frrepricn Fiscuer pe WaLDHEIM, Professor of Natural History in the University of Moscow. He was born at Waldheim, in Saxony, on the 15th October, 1771, and studied mineralogy at Freiberg, with Leopold von Buch and Baron von Humboldt, completing his medical studies at the Uni- versity of Leipzic. At Paris he subsequently attended the lectures of Cuvier, and carefully studied the natural-history collections of the French Museum. He had already given evidence of his ex- tensive learning by numerous publications, when, in 1800, he was appointed Professor of Natural History at the Central School of Mayence. On his arrival there, however, he found that the chair had been given to another; and with that power of adaptation which belongs to true genius, he at once accepted the office of Librarian, which for a time led him away to other studies, partic- ularly typographical antiquities. On_ this subject he published several valuable works until 1804, But he did not, in the mean time, neglect his favorite pursuit ; he founded at Mayence a Natu- ral History Society, of which he became the Secretary, and in 1804 published his ‘ Anatomie der Maki un der ihm verwandten Thiere.’ In the same year he was appointed Professor and Di- rector of the Museum of Natural History at Moscow, where a new field was opened to his talents, in which he had labored with zeal and energy during the remainder of his life. In the year 1805 he founded the Society of Naturalists of Moscow, and pub- lished the first volume of his ‘ Description du Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle,’ the copper-plates of which he engraved with his own This Museum, for the establishment and improvement of which he had so strenuously exerted himself, was destroyed during the conflagration of the city in 1812. Such a calamity would have gone nigh to overwhelm an ordinary man. Dr. Fischer rose above the circumstances, and with redoubled ardor immediately set to work to replace, as far as possible, the treasures which had been lost. Such were his efforts, and such was the success with which they were attended, that in a very few years the new Mu- seum had again acquired a valuable collection of objects of natu- ral historv. He had now begun to direct his attention more ex- clusively to the study of fossil zoology, or as it is now called, Paleontolocy. In the ‘ Bibliographia Zoologie et Geologie’ of Agassiz, published by the Ray Society, there are no less than 150 notices of separate works and memoirs In Journals and Transac- Sxconp Serres, Vol. XX, No. 60.—Nov., 1855. 394 J. Wyman on Fossil Bones from the Red Sandstone tions published by him during the course of his long and laborious if mong these are many bearing directly on our science, and which must have had considerable influence in directing the at- tention of the Russian Government to the mineral riches of the country, and of making its geological features better known beyond the limits of his own district, I will only mention a few of his more important works :—‘ Oryctographie du Gouvernement de Moscou,” 1837; “ Bibliographia Palzontologica Animalium Sys- tematica,” 1810; asecond edition in 1834; “ Notice des Fossiles du Gouvernement de Moscou,” 1809-1811; ‘Notice sur quelques Animaux fossiles de la Russie,” 1829; ‘‘ Ueber verschiedene fos- sile Elephanten-species, die man unter dem Namen Mammouth be- ereift,” 1831; ‘“ Recherches sur les Ossemens fossiles de la Rus- sie,’ 1824; “Lettre 4 Murchison sur le Rhopalodon, genre de Saurien fossile du Versant occidental de l’Oural,” 1841; Revue des Fossiles du Gouvernement de Moscou,” 1846; and many others. He was elected a Foreign Member of this Society, and of the Linnean Society, in 1820. He died at Moscow, on the 6th of Oct., 1853, having nearly completed his eighty-second year. * * * * * * Axr. XXXVI—Notice of Fossil Bones from the Red Sandstone of the Connecticut River Valley ; by Jerrrizs Wyman, M.D. Porter who saw them when they were removed from the well, decided that they were not, as they had been supposed to be by some, human, but “‘ belonged to some animal and that the animal must have been about five feet long. The tail bone was easily discovered by its numerous articulations distinctly visible, and by its projecting in a curvilinear direction beyon " ae also says that “ they resemble some particular bones of the human body but would also compare with certain bones of other ani- mals,” but does not state what bones or what animal. Through the kindness of Prof. Silliman and of Mr. Alfred Smith of Hartford, Ct., I have had all the specimens now fe maining of the above mentioned collection placed at my disposal for examination. The collection consists of about sixteen pieces of the Connecticut River Valley. 395 of sandstone each containing one or more fragments of bone, but the larger number of these are so much broken up, that it was found ‘impracticable to determine anything with regard to their nature. All are soft, chalky and friable; and in no instance is there one entire bone or one c complete articulating surface visible. Yet imperfect as they are, coming from the New Red Sandstone, anything which can be determined with regard to any of them is of great interest. For while we have well preserved the innumer- able impressions of the feet of birds and reptiles, the bones here noticed are, in so far as I can learn, the only ones which are pub- licly known to have been brought to light. ne of the best preserved bones is the fragment of a vertebra, the body of which is nearly entire, and is probably one of the “ tail bones” described by Dr. Porter, but according to his description must have been more complete than it now is. Thearch is broken off ; the base of one pedicle remains; a transverse process on the left side is indicated by an imprint in the matrix; this process is broad at the base, thin and triangular, projets laterally 1 in a hori- zontal plane and is slightly recurved. One extremity of the body is so completely imbedded in the matrix that only a slightly con- vex border is visible ; the other extremity is exposed but is oblique- ly fractured, leaving only a part of the natural surface visible, and this is concave ; the body is constricted in the middle, having an hour-glass shape, has no indentations on the side, and is somewhat compressed laterally. The floor of the spinal canal is represented b channel, the sides of which meet at the bottom at an acute angle midway, but at either end spread out and become nearly level. The dimensions of the vertebra were as follows, Length of body, . . : rae ea, Breadth of body at extremity, . . : : . 055 Breadth of body in the middle : . 030 Length of transverse process (imperfect), ee POU ‘. Breadth of transverse at : ; - O62 Breadth of spinal canal at narrowest part, : Ore In front of the body just vega is the fragment of what appears to be a second vertebra, and beneath this is a pointed fragment about seven-tenths of an doth in length, bifurcated where it touches the other bones and which has the character of an inferior spinous process. Behind the more complete vertebra is the anterior portion of a third, obliquely fractured so that a por- tion of its concave anterior extremity, and the edge of the left trans- verse process alone remain. In another piece of matrix is a por- tion of the arch and a cast of the spinal canal of a fourth vertebra, having also a portion of the Spinous process ; the canal conforms to that already described, and in front of this last vertebra is the fragment of the spinous process of a fifth. In another piece of ~ 396 J. Wyman on Fossil Bones from the Red Sandstone, &c. matrix is the fragment of a stzth having the articulating processes imperfectly preserved. f these six imperfect vertebree only that first described, and the piece behind it offer distinctive characters of any importance. The presence of an inferior spinous process shows that it belonged to the caudal series; the existence of an anterior concavity, and the presence of a superior transverse process coexisting with an inferior spinous process are essentially reptilian features. In fishes the superior transverse processes are always deficient, and the