THE v2 > OoFr SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr., AND . JAMES D. DANA, \ y IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE,—_- PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK. he a eee & SECOND SERIES. : 3 oe i. ae cea ee TOL XX1.—MAY, 1856. WITH SEVEN PLATES. NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 2 _ NEW YORE: G. P. PUTNAM & CO. Mu. BOT CARDEN ce ng BE Ae ie a ae secaciaaa CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXI.: NUMBER LXI. Page Arr I. On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. —Tides of San Francisco rts eet with two uc at by A. D. Bacuz, - - ? A he il. Rae of the diurnal tscunlisy of the ce at {San fae, ‘ San Francisco, and Astoria, on the Pacific Coast of the Uni- ted States, from observations in connection with the Coast Survey; by A. D. Bacus, - 10 Ill, eee determinations of Co- tidal Smee" the oe Coast of the United States, from the Coast Survey Tidal Observations, with one plate; by A.D.Bacuz, - - 14 IV. Approximate Co-tidal lines of the Pacific Coast of the United States, from observations in the United States Coast yaa with one plate; by A. D. Bacnz, - 22 V. Notice of the Tidal Observations made on wi ta of the United States, on the Gulf of Mexico, with type curves at the several Stations, and their decomposition into the curves of diurnal and semi-diurnal tides; by A.D. Bacue, . «+23 VI. On the Distribution of Temperature in and near the Gulf Stream, off the Coast of the United States, from Observa- tions made in the Coast Survey, with two plates; by A.D. Bacue, 29 Vil. Notice of Earthquake Waves on the Western Coast of the “United States, on the 23d and 25th of Dees 1854, with one plate; by A.D. Bacne, - - é Pais, of a Self- ee Voltaic Batery ; by Guvils Matutio - The ocuias individual in its ms to Speen ‘a Dr. Acne inteis oe ge eae ere 3 ee X. Observations on Binocular Vision; by Paice Wituiam B. Oi ee a ee lv CONTENTS. XI. On a new Fossil Fish, and new Fossil Footmarks; by Prof. Epwarp Hitcucocx, - : - - ~ 967 XII. On Kilauea; by Rev. Titus Coin. 100° XIII, On the Aperture of Object Glasses ; 2 Fr. H. ‘Wannaiee 103 | XIV. Remarks on Mr. Wenham’s paper on a of or Glasses; by Professor J. W. Baruey, - - 105 XV. On certain Adaptations of the naa Microscope ; id Ocpen N. Roop, - 106 XVI. On the Distribution of Rain in the “Temperate oa “a H. W. Dove, - - 112 XVII. Correspondence of M. penance Rk co Death of M. Ma- gendie: M. Braconnot, 117.—Heat produced through the action of the magnet on bodies in motion: On the neutral combinations of saccharine substances with the acids, 119.— Observations on Cholera: New process of manufacturing soda, 120.—Bibliography, 124. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—On the dixection os _ vibrations of the ether in the case of polarized light, 125.—On t he rel as 128.—On fulminuric acid, a. new method of preparing Propylene: On the transformation of toluol into Sige. alco- hol and into toluic acid: On amylic alcohol, 132.—Ultimate analysis of certain pure Animal Oils, 133. Botany—Alphonse De Candolle: Géographie Botanique Raisonnée, ou Exposition des Faits principaux et des “ss concernant la Distribution Géographique des Plantes de l’époque actuelle: Flora Indica; being a Systematic account of the Plants of British India, together with observations on the Structure and Affinities of their Natural Orders and Genera, by J.D. Hooxer, M.D., and Tuomas THomson, M.D., &c. &c., 134.— Bryologia Britannica, by WiLL1aAm WItson, 137. Astronomy.—New Planets : Elements of Comet 1855: Elements of Leucothea, tas 138. Miscellaneous Intelligence.—Eruption of Mauna ca 139.—Earthquake at Japan: Coal in China, 144.—On Raindrop marks, by J. Wyman: New mode of Cleaning Diatoma- ceous deposits, by J. W. Bariey, 145. B iitineaibs of light on the disengagement of car- bonic acid by animals, 146.—Fall of Meteoric Stones: Rotascope of Prof. Walter R. Johnson : Zeuglodon, 146.—The U.S. Naval Astronomical Expedition to the Southern Hemisphere, 147.—Spherical Astronomy, by Prof. W. H.C. BarttetrtT, LL.D.: Report of the Su ancora of the anne wean during year 1854: Results of a Series of t f New York, from 1826 to 1850, inclusive, 149. —Whartin : and Stillé on Medica} Jurisprudence, 150,—Geological Survey of oe by G.C. SwaLttow : The Year-Book of Agriculture, etc., by Davip A. W: : Esquisse Géologique du Canada, etc., by W. E. Logan, and T. Srrrry Hunt, a Obituary.—Dr. T. Romeyn Beck, 152, alee ; List of Works, 152. Saar ea CONTENTS. v NUMBER, LXII. Arr. XVIII. On a Specimen of Native Iron from Liberia, Atic; = by Dr. A. A. Haves, - . - - - 153 XIX. On the Telescopic sige of Sirs with a Se Telescope; by the Rev. W. R. Dawes, -~— - - 158 - On a new and advantageous mode of Re Pay Atainistyiel ; by Prof. H. Ross, . - 164 XXI. On a new Species of Unio; a T. A. ‘ales i - XXIL lena on Binocular Vision; by Professor Wi1LLIAM B. - - 173 XXIIl. ee of a cee eal Journfal bea at Marit Ohio, for the year 1855; by S. P. Hinpreru, - 189 XXIV. Supplement to the ee of J. D. Dana; by aie Wis thor.—Number II, ae XXV. On a new locality of Sloheaste he in a pia River Country, South Africa, and a supposed new locality of the same, in Mexico; by Cuartes Urnam SHEPanp,M.D., - 213 XXVI. On the Theory which attributes the Zodiacal Light to a Nebulous Ring Beprnting the Earth; PY Prof. F. A. P. Barnarp, LL.D e . » Biz _XXVII. On the Scam Enaien of Sti Loa; by ‘ie T. Coan, 237 _ XXVIIL On Volcanic action at Mauna Loa; by James D. Dana, 241 1 RAIX, Investigations on the Properties of Telluramyl and Selen- methyl; by F. Wouter and Joun Dean, . - 245 - Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicxiis.—Death of M. Sturm: Death of Adrien Chenot, 254.—Universal Exposi- tion, 256.—Telegraph across the Mediterranean, 257.— Aluminium and Silicium, 258.—Alcohol; new mode of manufacture, 259.—Bibliography, 261. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—On the Effect of Chlorine in Coloring the Flame of Burning Bodies, by D. Forsss, F.G.S., F.C.S., A.LC.E.: On some points of Magnetic Philoso- phy, by Prof. Farapay, D.C.L., F.R S., 262. | Geology, —Description of the Fossils and Shells collected in California, by Wm. P. Blake, ee the Relations of the Crystalline Rocks of the North Highlands to the Old R, ed Sandstone of that Region, and on the Recent Fossil Discoveries of Mr. C. Peach, by Sir Ropericx I. Morcuison, 276.—Description of the c Cabinet of the Garden of Plants at Paris, by M. J.-A. Hucarp, 280.” Vill CONTENTS. Pi WiuuiaM B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S., &c., 429.—Notes on British Foraminifera, . Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S., 432. ithe the prese f Diatomaces, Phytoli- arin am Sponge yo in Soils which support Scivation: by WILLIAM GREG- ory, M.D., F.R.S.E., 434.—On the Injurious Effects of an excess or want of heat and light on iam ae RosertT WARINGTON, Eszq., 4 stronomy.—Variable Star: New Comets, 438.—Two New Planets: aaa of Fides : Elements of Comet 1855, ITI, 439. a Intelligence.—Postscript to Prof. Rogers’s Paper on Binocular Vision, by the ne hor, 439.—On a modern Submerged Forest at Fort Lawrence, Nova Scotia, by J. W. Dawson, Esq., F.G.S., 440.—Bohemian Forests and Peat-bogs, by Dr. aig STETTER, 442.—Fossil Footprints, by J. Wyman, 444.—On Gutta Percha tubes, 44 Army Meteorological Register for twelve years, from 1843 to 1854 inclusive, a The Philosophy of the Weather, and a guide to its changes Buruer, 447,— Geological Tour over the State of New York: Earthquakes in California, by W Buake, 449.—The Mastodon giganteus of North Ameri y C. WaRREN The Canadian Journal of Industry, Science and Art: Die Fortechritte der Physik im Jahre 1852: Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, 450,—Notices of New Publications, 451. Index, 452. ae ea men ered o Prof. Rogers's pin cagh on Binocular Vision—Part J, in vol. xx, ay P 8 89, _ 10 from top, -s any. In figure 3, r should be t and pendicular to the length. (5) Page 95, line 17 from botions, for “P and Q,” rea dQ,. Page 96 or P and Q, read P, and Q,. *s Part IT. (6) Page 207, line 4 sea ah for “lower,” read higher. (9) Page 209, i be ag top line, for “ conveyed,” read converged. age 210, line 19 from top, erase B, (12 } Page 7 line 5 from top, for “or” read a. Fig. 25, the right hand fone a should be reversed. (18) Page 328, line 5 from top, | after “union,” insert of aande, (20) Page 03, line 15 from botto’ m, for “nearer,” read fa art III. Page 91, line 9 tres top, after from, add, the denominators of. Exratom.—P. 159, 1. 7 from top, for 9/6, read 0/"6, * No. 61. Published the first day / of € every second veomthe price $5 per year. Vou. XXI. J ANUARY, 1856. a So ef | AMERICAN JOURNAT ; SCIENCE AND ARTS. CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr, ‘ AND JAMES D.. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH _ PROF, ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS. AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WoLcorr. GIBBS, or NEW YORK. THE PAYMENT OF THE YEAR IS RECEIVED en APPL eter i P) _ 2 F i } Sates AR ¥, 1856. evra uae, ' ‘Tae American Journat oF Scince is published every two months, on the Ist of January, March, May, July, September and November, in Nu ‘eabsis of 152 pages each, Vol i Sa ce $5 a year, in ad Ist Ser., 1818-1845, 50 vols., including a General Index. Edited to 1838 by Prof. B. Sittuiman; after July, 1838, se! Prof. ie Sriurman and B. wegernates Price for complete set, cicenk $100 20. 2nd Ser., commenced January, 1846, by Prot B = Sruasatan, B.SILLIAN, J, and J.D, Dana. Price for the 20 vols. ed, unbound, — Volume 10, of the 2nd Series, tat : a al Index Tee a es 1-10. * * B. Sruiman, Jr., and J D. D the present rs of the Journal, and it requested that all communications and eget gebcsvenss — addressed to Sinuiman & Dana, New Haven, Conn. & oot eer ere ies a Gog THE SOEs ‘OF THE PROPRIETORS, ott oS $40 00 ‘This Journal may be purchased of the Publishers, and of the following Booksellers— 3. B. Bassett & Co: ~ |Mobile, A Ss. W. _ LLEN. New Haven, 5% 115 Chapel st : ‘Montreal J. Armour. Albany, N. Y., Lirr ew ela ee C.& A. Ta BER. - IT se & Brown, : New oe = 9s core Boston, Mass., Fetrripce & Co. . FRANCis O. ROSBY “sah — poe York ci sr oe WILEY. Baltimore, Md., N.Hickm | Paris, Fran Hector BossaNnce. Buffalo, N. Y.,'° Eviac Pursser. | Phila alelhie, Piz A. Hart. Hartford, Conn. ., Brown & Par (Pitsburg, Pas : Wiison & Co. B. , Wesrensan & Co.,| Provi ovidence, ae Geo. H. Wuirney. N (Isaa ITTL Germany, Benanann mga | Rochester, . 4 E. Darrow & TRAVELLING AGENTS whose receipts are ac Henry M. Lewrs, of Bape, 9 Alabana,—for ‘aaneind end Te nesse by C. F. Lewis, James O Lewis, and Samuen D. Lewis. c. W. —— Cineinn: ey teesy = ogee ale a A - CHILDs, On W um. Inwix, and will be good. Isnazx E. James, 182 South Tenth street, ae Joun Couuins, James Dering, J. Hamuitt, Jos. Wit Ww. Txos. D. H. J, Rioorex, Sd Ww. Macken and Mr. Tosin. Isaac Martin of Chester County, Pa., AuExanpen 1 = eet seures Ju of € = ahi, AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES,] Art. I—On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. — Tides of San Francisco Bay, California ; by A. D. Bacue, Superintendent U, S. Coast Survey.* Twat observations have been made, in connexion with the hy- drography of the Coast Survey, at several points on the Western coast, agreeing in showing the same interesting fact of the large diurnal inequality of the tides, already traced by Mr. Whewell in the observations at the Russian settlement of Sitka. The diurnal inequality in height of the tides on the Atlantic coast is much more considerable than in Europe, and the diurnal inequality of interval is also well marked ; but both require nu- merous, carefully made observations to establish their laws, in con- Sequence of the particular relation between the semi-diurnal a diurnal waves, On the Gulf of Mexico west of St. George’s Isl- and, the semi-diurnal tide is almost merged in the diurnal, but the total rise and fall is quite small. t Key West, and along the western coast of Florida, where the diurnal inequality is large, the whole rise and fall of the tides is small, rendering numerous observations necessary to obtain re- liable numerical results, The same is not the case on the West- ern coast ; observations made for a short period through the whole twenty-four hours showing a peculiarly large diurnal irregularity asthe most remarkable phenomenon of the tides. It becomes XXL, No, 61—Jan, 1856. L — 2 On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. one of great age importance to the navigator; for, in San “Francisco bay, a rock which has three and a half (32) feet of water upon it at he morning high water, may be awash at high water ofthe afternoon; and charts, of which the soundings are reduced to.mean low water, will have no accurate significance, being liable to an ete ae me of the soundings at either low water of the day, of 1-18 The results which T ee atin and propose to discuss, are of two series of tides observed In connexion with the Coast Survey at Rincon Point, in the city of San Francisco, California. The observations were under the direction of Lieutenant Commanding James Alden, U. S. Navy, one of the assistants in the Coast Sur- vey. They were made hourly, except about the time of high and low water, when the regular intervals were fifteen minutes, and the attempt was made to seize the precise time of high and low water. The first series extended from January 17 to February 15, 1852, and the second from January 23 to February 17, 1853. Another set of similar observations was made at Saucelito, on the northern side of the Bay of San Francisco, but not with the same care which appears to characterize these. The results are in general accordant with those deduced from the Rincon Point serie The reduction of the work of 1852 was made by Mr. W. W. Gordon, and that of 1853 by Messrs. Fairfield, Mitchell, and Heaton, of the tidal party of the Coast Survey office The results of 1852 are projected in the curves shown in dia-~ gram A, where the abcisse represent the times from 0 hours mid- night, and the ordinates represent the heights. The scale is such that the intervals between the vertical lines correspond to two hours, and between the horizontal lines to half a foot. The curve begins with midnight of the calendar day, January 16, 17, and ends with noon of February 15. e epochs of the moon’s phases, and of zero, and of maximum declination of the moon, are marked at the head, and the times of transit at the foot of the diagram, the curves upon which, for convenience of the page, have been divided into two parts, so arranged with respect to each other that the days of a al declination fall nearly over and under each other. curves of the series of 1853 present me same general results, with ‘shone the same extent of irregu- arities. These tides obviously present a case of large diurnal inequality in height ;* the interference of the diurual and semi-diurnal waves going to produce one large and one small tide in the twenty-four * The quantity given as the diurnal inequality in height, is the whole difference the heights of tro masse igh wate ot oy aters and that for the interval, the whole difference between the lunitidal interval of two ‘successive high waters or low % Sa GR Sains ee se ee On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. 3 lunar hours. When the declination of the moon is at its max- imum, the difference in the heights of consecutive high and low » Waters is nearly at its maximum; and when the declinatio a nearly zero, the difference is the smallest. ee The diurnal inequality in the interval is also perf etly well marked in these tides, amounting when greatest, to about two hours for high water, and one hour and eleven minutes for low Ww er, * of graphical corrections in the mode used by Mr. Whewell. The ordinates of the diagrams Nos. 1 and 2, (diagram B,) cor- respond to the lunitidal intervals, and of Nos. 3 and 4 to the heights—the abcisse, in each case, to the hours of the moon’s transit. The scale is shown at the top and side of each diagram. No. 1, diagram B, shows the results for the half-monthly inequal- ity of interval of high water, and the curves traced by them; No. 2 the same for low water; No. 3eshows the half-monthly inequal- ity in the height of high water, and No. 4 in that of low water ; the dots show where the observations fall. The comparison of the curves, with observations, is given in the annexed table: TABLE No. 1. Comparison of approximate curves of half-monthly inequality of the tides at Rincon Point, with observations. eee Moon’s INTERVAL. HEIGHT. Moon’s |[ “ee. | High water, | Low water. High water. } Low water. age. Transit F| From |Observ’n.| From Peas From jObserv’8. | From Obsery’d. lnansit F. "| curve Iry curve, | Curve. | curve.| Curve. | curve.| Curve. ss M. Ft. Ft Ft. Ft. H, M. 0 30/11 59] -—10 11745} — 9 | 790} — 3 | 302; +8 | 0 30 1 30 36| — 2 37| ood 6 | +4) lo} — 8: }.1 80 2 30 24 0 38| baa. 451 +2 {| 20} —20.|, 2 30 3 30 Q4el 7 24 7 1710} +2] 38) +29 | 3 30 4 30 98| — 4 98 |i 2 eGo] — 4 | 52] — 6.|. 4 30 5 30 48/ — 1% 421 18 | %8| +12] 68| —29 | 5 30 6 30/12 18} — 1 }1805] —1 | 80] —13 | “70} +26 | 6 30 7 30 438 13 24) — 7 1400} -+00 Sib 1807 8 8 30 46; —12 33 9 | 30} +15 | 30; —41 | 8 30 30 39 27} — 6 | 50} —15} 40) +27 | 9 30 10 30 27; —1 15} — 38 | 69 5 | 26! —19 | 10 30 11 30 1l 8 {17 57| = 2 so| —4]| 10] +06 | 11 30 Mean | 12 08 | +27 (17 55| +35 +39 +110 —39 —40 —1 __The results, both for intervals and heights, are very good, con- sidering the small number of observations (four,) of which each isthe mean. The heights are, as usual, less regular than the "> Ay 4 Onthe Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. times, and the results for the inequality of the height of low all. \ Water are the least regular o roximate mean lunitidal interval for high water, or cor- rected s rablishanént of Rincon Point, is 12h. 3m. This corres- ponds tovan epoch of 0 hours, showing that the tides belong to the next preceding transit (transit F') of the moon, and not to the fifth preceding, (transit B,) as was found by Mr. Lubbock for the tides of Great Britain. The epoch for low water corresponds also almost exactly to 0 hours. The same thing is shown, less for- cibly, however, by the discussion of the observations before re- ferred to at Saucelito. rom curve No. 1, it appears that the oe pea in the lunitidal intervals for 3h. and for 9h. is 1h. 20m or (A) of Mr. Lubbock (tan 20°) is 0°342. The difference between the heights of high water, at spring and neap tides, is, from diagram No. 3, 1:12 foot, and E of Mr. Lubbock 57,,=1'66. ‘The two series igi tions, discussed separately, gave results which did not differ ma- terially from these. 'These numbers will serve asa first approxi- mation, TABLE No. 2. Diurnal a of interval and height for high and low water, from observations'in January, 1852 and 1853, at Rinco# Point, San Francisco, California. High water. Low water. *1 : Interval, Heights, | Interval. Heights. ; Ft. a. M. Feo ~186 | 0 301 | Jan. 19, 1852, and Jan. 25, 1853. 1 57 —1°81 —1 03 38°44 1 47 | —1-63 —0 47 3°75 | Moon’s max. dec. 217} —1:59 —0 40 3°72 4] | —1°62 —0 40 3°46 1 43 | —1°38 — 30 307 4] —1-05 —' 23 257 ; 120] —066 | +0 07 2:00 0 $97; —0-17 0 38 137 Moon’s dec. zero. 0 52 0°32 1 05 0°50 . 0 23 0°71 0 50 —041 -~0 18 bt 44 0 58 —144 —1 { 1°90 101 —219 —1 42} 2-01 114 —285 | Feb. 1, 1852, and Feb. 3, 1853, —1 55 1-88 112 | —336 —2 ¢ 1°86 1 —3-4 Moon’s dec. max. —1 12 190 041 | —328 —1 41 1°65 0 42 —2:99 ned 26 142 | 40 —2°50. ik OO 1:00 0 20 —1-90 —0 59 0°29 —0 08 1-29 | Moon’s dec. zero. —0O 32 | —030 —0 35 —0°50 —0 09 | —0-97 —1 15 0-26 O29 | =—14o-) 117 0°95 046 | —156 —1 12 185 ; ne i 51 | —1°70 | —0 46 Sere ee 1 es pe A 0 30 299 | Feb. 15, 1852, and Feb. 17, 1853. Mean i211 136 47 286 cm On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. 5 It should not be forgotten that, the observations having been made in successive years in the same month, the moon’s age and _ | declination, and the sun’s declination are not very different, sand the sun’s declination is nearly the same on the corresponding days. The diurnal inequality obtained by the usual methodsis given in the annexed table, No. 2. The two series are’ combined by taking the averages for the days on which the declinations corres- pond in the two series. Each average is thus the mean of four individual results. These numbers are projected on diagram C, where the ordinates correspond to the intervals for one curve and to the heights for the other, and the abcisse to the tidal days for both. Notwith- standing the small number of observations, the curves can be traced with tolerable certainty and follow the general law of the inequalities. Each curve shows an inequality increasing and decreasing with the moon’s declination nearly, crossing the zero line at or near the zero of declination, and reaching a maximum or minimum at the maximum of north or south declination. The observations do not furnish sufficient evidence to decide positively that the epochs of the several inequalities coincide with those of the declination or otherwise. On the average they are about half a day before the corresponding declinations. : The inequality in the height of high water and in the interval of low water increase and decrease together, and so of the ine- quality of high water and height of low water. The declination of the moon and the inequality in interval of high water and in height of low water have the contrary sign ; the reverse is the case with the other two inequalities. The inequality in the height of low water is in general greater than that of high water, exceeding it when at the maximum in the proportion of two to one, (nearly 1‘9 to 1). The same rela- tion exists between the maximum inequality in interval of high water as compared with that of low, (1°7 to 1). : The maximum inequality in the height of low water is 3°60 feet, and of high water 1°85 foot. The maximum inequality of Interval of high water, as shown by the curve, is lh. 53m., and of low water lh. 7m. I am indebted to Mr. Heaton, of the tidal party, for the decom- fom some trials which I have made, these decompositions may be improved, they are, nevertheless, of great interest, and show ‘well the causes of the forms assumed by the curves of diurnal in- equality in height and interval, and for high and low water and their relations. When observations now in progress on the Western coast shabl have given additional results, I propose to take Pep, ; ae 6 On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. up this branch of the subject again. In the mean time, it appears \ to me, the results now obtained are of sufficient interest to be presented to the Association. I have taken, as an example of the decomposition, the curve from the observations of January 21, 1852, the results correspon- ding nearly tothe maximum of the moon’s declination and to full moon. The diurnal curve, the interference of which with the semi- diurnal produces the form shown in diagram A, and also ona larger scale in diagram D, is given on the diagram. Its maximum ordinate, as found by summing the two series of heights from the hourly observations in which the same values of the ordinate of the diurnal curve occur with opposite signs, and referring to the curve of sines for their relation to the maximum ordinate, is 2°20 eet. The sum of the squares of the differences between observation and computation is the least when the interference takes place, as shown in diagram D, the maximum ordinate of the diurnal curve being seven hours and a half from the maximum ordinate of the semi-diurnal curve. Subtracting the ordinates of the diur- nal curve, assumed as a curve of sines, from the heights given by the hourly observations, we have a residual curve, which is traced on the diagram. The average of the four loops of this curve is almost precisely a curve of sines, of which the maximum ordi- nate is 2°30 feet. ; The tidal curves near the maximum of declination, and for several days each side of it, result from the interference of a semi-diurnal and diurnal wave, which at the maximum of each are nearly equal in magnitude, the crest of the diurnal wave being at that period about eight hours in advance of that of the semi-diurnal wave. The following table gives the comparison made in the diagram. The first column contains the ordinates of the curve of observa- pets from the semi-diurnal, and its maximum ordinate is 22 eet. For equal maximum ordinates of the diurnal curve and semi- diurnal curve, 2:1 feet, we have for E=8 hours the diurnal inequality in height of high water 2-03 feet, or -18 foot greater than the mean found by the curve of diurnal inequality, and 0 low water, 3:57, or 0:3 foot less than the value given by the curve.. So, also, for the inequality in the intervals of high and low water, we have, respectively, 105 and 61 minutes, instead or 113 ~~ 3 On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. 7 and 66 given by the diagram, differing but 8 and 5 minutes, respectively, and having the same ratio to each other as the lat- . ter numbers. The mode of interference thus explains satisfacto~ rily the curious relations of the inequality of both time and height of high and low water. op TABLE No. 3. Analysis of curve of observation for January 21,1852. Rincon Point. Ordinates, curve |Ordinates, diurnal Ordinates, residu- cae lla Dierances of observations, curve of sines. al curve. knicil: - Feet. Feet. Feet Feet. Feet. — 0°23 - 0°28 +0°05 0-00 +005 — 1°63 — 0°83 — 0°80 -—110 30 — 2:98 -— 1°33 — 1°65 -— 1°82 LT — 3:63 — 1°72 -191 -227 36 - 403 — 2:00 — 203 — 2:20 17 - 3°68 — 2:16 ~ 1:52 -1°70 18 — 2°18 — 216 - 057 -0°70 13 — 148 — 2:00 "52 +0°70 -018 — 0:23 — 1-72 1:49 +1°65 - 016 +077 1:38 915 +2°20 - 0:05 14 -— 0°83 2°30 +230 “00 1°72 ~— 0:28 00 +1°90 10 $52 +028 1°24 +160 - 0°36 fb 83 —" 0°00 -00 17 1:33 -116 — 1:30 +0 14 = rae 172 — 2°05 — 2-05 = 928 2:00 — 2°28 — 2°28 00 + 07 2:16 —209 215 06 2°16 —1:29 50 91 187 2°00 -—0°13 — 0°20 O07 2°12 1°72 -++1:00 +1:20 —20 3:32 1°33 1:99 +1 97 2 3°27 83 2°44 "12 2°62 28 2°34 2°20 14 Taking the values of the maximum ordinate of the diurnal curve (D) as deduced by Mr. Heaton, tracing a curve for them and folding this over on its greatest ordinate, as a hinge, we bring five values of D to the determination of each point in the curve from the observations of 1852. Treating the curve of twice the Sine of the moon’s declination in the same way we obtain a Curve for comparison with the former. Neglecting the sun’s ac- tion, we have from theory m sin. 25’=D. Taking the mean of the Values of D, which nearly correspond to each other in the half declination, and the mean of the corresponding values of the sine of twice the declination, we obtain m=29 nearly. The following table, No. 4, gives a comparison of the values of the semi-djurnal ordinates, and of m sin. 20’. _ T have also deduced the diurnal inequality, from Mr. Heaton’s compound or interference curves, and have compared it in the same m=28. The last column of Table No. 4 refers to this com- aoe m sin. 20’, The value of m found from ate, was ff 8 On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. TABLE No. 4, heen ng the values A the ie oe of the diurnal curve (D) deduced ale 9f analyzing the curves of obse and ia mapa a theor Lia also the v comparison of ie diurnal ‘meqsaiaties measured on No. D. M sine 23’ Difference, gmt H. W. from curve. Feet. Feet. — 1 2:18 217 04 2°2 2 201 2:00 -01 2:05 3 1-79 1-83 04 1°85 4 1°55 Ol 5 116 1-20 04 ik 6 0°81 0-76 — "05 16 “3 0°25 0-26 1 0°0 The agreement of the several results compared appears very satisfactory. The changes in the value of E have been distinctly traced by 3 Mr. Heaton from the observations; but before presenting the con- clusion on this subject, I desire to subject them to the test of fur- ther computations, which are now in progress. In order not to interfere with the regular work of the hydro- graphic party, a separate tidal party has been organized under the direction.of Lieutenant Trowbridge of the corps of engineers, assistant in the Coast Survey, and supplied with the necessary means for a full investigation _ the tides of our Western coast. It is proposed to establish three permanent relf-registering tide- a gauges, under intelligent supervision, at San Diego, San Francisco, and Columbia river entrance, and to connect them by observations at suitable intermediate points. here are difficulties to be over- come in the character of the coast itself, and of the aborigines who still inhabit portions of it, but I expect, Re Bese success from the zeal and ability of Lieutenant Trow The following tide table results from the sbaherteite ready discussed. Corrected establishment at Rincon Point: High water, 12 hours 3 minutes; low water, 17 hours 51 minutes. Mean rise and fall of tides, 3 feet 11 inches; of spring tides, 4 feet 11-8 inches; of neap tides, 2 feet 11 inches Mean duration of rise 6 hours 30 0 minutes, including half the stand ; fall 5 hours 52 minutes, cexieating half the stand ; stand, 30 minutes. ead er wee er High water. | Low water. Diurnal inequality - _ Ft. In. Ft. In. Average for fore whole month, .. 1 03 2 04 Greatest 2-11 3 064 gerne a in Aepssaiion H. M. H. M. Average Bs ie Yee 1 02 0 45 Greatest val 1.2 00 1 06 | Rte Se em alee st On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. 9 Difference in height of highest tide and lowest tide in day: average, 5 feet 11 inches; greatest, 7 feet 7 inches. ep the moon’s declination is north, the highest of the two high tides of the day is the one which occurs about twelve hours after upper culmination. ' have given elsewhere, for the use of navigators, a set of rules founded on these observations, and containing no technical term unfamiliar to them. Notes on the Tides at San Francisco, California. Besides the ordinary changes in the time and height of the tides known to all navigators, it is important to note the following, generally applicable to the Western coast, and particularly to San rancisco bay. They relate to peculiarities in the tides which occur on the same day, the necessity for knowing which is shown by the fact that a rock having three feet and a half of water upon it at low tide, may, at the succeeding low waicr, on the same day, be awash : 1. The tides at Rincon Point, in San Francisco bay, consist generally of a large and small tide on the same day; so that of two successive high waters in the twenty-four hours one is much higher than the other, and of two successive low waters one is much lower than the other. - The difference in height of two successive tides (either high or low waters) varies with the moon’s declination. When the declination is nothing, the difference is nothing, or very small. hen the declination is greatest, whether south or north, the dif- ference js greatest. When the moon’s declination is nearly nothing, the intervals between two successive high or two succes- Sive low waters are nearly twelve hours, and twenty-five minutes, and differ most from this when the moon’s declination is greatest. - The inequalities in the heights of successive low waters are more considerable than those of successive high waters ; while, on the contrary, the inequalities in the times of high water are more marked than those of low. _* ‘The average difference between the heights of two succes- Sive high waters is one foot three inches ; and of two successive ». T’he average variation from twelve hours and twenty-five * Waters fifty-three minutes. The average variations of the same interval when the moon is farthest from the equator are, Tespect- ively, two hours and one hour and a quarter. Szaus, Vol. XXI, No, 61.—Jan., 1856. ’ 10 On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. 6. When the moon’s declination is north, the higher of the two high tides of the twenty-four hours is the one which occurs about eleven and a half hours after the moon crosses the meridian, (souths) and when the moon’s declination is south, the one which occurs about twenty minutes after the moon’s meridian passage, (southing). 6 bis. Or the following rule may be used, which applies when the moon crosses the ga ‘between midnight and 113 a.m, or between noon and 114 p If the moon is south of the ‘equator, and passes the meridian Coratheys in the morning, the morning high water will be higher n the afternoon high water, if, in the S ccon the afternoon high water will be the higher. If the moon is north of the equator, and passes the meridian (souths) in the morning, the afternoon high water will be the higher; if in the afternoon the morning high water will be the higher. 7. The lowest of the two successive low waters of the twenty- four hours occurs about seven hours after the highest of the two high waters. 8. The average difference between the height of the highest high water and of the lowest low water is five feet eleven, and the greatest difference is seven feet seven. Arr. II.—Comparison of the diurnal inequality = the tides at San Diego, San Francisco, and Astoria, on the Pacific Coast of the United States, from observations in connection with the Coast Survey ; by A.D. Bacue, Superintendent.* (Communicated to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, by authority of the Treasury Department.) Ar a meeting of the American Association in August, 1853, I submitted some remarks on the diurnal inequality of the tides as observed at San Francisco. I propose now to compare this im- portant ae at the three ports of San Diego in California, o in California, and Astoria in Oregon. The results are the first £ fruits of the tidal observations under the immediate charge of Lieut. Trowbridge, of the Corps of Engineers, _ a which I referred at the same meeting, as in progress. The seri is intended to develop the tidal phenomena of that coast, and she three stations referred to are those for permanent reference, at which self-registering tide-gauges have been re- sults now communicated are derived from observations at Asto- * From Report of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, ot aie the Progress of the Survey during the year 1854, p. 152. Washington: 1 = On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. 11 ria, from July 11 to October 31, 1853; at San Francisco, from January 17 to February 15, 1852, and from January 5 to Feb- ruary 26, 1853; and at San Diego, from September 22 to No- vember 31, 1853. All the observations were made with Sax- ton’s self-registering gauge. I submit specimens of the actual those formerly produced for San Francisco. : he crude corrected establishment for the three places is— For Astoria. - x 2 : - 12h. 58m. For San Francisco, - - - - - 12 4 For San Diego, ee The value of A (the tangent of the difference of luni-tidal in- terval for three and for nine hours) and of E of Mr. Lubbock’s notation, (half the difference in height of neap and spring tides divided by 2 A) are, for— } Data for A. Logie E. Places, h—h' | Intime, | Tn are. oe Astoria, 7.2... Th. 08m. | 17°80" | 031 | 268 San Francisco,. . Pp ib18 i: Piae g0o)) wee 159 ON cn bc ce Se ce [1 36 31.30 | 039 | 171 These, of course, are but approximations. 12 On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United Siates. Diurnal inequality in intervals and heights of pile ag low water at San Francisco, San Diego, and Ast Inequality i q of high water. | of | = wratate ~ 7 5 interval] Inequality in height fe of low wate i) ry 2 = Ss =] San Ha Det ON Diego. BORA Ae cisco. cisco. San S| Diego. tng, & | Astoria, >| San 3 Diego. oF { S 3 > =|8. Fran- cisco He Oo Or Ito | oe OOH AES or SD Aras le oma 4) | oH wore © Re Ont HeS> | et et et oo Doane eocooorns Zero dec. D One ee pe He S'S, Fran- Seep es eS he i) =I | 0 52 ae pub bhso meet Oo 3S OD @ Oo MNe-T I Oo -1 01/-1 50\-1 33) 1-90] 2-04) 1°63) 101] 157} 102{-219\- D’s dec. lie ee i pe _1 44] 9- or! 1-49 5 98 Bagg 1 49\-2 98'-1 47] 2-01) 2-25| 1-42] 114] 145) 103|-28 0 -0 51| 165) 0-27) 060) 042-004) 0 -1 26-0 50-0 33] 1:42! 0:09; 020) 035-021) 0 -1 09/-0 Aa0 13} 1-00 0.65|-0- 25} 020) 031) 0 ray ys 0 D’s dec. zero, Cee) i et BS 69 He wr 7 Oo PwTS 2 *0 & 3 3 roto ee Qo © at =) ie 4) _ bo -T bo a+ abs oO I Srna on Or bo | mle bo Lo 249) 1:24 96) 2° rmreOoo reat oO — OFWFHO o nN o cS on oH AO Ke FOO SO D’s dec, ) max. 8. § 1 61)..1 63 1.68} 2.28) 1 88 211] 2 55) 1 84 1 22) 1 251 0 59 on i ] Coal (arate ct} o eed tp to Or ¢ ° 2 bo Or < ~_ \ LS) bo -~] | _ i=) [e-2) =) © i) ot is) mld wh Be oe) H+] os nw oe 0471 102, 046} 2-36] 1-97| 217 The foregoing table shows the diurnal inequality in time and height of high and low water at the three places before named. “he whole difference in height and interval between the A. M. and P.M. tides is taken as representing the diurnal inequality, and no correction is made for the half-monthly inequality in pre- paring the tables. I may observe that upon trying the correc- tions with the half-monthly pened. as at present determined, no special advantage resulted; and until the half-monthly ine- quality is determined by more nnigeeots observations, I adhere to this form of discussion. The sual are shown in diagram No. 2, in which the ordi- nates denote the inequality in interval and height on the days from zero of declination of the ‘moon, denoted by the absciss@- The dots show the act tual o and one are drawn On the Tides of the Western Coast of the United States. 13 with a free hand among them. The results for the three places are distinguished as marked on the diagram. ‘The following are the inferences from the discussion : 1. In every case, the inequalities increase and decrease with the moon’s declination, reaching zero at or near the time of the moon’s crossing the equator. The average epoch of the ine- qualities agrees almost exactly with the time of the zero of de- clination. 2. The inequality in height of high water, and in interval of low water, increase and decrease together, and so for the ine- quality in time of high water and in height of low water, as was remarked in the case of San Francisco. 3. The declination of the moon, and the inequality in interval of high water and in height of low water, have contrary signs at all three of the places: the reverse being true of the other two inequalities. € inequality in the height of low water is, in general, _ greater than that of high water, as was before stated for San Francisco. The proportion of the average and maximum ine- qualities is nearly as follows: Average Maximum Places. | Giiguniity. | inequality. | San Francisco, - - - - - - - 18 to 1 1-9 to 1 2 ee 15 tol 12 tol nvhee 1:8 tol 15 tol 5. The inequality in the interval of high water is, in general greater than that of low water, as follows: Places. : | ee oo ae San Francisco, os 9, * oe os tol 18 tol 8 ideo, aS ee ie ee 14 tol 13.40 1 ALONG Lk) ae ey 1:3 to 1 1:5 to 1 6. The average and greatest inequalities in interval and height are shown in the following table: EA a meg et ce et aN Average inequality. Greatest inequality. i Places, ime. | Height. Time. ___ Height. ee | TLL Ww | BW. | LW, EES eet. eet. | h. m. | h. m. eet. eet. San Francisco, - - - | 121 | 047 | 136 | 236] 217 | 117 | 201 375 | San Diego, - - - - {195 {102 | 128 | 197| 310 | 297 | 268 |,3:09 Astoria, - - - - - | 050 {046 | 1-23 | 217] 200 | 121 | 254 | 885 7. The comparison of the values of the diurnal inequality in height with the theoretical expression m sin 24 is given in the Snnexed table and diagram, in which the valne of m is taken at 2°35. "The inequality results are grouped by the declinations. — fea ray Co-tidal lines of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. Comparison of daily inequality with moon’s declination. San Diego. Astoria. h Ae ert We m sin 20’. | Difference. Nor ne a m sin 26’. | Difference. feet. feet. Feet. feet. 1 2°03 1:90 13 1:94 1:80 2 1:93 1:83 10 175 ETS 03 3 155 1°70 —15 1-78 1°60 | 4 1:26 1:48 — 22 1:32 1:40 — 08 5 84 114 —°30 98 1:10 rept 6 63 “15 cage & “49 ae kell 69 “28 41 “24 28 — 04 The observations of which these form a part are still in pro- gress, under the direction of Lientenant Trowbridge, whose assi- duity and intelligence have already been rewarded by the success I had ventured to anticipate in my former reference to the tides of the western coast. : Art. II].—Preliminary determinations of Co-tidal lines on the Ailantic Coast of the United States, from the Coast Survey Tidal Observations ; by A. D. Bacue, Superintendent.* (Communicated to the American Association for the | ele ea of Science, by authority of the Treasury Department.) In the progress of the hydrography of the es coast of the ments of the ports. With them I have connected observations of a more permanent character, intended to furnish the data for ascer- taining the laws of the tides in important localities, and others for tracing the progress of the tide-wave along the coast generally, and in special cases in sounds, Fhe and rivers. These observa- are necessary for the purpose. My attention has been called, also, by the request of a valued friend, the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, to some attempt of this sort, and his labors in con- nection with this subject on our own coast have entitled his re- quest to the most respectful consideration. pe Report of the Sw tendent of t e progress of the ese drag the cen ihe p. 147. ickeain ite 3 ie = Co-tidal lines of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. 6 Iam indebted to L. F. Pourtales, Esq., in charge of the tidal party of the U. S. Coast Survey, for the revision of the compu- tations given in this paper. The labor of reducing the observa- tions themselves has fallen chiefly upon Messrs. Heaton, Fendall, and Hawley. The diagrams have been prepared by Mr. C. Fen- dall, under the direction of Mr. Pourtales. TABLE No. 1. Observations for co-tidal hours, Stations, piper Years. Remarks. Sable; N.S. ..... : - enwood'’s Island, N.S... ...1.cd.ccssccseees peer by Copiein Phers Bourchue Island, N.S...) . i. ....2sfecdcasecss os irate tee Portland, Me. ......... 6i ° (1962-3. ...-.8 Self-registering. dion ‘ee beagle oe Portsmouth, N.H...... 14. |1851-2-8...22- jierte pean cpeokiyretall Newburyport, Mass.. . 2 1851-2. .....4 i Mt teae a 2 18 “jGloucester,........... 1 1853 ere ee 24 1850 Boston Light,......... 34 1847 Si oc .|Results reliable. ton Dry-dock,...... 64 yrs1847-—53 Best series. e ian aac ple 1 349 4 Provincetown,......... 10 [888-4 6 From Maj. Graham’s survey. Monomoy,............ if 52 ail reat Point, Nantucket, 14 349-50 . 4004 SOE ces eo 3 g58—4., Eee = antucket Harbor,..... 13 1846 to 1850... /Irregular. Tuckernuck, ........., 1 [S50 0. aces Wasque Point, ..... BA te ss 185 Edgartown,........._. 7 1846-7~51-2 .. Oe ERONO, eh |e 6 1846-51-22. Wood’s Hole (east), .... 3 1849-52 . gat ulin Cove,....... 3 1849-51... us Quick’s Hole (south), .. 2 351 sha Bight, ...... 1 852 ON ile oot 16 184446 2.0... | 544-8. cs cde os | Eee 25 848 i Montauk 3. ee 24 848 Not a good series. | land, er ee ea 2 850 Nota good series. carne ee 7 8835-64451. Cold Spring inlet,...... 11 oy, Pee e Day tides only. May landing,..... 2 Delaware breakwater,..| 10$ [1840-41434 cheery Comfort,..... 65 1846-61. 2... | eg ee cha Fe | * wiaiagge ttt ee eee 9 W618 Ae . Pe ae Peper | eae 6 a a ; os ee 13 1851 ; 1 jI853 ec eecus ; 11 tides.|1850 Quite unreliable. gc oe NOS The Stations at which observations of the tides have been made, of the more reliable class are thirty-three in number, extending: | 16 Co-tidal lines of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. on the Atlantic coast from Cape Florida to Portland, Maine. I have been able, through the kindness of Captain Shortland, RONG . in charge of the Admirality a of aohbe Scotia, to "extend | the results to the entrance of the Bay of Table No. 1 gives the names of the ths “of observation with the time duriug which the observations of high and low water were made, and page ate in relation to them. The stations marked (*) in Table No. 2, een made use of in determining the co-tidal lines for this paper. A few stations have been embraced in the results where the number of observations is not compara- ble to those at the other sapere chiefly to introduce eg ee ae in position, and to the observations already made a Old Point Comfort, New York, and Boston faker hae ra permanent stations for some years ; Charleston, Tybee en- trance, Portsmouth, and Portland, have been more recently added. to them. To the short series of observations, especially there should be e tide gauges, more than made up for any irregularities from he source, and determined in hen preliminary inquiry to omit — these correcta which amount only to a few minutes even in extreme cases A much more important, correction is that for the position of the gauge ina harbor or river entrance, in many cases within a bar. Where our charts are completed, we have the elements for computing this correction by the law of depth, supposing the wave to move in the channel with a velocity proportional to the square root of the depth. This law, when applied to two very different cases, Savannah river and Boston harbor, where we had the means of testing it by measured distances and known depths, was so completely verified, that I have not hesitated to apply it in the other cases. The following Table No. 2 contains in the first column a num- ber for reference ; second the names of the stations; third, the mean luni-tidal intervals or establishments; fourth, the longitude from Greenwich; fifth, the approximate co-tidal hour obtain by adding to the establishment the difference of longitude ; sixth, a correction of one minute for every half hour of the establish- ment, to correct for the different transits of the moon used in re- ducing the observations, (see Mr. Whewell’s paper, Phil. Trans. 1836, p. 293 ;) seventh, the co-tidal hour thus corrected ; eighth, the co-tidal hour corrected for depth, where data were at ‘hand for the purpose ; ninth, the latitude of the station. In order to obtain the best results from the observations, a8 ; have been divided into groups, in the way and from coasters = which will be hereafter explained ites Co-tidal lines of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. 17 | TABLE No. 2. Co-tidal hours of ports on the Atlaniie coast. : meg 5 Co Tiere 2) 8 [e3 = gas Za leg [eee || 2 FESkl. Ce ist FiSs2s| 8| 8 [Semel § hom [hom | hom |m.| hm.) hem ' 1\*Cape Sable,...........ce0e: 8 50| 4 23/1313 |18|1255|..... 26 ol*Ellenwood’s Island, ......... 945/424) 14 9/19/1850) ..... a 3|*Fourchue Island, 10 00 | 4 25] 1425 |20/14 5)..... 47 4\*Portland, Maine,............ 11 25) 441/16 6 | 23) 16 43) --... a /*Portsmouth, N. Ho... 2.2... 23 6 *New! bury por t, Mass... ‘ipswich, oe octets §|*Gloucester, mang kes See 9 salem, igs eb Or" 10|* Nahant, aeitneke mij boston Light, * ...... 085 19\*Boston Dry Dock,........ niet — 113\* Wellfleet, . ae 14\"Provineetown, Ces os Ree ees BR OUGTOY, owes os an wane od cet eee eer ee seeee ee PPe ee eeeeernse Weise Adela 28!*Point 4, ith : ewport harbor), ed re “Siaboan Geen 2l* Fort Poles i te Pacey) t. John’s ee ener 44/09. “tae ar 45)*Cabe Yio sera iA etna ——_——~ Supposing the stations to be really connected in the physical group and assuming that the space over which the observations extend is such that the co-tidal lines may be taken as straight lines, we obtain by least squares the position of the co-tidal li Which will best satisfy the equation. mean latitude _ Stoonp Seams, Vol. XXI,No. 61—Jan, 1856. —e 18 Co-tidal lines of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. longitude of each group is taken, and the group is referred to this point as the origin of co-ordinates; the mean co-tidal hour is also taken. In the equation of the co-tidal line— r+Ny=, 20% are found on the middle reach, and 204 gharectér- ises the northern. Co-tidal Groups. In discussing these results I have followed the same course as in the paper on the cotidal lines of the Atlantic, dividing the sta- tions into natural groups, end e epplying Lioyd’s mode of discus- sion of magnetic lines to t The northern group of stations. between Cape Disappointment and Cape Mendocino, (see plate) is composed of Cape Disappoint- ment, Port Orford, and Humboldt. The mean cotidal hour is 194 58™, The mean of the longitudes of the stations is 124° 12’; the mean of latitudes 42° 15’. Calling the differences between the mean longitude and the longitude of each station when re- duced to nautical miles 2, the differences between the latitude of each station and the mean y, the difference between the cotidal hee at each station and the mean cotidal hour z, and assuming x as the sign of the algebraic sum of the numerical quantities obtained for the co-efficients of the equations furnished by each station, we form and solve the equations: M2 ¢°+Nrrcy=22z N22 yt+Ms y?=Zy z. In the case before us M gives for the co-efficient of the longi- tude 1-2 and N for that of latitude, 0-006. The tangent of the angle which the cotidal line makes with the meridian = =0°05 and the angle is 2° 52’. The distance in ore miles perpen- dicular to the cotidal line corresponding to one minute of estab- lishment or V M?+N2? is 1-2 miles, and aicces the progress of of the tide wave in one hour, 50 miles. This is a velocity less than the depth would indicate to be correct, and from the small differences in the establishments of the stations, this must be an uncertain datum. We shall see however that in the next group where the establishment varies more considerably this datum is still less probable than the one here obtained. The direction of the line is nearly coincident with that of the trend of the coast, the cotidal angle being 2° 52’ and the gene- ral trend of the coast differing but two degrees from it. Co-tidal lines of the Pacific Coast of the United States. 25 The cotidal hours calculated from the separate equations are for Cape Disappointment 205 00™, Port Orford 19% 44m, agreeing precisely with the observed, and for Humboldt 205 09", differing ut one minute from the observed. 7 he observations bearing upon this group are extending north- ward, but the difficulties in the way of maintaining the stations are such, on a coast inhabited by aborigines, that I do not ven- ture to count upon speedy results. Lieut. Trowbridge is using his best efforts to establish the necessary stations. I precede the discussion of the Middle Group of stations by atable giving the results corresponding to several different hy- potheses which will in turn be examined. fer) oO — i=) to nw is} ie = oa Ga RQ oe os ) 2 Smo Babogs mgs = BEERS OS pos eS 3. ob. 0.0 MEwEe.F mEeE.o = 3 Moree eee . te a : o © preiscms wer ee A = 5 Ons a D 2 = meeeees Egoos g : eEOS 8 BP Bae : ~ > = aan D DB yy soe SSc BSe SRaFeE RATE a UE i = Bee Bee QE 2) cs 8 2 5 § FF Es 9 ee ee eae 3 = _ _ —_ oad 6 a} - ~ . S oS: eee &S to” |Mean Longitude. xy pw eo & & o~ gs 8 SS P ruck tee te a c Mean Latitude. 8: oo i) _ (o) o ~ a OF OR ee to) 2) bh 48 ~~ J _ pay —_ load 25 b> Oe ee eer) oy _ ~ _ on on ot ° tt a I @ = [74] SBS a ae FS ee = = ey no o oo ~ i) oo oo F 56 o ee se S ps 2 Longitude. gE a = Sos pe en Sea ee ee | t Latitude. 2 ¢ & : o : rr itu SE 4 Se ee oe te 8 “I 9 ea ME eg ee. i) & lope "4 & > “a ooo > ae a on as 5 z & me = ae LS ee - oa. so oo So 22 Laced B " Diff. of cotidal hour Ss s _ _ - 0 eo. = |correspond’g toone cd $ Ss & & & <2 -T | geog. mile pe . ZI a 6 to cotidal line. ih ohy = ra = |Miles perh’rtidTwave| &. . == i erraeoa™ a eee ee .x |San Luis Obispo. as} 5 at ag my, eo) = pai ute _ |Monterey. os BE S$ |Santa Cruz. on 3 j = Ie ; g s o oe ro. 'SanFranciseco & 3 § 1 f a in | Fe i Taking the five sutidigsbetwecn ‘Cape Mendocino and Point Conception as one group, we find from the table Senizs, Vol. XXI, No, 61.—Jan, 1858. 4 the angle of the — 26 Co-tidal lines of the Pacific Coast of the United States. cotidal line with the meridian N. 35° 30’ W. and the mean co- tidal hour 18> 50™, the difference of establishment for one geo- graphical mile perpendicular to the cotidal line 4:7 minutes. As the observations at Santa Cruz were comparatively few in num- ber, it may be more proper to leave out that station, which will give for the corresponding results to those just stated N. 36° 43/ W., for the angle of the cotidal line, 184 58™ for the mean cotidal hour, and 3-9 minutes for the cotidal difference in one geograph- ical mile. Omitting Bodega from this group we obtain for the cotidal “7 gle N. 37° 26’ W., for the mean ese args 184 50™, and fo the change of hour in one mile 3-9 mit Omitting Bodega and San Prudence trot the first group, the three southern stations, San Luis Obispo, Monterey and Santa Cruz, give for the same values N. 33° 06’ W., 185 18™, and 4:9 minutes. The direction of the cotidal line being nearly the same, its denomination only is changed. The 18} hours would give nearly 18% if carried to the cotidal line of the first hypoth- esis, 185 50™, which is a good agreement. Omissions at the other end of the group produce the same re- sult. Leaving out San Luis Obispo from 1, we obtain for the cotidal angle N. 36° 30’ W., cotidal hour 18" 47™, change per mile 4-4 minutes. The same result is obtained by other omis- sions in the series. . The introduelion of Humboldt into a group with Bodega and San Francisco gives results materially different from those ob- tained, reducing the cotidal angle to 18° 05’, and increasing the velocity to 40 miles per hour. : The combination of San Pedro with southern stations also changes the results so rapidly as to prove that the group is lim- ited to the south of Point Conception. The proof seems complete that these five stations form a sin- gle group. Using the determination in which Santa Cruz is omitted for reasons already stated, we have for the cotidal angle N. 36° 43’ W., which gives an inclination to the general line of the coast of diate ten degrees. The line of nineteen hours meets the coast north of Point Afio Nuevo, and between it and Point San Pedro. e comparison of the observed and computed establishments from either of these hypotheses, is very satisfactory, from that of — the five stations. Santa Cruz alone stands out with a difference greater than fifteen minutes. For the second list of four stations the greatest difference is twelve I and the mean without regard to signs is but six minutes. The velocity of the tide wave is less aniicieery from the other data rising to but fifteen miles per hour. ‘The de 7 Co-tidal lines of the Pacific Coast of the United States. 27 = a") 2 UQ od o 4 @ a gq =, ° ie) oe we} is) o Qu o a oO © =] 5 a S 5 a i. s on | gs oO S (=) = g long to the same group. ‘The computations required in these discussions were generally made by Mr. Heaton of the Tidal d . Division under my immediate direction or that of Assistant ‘Pourtales, Chart of Co-tidal lines. __, From this discussion I have drawn a chart of approximate co- tidal lines for the coast of Oregon and California (see plate). The Chart on a scale of -, 553, same which was used in pre- senting the cotidal lines of the Atlantic coast of the United States, shows the general configuration of the coast. _ The cotidal hours are marked near the several tidal stations. The straight lines resulting from the discussion of the north- ern and middle groups are delineated for the northern group the cotidal lines of x1x and xx hours, and for the middle group of XVII, XVIII, x1x and ‘xx hours. “he curves representing the approximate cotidal lines of 17, 18, 19 and 20 hours are drawn in dotted lines, the character of the dots differing for the several lines. The line of 174 hours would follow the coast nearly from San Diego to Point Conception, then the line of 18 hours nearly to Point Pinos, North of this point the lines of eighteen and nine- teen hours meet the coast obliquely at an angle of about ten degrees, the line of 20 hours appearing near Point Arena and following the coast generally to Cape Disappointment, the re- ceding parts having a little later and the projecting parts a little earlier hour A . On the Tides of the Gulf of Mezico. The Jast chart in 1848 of the Master of Trinity (Rev. Mr. Whewell*), to whom this subject owes so much of its progress, in comparison with that of Rear Admiral Lutke,t or with his own earlier map,t shows this tendency, the inclination of the lines to the coast being assured at each step. Art. V.—WNotice of the Tidal Observations made on the Coast of the United States, on the Gulf of Mexico, with type curves at the several Stations, and their decomposition into the curves of diurnal and senii-diurnal tides ; by A. D. Bacue, Sup’t. (Communicated 6 the American Association for the Aarencarent of Science under Authority of the Treasury Department.) Aisi ct.—The stations are eighteen in number. At four, hourly observations were made for one year or more, and at the remainder for not less than two lunations and generally for more. The stations at Cape Florida, Indian Key, Key West and Tor-_ tugas were intended to trace ‘the tide wave through the Florida Channel ; those at Egmont Key, Tampa, Cedar Keys, and St. Marks, to trace it along the Western Coast of Florida; at St. George’ s, Pensacola, Fort Morgan, Cat Slee and E. Bayon, (en- trance to the Mississippi,) to trace it along the south coast o Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and part of Louisiana, at E. Bayou, Derniére Isle, Calcasieu, Bolivar Point and Galvest stad Seg on and Brazos Santiago for the coast of Louisiana and Tex The observations were chiefly made by Mr. Getic Wiirde- mann with different assistants. At a few stations they were made by Corporal Thompson of the Engineers, Mr. Bassett, Mr. Tansill and Mr. Mnhr. The reductions were made in the Tidal Division of the Coast Survey office by Assistant Pourtales, Mr. Gordon, Mr. Mitchell, Mr. Heaton and others. The methods used were those pointed out in my previous papers to the Association, the ecomposition being in some cases made graphically, and at a rt of the stations Where the semi-diurnal wave is considerable, the ordinary method of working being used as well as those con- sidered peculiarly applicable to these tides, As it would be tedi- ous to present the results of these elaborate discussions in detail, when the co-tidal lines are introduced, I have thonght it best briefly to refer now to the types of different tides, and to present to the Association the diagrams for the several stations showing upon a uniform scale the normal stolons and their decompositions into the diurnal and semi-diurnal wav eae 3 Transactions, vol. Ixi, 1848 me Bulletin de oe Physico- sico-Mathematique de TAcad. Imp. des Sciences de ; Royal Societ ode edad its vol. li, cag Se Ay See oe Se ee eS eee, ee ee eee ee ee re ty ee ee ath eee ee eS ge fe Ta On the Distribution of Temperature in the Gulf Stream. 29 Art. VI.—On the Distribution of Temperature in and near the Gulf Stream, off the Coast of the United States, from Obser- vations made in the Coast Survey ; by A. D. Bacuer, Superin- tendent.* (Communicated to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, by Authority of the Treasury Department.) I propose to present to the Association a brief summary of the result of observations made in the progress of the Coast Survey, in exploring the Gulf Stream, so far as the distribution of tem- perature is developed by them. ‘The entire observations have been reduced anew, under my immediate direction, by Professor Pendleton, U. S. N., assistant in the Coast Survey, who has also gone over with me, systematically, the discussion of the work, preparatory to its publication in detail, and whose care, assiduity, and intelligence in the matter I desire here to acknowledge. At the Cambridge meeting of the Association, in 1849, I ex- plained the general plan of the exploration of the Gulf Stream, and presented the results of the observations made up to that time by Lieutenants C. H. Davis, Geo. M. Bache, S. P. Lee, and Richard Bache of the U. 8. Navy, in command of hydrographic parties in the survey. : Since then, the work has been continued by Lieutenants T. A. M. Craven and J. N. Maffitt, U.S. N., and has been extended south from Hatteras to Cape Canaveral. In addition to the sec- Hons across the stream, upon which the temperature had then ‘Nn examined, between Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras, others have been since explored from Cape Fear, Charleston, St. Simon 8, St. Augustine, and Cape Canaveral, and new and interesting re- sults have been developed in relation to the distribution of tem- Perature across the sections, and to the connection, at least in Some of them, between the peculiar distribution and the form of the bottom of the sea. : he examination now made extends from about 42° north lati tude to 284°, and from about 654° west longitude to 803°. It authorizes the construction of achart of the Gulf Stream, showing the distribution of temperature in and near it, not only at the sur- ut at various depths. 1. Distribution of temperature at different depths. | Having gone very fully into this subject, which was one of the first satisfactorily shown. by the observations, I do not intend to Tepeat here what was then stated, except in a general way. he distribution of temperatures below a certain depth, in the cold Current which exists between the shore and the Gulf Stream, and over which the warm waters of the Gulf flow, thinning out * From Rep. Superintend. Coast Survey, for 1854, pp. 156%—*161. 30 On the Distribution of Temperature in the Gulf Stream. as they approach the land, was shown to belong to a state of equilibrium of temperature which would be assumed by a mass of water having warm water above it and cold water below it, to be represented by a logarithmic curve, and therefore to be due to conduction. That in the Gulf Stream varied according toa different law, indicating a disturbance of equilibrium. Diagram No. 1 shows the distribution of temperature with depth, in the water between the shore and Gulf Stream, as deduced from the observations of Lieutenant G. M. Bache. The ordinates of the curve represent the depths, and the abcisse the temperatures. The depths, in fathoms, are written at the side of the diagram, and the temperatures by Fahrenheit’s scale, at the top. The position at which the temperatures at various depths, recorded in this diagram, were obtained, was in latitude 36° 15’ north, longi- — tude 73° 52’ west, on the section intended to be made from Cape Henry perpendicular to the axis of the stream. ‘This curve, and others of the same kind, were compared with the logarithmic eurves which would best represent the observations, and their close coincidence with them shown. The curves were deduced by least squares, from an ingenious investigation by J. H. Lane, Esq., then of the Coast Survey, now one of the chief examiners, in the U. 8. Patent Office. Diagram No. 2, taken also from Lieut. G. M. Bache’s observa- tions, shows the character of the curve of distribution near the axis of the Gulf Stream. These particular results were obtai in one of the positions on the Cape Henry section, in latitude — 3 : | ° 53’ N., and longitude 73° 34/ W. The projecting form of the curve towards 300 fathoms, and the moderate change of temperature, ten degrees, from 150 to 40 fathoms, shown in that diagram, are characteristic features of the distribution in similar positions. The change from the surface to 150 fathoms was 17° Fahrenheit. Diagram No. 3 represents @ corresponding curve to No. 2, from Lieut. Maffit’s observations on the Charleston section, in latitude 33° 58’ N., longitude 73° W. In this the change between 100 and 40 vn fathoms is still less than in the former case, being but five degrees. Diagram No. 3 bis shows the curve comespondiog to that of diagram No. 1, but on the Charleston section nearer to the shore than the axis of the stream in latitude 31° 48’ N., longitude 78° 47’ W. 2. Distribution of temperature at the same depth, on sections perpendicular to the axis of the Gulf Stream. Diagram No. 4 contains the results of observations on the sec- tion perpendicular to the stream from Sandy Hook, and shows the mode in which the observations were discussed. The positions where the temperatures were observed are marked at the head of the diagram, and above them the distance from Sandy Hook in © nautical miles. The temperatures are marked on the side of the I ee oe a ee ee ae re Re on Se IM a eee ee OS Ye eee i ee a | aS On the Distribution of Temperature in the Guif Stream. 31 diagram, At each position a diagram was drawn similar to those of Nos. 1, 2, and 3, and from the curves traced with a free hand among the points, the results at the several depths, which are shown on diagram No. 4, were obtained. The curves traced among these points so as to preserve as far as possible consistent results for the various depths, are those given in the diagram the preliminary discussion of the results, I used the observations themselves at the different depths, and am, therefore, enabled to say, that while the curves present fewer irregularities by the last mode of discussion, as might be expected, the general results are hot in any essential particular changed by its adoption. The dia- gram shows the curve of distribution of temperature at thirteen different depths from the surface to five hundred fathoms. The depths at which observations were taken were the more numer- ous nearer the surface, where the changes of temperature were the most rapid. These curves were hext separated into groups, following the arrangement, which seemed best to apply to the Sections generally. On the Sandy Hook section, for example, as shown in diagram No. 5, the results from the surface to 30 fathoms, from 40 to 100 fathoms, at 200 and 300 fathoms, are grouped re- spectively in the curves m, 0, and p, and that for 400 fathoms is given in curve r. i : The point where the axis of the Gulf Stream, or line of highest temperature, is cut by the section, is distinctly shown on the dia- gram, and the minimum of temperature or “cold wall” within thirty miles of it, nearer the shore. These are the prominent atures in every case. Further from shore than the axis of the Stream, the Sandy Hook curves show one point of maximum and two points of minimum temperature. In the comparatively cold water of the in-shore-counter-current, two maximum points and one minimum are also distinctly marked. This diagram is in fact a general type of the results according to which the ocean in and near the Gulf Stream is divided into successive warmer and colder bands. The number and the general arrangement of them can, of course, only be made out by a comparison of the several Sections. In the discussion, such a diagram was drawn for eac The curves of diagram No. 5 do not at all indicate at what depths the temperature would approach to equality across the Section. . The corresponding results for the Cape Henry section are shown in diagram No. 6 dis. The first or “cold wall” minimum, the maximum, two minima and two maxima beyond the axis, are well made out in all the groups, for the surface to four hundred - fathoms, The mean of the results at 0, 5, 10, 20, and 30 fath- ®ms, is shown by the curve n; that of 50, 70, 100, and 150 fath- ems, by 0; and of 200, 300, and 400 fathoms, bys. = * 32 On the Distribution of Temperature in the Gulf Stream. Not to multiply diagrams too much, I have omitted those for Hatteras and Cape Fear, which, besides, have nothing very espe- cially characteristic in them, unless it may be that the Hatteras section is one where the results are most disturbe so next pee te No. 7, shows the results of the Charleston section. The groups m, n, ‘and o, from 5 and 10 fathoms, 20 and 30 fashound, a 20, 30, and 50 fathoms, resemble each other very much; p, the mean of 70, 100, and 150 fathoms, is slightly irreg- ular; and so is r, the 400 fathoms curve. The curves from 5 to 50 fathoms show extremely well the division of the stream, the first or ‘cold wall” minimum, the first, second, and third maxima, 2298 the second ovis third minima. In-shore, from the first mini- mum, isamaximum. ‘The irregularities in these observations, though obtained hh registering instruments at such considerable depths, are less than those which stationary thermometers, sunk in the — show in the’passage of heat to them i o. 8 represents the Canaveral section, where the same voile thick have been stated are shown, but on a very diminished scale. The observations were not carried far enough from the shore to reach the second maximum. — first and ell I have omitted, for reasons already stated, the one of the other sections. The same phenomena are in general repeated i ing 8 all the sections. © a The permanency of the division of the stream in different years, and the accuracy and sufficiency of the observations, may ._ be tested in two ways: the first by comparing the results of run- ning the same section in different years by different observers; the second by the consistency or inconsistency of the results ob- tained at/one depth when compared with those at other depths. In order to compare the results of different years, some one sec- tion was to be explored in the successive seasons. Thus the Cape Henry section, connected the work of Lieuts. G. M. Bache, S. P. Lee, and R. Bache, having been explored by each. The Hatteras section was common to the work of Lieuts. R. Bache and J. N. Maffitt, and the same Charleston section was intended to be run by Lieuts. Maffitt and Craven he Cape Henry section was three times run over; and it appears, by comparing the results of each season with the mean of the whole, t that in each group of observations represented by one of the curves of diagram No. 6, there is an uncertainty of rather less than seven miles in the determination of the maxima and minima generally. The best determined points are the first and second minima and maxima—the “cold wall” minimum and axis maximum having an average probable error of 54 miles, the other three points have an average probable error of eight miles. On the Distribution of Temperature in the Gulf Stream. 33 This accordance is satisfactory whether viewed in relation to the probability of recognising the band in passing rath Sak or partly for nantical reasons, and also as giving a nearer approach to equilibrium than the winter The differences in the temperature of the whole mass of water at the same season of different years are often more considerable than the difference in distribution. The second test of the probable accuracy of determination of the several principal maxima and minima was by a comparison of the independent determination of the maximum and minimum points in the curves of distribution at the same depth, correspond- ing to various depths from the surface. It was first established, by a general induction, that all the points of maximum and min- imum, except the “cold wall” minimum and axis maximum, are probably, as a rule, vertically over each other. Next the curve was found, by which the recession of the first minimum and Maximum from the shore, as the depth increased, could be repre- Sented. The differences then, from the mean curve of recession, for the first two points, and from the vertical line or average posi- tion for the other points, gave the probable discrepancy of deter- Mination, It would be out of place here to give all these labored details. This discussion gives as might be expected, smaller probable errors than the other ; for this takes in accidental errors only, and that includes real changes. ‘The mean probable error The corresponding results for all the sections are given in Table No. 1 and show on the average less than one mile of uncertainty for the mean determination of the first or “‘ cold wall” minimum ; two miles and a half for the first or axis maximum, and the secon minimum between them ; and four miles for the next three points, and about eight and a half for the fourth minimum, which was. sown on but three of the sections. 3 ‘he Hatteras section presents, as before remarked, the most Considerable discrepancies in its results, incident, most probably, ‘0 the nature of the phenomena themselves in thatregion. = sow Senres, Vol. XXI, No, 61.—Jan, 1856. 6 34 On the Distribution of Temperature in the Gulf Stream. TABLE No. I, Showing the probable uncertainty in determination of the maximum and minimum points. Uncertainty, in miles. sm eg vor first ‘ oo fest Becond | Second | Third | Third | Fourth Sandy Hook,........| a Se 7 fOO.>/ 394 1 TSA be pe “s Cape May, . «su sanvas “82 | 1°25. | 264 | 157 | ...-- 403 | 487 Cape Henry, (3 years),| ‘84 “61 55 | 170 | 1:06 94 | 442 Cape Hatteras, (2 y’'rs) ....- 67T | 636 | 981 5°69 | 623 | ...e ape Hear... cs cece] cower PG Se Oe 2°98 8:49 | 13°37 Charleston, «<.5:6:i6:ss+ 1°25 157 72 2-09 2°40 8 ves SE Bin Go cs eens ts 00 74 1:27 5 eet Se hg eA St. Augustine,....... "52 44 2 dee Goh es eras ape Canaveral,...... 95 | 169 Bs bees was Oa Pee ees a Final value, ..... ‘83 | 249 | 249 | 400 | 401 | 371 | 845 3. Connection of the figure of the bottom of the sea with the distribution of temperature. The discovery that soundings could be carried nearly across the Charleston section of the Galf Stream, and that after losing them on this section for a short distance they were reached be- yond the axis of the stream, was communicated to the Associa- tion at the Cleveland meeting, as resulting from the observations of Lieuts. J.N. Maffitt and T. A. Craven, U. S. N., assistants in the Coast Survey. The connection between the figure of the poe and 4 division of the stream, which the observations of tablished as applicable to the sections south of ese 0 Cuan | is feeey in diagram No. 9, in which the curves of equal temperature, the depths corresponding to them, and the fig- ure of the bottom, are given. In the diagram the distances from the shore are marked in nautical miles on the top, as also the posi- tions at which the temperatures were explored; and the depths in fathoms are stated on the left hand-side. Each curve is marked with the temperature (by Fahrenheit’s scale) which it indicates, and the curves are drawn for every five degrees from 57° to Fahrenheit. The bottom of the sea slopes gradually on this section for some fifty miles, reaching a depth of about twenty fathoms; then more rapidly to about 65 miles, and the depth of one hundred fathoms; and suddenly falling off to a depth greater than six hundred fath- oms—at about one hundred miles from the shore, where the depth is three hundred fathoms, a ridge, with a very steep slope on the in shore side, and a little less to seaward, occurring fifteen hun- dred feet above the hollow to seaward of it, and distant about twelve miles from it. A second rise of five hundred feet, on a base of twelve miles, is followed by a depression of three hun- dred feet on a base of fifteen miles, and then by a gentle slope upward. On the Distribution of Temperature in the Gulf Stream. 36 It is altogether probable that all the depths found by observa- tion are greater than the actual ones; but the bottom was brought up in several cases showing that the lead had reached it, and it is most probable that the proportions are not far from correct. The close conformity of the curves of temperature to those of the bottom is obvious from an inspection of the diagram. The descent of the curve of 57° in the deepest part of the section is a remarkable feature, not obliterated in the curves above it, but reaching uearly to the surface. In the midst of general coinci- dences there is no one discrepancy which indicates that there may be other causes which produce the distribution of tempera- ture in warm and cold bands besides the figure of the bottom. Further observations will show if this is so, or if it is an error of observation. . n this diagram the cold water pressing towards the shore-side, following the form of the bottom along which it lies, and forcing the layers above it, to take the same general confor- mation. _ On the crest of the steep slope in the St. Simon’s section there 1s a forcing up of the cold water to a considerable height, as Is shown less distinctly at position No. 1 of the Charleston diagram. This corresponds to the “cold wall” in those sections, hether this remarkable discovery may be the clue to the gen- eral distribution of temperature in the Gulf Stream, on the deeper Sections north of these, is well worth examining, and instructions ave been given accordingly. 4. The “Cold Wall.” It is difficult to fix the depth of the Gulf Stream current, though easy to see, from the observations, that it is comparatively super- ficial, extending certainly, on the Charleston section for example, to a less depth than three hundred to five hundred fathoms, and resting upon cold water belonging to a much higher latitude than that in which it is found. Off Cape Florida, about twelve nanuti- cal miles east from the light-honse, at the depth of 550 fathoms, the temperature was but 49° Fahrenheit in June, 1853. The mean temperature of the coldest month in the year, on the coast in the same latitude with the point of the axis of the Gulf Stream at the surface on the Charleton section, is about 533° Fahrenheit. At Key West the mean temperature of the coldest month of rong Year is, from tbe report of the Surgeon General U. S. Army, 69:39. P-sea temperatures of the ocean generally, are required for determining this and other questions of a similar kind. : The lateral limits of the stream are more easily defined, espe- cially in the northern sections, where the change is so sudden m the warm water of the Gulf to the cold stream inside of it towards the shore, that the cold stream was likened, by Lieut. Geo. M. Bache, to a “cold wall” confining the warm water. ~ 36 On the Distribution of Temperature in the Gulf Stream. The diagrams of the Sandy Hook sections, Nos. 4 and 5, show this sudden change very strikingly between positions 13 and 14, the probable minimum lying, however, inside of 13. 50, also, the Cape Henry diagrams, Nos. 6 and 6 bis. The “ cold wall” minimum and axis maximum are shown on diagram 10, on the same scale of miles at the top of the diagram, and tempera- ture at the side. That the “cold wall” exists south of Hatteras is proved by the same diagram, where the Cape Fear, Charleston, and St. Simon’s sections are compared wy il those for Cape Henry, Cape May, and Sandy Hook. he erence of temperature is less for the southern sections, but it is stil strikingly marked. : In the cold water inshore from the Gulf Stream, Acting Mas- ter Jones, of Lieut. Maffitt’s party, found a curent setting ‘south- ward, as also in the cold band outside of the These results, if shown to be permanent, will be in the as degree iraport- ant. As it is, the existence of them at any time shows the cause of many rier euler by navigators in relation to the currents of the Gulf Str The investigations anit to currents remain to be made in detail, though some results “have already been procured. It is important in work like this to confine the special attention of ob- servers to a few problems at atime, that they receive close ex- amination As th warm water of the Gulf Stream flows onward and out- ward from the axis at and near the surface, the stratum, asa general rule, becomes thinner. The current is then outward from the axis as well as onwar 5. The changes of the position of the remarkables points in the sections with the season, and other circumstances, are under- going + ieee some results having been already collected. 6. Chart of the Gulf Stream. The «weal bands of warm and cold water into which the ocean in and near the Gulf Stream is divided, are shown in the chart now presented, as deduced from the discussion already re- ferred to. The higher temperatures are represented by the darker shades. The axis of the stream is marked by the darkest full shade, and the axis of the colder and warmer bands on each side of it by thinner shades, distinguished as stated on the chart. The axis, where it crosses the Sandy Hook section, is seen to take the general feet of the trend of the coast, which is even more closely followed by the “cold wall” axis. These lines are drawn with a free hand among the points by which they would be rig- idly determined in the several sections, so as to give a general consistency to their form. The variations from the points rig- idly sper are generally of the same order with the probable errors of those arn The probable outer limit of warm wort is designated on the chart. Earthquake Waves on the Western Coast of the U. States. 37 Within the “cold wall” minimum is a band of higher temper- ature crossing the Sandy Hook section, and generally well mark- ed, followed by a minimum which appears pretty well. deter- mined on the northern sections. - The limits of the chart show the limits of the Gulf Stream _ explorations up to the sammer of 1853, inclusive, the work being ill in progress. Arr. VII.—WNotice of Earthquake Waves on the Western Coast of the United States, on the 23d and 25th of December, 1854; by A. D, Bacue, Superintendent U.S. Coast Survey. (Communicated under authority of the Treasury Department, to the American Asso- : ciation for the Advancement of Science.) : __In February 1855, I received from Lieut. W. P. Trowbridge, of the Corps of Engineers, Assistant in the Coast Survey, in charge of the tidal observations on the Pacific coast, a letter call-_ ing my attention to the singular curves traced by the self-regis- tering tide-gauge at San Diego, on the 23d and 25th of Decem- ber, and remarking that the irregularities of the curve could not be produced by disturbances from storms, as the meteorological Tecords for the whole coast showed a continuance at that time of an ordinary state of weather, and the length of the wave was too great to be explained by such action. “There is every reason to presume,” he continues, “that the effect was caused by a submarine earthquake.” No shock how- ever has been felt at San Francisco. hen the record sheet of the self-registering gauge at San Francisco was received, similar irregularities in the curves for the Same days were found upon it. The sheet for Astoria presented little or no special irregularity. ‘These were the only self-regis- tering gauges actually in operation at this tifne. af aves of short period would of course escape detection by the ordinary hourly or half-hourly observations. About the 20th of June, we received accounts from Japan of a'violent earthquake on the 23d of December, the notice of which was more circumstantial than usual, from the damage to the Rus- sian Frigate Diana, in the port of Simoda, in the island of Ni- on, from the excessive and rapid rise and fall of the water. A detailed account of the phenomena of this earthquake and of the rise and fall of the sea produced by it in different places on. oe coast of the Pacific, is _— bs be sore, ane : res Ought that by the publication of the results obtained by the . Coast Survey, the pabhiestion of official reports of the phenomena - 38 Earthquake Waves on the Western Coast of the U. States. might be induced, perhaps even similar observations may hav been made, and these registers of the self-acting tide-gauge, will show what observations it is desirable to have for comparison. Thus far we are left to the public prints for the information obtained,* and the different accounts are quite discrepant where they give details, and are usually, as intended merely for general information, too vague in “the statements to give satisfactory means of comparison. A correspondent of the New York Herald writing from Shang- hae gives the following notes, stated to be derived from an officer of the Frigate Diana. vA. “ on the 23d of December, weather clear, thermometer 72°, barometer 30, a severe shock of an earthquake was felt on board the ‘frigate, Srhakibe the ship most severely. This shock lasted full five minutes and was followed at quick intervals by rapid and severe shocks for 30 minutes.” ** At 9°30 a.m. the sea was observed ree into the bay, in one immense wave thirty feet high, with awful velocit In an instant the town of Simoda was overwhelmed and swept from its foundations. * * “This advance and recession of the water occurred five times. * * *, 2°30 p. M. all was quiet.” communication in the same paper, poxporting to give an ex- jo pore the log-book of the Diana, states that— ‘Ata quarter past nine, without t any previous indication, the shock of an earthquake, which lasted two or three minutes, causing the ves- sel to shake very much, was felt both on deck and in the pani, _ ten o'clock a large wave was observed entering the bay. * “ The peng and falling of the water were very great; a ai th varying from less than eight to more than forty feet, and these changes at intervals ar par five minutes continued until noon Scarcely had half an hour elapsed when the rising and falling of the water became more violent than before. Between this time and a quarter past two, (when the agitation again became much less,) the frigate was left four times = her side, and orice phesib thus laid i in only four feet of water. * Since pone this paper I mae pep through a Paar of Commodore M. C. Perry, a copy of a letter fro n H. A. Adams, U.S. N., who visited be ; ing in rk whole p “ The entire coast of Japan seems to have suffered by this calamity. Yedo ac was injured, and the fine city of Ooaka sorely dos destroyed.” Captain Adams then gives an account of the disaster to the Russian Fri Diana, Admiral Pontiatine commanding, which was so. inj ated ie the bei ‘Si moda as to lead finally te her entire loss, Earthquake Waves on the Western Coast of the U. States. 39 ‘Continuing to decrease in violence and frequency by 3 p.m. the agitation of the water and the motion of the vessel consequent thereon, were very slow.” * = a! = = * “At this time a fresh west wind was blowing, the barometer stood at 29°87, and the thermometer was 10-50 degrees R. (about 55°63 de- grees F'.)” The official report of the disaster to the frigate will probably contain further and more precise particulars of the phenomena. Mr. P. W. Graves gives in the Polynesian a notice, for whic Iam indebted to Mr. Meriam, of an extraordinary rise and fall of the waters at Peel’s Island, one of the Bonin Islands, on the 23d of December. The first rise noticed was fifteen feet above high water, followed by a fall which left the reefs entirely bare. The hour when this occurred is not stated. “The tide continued to rise and fall during the day, at intervals of fifteen minutes, grad- ually lessening” until the evening. At Peel’s Island the waters rose on the evening of the 25th of December to the height of twelve feet. Ihave not however | Seen any notice of an earthquake on that day. I present to the Association a copy of the curves traced by the self-registering gauges at the Coast Survey tidal stations at San Diego, San Francisco and Astoria on the 23d and 25th of De- cember, 1854 (see plate). The curves representing tides of short » period being traced upon the falling or rising curve of the regu- lar tide, their peculiarities are not so readily seen as when shown in the second diagram (see plate), where the regular tidal curve is represented as a horizontal line. The times of the San Diego curve are reduced to San Francisco time. The curve at San Die- §° presents many minor irregularities from the motion of the float not having been sufficiently checked to prevent the recording of the waves caused by the wind. : ‘ Upon a falling tide the crest of these waves will be met earlier and the hollows later than upon a horizontal surface and the in- tervals from crest to crest, or from hollow to hollow, will be affected by the change of rate of fall. Upon a rising tide the reverse will occur. There can be no doubt that these extraordinary rises and falls of the water at short intervals, were produced by the same cause Which determined the extraordinary rise and fall in the harbor of Simoda, in Japan, and at Peel’s Island. The San Francisco curve presents three sets of waves of short interval. The first begins at about 45 12™, and ends at 8° ™, the interval being 48 40™, The second begins at about 9 >") and ends at 134 45", the interval being 45107. The 8!nuing of the third is about 132, and its end is not distinctly traceable. The crest of the first large wave of the three sets Securred at the respective times of 4) 42m, gb 54™, and 14h 17m, Siving intervals of 55 12™, and 49239. 40 Earthquake Waves on ihe Western Coast of the U. States. The average time of oscillation of one of the first set of waves was 35™, one of the second 31™, and one of the third about the same. ‘The average height of the first set of waves was *45 of a foot on a tide which fell two feet; of the second -19 of a foot on a tide which rose three feet; of the third somewhat less than ‘10 of a foot, on a tide which fell some seven feet. The phe- nomena occurred on a day when the diurnal inequality of the tide was very considerable. The greatest fall of the tide during the occurrence of the first set of waves was -70 feet, and the cor- responding rise *60 feet. In the second the corresponding quanti ties were ‘30 feet, and in the third ‘20 feet. ‘These waves wou not oe attracted general attention The a general analogy in the sequence of tte waves of the rlitee is: which seems to mark them as belonging to a re- currence of the same series of phenomena. In the diagram No. 3 A (see plate), the heights of the successive waves of the first set at San Francisco are shown by the dots joined by full lines, and of the second by those joined by the fine dotted line. The . full faint lines show the heights of the first series at San Diego and the broken faint lines the heights of the second. The heights in hundredths of a foot are marked at the side of the diagram, and — those of the gaye = waves are placed at regular intervals, the waves being n red from 0 to 7 at the top of the diagram. The height is pees mean of | the fall from a crest to a hollow and of the succeeding rise from the same hollow to the next crest. The times of oscillation from one crest to the next succeeding, are placed on the same diagram, the times being written at the right hand, and the wave being designated at the lower part of the iagram No. 3, B. ‘The full line represents the times of the first series at San Franciso and the broken line the times of the second. The full and broken faint lines represent the times of the first and second series at San Die The intervals between the times of occurrence of the crests of the successive waves in the first and second series diminish from 5 10™ to 45 48m by irregular differences. The effect of the rising or falling tide upon which these waves occur is of course greater in disturbing . heights than the times. The series itself looks like the result of several impulses, not of a single one, the heights rapidly i sie apo el to the third wave, then diminishing, as if the impulse had cedsed, then renewed, then ceasing, leaving the oscillation to extingtish itself. If we hada good | scientific report of the facts as they occurred at Simoda, the subject would lose the conjectural character which must otherwise belong to it. Although we have no account of the place where the earthquake had its origin, the violence of its effects in Japan and the diminished effects at Peel’s Island, show that Japan was certainly not far from the seat of action. = =—=— * Earthquake Waves on the Western Coast of the U. States. 41 Five successive waves of considerable height are spoken of as having occurred at Simoda, while by the gauge we trace eight, of which seven are of considerable height. ‘The highest wave at Simoda was estimated at thirty feet, at Peel’s Island fifteen feet ;—at San Francisco it was 0°65 feet and at San Diego in the first series 0°50 feet. At San Diego the same three series of waves are distinctly shown. The first begins 1h 22™ Jater than at San Francisco, correction having been made for the difference of longitude, and ends 04 52™ later. The interval is 30™ less than at San F'ran- cisco, the oscillations being rather shorter than at the last named point. ‘The second begins at Ub §4™ Jater than at San Francisco, and ends 34™ later. The third begins about 54™ Jater than at San Francisco. The average time of oscillation of the first set of waves is 31™, and of the second 29™, being respectively 4m and 2™ less than of the corresponding series at San F'rancisco. he average height of the first set of waves was ‘I7 feet lower than at San I’rancisco, and the second as much higher. This fact taken with the difference in the times of oscillation leads me to suppose the difference in the two series due to inter- ference, which is also suggested by the position of San Diego in reference to the islands separating the Santa Barbara sound from Ne ocean. began near high water and was chiefly upon a falling tide of 7 feet, while at San Francisco it was upon a rising tide of 4 feet. _ The forms of some of the individual waves in the second se- hes at San Francisco and San Diego, accord remarkably, as those . fe observations at San Diego confirm then, in general, the inferences derived from those at San F'rancisco. : he register at Astoria throws no new light on the subject. The bar at the entrance of the Columbia river would explain Why the oscillations were lost or greatly reduced at Astoria, even if they arrived off the entrance of the river. The disturbance 1S marked on the register but in an irregular and confused manner. oe apparently preceded by unusual oscillations of the Stoowp Seni, Vol, XXI, No. 61—Jan, 1856. 6 42 Earthquake Waves on the Western Coast of the U. States. ‘After allowing for the very free action of the fioat of the San Diego gauge, there appears to have been indications of disturb- ance previous to the great earthquake shocks and following them, occurring at intervals for several days after the 23d of December. h rancisco gauge presents similar indications. No special effect appears to have been produced upon the time or height of high or low water by the earthquake which merely caused series of oscillations upon the great tidal wave. roceed to draw from these results some conclusions as to the progress of the ocean wave accompanying the earthquake. The latitudes and longitude of the places referred to, are as follows: : } | Latitude N. | Longitude. pe } j H. M. San Diego, 32° 42 ETS 43/ 7 49 San Francisco, 87 48 122 26 8 10 Simoda, 34 40 221° 02 14 44 The distance from San Diego to Simoda from these data is 4917 se miles, and from San Francisco to Simoda 4527 nautical mile inerdling | to one account the disturbance began at Simoda at 9 a. m. or 224 23h 44m Greenwich mean time, and the first great wave half an hour after. The first disturbance at San Francisco was at 234 4b 12™, or 12 28™ after that at Simoda, and the first great wave at 234 Ah AQm giving the same interval. The dis-— tance and time from this account give for the —_ a“ motion of the wave 363 miles per hour or, 6-0 miles per min The second account would give for the time of wentnieinn i 12h 13™, and for the rate of motion 370 miles per hour, or 6:2 miles per minute. The San Diego observations give for the time of transmission of the wave from Simoda to San Diego 135 50™ by the first ac- count, which combined with the distance gives 355 miles per hour, or sensibly the same result as derived from the beginning at San Francisco. ‘The first great wave would give identically the same result. From the results obtained we may determine the mean depth of the Pacific ocean in the path of the earthquake waves. We have found for the rate of motion, from 6:0 to 6:2 miles per min- ute, and for the duration of an oscillation 35 minutes at San Francisco and 31 at San Diego. This would give for the length of the wave on the San Francisco path 210 miles to 217 miles, and on the San Diego path 186 to 192 miles. A wave of 210 miles in length would move with a velocity of 6-0 miles per minute in a depth of 2230 fathoms. (Airy, and Waves, Encye. Metrop., p. 291, Table IL.) One of 217 miles with a rans of 6-2 miles pet minute in a depth of — * Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. 43 fathoms. The corresponding depth on the San Diego path is 2100 fathoms. The disturbance of the 25th of December presents at San Francisco three sets of waves of seven each, and at San Diego one set of seven, agreeing in their general features with those at San Francisco, and then a set of seventeen, in which at first, intermediate waves seem to be wanting at San Francisco, or which have no analogous oscillations there. The crests of the first set occurred at a mean about 17™ earlier at San Diego than at San Francisco, the heights on the average were nearly the same, being ‘39 feet at San Diego and -44 feet at San Francisco, and the time of oscillation at the two places the same, namely 41m, The origin of the disturbance was probably nearer to San Diego than to San Francisco. Arr. VIIL—Description of a Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery ; | ' by Georce Maruror.* Many inquiries have been made in regard to the principles of construction of my battery, with commendation of its working properties, and I have even received large commercial orders for its construction, which, of course, I could not execute, so that, up to this time, a few sets only have been made for use in gov- ernment works. I now give a thorough description of the bat- tery, and of the principles on which its action depends, hoping that thereby the recent important applications of voltaic currents may be facilitated through my labors. 5 The first forms of the voltaic battery were so expensive and cumbrous, and withal so uncertain and fleeting in action, that the idea of applying galvanic currents to the great business affairs of life would certainly have gained nothing more than a smile rom €ven the most sanguine philosopher. But, from the continued researches of electro-chemists, the world has now the benefit of electro-metallurgy and the electric telegraph. Even the batte- ties now employed are uncertain toa considerable degree, and require constant attention. Any consideration, therefore, tending to the improvement of the instrument, so as to avoid the neces- sity for frequent attention, cannot but be appreciated at this time, when the world is asking science for a telegraph across the Atlan- tic, and we are looking for a line from the Pacific to the Missis- Sippi, on which there must needs be many stations or relays of batteries, that from the uninhabited state of the country caunot be Constantly attended or even frequently visited. . * From the Re of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, 1854. Wash- ington : 1855, a han. 7 44 Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. The construction which I have devised will, I think, obviate many of the difficulties attending telegraphing ; and the prinei- ples of electro-chemistry, and even experience, justify me in say- ing that batteries may be constructed to be buried in the earth or sunken in the sea, which will certainly and uniformly continue in action for very long periods, even for a hundred years. n my battery there is no new element, neither is the form such as to attract attention in respect to anything i in it mate- rially different from the batteries now in use. It is only in all the parts being constructed with rigid adherence to the princi- les of electro-chemistry that its peculiarity consists, and there- fore a consideration of the principles is necessary to its appre- ciation. A charged voltaic battery may be considered as a factory of arrangement of the parts. A furnace in action consumes the fuel; whether the generated caloric be applied to use or suffered to run waste, the chemical affinity will sooner or later consume the fuel; and though the action may be diminished to some extent by cut- ting off some of the conditions of combustion, the extent of that action will Bo on the construction of the furnace. Jf a fur- nace could be made so that we might draw off the requisite amount of caloric to boil a pound of water just as it might be re- quired, and retain the residue until we again had occasion to use the fire, then snch a furnace would be a storehouse of caloric, just as a granary is a storehouse of grain from which we draw a sup- ply, and keep the residue in store. e same remark will apply to the battery; once charged, the chemical affinity consumes the material sooner or later, usefully or not, and we can entirely arrest action only by gre Much indeed can be done by modifying the conditions of action but, as in the furnace, all will depend on the construction. o make a battery which can keep the action in reserve, is the problem of a depot of electricity. The uncontrollable nature of the voltaic conditions, I conceive, to be the cause why batteries have not hitherto been constructed with reference to the whole amount of force, as well as to the strength or rate of working. Previous to my own efforts I know at no attempts at putting a quantity of galvanic material in store ready for action just when required, A cell of the reservoir battery is is in form a four-sided prism of reer eight inches or see inches wide and ten —_ cep Ty ee ee ee ee eee es “8 NR, Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. 