in- ferior ones alone exist; these in the tail bend down to form the inferior spinous processes. If this bone is the one referred to by r. Porter as a “tail bone” his view as regards the kind of ver- tebra was correct, though he gives no reason for his conclusion. In addition it may be stated that it is a caudal vertebra of a Sau- rian reptile, to which it corresponds in the shape of the body and the transverse processes, and more nearly to those of the Croco- is that of hollowness, and this in two cases is quite remarkable. In one of them we have a transverse fracture of what appears to be a cylindrical bone ; the exposed fractured end is oval, measures one and one tenth of an inch in its long and six tenths in its short diameter; the cavity is very large, without cancelli and the _ walls of the bone are only one tenth of an inch in thickness. Near to this in the same mass of the matrix is another fragment which is exposed in transverse section as well as on a portion of its lateral surface. In its transverse section, it is more compressed than the preceding, but has equally thin walls and no cancelli. The whole fragment bears some resemblance to the upper extrem- ity of the humerus of a bird,* distorted by pressure. ‘The large size of the cavity and the thin walls lead us to compare this and the preceding specimen with the remains of birds, for it is among these alone that the cavities become proportionally so large aud - the walls so thin. Still it must be remembered that some rep- tilian bones are hollow. The Iguanodon, Pelorosaurus and Hyl@0- saurus described by Dr. Mantell, which had medullary cavities 1n the humerus and femur, but in them the walls were proportionally very much thicker, and the medullary canal was quite short. Several other pieces of matrix contained fragments of bone which were hollow and with thicker walls; but they were too much injured to allow of determination. * Its resemblance to a humerus was noticed by Prof. Silliman in the note append: ed to Mr. Smith’s communication—in vol. ii, of this Journal H. W. Dove on Rains in the Temperate Zone. 397 Two more pieces of bone remain to be noticed: they are about three inches in length, are longitudinally fractured and a large portion of each is gone; they have some indications of cancella- ted structure near one of the ends, and bear some resemblance to the bones of the fore-arm of a Saurian reptile, the form of the longer bone comes punta with that of the ulna, and the lower extremities of both agreeing in proportions with an ulna and ra- dius; the ae portion of the supposed radius is nearly all gone. Arr. XXXVII.—On Distribution os a inthe Temperate ; by H. W. Dov In the Meteorological Annual of France for 1850 observations for ten years on the quantity of rain falling in Algiers are given by Don, which show that the quantity diminishes almost regu- larly “a January to July, and then regularly increases to De- cember. This regularity is seen in the number of falls of rain, for in these ten years there were in January 88 rainy days, in December — in July, on the other hand, only a single one in 1844 ese proportions hold good for the Canaries and Azores, they apply, too, even in the south of Europe, for in Funchal the quantity of rain diminishes from 92’ in January to 0-9 in July. In St. Michael it is found after ten years of observation, to be four times greater in January than in July. In Lisbon the pro- portions are for December and July 55:2, in Palermo 37: 2h Naples has in March and October 49’”, in July not 7”. Even Rome the fall of rain is ten times more in re Pe than in jae. This periodical law is seen not only in the measurement of the fall of water, but in every accompanying phenomenon of tempera- ture. After three months of almost perfectly clear weather only rarely interrupted by a tempest, the rains begin in Rome, on the 10th of October, though often sooner, and last, with fierce storms, almost without interruption, till the end of December. They diminish a little towards spring, so that the whole winter is rather a changeable than cold season, a continuous change from ‘T'ra- montane to Sirocco. Even if we cannot divide the year, as do the Indians on the Orinoco, into a season of sunshine and clouds, yet the contrast of the rainless hot months and the continuously rainy winter is very marked. The beginning and end of this rainy period are usually marked by storms; Lucretius says of it: “ Auctumnoque magis, stellis a apta, Concutitur cceli domus undique, tellus ; re enim desunt ignes, amiga bee - ore * Annalen der Physik, No, 94. Translated for this Journal by Dr. Rosengarten, 398 HI. W. Dove on Rain in the Temperate Zone. dns utrasque igitur quom ceeli emer’ constant, Tum varie cause concurrunt nee Nam fretus ipse anni permisc EGigu Quorum utrumque opus est nbc nda ‘a oak nobis, Ut seoeraie sit rerum, magno chi tu Ignibus entis Fonibandpe ae Prima pits enim pars, et pe ema ri igoris, Tempus id est vernum: gel e pugnare necesse est Dissimileis iuter sese, i a ue mixtas. Et calor extremus primo cum frigore mixtus Volvitur, auctumni quod tack nomine yn Hexic quoque confligunt hyem tatibus a Propterea, sunt hee bella anni i rt tna Riepretiv, VI, 357. This pemeriptiens which is exact for Italy, little suits our cli- mate, the greatest number of rain-showers and the most storms occurring =r us in the mid-summer months. But since the beginning and the end of the rainy period in Italy are marked by strong southerly winds, and a number of rules for the weather e e down from the olden time, which have their import- ance only over limited geographical distances, it hence seems to me not ublikely that the well-known cereals storms may still be admitted by us although in spite of the rule, we look in vain for them in our bright quiet September, and are not satisfied with the astronomical explanation of the postponement of the au- tumnal equinoctial to November or December. The first explanation of this phenomenon is given by L. v Buch in his observations on the climate of the Canary ielandés “The Canary Islands,” he says, “feel nothing that corresponds to the tropical rains, those rains, that is, which according to the sail- since this air in the autumn temperature of the tmp Islands is hardly cooled down to the condensation point of vapor, it is easy to understand why the rains begin much later here than in Spain or Italy, and yet earlier than in France and Germany. Rain is rare on the sea-shore before the beginning of November and does not often continue later than to the end of March. In Italy this period of rain lasts from the first half of October to the middle of April. “ Especially Hyena and important for meteorological sci- ence,” continues L. von Buch, “is the way in which the north- east trade iad: is moved in winter by the southwest winds. These do not begin in the south and go towards the north, as would at first be imagined from their direction; but they reac H. W. Dove on Rain in the Temperate Zone. 399 the Portuguese coasts sooner than Madeira, and Madeira sooner than Teneriffe and Canary; and so, as if from the north, these winds come gradually from above downward; and in these higher regions they are found even during the summer, while the north- east wind is moving over the face of the sea with considerable force. These higher winds descend slowly from the elevated at- mosphere of the mountains. This is seen clearly in the clouds which in October surround the point of the South-Peak; which fall continually lower, and at last settle on the crest of the hills some 600 feet high, between Orotawa and the south coast, here here for months. Rain falls on the peel eg spurs of the moun- tains, and the Peak is covered with snow.” I consider the views thus uglier se 9 ty von Buch, among the happiest thoughts which were ever brought forward i fs the science. It is the more to be regretted that in the year 1829, in his ‘ Essay on the Subtropical Zone,’ L. v. Buch should have given these views an extent not sustained in nature. I know very well that formerly all naturalists supposed that the phenomena observed within cir- cumscribed geographical limits, stretched similarly over the whole extent of the earth ;—that they looked upon the monsoons as a local modification of the tradewind only within the Tropical Zone ;—that they had no idea of finding in the Temperate Zone similar extensive " dfastbens under different longitudes, and of like geographic extent. Iam far from charging von Buch with = § the earth are opening to us set which were formerly be- yond the reach of inquiry, it would be unjnstifiable to blind ourselves to the new points of view that are offered us. It might sound paradoxical to say, that in summer the interior of Siberia has really such an absence of wind currents as we are in the habit of regarding as confined to the equator, but it must be de- clared a repudiation of physical laws, to say that the air of the Lae oreary Zone continually moves around the earth like a steady ind, as is now printed in every text-book, for every one it spa that the air moves only towards a _ of disturb- ance, or after rising to such a place then turns back As proofs of the subtropic zone, Leopold v. Buch points out the yearly periodical diminution of atmospheric pressure from summer to winter, and deduces this diminution from the currents coming down from the mountains. Since in the Indian Ocean the south- west monsoon causes the barometer to fall, he takes this as one of the descending winds; for he says: In ndia, the southwest monsoons lower the barometer, and this just in proportion as they move downward. He adds further, that this periodic barometric 400 H. W. Dove on Rain in the Temperate Zone. change does not extend across the Himalayah range, and that over these mountains another meteorological system begins; he extends this zone, making it to embrace the whole earth, beyond America to the Sandwich Islands. In 18311 wrote as follows, opposing the notion that the south- west monsoons are winds descending from above: (vide Pogg. Ann., xxi, 177,) “all observation seems to show that between the southwest winds on the outer limits of the monsoon and those in the Indian Ocean, the following differences exist: the ormer appear in winter, the latter in summer; those in a south- erly direction are bordered by northeast winds, the others by southeast winds.” According to Halley’s theory, as followed by Mushenbroeck, Capper, Hube and Horsburg, these lower cur- rents do not come from above downward, as conjectured by Hal- ley, and proved by v. Buch. The question why the appearance in the Atlantic is so differ- ent from that in the Indian Ocean, I then tried to answer by the theory that the high lands of Asia intercepted the passage of north- erly currents, and thus no other current met the monsoon as it hurried up from below, except the mass of air between the neigh- borhood of the calms and those high mountains. With the ap- proach of the sun, the mass of air moving in the perpendicular circuit diminishes, till at last it no longer opposes the southeast wind and takes quite an opposite direction. In the explanations of a phenomenon, all views may be divided into two classes, ac- tual explanations, and evasions of nature. Of the Jatter kind was my former explanation, and so conscious was I of its weak- with reference to the theory of monsoons, pointin rents lay far towards the north. Although the universality of the phenomenon of periodic di- minished pressure was so clear that Kupffer in the edition of Asiatic Observations published in 1841, said: “one has only to look at the results of the observations contained in this volume to find a complete confirmation of all that M. Dove has advanc- ed on this point,” yet I then first proved decidedly that the southwest monsoons are the lower tradewind, which rushes to- ward the point of disturbance to fill up the void that owing:t0 the increasing temperature here in inner Asia the diminished moisture was not sufficient to occupy. The proofs are indirect indeed, but all who have occupied themselves with meteorolog!- eal observations know that hardly any problem of this nature can be directly proved, and that whoever has to do with the winds must follow the vane. H., W. Dove on Rain in the Temperate Zone. 401 In a treatise that appeared in the Phil. Trans. for 1834, “On the Atmospheric Tides and Meteorology of Dukhun,” Colonel Sykes showed that on the Plateau of Deccan, only 23” of rain fell, which is about twenty per cent of the quantity at Bombay ; but that the quantity is much more considerable on the sides of the mountain than in Bombay ; and according to new observations mous quantity of 250’. In an essay contained in the Phil. Trans. for 1850, “ Discussion of meteorological observations taken in India at various heights, embracing those of Dodabetta‘on the Neilgherry Mountains,” he has further discussed the same phe- nomenon. Finall , last year’s Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal contains observations at the military pray in Hindos- tan, from which it appears that in Cherraponjee on the slope of Cossya Hills at the same height as Mahabuleshwar, there fell the unheard of quantity of 610 inches in one year, an amount far exceeding that of any of the more elevated stations. A quantity increasing so extraordinarily at a certain height, which decreases however in places still higher, is quite irreconcilable with cur- rents of air descending from above; it speaks more for a current moving horizontally against the side of the mountain, which is compelled to ascend on it, and then loses its vapor. n second proof of this ascent, in the fact that, (as I gather from some new calculations of the temperatures of Hindostan, ,) all the high stations show on the approach of the southwest monsoon a sudden increase of temperature, which is not found in similar e tropical rains on the north and west coast of Africa. With the tropical they agree in succeeding the highest point of the sun’s ee but they differ in not succeeding a ‘courant ascendant,’ but a n equatorial current, which is cooled at a higher level. The direction of the air-currents too is quite opposite. he tramon- tane rules in summer over the Mediterranean as a retreating pro- soon prevails over the Indian Ocean. When the northeast mon- soon reaches here in winter, the sirocco rages in the Mediterranean, In 1835 I showed that the proportions of rain in the middle and northerly portions of Europe are comprehended from this simple point of view, that the time of eg rains on the outer limits of the tropics, the further we go from them, separate into two maxima united by slight fallings off, akc come together Szconp Szares, Vol. XX, No. 60.—Nov., 1855. 51 - 402 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. >. . ‘ . int South Germany into one summer-maximum, when the period of temporary rainlessness entirely ceases. This is observed es- pecially where the current in the course of the year rises and falls considerably, and therefore at places, in a word, near the outer limits of the current, sometimes within it, and sometimes without it. It is clear that ‘where this is not the fact, the changes in the temperate zone must be different. The delay of the cur- rent in the annual period is thus clearly accounted for. As early as 1675, Seller laid down the inner limits of the northeast current in the Atlantic Ocean, very different from Hors- burg in the early part of the India Directory. According to him, the zone between the two currents is fifty miles broad in winter, and one hundred and twenty in summer. Lately, Maury has tried in his large atlas, to ascertain the change of the northeast current for each month. He has shown clearly that this change is greater on the African than on the American side, or as I had before inferred, from the barometric phenomena, that the limit of calms and the associated phenomena of the current do not move in parallel lines but like a swinging thread, having its node-point in the West Indian sea, where the trade wind is a constant wind, and its greatest breadth of swing in the Indian Ocean, where it turns into the monsoon. How these extremes pass in the inte- rior of Africa bags one to the other, that is, how the current be- comes a monsoon, we do n ot know, since most African travellers think that they have quite gee their tribute to meteorology, by complaining of the long continued heat there (Zo be continued.) <= Art. XXXVIII.