45 On the side, at the depth of three inches, is formed a trough or tray, an inch wide and half an inch deep, running the length of the side. This tray is made with the jars. It is indispensable that the jars should be completely water- tight, but they are difficult to obtain; and thns far I have had none which have given full satisfaction. The best were of chemical stone-ware, but only half of them were water-proof, A coat of glazing cannot be depended upon for sealing, as in ves- sels for culinary and table purposes, as sulphate of zinc penetrates even the beautiful stone-ware called “ granite.” _ When unable to obtain good rectangular jars, I have used cyl- indrical glass jars, and formed the tray with cement on a plate of glass or gutta-percha, a little less in width than the inner diame- ter of the vessel. The plate can be kept from moving by pro- Jecting jogs, which catch on the edge of the vessel. The plate, tray, and jogs can easily be moulded in one piece in glass. _ The conducting plate of the battery is of the platinized silver introduced by Mr. Smee; but the mode of preparing it is differ- ent. I first puncture it closely with a square-pointed awl. The holes should not be cut with a punch, which removes the metal, but formed by pushing the metal up in burs, like those on the common tin grater. In this way none of the surface is lost, and both sides of the silver are rendered efficient to a single sur- face of zine. After the plate has been punctured, it should be then be well washed away with hot water, and the plate be pla- tinized. I find that: the platinizing is very durable, if the ar- rangements for depositing the platinum are made so that the bright metallic platinum shall first be deposited, and the amor- phous form (black deposits) gradually succeed it. The reguline deposit of platinum can readily be obtained by using a mixture of chlorid of platinum and chlorid of sodium, (instead of the acid so- lution of chlorid of platinum recommended for obtaining the black Powder, ) with a train of small batteries and a platinum electrode. _ The Conducting plate is attached to a square bar of lead nine Inches long, and five-eighths of an inch across the sides. The bar rests on the top of the jar, and is kept from moving horizon- ‘ally by studs near the ends. At the distance of an inch and a half from each end of the bar is a pendant an inch long, and of pearly the same séction as the bar. ‘The plate is attached to the oar by sawing a slit a third of an inch deep in each pendant, in the direction of the length of the bar, inserting the silver in the ~ and thoroughly closing down the lead on the plate. This is conveniently done by biting the pendant in the jaws of acom-— — ‘Vice. In the side of the bar, near the middle, is . 46 Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. screwed a thick copper wire, which projects out horizontally two inches and a quarter, and then drops three inches and an eighth. Into the end of this wire is tapped a piece of platinum wire, which is left projecting about an eighth of an inch. Every part of the copper-wire should be thoronghly coated with cement or encased with a glass tube, or the vertical part may be encased with glass and the horizontal with cement; but when glass is used, it should be cemented on so as to exclude entirely the liquid of the battery, thus preventing its contact with the copper. If cement alone is used, the wire should first be wrapped, otherwise the ce- ment is liable to become detached, as it does not hold so well to the copper as it does to the wrappin The zinc plates of the battery should be one-fourth of an inch thick, and of the length of the inside of the jar or tray. The zinc should be well amalgamated, and then placed in the jar with the edge resting in the tray, and the tray filled with mercury. The plate is secured in place by its length and by the encased wire from the adjacent cell, which hinders it from falling forward. But the terminal zinc must be secured by a wire similarly en- cased and tipped with platinum to dip into its mercury tray, an then bent down against the outside of the jar to a glass or iron cup containing mercury, for continuing the circuit, The wire from the terminal silver should. dip into a similar cup. If, then, the conductor which continues the circuit be en- cased and tipped with platinum, the current may be led off from any portion of the train by inserting the conductor into the mer- cur y- . The | jars are charged with a sat of one part of sulphuric acid, and six parts of water. ‘These proportions are calculated — for dissolving all the zine and all the ae formed, and leav- ing a slight excess of acid and water. When the mixture of acid and water is made, it should be oe i to get cold before it is put into the jars, if the silvers are o be put in; for a hot solution of sulphuric acid would act on ne silver, and dissolve a portion, which, though very small, would ruin = ns silver and the zine plates, as will presently be made to Lastly, ae piven plates should never be put into the acid when the zines are not in, as in that case the silver, not being . enfilmed by hydrogen, would be in danger from the acid: To hinder evaporation from the jars, the battery is placed in & box made with a double rim on the lid so as to form a deep trough or recess, into which the walls of the box go when the lid is put on, When the battery is to remain a long time with out attention, the box should be completely air-tight. I have devised no special plan for hindering the mat for the particular circumstances in which the battery is placed Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. 47 will cause the rate of evaporation to be great or small: thus, when the battery is exposed to frequent changes of temperature, the loss from the jars will be great, (even though a box is used ) if the air can flow in and out. But when the battery can be placed in a vault or cellar having a uniform temperature, and not subjected to frequent changes of air, then no box will be required, if the battery can be filled up every few months. When a vault cannot be had, a heap of earth over the box will greatly hinder changes of temperature and evaporation. Only let it be remem- bered that the jars should be kept full, either by refilling or by hindering evaporation. The form of a battery described above has advantages over all others in simplicity and cheapness, as well as certainty and econ- omy of action. Its riddance of the usual appliances for making contact, such as binding screws, clamps, and soldered joints, so expensive in manufacture, and yet so very uncertain in use, will certainly commend it to every one who knows the endless trouble which invariably attends.the use of these joinings. How often S a lecture been spoiled because there was a bad contact which could not be detected; and how often do we hear of a whole day being lost in telegraphic operations, from the nitric acid hav- ing eaten off the solder which joined a platinum to a zine in the Grove’s battery. _Moreover, we have no residues of the zincs— no necessity for re-amalgamation. To show all the advantages of the arrangements described, for maintaining the conditions of voltaic action, would be to take a full view of the theory of the generation and diffusion of vol- taic electricity, which would be impossible in this communica- tion et, to set these advantages in some light, I will take but a glance at the voltaic action. The universal feature of a voltaic combination is that of three substances in a series, in which the two extreme bodies have dis- similar properties with respect to the intermediate, which is a compound body, so constituted that one of its components can be eliminated by one of the extreme bodies, and the other com- Ponent by the other extreme body. In all useful batteries, one of the extreme bodies is zinc; the other, some less oxydable con- tor; and the intermediate, water, or water with some acid, Benerally the sulphuric. ‘The relations and actions of these three ances will embrace all that relates to the generation of the Voltaic current. € will suppose that the function of the zinc is to disturb the electrical equilibrinm, by combining with the oxygen of the Water, (or, if we consider the electrolyte as sulphate of hydro- en, the action will be the same,) that the function of the water 8 to transmit the disturbance by a wave of decomposition and 48 Self-sustaining Voltate Battery. stance (the conducting plate) is to come equilibrium, by elim- inating hydrogen from the electro The chemical affinity generates tie electricity by the combi- nation of the zinc with the oxygen, and the decomposition of the water. Therefore the amount of electricity, and the consequent tension which the affinity can generate in a given time, will de- pend on the favorable circumstances for chemical action, such as the presence of acid to dissolve the oxyd of zinc, which other- wise would soon exclude the electrolyte by encrusting the zinc ; the presence of water to dissolve the sulphate of zinc; tempera ture affecting the solvent capacity of the water, and the reaction of the tension against the affinity. hen a battery is first charged, all the mepapeiey are prime ; from this there is a decline by several ways to the point of no action. ‘The decline may result from a alia of the electro- lyte or of the conducting plate. The character of the change, and the rapidity of decline, will depend wholly on the construc- tion of the battery. The construction may be such that the ac- tion will wholly cease before even a small portion of the mate- rial is consumed. When the zinc plate of a battery is placed in such a situation that the generated sulphate of zinc cannot flow away, as when the plate is placed at the bottem, horizontally ) of 3% the jar, and the arrangements are made such thatthe quantity e electricity, and the consequent formation of zie salt, shall ex: he rate at which the diffusion of the salt can take plac . the zine plate will soon become coated with a crop of crystals. As the cessation of action here is visibly due to exclusion of the excitant, it follows that in whatever position the zinc plate is” placed, just in proportion as the sulphate of zinc excludes the excitant, will the capacity of the chemical ey to generate the electrical tension decrease. Many plans for removing the sulphate of sie from the cell have been devised. The most of these have been. based upon the idea that the sulphate by its superior gravity would subside and saturate the lower parts of the solution. I have tested the value of this idea by the following method: Vessels thirty-eight inches deep were filled with solutions of the sulphate of various degrees of saturation; then, after letting the solutions repose tor several days at a uniform temperature, I drew off a portion of the liquid at the bottom, and a portion from the depth of three inches from the top, and in no case found a differense of density to produce more than one degree of Baumé’s hydrometer. But I have found that even a saturated solution willal ways be con- siderably deficient jusé rs = sy pesscied, that it is not subject to agitation. By this tned that a calm solution saturated on the top. Ont dhe basis I Gimeno es with Mr. J. Green, the well n maker ih gilonephiont AERP: Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. 49 charcoal, stones, &e:, and is alloyed with various metals, but chiefly with iron. As the action of the solvent reduces the sur- cle of foreign matter on the zine surface acts as a conducting Plate to it, evolving hydrogen from the electrolyte, and most rapidly constining both the zine and the solvent. : f now the zine plate is mercurialized, the enormous cohesive force of the meret causes it to contract over the particles of carbon, iron, &c.,,and the surface of the plate is made homoge- peous, and consequently as the particles which evolved the hy- drogen are now excluded from the electrolyte, their action on it ceases. The mercury itself, if more strongly charged with zine Stcon Sznizs, Vol. XXI, No, 61.—Jan, 1858. ae eS MU. BOT GARDEN 50 Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. in one place than in another, might evolve the hydrogen; but fortunately having a most perfect polish, it binds the hydrogen oit, This action of the polished metal we will consider presently. But as the consumption of the zinc goes on, the impurities ac- cumulate on the surface, and project so far that the mercury can- (a depth of ;';th of an inch) will leave the impurities projecting so far that the quantity of mercury which can adhere to the zine when in a vertical position, cannot prevent violent chemical ac- tion in the minute galvanic circles. But the zinc known in com- merce as the “ Musselman’s”’ is so easily protected that I find the corrosion may go to the depth of one-fourth of an inch, and th mercury still be efficient when flooded over the surface. Here, then, is the answer to the question as to how far the zinc plate may be protected or efficiently amalgamated by standing it in a flood of mercury. If the plate is not to be dissolved to a very great depth, the good commercial zinc will be sufficiently pro- tected ; but for a longer time the zine should be redistilled, and fora very long time nothing but chemically pure eae should » employed. Practically I find that the “ Musselman From what has been said concerning the action of the i impuri- ties of the zinc, it will be perceived that if any carbonaceous matter falls on the battery, it may attach itself to the zinc, and thus rapidly destroy the voltaic conditions by consuming the ma- terials; since the evolution of hydrogen would continue while there remained zinc to be oxydized, acid to dissolve the oxyd, and water to dissolve the salt. This shows the necessity of a box to prevent currents of air from sweeping over the battery; for even the dust which subsides from the atmosphere, may set up the destructive action. From the same kind of reasoning, it is obvious that the pres- ence of the least particle of any salt reducible by zinc or by hy- drogen should be avoided; and such a salt coming in contact with the zinc, wonld instantly forma conducting plate. If we would avoid every risk of this destructive action, the fixtures of the battery must not be made of a metal which can form a solu- ble salt with sulphuric acid. 1all have occasion to refer again to the employment of the oxydable metals for the battery fixtures ; here I will merely state that I = found by experience that even silver is unsuital for when I employed a silver bar and silver pendants to hold the conducting plate, sulphate of silver was formed. Nelf-susiaining Voltaic Battery. 51 We now come to the consideration of the most delicate part of the battery—the conducting plate. The function of this plate is solely the elimination of the hydrogen of the electrolyte. he plate, indeed, does conduct the positive electricity from the electrolyte. But by the chemical theory of the voltaic genera- tion, the elimination of the hydrogen from the electrolyte is the conduction of the positive electricity; and the conduction of the positive electricity is the elimination of the hydrogen—the one is inseparable from the other, conduction and decomposition being identical in an electrolyte. By this it will appear that the liberated hydrogen should not be snffered to adhere to the conducting plate, for the gas being a very bad conductor, it will resist conduction, and consequently chemical action. b to occult power called the “electro-motive force.” But certainly 2 surface has been covered with amorphous metal by electro de- Position. ‘Then it may be said to be rough or unpolished to the 52 Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. Could we view such a surface, or rather I should say want of surface, we doubtless should find it many homens fold more rugged, uneven, and porous, than the common spong The varions metals let go the hydrogen in the shes: circuit with very different degrees of readiness. From my cheers I conclude that the attraction of the various metals for the gas is directly as their specific gravities. All the less dense metals de- compose water, (evolve hydrogen). Sodium and_ potassium evolve the gas in torrents. The base metals proper have less action on water, and a stronger attraction for the gas. The noble metals hold the gas very firmly, and are without action on water. The order in respect to evolution is the reverse in respect to gravity ; and the order in respect to gravity is consequently the reverse of the order of fitness for a conducting plate in ee to the evolution of hydrogen. Platinum, gold, and lead, hol the gas very hard. When polished plates of these metals are used, the hydrogen adheres in large bubbles, | very slowly creep up the plate. Mercury I do pot compare, because its me- chanical form is the best possible for adhesion ; but could we but polish the solid noble metals as perfectly as the atomic polish of the mercnry, I have no doubt but that the mercury, according to its density, would follow after gold. Silver answers better than the other noble metals. Experiment has not enabled me to decide that copper is better than silver, but I am much inclined to consider the copper as best. Iron is decidedly better than an metal above it in density, and requires no special preparation to make it evolve freely. Zine isso prone to evolution that it is — with difficulty that the hydrogen can be made to adhere. The — metals of the alkalies cannot be invested with brdeeaie like the denser. A mere particle of zinc will coat a surface of copper or iron with hydrogen, and protect it from oxydation forever; but soon as potassium or sodium is deposited, it is instantly re- combined with oxygen, because it cannot be coated with hydro- gen. Here I may remark that the newly reported aluminum which is said to have the nobility of silver, with the density of only 2:5, ought, by the above views, to make a most admirable conducting plate. y the above view, the adhesion of hydrogen is very nearly the reverse of the affinity for oxygen. Here we find silver with a medium adhesion and a low affinity. This at once indicates that it is the metal which will be generally used for making bat- teries. Iron, which is the most oxydable metal that can be em- oyed for seas plates, has a very low adhesion, and for- anels a mechanical advantage from its ever-fibrous or granu- lar form, which. eae increases its oo for evolution. Could main as iron in the battery, it ei = geo SS ee See eee Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. 53 should ever desire. Yet though it acts vigorously when newly cleaned, its affinity for oxygen soon makes it worthless, This objection holds not only for iron, but for some kinds of batteries olds even against silver, and we are sent at last to the more noble metals. The difference between gold and platinum in respect to the adhesion, and also in respect to the liability to chemical change, is.so small as to make the employment of one or the other merely @ question of economy. But there is another property—one which quickly determines the preference; this is the capability of being put in the best mechanical form for non-adhesion, or making the closest approximation to atomic roughness. Of all the metals, platinum has the greatest teudency to the amorphous state, (excepting its relatives, rhodium, iridium, &c.) 1 do not remember having seen that its crystal has ever yet been determined, Not so with gold, its crystalline tendency is so Strong, that it aggregates so much in precipitation, even from ex- tremely dilute solutions, that the deposit has a decidedly yellow- ish tinge, and the slightest pressure makes the deposit conglome- rate. I here need scarcely remind you of Wollaston’s tedious Process for metallizing spongy platinum. ae _ Af the above views of the nature of the adhesion are correct, then it follows that the surface of the conducting plate should tension would rise proportionally and react against the affinity ; the chemical action, the soul of the battery, would proportion- ately decline. That the mutations of the battery from adher- Ing coats of hydrogen, metals, or oxyds, on the conducting plate, ate to be attributed to conduction resistance, I shall expect will be Fegarded by the advocates of electro-polar forces as wholly unten- able, and the resistance to be considered as incompetent to duce the effect. But that the gas resists is indispniable, and that it adheres to the conducting plate is equally indisputable, for we Know that the very dust of the fields attracts and condenses the Sases; and is it not, therefore, but as fair an inference that it ad- 54 Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. heres somewhat to dense metallic plates? The thickness of the adhering film may be extremely small, but its resistance may be quite considerable, for the raititatig of airs is almost incompara- ble to that of metals. We know that a battery has penetrated over 3,000 miles of iron wire, and when a battery of 2,000 pairs had the poles parted only the least distance that could be man- ipulated, then the galvanic action could not be exhibited. it remains now only to notice the electrolytic changes, with reference to continued action. e generated sulphate of zine alters the conditions of action, not only by saturating the acid and water, but the dissolved sulphate itself is an electrolyte, and therefore may coat the conducting plate with zinc, and deterio- rate it just as was shown would result from the salts of the other base metals. Porimsiely, there is not so much danger of the ate becoming wholly coated with zinc as with the other base metals, for the deposited zinc is rapidly removed by its great ten- dency to become salt, in which it is assisted by the close prox- imity of the uncoated portions of conducting plate, forming good local circles with it. Should there be no “portions of the plate bare to reduce the counter-tension generated by the resolution of the deposited zinc, then we should have the tension acting against the battery current. This probably can never happen, yet the plate is often made nearly inefficient by the reduced zinc, when the acid is mostly saturated. The acidulated water or sulphate of hydrogen is peste by a far less tension than decom posés sulphate of zinc; it is only, therefore, when the quantity of sulphate of hydrogen ‘ecoriell proportionately small, ad causes the tension to rise a its in= creased resistance, that the sulphate of zine is decom But it is unquestionable that that force which is ihe result of the combination of the elements of sulphate of zinc, cannot of itself undo that combination ; yet while the battery is working, zine is constantly being deposited and re-dissolved. In consider- ing this action of the galvanic current, which is ap rently so anomalous to the exhibition of every other known force, | have concluded that we should look for some additional force acting conjointly with the current, rather than for a moment admit the absurdity of an * electro-motive force,” with its supposed capa- city of acting infinitely without expending itself. Such an addi- tional force I Conceive ean be found in the attraction of the mat- ter of the conduc ting plate for the heavy element of the electrolyte. If the conditions | under which the deposition of the zine takes place be considered, it must appear that it is the attraction which makes the determination. In the first place the deposition is nothing when the proportion of sulphate of zinc about the plate is small in comparison to the sulphate of hydrogen; but as the — proportion of sulphate of zinc increases, the decomposition tion of it Self-susiaining Voliaic Battery. 55 begins to show itself, until it becomes very copious in a nearly saturated solution. The supposition I have made is, that the de- position is effected by the conjunction of the attraction with the current or electrical tension; consequently the deposition can only take place when the tension is so high that the addition of the attraction enables it to overcome the affinity. This exactly conforms to the conditions; the good conducting sulphate of hy- trogen being removed, the bad conducting solution of zine will cause the tension to rise. I cannot now go into the discussion of the specific weights of the elements of the two electrolytes, to show that the attraction will act in the same. direction with the electric tension. It is at once evident that if we admit that the hydrogen atom, the disturbed aggregation should extend much deeper into the plate for destroying the attraction for the zinc than is merely required for preventing the adhesion of the gas. On these principles I have made the conducting plate, with the disintegrated stgte of the surface extended to the greatest depth admitting of the requisite mechanical durability, for which the plate is electro-plated to the beginning of roughness before putting on the coating of platinum. I have sought to describe the peculiarities of this battery, by exhibiting the actions of the various parts, and the principles Which guide me in their construction. ‘These principles, I ac- knowledge, are new in their application to the galvanic phenom- ena. Ihave only to say for them, that they are the acknowl- edged Principles of matter and motion, and consequently the now t thousand atmospheres on spongy platinum; and does not geome- try show us that if the disintegrated mass attract thus strongly, the solid surface will attract enormously? and if oxygen is so Strongly attracted by the solid surface, then why may it not at- tract hydrogen, which is only sixteen times lighter, sufficiently to condense a layer which the battery liquid cannot displace be- Cause it is denser than the liquid? I must here ask that I may Not be misunderstood by supposing that I refer to the bubbles of 84S which adhere to smooth surfaces by oe peinewneDs Te: geometry, indeed, shows us that these bubbles are dis- Persed by sett AR nt ‘but it also shows that these bubbles 56 Self-sustaining Voliaic Battery. are Le aati se therefore that they cannot entirely prevent contact of the plate and liquid. That ites seneaieees of the zinc, also, should be referred to the attraction of the plate, is that which the universal principle of attraction demands. Why not admit that that attractive force which we know exists in all things, concurs with the electrical tension to produce this, when we are constantly seeing the great- ~ anomalies produced by concurring forces? Thus we know at the affinity of copper for oxygen, at low temperatures, is aoa to that of hydrogen; yet, when a piece of coal is satu- rated with hydrogen and immersed in a solution of sulphate of copper, the hydrogen is oxydized and copper reduced, simply be- cause the attraction of the coal for the copper, added to the affin- ity of the hydrogen for oxygen, make a united force superior to the affinity of copper for oxygen. st _ have a voltaic circle composed of coal, sulphate of copper and hydrogen, which comes active by the help of attraction, ee is enabled to decom- pose an electrolyte whose affinities are even stronger than those of the produced electrolyte. It has been considered as the standing miracle of electricity, and the unanswerable argument against the chemical theory of electrical excitation, that a battery will work in a neutral solu- plate; for, say the advocates of the electro-motive force, the force is greater than the affinity of, zinc for the negative element, for after overcoming the conduction resistance, it is still enabled to separate zinc from the negative element. But there is a little experiment which shows conclusively that it is the state of the surface of the conducting plate which determines the electroly- sis, and not a supposed electrical condition involved in the nature of the substance of the plate. Let a battery of several pairs be connected with a pair of large platinum electrodes, in a solution of sulphate of zinc, containing a little free acid—or a single bat- tery may be used if an electrode of zinc is used to receive the oxygen,—then, if the platinum electrode be well polished, zine will be rapidly deposited on it, and there will be no hydrogen given off; then let the deposited zine be dissolved off, and the platinum ‘electrode roughened with emery and well platinized, and then restored to its former connection with the battery ; now, the same battery, with the same solutions and electrodes, will chiefly electrolyze the sulphate of oma ty ; there will be very little zine deposited, but the hydrogen will fly off in copious streams. As the reservoir battery is designed chiefly for telegraphs, I with propriety, before closing, say a few words relative to the quantity of electricity required to work a telegraph. I have measured the quantity of the current on some lines by interpos- ing voltametres in the circuit. ee | . aes Self-sustaining Voltaic Battery. 57 The quantity near the battery is very great compared with the quantity on the part remote from the battery, for the insulation is always imperfect; and of the whole quantity that leaves the bat- tery, only a small proportion reaches the remoter part. But to get all the waste included in my measurement, I measured near the battery, and found when the line was in good working order, the quantity of the electricity was that represented by the solu- tion of one grain of zinc per hour. Sometimes the line would work well with much less than a grain; and often after the bat- teries had been recently charged, the quantity was ten grains; but mostly, when the line was in fine order, the quantity was about the grain. the mercury ) say fifty pounds, which is a cube of less than six luches square. Thave lately had a fair opportunity of knowing the value of this battery. In May last, I charged six cells, which were put ina box in the upper laboratory, to be -used in the experiments on photographic engraving, The battery has since been a Most daily use for gilding deep-sea thermometers, or other in- Struments, or else in the experiments. During the six months Which have elapsed, it has been used probably 2000 times, in Which there was nothing more required to get the current than _ 0 complete the circuit. During the intensely hot spell of the past summer, L three times added a little water to supply the loss from Evaporation, aud these were the only times the box was Opened, Stcoxp Sates, Vol. XXI, No. 61.—Jan. 1856. 8 58 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. Art. IX.—The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species ; by Dr. Atexanner Braun,—Translated from the German by Cuas. Francis Stone, B. A. Parr Il. (Concluded.*) Wate thus, on the one hand, all the facts seem to unite in establishing the individual nature of the shoot, on comparing shoots in their qualitative relations, phenomena are brought to view which seem to contradict such a view of its individuality. The higher departments of the animal kingdom usually present as individuals representatives of the specific type agreeing in all essential respects, though, perhaps, not perfectly identical. The fact of the separation of the sexes was all that modified this view ; and here, indeed, the essence of the species does seem to be divided between two different individuals. Attempts have Paracelsus ;f that, in fact, the two together must be regarded as the one real individual,—and such like. This contradiction to the usual view of what constitutes the individual is shown in a far higher degree by qualitative compari- sons of vegetable shoots, not merely of the _ species, est ban us we see, €. g., aquis (Pield-Horsetail ) shoots totally different i in aspect canara “wd e same root-stock ; in early spring they are pale, discolored, unbranched, terminating with a strobilaceous-like fructification } Z later, green and foliaceous ones appear, verticillately ramified. In- — vestigations into subterranean vegetation show even other varie- ties of shoot-formation, viz., offsets dwindling down toa point, and club-shaped buds which, ata — period, drop off of them- — selves. The Colt’s-foot (Tussi lago Farfara) presents similar phenomena, in early spring putting forth leafless shoots, with as- paragus-like scales terminating with yellow capitula, which in summer are followed by others bearing leaves. The flowers in the little capitula of the first present a third variety of shoots in their lateral branchlets. Even in common life we distinguish leaf-buds from flower-buds, on many trees. Let us consider this relation in the Qherry tree, for example. On the same branch we find, on the one hand, buds which develop into branches bearing leaves, without produc cing flowers; on the other hand some bearing only little epeiaate leaves on the shortened axis; + Part II, see the number for ee 185 “For this ye must know: man genie tage not a whole; only with wo- wat whole, That Viner mach atom both toget ether make man, and-nei- ther alone.” The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 59 from whose axils the flowers rise and form a third kind of shoot, On examining closer into the real origin of these differences, we find their ground to bea partition of the different steps of the metamorphosis (of the formations) among different shoots. True ere are many plants which go through the whole series of form- ations, from the inferior* and the foliaceous formations up to flower and fruit; but the cases are quite numerous in which this does not take place, in which the single shoot is not able to pro- dnee all the formations. Thus there are shoots which are only able to realize the lower steps, and never attain to flowers and fruit; while others overleap all the inferior degrees and com- mence immediately with the formation of flowers. Hence, on the one hand, we see the metamorphosis interrupted, a stop- page taking place at a determinate step; on the other, the meta- morphosis attained by passing over the intermediate steps. Still more remarkable are the cases in which the retardation is not ranch ends with a terminal bud, (thus falling back to inferior- : leaf formation,) and in the next period of vegetation they rise * On the terminology of the leaf-formations, see Wydler: Bot. Zeit, 1844, 36tes. Stick, and A. Bra ji y tain to flo ; : norosa and Asarum Euro- wers. Among herbaceous plants Anemone ner in dhe plants of bic, leaf, followed by a eral inferior-leaves. Tee causing an is i surrounding base of the preced like a spur, boring " ene b and scaletias vertically into the groun and at the same time sinking itself into a deeper stratum with t spur es ar- Cue ent explained, but not with sufficient clearness by Henry in Nov. Act. Nat. Tok xxi, p. 275, t. 16 et 17. ; ; Secs naires rates Seren tare wala ie pm é i bra deviating in character from the rest,—the ca ; ever leaf formation advancing from the inferiorleaves immediately to the superior- lenrea oa rmation adv pi , ©9 out of whose axils the flowers are 60 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. foliaceous-leaf formation, keeping pace with the change of sea- son, is seen in the creeping main-shoot of Adora, and in the stock of, Hepatica nobilis, creeping close to the soil, with its short internodes, and which in so far deserves its French name (la fille avant la mére) as its flowers, which unfold before the fo- — liage, do not belong to the same individual as the foliage, but are produced laterally as a “ danghter generation” from the axils the inferior-leaves of the maternal stem.* A. similar chenvedal non only in a higher degree, (a rising and falling between folia- ceous- aud superior-leaf formation.) is presented “by those plants whose inflorescence ends in a foliaceous coma, as isvemarkably the case in the Pise-Apple, and also in the New Holland species ( of Melaleuca and Callistemon, whose crowded, brush-like inflo- : rescence (i. e. the region covered with superior-leaves and bear- ee ing the flowers in the axils of these) returns and forms foliace- ous-leaves, and in the following year again attains an inflorescence. While every leaf-formation may bring the progress of the met- amorphosis on a single shoot to a consmmmmation, it is conceivable that one shoot may be allowed to each step for itself alone. Thus, there are shoots which represent inferior-leaf formation alone; e.g. the root-stock of Paris quadrifolia, the tuberiferous branches of the rhizoma of the Potatoe,t and there are some which are en- dowed with the foliaceous-leaf formation cts as the primary axis _ many species of Veronica, the sterile leafy branches of several Euphorbia, as well as theleafy jeunes of those woody piiuntted which have no bud-scales aud no terminal infloresc (e.g. Rhamnus Franguila). Cases of pure superior-leaved shoots may be seen in the peduncles of Veronica Chameadrys, officin dis, etc., in the (always lateral) spike-bearing scapes of Plantago, — and the racemes of Convallaria majalis, which shoot out of the axil of the highest lower-leaf as branches. Even the leaf-form- ation belonging to the flower can be divided among different oy * The same obtains in Galanthus We in which every st generation con- sists of one inferior-leaf, one foliaceous-leaf with a vagina, 2 e without a vagina, which follow each other in simple keratin in a distichous arrangement. flower, as a branch, is emitted from the axil of eh ee olnceci lea while the is b the elke appre oximation of these leaves, form some of the pretties t specimens of llota: 21-15 arrangement through ay comparable 8-, 13- and I'el- ranked cbliga The number of ihe arge; develop in the summer, and form an 8 to 13 et 2 mite tut of which the 2 inflorescences issu long ith t ‘ In case (as sometimes oecurs) the tuber does not pass through this and advance to leat tion. The tuber is the thickened apex inferior-leaf shoot, Ct he gare ay Ai Maden he Miles dHist. Nat, 19, pl o The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 61 shoots, and thus the flowers may be produced piecemeal, so to say; as is.the case in all dicecions plauts, where the two most essential formations of the flower (the stamens and pistls) are fonnd, not in the same flower, but in two separate ones. Even the less essential parts of the flower, the sepals and the petals, may occur separated from the other particular shootlets; as may be seen in the neutral flowers in the coma of the spike of Mus- cart comosum and in the ray-flowers of the cyte of Vilurnum Opulns. ~The destitution of the shoot may be carried so far as to cause it to produce but one single leaf, or one single formatien (whether from the sphere of the plant-stock, or from that of the leaves) ; in Which case the individual represents only one single organ ; as, for instance, in the branches which form the axis of the intloresceuce in Vicia monanthos and other Leguminose with ra- cemes reduced to one flower, bearing one single superior-leaf, from Whose axil the flower proceeds. The mule flower of Buphorbia is a peduncle whose flower consists of one single staumen.* Must We, now, still regard as individuals, these shoots, so partially en- dowed, and the last-named so destitute? Certainly! For if the individual can fall short, though ever so little, of the perfect real- ization of the specific idea, then there are no limits to its imper- fection and destitution ; for, after all, the realization of this vegeta- vic Idea by the different members of the vegetable kingdom 18 precisely similar to the realization of the species by its single dividuals, To be sure our idea of a plant implies that it shall a The genuine cases will be of rare occurrence if we look at the cases which be- long here rigorously, that is, if we take into account the dwarfed foliaceous forma- tions which may possibly exist, suppressed or scarcely discernible, The male flower (Ot Euphorbia itself properly belongs here only in appearance, as two small scales : Uinferior-leaves) occur, more or less developed, at the base of the peduncle he male flowe * Seales, (Cf. Wydler : Linnea, 1848, p. 409.) Another example of a cne-leave Shoot (though a spurious one) is presented in the fornian Pinus m yllos (Fremont), whose lateral branchlets bear a fascicle of needle-shaped leaves reduced le: but this, as well as the pair of such leaves of our ordinary hes, is preceded by a vagina composed of several bud-scales. Perhaps another deception is played upon us in this ease, for the perfectly round form of this needle frotes the suspicion that. it may be composed of two which have grown together through their whole length. The seed-bearing fruit-scales of the cone of Abictine, Which are placed in the axils of the scales, also appear to be one-leaved shoots; but ine series of ich these scales nt i ri. fiower of Panicum, elate 62 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. manifest its life in a series of successive formations, that it shall put forth its leaves, flowers and fruit by successive steps; and yet there are plants which produce no leaves and no fruit (the Cryptogamia); again, there are others which hasten on to form flower and fruit with various intermissions of the regular — steps, as is especially the case with the ugly parasites destitute of — that green foliage which elsewhere is so characteristic a product of the vegetable world.* One of these (the Hydnora,t which preys upon the root of the South African Huphorbie) seems eutirely devoid of all the foliage which is usually formed before the flower. Hence, therefore, in general we cannot necessarily regard indi- viduals as perfect representatives of the specific idea, and hence, too, we cannot regard them as representations invariably ideuti- cal in their realizations. Individuals appear rather as living at- tempts, by which the Idea is more or less attained, and is thus realized with various modifications. From this point of view even the differences in individuals, as pointed out by the doctrine of shoots, within the limits of vegetable species will no longer surprise us; on the contrary it will hs to us a deeper insight into that independence presented to us even in the life of nature, in the realization of the internal problems of the creation. But here, too, as is so variously the case in nature, the regula- tive law is ‘admirably united to the free configuration; for what gives a peculiar interest to the differences among shoots in the same species is the regular reciprocal relation among the shoots, as they reciprocally complete each other by their very one-sided- ness, and thus form a higher whole. In this respect the qualita- tive difference of shoots bears a certain relation to their “and species, propagation taking the place of individual development. A second individual takes up the thread of reproduction which the preceding one was unable to carry any farther. Thus, what we are accustomed to see elsewhere attained in the individual, is mined cycle,—in other words, where the single shoot is ineapa- le, a determinate succession ‘of shoot-series arises to bring the tha posamn Fagg mow omorium, Bo of which agree in Lequm whether is mere or a real parasite. “ Cf. licher en, plant, p. 16, pe ove patina or Ann. des. sc. nat., II, t. 1, and a8 in general, Unger: Annalen d. Wiener Museums, part IT. Eé “Mayer: Noy. act. aead. L. C. nat. eur. XVI, 2, p. 771, t. 58 et 59, and Brown : On the female flower and fruit of Haglesia and Hydnora, 1844, pl. 6-9. The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 63 ~ internal problem of its existence to a consummation,—to complete the metamorphosis into flower and fruit. This remarkable phe- nomenon,—which is a very frequent one in the vegetable king- dom, and is one of the essential characteristics of many of the most important families of plants, e. g., the grasses, Synanthe- ree, Laliatifloree, Crucifere, Leguminose, etc.,—is the same as that which in the animal kingdom (in whose lower orders it re-appears) was, we cannot say discovered, but brought to a ioe 9 pelaapieny not mney since by the Norwegian natural- s,* completed and confirmed by von Siebold’s investiga- tions into the history of the doselopinent of Medusa aurita,t b and soon after substantiated in its universality by the Dane, : Steenstrup, under the name of “alternation of generation,” or propagation and development by alternate series of qeorintanet ingle cases of alternation of generation had been alr ready care fully observed : >$ but they were too much in opposition to the — mode of reproduction to be understood in their true mean- - | ; be Wiegmann’s Archiv, 1844, where the observations published in the author's . ‘ er works, on the adolescent states of Medusa’ are complet: Phe ron concluded. : chs Coy sige 154% _§ Bonnet’s industrious observations, the first that were made, of t ernating mode of reproduction of Aphis, published in his Traité de ‘osetolgie in 1745, Iso Cham obse 0, belong here. A amisso’s arene rvations - Ration of generation in Sale described i ie Memoir Animalibus qui 1 nneana, 41 Fragments in regued to the alternation of ea pte of Trematode were known, (but as such they did seem very eni Y Bojanus's Beschreibung d. kénigsgelben er (the “ sere of Zrem ac- cording to Stee strup) aus welchen Cercarien (the larve of the final nal generation) heraus erauskommen sis, 1818 ’ vee , and by v. Bawer’s important w it ait Bue ephalus, aucine tgs Kenntniss d. niederen Thiere. Act. rig cur, va Bi Of the later wich by whi h the field of alternation of generation ‘has been ve es ips rticular; Sars: — —— Norwegie, 1846, in i n opsis, Diphyes and Salpa—Van Beneden: Recherches mbryogénie des ‘Tubulaires (1 814); Mém, sur les nae i de la céte seb ton in toe mém. de Acad. roy. de ee . XVII); Recherches sur l’anat., la a physiol., et le dével. as Rees (i (Mém. de I’Acad. roy. ote “ T. uae " gerne Sur le dével toe ee : bi 8. p. 174); Beker. d. Fortpfi. u. Entw. der Biphoren (Froriep’s neue Notizen, No, $88, 1846)— Buse 2 Balk ie Anat. u. Entw. d. Infusorien (Arch. f. Naturgesch. 2 nation’ > oe great raportaece must be attributed to the discovery of alter- of generation in cae he darkness — ger oe seh on Loe his- @ lling the Hs of the fhemsbc and de vel f Eni _— v. Sie tr pregnant sibs seg e Wagner’ I Php + 840 (Article: P meuaitens 64 The Vegetuble Individual in its relation to Species. generation as now: known, and substantiate the pertinent words of Gethe with which Steenstrup opens his Memoir: ‘“ Nature keeps on her course, and what seems an exception is in rule.” It was Sars, however, who first gave the answer to the riddle, the key to the newly opened domain, when he said of the course of development of Medusa, that here “it was not the individual, but the generation, which underwent the metamorphosis.’”* This was the true point of view; for Steenstrup dwelt too exclusively n the physiological side, the functional relat@®ns, of the alter- malian generations. Steenstrup, in fact, considered that the sig- nificance of alternation of generation consisted in its being an organic nursing of the brood connected with particular genera- tions, for which reason he termed the individuals of these genera- tions “ nurses ;’—a mode of viewing the subject, which, with all Steenstrup’s pregnant elaboration of his idea, and with all the analogies he pointed out between it and the well-known phe- nomena of nursing the brood by particular individuals among Ss, Wasps, ants and termites, does not seize the essential point of the phenomenon of alternation of generations + R. Leuck- hardt{ conceives alternation of generation from a more compre- hensive physiological point of view, in connection with the to- tality of all the other phenomena of the formation of different individuals, whether it ocenrs in a erent or in the same geve- ration; regarding all these phen a from the point of view of a division, not merely o f the aaaie ae but of the vital task in ete ral, among certain individuals; considering itasa pol ymorph- sim determined by a division of labor. But even this view must lead to the morpliological one; for the division of labor is deter= SHG, e. 29. This assertion, of course, must not be ea sr if the : Garticel ar generation did not come in for its part of a metamorphosis. Sars’ view is most beautifully corroborate comparison to lants; as in plants the meta- = aaa pla morphosis of the re itself is connected with the formation which leads to the sonal a ag new parts, which in their turn have their own subordinate meta- mo Hl pvomnes ee 8 ne so is mg correct in eet to er niofoky of the devel- opment of Distome, whose n and grand-nurses < last utricles entirely led with the brood and form Kinning mere re ceptactee:o f the br ood. Its application is less happy to those cases where the roman from the Boke nie ry generations to the final gen generation ta tole a canta ernal shoot- or bud-formation, as in Ser- nulari case. tak wi out any alternation of generation in a great number of animals (Ascidia, Bryoz04, Madrepora), and by division as well (Astrea, Annulata, Iyuertas These cases are comparable to the occurrence o of wnessential branches in plants; while alternation rE RSL ac Sih oc tga ar e ‘0! us vy. ercmrae Beitrag z. 2 Lehre v . Generationsw, (185 1.) 2% The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 65 mined by the organic development, while this itself obtains its peculiar character from the determinate step of the metamorpho- sis at which the development ceases ;—and this is just what is so unmistakable in the phenomena of alternation.of generation in plants. Hence as a typical phenomenon of development, asa metamorphosis of generation, alternation of generation (as well as the metamorphosis of the individual) presents analogies with the graduated series in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and the organic scale of the creation, in general ;—a point to which V. Carus* called at tention, aud Reichert, his predecessor, as well. The difficulties which the qualitative differences of shoots of one and the same species seem to present to our conception of shoots as individuals, will be entirely obviated if we can demon- Strate that a partial outfit and equipment of individuals, perfectly analogons to those found among plants, are likewise found in the animal kin dom, where in most cases there is less doubt as to What is an individual,—if we can show that in both kingdoms, and in a similar manner, a polymorphism of individuals occurs which depends upon a division of the steps of development and of the vital problem of the species among individual members, Whether of the same generation (divisions of generation), oro different generations cyclically sueceeding each: other (alternation of Setieration), : 4€l us first compare the phenomena of alternation of generation OF, as it should be ealled, cyclical succession of generations) in both kingdoms.t As is the case in the alternation of geueration | | N * Zur naheren Kenntniss d. Generationsw. (1849) ; and, Einige Worte ib. Metam, | ‘bold u. Kolliker ree f, wiss. Zool. III, 1851, p. 359). Was called to the occurrence of this phenomenon in the animal kingdom by Steen- rups work. As soon as the lth: of the shoot as the vegetable individual was din all j i ecession of generations ot ¥ he other necessarily appeared to be the ground of the coves ahtyr, i arance in ma lants in a Meterminate degree of ramificat : renee of a det rE ite mc 8 =» steps in the series of P gsdartag goal, b | first (in a tw sential and unessential shoots, denominating | nse of the word) “ Ableger” [off-setts], the latter “ Ausleger” [out-ets]._ In ammilung d. Naturforscher in Mayence in the Se 5: frequent i t of th é | to deen ae te and grouping of species. Of this pit Sr 1 a report appeared in the Flora for 1842, p. 962, though, indeed, somew v4 i treated givesa compendium tion ‘ect in the Bot. Zeit. 1844, the same ee m a* Sf 66 The Vegetable Individual in iis relation to Species. f animals, a twofold reproduction appears in plants: sexual and non-sexual. Disregarding for the present the various relations of alternation of generation among the Cryptogamia, we find sexnal reproduction (in animals by fertilized ova,—in plants by fertil- ized seeds) always vested in the generation which concludes the cycle of generations. That the consideration of this generation — as the concluding one is not arbitrary, is shown by compariig it with the usual course of the metamorphosis; for the concluding generotion: is invested with the concluding formations of the met- amorphosis (flower and fruit), in the same way in fact as in the animal fe complete development of the organs of generation occurs at the summit of the individual metamorphosis. "The Bees ceding Leceyadanee ) generations, which Steenstrup calls “ nurses, on the contrary invariably produce their brood by non- -sextial re- ak ep in the animal Sains this takes place, now throngh germ-granules which develop in the interior of the body (as the nurses of Distomz), now by a process of division in the pos- — terior part of the body (the nurse of the Meduse, the Tapeworm or finally by external, persistent or deciduous, shoot-formations, oryne, Campanularia, Sertularie, etc.). Among Phauero- gamia the last is the only kind occurring subservient to allerna- tions of generation. In animals, as in plants, the number of the generations in which the cycle of alternation of generation is completed, is for the most part a determinate one. Tales Salpe, Coryne, Tu- bularie conclude this cycle in the second generation ; accor to Steenstrup’s showing, Distoma pacificum has a trimembral al- ternation of generation, and the family stock of Pennatula seems also to be ormed by a trimembral succession of shoots. Cam- se a first generations are of the same character. Among Sertulari@ cycles of still more numerous members appear to occur; eight to ten generations form the annual cycle of generation of Aphides, though, excepting the << one, they are all similar and not even determinate as to num o these examples from the animal ‘ee gdom much more nu- merous ones prom th the ep aeeble kingdom might be added, though © to in the Lerons de Botas but the aatoption’ between determinate and indeiae minate growth, hag es n known since Josehin Jigs time, and was forward especially by Reeper and pitied by to classifying. wire - ee in that place, by ereeping stems, Sioa i oot-stocks, ng by bulbs ; and e rmi ; in plants, i . “sei concluding Fe remarks in book, “U: : ber das V : in der Natur ea 0 hermnaphroditinas | in Nar though in an gag different. manner mine as here given, for he com es the. ers with the individ- pry ade knee de eee me ee bit sok which I have already expressed my “= in the ne The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 67 I will only adduce a few of them here. Most Labiati ore, Synantheree, Grasses, Polyzalee, Primulacee, the Dictamnus, fris, Galanthus nivalis, etc., have a bimembral alternation of generation in different ways, according to the partition of the formations. In Paris, for example, the first generation takes the lowest grade: it presents a subterranean inferior-leaf shoot, (rhizoma) which never leaves the darkness of the earth, only reaching the world of light, towards which all plants strive, in iS posterity, viz., in the quadrifcliate and unifioral lateral shoots which it sends up. The first generation of Viola odorata and related species forms foliage proper; still, the main axis tarries close to the earth, and the second generations (the lateral flowers) scarcely rise above the foliage. In Lysimachia nummularia, the main-shoot, a rooting leaf-stem, creeps along the surface of the ground, growing indefinitely, and terminating only in the (essential ) lateral branches by its golden-yellow flowers. The main shoot rises perpendicularly, forms foliage proper, and passes on to superior-leaf formation in many species of Veronica, e. g., V. acinifolia, producing its flowers as a second generation out of the axiis of the leaves. The same holds good in regard to Oro- banche ramosa, which fixes itself and preys upon the root of hemp, though its main-shoot has no green leaves. A very remarkable bi- Membral alternation of generation is shown by Adoza, now so fa- Mons, its name to the contrary notwithstanding.* The main-shoot creeps along the ground, oscillating with the seasons between leaf- a inferior-leaf formation, —at every return of the latter stretching out like a runner and boring into the earth. owers and fruit, frustrated by the invariable retrogression of the main-shoot, are Produced by the aspiring perpendienlar branches, after a pair of ‘Small leaves on the sca , and several insigitificant superior-leaves, Shoots of the third degree. Hepatica presents a similar division of the formations among the two generations of shoots; but the maln-shoot, rejuvenated from year to year aud alternating be- {Ween inferior-leaf and leaf-formation, is short and upright. The braiches With their single flowers, forming the sega aa 10n arise in the axils of the scale-like inferior leaves. 4 mem brat suc c€ssion of shoots occurs in Convallaria, Polggonatum, the genus Ale, all Species of Plantago, Veronica officinalis, Chamedrys, ete, Viola sylvatica, Lysimachia thyrsifolia, Alyssnm saxatile and some other Cruciferae, Hcheveria coccinea, all the species of Melilotns Medicago, Galega, in Pisum, and many other esiminons plants, and in Succisa pratensis, Anacyclus, Pyre- 22. - ER EROS e from da (fame). The rela- “8: Adora moschatellina, which derives its name from 56% 1e4g,0, growth in this plant have been correctly described by Wydler: Bot Zeit, 68 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. Sccale. Its spiciferous culm forms the shoot of the first degree, the lateral spikelets which compose the spike itself are those of the second,* and the florets in the axils of the superior leaves (paleze ) of these spikelets are the shoots of the third degree, i. the third generation of the cycle. A quadrimensbral succession of shoots occurs in Trifolium montanum, Hedysarum corona- rium, and in several . wig New Holland phyllodineous Acacia. Several species of Care , C. maxima aud leptosiachys, have a trimembral siccession oe, gee up tothe male flower aud a five-membral one up to the female. If we were to reckon the similar generations which are reared one above the other until the tree gains strength enough to per- fect its flowers, in many trees without terminal buds, as, in the Willow, the Linden.t we might find a number of generations equal or even much superior to that presented b i Besides the generation essential to itself, and by which it gives existence to the next grade in the cycle, every generation can have still another unessential reproduction, which only extends the same grade. As above we distinguished between esseutial and nnessential shoots, so here accordingly we must distinguish an essential succession of SM eae true alternation of generation,—and an unessential one, Very often both occur in the same species of plants. A fine example of this is shown in Lysimachia nummularia, from whose creeping and rooting leal- xis are emitted not sag peduncles, bat here and there new ereep- ing leaf-axis exactly repeating oe original one (except as to the two early-lost cotyledous): and from the undetermined leaf-bear= ing main-axis of Trope@clum actin are emitted in regular alter- nation three lateral flowers at a time, and then again one (unes- sential) leaf-shoot. lu Cardamine amara the first ¢ generation (the stem bearing foliaceous and superior-leaves) is repeated in a two-_ fold manner, by lateral branches from the cauline leaves, and by creepers from axils of the root-leaves. Similar relations obtain in Mentha and a large number of other plants. This same phe- nomenon is repeated in the animal kingdom. The poly p-like nurses of the Medusa increase as such “(according to Sars and von Siebold) by lateral buds and runners. Syncoryne are spadix- polypi, which represent trees by their formation of unessential | ranches, emitting finally from every branch and from the middle stock a whorl of individuals of the second (and last) degree. Campanularia and Sertularia put forth runners from the of the main-individual, which again shoot up aud become new main-stems, or new stems emerge out of them; and perhaps the * Secale, in fact, has no terminal spieule; neither has Triticum monococcum, while species of ie ote uaa iticum have. ¥ described the grape in reference to this ct ther ce, (Ver pe 8) Lloyd ope aah anes. : The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 69 ramifications of Bucephalus (which according to Steenstrup’s supposition is the larva of Aspidogaster conchila) as represented by Baer in Nov. Act. Nat. Cur., xiii, 2 belong here. In our qualitative comparison of shoots, it was shown how the Shoot can be limited to a few leaves, or even toa single one; in _ like manner the animal individual, in the division of ré6/e which occurs in alternation of generation, can become the representa- tive of one single organ, of one single function. Thus the fe- males of Coryne squamata are hardl y apything more than egg- Stocks, and the males than seed-stocks.* ‘I'he members of the tapeworm, which are so many individuals of the final generation, hardly represent anything more than hemaphrodite sexual appa- rat As an analogous example in the vegetable kingdom per- haps the Willowt+ may be compared to the Coryne; here too the shoots of the last degree are nothing but naked unisexual appa- ratus of reproduction. In Potamogeion,{ on the contrary, they are hemaphrodite, as in the tapeworm. The construction of many of the lower animals, which when considered as individ- omes mor _ Ration of generation complicated by division perfectly similar to _. those which occur in the ing Rin « 8° through an alternation of generation the individuals of the obtains, for instance, in the ta rolceivable: the final individuals of both sexes can be nourished by the same nurse, and hence the sexual division will first take Place in the second, or generally speaking, in the last generation ; Cf Wiegm. Ar- 70 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. or, different nurses may nourish the two sexes so that a division of generation will occur even at the degree of nurse-formation. If in the last case the nurses are not single ones, but even then form per se a family stock, then on the same stock we may either have male-bearing and female-bearing nurses together, or these two kinds of nurses may be divided among different stocks, ac- cording as the division of generation occurs in a determinate later generation, or is present already in the first. Although as yet the observations of these relations by no means form an une broken chain,* still this much is certain, that in avimals, in the same Way as in plants, both moneecious and deecious forms ‘occur; and hence there are families partly bisexual, -partly unisexual. Coryne, Tubularia, Campanularia, and probably all Sertula- rie (hence, doubtless, the greater part of Hydroids), also Vere- titlum, Cynomorium, accor rding to Steenstrup, Krohn and other observers, are dicecious,—whether they form small simple stocks as Coryne squamaia, or smail ramified trees, as Syncoryn@, Campanulare,t etc. On the other ‘hand Siphonaphorie, ace cording to Milne Edwards’ description of Stephanomiat (and judging from Sars’ description of Agalmopsis), are moncecious family stocks; Hydre are also monecions.§ ‘To enter any fur- - ther into these relatious as they occur in the lower animals wou uld o lead us too far from our subject; but it may be in place to give oO some details as to the manifold relations under aster mel S a 5: branches, or ouly unessential ones,—when, therefore, as it is usti- ally expressed, it is uniaxial,” as e. g., in Rubus, Chumamorus, — Lychnis, and Viscum. Much more frequently, however, divis- ion of the sexes occurs in plants which at the same time have a eyclical succession of shoots (alternation of generation ),—a suc- cession which each of the two heterogeneous stocks passes through independently, ay sp always part passu. This is @ circumstance which must not be neglected in considering the fercend oad of habitus in ‘aala: oe female flowers. Thus, in Afer- * Thus e g., as far as I know, it remains to be — whether the single of Medusae produce Medusee of both sexes, or, as is ey only those wes en ee In Aphis ee still needs ie betes hy ermined, + A en 5 Hermaph., pp. 6 Ann, des Se. Nat., 1841, p. 21 Shain he later investigations into Siphonophoria by cabaggs bcd Phil. Journ, 1852, Rai Zeitschr. as SS ee pao eroem L. Unters a lees rate The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species, 71 curialis the female plant bears flowers even on the second axis; in the male plant, however,—if I do not misunderstand the in- florescence (a spike composed of ‘small glomerules)—this first occurs on the third. In Carer dioica, vice versa, the male plant, flowers in the second line and the female in the third.* In other Stratiotes, Empetrum and Taxus; in the third: Saliz, Popu- s, Myrica, Cannabis; in the fourth: Phenix. In Hemp the extremely heterogeneous appearance of the inflorescence of the male and female plants does not depend upon a division of the flowers of the two sexes among different axes, but upon the pro- duction of: numerous unessential peduncles in the male inflores- cence.t a Moneecism necessarily presupposes a succession of shoots (alter- nation of generation); in the simplest case at least for one of the two sexes, as both cannot be united in the same terminal flower: ut vice versa, both may easily appear in determinate (equal or unequal) degrees of ramification. ‘Phe most important cirenm- Stance to be considered in monecious relations, consists in both the sexes (i. e., the shoots which bear them) occurring either sub- ordinately or codrdinatel yt for one either arises out of the other, or they both spring from acommon mother-stem. In the first ease, the female flower nsuall y belongs to the earlier, the male to the later (subordinate) generation ; the male flower-shoot springing irom the female, as e. g., in Euphorbia, Ricinus and Potertum, in which the female flower terminates the main axis, and the male occurs as a lateral shoot.|| In Busus the female flosver oc- curs as the second, the male as the third axis; in many species (of Phyllanthus (e. g., Ph. niruri) the female as the third, the * The second axis, which is a complete dwarf or a mere bristly spine bears the so- ot ake in the axil of which the female flower is placed, as the third - Tr of the succession of ge’ tions, ; + The female flowers Sos placed at the sides of the any branches as branches of the second degree. In the same place where one single ower occurs in the fe- ced sap a fureately ramified inflorescence ie found in the male, produced by branching out of the two bracts of the original flower. t Be P hese ane dos “aetgiees in ce soil kingdom, the first ab agi in Al. cyonella where tho «+ say . al : _ i As in all the exam , the messential ndizement of the inflores- ence must be dis wich a ocenrs in Ricinus and Poteriwn in the formof lat- ‘ral female fiowers emitted beneath the terminal female flower tll a ie 72 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. male as the fourth ; in Xy/ophylla, the female (on the margins of of the female flower, (as in Phyllanthus) as the fifth. In Mo- mordica, Eicbalium, Cephalanthera and some other Cucurbitacee, the female flower, placed in the axils of the foliaceous leaves of the main stem, belongs to the third axis, and the male to the fourth ; for the ‘third axis, which here arises from the base of the peduncle of the female flower as main axis of the racemose male inflorescence, is a superior leaf-shoot. In the other cases,—in which the succession of shoots, in order to arrive at the two kinds of flowers, separates into two cOordinate lines,—both kinds of flow- ers can appear either immediately in the first generation after this ration, or, sitice here again preparatory getierations are inter- calated, ina later one. Further, the number of the generations (axes) in the two lines arising from the division, may be either . equal or unequal. A few examples may serve to explain the man- ifold cases which thus occur. lu Musa, Myriophyllum and Sag- itaria the codrdinate male and female flowers appear in the first aie after the separation, and in the whole as a second system of axes. Here the female flowers stand in the lower, the — male in she upper part of the spicate or racemose inflorescence. la eben holds true of Cucurbita and the moneecious Bry- ;* for here the earlier flowers, which appear in the axils of the fi foliaceous leaves, are male; while the later ones which appest on the farther pete of the stems are female. A below female, in the middle male, and above again ra 4 flowers, ihodaty en last are dwarfed and sterile. Likewise in the first generation after the separation, but in the whole as the third system of axes, we find both kinds of flowers in Pachysan- dra and Acalypha, and here again, as is usually the case in inde- terminate spicate inflorescences of mixed sexes, the female flower is in the lower, the male in the upper part of the inflorescence. he same obtains in moneecious Palms with axillary spadices ; thongh here the flowers appear in ramified spikes from the fourth system of axes. When the flowers make their appearance in the second generation after the division, they cannot easily be united in the same st age and special male and female inflores- cences will ar Thus, e.g., in Plutanus, Liquidambar and ecanisal in in which the female inflorescences occur on the lower part of the main shoot, and the male in the upper; like- wise in Quercus and Fagus, though here, vice versa, the male inflorescences are the lower, and the female the upper. eee if the division of the succession of shoots is an unequal o1 ein * Bryonia has apparentl: investigation that ny xy do not spr sti pe incodenie ong g so te the pee leaf, but ct (ee =) out 0 of the peduncle of a aber racoat directly in the axil of the leaf which exactly eeceapaade ts vee lowes + The inflo —— well a6 Gad th Cait The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 73 the separated lines of generation leading to the two kinds of Wers; 1. e., 1f the number of essential axes is unequal, it is (forma brevistyla), the other with a small corolla and strongly developed pistils ( Jorma longistyia). Acccording to C. Schim- per’s observations} both forms occur at times in Labiate even on the same stock and in the same inflorescence, e. g., in Dracoce- - Phalum Moldavica. Many species of Viola also produce two * : ‘ cies of Carex with terminal male and later. Bore elongs to the first generation after the division, and the female to the third. ost of the i ni al female spikes, the male id the inflorescences is a contin- ~ in the gee 82S a 4 =. S oy a z ring the inflo escen »d as branches —in these species. male flower is oe system of ey er Secunle the fifth ; as e.g., in Carex maxima, lepto- ¥s and pilosa, { Communicated in the Versam. d. Natur. zu Wiesb. in Sept. 1852. ) For details, vid. Treviranus ; Bot. Zeit., 1853, p. 393. oe Stcoxp Sxntus, Vol. XXI, No, 61—Jan, 1856. 19. 74 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. ee Ey tea Abyssinica.* Among the most striking cases of dimorphous flower-formation are those described by Jus- sieuy in Gleudlickeretia: Camarea, and other Malpighiacee,. ~ Here, besides the flowers conjoined in racemes or in corymbs, the leaves. Besides the normally formed glandulose corolla, they have only one stamen and two carpels. In several cases the dimorphism of the flowers is confined to the formation of the fruit alone, as, e. g., in some species of Athionema, (espe- cially 47. heterocarpum, Gay,) which in the same raceme bear partly dehiscent silicles with two cells and several seeds, and partly one-celled and one-seeded indehisceut silicies. eratocap- nos,{ a North African genus of Fwmariace, bears in the lower part of the spike oval, ribbed, one-seeded nutlets, and in the upper part, lanceolate two-valved and two-seeded siliques. Poly- morphism of flowers and fruit occurs in the most heterogeneous manner in the family of Composite ; I will only refer to Zinnia, Dimorphotheca, Heierotheca, Thrincia, Geropogon, Crupina ; and especially to Calendula, where the. hermaphrodite blossoms of the ray produce three different forms of fruit, so that, includ- ing the male flowers of the disc, the capitulum presents four dif- ferent forms of flower-shoots (belonging to the same generation). As somewhat similar cases in the animal kingdom, the instances of dimorphal insects, of which there ane ‘panagse might be ad- ced. A separation of the series of generatioris into several dist lines occurs in fact not only as regards the flower, but also, though Jess frequently, even among the ‘inferior formations ‘of the plant; this is especially the case where a particular lateral fine js allotted” to the leaf as well as to the flower, The true Pines afford the - growth,|| which lie outside of the line which leads to the two kinds of flowers, while they are essential as the leaf-formation * Hochstetter: in Schimp. Iter Se fe No. 572 et 1701. The same eat is called Nephrophyllum re meats cum by Richard: Tent. Flor. Abyss., and figured in pl. 76. Sreclga o kinds o aes are emitted Hn om the axils ot the foliaceous leaves of the creeping stem; those i. with corolla, s ns and pistil stand upright; theo sees withoat | corolla and stamens, bend down S vey ground on their long pe — Adr, de Jussi : Monographie des Malpighiaceés. (1843.) of Prat: Eeplos, seient. de l'Algérie, pl. 78. Endlicher : Gen. plant., ae Pp. first in several species of es ey: (D. marginalis, cireumeinetus, cus, Reselii, peccnding. | to Erichson : Gen. Dyticeorum, 1832, p.31; the last i in ayers or wercus according to ree That the fascicles of rs in Bina ar bans i ed by lh eS non of percrescence, W, which is not un in ag a agit fe 4 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. ; 75 appears on them alone.* Here: the generation splits up into three kinds of essential and codrdinate shoots: Ist, the small leaf-shoots which after some few inferior-leaves forming the vagina, bear two, three, or five foliaceous leaves; 2d, the male . flowers, or small shoots, which are provided with stamens only; 3d, female inflorescence, shoots with superior-leaves (the integumentary scales of the strobile) in whose axils the fruit- Scales of the cone are formed, belonging toa farther system of axes. In the animal kingdom cases analogous to these occur in moneecious Siphonophore, especially in Stephanomia and falmopsis, where even more than three kinds of coérdinate in- dividuals are emitted from the main axis: in particular motory individuals (the so-called swimming-bells), nurses, the proboscis- ike formations or imbibing tubes, and as already mentioned, two kinds of sexual individuals. The differences of shoots thus far considered depend princi- do not belong either to the essential or the unessential succession Of shodts, Conduce -to'th® perfection of any of the common steps of _ Of defence, support or adherence. ‘These are the shoots which take the form of thorns, bristles, hooks and tendrils, which for the most part owe their peculiar abnormal character to an entire Stippression of the leaf-formation, and a final induration of the point of vegetation: these seem to be the last, terminal or lateral members of the generation, abortive in every respect. ‘Not ub- frequently they form the last ramification of paniculate and dich- oto ; * The mai : - elongated branches essentially resembling the stem, best ouky lent = hagas be Vat cseaperal red to bud-scales, and ascribed oribec 76 The Vegetable Individual in iis relation to Species. Cometes ;* also, in Scleropus, where they take the form of short, thick, cartilaginous stalks, with two converging leaf-apicules. Among the grasses they are known under the form of bristles in Setaria. In many Rhamnaceous and Sapindaceons plants (Heli- . nus, Cardiospermum) they appear as small cirrhi, not as the last sterile ramifications of the inflorescence, but on ‘the contrary as the first, followed by other fertile — They often occur in the axils of foliaceous leaves; and wherever they make their appearance they naturally arrest the festhict se succession of shoots, when they have neither of the two leaves at their origin, out of whose axil an additional shoot may be developed. This is the case in Passiflora, whose flower arises from the axil of aleaf | situated at the side of the base of the tendril. *'The thorns of nonis, oe and Maclurat present the same phenome- non. In other cases the succession of generation thus arrested by the ieatane shoot is restored by secondary formations ; when, with the thorn, a second shoot follows out of the axil, which in some cases may form a leaf-shoot, and in others a flower-shoot. This happens in Gilediischia, in several Acacie (e. g., . pul- chella), in Prinsepia utilis,t the Lemon, the Egyptian Balan- ttes, Duranta, Bouganvillea and Randia, in which the second- ary shoot arises close under the spine; while in Celastrus pyr- nhoceachat and EHuropeus, as well as Pisonia aculeata,|| the ocuencaie shoot occurs above the thorn. In Uncaria pilosa{i an NY inosa, pairs of leaves with axillary thorns — e with pis which have peduncles in their axils. . e even these phenomena of extreme alienation of the j in- dividual (as they occur in the thorns and hardened shoots of plants) analogous forms in the animal kingdom? Yes, I believe they have he there are individuals which occur as mere fixed claws, pincers scourges, tactual and predial filaments, etc.,—individuals which — perform neither functions of nutrition nor of reproduction in the society to which they belong, but which probably merely assist in seizing the food, or lend a helping hand in defending the community. The cases which I have here in mind are of fre- quen nt occurrence among seee ani Se in the group = ae of the di meee or tata mpanied ty duties secondary and ) branchlets. All Ysa sterile bianatilets: are ett Bsr and beset with setiform leaflets arranged in spiral order (2). commencing with two similar an- terior leaves, The direction of the phyllotaxis in all these branchlets follows the or ts fureate inflorescence. also the curious hook of, » Which le, pon developed, in many species of Carex. ie Girton, ye: sek oe igre beac of ae Taste. of the Bot. of Himal,, pl. 38, fig. ki Boissier : Voy. bot. en ie aig Plant, As. rar, t. 170. — ‘¢ Rheede : Hort. Malab, vii t-1 ie The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 77 of Cellarie. Individuals in the form of horns (which nsually conclude the series of complete cell-inhabiting individuals) occur, e. g., in Hucrabea cornuta,* and Cordierii ;+ in another form (reminding us of Telorys,) as forked terminal spines, in Vesieu- laria spinosa.{ Moveable individuals, representing mere Wweap- ons, in form like a bird’s beak, a crab’s claw or a pincers, appear in Acamarchis avicularia§ and flustroides,|| Retepora cellulosa Scrupocellaria scruposal and many others. In the last named Cellarie, besides the claw-individuals, there are also scourge-in- dividuals, which Van Beneden himself compared to the cirrhi in plants, and which even Leuckardt** acknowledges to be indi- vidnals. Beside the ‘Swimming-bells’ evidently resembling Me- dus, the peculiar retractile predial filaments of the Siphono- phore doubtless belong here also; they are remarkable for a pur- plish-red swelling on or under the apex, and they shoot out sin- gly as branches from the stalk of the nutritive individual (im- bibing-tubes), and themselves bear a series of similarly formed laments as secondary branches. They are found with unimport- ant departures from this form, especially in Physophora,j> Di- phyest{ and Agalmopsis. In the last named genus, according to >at's,$$ they have even three modifications: the spadiciferous ter- minal piece ends in a long simple filament, or in a short two- parted one, or without any filament at all. In Stephanomiall|l humerous filaments, called tentacles, arise out of the stalk of the nutritive animals (the so-called proboscis-formed organs) withont such colored swellings, which in the same manner may also be Tegarded merely as individuals with a very incomplete outfit of organs. 1] # Ellis : op. cit. pl. 21, f. 10. (Cellaria cornuta) ; M. Edw,: Ann. d. Se. Nat, (1838) t. 8, £2 ( Orisidia cornuta). Cong . de PEypte : P 1% r an Beneden: Rech. sur les Bryozoaires, t. 4, f. ¢. sta hl aia 8 Van Beneden : Let or 1-8 (Cellularia avicularia Pall. Crisia avieularia . ae: | Ellis: op. eit. pl. 38, f. 7. an Beneden : 1, ¢., t. 5, f. 8-16 Cellaria seruposa Auct. get ** Leuckardt : Polymorphism. p. ” tt Philippi : Miller's Archiy, 1843, taf. 5. : Fauna lit, Norw. tab. 7. he $§ Ib. tab. 5. S| Since Sars observed the separation of the Medusa-like sexual individuals in Agalmopsis, the view that [pa vars are composite animal stocks has gained | Ata and more among zoologists. But this mode of et dys ot he : * - * ne “overcles, which in most of the genera are placed above the nutritive individ- pr protective envelopes ; these for “ : ha — , : the jodividual ene ae 4 Ye Not less than eighé different forms under which the individual may appear on . & a . . « (Later note) rr hate omitted the anuccaion of these 78 The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. After having in the foregoing review regarded all lateral shoots which spring from the main axis of the plant as real individuals, however uvimportant a fraction of the total specific character they may realize, it will hardly be deemed surprising if we finally apply this mode of view to the branches of the root and to adventitious shoots. It is only possible for the main-shoot to develop freely both the points of vegetation of the axis; yet even here the lower point remains undeveloped. On the con- trary, the lateral shoots, thus far considered, have no lower point of vegetation; for their base is united to the maternal shoot, and hence they are mere developments of the upper point of vegeta- tion. Op; to these, there are, however, other shoots by which the lower point of vegetation is represented, and which on the other hand have no upper point of vegetation. Among these may be reckoned not only the root-branches which take their rise from the main root, but also all adventitious roots which spring from the stem at determinate or indeterminate places. I must, however, content myself with this general hint, as any attempt to particularize these relations could after all only show the defi- ciency of the investigations iuto this subject, and how desirable a more comprehensive work is on root-formation in the vegetable kingdom. The few points which I have selected out of the inexhausti- ble field of shoot-formation in the vegetable kingdom may in the mean time suffice to show that the comparison of the vegetable shoot with the animal individual is not far-fetched or arbitrary, but is presented to us by Nature herself. The solution of the difficulties which this mode of conceiving the vegetable individ- ual encounters in the lowest grades of the vegetable kingdom, | must defertoalaterday. These difficulties are founded upon the less complete organization of the inferior plants, and at all events” cannot invalidate the results gained in considering the higher or- * The Vegetable Individual in its relation to Species. 79 shoots of the tree their true significance,—now that we have com- pared them with alternation of generation in animals at length proves to be the most conclusive demonstration of the correctness of our first conception. The conception of these so heterogeneous morphological and physiological endowment and development of shoots ? Wwe not meet with a similar reciprocal completion, a similar division of labor among the individuals of the family, o the state and of nations, and cannot even the human individual become likewise a mere organ? Do we not see the development of the human race itself bound up with a succession, in which the later generations continue the edifice their predecessors be- gan, like branches depending upon the earlier stocks and nour- ished by them ;—in which generation is added to generation, and eycles to cycles; so that thus by the ever-renewed labor of the individual the problem of human life may be ceaselessly as- Pired to, and at last reach its final accomplishment ?* * The i inted when I was fortunately enabled to teitheidbo Beinutet ue tatinobe te Pibeptacasag Dérpet 1852,) upon a subject oeay allied to the one here discussed. His work is full of new views of the nD he es, wit eaves, a ? 1 out of each other, or intimately connected by continuable bud-formation, Wwever, it is implied in the idea of an individual _that it shall somehow be , and distinguishable from, (notwithstanding it is connected wit ae to me that even from this point of view Reichert’s idea can by no means I will not deny that there are still other considerations di Ts in the lower it loses more and more its reality, if I may so say. I must reserve ther remarks on this subject until I treat of the individuality of the lower plants. 7 is view of Reichert’s, &c, which our au- this ea but think, after all, that this view of Rei ; mnie SO} Wo extreme views, if forced “* 80 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. Arr. X.—Observations on poe Seer. mere ; by Professor Wituiam B. Roce PART THIRD Of successive or alternating combinations of lines. Wuen the figures presented to the two eyes consist of lines _ capable of being united in two or more different ways these com- ~ binations may be produced successively by a voluntary change of convergence, and in certain cases they are observed to follow one another in quick eesnetian without our being conscious of effort in producing t | 21. Alternation of te lines. ; The simplest example of this effect occurs when a figuell com- posed of three equal verticals is so placed in the stereoscope that we may unite one of the extreme lines with either of i 2 other lines successive Thus placing fig. 45 on the upper stage of the instradaben so rn that a may be in front of the left eye while 6 : and ¢ are both seobaseen to the right eye, we may combine a with 6; and keeping the eyes directed to their resultant, we at the same time observe the line ca little to the right. Now changin th optic convergence to a point somewhat more mote we can cause a to quit b and to ie: r or less rapidly over to c leaving 6 alone on 13 left. By thus changing the convergences back- wards and forwards we may continue to unite a alternately with band ¢ with but little effort and as often as we please. When. the distance between b and c is very small, say one twentieth of an inch, this change seems?to me almost involuntary and occu with the rapidity of a flash whenever we transfer our attention from the resultant ab to the simple line ¢, or back again from the resultant ac to 6. Indeed, as we view the resultant and the paral- lel beside it, the line @ is seen as it were to flit backwards and — forwards between b and ce, and it is only by fixing the attention resolutely on the resultant that we can prevent aA alternate — ecomposition and recomposition of the lines. A dot placed a little above the line a, by accompanying the line in its novela enables us to mark its sticcessive union with 5 and ec. i 22. Alternation of Vertical with Oblique lines Still more curious illustrations of giiariating combinations are n the picture includes one or more inclined lines as in fig. 46. Placing this on the upper stage of the cathe . oo tha the left, and 4 and ¢ in front of Ye bc oe its extremity is marked by the dot and that W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 81 right eye, we may alternately combine a@ with 6 46. and with c, giving rise in the former case toa perspective resultant (ab) which recedes as it de- -Scends, and in the latter case to one (ac) which approaches as it descends. By fixing the atten- tion on either resultant fora moment we see that : mee . 6¢ therefore it includes the line a along with one of 7 the others. If now we turn to the remaining line we observe the dot and with it the line @ to flit over to this line and we are ” ble 18 no doubt due to the fact that when the combination is made at the angle, the lower point of a is at the same instant united with : the lower end of both 6 and. ec, and that as the change of converg- ence necessary to combine the adjoining lower part of a wih that of 6 andc¢ successively is extremely slight, the ay Dae _ descending perspective lines near the angle are formed in an change of convergence is required in passing from the one com- bination to the other, and therefore a much longer time is con- sumed in forming the successive resultants. It has been remarked above that in looking at one of the result- ants the other line soon after subsides from its perspective posi- tion. It may naturally be asked why this line does not lose its ®ppearance of relief the moment it ceases to be a resultant, that s, the moment the line a is observed to quit it. The explanation Szooxp Sanus, Vol. XXI, No. 61.—Jan, 1856. Log 5 yomily Fi, 82 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. is I think to be found in the disposition of the mind to retain the perception of relief previously associated with the line until im- ena with some other definite idea as to the distance of its several ar’ When for some time we continue to carry the eyes back wards and forwards along the upper et of the perspective resultant, a curious effect presents itself. ‘The other line after subsiding to the plane of the diagram and thus losing its previous relief may ie observed to continue this revolving motion notil it has taken rspective position the reverse of what it had before, in which gate’ its different points are at the same distance from the eye | as the corresponding parts of the resultant. This effect is in conformity with the law formerly mentioned (2) that while look- | looking intently on any one o nject we are in me ned to refer all | others seen at the same time to the same dista | If for b and c we substitute three or more =e slightly diver- gent lines as in fig. 48, the successive nnion o a with all of them is so rapid especially when the attention is directed to the angular point, as to cause them all to appear in relief seemingly — at the same time. Buta more steady gaze di rected to the upper part of the fissure will show the dot of a fitting from one to the _ as the line a forms the snecessive resulta é An interesting modification of this ronperitien is seen in ithe combination of a vertical with two intersecting lines equally and oppositely inclined to the vertical as in fig. 49. In this case the resultant presents the appearance of two intersecting 8% perspective lines. Here the effect is not produced by combining a with the whole of b and the whole a fices to unite the lower end of a with that of 8, and as this is true for each pair of corresponding points in the upper half of c and the lower of 4, it is plain that the same gradation of axial movement which com bines the lower half of 6 with that of a will simultaneously combine the upper half of c with that of a. It is only neces-— sary to continue the movement in the same direction, to combine _ the lower half of ¢ and the nae of 6 with the corresponding parts of a. Thus the two tive intersecting lines are produced by the combination aie ay and alternately of a with the two near halves and the two remote halves of # and ¢. _ At the moment when the two near halves are thrown into per- spective by uniting with @ the dots appear at their extremities, and when by a slight optical change the two remote halves are combined with a the dots are seen to dart across to the ends of these halves. | | W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 83 In this experiment the coexistence of the two perspective re- sultants is so nearly perfect that it is only by fixing the gaze most A intently on one of the extremities that I can modify the per- spective figure. In looking towards the intersection, it is im- possible by any steadiness of view to change the relief of the two resultants. The small range of axial movement through which the eyes vibrate involuntarily even in our effort to keep them steady, is sufficient to develop both the resultants, so that ey appear to be quite simultaneous, s in this combination we do not first form one entire per- spective line and then the other, but begin to form both at the same moment and complete the combination for both in the same insensibly short interval, it follows that the two intersecting re- sultants are produced by the same gradation of convergence and in the same time as would be required to combine @ with b alone or with c alone. Hence the effect is as perfect and as nearly in- stantaneous as when a single resultant is developed from two in- clined lines. Que of the most simple and striking illustrations of an alternating combination is furnished by fi in whi * the lines 6cd are made to unite successively or al- ternately with a. The diagram being adjusted on the upper stage, so as to bring a opposite the left and 6 ¢ d opposite the right eye, if we begin by ’ ‘Uniting ab at the lower extremity, and then glance upwards, we find a to be wholly united ts Bcd with 0, forming a perspective line rising from the plane of ed. Glancing at the upper angle we observe ¢ also iM perspective but in an opposite direction, and when we pass to the lower angle we have d as well as ¢ in relief, while 6 tends to subside from its perspectiveness. ‘I'he passage from one of these Combinations to the other is so easy and rapid that it is quite dif- ficult to maintain the figure in any one of these phases for more than one or two seconds; and as we carry the eyes generally of the perspective resultant of these lines in & position appro hi: ae ae 2 A tan Over the lines we have a clear image of ali three resnitants united __ Ito a zigzag or N in a perspective position, in which the succes- _ Slveé combinations seem to be almost simultaneous. 23. Alternations of more complex figures. ery curious alternations of combination a sd ‘ are afforded by fig. 51, when placed on the Stage of the stereoscope so that a 6 and cd may be opposite the left and right eye re- Spectively. Beginning by effecting the un- ion of 6 and ewe have a figure consisting Se Ge Me be Sage ¥ . 84 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. minated below by the angular point formed by the junction of the lower ends of a and d, which lines now constitute a V pat- allel to the plane of the paper. The whole figure is that of the three edges of a solid angle pointing downwards, formed by a, d, and the resultant 6 c, the two former ina plane parallel to the paper, and the latter inclining towards us from the apex. By a slight change of convergence we may next bring a and ¢ to coincide, which is best effected by eae the attention to the two angular points of the figure. The same convergence will of course unite b and d, and the pestis figure will be a simple V lying ina plane parallel to the paper By converging the axes toa still remoter point we can next cause aanddto unite. In this case we obtain a figure composed of the perspective resultant of these two lines in a ‘position reced- ing as it ascends, and the lines 6 c united at their lower ends to form a V/ ina plane parallel to the paper. In other words we have a solid angle like that in the preceding case except that the perspective edge 7 beyond the plane of 6 ¢ instead of being on the — side of i n the ihe of the diagram diverge at a very smal] angle these cae follow in quick alternation, but the V or second figure above mentioned is that which most frequently recurs and is most polos: a mae due no doubt to the circumstance that all parts of th e formed by the same axial convergence: and hen the diagram contains a vertical line we can readily ad just it on the upper stage of the stereoscope so as to make this line visible at the same time to both eyes, and thus have a double of the line in alternating combinations with the rest. Ad- justing fig. 52 in this one we obtain the iieatteiens ves result 52. ba a é¢ By stab the eyes alittle beyond the eae) m3 of the paper, we may unite 5 with c, and d with c, y forming two perspective resultants each marked by the dot. These approach us as they extend up- wards. At the same time a and ¢ are brought nearer together and are seen to the left and right of the resultants severally. Indicating by the arrow heads the nearest extremities of the resultants, the entire ° effect of this combination is ee by fig. 53. 4 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 85 If now we remove the point of convergence a little further, so as to combine @ with c and e with c, we obtain from them two perspective resultants approaching us as they extend downwards, and since the same convergence serves to unite } with d, we have a third perspective resultant between the other two, dipping away from us. Under these conditions the result is that indica- ted by fig. 54, _ By converging the axes toa point still more distant we may | combine a with d, and e with 6, and as these pairs are severally parallel, the resultants will be in a plane parallel to the paper. At the same time the line c as seen by the right eye will appear on the left side of the resultant of ad, and as seen by the left eye will be placed on the right side of the resultant of be. The eflect will be that represented in fig. 55. Directing the eyes to a still more distant point we may next unite @ with e so as to form a perspective resultant in the middle of the optical picture. At the same time 8 and d will exchange sides, and ¢ being doubled will appear on the extreme right or Aes These transpositions and combinations are indicated in The four distinct combinations above described are observed to alternate with one another rapidly and in different ways with- out our being conscious of any effort in producing them, and hence the unpractised observer may find it difficult to retain either of them long enough for deliberate examination. A few trials, however, will enable him to do it with ease. PART FOURTH. e Of the coincidence of unequal figures. . _ It was first observed by Prof. Wheatstone that “two squares ‘‘reircles differing obviously but not extravagantly in size” may through binocular combination with or without the stereoscope 86 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. a much greater disparity of measurement is compatible with ap- parent coalescence in the former case than in the latter. As this essential distinction hen not been pigs sei to by preceding en- quirers, it will be proper to consider the two effects separately before treating of the union of figures ek in both directions. First.