—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicklés, dated Paris, ept. 1, 1855. The ether machine $ M. Tre embl ey* is among them. The boiler is open to view. It has been rendered perfectly tight, by plunging the System of tubes which compose it into melted bronze he ether vapor is thus completely confined and escapes only by the atari’ openin " Boutigny exhibits his small boiler, by which the surface of evapora- e. M. Franchot has there his hot-air machine, as it was made in 1836. The Arithmometer of M. Thomas de Colmar is presented on a large scale, adapted to calculate 30 numbers—which is beyond the wants * This Journal, Noy., 1858. + Ibid, May, 1853. Ibid. § Ibid, May, 1855. Universal Exposition at Paris. 403 - + even of science. It is a very fine instrument as large as a common : piano; and beside it there are others so small that they may be taken in the arms. The Thermogenic machine of Mayer and Beaumont* is the object of unceasing curiosity ; and it certainly isa remarkable fact that in this way, the simple friction of a piston of leather within a tube, making 300 turns of rotation ina minute, should furnish steam. The boiler power in the steam, requires at least 4 horse power. ‘The inventors pro- pose to use their machine only when it is convenient to utilise lost force. In the fine display, made by Nachet, there are the multiple micro- scopes, of which I have spoken. Duboscq has on exhibition his electric regulator; Edmond Bec- querel, his apparatus for chromatic photography ; M. Felix Bernard of Bordeaux, a refractometer and also an apparatus for determining the polarization of the atmosphere. Duboseq shows also stereoscopes by reflection and refraction. The stereoscopic views are less successful than those in the English De- artmeat Among the articles from England, we observe with interest the ap- paratus employed by M. Tyndall in his researches on magnetic phe- nomena; also the electro-magnet employed by M. Faraday for dia- magnetic phenomena, and for examining the effect of magnetism on po- also a model of circular electro-mag- is electro-magnets ;|| the rheostat of Wheat- re nets ;§ another of trifurcate in turn is attracted ; and thus the interior circle is put in motion an acquires a velocity of rotation on itself, which is quite fatiguing in con- sequence of the shocks to which the circle 1s exposed. : In the French department, there are two other electro-magnetic ma- chines: one moved by circular electro-magnets, the other with trifur- cate magnets. Six circular electro-magnets with three poles are ar- ranged onan axis. Around these electro-magnets, are arranged six cyl- * This Jour., September, 1855. t Tb., Jan., 1855. t Tb., January, 1853. § Ib., Jan., 1853. j Ib. Jan. and May, 1853. © Ib., March, 1853. ANA Correspondence of J. Nickles. The circumference of the electro-magnets is at intervals terminated by he magneti brass plates so arranged as to serve to interrupt t gnetic circuit, As long as the iron portion of the circumference ye deg me arm ture, it “tends to separate itself from it, and carries in its movement the whole mass of the electro-magnet with the axis which sa ftaspte it and the fly-wheel on the latter; but at the moment when contact takes place, app ratus is neither powerful nor economical. It would ‘ better to employ circular electro- magnets with two poles. The electro-magnetic machine with trifurcate magnets is more pow- erful, since the action between the magnet and armature is not exerted at the time of contact. But I may describe these machines at a future time with some details, and now “ee only that neither of them resolves the oo of an economical m The only galvanic battery on Saieliion: which has any novelty, is that called the electro- hydro-dynamic, by M. Chenot, in which he us the sponge of iron, of which he is the discoverer, as already commu- nicated. The same inventor has a machine which is an interesting ap- plication of electro-magnetism to the dressing of iron ores. Thes ores, being magnetic, are thus easily separated from the gangue and made ready for the furnace. ‘The machine is a drum carrying electro- magnets on its circumference. A screen carries the impure ore under the drum where the poles of the electro-magnets take up the oxyd of iron and leave the gangue on the frame to be transported by it into an enclosure one side. As the drum moves on in rotation, the galvanic fluid is made to leave the ria range of magnets and act upon the next; the ore of the first is thus dropped, while the next is taking its load. M. Chenot 0 of the magnificent galvanoplastic products, there are different in of pape telegraph. There is the signal telegraph of M. Bréguet, in which the same sig- nals are made as sometimes used in the ordinary aerial ene ceiver, 8 positions in its turn in place of 26 which the alphabet requires, will have some idea of the signal telegraph which has been adopted a the administration of telegraphic lines in France—adopted not with- ss for ral out resisting progress for several years, and denying the benefits of the - Seba telegraph for a long period after this invention was employed e United tat Eiheo ee exhibits a telegraph in which manipulation is — a re with a finger-board, having as many keys as letters. A arbor in this box tends constantly to move under a clock movement and pa in its motion the wheel which opens or closes the circuit ; but it is re- tained by a catch which pressure on a key raises,—a simple arrange- — for producing the breaks in the current. The receiver is that of the primitive telegraph. Acclimation of the Angora goat. 405 The forms of saeereobie apparate are numerous and interesting, though constru on known principles. The more important are those of at Bréguet, Garnier, in France, Berg and Soerrenden, force of the w inds ;* a heat — fort hot- boas and drying cham- bers; anda send of electric communication between railroad trains. M. Henley of London, has on exhibition a magneto-electric machine e Bekking of Holland, have induction apeareieecs for medical uses. There is nothing especially remarkable in he exposition contains also models of ie submarine cables which have been used in connection with telegraphs, and of those which are soon to be laid down between Italy and Algiers. In another communication, I propose to allude to other machines and nomical Society of St. Petersburg, and established with that Society a system of exchanges of objects industrially useful. This Russian Society has in view an end gh ince proposed for M. Guéri ‘aw the series of transformations they undergo in the processes of the arts. man, will find ee illustrates his own departments, and be able make c cone important to direct them in the various operations of the arts and tra The St. Peutnan Society has already made such a collection of the productions of Russia, and their transformations. It includes all kinds of wheat, from the grain to the flour, bran, and starch, &c., as well as models of machines employe in ener &c., from the plough to the wind-mill and the implements aking. So there is wool of various rshigei and the raw material, be all the tissues coarse and fine, &c.; and s cg a multitude of objects, pertaining to the three kingdoms o The Zoological Society of Acclimation, not wenine. 4 to ee — to the productions of France alone, esolved to e the objec it may obtain by exchange for a “ Mu séum d° Histoire "Naturelle Fit quée et comparée,” to contain sh products of all countries so as to exhibit the differences — Acclimation of the Angora pe eis Society is trying to decide whether the Angora goat can be acclimated. At their request, they * This Journal, September, 1853. 406 Correspondence of J. Nickles. have recieved from Abd-el-Kader, at Broussa (Asia Minor) a flock of goats from Angora, fifteen in number, which have been sent to the mountains of the south, centre, and east of France. We have seen m ling (Haut Rhin), a valley possessing much that is curious in its in- dustry, and of interest in the remains of ancient glaciers still traceable iis Two kids have been born since the goats were sent to Alsace, and as yet there is nothing to show that acclimation is eae The onebtaie doubt the success, and say that the texture of the wool chan- ges even for small distances in the same zone and the same region of 39° 20’ and 41° 30’, and the meridians of 33 nd 35° east “Paris, the surface of which is about 2350 square metric leagues. goat avoids the highest mountains, not ascending beyond 1600 meters, according to M. Tchihatcheff, who has studied the animal in Asia Mi- nor. It also keeps out of the lower valleys where the heat is high in summer. The village of Angora is the place where this goat is raised with the most success and in largest numbers. Its altitude is about 1120 meters and its climate is liable to great extremes One of the most striking characteristics of the Angora goat, is its strong attachment to its native soil: a removal, however slight, causes a change in the quality of the wool. M. Tchihatcheff observes that all attempts to transfer it to Constantinople, Smyrna, and other parts of Asia Minor, have been without permanent success, the wool of the gypt France from Esypt in pes by piehye and his son finally succeeded in acclimatin Since sea al with tha Angora were begun, M. Graells, pa a of the Museum at Madrid, has stated that a flock of one hun os these goats was os Wurodikek into Spain in 1830, and that there are n two hundred of them in the mountains cas = Escurial, and still anata: flock in the mountainous region of Academy of Sciences.—The siltvos ipod sition at Paris has had some effect on the Academy of Sciences in bringing distinguished men from all parts of Europe and Britain to its meetings. At one recent enti there were present MM. Liebig, Brewster, Wheatstone, De la Rive, H. Rose, Poggendorff, Rammelsberg, Dove, Steinheil, etc. At this Scientific Congress, the United States is worthily represented by . Hunt, of Canada, whose numerous confining occupations as a lhcrnbar of the Jury at se Crystal Palace, have hindered him from pursuing his scientific la He ade a series of communica- tions to the Academy of “hehe some of them treating on theoreti- cal subjects of a profound character connected with great questions in philosophical chemistry now commencing to occupy the scientific world, and others specially on the geology of Canada. Bibliographical Notices.—Astronomie Prinlairs: d’Araco, vol. Paris: Gide and Baudry.—This volume is almost wholly devoted to the Scientific Intelligence. 407 Sun, the Zodiacal light and Comets. The theory on the Pike x) gos Stitution of the Sun ; a careful essay on the Solar Spots; an exam ion whether the Sun is inhabited, and treats of the magnetic pee of the Sun on the compass. He also describes the parallactic stand, the equatorial and the rotating dome of the Paris Observatory, as also the Polariscope lens of his in- vention Eudes et Lectures sur les Sciences d’ Observation et leurs applica- cations pratiques, by M. Basinet, Member of the Institute. ol., 2 Paris, Mallet Bachelier. Price 24 franes.—This work is in- ro a of the Institute. One is entitled Extraordinary Movements of the Sea ; another, Comets in the nineteenth century; another, The Electric Tele- graph, in which M. Babinet states that he does not believe | in the possi- entitled ‘* Voyage dans le ciel.” M. Babinet, a relative and friend of Arago, understands how to throw into his lectures the same charm and simplicity that characterised the popular public addresses of Arago udes sur la géographie botanique de L’ Europe et en particulier sur la végétation du plateau central de la France; by M. ECOQ, Professor of Botany in tbe gr hets of Sciences of Clermont. a vols., himself with those recognised by him in ag derstands Auvergne like M. Lecog; to him all geet are phe | relating to the geology of that country. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. J. CuemiIsTRyY AND Puysics. nm the relations ee the oie points, specific volumes and Meksceat constitution of bodies.—Sin e appearance of his remark- e p on the speci if pee ‘of pis already Aw in this Journal, Kopp has published an elaborate memoir on densities, dilata- tions, and boiling points, confining himself however to a statement of widely kn I reat number of comparisons of similar fluid bod- les, the diferososs between the specific volumes taken at the boiling 408 Scientific Intelligence. points are found to be proportional to the differences between the form- ulas ; thus the specific volumes of two different fluids differing in their formulas by x.C2He differ by nearly x.22. Isomeric fluids are found to have equal specific volumes. In numerous cases in which oxygen replaces an equivalent amount of hydrogen, the specific volume remains . nearly the same as before the substitution. ere appears however in hand, however, carbon can replace hydrogen in fluid compounds without producing a change of volume. e new researches confirm the re- sults already obtained, that it is impossible, in a general manner, to de- duce the specific volume of aliquid from its empirical formula, without regarding the direct results of experiment as inaccurate. It became therefore necessary to return to hypotheses on the rational constitution the premises. The views brought forward can therefore only be re- garded as presenting the simplest possible general expressions for the specific volumes of liquids. For this purpose Gerhardt’s classification appears to be an advantageous one ; the author’s mode of fepresenting the volume of the elements in fluid con Se is the same as that a ready employed by him (Ann., vol. xcii, 1,) but the numerical values of the specific volumes of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are somewhat different from those formerly determined. The specific volumes of fluids, which may be considered as derived from hydrogen H has type, correspond very well with the values de- duced from observation if we take the specific — io carbon as 55, that of hydrogen also as 5:5, and that of oxygen he specific volumes of those fluids which may be sonsitesel as de- rived from water H \ Oa as type, may be satisfactorily deduced by giving the values above mentioned to carbon and hydrogen, but attribu- ting to the oxygen, when it stands in water, as a specific volume of 3'9: 2 eq. of oxygen within a radical have the specific volume 2X6.1=12°2, but 2 eqs. of oxygen outside of a radical have the specific sa 2X39=78. e same iaivinptions serve for ae which m be deduced from multiples of water as types. For the sic of the specific volumes of compounds containing only carbon, hydro- gen and oxygen, the author employed his own determinations, but for those of compounds containing other elements he made use of the ob- servations of Pier Sulphur occurs in ‘its compounds in different ways, sometimes (1) re- placing the oxygen in the type fy ; O2 as in mercaptan, &c., sometimes (2) pTeriecing earbon within a radical, as in sulphurous acid compared carbonic acid, sometimes (3) replacing the oxygen within a ‘radi- ware as in sulphocarbonic acid compared with carbonic acid C202 O2= C2S2{ Se. In the first and second case the specific volumes of the sul- phur aes unds correspond satifactorily with the observations if we take the volume of sulphur as 11-3, but for the third case the _— velo of sulphur appears to be greater, namely, + Chemistry and Physics. 409 The specific volumes of a great number of chlorine compounds cor- respond well with those deduced by observation, if we assume the spe- cific volume of chlorine as 22°8. In like manner, the yolumes of iodine and bromine appear to be respectively 37°5 and 27-5. It is remarkable that bromine, as the author formerly conjectured, has the same specific volume, in its compounds at their boiling points, which it has at its own boiling point in the free state. The specific volumes of but few compounds of other elements have been so far studied as to admit of accurate determinations of the vol- umes of the elements themselves. Phosphorus, arsenic and silicon appear to have the same specific volume, namely, 26. The specific volumes of SnCle and Ti Cle are equal, and suggest that tin and titanium have the same volume in their fluid compounds.