—Of the union of figures having the same height but differing in horizontal measurement. Most of the illustrations given under the last two heads are properly referable to this class. ‘Thus the apparently simultane- ous union of pairs of verticals of which the intervals are unequal (fig. 17), and the combination of a vertical with two er w although the combination is really successive and alternating, ‘it is eflected so rapidly and unconsciously as to make __ eee sion of a figure developed simultaneously in all its parts. — The union of pairs of points at unequal dikes on a hori- zoutal line or what amounts to the same thing, the combination of the wea horizontal lines connecting such points, gives, as already show , @ perspective resultant in the horizontal plane; and this, when the difference of the length is not too great, is as truly a case of ehiabidotiee as the combination of two piesa inclined lines into a perspective resultant. In neither case is the union absolutely simultaneous throughout. When the yes dwell upon either end of the resultant, the components separate at the other end, in the case of the inclined lines bya divergence of their remote extremities, in the case of unequal horizontal lines, by the sliding of one upon the other. As long however as the eyes are suffered to glance from end to end of either perspective line the union of the extremities is perfect and — apparently coexistent. : 24. Union of a right line with a system of right lin Examples of this ‘class of combinations have oueaptelt under @ 4 the preceding heads, but the following instances will serve to — illustrate more strikingly the union of dissimilar and unequal figures. | [ SR ee ee ee eee Oe re _ Only conditions necessary for a satisfac- __ tory result are that none of the leading Be! W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 87 (1.) A vertical line with a rhombus (fig. 57). In this case the small converging movement measured by the breadth of the rhombus suffices to combine the vertical line successively with the two near and the two remote sides of the figure, and to de- velop as a resultant the form of a square in steep perspective, As the slight vibration which attends our ordinary efforts at fix- ing the eyes is quite sufficient for this, the apparent coincidence and the consequent relief are perfect, and nothing short of a continued and even painful direction of the view to one end of the horizontal diameter enables us even partially to separate the components, vin any of the preceding combinations. __, Inthe above and a multitude of other — forms which might be suggested the Parts of the complex line or system of lines shall be so much in- clined to the vertical as not readily to unite with the correspond- _ = ing part of that line, and that the entire horizontal breadth of the figure shall be small enough to allow all its parts to be united With the vertical in an insensibly short time. ; t will be remarked that in the preceding figures cach linear element makes so small an angle with the vertical as to be capa- ble of uniting with it. But as indicated above this is not essen- : 88 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. tial to the full perspective effect. In fig. 62 the 6% horizontal lines of course cannot be so combined, and yet when the oblique ones are thrown into re- lief by their union severally with the opposite parts of a these horizontal lines are seen to form parts of the resulting perspective figure. As might be expected in this case the appearance of relief ceases when the eyes are directed to the vertical line which forms the base of the three perspective triangles, that i is when we maintain fixedly the convergence uniting @ with 6. But as soon as the optic axes are allowed to vibrate towards the points of the triangles the relief is resumed. a The particular case of combination just described is interest- | ing from its ene egagey to Bok ee ee referred to by Sir D Brewster (Phil. Mag., 1844, 24, p. 442), and in regard to which he states a quite different sonalt. Using a figure like the above, excepting that the three oblique lines are drawn at a.much greater angle with the vertical, he remarks that the line a (A B in his figure). will not coalesce with the three obligtie lines at once (marked C D in his figure) ; but each separate portion of A will, when the two other portions are concealed or removed, coalesce with the corresponding portion of C D. On repeating the ex- periment with the same figure I find that the binocular combina- tion of all three of the oblique lines with the vertical is as readily ected as that of any one of them separately. On unitingone = of them with the opposite segment of the vertical A, I always : observe that the two others at the same moment assume a like perspective attitude. Owing to the great horizontal breadth of the figure in Brewster’s experiment, the union in either case is imperfect, and unless the axes are kept in quicix vibration from side to side, the relief disappears. But when, as in fig. 62, the oblique lines are less inclined to the vertical, ‘and the breadth of the figure much reduced, the perspective resultant for the whole | : is at once obtained. It is proper to add that precisely the same effects present themselves, whether 1 employ Brewster’s, Wheat- _ stone’s, or my own stereoscope, or effect the combination without any instrument. In the simple experiments above described, where the right line is used as one of the objects, there is some thing surprising even — to the practised observer, in the transformation wrought upon the complex figure as soon as the right line coincides with it. We — see it approach ane it touches the figure, then it instantly van- ishes as a separate object, and at the same Mae as if by magic, the amaale resultant stands before u It is well to remember that all these: retites A effects can be readily obtained from the- figures (57, &e., to 62) as they stand on the page, by first — with a uy ee white paper all the — & W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 89 drawings but the vertical line and the figure to be combined with it, and then effecting the union of these two, by cross vision, in front of the paper. 25. Union of plane figures of unequal horizontal dimensions, We have already seen that two rectangles of the same height but of different breadth may be united into a single quadrilateral figure (20—fig. 44) having a perspective position and of which the near vertical side is shorter than the remote one. - With the triangles, fig. 63 and fig. 64, the coincidence and the perspective effect are very beautifully exhibited. 63, _ In this case the resultant triangle turns the left extremity of its base towards the observer and averts the other, when the com- bination is effected by convergence beyond the plane of the paper ; and it takes the reverse attitude of relief when the eyes are con- verged to a point nearer than the plane of the paper. In fig. 4 the horizontal inequality or difference of bases is th of an inch, t in fig. 64 it is 4th inch; and as might be expected in the latter case, a very slight pause of the view at either angle of the base causes the components of the side opposite to separate as two 4 Vertical height, that is, should lie between the same horizontal > _ and_D, intended to be United with it, differ ely from one another. - Supposing in each case |/ that the union iseffected © Sconp Sznres, Vol. XXL, No. 61.—Jan., 1856. Pee oie ~ 90 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. by converging the axes to a point beyond the diagram, we ob- tain the following results. The combination of B with A gives us a_ perspective figure having the vertical line for its near edge and having all its sides situated in one and the same plane, which slopes away from us evan the right. niting C with A we have aresultant consisting of parts lying in two differently inclined planes both of them receding towards the right; that formed by the sides about the middle angle slo- ping away from us more steeply than the part adjoining the verti- | cal side. | When we combine D with A we have a resultant figure which like the preceding is inflected into two planes, but in this case | the part next the vertical slopes towards us from that line, and the remaining part as before recedes towards the right. | It thus appears that right line figures having the same vertical | dimensions for all their corresponding parts, but differing in their horizontal breadth, afford by their binocular union two classes of resultant figures—those of which all the parts are situated in one those in-which they lie in two or more differently in- clined planes. | 26. Conditions according to which the resultant will lie ¢: in one | or in several planes The geometrical conditions determining the character of the resultant figure in this respect are simply the following. | ee the figures which are to be combined are of such form that their : corresponding horizontal dimensions bear a constant ratio to | one another, for all points of the height, their Naloeselar resultant : will lie wholly tm one perspective plane,—when the ratio varies, the resultant will lie in an inflected surface composed of two or more mutually inclined planes, each change of ratio being . companied by a change of direction of the surface. me As this proposition | is important from its generality, and will i a the sequel be applied to curvilinear figures, the following short ag proof of it may be acceptable to the reader. Let a6 and ed (fig. 66) denote the horizontal breadths of the a larger figure at the points b and d, and m6, nd those of the nar-_ rower one at the same points respectively. Also let R and L be — the centres of the two eyes, and suppose zy to be the line in which, by a suitable axi convergence, the equal vertical heights of the figures are made to coalesce. As long as this particular de- pbs of convergence is maintained unaltered, it is obvious that ™ and x will not coincide optically with @ and c, but must continue to be seen at the intervals am and cn as in the diagram. By a farther axial movement, however, a and m are made to coincide at r, and again ¢ and n nats. We are now to determine the posi- tious of r, s and the see seenitant a ¥ — ays to this end we have * W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 91 m:RL=ar: Ra+ar, 66. , a whence RL—am:am=Ra: ar, fe and therefore < — By a like process also, c.cn R we have cs= R Since in these experiments, a m and nm are very small compared with R L, they may without material error be ex- punged from the above values of ar and es ; and since the distance ac must always be inconsiderable compared with Ra or Re these two lines ma be assumed. as sensibly equal and par- allel, and as a consequence of the lat- ter the angles bar and des may be taken as equal. With these qualifica- tions, the former values when compar- |, ed with one another give us the pro- rik aes portion, ar :cs=am cn. | Ry f now the two figures binocularly combined be of such construction that the corresponding breadths are in a * ae = ——~ j = nstant ratio, we will have ig :cd=mb : nd, % whence am:icn=ab: cd. pase es This compared with the former proportion gives z ar:ics=ab:cd. , _ But we have seen that the angles at a and care practically equal, therefore the line ds is parallel to 7, and as its end d lies in the plane of zyr, the whole line must lie in that plane. Con- - Sequently the resultant point s is situated in the plane of ry. fn the same way it may be proved that any other resultant points similarly formed must be situated in the plane of zyr. Hence 92 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. Let us imagine, for example, that while the point m, fig. 66, re- tains its present position in @ 6 dividing that line in ‘the propor- tion of 1 to 4, the point », from being similarly situated in e d, is transferred to 0, so as to divide ed in the ratio of 1 to 3. It is obvious that the resultant of ¢ and o will be in some position é, below s, and nut in the plane of z yr, and further that all other pairs of points of the two figures whose relative distances from zy are the same as those of ¢ and o will, (by the ee dem- onstration) form their resultants in the plane of ryo us ap- pears that every change in the ratio of the breadths of ths fig- ures at corresponding heights is accompanied by an inflexion of the resultant into a new plan Applying this to the combination of C with A (fig. 65), we observe that while the breadth of C at the middle angle is nearly wa that of A at the same level, its breadth at the angle above low is about one and a fourth that of the corresponding part of A. The former ratio determines the direction of the plane containing the second and third sides of the resultant figure pont. from the top, and the latter that of the plane con- ing the first and fourth sides together with the vertical ; aha as the former is a ratio of greater inequality than the latter, it is evident that the plane of the second and third sides will have a steeper inclination than the other. This corresponds with an resultant produced by the union of D with A, but enough has been said to illustrate the conditions which determine the position generally of the resultant of right-line figures of unequal hori- zontal dimensions. 27. Of the union of a straight line with a curve. Among the simpler cases of combination there is none which exemplifies more curiously the effect of binocular union than a coalescence of a right line with a curve. Thus when a and & fig. 67, are brought together by converging the eyes to points behind or in front of the paper, we are at once presented with a curve standing out with great clearness and in strong relief, and turn- ing its apex in the one case towards us and in the other from us, but in both positions directed a little to the left side. The great steepness of the flanks of this perspective arch is an obvious result of th e a ae considerable angle which the terminal parts of 6 make with the — correspondin ng parts of a. In this experiment the union beginning at the middle of a and b extends simultaneously along the wpe and lower halves includ- ing in this interval a total converging movement the distance between the middle band its chord. : ‘ W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 93 Drawing chords from middle to the ends of } and combining the figure, thus modified, with a, we obtain, along with the per- _ Spective curve before seen, two perspective chords extending from _ its apex to the upper and lower ends. All these lines are devel- oped with perfect distinctness and so rapidly as to appear quite Simultaneous. By fixing the attention however on the apex of the perspective curve we see the right line separating from it at the ends, and by great steadiness of convergence we may even Succeed in bringing the vertical into the position of a tangent at the apex, in which case the figure loses its relief It will be found in the sequel that the perspective curve formed i by the union of a right line with the arc of a circle is in all cases \ @ conic section, the special nature of which is dependant on the conditions of the experiment. experiment the parts a 96 When 4 and d are brought together we have a similar curve with its apex averted. | But in both eases the coincidence entirely fails towards the upper and lower parts of the figure. By passing rapidly from the one to the other combination, we have momentary glimpses: of a Warped surface which combining the two flexures appears convex ©n the left and concave on the right side. i, 28. Of the union of one curve line with another, _ : ‘The simplest combination of this kind is that of two equal 4nd similar circular ares whose convexities are turned in opposite - directions, (Fig. 69.) These are readily united 69. ither with or without the stereoscope, and form _ 41 the opposite direction. In either case, the a depth of the perspective is evidently dependant ears On the sum of the convexities of the two arcs. As will be shewn hereafter the form * the — 94 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. If the arcs be of unequal convexity the resultant curve will no longer have the perpendicular altitude, but will incline a a to the one or other side according to circumstances. ‘Thus 6 be more convex than a the resultant curve will turn its ape eee — left, and if a be more convex than 6 it will turn it wards right. salto ee curvatures of @ and 6 are turned the same way the depth of the relief will storia be proportional to the differ- ence of the convexities of the two arcs. With equal curvatures they will form a resultant arc sea to either 70. component and having no relief. When they é unequal convexity as in fig. 70, the re position. If, asin the figure, b should have the greater curvature of the two, the apex of the ; resultant curve will incline towards the right ; £ if that of a should be the greater the apex will ‘ ed turn towards the left. ‘ ith arcs of no greater curvature than those of the last figure, but lie in a curved su To prove this we have only to use arcs of much greater ineectesiot as in fig. 71. Here when we form the resultant in front of the dia- +. . we find it to consist of a curved surface bounded by the resultant eas and a vertical straight line d the union of the two chords. Daghaning at the near edge formed by this vertical line, the surface recedes with a concave sweep, at first rapidly, and then more gently towards the apex or farthest point. When the combinat is made beyond the plane of the paper, the curved surface traced from the vertical edge, approaches the observer in a conver sweep, rapidly at first, but more slowly towards the a When the curves which are united are a ci? ae ‘and an ellipse whose vertical axis is equal to the diameter of the circle, or when they are two rere ¥. Sar vertical diameters, the resultant curve lies wholly On conbiniae: tha alli a with the circle of ¢ : 72, we have for the resu W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 95 & perspective plane, but in this case under the same conditions of combination with the preceding, it is inclined the opposite way. A like effect is produced by removing the circle and putting 6 in _ its place, and then combining } and a. In all three resultants the longer axis of the ellipse is horizontal. Its length is great- est in the ellipse formed by the binocular union of a@ with 8 If now both ellipses, placed as in the figure, be used at the Same time to combine with the circle, we obtain by rapid alter- nation of combinations a resultant consisting of two perspective ellipses intersecting in their shorter or vertical diameter. It is to be remarked that in this experiment it sometimes happens that we cannot pass from one combination to the other rapidly enough to obtain the effect of an apparently simultaneous view of the whole of the two resultant ellipses. In this case the two near halves or the two remote halves of the intersecting ellipses, or either el- lipse entire, is all that we distinctly see, but it is only necessary to pass quickly from one to the other to perceive the whole of _ the curves together. : e have thus seen that the resultant formed by the union of two elliptic ares or of an elliptic and circular one, under the given conditions, lies wholly in one plane, while that formed from arcs of unequal circles lies in a curved surface. This remarkable dif- ference of effect is readily explained when we compare the geo- metrical conditions demonstrated under a previous head (26) with the properties of these associated curves. ; In the case of the ellipse and circle or the two ellipses, (fig- eee rvature, as in fig. 71, the corresponding horizontal dimen- Cease to have a constant proportion. Bringing them to- ther as in fig. 73, we perceive that the relative ine- 73. cessive point, in other words, that the resultant must lie in a curved or warped “i. ne ued) 96 Prof. E. Hitchcock: on a new Fossil Fish. Art. XI.—On a new Fossil Fish, and new Fossil Footmarks ; 2 by Prof. Epwarp Hircucocx, of Amherst College. 1, History of the Discovery and general character of the Jaw | of anew Family of fossil fishes. oes Tuts specimen was presented to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at its meeting in Providence in August, 1855. I received it from Rev. John Hawks, of Monte- me, by Dr. S. B. Bushnell of the same place. Mr. Hawks says, “it was found in Park County, Indiana, near the Wabash river, in a layer of slate, about one foot beneath the surface of fe ground. Immediately beneath the layer Pes slate, which about one foot in thickness, was a coal bank Having stated to the Association that this beautiful specimen was evidehttly the jaw of a shark, but of most peculiar structure, I had not the presumption to throw out my crude suggestions concerning it, when a gentleman present to whom the intricacies | of fossil ichthyology were as familiar as household words. I therefore requested Professor Agassiz to give his views of the : 8 ) imen That gentleman expressed his conviction that the ime’ was the jaw of a new and extraordinary family of sharkes| allied to the sword fish, or Pristis. He stated that the sword of the Pristis was originally composed of more than one bone, which <4 became united. If those bones were to be permanently separa- | tod and armed with teeth only on one side, they would resemble the fossil specimen, except that the latter is curved. Such an arrangement he supposed to have existed in the fish from which this jaw was taken: that is, it had two swords, armed on the outer side with sharp serrated teeth. The supposition seemed ee reasonable that it was received by the Association with er plause. Prof. Agassiz said that such an animal would not only form new genus of fossil fishes, but a new family. And he regard the discovery of as great importance almost, in fossil ichthyology, as was that of the Ichthyosanrus and Plesiosaurus in fossil Her- petology. The specimen will be committed to him for descrip- tion. But it seemed desirable, on several accounts, to give this brief history of its discovery, and a popular description of its characters. The whole of it is a good deal mineralized, being converted mostly into black limestone ; and from its weight, aaipert the presence of iron in some form. EB. Hitchcock on new Fossil Footmarks. 97 2. Description of a new and remarkable species of Fossil Foot- mark, from the Sandstone of Turner’s Falls, in the Con- necticut Valley. Not long since, my attention was called by Roswell Field, sq. to an extraordinary footmark in a quarry upon his farm hear Turner’s Falls in Gill. T advised him to get out if possible a slab containing a series of the tracks, which he did with much judgment and skill, and subsequently I purchased the speciinen for the Ichnological Cabinet of Amherst College, where it is now eposited, [have regarded the Otozoum Moodii as the most remarkable N animal, so far as we can judge from footmarks, that ever trod the valley of the Connecticut. But the animal that made this new Gigandipus. Bipedal : tailed: tetradactylous: the three toes pointing for- ward broad and long; the fourth curved, narrow and short, pro- ceeding inward almost laterally from the back part of the heel. Gigandipus caudatus. Divarication of the middle and inner toes, 20° to 23°. Of the | _ middi The three forward toes, thick, rounded, 3 he hind race of a tail very ma Stooxn Szuizs, Vol. XX 98 E. Hitchcock on new Fossil Footmarks. tracks, except when the ani- mal changed its course. Width of the trace from a quarter to half an inch, with a some- what feathery appearance on each side, such as is exhibited by the slight ripples, when a body is drawn rapidly through water. The accompanying cia represents the only specim of the track of this Znicm (the srg gallinaceus 2) are also shown—one row of seven ia another of four. A few scattering quadrupedal tracks, not very distinct, exist on the slab but are not shown in the drawing. On first looking at this slab, zoum giganteum h would soon discover the fourth toe, which I have never seen n the more than a hun- dred tracks of the Brontozounm giganteum which have fallen under my notice, and which onter and inner toes of the Gigandipus are of almost ex- seg i length, but never in the Brontozoum. No aie or phalangeal impres-_ sions are seen upon the track | of the Gigandipus, although the rock is extremely favora- ble for showing such sires ie ters, in foot. E.. Hitchcock on new Fossil Footmarks, 99 But the unmistakable evidence of a tail is the most remarka- ble thing about this animal. It cannot be doubted, I think, by any one who will look at the slab, and it leads one at once to look sharply for marks of its quadrupedal character. But no trace of more than two feet is to be found, although the exist- ence of so many small tracks on the slab shows that the rock is | a fine one for retaining the marks of the fore feet if they had | existed. The only supposition making its quadrupedal charac- ter at all plausible, is, that the fore feet might have made an im- . pression not quite so deep as the hind ones, and the layer con- taining them, may have been scaled off without our noticing their h existence. J saw the tracks before they were fully uncovered, and observed no signs of fore feet; and Mr. Field has had great expe- rience in such matters, so that had they existed, I think he must have seen them. ee Upon the whole, the evidence is very strong that this animal Was an enormous biped with a very long tail! I say a long tail ; for when the tracks of a biped follow one another almost in a straight line, the animal must have had long legs. hree of | these tracks are almost exactly inaline. At the fourth step it trod a little to the right, which swayed the body and consequently | the tail, somewhat in that direction. The inquiry naturally arises, whether these facts do not weak- | | : ; en very much the proof that any of the tracks in the sandstone of the Connecticut valley were made by birds. For here we have no time to follow out this thought. : _ But whatever opinion we may form as to the place in a scien- tific arrangement occupied by these animals, all must be struc With their extraordinary ‘size and peculiarities. It is amazing how different were the former from the present occupants of ar ~-you look, as into T'artarns, and see, and hear and feel the 108s- 100 T’. Coan on Kilauea. this peaceful valley. I venture to say, that the Otozoum and Gigandipus were as wonderful creatures as ever walked the earth or swam in the water. No species have been dng from the rocks of the eastern world more gigantic aud anomalous than — these. Art. — —On Kilauea; by Rev. Trrus Coan, (froma letter o J. D. Dana, dated Hilo, Hawaii, July 18, 1855.) You are aware that no eruption has occurred at Kilauea since. 1840, except such as have been confined within its‘own mural | walls; that the whole central area of the crater floor has been elevated some 600 feet, raed a broad and high table land, terminating on the east side in a long and lofty ridge of debris, so abrupt and toppling as to defy the ascent of man; but at many points on the other sides accessible by an inclined plane. The distance from this great central platform to the outer or main walls of the crater may average half a mile, and this surrounding zone or belt, is where the old “ black ledge” used to be ; but it is now lower by 200 feet, than some points in the central plat- form. At the southern verge of this elevated region, separated, by a broken and aneiipt depression, stands the great dome over the fiery abyss, called “ Halemaumau.” The elevation of this dome is equal to that of the great table rock just described ; and on its summit opens a valve 200 feet in diameter down which ings and ‘the ragings of the burning ‘oul. On the western side of this immense dome a fissure has been opened, and near its base “smoke, and fire, and brimstone.” You are aware that for mat years past, up to 1855, the crater has been unusually dull ; much so, that many believed this great forge would never into blast again. But this was a mistake. For months past this awful furnace has been br ightening, and glowing, and raging, and roaring with fearful intensity. The action, however, is a confined to the great dome and the girdle between the central ta- ble and the outer walls; while the elevated interior is unaffected, | and even begins to produce: uce plants and Ohelo berries. But it is surrounded by the burning streams of Phlegethon, and stands a burnt island ina sea of “fire. ~The great dome is thundering and throwing up columns of dashing fusion from its — throat to a height ‘of 200 feet, while its walls tremble at the fury of T'. Coan on Kilauea. 101 passing travelers reported a fiery girdle around the whole cireum- ference of Kilauea, along the base of her lofty walls—and, so in- old Kau and Hilo road which, as you may recollect, lay near the tance, ; along to avoid it. The upper banks also of the crater are smok- | the glowing fires below, and to represent by a fact ks all fable, those Plutonic realms whete fire and dark- _ Again when the winds are free and the fires more pee ape suffocating mass of heat | Is_ off, along the shores of Hilo Puna, and Kau, and far off at sea. — Por twent e Upper precipice, and passed the great fissure at a respectful dis- _ And he % , a _ ing you the angle of that slope.* Iam ashamed that it has not 102 T. Coan on Kilauea. We may be entertained with another grand eruption; but when and where it will burst the adamantine walls which now & confine the molten seas, we know not. : I said that I had lately visited Kilanea. During the latter part, of June, I left Honolulu where our mission had held its an- nual meeting, in company with a party of ladies, gentlemen and children, bound to Hilo, via Kau and Kilauea. We reached the voleano on the third of July, and left in on the fourth. But I regret to say, that, in consequence of a sprained foot, 1 was un- able to descend into the crater. [could therefore only survey it from the upper banks, and receive the reports of a partys who went down to the fires At Kilanea I was met by my son, T. Munson, from Hilo, arith an instrument to measure the augle of incliuation of the stream of lava on the northern precipice of the crater. On the fourth of July he went down for the purpose ; but as all that portion of the crater was full of boiling cauldrons, and as the whole bank was enveloped in dense smoke and deadly ases, he was unable to approach it. Meanwhile I had proceeded on toward Hilo with the ladies and children, none of whom could be persnaded to go down into that fiery abyss on account of the fearful actualy of the ftision. I exceedingly regret this athe and the more so as I know not when I shall be able to visit the spot again. Should fu permitted however, to revisit ie scene, nothing but an im bility shall prevent me from sit pe to your request, and Bis ied been done before, and my apology is, as a eaied, want of opportu- nity, unless | had gone up on purpose. Meanwhile, you willl thiuk, rest assured that that angle is uot less than 40. ° “AsIh measured other slopes, I compared them in my mind to whatI recollect of that when with extreme difficulty I clambered up it in 1835. — I intend nil to give it to you correctly, if spared to visit Kilauea aga You ask if bees were any small cones thrown ny along the course of the eruption of 1852. There were a few n the writer's Exploring Expedition Report on Geolo 179, these se eam of ‘sold lava descending the g slopes of Kilauea a Les tioned. Mr. Coan writes in reply to a request ey oo measure the angle of srg , there being some doubt with respect ee Thee ill be bet- — tet understood after a reference to the sketch pif ng ise at ix, of this Jour nal, p. 352. The great do’ cman “eg to the lake, a, in the south- west extremity of the cratered: D. Dax. On the Aperture of Object Glasses. 103 4 Art. XIUI.—On the Aperture of Object Glasses; by F. H. Wenuay, republished* from the London Quarter! y Journal of Microscopic Science for October, 1855. r in balsam, I beg to state, that my observations were dictated by ho other motive than the desire of establishing a correct fact, | and that I was not prejudiced by any favorite theory. N er Bailey says, ‘It is apparent from the above that Mr. a) 3 nm — oO 5 8 ° a | g © a, = o ee = ee 3 5 > =. ed =: o |= ~- my i] A a Mer quite agreed; but as Prof. Bailey’s allusions extend beyond this point, self-defence will be my apology for taking some notice of - them. Referring to me, Prof. Bailey says, ‘the error in his ar- guments will be sufficiently obvious to any one who will trace the course of divergent pencil out of the balsam instead of into it, asin Mr. Wenham’s experiments, and it will then be seen that large angles of aperture are as useful for balsam-monnted _ Specimens as for others.’ Surely Prof. Bailey cannot have well Onsidered this extraordinary, because extremely incorrect, asser- ton, which is tantamount to saying, that a divergent pencil of Tays from a Inminous point, submerged in balsam will in each Case continue their course in the same straight line without suf- By request of Prof. Bailey. oe 104 On the Aperture of Object Glasses. te, distinguished himself; and I am willing to admit that i refraction of the balsam and glass cover (the indices being about 1:54 and 1:53) total reflection would take place from the upper | the extreme limit has been about 78°. This statement is not the result of mere hypothesis, but admits of ocular demonstration, by experiments that will prove it at least half a dozen different ways, and is so true in theory, that to endeavor to disprove It will be to take the difficult course of attempting to undermine the ground upon which I stand, by denying the first laws of re- fraction upon which my assertion is based. Prof. Bailey has, no doubt, experienced the advantage of the ighest powers are to be used only for viewing thin and flat r considering all the requirements and perhaps more useful applt cation of the object glass, I am still of opinion that beyond 130° there is no real advantage to be gained. I have expended mu time and taken special delight in the cultivation of the larg a a On the Aperture of Object Glasses. 105 Ars. XIV.—Remarks on Mr. Wenham’s paper on Aperture of Object Glasses ; by Professor J. W. Batey. As Mr. Wenham now frankly admits the correctness of my ‘Statements with regard to the possibility of resolving difficult test-objects even when balsam-mounted, no further remarks are mecessary upon that point, but a few words of comment are re- quired by other portions of his paper. That my reply was written before I could have had any knowledge that Mr. Wenham had recalled his remarks in which doubt appeared to be thrown on my positive statement of facts will sufficiently appear by the date of my reply, which was pub- lished in the American Journal of Science for January, 1855, the very time in which Mr. Wenham’s retraction of his remarks ap- : peared in he Quarterly Journal for Microscopic Science t eae If Mr. Wenham finds anything objectionable in the form of my reply, he should bear in mind that this discussion is not one of my seeking, and that I put the best possible constrnetion upon his remarks which seemed to call in question the correctness of it, which is indeed “contrary to all reason.” Mr. Wenham so. out of the balsam, instead of indo it, and it will then be seep that 4 106 Measurement of angles under the Compound Microscope. r. Wenham seems to confine his attention to the fact that a ag portion of the rays froma balsam-mounted object are lost — by internal reflection. This, of course, I never meant to deny, © and in fact it is one obvious reason why balsam-mounted test objects are, as I long ago stated, far more difficult to resolve than when mounted dry. The loss of a portion of the rays in this man- ner, however, has nothing whatever to do with the present ques- tion, which is simply whether of the rays that do emerge, (and which make every angle with each other from 0° to 180°) more will be collected by a lens of large or small aperture. Certainly Mr. Wenham cannot deny that ‘the larger aperture will receive the larger number of rays, and if so, then my statement is fully confirmed that “large angles of aperture are as useful for balsam mounted objects as for others.’ The distinction I have silnded to above, between the intensity of illumination of the balsam-mounted object and the effect of large angle of aperture, is alluded to by Dr. Robinson in his pa- per On a new method of measuring Angular Aperture,’ ” where he states in a note that the effect of mounting in balsam “is in fact equivalent to reducing the aperture of the objective below 100°, as far as illumination is concerned, though a much larger one may be required to take in the pencil. ” As to the question whether large angles of aperture are always seals, en one will be apt to decide according to the merits of his own glasses, 1 can only say that I have as yet seen oe to aah me fear that I may have lenses of too much apertu : ~ : XV.—On eer Adaptations of the Baas Mie 4 ; by Oapen N. Roop : THE compound microscope and some of the piecés oe if appara- tus which generally accompany it, can, in the absence of ale especial optical instruments, be made very conveniently to per- form their part ;. we pr opose to mention briefly a few of the uses for which it may be employed. S a goniometer, aX the sesenetness of the sree of lar, of microscopic bao if the ale pe a Saseaster of from vernier, minutes can conveniently be read of a reflect- ing goniometer not being at hand dent that the angles of large crystals can be measured with this all that is ne- cessary is, to bring the microscope to an upright position, to re- Measurement of angles under the Compound Microscope. 107 <=) 2 ar ~ —_ S a > rot) wa So 3 ei) &. S ce] oO a o 0) =) Qu oO be = +4) co Qa o =) =, n = =} aq iy) n a oO o = oO ” - p=] of oO Rol od , (@.) If the faces to be measnred are larger than 5}, of an inch, e ~ make e the edge of intersection of the two | % “axis of the instrument till by viewing the — . the crystal — the distance of its focus 108 Measurement of angies under ihe Compound Microscope. faces coincident with the axis of the compound body: it can readily be determined by the inch lens which is to be supported on a stand in the position seen in fig. 1, when this is nearly ac- _ complished. ‘Two hairs crossing each other at right angles are — to be fastened to the end of the brass tube in which the lens is | set. If now one of the faces under consideration be made to re- flect the light so as to be seen brilliantly illuminated by the inch lens, the condenser removed and a second lens of about two inches focal length, (the field lens of one of the eye-pieces will answer for this purpose,) be held by the hand behind the inch lens, after a little trial a position can be found, where, instead of the illumin- ated face of the crystal, a distinct image ‘of the flame, more or less inclined to the perpendicular cross- hair, will be seen. The wax is then to be bent till the image of the flame assumes an upright position and coincides with the perpendicular cross-hair, and the same is to be done with the other face. It is not neces- sary that the two-inch lens should be supported otherwise than by the hand, the cross-hairs not being attached to it; their posi- — tion in relation to the i image of the flame does not change with : the motion of the hand. This is very convenient, enabling the ‘ observer to view at pleasure and without loss of time the face of the eryatal or the reflected image of the flame. A little rod of wood ,'; of an inch in diameter is to be su pported ina horizontal position “between the flame and the crystal: it answers the pur- per of the “ window bar” in the ordinary form of the ca i wT he erystal can thus be turned on the ot. image of the flame through the two-inch lens, the bar and horizontal cross-hair are seen to coincide, &c., the farther manipula- tion being the same as in the common mode of using the reflective goniometer. This method in practice will be found easy, and it is evident that any desirable amount of ac- curacy can be attained. Sometimes it may be found bear t not to.remove the condenser ; 7S : it then should be bro somewhat nearer Ay ee when the image of the flame will b e seen as before : in this case the wax should be pre- — meckeriod, Shey made to coincide as nearly as possi 4 * neh oe a + Re elit € Measuring refraction under the Compound Microscope. 109 instrument. To measure the angle the condenser is removed and the crystal is to be turned on the axis of the instrament ‘ till one of the faces is seen by the fixed lens brightly illumin- ated: it is then to-be turned till the bright reflexion is just : ne on the vernier is then made to coincide with oO at the moment of the disappearance of the light through the same portion of the lens, as for example the upper, the error will not be greater than 5’ or 6’. It is evident that by this method ap- " proximate measurements can be obtained on crystals whose faces . are large enough ¢o be seen, when brightly illuminated, by an the focus of the eye-lens, and the greater lengthening and short- ening of the projection of the edge of intersection furnishes a 4 means of knowing when the adjustment is effected. S| When the crystals are exceedingly small and numerous, the 1 point of the wax is to be dipped into them, some particular crys- . tal selected under the microscope and the others dissected away With the aid of a fine needle. It is plain that these three modes of measuring microscopic crystals are adapted to the ordinary re- flective goniometer, eter be taken and to one end of it be attached the posterior lens” of the inch obj elescope an i the com ex of refraction.—If a brass tube of about 3-inch in diam- _ Pgs i ‘this is effected by making the reflected i image of a ’ with the unreflected image of another distant object, and re 110 Measuring refraction under the Compound Microscope. before the object-glass, and the telescope and prism. turned and — adjusted till the minimum deviation is reached when the angle or any particular colored ray is read off, and the refraction onlong lated by the formula, _sin 3 (a+d) singa 2 having previously ascertained the value of a by the method al- luded to in the first part of this article. The dispersion is meas- ured at the same time, more particularly with the aid of the di- vided sli Such an n arrangement costs. but little, is convenient, and its ac- i ioe can be depended on as far as three places of decimals. schel in his treatise on light proposes a certain method of ssoatabiin the polarizing angle, of opaque substances having at least one polished face, of set gems and of substances too s to be formed into prisms ; and thence, their index of refraction. This method was found in practice to be very uncertain and diffi- cult: the following modification gave better results. A little piece of apparatus is to be constructed, consist- Py ing of a mirror, M, set as seen in fig. 2, and ca- pable of being ‘firmly attached to the plate fags. in the end of the compound body : it is to justed so that the axis of the shall lie in its plane. The substance under ex- amination, 8, is attached by wax in the position seen in the figure, and its polished face brought into a position parallel to the face of the mifror : NE 8 8 EE NR reas qs Re ae et NF RS distant object as seen by the mirror, coincidé bringing the face of the substancé under examination into sucha position that a similar coincidence is observed. A candle is then placed on a level with the mirror, at about three feet distance, ny . . . . . m the flame to its center. This is effected by placing the eye be hind the flame and turning the mirror on its axis till the retiecth a image is seen to coincide with the flame: the error in Be mod of adjustment is far within the necessary error of observation. A Nicol’s prism is then Aigo between the candle snd cis instru> a ; ee on of ie Nicol’s prism in made pi the ee wi till its polis ed fate ceases to re- flect the polarized beam, when the anglei nat es Any deviation & in the apparent direction of the flame caused by the Nicol’s prism — can be“ascertained beforehand with accu: nd applied as con- + ge gs Gs Measuring refraction under the Compound Microscope. 111 stant error. By this mode the following approximate results were obtained for fluor spar, alum and crown glass: Fluor spar, - - 1:419 1-434 Alum - - 1-445 1-457 1-4 a ¢ Crown sla optical tables. If the microscope is furnished with a pair of Nicols’ prisms or tourmalines, but little management is required to arrange its parts so that it will answer asa polariscope for large objects, and for viewing the rings around the axes of crystals: it also furnishes a good extemporaneous apparatus for examining the circular po- larization of liquids: the necessary arrangements and additions ‘ will readily suggest themselves. Also by means of the grad- nated circle the inclinations of the axes of biaxial crystals can e measured, The inclination of the ordinary to the extraordinary ray when _ and thus at certain inclinations to the optical axis, can with the microscope be readily determined even for very small crystals. or this purpose a piece of tin-foil is firmly pasted on a glass plate and afterwards with the point of a knife a fine slit is made across it: the crystal is laid over this slit and viewed by perpen- dicularly srananittted light and a power of from 50 to 200 diam- : eters, and the distahce apart of the two images of the slit, or the 7 tangent of the aifgt of their inclination measured with the eye- piece micrometer, "The crystal is then turned on its edge and its thickness measured in the same way. If ¢ = the thickness, and t of from 50 tion as ij; ofa degree in be measured, Munich, Oct. 1st, 1855. the light falls perpendicularly on two parallel faces of the crystal e d the distance of the:two rays apart, we have —-= tang. of an- — rial and make all the calculations ; and this too I have a ‘to do for the observations in Northern Asia. 112 On the Distribution of Rain in the Temperate Zone. Arr. XVI.—On the ig of Ham in the Pangea t Zone ; by H. W. D Continued from page 397. Ir is now clear that if the Trade Wind has unchanging limits, all places within its range are either continually within it, or about its inner limits, or lying just beyond these limits. The first would be rainless ; while over the second and third, for the whole year through, there would be rains. If the characteristic of the Subtropical zone is the change from a rainless season at the time of the sun’s highest ascension, to a heavy fall of water at its low- est, there will be no Subtropical zone on the outer limits of the constant Trade Wind. If in America there is any approach to such Sa acuta the consequences stated will gfodasily be prov On this account I have long been anxious to ascertain ‘the dis- tribution of rain in the parts of Asia and America on the extreme limits of the Tropics, where the conditions of wind currents and barometric heights are very different from those in Europe. Since | however the quantity of rain, taking only a few years together, | would seem to vary much, I have been compelled to wait until | the observations covered a ‘longer period. Except a few stations q taken from that excellent work, “ Drake’s Systematic Treatise; jseases Caucasian, African, Indian and Esquimaux varieties of i lation: Cincinnati, 1850,” I have had to collect the who ~ Going from the south point of Florida, Key West and Key, first, westwardly to the North coast of the Gulf of Me to the mouth of the Mississippi, past New Orleans, Natches, Vicksburg, to St. Louis, and past Fort Crawford to the Falls St. Anthony on the parallel of 45°, hear Fort Snelling, then the west coast of the interior valley by Forts ts Jessup, Towso Smith, Gibson, Leavenworth, to the north, there is nowhere trace of the conditions required by a Subtropie. Only on | lower Florida Keys there falls in winter somewhat more than in simmer ; but t from the north. coast of the Gulf of ico on, fully nine degrees mote. to the — than Algiers, this nowhere the case The | wantity of rain in the irregularly divided, that we mu servations, to deduce safely any rules. see that on going to the north, t diminishes at the ex xpense of t On the Distribution of Rain in the Temperate Zone. 113 what excessively cold winters there are even in these parts of America, (very different as I have shown from Europe in: this, ) i and that the direction of the wind here is more northerly in win- ' ter than in summer, while in Europe the reverse takes place. On that account the excessive quantity of 64” of rain in Mobile falls at Fort Snelling to 24”. If we go along the east coast upward from Savannah, past Charleston, Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Boston, to Houlton, from lat. 32 up to lat. 46, the more extended the ob- servations, so much the more decidedly marked is the maximum in summer, while there is also a less diminution of the annual ‘ quantity than in the interior, namely a mean between 35” and 5”. Ona third line falling between the two just indicated, pas- sing from Hauteville over Nashville, Louisville, St. Louis, Cincin- nati, Marietta, to Wisconsin, the same thing is found, the observa- tious at these stations covering several years. I have especially labored over the observations in the State of New York, with the hope that from the great number of stations and the frequency of the observations, the influence of lity h in the valley of the Hudson beyond Albany to the shores of the ohawk over the chains of the Alleghanies to the shores of the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario, by Mexico to Potsdam and Delhi, then along the south shore of the Ontario to lake Erie, Where the chief stations are Oxford, Cazenovia, Pompey, Auburn, iarity, that in the vicinity of the great fresh water lakes the aus tumn rains are somewhat stronger than the summer rains. It is on least in Toronto (Canada, ) in Fredonia, Springville, Milville, Rochester, Middlebury ‘and Fredonia. Here there is this peculs — ‘chester, Lowville and Mexico. ‘This somewhat greater quan- appears to extend only over a limited space, and on the ghts of the lakes even to have no effect, for both Ontario and rns ee nomy of the land 'y cultivated fields < ‘Tf this question can be answ nse as zone, it is in America. Does the soil 4 pe 114 On the Distribution of Rain in the Temperate Zone. vapor into rain as it did when covered with forests? We do not know: but are not the new ars supplying many opportunities: of answering this question? For the Tropics, we well know the” extensive influence of that Semciisinnz systens, called land eultiva= tion. The Cape Verde Islands and ‘the Canaries, when the pri- meval forests fell before the axe of European settlers, or were burnt.as on the Azores, became more and more like here rocks ; fer with the destruction ‘of the woods which clothed them and shaded their soil, those rains that fed the earth either disappeared or very much diminished. From. similar causes, as Boussing- ault explains, in South America, the springs in the neighberhoo of colonies of rapid growth gradually dry up. But as the long : contests which followed the liberation of the colonies from Spain, frightened away colonists, the forests won back the ground that they had hefore lost, and since that time. the old wealth of wa- ters is returned, aud just in proportion, the rains have rif be- come frequent, The natural inference from all this is, that with increased cul- tivation of the country, when all material for combustion has to } be sought under the earth, the continually increasing population of the earth, in its effort to maintain itself, will plant in natnre the germ of a period of death, when vapors shonld no more condense into clouds over the treeless earth, aud even the seed in the soil re freshed only by dew would lose its syst of a: or if it shoul shoot up, would slowly wither and die. But the world as well - and s ied tp abbas If the sun sand over the southern het sphere with its broad waters, there will then be a greater ext touched by the warmth thus created, than if it beam in northe limits over a broad solid surface. The vapors with whieh the 4 mospliere becomes charged in excess between the autumn all the spring = in the southern hemisphere, return i 0 other half year ack to the earth in the shape of snow ne and in excess eae the northern hemisphere. On the Distribution of Rain in the Temperate Zone. 115 known. Onur river banks are not calculated for such differences _ of level, and it is ruinous if a river like the Oder, which regu- larly proves the English saying, that a river is only a contrivance to build a canal in, suddenly sets up the Nile for an example, If an improved cultivation of the country has the effect of altering the fall of rain at certain epochs subject to the universal influences of the atmosphere, then the longer cultivated Europe, _ when compared with America, must show, under like conditions, greater conformity to rules in the distribution of rain than in America, and this is in fact the case.» The rain-curves exhibiting . tolerable accordance in the course of a few years, require in Amer- ica.a longer circle of observations, because single anuual’terms of- teu differ very strikingly. It is not impossible that. the coasts of the Mediterranean deprived of the woody covering, over their re show more clearly than formerly the contrast of their wet and dry seasons, and that in ten years of European eceupa- tion in Algiers more than one rainy day has been added to July. If the destruction of forests and the cultivation of the soil les- * , and the lady’s Vienna piang soon gets out “ountains, 90” of rain are. Within iny reach on. the | atorial currents change ly direction, ther vot supp , ssc inseam that the nearness of the east coast that which the sonth= t winds secures to the west coast. _ 116 On the Distribution of Rain in the Temperate Zone. In place of a sudden diminution in the quantity of rain like that on this side the Rocky mountains of America, there is only a grad ‘ ual change in the old ——— where the steep ranges do not come quite down to the west coast. To the rain-torrents which pour down along the foot of shies Sierra d’Estrella and made the siege of Coimbra under Don Miguel so tedious, there had been a parallel only in Norway where the mountains run down so sharp to the westward that the sea fills the transverse valleys, making them fiords, until lately the occurrence of that unheard of fall of rain which swept down in the neighborhood of the Cum- berland Lakes and excited such universal wonderment in Eng- ' and. They knew of course, that, as the captains in the North ; Sea ask one another if it rains in the mountains, soa traveller on the west coast of England enquired ee is ee it — rained there,” and got the quieting answer, “ snows but no one supposed that in enediah ated ‘ell "23 inches of rain, in Gatesgarth 136, in Scathwaite 142. In Treland, this diminution of the quantity of rain on the west coast comes gradually; but here too, there is, as Lloyd has shown, a peculiar- ity depending on si position of the mountains with referenice to : the point where the observations are made: a range of mountal to the northeast having great influence, but little if to the soulbse west. Hence it is that we find in Cahirciveen 597-4, and in Port- arlington only 21”; for the former lies, like West Point with 45-9, and Castlet ownsend: with 42 ‘5, on the SW side of high mountains, on the other side of which are Portarlington on the Slievebloom, just as Kellongh with 23”-2 on the NE of the Mourne Mts., although all these stations are right on the edge of the sea. This ditainttion-s is seen clearly in Prussia ; for the 30” of Cleve become 25” in Cologne, Bonn, Aachen ( Aix la Chap- elle), and Trier, 22” in Berlin, 19” in Posen. The Riesengebrigé of Silesia makes a dividing wall, which gives on the south side heavy showers, on the north side generally only inconsiderable — rains. ‘Thus the insignificant quantity of 14” in Prague becom 33” in Hohenelb, and diminishes in Neisse to 16. Still mo remarkable is this fall in Russia; for the 17 English inches! Petersburg, Bohoslowsk and Slatoust, become 1a in Catharr burg and 11 in Barnaoul. Ajansk on the Sea of Ochotsk, with | 35”, shows that here too the increase landward is condition iF Correspondence of J. Nicklés. 117 _ the southern slope of the Caucasus, there fall 58” of rain, in _ Katais 50”, in Tiflis only 19” for high chains of mountains lie SW of it. The significant quantity of 43” in Lenkoran, whose distribution recalls the Subtropical rains, diminishes on the other side of the chief range of the Caucasus in Baku to 13-4, in Der- Dent to 15:7, a proof that the source of that fall is not to be sought in the Caspian Sea which washes these places, but lies off othe SW. The inconsiderable amount of rain appears to show that the masses of air over Africa are unaccompanied by heavy vapors ; hence from Africa to the interior of Asia in the direction of SW to NE, there lies a waste tract, in which the evapora- tion exceeds the fall of rain; consequently, the level of the inte- the results may make the explanation more difficult, instead of eying or elucidating the subject. {We omit the tables, Which follow, referring to the original paper in Poggendorff’s An- nalen, for January, 1855, vol. xciv, p. 58. fee ie ai: Rr. XVIIl—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nickles, dated Paris, Oct. 30, 1855. pan ail _, Death of M. Magendie.—At the opening of one of the recent ses- Slons of hy Rcadanne of Sciences, t y President announced the death of Dr. Magendie, after a long and painful sickness, In another com- Unication | propose 4o give a jographical sketch of this savant, - Whose labors have done so mych for the progress of experimental Physiology, ‘of M. Braconnot was noticed in the aconnot.—The A : : May number of this Journal, and I now add a brief memoir of this hemist, as then a anes 118 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. Henry Braconnot was born on the 29th of May, 1780, at Commer- cy, Department of the a His father, a lawyer, died seven years afier, leaving two sons, of whom Henry was the older. His property was not large, but was still si ss to give ag two children, who were bright ‘and active, a good education. At that time, the education punishment excepting corporeal inflictions. Braconnot was placed in a college of Benedictines, and brought little honor to his teachers. The slightest misdemeanor was met with a blow of the ferule—a m of correction calculated to exasperate rather than improve, and espe- cially injurious to this rather 1 impetuous child. He grew more and more o in having like him a feeling of a ~~ he became the terror of his gov- ernors. His mother in “despair ook him from the Benedictine col lege and entrusted him to a ar de cb culeadeans noted for his severily 5 | but the pedagogue succeeded no better than the Henedintionsyy he sent | young Henry home, presaging for him a dark fu | Meeting with the Benedictines, at this time, they ‘expressed, the same opivion of his comrade. But they were mista n both. We know what Braconnot was; his companion in frolic bedanke afterwards Dr. Marjolin, formerly Professor Hf Ms Faculty of Medicine at Paris, and | one of the first physicians of the modern school. Young Braconnot now naire earnestly in chemical studies. He , spent four years at Strasburg. “He then returne dto Paris to perfect | i ication, where he attended the who secured for him the pe of. ie Boianical Garden of ne (1807). The death of his father-in-law now left to his mother a la fortune which ultimately came to Braconnot; his mother living u her death at Nancy. From this time his memoirs succeeded one another without inter tion. In his analyses, he discovered successively pectine, populi equisetic acid, ellagic acid, and pyrogallic acid. in 1820 he sudden! changed his line of investigation, and took up the products of the neous fibre by acids, updo xyloidine, = i: latine, a nsformation of wood into sugar— a work of the very highest i in mature years. wa the reverse of what he was in ag B no modest and mild even to extrao ec a = friends. His tow etn 4 Eng f he was_underst thought him of contracted m man Heat through the action of a Magnet, etc. 119 ‘ awh great suffering from a cancer in the stomach, unwilling to the last to take council from the doctors or his friends. yle, Diderot, Voltaire, were his favorite authors. His tastes and habits were of extreme simplicity ; he lived on little and had no diver- sion but the theatre and the promenade. He saw his mother Pepa nately married, and he suffered much from his father-in-law who physician ; and this may have occasioned his celibacy, and his batted of medicine Ie, ie Z roduc through the action of the magnet on bodies in motion. te Ths gyros cope of Foucault, described in a former volume of this it Journal, is far from having said its last word. The meee has just es- 8 eee tablished by means of it, the recent views as to the relation bet ‘ mechanical force and heat. M. Babinet announced the ahs to the Ac cademy on the 17th of September last with a vivacity and enthusi- "asm \ quite indescribable, and which was shared by his auditors. 0. bronze connected with a: toothed ‘pinion o of a motive wheel, which ndle and is made by the hand to make 150 to be turns per cond. To render the action of the magnet more ective, two ercury rise to S$ quite hoe to the hand. “ara rege ve a machine magnets, W Pi a public suecieal this curious saignes ; ~— 12H 12019 ; oat 5O}?, cane su gar and gluco: When nen different substances are put into a closed tube eontaiti« ing the acid with which it is proposed to combine them, and sufficient heat is applied, the combination usually takes place ; and on opening quercite, and the other substances mentioned have been obtained com- bined = oe butyric, stearic, oleic, palmitic, benzoic acids. | Chevreul in presenting this memoir, which he did with animal ual to ri of M. Babinet for the memoir of Foucault, said: ‘ Thirty nation of glycerine. with a fatty acid. To de liad this law, snes quantitative analyses were Sack which I then : thought impossible. Since then Science has moved on, and the proba- ble has become the ascertained composition. But Berthelot has gom@ = further. By the reaction of pure acids on glycerine also pure, he has : succeeded in fortning with precision many neutral fatty bodies—not only those before known, but others which had not been isolated. Glyce- rine, as is well known, has a sweet taste; and it was hence natural to enquire whether the other saccharine substances could be united, be sy nihesy to those same acids. This is the ares of Berthelot s rec estigations, which have been so eminently successful. = iteicons on Cholera.—The subject of the ete still co ™ uses) ea ae that persons. working in co and brass escape this peeteeer when living in infecied i ily In 1882, when the cholera was pre vailing at Paris, the tanners and leather-dressers escaped " nina en tirely, although occupy ing the worst parts of the city, Dr. Hube Danish an bo vmade si milar observations at Copenhagen. a, o yed “ue melee ae even those by cholera Baraca were of the putrid. emanations atle d..carrying the dead and diggi d sulphuric adele pl =rsal Ex) nat ae Manufacture of Soda. 121 ee or localities. The process now brought forward escapes these objec- _ Sulphate of Soda (SO%NaO), 125 kilograms. - Peroxyd of Iron (Fe?0*) al ht _ __— Carbon, ig The sulphate of soda may without inconvenience contain some com- _ Mon salt; but then the oxyd of iron and carbon should be proportioned r : . J ace for calcination is used, taking care to break up the larger ee The oxyd of iron should should be as pure as possible. ‘ as e first operation, instead of the artificial or native peroxy mm, the carbonate (spathic iron) may be employed, or the ma d, or even iron filings. But in the case of the last, the quar hecessary ne + be coke, or any other organic ill vary with its reducing prop- ary coal. : must be such as will combine with all : SFe. of the pure 122 Correspondence of J. Nickles. ® chloric acid and washing; for the lime would give rise to CaS, then CaO 80%, and then again CaS, increasing unnecessarily the volume o material under manipulation, and causing a loss of carbon and heat The carbon should not be in excess, as it favors the formation of sul- phuret of sodium, and because also of this excess remaining wiih the sulphuret of iron, will afierwards afford, in the roasting of “the e some sulphurous acid mixed with the ee acid, ‘The propor of carbon should hence be diminished until there is a minute propor- tion of the coh Fete of soda left conse onset in the blocks of crude ferruginous so Phe quantity “of the mixture that may be put into the calcining: Done nace at one time will depend of course on its size: but the amount * may be full twice as large as in the Leblanc process, since the BF ip es nous soda works more easily than the ordinary soda. _ For calcination, the furnace may be similar to that for the clenreous orehy The treatment in the favtetisert is «ike that for the crudelenicarstie ee soda, and the phenomena are nearly the same. The whole sofiens, bee coming pasty, and the fluid as the action goes on disengages a yellow five: then the action, which has been very brig diminishes as the flames become less abundant, and when the mass is homogeneous, it is finished. “Iti is then removed immediately from — furnace, er so ~ feo co Whee cold, it is a block in the form of a parallelopiped, ™ in color and more or less porous, very hard and of considera 7, sity. The surface has a coppery reflection. In fractu . flection oe a crystalline texture, and a greenish and brilliant Teflec now remains to treat this crude ferruginous soda, so as to off a one side the soluble carbonate of soda, and on the other 1 soluble sulphuret of iron. ‘The method used with the crude calea soda would give only bad resulis. In fact, the mass expands 0 action of witter, becomes very voluminous, difficult to wash, and a a liquid containing much caustic soda and also sulphuret of sodium. | The washing | wever easy afier a pein mes Raitt whi at jon.” lt is as follows.—The e ferrugi st an abundant blichtsly pu rulen this that in a few hours it is- reduc w hillock of bie powdered $ stan i . : is change is due to the sbomt oxygen, water and carboni acid, acne heat is given. out, which without care may rise even 101g ra in which case the vider ish aspe con E e of soda with 10 to aie But this high helt is ) Manufacture of Soda. 123 _ surface as it accumulates, so as to leave the interior open to the irand carbonic acid. Water then separates from it carbonate of soda, and the residue consists nancinatie of sulphuret of iron. Kopp aids the process by an artificial supply of cold and moist carbonic acid, as the action of the air is very slow. This process, which he calis “ carbonation,” is as follows.—In a chamber, ata height of two and a half meters, a grating of cast-iron is placed, whose spaces are one and a half centimetres. ‘The earth is removed to about a depth of one meter. The roof of the chamber is about two and a half me- ters above the grating. The walls have numerous holes for the passage and circulation of the air. In the lower part, the carbonic acid is in- t The blocks of crude ferruginous soda are placed on the grating, on their small face; and as they crumble, the ponies “falls below where . ee and rapidly absorbs the carbonic acid. A block k of ot - requires as a maximum a space of a meter, and the process j Conseque meters | 10, will answer for 200 blocks; which will furnish more than 50,000 =e: in 10 haar equivalent to 5000 kilograms a day. Ten fe = u ‘material when ready for lixiviation should be pulverulent, __ gray or blackish- -gray in color, and without hard fragments. Ji is w — ise a. course seive to remove the stony matter: present, wlainian 0 be lixiviated apart, taking care to reject the insoluble residue. The sifted cdion forms with water a lye which is clear in pri to ten Minutes, ho Iding a heavy deposit, with often a co ppery re s Th ARE NOY ts should be carried on een either vs “filtration oe <= sho si aceon of w: onpea uber ete Polen Vea nate of soda, the crystallization is often haste he residue, Principally sulphuret of iron, is ccsined on a $ surface. In this state, it alters slowly. It is dried by pa and made i into a brick, It is so combustible ake € below 100° C. when th of times, in transforming common sie : nav of. sol nee = Oxyd of iron gradually becomes impregnated with the impuriti ne Common — the sulphate of soda and coa oal, and it must then be ga 3 yet it may be used w ‘contains even 40 p. c. of impu- “When the oxyd of iron coo sulphate of soda, it is necessary to hk o the prince of th ure for the crude soda. It has been A ¥ experiment that : most iasenient are— ce Sa phate of soda, 125 vr, tees. Zs Peroxyd of ira al l vol. in 8vo, 2de edition. Paris: chez Hachetie & Co.—T 124 Correspondence of J. Nickles. d these proportions should be preserved for the subsequent opera: — tions, as long as the rotation of the same oxyd and same sulphuret of iron continues. Pe e same process may be used with the oxyds of manganese and zinc, but with greater difficulties, as the ‘ délitation” and ‘ carbona- tion” in these cases are more complicated. sonst ree SE a AC cueil des Travaux Scientifiques de M. EBEL xia, a seur de ela iene os de Sévres, etc., publié par M. Salvetat. 2 vols. in on Paris: chez Mallet- an elie ni arene died on the 2nd of - April, 1852, at the age of 38 years, having been born in 1814. He passed through the Gastceban: patios and the School of Minesgaed nall covery in his researches on compounds crystallized b he made artificially several minerals such as spinel, chryso solite, corundum, Brookite, Perofskite, and also gluc ina. e process which he employed in his investigations arg ‘domed in the work just published. His labors are presented under the heads of Ceramic Chemistry, Reports on Ceramic Industry, Geological re- pa Metallurgical researches, Metallurgy of iron, and Heating of Locomotives. Some of his labors rank among the highest in the acta world, especially his synthesis of minerals, in which he vised methods of making even some of the gems. His publications welcomed both by men of science and those int terested in the indubtvial arts. Lecons de C osmographie; par M. Faye, Membre de Ls LET, one de Nstitut. 2 vols. in 8vo, with an Atlas. Paris: ¢ —— & Co.—M. ‘Ponill et was one of the most eloquent profess had the happy talent of making the most abstruse’ jocteens to his audience. His work exhibits the same character tics. The sixth edition is just issued, and the sale of it is far from coming to and end. Scientific Intelligence. 125 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, I. CHEMistry AND Puysics. On the — of the vibrations of the ether in the case of polar- ined light.—Hat ER has made a communication from Stokes the occasion of an Siscamsing examination of the long mooted question » whether the vibrations of the ether take place in the plane of polariza- tion or at right angles to it. The former opinion it will be remembered was held by. Maccullagh and Neuman and at one time by Cauchy ; the atter is the view taken by Fresnel, Cauchy, Beer and the majority of physicists who have written upon hee subject. Our readers will remem- ber that the question considered from the mathematical point of view amounts to this. Is the a ee of the ether to be considered ae and its elasticity variable; or is the elasticity to be considered co stant and the e density variable ? the former supposition leads 1o the con- clusion that the vibrations are at right angles to the side of ek so ; the latter that they are in this plane. It is only an appeal to experiment which can decide the question, or rather it is only this abet which can throw the weight of probability upon the one side or the other. Haidinger supports Fresnel’s view and bases his reasoning bs og the Phenomena of pleochroism in doubly refracting crystals. e shall simply translate the author’s succinct expression of his ow bated a2 I. Let the object be a dichrodus crystal and let equal thicknesses of its substance be investigated. IL. The follo owing positions are considered as epee a. The vibrations of the luminiferous ether are transv diffeednt wave lengths z ordin color A, and on € ray or obs ndle of rays, £8 extraordinary a: is eae z€d perpendicular to the axis with the color B. Inference -—The vibrations are either peblicclag to . plane of larization or in this plane. , ante Hypothesis. fF 1, The vibrations are perpendic- ‘he venaes are in the to the plane of polarization. The direction of the vibrations of the ordinary ray lies in its plane. For all azimuths there is but one such direction of vibration. It is in the direction of the axis. 1. The direction of the v tions: of the b. To the same colors belong equal wave lengths; to different colors Ps +9, 126 2. To one color A or wave length belongs an “afinite number of directions of vibration, but in as many different planes of polariza- tion. 3. To an infinite number - lanes of polarization belongs a infinite number of directions of ibration. The ere are per- pendicular to each plan 4. The direction of eeinicn of the extraordinary ray is perpendic- ular to its plane. There is but one such direction ; it is parallel to the . A color B, that is a wave length, i is in all azimuths united to one direction of vibration. - To one plane of polarization belongs one direction of vibration. Sctentific Intelligence. To one color A or wave length — belongs atly one direction of vie bration. f n infinite number of planes of polactine belongs but one di- rection of vibration. The direction of vibration of the extraordinary ray lies in the plane of polarization. There is an infinite number of such directions. They lie in - aint pergende: ular to ye Aco or Bi is Pada to an infinite santas oad directions of vibrations one in each azimut To one ne of polarization belongs an infinite number of di- rections of vibration. (2.) Obdservation.—In the vertical zones whose edges are oclpendies lar tu the axis of the crystal, in all azimuths. The ordinary ray '$ polarized in the direction of the axis with the color A. The extraordi- nary ray is polarized perpendicular to the axis, and goes from the di- rection of the observation, beginning perpendicular to the axis, to the direction of the axis itself, passing from the color B to the color A. Observed in the direction of the axis the colors of both rays perpendicu- = to each other are perfectly similar in all azimuths and poss — the eA . Consequences and Hypotheses as above. 7. The direction of vibration of The direction of vibration of the the ordinary ray is perpendi ordinary ray lies in its lane. to its There is but one such here isan infinite number of such direction for e every plane. It is directions fur every plane. perpendicular fo the axis. include with the axis all p angles from 0° to 90°, . Toone olka: habe ene belong but one di ireciion of ra- t tion principal section only one such uch direc- It is Pog. eapitg to the , =n 0° parallel to the : perpendicular to the T o one color or wave er we : Chemistry and Physics. 127 10. To the succession of: colors To the whole series of colors ‘or wave lengths from be- ie B to A belongs, notwithstand- longs an infinite number of direc- the different wave lengths, but Hons of vibration jaclioed from 0° a apr direction of vibration, 0 90°. (3) Combination of the observations and conclusions in III, 1, and II iS. The same direction of vi- The same direction of vibration behtiog j is ie adacial with the same is ceinlisked with the same tone of tone of color or the same wave color, only perpendicular and par- edith, allel to the axis. In all other di- Wy 12. In the direction of the axis In - direction of the axis we re ‘we do ‘not see the color B because do not see the color B rien | the direction of vibration belonging the vit belonging to it ta ia to this color has a longitudinal po- place in all azimuths Rarsaciiculae sition, to the axis. ae The ¢ constant (or et The constant tones of color A tones of color A and B are con- and B are connected with vibra- hected with ee B in this tions, B perpendicular to the axis, direction | a the axis, A perpen- A pela to it, perpendicular to it, Hh dicular to i and making all intermediate angles coe it, 14. Tn the direction of the axis In the direction of the axis we ection perpendicular to the axis tion perpendicular to the axis w e the e color A by see the same color A by itera r "pariengjedlag to the patallel to the axis. we 15, Vibrations perpendicular to Vibrations eA ete a vé - the axis take = only for the axis take mend or A, Ba ra. termediate 17. for the color A the vibra ee place only perpetilieulas icular t Srlong the axis, and in Z azine of the principal sectio Mixed colors occur without @ a change in the direction of ¥ tion. 128 Scientific Intelligence. . Thesame direction of vibra- tion belongs to the color A when the observation is in the direction of the axis or perpendicular to it. To the color A belong, when the rite et 20) action on the part of the firs 20. For the same direction of = For nat same direction of vibra- vibration and the same wave length tion there are different colors and — there is the same color throughout therefore different wave lengths. the whole cryst The author gertcladen from this reasoning that the assumption ér vie brations perpendicular to the plane of polarization leads to clear, simple consequent and connected views of the whole subject, while the opposit e supposition involves obscure, overloaded and contradictory r nta-- tions. Similar spl niin may be drawn from a consideratior ‘of biaxial or trichromatig crystals. We must however refer to the original paper for a fuller exposition of the authors views and arguments— Pogg. Ann., xcvi, 287, Octo 1855. 2. On the shercton ue the Mellonids.—Lirxzic has at length re- newed the discussion of this interesting subjec ct and has established ef numerous analyses indirectly the composition of mellonhydric acid a of several crystalline and well defined melionids. Mellonhyd has the formula CisNisH2. The acid is tribasic and admit easily be removed by gentle heating ae maine a strongly Bey liquid which expels carbonic acid from with effervescence and when neutralized with potash gives orga i llonid of potassium. The acid is decomposed by evaporation — i sen a white and somewhat crystalline mass which is only partia soluble in cold wate ‘ Mellonid of potassium crystallizes in very fine silky white need! i uo be distinguished fro ae 1 than i heat without giving off a trace r temperature into cyanogen; ; double decomposition as & In conclusion the contains Chemistry and Physics. 129 2CisNisK3s-+18HO=2C12N706Ks+Ci2NeOsHo+3NHs. enna aa eagat acy a cyam. potash. ammelid Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, xc When freshly prepared, well washed, and still moist fulminate of mercury is boiled for a quarier of an hour in a glass flask with a very dilute solution of an alkaline chlorid, the fulminate is completely dis- solved. Ina short time, decomposition commences and oxyd of mercury Separates with a bright yellow color. The clear solution is to be filtered and a solution of sal-ammoniac added which throws down the remaining mercury as white precipitate. The solution after filtration and concentration gives crystals of the fulminate of the alkali the chlorid of which was employed. ‘T'he author represents the reactions In these cases by the two following equations. )_, HeCl 8CyO, Hg0-+3MCI—3CyO.MO4SHgCI=3CyOH15 | Horse ¢ +220. The formula | c S, ei “4 sity Ce NsHz0ed Ano! ‘ + : CeNsH20s+PbO+PbO o st discovery of the new apie = by Liebig appears to be preferable. aieal Blatt, No 45 and 46, 1855, Class. phys. math., t. xiv, p. 98-112 ous mode of preparing Alumi H. 130 Scientific Intelligence. jum and sodium may be advantageously employed in place of chlorid of aluminium in the preparation of this remarkable metal. The author recommends small crucibles of cast iron; into these the Cryolite powder is pressed with thin layers of sodium; the whole is then covered with a layer of chlorid of potassium and heated. The proportions used were 5 parts of Cryolite, 2 of sodium and five of chlorid of potassium, and the crucible was kept at a red ree for half an hour. The fused mass is to be treated with water in a platinum or silver vessel ; grains of aluminium weighing half a gramme are thus obtained. These are to be cleaned and melted under a layer of fused chlorid of eee or better of the double chlorid of Senne — potassium. The largest ‘ yield which the author obtained was 0-8 gramme of aluminium for 10 . eee of Cryolite instead - ; > er whit the pois contains. In many cases however only 0°3 g r less was obtained. Rose con- siders ae results as proving “ gree ae it will be well worth while to make further experiments with Cryolite as a cee for the much more expensive chlorid of aluminium employed by Deville. After pao his investigation he found that large quantities of ees ite ere to be had in Berlin at the very low price of 3 tha —per hundred weight. It appears that the mineral was brought from Greenland to Stettn via Copenhagen and sold to the soap boilers under the name of mineral soda. By boiling with caustic lime a caustic lye was obtained whic as Rose observes, on account of the alumina held in solution is well adapted to the manufacture of some kinds of soap. The thes proved to be of great purity.—Pogg. Ann., xcvi, 152. {Nore.—It may be worth while to remark that kryolite would be of great vabie’ ini dhevtaboen ratory as a means of obtaining pure fluobydric acid for mineral analyses. On distillation with sulphuric acid, a residue of sulphate of soda and sulphate of alumina would remain whic 1 of fluorid of silicon, in which case the quantity of silica in the eral could readily be calculated from the loss of weight. This pro to furnish an expeditious and accurate mode of determining silica. lime and magnesia could be estimated, if necessary, in the resi ignited mass.—w. G.] On the di methods of determining the strong or w pon this subject H. Rose has published « af vestigation which promises to yield resu! mistry. In the paper before us ss ifferent toward the salts of — treats of the behavior c monium and particularly toward first place, to the alkalies, aes fc Chemistry and Physics. 131 "represented by the formulas POs .2NaO. HO and POs . 3NaO easily de- compose sal-ammoniac on boiling. The same is the case though in a of the alkaline earths are easily decomposed by boiling with sal-ammo- niac is a fact with which chemists are familiar. Th i exposed to the heat of a porcelain furnace and has become crystalline in structure, it is quite readily dissolved after having been pulverized. Commercial magnesia alba and the carbonate, MgOCO2+3HO, are Didymium, and Lanthanum, contained in Cerite. The = ‘pr a _ Solved, and the same is true for Galmei, carbonate and bo ing com : ry slowly and only after Yds of manga and iron are in like t iss xyds of manganese, zinc, and are in like manner easily dis- 132 » Scientific Intelligence. He Ee ik cae ammoniac, and at the same time as the only one possessing @ different another notice we hope to give the conclusion of the author’s furilion hone researches upon this subject—Pogg. Ann., xcvi, 195, Oct., 7. On quantitative determinations of sugar in urine—WicxE and NG a instituted a comparison of the results obtained in the de- sperinasie of diabetic sugar by fermentation, by means of solutions of copper, and by the optical method. The general result is that the copper method gives about one per cent. more sugar than the method of fermentation, and that the optical method agrees best with the latter. n the absence of any absolutely accurate process it is not easy to infer os pst the investigation in se which of the three methods istobe fee eae preferred.—Ann. der Chemie und Pharm., xcvi, 87. 8. a new method of preparing Propylene. —Dvusacu has pre- sented to the Academy of Sciences a note upon a new method of pre- paring this gas which possesses much theoretic interest. hen a mix- ture of an alkaline acetate and oxalate is distilled in such a manner that acetone in the nascent state is prong into contact with carbonic xyd ad of also nascent, there is a decompositi the acetone and forma- : sia of carbonic acid and propylene. ‘he i rs ~— Cel 6O02+2C0— CeHe. produced at the same time, and the quantity of = Ai indicat theory is never obtained. It is very interesting to remark tha , h lute acid.—Cannizzaxo has succeeded in obtaining the com H7Cl by the action of chlorine upon toluol and the fractional dis' tion of the products. T he chlorid boils at 175°-176° C i formed. id of lb € ammonia and finally dissolves enplotely The solution on additio id gi ne precipitate of toluic acid. Comptes comet r xli, 517. 1 . On amylic alcohol. —Pasrevr P aiaiie the very i interesti ng ‘ covery that raw am generally of two chemica ‘muailas but oy, differen rev these bodies is active @ the other passive a [ of the former are active and Geeneat Chemistry and Physics. 133 tions of the two species differ with the source of the alcohol. The oil which is obtained from beet-juice contains one-third of the active and two-thirds of the passive alcohol; that from molasses contains about equal proportions of both. As the two have the same boiling point or of sulphamylate of baryta from the raw oil. The crystals do not differ in form or in chemical constitution, but one portion is about two and a h half times more soluble than the other. The more soluble portion con- . Separation of the two baryta salts may be effected by taking advantage i of the difference in their solubility and recrystallizing them 15-20 " « The active salt is concentrated in the mother liquor. It is very remarkable that the two salts are perfectly isomorphous, and that it is only the difference in their solubility which enables us to separate them. 2etween the two alcohols there is a slight difference in density, the ac- ty oil being about ;3,5th heavier than the other.—Comptes Rend De al ae lal . " W. G. 1. Ultimate Analysis of certain pure Animal Oils; by J. H. ALEXANDER and CampsBett Morrit. : Sp. Gr. at 64°95 F. Carbon. dri Oxygen. Winter sperm oil, 087971 - 0:76490 - 012150 - 0°11360 Lard oil, 091546 - 0-76658 - 0:10586 - 012756 Whale oil, 0:92000 - 0:77511 - 0-11430 - 0-11059 Tn mixing these oils, and probably all animal oils, no change of vol- f “ ume occurs. The following are the specific gravities observed al Soe calculated for a temperature of 65°-25 F. of equal volumes respectively mixed as under a . Mixed Oils. . Gravity observed. Sp. Gr. calculated. - Winter sperm -}- lard, Aa 0-89736 089735 f : “% “ec + whale, 089905 089962 : oe Lard + whale, 0-91778 091750" ult of such a calculation for the carbon in each of the above: viz., SpermO. _. Lard O. Whale 0. Carbon calculated, 076118 - 078367 - 0°75854 do. found. 0-7 epee - 076658 - 077511 _ The differences here between lation and experiment, amount- Je: of the same oil. These variations may, lly as covering the whole margin indicated ore, Dec. 1, 1855. 134 Scientific Intelligence. Il. Botany. € 1, Alphonse De Candolle: erogranMe Botanique Raisonnée, ow Exposition des Faits principaux et des Lois concernant la Distribution Géographique des Plantes de Vépoque actuelle. Paris and Geneva, 185. vols., 8vo.—We have here merely to announce this work, as one of the most amie that has appeared of late, and one of the most uot aks as well on account of the subjects it treats early notice of these volumes. But he reafter, as time and space per- i mit, we intend to give a detailed analysis of the work, and a discussion \ of some of the topics which it considers. ine ' 2. Flora Indica; being a Systematic account of the Plants of . Brit: ish India, together ve observations on the Structure and Affinities eee Ni Genera; by J. ooxeEr, M.D., &c., a Tuomas THOMSON, M. D., &c. &c. Vol. I, (Ranunculaceae ‘to Fuma- cae pe os latbaton of species. 4, Sum mary of the ae no te pee tanists. 5. h of the Meteorology of India of the - an p Physics: a “i vegetation of the provinces of India. _ two maps are many naturalists Por clear ont 3 the pre vailil 4 Botany. 135 ology a greater influence over classification in zoology than in botany, offering a guide to determining the relative value of struct charac in the one kingdom which is comparatively little available in the other, but yet may not safely be neglecte _ Qur authors assume €, aS most accordant with known facts on the 1% etn ens m the beginning, they first consider the effects of hybridiza- ane and remark that recent mst Hla have led to the following re- sults: Mb It is a much more difficult operation to produce hybrids, even under ibcivence than is usually supposed. The number of spe- P Sai ae of being unpregpnieds even by skillful igor is very his ¢ ee the artificial one. “2. when i fe hela is once effected, very few seeds are pro- = duced ; 7 still fewer of these ripen; and fewest of all become healthy 2 a to any A natural operation, but to ‘experience openings to Bifresng. spec ie: is The Aieting of hybrids are almost invariably absolutely. ber : t do we know an authenticated instance of the second j tion ) Maturing its seeds. Pa “9. In the animal kingdom hybrids are still rarer in an ar ales an are all but unknown in a natural one, and are al Per erhaps so some of these dicta are too unqualifi c y are m paopidets intended to affirm the r to he € points, rather than those wh said to be however, is tel y true ; and in connexion ~~ hat ~ ~_ egtinately noone some bota ansrg in art, and not proven if not ae cannot be assumed to have produced * is one point, however, which our au- HOD but which should not be 136 Scientific Intelligence. looked, viz., what is generally admitted as a fact, that a hybrid may readily be fertilized by the pollen of either of its parents; and that if h brid plants are occasionally produced in nature, they would ae stand a very good chance of being spe inthis way. In su co they are said to revert to the type of the species of the im mo ting parent; but would they return vexkelly to that ty inheritinggas they do a portion of the bloo te cognate species ! where,—as not unfrequently occurs—two or more generally well- enacted forms in nature are connected by cortite a individuals of intermediate character, is it not very supposa at two species may have partially blended in thisway? At any rate: hee is a vera causa, or what passe as such, which requires to be tak account, as has not yet been co one, so faras we know. This pra shies operated in the case of culti- vated plants, and contributed, along with other causes, to the inextricable blending of certain species. But we are not disposed to wn it plants rarely Sonny ! gor the possibility, and even the proba ility of the occurrence mu t be overlooked in a pst ciseuson - j the general question of the limitation and permanence species However it may be a lending pra hybridization i is far trod being a saadenanie, or siti most potent c of the variation of spe- cies, since “ the offspring of a hybrid bel never yet been sews to ss a character foreign to those of its parents.” And we equally agree with our authors that the known facts of the case, “ especially warn us not to consider the influence of climate as paramount in deter- mining the distribution of species or the prevalence of forms, as fficient cause of variati use i pate a so sayatie of se continued and ge r develo dowpestiction, it is not difficult to imagine. Our aut n wil li Botany. 137 arge portion of the Introductory Essay. € present com- the Flora itself, although comprising only 15 natural also an inviling subject for extended comment and almost a commendation. A. G, ‘yologia Britannica; containing the Mosses of Great Britain ind trelend, systematically arranged and described according to 1 method of Bruch and Schimper, with illustrative plates: being a new (third) edition, with many additions and alterations, of ‘The Muscologia Beita nica essrs. Houker and Taylor; by Wituiam Witson, Won: Longman, Brown, Green & Longman. 1855.—Next to the rable Bryvlogia Europea of Bruch and Schimper, we consi son’s book the most important contribution that has, within the ly years, been made to Bryology. It purports to be a third edi the well-known, and in its day, valuable * Muscologia Britane of Hooker and Taylor; of which, however, besides the re ‘Hon of the original plates, more or less emended, scarcely ‘8 recognisable. The work, all in the English language. ® pages handsomely printed in small type ion gives, among other things, a succin i ye comme cecium of a moss 3 snacez, and Br : ; the last comprising 88 gen- ‘or groups which have in view the ding to their natural affinities, but ppear to admit of as neat and sat- emblages in other closely related fame | whatever may be wanting in this re. ned, and ' finitions as sin factory de 138 Scientific Intelligence. ey is amply made up in the very full and complete generic descrip prize by the working Bryologist. glossary of terms not in common use — and an excellent al semgbiga Index to generic and specific — close se IH. Astronomy. 1, New Planets.—Two more planets supposed to belong to situated between ey and Jupiter, were discovered on the tober last ;—one by Luther at Bilk,—which has been nel whose R. A. at 9 3 m. of that day was 2° 25', and Dee. the other by Goldschmidt of Paris,—which has been called 4 which on the eighth of October at 72 15™, was situated in and Dec. —7° 30’. They were observed to have a retrograd about 15’ daily. 2. Elements of Comet 1855, I, (Astron. Nach., 961.)—Gi Iv are the elements of the comet discov ered by Dr. Schweitzer cow on the 1]th of April last; they were computed from the observations of ‘the Ith and 19th of April, and those of Hamb Altona of May 5. Perihelion passage, i 1855, cee Pas. M. T. Berlin. App nts of Leucothea (35), (Astron. Nach., 963. )—The follor Si planet were computed by J. C. Oudema vy rom’ ns of April 20, and those of Leyden of Apri a7 May, 0.0, M. T. Greenwich. Be O88 BM Miscellaneous Intelligence. 139 IV. Miscettaneous INTELLIGENCE. = 1. Eruption of Mauna a (from a letter addressed to J. D. Dawa, K dated Hilo, Hawaii, Oct. 15, 1855.*)—In a few days we may be called to announce the painful fact, that our beautiful Hilo is no more—that our lovely, and inimitable landscape, and crescent-bay are blotied out. fiery sword han ngs over us. With sure and solemn progress the glowing lavas advance through the dark forest and dense jungle in Our rear, cutting down ancient trees of enormous growth and sweep. ing away all vegetable life. For sixty-five days the great summit furnace on Mauna Loa has been in awful blast. Floods of burning desolation have swept wildly and widely over the top and down the sides of the mountain. The threat- ening stream has overcome every obstacle, winding its fiery way from its high source to the bases of “the everlasting hills,” spreading ina pa over the plains—penetrating ancient foresis—driving ihe z herds, the wild goats and the affrighted bird before iis lurid suming all ve etable life with its sulphureous breath, and thing but blackness and ruin in its trac 32th “ July, I wrote you on the state of old Kilauea,t and on he 27th of Sept., | announced to-our mutual friend, Mr. Lyman, the fact and the slate Ay our present eruption. Having made my oe pabto- ral tour I started on the second instant for the scene and the s eruption which is the theme of this letter. Our party noodeed wrence M’Cully, Esq.—a graduate of Yale and our present act- agistrate, four natives and myself. Taking the channel of the uku (the stream which enters Hilo bay) as our track, we advanced uch toil, through the thicket along its banks, about twelve miles, ok Resa we rested at the roots of a large tree during the xt day we proceeded about twelve miles ee for the | atioty the bed of the nro = water ven ng low During = » of the rill and the wild roar of the cataract, we n bed of ferns under the trunk of a prostrate ste and ne > We found that the molten stream ha 1 mi etrable, we proceeded -p. M., found ourselves tite than two and a half ful ee romantic scenery a ades. ins, caves and natural stream. Nor can I speak of the bees a 1B, ju align ‘our winding valley gorge, bridges of this wild and mountains have penetrated these forests and have appeared, of yee 140 Miscellaneous Intelligence. vet mosses, luxuriant creepers hanging in festoons, the ancient fore trees and other tropical glories which were mirrored in its limpid we ters. We needed an artist and a naturalist to fix the glowing panety and to describe its flora and fauna. Wild cattle, dogs and hog the very confines of imprevements within five miles of our bay. wt to proceed. When we emerged from the upper skirts of woods on the third day, a dense fog obsiructed our view of all distant objects. We encamped early in a cave, but during the night the stars came’ out and we could see the play of the volcanic Gres from the sum mit to the base of the mountain and far down in the forest toward Hilo. ‘The next morning, Friday, we left our cavern early, and at hal seven A. M. came ‘to the qos lava-stream. From this time to k n we red upon the stiffened and smoking lava. All this da the stream, sometimes on it and sometimes along its margin, as or the other track was the easier or the more direct. At night slept upon the lava, above the line of vegetation, with the hea our canopy-and the stars fer our lamps. From this high watch-lowe! we could see the brilliant fire-works far above and far below u dusatug fusion rushed down its burning duct, revealed here a by an opentag teat iI roc servi way in a subterranean channel, traced only by these vents. ard, these fiery vents were frequent, some of them t } fly or one hundred feet in diameter. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141 _whirlwinds would sweep along, loaded with deadly gases, and threat- ee ening the unwary traveller. After a hot and weary struggle over smok- ; ing masses of jagged scoria and slag, thrown in wild confusion into hills, cones and ridges, and spread out over vast fields, we came 1 P. M., to the terminal or summit crater. crest of the highest cone, w owe Late on Saturday afternoon we came a short only one quart in our can- ; There being ’ soon reduce ‘a single spoo each, and this only at our meals. Our food litle, for want of nature’s garments, our food-bucke 4 r thin 142 Miscellaneous Intelligence. lips readily kissed the rocks to obtain a little moisture from the fros' There was snow on another part of the mountain, far below us, but was not in our track. The fires had melted all in this region. « r ral wake some thirty-five miles, hoping by a forced march to reach it at night. At eight a. m., we passed the seat of the grand eruption ‘of 1852, and travelled for miles in its cinders. A little steam, only, issues from that cone whose awful throat, in 1852, sent up a column of ylowing fu- sion to the height of a thousand feet. . At the base of this cone, on the opposite side, the ground was thickly powdered with a hoar frost, and so intense was our thirst that our whole party lay down together and eagerly licked it from the rocks and sand. s guide lost his way, and we were obliged to encamp. Early on ceeetey, pe pat we were astir, wasderiag ine At half-past one Pp. m., we reached old Kilauea, where we oi — on Ohelo berries, water, and such stores as were Ne in our ar The next day we explored Kilauea, made some enaeucone col- ected specimens, etc., and on ‘Thursday the 11th inst. we reached Hilo, having been absent ten days. Kilauea is still very active, thoug intensely so as in past. " n the mountain and in Kilauea I took the angles of seve 2 senor one of 49°, another of 60°, and two of 80° each. og on ah mountain flowed down banks of scoria twenty- tl hirty sheesh ce: “the age was complete—the streams cooled in a pertenes state. Iso saw thin strata, say one inch thick or less, whjch had fic do wn the face of perpendicular rocks, adhering to the rocks ee p st and thus cooling. Will you say that I spoil my demonstration by pre ing too much, when [| assert that [saw more than one place where fusion flow nan angle of 95°—like the Indian’s tree which grew follow the inward curve in a pe. layer like molasses, adhering tol ted in ore a fact capable of entire deme stration that cur Hawaiie ay freely down every slope, from an angle of 30’ to + pes dicular—in the latter case in a very thi saw the great igneous river flowing - like oil down an angle sof 33 other place it leaped a preci- pics. forming a brilliant checade: i: But [lack time space to ® tell which we saw, and hear Hilo is now in a sate of so it ‘is still intial ~~ ‘stream rushes madly down towards us. It is now about ten mil . Miscellaneous Intelligence. 143 es dis- tant—nearly through the woods, following the right bank of the Wai- Juku, and heading directly for our bay. _Some are planning—some packing—many running to and fro and all talking and conjecturing. Never was Hilo in such a state before. And all is hushed, and solemn. Daily messengers go up to the fire, mark its progress and report. Nothing but the hand of Omnipotence can arrest its fearful progress, and save our beautiful town from utter desolation. Oet. 22.—I have retained this letter until the present time, to watch the ire is extinct, or that it is not nearer than it was two weeks ago; but simply that its progress for the last week has been almost imperceptible. Still eruption commenced, and, as full force, The matter disgorged as in former eruptions. We saw Iphur and sulphate of lime, are the . ed freely at several points * 144 Miscellaneous Intelligence. : We cannot determine satisfactorily that there is a sympathy betwee this mountain crater and old Kilauea. In my last letter I hase - “ d that the latter was intensely active during the latter part of Ma early part of June. Afier this the action gradually moderated il he it was dently forming vents to igneous subterranean canals which are carrying — the incandescent floods from this he active vent to the northern parts of the crater, sometimes overflowing this region and sometimes heav- ing up the ponderous Hepevakeanbaboors Strata, ‘like the surface of an agi- tated ocean. ‘The great dome over Halemaumau, is swept away, and a raised and jagged rim from 20 to 60 feet high, now encircles it. hot e fd ing of its fiery zone—or of that half which surrounds it, a to which the recent action has been confined. ‘This belt or lava zone has been raised from 100 to 200 — since April, Ist, by uplifting _: 7” 2 by successive overflowings. The commencement of this eruption is mentioned in an odfier letter from Mr. Coan, addressed to Rev. C. S. Lyman, of this “hed It is dated 8 He : Says: evening of the 11th of ae i a small point poe Sirivs, was seen at the height of 12,600 feet on the nort of Mauna Loa. This radiant point rapidly expanded, throwing off ruscations of light, until it looked like a full orbed sun.” ‘Th ng like ope * China and Japan. The communication related to the Earthqua Simoda, which appears in many of its features to have resemble which destroyed Lisbon in 1775, when the lakes of Scotland were denly elevated, and the sea at Maderia rose to a prodigious height Thus, tHalate earthquake at Japan was followed by a rise of th land wa ers of Chihkiang in China, and by an extraordinary gate and s ovbacian eval ion of the sea at the Bonin Islands. Th ; ance of “ w quakes in C nd of the high rednparitete of the Society were voted to Dr. a Ay ; e Miscellaneous Intelligence. 145 on” river. The mineral is sometimes found equal to the best American variety, and can be landed at the port of Amoy at $44 perton. At present, only a small quantity is produced, chiefly however on account of the limited demand that exists for it, as the natives employ it only in the burning of lime ; the smelting furnaces of the adjacent iron mines not being furnished with a sufficiently powerful blast to allow of anthracite being used in them. He could not speak positively of the extent of the better acquainted with the art inin r. Macgowan remarked, that at this time, when the steam navigation of the Chinese waters is ecoming extremely important, and should be visited and explored as far as pos- sible, Specimens of the coal and accompanying shales were exhibited, and Dr. Harland stated that some fragments of fossils in the specimen of the “ Under-clay” which he had examined, appeared to be identical similar remains of Stigmarie from corresponding strata of the car- boniferous series of England and the United States. On Raindrop marks; by J. Wyman, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Nov., 1855, p. 253.)