—Ann, der Chemie und Pharmacie, xcv, 1 oduce. throw light upon the question whether the radicals methyl, ethyl, &c., ave when isolated the same equivalents which they have in combina- tion, or whether, as maintained by Gerhardt and Laurent, these equiva- lents must be doubled. If the molecules of ethyl, for example, on being set free unite with each other so as to form double molecules such as Gi then we should expect to be able to replace one eq. of ethyl in such a compound by one of some other similar radical, such as methyl for instance, so as to have a mixed or double radical like eo , . Wurtz has obtained such compounds by two different pro- cesses. Ist, by decomposing by sodium an atomic mixture of the iodids of the two radicals. 2d, by the electrolysis of a mixture of the fatty acids of the series ConHnOs. e author in the first place gives an account of the properties of butyl and amyl as pre ared and exam- 7057 at . + 4-070 vols. Amyl (long since isolated by Kolbe) is a limpid and mobile liquid, hav- ing a slightly aromatic odor; its density at 0°C. is 0°7418: it dilates o 20° w ‘ deflects the plane of polarization to the right, but its power of rotation is very different in different specimens, and the author finds that the same is the case with amylic alcohol, which, however, deflects the plane of polarization to the left. By the action of perchlorid of phosphorus upon amyl, Wurtz obtained two chlorinated products having the formulas ~ CioH10Cl q CroHeCle CroH10Cl ane’ Cr1oHsCle §° The radical ethyl-butyl as obtained by the first of the processes men- tioned above is a light and mobile liquid, boiling at 62°C. Its density at 0° is 07011; the density of its vapor is 3-°053=4 vols. Its formula isC4H Ca Hs } : es Z ; : Ethyl-amyl has the formula Biskiec (2 boils at 88° and Sconp Series, Vol. XX, No. 60.—! Vov., 1855. 52 410 Scientific Intelligence. deflects the plane of polarization to the right. The other radicals ob- , C tained are butyl-amyl C.oHse } , butyl-caproy] C.cH: and methyl- C x a ‘ wi des caproyl saat : ; . The author concludes his interesting memoir with many very ingenious and attractive theoretical suggestions, for which, owever, we must refer to the original.—Ann. de Chemie et de Phys- aque, xliv, 27 . On organic compounds containing metals.—FRANKLAND, to whom we owe much of our knowledge of this interesting class of bodies, bas published an extended account of the results of his i fei thy of zinc- ethyl, which is doubtless one of the most remarkable of this class of bodies. ‘To prepare this substance upon a large scale, the author em- ployed metallic vessels (iron or copper) capable of resisting a strong ressure, in which the atotlels could be teased directly or afier they had been placed in glass tubes. In this manner four to five ounces of zinc-ethyl could be prepared at a single operation. In one of these vessels granulated zinc and iodid of ethy! mixed with —— were placed, both dried with extreme care: the whole was then heated for 12 to 18 hours in an oil bath to 180°C. After opening the a aratus the con- tents were distilled off, the Sil enioes being filled with dry hydro- nic peculiar rather agreeable, smell. Its ae is 1:182 at 18° C.: it does not freeze at —22°; it boils at 118°, and distills without decom- position. The density of its vapor was found to be 4:259. It consists therefore of 1 vol. of zinc vapor and 1 vol. of thei gas, the two con- densed to one— 1 vol. ethyl gas, _ 20039 1 vol. zinc vapor, 2°2471 1 vol. zine ethyl, 42510 The condensation in this case is very remarkable and seems to lead to the conclusion that the combining vol. of the vapor of zinc is o i like that of hydrogen. The author suggests that its combining vol. negative elements. In the air it takes fire and burns with a brilliant blue green-edged flame, evolving dense vapors of oxyd of zinc, water and carbonic acid being simultaneously formed. When, however, a ethyl is mixed with ether and a stream of oxygen passed into the m ture, the gas is absorbed and a white precipitate soon separates products of the oxydation here were found to be ethylate of zinc, acetate of zinc, and hydrated oxyd of zinc. Iodine acts powerfully ge — the reaction being represented by the equation Sa age Chemistry and Physics. All CsBsZn+2I=CsHsI+ Zn. Bromine acts explosively upon zinc- ethyl, with formation of similar products. In chlorine, zinc-ethy! takes fire, the zinc andjhydrogen burning, while carbon is set free. Dry flowers of sulphur gently heated with an etherial solution of zinc-ethyl unite with both zine and ethyl and form mercaptid of zinc, CaHsS ZnS. Water and zinc-ethyl instantly decompose each other, the reac- tion being C1HsZn-+ HO=C2Hs, nO: similar decompositions occur with the hydracids:—Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, xcv, 28, July, 1855. 4. On the constitution of the ethers.—Bitcuamp has presented to the Academy of Sciences a memoir on the action of terchlorid of phospho- a hydrate, and the compound ethers as salts of oxyd of ethyl. Very pure and dry acetic ether boiling at 74° C. heated in a sealed tube to 160°-180° C. during 24 hours gave a mixture of chlorid of ethyl, chlorid of acetyl! and phosphorous acid. The reaction is here represented by the equation 3CsH203, C1Hs0+2PCls=2P03+3Cs1Hs02Cl+3CaHoCl. Anhydrous acetic acid heated with the terchlorid of phosphorus yields chlorid of acetyl, the reaction being 3C1H3Os+PCls=PO3+3CsH202Cl. Very pure and dry ether heated with the terchlorid yields a similar re- action ;. we have 3C41Hs0-+-PCls—=POs+3CsHsO. Hence the decom- position of acetic ether is precisely that of a mixture of ether and anhy- i T by 3HCI4+-3C1HsCl+4-2P0s. The author concludes from these experi- t must be confessed that the author’s reasoning is not very cogent, as all the reactions above mentioned are very easily explained by the so-called water theory, that is, by referring ether, alcohol, an- hydrous acids and compound ethers to the type of water with the double equivalent, . } Oz. We shall then have the following equations : oF, } O2 + 2PCls = 3HCI 4+ 2P0s + 3HC! H ete 3c, 4, | O2-+2PCls = BHC! + 2POs + 3C+HCl Cao : ot ; O2 + 2PCla = 3CsHsCl + 2PO2 + 3CsHCI A12 Miscellaneous Intelligence. H a" es ; Oz + 2PCls = 3HCI + 2POs + 3CaH202.C! Cai Pas. } Oz + 2PCls = 3C4HsCl + 2POs + 3C4H202.Cl & H O2 1 Beas0, } O2 + 2PCls= 3C4HsO2.Cl + 2POs + 3C4H202.C1 W. G. II. MiscELLANEous INTELLIGENCE. 1. Notices of two minerals from the Lancaster, Pa. Zinc mines; by W. J. Taytor, (from a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Lancaster, Aug. 31, 1855.)—Allow me to bring to your notice two minerals which | have found in very small quantities at the mines of the Lancaster Zinc Com- pany, a few miles northwest from Lancaster City, Pa. The first one [ will call Tennantite, until I find sufficient of the un- decomposed mineral for a thorough quantitative analysis, which will decide the matter conclusively Color, steel gray. Steaks dark reddish gray. No crystals have yet been observed; fracture uneven; cleavage not observable in the small pieces found. A qualitative Ganipsin in the wet way showed the presence of sulphur, arsenic, copper, iron and zinc The second mineral is Buratite or a variety of Aurichalcite. It oc: tals also laminated, also forming a coating on the limestone (dolomite) and quartz crystals which occur with it. Structure also columnar, which shows when broken the same “we appearance. Lustre, pearly. Color, verdigris green. B.B. in a matrass gives out water hich has neither acid nor alkaline eanGon: and the crystals become brownish black. In the inner flame, yellow while hot, and white on cooling. With salt of phosphorus, grr gene and affords a green glass. With equal quantities of soda and borax a globule of copper. Effervesces with HCl, and dissolves entirely. he ore from the mines of the Lancaster Zinc Co. is principally blende intermixed mechanically ina most peculiar manner with the dolomite rock, in which it is found; at and near the surface it has de- composed into a calamine, it is interesting to observe the process of decomposition very gradually going o 2. On Singular Cloud-belts, aes in Georgia, on the 13th of June, 1855; by Wm. G. Wiiuiams, Prof. Nat. Sci., La Grange College, Ala- bama. ‘~The avében: or belts of cloud observed in June 13th were seven in number, and apprene oe oe beginning at about 9 o’clock in the evening. They n by me and others at Decatur, Ga. The following facts are fom pee foke - the time. The first or northern belt, which may be regarded as the principal one, was first seen at a quarter past nine. It had then the form and appearance of a pillar of cloud, or of dark smoke extending upward from the horizon ten or fifteen degrees north of west, ak a we south of where the sun set about two hours previous. At its e it was about two and a half or three de- ess wide ; its edges coe poe parallel, but gradually spreading like @ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 413 fan partially open. In form it was not unlike the tail of a comet. Its upper extremity was less darkly shaded, and was then at an altitude of about 30 degrees. Presently we were surprised at its rapid extension in length, not how- ever directly towards the zenith, but obliquely to the horizon along the zodiac, very nearly, if not quite parallel to the ecliptic, leaving the stars Regulus, and Spica Virginis, a little south of it, and finally in the east crossing the milky way considerably south of Altair in the Eagle. In _ judge, exactly opposite to the base of the western segment, or ten o fifteen degrees south of east, thus forming a complete cloud-like arch or belt, well defined throughout its whole extent; and, h less ten degrees, and its southern edge at the moment of its completion, which was about ten o’clock, not far from twenty degrees south of the zenith, or five rees. It was about half as broad as the first; but advanced east- ward more rapidly, and in a few minutes made the whole circuit con- verging to the same point in the east, not however being met by an as- cending segment. ‘This was soon followed by a third. Then by an- other and another till seven were seen at once, each new one farther south, and narrower than the preceding, and leaving narrower spaces. Otherwise, in their general aspect similar, yet not so perfect and un- broken in their outlines. Moreover, although they all terminated in the same points mingling into one in the horizon, yet the last three or four did not seem to shoot forward as from a radiating point, as did the first three. These were rather formed in irregular segments like dotted o * The apparent radiation of these cloud-belts from the same point was in all prob- ability optical—that is, simply an apparent convergence in the distance of belts ac- tually parallel or nearly so—Eps. 414 Miscellaneous Intelligence. its breadth somewhat narrowed in the middle, and its edges thus made much nearer parallel, it was more entire and deeper in its shades of darkness, than at any other period. During this interval the second fluctuated and varied greatly, especially near and just north of the zenith, and seemed to fall behind, spreading laterally, and becoming dim, an in parts, especially near the middle, appearing and disappearing and mingling with parts of the adjacent belts for a time ; then again exhib- _iting distinct and regular outlines. More or less of these fluctuations characterised the other belts to the south during this ti t half past twelve, or, about the time when the seventh and last belt Stiegl? and arranged itself about 20° above and parallel to the southern horizon, then suddenly the original belt ceased moving, and became stationary, resting its lower or northern edge on a line parallel to the horizon, as nearly as | could determine, 20° above it. It now rest- as far as the zenith was filled, all the stars successively disappearing under its deep shades. ll the belts now became much confused, and mingled with each other, which seemed to be a signal for their disper- sion, an event now evidently taking place At one o’clock they were fast disap pearing; first near the zenith, and along the middle of the successive belts; then in all dire: ctions, dissolving into thin air, leaving their places vacant before the eye. e original belt however, was still lingering nearly entire as late as half past one. Besides this, at ~~ time, only —— - pe other belts remained in the west, and one in the east. There not then, nor at any time during the whole a this strange lig enn, were there any clouds visible, other than those forming the belts. On the contrary, the sky, as the belts dissolved, was unusually bright, and the stars every- where shone with unwonted brilliancy as they also had before the com- mencement of the phenomenon, and indeed during its progress except in the belts. ere my observations ended. I learn incidentally that fragments of the belts were seen at Atlanta, till, like clouds, they were tinged with a ruddy ag by the morning sun. of supplement, andj in order to throw some light on this sub- ee I ae add the following facts and remarks. 1.) The phenomenon was followed bb a sudden and very great change of weather and atmospheric states as to temperature, moisture, and direction of the wind. For some days previous, it was fair, the air dry and cold for the season, dews generally light, wind north, or north- west. Asa proof of these facts | may state that I heard the remark at ~~ or more planters, that the weather was very fine for cutting ing the wheat; but too cold for the corn to grow. Many were iD oviaivtes of colds from the low temperature. Others, as myself, put on winter under-clothes. eae on starting to church that even- ing, I felt the need of, and put on cloak and wore it till the close of my pe car when I found ae at st in its usual position Miscellaneous Intelligence. A415 pase ne, days, the heat was oppressive, wind south or sduthweek: air more moist and sultry, dews heavier, and w athe unsettled with signs of rain. Beginning with the 17th, there have been here and all around markable uniformit (2.) It seems to have been local, so far as yet heard from, and to have been seen farther along an east and west line than one north and south. ithi 5d miles, It Ww west, and in Newton. Iso at Marietta, Ga., by Rev. Geo. White, Dr. Smith, J. E. Shelton, Esq., and many others, whose observation I find on comparison agree substantially with my own. n a combination of the Stauroscope and Compound Microscope proposed by Prof. von Kobell; communicated by O, Roop, now of pear the crystallographical character of mine- rals and salts by certain optical means. Since then Prof. K. has combined this is ollows aes = a I's prism is aplener to the ee side of the age in ordinary experiments on po- to. show the rings and cross, and above this is another Nicol’s prism he goniometer circle is attached to the odject-glass by means of a ring fitting to both: to the under plate of the revolv- ing stage which has no rectangular motion, is attached a vernier which will of course move in a circle around the vertical axis of the micro- * Editor Watchman te ees ge of June 2ist says:—“Snow fell in Sewell mountain, Va., on the 12th ¢ In the comp Ope 5 ms ce eae — at ut at right ear Aish axis ; f, divided micrometer plate g, graduated circle ; h, cured to stage s pic crystal, A16 Miscellaneous Intelligence. scope body and consequently of the goniometer circle which is attached to the object-glass; the crystal and vernier move to eth Within the eye-glass in the focus of the eye-lens is stretched a fine thread, or a divided glass micrometer can be used instead ; the object of this is the same as that of the lines drawn on the brass plate to which the crystals are attached in the original instrument, viz., to brin _ aside of the crystal under examination into a certain fixed direction ». The mode of manipulation is the same as with the instrument first : et ibed ; In this latter form however we have the advantage of seeing at the same moment the position of the crystal and its action on the black cro The Ho ca al experiments were made with a Grunow microscope, discovered a law respecting the rotation of the planets on their axes, which he thus states: The cube roots of the oo of the planets are as the square roots of their periods of rotation. The author gives no