—Prof. Wyman’s investigations show that ordina rain-marks are characterized by the existence of radiating lines around the circumference of the impressions ; which are caused by fragments of the drops, as they are dispersed, often impinging upon the plastic surface. rof. W e of sp The rain-mark is modified by the condition of | rikes ; if the latter is hard, or o | border. ue yman thought that rain-marks could be disti ray. . tomaceous deposils; by Prof. J. W. ing method of cleaning diatomaceous ~ s than any other I have tried, I re- 146 Miscellaneous Intelligence. . commend it to all those who may have occasion het hy aay specimens of the siliceous organisms in soundings, guano, , &c. Dissolve o the lime compounds, if present, by means of Sieve or chlorohydric aci¢ ydizing action that in a few moments a carbonaceous material as black as ink will become sadfoatly clean and colorless. Nothing now BEN t addition of water and repeated decantations. J also would advise the materials thus cleaned should not be dried, but should be kept bottles with a little alcohol, which prevents their felting together, at does not allow the growth of the byssoid plants which often wy water. ‘ It is necessary to caution those not familiar with chemidep ante using the chlorate of potassa with sulphuric acid in any ha than above directed, as violent and dangerous explosions might rest The uenc mals, (L Institut, No. 11 . J. Motescuorr has placed so in a glass tube a “exposed them to a current of air containing bonic acid, first exposed to reflected sun-light, and then in t He finds that the quantity of carbonic yagi given out by the the ya era light is one-quarter more than in the dark, other co ing the h there is a large quaniiey "of native iron Walter R. Johnson.—This instrument 1855, (Paris,) in an neti de Journal {2], xv, 263, and xix. one of great eae and utility ‘tion ; and it derives increased i of the gyroscope. r Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147 e¢ Royal Museum at Berlin, Prussia, has recently obtained ‘ne gi elie the head, which he now has mounted a stands, it is 90 feet | long. The bones of the se one were not tall of one individual. ‘The new one is said to be far more perfect and all the same animal. 10. The U. S. Naval Astronomical Eee ee. to the Southern Hem- isphere, during the septs 1849-52, Lieut. J. M. Gilliss, Superintendent, with Lieut. A. Mac Rae, Acting Master S. L. Phel elps, and Captain’s clerk E. R. Smith, Assistants. ia 78 1.—Chile, lis Geography, Cli- mate, Earthquakes, Government, Social Condition, Mineral and Agri- culiural Resources, Commerce, Be, ; by Lieut. J. M. Gituiss, A. M., r. Phil. Soc., etc, fligstwied by maps and plates, rapher, ar birecttverncd instructive Volume II, consists of a a series of ee connected with the re- sults of the Expedition, as follows: 1. The Andes and Pampas, an account of two journeys by different across the Andes,—the Uspullata and Portillo passes—by Lieut. BALD Mac RaE—67 pp. inerals and mineral waters of Chile, by J. Lawrence Smith. description of the Indian pnlanie brought from Chile and ith numerous illustrations, by THo ammals, (with a fine plate of the " Chbige phorus truncatus,) YY, Beeb 8, (with colored plates of Falco nigriceps, Psaracolius cure aa thilius, Sturnella militaris, Chrysomitris marginalis, Calli cyanicollis, C. larva ides, C. Desmarestii, Euphoni nis ‘ 6, 7, 8. Reptiles and ep (with aie? s of many s riptions of two species of Crustacea, Rhync . ion ‘of the eer jawanda’ c A, tooth and Aa ot. the i ; some rem + 148 Miscellaneous Intelligence. . labors ; and eminently to Lieut. Gilliss, who has carried forward his duties with ability and zeal. The Astronomical portion of the work yet to be published. We have room at this time only for a single citation, from Volu Antuco.—An hour’s ride brought them to a rough granite ri some three hundred feet high, from the top of which the view magnificent: in front, Antuco, black and desolate; to the southward, Sierra Belluda, a lofty, rugged, and Alpine pile, white with etefnal snows, down whose sides innumerable cascades dash headlong to the - valleys; to the north, a lower t = picturesque range of mountains ; and at their feet the river Laja, here a small but romantic stream foam- ~ ing through a deep g its volume augmented at short imerval by eyond i strawberries; and a little arther on, another fadbat they witnessed is glare, but heard no eae during the ni early on the following morning ascended a hill, from which there a better view than was sets from that to which the rain had nn th em. Antuco is a regular cone, with sides inclined at an angle of 4 is covered wilh snow perpetually for about one-third of the d The last segues forme | craters, about two-thirds of the height of the mountain er w-peaked mountains, without a tree Bom its pre ll the lake seemed lifeless ; ind ed when they arrived. There ms ike molten — but no violent t noi esemblin a rough road, as if broken Siete a war for supeaeey in the bowels of Miscellaneous Intelligence. | 149 “a Spherical sl ; by W.H. C. Bartuerr, LL.D., Prof. of Nat. and Ex. Phil., at West Point ; pp. 465. New York, 1855: A. 8. dds & Co. Th his work is worthy of the present state of the sci- ence, and as a text-book for the higher classes in ee it bas no equal in this country and perhaps none in the langua The peculiarities of the work seem to be these : immed of the geo- metrical explanations, to which we ae been accustomed in our Astro- nomical text-books, of various phenomena such as the tides, the stutions and retrogradations of the planets, theif pen and the changes of the Seasons, the author deduces the effects analytically, and the explana- tion is contained with great neatness in the analytical formule ‘ind their interpretation. The ele gre of the planetary orbits are deduced with conciseness and beauty, the more difficult of gto rp. made i in the Appendix aid: pit ial: introduced in the text. ‘eat improvements of modern science in ta seed tat are ber brought within the reach of every diligent studen In explaining the projection of a solar eclipse, ‘ih author leaves the u n eally possess in this work what the atiheor has endeavored to Present, “a concise course of Spherical Astronomy i in its relationship to Celestial pies of which it is the offspring.” Th very handsomely published. Several well executed plates of - ioaaiveale of planets and remarkable nebule add much to Its v alue and beauty. 12 maps and plates. Wario 1855.—The Annual Report oast Survey, besides being an announcement “id the progress of | y of research | apiled from t gents of the Universit ing } _— Miscellaneous Intelligence. Legislative Authority. 502 pp., 4to, with 3 plates and a map of t state.—Dr. Hough has performed an important service to Meteorolog; in his labors over this volume. All the various meteorological ob present number of stations is 62. _The Ta bles of each station are i en separately, for each month through the series of years, together with a seesaw of results, and comparisons of the Temperature inds, Rains, etc.—Afier thus going through with all the stations, - there is a general summary for the state in several fiferent, Wiles : me and abroad. Both their frequency at stations an of particular Auroras are mentioned as far as ascertained, and besias descriptions of some of special note. The observations of Capt froy and others in Canada are included, so that the tables hav tinental value. The volume isa heantifal specimen of typogr is every way creditable to a state under whose patronage has carried forward his labor * Wharton and Stillé on Y Medical Jurisprudence. A Tre atise on Medical Jurisprudence me Francis WHarton (author of “A me on American Criminal Law,” &c. Sot and Moreton Sritte, : learned treatise of Dr. Beck upon the same subject has long been esteemed by those whose duties as teachers or medical jurists. ha them to study its contents. ‘The present work covers all the imp t is a source of constant reare the untimely death of ly & c oF aint mind so able and well. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 151 15. “ee Survey of Missouri—First and Second Annual Re- Borie: b ; G. C, SwaLtow, State Geologist. 204 and 240 pp., 8vo, with Say plates and sections.—This volume is an important publication exploration. The state of Missouri is nearly one-half larger than New ork, and a complete account of its geology cannot be expected for many years. It is to be hoped that the survey may be carried to its the g to light its wealth in iron, coal, lead, other metals, in marble, build- ing stone, materials for cements ae he important purposes "of the arts. The volume contains, Ist, the Report of Mr. Swallow, 207 pages ; 2d, the Reports of Dr. Litton, Mr. Meek, Mr. Haven and Dr. B. F. Shumard, Assistants, the last also Palzeontologist. Besides the other plates, there are three we of fossils. 16. The Year-Book of Agriculture, or the Annual of Agricultural Progres: sand Discovery for 1855 and "56, Soke. the most bi ino gravings ; oe Davip A. Wetts, A.M. 400 pp. 8vo. Philadelphia : S he Peterson.—This volume contains much valuable informa- tion, and is calculated to eee agricultural knowledge bef € country. he book is of a popular character, and does not en ‘C Ee oo nai cbendiat of agriculture, while at the same ile vot s to facts in that line. Eesquiese Géologique edu Canada, pour servir a Pintelligence L c¢ te géologique et dela collection “ae Minéraux économiques e oyées & I’ Exposition Universelle de Paris, 1855; by W. E. al mberof the Royal Society of London, etc., and T. Sremr ber * te gh iene Society of France, &e. 100 termined ie on gives an excellent outline of the geo- The map, we have reason to believe, the geological r 152 Miscellaneous Intelligence. OBITUARY. Dr. T. Romeyn Beck.—We are pained ‘to announce the death of Dr. ‘T. Romeyn Beck, which occurred at Albany, N. Y., November 19, e was boro in Schenectady, N. Y., Aug. 11, 1791, and gradu- he was Shins Professor of the Institutes of Medicine in the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Western New York. In 1817 he was elite Priced of the Albany Academy, which place he held at the time of his death. He was also for many years ie i of the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New . He was — for a cultivation of the liberal sciences, bat is most widely k y his valuable treatise on Medical Jurispr a work whieh his passed “loath four editions in America, and four England, and has been translated into the German, t< TRAY LkAVES FROM THE Book or Nature: by M. ga =~ pict of the Uni Shy of Virginia. 291 pp., 12mo. New York: . P. Put J. W. Dawson: Acadian Geology. An account of the Sontes gical Stractare and Mineral Resources of ay on Scotia, and portions “i a neighboring Provinces British America. Small 8vo. 1855. — urgh: Oliver & Boyd. 3 W. S. Symonps : Old Stones; Notes o Sevens on ‘the Plutonic, Silurian and Devonian Rocks in the neighborhoo od «f Malv 12mo. Malvern, 1855. . AmevEe Burat: Geologie appliquée : Traité Sd gisement et de |’exploitation des minéraux utiles. 3d e dition, 2 vols. Paris. Picret: Traité de Paléontologie, 2d edition. oe volume, with plates in 4to. Paris: Bailliere. One more volume pack: the work. Report or tae Twenty-rourts Mrerine of the. 3 British J aargaie for the he held in Li September, lm don Moe 5 : . Scr . VIL, No. X.—p. tions of ne e Inv ertebrata from the Pacific and Japan seas, W. Stim p. 395, Rdications « of i species of Fossil Fishes (Cretansens and Eocene) ; —No. XE. new ee ies 0 ve from —— LeCo Ona new Gelasim bak LeConte.—Remarks on two species of American J. LeCon 405, on Artificial formed Skulls from the kneel World; A. Rezius 410, Catalogu summer, val \ 20494 — ; acre | cat | A 2. 4+ “| = + — }- 4 - ~ 4. —— —— fe ag 2 Rae oh 7 “ = : + = = nabs, 4 ° itt SHEEHS sage EEE 7 Sezesaza! 7 at oa a = = . 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CELE 10 | = ( a ty | | | | |_| a fot i 5 raidegetide ——] J ay a BE 7 SEO i | { + mie i Lh HHH ues iE is * f° Tae Pe | ) Same tHE EPPHEEEEEHE Eh SHE Mmmetauii: Gad inaeebassiitsiaiel HEH Tey ts Ter [ee ees: Get === z re mm SRE 674 q iis 4 weet ag : a - ‘a? - oo 4 . ; 4 a § we a - th : | TI as un : ee er > of Le ae Tr ReRE REC TR! aes 4 it em het pa ct wae af I ie | ie a eS a Bee “APE Ht SA 2 HEE PH ane fc 2 Ban eh. Si dl a “J ees Fe & : ia | IN Pee aa i 2 of Loe CECE Cee Net ee eee ma we c 5 “HH eect te CooL iz es a a 3 Se PTT rere 5 pte tah a i NE, bee Sat Cyt tt me SRRSR BAUM ne So "tT es FOAL pee Pt tt SSEcReERE oH 2 Hee CeR See eee eee teeen Tae coocer en : : 8 ee Stcaueeee ek F : HH ae tH Pee eeeeee| > | = ~ i an Be = 1 e == 2 4Ccoo HEREC EEE 5 ryt ee e “Ne J MLL eee dh | 3 TT int Lie A: I PT Te: + ; A GW AE ee a SE et > ea ie + mm S oe J an Cig A A Bs ad 5 a as oe Oe RM: i: : : = : i : ol NLL LLL ee ee at 8 vee He : aes = > SC CCC eer . ee ann = ae i ae eR eaeas an iBaERR a cl HEATH ae {FEE | Es GEES es t @oee 2 3 SE aa yi © COCs Pee . HE RECN oS Cee eeew ,~ ayo! +t tt po: Pty Bett te CH | S ake “ee ae 1 ro 8 bo et 4 | TTA « be +4 & Ee ee Terech 2 E . PAMERESRERRR CRE 2 © | % BRE To A, ia ‘ pst Tt tt eh Ss EEL RSeRe See IF: oS aanee eee : HP ee ; i [ a ch ie: oe 1 u | | C aa ) L. hes ae eee eee eee 3 é - \ = | re f | - f 3 4 | i \ i . : om Bee a SUS SSSEREEEE coco a “ | ie 3 ww . Ltt AT canes e oH} ; “H “FEBCREEC AL ie Port BEE z a rho ‘ TT : | eee aca as Reet a oes HA i ed ERASE +h 2 EEE EEEEEET HEH oa ee ae [I + | m3 Ewa oe as sateen + Pa t + Lt a rnckid 2 < E E g é - g 3 i d = : Pra é Fe ae f ‘ Z +i “ af + a Fi E ° : ° } ° ° ° 9 ° } ° ° 9 2 foo + ” Ps + ” re 2 nm SD ry a) AM 8 8 ee ee 425 we of or eee er ae aa H t i coer 44° | | | : | | if , i i | | 43° | APPROXIMATE COTIDAL LINES | of the Ao? Atlantic Coast of the United States rom 4 in gati in the Coast Survey A.D.Bache Supd! 4 ea . Scale 16,000.000 | 1854 | Ph | \ 1 | | 3g | | \ i aes \ \ 438° | \ } i } r A ea \ | | \ 37 S Old Pt. Comfort ! Note 36° Ei... a! @ Denote the Rccsincus Cotrdal Lines, é and the Roman numerals the Coudal xi “KE O& edi Hours in Greenwich time \. = Sy Curves gh 63 fathoms water \ 35° “Denotés Tidal Station z 4 \ 34° 133° 32 pee | [Sit . MATE. Provincetown St. Johns! | 14 55 I" | COTIDAL HOURS 30° Oe Vineyard and Pen nee Sounds es ssachusetts = be tine } 4 in | he Lait \ Te—— ? NES a | se nis 7 - : nti f 161 1 J xonomes ! Ri 16 23 : mm 4x" 10 Se ‘ oe jeff fe ca 7 al | ral ; : } } 5 ‘ J ae “ 1 & “a | ; at aoe, | a : at ! } I ‘ Bk $ : ‘ t { aé % | 26° Dat - ray * f ecGifese . =) | ‘ert z fs + to™ | ' ‘ aud, cs ° 1 ce STckanuck | tiie Sa Ps ca cae = i BP ae j \< 13 42 ty cata) eee oe oS ; . were) Sc ace i tas conset | ‘ | by ae | bo jo" l20 700! 6gAa' | p * Staute Miles slider 100 75 So 25 100 Py te Gs 300 400 See Neutica] Miles B bo 2 o 100 NY ge al 300 $60 Doo PL Del 8S ps APPROXIMATE COTIDAL LINES. of the Pacific Coast of the Umited States A.D. Bache Superintendent ae Scale 1 G00000 » Denote the approximate ie ( Coudal fines, and the ¥ 4 ON PT. Gth. th. rd. Note 1853-at Rincon Pt. trom January The observations were made in from October 6th. to October 24 th. oO 30th. to February 13th. at Astoria from August 12th to August 26th. aml at San Di. OS eciaial * a eae Sere ee i Hag, | ; : ! 1 aS \ eed ‘ ene -_— ercococoerre ay ? | oe F Ne aie a ale ae tag ee ee RO ea ! = ca Re i Ts \ \ \ a. \ \ 1 22"52™ Bist. Feblst. San30th th ON chante SS G zend. ORE 21st. BS. P Oe oe oth. nf A bE ney eet aeeeeeeee i mS esas seeaaechee® pause nennee peeeeeee reson Seenekaesaatad werd ras , gha,m a : ao ie ‘, ~ ~ ~ \ at 5 + os oa ee : as ' ' - ae Bis a ee * | | j 3 / 3 i | apt % F ee 5 eee Sided | Bena § H . c. 4 sais aa, ‘2 | i ad £ / / \ te oe ee nN je te 7] Sane u = a | + = ee "© at at _ = ; A & ' 18 nN ri yanerey * hm yh og™ abygm m any mera) ‘ hs, Po is Nog seal erased M4 Weeds ome weave er eee 2gh,gm HEIGH - high water of with m 4 oh een ~ San Diego, Cal. 1853 be 3 by on of daily i 1paris 9.8 8 7 f 5 Lynsay & HALF MONTHLY INEQUALITY IN INTERVAL. | Hours of Moos o 13 ” 4 e HALE-MONTHLY INEQUALITY er of Moon's Transit z 3 Hours 20 2 ‘i > 4 iB IN HEIC 16 19 INEQUALITY 12 138 a DAILY "20 un a9 iz 18 1g ze 21/22 23 24 25 26 2 Jones aah | RHODE ISLAN } ' ! ! ! } ! 1 wpcricuT ape Henlopen ‘ | : “a h Fal - | q ‘ ° He TL Oct eaten Me Sie nS Se ey ™ site be 3 ov z 2 = oa S 2 eas — Be 8 8 ex ) ® ° n fa] = soa es oe oe & . a $a feo 8 4 ae a oe ee ee ee eo 2 Se Me DN a} oS o i s a ~ nn ‘2 — o 2 & 3 2 ms | S - Sacer O = a 3 Sp — A f s a = aa i III © BBG.) 5.5. x: Sx, vo cacereerrts ee il See.» n 4 a ® : + } ; Y 0 3 = Been r —) : i =~ a! Ss 3 . r A 77) 4 = ae i % 3 3 | B Lookout ‘ape Be SY f . € Je eautort Positions of observation # " 1 1848 & 53 1BES be Gh f 50 fathoms water Curve of 100 fathoms do. Curve @ Cape Canaveral Section off Nantucket Island observed in i ea. a Block Island / i, u 0 Irregular observations North of Cape Florida ...do an OO, do. do The Temperatures are represented by the depth of shade. ree the darker for the higher deg | | | 200 4 | Statute Miles 100 Nautical Miles 100 i 12 dail > = SECTION oFr CAPE HENRY em Of © ie Ded . J — i 5 + + : SECTION o¥FF CAPE HATTERAS SECTION orr CHARLESTON Tempera tures observed at Position Na9 No.2 7 0 hy he Peattatd ae y, » Position No.8 No.3 Temp h Pry = OE AE No.3bis Tempera tures.ohserved at Position Noé £0° 50° 60 Jo Bo ‘ 2 — ] ee een oe F | Pms. . 190 pu Fms. y 100 ° U.S.COAST SURVEY ° / sth 208. } 200 AD.BACHE Supdt. } ! } - F en = DIAGRAMS SHOWING THE RESULTS i ; a } : of the 4a) + ; 1 200 a Ps ~~ 5, a | : ej er hy | | ; GULF STREAM EXPLORATIONS Sow } j 4 See : iL. _t = | { Krom ole bo z a SS a ee bea a aaa IS eee 5 OL 4 12 7+ oer | Tae: 36° Lat. 35°53'N. +1 48k eau j Fosition Na 3 } 523 ition Ni : a a | og 3 . Position No. 8 | Long. 73°34 W. iP, Ny, a 33° 58'N. WV. UVbservatiion made tess 6th. on Observation made ibis Sth. 184.6 1854 uation No.7 Long. 73257£W. ©. 700 ie 7 700 4 3 : | Observation made July 13th. 1853 made Juno 6th. 1853 . | oa « j | | | Toa 2 SECTION orr SANDY OOK ‘ : * ane a OO SECTION orr CAPE HENRY No.4 Curves of Temperaturn-. 1 the same depth No.5 Me: > ss of Te : "e: Si ' i . a Ba iain poe npera ab ep os pave es pati Sandy Hook, lean nar of Temperatur - at the same depth eran pos Pan pe Curves of Temperatures at the same ig se No.6 bis Mean curves of Ti he same depth = (2, 00 Y 300 £00 ocean of f 200 300 9 Naut. Miles From Cape Henry ms Naut Mules oe sel | Positions, | T 290 390. 400 Fositons»_ 2. fazitions) — *} + 12 | u 10 ee 9 ee 4 3 Temp. | | + athena orn - ste wt it a : | B | fy | | 3S | ae ; \ | | | : ee ee 25° i} ie ; hs | | : <8 » 200, 30084600 Wd. 8” 1848 PNG Ser Gears t 50 ” i 150 m - i TON : — i eee e ANAVERAL SECTION orr CHARLES : SECTION orr CHARLESTON ~— SECTION orr CAPE CANAVERAI ' oe” : ms ‘ No.9 Curves of equal temperature at different ples: cae of the bottom No.t0 Comparative curves of the cold wall “No.7 Mean curves of Temperatures at the same depth ee e.8 = ee ua sraaninigiue ee ee — Naut. Miles From Charleston = xe 150 Naut. Mules jo 60 - os m. Charleston bo wo 180 240 ec ut. Miles From Cape Cariaveral 4S 1 19 : es Se Bs * a] re! ‘ P Ee is 1 : Positions | & 2| 10 memes i a as i I ; = | x, 4 Temp. Fm shes bs ve fo* e Ba ft 2 ae oo VA ees 8 ae | oe YW i c . aa ak: be 13* 5 este eek, | Ree 200 | t — . | : aie < | 10° % fe Ost eo} | EEE aterm . a | | oO | 6? 65° ee = ee tl Wh see eels ee ee 65 pe pales 15 | ete = Pq _apet | : 60° 60° [ 21: Lt ere 2 | ~J | 5° : | fas! ‘ a aS | | Teel CS eee SS FOP fi } | : aw oe geen rage ibd | | i i Sa: ei I. ae | | ] 5o® i Ee ss aes | | | MeN, ARCS IS _— eet ee Sees | ae bot | oe Ae eee | oe | { | | i j + H | | | H q | } } 45° ely Coy eto —+—_ } : { i ' # T ——.. Be Ob ee Rn Eee ea Sears 2 rete ee servations -—____;—— if 45 | | : 1853 {———— Observations made in 1853 | | | | Si I | | i $ i . | | vee —— lo | Bent ee i eke | | dei oe Pie fs a ae coe Saeed 4. ee Was eae f - $$$ A. Mean of 0, $.10.15.20¢ 30 fathoms @ at pack bods as n mean ef S&W gia 0°. mean ef Ya aan 200E 200 fathoms mean of 200k 300 fathoms a. mean of 0&5 fathoms pee of 30¢ 50 fathoms ty mean of 150 & 200 fathoms ae O 51015. 20430 my tin tyears u 20430 r - TO 1008150 «+ eee a 400 ” : ee + 10k 20 »* d «» 704100 ~ * BO0kS00 ” 20h 30 ie z Fear ew caieontiepliaistaaitilatiiets ' U.S.COAST SURVEY, A.D. BACHE SUPERINTENDENT DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING EARTHQUAKE WAVES OF DECEMBER 238rd.1854 AT SAN FRANCISCO, SAN DIEGO AND ASTORIA FROM CURVES RECORDED ON SELF REGISTERING TIDE GAUGES | 1855 * Comparison of Heights at a? 9 * aq Vv}. i Curves at San Francisco and San Diego 9 o bo a ‘Comparison of Times 8 Fralins 18 )h saESe ee een Wa Sa CEC SI pasate asco] a p———-———— J ———— e: Ft. P 1.00 + 2 rt 4 2 A Ei} HH HEHE SOUNESGKGE5 SeeeneeeeRenaeee 30 ad 3 Y ome TH Be A hho Hy Ht { ae ee! 4 ve ime ‘ome! rt + tet + , +t + Sie - . 70 ; ww oe Toe id th ++. - .60 t T sensi gsaenagestes nies | a a a 50 t a a 40 2 os + ai ate sakt THEE ; “f : tH ei t = a as came 8: iam ime 20° , : = eee ARR 1 tT bi tH Tree ere 00 Err tetrt I DO i a Mean Heights ‘ ae r : Note : ‘ : : In Diag 1&H the full lines retér to the heights and times of the first ; sertes, the broken lines to th fthe second series. The strong lines refer x : to San Fi J i the faint ones to San Diego. In Diagrams C&D the ; : full lines yefer to San Francisco, and the broken ones to San Diego. 2 iy ig \ rf a er , ® Diagram of Oscillations in the level of the Sea: at San Francisco-and San Diego 1 : i ; bes ’ . . 2Hours 3 he 2 i 7 4 1 ‘i ¥ Es i 1 E: = we a 2 Hours J 4 5 we b 16 WW o. Be Ft. : 0.50 pa Zi seas a (gs 8d Sesliems ; ‘ : i [ { | , 00 t a Ft; ‘ ; 0.25 ; + : : a6 SM Wu wo a8 ; Ses S080 : : ‘San [ co rs ~ _ Fa — oso : --025 — = ; Bs 3 oy RCE " F eas, : as — 4 * * \ y i | Z if S “te - 5 4. a i. 1 — as | : - : | 4 ; A : Ps - z ‘ * < R ce r 5 y, | * : il . we p note 5 \ pe : ; / . : ‘ ; a - . & a 7 a a e=—* » 8 ee >_> SE SECT i o YALE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL. CHEMISTRY AND NATURAL SCIENCE. LECTURES. FIRST TERM. é General Chemistry, - : -° Prof. Bengamin Siturman, Ja. SECOND TERM. Geology, - Prof. James D. Dan eo of Building Materials, Prof. BenyaMIN Sui, Jr. gric ral Chemistry, - Prof. Joun A. Por THIRD TERM. y . Prof. James D. len dipplied to the Ans, - Prof. Bensamin Siuieay, Jr. nical Philosophy, - Prof. Joun A. Port. * SSISTANT INSTRUCTORS, - Jounson, First Assistant. | Cuarres H. Porter, Second Assistant. oe a Natural Philosophy by Professor Ou: D, are also accessible to students ent, dae lle with Poa above courses, instruction in Che ourse—(from 9 a, M to 5 als and use of apparatus belonging! to sie Labor ratory, $50 per term. t of sppemin and materials to be pucker: by - $3to ‘10 aii course. *—to Laboratory stu students, free ; to others, apieiian ee, = “ae ¢ Chemical and Geological investigations ‘generally, will be undertaken on ENGINEERING. WILLTiM A’ RGA Leo, Professor of Engineering. ' ALONZO T. MOSMAN—Assistant. three terms, commencing in 1855-6, on and Seoengid ont Gar months. n either of the above Depart- 5 hemes oe y, after being two oe —”" i. eee CHEMICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS, inure NTS, ETC. i] J. F. LUHME & Co., or Bertin, Prussia, PANTHEON BUILDING, 343 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. This well known CHEMICAL EstaBLisiMENT, has opened a Maca- ZINE for the sale of their goods in New York under the ie eae of Mr. H. 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Nou —— Pratique de Medecine, de Chirur dd’ Hygien e Veterinaires, ron ayec la Cale te de fesseurs Mice prope et i Veterinaires prasi ae Tor oa fran) § Svo. Paris, 1955, L’ouvrage e 8 volumes, oki -) qui paralroot ‘eas seston ois. Prix de chaque 2 00 | Bichat (F. X.) ‘hacen Phys Mecniredet sur la Vie et la pe hither dear en Sat view J du d’ ein Publigu ne vignette sur acier. vier if sh bar 2e ¢c com eae ay iss tice sur la Vie et t Tes Travaux de Bicha "‘ us err ane de Notes, ae le ur . eae 8, 1856 artlett(¥. On ¢ Oueican tion its Canses, 5 » retest (X.) ) 8v¥0. 2 ohions 1855 EF) Re Bulletin de sf nein dg Chirurgie de Pacis Ses, ese. Se hen Treat Maer oie cae ant VAnnee, 1964-1855. Tome 5. S70 oO ally. yt geet Ay of Warm Par Gkentenes P. E, ) Isistitnts cA Medecine | rtin (E,) ao : Pratiqne 4 de z Jean. “Baptiste Borsi erl, de Kani- adies & Coeur, 1) rches Otlntgies re Ly Accompagnes d’ane Etude” ~ Bouill apres les Lecons pooch ae ‘Genie Antique “ de ieee a derne. en, Medecine. 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TO CORRESPONDENTS. ie Twelve copies of each original communication, publi lished in this Journal, are itisa. ahe ed at the arse, of f the author. Authors. mend 4 specify at the —_ of — number of atra copies desired ; it is too late after the fo: ; . - The titles of communications and the nam es of authors must be fully given. ‘The ar _ eles intended for an any number should he sent in, if possible, , by the time = ne aren ae pages may be preoccupied. Rois alays foe gine tions offered, ha ee eee AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] “An. xvi —On a Specimen of Native Iron from Liberia; Africa ; by Dr. A. A. Haves. ~ ; [Read a at a meeting of the American Academy, Boston, August, 1855.] Pag 24 ila with pleasure that I submit to the inspection of the Acad- omy, a Specimen of Native Iron from Liberia, believed to have been taken from the tract of country bordering the St. John’s River, recently acquired by the New Jersey Colony. This speci- me ed in my hands by Rev. Joseph Tracy, Secretary es setts Colonization Society, si oxminnien and is physical charseiors at once arrested my att ae the African Repository, vol. xxx 0, isa letter from Rev. Aaron n P. Davis, # 154 A. A. Hayes on Native Iron from Liberia. it conld not be separated but by heat, and hard pounding with my largest sledge hammer, and a chisel prepared for the purpose. Lalso send you a tea spoon, which I made from some of the ore, ee which iu its crude state is superior to the iron brought here for i sale by English merchant ae gine I am told by the natives that — : it is plentiful, and about three days’ walk from our present place of residence, (Bassa Cove,) it is gotten by digging and breaking PC ge rocks. It is also said to be in large lumps. In these parts the — | natives buy no iron, but dig it out of the ground, or break the ~ rocks and get it, as the case may be.” The larger specimen before you, when received by me, bore on one side the impress of the chisel, the coarse fracturing of a tough metal, and marks of oxydation by fire. It was further identified by. Wm. Coppinger, Esq., of Philadelphia, as the piece received with the letter of Mr. Davis. Mr. Coppinger gave the specimen to Rev. H. M. Blodgett, who sent it to Rev. Jose Be hg’ whose hands I received it. Soon after I had expres- to racy my belief that the specimen was native iron, he nace’ before me a large amount of written evidence, show- ing that malleable iron, sufficient in quantity to meet the wants of the natives, is obtained by heating, and thereby fracturing the rocks of the country. The writers use the term ore incorrectly, as Mr. Davis does, apparently in the belief that iron ores increas- ing in richness become malleable. The metallurgical knowledge of the natives is so limited that they are unable to produce co} per from the carbonate of Te (Malachite, ) which they carry five or six hundred miles, as a medium of traffic; while their weapons of iron which I sa examined, show the characters of native iron after it has been heated and hammered. Physical Characters.—On developing the internal structure of : the mass of iron, by i immersion for a few moments in strong nitric ‘Meteoric masses, and entirely unlike the particles in artificial iron.* * The character which i is here pote be a hae value in a ree of this kind, mi ; consist of erg iron Sheed whick are mixe iron and nickel, and other bodies as lage The f in es crude ore malleable i ‘the differ- a A, A. Hayes on Native Iron from Liberia. 155 - Where the mass had been heated and had received blows, there was _ an approach to the appearance presented by artificial iron; but the 0 ike the best irons, yet showing the cavities and flaws, where Cor, Dor was there any coloration or change in the silver solu- tion. ‘The solution of iron was turbid, but soon deposited sus- _ pended matter, which was light gray colored, some heavy white — the mechanical s be ing e mec step of immersion as above given, but this is sufficient to enable one to observe ie the ve nged themselves as aggregates, or been broken up and *mployed, by violence: and often will serve to show the kind of mechanical action ved. . 156 A, A. Hayes on Native Iron from Liberia. sandy grains, and -some dark, nearly black particles had fallen. After collecting and drying these substances, they were placed under the microscope, which showed the heavier -bodies to be quartz, with some facets-and fragments of octahedral crystals proved to be magnetic iron ore. ‘he light body was silicic acid rendered gray by iron oxyd. ' Chlorine was passed into the filtered iron solution, which after y gaseous ammonia passed into it in excess. After being heated by a vapor bath, the precipitate was separated by filter and washed. ; The filtrate and washings evaporated were reduced to a dry mass, which afforded a minute quantity of soda and lime; no other substance was present. : eparate parcels of the precipitate by ammonia were used for the detection of phosphorus, arsenic, and boron, alumina and other earths and oxyds: a little silicic acid only was found. Fifty grains of the filings of the iron were wet with a few drops of perfectly caustic soda solution, mixed hastily with crys- tals of pure nitrate of soda and chlorate of potash, and heated in a nearly closed platina.crucible rapidly to bright redness in twenty minutes: no deflagration occurred and the fused salts were col- SS orless. ' The crucible after cooling, digested in a closed vessel with re- cently boiled pure water, gave its soluble part to the water. After subsidence the clear fluid was added to a dilute saturated solution ‘of lime in ammonia in one vessel, and to a dilute solution of ba- rytainanother These vessels were closed and left twelve hours aud then presented nearly transparent solutions, no precipitates had fallen, but both showed the presence of silicic acid. ‘Ihe absence of sulphur and carbon was thus proved, and other trials confirmed these results, _ Analysis.—In the following analysis and in repetitions, differ- ent slabs of the nretal were used so as to obtain an average per- _ The equivalent of ptire iron being 28, the deposits of coppet should have weighed 29-71; an accordance as near, as these eX- periments allow, when more than one form of matter is present. _ 0°32 the precipitate consisted of angular portions of quartz, ragments of crystals of m tic iron ore a and a flock of silice’ oi being heated and cooled, was precipitated in a partly closed flask ° 5 ee, See es A. A. Hayes on Native Iron from Liberia. 157 _ the microscope showed no carbon, by this, the most certain and - delicate mode of testing known to me. The slab of iron had lost 26-60 grains, The partly ferrugi- ‘hous solution, decomposed by hydrosulphuric acid, evaporated and calcined, afforded traces of lime and soda; which in every tase have been found to result from the solution of this iron. These bases had been united to the flock of silicic acid and they had increased the deposition of the copper, above the amount equivalent to the iron. _ _ -Redneed to per cent proportions, 100 parts of this slab con- - Sisted of Pure iron, = - - Sib ai ae f50 Be 98-87 Quartz, iron ore and silicate, —- 1-13 Another slip from the centre of the mass more nearly an aver- age, afforded in 100 parts, : ure irou, - e: + 3 - 98-40 Quartz crystals, magnetic iron ore and : 1°60 silicate of soda and lime, 1 . These little slabs which had formed the positive electrodes, had not disengaged a bubble of gas, which always occurs wher the metals of alkaline bases are alloyed. They also exhibited in their substance, the cavities which had contained the mineral bodies found. _ I was desirous of making some comparative experiments, on a Specimen of iron having the characters of native iron, as distin- guished from meteoric iron. My friend, Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., Kindly supplied me with two slips from the specimen, well known as having been found at Canaan, Conn. He expressed to meat the time a doubt, respecting the certainty of this mass being na-— ive iron, Roe fee. _ On subjecting a slip to analysis by electrolysis, it broke u ‘ron, iron and carbon and pure graphite. Reduced to Proportions, — : Pure iron, aE Os ee ee oe. _ Carbon, z z = “ Jee ao Tron from carbon, - -_ Sanne, ee ee 158 W. R. Dawes on the Telescopic Appearances of Saturn. Art XIX.—On the Telescopic Appearances of pier: with a 74-inch Telescope* ; by the Rev. W. R In the spring of last year (1854) I availed myself of an oppor- tunity of increasing the optical means in my possession, by t purchase of a 73-inch object-glass, having a focal length of nearly 94 feet. It is the work of Mr. Alvan Clark, of Boston, U. S., who has long been known in that city as a most successful painter of portraits, but took to the manufacture of telescopes as an am- ateur. Being dissatisfied with reflectors, on which he commenced his operations, he attempted the mantifacture ae object-glasses ; and succeeded so well, that in the autumn o he communi- cated to me the places of some new and very ie double stars, which he had discovered with glasses whose apertures were 43 and 54 inches. In the following year he completed an object- glass of 74 inches aperture for the observatory at Wiiliams Col- lege, which was tried at the Harvard Observatory by the Messrs. Bond, and highly approved ; immediately after which he com- mounted eae for his own use. At his requet I sent him some extremely difficult tests, selected from Mr. Otto Struve’s Pulkova Ca talogue ; several of which have a central distance of little more than half a second, and some even less. Yet of al these I soon received from the ingenious maker (who has also _ proved himself an acute observer) perfectly correct diagrams ; to- gether with the places of one or two extremely difficult new double stars which he had discovered with this glass. As a spe- cimen of these, 1 may mention 95 Ceti, which is at present fa- vorably situated for observation. Though unwilling to part with this glass, Mr. Clark consented to let me have it to try against my Munich telescope ; and in March, 1854, it arrived, with its tube, finder, and eye-piec “Though the crown glass has a considerable number of small bubbles, the performance of the telescope is not sensibly affected by that circumstance. In other respects the materials are good ; and the figure is so excellent, and so uniform throughout the whole of the area, that its power is quite equal to anything which _ an be expected of the aperture; and consequently, both in its _ illuminating and separating: power, it is decidedly superior to my old favorite of 63 inches aperture. As a specimen of its light, [ ‘mention the companion of v Urse Majoris as having bee mensily seen with it; and also that I have never seen Sat- ( tolerable circumstances during the present apparition Direct sate Enceladus, even when at or very near his con- * Extracted from the Monthly Ni of for tae Sass. ” pd eran gage en ipa W. R. Dawes on the Telescopic Appearances of Saturn. 189 _ junctions with the planet. When exterior to a tangent to the ex- _tremity of the ring, this satellite has frequently been perceived as soon as my eye was applied to the telescope. Last spring it _ Was seen several times in strong twilight ; for instance, on March 16th, 17th, and 20th, at about 7" G. M. T. In separating power, the glass is competent to divide a sixth-magnitnde star composed of two equal stars, whose central distance is °/”-6. Ihave thought it proper to premise thus much respecting the performance of the telescope, that a correct idea may be formed as to the degree of dependence to be placed upon the views it has afforded me of Saturn ; the special subject of my present communication, to which I will now proceed. l. The outer Ring A.—The interior edge of this ring is de- cidedly its brightest part: its light rapidly fades away towards the middle, where there is a very dark, narrow, well-defined line concentric with the ring, and about one-fifth of its breadth by careful estimation. This line has been always seen when the air was in a tolerably good state, and much more readily than last year. On the 26th of November, 1854, it was traced more than half Way round towards the ball, and was equally well seen at both anse, I have recorded on 10th January, 1855, “I am sur- prised at the positiveness of the dark line near the middle of this Ting. It was well seen with every power from 355 to 1000.” This is now the fourth apparition of Saturn in which I have no- ticed this dark line, and it does not appear to me to have varied 10 its position on the ring, or in its breadth and depth of shade. - The interior bright Ring, B.—The concentric shaded bands on this ring have been on two or three of the most favorable oc- fasions very well brought out. On this appearance I find the following notes in my journal :— : “1854, Nov. 26. “The ring B is decidedly in stripes, and they are not regulurly darker from the exterior one inwards. About Very bright ; then a narrow stripe is lightly shaded ; immed i ae stiis ns ia. 8 and then a much darker one extending nearly to the interior edge, Where there is a very narrow bright line, far less decided than it Was in 1851 and 1852,” i oa "Dec. 7, By brief views the step-like character of the shad- “ 1855, ious 10. The bands of shading towards the interior ra of this ring are occasionally well brought out ; and I think Me : least in some parts of it, for 1 doubt if itbe quite uniform. The interior edge is visible, but is not, I think, *° bright as it was in the two previous apparitions.” one-fifth of the breadth of the ring, from its exterior etn ( = exterior fifth; next to that is a considerably darker stripe, 160 W. R. Dawes on the Telescopic Appearances of Saturn. 3. The obscure semi-transparent Ring ©, has been very well seen on several occasions ; and I have noticed reat remarkable ted about it except the occasional variations of its tint in different — rts. ; Respecting this I have recorded as atone — “ 1854, Sept. 26. The dark me is plainly seen, and appears to-night of the same tint at both ansee. Its semi-transparency 1s _ very obvious across the ball, the me of which can at times be i distinctly traced down to the inner edge of ring B.” The dark ring is remarkably clear: the following end is ruddier than the preceding. 4 “ 1855, Jan. 10. The ring C is wonderfully well seen in gen- eral: rather ruddy on the preceding side, slate-colored on the fol- lowing side. ‘The ball is seen plainly, though faintly, through ite The southern boundary of the broad dark belt, which is imme- diately south of the equator, is not uniform, or parallel to its northern edge. Tho belt therefore, varies in breadth in different parts, and ig at present (135 45™ G. M. T. ) broadest near the east- ern edge of the ball. There is a very narrow light line seen in- terruptedly crossing the belt from east to west, a little south of its middle. ‘The rest of the southern hemisphere is nearly uni- form in color, except that round the south pole is a belt o rather darker tint, and at about 40° of — latitude there is a very uar- ate belt less dark than the polar one.” “Dec. 7. The annexed — i ‘Cin sie journal) ‘shows the form of the shadow of the ball on the ring B. It does not ex- tend to the ring Aat all; but think a sites small mie (2+) of the southern edge we ‘the ball is projected upon “Dec. 16, 124 30°+G. M. T. The sonth pole, or rather the most southerly part as the ball, is very dark,—much darker than _ the ring A, and [ think rather darker than the broad belt near the “equator. This renders the contrast with the small visible por- tions of its shadow less evident. I feel pretty sure that the south- ern edge of the ball encroaches a trifle on the ring A, There are ho distinct and well defined belts on the ball now. “1855, Jan. 10, 99+ G. M. T. The whole = the southern hemisphere of the ball is ruddy, and the parts near the ih oon ‘and at Hee — edge are the darkest. Examined v very care and en- ANS ss j ; | : W. R. Dawes on the Telescopic Appearances of Saturn. 161 a croaches 0:2 or 03 on the ring A.. By carrying my eye across from the black division on one side to the other, I can see that, if continued in an uninterrupted line, it would cut of a thin slice from the edge of the ball. With very high powers (705 to 1000) the difference of color of the southern edge of the ball, and the ring A at that point is more marked than with the lower powers ; and long scrutiny with them confirms my impression that the ball encroaches slightly on A.” *10 36"+G. M. T. Applied an excellent Huygenian eye- piece, giving power 860. It is admirable. The difference of color of the southern edge of the ball and ring A is obvious; and there is no doubt at all of the slight encroachment of the ball on its interior edge. Finding the light of the planet produce avery unfavorable effect upon my eye while endeavoring to es- timate the degree of encroachment of the ball on A, it occurred tome to apply my solar eye-piece for the purpose of excluding the rest of the ball and rings, and leaving visible only the south- ern portion of the ball and the adjacent portion of the rings A and B. Power 506 (the highest, a double-convex lens). The effect is admirable. My eye having rested upon it for some time, the outline of the southern edge of the ball was far more dis- tinetly seen than before, and leaves no doubt of its encroaching on the interior edge of A, to about 0’°3 by careful estimation. At times a little mottling can be discerned very near the southern limb of the ball. Its color is very different from that of ring A; and it completely interrupts the black division which comes sharply up to the ball on both sides of it.” 5. The Shadow of the Ball on Ring B. On this appearance Thave noted as follows :— ; “1854, Sept. 26. The shadow of the ball on ring B is nearly a straight line.” On Sept. 29 the projecting 1. . * ball ; me oy : cutting off the acute point of the ring B intercepted between the Which the appearance is much exagg ; of the ball on rin i wu lo g Bis really a i on line, though nearly so. seems to a little curved ver towards the ball. 26 Np Srnies, Vol. XXI, No. 62,—March, 1856. 2) SO hg > 2) 162 W.R. Dawes on the Telescopic Appearances of Saturn. “Noy. 26. Only a very narrow line of shadow from the ball falls on the west side, but there is a curious atigular projection in the shadow on both the west and east sides of the apex of the ball.” ‘Dec. 7. The annexed sketch shows the form of the shadow ey ET rag naa B Bali of the bail upon we = ” (Exaggerated in the sketch as respects _ the size of the sha 6. The Satellites. pe have usually estimated Tethys to be brighter than one, even when it has been nearer to the pres 4, M. T., when both the satellites were near their Hectiey western elonga- tion. At Lith 19™ G.M.T., Dione, ; Tethys, and Enceladus, formed an eater Shes sonth-preceding of the ring, thus,— In No. 929 of the Astron. Nachrichten, is a most interesting account by Professor Secchi of the appearance of Suturn in the Manich equatorial refractor, recently erected at the we at Rome. The dimensions of the telescope are the same those of the Dorpat refractor, the aperture of the chee being 9 Paris inches. The Professor characterizes the night of Nov. 19 as one of extraordinary excellence, and doing full justice marked that a dark Sigs precisely similar to this in appearance rea situation, was seen on the northern surface this ring, in the year 1838, by pote Bnet and by Mr. Las- sell and myself in 1842 (when we were not aware of —— o thts It may not be a division in the ring, as 1 i supposed to be; but, if it is not, it is cucrahiessaselaa that precisely the same appearance should exist on both surfaces of the ring, aud should be, as it would seem, a secon a8 pr grgred respect of its situation on the ring, and icine * e W. R. Dawes on the Telescopic Appearances of Saturn. 163 Professor Secchi has also described the step-like concentric bauds of shading on ring B, exactly as they were described b: the advantageous use of high powers; aud my snbsequent ob- servations, under much better circumstances, and especially on the L0th of this month, convinced me that my first impresston Was erroneons, or that a change to a considerable, and in fact un- accountable, amonnt had taken : ; “he first satellite of Saturn (now usually called Mimas) is Slated by Professor Seechi to have been seen on November 19th, hear its great western elongation ; having been found by putting, the planet nearly ont of the field, aud afterwards seen steadily z With the planet in full view. It is surprising that he does not mention Enceladus, which must have been close to Mimas at that time, if the latter occupied the place indicated. As my tel- escope has not shown me Mimus, I cannot say where that satel- lite might have heen; bunt my own observations prove that En- Celadus occupied precisely the situation which the Professor has — ascribed to Mimas ; and TL eannot but think it probable that far- ther observations may have convinced him that it was not the Jirst, but the second, satellite which he saw. _ the bright zone on the ball, which commences almost pre- cisely at the equator, aud extends uorthwards as far as the ring Permits it 10 be seen, forms one of the most conspicuous features Of the planet. It has been repeatedly referred to by Professor Secchi, as caused by the reflection of the sun’s light from the sur- face of the ring. ‘Tivo considerations seem to me to be qnite — Conclusive against its arising at all from that cause. One is, that this bright zone occnpied precisely the same situation, aud was very conspicuous, when the plane of the ring passed through the . Sess “ Remarks on the Planet Saturn,” by the Astrono- ~Mer Royal, in the Greenwich Observations for 1844, p. 44.) 164 H. Rose on a new mode of preparing Aluminium. The other js, that the reflection of the sun’s light from, the south- ern surface of the ring, which now receives it, must necessarily fall upon the souéhern hemisphere of the ball, which has been remarkably dark ever since the southern surface of the ring has ‘been illuminated ; while the bright zone lies wholly in the north- ern hemisphere. The remarkable obscurity of the southern hemisphere at the present time seems to indicate that the effect of the reflection from the surface of the ring is quite inapprecia- ble as seen from the earth. Wateringbury, Jan. 11, 1855. Postscript.—“ Jan. 14. The night proving fine, I again care- fully examined Saturn, and made the following entry in my journal :— “¢ 12h 45m G.M.T. Saturn is very fine at times, though about 335 past the meridian. It bears 705 very well; and with this power I have no doubt of the southern edge of the ball extend- ing over the division between A and B, and encroaching a trifle on the interior edge of A. With low powers (355 or less) there is sometimes an appearance of the division extending across; but Iam persuaded that this arises from the combined effect of the division coming up on each side so near the apex, aud the very deep tint of the apex itself, which I think is darker than the darkest part of the broad belt close to the equator of the planet. It is certainly much darker than the ring A.’” Arr. XX.—On a new and advantageous mode of preparing Aluminium ; by Prof. H. Rose. [Translated and read before the National Institute, Washington, D. @., Oct. 5, 1855, by J. Tyssowsx1, U. J. Dr.* _ Since the discovery of Aluminium by Wahler, Déville has re- cently tanght us a method of obtaining it in larger connected masses, in which this metal shows qualities, which had not been observed in the metal as obtained in the form of a powder by the process of Wohler. While in the latter form it burns with great brightness toa white clay, it may be, if fused into larger balls, heated to redness, without perceptibly oxydizing. These _ differences may be attributed to finer division and greater den- _ Sity, although according to Déville, Wéhler’s metal contains Some platinum which accounts for its less fusibility. After the publication of Déville’s investigations I tried also fo means of an additional dose of sodium. I did not follow en- tiely the method of Déville, but stratified the salt with ; | * Poggendorff’s Annalen, vol. xevi, page 152. H, Rose on a new mode of preparing Aluminium. 165 sodium and then applied heat. I however obtained no satisfac- tory results. Rammelsberg also followed closely the method o Deville but obtained no good results; moreover he was seldom able to prevent the bursting of the glass-tubes with which he ex- perimented in consequence of the action of the vapors of sodium upon the chlorid of aluminium. It appeared to me that consid- erable time, labor, expense and long experience would be neces- sary in order to obtain even small quantities of this remarkable metal. The application of chlorid of aluminium and its compounds with the alkaline chlorids, is particularly objectionable for the reason that they are volatile, attract moisture very readily, and therefore the access of air must be prevented when treating them with sodium. I therefore early thought of substituting for the chlorid of aluminium the flnorid of aluminium, or rather the compounds of the latter with alkaline fluorids and which are known to us from the investigations of Berzelius. Berzelius pointed out the strong affinity of fluorid of aluminium for fluorid of potassium and fluorid of sodium, and that the eryolite occurring in nature is a ptire combination of the fluorid of aluminium with the fluorid of sodium. A short time since, I returned to them, on having obtainec through Mr. Krantz in Bonn, a considerable quantity of the 166 H. Rose on a new mode of preparing Aluminium, at three Prussian dollars per cwt. Samples of 40 lbs. had been handed to the soap-inanofacturers of this place: aud in faet by treating them with burnt lime, a soda-ley was prepared from it, which probably froma its very admixture on alumina proved very superior for the manufacture of certain s I recognised in this powder the mineral phe of the same purity as the crystals obtained through Mr. Krantz. It dissolved perfectly (in a platinum vessel) and “without leaving any wsoln- — ble matter in hydrochloric acid ; the solution evaporated with sulphuric acid to dryness, showed a deposit, which heated to the’ expulsion of the free sulphuric acid. proved perfectly soluble in water with the aid of some hydrochloric acid. In the solution, a considerable precipitate of alamina was obtained by ammonia. A filtered solntion thereof gave after evaporation and heating a deposit of sulphate of soda, which contained no potassium. Be- sides this, the powder showed the kuown reactions of fluorine in a very high degree, This powder is therefore cryolite of great purity. Still the coarse powder which | obtained at first, was not the original form in which it comes in commerce. The eryolite arrives here in Berlin iu large masses. For the purpose of preparing aluminium it must be reduced however toa very fine powder, n my experiments for the preparation of the metal which I made conjointly with Mr. Weber and with important aid from him, I have used, thus far, for the most part, small iron crucibles 1? inches high, and 12 iuchas oe ih which I had cast ina foundery of “this lace. In these [I stratified the fine cryolite powder with thin layers of sodinm, seein the whole preity strongly, and covered it with a good cover of chlorid of potas- sim, and the crucible with a well fitting porcelain cover. Of all the fluxes, I found the chlorid of potassium the most sears geous; it has the least specific gravity, which in view of the ery. small density of the aluminium is of great consequence. ides it fuses with the flnorid of sodinm to a mass more fusi- ble than the latter alone, I usually employed equal proportions of chlorid of potassium and of eryolite, and for five parts of the latter [ took two parts of sodium. Ten grams of cryolite powder ee auswered the best for the crucible. [he ‘The whole was then exposed to a powerful red heat, by means ofa blowing apparatus, in which atmospheric air aud iluminating gas is foreed through pipes constructed after the principle of ~ wis pipe in the explosive gas-blowpipe apparatus. It appe to be the: best to continue the red heat during half an hour aul longer, keeping all the time the crucible carefully closed. Seawhiie the whole is well fused. After cooling, the contents of the crucible are best cleared by means of a feller. which ope- ration may be facilitated by gentle blows with on the H. Rose on a new mode of preparing Aluminium. 167 outside of the crucible. The crucible may be nsed repeatedly or new operations; thongh fivally it will fall to pieces, in con- sequence of the blows applied. The fused mass is treated with water. Usually no gases or only inconsiderable and hardly perceptible quantities of gas are evolved. The small amount of hydrogen given out has the same Unpleasant odor as the gas forming during the solution of iron in hydrochloric acid. ‘The carbon comes from the minute portion of naphtha which adheres to the sodium even after drying. ry a —_ ra) 2) = @ yn ) = = & Qu mM 2) S Q = = ar] a ts] -_ D = = = gQ 2 a ts) <<} he sinall globules of aluminium can be fused together ina small covered porcelain crucible under a cover of chlorid of po- tassium by means of a blow sipe. Attempts to unite them with- out the use of the crucible never succeed. ‘I'he small globules lost by fusion under chlorid of potassinm 0-05 er of potassium after being dissolved in water, did not show any alumina, a> small quantity of which however separated undis- & solved. Another part of aluminium unquestiovably decomposed 168 H. Rose on a new mode of preparing Aluminium. must have volatilized by the fusion. stevia metals comport them- selves similarly, as copper and even silv In this way the loss ¥ metal is none or very minute, at the most only a few milligram If the aluminium is i sale’ under a cover of chlorid of potadae sium, its surface is not thoroughly even, but shows minute exca-_ vations, which is oe the case if it is melted under chlorid of alu- minium and sodiu he quantities wg chlorid of aluminium and sodium to be em- ployed for this purpose, are most easily prepared by bringing the mixture of alumina and charcoal ina glass tube of as large a oa diameter as possible, and by introducing in it another glass tube . _-open at both ends of a smaller diameter filled with pulverized ta- ble-salt. By heating the space containing the mixture of alumina — and charcoal very strongly, and that which contains the chlorid of sodium less, while passing the chlorine gas through the tube, the vapors of the chlorid of aluminium will be abso orbed sO ea- gerly by the chlorid of sodium, that no chlorid of aluminium or only a trace of it deposits on the other parts of the apparatus. If the smaller glass tube with the chlorid of sodium has been weighed beforehand, the quantity of the chlorid of aluminium it has absorbed can be easily determined. The latter however is not combined equally with the chlorid of sodium; that part which was next to the mixture of clay and charcoal, contains the most of it. I have varied the process for the reduction of aluminium in many ways, but have returned to that described. Often the so- in consequence of the action of the chlorid of potassitim ape _ ihe slorendie, Neither will the globules of aluminium ‘bya longer glowing heat, which was tried, up to two an - this effect was produced only through the most intense heat pos- sible. If, however, after the highest incandescence of the cru- cible, that is after five or ten minutes, the heating ceases, the bs . ; 1 Bit H. Rose on a new mode of preparing Aluminium. 169 in in aluminium is remarkably small, the metal then not having formed in globules, remaining in the form of a powder aud ing up during the cooling of the erucible.. »No greater gain is obtamed if the cryolite powder be iru fixed with a ‘part: 0 of the cart tt chlorid of potassium and es stratified with the sliced sodium But I found no gain in this wa I often employed, in place of chlorid of potassium, chlorid of ~ ®odium (common table-salt heated) without observing any con- siderable difference in the result. Only ste heat has to be raised a shigher than when using chlorid of potass _ The operation may also be performed in Boer’ fusible omelet . - stone-ware crucibles of the same size as the cast iron crucibles ,,aloresaid, Ata very high temperature they only resist with more ee _ difficulty the action of the fluorid of sodinm and melt in one or _* more places. The iron crucibles melt also, if when filled with ; the mixture for the preparation of aluminium they are exposed to _ avery intense charcoal fire : The amount of aluminium obtained has, up to this time, been _ Very variable, even with the same process and the same propor- ___ tons of materials. The quantity of metal cae in the ery- olite treated has never been reached. The latter contains 13 per cent of aluminium. By employing 10 grms. of cryolite a quan- tity, which was the PIE a in all experiments with the small eru- cibles, the most favorable product was 0:8 grm. of aluminium. If Wwever, only 0-6 or even 0-4 grm. were obtained out of the 13: grm. whic h, according to calculation were contained in the cryo- lite treated, the result would still be called aes mg oon only 0-3 grm. and less were ae ; so different results depend on various circumstances Principally however r, upon the ae of heating. The greater ae the heat the more the small globules unite into larger sears & ea the less en remains in the state of powder, bores “— he subsequent cooling oxydize into since Ri ie 1 uniting b _ avery great heat, in obtained into me si The heat, * «* - Pol he gas metres of the ihe ea a rate oOoLin 170 H. Rose on a new mode of preparing Aluminium. In a large iron crucible 35 grams of cryolite powder were stratified with 14 grams of sliced sodium, and the whole covered with a thick stratum of chlorid of potassium. The crucible cov- ered with a porcelain cap, was placed in a larger earthen-ware crucible, also covered, and exposed during an hour to a good charcoal fire in a well drawing wind furnace, and cooled as slowly as possible. The product in aluminium was in’ this case remarkaly small, only 0-135 gram. in globules being separable from the molten mass reached its highest point of incandescence. on admirably. I permitted the whole to cool in the hydrogen Aluminium has yet hardly been obtained directly from alumina. otassium and sodium appear to effect the reduction of the me- HI. Rose on a new mode of preparing Aluminium. 171 tallic oxyds only when the nascent potassium or sodium is at hand to combine with a part of the oxyd not yet reduced. Pure ‘potash and soda, the properties of which are almost unknown tous, do not appear to form at that moment. And as alumina can very readily combine with alkalies to form an aluminate, it should be inferred, that the reduction of alumina through the alkaline metals might succeed in the end. But even if it should become possible to obtain aluminium directly from alumina, still cryolite may for a long time be em- ployed for the purpose, unless its price should rise immoderately. Nature furnishes this substance in a state of rare purity, the alu- minium is combined in it only with fluorine and sodium—two substances which cannot act injuriously during the production of the metal. Clay or aluminous earth is however seldom found in What in color as well as in lustre. They evidently were not as pure as the great majority of the globules, and probably contain some iron, A larger globule of aluminium of 3:8 grm. weight having been sawn in two, it could be plainly seen that the metal was brittle for about half a line from the outside ; but inside it was soft and pliable. Sometimes excavations are found in the inte- globules became in cooling radiated with crystals on its under surface, Déville believes he has obtained regular octahedral — i not appear to belong to the regular system. = yi _ Trying to melt x baper stole accidentally contaminated after being rolled without flux, before the heat rose so as to melt the Whole, small globules went floating on the surface. ‘The impure aluminium is less fusible than the pure which is mixed with it, expands in melting and rises out of the mass not yet fused. | ‘8 @ phenomenon similar to that observed by Mr. Schneider with ismuth, iMpure bi: 172 7 T. A. Conrad on a new species of Unio. I have stated that the cryolite has been employed here in Ber- lin under the name of mineral soda for the preparation of eaustic adapted to the manufacture of soap. In fact the pulverized oF olite is decomposed entirely if boiled in this condition with cau tic lime and water. The fluorid of calcium thus generated ae tains no aluminous earth, this being entirely dissolved in the hy- drate of soda, which again is free from fluorine or shows but a Arr. XXI.—On a new Species of Unio; by T. A. Conran. Unio diversus. Trapezoidal, ventricose, inflated posteriorly, substance of shell generally thin, thicker anteriorly and thickest or somewhat callous towards the base ; valves contracted from beak a to base, posterior margin obliquely ae truncated, rectilinear, ligament and margins parallel; posterior ex- profound; epidermis yellowish oliv clouded with dark brown; rays obsolete or wanting; within greenish or wax-colored ; dirty white towards the anterior base; cardinal tooth in right valve compressed, oblique, crested, promi- nent; in the opposite valve 3-lobed, the posterior lobe opposite the acne middle lobe small or obsolete ; lateral teeth straight, Tahsbits Shoal Creek, N. Alabama. Prof. Thomas P. Hatch. Remarkable for its resemblance to U. heterodo on, Lea, and like i wing the double lateral tooth in the right valve. tooth of the left valve has the same extended char- heterodon, and 1 think these two species will be tute a distinct subgenus when the animals have Perhaps it may interest conchologists to pecies inhabits the Schuylkill river, at Phoenix- degree three specimens in a very limited time ; and procured a number of living specimens in the opposite Trenton, just below the falls. a4 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. . oe Arr, XXII.— Observations on Binocular Vision; by Professor Wituram B. Rocers. (Concluded from page 95.) 29. Of the form of the curve resulting from the binocular union of a straight line with a circular arc or of two equal circular arcs with one another. A. Binocular resultant of a straight line and a circular are. Assuming the optical centres of the two eyes L and R, figs. 74 and 75, as fixed during the act 14. of combination, it is evident that the centre of the eye directed to the circular arc a b or AB may be regarded as the vertex of a cone whose surface includes ail the po- Sitions of the optical axis of that different points of the arc. This 2 - bo 4 @ ° eo on a) S oO Ss fae] bee 5 _ pat) =| og = gg > 8 = Which during the binocular com- bination intersects the conical sur- ace, in an attitude depending on the distance between the opti- cal centres, the place of the diagram, and the position of the Component lines, ab, cd... or AB, CD. O°. ee IE Points of the vertical line and the arc, as m, %...+ or M, N meet in the coni €xperiment will be seen more clearly by considering separately each f the following cases which pain together include all the Variations that can occur. — First. When the arc is conver towards the right line and the two are combined by directing the optic axes beyond the plane of the diagram. 174 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. These conditions are represented in the upper part of fig. 74. Here the are a b and right line cd have for their binocular result- ant the curve rvs. Since the points m and m unite optically at a less distance behind the diagram than any other pair of corres- ponding points in ab and ed, it follows that the vertex v in which they combine must be the point of the resultant curve, nearest to the observer, and as the curve lies wholly’in the plane RCD it must therefore present its convexity obliquely forwards. According to the proportions assumed in the figure, the line vN is more steeply inclined than the line LA to the base of the cone, and in these conditions therefore the curve rvs is an hyperbola. But by placing ab and cd alittle nearer one another we may cause RN to become parallel to L’, in which arrange- ment the resultant will be a parabola; and if we bring a6 an ed still nearer together so as to make RN converge downwards towards Lh, we transform the curve rvs, into an arc of an ellipse. In the conditions included in the first case therefore the binocular resultant may have the form of either of the curves just mentioned. Second. When the circular are is concave towards the right line, and the two are united in front of the plane of the diagram. This case is represented in the lower part of fig. 74. Here the component lines are the circular are AB and the right line CD, which by cross-vision are made to unite in. front of the plane in which they are placed in the experiment. The result- ant curve rvs will evidently vary in form according to the dis- tance between ABand CD. As shown in the figure this curve is an hyperbola, but by increasing the interval between A B and CD it may be converted into a parabola or into the arc of an ellipse. Thus in the conditions of the second case also the bi- nocular resultant may have the form of either of these curves. Thir en the circular arc is concave towards the right line and the two are binocularly combined behind the plane of _ the drawing. The combination here specified is shewn in the upper part of fig. 75. In this case the vertex of the resultant curve rvs being formed by the optical union of the two points m and n, of the component lines which are farthest apart, must be at a greater ‘ \ @ a S , the optical conditions here su duced shall intersect Len produced, it follows that , t parabola but must be an elliptic arc, varying in form according to the interval between ab andcd. Where the visual cone 8 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 175 oblique as is most likely to happen, the curve rvs will of course become an arc of a circle whasses the cutting plane takes the position of the sub-contrary sectio Fourth. When the circular are is convex towards the right line meena the two are combined in front of the plane of the dia- r component arc and right a. line, and rvs is their bi- tween the plane of AB CD and the eyes, it is evident that the plane must be an are ‘a a ellipse. Asin the preceding case the * of the ellipse will a jak vee the distance between AB and CD, _ it will become cular in the position of the sub-contrary sectio hese et effects of the eso ae union ee a right line are & circular are may be thus summed up. When the are is conver to the right line and the union is effected beyond the plane of the diagram, or when thavang 4 seg, ; ae : the binocular resultant may be either an ellipse, a paravo an hyper bola, but in “ve case it will tura its th e: a fowarils the observ e aes beyond the plane of the diagram, the line a B. Binocular resultant of two circular a In this as in the preceding combinations rae optical centres are be regarded as immoveable during the experiment. Each eye *ave to the line and they are combined im front _- thedingtam, — oe 176 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. while viewing the successive points of the arc presented to it, ing api ehicded all the directions which the optical axes assume in se dai arcs. In general terms ger the binocular resultant all such cases may be described as the curve line in which the Hu focer of the two visual cones Sioned one another It is only however under special conditions that the resultant thus formed is a plane curve. en the circular ares presented curvature are combined either with or without a stereoscope. ollows the figure and position of the roacileaet will be considered under the simplest conditions, viz.: when the cir- cular arcs have equal carvature and are so placed that the inter- secting conical surfaces are precisely alike. These conditions ar a ai in figs. 76 77, where the ripe me ares ab and AB are respectively of — same and curvature as Wintel lines LA and RC... LM and RN, &e. ae egal and spores inclined to the plane of ABCD orabed. Hene each point of the resultant curve as7... »...or s, is pl W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision, 177 at the apex of an isosceles triangle DrB... NuM...orCsA formed by the lower segments of the visual lines. ! 77. ee a Let us now assume a line zy midway between M and N and Parallel to tangents at these points, and let us imagine a vertical Plane including this line to extend indefinitely upwards. Since * 1s vertically over the middle of MN andr... s and the other ns of the’ resultant rvs are similarly situated in regard to i v x Nes parallel to M N and connecting the two arcs, it follows that "+1... 8, &e., are situated vertically above the line Ly, and therefore that the resuliant curve lies in the before-mentioned j tical plane. ver In Combinations of t and circular Be Ae? ite a3. es aryl EB ure is an hyperbola. But if we suppose the component arcs Sxoom Sznizs, Vol. XXI, No. 62.—March, 1856. 23 178 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. to be so placed that the outer sides Lh... R& of the visual cones are vertical the resultant becomes a parabola, and if we imagine this change to be carried so far as to make these sides converge : downwards, = resultant takes se -form of an arc of an ellipse. As mand n are the points of the upper component arcs which are nearest spelen their resultant point v, the vertex of the re- sultant curve, must be nearer the observer than any other part of the curve; and the same conclusion follows from considering v as the binocular resultant of M and N, the points of the lower component arcs which are farthest from one another, Hence in “ae cases the resultant curve must be convex towards the ob- a ee ee le A ee plane extending upwards from zy must necessarily pass entirely j through both of the visual cones. Hence the resultant curve : rvs, which is at the same time the line of intersection of the two conical surfaces with one another, and that of the vertical — f plane with each surface, cannot be a parabola or hyperbola, but . must always be an arc ‘of an ellipse. From the construction it is evident that v, the resultant of mand n, the points of the q upper component arcs which are farthest apart, must be the point of the resultant curve rvs which is most distant from the ob- i and therefore that the curve will present its concavity in nt serv in the conditions of union represented in fig. 77, the vertical These several effects of the bindenler union of circular ares od of mote a and curvature, may be thus summed up. | Ww he arcs are conver to one another and they are ee Ee behind the plane of the components, or when they are concave to one another and combined in front of this plane, the resultant may be either an hyperbola, parabola, or éllipse, but in either case it will be conver towards the observer, and situated i a vertical plane Py (b.) When the ares are concave to one another and they are it omes ‘hae are of a circle. OU. her gett of the uttion of right and curve-line gures Rial el, if t rhat ha en shown of the combination of a right Pvith a simple and (27) and of the union of such a line with a figure composed of several ye lines (24), we may infer W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 179 the effect which will result when a right line is combined with a figure composed of two or more curves. When the breadth of the latter is so small as to allow of a very rapid alternation of union, the resultant presents itself in perfect relief, at the same time apparently in every part. This is well shown when the vertical line, fig. 78, is combined with either of the compound ~ 78. ec curve figures a, b, c,d. When combined with a it gives a re- sultant consisting of two curves (conic sections) in relief with their vertices touching, with 6} the effect is that of two curves like the former uniting to enclose a perspective plane, with c it ptesents a sigmoid line turned somewhat edgewise towards the view and with d an undulating line in a similar position. _ A remarkable example of this kind of combination is furnished y fg. 79 which from its bearing on an ob- 79. hereafter is deserving of more particular Mention. Placing ab before the left and ¢ before the right eye, we may readily unite either of these lines with the sigmoid e and With a slight ehange of optical convergence pass from the one combination to the other. : In each case as might be expected the resultant is a deeply in- flected doubly-curved line in a perspective attitude. ; _ Even when the bent line has the rapid flexure represented Pos j 80. i Z ¢ 4 ? Setved that while we readily suc- “ " = * | ceed in combining } with the whole length of ¢, excepting a short distance at each end.gve cannot at any one time produce “1 entire union of a with ce. We may however by se efforts combine the two upper or the two lower halves of these lines successively. This difference is explained by the fact that the distances between the corresponding points of 6 and c do not 180 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. greatly vary throughout these lines, while between a and c they much greater for the lower than the upper halves. The same remarks apply to fig. 81, except gi: that in this case it often happens that unite simultaneously or nearly so with the corresponding parts of c. In all these cases of course the union does si extend to the extreme parts of the lin n consequence of the fa scatilon of optical convergence whether spontaneous or voluntary, the various modes of union above described present themselves in irregular alternation, but the setae of these combinations, that of 6 with the whole ‘a ¢, is the one which most frequently occurs first and which con- tinnes reset he experiment of Prof. Wheatstone referred to above, in- cludes, it will be seen, thé same conditions as that last described. It was as follows. He presented the letters (S) and (A) drawn of equal height and enclosed in equal circles, one to each eye. On attempting to combine them, he says, “the common bor- der will remain constant while the letter within it will change Sipe from that which would be perceived by the right ea at which would be perceived by the left eye alone. At the vba of change the letter which has just been seen breaks into fragments while fragments of the letter which is about to appear mingle with them and are immediately after replaced by the entire letter.” (Phil. a -, April, 1852. a b c ribed. In these circumstances most of the A disappears in the resultant and sometimes, especially when"the eyes are fa- tigued, the whole letter seems for a moment to vanish. The “Upper or lower part of the heavy stroke of the oe and sometimes _ the whole of this part of the letter are thrown into perspective and | pene eee in or and ayitude, but ‘f ae very rarely observ: to ppe As i the ie a of the letters in Prof. W.’s figure, and 1é rapid changes of combination thence resulting, I have f found ‘difficult to mark the phenomena — I prefer using let- RO a Cos ee aan W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 181 ters of the size and form of fig. 82. tious of a more partial kind require a special effort. Substituting the letters D... V of the same size as in fig. 82 equally striking effects of partial combination may be observed. In these experiments the observer cannot fail to notice the oc- casional invisibility of parts of lines when very near to others analysis of the phenomena, I am satisfied that most of the changes which present themselves in such cases, including the apparent breaking up and reunion of parts of letters mentioned by Prof. Wheatstone, are really due to imperfect and shifting as in all other attempts at uniting complex and very dissim- ilar Pictures, arise in a large degree from alternating combina- tions between parts capable of binocular union and cannot be ascribed except very partially to the actual vanishing and re-ap- Pearing of the components. : y Seconn.— Of the binocular union of figures differing both in height and breadth. ®: apparent coincidence where the figures are unequal in both dimensions, Se 31. Phenomena of vertical binocular adjustment. tn referring to the binocular combination of vertieal lines slightly differing in height, and whose lower ends are placed on _ the same horizontal level, it was remarked (6) that a slight turn- 182 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. ing of the head sufficed to unite the upper extremities and that this movement when very small was made almost unconsciously. But while this adjustment explains in certain cases the optical coincidence of points and lines situated at unequal distances above or below the horizontal direction, it does not apply to the cases in which the head is kept perfectly fixed during the aet of combination. In these conditions the coincidence would seem to result from a vertical rotation of one or both eyes, or perhaps an equivalent change in the direction of the transmitted pencil due to some alteration of the form of one or more of the re- fracting surfaces. As such an adjustment has not, I believe, been suggested by preceding writers on vision, the following de- tails founded on personal observation may, it is hoped, throw light upon the subject. Recurring to the experiment mentioned under a former head 6) and using a similar diagram (fig 83), I place it beyond the 83. b n G c limit of distinct vision, so that the optic axes directed crosswise stated, that a and 6 readily coalesce. I then turn the paper so as slightly to depress a, and repeating the effort I observe a taking a position just beneath and close to 6, but quickly after uniting with it. Turning the paper still further in the same direction, until by the usual convergence I bring a below } and midway between this line and c I find that with some effort I can still cause the two to unite. Lastly, I depress @ a very little more, so that the _ converging action may carry it below the middle of the interval between the other lines, and now I see it quickly coalesce with ¢. Usually this union does not take place instantly unless a is brought to the same level with c—that is, to such a position that the cor- esponding ends of the two lines are in the same horizontal di- rection. The effect in this case, is a little different from that of _ the experiment formerly described (6) where the axes were made to intersect much nearer than the limit of distinct vision, as 12 _ the present conditions the action of the two eyes is more nearly equal. It should be remarked also that the limit of vertical sep- aration compatible with a union of a with 5 or ¢ is liable to con- erable variation, especially when the eyes have become fatigued : periment. . ; vould appear from these results that the eyes possess an usting power which enables them to unite two lines or points W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 183 are reversed. From what I have noticed in the experience of other observers I am disposed to conclude that a like inequality of adjusting movement is of common occurrence, having in some cases the same relation to the right and left eyes as that above described, and in others the reverse. The effect of the vertical adjusting power however, is obviously the same whether we con- sider it under either of these conditions or as having equal range above and below a perfectly horizontal line. In order more completely to study its action in producing the apparent coincidence of figures of unequal height, I use the sys- tem of parallel lines shown in fig. 84, Holding this at a distance 84, d | etic Sante = eae yan in such position that all the lines shall be visually horizontal and bringing together the parts of the figure by cross vision, I remark that the lines of either of the pairsad... be. . ¢fto which lines become coincident, while a takes a position slightly below : - d, and ¢ above f; and so when I unite cf each of the other pai : 32. Explanation of these phenomena by a vertical tation a8 Soctated with the converying movement of the eyes. ten. © show in what manner the hypothesis of a vertical ro — of one or both eyes may be applied to explain these phenomena, let us Suppose m and m to be the central points of the retinas of - qaandd. Thus the pictures of the two lines would make theit 184 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. the two eyes L and R, fig. 85, and let us assume that while the optical centres of the eyes are fixed in a horizontal position the ines a,d,.. .of fig. 85 are adjusted to paralellism with this- 85. 86. i ae bi gi direetion. Further let us assume that in converging the axes by cross vision to bring a and d together, there is an entire absence of vertical rotation. In this case if the axis of the eye R be di- rected to the line d which is on a higher level than a, the axis of will pass above a. Thus the picture of d will fall cenérally. on the retina of R, and that of a above the retinal centre of L. If again we suppose both axes to range in a horizontal line mid- way in height between a and d, fig. 86, the pictures of @ an will fall at equal distances respectively above and below the cen- tres mand x. In all these cases the vertical distance between @ and d on the two retinas will be the same. Under these condi- ment, it is easy to see that the images a and d may be made to cover the centres or other corresponding parts of the retinas above or below. In the case of fig. 85, we may suppose the left eye to revolve so as to carry the centre m up to a, while the other cen- re n, is kept fixed in its coincidence with d. In the case of fig. 36, we may imagine the left eye to rotate upwards and the right lownwards, until mm and n are brought severally to coincide with t g . : impressions centrally on the two retinas, and might be expected 2 ht is midway between the upper and lower components, SUP” g these to have been brought by ordinary convergence to be one above the other. According to this view the law f binocular direction would apply to the vertical as well as the horizontal inclination of the optic axes, so that when in the above experiments the two lines are made to appear as one by the com> - W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 185 bined action of both kinds of adjustment, we perceive the result- ant in a direction which is the binocular direction both as regards athe vertical and the horizontal plane. ; * In the above experiments the effects described are obtained by _ferossing the axes, and so as to form the resultant in front of the picture, but similar phenomena present themselves when the com- pa bination is made behind the picture. Any further reference to the latter is therefore: unnecessary. 33. Why the height of the resultant is a mean of the heights of the component figures. 87. a a ac o hd. poten elre a et ieee If in combining a with e, (fig. 87,) by the process before de- scribed, we also keep in view the lateral images of these lines formed one in each eye we find that the resultant takes a position midway in vertical as well as in horizontal direction between the linesa. , c, thus laterally seen, and a similar effect occurs in uniting 6 with d, and when the difference of level of these lines 18 so small as to allow the vertical adjustments to be made in quick succession we perceive both resultants apparently at the Same time in their positions of midway elevation as shown in the lines a ¢ trally seen appear to occupy but one place, viz., that of re af Sltant, it follows that ¢ laterally viewed must appear higher, an @ similarly seen, lower, than this resultant. — cau If now a made the upper and lower f :. 8 ies oe Bichon tat EE See 186 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. a height intermediate between that of the two figures seen later- ally at the same time, in other words, between the left and right pictures of the diagram. This conclusion, it will be observed, corresponds, so far as vertical effect is concerned, with the o servations of Prof. Wheatstone, cited on a previous page. 34. Limited range of the vertical compared with the horizontal power of combination. The details which have been presented indicate the narrow limits within which the power of vertical adjustment and com bination is restricted as compared with those of binocular com- bination by ordinary convergence. Hence in combining figures which differ to the same extent in the horizontal and vertical di- rections, we generally find that while the coincidence on the right and left sides of the resultant is perfect and apparently simulta- neous, the union at the top and bottom is but partial and is obvi- ously successive. Indeed it is only when the disparity of heights ts very inconsiderable that the combination appears to be equally complete in all parts of the resultant. As an example of this, in attempting to unite the two squares of fig. 89, with the precautions as to spnmaarie before described, I find that while the ver- tical sides of the resultant Reman. ure appear each as a per- fectly clear and distinct single line, the lower side appears double until the , view has been fixed upon : it fora sensible time and that on carrying the eyes to the top of the resultant this side also seems for a moment to be double. When however, the disparity between the heights is reduced to half the amount in the figure the upper an lower sides of the resultant present themselves in 7 the shape of single lines as immediately and to all appearance as Bea tencously 9 the vertical sides, and of course the resultant e appears of a height intermediate between that of the right and the left hand figures. Like effeets are exhibited by unequal Circles and other pairs of figures geometrically similar. 35. Perspective position and usually warped figure of the re- sultant. e have seen in the preceding section that when figures of a breadth are united binocularly they form a re- st , Thus when by cross vision I combine the squares © vag 89 I see the left hand side of the resultant figure nearer t0 "nig W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 187 me than the opposite side, so that the whole has an oblique or perspective attitude either as a plane or concave surface. At the same time the near side appears shorter than the other as in cases previously explained, (fig. 44,) and thus the resultant of the two Squares is visually a quadrilateral of unequal sides. n combining by the same process the two unequal circles A... B, fig. 90, the left hand side of the resultant appears nearer 90. B c than the other and is concave while the other is convex, giving the figure an oblique position and a strangely warped appearance. hen by cross vision we bring together the similar triangles A B, fig. 91, we observe towards 91. the apex of the resultant a pecu- liar twist of the surface by which apex, the whole resultant takes the shape of a warped surface not ofa plow. By turning the diagram until the vert ‘brought to the horizontal visual line the resultant is converted into a plane figure at right angles to the binocular direction, but containing the bases of A and Bas separate parallel lines. A yet ng fi 186 W. B. Rogers on Binocular Vision. 92. 93. The association of unequal vertical rotation of the eyes with their ordinary aegis adjustment occurs in viewing an ob- jec ct very much to the right or left of the medial line of vis- ion. Thus waite I hold a straight wire in a vertical position on the extreme left, and direct my view to the wall at some dis- tance behind it, I see two unequal pictures of it on that surface , as reieited | in fig. 94, the right hand or longerlinebe- % 9 ing that proper to the nearer or left eye and the other that proper to the right eye. It is obvious that to see the wire single while in this position the same optical adjust- ~) u cal rotations differing for the two eyes either in amount or direction are as necessary in this case as in prece- ding experiments. > ° In referring to the results of ie vision as related to the s aang objects would appear single only when the optic axes prare | forwards,” &c. (Philos. Trans., 1838.) Sir D. Brew Dilieae that the too vata e images are walle a euracka mn single pe nm which is produced. ‘The sense of binocular a di be these combinations is also in favor of this vieW- t to the conditions of the binocular coincidence pet : ed in these combinations, I conclude from the preceding ob- 4 0g Meteorological Journal at Mariettia, Ohio. 189 servations that unequal vertical images or equal ones not corres- pondingly placed in the eyes do not of themselves and directly produce the single ne ity scree that the coincidence owever seemingly simultaneous for all parts of the figure is really the effect of rapidly successive adjustment applied to the vertical and horizontal elements of the diagram, aud that this stances, gives rise by suggestion, to the mental resultant. Other observations bearing on this subject are now in progresss more ara as regards the union of pictures seen in Dove’s experiment by instantaneous or electric light, but they are not dificionty matured to be communicated at this time. Arr. X XIII.— Abstract of a Meteorological Journal kept at Ma- rietta, Ohio, for the year 1855—Lat. 39°-25'—Long. 4°°28' West of Washington City ; by S. P. Hi:prers. atte ; BAROMETER. = | ae | ee s8 ia | a a 12° Winds. |. ; eS Fl q ig es tig | i § est $28 (5|=|e3 Beer so [S| Hie ist 3s | Se hee Sia eis sis ae oes oe ae Be a2 cae. a) ee 523165) 12) 12) 19] 250) 8. w. & Ww. ‘30-10 9848 1°66 2617/58, 6 9| 19] 1:50/n., & w.N. w. 29°75 2885 9 37°80/66; 4| 16| 15| 2°67\w.,N.&S.W,, E. 29°75 28°80, “95 55°33|91| 18] 20) 10| 2°08) s,s. w., & N, 29°85 2910) 61-41|90 32) 20) 11] 51 7/\w.s.w..N. dE. 2958 29°00 6681/97; 42) 13) 17} 5°68) a & 29°60 28°90, 7 7584196 52) 18) 131 600! s,n. de (29°70/20°25) 45) — 7397194 48 18 13! 3-09 g.,N. & N.W., E, 29°75 29 1 ahs 70°36/91| 49 15 15 800s w, dns... 29°65 /2920 48 i 5014/75 28 20) 11 85leW, NW. 29°55 | AT) 48-08|75| 20 16| 14| 395) s. - 29 8 33°66 |_| | 88s ae 53°15 4676 as the iy of April and the first of Ma ople began to cre their fears. of f an- Other season of ed heat which would ina manner ruin a the country. The first four months affording less than nine ~ | along the Ohio river, were much damaged by the rains, affording hot more thai 190 Meteorological Journal at Marietta, Ohio. inches of rain, an amount which has sometimes fallen in a sin- gle one. But in May, rain began to descend abundantly, so that in this and the three following months there fell nearly two feet, Such a quantity had not fallen before in many years. This ! amount of produce unprecedented in the annals of Ohio. Wheat turned out, in some instances over fifty bushels to the acre. In- dian corn on the uplands afforded as many bushels, as in ordinary years are grown on the rich bottoms; in one instance reaching which our vineyards will be liable in wet seasons, until the groun on which the vines are planted is deeply trenched and ameliorated by underground drainage. Sweet potatoes were abundant, of 4 good quality, but not so rich in sugar asin dry seasons. Irish p0- _ tatoes were excellent in every respect. Beans, an important crop; re than half the usual amount fit for market, occasionIng advance in their price. : ~ Year.—The mean temperature of the year is 539-15, being 1°10 below that of 1854. The amount of rain and melted a w a 5 & a ae. me 4 Meteorological Journal at Marietta, Ohio. 191 snow is 45-7, in., making about seven inches more than the 100 again on the 29th January following, with thick strong ice of ten or twelve inches, strong enough to bear loaded teams. In the mean time there fell ten inches of snow. It continued shut up until the 19th Feb., when it again gave way to a rise from rains on the head branches. The river now remained open, but encumbered with floating ice, until the 26th of the month, when it again froze Over, and so continued until the 7th of March, closing and open- ing three times during the winter, while the usual habit of our Winters is to shut up the rivers the last of December, and open _ early in February, when the severe cold ceases. _ pring months.—The mean temperature for spring is 519-51, which is nearly two degrees below last year. ‘The season was later than usual. Peach trees not in bloom until the 2lst April. ever more prolific. . J Summer.—The season of summer was temperate, with a few hot days, the mean being 72°-20. The mercury rising above 90°, 3 ; re a = 192 Meteorological Journal at Marietia, Ohio. decay, with the surplus of water in the low grounds, the inhab- itants in the vicinity of rivers and creeks, suffered from intermit- tant fevers of a mild type, more generally than for thirty years Autumn.—T he mean for this season is 56°-47, which is nearly four degrees above the mean of this period, it rarely reaching this point. September was the most rainy month in the year, there falling eight inches of water, while in 1854, a little over two inches, So much rain injured the potato crop, while it was con- genial to Indian corn, filling out the ears to their extremities with grain. The weather continued mild until late in December. The first smart frost was on the 13th of October, ene at 28°, and not so low again until the 29th of Novembe Floral Calendar.—April 2ud, Garden Crocus in bloom; 34, stalks of Crown Imperial three inches high; 11th, Black birds in flocks ; 12th, Hepatica triloba; 13th, Early Hyacinth opening, =i saccharinum; 15th, Dafodill ; 16th, Golden bell or Forsythia; 17th, Sanguinaria canadensis ; Zlst, Peach tree, Pyrus Japon., Hyacinth i in full; 22nd, Crown Imperial, Double flowering peach, Spirea prunifolia ; 24th, Magnolia purp., Pear tree, Purple plum ; 25th, Pie plant fit to cut ; 24th, Apple tree, nearer the time of the peach t than common by six days ; 25th, Red Bud or Judas tree; 27th, Strawberry ; 29th, Uvularia. —May 2nd, Apple shedding its blooms ; Ath, Tulip in full; 5th, Quince. Peonia arb. purp.; 10th, smart frost, killing corn and beans, with many grapes on the low hill-sides—higher up escaped harm ; also some fruit of the apple, peach, &c. ; 18th, Locust; 20th, Liriodendron ; 21st, Crimson peony ; 23d, ‘atornado from the west, at 6 P.M., blowing down trees and unroofing some buildings ; 24th, white peony ; 6th, Syringa frag. ; 28th, Roses generally in bloom ; 30th, Peo- nia frag. ; ; dist, Syringa 'Philad. June Ist, Purple Peony ; 3d, Red Raspberry : 5th, first peas on table—planted early in March; 15th, Rosa Grevilia multiflora ; 22nd, Catalpa ; 27th, early Rus- sian cucumber, in open air, fit to eat ; 28th, Red Raspberry Tipe. Second Supplement®io Dana’s Mineralogy. 193 Art. XXIV.—Supplement to the oe of J. D. Dishtss : by the Author.—Numbe Siyce the publication of the preceding supplement, but few new species of minerals have been announced. The more im- portant works issued are the Russian Mineralogy of von Koks- charov of St. Petersburg, the Mineralogical notices and Annual of Kenngott of Vienna, and the volumes of Volger on pseudo- morphism or the alteration of minerals. The principal papers on American Mineralogy are those of Dr. J. Lawrence Smith, - the Minerals of the Wheatley Mine, Pennsylvania, and T. 8. Hun on the Feldspars, etc. of Canada. 1. List of New Works. Axer Erpmann: Lirobok i : Mineralogien, 480 pp., 8vo. Stockholm, 1853.—A S$ . ———: Vagledning till oer — vanedes, med Sarskild Hansyn till sver- iges geologiska Forhaollanden, etc. 6 pp., 8vo. ‘Stockholm, 1855,—An excellent th i Ss. - ADOLF Kenncort : Supplement zu dem Werke das Mohs’sche Mineralsystem. 38 pp., Ky Wien, 1854. uP iasetity 4 a synopsis of a classification of minerals on the te) Peed ik der ms in Crt 176 pp. 8vo. Wien, 1855.—A review ————-: Mineralogische N. otizen, which are referred to by their numbers yond, have reached ed No t 17. No, 14 is contained in the Biticieebeeichts of the Royal Acade my at Vienna, vol. xiii, p. 462, 185 gf 16, in vol. xiv, 248, 1854; No. 16 in XV, p. 235 5, 1855; No. 17, in vol. xvi, Dr. Stemunp AIcHHoRN : yee tun, fr Pachenzeihung einfacher Krystallgestal- Pp - te OLGER h einer Mono Devin acim d eine fassliche andte Darstellung des jetzigen Standes der Eepotallologts uo Richtu iz; eltrag zur Geschichte dieser se va 2 der lz-Lagerstiitten und ihrer Bildung. 244 Hanover, 1855. —. ee : Die Krystallographie. eis Stuttgart, 185 54, 1855. : K rie ie it und Kalzit: ine Loésun hers iiltesten Widerspruches rp cae, pa etre thers iiber den Asterismus der Krystalle. 64 pp. 8v0, Z : Die Ent ntwicklungsgeschichte der angst der ee ea vod tre ihrer Wicciten: sowie der durch dieselbe eer ag fn co Someta WV oebealtinas 634 pp. 8v0. Zurich, 1 855.—A "york 0 on mor: ph age es, both as to general principles and their “applet to special cases, ining Calelte, Dolom ite, Magnesite, Bracite te, Serpentine, Steatite and other exam- f pseudomo ism, ae: " A Koteyati: Elemente = Post becca 7 hie. 316 LAI von Koxscnarov : eral oauPlete, and vol. IT partly so with many copper plates — —The figures are numer- OUs and well oe the deseipions (oe and measurements oe > aa percha in the us of nicks - Scuap zeugter P stallgestaltn in chemischen Labora hrift Produc von — dee Kry kr . der Wissench, in Wien situs ore e 208 pp. ie with 30 plates “otf Sc of crystals. Wien, 1855,—M, Schab 25 Seoonp Sgrres, Vol. X XI, No. 61.—March, 1856. 194 Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. is one of the best er beers che wi pene eraly and practically} of Europe, = ¥ = — for chemistry eon he is engaged on the crystals “ laboratory prog ucts. is extensive, the gtk eed s numerous and exact, and the whole erys- aliaton of each pro oduet is ie tharos sei made nie and dasetibs .d. The figures are drawn with great precision and bea Like th “apne es: on Euclase, each sabe he takes up is finished “wen it leaves = : Die Gesteinlehre yon Bernhard Cot Prof Geog. zu Freiberg. 256 pp. ong Freiberg, 1855.—A valuable work on gh 2. Crystallography, Formation of Minerals, etc. On the Lapa Sahe eral Species ; by M. ice 38 PP. a o. Paris, inga —This paper, although published i . 1854, mas! read, as it states, at the Acade- of Sciences on the 14th of April, ssor Delafoces ties “ora ae similar in many respects to on published by Bei writer in this Jour- vol. xviii; the optics of his es onths rae: but in reading of it, he has the priority. The incite: pa - cai *t is one of great inter- est, is, the re se in Ee gn between upecios of the inequiaxial bywtegie of crystal- , lization, and the forms of the monometric or t esseral system. Various groups 0 pse udomorph ous i fo are mentioned, and approximations in angle in hexagonal, dimetrie, trimetric he oblique erystals, to the a aa octahedron or dodecahe- ad are pointe On the nrtificial production of mineral dilidates and et by the reaction of vapors upon rocks; by M. Dausrée, Comptes Rend., July, 1854, p. 135, and Ph il Mag. [4], ix, 315.—The waar shows that by ithe action of chlorid of silicon in vapor on the req red bases, crys stals may be obtained of the species otastonite, chr ; i arnet, 3 i affords specular iron; or with chlorid of zine, it sem ee : 8 chlori slum acting on lime affords periclase, a known v' roduct. : 3b ime corundum, in crys ‘ Chlorid of titanium affords in like manner brookite; perc of iron — lime p.¢, or ay p.c. af e prele: in carbonated waters (pure water, trough whi for 6 days and 134 hours © had been passed), it lost 0:0136 p- ¢., or zl. p. ey of Si. of ammonia ge 95 of water, the loss is 0:02 parts or J, p. * eae A very ‘int solution * career of ammonia containing only 1 p. c. fs Joss was 0-062 , or about 51, p. ¢ Again 100 parts of sal ammonia which contained 19°2 p.c. of dry ammonia, loss was 0:071 parts, or about t =4, p.c.; and with only 1°6 p. ¢. 0 f dry ammonia, 00986 3 ¢. or beso zo pc -. Si. pond approximately with those of J. Fuchs (Ann. d. aa i, 119), ae found that 100 parts of cold water neti 0-013 of 51, te 2 muriatic acid of 1115 sp. gr. only 0-009 p. ¢. of Si obvious conclu- ligot finds that 50,000 parts of pure water dissolve A ese June, 1855 : od of rater ‘small crystals; by W. Hatprvaer, (Sitz., Wien, Fsethod