demonstration of - grounds of this principle. In the present state of uncertainty concerning the densities of many of the planets, it may not be practicable to bring the truth of the law to a satisfactory test 5. Shark remains from the Coal Formation of. Iilinois, and Bones and Tracks from the Connecticut River Sandstone ; by Prof. Hitcucock, — (in a letter to Prof. = aer dated Amherst, 12th Oct. 1855,)—At the late meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, I exhibited a verbal fine specimen of a part of the jaw of a shark, allied to the Pristis family, obtained from the Coal Formation in Ilinois. After giving the history of the specimen, I submitted it to Prof. Agassiz, who observed that it belonged not only to a new genus, buta new family of fossil fishes, and I have requested him to name and describe it. Its history, locality, &c., I hope to send for your next volume. Within the present oie I have obtained a portion of the bones of a vertebral animal from the Red Sandstone of Springfield, Massachusetts. The rock is the same, and its geological position essentially the same as that in East vile Ct., from which you obtained some years ago similar ones—the only other instance known to me. For these bones I am indebted to the Hberality of William Smith, Esq., their discoverer ; who has charge of some excavations going on at the United States Armory ; and also to General Whitney, co Sle ph of the Armory. The larger part of the bones were thrown away by the workmen before they were noticed by Mr. Smith; but I have ais hopes that our anato- mists may determine from those that remain, to ‘what class the animal belonged. Yesterday I procured a slab, weighing nearly a ton, from Roswell Field, Esq., of Gill, containing four gigantic a hag ase of a iped, yet accompanied by most distinct traces of a tail. It is certainly one of the most remarkable tracks which I have ever seen, and wi probably, (as well as the bones above described,) throw light on the character of the animals that lefi the footmarks of this valley ; I propose Miscellaneous Intelligence. AIT BITUARY.—Professor J. F. W. Jounsron, the distingoiatiel Agricul- tural Chemist, died at gs residence at Durham, England, on Tuesday the 18th of Septem [The following sa have been received by us, but on account of the Index for volumes 11 to 20, here added to this number, we are un- — able at this time to give them extended notices, as well as to insert our re miscellanies.— Eps. Ranking’s Half-yearly Abstract of the Medical Sciences. oe 21, Bare. pp. 300. Philadelphia—Lindsay and Blakiston, June, 1 This admirable Semi-annual, contains a very large collection of saw ble articles, selected from the current medical literature of both em is- medium for quack medicines, I t be an invaluable work for the practical physician whose con- stant occupation allows him but little leisure to keep himself well in- bist of the rapid progress which the Medical Sciences are now ki g- oa. Elements of Natural Philosophy ; by W. H. C. Barttett, LL.D., Prof. of Nat. and Exper. Philosophy, U.S. Military Academy, West 8 and “Analytic Mechanics:” IV. Spherical Astronomy, 466 pp. 8 New York, 1855. A. S. Barnes & Co.—The high reputation of Prof eg is a sufficient guaranty for the excellence of his works. 8. Mathematical Dictionary aap Cyclopedia le Mathematical denies ii definitions of all the terms employed in Mathematics, an analysis of each branch, and of the whole as forming a single Science, by Cuartes Davies, LL.D., author of a complete course of Mathe- matics, and Witiiam G. Pscx, A.M., Assistant Professor of Mathe- matics, U.S. Military sien 592 pp. 8vo. New York, 1855; A.S. Barnes & Co.—This work has been prepared with care and is well illustrated with figure Annual Report rf the Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Survey for 1854. pp. 4to, with a large number of maps and potty This vol- ume besides its beautiful maps, and its coast information, contains vari- ous memoirs of great value on Tides, the Gulf Stream and other sub- jects, by Prof. A. D. Bacue, Superintendent, and additional ia by different persons connected with the surve A Some of these chapters we me cite in a future volume of this Journal. 10. Report on the Minerals and Mineral olor of Chile ; by J. Law- RENCE Suri, Prof. Chem. Med. Depart. Univ. of Louisville. 25 pp. 4to 1. Esquisse Géologique du Canada, pour servir a Pintelligence de la carte géologique et de la collection des Minéraux économiques, en- voyées a l’ Exposition Universelle de O Ports. 1855; by W. E. Locan, Member of the pare Society of London, etc., and T. Srerry er 1855. Paris: H. Boss SEconp a a ol, XX, fs pares 1855, 53 418 List or Puates in Tuts JouRNAL, VOLS. XI TO XX. XI. —Velocity of Galvanic Current: Goutp. p. 67.—Burning of Canc-Brake : OtmsTEp. p. 181. XII.—Coral eet So bie! Kingsmill. oiep: Dana. p. 25.—Zodiacal Light: : Oladrent tales at Cat Island, ‘6 pla ates: BACHE. p. 341.—Silurian Basin of Middle Ten- 2 XIil. cockinde ince mo pe p. 241. XIV,—Ceral Reefs and pind Redieen: Dana. p. 76.—Tides at Cat Island, 4 plates: BacHE, 346, XV. —Isutvermal goo’ p. 72.—E eee Piereteam U.S. Coast Survey: Ma- ‘p 305..-Proteus “Angninus ” DALTON 387, VI.—Isocryinal Chart: Dana. ¥VI_A Atomic bd aategd charts: {Coons p- 387. XVIL— oe wi Gales and Whirl : REpFIEco, p. 1.-Tides at Key West—6 plates on 3 Dp. XX. —Universa lasgeniee for Microscopes : Baitey. p. 58.—On the Compounds of Zinc and Antimony: Cooks. p. 223. Pociti TA. 1. xi, p. 18, 1.16 from bottom “space,” read “ sphere.” —P. 22, 1. 5 from top, silbstitute f for F—P. 23,118 ae “bobtons, for “ any portion of cgrs,” read “any 2 —P. 33, li “perth P. 33, line 8 from s 3 d2 Q’ bottom, for mK R? read 2nKR*.—P. 34, 1. 4 from top, for read 72° —P. 97, 9th line from bottom, for Lagostoma nodosa, re ear eds FES tie —P. 108 ], 12 from bottom, for “anilene,” read “amilene.” 110, Tine 2 22 from bottom, for *C,,H,O pis gel lt “C2 9Hg0¢ + 4HO. mp 112, 1. 14 from bottom, for portion egrs.”—P. 24, 1.15 from top, for 2 Pe } read Vol. xii, p. — 2d ne rete top for “J.D. oy gabe read “D. J. cia er "—P, 852, 16th 1. fro ttom, for “from four to five,” read “about nine.”—P. 354, 3d lL ‘om top, for et read “ sight? Vth L , for “ 240 ms 260,” read “ about 330 - 17th for “seventy-five,” read “140 ;” 11th Lf bottom, for Yes to sixty,” read *70.”—P. 356, 16th L. from-top, for “two hundred and sixty,” read “ 380.” Sehr rns 119, 4th 1. from top, for “90° west of the Ural 3? add = *90° east of range of Australia.” ire 128, 6th |. from bottom » for o, e * 2 ies 218, 17th 17th 1. Se Spear a 95 Ol ead “grasses,”—P. 372, 8th 1, rom rea from bottom, for 3 t read Behe ie es ae i i rac Pani i pe meer 9 for “C. get “daa E Bechi” ip eaten for “ Jargionite,” read “ Targionite.”—P. 62, 1 bottom, for “M: read “ or T.”"—P. 64, 12th L gest iar as “ en Bi a gP ” read “5A 8 Si+ A Blas 451, Vol. xv, p. 297, 10th re nace oe hg = Rieck Tertiary,” read “Cretaceous.”—P, 325, line 11 from top, for “northeastern,” read “northwestern.’—P, 358, 1. 11 from botto fro n, place,” read “work ;” 1,18 from bottom, I e of his gg ‘echt: read “In ot ere of Nature.” ”—P, 433, line 4 from to op, for “ Su read * ee 3d line from bottom, mE “Thos. F. Seal of Philadelphia” “Wm. Ww Jeivion at Westches ster.”—In part of edition, p. 440, 4th line from Lear for “ibid,” vies “J. f. pr. Ch,, lvii, 276. - xvi; p. 2 50, 1 1. from bottom, fi for * boa ¢ A ger pantet fe: ct “ate ride Pedicularis: . 265, 1. from to op, for “ “TY ane =p 88. for z Natur” read “ mee "—P, 289, 51 pg bottom, for “ pemed » read Aj ee i, p 287, in part of the edition, line 10 from bottom, for “ O. enatica;” read —P. ed $e 10 tee bottom, 9 . ps 8,” read “Cd S.”—P. 220, line 7 om Ab for “1:3:4,” read “ :44."—P. 240, to the analysis, add “ phos phorus her Vol. xviii, the last line of p: 19 should - transferred to the bot ne of f pe. An error on p. 65 is corrected on p. 300.—P. 415, line 23 from top, de/e “all but two of.” pulee. * i 6, 21 L fr om bottom, for “ iseg” read “1853,.”—P. 160, 6 1 from top, ames A Pig Ps ester iar O. N. Sropparp.”—P. 178, 19th 1. from top, for “1838,” read “1853,”—P, 2 1, for * Nisder, Pobel,” read “ N: Nieder-Pobel.”