: te. Be Eo Me Mtn Hi and loss, 8325 14-74 14:51 14:30 O69 12:04 O74 029 O14 1°08 8:22 New loc. at Manchester, N. H., Proce. Boston Soc. N. Hist, v, 189. Sah als 336 oe eo of Allophane from Tennessee, by C. T. Jackson, (Proc. Bos N. Hist., v, 120, 1855): Sh fe Kl 41-0 ys 05 Mgo2 Hsi-w—092 Atominirr, sce Websterite Amnotirz [p. 142].—A mineral er Chili in red igh which appears the Antimonite of 2-24 mineral of Domeyko, — iolite, D.) has been sec sbe a Rivot, He obtained (Ann. d. M a BT vi, 556): Sb 86-5, Te 148, Onies: Hg 22°2, qu hycisae Fe & S tr, med ake Rivot aeradior As. from the simple ods si reactions, the mineral appears be a mix f tellurid of mercury with antimonic acid and antimonate of co caer ita tp 121].—A crystal from Pei Wales, according to Dauber (Pegs. xciy, 407), has the new planes 4, and 4- a, the pyramidal i angles of which, as me ured, are 112°47' and 159° 58’. Dauber also mentions the oceurrence of the pyramid 7, ina crystal from Tavistock in Devonshire. AvBaL p. 257].—Crystals of the Andalusite of Lisenz in the Tyrol, a accord- ing to Keangott (Min. Not. No. ) afford the following planes: « » 2, a ty ©: 2, w-%, 0, 1-, 1-¥, 1, 2-3, or in letters J, 2, @2, a, #, O, 12, Bee * gles: JF 90° 50’; #2, 127° 39’, i, “as 48/; 11, 109° 4’; 1%, 109° 51; 1, 4 dral on 119° 81/, 120° 28/, 90° 17; 2-2, 135° 6’, 63° 35’, 115° 10% — ‘ w locality in California, Am, J. Sci. [2], xx, 84. 2 § et see Feldspar. i : ANGLESITE Tp. ie oe of anglesite from Pagers, Foie: JL. 8 - Am. J. Sci, (2), xx ae N oe [p. 360) —Structure of erystals from Ausoe in ie k enn ng" p- 441].—Analyses of ankerite from the Ac adi Iron mines, London- ANKERITE [ di derry, Nova Scotia, by C. T! Jackson, (Proc. Bost. Soc. N. Be 6 Mn 6 a 6 Mg C —_——— a The paging fo ollowing the name of the species, is the number of the page ro He oi © species is described in the Mine api 196 Second Supplement to Dana's Mineralogy. ANO: 234],—Analysis of anorthite from I. St. Eustache, by Deville, (Aan. nea i Phys [3] [3]al , 286 and Lieb. u. Kopp., 1854, 832); specific gravity 2°78: Si458 213850 6al77 Mgoo Nai0=1004 Antmony GLANcE [p. 33].—Loe. in California, Am. J. Sci. [2], xx, 82. Apvatire [p. 396]—Kokscharev, in Min. Russl., ii, i, 89, » BES ) raat Bp new of crys- planes 3 and 3. He figures many new crystals. Fro measuremen rom the Ural Emerald mine, O: foe oa th as an" the same as friedersdorf cry erystals fi == 139 NB te 4 same 2g e Lake Laach crystals. The Spates arn ‘ors 139° 4 Analyses: 1. Y apatite from Miask, by G. von Rath, (Pes. xcvi, wees 2, — the a ee R. Bluhme (Verh, nat. ve, than 1855, 111, and Ann. Pharm., x se p fe Gs Fe me 0 h 2am 1° 4208 4975. 887 O16 —— ee TO 2, 8738 4750 —— 828 270 220 350 165 1:84==100 . Tn ro * as 3°87 Ca require 3-62 fluorine, the loss is probably all fluorine ex- 5 a Oe ARA sare tg —An Aragonite in columnar crystallization of unknown lo- cality, ponew oe poe: afforded G. Jenzsch, (Pogg., xevi, 145): OG $6 MeG KG NaC Cam CaP CaS 91°17 0°27 0°48 0°62 0°59 3:27 1:24 086 2:°26= 10076 Color snow-white. G.—=2°830. Fluor was detected i in the Aragonite of Volterra, ete. Avarre, see Pyroxene. ) AvrRIcHALcrTE [p. 460].—Loe. in Lancaster, Pa., W. J. Taylor, Am. J. Sci., xx, 412. ares k [p. 459].—Analysis of Azurite from Pheenixville, Pa. J. L. Smith, Am. J. BaBINGTONITE Ep 178 ].—Babingtonite is penal by Dauber into close connection with the Paisbergite (Pogg., xciv, Kah “je ls orga of 82 crystals, he arrives at the wets ab=112° 12’, ac==92° Roe . Referred to tithe form of anes (see figure under Paisbuagite) ere’ angles ar ! ['=112? 12’, 0: [= 92° 82’, 7: P’=87° 24’. Cleavage parallel to ¢ (Z), fate so Spurn to & (1). ara ytes [p.366]—Crystallographic ne oe nes crystals as ascertained by erosion : sith acid, Leydolt, Acad, Wiss, Wien, May, 1 Berry [p. 178]—Many figures of Russian Sie by Kokscharov, Min. Russl., 1854, p.147. One onal affords the plane 1242, Specific gee’ of transparent _ erystals: from Mursinka, yellow, 2694; ib. gre nish-yellow, 2 2°683 ; ib. greenish- saa 2681: from Sehaitanka, ¢ ~olorless ss, 2°694, 2 ; pale cone pt apple- ” green, 2°710: from Adun- Tschilon, bluish-green, 261 ve: from Urulga, n, 2702. POP is160° 3/ 24 - ‘The Emera lof tie Ural afforded A. B, Kammerer, sp. gr. =2°710—2°759; 2742, of the best results, Brromen [p. 469]. — Locality in California, W. P. Blake, Am. J. Sci. [2], xix, 433, f Trinidad, N.S. Manross, Am. J. Sci. [2], xx, 158. ysis ; from Phenixville, Pa., J. peRntS Sci. xx, 250. massive boracite of Stassfurth, which occurs in large oF Tanlnce and Segeberg.. When pulverized the particles show electric those of the crystallized si (G. H. O. V: # note Mon, d. Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 197 BRoNGNIARDITE tle Damo apes: cy d. Mines [5], vi, 146) that a mei men of this minera yah Bolivia (th locality) contains cavities in w: is crystallized in regular ontaalpans with ee a cele pen ee observes that the species is thus cere to Dufrenoysite, which has the ization and a similar formula. ne mula of Brongniardite if (Pb, Ae) ye FSbeSs Bee | Dufre- noysite PbS-+}As? Brooxrre [p. 123].—S , according to eerie: of transparent crystals from the Urals, = of untransparent, 4:15-4:16; of pulverized mmeral, 420. Analysis Ti oe 31, Fe 3-28, ign. 1°31==98-90. (Kokscharov’s Min. Russl., ii, 79.) Baverrs [p. 183].—Loc. in Russia, Kokscharoy, Min, Russl, ii, 111. Buratirn, see Aurichalcite. Brrownrre [p. es —Note on Bytownite, by T.S. Hunt, Am. J. Sci. [2], xix, 429, Catanene [p. 313].—Dauber (Pog. xcii, 245) ad add the Agere + Eee 4 4, from erystals from Alten on: yore rO:1 Loc. at Phoenixville, Pa., J. E Smith, heed J eo [p. fea -—Singular crystallization of Calcite from a ee Pa., Am. A new ret ‘of eg rig ay Min. Not., No. 17. pide a associated with the red zinc ore of Nov Jersey, gave Jenzsch (Pogg. xevi, 14! Cad MgG Mn C FeG 2G CaFl 8 79°96 1:94 11-0 0°60 0° e 5° ee 0:32 tr, ==99°84 It is white, and has the ae d Franklinite disseminated through it. G.=2-788 ; in grains, carefully separated from impurities, 2 810-2: ue Oleavage angle 104° pe sal has found fluor also in Calcite from Brientz, white cleavable from t mine), Andreasberg (Aben ong mine) Kupferberg in Si- lei keen ga sealenohedrons from Junge Hohe Birke mine near aah ot White from Sala in weden, flesh-red from pas sae from Sangerhause Catomer, LP. 89].—New planes on crystals from ae ese a F. Hessen berg (Lieb. u, Kopp, 1854, 869), as follows, 4, 2, @-$, 4-2, 2-2 3 . 0: 1-c (1i)=129° 407; 0 : 20 (2i)=112° 36/.—[In the Mine ralogy, O: i=l 12° 5 should read O : 9¢—=1 v.] ak [p. me oles of the Cancrinite of Miask oe Min. Si Al Ga Na(ér.of kK) 6 H 35°50 28:16 616 20:20 5°83 3°80 =e hae ie oe dogs [p. 293].—The clinochlore of fees nage te: has bees e en g on nn. d. Mines, [5], vi, 568), w Blake. exa iain ab talline plate, rps gc e. onal crys “i : Was found to be raha to ae side of the hexagon, ‘and ne to the je a — Section of the oblique pris i e two optical axes, which are divi divergence ae by heat, and the inclination to the plane of cleay ve this moreover he system of rings the a inclined to this out of the of the mi prere & ie the other remains sensibly immoy Satie cd f Achmatowsh Schwarzenstein do not act at all e that of Pennsylvania; ops n elo in the m of ¢ hence the two optic axes ae but ite inclined to one another; the div: ers be any, is too slight to ined ; ag ba | no at on i so a hbeg mnine of Zermatt fies ye: ‘iete in "gen ‘ e hexago On Olinochlore of shea in the Urals, KolechardW * Min. 2 amme ii, 7, and Am. J. Sci, [2], xix, 1 Cenusire [p. 452]. cae Phenixyille, Pa., J. L. Smith, Am. J. Sci, » 3% 245. gv anyrh: ferred to Chabazite by R. P. Greg, Jr, “4 +10) Gin has been referrec i Phil Mag. [4], ah 198 Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. Cuatcopyrire [p. 6 Analysis; from ee Pa., J. L. Smith, Am. J. Set, {2}, xx, 249.—Loc. in Californis Am. J, Sei. (2], xx, Cuonpropire [p. 186].—Transparent crystals of rene from ie at Pargas have been me eared by N. A. E. i. Lpigccancpe (Foes. xcvi, 118). The form is a right prism but hem fhedral 50 as to aspect, as with the drodite of Orange Co. The planes given a the common ee are J, it, ‘t $i, 1%, $8 12; 7: H=114° 87/, &: 118691’, &: H=109° 3’, J: 8 B—159° 14’, Ts 1g ae 156° The axes, a (vertical): 6: e=1-0361: . bo veld [The orks cites the figure by the as given in the third edition of his mineralogy, but has not seen his later vir in his fourth edition, and in this Jour- ees vol. xiv, aN By changing the position o oe making ¢ the axis, en corresponds very | oat ly with Scacchi’s second type of Humite. The ost of the crystal above given, J, it, i, 4%, 1%, becomes (see Min, p. 187), 11, 12, O, 2%, 2% Chondrodite, Nordenskiéld. Humite, Type Il, Scacchi. 12:17=114 115° O :2% = 136° 1’ 135° 524° O 33% = 109° 3/ 108° 58’ These angles fix the dimensions of the crystals, The en: is much nearer than Dubween either two of the three types of Humite.— D.] Curomioc Iron [p. 106].—Loe. in California, Am. 5 Sci, [2], xx, 82. Curysocotta [p, 309].—Analysis of a Chilian specimen by J. L.S Smith (Gilliss’s Exped.,. ii, 92): Si 31:35, Cu 42°51, H 21-62, Be 1-97, Xl 2-83=100-28; formula nearly Gu Si?-+-6H. CuRYSOLITE ote 84].—Analysis of a wine-yellow _— from the Eiffel by Th. Kjerulf (Nyt. Mag., viii, 178, and J. f. pr. Chem., lxy, 187): Si4221, Mg4929, Fes91, Al018 r 0-004, = 0°12==10072. neg = 48]—Mine in California, Am. J. Sci, [2], xx, Analysis of mineral see by T. H. siwiiay (Edinb. N. Phil. J. rose ii Par (each a mean of two ses) : C H N O Ash. ' 1. Glasgow coal fields, 82:97 3°35 0-75 685 608= 100 z ¢. Sean: coal, 2°74 2-85 5°83 19°08 == 100 2. rshire 43°42 2°94 8°25 ~ 15:39 == 100 9. Fiechine, Splint coal, . 74°72 2°74 1-67 14:87 = 100 Fe = AS ee a ee ic." ele: 17-385 14:98 = 100 hard coals associated with Pe last two charcoals consist of NS N OS ee i, 80°63 516 0°84. 133 10°61 143 2. 80-93 5°21 0°63 157 10°91 0°75 area differ from the hard coals but slightly in composition, and Mr e Fibrous Anthracite, used by Prof. Bischoff, to that of Mineral [p. 853].—The metallic acids of the Columbite of Middletown, accord- cae f. pr. Chem., Ixv, 74), consist, in 100 parts, of Columbic (niobic) nous acid Tl? O* 18-26, Ilmenie acid f1 23:30. ‘The whole cou to Sata j in Tl Sn Fe Mn Mg 1823 040 14:06 5°63 0°49 = 99°06 n the vamaerot = (Go, T)+ 2k T. weight of um is’ stated to be 20420, and that of Columbium Second Supplement to Dana's Mineralogy. 199 The Columbite of Bodenmais affords : Go Go n F Mn ‘Ou 45°40 35°67 0:45 1430 3°85 0-13 = 99°80 Formula ap egg R €o?+ 3B Go. . Samars tas the formula 3R? il + 42 Ui, consisting of— tN oe Me. Mn Pe US Oe ign. 33°25 23:11 050 190 9g 87 1663 13-29 285 0°33 =100-03 4ischynite has the formula 2R f1+ &e Tis, pe 1 Ti €e Ge Fe ign. 3320 25:90 22-20 512 622 1 28 545 1:20 = 10057 Yttroilmenite pee fl : i / 4 be Ti 5-90, ¥ 1830, Fe 1361, Mn 0°31, Ca 05 50, U 1:87 d La 22 Pyrochlore (io pret 0 f Mizek) contains Y1] 46-25, ¥1 14°58, Ti 4-90 28, ¥ 0-94, Fe 2-23, Ga 9-80, Mg 1:46, K 0°54, Na 2°69, Fl 2:21 = 100°83, cc. w i thy Re (f1, Ti) +221 p.c. FL [The existence of Ilmenium is Age In dis ae e.] p Coregr Bi he California, Am. J. Sci. [2], xx, 81.—Chili, J. L. Smite Gillis’ eo Coruxpum [p. 1 1, according to measurement by Kokscharov, equals 122° 95” 5’ (Min. Rosai. ‘é na ® cleavage, color, lustre, har phi sae c gravity, and differs aly in e ft of sana and in chemical compa sition— Akad. Wiss., Wien, April, 1855. eh repr ip. 212].—The analyses of Danburite, by Smith and Brush ar a Segall ay ijteetioted: ‘without zoo reason by Kenngott in his Min. F for 1853, p D leis a 34].—The crystallization of Datholite has been carefully studied by F. H Schroder, in order to ase rtain whether the prism is right as ted b by ; : ‘Brooke and Miller and Hess, or oblique. He makes it slightly oblique, though st te leaving it in doubt, the inelpation obtained being 90° 6’; he gives O: 27 [see Min., | P. 384] = 135° 11’, 0:1 = 158° 34’.--Pogg. Amn., xciv, 235. sore mip. 4 [p. 441}.—Coral rock of Matea afforded T. S. Hunt, Oa 6 60°50, Mg 6 TM, Si, a 030 = 9957—Am, J. Sci., [2], xix, 429. “Analyses of compact magnesian limes tone of Missouri, by Dr. Litton (Rep. Geol. Missouri, 185 55): Ca G Mg 6 Al, Be Insol. or Si ak 1, Chouteau Springs, 48:23 34-98 2-01 +520 Om =5 9085 - 2. Atkisson’s Well, 47-01 38°86 052 8. Cotton Rock, 50:80 40°56 1-07 4. From Goal Measures 61:18 25°70 0 Dae gd The sam analyses also. of Missouri tae se! stb ies ae —J. C. Heus aie log 8 i von Wal sliershavsen [see xix, pad eg 3 should retain the na 0 Da ite, ge ‘or 80: being so called in Krantz’s eno 3 Guttanen 3 on 99°64 38:05 26°39 3 Sustenborn gnh-bn, 88-43 (2618 877 2413 t bole, gni-in, 38°39 9848 756 22°64 ; ann Bicherite 38-08 2774 826 2358 ars 7-66 2735 8°89 2591 ag ent ine 3828 2752 866 2 37°35 29:02 1667 22°54 Seas a ea NES 235 99°93 200 Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. These analyses give Scheerer for the mean oxygen ratio, for H, k, 8 { Si, 2-02 : 6-66 : 15°28 : 19°73. Scheerer, in accordance with his hypothesis, supposes = to replace = and oi replace 1k, and thus arrives at the ratio for [Si] : (R), of 4:1. The xygen ratio e, The Zoisite ag ‘the Saualpe i in Carinthia, "whe ere it occurs in eneiss, contains zir- conia according to an analysis by Kuleszna, in which he obtained— Si4400, 4130-97, Oa1776, e492, Zr 2-00 = 99°67. The author observes that Klaproth’s analyses are erroneous. Evoase [p. 267]—Mean of four analyses by M. A. Damour (Comptes Rend, xl, 944): Si x1 6Be «6 Gan—CséFPe:~S Gn H Fl 4163 3407 1697 O14 108 084 604 0:38=100°60 Oxygen, 21°61 15:92 10°73 5:37 (The oxygen ratio between the bases and the silica is between 5:4 and 4:3. With the latter, the formula is (28e+2A1) Si+3H, 0 ict 2BeSi* +: i Bit yh. iffering from the analyses of Mallet and Berzelius ining t the ratio of 2 to 3 instead of 1:1, and also in the wauie as Scott as fein ae, and resembling ori 5 nit S y: tes brown to hyacinth-red or edie galtow Streak grayish-green to ownish 2-78. i tic. flame of a spirit inchbeck-brown, to white, semi-metallic and o sea _ . . shi “Ld foliates and yields water. BB. blackens; thin leaves fuse on the edges t netic globule. With borax fuses easily ; with salt of phosphorus diffcalily, vie elding a silica asl with soda swells up and shows a manganese reaction. Analysis ems v. Hau i Al Fe Mn Mg Ht 38:13 21°60 19°92 2:61 13°76 398100. The ellen # Si, 3 stacey i. eye the sclbhida ms flexibility of the mineral. : aks So or + he ee Si—s. ENSTATITE, Kenngott (Min. Not. No. 17).—Augitic in crystallization, although having some resemblance tn Scapolite. J: J=87°. Cleavage parallel to ‘4 distinct, and having a pearly lustre. Color grayish or ellowish- white be S. G.=3 — -318. BB. infusible, wert this the nam: to von Hauer contains, Si 56-91 nei tsa, He 276, Mg 3o4s, W199 (al lst at 100° C.); and cs di is a batons of Magnesia 3812), as Wollastoni isa peo of lime (Ca3 $i2). sci te group hence includes abet ite Cas Si2, Diopside (Ca, Sg)3 Si2, Enstatite Mg Siz, Hedenbergite (Ca, Fe) Si2, vaneri Fes §i2, Bustamite (Ga, Mn)3 Si2, Mns Si2, Hypersthene (Fe, Mn)3 Siz, RES: included under pyroxene. ge some feldspathic minerals from the Hypenten’ by TS. unt, Phil. Mag., [4], ix, 354. The paper contains the fol z analyses, besides Bros contributed to the Mineral ater, the co — me to the general formula of Biotite . Se ewan ec ETO ar semen PY CRC TOnt Senna Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 201 Si. Mt Fe Oa Mg Na K ion Andesine, 59°55 2562 O75 T78 itr. 509 096 O45=— 10015. “ Wh? a 2 59°85 25°55 065 694 O11 Pact 3. a 5850 25°80 100 806 020 545 116 04010057 4 55°80 26°90 8 901 027 477 O86 0456 99°59 5 5720 2640 040 884 583 O84 == 99° 6. 57-55 2 87 538 0-79 0= 99 7 5445 2805 045 968 —— 625 1: 0°55=100°49 8 5815 2609 050 778 O16 555 1:21 0-45= 99:89 1, 2, color flesh-red, reddish, greenish and grayish-brown, G.=2667—2674; 8, granular greenish base of same rock, G.=2'665 —2°668 ; 4, pale greenish a bluich- gray, finely granular, G. of greenish-gray portion, 2 681: 5, 6, color pale lavender- blue, G.= 2-68 692; numbers a to 6 from Chateau Richer;—%, from district of Moztreal, , 8, fro Chute, associated like the above with crys- , G= supposes that albiite and i chits are the onl ly two distinct species of titi feldspar and ae toe intermediate in composition, are mixtures of these =P sak the Nan ae of some Feldspars (Orthoclase) of the granite of the Dublit and Wicklow mountains, J. A. Galbraith, Phil. Mag,, (41, ix, 40 (anal. I—7), and x, 115 (anal. 8) Be 06 6OMg Ga K Na ign. 1. Dalkey, Co. Dublin, 00 18:11 og ir, 12-73 300 0:55= 98:96; G.=2°540 + Thee asia Mountain, 6540 1771 1-77 tr. 1068 3:26 069= 9951; G=2562 4. a ey apy 273 Coeriee io C354 m4 Co, ickl 65.05 17°72 tr. +023 13-42 275 O36= 99:53; G=255 8.Glenmacanass, “©” 6419 1839 0-34 070 11-39 295 058= 9854; G.= 2553 6. Glendalo ough, 360 1884 0-40 @¢r. 14°33 1:92 0-60= 99°69; G=2-453 7. Glenmalur, Co, Dublin, Sons ies <-tee war UN OA O78= 98-70; 2-560 8. Near Dublin 70-32 16-12 Fe320 134 465 3:39 0 A variety ot egeng containing lithia, from the vicinity of Radeberg, afforded G. J Sriaechs (Pogg,, xcv, 04) : 8i Al Mg Na K FlandB (ign.) 65:24 20°40 0-84 o71 0-27 12°35 052 = 10033 Oxygen, 33:87 953 084 089 007 210 : G=2548. H=6. Color smalt-blue to milk-white. Associated with lithia mica. Pseudomorph of from the granite of potash mica (muscovite) after feldspar, Hirschberg, Analysis 33 Kjont (J. £. pr. ‘Chea: is, 190) :— 1. Orth Meg miinsee oclase, =e LEST 0°66 0-35 8°89 19. ce 2. Mica peend, S178 2875 637 062 828 214 os3=9783 a os casicen formrindaye may not have been quite pure, as it was selected bs aed *e ‘ pence > Sebadoh ¢, (1) from a Hypersthene ~~ refiame Bass, 8 Y G. von Rath (Pogg., xcv, 5388—see Hypersthene, ce Si wl Fe Oa ig, Lee oi ae i: 16 tee 2. 50°31 97-3 P e O78 1°55 Oxygen, 26-14 2-"5 re O31 026 128 Color bluish- 1,G.= 2715; for 2,G.—= 2707. Labradorite on: occurs inthe Witeita Mis, west of the Mississippi, (Blarey’s Rep. Expl Red 'R River p. 187. < H Ville regards ki ee as an altered Labradorite, ob ag Ch. Phys. [3], ® has analyzed the mineral from Ternuay, aud obtain Stvonp Szeres, Vol pant No. 62, Mareh, 1358. 202 Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. Al Ca Mg Na K ign 1, 59:07 bi a 7:96 058 4°95 tr. 0-77 = 100 2. 57-01 © T53 0°39 5°47 0712 1:43 = 100 3. 52°40 a be 15°02 051 5:10 ol4 2°05 = ae is analysis of the a erystal; No, 2 of the inner portion ; No. 3 0 the . No, outer; the last afforded 2°6 p. c. of carbonate lime. Ox xyeen — ‘for k, &, fi of No. 1, 0-90 18: 743 of No 2, 084:3: 678; and of 3, 14 Andesine, according to Deville (Ann. Ch. Phys., [3], xl, es » ia wpe gra nr eetan porphyry of Marmato afford 3:5 to 5 p.c. of carbonate o _ c Mg Na K_ ign it: e 85 24:05 5:04 038 504 088 O076=100; G=261 2. 60°69 2604 3:89 085 582 101 220=100; G=262 3. 5811 28:16 535 152 51T O44 1:°25=100 No. 1 gives Deville it. bo gaveen ratio for R #, $i, 0-96: 3: 886; No. 2, 072 73:7-°78; No. 3, 079 appeared unaltered : No. 2 afforded 1°4 p.c. of carbonate of lime. Deville selon her also the Ry ako lite (?) of Teneriffe. Analysis of Labradorite f the Linderéds Mts.), sp. gr. 2°68, by Blomstrand . Ak. Fork, 1854, p. 296.): = eae at Na 1°34 500 = 99°95 aon 53" berate [Suppl 1 Found at Kapnik in ‘Deed Frvor [p. 94].—Kenngott (Min. Not., No. 14) deseribes a “aged trisoctahedron of fluor Which has S$ very narrow ein, hedral planes of a violet-blue color. It has m. Saxony in eis alia ee axial sections were colores, while the rest of - pert was violet-blu He describes and figures an octahedral crystal of the e same gel ean bangs a ich has a small dodecahedron of fluor on each ang’ viol Still rene form he mentions, which is a peculiar twin presenting faces of the cube and the tetrahexahedron »03, Small globular concretions violet-blue to color- have been found at Kapni For fluor in ee and Calcite, see those aa Gatactire [1st Suppl.]—Kenngott states from Haidinger, that Galactite oocurs white, and that the locality is Glenfarg in Pertebien Scotland. Garena [p. 39].—-The Galena of ~.e afforded zk —— usually a trace silyer—the highest per-centage -0027. e La Motte na gave ‘0012 to’ wo, Rep. eg Missouri, 1855, in which ae are Pictices ms the escest mines of the state. at Phenixville, ap Smith, Am. J. Sci, xx, 2 cae [p. 190]—A black Garnet occurring with green feldspar in — yas tains yttria; analysis by ra pacer (Sitz. nied. Ges, Bonn, July, 1854): i Mn Mg > Al 8494 30-01 26° Of 1:09 0:50 6°66 tr, — 3°88. H.= 5, or like apatite. T [p. 386). —Anal sis of the Salt from Guy uscoa, Spain, “by Rivot Vesper =" amg (51, vi, 558 : P B 248 Baies Kir. (Caos Mgos H 545 oo por e formula acim _ in a thick bed, and is compact, stoi, gannig ra GLavcontTE on ae fee [p. 285) [eatin of the Green Sand o leew estphalia, according to D. H. von Dechen (Verh. nat. Ver. Bonn, 1859, ot iababe Feis75 Mg337 K.337 H 625 =100 agin, Pd all oe c chacing sand; of the rest 41 p.c. are quartz ment, consisting o of 8 cy gm 6007810 Mg O16 Gi ies A164 ese Ftr.=100 Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 203 Guorrazite [p. 319]—See Chabazite. Goxp [p. 7].—W. P. Blake on the —— mines, sa J. Sci. [2], xx, 72, Gotp Amateam [p, 15]—Found = bor Calif Analysis by F. — enschein (Zeitsch, d. deutsch geol. G 243, in “Lieb, u. Kopp., 1854, 807). a 39°02 and 4 ns 63, with quicker ‘80-98 and 5837. Color yellowi hi 4-sided pris M. Schmitz is stated to be ae for this aoe pe 80’ exa ; R, the pyramids are = and #P2. idinger, in his Handb. der bestim. Min, p. ably 4R, in which this ¢ igs 88° 13’. If the pyramid belo ongs to the same zone with 2P2, it ma fP2 which affords the side angle 48° 87’. Specific gravity the Ab raphe graphite, 2-9 tee ha ary aut wet and Rat. ph a Poe studied by N. A. E. Nor ek G oge., pons Ses uunced mo — form a short 6-sided oblique abl uch I like” co si ee ges it (clea teal n faces =f! = obiqne sm ¢ =106° 31, of 65! Eager ear Tnclination a the octal axis 8 Gypsum [p. 377]. Berea, west of Mississippi, Pncccs fu Rep. Expl. Red River, P. 148, 164, &c. In California, Am. J. Sci, [2], XX, Havsmannrre a form of compound crystal of Hausmannite in general Fidieractll to to figure 295A, Min. *h 69, ie been observed by cm Ea te s No. 16). Te 7 peesedihy the octahedral planes 1, and on the angles, 4 planes, Dauber (Pogg., xciy, 406) has obtained ps the — angle of 1, 105° 50’; and for 3, 140’ 81, from she Hiniaaitante f Ilmena Hex. £ (Specular Tron 113)].—Octahedrons, pseudomorph after magnetite Nogerath (Si (Site orm Ges, ye July, 1854).—On ore of Missouri, Geol. Report ‘eet nee solic eae with Smithsonite, Am. J. Sci., xx, 118. HEDDLITE, Greg.—A_ native oxalate 0 f potash, according to M. Forster Hed- dle; color- urplish a: arising from some oxalate of cobalt, From a Base?! yon at the Old Man, near Coniston Lake in Westmoreland, England, associated Conistonite of Greg. Edinb, N. Phil. J, ak 365. HIROINE, Piddington— A fossil resin supposed to be new. asa ae, lxxiv, 318, and en Min. Forsch for 1885, p. 134, Hor NDE [ — eenstone of Neurode in Silesia consists of Saus- sutite te (Labrad es) 43 434 ae a hornblende ieee ste composition nan and Ratioes uralite phi “ ’e,). Part of the hornionte. shows i: — tion, G==3-073. nalysis by von Rath (Pogg., xev, 557 Si4870 1 oge hs 2521 Oa1125 Mg 1201 alkalies ¢r. pee 1=9900 € oxygen ratio for R, #, Si, 13°60 : 0°38 : 25°30. affording the ia ornblende-like mineral, a constituent of the oe a of Norway, _— se the fo ollowing composition, —erep part re ox Par, Sch ry abi aap Ht Z1 Pe fe Mn Ce Mg Na — oe 1266 1024 902 O75 1143 1086 418 211 11 Oxygen 1938 5-91 3.07 200 O17 327 414 108 08 Oxygen ratio for H, &, 3 Bi, 1-64: 11:02: 8:98 : 19°38. . 204 Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. Scheerer by his theory (taking 3% = in ot 3H =1Mg) makes out the formule ar SEAS palais ed hombende form ned is near that of “Epidote the propriety of calling ye species Sedbiiets waar ie speatinas ned,—s. D. D.] Norpensst6.pirs is identical with Tremolite, (Kenngott, Sitz. Wien, Xi, 297.) ‘ HypersTHene, see Pyroxene. Tpoorase [p. 197].—Analyses and phere pu by Rammelsberg (Pogg. xciv, 92) —the results here cited, mean of 2 or 3 analyse Mg K Z Vesuvius, ywh-bn, 37°75 1728 443 37°35 $79 — =10055 G=33 ' . dull bn, 37°83 1098 9°03 35°69 437 —- = 9790 G=3 126-5420 ye Monzoni, ywh, 38:25 15°49 2:16 36°70 4:31 0-47 == 97:38 G=3344 . : r 37°56 11 s 729 86°45 5:33 = 98:24 G.==3.385 5. Dognazka, 8715 1552 485 36-77 542 035 =10006 G.=3378 Braap le a 39°52 181 8-04 35°02 154 132 = 9875 G=341l 7 Egg » con 37-20 13°30 842 34:48 422 031 Ti151=—99-44 G.=3436 8. Eger, 8788 1448 7-45 84:28 430 — Fe0-45=98:'89 G,=3'384 9. Sanford, Me., 37°64 15°64 6-07 35°86 2:06 — Ti2-40—99°67 G==3434 10. Wilui, 0 10°51 7:15 35°96 770 —- = 99°72 G.=3'415 11. a 8715 13-44 647 ieny 2°87 ‘08 == 98°97 G.=3-407 cen” When Pig the protoxyda and eamerds 3 25: 25=—21 : 1) “Tammelste also shows that y re- ga my iron as oxyd The 2s Tae may. pony be present as fig instead of akand Loc. Ducktown, " Behecrer Gres ==3°359. Form - pedis a 8 0, bd ga dag hy % neriy pacar Si Po M ‘a V 1 37-38: ; 85 9:28 ry “4 ce 603 273-0015 = Bye st 9°36 4-11 1:67 undet. =100°16 “73 8 18 49 : 95 ost 7 9° 1:98 1:89 undet. panctan 99°95 “for H, R, B, = is 186 : 11-86 : 8:28 : 19°53, os the water, the oxygen ratio for R4+H d Si is very nearly 1:1. Taking 566°25 as the ee of = the ratio fee 1:86 : 11°86 : 8-28 : 19°93, me oh is still ne’ —J. | | r makes ‘out, by his polymercus isomorphism the angitic formula | rick e of welt: in ‘Tdocrané hhde been determined as follows by -G. ©... : 244 0-15 2. Vite green, 029 —_undet. 2°98 undet, brown, 1°79 0-06 4 8p Pee pave te Tt 08 The loss Sohal ignition for several Idocrases was as follows: : a 8, 2:10 p.c.; Banat, 241, 241; Wilui, 0-73; Egg, ne neat ioe + i brown, 2-38, 216; Ala, ig O05 c structure of songs A shown a subjection to flaohydric talcose -" Min. Not,, No, 16. Hrom near Bufialo ib.) Pe 84:80, © isi 064, Si 2°88, 5 0 Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 205 Tripiwm (P. 13). onthe e gold of California is well known to be associatad with Irid- ium. Traces of it have remained in e coin of the P. hiladelphia salut In a paper Dubois (cited | in Ann. d. Mines, [5], vi, 518, 1854), it is stated that the com had undergone in England a de ee of four pence per ounce on account of the iridium; and much difficulty ha a ncou hited tn of the hard points, some grains 0 dium _ pres ent in the gold weighing even 40 muiliigrams. Mr. D tion by making an alloy of gold with silver, as usual, and the pe at it to stand — 15 minutes; Pa ridium, whose specific gravity is 19, vil settle to the an alloy o: r 13 repetition a the process a few times will remove i whola, 20, fa ounces of California acne have thus sata 21 ounces of iridium JAULINGITE, Zepharovich. ae Wiss. Wien, My 1855, “iain new mineral bg eke: ae lignite of Jauling. At is unded massess in the tron = JUNKERITE Ne = RP eit confirms the conclusion that Junkerite is Spathie ‘on. (Min. N 14.) Kyanrre [p. 263) Analysis of Kyanite from Wermland, by J. Igelstrém: (J. f. Pr. Chem., itiv, 61, from Oefy. Ak. Férh., 1854, p, 66): Si 40-02, Al 58-46, #e 2-04. G.=3°48. 04). otic Anata of Lazulite occurring with Svanbergite (see beyond), by Igelstrém” oe it.) : r Al Mg Ca Fe Mn H 4252 32:36 8:58 tr. 10°55 tr. 5°30==99°81. Streak and powder blue. ‘G.==2°78. Levcornane [p. 182].—R. P. Greg, Esq, in Phil. Mag. for July 1855, p. 510, describes and figures a ‘aeaig erystal of Leocophans Calling O the basal plane, 1 J’, the lett 84 right lateral pisone of the prism, O: J or J’ is 90°, I: I’ 90°—-93° (91° 3’, iller). i is, form is hence near Andalusite seh: ¢, re. r 72=1189 * rg Sa 1 7: J==91°. daha gig: tie eet ei 14193" Amin, 087m Bag nin Natrol 1448 ulation 117° 494. The plane g (m—n) appears to be héethiiecr + but the he on te an oni me angle oy ae poe bg ag a be daptes al and 36} the msm, The dee ages O, ‘alogy ; the angle 196° 29 being the supplement neal sppomeat 0 of the inclination of f on the diagonal pl (i ern ( IMONITE [p. 131].— Analysis of ore from near t ee by Dr. Li he ihe men Was, BF 446. Fro a a ies > a ee It epot, 1 dost, lato. 8105-10280. .. * 250." ; in Californi, ia, Am. J. Sei, [2], xx, 81; Phoenixville, Pa, i Macwrsrte {p. 441].—Bolton, Lower = Getasin T. S. Hunt, Am. d. Sci., xix, 429. 206 Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. Maevetrre [p. 405].—Loe. in California. Am. J. Sci. [2], xx, 8 ¥ Matacnite ip. 458].—Analysis of malachite from ee 3. L, Smith, Am. Sci. [2], xx bape one in the Jura.—A. Miller, Verh. Nat. Gessellsch. in Basel, 1844, 95. ManGaneseE spar, see Rhodonite. an ounce in we ight, t, loo kin ng like black copper, r, from the south part of the Bed Rive near the Witchita Mo . = i fragmen e eof ac , givi ae lue an : still pete tinct with the blowpipe; chlorid of copper is volatilized and spreads over the char- coal support; pure co nally obtained. ed mineral almost wholly dis- solved in ammonia, giving out muriatic acid. bpetran ns copper 54°30, oxygen and chlorine 36°20, water 9'50=100.—Marcy’s Expl. Red River, 8vo, p. 135. 1854 Ic copper from the same region afforded copper with traces of iron 35°80 (to wow, lca 30°60, oxygen and water 34:10==100. (Ib.) Meronire [ Sg porcine of crystals from Vesuvius by Rammelsberg (Pogg., xciv, re 1: r summit 116° 12’, giving for basal angle 63° 48’ and for pyramidal angle 1 ise” 3” ; the last ai by observation, 186° 12 Measurements by Kok scharoy (Min. gees » i 105) 1: mise 11’ or 136° 10’— 186° 114. Mizzonite affords 1:1—135° 5 - MELANCHYME, Haidinger—A bitumen-like substance of earthy facta wl curring according to ie er fa Zweufelsreuth in the district of Eger. Kenngott’s Min, ; ny for 1853, MELLIre Ip. = 5).— git Re measurements of — from’ es afforded (P: OBg. xciv, 410), for the pyramid 118° 14’, whence a:e= 1°34:1: ffer obtained 118 13}/, Semenls ed ef > ae 118° 14}, Breithaupt, 118° 16% Phillips, 118° 17’, Mica [p.217].— f Vesuvius and sus- tains the conn ‘ii, For sl., , p-126, Poge. xciv, 212), that is monecline. He btain of his results, J: J=120° 45’, 0: = , O:1=106° 54’, Foes soe” T: 1=154° 29’, ie i#=119° eo Ge 29/, ii Hi=iss® is = 30°. pyram He also shows that the striw and lines and t ransverse cleavage, Producing what is called prismatic mica, is due to the seisslaton of thin plates of » Batvacts of mica (muscovite according to Hai er, for extraordinary ay, ost. , alg tae noite Wien Tet ee a s. 8. Ha ue on refers to Margarodite, hich h stains as a good species, micas from Ireland, aid with the plete aici (Phil. Mag. [4], ix, 272): Si AL Fe Ga M kK Na 1. Dublin Co. 43°47 31:42 4°79 1:38 1: 1B 10°71 1:44 oi =907T 2. Wicklow Co. 4471 3113 469 1:09 090 991 1:27 622=9992 > pon Co. 4464 3018 635 ——- O72 1240 tr. 632==90°61 4, (mean) 4427 30°91 527 082 0-92 11°01 090 66 Oxygen ratio for R, 8, Si, R, Pree’ bit oud, 1:13 : 6-00: 8:59: 1-80 = - a 6: es 2088; for No. 3, 0 See 177; _for ss author’ . [p. 49]—In the Millerite of Joachimstahl, Kenngott observes (Min. Not. planes of the fundamental hexagonal prism and the one intermedi- Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 207 On some needles of Millerite he found small ip rhombohedral crystals giving e angle R: R=105° 15 pata et too few for analysis, but may have been a ealtite containing a carbonate of nickel. Morerene [p. 401].—Analyses, etc., Phoenixville, Pa., J. L. Smith, xx, 248. Misric p. 62 ager her of Mispickel of Copiapo, a L. Smith (Gilliss’s Exped., ii, i 109): § 20°25, As 44°30, Fe is a Co 5:84 = Mispickel eciselinphione after Pyrrhotine has hg sboorvtil by Kenngott, in specimens from Freiberg in Saxony (Min. Not, No. 14). reap or Iron (?) [p. 144].—Loeality in Heard Co., Georgia, Am. J. Sci. [2], xix, MORENOSITE, A. Casares.—A — 1 vitriol occurring in Spain n(Hartm, Zeit. vii, 37, and Kenngott’s Min. Forsch, for 1853, 16), in nee edles or thin prisms, Soluble in Water, solution green, Reactions indicate Ni, S, (and also H?) with mixed Cuand Fe, Naparaa iP. 469]—On some of the fle ponepnenia of coal Naphtha, by C. Greville Williams, Edinb, N. Phil. J. [21, Native Iron [p. 17}—The s Ls sed s ative Iron of Canaan, Ct, has been an- po by Dr. A. et Hayes of Boston, and proved thus to be a furnace product. It i sa i and affords full i se that it has been artificially reduced from has examined masses of iron purporting to be native, from Liberia, Aitiea a2 nd finds them a sce ure all a carbon, slike any artificial iron, and “hasta gr of quartz are disseminated through it; and the evidence from s ure iron 98°40, quartz grains, magnetic oxyd of iron, and zeolite 1:60 = 100-00. ¢ locality is in the rg pene bore gr fsb Bassa county, Liberia. It probably Cccurs in large deposits [ rice seyyc? crystals afforded v. Kokscharov, (Min. Russl, ii, 1 ‘a 1= 1=isse 29) 4° BHO: :1= 1350 BAe Breithaupt obtained fo | Biidiigee 184° 3 Scacchi, 13 ].—Mean of two analyses by C. y. eet, (Jahrb. geol. Pago 1854, 190, sr Si - be oe 27°28, Se by H{ 18-04 = 100-08, giving the ceived formula Cas § ‘ Ostaanire [p. 196] cere confirms (Min. Not. No. 15), by a eS awe the identity of Ostranite with Zircon. The Ostranite is from Brevig, eway. Patarrive (native).—Hofstidter, in J. f. pr. Chem., Ixiii, 410). Patsprrerre [p. 168).—H. Da mee uber (Pogg. xciv, 398), describes ¢ this Bae 1 —— decarring ‘a ( asia the + a6 099 dey ident 38"; Angles ae== 939 2837, a’ 1179 45}', ok 148° 474, ab 111° an 106° 83" $n’ 149° 394, be 87°38’, b/c 92° 227 0¢ 186° 847 95131997 sc 138° 114’, 6’ 184° OF me 94°36’, mle 85° 24’ = 102° 58’ ks 139° 43/ m8 126°11% 9 118958’ a0 107° 16", kb 76° 59" 208 Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. A silicate of galas) ees as eae 2 Sweden, and Przibram, Bohemia, the Fowlerit sent ace to Dauber, a similar torm to that of the Pais- bergite ; the Slloving ¢ are ite. rss he has obtaine - 1 Longbanshytta, a 6=111° a a e=93° 15 be=87° 18’ 2. Przibra 119-1 94° 11/-92° 6° 87° 6’-87° 54’ 3. Fowlerite, TH? 38" ie 6’ 92° 21'-98° 88’ 86° 11’-88° 17’ These minerals therefore are all referred by Dauber to Paisbergite. peg is an im nt observation, att pert ag a eay- mM. D ber recognizes the = So eS! in the cleavage ( (parallel to 6 and c) to augite. But by the posi- tion he gives the aenlids the further resemblance is not seen, The annexed figure shows this relation to be a close one, and exhibits the analogies between the a and a triclinic forms. e lettering assists in a direct comparison of the forms (see Min. p- 159). The following angles show plainly the parallelism. Pa gto gr Fvipcte Augite. | aisberg: eansee bs ar anise 4! «Ts t= 136° 274" s (I : 18 188° 114’ I: jit80? li @ (#%: O)=107° 16’ ti: O=106° ball’: O\=111° 83’ T: O=100 0 BT" cal: Oj= 93° 284" T: O=100° 61! # =144 o (I: %) =186° 84/ I: ti =133° 324! de (2? : #)=131°9 27’ =: T: 4&4 = 138° 324’ PecrouirE [p. 305].—In a paper by M. F. Heddle and R. P. G as “(Phil Mag. [4], ix, 248), we learn that Thomson’s “Stellite” is eb SE pectolite, as well also as h ollastonite” from Kilsyth, the mineral from Costorphine Hill analyzed b Walle the “ Wollastonite” from Castle ock of Edinburgh an- alyzed by Kennedy Other English localities are Talisker aos } d ire, and Ratho near Edinburgh. atho mineral z occurs with steatite, calcite, barytes, and as — phs after coeiaiie nal by Dr. Heddle, and others ‘cited by him (loc. cit.) : : Fi 6a Na at A, Fe, Mg, K = ilsyth, 274 81:68 960 2-00 8-39 Thom seemed Hills st a A Re ee en (Mg) Walk astl 32:00 850 5:00 nedly. os 53 a6 8348 9:98 3:13 Heail we 5. Ratho, Jibrous, 52-5 32°79 975 3-04 4 3 (1) Hedile ee att scouaiins £268 33°15 9-26 2°80 1-46 “ Heddle. 7. Knockdalian Hill, 53-2 82:22 «9°57 ~=— 8-60 1:00 “ Heddle 8 ; 29°88 9°55 3-76 2°73 dile ie: 34:38 - 988 » 3-26 0-42 Heddle 10 or 3280 960 200 11. Bavaria, ; Domed, re “1 82-06 6-10 4:01 0:86, K 2-79, Adam. Dit 43 for Na, Ca, Si, H, 1:44 tll: 1, which he takes at Le4etl +) and writes the. foeurla ahs Bit eS Sita =Silica 52 “57, lime 34-95, soda 9-68, water 2°80==100. He reckons the #l with Us ided prisms, twinned sometimes parallel t of en other two faces ha and 4 — w is a face of perfec 93° 30/ obtai taking for the artirp of silica Las 3304; hones for me : Bi, 5-22 : 11-484: 8-76, or vent een te 5662 the equivalent of silica, we have for a is er Mineralogy, p. 806, 3d 1 from top, for alumina, read lime— pec a | oe Second Supplement ta Dana’s Mineralogy. 209 295}.—Haidinger has shown that the crystallization of Pennine is saree (Pogg., xcv, 620); he found for the refraction of the extraordinary ray 1575, of the pee 1-576, Angle of the rhombehedron by measurement 67° 24’. Prrorsxitg [p. 345]—This mineral occurs in the valley of Zermatt, Switzerland, low, orange yellow, sometimes reddish brown; semi-transparent, and thin fragments sometimes transparent. von or —— white, A druse of minute transparent cubes observed on one specim ‘G=t087—$09 9. H=5°5. Attacked by hot muriatic acid and partiall Gaeak not acted on by prs acid ; sulphuric acid at P cig C. deco a jo it bes sinks dissolving the titanic acid and forming sulphate of Mea analyses: titanic acid 59°23, lime a 92, protoxyd of iron 1 8 =100- ”. affording. the constitutio Os ti. The other minerals of this loc ocality ar garnet, idocrase, ham sa chlorite, ripidolite, serpentine, sphene, zircon, corundum rutile, magnetic nil The planes of th a dnjetile-e of Perofskite from the Urals, vey “i be 3-2 and A are, according to Kokscharov (Min. Russl., 1854, i, 199), 2-2 as Pha ee eee, [p. cea bares of Lunnite from smtmee by Dr, Hed- [4], x B oo-73 Ms a 13 H 851 mixed aay 0'48=99°85 consists of aggregated congeries of omgey spheres; G.=4 The presence of a treat be selenium in thts 0 re from Rhelnbreitenbach has been ed by Bédeker (Ann. d. Ch. u. P Pharm., xciy, 356). He obtained one-sixth grm. from 50 grammes of the ore. Pragionite aga 5).—A crystal from Wolfsberg, beige the planes 0, 2, ii, and another of O, 2, are figured by Kenngott (Min. Not., No. 16). Prantxom [p. 12].—Loe. at Pt. Orford, California, Am. J. Sci. [2], xx, 79. Potyuauire [p, 377].—An coma by Dr. G. Jenszch pes ” alga of Prof. Hq. , , of a speeimen that came from ier, and is now in the museum of the Berlin Academy, afforded, on ealculating om the results (Posi xeiv, 17 5): a Ca MgS xk 8 a. hh. Pe. Mae 4411 1978 95:37 169 024 O11 101 039 002 616=9938, Proving that this dark red mineral from Vic is Polyhalite. ‘ PREHNITOID, gg ewe: (Oefy. Akad. Forh, eee Pe go! aPumasges ag ro umnar. Pale gree ae vitreous. H.=17. fuses easily white cme acting like prehnite. Mean of 5 ae a Na K Mg Fe Mn ign, 5600 2245 T79 eta ‘046 O86 4101 O18 104=99°36 Oxygen 29:08 1049 921 958. 008 014 022 005 Oxygen h ration for R, #, Si, 5-28 : 10-49 : 29°08=1: 2: rae Si+Al2 Sis, the oxygen ae of 8, # and dag: 2, we vite ds aN tie aagien Bak pred Siz, o Saad precisely (Re +8) toe in Seen umene, the oryee n ratio of the protoxyds in the Is ad 1 tata at i: J. 45 in his deduction res wore ee in the formulas of ate wise kaon 4 the complete analysis ‘de difference : formula o f barytes is Teo, 808. so he writes for prosopite te CaF, Al Fs, H. The P vnvalve the extraordinary supposition that Al and 8 are isomorphous. Mouruitz [p. 400],—Loe, Phoenixville, Pa, Smith, Am. J. Sci., xx, 2 up Sxnins, Vol. XXI, No, 62, March, 1856. °7 210 Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. vhge ataslegerd Reams, Min. Not., No. 17.—Has the appearance of serpen- tine. Compact w we a -— Color genyiah,, < olive oa pistachio green ; streak white ; i coe what grea . G=275—2 B. caeriniec or Fydiee. but is infusible In peat 5 ad “impactecils soluble beco and forming no jelly, ae Si Al “Me Ht 33:51 15°42 2°58 3441 13°21 (of seg 0:46 lost at 100° C.) Affording the oxygen ratio for TH, R, #, Si, 9:12:6: Pyroretin [1st Suppl.].—This resin is Eppareny ai bk that described by Dr. Mallet under the name of Scleretin e (Phil. Mag., [4], iv, 261, and a Bi . Excluding the ash of the latter, Dr. ‘alles ak analysis iota « ca ites drogen 9°18, oxygen 11°11, and the second gives a similar ee and ‘i ed formula with the pyror retin. (Mallet, ina fatter to the Author. PyroxeneE [p. 158].—Analysis of 4 el from the Eiffel, and of a mica pseu- domorph after the ape by Th. Kjerul Si Al he Oa Mg “4 Augite, 50°21 6°94 759 19°85 13°66 o 33-98" 58 2, Mica pseud., 43:10 15°05 23°25 0-81 10°82 1:50, with K mee Na 0°82, = poe 1:03 as impurity with the mica.} e fro hmatowsk according to Hermann contains (Bull. Soc. Imp. a Mee 1854, p- 318): tent ae Fe Oa Mg H 1:15 1°80 gh 15°63 2:39 Oxygen rbd 051 040 613 212 Form of crystal « oo, 0, or in letters, J, ie ii, C 0. _Cearge a very per- fect, with a sub- mati indlined to vitreous lustre. yses of Hypersthene from a Hypersthene rock of ‘Bilesia 1 oy G. von Rath (Pogg., xev, cay si Al OFe Oa Mg ign. 1. Black, 5178 112 1097 2004 1558 0-29=99°71. G==3336 2. Darkgn, 50°34 -—— 847 2185 1686 1:23=98°76, G.=3249 3. Dark gn, 50°00 042 854 2111 15°37 169=-97°63. Go=3244 ries mis ee Ree i ot, F 187; in 2, 1:1-75; cab Be 1°85. Rath observes that the earlier analyses of Diallage, gi n Rammelsb Handvtcterboch, and ning f in bie 2nd Supplement, conduct to the same ratio. A soome. e from forded Si 53°60, Al 1:99, Fe 8:95, ae See further Enstatite _ On a serpentine-like pseudomorph of diopside, Kenngott, Min. mG No. 1%. eae = tp 50].—Note on formula of pyrrhotine, T.S. Hunt. This Journal, [2], xix, 145). —Density to Deville coe heating 2°663 sion 2-220, own a diminution em girs, Ma In a similar manner labrado ide ‘hows tances a diminution of 0:06, ie of 0°08, hornblen ie of 0-12, pyroxene ie of 0:14, iron chrysolite of 0°16. ‘Corundum 4:022 before fusion, 3992 after fusion. on nage crystallization of quartz, by M. Descloizeaux, Acad. Sei., May, 1855, rei great Ts containing figures and tg riptions of numerous new erys iF Leyate gg ote a notice in this Jour., xx : blished ne Wien, xv, 59 an structure of quartz ceyttalp ss he developed by the 3) a of Phnwrollaorle wl acid, Pau ‘rated ‘by plates and of uartz, Kenngott, Min, Not, No, 15. in California, Am. J. Saar Meadors hopper-shaped crystals, &e., Néggerath, Verh. nat. Ver. Bonn, corre [p. 200].—Measuroments by Kokscharov (Min. Rusel, ii, 110), 0:2= 38’. 0: p, 200] Men ty ¢ < Second Supplement to Dana’s Mineralogy. 211 Savssurire [p. 254] deters to von Rath (FoBe Xcv, -_ the Saussurite from the greenstone of Neurode in Silesia, has the cleavage, ness, and tabular twins of rca or in e ear when the R. A. of the sa i af Fe the Mpeg a tei : ibe — limits of time a ph ; will be sbecreatl! : ooh eb Such aml i thea whose visibility di nds on this inclination. Such an ne * of it a little further “ue sat it is on this account, and not = sake of the Proposition directly demonstrated, that it is introduced h f 232 F.. A. P. Barnard on the Zodiacal Light. It is hardly necessary to point out how entirely different are these results from the facts of observation. If, on the other and, we suppose the light to be a mere locus of brightness, moveable laterally with the observer, then in this latitude, it should never be invisible either in the morning or in the evening ky :—at least, it should never be invisible unless the breadth of be consistent with the supposition that its source is so near to US. If the arc-radius of our horizontal circle is only 17° 14’, then | the preeeding limb of the limiting circle will, at the close of twl- light, have passed the zenith by 46/; and it will have to advance but 17° 14’—46/=16° 28’, in order to pass off from the horizon- tal circle entirely. The total duration of the phenomenon, there- fore, wp to the vanishing of the last trace of light, should be less than the duration of the preceding twilight—which, in this lati- tude is in the early part of March, less than an hour and a half. If we consider also that, long before it should entirely set, It would become inconspicuous and probably hardly visible, we shall see that it ought sensibly to disappear very soon after first presenting itself in the evening sky, instead of seeming to pat take, as it does, in its descent, of the general motion of the vens. It may be said, however, that we ought not to rest our reason- ings upon an assumption of so inconsiderable a distance for the ring ; since its visibility at midnight, and with the sun depre 90°, demonstrates that it must be more distant. I am willing t take the largest distance that can be adduced from any observa tions ; or even a Jarger distance than would be required to satisfy any. We have seen that, if the light were visible in both hor zons at midnight, with a vertical altitude of 45°, it would poe duct us toa distance of less than 5000 miles above the earth's surface. Suppose therefore that we adopt 9000 miles as the tf ng, or rather, that of its highest visible stratum. The nee, if ina few particulars more favorable to the hy- F. A. P. Barnard on the Zodiacal Light. 233 pothesis than before, will in many others, conflict with it even more violently. It is totally impossible, in short, to admit that the ring can be seen at all at midnight, without being forced to require that it~ shall be seen spanning an immense arch in the heavens, earlier or later in the night. Suppose, for instance, that at the time of the midnight observations of the zodiaeal light by Mr. Jones, when the columns appeared in his prime vertical and equal to each other, there had been an indefinite number of observers posted along the great circle of the earth which was coincident at the moment in plane with the ecliptic; all of them, there- fore, having the ecliptic vertical. We must be permitted to take it for granted that the luminous columns visible to Mr. Jones would also have been visible to every other such observer, whose horizon did not pass above the illuminated substance whatever it may be, on the one hand, nor approach so near to the sun as to be affected by his light, on the other. And consequently the eastern column must have appeared more extended, to observers east, and the western, to observers west, than they did to Mr. ones. Now if we take an observer among this number, to whom the sun was but 18° depressed, and assume that the light produced from a ring interrupted by the earth’s shadow, and (in the first instance) presenting to one in the position of Mr. Jones, only a trace of brightness in the east and west horizons, then this supposed observer of ours must have seen the light stretch- Ing 158° from the horizon on the side of the sun through his zenith, and therefore to a point only 22° above the opposite orizon. The ecliptic is only vertical in the inter-tropical regions, and I remember no records of the phases of the zodiacal light in those latitudes, made earlier than those of Mr. Jones. Though I have not had the opportunity of examining his diagrams particularly, [think Lam correct in presuming that he has recorded no aspect - of the light, in which it seemed to pass the zenith. Tn the lati- tude of Tuscaloosa, Alabama (334°), I have often observed the light when the ecliptic passed within 10° of the zenith, ss the length of the column a single degree ; yet I never = summit of the brightness approach anywhere near to the meridian. Assuming that the light is not a mere luminous éocus, moveable laterally, we shall find that it must mae be visible un a » Szntes, Vol, XXI, No. 62,—March, 1856. 234 F. A. P. Barnard on the Zodiacal Light. at the close of twilight, so long as the angle between the ecliptic and the vertical passing through the sun is less than 67° 26’; which, the sun being depressed 18°, will make the minimum in- elination of the ecliptic to the horizon, at which it can be seen, 28° 34’ ow as the minimum inclination of the ecliptic to the horizon in any Jatitude (which occurs in the northern hemisphere when the autumnal equinox is on the western horizon) is evi- dently equal to the co-latitude diminished by the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator, we may easily ascertain within what limits of latitude the light ought never to be absent from either the evening or the morning sky. For this purpose we have the equation, Co-lat.—obliq. =28° 34’. Whence Co-lat.=52° 2’, and Lat.=37° 58’, or 38° nearly. At Tuscaloosa, however, which is considerably within this limit, the zodiacal light is very far from being constantly present. Similar considerations enable us to find a limit beyond which the supposed ring can never be visible. This is obtained from the equation, Co-lat.+-oblig.=28° 34’. Whence, Co-lat.=5° 6’ and Lat.=84° 56’, or 85° nearly. Thus, in favorable positions of the ecliptic, the light should be e pole would be elevated only about 13°, but the middle portion of the arch would approach 6° of altitude. The arch, however, could not be a circle of the sphere, but a spherical conic section. This * ae CS ap ee eras F, A. P. Barnard on the Zodiacal Light. 235 But about 24 hours before midnight, the other branch should appear. Its apparent length at midnight should be 72°, and the apparent altitude of its summit 21°. At dawn, this arch should have attained a length of more than 108°, and an altitude ap- proaching 66° at its middle point, its inclination to the horizon being about 624°. Its base should be 26° south of the east point, and 574° distant in azimuth from the sun. It is evident, therefore, that on this supposition, the light would usually be very far apparently from the ecliptic. Nor will the case be much improved, if we suppose no lateral parallax to exist ; for though, by this means, we may reduce the apparent place of the phenomenon to that in which it is actually observed, by so doing we shall only render the discrepancy be- tween theory and observation, in regard to the conspicuousness and magnitude of the phases, more striking. To investigate this case geometricall y, We must suppose a plane passing through the observer's eye, and parallel to the ecliptic, to intersect our lmmaginary sphere. ‘The intersection will mark the locus of the : light. But, if the ring is to be regarded as a hollow cylinder, | J then as, in the new position of the luminosity, it is a small circle a of the sphere, we should, if we aimed at extreme accuracy, in- ie Crease the radius according to the formula, R= 9000? + 3956. sin ZD’, in which R is the radius of our imaginary sphere concentric with the earth; Z D is the zenith distance of the nonagesimal ; 9000, the radius heretofore assumed ; and 3956 the radius of the earth. With this new value of R, we should calculate again the arc- mit of the luminosity, and, OQ is the line Mi its apparent direction from the observer. — fom the latitude, the sun’s place in the — 236 FP, A. P. Barnard on the Zodiacal Light. pression, and the angle OML is the complement of HOP’. O being the centre of the circle of the horizon, and G_ that of the limiting circle, the depression enables us to find OL, GL. ML=OL.tan MOL; and GM= VYGL°+ML’?. Also, angle GML is easily found. Now the three planes make a solid angle at M, of which one of the containing plane angles (OML) is known, and also two of the inclinations; whence the angles an ML may be ascertained. Also, GMQ=GML+ LMQ: consequently, if a perpendicular, GL’, be dropped from G on MQ, its length may be found, and also the ordinate QL’, and the line L’M: whence QM is known. OM is found in the triangle OLM: and therefore, in the plane triangle OMQ, we have OM, MQ and the angle OMQ, from which to obtain the angle MOQ. This, and the known inclination of the plane OMQ to the horizon, enable us to determine the apparent alti- tude of Q. c This method has been applied to determine the aspect of the light as it would, under this supposition, appear in this latitude, at the close of twilight, when the inclination of the ecliptic to the horizon is at its minimum. The arch would follow the course of the ecliptic, froma point on the horizon 31° 20’ dis- tant in azimuth from the vertical passing through the sun, one hundred and forty-one degrees. The highest point of the arch uld be 32° above the horizon, and the extremity of the light would have an apparent altitude of 194°. There would also be a trace of the opposite cusp, rising about 2$° from the horizon. This being the appearance under the circumstances least favorable to visibility, at all other times both cusps ought to be seen, both morning and evening, throughout the year; and one of them ought always to have an enormous length when the sun is within 18° of the horizon. These results being optical and geometrical necessities conse quent upon the hypothesis of a nebulous ring surrounding the earth and illuminated by the sun’s light, and being all of them unconfirmed by observation, it seems impossible to arrive at any other conclusion but that the hypothesis is untenable. e appear, therefore, to be conducted to one and the same, couclusion by the application to this theory of four distinct tests ; each one of them having no slight independent weight, and 4 of them combined possessing an irresistible force. The zodiacal light must consequently be regarded as presenting a problem stil unsolved. The observations of Mr. Jones, when published, maY possibly present some clew to the mystery which has not yet een detected in them. But whatever else they may show, the | Writer cannot but believe that they will furnish, 1n them- T. Coan on Recent Eruption of Mauna Loa. 237 selves, most conclusive proof, that the luminosity does not reside in any substance physically connected with the earth, on the whole, whatever difficulties may attend the theory which ‘regards the zodiacal light as having its seat in some ap- pendage of the sun, there seems to be as yet no other supposition possessed of greater plausibility. University of Mississippi, Oxford, Oct. 30, 1855. Art. XXVIL—On the Recent Eruption of Mauna Loa; by Rev. T. Coan.* Iris now ninety-seven days since the great valve opened on the mountain, and still the volcano works with unabated energy, pouring out its floods o in. ceaseless torrents. Long ago we had expected to witness the molten sea sweeping over our fields, choking our harbor, driving our ships from their moorings and our citizens from their homes. But though the igneous flood still approaches us, its approach is so slow that our fears are greatly allayed. Reasoning mathematically, and assuming that the high fountain remain in force, the future terminus of the stream must be the Seas; thus it is only a question of time. After returning from the mountain, and having rested and at- tended to necessary duties, I determined to cut through the jun- gle to the lower end of the stream. Several natives had been Up and reported the fire as making its way toward us, like the dogged and slow approaches of the allies before Sevastopol ; but no white man had penetrated the jungle. On the 31st of Octo- ber Mr. Ritson, an English gentleman, and myself, with three called Wailuku. Up this stream we wended our way with in- 2] ~ i basins and cataracts, slipping, falling, and plunging along, and Up the bank and beatin slowly through the wet and entangled Jungle, until the obstructions in the stream were passed, and then tumbling down again into its tortuous bed. ‘Thus we urged our toilsome way under a drenching and continuous rain, at the rate of from one half a mile to one or two miles an hour, as obsta- Cles were more or less serious. ee . * From a letter to Rev.C.S. L dated Hilo, Nov. 16, 1855. This account #10 continuation of that Published in the last number, page 139. Wi 238 T. Coan on Recent Eruption of Mauna Loa. © soon as we entered this stream we found it discolored with pyroligneous acid from burning wood, whose odor and taste Pp that the lava flow had crossed the head waters of the stream and its small tributaries, consuming the forest and jungle, and sending down what could not be evaporated of the juices to mingle with the stream. A little before sundown, our guide led us at right angles from the stream we had been threading for six hours, and in a few min- utes the fires of the volcano glared upon us through the woods. We were within six rods of the awful flood which was moving sullenly along on its mission towards Hilo. The scene beggared description, and for a moment we stood mute and motionless. Soon, however, we moved on to the verge of the igneous river. Thrusting our poles into the fusion, we stirred it and dipped it up like pitch, taking out the boiling mass and cooling all the speci- mens we desired. e were on the right or southern verge of the stream, and we also found that we were about two miles above its terminus, where it was glowing with intense radiance and pushing its molten flood into the dense forest which still disputed its passage to the sea. We judged the stream to be two or three miles wide at this point, and over all this expanse, and far as the eye could see above, and down to the end of the river, the whole surface was dotted with countless fires, both mineral and vegetable. Immeuse trees which had stood for hours, or for a day, in this molten sea were falling before and below us, while the trunks of those pre- viously prostrated were burning in great numbers upon the sut- face of the lava. It is impossible to give you any just concep- tion of the scene. as u are aware that the great fire-vent on the mountain dis- charges its floods of incandescent minerals into a subterraneall pipe which extends, at the depth of from 50 to 200 feet, down the side of the mountain. Under this arched passage the boiling fusion hurries down with awful speed until it reaches the plains below. Here the fusion spreads out under a black surface of hardened lava some six or eight miles wide, depositing immense masses which stiffen and harden on the way. Channels, how- ever, winding under this scorified stratum, conduct portions of the fusion down tothe terminus of the stream, some 65 miles from Its high fountain. Here it pushes out from under its mural arch, _ exhibiting a fiery glow, across the whole breadth of the stream _ Where the ground is not steep and where the obstructions from jungle, depressions, etc., are numerous, the progress is VeTY r, Say one mile a week. ZT. Coan on Recent Eruption of Mauna Loa. 239 On the evening of our arrival we encamped within ten feet of the flowing lava, and, as before stated, on the southern margin of the stream, some two miles above its extreme lower points. Here, under a large tree, and on a bank elevated some three feet above the igneous flood which moved before us, we kept vigils until morning. During the whole night the scene was inde- scribably brilliant and terribly sublime. The greater portion of the vast area before us was of ebon blackness, and con- sisted of the hardened or smouldering flood which had been thrown out and deposited here in a depth of from ten feet to one hundred. Not only was the lava, as aforesaid, gushing out at the end of this layer, but also at its sides. These lateral gushings came out before and behind us, and two-thirds surrounded our that 1 tree was on fire. A large tree fell within ten feet of us during the night. Often, too, would the dried vines, parasites and leaves of immense trees take fire and running up to the height of seventy or eighty feet, throw off countless scintillations which sparkled and glanced amidst the gloom like myriads of fire-flies. But another exhibition exceeded all the rest in interest. At thousands of points on the solidified crust of the stream, the accumulating fusion, fed from above, was swelling and raising this superincum- bent stratum into tumuli of endless form and size, and then, bursting open the cone or dome thus raised, either laterally or at the apex, when flowing off for several rods over the old substratum, the stiffening flood became solid. Soon, perhaps, another layer 18 spread upon this, and thus on indefinitely, until thirty or-forty strata may be depdsited in succession, raising the whole from a . tn] : 7 ‘ * ; the deposits become enormous, the fusion spending itself, thus retarding its progress towards Hilo. — Where we left it, and having fallen into its head waters above us. ‘n effort to cut across below the lava stream was made that e 240 T. Coan on Recent Eruption of Miauna Loa. might get a more definite idea of its width, that we might ob- tain a front view of it, and, finally, that we might reach the channel of the Wailuku and descend in it to Hilo, the passage along this stream being much easier than inthe branch by which we had reached the fire. Previous to our efforts to cut through the woods from one stream to the other, we had made an attempt to cross directly over on the lava stream itself. This we tried first directly from our camp; but failing here, we beat our way through the thicket up the verge of the stream, hoping to find a point where the fires were less active. At length we made another effort to cross. But the hardened surface of the stream was ‘swelling and heaving at innumerable points by the accumulating masses and the upraising pressure of the fusion below; and valves were continually opening, out of which the molten flood gushed and flowed in little streams on every side of us. Nota square rod could be found on all this wide expanse where the glowing fusion could not be seen under our feet through holes andcracks in the superincumbent stratum on which we were walking. The open pots and pools and streams we avoided by a zigzag course; but as we advanced, these became more numerous and intensely active, and the heat becoming unendurable, we again beat a retreat after having pro- ceeded some thirty rods upon the stream. It may seem strange to many, that one should venture on such a fiery stream at all, but you will understand that the greater part of the surface of and found the stream so swollen and so grand in its wild rush- ings and plungings, that it was with the greatest difficulty and anger we effected a retreat. Mercifully we reached home, scorched, smoked, exhausted, and “ water-logged.” Nov. 20th.—Three different parties have returned from the fire since this letter was commenced. It has made two miles pro gress siuce'my return and ‘it is estimated to be within eight miles of the shore. ‘Notwithstanding the winding and difficult way, pie ee can now go up, dip up the fusion, and return the same day. J.D. Dana on Volcanic action at Mauna Loa. 241 Itis only four hours walk from us, and it might be reached in two hours, were the route direct and the road good. The rate of progress now is about one mile a week. It may come faster when it gets through the forest. Probably six or eight weeks will decide the question whether Hilo shall remain in its ver- dant robes or be swept with a besom of fire. Arr, XXVIU.—On Volcanic action at Mauna Loa; by James D. Dana. ’ Te recent eruption of Mauna Loa, so vividly described by the Rev. Mr. Coan of Hilo, sustains fully the conclusions of the writer in his Expl. Exp., Geological Report; and as those con- clusions are, in part at least, at variance with preconceived no- tions, a.review of them will not be out of place. It will prob- ably require many reiterations of the facts, before so magnificent an attendant upon volcanoes as earthquakes shall be allowed to have only an incidental place among the phenomena, The main conclusions to which I refer, are briefly as follows — 1. The quietness of the eruption.—According to Mr. Coan, the lava has reached in its windings a distance of 65 miles: yet it broke out without an earthquake ; as in the eruption of 1852 and 1846, a light on the mountains was the first announcement. The Progress also has been as quiet as the commencement. 2. The eruption through opened fissures.—T he craters at sum- mit did not overflow; the mountain was broken through at a height of 12,000 feet—and the fissure or fissures continued down the mountain, the lavas flowing in the fissure at a rapid rate—as they should, with a head, more than 12,000 feet above the sea; —in some places overflowing, and spreading widely, and in — confined to the fissure. Must be a fissure opening from below upward, or several fissures along a common sre dg and -the fissure or fissures may ex- tend so as to reach the surface only:at intervals, so that the out- breaks shall be more or less interrupted. Thus it has espn or the modern eruptions of Mauna Loa .and Kilauea. The idea o a shaft being suddenly struck through, so as to become the con- duit of a:side ctater, and ;this crater the sonrce of Java.of the a ®tuption, is wholly-opposed by the facts.on Hawaii, as; Sconp Szems, Vol. XXI, No. 62.—March, 1856. 31 242 J. D. Dana on Volcanic action at Mauna Loa. by the very nature of volcanic forces. The fractures of sucha vast mountain as that of M. Loa—14,000 feet high, and 50 miles in diameter at base, must have their starting point from a depth as far down at least as the water level; aud if such a fracture opens so as to make a fissure of a mile anywhere at the surface, it will have many times that length below ; moreover, owing to the strain producing such a rupture within, there would probably be several other lines of surface fracture, along the slopes be- tween the first outbreak and the sea. The lateral cones formed along the line of such an eruption mark the points of widest fracture or the intersections of frac- tures, and are not the sole sources of the lava. . A volcanic mountain whose average slope is 6° to T° may have eruptions extending from the summit to the base.—The three great eruptions of M. Loa directly sustain this fact. More- over, as Mr. Coan states, while the average slope is 6° to 7°, there are many intervals where the angle is 25° to 30°, and some of 49° and 60° or more, down which the lavas poured, and where they afterwards hardened. We have not however definite state- ments as to the thickness of the lava stream along these steeper declivities. ‘The facts at least set aside the notion that the lavas of a crater are thrown out at an angle not exceeding 3°, and that a higher angle is a result of elevating forces below at centre, thumping it upward. Elevation by uplifting action beneath 1s part of the history of every lava cone. But it begins, as the facts in Kilauea prove, with the first formation of the cone, and continues with its progress—growth by overflow and elevation going on together; and if there be any difference, the uplifting action should diminish (instead of decrease,) as the crater loses its original activity. 4. The basaltic character of the lavas.—The rock, Mr. Coan states, is similar to that of the other eruptions. Indeed the re cent lavas all over Hawaii are much alike; they vary 10 the amount of chrysolite, but otherwise are quite similar. here cin- ders, which mark so strikingly the spiteful Vesuvius oe almost oa. In- J.D. Dana on Volcanic action at Mauna Loa. 243 contains material enough for one hundred and twenty-five Ve- suviuses: and two thousand feet below its summit it has a thick- hess of twenty miles,—a massiveness in the great voleano that would seem to fit it for lofty projection towards the celestial re- gions; and yet it makes out to toss its little cinders a few hun- dred feet when it does its best. This is not strange, when it is understood that in a boiling fluid, whether lava or anything else, the projectile force of the escaping vapors depends on the viscidity of the fluid, and also the narrowness of the vent above : and where the lavas have the fluidity that enables them to make craters three miles in diameter and mountains fifty miles broad, or the far larger dimensions that are observed in the moon, they pended on some accidental ingress of waters, or formation o vapors. But on Hawaii, both Kilauea and also the central or summit crater of M. Loa show that after an eruption there isa gradual progress in the lavas, until their accumulation and the In 1849, it was again filled, but afterwards became quiet, the lavas sinking away, though without a sinking of the craters bottom. There was evidence in this of a partial eruption, though the fissures did not reach the surface of the island. Ac- cording to the account by Mr. Coan, Kilauea was again the past year in extraordinary activity: and whether it will this time break through to the surface remains to be seen. 244 J. D. Dana on Volcanic action at Mauna Loa. tains at heights of 10,000 to 14,000 feet, when Kilauea on the flanks of the same mountain 6000 to 10,000 feet below, hold its capacious gulf wide open, and heedless, keeps on its boilings and mutterings. A syphon with the fiuid lava standing in one leg 10,000 feet higher than the other, and yet without sympathy be- tween the two—the upper at times even playing a jet of 1000 feet diameter and many hundred feet high,—is a strange problem for the geologist. Deny the connection,—and the hypothesis of a communication now existing betwen a modern volcano and the earth’s interior fires has but a poor foundation. Admit the connection,—and a mystery remains to be solved. e may say that a connection exists; and that, as the craters are twenty miles apart, the junction may be at least 100 or 150 miles below ; so that the friction or resistance to free motion In the long conduit isnot more than counterbalanced by 10,000 feet in height of lava.—Or, we may suppose, as the writer suggests in his Report, that as the aetion causing the eruptions 1s com- paratively superficial or within a depth of a few miles, it being in fact, a rising from developed vapor, as a vessel of fermenting syrup froths over, (as suggested by C. Prevost,) such an action, a kind of inflation, does not necessarily increase much the weight of the column compared with that of its whole length. Both causes may indeed operate. Still, supposing the lava col- umn of the central crater two miles in diameter at top and that of Kilauea three miles, these being the diameters of the craters, we should naturally infer that the heat and the diameter would increase downward rather than decrease ; and that the passage 0 the syphon would therefore be free. Yet the law of latent heat, by which much more heat is required to produce fusion than the setisible heat of the fused material, makes it possible that @ melted mass may be held within a basin made of the same mate- rial unmelted, as water in a basin of ice; and it also increases the facility with which the melted mass, be it even the conduit of a volcano, would be encroached upon by the cold rock, the latter congealing it by conduction. This great question may therefore be regarded as still unset- tiled. If the thickness of the earth’s crust be but thirty myes, as has been sustained on good grounds, it exceeds only one*na! the distance between the summit crater of M. Loa and Kilauea; and in that case a connection of the two conduits could hardly take place at all except through the central fluid mass of the globe; for to bring them together within twenty miles of the surface would require a rapidity of convergence between them, which, although possible, cannot be deemed probable. 0 On the Properties of Teliuramyl and Selenmethyl. 245 Arr, XXIX.—Investigations on the Properties of Telluramyl and Selenmethyl ; by F. Wouter and Joun Dean.* [Read before the American Academy, by Prof. Horsford:] 1. Telluramyl. CicHs:Te. - TELLURAMYL Was prepared by a method analogous to that em- ployed in the preparation of tellurethy!; viz., by distilling tellurid of potassium with sulphamylate of lime. The combination is readily formed, though not so easily as in the case of the methyl compound, nor is it attended with so much frothing. By gently heating, yellowish vapors soon form, which condense to yellow- ish red drops of telluramyl, passing over together with water, under which it sinks. Soon however drops of undecomposed fusel oil are seen to accompany it, and we could not succeed in separating the two completely. The method which gave the hearest approach to success was the following: the mixture of telluramyl and fusel oil was dissolved in concentrated nitric acid, and as the fusel oil dissolved with much difficulty, the greater part of it could be volatilized before going into solution. Sul- phite of ammonia was then added, by means of which the tellur- amyl was reduced and precipitated in oily drops. It was separated from the fluid by distillation. The surface of the telluramyl obtained in this manner was invariably coated with reduced tellu- num. Towards the close of the original distillation, a thick, © almost solid matter was obtained, of somewhat darker color than the first distillate, which was probably a bitelluret. Three anal yses of different portions of telluramyl obtained as above gave the following results. we 44-4 39-5 38-3 36-1. Hii 8-1 74 8-2 69 Te 47-5 37-0 35-4 oo 100-0 83-9 81-9 Ibis evident from these analyses that the substance analysed was Impure, The carbon and hydrogen of the first analysis agree very closely with the composition of the still unknown tellurbutyl *H»Te whieh would contain in 100 pts. ta From an Inaugural Dissertation, On the Organic Compounds of Tellurium and » By J. Dean, Gattingen, 1855. eee 246 On the Properties of Telluramyl and Selenmethyl. The estimated amount of tellurium however differs very widely from this. But if we reckon it from the loss we obtain 53:1 and 53°5 per cent, numbers agreeing very closely with the formula. We can perhaps think that in this compound, only 3 of the tel- lurium is precipitated, when treated by the general method for the estimation of tellurium. We must further think that under such conditions, buty] CsH» together with C2H: is formed from amyl C:ioH1: which perhaps can occur from the action of the sulphu- ric acid upon the fusel oil in the preparation of sulphamylate of ime. Whatever this body may be it appears to be separat with the aid of heat into tellurium and the alcohol radical, depos- iting even when heated in an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas, metallic tellurium in beautiful crystals, and as this decomposition must have already begun during the original preparation, it is easy to see that the product must be mixture of different bodies. At any rate the body which is the chief constituent, is entirely analogous to tellurmethyl and tellurethyl in its reactions, being a radical combining with oxygen, chlorine, etc Telluramyl isa reddish yellow liquid heavier than water, of a disagreeable, though somewhat aromatic smell. A portion from the specimen analyzed boiled at 198° C. On exposure to the air it is oxydized, leaving a white residue: distilled in an atmos- phere of carbonic acid gas, it deposited a considerable portion of _finely crystallized tellurium. itrate.—By the action of nitric acid a yellowish white resin- ous substance is formed, of a pleasant etherial, aromatic odor, soluble in boiling water, from which a part is deposited in oily drops on cooling: by allowing the remaining solution to stan for several days, the nitrate crystallizes out in clear, transparent, colorless plates. The crystals heated in a closed tube melt and burn with a blue tellurium flame. It fuses at 40° C. : An analysis of the crystals gave 37-8 per cent. of tellurium ; had the compound been C1cH11TeO, NOs it would have given - 32°56 percent. The formula C1cH1;TeO, HO + CicH1:TeO, NOs, corresponding to the formula of the sulphate and oxalate of tellurethyl*, gives 36-9 per cent. Chlorid.—Hydrochloric acid precipitates a clear, colorless, heavy oil, without odor, when added to a solution of the nitrate. Bromid.—Hydrobromic acid precipitates a clear, pale yellow, heavy oil, without odor. 5am Todid.—This is precipitated, on the addition of hydriodic acid or iodid of potassium, in yellow drops which collect togetber as a dark red oil, heavier than water. Boiled with alcohol it's changed into a pale yellow amorphous powder, without odor, which becomes vermillion red when treated with ammonia, and * Ann. Chem. Pharm, lxxxiy, 75, 76. On the Properties of Telluramyl and Selenmethyl. 247 dissolves by heating; on cooling it is deposited again as a ver- million powder, from which nitric acid removes the iodine. tyd.—The chlorine compound, treated with oxyd of silver and water, formed a strongly alkaline solution, depositing chlorid of silver. ‘The solution on being evaporated to a syrupy cousist- euice possessed strong alkaline properties, evolving ammonia from chlorid of ammonium. On the addition of hydrochloric acid the chlorid was formed. Sulphurous acid reduced reddish yellow drops of telluramyl. Sulphate.—Obtained by treating the oxyd with sulphuric acid: on evaporation the salt crystallizes in groups of small colorless prisms, 2. Selenmethyl. C2H:Se. tellurium. Itis to be regretted that, owing to the small quantity of material, we had to work with, these experiments are very incomplete ; but they appear to be sufficient to indicate that the radical selenmethyl is possessed of very remarkable properties, and will serve to form the groundwork at least of future and more complete investigation. ' ‘he method employed sin preparing selenid of potassium was the following. Powdered selenium was converted into selenious acid by the action of concentrated nitric acid, the solution evap- crated until all the nitric acid was expelled, and a mass of white needle crystals of selenious acid remained sublimed in the flask. he selenious acid was then dissolved in water and saturated with potassa, the solution mixed with finely powdered charcoal, evaporated to dryness, and heated some time in order to expel as much water as possible from the porous mass. ‘The mass was then very gently heated in a glass retort: the reduction took Place at quite a low temperature, attended by vivid deflagration Spreading itself gradually through the whole mass, which glowed and shrank almost as if fused: so vivid was the deflagration that 4 small quantity of metallic selenium was lost, going forth from the neck of the retort in copious red vapors. After the retort * Aon. Chem. Pharm, lxxxvi, 35. + Ann. Chem. Pharm, baxxiv, 69. + Ann. Chem. Pharm, xciii, 223. ae 248 On the Properties of Telluramyl and Selenmethyl. was quite cold, it was broken, the mass coarsely pulverized and thrown into a flask containing a solution of sulphomethylate of baryta, the flask quickly connected with a Liebig’s condensing apparatus, and the solution distilled: the chief difficulty which occurred was from the excessive foaming of the liquid as soon as it was heated which however can be mostly obviated by heating the flask from the sides, and not from the bottom ; but notwith- standing all precautions the quantity of foam was so great, tha we were obliged to purify the selenmethyl by redistillation. It ‘was unnecessary to fill the flask and other apparatus with car- bonic acid gas, as the selenid of potassium does not appear to be as easily oxydizable when exposed to the air as the telluride: care however must be taken to have the apparatus prepared be- forehand so as to expose the selenid to the air as little as possible, and the solution must be distilled rapidly at first to expel the air from the apparatus. The selenmethyl appears to be formed in the solution very easily, as its characteristic odor can be perceived almost immediately, and, as soon as the flask is heated, yellow vapors can be seen to form, condensing to clear yellow oil drops precipitate when added to the acid solution. Sulphurous acid and minutes. ; Tf proper care be taken however, the oxydation can be carried on slowly until the solution is nearly evaporated to dryness: 0° cooling, the syrupy mass crystallizes in beautiful colorless groups of needle crystals, which increase in size till the entire mass als peer strong acid properties, appearing in fact stitute a new acid. On the Properties of Telluramyl and Selenmethyl. 249 They are quite deliquescent, very soluble both in hot and cold water and also in alcohol, haviug a disagreeable odor, and a most disgusting metallic taste which continues fora long time in the mouth. Ignited they burn with a blue selenium flame. Sulphur- ous acid reduces from their solution selenmethyl. Hydrochloric acid gives no precipitate. The crystals melt at 122° C., toa elear yellow fluid, which becomes on cooling a yellow crystalline mass: on heating further it deflagrates slightly, burning with a strong, very acrid smell, and attacking the eyes. On heating in a closed tube it is partially decomposed at about the melting point, and a small quantity of yellow oil is volatilized, smelling like selenmethyl: by increasing the heat it is decomposed, and crystals of selenions acid are formed in the cool part of the tube, together with water and drops of a beautiful dark red oil, part of the selenium remaining behind in fused globules. : On dissolving this crystalline body (produced by the action of nitric acid on selenmethyl) in ammonia, a crystalline salt is ob- tained, from which potassa sets free ammonia. i Silver salt.—The acid, on being mixed in an agate mortar with carbonate of silver, (prepared by precipitating a solution of the nitrate with carbonate of soda, and carefully washing the precipi- tate,) was immediately acted upon on moistening the mass with Water, carbonic acid being evolved in considerable quantity. 4 he mass was then placed upon a filter and washed fora long time with hot water, as the silver salt seems to be soluble with diffi- culty. By evaporating the solution, beautiful stellate groups of fine colorless and transparent needle crystals are obtained. "his body is probably analogous to the acids obtained by the action of nitric acid upon the sulphids of ethyl and methyl, Which have for their formule C:H:0) C4Hs,O0 By H O« $204 pe H Of S2Ost- The formula for this acid would accordingly be C20 2 620107, OzHsSe20s ; And that of the silyer salt would be ‘ suis ne Se:O:—or, CzH2AgSe:0:. _ Several analyses were made from this salt; but we could ar "We at no satisfactory results, as iu the silver determinations ae chlorid of silver was always rendered impure through admixture selenium or selenid of silver, which appeared to be precipitated * an * Kolbe, Ann, Chem, Pharm, liv, 174, + Gerhardt, Traité de Chem. Organ. ii, 287. Ty Skconp Serres, Vol. XXI, No, 62.—March, 1856. 32 eS Soin 250 On the Properties of Telluramyl aud Selenmethyl. with the chlorid, rendering the latter when fused quite black. 0-8825 grm. dried at 100° C. gave 0 5355 grm. chlorid of silver. 06597 grm. gave 0°4025 grm. chlorid of silver. Found. C2 4-8 . Hs 12 Ag 43-2 45-8 45-9 Sez 31 6 Os 19:2 100-0 These estimations differ somewhat widely from the theoretical formula, and it is to be regretted that Jack of material prevente us from making further determinations; but the formula is better established by the analysis of the chlorine compound, which will be presently given. The silver salt heated in a closed tube Is very easily decomposed, puffing and burning, forming water, selenious acid and selenid of silver. By continued heating of a _ solution of the salt even below the boiling point, it is slightly decomposed, depositing metallic silver and selenid of silver. The crystals themselves by drying in the air change color some- what, like all silver salts, showing a beantiful silvery surface ; they are slightly decomposed by continued heating at 100° C., and burn giving off red vapors of seleninm at 110° to 120° C. Baryta Salt.—By neutralizing the acid with ammonia, and adding chlorid of barium to the hot solution, the baryta salt Is obtained as a white, crystalline precipitate. From the analysis of this salt we conid only conclude, owing to the small quan- tity we had, that it probably contains two equivalents of baryta to one of the acid. ; The great difficulty in the analysis of these salts consists 10 their easy decomposition by heating,.either when dry or in soli- tion. They all possess the same smell and disgusting metallic taste as the acid itself, Chlorine Compound.To a solution of the above-mentioned acid hydrochloric acid was added; no precipitate was formed, but by gentle evaporation, beautiful transparent needle crystals were formed: when free nitric acid was present, only an amor- phous mass was obtained. _ These crystals, which have a strong acid reaction, are probably @ simple substitution product, in which one atom of chlorine “abo the place of an atom of oxygen, the reaction being as fo lows: | fa Se20.+HCl = tee : Se:0.+HO. lysis of the crystallized body, dried over chlorid of cal- n, gave the following results: On the Properties of Telluramyl and Selenmethyl. 251 0364 orm. of the body gave 0:097 grm. COz and 0-106 grm. HO. 0-684 grm. gave 0-313 grm. of selenium. 09788 grm. gave 0-8477 grm. of chlorid of silver. 0-719 grm. gave 06035 grm. of chlorid of silver. Co 7:0 72 H; 2-4 os Cl 20:8 20:7 21:0 Se: 46-3 45-7 Os 23°5 23-1 100-0 100-0 The determination which agrees least with the calculation is that of the hydrogen, which may easily be too great, as the crys- tals are decomposed under 100° C. ; Heated in the air the compound burns with the characteristic blue selenium flame. "It melts at 88°—90° C. toa clear, dark brown oil, (being probably partially decomposed.) solidifying on cooling to a dark apparently amorphous mass. Heated in a closed tube it melts and burns, part of the selenium being sub- limed as selenious acid, while another portion is reduced and re- mains behind in fused globules, drops of a yellow oil being also Ing faste; it gives no precipitate with bichlorid of platinum. Sulphurous acid reduces from its solutions a dark red fluid, ap- parently heavier and of thicker consistency than selenmethyl, (perhaps biselenmethyl). Hydriodic acid precipitates a dar black oil, an iodine substitution product, The chlorinated pro- duct dissolves easily in ammonia, forming a salt, crystallizing in of chlorid of silver. A solution of the salt is somewhat decom- Posed by heating, depositing a small quantity of silver. Owing fo the very small quantity of this salt which we had, we were unable to investigate further its properties. In the form of its crystals and alj its. physical properties, taste, odor, etc., it closely bles the silver salt described above (p. 249). eee 252 On the Properties of Telluramyl and Selenmethyl. : ¥ ated product ee: : Se2O; may be another acid forming salts of the formula Sadat t Se2Os: or + ees : SezO+ may with H;:0 HO with the excess of RO present, salts of the simple acid. The latter appears to be the more probable view. romine Compound.—By adding hydrobromic acid to the chlorinated body, a very slight white precipitate is formed, which redissolves on heating: by evaporation, a crystalline substance 18 obtained, which melts and is probably decomposed considerably under 100° C., forming a black oil resembling bromine: on cool- ing this hardens to a black semi-crystalline mass, nearly insoluble both in water and alcohol, but somewhat soluble in ether, which dissolves out a substance crystallizing in transparent yellow plates. By adding to the solution of the chlorine compound free hydrobromic acid, aud allowing the solution to evaporate by exposure to the air, beautiful, transparent, flat yellow prisms are obtained, which easily decompose by contact with organic sub- stances; from the mother liquor, sulphite of ammonia precipl- tates a splendid. scarlet. oily body, together with free selenium. The crystals obtained by spontaneous evaporation are without doubt a substitution. bromine compound, probably of the formula =. ' Se:Os. They are very soluble in ammonia, and form RO form RCi and regenerate the acid “ Se2Ou:, forming, a crystalline salt, from which potassa sets free ammonia. _ The bromine compound on heating melts, and burns with the same appearances as the chlorine compound. j aa Iodine Compound.—On treating the preceding bodies with oil, with a shining greenish metallic luster, of extremely dist greeable odor: it is quite soluble in an excess either of hrydriodi¢ acid or iodid of potassium, slightly soluble in water, to which I imparts an orange-yellow color, quite soluble in aleohol: by _ ing the alcoholic solution to spontaneonsly evaporate, it passes 0” with the alcohol vapors, leaving no residue. On allowing er oily precipitate to stand for some time in a closed tube, part it appeared to become solid, as if crystals were formed in the oily mass; but I was unable to study their properties. ~ On one occasion by adding a solution of iodid of potassium é a solution of the first acid, (obtained by the action of nitric a¢ 0 methyl,) a precipitate was formed, which redissolved 0” , and by evaporation was obtained in fine red crystals : * =, Ge 5 a eeremey ee ee So eee eNOS ne eae ee ee ae On the Properties of Telluramyl and Selenmethyl. 263 we were however unable to obtain the same body again, although the experiment was repeated several times with every precaution, and are therefore unable to conjecture what these crystals were. The conclusions which the foregoing experiments seem to indicate are as follows: Ist. The continued action of nitric acid on an alcohol radical containing selenium produces, besides a nitrate of the oxyd of the radical, as in the case of selenethyl (according to Joy), and tellur- ethyl and methyl, a new acid, probably analogous to the acid. produced by the continued action of nitric acid on the compounds of sulphur with the radicals ethyl and methyl; the formula of . the acid being by analogy OMe , Se2O.:, to which the name | of selenomethylic acid might be given. | 2ndly. The chlorinated product is probably a simple substitu- tion product, in which one atom of chlorine is substituted for one atom of oxygen TO ¢Se20.+HCl = O16) Se0.-+HO The product which Joy obtained,* by allowing chlorid of selenethyl to remain for some time in a solution containing free nitro-hydrochloric acid, is without doubt the corresponding body of the ethyl series. He was unable to obtain these crystals in an arbitrary manner. ‘hey appeared to be an acid, forming a crystalline mass with ammonia, which latter was liberated on the addition of potassa. ‘I'he formula for the corresponding ethyl compound would be er : Se20.. H The result of his analysis is as follows: 4 Joy. C4 i336 — °° I36 He 33 — 4: Se: 428 Cl 192 — 20.6 O; 1°7 0 100. : 7 a 2 _3dly. Treatment with hydriodie and hydrobromic acids gives similar products, ak 4thly. ‘The chlorinated body Oooh tse: O« may either give Salts corresponding to the formula 7 * } Sex0. or with the oxyd RO may form’? ¢ Se:O, and RCI, the original acid es: _#® Ann, Cheni. Pharm. bexxvi, 35. 254 Correspondence of J. Nickles. being regenerated, and forming with the excess of RO, eens ‘ Se:O.s. The latter view seems to be the more prob- able, as the salts obtained both from the bromine and chlo- rine bodies were exactly similar in physical properties to the salts of the simple acid. ; 5thly. In the body obtained by the continual action of nitric from selenethyl there seemed to be also a close analogy between selenium and tellurium: thus selenium appears in its organic compounds of the alcohol series to fulfill the functions both of sulphur and tellurium, and may justly be regarded as the con- necting link between these bodies. Art. XXX.—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nicklés, dated Paris, January 5, 1856. i optics, important researches on mechanics, and in particular, a re- markable theorem on the variation which force undergoes when a sud- en change is given to the parts of a system in motion. Sturm entered the Institute in the place of Ampére, and in many Te- spects he resembled him. He was, like him, candid, indifferent to the wealth and show of the world, gified with an inventive mind united is family was attaching him most strongly to life. t long since, in giving an account of the toxical oxyd,* that M. Chenot was the first to try them; * This Journal, Jan. 7, 1854, p. 120. : ; : _ Death of M. Chenot. 255 that he experimented on himself, and that he had since continued in a sickly febrile condition. His limbs trembled and at times he had fainting 6 : turns. A fit took him as he went out upon the balcony of his cham- ber to take the air. He remained there a moment resting on the bal- instead of diminishing, his strength failed him, and as the balustrade was low, he fell over to the ground, a height of four stories. It was on the 27th of November, 1855. Chenot was 50 years old. The inventions and discoveries of M. Chenot have a universal import- i a Separate many tons of ore per day, cleaning it perfectly from the earthy gangue which absorbs so much of the combustible employed tn the furnaces, The reduction of the metallic oxyds by the oxyd of carbon, or by the mixture of this oxyd with hydrogen such as is obtained in decom- 0 Chenot’s view, the quality of iron depends more on the region from Which it comes than upon the manner of treating the ores ; the locality of the ore bed has as much influence on the iron and especially affords. de with-all kinds of com- © manufacture of the sponge can be ma > ra 256 Correspondence of J. Nicklés. salt or an alkali, His first attempts date from 1850. In 1851 he made some trials in the awe Forges of Ariége. Having been denounced ier the events of Dec r, 1851, as a suspicious person by a jealous superintendent of iron wit M. Chenot w was taken from his labors and thrown into pri an an, so use tals: mild, loyal and honest, process the sulphuret of iron is transformed into chlorid of iron w which is volatilized and sulphuret of sodium which flows off with the scoria ; but this practice is evidently es for at a high temperature sulphuret of sodium is decomposed b Another invention, full of tare due to M, Chenot, is the appli- eation of the hydraulic mane to the compression and molding of me- tallic substances, By compressing the sponges in the cold, he ‘obtained results which dispense with the employment of high temperatures and produce an economy of combustible amounting nearly to 75 per cent. He was convinced ae with sufficient force, the moulding of metals in the cold would become almost universal, even for forms the most com- plicated, and with various combinations of metals whatever art may require, so that copper, ssa steel, gold, silver, etc., may be combined in any way that may be There are endless pas teeiane | in the inventions of M. Chenot. Un- fortunately, this inventor had not the talent to see his true interests. In- stead of exhibiting in his writings the importance of the metallic sponges and their many uses, he indulged i in long discursions on the physics of the globe, and in throwing out philosophical views far more appropriaie fooli sh eo rprises put in train ari men of adroiiness: ere i tact nef-acience. ‘To hin geuerl pr the American Journal 4 Science may claim rightly t an exception, Men of genius, . an one example has ees wn, may be ignored or even contemne and justice has ofien first come, as in the case of Chenot, Fre nce} through sition.’—If the reader will run over the list na the Paris — he will find many names whic ich the Me . Submarine Telegraph across the Mediterranean. 257 anticipated official honors. r. Goodyear has received the Gran Medal of Honor, of the 10th class, for his discoveries and inventions connected with India rubber. elegraph across the Mediterranean.—Among the inventors who have received the decoration, there occurs with justice the name of M. Jacob Brett, the maker of the first submarine cable. He had noth- ing on exhibition, but his brother had brought forward specimens of the cables which had been laid. en the prizes were under discussion, - Babinet, vice-president of the jury of the 9th class, and as such, member also of the jury of ‘presidents, proposed a reward to M. Brett, stating that he merited the medal of the “ Legion d’Honneur.” But as the name of John Brett was alone on the catalogue, he received the nomination and was felicitated on the honors he was to receive on the morrow, He called to thank M. Babinet, when the latter perceived the mistake that had been made, and hastened to correct it by substituting the name of Jacob Brett, who was found with some difficulty and drawn out of his retreat in order to be present at the distribution, = John Brett would have been decorated had he not failed in his at- tempt to lay down the Mediterranean cable. ‘The failure moreover was not his fault. No steamer could-.be found large enough to take the third Section,of the Algerian cable, it being 200 kilometers long and weighing more than 1500 tons; and they were therefore compelled to freight a Sailing vessel, the Result, of 1700 tons burthen. The vessel was ready by the 30th of July, and on the 6th of September it arrived at Cagliari in Sardinia after a violent gale in the Bay of Biscay. On the 24th the esult accompanied by the French steamer /e Tartare, steered for Cape Spartivento, which it reached before night. At 6 a. M. on the 25th, the cable was attached to the shore, and put in connection with the electric telegraph of the land ; and at 3p. M. the laying of the cable commenced. By midnight, 22 miles had been laid. At 3 a. M. the work recommenced and by 9 they communicated with Cagliari, distant 40 miles. The cable had descended to a depth of 1640 meters. But the sailing vessel could make only three miles an hour, and it did not lend itself to the unrolling of the cable whose tension had become enormous from the great th of submergence : suddenly, the cable broke the stop, and run out with a frightful Velocity, three miles slipping off in ten minutes, without an Possibility of stopping it, the vessel at the time hardly changing its Place. In the run of the last two miles, the coarse wire enveloping the cable gay Stooxp Skniss, Vol. XXI, No, 62.—March, 1858. o 258 Correspondence of J. Nickles. sulation of the wires was no longer perfect. Finally a heavy sea caused the cable to break at the tangled bights, and all hope of recovering the cable then out was given up. A large amount of cable remained sto rough, and the vessel could make but little headway ; and they were forced to so many deviations from their course that it was evident they would not have length enough to reach Galita. Their only course, therefore, was to cut the cable and return and wait for a more propi- tious season. Such is the history of this peg undertaking. Mr. Brett would have been successful during the months of January, July or August; but the terms of his engagement enlist not admit of his waiting, except before an. impossibilit The operation will be taken up anew by the French government ; and as they have required that the line should end at oe na, the cable will have to be 200 miles long. Mr. Brett proposes, as a change, that in place of seven c nducting wires, the cable should bitte only three, which will suffice for the existing necessities of correspondence. The cable will then weigh only five tons per mile in place of twelve; at the same time more care will be expended on its construction. ‘T his pro- ject is accepted, and the construction of the cable for uniting France and meer is going on with all despatch. nium and Silicium.—The memoir of M. H. Rose on the prep- eration of a ae from cryolite has been the mean s of important mprovements in this manufacture. Deville had Gecnighil that with she addition of Auorid of calcium to the bath of the double chlorid of alu- minium and sodium, aluminium may be obtained, while it Is not possi- ble with the chlorid alone. The fluorids are therefore excellent solvents. i sodium, while silica is decom ; as even ese sodium by bringing together capillary glass ae sodium in r. But the great difficulty in t experiments is in the nature of the vessels used for the experiments and the eaersbiity of the electrodes. For gas carbon is dissolved rapidly in the baths of fluorids when it is used in the prep” aration of silicium Alousionens is “manufactured now on quite a large scale at Amfre- ville near I _ The vapors set free in this process are very ratege st: chlorid of silicium, chlorid of aluminium, chlorid © h gg ae acid. These are disposed of by interposing ye a furnace of lime, heated by an adjoining fire, into New m of manufacturing Alcohol. 259 Same time it is founded on a scientific fact of the highest interest. Ob- servation and invention are both known characteristics of M. Leplay, who is already familiar to our readers for the part he has taken in the manufacture of the sugar of barytes.* fc Beets minced up, (or any other vegetable substance containing su- 8ar,) introduced into the juice in fermentation, ferments in its turn; the Sugar is transformed into alcohol, which remains behind and is removed by the aid of a current of steam. The process dispenses with rasping the beet and pressing out the juice. The following is the method pursued, vary with the charact ihe soil that produced the beet, a calcareous e character of the soi iP it. In the case of the e . for 2200 kil. of beets. An excess of sulphuric acid injures the fer- mentation, and for this reason it should not be all added at once, but rom time to time as the beets are added. : It is also important to have a constant and uniform relation — the liquid serving as a ferment and the charge of beets. This relation 18 2200 kil. of beets to 43 to 45 hectolitres of fermented juice “4 fermenting vat containing 80 hectolitres, or two parts of juice a ‘ sliced ts. When the process has once begun, It goes on ee aren rapidity and at the end of ten or twelve hours, of the beets is changed to alcohol, so that the e¢ 260 Correspondence of J. Nigkles. several times without any addition of yeast, provided at each operation the right proportions of sulphuric acid have been added. Thus, at the great manufacturing establishment under the direction of M. Leplay at Douvrin (Pas-de Calais), the same juice has been kept in action from Noy. 1, 1854, to the end of April, 1855, and, what is remarkable, the fermentations which took place in November in twenty-four hours, re- quired in April only ten to twelve hours. It should be said, however, that to retain this fermenting quality, he added each week a kilogram of yeast to each vat. vapors which are given out from the upper part of the first will pass to the lower of th so on upward. To prevent the vapors breaking a way among the irregularities of the beets or along the sidess for rapid passage through, there are diaphragms pierced with holes, placed at equal distances in the column, twenty-two centimeters apatti they thus keep upa uniform pressure in the mass and com vapors to spread equally. These diaphragms are connected by @ “ of iron, secured to the under surface, which also serves to help 0 li ing out the pul; ns of & p, which is done ata single operation by mea lete apparatus consists of three cylinders arranged in arved or straight line; one of the cylinders is always ° of being charged or discharged, while the other two are oP ’ ? a es SPR Es eae oe , Bibliography. 261 nected one above the other in such a way that the first is emptying itself when the second is in distillation. juice an alteration often takes place even in twenty-four Se Bibliography.— Visite a ’ Exposition Universelle de Paris in 1855, r giving an account of each object exhibited, and a history of each in- vention. The names of the authors guarantee exactness and fidelity in all facis and details, iti Precis de Chemie Industrielle, par A. PayEen, 3d edit., in 1 vol. 8vo., of 1070 pages, with an atlas. Paris: chez Hachette.—Since the publi- cation of the first edition of this work, all the technological journals other countries. Two editions have successively been exhausted within a short time. F third was called for, and the Paris Exhibition has enabled the author 0 give it greater completeness. It contains special details upon caout- choue, gutia percha, illuminating gas, manufacture of paper, chemical matches, starch, sugar, artificial soda, the fatty bodies, sulphuric acid, P ene, etc. etc. ~ fies vile ” vEN, in ]2mo. Paris: “scape Alincniaicssy tl See ( le and for artisans who . 262 Scientific iniclicnl SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. ]. Cuemistry aND Puysics. On the ne of Chlorine in eerie the Flame of Burning dies: by D. For B.G.S., F.C.8., A.1.C.E.5 (i, Bea D. Phil Mag., xi, 65.)—A coneidereble time back, while tiny some to that which would be expected in case boracic acid were pero in the minerals. On the most careful _epciomsie: ee de of the flame must have piocedded en some inate source As chlorine was present in considerable amount in the minerals in question, it became interesting to see whether its presence might have produed the green color; and the an Aes made on the subject fully confirmed this view. A number of other experiments on the power possessed by chlorine to eatae Gente; led to the following conclu- sions, which are stated briefly, as the results themselves sufficiently explain the modus operandi. Chlorids treated with concentrated sulphuric acid and a very small amount of alcohol produced green flames similar to those eliminated from borates under like — "Qaatatively, however, the flames were of less intensity; that is, the-same weight of a borate would produce considerably darker ze flames than when a chlorid was When chlorids were moistened with sulphuric acid and heated in the blowpipe flame, a faint Breer coloration was observed, which generally confined itself to the inner flame. en hydrochloric acid is a cautiously on the flame of burning alcohol, a greenish tinge is observa A jet of chlorine or of retrveetonars ‘acid gas directed upon the ee voi spirit-lamp or of coal-gas. produces a jet of green flame ; this o found to be the case when (by means of a convenient ned shonin gas was passed into the centre of a flame of burning coal-gas; or of vapor of alcohol. : en burning alcohol was injected into a globe filled with chlorine gas, the aleohol vapor continued burning at the =. of the globe with a very flickering but often brilliant green flam From the above experiments, it will be seen shat chlorine has in it self a decided coloring action on the flames of burning bodies, which may consequently in some cases lead to its being confounded ewe ar i es Magnetic Philospia; by Prof, Farapar, D.C.L, e. Roy. Inst. of Great Britain, Jan. i erat electric forms of power being dual in their character, 4 Chemistry and Physics. - 263 also able to act at a distance, will probably aid greatly in the develop- ment of the nature of physical force generally: and if (as I believe) the dualities are essential to the forces, are always equal and equivalent 0) e metallic vessel, charge it strongly by contact with the machine or a eyden jar, and then dip the insulated ball into it; and after touching the bottom of the vessel with the ball, remove it, without touching the sides: it will be found absolutely free from eharge, whatever Ils pre- vious state may have been; for none but a single state can exist at the tom of such a metallic vessel; anda single state, 7. é., in an vicki lated duality, cannot exist alone. Possible one of these, and separating it in any degree from the other, : e been made. Thus six equal electro-mag- — alike in polarity, might i bical space and produce an experi-— ght inclose a cubical spa mental chamber. When excited, these magnets were very aarp 'n the outer direction, as was found by nails, filings, spirals, an niet = but within the chamber, walled in on every side by intense nort Poles, th j F : the chat pedinary magnetic poles of like nature produced corres Single pole presented its usual character, attracting iron, | 264 Scientific Intelligence, bismuth; a like pole, at right angles to it, formed a re- entering angie an thers a weak pole of magnetic action was caused; iron was at- tracted from it to the prominent: corners ; bismuth moved up a it; th nd put with their longer edges together, rents a lengthened chamber with two entrances; and a little needle being carried in at either en- trance passed rapidly through spaces of weaker and weaker force, and found a part in the middle where magnetic action was not sensible, Other very interesting results were obtained by making chambers in the polar extremities of electro-magnets. A cylinder magnet, w core was 1°5 inches in diameter, had a concentric cylindrical chamber formed in the end, 0°7 in iameter, and 1-3 inches deep. When iron lings were brought near this excited pole, rea clung around the out- ca r edge, When they were a placed inside on a card they were and so on to a long bar, were brought into contact with the same point at the bottom of the inverted chamber, though the filing could not be held by attraction, nor the smaller pieces of iron, yet as soon as those were employed which reached to the level of the chamber mouth, . beyond it, attraction manifested itself; and with the larger pieces rose so high that a bar of some pounds weight could ms hel agus their removal, then take up some other ee or exist without action: the s never been shown or even suspected; the second is et imposs ibility, being i ietciokaelll with the observation of force. But! the oe of a sing ames ‘are thrown upon each other, and . rce Senet or other) is not affected oe power on other magnets, or ae left to : al disposition of the force. is'so ict so right lines through the magnet does not ¢ d ces, whilst the force in external (and necessarily) curve Capers and Physics. 265 Sa : a < 2. = oO oe. ~~ oo. o =) @ a — ° So ss] a Fomal nw o Ls ie] =. < is) S ° 3 @ Es is) od ° QO © pont z a. 5 be) ie] oO = =. oS Pog = 4°) Q ‘ a a oR 2 na 3 o 3 = S c &. Ss S iz] 2 ber] ~~ ag o [= icy) o ' oO 3 = @ < ® ba) = Ss 5 tS o 5 ‘© 88 to be in the magnetic,condition assigned by some to bismuth (1. €. with reversed polarities), it then differed from bismuth, producing the ° s S S a. ® = o & =. Sd UP at this time to a reconsideration of ¢ _ Viously, as the ‘the 266 Scientific I niclligenss. At present we are accustomed to admit action at sensible distances, as of one magnet upon another, or of the sun upon the earth, as if suc admission were itself a perfect answer to any enquiry into the nature of the physical means which cause distant bodies to affect each other; and the man who hesitates to admit the sufficiency of the answer, or of the assumption on which it rests, and asks for a more satisfactory ac- count, runs some risk of appearing ridiculous or ignorant before the world of science. Yet Newton, who did more than any other man in demonstrating the law of action of distant bodies, including amongst such the sun and Saturn, which are nine hundred millions of miles apart, did not leave the subject’ without recording his well-considered judgment, that the mere attraction of distant portions of matter was not a sufficient or satisfactory thought for a philosopher. That gravity should be innate, inherent, and essential to matter, so that one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum, without the me- diation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one to another, is, he says, to him a great ab- inal | of the conservation and indestructibility of force. sun as our earth is ;—the attraction of gravity is then exerted, and we say that the sun attracts the earth, and, also, that the earth attracts the sun. But if the sun attracts the earth, that force of attraction must should be able to raise up in the sun a power havirlg no previous exist- ence. As respects gravity, the earth must be considered as inert, pre” man the sun over it: both are assumed to be without ie beginning of the case ;—how then can that power arise ; ‘ a amps = a ia a ac ae a la Chemistry and Physics. 267 by their mere approximation or eo-existence? That a body without force should raise up force in a body at a distance from it, is too hard sively, may even be converted, as far as we understand the matter, disappearing in one form to reappear in another; but it cannot be cre- ated or annihilated, or truly suspended, ¢.¢., rendered existent without action or without its equivalent action. The conservation of power is now a thought deeply impressed upon the minds of philosophic men ; of approach or separation of the bodies, involves the same result of creation or annihilation of power, as the creation or annihilation oval) of either of the acting bodies Power, or the efficient source of the power, having pre-existed in the equivalent degree from some other bodies, and when taken off from the earth (by the disappearance of the latter) be disposed of on some ment or conceived by the mind. The second sub-case, or that of a new or another form of power, is also one which has never been others, in association with the theory of gravity. 268 Scientific Intelligence. endeavors, experimentally, to connect granite with electricity, having this very object in view (Phil. Trans. — p- 1); but the results were cp negative. The view, if hel a moment, would imply that not merely the sun, but all matter, i toa its state, would have extta powers set up in it, if removed in any degree ite ee 5 that the particles of a comet at its perihelion would hav har- acter, by the conversion of some portion of their neleadas ‘ones into the increased amount of gravitating force which they would oe exert; and that at its aphelion, this extra gravitating force woul e been potent aera into some other kind of molecular force, hehe either the for or a new character: aes capers either way being toa cine: pot gs One c not even conceive of the dif- fusion of a cloud of dust, or its so into a ores without sup- posing something of the same kind to occur; and I suppose that no- body will accept the idea as possible. The third mic neeonine ticle of matter which has existence. The case of a constant necessary condition to action in space, when as respects the sun the earth is not i which Newton looked at in vista is, in nig as respects, the same as that admitted by all in regard to light, heat, and radiant phe- nomena ; and (in a sense even more genera! rand ex tensive) i is that now driven a our attention in an especially forcible and instructive man- ner, by the phenomena of acon and magnetism, because of their dependence on dual forms of power II. GEouoey. lished with full details and figures. ‘The important pamphlet here re- ferred to gies in brief some of the geological results in anticipation of eport. The nes are of special interest to the science, 4 and we cite the eneral conclusions. a © Coated on the Fossil Shells collected in Cali- feria by Wm. P. Bl lake-—I have examined the very intere ang sd ganic remains which you collected in California, and the drawings of such species as were too fragile to preserve, and I herein submit a few semesks upon the: pate relations. yds appear to be several it I cannot preten sc eins cP every oi Agee resting on the deposits of Santa Barbara and San Pedro, Shapes be ape a aig ati Geology. 269 which represent a recent formation, in which you inform me the re- mains of the mammoth occur. The shells are generally those wae live in the adjacent waters, and indicate little if any change of te ature since their deposition, The littoral character of this formation is very evident. Water-worn shells and fragments show the action of the surf, whilst entire Specimens of wc and acl Pholadidee, and Saxicavee, and soon shores. se burrow in clay, mud or sand, beyond the ordinary action of the surf; whilst some are —— out by the tempest-driven surge, and others preyed upon b 1nd € cies of Virginia. This formation may, therefore, be regarded as of focene origin—an opinion in which I am confirmed by some fossils collected in California, by Dr. Heermann, consisting of decidedly Mio- cene forms; a Mercenaria, (M. perlaminosa,) Con., scarcely differing from a species of Cumberland county, N.J., ( . Ducatelii, Con.), a Cemoria, Pandora and Cardita of extinct species, ‘closely analogous to locene forms. I am inclined, also, to refer to this period a very dif- ferent group from Ocoya creek, the forms of which you sketched in Califor nia, as the specimens were too friable to be preserved. I do not > owesigr so recent species among them, nor any contained in an ocen epos The rock m San Diego is replete with shells, generally of a small size, and appears to have a certain paleontological relation to those of pad Coralia, and those from the rocks near Astoria in Oregon, collect ed by Townsend, and Dana, which I have referred to the Miocene period. Two species of San Diego, if not a rs yf Oregon shells; Nucula decisa is similar to N. divaricata, h, in their markings, resemble N. Cobboldii ns a i “aa Sisaitin. Mactra Diegoana is < apalt related to the Ore € period is onequaalite: repoeaniod: ‘by - pre tt ou Eocene period. The vast distance between the two localities will ac- Count for the general distinction of species, and it was 2 as, indeed, an unex- = result to find any identical. If I me ape ed any ensiers 270 ‘Scientific Intelligence. be regarded as the most characteristic fossil of its era. As the boulder from which these shells were derived was quite small, and yet furnished thirteen species, when it shall be investigated in situ, doubtless a great many other forms will be obtained, and very likely some with which we are already familiar in eastern localities. Although the rock is a very hard sandstone, the shells may be exposed in great perfection by care- ful management, and we look forward with great interest to their further development, and to the discovery of the rock in situ List of Species.—[Species not new are marked with an asterisk ; all are Conrad’s except Natica gibbosa and Anodonta Californiensis of Lea, Cardita planicosta, and Fissurella crenulata of Sowerby. ] (1.) Eocrene.—Cardium linteum, Dosinia alta, Meretrix Uvasana, M. Californiana, Crassatella Uvasana, C. alta, Mytilus humerus, Cardita planicosta,* Natica cetites, N. gibbosa,* Turritella Uvasana, Volutatithes Calforniana, Busycon ? Blakei, Clavatula Californica 2.) MiocENE AND RECENT FORMATIONS. ee ‘modestum, Nucula decisa, Corbula Diegoana, San.Diego; Meretrix uniomeris, Montere county ; M. decisa, Ocoya creek; M. Tularana, Talave valley ; Tellina Modiola contracta, rare county ; Mytilus Pedroanus, San Pe TO ; Pecten Deserti, Anomia subcostata, Ostrea vespertina, O. Heermanni, Colorado desert ; Penitella speleum, San Pedro, (recent) ; Fissurella crenulata,* San "Pedro; Crepidula Ae Santa ott lh Natica iegoana, Trochita Diegoana, San Diego; Crucibulu um spinosu ners Nassa i imieratriaia, N. Pedroana, Siiniohea Pedroana, Littorina Pedroana, San Pedro ; Stramonita petrosa, Tulare valley ; Gratelupia mactropsis, Meretrix Dariena, Tellina Dariena, Isthmus of Darien ; soi paar N. geniculata, Bulla jugularis, Pleurotoma transmonta P. Ocoy Scytopus Ocoyanus, Turritella Ocoyana, Colus eigtins Pellna Geo ana, Pecten Rave ae P. catilliformis, Cardium ——? Arca ——: | ? Dosinia ——? Venus ? Cytherea decisa? Ocoya or Posé creek ; Oates ? Pecten ? ncn biseriata, San Fernando ; Tro chus ? Turritella Pt nicia; Buccinum interstriatum ? Olivia Pedroensis, San Pedro; Piers "Californien- sis,* Colorado desert. Remarks in conclusion, by W. P. Blake.—From this report by Mr. Conrad, we ase eh that in the plteeien of sixty-one determinable species, fifty-five a and are now described for the first time. Of these; ten are ieden one nahh rre at the southern extremity of the Tulare valley, at the entrance to the pass called the Cafiada de las Uvas. are of sniniil sandstone that hid been washed out of the ravine of pass by floods e rock was not found in situ at that point, but a few # a similar rock occurs in place, and is replete e with re believed to be the first fossils of the en patented tebe the Pacific slope of the United States. Geology. 271 These last occur in a bank fronting the 1 y, and which is partly undermined by the surf. The bank is filled ‘ with shells, and the principal stratum is about 30 feet above tide. he fossils from the sandstones along Carrizo creek, near the point : where it spreads out and is lost in the desert, are all new and of Mio- cene age. : Miocene formation appears, therefore, to flank the Peninsula Sierra on both sides in the latitude of San Diego, and to underlie the this chain. Those on the desert side form a stratum four or five feet thick of shells alone, consisting almost wholly of the genera Ostrea, : mia and Pecten; while on the west side, bordering the Pacific, there 1S a greater variety of genera and species; shells of the genera Cardium, N ucula, Corbula, Tellina, Mactra, Natica and Trochita being eae a 5 A 5 08 F onal &- © = re) ® 3 © D - perfect state, and, also, a small shark’s tooth. The shells were proba- bly of the genera Trochus and Turritella. Numerous specimens of ane Were also found at that place, imbedded in the compact sand- one, the surf. They are inclosed in a matrix of bluish-green sand, resem- bling in color and composition the blue sandstone of the bay. It is, Wever, more friable, and seems to consist of the debris of the strata. town of Monterey is built over the line of junction of the come a e of tertia: strata, remar 4 18) aid of a glass thousands of these little shells can be ‘uted surfaces of the rock. 272 Scientific Intelligence. From this report, and the preceding remarks, it will be seen that fos- sils in sufficient numbers to determine the geological age of the deposits in which they occur have been obtained from many and distant points on the Pacific coast. The occurrence of Eocene strata at one point has been satisfactorily established. We also find that the Miocene division of the tertia formations is extensively developed, over broad areas, in California, flanking nearly all the great lines of elevation, not only in the coast mountains, but in the interior, along the borders of the San Joaquin and Tulare valleys. Further observations are required to connect, chrono- logically, the Miocene deposits along Ocoya creek with the extensive, and in many respects similar, strata further north, along the Tuolumne and Stanislaus rivers. sharks now living along the shores of the old and of the new world. (1.) Echinorhinus Blakei, Agassiz.—One of the most interesting and important discoveries since the publication of the ‘“ Poissons Fossiles is that of the tooth of the genus Echinorhinus, in the tertiary deposits of Ocoya creek (Posé creek), at the western base of the Sierra Nevada, es : &) imnus occidentalis, Agas.—The few species upon which Cu- vier founded the genus Scymnus have been of late subdivided by Miller and Henle int eo genera: Scymnus proper, and Lemargus ; all ich are y known among the living. It is another of the highl ig discoveries of Mr. Blake, to have brought home two 'e€ 2 4 ah ee es Geology 273 eal from the Scymnus and Leemargus as the two latter present when com- Species on account of the strong bend backwards of the main point of the tooth, and the distinct and rather marked serration of the edges of the crown. Moreover, the inclination of the central point upon its basis gives these teeth a certain resemblance with those of Spinax and Centrophorus, and still more with Galeocerdo. The connexion of the teeth of the same row of the jaw with one another, was evidently the Same as in the Scymnus and Leemargus, as is plainly shown by the to the upper tertiaries. The Atlantic States have already yielded satisfactory indications of the presence of this genus during the tertiary period, on the eastern Coast of America, Now we receive from the collection of Mr. Blake from the Eocene of Europe, especially common in the Molasse of Switzerland, that were there not several specimens in the collection greeing with one another in every respect, and unitedly differing from in the Poisson Fossiles, al! the species formerly referred to the genus Carcharias have been ascertained to belong to the genus C rcharodon. pee discoveries in this field, therefore, could be of more interest than finding among the tertiaries of Ocoya cl es ee oe the edges serrated, especially near th giao are smooth and sharp. ‘These. diffe h of the r the 274 Scientific Intelligence. instance of a fossil species of the type of Carcharias of the genus Pri- onodon, which it will be possible, under all circumstances, to nding from Sphyrna by the difference in the shape and serrature in i reaper and lower jaw. The species may be Sciccant Prionodon My pepe denticulatus, from Maestricht, may, however, belong to this genus. The tooth of this species being rather erect, while in aan the crown of the tooth is bent backwards, and its posterior margin is deeply notched. In Prionodon antiquus, as well as in G. denticulatus, the crown is but slightly inclined backwards, and though it tapers rapidly to a conical point, that ‘ated does not stand so dis- tinctly out from its base as in true Galeocer (5.) Hemipristis Heteropleurus, Agas. nto nus s Hemipristis was established by me from fossil teeth of the middle t pact of Europ Dr. ibbes has since indicated their existence among the ae ries of the ane shores of America, and now we owe to Mr. Blake the Serivery of a tooth of this genus in the deposits of Ocoya creek, Califo I coi already remarked how difficult it is to perceive the diferente compare ed ah that of the anterior margin of the tooth. ve this may be found to be a constant character, i? would introduce the westerD spe- cies pileorepaess. under the name of H. heteropleurus, or until the discovery of more specimens decides whether this difference in the serrature of the margin of the inner sides of the teeth is constant oF not. ; —Of all the types of sharks’ teeth that of Carcharodon, next to Lamna and Oxy rhina, is the most numer- ‘an in the tertiary deposits, though there is only one living species a. Blake has brought a finely preserved specimen of a medium species of this one ies California, Rather smaller than Car- stidens, ooth has the same form as in that speciess only there are no. prone ie oo upon the sides of the base. Consid- idens, and to this shaabeier the name rectus is intended to allude. Pomona sees of this genus have been eiptoia by Dr. res a che sp species. The surface is flat and the tooth straight, as in C. angus” i i ‘in the sisi of the Atlantic s Geology. ‘ aT5 Several teeth of a very interesting species of Oxyrhina are found lengths of their curves. The specimens agreeing in this character differ greatly in size, and yet not more so than may be seen in the same jaw of our living species. Found with the preceding by Mr. Blake. wd 9.) Lamna clavata, Agas.—Two teeth from Ocoya creek indicate the latter. The posterior surface is smooth as in L. cuspidata, Found with the preceding in the tertiary formation of Ocoya creek. (10.) LZ. ornata, Agas.—A second species of Lamna has been brought microscopical examination of its structure. ese fossils are un- questionably of tertiary age. JL. elegans is found in the Calcaire grossier in the environs of Paris, and in the London clay at Sheppy. The same species is also found fossil in the Crag, ape, be transported with the remains of many other species from don clay. Several hg <4 this genus have been described from the Atlantic States by » h. W, Gibbes, A, ike (11.) Zygobates, >—A fragment of a tooth of the genus Zygo- bates is interesting inasmuch as it shows that this genus of the order of the family of skates, with pavement-like teeth, to have occurred in California during the tertiary period ; though the fragment of the tooth before me is too imperfect to allow the species to be identified. It may not be out of place to remark that no species of this genus, or the allied Benera Rhinoptera, Atobates, or Myliobates have thus far been found in the Pacific ocean. eee Several fragments of bone found with the teeth at Oce sigs creek) belong to the family of Scomberoides, but are +t to admit of being identified. 276 Scientifie Intelligence. 2. On the Relations of ihe Crystalline Rocks of the North Highlands to the Old Red Sandstone of that Region, and on the Recent Fossil Dis- coveries of Mr. C. Peach; by Sir Rovericx I. Murcutson, (Proc. Brit. Assoc., 1855, Ath., No. 1457).—Having referred to his earliest publica- tions relating to the Old Red Sandstone, in 1826 and 1827 (being associ- ated in the latter year with Prof. Sedgwick), the author explained how the classification originally proposed by his colleague and himself had been extended and improved by the researches of Mr. Hugh Miller. Hav- ing stated that his matured and condensed views as to the true equiva- ents of the Old Red Sandstone being the Devonian rocks of other countries were given in his last publication, entitled ‘ Siluria,’ Sir Rod- erick called the special attention of the Section to the consideration of the true relations of these deposits to the crystalline rocks of the High- . ands. ‘To satisfy his mind on this point, and to see if it was necessary to make any fundamental change in bis former views, the author has spent the last five weeks in re-surveying his old ground in Sutherland, Caithness, and Ross-shire, on which occasion he was accompanied by Prof. James Nicol. Obtaining ample evidence to induce him to adhere to his former opinion, that all the crystalline rocks of that region, con- sisting of gneiss, mica schist, chloritic and quartzose rocks, limestones, clay slate, &c., were originally stratified deposits, which had been crys- tallized before the commencement of the accumulation of the Old Re Sandstone, he first gave a rapid and general sketch of those ancient metamorphism, of their pristine sedimentary condition. They have ® prevalent strike, varying from NE and SW to NNE and SSW, and in the northernmost counties of Scotland their prevailing inclination Is to E or SE, usually at high angles. In combating a theoretical idea, which had only very recently been applied to the crystalline rocks etr (the thick slates of ale usually cleaving in coincidence with the si ry decisive joints. ee traverses which he made across the direction © 2 rock masses in the north coast of Sutherland,—the ht years ago, with Prof. Sedgwick, the other, In the ng this meeting, with Prof. Nicol,—and, in mention! Geology. 277 m J range into Assynt, in south-west Sutherland, and to Gairloch, and Kis- orn, in Ross-shire, at Balnakiel, in Durness, that Mr. Charles Peach o talline rocks as the representatives of the Devonian or Old Red Sand- Stone formation, the author begs to show why such an opinion seems to be untenable, and to point out that, both from their physical position and the nature of the imbedded remains, they are most probab Lower Silurian age. For, whether the section be made across the va- Tous strata between Loch Durness and Loch Eribol, or from the latter of the lowest members of this great crystalline series of stratified rocks - Very diversified characters. It was suggested that the fossils in > rabies being of a whorled or circular form might prove to be - ymenia of the Devonian rocks; but this suggestion is now set as = Mr. Salter, who, after a close examination | f the fossils or witha oderi be: and, on the whole, he is disposed to refer them to the genus Raphis urian limestones ma, a shell which. has been found in the Lower Silurian of is in accordance with the geological succession of the region, anc tenances the id es, ~% Ayrshire, (Girvan). So far, therefore, as the fossil bene idea expressed some years ago by Prof. Nico es, it “i the 278 Scientific Intelligence. author, that many of the stratified crystalline rocks of the Highlands would prove to be the metamorphosed equivalents of the fossiliferous Lower Silurian rocks of the south of Scotland. : Sir Roderick adverted to a feature in the older series of crystalline rocks of the west coast of Scotland, which ‘still required to be more accurately defined than had hitherto been done. Prof. Sedgwick and himself had formerly called attention to the occurrence, near Ullapool, of Inverness, Nairn, Moray, &c. During his excursion of this year, Prof. Nicol and himself saw, near Inchnadampff, in Assynt, a similar inter- position of hard red conglomeritic grit, resting at once unconformably in the older gneiss; but bad weather prevented their ascertaining of rocks of this age, regularly interpolated between the Silurian and Carboniferous systems, there occurred a mixture of the same species Ho- h of h Scotland, with the shells which characterize the formation in the slates bet and calcareous type which it assumes in Devonshire. He then @a- Geology. 279 Watershed of one portion of the region, as seen in the steep precipices of the Balloch of Kintail, only four miles distant from the western salt water of Loch Duich, indicating no anticlinal ; the flagstones of gneiss- ose rocks plunging rapidly to the east-south-east, a feature which was as forcibly presented in many places to the recent observation of Prof. Nicol and the author as it was to the latter and his former associate pre- t as far d 280 Scientific I sitellizence. In conclusion, the author enforced his view of the posteriority of the Old Red Sandstone to all such crystalline rocks by showing (as indeed Prof. Sedgwick and himself had done many years ago) that the coarse conglomerates of the Old Red Sandstone series, not only wrapped round those apes rocks, but were absolutely made up of their frag- ments, and are seen in many places distinctly to overlie them, as at Loch Ewe, Gairloch, Applecross, &c. He further adverted to the great diversity of the strike and dip of the two classes of rock and of their entire unconformity to each other, of which he cited an instruc- tive example at the head of Loch Keeshorn, where the lofiy massive mountains of the Old Red Sandstone of Applecross, the beds of which had a steady, slight inclination of 10° or 12° to the northwest, whilst the low flanking and conterminous primary neaaeae pe bait mica schists and gneissose rocks extending from Keeshorn to Loch Carron plunge rapidly to ihe east-south-east. In Ma ete se limestone of Durness in Sutherland (identical in all its mineral characters and asso- ciations with quarzites with that of Keeshorn in Ross) is of very remote antiquity, and is probably, from its fossils of Lower Silurian age, the base of the Old Red Sundatone, vt rms a great belt composed “of the regenerated materials of such o rocks, and distinctly overlies in a north, and east coasts of the Highlands. Referring in conclusion to the labors of Mr. Page, who had been zealously endeavoring to bring the Scottish Paleozoic classification into accordance with that of Eng: land, the author remarked, that, in respect to the position of the Lng- transition for the Upper Silurian rocks into the base of the Devonian ——- and in which we found one species of a fossil fish which occurs in unequivocal Old Red Sandstone, thin shells whi range ai the Ludlow rocks. They also contain forms of a re- markable genus of chia hat the Pter il which is known in the Arbroath paving-stones of Forfar. If, indeed, the Scotch grey paving- stones should prove to be the true fee ales of the English tile- stones (the species of Pterygotus of each being identical), and that it be truly shown that the ow conglomerate on the flanks of the Gram- pians underlies such Arbroath flagstones, then it will probably follow resent amount of knowledge, however, the geologist must believe that in this part of the Scottish Palzeozoic succession there |S @ great hiatus, since no suite of organic remains hitherto discovered has shown the presence of the Ludiow and Wenlock or Upper cee et in England, Sweden, Norway, Bohemia, and No 8. Deser iption of the Mineralogical Cabinet of the Garden of ese i Portes by M. J A. A RD, Assintant to the Professor of Mineral- ogy. 12mo, pp. . ae “1855.—_This admirable guide to peat the ef rance, deserves to be made known to alogy who never expect to make use of it in examining stion itself, for which it was expressly preeeagts inasmuc shes Maa ilies ahaa Ss eS Geology. 281 the felicity of its execution renders in no small degree a modelffor all similar undertakings. The first part of the work is historical; the second descriptive. Un- der the former head we have an account of the origin of the collection ; of its gradual growth to the present day; of the succession of Pro’ sors; of the extent of the geological and mineralogical cabinets, and of the mode of cataloguing and ticketing adopted in the museum. Under the descriptive part falls first, a description of the building de- voted to the reception of the collections and the general manner ac- , ‘Ve cite only a few details from the work as likely to interest Amer- ican mineralogists. cious Stones, which had previously been deposited at the mint. The king of Denmark presented some valuable specimens |! 1 00. The cabinet wa : aie ape ag age king of Sweden: 3, (1823) additional specimens ° value mint; 4, (1815) splendid specimens from Italy and Germany prese by the Emperor of Austria ; 5, (1826) the king of France pr Skconp Szatms, Vol. XXI, No. 62, March, 1856. 36 282 Scientific Intelligence. his private cabinet; 6, (1835) the valuable collection of Gillet de sper consisting of 4000 specimens, was fa Piper 7, (1886) the School of Mines at St. Petersburg presented a very ‘choice collec: tion of Russian Minerals; 8, the “celebrated pot th of 8000 speci- mens, formed by the bbé Hai iy was purchased in, England of the Duke of Buckingham and added to the museum; 9, 1855) a splen- did collection of Russian minerals which in 1853 had been presented by the Emperor Nicholas to the Institute of France, and which em- braced a aoe precious series of emeralds, topazes, malachites and na- about 300 specimens of fossils. The collection now contains 175,000 specimens of rocks, without including detached organic fossils, of which the number exceeds 23,000 specimens, or trays oben containing nu- merous individuals. M. Hugard very well observes, ‘* Ces chiffres sont assez éloque enls pour montrer Vimportance de la collection de geologic actue When the traveller from the United States views the extent of this great and flourishing country has ae of the kind to show where- with to excite the pride and study of her ambitious and inyellignnt pe matte Botany AND Zoo.Locy. Synopsis a oalegg Glumacearum ; auctore E. G. STEUDEL. Suignr pas sh Imp. 8vo. 2 vols. in on ne. Pars hs Site as PP as we know. That he shanti co “Ale te ave thoroughly revise the char- acters and rectify the synonymy was not to be expected, nor is it de sirable that such a task should be athe by any botanist resident in a German provincial town, remote from all the great herbaria. who published the last Agrostographia and Cyperographia, possé : ter experience ; but his work did him little ered If Steudel had confined himself to compilation, he would have confer- red an unalloyed benefit. Unfortunately, he has described as new spe *s several hundreds of specimens, in his own and some Late hee : as ’ ‘o eae to science, therefore, this work is worse ! ographia ;—and that is saying a great deal. A, Ge ee ea ee aS Botany and Zoology. 283 Press in Dutch. The work begins with the Leguminose, and these two parts do not complete that large order. From the author’s well known industry and perseverance we ma ct the publication to procee mewhat rapidly, and that it will be executed in a very creditable anner. 4. The Micrographic Dictionary , a Guide to the Examination and investigation of the Structure and Nature of Microscopic Objects; by r. Vv y and latest sources of fuller information. But it is to the general student or amateur of natural histor y, an ee ee ee ey be expected to possess a general scientific li br my hI a eee a original investigation, that this volume will be inval sacl i these we cordial] commend it. ° t va fine a 3 A. G. °. Algarum Unicellularium Genera Nova of, inns Cognita ;. pre- missis observanibus de Algis unicellularibus in Genere ; auct, ALEX. SUN: pp. 111, tab. 6, 4to. Leipsic. Engelmana. 1855.—One-cell ei , vI ew. 284 Scientific Intelligence. est attention. A complete history of them would form one of the most interesting treatises in the whole range of natural science, and would touch upon most of the important questions discussed at the present day, as to the nature, origin and propagation of cells, the limits of veg- etable and animal life, and as to what constitutes the individual in plants. Prof. Braun’s little treatise is an important contribution to this subject, although he illustrates only six genera. In the introduction he gives his general — upon the one-celled Alge, their limits, system- atic thee notice also, sais, in sketching the outlines of the grand divisions of dha vegetable kingdom, co sidered as to their grade of evolution, Prof. Braun adopts Brongniart’s view,—towards which there has been d. No nada are adduced. $ point is one mrad sty “6s pat 28 which now demands a ae diseussio 6. On s specimens of deep sea gaa coe the sea i ae schatka, collected by Lieut. Brooke, U. S. N.; by Prof. Baiey. he following copy of a letter from Prof. Bailey to Lieut. Maury, of the National Observatory, Washington, D. C., dated West Point New York, January 29th, 1856, has been sent to us for publication.— Eps. Ihave examined with much pleasure the highly interesting speci- mens collected by Lieut. Brooke of the U. S. Navy, w ich you 2d. In the dee eepest so soundings (No. 1. and No. 2) he is ay mineral matter, the organic contents (which are the same in all) pre dominating, while the reverse is true of No. 3. 3d. All the specimens are very rich in the siliceous shells of the Diato which are in an admirable state of pre servation,—!re- Signy. ith the valves united and even retaining the “jppatile of the and beau- Di iatoms, the most conspicuous are the large s) a large number of a new species of Rhizosolenia, @ new q 4 y i “ : veral species of Coscinodiscus. There is also (besides Botany and Zoology. 285 d to whose industry and zeal in using it, we are indebted for these and many other treasures of the deep. 5th. The specimens contain a considerable number of the siliceous spicules of sponges, and of the beautiful siliceous shells of the Polycis- tine the latter I have noticed Cornatella clathrata Ehr., a ndings. I have also noticed in all the soundings (and shall hereafter describe and figure) several species of Eucyrtidium, Halicalyptra, Perichlamidium, Stylodictya and many others, have not been able to detect even a fragment of any of the calcareous shells of the Polythalamia. This is remarkable for the striking contrast it presents to the deep soundings of the Atlantic whieh are chiefly made up of the calcareous forms. This differen e can not be due to temperature as it is well known that Polythalamia are abundant in the Arctic seas. pests 7th. These deposits of wgicroscopic organisms, in their richness, genera, however, are not exclusively polar forms, b r ut, I cently determined, occur also in the Gulf of Mexico, and along the Gulf Stream. 8th. The perfect condition of the organisms in these soundings, and the fact that some of them retain their soft portions, indicate that they Were very recently in a living condition, but it does not follow that they were living when collected at such immense depths. As among Brooke de em ready for publication. 286 Miscellaneous Intelligence. IV. MISCELLANEOUS INTELLIGENCE. 1. Contributions to Epteneelee y.— Mean results of Marorooge Observations made a Martin, Isle Jesus, Lower Canada, miles west of Montreal _ “for 1855, by CuarLes SmaLitwoop, M.D.— Sag geographical co-ordinates of the place are 45° 31’ N. Lat 36’ W. Long. from Greenwich. Height above the level of ihe o 118 feet. The readings of the barometer are corrected and reduced to 82° F. The whole of the means are obta ee from three daily observa- tions taken at 6 a. M., 2 P. M., and "10 P The mean height of the barometer in fn was 29-926 inches, in February 29: 400, in March 29-716, in April 29-847, in May 29-637, in June 29°757, in Jul ly 29°803, in August 29-862, in ‘September 29'834, in October 29-695, in November 29: 838, in December 29-429 inches. The highest reading for the year was on the 8th of January and in- dicated 30°721 inches; the lowest reading was at 6 a. m. on the 10th of December, and was 28-689 inches; the yearly mean was 29-730, which was 0-059 more than the yearly mgan of last year; the mean of the monthly ee for the year was 1-050 50 inches, which was 0°033 less than the ran The ieephers « wave of Nove mber was marked by its usual fluctua- tions; the highest crest was on the 9th day and indicated 30-265 inches ; there were distinct troughs on the Ist, 7th, 16th, 23d, and 20th days, the lowest trough occurred at 4 a. M. on the 28th day, the ba- rometer then stood at 28-997 inches ; ; there was a very sudden rise of the barometer from midnight of the 22¢ of November till sunrise of the 24th day, of 0-521 inches, accompanied by a very high wind from . which reached a velocity of 38°10 miles per hour. The thermometer we 25° 0 for the same period. Thermom e mean temperature of the air by the bape ree thermometer, was in January 17°-88, in February 11°:23, in Ma rch 24°08, in April 40°-15, in May 56°°85, in June 62°-39, in July 72°73, in Avgust 64°:94, in September 58°-55, in October 46°:35, in Novem- ber 31°58, in December 20°84. The highest sity of the mazt- rmometer was on the 2nd of August, and was 97 0; the low- est pading of the minimum evesmeter was on the ath of February, and below zero). The mean pgp ache of the quar- terly eerie was, Winter 12°-15, Spring 40°-36, Summer 66°-68, Au- tumn 45°-49. The yearly mean was 42°29, which was 5 0°72 degree _ higher than the yearly mean of 1854; the mean of the yearly range was 61°°1, which was 1°-15. higher than the mean range of 1854. The greatest monthly aie was in February, and was 74°°5, and the least one range was in abet and was 45°-6. The greatest intensily f the sun’s rays was i y, and indicated 127°-2, the lowest point radiations w: was in Tire bruary, and was —34°-4 (below zero). lumi y (saturation being 1- 000) was, ip January * -97, in March 815, in April. "808, in May -743, in June “809, August -773, in September 808, in October ‘849, in 34, in December 872. The yearly mean was = which last year. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 287 _ Rain fell on 98 days ;_ it was raining 437 hours and 39 minutes: it was accompanied by thunder and lightning on 14 days. The amount of rain exceeded 1-438 inches the amount which fell in 1854. The amount which fell in January was 1-486 inches, in February none, in March 0:531, in April 4.194, in May 1-756, in June 8-217, in July 2351, in August 4-366, in September 3:471, in October 8°728, in November 3-923, in December 2970 inches. ‘Total amount 41°943 inch : es. Snow fell on 42 days; it was snowing 312 hours J5 minutes, and amounted to 85:91 inches on the surface, which amount was less by 11-54 inches than the amount of snow which fell in 1854. The monthly fall was as follows: in January 20°10 inches, in February 15-00, in was on the 17th of December: the first frost occurred on the 18th of August, and was also felt on,the 28d, 27th, 28:h, and Bist of the same month, which was very early, and did considerable damage to the crops ; the E-by-N ; in the winter quarter the most prevalent wind was the tumn quarter, the most prevalent wind was the W, and the least so the S-by-W. The greatest velocity of the wind was from 2 to 8 P. M. on. the 26th April, and was 49-64 miles per hour; the yearly mean of the mazimum velocity was equal to 15:33 miles per hour. The yea mean of the minimum velocity was 0-16 miles per hour. The quarterly means of the velocities are as follows: Winter mean maximum velocity 1881 miles er hour, mean minimum v gz eae imum velocity 17-69 miles per hour, inimum velocity 0°36 miles per hour. November and December more than usually wind in November ‘ild geese, Anser canadensis, were first seen : oe swallows, Hirundo rufa, were first en 3 ‘aah © Hossignol (the harbinger of the Canadian spring) was een On the 9th of April. Bice: were first heard on the 23d of April, 288 Miscellaneous Intelligence. shad (Alosa) were first caught on the 31st of May, snipe were shot on the 30th of April. pempate corusca, (fire-flies,) were. first seen on the 25th of eae Steamers were crossing between Ogdensburgh and sient on the 25th of Macsh. ws did not winter here this year, they took their departure about the middle of November. Snow-birds were first seen on the 10th of November. The Aurora Borealis was visible on 37 nights as follows: January 2nd, 10 e, mM. Lunar Halo, diam, 44° 4’.—10th. Aurora bo- realis, arch of mictleraie brightness, dark segment at the horizon.—138th. Slight shock of an earthquake at A.M. Barometer 29-280 inches. —3ist. Lunar Halo at 7 40, diam. 72°. February 5th. Three mock suns visible at sunrise.—11th, 10 P. M., faint auroral arch; dark segment at the horizon.—12th, 10 P. m., faint auroral arch, dark segment at the horizon.—2Ist. Lunar Halo at 7P.M.; 8°. Zodiacal light very bright during the month. March 8th, 10e.m. Faint auroral light to the ein —9th, 9PM Extended auroral arch of moderate brightness, dark segment at the horizon.— 12th, 710 P.M. Streamers shooting up from the horizon uniting in a small circle or = * the zenith; at 8 5, three distinct auroral arches stretching fi ow of pipderaie brighinees P. M., splendid curtain ‘of pesca? Tight of a yellowish-green ep lor changing to a violet and exhibiting the varied hues of the rainbow; 10 P. M., the appearance vanished leaving a bright arch to the horizon. —18th, 10 p.m. Dark stratus at the horizon, auroral arch behind shoot- ing up brilliant streamers.—19, 10 p.m. Faint auroral light, dark seg- ment at ~ e eage Zodiacal light bright. April 9th, 10 Pp, ark mass of stratus in the north, forming 4 —- isioareh behind which is seen an auroral light of moderate bright- s, shooting up beautiful streamers of varied colors.—12th, 10 P. ™. Peas ed arch of auroral light of moderate brightness to the horizon.— 15th, 10 p. Very faint auroral light at the horizon.—20th, 9 P. M. Dark se seit at the horizon. Auroral — of moderate brightness, frequent streamers. Corona at 11] a. m., | 0 p.m. Faint ager ight —6th, 10 rp. m. Aurora light of moderate ome aim 2M. Faint tha borealis.— 23d, Lunar Halo a 10 p, M., ae. 94th, 10 P Auroral 7 of moderate Steines: dark an at the ries The € clipse © the moon was not visible here owing to cloudy weather June. No aurora was visible during this month. _ Lunar Halo on the . 28d, diam. 41°.—24th, 10 p.m. Lunar Halo, dia > th, 10 P. M.. Faiot auroral light, dark sabes at the horizon. ar OP. ™. Faint auroral light to the horizon—16th, 10 P- 4 pte — auroral light at fthe horizon. 234, 10 rp. mw. Lunar Ha ane vAnrea 5th, 10 P. mw. a — light at the ellam rig — Faint tororal fight — ise p.m. Faint a o- light. —23¢, 10 »,. , D. llth, 10 p. m. Fain auroral light at the horizon, a dark al nt aedoniesth: Meteor at 9°40 p. m., on the 11th day passing» Miscellaneous Intelligence. 289 Algenib Pegasi to H. Antinoi, train like a rocket, noiseless.—13th, 10?. mM. Faint auroral light to the horizon. October 3d, 10 Pp. m. Auroral light of moderate brightness, sur- mounting a dark bank of stratus clouds.—10th, 10 Pp. m. Very faint auroral light—16th, 10 ep. m. Very faint auroral light.—24th, 2 30 Lunar Halo, diam. 31°. surmounted by a bright auroral arch 4° broad ; occasional streamers.— 9th, 10°. mM. Faint aurora to the horizon.—29th, 6°30 Pp. m. Dark segment at the horizon, surmounted by an arch of auroral light of moderate brightness, intercepted here and there by whitish clouds or patches of auroral light. At 7 80, faint auroral light to the horizon, dark .M. Dark segment at the horizon e it. .M. Faint auroral light—7th, 11 p.m. Bright arch of auroral light very low, horizon bright.—13th, 7 p.m. Faint aurora borealis.—30th, 8 p. M. ark segment at the horizon sur- mounted by an auroral arch of moderate brightness. Zodiacal Light very bright during the month. Electrical state of the atmosphere.—The atmosphere has afforded almost daily indications of electricity, varying in kind and intensity. I have been able from some years of careful observations, to draw the following inferences. Ist. The electricity of the atmosphere, in serene or windy weather, hot accompanied by rain or snow, gives for the most part indications of @ poSitive or vitreous character. : 2nd. That during the storms of summer, accompanied by thunder and lightning, the electricity varies in character ; it is not unusual to see the electrometer charged and changing its kind from negative to post- ‘we and vice versa, several times in a minutes. Rain falling, generally fives the kind of electricity, which is in that case mostly negative in ° Character. —— Tn ey a ay a ee ee ate Imperfect, or are shapeless masses of ice presenting no crystalline form, then the electrometers indicate electricity of a positive character, sity. ying from eter, the various angles are beautifully defined if examined immediately, but if allowed to remain for ever so short a time, the points or angles get rounded, and the crystal loses its Without Strong indications of negative electricity. : Ozone.—The observations on the amount of ozone are still continued twice daily. I see no reason to suppose the amount has a con- Hexion with the amount of electricity indicated in the atmosphe! in, Isle Jesus, C. E., Jan. 24, 1856. Soon Sentes, Vol, XXI, No. 62.—March, 1856. 37 290 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 4 2. On Papyrus, Bonapartea, and other plants which can furnish Fibre for Paper Pulp; by Chevalier De Craussen, (Proc. Brit. As- soc., 1855; Athen., 1457.)—The paper-makers are in want of a ma- * terial to replace rags in the manufacture of paper, and I have therefore turned my attention to this subject, the result of which I will commu nicate to the Association. To make this matter more comprehensible I will explain what the paper-makers want. ey require a cheap - solved, and the vegetable fibre is available for the manufacture of white paper pulp. Surat, or Jute, the inner bark of Corchorus indicus, produces a paper pulp of inferior quality bleached with difficulty. gave, Phormium tenax, and banana or plantain fibre (Manilla hemp), are not only expensive, but it is nearly impossible to bleach them. The banana leaves contain 40 per cent of fibre. Flax would be suitable to replace rags in paper manufacture, but the high price and scarcity of the fibre reduce By the foregoing it will be seen that the flax plant only produces from 12 to 15 per cent of paper pulp. All that I have said about flax ed. The Bromeliacee contain 25 to 40 per cent fibre. Donda- e" partea juncoidea contains 35 per cent of the most beautiful vegetable | fibre known ; it could be used not only for paper pulp, but for all kinds most desirable that some of our large manufacturers should import @ inner bark of the lime-tree (Tilia) gives a fibre easily bleached, ns not very strong. Althea and many Malvacew produce from 15 to pulp. Stalks of beans, peas, hops, buckwheat, sr n, and many other plants contain from 10 to 20 4 their extraction and bleaching present difficulties whic obably prevent their use. T ‘ nyerted into white paper pulp after they have ripened the gra!» Miscellaneous Intelligence. 291 the joints or knots in the stalks are then so hardened that they will re- sist all bleaching agents. To produce paper pulp from them they must be cut green before the grain appears, and this would probably not be advantageous. Many grasses contain from 30 to 50 per cent of fibre, not very strong, but easily bleached. Of indigenous grasses the Rye grass contains 85 per cent of paper pulp; the Phalaris 30 per cent, Arrhenatherum 30 per cent, Dactylis 30 per cent, and Carex 30 per cent. Several reeds and canes contain from 30 to 50 per cent of fibre, h : for paper pulp. I made this discovery accidentally in 1851, when I was making flax cotton in my model establishment at Stepney, near London. I remarked that the pine wood vats in which I bleached were rapidly decomposed on the surface into a kind of paper pulp; I col- Si: 40 per cent pulp. The cost of reducing to pulp and bleaching pine wood will be about three times that of bleaching ra ~ aw. 4 n the Hancornia speciosa, Artificial Gutta Percha and India Brit. one of the most delicious fruits known, and is regarded by the B (who call it Mangava) as superior to all other fruits of their 292 Miscellaneous Intelligence. tion with tannin, and have succeeded in making compounds which can be mixed in all proportions with gutta percha or india rubber without altering their characters. By the foregoing it will be understood that a great number of compounds of the gutta percha and india rubber class may be formed by mixing starch, gluten, or flour with tannin and resinous or oily substances. By mixing some of these compounds with gutta percha or india rubber, I can so increase its hardness that it will be like horn, and may be used as shields to protect the soldiers from the effect of the Minie balls, and I have also no doubt that some of these compounds in combination with iron, may be useful in floating batteries and many other purposes, such as the covering the electric telegraph wires, imitation of wood, ship building, &. . On the Artificial Propagation of Salmon at Stormont, re Dr. Esdaile. On that occasion, Mr. Thomas Ashworth, of Poynton, explained to the meeting the nature of the operations which had been carried on at Outerard by his brother and himself, and strongly recom- mended the adoption of similar measures in the Tay, under the direc- ing boxes and the construction of ponds. The Earl of Mansfield, who was chairman of the meeting, and who has shown much interest In the success of these experiments, gave permission to the committee to make a selection of any portion of his extensive estates on which to carry out their operations. The situation selected was at Stormontfield ‘Mill, near his Lordship’s residence. A gentle slope from the stream which supplies the mill offered every facility for the equable flow of water through the boxes and pond. Three hundred boxes were laid down in twenty-five parallel rows, each box partly filled with clean gravel and pebbles, and protected at both ends with zinc grating to eX- clude trout and insects. Filtering beds were formed at the head and foot of the rows, and a pond for the reception of the fry was con- structed immediately below the hatching ground. : ' 23d of November, 1853, operations were commenced, and by the 23d of December 300,000 ova were deposited = the boxes. he nating the bva at Outerard. So soon asa pair of suitable fish were -captured, the ova of the female were immediately discharged into @ tub one-fourth full of water, by a gentle pressure of the hand from the thorax downwards. The melt of the male was ejected in a similar manner, and the contents of the tub stirred with the hand. After the 4 lapse of a ee aos: was impregnated spawn. The ova were placed im boxes as nearly ed so se ape * 4 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 293 are reared in safety. On the 31st of March, 1854, the first ovum was observed to be nabody. A took place until fully one-half the fry had left the pond, and descended the sluice to the Tay. | It has long been a subject of controversy whether the fry of the sal- mon assume the migratory dress in the second or third year of their resolved to mark a portion of the smelts in such a manner that they might easily be detected when returning as grilse. A temporary tank, 294 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 4 haye been, in their returning migration up the river, recaptured and 4 carefully examined ; the conclusions arrived at are most gratifying, and prove what has heretofore appeared almost incredible, namely, the rapid growth of the young fish during their short sojourn in the salt water. This fact may be considered as still further established by taking of which rests on indubitable evidence, nearly as many more are reported from distant parts; the weights and sizes of these have not been forwarded. e experiment at Stormontfield has afforded satisfactory proof that a portion at least of the fry of the salmon assume the migratory dress and descend to the sea shortly after the close of the first year of their existence ; and what is far more important in a practical point of view, it has also demonstrated the practicability of rearing salmon of mar- ketable value within twenty months from the deposition of the ova. A very interesting question still remains to be solved :—At what date will the fry now in the pond become smelts? Hitherto, they have mani- fested no disposition to migrate; and if the silvery coat of the smelt the experiment at Stormontfield could be continued for a year or two longer, till the links in the chain of evidence now wanting the growth of the salmon in its earlier stages. He had himself caught distinguishable from smolts; and in 1832, a very dry year, when no occurred in the Tweed to take down the later shoals of smolts, of Twizel, had caught grilse of 11 Ib. in weight, whic Ww considered to be the fry of that year which had never left the river. But he regarded the irregularity in the growth and in the time of departure of the young salmon as a natural fact, and not merely ver and come up as grilse of 4 or 5 Ib. weight; but he had arked grilse come up the river as salmon, weighing 12 |b. He not think, however, that salmon when they went down came Dac any larger. a ie a Miscellaneous Intelligence. 295 Mr. Ashworth said he had known salmon go down weighing 10 lb. and come up weighing 20 Ib. Sir Philip Egerton, in reply to an observation made by Dr. Lankes- ter, stated that the subject of legislating for the artificial production of mon had been very often considered by the Legislature, but the dif- ficulty lay in securing property in the fish produced. e proper place to breed salmon was at the heads of rivers; but as the salmon came up from the sea they would be caught by proprietors lower down, and no benefit accrue to the individuals who bred them. There was no doubt the quantity of salmon might be enormously increased by the process mended, 5. On certain Curious Motions observable on the Surfaces of Wine J weight preponderates, and it falls down again. anner in which t Th n explains these two parts of the phenomena is, that the — Watery portions of the entire su . hav more tension than was wet. Then the tendency is for the various parts of this ring or line to run together to those parts which happen to be most watery, and — Portions of the liquid aggregate themselves soon become too heavy to be Sustained, and so they fall down. The same af of explanation, €n carried a step further, shows the reason on commonly observed on f win the inside of a e adhering to the insi wine glass when the glass, having been partially filled with wine, has face of the liquid; for, to explain these motions, it is on inside of the glass must very quickly become more Fest, on account of the evaporation of the alcohol contained in’ it More rapid than the evaporation of the water. On this matte . ier 296 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Thompson exhibited to the Section a very decisive experiment. He showed that in a vial partly filled with wine, no motion, of the kind escribed, occurs as long as the vial is kept corked. On his removing © the cork, however, and withdrawing, by a tube, the air saturated with vapor of wine, so that it was replaced by fresh air capable of producing evaporation, a liquid film was instantly seen as a horizontal ring creep- ing up the interior of the vial, with thick-looking pendant streams de- scending from it like a fringe from acurtain. He gave another striking illustration by pouring water on a flat silver tray, previously carefully cleaned from any film which could hinder the water from thoroughly wetting the surface. The water was about one-tenth of an inch deep. suggested. : 6. On the Absorption of Matier by the Surfaces of Bodies; by Sit : D. Brewster, (Proc. Britis ssoc., from Atheneum, 1458. )—If which is black, corresponding to the centre of the system of vere several on whose surfaces no colors were produced. Quartz eX * _ hibited the colors like glass, but calcareous spar and several other min erals did not. In explaining this phenomenon, the author stated the particles of the soap, which are dissolved by the breath, must either enter the pores of the bodies or form a strongly adhering film on pa _ surface. This property of appropriating temporarily the particles © soap, becomes a new distinctive character of mineral and other bodies. 7. On the Existence of Acari in Mica, etc.; by Sir D. BrewsTE®, the 70th of an inch, and others only the 150th of an inch in size. »0% mica were uated hich afterwards closed over them.—Sir David also read Remains of Plants in Calcareous Spar, from King’s coum ¥ Miscellaneous Intelligence. ‘ 297 Ireland, and an account of the analysis of the mineral made for him by Prof.Andrews, of Belfast. The same notice contained an account of in strata with clear spaces interposed, parallel to the faces of the primi- uve rhombohedron. : _ Marcu, Ist to 6th; Sambucus Canadensis, Ivs.—Sth to 10th; Hepat- ica triloba ; Claytonia Virginica ; Acer rabrum; Prunus Americanus ; | ga bd Ellisea microcalyx; Phlox divaricata; Sassafras officinale.—20th to = th; Leavenworthia aurea; Viola palm m; i Ranunculus re- triloba; Pt ata, V. pedata; Acer dasy- : th to 8lst; Ranuncul : ; florida; Vib Etigeron bellidifolium; Pedicularis canaden um; Phlox pilosa, P. reptans ; Syringa vul ; Ce Quercus nigra; Carpinus americana; Ostrya virginica, damber styraciflora, lvs.—Between the Ist and 15th, Amelanchier canadensis,—Between 15th and 3lst, Ranu manus; Vaccinium corymbosum Skconn Sznims, Vol. XI, No, 63.—March, 1856. 38 298 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Aprit Ist to Sth, Thalictrum dioicum; Sanguinaria Canadensis; Claytonia Caroliniana ; Tilia heterophylla, lvs.; Acer saccharinum; A. _ dasycarpum, lvs. ; Negun do Aceroides, vs. ; Crataegus punctata; Ve- ronica arvensis, Vv. peregrina; Quercus nigra; Carpinus americana, lvs.; Erythronium americanom.—5dth to 10th, oe viorna; Oxalis corniculata ; Rhus toxicodendron, lvs.; Acer nigrum; Aesculus pavia ; A. glabra; Robinia pseudacacia ; Rubus contdeiatedii Hydrangea quercifolia, Ivs.; Cornus florida, lvs.; Krigia Virginica; Taraxacum dens-leonis ; Verbena aubletia; Benzoin odoriferum, lvs.; Carya alba; Pinus inops; Allium striatum; Uvularia flava.—10th to 15th, Actea alba ; Corydalis aurea ; Stellaria pubescens ; Silene antirrhine; Acer Shachérinuds, vs., A. nigrum, lvs.; Trifolium repens, T. pratense, T. procumbens ; Gleditschia triacanthos ; Rubus villosus; Sedum ter- natum ; Azalea nudiflora ; Halesia tetraptera, lvs.; Dodecatheon me- dia ; Veronica serpyllifolia ; ae mpaacionae lvs. ; Rwrass ir > rubra, et: montana ; Platan nus soecidentali 4 VS. 3 Morus alba, Ivs. and ; Hypoxis erecta; Trillium sessile ; Uvularia perfoliata. —Between Ist and 15th, Vaceinied maminewet ; V. frondosum ; Con opholis Ameri- cana 3 Plantago Virginica ; P. pusilla —15th-20th, Gaginh decumbens, fr. 5 Gassiiam Carolin ints’: G. maculatum ; Staphylea trifolia; Fra- garia virginica ; Osm orhiza aapuiylis; Lonicera sempervirens ; ji rnum culus Same ; Delphinium Gane; Liriod endron tulipifern Viola pubescens ; Stellaria aquatica; Rhus ‘toxicodendron ; : Rubus trientalis ; rateegus ceric gilt’: Hedyotis purpurea ; Coreopsis "auriculata ; Sene- cio lobatus ; Sonchus asper ; Halesia tetraptera ; Gratiola earn >i de sepium ; Chionanthus virginica, lvs.; Asarum anadense ; stanea vesca, lvs.; Salix nigra; Urtica dioica; Arum triphyllum Smilax quadrangularis ; Medeola virgimiee } Polygonatum multiflorum. —25th-30th, Ranunculus recurvatus; R. parvulus ; —_ aria — densis, fr.; Sisymbium canescens pidium virginicum; Wister frutescens; Psoralea melilotoides, P. eglandulosa ; Trifolium nae um ; Baptisea leucantha, B. leucophia; Calyc anthus floridus: Heu- hera Am mericana; Maruta cotula; Apogon humilis; Specularia per foliata ; Styrax se aiididoticais Gratiola floridana; Verbena angustala; Vv. bracteosa ; Monarda Bradburiana ; Scutellaria parvula ; Lamium amplexicaule; Ellisea microcalyx, fr.; Physalis viscosa; Am sonia ta eae: a aa ; nao ee corollata ; ; — um luteum; Trades e— Between ‘15th oF 30th, Katoaia aif Scylla coal ria virginica, fr. ; tad cida; Hydrangea aonetata Beli integrifolia ; Apogon humilis, fr.; Sonchus aspels fr. 5 Prunella ; Euphorbia peplus.—5th-10th, Menispermum | 3 eptabrins veers se fr.; Amorpha fruticosa ; mere O. linearis; Sedum pulchellum ; Itea Virginica ; ’ Philadel- andiflorus ; Gallium aparine ; Spigelia Marilandica ; Circium Miscellaneous Intelligence. 299 altissimum ; C. Virginianum ; Sagittaria simplex ; Allium canadense.— 10th-15th, Viola primuleefolia ; Tephrosia Virginica ; Heliopsis levis ; _ lus floribundus ; Pentstemon pubescens, P. digitalis; Solanum Caroli- nense, S. nigrum ; Rumex acetellosa.—15th-20th, Polygala ambigua ; osa setigera; Gallium circezans; Coreopsis senifolia ; Leucanthe- mum vulgare; Frasera Carolinensis.—20:h-25th, Magnolia Fraseri ; Polygala incarnata; P. purpurea; P. Boyrinii; Ceanothus Americanus ; Rubus trientalis ; Dianthera Americana; Monarda festulosa ; Castanea sea ; C. pumila.—25th-30th, Tephrosia spicata ; Trifolium arvense ; s : i integrifolia, S. pilosa; Datura stramonium; Asclepias variegata, A. ic Diervilla trifida ; Andromeda arborea ; Verbena spuria.—Between the Sth and 31st, Cleone pungens; Impatiens pallida, 5 ia Pycnanthemum linifolium; Lobelia inflata; Tecoma radicans ; battia angularis ; S. cal ycosa ; Phytolacea decandra ; Polygonum Penn- Sth-10th, Agrimonia eupatoria; Cuphea v} sabe we a a nodosa.—10th-15th, Nelumbium nucifera; Desmodium ti Te and Circium lanceolatum ; Euphorbia hypericifolia.~ Bet nm 15th, Lathyrus palustris ; Vernonia fasciculata 5 Pycnanthemum inca- m . > LOmmelina erecta. i ae Ferns.—Prteris atropurpurea; Adiantum beeen i crocus Thizophyllus ; Aspleneum ebeneum, A. pinnatifidum; Polystic &¢rostichoides ; Osmunda cinnamomea ; Botrychium virginie glossum vulgar ss 3u0 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 10. Death of Dr. T. W. Harris—Died at Cambridge, Mass., on the ‘16th January, 1856, Taappevs Wintiam Harris, M.D., widely known as an eminent entomologist. He was the son of Rev. Thaddeus Mason Harris, D.D. of Dorchester, Mass., and was born in that town, Nov. 12, 17 He was graduated at Harvard College in 1815, and after going through a regular course of medical study, he established himself in the practice of the profession in the town of Milton. Early imbued with an ardent love of nature, he relieved the laborious duties of his profession by the study of natural science. In 1831, on the death of Mr. Benjamin Peirce, he was appointed the Librarian of Harvard Col- lege, and he filled the office with credit and usefulness to the close of his life. While faithfully discharging the duties of this station he found time for the pursuits of natural history, directing his attention chiefly to the important, but much neglected, field of Entomology. In this depart- ment of science he rose to distinction, and since the death of Say, he er of Boston, and in other agricultural journals, and like his later papers were marked by accuracy and thoroughness. In October, 1832, atise on some of the England which are injurious to Vegetation,” (Cambr. A second edition of the book, revised and enlarged, 1852, (Bost. pp. viii, and 513. € treatise was received with great favor both by the cul- e cultivators of entomological science. — In xact, Dr. Harris gives, afier a general er Miscellaneous Intelligence. 301 work is a treasure of valuable information, and will be an enduring monument of the industry and learning of its author. re Dr. Harris was of modest and retiring habits, and so cautious to avoid error, so anxious for the whole truth, that his published writings fail to do justice to the full extent of his abilities. ‘ Yet,” to use the language of one who knew him well, “he had abundantly the self-respect which belongs to unselfish labors to advance the world in the knowledge of the works of its Maker, and to the uniform tenor of a pure, useful, Christian life.” : ll. Rev. Zadock Thompson, Professor of Natural History in the Uni- versity of Vermont, died at Burlington, January 19, 1856, aged 59. Mr. Thompson early interested himself in the study of the history and physi- cal features of the state of Vermont, and in 1824 published a Gazetteer of the State which toa large extent was made from information gathered latest of geological periods preceding man, Lake Champlain was a cruising ground for northern Cetaceans. All his investigations were pursued with great zeal, fidelity, and success, and at the same time Without ostentation. At the time of his death he was officially engaged 0 making a survey of the State of Vermont, embracing its Physical Geography, Geology and Mineralogy, Botany and general Zoology. 12. Theory of the Winds ; by Captain Cuartes Wixxss, U. S. N., (Read betes the American Asaigaci at Providence, Aug. 20, 1855), accompanied by a map of the World, showing the extent and direction of the Winds ; to which is added Sailing Directions for a voyage aroun the world. 116 pp., large 8vo. Philadelphia, 1856.—This volume, as the author states in his Introduction, forms part of his Re - for Port as a ‘sealed book,” like the other Reports of the Expedition, “ there are only one hundred copies ordered by the Government for the ! the world!” He has therefore publi ion of the work for distribution. To give a just expositi would require 2 review of many pages ; and ve reree ges; and we ha are verer te ree to the volume itself. Capt. Wilkes c the common doctrine that the rotation of the earth has any thing to do with the course or velocity of the Trade winds, and also observes that we have no satisfactory evi- ae 302 Miscellaneous Intelligence. points out the areas of greatest mean heat, and his inferences there- fro Connected with this subject, he discusses the relations and in- ane of vapors in the atmosphere, and also of electricity in great storm 13. Liadripition oF a portion of the lower Jaw and a Tooth of the Mustodon Andium; also of a Tooth and pepe of the Femur of a Mastodon from Chile ; ; by Jerrriss Wym 10 pp., 4to, with two plates. From Gilliss’s Report on Chili, meng iii—Dr. Wyman sustains the view that there are remains of two species of Mastodon in South America, the M. Andium and M. Humboldtii ; and possibly a third on ili. A Memoir on the Extinct Sloth Tribe of North America; by hte Leipy, Prof. Anat. Univ. Pennsylvania, etc. 68 pp., 4to, with 16 lithographic Fee: (from the Smithsonian Contributions. to Knowl- edge).—Dr. has here reviewed the facts relating to the extinct Sloth tribe of eik America, and = much that is new from spe- cimens under his examination. species described are Megalonyx Jeffersonii Harlan, Megalonyx dissimilis Leidy, Ereptodon priscus Let- dy, Mylodon Harlani Owen, Megatherium mirabile Leidy (the North American Megatherium, which Dr. Leidy regards as i from the M. Cuvieri of South America. ) The sinus are excellen 15. Contributions towards a Knowledge of the Mores "Invertebrate Fauna of the Coasts of Rhode Island and New Jersey; by Prof. J. Levy, M.D. 18 pp. 4to, with 2-4to plates. Philadelphia, 1855. (From the Jour. Acad. Sci., Philad., vol. iii, 2nd Series.) —This peest: = n y four in the branchial dente of- the Glelanieie pugilator. . An Essay on Meteorites ; by R. P. Gree, F.G.S. 40 pp. 8v0, Nor 1855. Manchester.—This important cate was originally issued as an article in the Philvacihaasti Magazine for November and De- cember, 1854, and is now published by the author with additions, in which he considers at some length the lunar theory of meteorites. gives a catalogue of known meteoric falls, and compares them for dif- ferent periods and countries. He concludes, that the origin of meteor- ites “is not within the limits of the atmosphere, and that some of them at least cannot have had a lunar origin ;” that they are probably dis- tinct in nature and orbits from ordinary luminous meteors; and that the falls are least frequent when the earth is in perihelion, and most 80 it is in aphelion, the mean system or mass of the bgseers being in their perihelion; and finally, that they may be reasonably consid ed as belonging to the group of — or astciday atid therefore as of the nature and conditions of aster 1%. Synopsis of the ctor ara af ime British Paleozoic Rocks ; Rev. Apam Sepc M.A., F.R.S., ete., with a Systematic of oe British Palmonsie "Fossils in the Lelie ae | contribution to science under the auspices of Prof, Spe wick, and the G eological part is the result of his special labors. We defer 12 another number a farther notice of the volume. BOs? nas are! eae ee 8 eee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 303 18. Vienna Scientific Publications.—The scientific publications is- sued annually in Vienna are not exceeded by those of any other city in Europe. every branch under that section, and illustrated by numerous elegant plates; and besides this, the Bulletin of the Academy in 10 parts of to 300 pages each, also finely printed and profusely illustrated. 0 Pp Fauna der Hallstitter Schichten, mit 5 Tafeln, von Fr. R. vy. Haver.— Ueber zwei Polypafien aus den Hallstatter Schichten, mit 1 Tafel, von A. E. Revss.—16 Gattungen von Binnenwirmern und ihrer Arten, mit “ Dr. K CH. ; 19, Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, New Series, Vol. Il, Part I. 1855. e din ner a5 by Emtas Duzanp. X. Relation of Atomic Heat to Crystalline Form ; by 4 ~ hema ‘XI Descriptions of New Species of Psittacide, in the collection me Academy of Natural Beienn of Philadelphia; by Joun Cassin. 304 Miscellaneous I. ntelligence. The Culture of the Grape and Wine making, by Ropert Bucuanan, with an Ap- pendix containing directions for the Risse of the Strawberry, by N. Lonewontu, 6th ed. 142 12mo. permet The Unity of Matter: A Dialogue on > a relation between the various forms of matter which a Senses ; e Alex. Stephen Wilson. | 80 pp. 1émo. 1855, ; Videsbabetige | “Meddelels lser fra den naturhistoriske Wi sta i Kjobenhavn for Aaret 1 vne af Selskabets Bestyrelse. Copenhagen, 1854.—Opens with Haaren & on ae apilionacer, Scrophularinew, Labiate, Malpighiacexw and Gen- tianeze of Central America ; | . Grisepaca and A S. Oznsta, 58 pages. — contains a paper on sgh pis ees by J. Kinsuanor, and on new Mexican ans s by F. Lrepman ; and new species of Castelia by the dbuch der Metalturgiacen Liitienkunde, zum Gebrauche bei Vorlesungen und — Sebati ite runo Ker oe ann Wri coy und r der peers oni Probirkanst an der Kon ait Bengtchis usthal, 3 ca Freiberg, 1855. Procerpines Boston Soo. Nat. Hisr—Vol. V, Dec. 1855.—p. 257, Abstract 0! re ric n the raindrops hes pice ae ‘is set . B, Rogers.—p. 268, Oyster P abes ae h oe 0 D 2 Ue A —p. 278, ante ‘of the “ Antes” Children.—p, 279, Copper veins of the Phe nix Mine on Eagle Rive ver, L. Superior—p. 283, On the origin of the carbonate of iron 9h a Ro aid ROCEEDINGS OF THE ACA: Nar petpaia.—Vol. VII, 6 XII, 1855. —p. 415, Descriptions of = ye oan of il See “uppos ed to be new; P. B. a ope of few specie Collections of te Academy ; J, A. Meigs.—p. 423, tive Catalogue of t ‘the coe ne (species of Rana, et te.) of the United States; me Stason ~—p.4 Dsooecaboer on the N. American species of Bats; J LeConte.— —p. 438, Notice wat and — known Birds in the collection of the U. S$. Explorin g Expedition in aie Vincennes and Peacock, and in the collection of the Academy 5 J. Cassin—p. 441, Note on the Miocene and Post- orn deposits of California, with deseiptions of two new Fossil Co orals at ve Seripti sow species of Pentamerus; 7. A. Conrad—p. 442, Descriptions © two new species of Hesperomys; J. LeConte—p. 443, Notices of som e Tape Worms; J. Leidy—Enumeration of Mosses detected in the Northern sc Stats not comprised in the Manual of A. Gray, some of which are new; Z. P. Jam Works received from G. A. Koch’s Verlagsbuchandlung, Th. Kunike : _ Natalicia Regis augustissimi Friderici Gulielmi IV., A. D. xv. M. Oct Hora xii. in auditorio minore celebranda indicunt Universitatis Regie Geral Rector et Senatus. Inest G. F. Schoemanni Dissertati itteraria hiswaldensi per semestre Hibernum, nsis ete nace st G. F. Schemanni ——Typis i hen Sacks iilterer und neuerer Zeit, verfasst ¥' og erste Lieferung. A—Ai. Greifswald, 18 et sich Leonie m der crisdhieshad Gileitung 2 8 pp. Svo. Greifswald, 1856. 1 YALE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL. CHEMISTRY AND NATURAL SCIENCE, LECTURES. } FIRST TERM. General Chemistry, - - - Prof. Benyamin Smtuiman, Jz. SECOND aor ; Geology Pro es D, Dan Chemistry of Building Materials, Pret Bessa Sinan Jz. 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No charg me 1 academical year is divided into three terms, commenc ing i in mber 12, at -3 and Ms : 1, and c ontinuing about a e months, €nts who pass a Baer eiantitation in either of the above Depart- ed to the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy, efter being two shoe “apace 2 CHEMICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL APPARATUS, INSTRU- ‘| J. F. LUHME & Co., or Bertin, Prussia, PANTHEON BUILDING, 343 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. This well known Cuemicat EsraBiisoMent, has opened a Maca- zINE for the sale of their goods in New York under the management of Mr. H. GOEBLER at 343 Broadway ; where they keep on hand and offer for sale a great variety of Cuemican Apparatus. PHILOSO- AL InstrumENTS adapted for all departments of PRreGt and eden RESEARCH and for EXPERIMENTAL DEMONSTRATI ine CHEMICAL THERMOMETERS Of every description ; Hyvioieaeee in every variety and of superior accuracy, reading actual densities to 005: CHemican Batances for analytical use—also a cheap and su supe- rior Balance for ordinary Laboratory work ; Fins Scauzs for eae use. Every variety and form of Chemical and Druggists’ Grass Wake AND ele including an extensive assortment of the celebrated Bo- HEMIAN HARD GLAss aa, uBEs and Beaxers—Gasuotpers of metal and Glass—Grapuatep Tubes and Cylinders—Cuests with grad- uated instruments for Aueatant ETRY, eye etc—MINERALOGI~ cau Test Ca ses—Re- etc. etc. Catologues furnished on application and special orders for Incorpo- rated Institutions imported duty free on liberal terms, Address H. GOEBLER, Agent of J. F. Luanne & Co, 348 Broad- way, New York. March, 1855. [tf] “ GENERAL INDEX : TO THE FIRST SERIES OF THE SOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. IN ONE VOLUME OF 348 PAGES, 8vo.—Pares, $3. yA FEW copies remain for sale in the hands of the Publishets- of Smtman & Dana. , ‘further, second page of Cover. New Haven, March 1, 1851. a 3 _MICROSCOPES—SURVEYING AND OTHER ioe INSTRUMENTS. Mgssrs. J. & W. GRUNOW, OF NEW HAVEN, CONN. Messrs. J. & W.G. make to order Acnromatic Microscopes of Superior excellence in all respects, and of every variety of form and ice.—ALso— Surveying and Astronomical Instruments, whose superior excellence of workmanship, construction and accuracy, lave been frequently acknowledged. For the quality of their instruments, Messrs. J. & W. G. are per- mitted to refer to the Editors of this Journal. To Profs. D. Olmsted and W.™A. Norton of Yale College; Prof. W. Gibbs of New York . ci x Priced Catalogues sent to order. (July, 1855.—tf te Mgetatae SOM MINERALS AND FOSSILS. Tux undersigned would respectfully call the attention of the scientific and lovers of Minrratocican and Fossit Specimens to his Collection, Consisting in a great variety of both, all of which he offers for sale at exceedingly low rates. aving been an extensive Mineralogist for upwards of twenty-five years in his native country (Germany) (Prussia), he flatters himself to be able to produce Specimens of rare interest, to all lovers of the study. With satisfactory references, would be willing to send samples to ee = of the United States. Expenses of att ie ahs rif ¥ those requiri les, which [ can send in cases fi lars up, ne Samples, WHE. W. A. HERRMANN, May, 1855.—1y] No. 1007 B ws Broarway, New York. — ee sald yt ts y ager m4) e aa Me the Old Red Sandstone of that Region, and = The Recent Fossil Discoveries of Mr. C. Peach, by Sir Roprricx J. Murcuison, 276: ps Pia asec of the Mineralogical Cabinet of the Garden of Plants at Paris, by M. J nopsis Plantarum Gluma cearum ; auctore E. G. Girne EL, 282. E ora v Alg miss is observantibus So Aleis neve in sean, a ALEX. Braun, 283.— On tka, collected Me Lieut. Brooke, U. Ss. N., by Prof. Barry, 284, — Intelligence. ening to Meteora, by CuarLes SmMALLwoo 286.—On Papyrus, Bonapart d other plants which can furnish Fi bre for seat Pulp, by Chevalier De PRES 280.—On the Hancornia specios: Gutta Percha and India Rubber, by the Chevalier Dz Ciaussen, 291—On the Artifi- cial Liquors, by Mr. As Tuomrson, 2$5—On the Absorption - matter by the Surfaces of a Ae Sir i ast “d = garcia of Acari in Mica, etc., by Sir D. _ 296.—On the Pheno { Decomposed Gina: by Sir D. BrEwsTER: : ley Calendar visi 1855, in ar ee Co., Ala., by Prof. Tuos. P. Hatcn, eee j —Obituar ry.—Death of Dr. T. W. Harris, 3C0. ps: pate Thompson, 301.—Theory of the Winds, by So Cuartes Witxss, U. S.N., 301. ahaa of a portion of the i lower Jaw and a tooth of the Mastodon Andium, etc etal JEFFR . _ on the Extinet Bik ‘Tribe of pe Soin Hees by Prof. Sate ated Conswitona towards a Knowledge of the Marine rtebrate Fauna of the Coasts of Rh sland and New Jersey, “a Prof. J. Les FGS.: Synopsis of the Clete of the British Paleozoic , by Apa™ Srpewickx, M.A., F.R. 302.—Vienna Scientific Publications : Rte the scp of Sacinl sacks a Philadelphia, 303.—Notices of New blica 304, nN ie ? 2 pee So Eagar ro mepeculer Ye sion.—Part vol. xx. ae P80, 89, “Tne * Shen kon = eee “sa as hould be pie 3 ie . pendicular fs the length. 6) Page 85, tine 17 from sotto, fr P and Q,” re and Q;. Page 96, li rom top, for P and Q, read ear sn. for * he . ‘Part IL, (6) Pa age 2 ge 207, “line 4 Rom t Big Cte send gh tou atuee B. fe _ top Jine, for “ eres Page 210, line 1 shoul es ie ht band figure shou Bago 215 15, line 5 om top, for "for ay insert of @ Sand a oO... $ £9 Page 328, reat i ft eet ion Z Page 91, line 9 fom after from, add, he denominators of. i sate: ie = ie oe it eae The next No. ws this Journal will be published on the ve of May. = id CONTENTS. Page. ie XVII. On a Siecinielo of Native Tron om Liberia. Africa’: ; mca by Dr. A. A. Haves, - 158 XIX. On the Telescopic ees of Beier ae a “iach _ Telescope ; by the Rev. W. R. Dawes, = - XX. Ona new and advantageous mode of ue Aluminiam >! “by. Prof. He Rose, oo XXI. “On ‘a ne new. Species of Unio ; by nN “¢ aes NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. : _ NEW Yo RK: G. P» PUTNAM & CO. 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Hinve Jones. : Toronto, C. W., A. H. Armour & Co. TRAVELLING AGENTS ards receipts are acknowledged as good :— Henry M. Lewis, Se Alabama,—for Al Lewis, sth Aerie hos Es O and Samvgn D. Lewis. abama and eee €. “a Sgoeme nati, Ohio, is our general collecting agent for the Western States. 2 Nena, hiinbeted by H. J. Tuomas, W. Ramszy, Wu. H. Toom 1s, Taos, M. ieee, A. L. Cuiups, Dr. Wat. Inwix, and Ricuarp LEEK. Receipts of either will be ~ Isrann E. Jawzs, 182 South Tenth str t, Philadel | Winwam L MAN, E. A. Ev vase, Taos D.N Wart ae LI. Rippicr, P. W. Macken and Mr. T: Pa.. AL EXANDER } AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] “Arr, XXXIL—The Climate of San’ Francisco for the year 1855; by H. Gissons, M.D. ___ I the following observations the temperature is stated at sun- rise, 94.m., noon, and 10. m. This is not critically accurate in regard to the observations at sunrise and noon. A thermome- trograph was used for the former, by which the lowest degree is noted, occurring generally a short time before sunrise. The “boon” observation was made at the warmest period of the day, varying from 12 to 2 or 3 Pp. m. Towards the close of the year 1854, the miners and the rmers throughout the State were in trouble for want of rain. the last day of December, the whole amount of rain fallen be, Senerally, as far as I can ascertain, to the southerly or south- easterly rainstorms of California. Houses were unroofed or pros- trated and trees uprooted. at San Francisco, and in the mining resions of the northern counties, a few hours before day light on the Ist of January. The storm was brief, the wind changing 2 Sevoxp Senres, Vol. XXI, No. 63, Mey, p68. w ie 306 H. Gibbons on the Climate of San Francisco for 1855. to west before sunrise, and bringing showers of rain and hail through the day. The first week of January was cold and rainy. On the 6th the mercury fell to 33°, the coldest weather of the entire winter. Snow was visible on the coast mountains. For the remainder of the month the sky was almost cloudless, and the temperature moderate, ranging from 49° to 59° at noon, until the 20th, after which the range was from 60° to 72°—the highest point reached by the thermometer in January since the commencement of my observations in 1850. The warmest morning in the month was 57° and the coldest noon 48°. The mean temperature at sunrise was 44°71, at 9 a. m. 499-39, at noon 57°-29, at 10 vp. m. 469°87, Mean of extremes 51°-00. Proportion of clear sky 69 per cent. Thirteen days were entirely or nearly clear, and five entirely cloudy. Four foggy mornings. Rain fell on nine days, quantity 4:52 in. Winds NW and N nineteen days, NE and E one day, SE and S seven days, SW and W four days. Land winds 65 per cent., sea winds 35. High winds on two days. Light breezes on twenty-nine days. Mean of barometer: sunrise 29°869 in., 9 a. m. 29885 in., noon 29°860 in., Hep p. Mm. 29°867 in. Maximum 30-12 in., min- imum 29:40 in oe or two slight frosts occurred. The winds were very ight, seldom rising op abe a moderate breeze. "They prevailed from N and NW, and South. On the 19th and 20th a brisk gale from the north swept over the entire State, attended with a falling barometer, and followed by heavy rains, which by this time were much needed. An unusual quantity fell, Pie — month. The thermometrical means were, at sunrise 50°-25. mu. 55°°04, noon 63°-29, 10 p. mM. 52°°'32. Mean of acmtrernes: "56° Ya 72°, and the minimum 41°, Warmest morning 56°, coldest noon 56°. Proportion of clear sky 60 per cent. Whole days clear thirteen, cloudy five. Fog on two mornings and one evening. Rain on nine days; oti 4 4-64 in. Winds N and ric means, “sunrise 29:849, 9a. m. 29° 857, noon, "29-936, 10. m. 29850. Extremes 30:06 and 29°48. arch.—Mean temperature at sunrise 519-77, 9 a. M 67°81, sie 67°-03, 10 p. wm. 53°-68. Mean of extremes, 59°-40. High- Pe ‘temperature 78°, lowest 44°. Warmest morning 5 oon 69°. “Proportion of clear sky 53 percent, cloudy 47. Only iver days were clear from morning to night, and four were ~ im # ee = = H. Gibbons on the Climate of San Francisco for 1855. 307 _ cloudy throughout. Rain fell on twelve days, quantity 4-31 in; mist on four mornings and one evening. Wind N and NW eight: days, NE and E one day, SE and S nine days, SW and W thir- teen days. Moderate breezes prevailed and there were no high winds. The month was remarkably warm, being five or six degrees above the average for a number of years past. There were several slight frosts, but not to impede the growth of vege~ tation. 'The general range of the thermometer at noon was from 64° to 70°, and on five days it rose above the latter figure. The rainy temperament of the last week of February was con- tinued through the first two weeks of March, and was succeeded, in accordance with the habits of our climate, by a period of perfectly dry weather, lasting a fortnight. Copious rains again fell on the 30th and 31st. The streams in the interior were much swollen about the 6th. metric means: sunrise 29-828, 9 a. mu. 29°835, noon 29791, 10 p. m. 29-828. Maximum 29-99, nie 295 : itigy- est temperature 78°, lowest 40°. Warmest morning 57°, coldest Noon 56°. Proportion of clear sky 63 per cent, cloudy 37. Whole days clear ten, cloudy three. Rain on ten days, quantity 559 in. Slight mist on two mornings. Wind NW and N eight days, NE and E one day, SE and S five days, SW and W six- teen days. Land winds 30 per cent, sea winds 70. In this month the sea breeze commences. Several of the afternoons were windy, and twice the wind was high. The temperature Was rather below the usual mean for April. The nights com- Monly ranged from 46° to 55°, and the noonday temperature from 62° to 70°. There was a general white frost on the morning of the 2nd. A greater quantity of rain fell than in any other month of the year. From the 10th to the 17th every day was more or rainy, but in all the rest of the month there were but two days on which rain fell, and then in very small quantity. About the middle of the month the streams in the interior were much tage Lightning was observed on the 11th and distant thunder on the 15th. ‘Barometric mean at sunrise 29853 in., at 9 a. m. 29-861, at noon 29:859, at 10 p,m. 29'860, Extremes 30-17 and 29-47. —Temperature at sunrise 50°-06, 9 a. u. 57°°84, noon ~e 308 H. Gibbons on the Climate of San Francisco for 18565. noons of sixteen other days windy. Land winds 16 per cent, sea winds 84. The temperature of the month was about the usual standard for May, though the extreme of 83° was uncom- mon. Slight frosts occurred on several mornings. The general range of the thermometer at sunrise was from 46° to 54°, and at noon from 62° to 68°. May is the transition month from the rainy season to that of permanent drought. A few light rains enerally occur, but the quantity in 1855 was far beyond the or- dinary supply. Nearly 14 inches fell on the 14th and four-tenths on the 19th and 20th, after which there was no more till Autumn. rometric means ; sunrise 29°835 in.—Y a. m. 29°840,—noon ‘29-832,—-10 p. m. 29°830. Extremes, 30-05 and 29°67. June.—Mean temperature at sunrise 52°-00, 9 4. m. 61°20, noon 67°-87, 10 p. m. 549-40. Mean of extremes 59°-93. Maxi- mum §2°, minimum 49°; range 33°. Warmest morning 57°, coldest noon 62°. Proportion of clear sky 87 per cent, of cloudy i ist on | 13. Whole days clear nineteen, cloudy 0. No rain. ten mornings and six evenings. Wind SE and S two days, SW one day, West twenty-seven days. On twenty-two days the after- noons were windy, and on six of these the wind was high. On the 11th, 12th and 13th rains fell in the interior and northern counties. There was a very large proportion of fair weather and cloudless sky. The temperature observed the ordinary range for June, varying mostly from 50° to 54° at sunrise and from 63° to 70° at noon. Land winds 2 per cent, sea winds 98 per cent, orin . other words there was almost no land wind. Barometric means: sunrise 29-701 in., 9 a. mu. 29°709, noon 29'706, 10 vp. um. 29.695. Extremes 29-98 and 29-57. of sea winds 98 per cent. Windy afternoons twenty-four, which three high winds. The general range of temperature at night was from 53° to 58°, and at noon from 62° to 70°. On one day, the 7th, it reached the extraordinary height of 90°. The warmest ‘day next to this was 77°. There were but five days in all the month when the mercury rose as high as 702 at noon. Barometric means for July: sunrise 29-738 in., 9 a.m. 29°750, noon 29:747, 10 ep. m. 29-734. Extremes 29:86 and 29°59. _ August.—Mean temperature at suntise 55°°32, at 9 a. M. 630-23, at noon 69°-61, at 10 p.m. 57-77. Mean of extremes 6° wor Maximum 79°, minimum 53°; range 26°, Warmest * morning > ~“ ad H. Gibbons on the Climate of San Francisco for 1855. 309 57°; coldest noon 64°. Proportion of clear sky 77 per cent, of cloudy 23. Whole days clear sixteen, cloudy 0. Mist on three mornings and four evenings. No rain. On twenty-four days the afternoon was windy, and on three of these the wind was high. Wind SE and S three days, West twenty-eight days. Propor- tion of sea winds 100 per cent—that is to say the wind did not blow from the land for a single hour during the month. On the night of the 18th there was distant lightning, and on the 19th tain fell in Sierra county. The temperature was slightly above the mean of August for a series of years, At sunrise the mercury ranged between 54° and 57°, with a solitary exception when it stood at 53°. At noon the range was usually between 66° and 74°, On sixteen days the temperature at noon was at or above 70°, which can seldom be said of any month of the year at San Francisco. On the last day of the month was a slight frost in favorable situations, enough in some places to injure the tender vegetables. _ Barometric means for August: at sunrise 29-727 in., at 9 a. m. 29740, at noon 29-739, at 10 p. m. 29:728. Extremes 29°90 and 29.56. September.—Mean temperature sunrise 54°-97, 9 a. m. 62°°50, hoon 69°-9)), 10 p. mw. 579-04. Mean of extremes 62°°43. Maxi- mum 84°, minimum 650°; range 34°. Warmest morning 619, coldest noon 63°. Proportion of clear sky 80 per cent, of cloudy Whole days clear twelve, cloudy 0. No rain. Mist on seven mornings and nine evenings. Wind S and SE three days, SW two days, West twenty-four days, NW one day. Proportion of land winds 3 per cent, of sea winds 97 per cent. ‘There were twelve windy afternoons, on five of which the wind was high. It is unusual to have high sea winds so late in the season. Tange of temperature at sunrise was generally from 53° to 58°, and at noon from 64° to 78°, though ou three days it rose above There is usually some rain in September, but uone fell in the present month. In Oregon the first rain of the season was on the 3d, and heavy rains fell in the northern counties of Cali- fornia on the 16th and 17th. On the evening of the latter day, es ning was observed from San Francisco in the northern horizon. Barometric means for September: sunrise 29-718 in., 9 a. m. 29-734, noon 29-727, 10 p. vA 29-677. Extremes 29°85 and 29:60. ober.—Mean temperature at sunrise 54°°77, at 9 a. M. 619-14, at noon 68°-32, at 10 p.m. 579-00. Mean of extremes 6 19°55. imum 79°, minimum 51°; range 28°. Warmest morning 58°, coldest noon 61°. Proportion of clear sky 68 per cent, of cloudy 32; whole days clear ten, cloudy two. No rain. Mist on ten mornings, and seven evenings. Wind SE and § five days, SW one day, West twenty-four days, NW one day. Proportion a 310 HY. Gibbons on the Climate of San Francisco for 1855. of land winds 3 per cent, sea winds 97. The sea breeze always loses its force in this month, though it is apt to recur every after- noon with great regularity, as in the present instance. On eight days the afternoons were windy, but there were no high winds. The general range of temperature was from 52° to 58° through the night, and from 62° to 72° at noon. It was at or above 70° on eleven days. Barometric means for October: sunrise 29:780 in., 9 a.™ 29-799, noon 29-751, 10 p.m. 29°778. Extremes, 29:95 and ‘59. November.—Mean temperature at sunrise 46°°60, at 94. mM 55°-73, at noon 59°-20, at 10 p. m. 49°37. Mean of extremes 52°-90. Maximum 67°, minimum 42°; range 25°. Warmest morning 58°, coldest noon 52°. Proportion of clear sky 70 per cent, of cloudy 30. Whole days clear eleven, cloudy two. Rain on seven days, quantity 1:15 in. Mist on five mornings and three evenings. Wind N and NW nine days, NE and E one day, SE and § seven days, SW and W thirteen days. Proportion of land winds 33 percent, sea winds 67. T'wo days windy in part, and no high winds. gale from north took place on the 2nd, extending over the State as do these northers in common, and portending rain, the barometer almost invariably falling daring a strong north wind. The first rain was a shower on the 10th, after which several moderate rains were thankfully received, but the ground did not become wet enough for tillage till December. In the early part of the month were several white frosts, and there was also more or less frost nearly every morning after the 12th, the mercury ranging at sunrise during the latter period from 42° to 46°. At noon the general range was from 54° to 64°. Barometric means for November: sunrise 29°862 in., 9 4» M. 29-879, noon 29-860, 10 p. m. 29-855, Extremes 30:16 and 29°50. morning 54°, coldest noon 41°. Proportion of clear sky 59 per cent, of cloudy 45. Whole days clear ten, cloudy eight. Rain - days were windy, and there was one high wind accompail with rain, from SW. This was as unpleasant a month as our climate can supply. The rains were mostly cold and in small quantities, and the sky almost constantly overcast. On the th was the very rare phenomenon of a genuine thundergust, a much in the style of the Atlantic States, and accompanied ~ > s LgePigee eS ae H. Gibbons on the Climate of San Francisco for 1855, $311 with a shower of hail. After the 23d the air was remarkably cold, the lowest point reached by the mercury being 29°, on the morning of the 24th. At noon it was 41°, with ice in the shade allday. After this, it was at or below the freezing point on five mornings, and during the last week of the month the ground continued frozen in the shade. In December 1850 the thermom- eter fell to 28°, and in January 1854 to 25°, but the last eight ys of December 1855 had a lower mean temperature than any other similar period since the commencement of my observations in 1850. The mountains of the Coast Range in the southeast Were seen covered with snow, and snow fell to a great depth in the northern counties. Summary for the year 1855.—The mean temperature of the Whole year was as follows: at sunrise, 50°-771, at 9 a.m. 579-563, at noon 64°-368, at 10 p.m. 529-916. The mean of the extremes, which represents the temperature of the year, was 57°-57, which coincides, it may be said precisely, with the mean temperature at 9a. his appears to be nearly the mean temperature of our climate, as the following figures for five years ‘will show: Mean temperature of 1851, 56°-573 4 . - 1852, 56°-537 « «1853, 589-125 a «1854, 579-209 « 1855, 572-570 “ “ for five years 579-203 December was not only the coldest month in the year, but the coldest within the range of my record, which extends back to the winter of 1850-51. The month of January, 1854, comes Next in order, and then December, 1850. After the middle of January, the sun acquires sufficient power to raise the tempera- ture very materially. Hence February is never a cold month, and April is sometimes as warm as July. The autumn months are the warmest of the year, the cold sea breeze at that season declining in force. In 1855, the warmest month was August ; next comes September, then October, then July, then June, and then March. The extreme heat of the year was 90°. The mercury has at No time in the course of my observations reached this elevation, ©xcept in September, 1852, when it stood at 97° and 98° respect- ively on two consecutive days. In the whole interior of the state, beyond the immediate influence of the ocean winds, this isa common temperature, and indeed much below the extreme heat or simmer. Whenever such weather occurs at San Francisco, itis by a suspension of the ordinary programme, the sea-breeze holding off and allowing the climate of the interior to invade its in. In some years the extreme heat at San Francisco is not \ 312 H. Gibbons on the Climate of San Francisco for 1855. above 84°. To what extent we are wont to suffer from heat in this latitude of 374 degrees, may be determined from the fact that in the year 1855, the mercury rose to 80° or above, oniy on six days. In 1851 it reached that point on nine days, in 1852 on fourteen days, in 1853 on eleven days, and in 1854 on twelve days. More than one half of these warm days were in the au- trmn, and less than one third in the summer months. he greatest degree of cold in 1855, was 29°, and the mercury was at or below the freezing point on six days, all of which were in December. It was below 40 on ten days, three of which were in January, and seven in December. In some winters there is no freezing weather, and the most tender plants may bloom in the gardens from season to season. The lowest temperature on my record is 25°,—in January 1854. Next to this 28°, in De- cember 1850, and next, 29° in December 1855. In the year 1853 the mercury did not fall below 40°. The whole number of freezing mornings in 1850 was two, in 1851 one, in 1852 none, in 1853 none, in 1854 three, in 1855 six. The coldest noonday in 1855 was 41°. In December 1850 there was one day when the noon temperature was 38°, and in January 1854, a day when it rose no higher than 37°. Such weather however is extraordinary, and when it occurs every body declares the like was never before known, and that the climate is changing 10 deference to the American population. The warmest morning in the year was 64°. The warmest morning for the last five years was 66°. There are but one or two mornings in the year which approach this figure. A sultry night is unheard of. A single night that could be called warm has happened in five years, and then the thermometer was 76° at 10 p. m. and 66° next morning. The range of the thermometer in 1855 was 61°. In 1851 the range was 54°; in 1852, 63°; in 1853 48°; in 1854, 62°. The greatest barometric pressure in the year was 30°16 in., the lowest 29-40 in. Range 0-76 in..—which is nearly the mean range fora series of years. The lowest point reached in five years was 29-20 in.,—during a violent southerly storm. The time occupied by the various winds is thus represented : Land winds, NW 33 days. Sea winds, SE 16 days. ts &“ N 95 « &“ ts Ss 4s “ 6 “ NE 11 « cc ‘“ SW 17 yt bs 73 E t 3 “gs “ce W 204 ie Total land winds, 80 “ Total sea winds, 285 “ It may be well to explain that the northwest and southeast winds blow in a line with the coast, and are classed, the former as land winds and the latter as sea winds, not so much from their irection as their sensible qualities. dies sar a ome ‘ On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 313 The rains were thus distributed : Jan. rain on 9 days, 4:52 in. July, rain on 0 days, 0:00 1: Clelland sialiedil Si Age? eG ae March “ 12 “ 4-31 « Sepee eRe ee ae April “ 10 “ 559 « Oct. eng! Reyer May “ 5 “% 944 « Nove OO RISC? Glee ge June “ 0 “ 0-00 « Bet, OER eae Total, rain on 66 days, 27-80 in.,—which is a larger quantity than common, as the following statement will show. Rain in 1851 on 53 days, 15-12 in. Mf . 4662 om°60.i “ 26-60 + 1863) voneeddey “: 21903: “ 9864 con 164 2212-4 Comparing one rainy season with another, a greater difference appears. ‘The winter of 1850-51 furnished but 7:31 in., that of 51-52, 18-00 in., that of 52-53, 33-46 in., that of 53-54, 22-93 in., and that of 54-55, 24-10 in. There was some hail in January, and again in December, but ho snow. For a few days in each of these months the Coast Mountains in the SE were seen to be covered with snow. The clouds were sensibly electrified five times—twice in April, Once in August, once in September, and once in December. The lightning or thunder was distinct except in December when there Was a regular thunder-gust with heavy thunder. ; n the evenings of the 11th and 12th of August shooting Slars were numerous, and still more so on the evening of Decem- ber Lith. Nothing extraordinary was observed in November, about the anniversary of the great meteoric shower in 1833. — ad Arr. XXXII—On the Geology of the Hudson’s Bay Territo- ries, and of portions of the Arctic and Northwestern Regions of America ;* by A. K. Ispisrer, M.A., M.R.C.P. &c. In Submitting to the society a Geological map of this extensive region, with a few explanatory remarks, my object has been to recapitulate very concisely the various observations of the geolo- 8ists and travellers who have explored, and of the naturalists who ve examined the organic remains of this portion of the Ameri- can Continent, and to present as completely as possible the results Which have been hitherto attained in the study of its geological formations. The numberless difficulties inherent in such an un- tlaking, embracing a range of country so vast and so difficult to explore, or even to obtain access to, must necessarily render ay attempt of this nature very imperfect; but I have been * Quart. Jour. Geol, Soe., xi, p. 497, London, 1855. | We omit the map.—Eps.} Skoonp Sznizs, Vol. XXI, No. 63,—May, 1856. 40 314 On the Geology of ihe Northwestern Regions of America. induced to undertake it in the belief that, in the absence of any general view of the geological structure of this extensive but interesting region, even the most cursory classification of its ormations might be useful to those employed in developing the structure of the crust of the earth,—the more especially as it is not probable that the attention of practical geologists will soon be directed to this distant and almost inaccessible field of inves- tigation. To render the present attempt as complete as the state of our knowledge will admit, I have carefully studied all the published documents and the geological collections relating to the subject to which I have been able to obtain access. And I have myself resided for many years in various parts of the territory, which may add, I have traversed from one extremity to the other,— from the borders of the United States to the Arctic Ocean in one direction, and from the frontiers of Russian America to Hudson’s Bay in the other. The titles of the publications.to which I have referred are in- dicated below, and may be considered as presenting a biblio- pomtiag view of what is now of the geology of this part of Amer LIST OF WORKS ae Coe TO THE GEOLOGY OF THE NORTHERN T OF NORTH AMERICA orthwest Coast and Russian America, logy of the United a Exploring ag under the command of Com- ies Wilkes. By James D. Dana. New Yor Geological Appendix to Captain Beechey’s Vayase om Behring’s Straits in the ship “ Blossom.” By Dr. Bucktanp, ndon, Beitrag zur Kenntniss der orographischen we peat tile a hen Beschaffenheit der Nord- West Kiiste Amerika’s. Von Dr. C. GRENWINGK St. Petersburg, 1850. Exploration and Survey of Peel’s River; a portion of the chain of the Rocky + erage and the country west of McKe enzie’s River. By A. K. Ispister. Journal e Royal Geographical Society for 1846. Hudson's Bay Territories and Arctic Regions. Topographical and Geological Appendices to the Narratives of sgt h med bate ose First and Second ee ag to the Shores of the Polar B And Note on the Fossils. By Prof. Jameson. London, 1825 Sm bec: on the Rock Specimens 2 ae the First Polar Voyage of epee er By Cuaates Konic. London, cass on the Geology of i Besoin foniuet ‘during Captain Parry's Second and Third Expeditions, By P pea Lond Geological Appendix to the Navratie of - Aiea ey reach the North Pole by Sir Edward Parry, in the year 1827 ‘By Pro essor pammepn. oars oe Geological Appendix to Dr. Scoresby’s Shae of a Voyage to th Whale Fishery, including Researches and Discoveries on the East Coast of "Grenland” essor JAM 2 ee 1 Discovery and Adventure in the and Regions Edinburgh Cabinet Li ‘ wih a Chapter on Archi Geen By Sir Jonn y- Professor et son, and Huen Murray. norte of Discovery for Exploring Baffin’s Bay. By J. Ross. 1819. Appendix e Rock-speci y Dr. M’Cutxocs. a pom o Captain F Penny’ 8 Voyage to Baffin’s Bay and Barrow’s Straits, in search of Sir John Fran By Dr. P. C. Suruentanp, With an Appendix on Geology. By J. W. Bong Leuba, 1852. v Y . don On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 315 Arctic Silurian Fossils. 1 On the Geological and Glacial Phenomena of the Coasts of Davis’s Straits and : : s. ; vol. ii, BayrtEetp, on the Geology of the N. Coast of the St. Lawrence. 1837. Trans, S v. Fe the Geology of Lake Huron. By Dr. Biassy. 1824, Trans. Geol. Soc. 2nd ries, vol. i, On the Geology of the Lake of the Woods [and Rainy River]. By Dr. Bressy, 1852. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Vol. viii. On the Geology of Rainy Lake, South Hudson’s Bay. By Dr. Bicspy. 1854, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. x. On the Drift of the Lake of the Woods and South Hudson’s Bay. By Dr. Bressy, 1851. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. vii. A ; Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition to the Mouth of the Great Fish River. By Captain Back, R.N. Appendix on Geology. By W. H. Firroy, M.D. London, 36. ; Journal of a Boat Voyage through Rupert’s Land and the Arctic Sea, in search of the Discovery Ships under Sir. John Franklin. By Sir. Joy Ricuarpsox. Lon- . 1851. On some points of the Physical Geography of North America. By Sir. J. Rrcx- ARDSON. 1851; Quart. re . vol. vii So Report of a Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota, and incidental of a portion of Nebraska Territory [including the Red River of Lake Winnipeg]. By Daviw Date Owen. Philadelphia, 1852. The chief sources of information, however, on which I have relied in confirmation of my own observations are the valuable Memoirs of Mr. Salter on Arctic Silurian Fossils, published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. ix, and in the Appendix to Dr. Sutherland’s Journal of Capt. Penny’s Voy- Franklin, are very extensive, and throw much valuable light on the mineral structure of the various formations which prevail in the northern regions of America. It was not, however, until Within the last few years that any considerable collection ha made of the organic remains belonging to these formations, by which alone their relative ages and their true characters can be determined. Some of the fossil remains alluded to have been described and figured by Mr. Salter in the papers already referred to, others by Dr. Dale Owen, of the U. S. Geological Survey, Dr. kKland and others; and some (as will be subsequently noticed) have been described, though only incidentally and in general terms, by Sir John Richardson, Mr. Sowerby, the late Mr. Kanig % 316 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. of the British Museum, and the late Professor Jameson of Edin- burgh. A considerable number remain still undescribed in the Museum of the Edinburgh University, the British Museum, the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, and the Museum of Haslar Hospital, or aré mentioned for the first time in the present paper. An examination of these specimens leaves no doubt of the existence of a vast development of paleozoic deposits, extending with little intermission (so far as is known) from the northern frontiers of Canada and the United States to the farthest point to which our researches have extended in the Arctic Ocean, and from Hudson’s Bay on the east to near the Rocky Mountains on the west,—presenting altogether a geological horizon of a grand- eur and extent unequalled probably in any other part of the world, largely as the researches of Sir Roderick Murchison, Sir Charles Lyell, and others have shown such formations to be developed in Russia and the United States. A slight sketch of the chief physical features of this wide re- gion will demonstrate the remarkable symmetry and unbroken condition of its sedimentary deposits, and to what an unusual degree they have apparently been exempted from those igneous disturbances which have complicated} the geological structure of aA other countries of far less extent in other parts of the world. TERRITORIES EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. Physical Features ; and Range of the Crysialline Rocks.— Separated from Canada by the great granitic range of the Lau- rentine or Canadian Mountains, which form the division between the hydrographic basins of these northern regions and those of the St. Lawrence and its great lakes, the Hudson’s Bay Tertito- ries may be considered as forming one vast plain, diversified ouly by a single low granitic ridge running northwards from the west end and almost the whole north shore of Lake Superior,as far as Great Bear Lake, in a direction nearly parallel with the range of near the mouth of the St. Lawrence, is deflected northwards in & direction again nearly parallel with the Rocky Mountains through Labrador and along the shores of Hudson’s Straits and Baffin’ Bay until it finally disappears beneath the limestones of Lancas- ter Sound and Barrow’s Straits. The striking correspondence between the direction of this granitic range, as thus traced, and the general contour of Hudson’s Bay will be at once obvious from On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 317 an inspection of the Map, and would appear to point out this vast mass of crystalline rocks as the probable axis of elevation of the great movement by which the Hudson’s Bay Territories, as well as Labrador and the lands and islands along the west coast of fin’s Bay, were first upheaved from the primeval ocean under which they once reposed. The grand chain of the Rocky Moun- tains may be considered also as forming a new axis of elevation, at nearly an equal distance farther west, upheaving in a similar manner the wide-spread strata which repose on its flanks. The existence of lines of division, pursuing a parallel course, ina general meridional dircction, like those just mentioned, is one of the most prominent general circumstances hitherto ascer- tained respecting the geology of this part of America. The course of the Rocky Mountain chain, from the Sierra of Mexico in lat. 30° to its termination on the coast of the Arctic Sea in lat. 69°, is about N by W, with very little deviation anywhere. This isalso the general direction of the rugged and lofty coast range of Labrador and Baffin’s Bay, as well as of the west coast of Greenland. € possess little reliable information respecting the structure of the mountain ranges of Labrador (on the east) or of the Rocky Mountains (on the west) north of the forty-seventh parallel, Where they were crossed by Lewis and Clarke, in 1805, and no organic remains (so far as I am aware) from either locality. Sir John Richardson who is in possession of all the information re- (as will be bsequently noticed) to be referable to certain mem- bers of Per He meen corresponding probably to the 318 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. Mountain Limestone of English geologists. From the highest part of the range, near latitude 55° N, where it attains an eleva- tion of 16,000 feet above the sea, the four largest rivers of North America—the Missouri, the Saskatchewan, the Mackenzie, and the Columbia take their rise. It may be added, that these four feeders of opposite oceans not only take their origin from the same range of mountains, but three of them almost from the same hill,—the head-waters of the Columbia and the Mackenzie being only about “two hundred yards” apart, and those of the Columbia and the Saskatchewan, not more than “fourteen paces.” It may be mentioned also as a singular fact, that one branch of the Mackenzie, the “ Peace River” of Sir Alexander Mackenzie, actually rises on the western side of the Rocky Mountains within 300 yards of another large river flowing into the Pacific, the ‘l'acoutchetesse, or Fraser’s River, which discharges itself into the Gulf of Georgia, opposite Vancouver’s Island. Central Plateau of Crystalline Rocks.—Marcou, in his re- cently published Geological Map of the United States has traced the crystalline formation of the Laurentine Mountains a consider- able distance to the westward of Lake Superior, where it appears to form the chief constituent of the low watershed which sepa- prairies on the west), until it reaches Lake Winnipeg, along 1) eastern side of which it is then continued for about 280 miles in nearly a N NW direction. From Norway Point at the north end of Lake Winnipeg to Isle & la Crosse, a distance of 420 miles im a straight line, the western boundary has, according to Sir John Richardson, a WNW direction. For 240 miles from Isle 4 Crosse to Athabasca Lake, its course turns in a somewhat ! lar outline northward, enclosing the whole of that lake with the exception of its western extremity. Thence it is continued to On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 319 MacTavish Bay in Great Bear Lake, a distance of 500 miles in a general direction of about NW by W, and is marked according to Sir John Richardson, “by the Slave River, a deep inlet on the horth side of Great Slave Lake, and a chain of rivers and lakes, including Great Marten Lake, which discharge themselves into that inlet.” From Great Bear Lake to the sea it follows the gen- eral course of the Coppermine River, its termination being marked by the mouth of that stream in lat. 71° 55’ N and long. 120° 30/ } or perhaps more correctly by Richardson’s River, a little to the west of it. In this part for the first time the chain rises to the altitude of hills, marked on the Map as the Copper Moun- tains, which attain in some parts a height of 800 feet above the of the river. The slight elevations composing the main Portion of the chain seldom rise, as has beeu already observed, much above the level of the surrounding country, giving to the entire range the character of a low swampy plateau of crystalline rocks, covered by an immense uetwork of small lakes and swamps, connected by narrow and tortuous channels. The low rugged Knolls of granite and gneiss, round which these channels wind, “have mostly,” says Sir John Richardson, “rounded summits, and they do not form continuous ridges, but are detached from each other by valleys of various breadth, though generally nar- fow and very seldom level. When the valleys are of considerable extent, they are almost invariably occupied by a lake, the propor- tion of water in this district being very great; from the top of the highest hill on the Hill River thirty-six lakes are said to be visible. The small elevation of the chain may be inferred from ai examination of the Map, which shows that it is crossed by Several rivers that rise in the Rocky Mountains, the most consid- erable of which are the Churchill, and the Saskatchewan or elson Rivers. These great streams have, for many hundred miles from their origin, the ordinary appearance of rivers in being bounded by continuous parallel banks, but on entering the primi- tive district, they present chains of lake-like dilatations, which are full of islands and have a very irregular outline. Many of the numerous arms of these expansions wind for miles through neighboring country, and the whole district bears a striking resemblance, in the manner in which it is intersected by water, to the coast of Norway aud the adjoining part of Sweden. The “cessive dilatations of the rivers have scarcely any current, but are connected with each other by one or more straits, in which the water-course is more or less obstructed by rocks, and the Stream is very turbulent and rapid. ‘The most prevalent rock in the chain is gneiss; but there are also granite and mica-slate, together with numerous beds of amphibolic rocks.” _ The entire length of this remarkable plateau, from Lake Supe- Hor to its termination on the Arctic Sea, may be estimated at 320 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. somewhat more than 1500 miles. Such an enormous extension of crystalline and eruptive rocks, nowhere assuming the character of a mountain district, isa remarkable example of the tranquil operation of an upheaving foree exerted over an immense area, yet with a limited and regulated intensity, and a constancy of direction which render it worthy of attention, not only as a striking geological phenomenon, but as serving, perhaps, to throw some light on the dynamical conditions under which those vast sedimentary deposits which have excited the astonishment of geologists in America from their unparalleled extension have been originally upheaved. It may be mentioned also as another remarkable circumstance Mountains, that all the great lakes of America are found. If we regard Lake Erie and Lake Michigan as expansions respectively of Lake Ontario and Lake Huron (being evidently component parts of the same lake-basins), we shall find the following series of great lakes—Lake Ontario, Lake Huron, Lake Superior, Lake Winipeg, Athabasca Lake, Great Slave Lake, Marten Lake, and Great Bear Lake, succeeding one another in a NNW direction along the line of fracture, and invariably, bounded to a greater or less extent on one side (generally the northern or eastern) by crystalline rocks, and on the opposite side by limestones and other secondary formations; the northern coast-line being moreover indented nearly in the same general bearing by Coronation Gulf, where, as already stated, the line of crystalline rocks terminates. It is to be observed, however, that the rivers connecting these lakes run generally wholly in one formation or in the other. — Silurian Basin of Hudson’s Bay.—The granitic tract Just described is bounded to the eastward by a narrow belt of lime- stone, beyond which there is a flat swampy and partly alluvial district, forming the shores of Hudson’s Bay. The west coast 0 the bay is everywhere extremely low, and the depth of water decreases so gradually on approaching it, that in seven fathoms of water the tops of the trees on the land are just visible from 4 ship’s deck. Large boulder-stones are scattered over the beach, and sometimes form shoals as far as five miles from shore. A ac containing boulder-stones. Beyond this occurs an extensive de- posit of limestone, completely encircling Hudson’s Bay, a” following the course of the crystalline rocks to the extreme limit of our researches in the Arctic S : : ciliata On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 321 Dr. Conybeare, in his Report on Geology, to the British Asso- ciation for 1832, had noticed the great similarity between the fossils brought to England by the Arctic Expeditions of Parry and Franklin, and those of the Silurian formations of our own country. The Geological Notices appended to the Narratives of those Expeditions by Professor Jameson, Mr. Konig, and Sir John Richardson, who had the advantage of Mr. Sowerby’s assist- ance in examining the organic remains, had previously led to the same view ; and it may now be considered as finally established by Mr. Salter’s examination and description of the extensive collections from the Arctic Regions,* brought to England by the recent expeditions in search of Sir John Franklin. The forma- tion described by Dr. Sutherland as extending along the shores of Wellington Channel and Barrow’s Straits, and considered by Mr. Salter to belong to the Upper Silurian group, has siuce been identified, through its organic remains, at several points along the coasts of Hudson’s Bay. Recognized by Mr. Logan at Lake emiscamang, and at Lakes Abbitibie and St. John, on the Northern edge of the Laurentine Mountains, it has been success- ively identified along the Moose and Albany Rivers flowing into ames’s Bay, at Marten’s Falls,t and along the northern edge of the granitic plateau, thence to York Factory, along the Great Fish River of Sir George Back, at Igloolik,§ and along both Shores of Prince Regent’s Inlet, || to which Jast-mentioned locality Mr. Salter’s investigations bring us down. The extreme points here indicated are “Lake Temiscamang, in 47° 19’ N, and the Shores of Wellington Channel, between 77° and 78° N, giving the enormous range of 30 degrees of latitude, over which, as 4r as our present information reaches, the Silurian formation ex- tends uninterruptedly without any important variation, so far as 18 known, either in its mineralogical constitution or its stratifica- tion. The fossils from this district hitherto submitted to Mr. Salter’s examination belong exclusively to the Upper Silurian. They are comprised in the following list ; and most of them are figured in the Appendix to Dr. Sutherland’s Journal of Captain Penny’s Expedition. * Quart, : au By Se a Hichardsod sad 10 Basalt Boal Voyage through Rupert's me . eet Dr. Fitto Professor Jameson. SP ahering ieee meas 428. I cannot. om, ee eaich of the Heoursys e2 large @ portion of the North American Continent, to Pie A cently published work te apse Murchison on ‘Siluria. To this important Work, and to the long seri rese: i e fruit, the geologists of America must feel under the highest obligation, not only for the clear and compre- View it exhibits of the whole phenomen Stoonp Series, Vol. XXI, No. 68,—May, 1856. 4] 322 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. rustacea. i Hosier levis, Angelin ? 2. Proetus, sp. 3. Leperditia Relihiet, Hisinger sp., var. arctica, Jones Mollusca. 4, Litu sp. . Orthoetn pi ag Salter. | 8 9, Murcbisni, 2 sp. 16. Spirifer crispus, Linn. sp.? be # Speer eae 18. Chonetes lata, Von Buch A m, Dalm. 0, Euomphalus, sp. 20. Rhynconel Pee Salter. 1" étarophos" nautarum, Salter. 21. —— Mansonii, alter. 12. Modiola (or Modiolopsis). 22. ——sublepida, De Vern. 13. Birgphon ena Donnetti, Salter. 23, sp. 14, : 25. Atrypa trans pal Linn. sp. 15. Orthis. Encrinites. 26. Actinocrinus, sp. 27. Crotalocrinus, sp. Corals, 28. Ptychophyllum. 40. Syringo 29. Strephodes oo Salter, 41. Helioltes Ponies). Austini, 42. Cystiphyllum, sp. 81. Favistella reticulata, ‘Salter. 43, Cyathophyilum, sp. Franklini, Sal 44, yes what sp. 33. Fipcailin: « sp. 45. ee . vara polymorpha, eueth 46. Ce oie Dan aria ia), Sp. thlandica, Linn. 47. Calophyllum phragmoceras, 36.3 31. - ——, 2 sp. 38. Column naria Sutherlandi, Salter. 89. Halysites catenulatus, Linn. sp. » @ alter, : Acachsogleyllags Richardsonii, Salter, Mr. Konig describes the limestones from which these remains have been obtained as of an ash-grey or yellowish and grey color, often foetid, and sometimes crystalline or compact, strongly re- semblin the: Transition limestones of Gothland, and some of the fetid varieties of the Mountain Limestone of Derbyshire. He mentions also that it is filled with zoophytes and shells ; and in some parts is quite made up of the detritus of Encrinites, the fragments of which are so comminuted that the rock might readily be mistaken for a granular limestone. A small collection on aoe recently procured by the writer from James’s Bay (t uthern dpa of Hudson’s Bay), Which have been safoniteel to iH fi rdson, has trace dt Pre Falls, near the source of pa River, at the eastern * The fossils were collected by Dr. Roderick Kennedy, Medical Officer at Moose Factory. . ” oo” {8 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 323 edge of the granitic plateau, which would give an average breadth of about 200 miles for the formation in this part. The boat- route from Lake Winnipeg to York Factory crosses the limestone belt at right angles to its course at Rock Portage, and its breadth is there found to diminish to less than 100 miles. The average width of the formation may perhaps be estimated at about 150 miles. The mineral structure of the rocks forming the northern shores of America has been so fully and minutely investigated and de- scribed by Prof. Jameson, Mr Konig, Dr. Fitton, and Sir John Richardson, that I shall here, as well as in the notices of the other formations of this territory, confine myself exclusively to the examination of their organic remains, referring the reader for every necessary information on the mineralogical character of the rocks in which they are found to the valuable publications of those authors. Silurian Basin of Lake Winipeg.—To the westward of the teau of crystalline rocks, and following its course for a consid- erable distance northward, lies an extensive deposit of horizontal limestone, underlying the wide prairie country which extends towards the Rocky Mountains. Lake Winipeg, which is situated on the line of junction of the two formations, is a long and harrow sheet of water, 230 geographical miles long, and about 0 wide; and with its associated lakes (Moose Lake, Muddy © ‘ake, Winepegoos, and Manitoba Lakes), receives, through its affiuents—the Saskatchewan, the Red River, and other streams —a wide extent of prairie drainage. The commercial route from ke Superior up to this point lies almost wholly within the granitic tract, touching on Silurian deposits only at the mouth of iny River and at one of the southwestern arms of the Lake of the Woods, where Dr. Bigsby has detected a few organic remains indicative of the Upper Silurian formation.* The Wini flows wholly within the granitic district, and has the lake-like dilatations and other characteristics of the streams which traverse the crystalline tract. When we descend to Lake Winipeg, we lake being mostly excavated in the limestone. The granite and Sneiss which form the east shore of Lake Winipeg strike off at its NE corner, and passing to the north of Moose Lake, go on to * The followin: list is given by Dr. Bigsby: a small Phacops, small Orthocerata, minute Enerinital edtltiin. © Vcgoaties etbandica, Cyathophyllum, Murchisonia, Pentamerus Knightii, Leptena, Avicula, Atrypa, and Spirifer. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol viii, p. 405. i 324 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. Beaver Lake, where the boat-route again touches upon them. The extension of the limestone in a westerly direction from Lake Winipeg has not been ascertained; but it has been traced as far up the Saskatchewan as Carlton House, where it is at least 280 miles in breadth. Beyond this it is either succeeded or covered by cliffs of calcareous clay, which bear some resemblance to those found along the banks of the upper portions of the Missouri, together with saliferous marls and beds of gypsum. Skirting the base of the Rocky Mountains a remarkable lig- nite formation is met with, which is said to extend through the valley of the Mississippi and of Mackenzie River as far north as the Arctic Sea. — The limestone of Lake Winipeg, which undoubtedly covers a vast tract of country, may in general be characterized as com- pact and splintery, and of a yellowish-white color, passing into buff, and sometimes of an ash-grey, mottled, or banded with patches of light brown. In the district between Lake Winipeg and the Saskatchewan, more particularly examined by the Arctic Expeditions of Franklin and Back which passed through it on their way to the Arctic Sea, the limestone strata were found to be almost everywhere extensively exposed, and to be remarkably free from intrusive rocks. Professor Jameson enumerates Tere- bratule, Orihocerata, Encrinites, Caryophyllide, and Lingule, as the organic remains brought to England by Franklin’s First Expedition; Mr. Stokes and Mr. Sowerby examined those fossils which were procured on the Second Expedition, and foun amongst them Terebratulites, Spirifers, Corallines, and Maclu- rites. The Maclurites were probably the Maclurea magna 0 Le Sueur and Hall. Sir John Richardson has recently brought home from the same quarter a fine specimen of the Receptaculites Neptunitt,—a fossil, which, though it occurs abundantly in some the Devonian beds of the Hifel, is, with the Maclurite, charac- teristic in Canada, as in New York, of the Lower Silurian. Along the southern shores of Lake Winipeg and in the Valley of the Red River, where the limestone rises in solid ledges rom the surrounding prairies, and has been extensively quarried for building purposes, it has been distinctly identified as belonging to that formation by Dr. Dale Owen, Director of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin and Minnesota, who in the course of his explorations visited the small colony settled there by the Hudson’s Bay Company. In his recently published Report, Dr. Dale enu- merates the following fosssils procured by him from the quarries at Red River and from Lake Winipeg :— 1. Fayosites basaltica. 6. Leptena sericea ?} : thentnie suleata. 7. —— alternata. ¢ es lycoperdon. 8. —— planoconvexa ! 4. Pleurorhynchus, sp. 9. Calymene senaria. 5. Ormoceras Brongniarti. 10. Pleurotomaria lenticularis !? ee eT On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 325 11, —— muralis. 18, Cephalic shield of a Trilobite allied 12, Orthis, sp.+ to Illenus arcturus. Lingula, sp.¢ 19. Pustulated cephalic shield of an 14, Terebratula, sp.t Tienus, 20, Conularia, sp. 21, Several specimens of the shield of icauda. Norr.—Those marked + are figured in Dr. Owen’s Atlas of Illustration. Many of these, Dr. Owen states, “are identically the same fossils as occur in the lower part of ‘Formation No. 3,’ in Wis- consin and Iowa, in the blue limestones of Indiana, Ohio, Ken- tucky, and also in the Lower Silurian of Europe. The Coscino- pora is precisely the same as the coral which is particularly characteristic of the lower beds of the Upper Magnesian Limestone f Wisconsin. ‘The specimens of F'avosites basaltica cannot be distinguished from those which abound in the Upper Magnesian Limestone of Wisconsin and Iowa and the Lower Coralline beds of the Falls of the Ohio.” _Ithas been noticed that the limestones of this formation are distinguished by two different tints of color. From the following analyses of the two varieties published by Dr. Owen, it would appear that they differ also considerably in their mineralogical character. Anvlysis of the Compact Limestone from Red | Spotted and banded Limestone containing : Rive Lepiena. Cos r, containing Lepte ‘oscinopora. Carbonate of Lime ............ 53°7 | Carbonate of Lime .........-. 781 nate o: rn eee 40°5 | Carbonate of Magnesia ........ 178 Insoluble gg inte he 08 soluble matter ......-..++++ 10 Alumina, Oxyd of Iron, and Man- Alumina, Oxyd of Iron and Man- a fanese ..., 0 eee ee: . Water and loss 1-0 | Water and loss ............-- 13 100°0 100°0 detected some Trilobites, a Maclurite, and a Coral, which last ossil from the description given of it may have been a Recepta- culites ; and it may be added, that Marcou, apparently on the authority of Mr. Logan, classes the limestones of Lakes Abbitibie and St. John as Lower Silurian. The limestones of the Kakabeka Falls were identified by himself as belonging to that division. The ins ciency of geological explorations, and the want of published documents, render it impossible as yet to define with any approach to accuracy the limits of the two great divisions of the formation in this part of America, while it may be safely asserted, however, that under one or other of its forms the Silu- * 326 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. — rian formation attains probably a wider development in the Hudson’s Bay Territories than in any other part of the world in which its existence has been hitherto ascertained. Sir John Rich- ardson has detected it in the hollows of the granitic plateau, and he expresses a belief that it will be found to occupy all the valleys of that extensive district. Devonian Formation of the Elk or Mackenzie River.—The extent of the Silurian formation of Lake Winipeg northward as not been accurately ascertained. Limestones very similar in character have been traced on Beaver River, the most westerly feeder of Churchill River, and situated midway between the Sas- katchewan and Elk Rivers. The canoe-route does not touch upon this river, which has its outlets in one of the southwestern arms of Lake La Crosse; but it ig observed that the country on entering Sandy Lake along the line of communication near this part suddenly changes its aspect. Banks of loam, sand, and rolled blocks of a fine quartzose sandstone are found along the channels of the rivers; and shortly after emerging from the granitic district through which the route lies for the greater part of the distance from Cumberland House to Fort Isle-a-la-Crosse, We come upon a formation of quite another character, occupying the basins of the Elk River and its affluent the Clear-water. northern sources of the Saskatchewan ; and its bed, which forms with that stream two sides of an equilateral triangle, with its base resting on the western edge of the crystalline plateau, is not separated by any marked ridge from the Saskatchewan prairie country, which appears to extend with little interruption as far as the next great tributary of the Mackenzie, the Unjigah or Peace River. It is separated from the Churchill or Mississippt River system, having its outlet in Hudson’s Bay, by the carrying place of Portage La Loche, a plateau of about ten miles in breadth, which forms the dividing ridge between the waters flowing into Hudson’s Bay and those flowing into the Arctic Sea. Portage La Loche has at its highest point an elevation of about 60 feet above the sources of the Churchill River system; but it presents on the side of the Clear-water River a sudden and precipitous descent of 656 feet, disclosing a deep layer of sand, enclosing masses of sandstone, of about 600 feet in depth; the whole re- posing upon an extensive formation of limestone which lines the whole bed of the Clear-water as far as its junction with the Blk River. The deposits of sand and sandstone alternate with thick beds of bituminous shale, in some parts more than 150 feet in - These bituminous deposits form the distinguishing. tures of the formation now under notice, and are developed to an enormous extent, having been traced at intervals along the whole as On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 327 length of Mackenzie River as far as the shores of the Arctic Sea. Springs and pits of fluid bitumen are of common occurrence, and along the banks of Elk River in particular the shale beds are so saturated with this mineral as to be nearly plastic. The whole formation bears a decided resemblance in its lithological character to the lower members of the “Erie Division” of the United States’ geologists, which M. de Verneuil considers to be equiva- lent to the Devonian formation of Europe*. I have been enabled, through the kindness of Mr. S. P. Woodward, to examine the collection of fossils from this district in the British Museum ; and although, from the poverty of organic remains (a circumstance characteristic of the formation also in the United States), the col- lection is a very small one, there can be no hesitation in assigning the bituminous deposits of the, Elk and Mackenzie Rivers to the epoch of the Marcellus shales, and the associated limestones, of the New York Survey.” The most characteristic fossil of the bituminous beds is a small Pteropodous shell, thickly disseminated through the substance o the shale, apparently the Tentaculites fissurella of Hall, associa- ted with Strophomena mucronata, S. setigera, and Orthis limi- faris, of the same author; at least they cannot be distinguished from his figures of those fossils from the Marcellus shales Two corals from the associated bituminous limestone are, according to Mr. Woodward, characteristic of the same epoch, hamelyea Strombodes (of Hall), having its cysts filled with bitu- roductus (among them P. subaculeatus), an Orthis resembling 9. resuptnata, T'erebratula reticularis, a Posidonomya, and a Pleurotomaria. ‘There is a very fine and well preserved Rhyn- chonella amongst the collection, remarkable for retaining the orginal chesnut-colored bands of the shell. 208 ther Formations of the Mackenzie River Basin.—Silurian rocks of Great Slave Lake and River (Onondaga Salt Group Y Vanurem and Hali?),—After passing through Lake Athabasea the Elk River is joined by the Unjigah or Peace River, the largest y of the Mackenzie, and the united streams, under the Rame of Slave River, proceed onwards to Slave Lake along the edge of the district of crystalline rocks, flowing sometimes through limestone, at other times over granite, and sometimes between the two. he mouths of Slave River open into Slave *e between the limestone and granite. The limestones along the banks of this stream are, like those of the Elk River, highly bituminous ; but they are chiefly remarkable from their associa- ee With extensive beds of compact greyish gypsum, in connex- ' * Bulletin Soc. Géol. Fr. 2 Sér. vol. iv, p. 646. ~ 328 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. ion with extremely copious and rich salt-springs. Where they approach the crystalline rocks, they are found, like those of Lake Winipeg to be highly magnesian,—a circumstance which ma deserve attention with reference to the hypothesis of dolomization, which regards the introduction or development of magnesia as subsequent to the deposition of the calcareous matter, and as connected with the proximity of masses containing that earth and heated to a very high temperature. Among the fossils collected from this district which are in the British Museum are Spirifer erispus, Dalm.?, Rhynchonella phoca, Salter, Atrypa levis, Va- nuxem, Atrypa reticularis, an Orthis, two small Spirifers, like S. itrapezoidalis, Dalm. and S. pisum, Sow., and fragments of an Encrinital stem like that of Actinocrinus. Sir George Back, on his expedition down the Great Fish River, collected some frag- ments of Corals along the south shore of Slave Lake, which were considered by Mr. Stokes and by Mr. Lonsdale to belong some to Catenipora escharoides, and one to the genus Siromato- pora of Goldfuss, and probably to his species 8. polymorpha. From the circumstance of these fossils being chiefly Upper Silu- rian, it has been conjectured with every appearance of proba- bility, that the salt-springs may belong to the “Onondaga Salt Group” of [below] the “Helderberg division” of the New York system. Carboniferous Series (Mountain Limestone ?).—Some of the organic remains procured by Sir John Richardson on a previous expedition from other points along the Mackenzie River would appear to indicate an ascending order in some of the deposits of that district from the Devonian limestones and the shales con- recent age. In some specimens from the limestone* of the ments with which this part of the country is covered. * The limestone of the “Ramparts,” which a again lower down at a spot called the “Narrows,” is continued in a eye irection to the Rocky Mountains, the lower elevations of which are composed of it im that portion of the range through which Peel’s River takes its course. It has all the characters of the Mountain Limestone of English Geologists,—a formation extensively developed in pee America, where, as will be subsequently noticed, it has been clearly identified by | q On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 329 flows, is increased by the occurence among them of a Lignite- formation, covered in parts by deep beds of sand, capped by boulders and gravel. ‘The soft friable shales forming the bank of the river near its termination in the Arctic Sea are also strongly impregnated with alum. These aluminous shales cover a large portion of the delta of Mackenzie River, are continued along the banks of Peel’s River to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, and have been traced for a considerable distance along the coast, and ~ also along the shores of Great Bear Lake. ‘The aluminous shale is constantly associated with the bituminous formation, into which it often passes. ~ The lignite-formation is stid more extensively developed ; and, as the occurrence of coal in any form in these high latitudes is a question of much interest, I shall here state briefly the results of it John Richardson’s observations and enquiries on the subject, to which he has given much attention. -* _ The Mackenzie traverses very obliquely the basin in which the lignite-formation is deposited, while Bear Lake River cuts it More directly across ; and it is at the junction of these two streams that the formation is best exposed. It there consists of a series of beds, the thickest of which exceeds three yards separated by layers of gravel and sand, alternating with a fine-grained friable sand- Stone, and sometimes with thick beds of clay, the interposing layers being often dark, from the dissemination of bituminous matter. “'The coal, when recently extracted from the bed,” says Sir John Richardson, ‘is massive, and most generally shows the Woody structure distinctly; the beds appearing to be composed of pretty large trunks of trees, lying horizontally, and having their woody fibres and layers much twisted and contorted, similar to the White Spruce now growing in exposed situations in the Same latitude. Specimens of this coal examined by Mr. Bower- ank were pronounced by him to be decidedly of coniferous origin, and the structnre of the wood to be more like that of Pinus than Araucaria; but on this latter point he was not certain. It 'S probable that the examination of a greater variety of specimens would detect several kinds of wood in the coal, as a bed of fossil #€aves, connected with the formation, reveals the existence at the time of various dicotyledonous trees, probably Acerinee, end pee of Which appears to belong to the Yew tribe.” ..... “ Differ- ent beds, and even different parts of the same bed, when traced to the distance of a few hundred yards, present examples of ‘fibrous brown coal,’ ‘earth-coal,’ ‘conchoidal brown coal,’ and “trapezoidal brown coal.’ Some beds have the external characters of @ compact bitumen; but they generally exhibit on the cross fracture concentric layers, although from their jet-like composition Stcoxp Sznts, Vol, XXI, No. 63, May, 1856. 42 330 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. tee nature of the woody fibres cannot be detected by the micro- Some pieces have a strong resemblance to charcoal, in aecniuen color, and lustre. Very frequently the coal may be named a ‘ bituminous slate,’ of which it has many of the litholog- ical characters; but, on examination with a lens, it is seen to. composed of comminuted woody matter mixed with clay and small imbedded fragments resembling charred wood. From the readiness with which the coal takes fire spontaneously, the beds are destroyed as they become exposed to the atmosphere, and the bank is constantly crumbling down; so that it is only when the debris has been washed away by the river that good. sections are exposed.””* Formations similar to that found on Mackenzie River extend southward along the eastern base,of the Rocky Mountains, as faras the Saskatchewan River. Sir John Richardson gives detailed account of the various localities between these two points in which beds of coal have been exposed,—all pointing to the existence of a vast coal-field, skirting the base of the Rocky Mountains for a very great extent, and continued probably far into the Arctic Sea, where, as is well known, lignite, apparently of a similar character, has recently been discovered by Captain McClure in the same general line with the localities above men- tioned.t} In the coal of Jameson Land, lying in north latitude * With reference to the southern Pigtiey of this coal- bah he it is ed ae 's in the valley of the Saskatchewan, ir George ‘Simpson, Governor of the Hu y Territories, has the following tnd , in his ‘ Narrative aban pater round the World? v th ri pr 162 — “Near Fort Edmonton a seam of coal, about 10 feet i Z Ry can be traced for sss considerable vaiveunbe along both sides of the This coal resembles slate in appearance; and, though i it ee a prided ihe ht “gi than that of . an ordinary chimney, yet it is found t r_tolerably sae for the blacksmith’s forge. Ba ree are also found fier’ fk in r abdadibed and at the fen there was @ pure 8tone which had once been a log of wood about 6 feet in id 4 or 5 in girth, the eveeeebiah shelp so complete as even to deceive the eye. _ Sir Alexander MeKensie traced the same formation along the upper parts of the eace River ; and it has been found by ne traders of the Hudson’s Bay Company that the f seein slo points along the same general line ; leading to o the conclusion uninterru, + Simi peste to those discovered by Capt. N Mobis have been found i in the New ake slands, and are thus described in ngell’s Polar Voy Oe these [speak es the saree of fossil wood in he New Siberian Islands] Heden- fitdet obecives ‘Siberia are found the remarkable Wood H d consis 4 strata of seers Siernatiig with strata of bituminous beams or trunks of trees. On ascending these hills, fossilized charcoal is everywhere met with, covered appat- ently with ashes ; but on closer examination, this ash is also found to be » petrifac- tion, and so hard that it can scarcely be. scraped off sphere a knife, On the summit nother curiosity is a. viz.a long row of beams, resembling the former, but fixed perpendicularly in the sandstone. The ends, which project a 7 to 10 “agi? , ; a ruinous are for the | wi the appearance Lieut. Anjou, w soe say They are mer # thio hoa dedlivity, 20 fathoms high. extending about five ir gaiy em this bank, w sea, beams or trunks of trees are fot ne in an ho i rity, fifty or more of them together, On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 331 71° (on the east side of Greenland), and in that of Melville Island, in latitude 75° north, Professor Jameson found plants re- sembling those of the coal-measures of Britain; and similar remains have been reported from the coal-fields of Oregon and Vancouver’s Island. These facts are sufficient of themselves, as is remarked by Sir John Richardson, to raise a world of conjec- Coasts of Arctic America, are patches of pleistocene deposits, With marine shells of existing Arctic species (Mya truncata, prthe largest being about 10 inches in diameter. The wood is pot very hard, ie friable, Yass Pe Task and a slight gloss. When laid on the fire, it does _ burn with a flame, but glimmers. emits a resinous odor.’”—Narrative of an 1 > we tion to the Polar Sea, by Admiral F. von Wrangell, of the Russian Imperial Navy, 23. (Edited mg of the spontaneous combus- lignite deposits at Bear Lake and other “lr, and ha eens oe ee hundred years e ills pe in fi : as un y = ae , i the N. Puaibatectiness ae ie vai general line with the lignite extending ane the Rocky Mountains, an . * The coal ‘Cowlitz, Orecon, is Tertiary, and the plants from Puget’s — Gina ie ee oe Tertiary. See also a note by Mr. Gibbs, in Journal, (2], xx, 298,—Eps. 332 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. Sazicava rugosa, &c.); the whole crowned by an immense pro- fusion of boulders and erratic blocks. The country forming the Hudson’s Bay Territories is too flat for the immense erratic for- mation extending over every part of it to be explained by refer- ence to the motion of glaciers; and I think it is more probably due to the action of icebergs and floating masses of ice, still so common along these coasts, and which are without ow" per- forming at the present day precisely a similar office, in strewing the bed of the ocean in which they ry found with the ‘iwc transported from the adjacent shores ith reference to the character jer the pleistocene or drift formation, it may be mentioned that as we ascend the rivers of this region, especially along the basins of Lake Winipeg and its affluents in the prairie districts, the sandy and clayey deposits are found to abound with land and freshwater shells, suchas Unio, Helix, Pupa, &c., of species now living on the borders, or in the beds of the rivers and lakes. The cliffs containing these shells are often raised more than 100 feet above the present levels of the banks of the streams, and appear to be ancient lake- or river- terraces ; leading to a belief that, great as is the present extent of freshwater surface in the North American Continent, it was at one time still greater, and that the existing series of lakes; from the St. Lawrence northward, were perhaps anciently united in one or more vast freshw ater seas, having their western margins indicated, perhaps, by the peculiar elongated strip ernie by the lignite-formation previously described, which presents pre- cisely the appearance which would result from a long on of shelving beach, piled with masses of drift-wood accumulated through long successive periods, similar to what is now found covering the + shores of the inland lakes and portions of the coasts of the Arctic Seas. It has been stated as an exemplification of the wide changes which would result from a comparatively small alteration in the present level, even of such mountainous districts as Canada and the Northeastern States of the Union, that “a subsidence of 400 feet would cause the waters of Lake Ontario, to flow through the valleys of the Mohawk and Hndson into the Atlantic, and at the same time: convert Lake Champlain into a maritime strait, thereby forming islands of the States of New York, New Eng- land, and Maine, and of the British Colonies of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.” A subsidence of one-fourth of that amount in the prairie districts of the Saskatchewan, continued to Great the Appendix to Dr. Scoresby’s ‘Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery, Professor Jameson enumerates among the 5 specimens found on an iceberg near pe Brewster the following :— 1. Transition clay slate. 4, Hornblende mica-slate. 2. Slaty talcose granite. 5. is * 2 3. Granular felspar. 6. Basaltic greenstone. = a | SS aN On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 333 Bear Lake, would carry the waters of the Missouri and the upper portions of Churchill, and Mackenzie Rivers into Lake Winipeg and convert the plain country bordering on the Rocky Mountains, into an inland sea. Even at the present level the Missouri has twice within the last thirty years, inundated the valley of the Red River, flowing into Lake Winipeg; while it is a common occurrence for the country through which the lower part of the Saskatchewan flows to be laid under water for a distance of 200 miles above its outlet by an ordinary spring-flood. About forty years ago, in a season remembered especially for the land-floods, a gentleman in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company was drowned on the Frog Portage (the low watershed which sepa- tates the Saskatchewan and Churchill Rivers), by his canoe up- setting against a tree in passing from one stream to the other. € raised beaches of Lake Superior, rising in four or five siiccessive terraces to the height of more than 100 feet above the Present surface of the water, and which have attracted the atten- tion of Professor Agassiz and the geologists of the Canadian Survey, appear to point to the existence at some former period of & much greater body of water in this lake, at least, than is at Present contained in it, and are to some extent therefore confirm- -atory of the view now suggested. _ The Eocene basin of the Upper Missouri, with its very marked character of freshwater deposition, is stated by Marcou to extend along the upper waters of the Saskatchewan as far as Mackenzie River. ave no knowledge of any such formation myself, although in the unexplored territory west of the Winipeg basin ere is undoubtedly ample room for its development. _ Its exist- ence, if established, would lend additional probability to the inference deducible from the circumstances previously noticed.* Territories West of the Rocky Mountains.—Physical Fea- the Rocky Mountains has been often mentioned,—the one abounding in sandstone with argillaceous limestones, without Voleanos or volcanic rocks, while on the other side recent soir Tocks prevail (basalts, basaltic lavas, and trachytes),t and the * The views here suggested are not to be — as prejudging the question p 80 eni Forbes res tin ‘lj f the Guif Stream at some : the probability of the passage 0 rie er berthed dp the valley of ee Mississippi (Quart. Journ. Geol. sani big . 89, cic.),—~a theory of the highest interest and importance m accounting a4 ; of temperature and climate on the surface of our globe, and whic! a “<<; sed by its author upon purely physical considerations, is in harmony with a Seological facts and evidence which have come under the writer's notice. Beg age of freshwater accumulations and deposits suggested in the text comes nearer to : : _t Dr. Giewinek.. in his Mas of Russian America, assigns the localities of fifty- tiv Natieed Coast of Ameried. They lie in a line running . of aL |of Prince of Wales Island, in lat. 56° N, following the course of the coast bio ee HB of Aliaska and the Aleutian Islands. Many of 334 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. sandstones are <9 6 eed of small extent.” This remark, which I quote from the learned and beautiful work of Professor Dana, ‘ The Geology of the United States Exploring Expedition under Commodore Wilkes,’ will prepare the reader for the exami- nation of a country of a different character from what has above formed the subject of investigation The grand features of the country on the Pacific side of the Rocky Mountains arise from the development of three ranges of mountains, intersecting the country in a direction parallel with the general course of the coast-line. Three of these are north and south ranges,—the Coast Range, the Cascade Range, and the Blue Mountain Range. The first lies near the coast, the second 130 miles inland, and the third 350 miles from the sea. The Cascade Range is much the most extensive of the three, and even rivals the Rocky Mountains in the height of some of its peaks. It may be traced, according to Professor Dana, far into California, and northward into Russian America; retaining throughout a direction nearly parallel with the coast. It termi- nates northward, according to Grewingk, in the lofty voleano of Mount Wrangell, in lat. 62° N, where it blends with the lateral volcanic range, forming the remarkable promontory of Aliaska. The main body of the Cascade range, in Oregon, is seldom over 5000 or 6000 feet in elevation. [The Sierra Nevada is a con- tinuation of the chain; south it becomes the range of the Cali- ornia Peninsula. | The Blue Monntains form the western boundary of the Valley of the Snake River (of Lewis and Clarke), flowing into ed Columbia. Immediately to the north of this river, as far as For Colville, they are interrupted by an extensive level tract; but > the North of Fort Colville there is a range of heights which ex- tends along the north branch of the Columbia River, and may be considered a part of the same general ¢ e short western slope of the ecutiaied: from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific differs from the eastern in its river-valleys being all more or less transverse,—the rivers flowing through passes or gorges of the intersecting ranges. ‘The peculiar wing- like projection in the north, towards Asia, is evidently due to the voleanic chain of Aliaska, which runs at right angles to the ocky Mountains. The great transverse valley of the Yukon their summits rise into the region of perpetual snow. The line in which the volcanic peaks of Aliaska lie when prolonged to the anboestl strikes the Big Reaver Moun- tains on the Yukon. On the side of the Atlantic, modern volean a Jan se ois Island only, whose principal mountain, Beerenberg, al 6870 feet I have] are recent] i he south of Cumberland House, ni edcbniioionten rege bre vleanie, an th that an eruption has observed there within last year. been year. report requi Mo cthet ¢aamelete ‘now of the existence of a volcano in any part of America Rocky Mountains. On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 335 (the Kwichpack of the Russian geographers) lies to the north of it The Yukon is a river of great magnitnde, probably the largest river in America flowing into the Pacific, not excepting the Columbia. For a considerable part of its course it flows to the North, but afterwards nearly due west, through a country which, as far as can be judged from the descriptive notices of it hitherto collected, closely resembles the valley of the Mackenzie, With some of the affluents of which it is in fact connected: so that here, as in other parts of the Rocky Mountain Chain, the Tivers falling into opposite seas interlock at their origin. One or more low chains of mountains, formed by the lateral spurs of the Rocky Mountains, are prolonged along the Arctic Coast, north of the Yukon, .giving origin to several small rivers between the month of the Mackenzie and Point Barrow. Oregon Territory.—Our acquaintance with the geology of this district is very limited, and does not extend beyond the portion of country between the Coast Range and the sea, explored by the Expedition of Commodore Wilkes. From Mr. Dana's re- searches it appears to be occupied chiefly by the tertiary formation, which is found at various places from Puget’s Sound to San Fran- cisco along the coast-section of Oregon. ‘The rocks of this formation are soft sandstones, more or less argillaceous and schist- ose, and clay-shales, either firm or crumbling, together with tufa and conglomerate. The sandstones and shales have been denuded on a vast scale. The fossils collected by Mr. Dana were examined by the eminent conchologist, Mr. T. Conrad, who assigned them to the geological era of the Miocene. They are comprised in the following list. Mammal. 1. Vetebre of a Cetacean, Fishes. 1, Vertebre of a species of Shark. 2, —— ofa Gaaoiew’ alltel to Trigla. 3. ——, cast of; species not dis' Crustacea. Callianassa Oregonensis. Balanus. Mollusca. at : _ Mya abrupta. Pectunculus nitens. Thracia trapezoides. Arca daha Solemya ventri ; Bt sc ostpae us : Vv, a Terebratula nitens. ij uncuee Sigaretanscopulosus —— brevilineata, Natica saxea. ina acutilineata, Bulla pe Tellina arctata, Crepidula prerupta; and sp 336 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. Tellina albaria. Cerithium mediale. —— nasuta. Buccinum? devinctum, —— bitruncata. Fusus geniculus, Nucula divaricata. —— corpulentus, ——i Sh. Nautilus angustatus, Pectunculus patulus. Teredo substriata, Echinoderms. Galerites Oregonensis (n. sp). Foraminifera, 3 sp. Planis. Abies? robusta; Leaves of Lycopodium?, Taxodium, Smilax, and others. The plants were found near the mouth of Fraser’s River, and indicate probably the commencement of the deposits of the coal strata, which are largely developed in the neighboring island of Vancouver, and along the coasts and islands of Russian America. ee The interior of Russian America, like that of Oregon, is unex- plored ; but, in the work of Grewingk (Beitrag zur Kenntniss der orographischen und geognostischen Beschaffenheit der Nord- West Kuste Amerika’s), and in the Geological Appendix to Capt. Beechey’s Voyage to Behrings Straits, by Dr. Buckland, we have | a tolerably complete account of the chief formations occurring along the coast, and on the neighboring islands, from 52° N. lat. to ring’s Straits. ogical Society of St. Petersburgh, for 1848-9, a complete list of the organic remains hitherto discovered in Russian America, Fossils of the Carboniferous Formation.—The limestones of this formation, which have been traced at several points along the coast, are most extensively developed in the NE extremity of the Continent, where they occupy the greater part of the coast- * For lists of other fossils of Western America collected by Mr. W. P. Blake, see this volume, p. 268. ; On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America. 337 line from the north side of Kotzebue Sound to within a few miles of Point Barrow, and form the chief constituent of the lofty and conspicuous headlands of Cape Thompson, Cape Lisburn, and Cape Sabine. Near the last-named cape a vein of excellent coal is exposed, which burns with a good heat and a bright flame. The limestone, is according to Dr. Buckland, scarcely distingnish- able from the Mountain Limestone of Derbyshire. Some speci- mens brought to England by Capt. Beechey were found to contain Lithostrotion basaltiforme ( Cyathophyllum basaltiforme, Phil. G.Y.), Flustra, Productus Martini, Dentalium, several varieties of Terebratula, and a great abundance of Encrinital fragments, with the detritus of which the rock was in many places almost en- tirely made up. To these Dr. Grewingk adds, from the collections of Russian explorers, Cyathophyllum fleruosum, Goldf.,, Tur bi- nolia mitrata, His., Cyathophyllum dianthum, Goldf., and Sarei- nula, together with some Spiriferi, Orthide, and Terebratule. Remains of coniferous plants belonging to the genera Abies and Tarodium, and of some Ferns, among which is Neuropteris acutifolia, have been discovered among the. islands along the South coast of Aliaska. A specimen of Catenipora escharoides, found in a rolled frag- Ment on the island of Sitka, would appear to indicate the exis- tence of Silurian deposits in the neighborhood; but no organic remains from rocks of this formation in situ have hitherto been iscovered, Jurassic Fossils.—Four fossils found in Katmai Bay, on the south coast of the promontory of Aliaska, have been referred by Dr. Grewiitgk, on the authority of M. Wosnessensky, Curator of doubted, however, whether upon such scanty evidence the ; ence of deposits of Jurassic age in these high latitudes, can be i en this formation having been hitherto discovered in any part of North America north of the United States. Tertiary Fossils.—T races of the tertiary formation have been discovered at varions poiuts between Oregon and Aliaska, but not beyond, This striking and well marked division of the coast may, therefore be considered, in the present state of our informa- lion, to be the northern limit of the extensive Tertiary formation along the shore of the Pacific. ‘The fossils enumerated by Dr. Stconp Seums, Vol. XXI, No. 63.—May, 1856. 43 338 On the Geology of the Northwestern Regions of America, Grewingk include some well-known species of the Tertiary age in Europe; among which may be mentioned Cardium Gren- landicum, Chemn., C. multicostatum, Venerupis Petitii, Desh., ya arenaria, Tellina edentula, Sow., Astarte corrugata, Myti- lus Middendorffi, and Ostrea longirostris, Lamk. Some new species of the same genera are added by Dr. Grewingk, together with some forms of Sazicava, Pectunculus, Nucula, Pecten, Crassatella, and Venus. Fossils of the Drift.-—Organic remains of the Pleistocene or on the east side of the Rocky Mountains. The cliffs aud sand- banks, wherever they have been examined along the coast, abound with recent shells of the genera Cardium, Venus, Turbo, Murex, Solen, Trochus, Mytilus, Mya, and Tellina. Fossil remains of Mammalia, especially those of the Mammoth, are likewise abund- ant. ‘Teeth of this animal have been discovered on the banks of several rivers north of Mount St. Elias; and there is a celebrated locality at Escboltz Bay, in Kotzebue Sound, where the thawing and wasting of the frozen cliffs is continually exposing the bones aud tusks of Mammoths and other quadrupeds. Dr. Buckland, in his interesting account of the specimens collected at this place during Captain Beechey’s Voyage, enumerates fragments of bones of Mammoths and of the Urus, the leg-bone of a large Deer, and a cervical vertebra of some unknown animal, different from any that now inhabit Arctic America. Along with these were found also the skull of a Musk-ox and some bones of the Rein- eer, in a more recent condition than the others. Similar remains including those of the Mammoth, have likewise been discovered, according to Dr. Grewingk, at Cape Nugwoljinunk, at Bristol y, and at Norton Sound, as well as in the Pribulon Islands, and lastly at Unalaschka. what remarkable circumstance that no similar remains have as : : : : the east of the Rocky Mountains. None have hitherto been found, according to Sir John Richardson, in the Hudson’s Bay Territories, though the annual waste of the banks and the frequent ‘ips would have revealed them to the natives or fur-traders whatever way the circumstance may be accounted for, — gists have arrived, that the countries on the eastern aud western sides of tt q ky Mountains have been elevated at different periods a0 under different geological conditions. On Proto-carbonate of Iron in Coal Measures. 339 Art. XXXIII.—On the Origin and accumulation of the Proto- carbonate of Iron in Coal Measures; by Prof. Wintiam B. Rocers.* ne of these is seen in the fact that the lenticular ores and Strata impregnated with proto-carbonate of iron are in a great degree restricted to such divisions of the carboniferous rocks as ‘include beds of coal or are otherwise heavily charged with car- bonaceous matter. This is well shown on comparing together the four subdivisions of the carboniferons rocks of the great trans-Alleghany coal region, as classified under the head of the eral coal series of the Pennsylvania and Virginia geology. In the first of these, designated as the older coal measures, the Proto-carbonate is found in large amount, both in the shape of layers of lenticular ore and diffused through the substance of the shaly strata. In the next division above, distinguished as the older barren shales, and whieh, as the name implies, is compara- ‘lively devoid of carbonaceous matter, much less of the proto- carbonate is met with. In the third group, that of the ewer : ! measures, the ore again abounds, and in the uppermost division, or newer barren shales, it has a second time almost 1Sappeared. comiparatively destitute of vegetable remains, we find little ad- mixture of the proto-carbonate. On the other hand, the fine- grained, flaggy, argillaceous sandstones, which are often crow * From Prec. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 340 On Proto-carbonate of Iron in Coal Measures. with the impressions and carbonized remains of plants, are at the same time more or less impregnated with this ferruginous com- pound. So, again, the soft argillaceous shales, in the midst of which the lenticular ore so frequently presents itself, show by their dark color and included impressions of plants, as well as by actual analysis, that they are richly imbued with vegetable mat- Nor do the nearly white fire-clays, which in many cases inclose thick courses of the lenticular ore, form any exception to this law. For although in their present state they contain little or no carbonaceous matter, the marks of innumerable roots of Stigmaria, and parts of other plants which every where penetrate the mass, show that at one tiine they must have been crowded with vegetable remains. : A further and yet more striking proof of the influence which the contiguous vegetable matter has had, in the formation of the proto-carbonate, is seen in the fact, that the most productive lay- ers of the ore are commonly met with quite near to the beds 0 coal, and that frequently courses of the nodules are found in the earbonaceous shales or partings which lie in the midst of the seam itself, er While the strata including the proto-carbonate are thus distin- charged with vegetable matter, as for example the barren shales of the Seral coal rocks before alluded to, contain much red ma- terial, both in distinct strata and mottling the general mass, and are throughout more or less impregnated with the sesquioxyd. A like general law as to color would seem to apply to the other great groups of sedimentary rocks, which include in particular beds accumulations of vegetable or other organic exuvie. us, in the New and Old Red Sandstone formations, which generally include so large a proportion of sediment colored by the red oxyd ly and when present are met with almost exclusively in the gray and olive and dark-colored strata which are interpolated in cer- tain parts of the great masses of red material. This relation 18 beautifully shown in the middle secondary rocks of the Atlantic slope, which extend in a prolonged belt from the Connecticut Valley into the State of South Carolina. In the strata of red sandstone and shale, which form the chief part of the mass, vege table or animal exuvie are almost entirely absent. But where the remains of fish, and impressions of carbonized parts of plants, On Proto-carbonate of Iron in Coal Measures. 341 do occur in this group of deposits, they are found imbedded in lay- _ ers of greenish and olive sandstones and dark bituminons shales. So, in the southern parts of the belt in Virginia and North Caro- lina, where these rocks include seams of coal and extensive beds of sandstone and shale containing the remains of plants, the usual red color is, found to give place to the gray, olive, and dark tints of the old coal measures, and layers of proto-carbonate of iron show themselves in the vicinity of the coal seams. aken in mass, the red and mottled strata of the unproductive coal measures, or of the other groups of red rocks above alluded to, would no doubt be found to contain, in an equal thickness, as rge an amount of iron as the coal-bearing strata which include the layers of carbonate; the difference being that, in the former case, the metal remains for the most part diffused through the tock asa sesquioxyd, while in the latter, having assumed the condition of proto-carbonate, it has to some extent been concen- trated in particular layers or strata. According to a rough esti- mate of the amount of carbonate ore included in the lower coal measures of the Laurel Hill region of Virginia and Pennsylvania, derived from a detailed examination of the ores and associate 342 On Proto-carbonate of Iron in Coal Measures. and diffused vegetable and animal matter as in the barren parts, the original sediment was more or less charged with sesquioxyd of iron; an Second, That this sesqnioxyd, in the presence of the changing vegetable matter with which certain of the strata abounded. was converted into proto-carbonate, which remained in part diffused through these beds, or by processes of filtration aud segregation was accumulated in particular layers. It is well known that during the slow chemical changes by which vegetable matter inclosed in moist earth is converted into lignite, or coal, both light carburetted hydrogen and carbonic acid are evolved, and that these gases are even eliminated from coal seams and their adjoining carbonaceous strata. The redu- cing agency of the carbon and hydrogen, as they separate in their nascent state from the organic matter, is capable, as we kuow, of converting certain sulphates into sulphurets, and even more readily of transforming the sesquioxyd ‘of iron into protoxyd. The latter change would doubtless be favored by the affinity of the carbonic acid present in the mass, for the protoxyd as formed, and in this way the sesquioxyd, would be entirely converted into the proto-carbonate of iron. Conceiving a like process to have operated on a large scale in the coal measures or other strata containing, when deposited, a mixture of sesquioxyd of iron and organic matter, we have a simple explanation of the general conversion of this oxyd into carbonate, and of the loss of the reddish coloring in which these materials more.or less participated. As these actions must be supposed to have commenced in each stratum as soon as the or- gatic matter contained in it began to suffer chemical change, we may conclude that the formation of the proto-carbonate was already far advanced in the earlier strata when only beginning in those deposited at a later period. Each layer of vegetable matter, as it was transformed into coal, would not fail to impreg- nate the adjoining beds of shale and sandstone with the proto- — carbonate, and thus the development of this compound was as it were coeval with that of the coal. escribed ; and indeed, it is possible“that in some strata it is not yet entirely finished. In this process, which finds, a,simple ex- planation in the combined action of infiltration and.the segrega- ting force, it can hardly be questioned that the carbonic acid, per- vading the mass of sediment, acted a very important part. ‘The large amount of this gas evolved from the beds of vegetable Subdivisions of the Paleozoic Strata of Great Britain. 343 matter undergoing change, would impart to the water of the ad- joining strata the power of dissolving the diffused proto-carbonate, which, being then carried by infiltration through the more porous beds, would accumulate above and within the close argillaceous or shaly layers, forming in some cases bands of rock ore, in Others courses of nodular and plate ores. Of these, the former would seem to have resulted from the accumulation by gravity of the dissolved carbonate in the substance of sandy shales near the upper limit of the more impervious beds, while we may regard the latter as having been collected in all directions from the gen- eral charge of proto-carbonate accumulated in the argillaceons Mass, its mobility in the dissolved condition greatly aiding the gathering process of the segreguting force. Arr. XXXIV.—Subdivisions of the Paleozoic Strata of Great Britain, according to Prof. Sedgwick.* I. Lower Paleozoic Division, representing the Cambrian and Silurian Series in ascending groups. ( a. Longmynd slates, ce. Llanberris slates ; alternations of roofing- 1. Longmynd and Bangor group slates and grits. (Lower Cambrian) c. Harlech grits; sometimes approaching a L conglomerate form. 2. F estiniog group ( ve c. ; ; Slates, flags Middle Cambrian) alternations of porphyry and trap-shale: one i a one near th a A gr atl Ara to the Bala limestone. __ b. Upper Bala rocks. er this term are Oambrian Series. 5 HY : 28 S65 8 B & z 3. Bala group : i —(2) Flag-stones, slates, calcareous (Upper Cambrian) © flag (2) ee ae oc. The w North Wales, with slate and tone ; and in South Wales, with slates, grits, conglomerates. The group coarse of very great Immediately above these three groups there isa great change of physical éonditions. ‘The most characteristic aud abundant * Extracted grea British Paleozoic Rocks, by the Rev. Ader aie M. ae ps So and ‘ba Bete Palwozoic Fossils, by Professor Frederick M Coy. F.GS &e., 4to, London, 1855, briefly noticed at page 302 of this volume, Mae 2 7. > 344 Subdivisions of the Palzozoic Strata of Great Britain. of the older organic types disappear, and new types take their place. ‘The sections are usually broken and discontinuous ; and language in common use), we have the commencement of a hew system. Without counting the vast thickness of the Longmynd slates, the thickness of the Cambrian series, where well devel- oped, is, I think, more than 25,000 feet. Lower Paleozoic Division continued. (a. May Hill sandstone; Pentamerus (or Norbury) lime- stone, 2 1. Wenlock group 4 Nay! “pe Lower Wenlock) limestone. o Wenlock ip Upper re west) — limestone. 2 a. Lower Ludlo a — a the key-stones settled an inch 392 On the Earthquake in Chile, 1851. in the same direction were drawn almost out of the walls, ‘and masonry had fallen in piles. It was found necessary to close it forthwith. The central dome of the old palace and its western parapets were so broken that they were immediately pulled down to prevent further injury. Examination of these fractures showed that bricks had given way in many cases when mortar would not; and adobe walls had more tenacity than burned bricks, yielding to the flexure of the foundation without entire prostra- tion. In every instance where objects could fall freely, they had gone off to the northward; though if not precipitated at the first shock, they generally jolted in the opposite direction. Hast and west of the line of motion through the Plaza, much less damage was done, a fact also peculiar in the December earthquake. The loss of life was small. Three persons only were ascer- tained to have been killed, and some thirty or more wounded. Of the fatal cases—all women—two deaths had been caused by the fall of the cornice in the church of San Francisco, as the congregation rushed out; and the third was a poor girl who ved a victim to a custom of the country. In conformity with this custom, she could not be left alone, in an open house, whilst her mother attended early mass, and had been locked in the second story. When the earthquake came, she leaped in terror rom the balcony, and the mother returned to find her a corpse. There was a striking peculiarity about the great shock. Like a tense chord rudely struck, its vibration was perceptible for two hours without intermission; and its subsidence was so g as to leave one almost in doubt when it actually ceased. In addi- tion to this, a somewhat similar vibration from 6% 30™ to 84 30™ p.., and a multitude of “slight tremors,” we have the recorded times of eighteen sharp earthquakes before midnight. Two of the last, following at an interval of two seconds, appeared the On the Earthquake in Chile, 1851. 393 tions when the shock had passed; and the streets were again lled at a most unusual hour, sk Most deplorable intelligence was soon brought from the neigh- boring villages and haciendas. Lampa and Renca, lying to the northwest, were reported in ruins; their inhabitants in the streets, and the dweiling-houses and dividing walls of adobes on the from Curacavi, a town of 5,000 people on the Valparaiso road, and beyond the first range of mountains. Among them was Mr. Campbell, the engineer of the Copiapo and Caldera railroad, who had passed through it about two hours after the earthquake. In many parts of the town of Curacavi he saw numbers of houses whose roofs had fallen in; and scarcely one remained which could be regarded safe so long as the agitation continued. At the first great shock a portion of the church steeple had been flung to NNE; other portions fell by degrees, crushing the roof and wholly destroying the building; but these latter had been prostrated in every direction. At one of the inns the earth had opened in a nearly east and west line, entirely across the court- yard; and the water of its well was rendered turbid for several hours. The same thing occurred with a number of the wells at Valparaiso. At Casablanca—still farther west—the destruction Skcoyp Szeizs, Vol, XXI, No. 63.—May, 1856. 394 On the Harthquake in Chile, 1851. habitable, and more than that number of people without any shelter whatever; and in short the residents remembered no such earthquake since 1822. Even those whose houses had not been seriously injured in many cases took refuge on board ships; others fled to the hills, and others again erected tents and wooden shanties in the plazas. The hotels, principally occupied by e water forthwith. It was especially remarkable, at Valparaiso, that the honses built on the sandy foundation of the Almendral were far more injured than those on the narrow rocky ledge of the port. . Though the injuries had been greatest to those whose walls stood in a NE and SW line, no direction had proved a safe- guard; and, as at Casablanca, every one in the Almendral had been broken. Judging by a line in which a cross was thrown from the steeple of La Matriz church, and the place at which part of a marble fountain in the Plaza Victoria was left, the direction of the earth- wave must have been from NE-by-N to SW-by-S, the cross having been thrown nearly twenty feet from the body of the edifice in the former direction, and the vase of the fountain jolted on its pedestal two inches towards the latter point.* No lives were lost, nor were any serions wounds received, the hour of the day and long interval of warning having given people a chance to escape to the streets and patios. ‘The family of one friend in the Almendral had been in agonizing tribulation. At the first tremor, the door of their chamber was permanently secured by the sinking of the ceiling; and they found themselves wholly unable to escape to the rescue of their children, occupying an apartment on the opposite side of the patio. Cries from the that their children were safe. — Of eighteen shocks recorded at Santiago before midnight of the 2nd, some occurred whilst the assistants were at work Santa Lucia, and of these they distinctly recognised the warning noise to the NE, in one instance, full fifteen seconds before the earth under foot was in motion. Most of them were slight: some lasted only a second or two; others continued nearly @ quarter of a minute; and others again were followed at very brief intervals, as one or two seconds, by other tremors. Some ain : * Personally verified. — + On the Earthquake in Chile, 1851. 395 were preceded and accompanied by a rumbling noise, others were wholly in silence, and there was more than one instance of noise without the least perceptible disturbance. On the following day [ started for the purpose of examining the line of destruction ina southerly direction, and soon found that the effects diminished as the plain widened. Even at the Maypn, sixteen miles south of the city, had not attention been previously occupied, one would not specially have noticed crevices in the walls. Though the toll-receiver assured me he had seen large masses of earth thrown down from the vertical banks, on the south side of the stream, its bridge, with high abutments and supporting piers, was wholly uninjured. No crevices could be found in the banks near the bridge. na line west of the latter, where the Maypn passes through the Central Cordilleras, the latter make a sudden bend eastward ; and the Andes—at a nearly opposite point—curving to the west- ward, the two chains closely approach each other at a pass twenty miles south of the stream, called the Estero de Payne. Indeed, the two chains of mountains, here about two thousand feet above the plain, are separated by a gorge of the same level as the plain, Whose average width is not more than one hundred yards. Thus from the Cuesta de Chacabuco to the Angostura, except where the Maypu passes through the central range, there is a continuous thongh irregular elliptic plain, whose diameters will not vary Steatly from fifty-five and twenty-five miles. The widest part of the basin or plain is where the Maypu crosses it in latitude 33° 42’, and here the high road to the south seemed to be near the eastern line of injurious disturbance. Subsequently, we long tremor had been felt at 74 10™, in that city, on the morning of the 2nd. way, Were perhaps broken rather more frequently than short par- Htions, thongh not so much so as masoury. In one case the back Wall of an old store-house was lifted bodily to the north and set down two inches froin its former foundation ; whilst a Short piece at right angles to it, forming a sort of abutment to i's fastern end, was shaken down piecemeal. The wall stood nearly fast and west, was of adobes eighteen inches thick, some eighty feet long and nine feet high. Nothing but the roof, itself partially 396 On the Earthquake in Chile, 1851. sustained by the stakes of an outer corridor, prevented the whole from going over. In the parlors to the mansion of this hacienda, things were thrown in all directions: lamps, chairs, books, fell in every possible line, almost inducing belief that the increasing re- sistance offered to the onward movement of the explosive agent by the rapidly approaching mountains, had converted rectilineal into gyratory motion. These objects fell in the several directions at different periods. At the time of the shock, the proprietor was in the fields giving orders for the work of the day. Turning at the first rumble that reached his ear in the direction of the mansion, where his wife and children were, he put spurs to his horse, which had not yet become frightened. But an instant after, the poor brute suddenly stopped and spread out its feet, giving expression to the utmost terror by deep-breathed snorts and starting eyes, nor could any punishment make it move until the phenomenon had ceased. Apart from thoughts of his loved ones, this was a trying interval to my friend. Alone, and all nature convulsed! The earth heaved and trembled till foot-hold was not secure, its profoundly neither examivation nor inquiry lent their support. ‘The moun- tains had arrested the progress of the great earth-wave, and the re-action of its generating power was plainly exhibited on the allnvial strata of the deep terrestrial bay. Travellers from as far south as Talca stated that the shock had been quite moderate at that city, and none had given it a thought beyond the Cachapual, except for its unusual length. Nearly all of them, however, as did those north of the Angostura, believed that its origin had been to the southward. Whilst at Rancagua, a Violent rain-storm commenced on the morning of the 5th, pre- ceded by excessive thunder and lightning. ‘This was a widely extended storm, reaching from latitude 33° to latitude 40°. As nothing further was to be gained in a southerly direction, I returned to Santiago, and two days afterwards crossed the axis of the earth-wave in the direction of Valparaiso, though without On the Earthquake in Chile, 1851. 397 obtaining many new facts to relate. The disturbance had cer- tainly been greater at Curacavi and Casablanca than at the capi- tal and port, much property having been so injured that it was necessary to tear it down. Repairs were out of the question, for the wails were no longer stable. One crack in the earth, west of Casablanca, at the surface, was still nearly three inches wide, and about two hundred yards long. Its general direction was WNW and ESE. ‘The same fact was observed on the Almen- dral as had been remarked near the Angostura; objects were thrown from tables and shelves in every imaginable direction, as though each vibration was from a different quarter. No special agitation was observed at the surface of the sea, nor did any great wave follow to wash away prostrate buildings, of which some forty were level with the ground. One of the papers stated that a lead line thrown overboard at the time from the U. 8, frigate Raritan, was so buried in the sand that it could only be extracted with great difficulty; but this, like many of the won- derful stories told of earthquakes, should probably be received “cum grano salis ;” else we must conclude that the ships, being unable to heave them up, probably left their anchors in the bay when about to sail. There was no indication whatever that the Shores of the bay had been raised either by the great shock or the multitude of smaller ones continuing throughout the succeed~ ing fortnight. I examined the rocky shores closely during several tides, but could find no unprotected memento. Mr. R. Budge, F.R.G.S., considers* the motion to have been Westward, because water in basins, jugs, &c., spilt over the east side; clocks whose pendulums vibrated east and west stopped, while those beating north and south did not; walls standing east and west were cracked in every way—particularly lengthways, and vessels at sea felt it at an hour corresponding to the differ- ence of longitude. He supposes the phenomenon to have been subject to instantaneous cessations, and says that it turned round things on their base instead of throwing them down at an angle of 20°, showing a circular motion for at least an instant. 1 shall have something to say presently respecting the two vessels which felt the shock at sea. He goes on to remark: “I have experi~ enced at this place (Valparaiso) three ruinous earthquakes—t of 1822, which I passed in the house until the back fell, that of 829, and the present. On the last occasion the barometer and thermometer indicated nothing, nor was there the least warning of any description ; but, as invariably occurs after a heavy shock, we had, on the third day after, a shower of twelve hours’ rain, for which I had already prepared, aware of its being the conse- quence, happen whatever season it may. I conceive also that I have felt less relaxed than before it. I cannot understand all : # Report of British Association, 1851. 398 On the Earthquake in Chile, 1851. these things, unless electricity be the agent; while the atmos- phere must be affected in some way to shower down rain at sea- Ou that occasion (1822) the sea in the bay of Valparaiso retired considerably, and was several days in reaching its former level ; while on this, no such thing was observed.” Ouly two vessels bound to Valparaiso feit the shock. One was forty miles to the southwest of the port, and the other a like dis- tance to the northwest, and therefore they were some fifty-seven miles apart. Until he learned, after anchoring, that an earth- quake had occurred on the morning of the 2nd, the master of the former was fully persuaded he had passed over a reef of rocks; before seven ;” the other, “at twenty minutes past six In the morning.” Even in Valparaiso, where government has placed a clock visible to nearly all the town, the papers differ two minutes, though the custom-house clock was stopped by the shock at 6h 42m, But here are the Santiago mean times at which the greatest shock was felt at each place, with its bearing and dis- tance from the capitol. ee er cares Naive of city. Time. From Santiago. Distance. _ kh. m8 A iles. Talea, ... * re - t a2iw. | 112 i 6 48 405 Valparaiso, { : ‘ae ke t n. 67 W 64 Quillota, 6 48 495 N. 62 W. 644 San Félipe, 6 44 12 x. 16 Ww. 45 (Mendoza, 7 03 18 n. 73 &. 105 No possible supposition will reconcile them. 4 F. A. P. Barnard on the Zodiacal Light. 399 For days—it may be said weeks—after, the whole district of country disturbed by the principal shocks was visited by tremors. At Santiago the times of four were noted on the 3d; only one on the 4th; two or three on the 5th; and so on up to the 20th ; indeed, for several months their occurrence was more frequent than during the same period of the preceding year. Havi passed from the afternoon of the 6th at Aguila, the hacienda a friend within the deep bay of the mountains, there were oppor- tunities to experience some of them in the open fields. ng of Arr. XLIV.—Supplementary Note to the article on the Theory which attributes the Zodiacal Light toa Nebulous Ring sur- rounding the Earth ;* by F. A. P. Barnarp, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in the University of Mississippi. Prof. Dana,—Will you allow me space for a few words supple- Mentary to the article on the zodiacal light, published in the March number of the Journal of Science. In that article the 8eographical limits of visibility of the cusps of a ring encircling the earth, lying in the plane of the ecliptic, illuminated by the Sun and interrupted by the earth’s shadow, are assigned for the Moments when the sun is eighteen degrees below the eastern or Western horizon. It is true, however, that there are certain limits of distance from the earth’s centre, between which, if such a ting be situated, a certain portion of the part of it illuminated May be visible, under the circumstances supposed, as an ilumin- ated arch, though the cusp may not be above the horizon. ticle referred to, where AOB is the earth, HZR the imaginary spherical surface of Which the ring isa great circle, H’R’ the * horizontal small circle of this sphere passing ie through the place of observation O, S the pole of the limiting circle (i. e. the circle of the shadow), SQ its arc-radius, and Q the cusp of the luminosity, then when Q is on the horizon, the ring may touch the horizontal circle H’R’, or it may rise above it either on the illuminated or on the obscured side of Q. In the Ormer case, a luminous arch will be visible to the observer at 0. The tangency or the intersection which takes place at Q will be determined by the value of the angle at that point; contact oc- curring when this angle is ninety degrees, and the intersection favoring the visibility of the light, when the angle is greater than inety. Hinet * This volume, p. 217. A400 F. A. P. Barnard on the Zodiacal Light. Put ©’s depression =d, ZQ=e, SQ=9’, ZQS=Q. Then, in the triangle ZQS sin =cos ¢ cos ¢+sin ¢ sin oe cos Q. But, by the hypothesis, e+9’=90°. Consequently cos o’=sin nc 9; and sin &=cos ¢. hence, Sin 6=sin ¢ cos 9 (1+cos Q)=¢ sin 2¢ (1+cos Q), 2 sin aes Or, cos aca 1. When 2 sin 9=sin 2 9, cos @=0, and the ring touches the horizon. When 2 sin 6> sin 2, cos Q is positive, and the ob- scured part of the ring rises above the horizon. When 2sind< sin 29, cos Q is negative, and the light is visible to the observer at O It is evident that, 5 being constant, this phenomenon will be more remarkable as sin2¢9is greater. Putting, therefore, sin 20=1, we have gp=45°; whence it is evident that such a ring as we have been considering would be most conspicuous as a Ju- minous arch, after the setting of the cusp, provided it were placed at a distance from the earth’s centre =3956 v2, or 1640 miles above the surface. If, while we make sin 2e=1, we make also 2 sin 5=1, the ring will touch the horizon, and we shall have sin d=4= sin 30°. That is to say, the maximum depression of the sun at which the phenomenon can occur, is thirty degrees. e take the sun’s depression = 18°, as in the article referred to, then tangency will occur, when sin 29=2 sin 18°: which will give the value of e=19° 5’, or 70° 55’. If any value be assumed for ¢ between these limits, the phenomenon will be ob- servable; but for any value beyond them it will not be observa- ble at this depression of the sun. But the distance of the ring from the earth’s centre corresponding to any value of 9, is ex- pressed by the formula, peste cos 9 in which D represents this distance, and R the earth’s radius. Whenee the limits of distance which will make the light visible at the close of twilight or at the commencement of the dawn, though the extremity may be beneath the horizon, are 4186 miles for the lesser, and 12,100 miles for the greater, from the centre of the earth. The inclination of the ring to the horizon when it just touches the circle H/R’ is equal to 90°—ZR/=¢’. The geographical limits within which the light of a ring situated at any distance from the earth between the limits just determined, ought never to be absent in some form and during some portion of the night, EI. A. P. Barnard on the Zodiacal Light. A01 or ought never to be present at all, may be ascertained by the equation co-lat.—obliquity of ecliptic=g’, for the first ; and by the equation co-lat.+ obliquity of ecliptic=¢’, for the second. Putting D=9000, as in the March number of this Journal, o’=26°; and the equations foregoing will give the latitude 40° 32’ as the limit of perpetual apparition of the light, and 87° 28’ as that of its perpetual occultation. By assuming, in the triangle ZSQ, 6=18°, and the position of on the circle H’R’, we shall find that the visibility of the light as an arch of which the extremity is beneath the horizon when the sun is 18° depressed, will be limited to places between the latitudes at which the maximum inclination of the ecliptie to the horizon is not less than 26° on the one hand, and the mini- mum not greater than 28° 34’ on the other; and the season of its greatest conspicuousness at any given hour, or at any given depression of the sun, may be found by putting I1=28° 34’ in the equation given in the note on p. 231 of the last number of the Journal,* viz. cos I=sin L cos O—cos L sin O sin A, University of Mississippi, Oxford, March 15, 1856. > Jicase the maximum inclination of ecliptic to the horizon is not so great as 28° 84’, substitute that maximum itself for Srconp Szrres, Vol. XXI, No. 63, May, 1856. 51 402 Vivianite in Human Bones: Arr. XLV.—On the Presence of Vivianite in Human Bones; 5 y J. Nicxues. In the cemetery at Eumont, a village in the Department of La Meurthe, the earth of which is very ferruginous, there has been found among the bones, the accumulation of several centu- ries, two arm bones of a female, a cubitus and a radius, having a deep bluish green color. One of these bones having been broken through curiosity, it was discovered that the color was general through its whole thickness. This bone having been sent me, I have observed the following facts. The color was decidedly greenish; but as the osseous paste was yellow, it was evident that the coloring matter was blue. row, brilliant points which were distinctly crystalline. With a microscope, they were found to be rhomboidal prisms apparently oblique, some of them surmounted with a horizontal prism, and others with octahedral planes having the terminal planes applied to the two extremities of the macrodiagonal. They were too small for measurement. But by chemical methods, they were found to have all the characters of phosphate of iron. Calcined with bicarbonate of soda, the acid and oxyd were readily separa- ; and on treating the calcined product with distilled water, I obtained a residue of oxyd of iron and an alkaline solution, which on neutralizing it, afforded an abundant precipitate with ammo- nia, chlorhydrate of ammonia and sulphate of magnesia. This was therefore phosphoric acid, and the substance a crystalline phosphate of iron, which ean be only Vivianite. ‘The ence of the bones in the ferruginous water explains its formation, the bones affording the phosphoric acid from the phosphate of lime. This fact recalls to mind an observation made some years since by Schlossberger, who detected in the stomach of an ostrich that had died suddenly, two nails surrounded with an unctuous mate- rial of a bluish color, which coloring matter the author found to consist of a phosphate of iron, having the composition of Vivianite. The bones mentioned above were in a perfect state of preser- vation, and afforded a skeleton of gelatine when treated with ea aii: Correspondence of J. Nickles. 403 ehlorhydric acid, proving that gelatine does not resist the absorp- tion of the ferruginous compound. We know nothing as to their exact age. ‘The presence of gelatine is not a matter of surprise, as is shown by the discovery of it in the fossil horn of an Aurochs (Bos urus) by Braconnot,* and the antediluvian soup of Cuvier. They probably date back hardly two centuries. Whatever the time, they illustrate the interesting fact of the modern origin’ of Vivianite and the conditions favoring it. Arr. XLVI.—Correspondence of M. Jerome Nickles, dated Paris, March 2, 1856. Academy of Sciences.—Distribution of Prizes.—The annual session of the Academy of Sciences was held on the 28th of January, when M. Flourens pronounced an historical eulogium on the distinguished geologist, von Buch. otwithstanding the fine discoveries made this year in the depart- ments of physics and chemistry, no prize has been given to the inde- fatigable workers who have contributed to the progress of these sciences. The prize of mechanics was given to Captain Boileau, Professor at 7. Water in open channels and over dams, as well as his experimental researches on the sawing of wood, through which the author has de- vised new sawing machines. A prize extraordinary in statistics was conferred on M. Le Play, the late commissary general of the Universal Exposition, for his work en- ss O b references to the minerals found in 76 of the Departments. mong the prizes relating to the arts that are injurious to health, one of 2500 fr. was given to M. Duméry for a contrivance for consuming the smoke of chimneys, which has worked with complete success in a Series of comparative experiments under the inspection of the learned mechanician, M. Combes, Member of the Con ion. - Duméry, in place of throwing in the fresh coal by the door of the furnace upon the burning combustible, as in ordinary fires, causes It to enter below by means of stoking bars worked with the hand ina ind of recurved funnel, with open sides, and extending to the grating On that side. This method was long ago suggested by Franklin; but * Journal de Physique, August, 1806. e 404 Correspondence of J. Nickles. the arrangements here adopted are peculiar to this inventor and attain perfectly the end propose The Commission has decreed three other prizes of less importance. As usual the Commission in Medicine and Surgery has been just and enerous in its prizes. It has not confined its attention to medical and 7 a works, but has given prizes as in the last year, even to re- rches in chemistry and physics where they have some relations to Bedi science. prize was thus itpahostet 0 upon Dr. Hannover of Copenhagen for his work on the Eye; another to Dr. Lehmann of Saxony for his Treatise on Physiological Chotnietry’ published in Ger- man at Leipsic, and which has just been oe disfigured by a si a edition that has of the work only its nium and Silicitum.—M. Wohler at M. Deville have both de- aed processes for obtaining pure silicium. ohler uses fluo- silicate of potash, 3K FI+-2Si FS in excess, which he fuses with the aluminium in a Hessian crucible. After cooling, the mass is found to contain a crystalline material, an alloy of silicium and aluminium, be- fore observed by Deville, which pian treating with chlorivarie acid deposits silicium in a graphite-like s eville’s process affords the reese in a crystalline state. It con- sists in heating the aluminium in a porcelain tube traversed by a cur- rent of hydrogen saturated with vapor of chlorid of silicium: the treat- ment is continued until there is no disengagement of vapors of chlorid of aluminium. The crystallized silicium contains some impurities which are removed on treating it successively with nitro-muriatic acid, boiling fluohydric acid, and melted bisulphate of soda. As long as the operation is not complete, there are found small globules of said of aluminium, Si he fluorid of oie een used in place of the chlorid would: cd - furnish silicium; at the pound of fluorid of aluminium, FI IS Al2, is ripe ecyaatinibe in fine cubes and unattacked by almost all reagents. Silicium crystallizes in octahedrons and tetrahedrons, and conforms therefore to the rule which [ established in 1851,* that simple bodies crystallize generally either in the monometric or rhombohedral system. the same process, ripest has prepared crystallized boron as well as crystallized carbon with a hexagonal base, zirconium, and titanium. . We will recur to the subject at another time, and then describe the new apparatus, such as tubes of carbon, &c., used in these operations, as executed at the Normal School, which institution, has, through the Uni- versity, extended means of research. Artesian wells.—An artesian well is in progress in the Bois de Bou- Jogne a meter in diameter, and capable of supplying 10,000 cubic me- ters of water per day. The engineer who has it in charge, M. Kind, has so perfected the process, that he offers to go to a depth of 720 meters, and even to descend to a depth of 2000 meters. The boring was commenced on the 2nd of August with a diameter of 1:2 meters. scending through marl and soft sandstone, the rate was five meters i ae ; in a bed of sand it was two to three meters; by the Ist of May he depth will reach 700 meters. * Comptes Rend., xxii, 853. - Artesian Wells.—E lectric Clock. 405 The process employed by M. Kind is an improvement on the Chinese method of percussion. A cylindrical rod of wood, is made of sticks of young pines, ten meters in length, united by sockets of iron fitted with screws. The quantity of iron added to each piece is just that required to counterbalance the water. As water is encountered ata depth of or 30 meters, and it continues to fill the hole, it results that the shaft, which, whatever its length, is thus made to equal the water in weight, has relatively almost no weight, so that it is moved by a small force ; and being made of pieces of wood put end to end, its strength is very great. The extremity of this rod carries a grapple at bottom which opens as it descends, and then closes when it is raised by means of a parallelogram connected at its angles with two cords, which cords rests a drill weighing 1800 kilograms, quite similar in form to that used for pounding and drilling rocks, but armed below with seven teeth of cast steel twenty-five centimeters long, fitted to drive into the bed of rock and break or abrade it. The drill has a shank above by which it may be seized and lifted. The mode of operating is as follows:—With a steam-engine of twenty-four horse power, working a horizontal balance beam, the rod of wood is let down. The grapple at its bottom closes, seizing the handle of the drill; it then rises, lifting the drill toa height of some pa in less than a quarter of an hour. They are then refitted, and the drill is replaced by a bucket having a valve below which is opened _ closed also by the aid of the cords and the grapple; the bucket opens below, and being pushed by the piston, penetrates into the pasty mass and fills, after which the valve is closed, and the whole is drawn up, and the drill again sent down. . As it traverses different strata, specimens are taken, and thus a true geological section of the basin of Paris is obtained. steam engine of thirty horse power is sufficient for all the work, and the number of workmen required is only six, costing each day 49 francs. The teeth of the borer are rapidly worn in quartz; they lose nearly two centi- Fey in two hours work. The mean expense of boring is per meter 39 “ if. Electric clock.—The city of Marseilles has undertaken to establish 2 complete system of electric clocks. One hundred clocks will be set up by the Ist of May. The arrangements require the laying of 40,000 meters of conducting wire. The clocks will be placed in the street gas lamps, so that the hour may be read at night as wellas by day. The _ Whole will cost only 22,000 francs, and the care and supply of them 406 Correspondence of J. Nickleés. at the end of some time, lost its standard value without having lost its bleaching power, these chemists examined the liquid and found that a part of the bypochlorous acid was changed to chlorous acid, which therefore every way preferable to the arsenous acid. Excepting this substitution, the process resembles that of Gay Lus- ‘TT grammes of crystallized hyposulphite of soda dissolved in 1 litre of water, constitutes the test-liquor, Corresponding to the arsen- ical solution of Gay Lussac. After having taken 10 cubic centimeters of this normal liquor, 100 parts of water are added and some drops © sequence of the slight excess of sulphuric acid added. ae This hyposulphite is also an excellent antidote of bromine and iodine which are largely in use through the operations of photography. — Illuminating gas—An important change has just been made in the six gas works from which Paris is lighted, in consequence of the dis- cussions that have been going on the past two years, and large reduc- tions have been made by the company in their charges. urea From the Ist of January, 1856, the cubic meter of gas, which till then had cost the people 35 centimes, has been put at 15 centimes. The contract made with the company is for fifty years; but at the end of sixteen years, if the annual profits exceed ten per cent, half the surplus will go to the city; and if a new mode of illumination less expensive should be discovered, it may be put in practise without any indemnity to the contractors. ing been constructed in the park of St. Cloud, nothing was neglect that would put the investigation under the best possible conditions for accuracy. : The results set forth by the company as having been obtained in the period between 1844 and 1853 are the following :— Zoological Society of Acclimatiom. 407 100 kilograms of coal have produced— Gas (C+H*, C2H+, CO), Coke 21 cubic meters. - 69 kilograms. ee = $ ~ 4°50 +6 Ammoniacal liquid, . : : , << eS Combustible consumed in heating the furnaces, 24-75 kils. of coke. The commission has obtained, as an average, for 100 kilograms of coal, Gas, fit for illumination, A ‘ é 22°940 cubic meters. Bo. . ° . ‘ 75°40 kilograms. 6:73 6 _aY, . : : ; Ammoniacal liquid, ; ; ; .. 7s . Combustible consumed in the furnaces, 20°43 a To the price 0-0791 fr. per cubic meter of gas set down by the companies, the commission opposes that of 0-208 fr. per cubic meter. In this amount are not included the octroi duty, laying of pipes, &c., for the 30,000,000 of cubic meters of gas which Paris consumes eac aS with zeal and success. One of its principal importations is the Angora goat, of which we have spoken in our communication of November last. The Bulletin of the Society for January 1856, states that a similar importation was made into the United States in 1849 by Dr. Davis, six females and two males having been introduced by him into South Carolina. In that warm region, latitude 34°, it has rapidly increased, Until in 1854 there are fifty animals of the pure breed, and a muc larger number of mixed breed crossed with the goat of the country. ‘he goat also been successful in France. e small flock at Marseilles is increasing ; the other intrusted to the society of acclima- tion of the northeast zone, of which Nancy is the centre, and placed at first at Wesserling (Haut Rhin) is now in the vicinity of Nancy. contagious disease appeared in the flock at Wesserling, and this led to the change. Dr. Sacc sent the goats to Nancy where they arrived at acold and rainy time in the month of December. One of them died on the way, and the others were sick. They are now well and in the Prospect of breeding. Nancy is in longitude 3° 50! 16” east of Paris, and latitude 48° 41’ 28”; and its mean altitude is 201 meters 46 centi- meters above the level of the sea at Havre. : A kilogram of the Angora wool sells in France at six francs ; and as velvet. But from both, it is distinguished by the surface showing no marks from pressure even if it be strong and long continued. The 408 Correspondence of J. Nickles. Angora tissues are also colored with the same facility as those of wool or silk, which is highly important since tissues are now made of mixed silk and wool. Bibliography.—Histoire et Fabrication de la Porcelain Chinoise ; traduit du Chinois, par StanisLas JuLIEN, accompagné de notes et d’ad- ditions par M. Satvetat. 1 vol. in 8vo. Paris: chez Mallet-Bachelier. rice 12 fr.—The Chinese, as is known, are our masters in the manu- facture of porcelain. They have had some processes for ages which are still unknown to us, although we have surpassed them in other points. us we do not yet know how to produce at will the porcelain called including the Russian and Arabic, may look for a like success with this new work on porcelain. It is not simply a translation. Through the aid of M. Salvetat, chemist at the manufactory at Sevres, the work has been rendered an important one to chemists and especially manufac- turing chemists, notes being added and many comparisons of the Chi- nese methods with our own. In addition, the volume contains a chart of China pointing out the places of manufacture of porcelain, ancient and modern, and also a Chinese and French index of most of the tions pratiques, par M. Basinet, Membre de |’Institut. 2 vols., in 12mo. Paris: chez Mallet-Bachelier. Price 24 francs.—This work is for general circulation. It treats natural manifestations; 2, Working electricity; 3, Siberia and the climates of the north; 4, Influence of the currents of the ocean on climates; 5, on Earthquakes and the interior currents of the globe ; 6, Astronomical Bulletin for the years 1853, 1854; 7, on the Water systems of the globe; 8, on Turning tables from a Mechanical Physiological point of view; 9, Meteorology in 1854 and its future progress. Dictionnaire Universel des Sciences des Lettres et des Aris, par M. Boviniet. 4to. Paris: chez Hachette & Co. Price 25 fr—ln less scription of the Piseine of the College of France and that of the great ingue. a) "i Scientific Intelligence. 409 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Cuemistry anp Puysics. 1. On heat as the equivalent of work.—Hopre has contributed a me- moir upon this most interesting and important subject which places the analytical theory in a remarkably clear, simple, and general point of view, so far at least as it relates to permanent gases. We shall give the author’s investigation in extenso, making however a slight change in the symbols employed so as to assimilate them to those usually em- ployed by writers on the calculus, in French or English. The tem- perature t of an enclosed permanent gas may be expressed as a func- tion of the pressure p and the volume v by the following formula which is a combination of the laws of Gay Lussac and Mariotte: ma p=z(+e) (1) In this formula m represents the mass of the gas, a any definite pres- Sure, that of one atmosphere for instance, 5 the density at the tempera- ture 0° and pressure a. If we consider the temperature to be meas- ured by the increments of volume of the gas itself, « will be absolutely constant, and Mariotte’s law will be the only fact resting upon experience. et + denote the quantity of heat which the mass m of the gas must receive from without, in order to produce any changes whatever in p, D hen considering p and v as independent variables and 7 as & function of both we can make d d dv dv’ dp dp The magnitudes ¢ and c’, defined in this manner, express the capacities for heat at a constant volume and at a eonstant pressure, and may for the present be regarded as constant. Substituting in these expressions the values of the partial differential co-efficients of t as obtained from (1) namely 2 dv maa dp ma a oS de! bbe have, ay op 3 ead hen dv aa dp ae and hence for the total differential of o) d5—=— (cpdv--c'vdp). If now the gas pass from one state to another so that p and » change according to any definite law, p, v, and # become functions of each ve and we ha | I= 2 (ofpivteforp). (2) Sscoxp Serres, Vol. XXI, No, 63—May, 1856. A10 Scientific Intelligence. If z, denote the initial temperature then from the equation (1) we ri} have di=——(pdv--vdp), and if we integrate between the same limits as those to which @ is re- ferred and multiply by me! we have O me' (r=) =e /pado+ vdp), (3) which subtracted from equation (2) gives 3 F—me(r-1)=—(e-e)q (4) where g=/ pdv expresses the work done in the change of state. The result is therefore as follows. ‘The quantity of heat communicated to a gas during any change of volume and pressure consists of two parts, one of which expresses the heat necessary to raise the tempera- ture at a constant volume, while the other is a constant-multiple of the work done.” In particular we infer that this quantity of heat is in itself proportional to the work as soon as the initial temperature Is re- gained, while the pressure and volume may have other values; as pure oss of heat it appears, it is true, only after a complete restoration of the original condition. Let us now suppose that neither Mariotte’s law nor the law of the invariability of the capacities is accurately true. If c and c’ are sub- ject to any small changes in consequence of changes of pressure oF temperature, we may consider them as functions of p and v and wnite equations (2) and (3) as follows: _¢O 5=— ( ve epdv+ fc vdp) 6 nf car —( c'pdv--f c'vdp) whence by subtraction, | 5 — t —— oc! é oo nfe a Sie c')pdv Variation in the capacities. . the gas be restored to its original volume so that at any time #e° must change its sign, the proportional number is no longer necessarily Chemistry and Physics. All 5 ‘ " & mean value of i (c—c’); yet we see by representing specially the heat conveyed during positive and negative work, that this number can differ but little from the values of its expression as long as the excess is hot too small. If however there remains from a large amount of work only a small positive excess, it might be difficult to show that the pro- portional number could not differ considerably from the values of its expression. Finally if Mariotte’s law be not strictly accurate, we may put pote or pv and consider eas a small magnitude depending on p and v, which at the beginning of the motion is zero, In this case in place of pdv and vdp we shall have relatively eck st da eid oe pdv-+-7 dv; an ieee p- The last magnitude is cancelled and does not occur in the resulting equation. On the other hand g now becomes a | fs v. Were 9 of the form w(p)-+2(v) the quantity added to q would =y(v) and would vanish after the restoration to the original volume. In gen- bisulphid of carbon; on heating them to 150° C. they lose their bright 412 Scientific Intelligence. than 30°. The author finds that this crystallization and evolution of heat is most beautifully observed when large quantities are fused in a flask and heated to over 217° then allowed to cool down rapidly for ular-crystalline throughout when they are heated fi time 1 glass tube plunged into boiling water. The external form is but slighly changed. The insoluble selenium has a much darker color than the soluble form even when rubbed to a not very fine powder. When amorphous solved and then deposited in small crystals. From these facts the author concludes that the granular-crystalline selenium and that crys- tallized from a solution of selenid of sodium are identical and essentially different from that crystallized from bisulphid of carbon. Glassy sele- nium though amorphous belongs to the modification crystallized from the bisulphid. : The author has also obtained measurable crystals of iodine which, as Wollaston and Marchand found, belongs to the right rhombic (tri- metric) system. predominant form is the rhombic octahedron, the axes, a, 6, &c. being in the ratio 1: 2-055: 1:505. The author’s small and brilliant crystals. Schrétter’s red phosphorus presented no trace of crystalline structure.—Journal fir prakt. Chemte, \xvi, oa pp has Chemistry and Physics. A13 greater, in others smaller. With respect to the specific volumes the Equivalent quantities of oxygen and hydrogen may replace each other without very sensible change of volume: thus the spec. vol. of woo is 41 expression “ The spec. vol. of a liquid C,Hp)O,Qg at its boiling point is 5'5a-+-5'5b-++6-1c-+-3-9d.” ; The symbol O is here used to denote the oxygen outside of the radi- cal, and the author computes the spec. vols. of 45 liquids in satisfactory accordance with the observations, the difference being never 4 per cent of the whole value. The author remarks that the expression above given is simply to be regarded as a useful formula of interpolation to os tag the relations between the constitution and the spec. vols. compounds of the water type H Oz, (2) as replacing carbon within a radical, (3) as replacing oxygen within a radical. In the first and sec- ond of these cases sulphur has the same spec. volume, namely 11:3: but when it replaces oxygen within a radical its specific volume is higher, namely, 14-3—14-4. It is remarkable that alcohol and bisul- f 4 | i or the compounds Next directs his attention to the spec. volumes of inorganic compounds Wi iit a es dence between the spec. vols. of the fF ptt r ‘ Aw MARS VY. Al4 Scientific Intelligence. analogous compounds PCls, SiCls, AsCls, of PBrs and SiBr3, and of SnCle and TiCl2, from which it may be inferred that tin and litanium on the one hand, and phosphorus, silicon and arsenic on the other have the same specific volumes, which for tin and titanium = 18-7, and for phosphorus, silicon and arsenic 25. Antimony has a spec. volume of 33 as deduced from both its chlorid and bromid. The author next points out the fact that the quotient obtained by di- the quotient being here 4°7. A similar result is obtained for com- pounds containing chlorine, bromine, iodine and sulphur, and it is fur- ther shown that between the numbers thus deduced there exists approx- question in consequence of the smallness of the numbers appear to correspond more closely than they really do, the variation being from 10 to 16 per cent. For these reasons the author prefers to retain the numbers which directly express the specific volumes and not those which express the mean spec. vols. The memoir is concluded by. many judicious observations and interesting isolated facts for which however we must refer to the original.—Ann. der Chemie und Phar- macie, xcv, 1, 2 and 3 Heft, October to December, 1855. : 4. On the different methods of determining the weak or strong baste properties of an oxyd. —H. Ross has published the continuation of his researches on this subject, and has obtained some valuable analytical with a solution a niac, a method which in principle was already employed by Deville. The same is the case with sesquioxyd of iron: in both s however all the oxyds must be freshly precip! tated and not ignited. The author next studies the behavior of the various oxyds toward a solution of chlorid of mercury. In their rela- tions to this substance all oxyds may be divided into three — _ 5. On a new class of alcohols.—Canours and Hormann have iden- tified acroleine and acrylic acid with members of the propylene series. Their investigation may be regarded as a generalization of t resul! obtained by Zinin, Berthelot and de Luca, with the iodid of propylene; and they have succeeded in producing what may be regarded as ee Chemistry and Physics. 415 keystone of the whole edifice, namely, the alcohol of the propylene Series; the authors term this body acrylic alcohol. When iodid of 2(CsHsNO2)+2HO=C14H12N202+2COz. The cyanate is decomposed by boiling with a solution of potash yielding sinapoline which floats on the surface and a distillate are is i authors | have Researches on iodated propylene.—BrntHELot and Dg Luca continued their observations upon this substance and have ae the main the same results as those of Cahours and Hofmann above - scribed. To the body CeHs they give the name of allyl while C. an trating etheri lodor. It boils at 59°C. its density at 14° is 0°684, the naity of vue at 100° is 2°92 so that the formula CeHs corre- A16 Scientific Intelligence. sponds to 2 vols., as is the case with ethyl, methyl, &c. Allyl unites directly with chlorine, bromine and iodine; the bromid and iodid have the formulas CeHsBr2 and CeHsIz. As the formula of the iodid of allyl CeHslez differs from that of iodid of propylene by one equivalent of iodine only, the authors sought, but without success, to transform one of these bodies into the other. These facts appear to show that the two iodids do not contain the same radical and there may therefore be two isomeric bodies having the formula CeHs. It must be remarked however that Cahours and Hofmann give CeHsBr and CeHsl for the formulas of the bromid and iodid of acryl and that they make no dis- tinction between propylene CeHs and acryl.—Comptes Rendus, xlii, . 233. 7. Researches on tungsten.—Ricue has obtained by the action of iodid of methyl upon metallic tungsten the iodid of a base having the formula 3(C2Hs)W. The iodid crystallizes from ether in large color- less plates which melt at 110° and have the formula 3(C2Hs) With oxyd of silver this iodid yields the corresponding oxyd as a white powder 3(C2Hs)W. O which unites with acids and forms uncrys- tallizable salts.—Comptes Rendus, xlii, 205. ew bases containing phosphorus.—The discovery of basic com- pounds of phosphorus with methyl corresponding to methylamine, &c., is due to Paul Thenard who obtained them by passing chlorid of methyl over heated phosphuret of calcium. Cahours and Hofmann have re- _ sumed the subject and have prepared many new and interesting com- pounds. The authors employed in the first place the action of iodid of methyl upon phosphuret of sodium. In this manner they obtained the compounds P(C2Hs)2, P(C2Hs)s and P(C2Hs)sl. A better method of preparing this class of bodies however consists in acting upon chlorid of phosphorus PCls with zinemethyl, zincethyl, éc.; in this manner a solid mass is obtained which is a compound of chlorid of zinc with triphosphomethylamin, triphosphethylamin, &c. The reac- tions are PCls+-3(C2HsZn)—3ZnCl+P(C2H2)s PCls+-3(CaHsZn)=3ZnCl+P(C4Hs)s &e. &c. _ When these compounds are distilled with caustic potash, liquids are obtained which have the smell of the arsenic bases and are strongly the reaction is less distinct.— Comptes Chemistry and Physics. AIT 9. Nitrite of potash and sesquioxyd of cobalt. —StRomever has care- fully studied the beautiful yellow salt discovered by Fischer and some years afterward rediscovered by St. Evre. The author finds that the salt is insoluble in many saline solutions so that it may be washed with a solution of acetate of potash and afterward with alcohol ; in this manner it may be used for analytical purposes. Caustic soda and baryta water easily decompose it separating a brown hydrate of sesquioxyd of cobalt. The author finds for this compound the formula Co20s, 2NOs-+-3(KO, NOs)+2HO a 2(Coz0s .2NOs)+-3(KO, NOs)4+3PbO, NOz)-+-4HO. Inn. der Chemie und Pharmacie, xcvi, 218. 10. On the quantitative determination of Copper.—Mour has sug- ested the use of zinc in Ht solutions and proceeds as follows. A copper salt containing no nitric aci ; : The copper is speedily thrown down as a spongy mass and the liquid soon becomes colorlesss, hydrogen being evolved. More zinc is to be in the determination of copper, new but the manipulation, which appears to be advantageous. It must Skconp Sums, Vol. XXI, No, 63.—March, 1856. 53 418 Scientific Intelligence. be observed, however, that the presence of lead, silver, arsenic and many other ‘substances i in copper ores would render the method inap- p icable in its present form.—w. Gc. metallic Uranium.—Per.icot has presented to the Academy of Gitdainie: some specimens of uranium fused at a high temperature. The author employed sodium as a reducing agent and proceeds as fol- lows. A quantity of sodium is introduced into a hee crucible and covered with very dry chlorid of potassium and then w ture of this salt and the green chlorid of uranium. The porcelain cru- cible is then to be placed within one of clay, the intervening space filled with charcoal dust, and the outer idle a The crucible is then heated till the reaction takes place, which is known by the noise heard at the moment; it is then to be placed in a furnace and heated to a red-white heat for fifteen or twenty minutes. On cool- ing, there is found in the crucible a scoria containing globules of fused uranium. As thus prepared, the metal has a certain malleability ; its color recalls that of nickel or iron. In the air it assumes a yellowish tint from superficial oxy dation. Heated to redness it becomes suddenly 4, ium?) and gold it is the heaviest body known. The author proposes to continue the study of this metal which appears to possess interesting properties.— Comptes Hendia: xlii, 73, Jan. 1856. 12. On crystallized silicon ae carbon.—WO6xLER has found that by fusing aluminium with an excess of fluosilicate of potassium, 3KF, plates with anally lustre. pine node Rendus, xlii, 48. 13. On Ozone and Ozonic ae in Mushrooms; by M. ScHoNnBEIN, in a letter to M. Faraday, (Phil. Mag., [4] vol. xi, p. ‘gy, Feb. 1856.)— You know that I hold oxygen, both in its free and bound state, to be capable of existing in two allotropic modifications,—in the ozonic OF active, and the ordinary or inactive condition. All the oxy- -compounds yielding common oxygen at a raised temperature 1 consider to contain ozonized oxygen; and 1am further inclined to believe that the disen- ement of common oxygen from those compounds de depends upon the transformation of the ozonized oxygen into the inactive one, or, to de- note that allotropic change, of O into 0. Nowa general fact is this: that the oxygen thus set free te re traces of O more or less, according to the degree of tempera’ at which the oxygen happens to be disengaged from those sleek sre The lower that degree, the the quantity of O mixed with O; though I must not omit to pg that in all cases that quantity happens to to be pe ennent ngly small in comparison to that of O obtained at The best means rs Chemistry and Physics. 419 the oxygen, contained, for instance, in the oxyd of silver previously to that compound being decomposed by heat, exists but in one state, be that State what it may, how then does it happen, we may ask, that at the 42] Same time two different sorts of oxygen, O and O, are disengaged from the compound named? The answer to this question seems to me to be, that one of the two kinds of oxygen eliminated must be engendered at the expense of the other; or to speak more correctly, that during the act of elimination of oxygen from the oxyd of silver, part of that oxy- g¢n suffers a change of condition. Now as the oxyds of gold, silver, &e., enjoy the power of coloring blue the guaiacum solution, just as free O does, I draw from the fact the conclusion, that the condition of the oxygen contained in the oxyds of gold, silver, &c. is t e ozonic one ; and further infer, that by far the greatest portion of that O, under the influence of heat, is transformed into O. Why the whole of the 420 Scientific Intelligence. been carried into the midst of that field, upon the intricacies and depths of whic ave been used all my life to look with feelings of un- bounded respect and even awe. The picking up of a mushroom has led to that very strange aberration of mine, and you will ask how such a trifling occurrence could do that. The matter stands thus: what the botanists tell me to be called “* Boletus luridus,” with some other sorts others, I infer that this mushroom principle, like guaiacum, is capable ° of combining with O, and is not affected by O. Now the occurrence of a matter so closely related to guaiacum in a mushroom is a fact pretty enough of itself, but as to scientific importance far inferior to what I am going to tel : The fact that the resinous Boletus principle, after having been re- moved from the mushroom (by means of alcohol), is not able to color itself spontaneously in the atmospheric air, whilst it seems to have that power so long as it happens to be deposited in the parenchyma of the Boletus, led me to suspect that there exists in the Boletus luridus, be- sides the guaiacum-like substance, another matter, endowed with the property of exalting the chemical power of common oxygen, and caus- ing that element in its O condition to associate itself to the resinous principle of the mushroom. The conjecture was correct; for I found that in the juice obtained by pressure from a number of mushrooms belonging to the genera Boletus and Agaricus, and notably from Aga- ‘ricu ricus sanguineus (upon which I principally worked), an organic wean 18 contained which enjoys the remarkable power of transforming into O, and forming with the latter a compound from which O may easily be transferred to a number of oxydable matters, both of an in- organic and organic nature ; and 1 must not omit to state, that the pe- culiar Agaricus matter, after having been deprived of its O, may be charged with it again by passing through its solution a current of alr. ee re ee ee The easiest way of ascertaining the presence of O in the said Agaricus juice, is to mix that liquid with ana Ico holic solution of guaiacum, or Seen I nr na (eer 4) Geology. A421 the resinous matter of the Boletus luridus. If the juice happens to be deprived of O, the resiniferous solutions will not be colored blue; but if it contains O, the solution will assume a blue color, just as if they an oxydizing agent. Indeed, that matter may in many respects be compared to NO?, which, as is well known, enjoys to an extraordinary extent the power of instantaneously transforming O into O, and form- °o ing a compound (NO2+1.20) with that Q, from which the latter may easily be transfered to a multitude of oxydable matters. Now in a physiological point of view, the existence of such an organic substance is certainly an important fact, and seems to-confirm an old opinion of mine, according to which the oxydizing effects of the atmospheric oxy- gen (of itself inactive) produced upon organic bodies, such as blood, two more. The peculiar matter contained in the juice of the Agaricus ce] ; ‘ sanguineus, &c., and charged with O, gives up that oxygen to guaia- cum, and the latter transfers it to the resinous matter of the Boletus luridus ; thus the different organic matters capable of uniting with Oas Much engaged my attention. II. Grouoey. 1. Description of two Icthyodorulites, by Joseru Letpy, M.D., ( Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. vol. viii, p. 11.)—Srenacantuvs nitipus, Leidy. i in j rex. The the | seal ae: see OF the fovel is furnished with a row of closely set serrations, directed obliquely downward, of which eight may be counted 422 Scientific Intelligence. within the space of seven lines. Whether there is a second row of serrations, the imbedded state of the very friable bone in a hard matrix will not permit me to determin ‘The broad surface which is exposed in the specimen, so far as it is preserved, is longitudinally furrowed; and about oe fourths of an inch from the broken summit it exhibits a transverse zigzag fissure, which may probably be the result of an original wpb although it has very much the appearance of being an articulation CYLINDRACANTHUS ORNATUS, Leidy.—On several occasions fragments view them as portions of ichthyodorulites, I am not positive of the cor- rectness of my conclusion. The specimens alluded to are found in the cretaceous formations of New Jersey and Alabama. The most perfect one was obtained by W. Taylor, Esq. ., from near Pemberton, Burlington Co., New Jersey. It is over three inches in length with the extremities broken off, is straight and gradually tapering, and is perfectly circular in transverse section. At the thicker end it is six and one quarter lines in diameter, and at the other end five lines. The ¢ entre presents a double tubular Fg ed of comparatively small calibre. The surface is invested with a thick, enamel-like layer, which is dense, brittle, and shining, and Secily fluted ; ; the intervening ridges being of nearly uni- form oo with pairs occasionally converging into single ones in their co 2. Notices of some remains of extinct poem recently jeaabs 3 by Dr. F.V. Hayden, in the bad lands of Nebraska; by Josepx Leip, M.D., (Ibid, p 39. )—(1.) Hirrarion rE atm, Leidy. This p sec- ond Autos species of Hipparion is established on specimens of five superior and one inferior molar teeth, discovered by Dr. Hayden, on the White River of Nebraska. The internal isolated enamel columa of the upper molars, on the worn crown, is elliptical and more than twice the length of the breadth. The central columns of the same teeth are comparatively moderately folded. Antero-posterior diameter of the first upper molar 15 lines, transverse diameter 104 lines; ante- ro-posterior diameter of the largest of the back upper molars 18 lines, transverse diameter 12 lines; smallest of the back upper molars 11 lines square ; antero- ‘posterior diameter of the back inferior molar 12 lines, transverse diameter 74 lines. 2.) Hyorotamus Spnbecawtn: Leidy.—This species is founded upon a en of specimens of molar teeth, which were discovered by in company with remains of Titanotherium, in Nebraska Territory. "The t eeth indicate a species of the same size as Hyopota- mus bovinus, Owen. Among the specimens are the posterior two a ; an ? Anthracotherium: the crown of the second premolar consisting of single Jarge trihedral lobe, with a tubercle at its postero-internal basa angle; and the crown of the third premolar being formed of a trans- a — | i | | i | i 7 ; t i } 1 : ag = : 4g —. A Geology. 423 verse pair of lobes, of which the outer one is trihedral and the inner one is smaller and conical. These premolars undoubtedly belong to the permanent dentition, and if they are not the second and third of the series, they are certainly the latter and the fourth. In either case, they confirm an opinion formerly expressed (Anc. Fauna of Nebraska, p- 45,) that the teeth represented by Prof. Owen, as the third and fourth © measurements of some of the molar teeth of Hyopolamus amer- tanus are as follows: Antero-posterior diameter of the superior last true molar, externally, 134 lines. ‘Transvers * * “" anteriorly, 15“ Antero-posterior diameter of the superior third premolar, * “ “ Transverse as 8% “ Antero-posterior diameter of the superior second premolar, 105. * Transyerse “ “ “ 8 4 3. Second Annual Report of the Geological Survey of the State of New Jersey, for the year 1855. 248 pp., 8v renton: 1856.— 72 scm Cook, Assistant Geologist. A good beginning has been made towards developing the structure and beds of the Cretaceous formation, a brief shell marl, sand, clay and gravel which make up the southeastern part of the State. Evidences of wear and subsidence along the New Jersey coast are mentioned on pages 78—81, which merit a full investigation. We cite the following paragraphs :— During t ; and this was thought there must be some general cause for them; an onuee Si to be, the slow but continued settling or subsidence of the land, At the th of Dennis creek, in Cape May county, and for several miles a Se Sp = side of it, according to the local 424 Scientific Intelligence. surveyors, the marsh wears away, on an average, about one rod in two years; and, from the early maps, it would appear to have been going on at that rate ever since the first settlement of the country. A map of Cape May, in the possession of Dr. Maurice Beesley, of Dennis- ville, and bearing the date of 1694, lays down Egg Island, the western point of Maurice River Cove, as containing 300 acres; at low water it now contains a half or three-fourths of an acre, and at high water it is entirely covered. All along the Delaware Bay and river where the marshes are banked in to keep off the tide, the banks or dykes are placed several rods from the water’s edge, to allow for the wearing away of the mars At Town Bank, which is the principal bold shore on the west side of Cape May, and where the first settlement was made as early as 1691, the solid gravel bank, which is from twelve to eighteen feet high, wears away, according to the owner, Mr. Thomas Hughes, about one foot a year. The foundations of the houses first built were long since under- mined, and the waters of the bay now occupy the spot where they a militia artillery company had its practicing ground here. Their gun was placed near a house which stood just outside the present shore line, and their target was set up three quarters of a mile east. This last point was at the outer edge of the cultivated ground, and there was a quarter of a mile of sand hills or beaches between that and the water's edge. The whole of this is now gone, and one of the boarding houses has been moved back twice, on account of the wearing away of the k are now seen on the strand east of it. : That the tides rise higher upon the uplands than formerly, is the opinion of the oldest observers, upon the Atlantic and Bay shores, from Great Egg Harbor quite around to Salem creek. Their opinion 1s founded on the fact, that on the low uplands, or those going down to the salt marsh with a very gentle slope, the salt grass now grows where upland grass formerly grew; and where the land was in wood, narrow fringes of it next the marsh are frequently killed by the salt water, and marsh takes its place. Hon. Joshua Brick, of Port Elizabeth, esti- mates the amount of timbered land between Maurice river and West ereek, in Cumberland County, which has been killed within the last fifty years, at one thousand acres. And the amount is proportionally great on all the low and wooded shores. Numerous islands (spots of hard ground surrounded by salt marsh) which, within the memory © men now living, have been cultivated, and others which were in wood, have been entirely lost in the advancing marsh, and their location 1s only to be known by the shallowness of the mud which covers them. _ Inall the salt marshes on the sea shore of southern New Jersey, nd also in the salt and fresh tide marshes on Delaware Bay and river, stumps of trees, of the common species of the country, are found with 2 | | | | | | Geology. 495 h timated with any degree of accuracy. But some idea of it may be obtained by noticing the phenomena of the cedar swamps where buried timber is dug or mined. In these swamps, and in the salt marshes near them, underneath the standing trees, or under the stumps in the roots run near the surface, so that it might be supposed the mud had settled with them, were it not for the fact that, when cedar grows where the mud is shallow, so that its roots reach hard bottom, its wood is unfit for timber, the grain or fibres being so interlocked that it will not split freely. Such is found to be the case in the buried timber; the bottom layer, as it is called, is worthless. From this the inference is conclu- Sive that the hard ground was above tide level when those trees grew. Large stumps are, frequently found standing directly on other large Mr. Thomas Shourds, of Hancock’s Bridge, Salem County, informed j Alloways g have been when they were set. On the opposite bank of the creek Stconp Szrms, Vol. XXI, No. 63.—May, 1856. 426 Scientific Intelligence. are in the solid bottom, and the top of it is about the level of high tide. The top is square, as if cut off by an axe, and the longest time since pressions than from any fixed marks to refer to. I am confident, how- ever, that two feet in a hundred years, is not above the rate at which the shore is now sinking. - * - * * si From some facts collected, it would appear that the change on our own shore, is not confined to southern New Jersey. In the salt marshes some of the bends in South river, and the Raritan. The marsh cut through was from one to four feet deep, with a sandy bottom. Hun- tha’s Vineyard, and also near the southwest extremity of the same island. ey are seen too on the north side of Cape Cod, also oppo- site Yarmouth, and in Provincetown bay. Mr. Lyell, in his second visit to the United States, mentions a submerged forest “at Hampton, on the way from Boston to Portsmouth,” also one near Portsmouth, N. H., ‘now submerged at low water, containing the roots and upright stools of the white cedar, showing that an ancient forest must once have extended farther seaward.” {n his First Visit to North America, vol. ii, p. 143, he mentions a submerged forest somewhat similar near Fort Cumberland, in Nova Scotia. Jn the same work, vol. i, p- 131, in speaking of the coast of Georgia, he says, “I even suspect that this coast is now sinking down at a slow and insensible rate, for the sea 18 encroaching and gaining at many points on the fresh water marshes. Thus at Beauly, I found upright stumps of trees of the pine, cedar and ilex, covered with live oysters and barnacles, and exposed at low tides ; the deposit in which they were buried having been recently was away from around them by the waves.” He records other observa- ‘tram, the botanist, who wrote in 1792, as saying, ‘It seems evident ven to demonstration, that those salt marshes adjoining t sa hnnnalinneenainee oe uuasn in amenities ~sacsld Geology. : A27 the main, and the reedy and grassy islands in the rivers, which are now overflowed at every tide, were formerly high swamps of firm land, affording forests of cypress, tupelo, Magnolia grandiflora, oak, ash, sweet bay, and other timber trees, the same as are now growing on surface, before they come to a strata of cypress stumps, and other trees, close together as they now grow in the swamps.” nalyses are given of various clays—one of a South Amboy fire clay which is used for facing paper-hangings, others of pottery clays, &c. northern portion of the state (incorrectly called Azoic, as they are not of the Azoic age, although without fossils in consequence of metamor- phic action), and gives many valuable details respecting the mines of copper, zinc, and iron. To this portion of the volume there are con- fi Shumard j g aleontology. \ nati a ae coun are informed by Mr. W. J. Taylor of Philadelphia, that he has observed at the Lancaster zinc mines, Pennsylvania, beautiful pseudomorphs of Smithsonite having the form of dolomite. _ é 428 Scientific Intelligence. III. Borany anp Zootoey. 1. For what purpose were plants created ? (addressed to Prof. Dana.) — Plants furnish all the food upon which animals live. ants, by de- composing carbonic acid, &c., purify the air which animals breathe. In which of these offices may we say that the vegetable kingdom fulfills its essential purpose? In your admirable exposure of the character and tendency of Prof. Tayler Lewis’s work, you take the view that the essential object of the vegetable creation is to purify the atmosphere for the breathing of animals, and assert that its use in providing food for animals is only incidental, or ‘ concomitant.’ so sound and able, and because it proceeds from such very high scientific authority, that] am induced to call your attention to this questionable point, not without the hope that you may see cause to correct or qualify the statement. That the office of plants in the economy of the world is, not so much to purify the air for animals, as to supply them nourishment, may be argue Ist. From the nature of the operation in which oxygen gas is libera- from its parts, and continue to exist; or the evolution of the oxy- gen gas necessarily separated in the process, and which has to be got rid o It is in this deorydizing and organizing operation, no doabt, that the i i hat the pu rom considering the kind and the degree of the dependence of the animal creation upon these two results of vegetation, namely, the vegetable matter produced, and the oxygen gas liberated. Now, For vegetable matter, so produced furnishes the whole food and fabric of animals. Without it «animal life could not have existed at all ; and were its production now to be suspended, all the herbivorous and theo ‘the carnivorous races would perish almest at once. On the other hand, the amount of the dependence of animal life upon the disengagement ray Botany and Zoology. A29 of oxygen gas by plants may be estimated by supposing existing vege- tation to cease evolving free oxygen, or (which would come to the same thing) by supposing some new operation in the organic world to absorb this element as fast as it is given to the air by plants. How soon would the diminution of the oxygen of the air be felt even by the higher classes of animals. Making the needful calculations, M. Duma has answered this question, by assuring us that the unbalanced action of the whole animal kingdom for a century would not consume more Nn gopo part by weight of the oxygen of the atmosphere ;—‘a quantity altogether inappreciable to the most delicate means of investi- gation we possess at the present day, and which very certainly would have no influence on the life of animals,”—that, as respects the higher races of animals, “it would require no less than 10,000 years before all the men on the face of the globe could produce an effect which should be sensible to Volta’s Eudiometer, even supposing vegetable life to be extinct during the whole of this time ;”—so vast is the original stock of this important element of the atmosphere. Surely, then, we ought not to call this remotely needful action upon the air the essential office of vegetables in the economy of the world, nor view as a subordinate or concomitant end that operation of organi- zing matter, which provides the whole animal creation with sustenance, and the failure of which for a single year would depopulate the earth. Nor should we call that the essential office of vegetation which certainly to the existence of man. ; Of course there is no question here of this as a function of vegeta- 430 Neientifie Intelligence. preserved by immersion in spirits, to permit their characters to be we As might have been anticipated from our knowledge of their con- geners, these animals belong to the Rhizopodous type ; the soft b consisting of sarcode, without digestive cavity or organs of any kind; and being made up of a number of segments, equal and similar to each other, which are arranged in concentric zones round a central nucleus. his body is invested by a calcareous shell, in the substance of which no minute structure can be discerned, but which has the form of a cir- n surrounded by a larger mass connected with it by a peduncle,—the development of the Orbitolite may take place either upon a simple, or tical columns, but connected with the annular stolons; these occupy the narrow elongated cells just mentioned, which constitute two super- ficial layers in the disks of this type, between which is the in layer occupied by the columnar segments. ielae? Botany and Zoology. 431 The author then points ee what may be gathered oe observation and from deduction respecting the Nutrition and mode of Growth of these creatures. e shows that the former is probably: rtp = te plete annulus, thickened at intervals into segments, and narro tar: ei tween these into connecting stolons, the shell being probably produced by the sSpenineee of their outer portions. And this view he supports by the results of the examination of a number of specimens, in which reparation ony injuries has taken place. Regarding the Reproduction of Orbitolites, he is only able to suggest that certain minute spherical masses of sarcode, with which some of t e cells are filled, may be nothing save essen aa of tis: naiiaaiee in their living state can give Satisfactory result he regular He of structure just described is subject to numerous variations, into a minute description of which the author next enters; the general results being, that neither the shape nor dimensions of the entire disk, the size of the nucleus or of the cells forming the concen- trie zones, ‘the surface-markings indicating the shape of the superficial cells, nor the early mode of growth (which, though typically cyclical oe €s approximates to a spiral), can serve as as distinctive charac- rs of species; since, whilst lie are all found to present most re- ae differences, these differe es, being strictly gradational, can only be considered as duinguishing alia iduals. It thus — ser 4 very wide range of variation exists in this type ; ; So that Afier noticing some curious monstrosities, resulting from an unusual Outgrowth of the central nucleus, the author p to inquire into essential character of the Orbitolite, si its relations to other types of structure. He e places it among the very lowest forms of Foramin- ifera ; and considers that it approximates closely to sponges, some o which heres skeletons not very unlike ove calcareous net-work which intervenes between its fl leshy segments. Of the species which the genus has been reputed to include, he states that a large proportion 432 Scientific Intelligence. really belong to the genus Orditoides, “ent others are but varieties of the ordinary type. his last is the light in which he would regard the Orbitolites complanata of the Paris basin ; vahieh differs at the fully- developed Orbitolite of the Australian coast in some very peculiar fea- tures (marking a less complete evolution), which are occasionally met with among recent forms, and which are sometimes distinctly transi- tional towards the perfect type. he author concludes by calling attention to some general principles, which arise out of the present inquiry, but which are applicable to all departments of Natural History, regarding the kind and extent of com- to offer a few observations on this curious group, as Dr. Carpenter, who has favored the Society with an interesting and valuable memoir on the subject, seems not to have had many opportunities of studying the ani- mals in the recent state. cep ag r more than twenty years ago I communicated to the Linnzan ty a paper on the subject, containing a diagnosis and figures of all the species. This paper was read and ordered to be printed in the Transactions of that igh ; but it was withdrawn by me before pub- lication, in consequence of my being dissatisfied with D’Orbigny’s the- ory (whic had pondeithers adopted), that the animals belonged to the one Bi and asd subsequent waar en, were confirmed by vant. observations which I have made on many hundred recent and living specimens ¥ various species, fully confirm Dr, Carpenter’s view as to the simple omogeneous nature of the animal. His idea of — epiedabien by gemmation is also probably correct ; although J annot agree with him in considering the granules whic occasion- ais found in the cells as ova. These bodies I have frequently noticed, and especially in the Lagene; but they appeared ue —— the en- tire mass, and not merely a part of the animal. Ia nclined to think they are only desiccated portions of the animal, manned from eac other in consequence of the absence of any muscular or nervous struc- ture. It may also be questionable if the term “ova” is rightly appli- cable to an animal which has no distinct organs of any kind. Possibly poraih fry aay pass through a metamorphosis, as in the case of the Most of the Foraminifera ere free, or only adhere by their pseudo- podia to foreign substances. Such are the Lagena of Walker, Nodo- saria, Vorticialis and Textularia, and the Miliola of Lamarck. The latter has some, although a very limited, power r of locomotion; which is effected by exserting its pseudopodia to their full length, attaching itself by them toa piece of seaweed, and then contracting them like india-rubber, so as to draw the shell along with them. Some of the Botany and Zoology. 432 xed or sessile, but not cemented at their base like the testaceous annelids. The only mode of attachment appears to be a thin film of sarcose. The Lobatula of Fleming, and the Rosalia and Planorbulina of D’Orbigny belong to this division. Dr. Carpenter considers the Foraminifera to be phytophagous, in Consequence of his having detected in some specimens, by the aid of the microscope, fragments of Diatomacee and other simple forms of vegetable life. But asI have dredged them alive ata depth of 108 marine animals. In the gulf of Genoa! have found (as might have been expected) species identical with those of our Hebridean coast, and vice versd. n common with Dr. Carpenter, I cannot help deploring the excessive multiplication of species in the present day, and I would include in this Tegret the unnecessary formation of genera. Another Linnzus is sadly wanted to correct this pernicious habit, both at home and abroad. ~*~ _ The group now under consideration exhibits a great tendency to va- Nation of form, some of the combinations (especially in the case of : Marginulina) being as complicated and various as a Chinese puzzle, It is, I believe, undeniable, that the variability of form is in an inverse ratio to the development of animals in the scale of Nature. Having examined thousands (I may say myriads) of these elegant organisms, I am induced to suggest the following arrangement :— 1. Lagena (Walker) and Entosolenia (Williamson). 2. Nodosaria and Marginulina (D’Orb.), &c. . 3. Vorticialis (D’Orb.), Rotalia (Lam.), Lobatula (Flem.), Globi- £erina (D’Orb.), &c. 4. Tevtularia (Defrance), Uvigerina (D’Orb.), &c. 5. Miliola (Lam.), Biloculina (D’Orb.), &c. This division must, however, be modified by a more extended and Cosmopolitan view of the subject, as I only profess to treat of the Brit- Sxcon Serrus, Vol. KXI, No. 63.—May, 1856. 55 A434 Scientific Intelligence. ish species. To illustrate MacLeay’s theory of a quinary and circular arrangement, the case may be put thus. Lagenade. : 1 A Sj z ag ° 3 % ay wm, ws 3 = %, on 2 G oe” % Pals % gs ¢ The first family is connected by the typical genus Lagena with the second, and by Entosolina with the fifth; the second is united with the Whether these singular and little-known animals are Rhizopods, or belong to the Ama@ba, remains yet to be satisfactorily made out. n the presence of Diatomacea, Phytolitharia, and Sponge Spic- ules, in Soils which support Vegetation; by Wittiam Grecory, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry, (Ib., p. 219.) —Ehrenberg, in his late work, ‘ Mikrogeologie,’ has stated that in specimens of soils from all parts of the world, he has found many microscopic organisms; he but it also contained much organic matter, of a brown or red color, n- le in acids, which, if necessary, might be destroyed by ignition, when it would leave a trifling ash. In every case I found Diatomacee in the residue, as well as . ithari onge spicules, apparently of freshwater sponges, We! less ied sips, ha seauitek in aay. <7 a few cases, where the acid caused effervescence, there was calcareous matter present, but in this was not the case. . es eae PRINT rst SET mers 4 | ee. Soca ae ee Botany and Zoology. 435 Of course, in those cases in which the proportion of earth was small, the residue consisted chiefly of the insoluble organic matters, through which, however, Diatoms and Phytolitharia were scattered, in greater or smaller proportion. most remarkable soils in this respect were one from the Sandwich Islands, one from Lebanon, one from the roots of a German moss, and one from Ailsa Craig. It is to be noticed, however, that Diatomacee were found in every case, without exception, and that in all, their proportion to the whole non-calcareous earthy residue was considerable, and often large. In many of those where the proportion of earth was smallest, there was no siliceous matter in the residue, except Diatomacee and Phytolitharia. The soils examined were from various and distant localities; there were about twenty from the Andes, several from Brazil and other parts of South America, a few from North America, a few from the West Indies, one from the Sandwich Islands, one from New Zealand, a few rom India, one from Lebanon, a good many from Germany, some from France, a few from Spain, and some from Britain. The great majority of the species of Diatoms in all these were found to coincide with our British forms, but a good many species occurred in the exotic soils which have not yet been found in Britain, and most of these not even in Europe, but which have been figured by Bailey, Ehrenberg, Kiitzing, Rabenhorst, &c d (Lebanon), Orthosira spinosa, m., Gre Cymbella turgida, W. G. (Sandwich Islands), and Navicula varians, W. G. (various soils). Of such species as are unknown to Europe, I shall only mention here Terpsinoé musica, one of the most striking of known forms, which I found in the first soil I examined, which was from Brazi . Ibis ace companied by Nitzschia scalaris, a fine form, which occurs in Britain, but is far from frequent here. : “ Lam satisfied that a close examination of such specimens of soil, which are often thrown away in putting up specimens in herbaria, He bring to light many new forms, and supply us with many _ an rare species. It is very desirable that collectors of plants should pre- serve a little of the earth adhering to their roots, and in’ this way co- ious obtained. - Saat matinee: entirely confirm Ehrenberg’s statements as to the distribution of the Di ee. They furnish evidence of the fact that these organisms are far less affected by climate and tempera- ture than larger plants or animals; since many of the very same spe- 436 Scientific Intelligence. cies are found in every latitude and in every country. For example, such common forms as Achnanthidium lanceolatum, Achnanthes evilis, Gomphonema tenellum, G. constrictum, G. capitatum, Cocconeis Placen- tula, C. Pediculus, Cocconema lanceolatum, C. cymbiforme, Synedra radians, Navicula elliptica, N. rhomboides, Pinnularia viridis, P. major, P. oblonga, P. borealis, Surirella biseriata, S. ovata, Meridion circulare, M. constrictum, Cymbella maculata, C. scotica, C. cuspidata, Epithemia turgida, Ep. Argus, Himantidium Arcus, H. gracile, H. majus, Odontidium mesodon, Diatoma tenue, D. vulgare, Nitzschia linearis, N. amphioxys, Melosira varians, and many others actually occur in every part of the world from whence these soils have come ; and there is absolutely no difference between the exotic and the British orms. Ehrenberg specifies tw6 species, namely, Pinnularia borealis (P. latistriata, W. G.) and Eunotia amphioxys (INitzschia amphioxys, W. Sm.), as having been found by him in almost every instance. My re- sults confirm this. In no case have both of these been absent, and in at least nine-tenths of these soils both are present. They are often the predominant forms, and in a few cases almost the only forms pres- ent. Gomphonema tenellum and Achnanthidium lanceolatum are foun in a large majority of these soils. am disposed to agree in opinion with Ehrenberg, that the miero- scopic organisms found in soils contribute materially to the increase of the soil. is is true both of the siliceous and caleareous forms. The Diatomacee live in moist earth. They obtain silica from the water, and at their death their shells are added to the soil. Where many are present, this process of transference of silica from the rock to the soil goes on very rapidly. We have so far evidence that they live in these soils, that we find them there very often in the state of self-division, which is not observed in old accumulations of the dead shells. The peculiar capacity of the Diatomacee for resisting climatic changes, whereby the same species can live and thrive as well in Arctic circle as under the line, corresponds well with the results of the study of the same organisms in the fossil state. In Ehrenberg’s ‘Mi- krogeologie’ will be found very fine figures of the Diatoms occurring 1n the different forms of Bergmehl, Tripoli or polishing slate, Kieselguhr, pumice, and other volcanic rocks, mountain limestone, amber, Wc., and it will be seen that by far the greater number of the species are quite identical with recent ones. Microscopic organisms have been found so low down as the green sand of the Silurian system ; but they rather belong to the Polythalamia. The earliest Diatoms, geologically speaking, as figured by Ehrenberg, agree in every point, as far as the great majority of the species is concerned, with those now living !n our waters, and forming deposits which will become rock at some futu me, It was supposed that most of the species in the much more recent Bergmehl were no longer to be found living; but most of them have been since found. I myself have lately found two species of the Lap- land Bergmehl to be still in existence, namely, Eunotia octodon and Synedra hemicyclus ; and Eunotia incisa, which occurs both in the Lapland and the Mull earths, has been found recent by me in a dozen wy Botany and Zoology. 437 British gatherings. Yet all these forms were supposed, not long since, to be exclusively fossil. We cannot say that there are no species ex- clusively fossil, but so many that have been thought so are daily found living, that it is probable the rest may be so found too, and at all events, a very large proportion of the forms in the oldest fossil deposits are absolutely identical with the forms of the present day. Ihave only further to mention, that although so many species are universal in their habitat, some appear to be local. ‘Thus, Terpsinoé musica does not occur in Europe, nor has it yet been found except in America, and, I think, in Australia. Some species are decidedly Alpine ; for example, Orthosira spinosa, which Professor Smith found on the Mont d’Or in Auvergne, and Pro- fessor Balfour on the Grampians. It occurs also in nearly every soil from the Andes. 5. On the Injurious Effects of an excess or want of Heat and Light on the Aquarium; by Roperr Warineton, Esq., (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. xvi p. 313.) —Temperature is a point requiring great atten- tion in carrying out successfully the principles of a permanent aquarium. The mean temperature of the ocean is estimated to be about 56° Fahr. and this, under ordinary circumstances, does not vary more than about 12° throughout the different seasons of the year. The causes of this equilibrium will be readily understood when we take into consideration the effects that must be produced by the continued flux and reflux o the tides, and by the enormous streams of water which must be flowing from the Arctic regions from year’s end to year’s end in one constant current, and which, by their movement, must necessarily cause other currents to flow in and take their place, thus forcing, as it were, the heated surface-water of the tropical seas towards the colder regions of the globe. Again, the whole surface of the earth, submersed below them rapidly to move their position and seek some cooler or warmer Spot as the case may be. In the ocean it will be evident that the crea- from the heat of the sun’s rays on the ot : From my own experience I find that the range of temperature should to progress healthily, but beyond these points many of the creatures are rapidly affected. During the last long-continued and severe winter, A38 Sctentific Intelligence. occasions, marking exactly the three severest frosts that we experienced -during the winter, the thermometer immersed in an aquarium contain- ing about thirty gallons of water, fell as low as 45° Fahr. The Shrimp and Crab tribes, and the Crustaceans generally, are especially affected by these changes, and on each of the three occasions alluded to, one or two individuals perished; the larger-sized Prawns, as Paleman serratus, appeared to suffer more readily than the P. squi/la, although this might arise from the smaller ones being able to find a shelter from the radiation by concealing themselves more completely among the rock-work or vegetation. Anthea cereus is also very sensitive to con- siderable variations of temperature, falling from its foot-hold to the bottom of the tank apparently dead. during the hottest period of the day, and on my return I found every creature dead. It contained an Anthea cereus, Actinia dianthus, two specimens of Athanas nitescens, and several others. Too much light has also the effect of rapidly propagating several of ¢ IV. Astronomy. 1. Variable Star, (Compt. Rend., 41: 950.)—Mr. Luther at Bilk has discovered a new variable star called T. Piscium. Its variation in magnitude is from 9-10 to 11. Its position for the equinox of 1 was R. A. 0b 20m 268 and Dec. +13° 26’. ithe 2. New Comets, (Astron. Journ., 90.)—Mr. C. Brubns at Berlin dis- covered a comet on the 12th of November, appearing like a ee nebula. Its position at 17% 22™ of that day was R. A. 149° 1/ 26", and Dec. +2° 7 15”, with a daily motion in R. A. of about — 20’ are and in Dec. almost nothing. : On the 12th of Dec., William Mitchell of Nantucket reported the _ discovery, at eight o’clock on the preceding evening, of a telescople comet in the neck of Cetus. Ey Miscellaneous Intelligence. 439 3. Two New Planets.—M. Chacornac, at Paris, discovered January 12, 1856, a new planet, (3s) fainter than a star of the 10th magnitude. On the 8th February, he discovered another planet (39) having a bright- ness of a star of the 8th or 9th magnitude. In announcing these discoveries to the Academy, M. Leverrier re- marked that he was more and more convinced that a large number of small planets exists between Mars and Jupiter, and that before 1860 probably as many as a hundred will have been detected. 4. Elements of Fides (36) or (37), (Astron. Journ., 90.)—These elements were computed by Mr. George Riimker from the observations at Bilk Oct. 6, Berlin Oct. 23, Hamburg Nov. 2 and 13. Noy. 0:0, 1855. M. T. Greenwich. =. 4 . a Mean anomaly, 22° 17 40-3 Long. perihelion, - - - 63 26 6°9 Mean equinox, —' ase. node,” %= - . 8 8 56 ‘24 Jan. 0-0, 1856. Inclination, 2 - : «8 1] 43°6 Angle excentricity, - . 8 22 25 ‘8 og. semi-axis major, : . 0415680 ** mean daily motion, - - 2926487. 5. Elements of Comet 1855, Il, (Ibid..)—Mr. George Riimker has computed the following elements from the observations of Berlin Nov. 12, Bilk Nov. 15, and Hamburg Nov. 20. Perihelion passage Nov. 25, 66041, 1855, M. T. Greenwich. ng. perihelion, - - 85° 21 41” Apparent equinox, ie c. node, - - ae a a7 ov. 15. Inclination, : - . 10 16 29 Z. qe, - - » - 0-088070 Motion retrograde. VY. MisceLLangous INTELLIGENCE. 1. Postscript to Prof. Rogers’s Paper on Binocular Vision; by the Author.—Since the last page of this article was put to press I have seen in an elaborate memoir of Czermak, entitled ** Physiologische Studien,” the first clear recognition I have met with of the fact that in stereoscope vision there is necessarily an interruption of the usual relation between the axial and refractive adjustments of the eyes, Lest my illustration of this subject, in Part I .. 4 and 5, should be supposed to have been Suggested by the remarks of this able observer, | deem it proper to state that this and the other chief points of Parts 1 and Il of my memoir, having been for some time familiar to my thoughts, were communicated to the Warren Club in December, 1854, and to the American Academy, Abs : after my MS. was in the hands of the printer, and did not reach the Boston Nat. Hist. Soc., where I have just met with it, until the 16th of the present month, nearly eight months after my ideas on this subject were in print. I may add that it has given me much pleasure to find the views of so philosophical an observer coincident in this particular with my own. Boston, Feb. 26, 1856. 440 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 2. Ona modern Submerged Forest at Fort Lawrence, Nova Scotia ; by J. W. Dawson, Esq., F.G.S., (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xi, p. 119.)—The extraordinary tides of the Bay of Fundy, and its wide marshes and mud-flats, are well known to geologists as affording some of the best modern instances of rapid tidal deposition, and of the pre- servation of impressions of footsteps, rain-drops and sun-cracks. At- tention had not, however, been called to the fact which I propose to notice in this paper, that much, if not the whole, of the marine alluvium of the Bay of Fundy rests on a submerged terrestrial surface, distinct indications of which may be observed in the mud-flats laid bare at low tide, and in the deep ditches dug for drainage. erous rocks, and separating the estuaries of two small streams, the Planche and Missequash ; the latter forming at this place the boundary ‘between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Both of these rivers, as well as the other streams emptying themselves into Cumberland Basin, have at their mouths extensive tracts of marsh, and in this instance the surface of this mud I saw impressions of rain-drops and sun-cracks, tracks of sandpipers and crows, and abundance of thé shells of San- oesmagtes fusca.* There were also a few long straight furrows, which I was told had been produced by the ice in spring. Owing to the firm- ness of the mud, they remained (in August) quite sharply marked, though in places filled up with new mud. sits . * Probably identical with Tellina Balthica, Linn. Miscellaneous Intelligence. - AAl At the distance of 326 paces from the abrupt edge of the marsh, and about twenty-five feet below the level of the highest tides, which here rise in all about forty feet, the mud becomes mixed with sand and gravel, with occasional large stones, probably dropped by the ice. At this level appear erect stumps and many prostrate trunks of trees. The stumps are scattered as in an open forest, and occupy a belt of 135 paces in breadth and extending on either side for a much greater distance. Isaw more than thirty stumps in the limited portion of the belt which I examined. Between the lowest erect stumps and the wa- ter-level at low tide is a space of 170 paces, in which | observed only fragments of roots and prostrate trunks, which may, however, be the remains of trees swept away by the ice from the portion of the shore on which these fragments now lie. On digging around some of the stumps, they were found to be rooted in ground having all the characters of ordinary upland forest-soil. In one place the soil was a reddish sandy loam with small stones, like the neighboring upland of Fort Lawrence. In another place it was a black vegetable mould, resting on a whitish sandy subsoil. The smallest point. Ina few places the lowest layer of the mud originally depos- ited over the forest soil could be observed. It is a very tough unctuous : Scull 5 p ~~ © hex 3 oC 4 5 a wn ‘S —s o & § ° fe] S - > ® 8 ° <¢ S rol ou oy ben | co @ narrowing of the mouth of the Bay. This theory is countenanced by the present state of the tideway of the St. John River, in which a ledge of rock so obstructs the narrow entrance, that, while at low tide there is a considerable fall outward, at half tide the water becomes level, and at high tide there is a fall inward; the level within not rising Sacoup Sentes, Vol. XXI, No. 63, May, 1856. 56 442 Miscellaneous Intelligence. to that of high water without, except in times of flood, when the ex- cess of fresh water in the river supplies the deficiency of tide-water. It is evident that the complete removal of this obstruction would enable every tide to overflow ground now covered only by the annual river- floods ; and, on the other hand, the river would be daily drained out to the level of the low tide. Such an obstruction would without doubt produce a change in the water-level of Cumberland Basin, and might even enable trees to flourish a few feet below the present high-water mark ; but it could not under any circumstances enable upland-woods to grow nearly at the level of low tide in a country so well supplied with streams. The only remaining mode of accounting for the phenomena is the supposition that the subsidence to the amount of about forty feet has occurred in the district. Such a subsidence is not likely to have been limited to Fort Lawrence Point; and accordingly I have been informed by intelligent persons, long resident in the neighborhood, that sub- merged stumps have been observed at a number of other places, in circumstances which showed that they were in situ; and that trees and vegetable soil have been uncovered in digging ditches in the marsh. Nor are these appearances limited to Cumberland Basin. At the mouth of Folly River, on the southern arm of the Bay, a submerged forest on an extensive scale is said to occur; and in the marshes of Cornwallis and Granville vegetable soils are found under the marsh. These facts render it probable that the subsidence in question bas extended over the whole shores of the Bay, and that the marshes have been deposited and the present lines of coast-cliffs cut since Its occurrence. ‘ hemian Forests and Peat-bogs; by Dr. HocustETTER*.— primitive forests on Prince Schwarzenberg’s domain, viz., at nes Winterberg, and Stubenbach, may at a considerable distance be easily _* From the Proc. of the Imp. Geol. Inst. of Vienna, Jan. 23, 1855; translated and com t Marschall. Cited from Mag. Nat. Hist. [2], xvi, 878. — nearer eae Miscellaneous Intelligence. A43 distinguished from the cultivated and regularly cut forests by their irregular and angular outlines; whilst the cupola-shaped summits of the firs rise considerably above the pyramidal pine-tops. Seen from In some localities in the interior of the forests, the trees stand in straight lines of 150 to 200 feet [155-55 to 207-4 English feet] in length as if planted so. Wherever the seeds do not find in the deep vegetable soil a site favorable for germination, their growth is exclu- sively confined to the roots and prostrate stems in a state of decompo- sition. Long after these stems have completely rotted away, their original length and situation are visible from the rectilinear arrangement of the younger trees, growing in the mouldering substance of the de- cayed veterans. This growth of the young plant on the decaying roots and stems serves also to explain the frequent occurrence of trees Supported above the ground by means of exposed columnar roots, and, as it is termed, ‘standing on stilts.”” The age of the pines and the firs in the primitive forest reaches as much as 300 to 500 years; the pines grow occasionally to 200 feet in height, and contain 1900 cubic feet [=2118°5 English cubic feet] of wood in their stem alone.- One of the finest of the firs, [=31-11 English feet] in circumference at a man’s height, stood in the Brandel- wald, near Unter-Muldau; it was lately blown down, and it is estimated to contain 30 klafters [3012-03 English cubic feet] of fire-wood. esides pines and firs, the forests in question contain beeches, maples, elms, birches, willows, and some, but very few, yew trees. At present the extent of Prince Schwarzenberg’s primitive forests is estimated at 30,000 Austrian acres [42,660 English acres]; and the quantity of wood in them at 64 millions of klafters. [652,606,500 major part is floated to the lower countries for timber and for fuel. Large quantities of the timber are sent annually to England and Ham- burg for ship-building. Rapacious animals, as bears, wolves, and lynxes, were formerly very abundant in the Bohmer-Wald, but have been exterminated. A bear, the last of its race, is supposed to be still haunting the Jokuswald, near Salnau. , a The beds of peat or bituminous turf, locally denominated “ Auen or “ Filze,”” may be considered in connection with these old forests. The whole upper part of the Moldau Valley, as far up as the neighbor- hood of Ferchenhaid, for an extent of 7 Austrian miles [32-998 English miles], and with an average breadth of $ Austrian mile [1-178 English meh is one continuous peat-bed, traversed by the windings of the Moldau, whose waters assume a brownish tint by dissolving the extractive substances of the peat. ; the mountainous parts the peat-deposits are more isolated, amid surrounding forests. The dense vegetation of pumilous birches and pines covering their surfaces attests their antiquity, and points to 444 Miscellaneous Intelligence. _ their analogy with the primitive forests. Lakes occur in the centre of the peat-beds near Innergefild and Ferchenhaid. A swimming island, probably owing its origin to the central swelling and bursting of the peat, is seen in the last-named localit Cultivation is busy converting the peat- -beds into forests, meadows and arable-fields. These deposits, however, are of grea waposasas i i tio economy how far this cultivation may proceed without injurious conse- quences. The climatal and meteorological influence of the peat-beds and concentrated effect. By acting as natural sponges in periods when water is abundant, they attract the ‘superfluous humidity, and so prevent inundations. In seasons of drought they give up their accumulated waters. They are the real water-reservoirs in mountainous regions ; generally giving rise to the —— and rivers and keeping their water- Reptiles and Fishes are distinguished from each other, and attempted to demonstrate, that although there are but few osteological characters, through them that the two classes approach nearest to each other, yet there are no forms so completely intermediate, as to bridge over the space which separates them. made comparisons between the form and structure of the feet of reptiles and the fins of fishes, showing, that although they resemble ~ other as regards their ah he yet morphologically they are always distinct. There is no known fish, recent or fossil, the pectoral r Rogers. Although among Lophioid fishes, the jen fins are used for locomotion on the shores, yet they, in every instance, conform: to fish type—are fins and not feet. An analogous condition of things ‘is found among Cetaceans and marine Saurians, where rie limbs serve the purpose of paddles, and may be compared to fins, yet, morpho- — they can be referred only to the Memeuile: or Reptilian Prof. —_ dieredata) sry that, in the present state of knowl- » there was no ground for denying that the soi ment = in the coal formations ea beg ae by Reptiles. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 445 5. On Gutta Percha tubes, (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., v, 268. )— Dr. H. R. Stoner reported the results of some recent experiments upon the cohesive properties of different sizes of Gutta Percha pipe, made in connection with Mr. Charles Stodder. The first trial was with one thousand feet of a pipe, of one inch in- A piece of the same pipe was subjected to the full test; it bore 266 Ibs., and burst at 272 Ibs. Another piece of the same diameter internally, with one and five- sixteenths external diameter, from a different factory, bore 300 |bs., and burst at $20 Ibs. . Pipe of seven-eighths of an inch internal diameter, and one and one- aon external diameter, stood a pressure of 280 lbs., and burst at lbs Pipe of five-eighths internal, and one and one-thirty-second of an inch external diameter, stood 320 lbs., and burst at 360 lbs. This is e size used in Boston for the Cochituate Water, and is there sub- jected to a pressure of not more than 60 lbs. ipe of one-half an inch internal, and five-eighths of an inch exter- hal diameter, bore 234 |bs., and burst at 240 lbs, ipe of the same diameter but of another manufacture, intended for an ordinary pressure of 35 Ibs., stood 360 Ibs., and then burst. Pipe of quarter of an inch internal, and five-eighths of an inch ex- ternal diameter, stood 720 Ibs., and burst at 760. This is a stout pipe, used in the shops for effervescing soda water, and generally subjected to a pressure of about 200 Ibs. r. A. A. Hayes asked at what temperature the experiments were made, as the power of cohesion would vary with the temperature. Dr. Storer replied, at the common temperature of the Cochituate ater, _ Prof. Wm. B. Rogers asked if these pipes were of recent manufac- ture. He had made experiments upon the cohesive properties of Gutta Percha and had found that a very remarkable molecular change takes place in the material after some length eat es that it readily reaks up and becomes utterly worthless in that condition. : Mr. Chenes Stodder acd shee the material which had been in the market at different times was of very different qualities, and that the crude article itself, was extensively adulterated by the natives before exportation. When first introduced here and into England, much bad material was obtained. Some samples were found to be acid, and lime was recommended for its neutralization. This remedy however Soon became an abuse, for lime and oxyd of zinc were at one time ex- tensively used for its adulteration, no less than fifty per cent of lime being often introduced. Mr. Stodder has specimens of the pure gum, Manufactured into different articles several years since, now in good Condition. 446 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Mr. C. C. Sheafe said he had a pipe, connected with bellows and freely suspended in the air, which had been in use about eight months, and which was now as fragile as glass. Dr. N. C. Keep stated that he had used small quantities of Gutta Percha for several years. He had observed that when allowed to rest untouched for a considerable length of time, it uniformly lost its te- nacity ; but on being worked over again with the aid of heat, it ap- made of it was in dental operations, principally as a temporary filling in sensitive cavities, etc. 6. Army Meteorological Register for twelve years, from 1848 to 1854 inclusive ; compiled from observations made the officers of the Medical Department of the Army at the military posts of the Uni- ted States. Prepared under the direction of Brevet Brigadier General Tuomas Lawson, Surgeon General United States Army. Published 4to., with several maps. Washington: 1855.—This large and fine volume, for which the world is indebted to the war department of our government, and to the labors especially of the medical staff of the army, and for its final elaboration to Assistant Surgeon Ricuarp H. CooutpeE, U. 8. A., and his associate, Lorin Buopcer, has an interest, which belongs to no similar volume hitherto published on the subject, derived from the very wide range of the continent over which its fifty-one mete- orological stations extend, through the east, the west, and far west, be- tween the meridians of 67° and 123° and latitudes 26° and 47°. The tables are not however complete for each station, through the twelve years. The volume mainly consists of tables of the observations for each month of each year, presenting those of all the stations for the same month together, and other tables giving summaries of the results for each branch of the observations, the temperature, winds, rains, etc., all of which are drawn up with fullness and evident care. There are also other tables of “consolidated tables and summaries,” bringing to- gether the results at each station. Following these tables, there are five isothermal charts of the United States, showing the mean distribution of and prepared by L. Blodget. The remaining eighty pages wy : ; ats and in explanation of several Hyetal or Rain Charts, made out by Lorin Blodget. As for the isothermal lines, each of the seasons, ant the year also, has a separate chart devoted to it, and represents inches, five inches, seven inches, ten, and so on, making separate areas on the charts, and thus displaying the relative dry or wet character of ‘different portions of the United States across the continent. More ob- Servations at a greater number of stations are required, to give full accuracy to such charts. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 4A7 Dr. Coolidge, in whose hands the preparation of the work was placed, remarks in his preparatory communication, that while his own exertions have been unremitting, “the general arrangement of the tables and the grouping of the stations in climatological districts were adopted princi- pally at the suggestion of Lorin Blodget, Esq., who has been associated with me in the preparation of the work. The isothermal and rain charts were designed and prepared exclusively by him, and he is en- titled to whatever of scientific value may attach to them, and to the 7. The Philosophy of the Weather, and a guide to its changes; by T. B. Butter. 414 pp. 12mo. New York, 1856, D. Appleton & Co as observed by us, or passed through by aeronauts. I have never seen it carried up to any considerable height into the other strata by any of the supposed ascending currents, to form permanent clouds, and shall have occasion to allude to the fact in another connection. It disappears usually before mid-day, and has, when thus formed, no connection with any. clouds which furnish rain. 2 To this Dr. Howard originally gave the name of stratus; but the latter term may be with greater propriety applied to the smooth uniform cloud in the superior strata from which the rain or snow is known to fall, and I shall retain and so apply it. oath he next in order, ascending, is high fog. This is usually from one to two thousand feet in height at its lower surfa It forms, like low between ten and twelve in the forenoon, usually passing off to the east- ward. This fog is most commonly seen in summer and autumn, par- ticularly the latter, and unless distinguished from cloud will deceive the Weather-watcher: It is readily distinguishable. Although often very dense, obscuring the light of the sun as perfectly as the clouds of a northeast storm, it differs from them. It forms in still clear weather, is Present only in the morning, is perfectly uniform, and, before its dissolution commences, without breaks, or light and shade or apparent Motion, and unaccompanied by scud or surface wind. The storm clouds are never entirely uniform or without spots of light and shade, by 448 Miscellaneous Intelligence. which their nature can be discerned, and rarely, when as dense as high fog, without scud running under them and surface winds. There is another fog still, connected with rain storms, but it does not often precede them ; occurring at all seasons but most commonly in connection with the warm southeast thaws and rains of winter and spring; and which usually comes on after the rain has commenced and contin- ued for awhile, and the easterly wind has abated ; occupying probably the entire space from the earth to the inferior surface of the rain clouds or stratus. Practically this does not require any further notice. It is an incident of the storm. When formed it remains while the ceedingly dense in February and March, when it accompanies a thaw, and if there is a eae eR depth of snow, it has the credit of aiding po ol in its disssolut The next in order, as oridin ng, are the storm scud, which float in the eaieacta or sey southeast or southerly wind, before and during orms. as the silat will hereafter see, are, practically, very import- ant pate of cloud condensation—althoug the ey have found no place in any practical or scientific description given of the clouds. They are patches of foggy seeming clouds of all sizes, more or less connected together by thin portions of similar condensation, often passing to the westward, south-westward, north-westward, or northward with great rapidity. — average height is about half a cae but ond often run much low They are usually of an ‘ash "20 At about hove same height, but in a different state " the ssiaheepilats float the peculiar fair-weather clouds of the northwest wind. They usu- ally form ina clear sky, and pass with considerable rapidity to the south- east. Sometimes they are quite large, approaching the cumulus in form, and white, with dark under surface, and at others, in the month of November particularly, are entirely dark, and assume the char- acter of squalls and drop flurries of snow; and then resemble the nimbus of Howar hey assume at different times and in dif- ferent ae different shapes like chon of the scud, the cumulus, or the stra hey frei and float in the earns northwest current which is usu- ally a fair-weather wind, and are never connected with storms. In mil ld weather they are usually white, and in cold weather sometimes very black, and at all times differ in color from the ashy gray scu ud of the stor. rm.’ Then follow remarks on the cumulus, stratus, and cumulo-stratus va- rieties of clouds. The author combats the received theories of atmos- Saeenhthehs aneaed OR i a eR eee neal ETE: 5 Wem * Miscellaneous Intelligence. 449 9. Geological Tour over the State of New York.—We would com- mend to all students who wish to acquire a knowledge of American geology, the following announcement of Col. E. Jewett of Utica, New Yor and fossils and has himself one of the largest collections of New York fossils that have ae ma Hs He has gone on such tours with students for several years; and last year, as well as the preceding, several joined him from Cambridge, by the strong recommendation of Prof. Agassiz. New York is the key state of the continent in a geological point of view, and no better field for study on the part of a beginner in itis science could be pointed out.—Col. Jewett writes as follows : ‘“*T propose to be at Burlington, Vermont (where any student can join the party,) on Tuesday morning the fifth of August, and begin the cam- paign at Port Kent opposite, on the Potsdam sandstone.—If the weather is favorable the tour can be made in four weeks. The whole expenses or each individual will amount to about one hundred dollars, while with me, my fee is thirty dollars. A very fair collection of fossils can be made by all who wish, and the tour itself is one of the most pecs that can be markedout. We cs visit the beautiful cafion of the Au Sable, the Thousand Isle of e St. Lawrence, the Falls of the Genesee at Rochester, Niagara falls, Fohage falls, Trenton falls, and al] the eget principal towns and cities of northern and western New York. Al i aie , accompanied me have expressed their pleasure and entire sicutiott We understand wt that Col. Jewett has labeled eallaetiions of fossils and rocks to dispos 10. Earthquakes in California ; by W. P. BLAKE. oa is bebe known in California that it is an “ earthquake ein o% The e given to one of the broad indentations of the — Bahia de "hat Temblores the Southern Mission cy On ments, is not yet forge by the native Californians. This, however, is not the only severe shock which has en felt, and which 6 reaper life and sideuteds According to B. Fresk: of California, who has made a record of all the known awaken me by the si nade n saeenaiil of the bed. A notice ‘of this Was given in Silliman’s Journal. A letter just received teas states that “the recent shock in San Francisco occurred at 5. 25 P.M. : P visor 15th. The motion was undulatory, and at the same time tical. Square bottles and boxes were moved horizontally, and described an arc of about 30 degrees. In some of the stores on Mont- gomery and other streets small articles were thrown outwards two or three feet from the south side of the walls, and those next the north walls were thrown forwards in several cases.” He further states that “it was the fifth earthquake felt in the city since the 2d of — 2 Szconp Sreims, Vol, XXI, No. 63.—May, 1856. 450 Miscellaneous Intelligence. jl. The Mastodon giganteus of North America, by Dr. Joun C. Warren. 2nd edition, 260 pp., 4to, with 31 plates, Boston, 1855.— Dr. Warren has brought out a second edition of his great work on the Mastodon. The first edition was issued, through his munificence, simply for private oe As there have been frequent AnAEIeS for it by those who w to purchase copies, he has issued this second edition. The author es made some important additions, and ae them three pag — The Canadian Journal o of Industry, Science, and Art; Con- doaa by the Editing Committee of the Canadian Institute ; New Series, Number 1, January, 1856, 96 pp., Svo, Toronto, Canada West. —The Canadian Journal appeared with the January Number in octavo form, and from the character of its contributors as well as the sterling value of the number issued, it is evident that it will take a high stand among the Scientific and Educational Journals in our language. scope is partly literary as is apparent from the names of the Editing Committee (mostly Professors in Trinity College, Toronto), as follows : Prof. Daniet Witson, LL.D., General nate Prof. E. J. CHAPMAN, in Geology and Mineralogy. Prof. J. Bovett, M.D., in Physiology and Prof. H. Y, Hino in Agricultural aienne: Prof, H. Crorr in Chemis- try; Proff. Coerriman and Irvin n Mathematies, F. W. CONRERGAE C. a and A. Brunet, C.E., in En agineering and Architecture. Die Portechriite der ‘Physik im Jahre 1852; aaa von der pasiiaiechen gessellschaft zu Berlin. vir Jahrgang. Redigirt von Dr. A. Kronie. In two parts, 8vo, of 794 pages, Berlin, 1855, George Reimer.—These two volumes contain abstracts or reviews of the various papers and works on Physics published during the year 1852, and is @ whole library in a small compass. The work is prepared with great bind being well classified, and ae aie in its wide sir : Chemical action of Light Optical Ce Heat ibe ike alee Electricity, Physics of the Earth, (Electricity, Magne logical optics, &c.,) Physical Geography, adesonater "Orography, , ray phenome ot Meteorology, etc . Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York ; Mia vi, ‘No v, 32 pp., Svo, New York, Wiley and Halsted. _This n number of the Annals is illustrated by four finely colored plates of shells and one of a humming bird (Mellisuga albo-coronata, Lawrence). The contents of the number are as follows:— Art. XVIII F. Pory: on different points in the Natural History of Cuba, with reference to the U. S. Icthyology. XIX. G, N. La n anew Mellisuga, with a note on Tro- chilus aquila, Bourcier. XX. W. Newcoms: Deseriptions of new species of Achatinella. XXI. T. Branp: On certain terrestrial hcg of the West Indies. _ XXII, E. Curry: On Two new species of Cylindrella, from / ' j { { } Miscellaneous Intelligence. A51 XXIII. W. A. Hatves: On four “new species of terrestrial shells from Siam. XXIV. J. G. Anrnony: On new species of Ancylus and Anculosa, from the Western States, U.S. X . GunpLacu: Description of a new Sylvicola. XXVI. O. W. Mor i. On the quantity of rain at different heights. Those interested in Science, would promote the cause greatly, if they would become subscribers for the Annals of the Lyceum, the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and the Proceedings and Journal of the Boston Society of Natural corer The annual charge i is very small. The Journal of the Ac t. Sei. of Philadelphia in 4to, is more costly, yet there are many shea the country who would do well to science and themselves by taking it. Officers for 1856.—President, Joseph Delafield ; 1st Vice President, William Cooper; 2nd Vice Presid dent, J. Carson Brevoort; Corre- sponding Secretary, John H. Redfield ; i ted Secretary, Robert aad Brownne; Treasurer, Charles M. Wheatley ; Librarian, O. W. orr iniiennaet W. _— M.D., W. A. Haines, Geo. N. Lawrence, Dr. Green, R. H. Bro Committee of Publication. —William Cooper, Thomas Bland, Geo. N, Lawrence, John H. Redfield, John G. Adam, M.D. A Geological Map of Europe, — the different gees of Rocks, accord- ing to the more recent researches inedited materials. B . L, Murcaison, 3 A,, F.R. Dir L., M.A., S., &e., Director edi of the Geological Abert of Great Britain and Ireland, Janes Nicot, F a E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History i University of Aberdeen. Constructed by A. Kerra a on, FR , &., - ue ize, 4 feet 2 by 3 feet 5 inc ce in sheets, 32. 3s. ; in a cloth case, Ato, 8 3L 108° William Blackwood é: Sons, Edinburgh and London ; and W. & A. Keith J ohiston, Edinburgh, | The Mier and its Revelations ; with numerous engravings on wood. By W. B. Carrenrer, M.D., F.R.S. Feap. vm, ee £ the Collodi A Manual of Phot raphic Chemistry, inclu ing the practice of the Collodion Proce: q. REDERICK Harpwicu, late ap aoa of Chemis King’s OGEEDING: cl. PHILADELPHIA, Vol XIT, No. 1—p. 6, Description of several species of Urodela, with remarks on the geographical distribution and Frmvification of the Caducibranchiate division oft =o animals; Z. Hallowell.—p. 11, Description of two ee ee J. Leidy 2, Synopsis of Myceto phagidee of the United States; J. L. LeConte—p. 18. Note ie the g enus Lithodus Schonherr ; J. L. LeConte.—p. 19, Three genera of Scarabeide fe lh the U. States; J. Z. LeConte.—p. 25, Analytical table of the species of Chlenius in the U. States A. L. LeConte.—p. 29, Synopsis of the species of Chrysomela and allied genera.in the United States, with a plate; W. —— 39, On North American birds in the collection of the Academy i the ’ ce i ; eS agg al 42, Synopsis of Entozoa and some of their Ecto-congeners tee Of lates. 59, On some extinct mammalia from N csehs: d. Leidy. INDEX TO VOLUME XXII. ie Absorption of matter by surfaces of bodies, Acad. Arts and Sci., Boston, Proceedings of,|| oe Se ciences, Paris, prizes at, 403, Nat. Sci. Phila a oe nrnal of noticed, ty ings 0: 152, 304, 4: Acid, fulminuric, 08, isocyanuric, luic, Africa, native iron of, Hayes, 153. yy Sgr ar Year-book of, 151. G.B., pendulum experiments for de- ee mean density of the earth, 359. sige new mi _ of manufacture, mylic, P Alcohols, il es of, " Cahours and Hof- Aleotatie leew: on curious motions in, J. on, 295, yaa ig F. H, ultimate analyses of ani- mal oils, 133. . — uminium, on pr rom olite, £2. 129) } preparing cry Aluminium, 25 Amylic cloaked Pasi 132. uarium, on effect of excess of heat "|B paren wood of R. I. Murchison, 377.|| n boring, m thod of, 404. yer] mineral porevea and a , peice of vapors, 194. Auroras in Canada, 1855, Sma sty. — crystalline) rocks of North America, B. Babinet’s Etudes, &c., noticed, 408. oe D., tides of W. coast of U. States, — “saga of the Atlantic coast of U. Cc ect lines of the Pacific coast of UD. tes, tidal observations on the Gulf of Mexico, distribu on of temperature in and ne = Golf oho $a uake waves ‘on the western coast! of v. States, 37. ae a Ww. remarks on Mr. Wanker paper, 105. Bailey, J. W., new method of disintegrating masses of fossil Diatomacere, non-existen i iaadoini, 357; | Barnard, F. A. P., on the zodiacal light, 217, Bartlett's Spherical Astronomy, noticed, 149, || Berthelot, on combinations of saccharin e sub- “ki pacing at the Tulare lakes, et, contributions to Army Meteoro- logical Register levee Soc. ha Hist., proceedings of, 152, Bor ny—Book n De sre Genpachia Botanique rai- sonnée, 134. ee , se Diet. Ur Universe, noticed, 408. mone = death of, 1 — v dividaal, in its rela- tion to | Brewster, serio ‘of matter by surfaces of bodies, 296. existence of Aca by, noti ©) Ca acai rs Chemie, oh. Ba sn CG emia tides e, 1. beg tion at Tulare Lakes, Ww. ¥. clissnie of, for 1855, H. Gibbons, 305. anadian Journal of Science, noticed, 450. Carbon, ae 418. Carbonic acid, influence ‘of light on amount given off by animals, 146. — effects of inhaling, on Chenot, 254. Carpenter, W. B., on Foraminifera, 429. Chenot, pe Bi uary of, Nicklés, 255. — of lime, new mode of testing, 405. Chl Chlorine, effect of, bg coloring the flame of Clark, A eo, of, 158. , A., tele: % ; {||Climate_of Bex Woaioon | for 1855, H. Gib- ce of polarizing silica in the i gas INDEX. A53 —— jr gg at city of Marseilles, 405. — tertiary shells, fishes, &c., of Califor- on carbonate of iron in, W. collected by W. P. Blake, 268. “a Bort 339, “Mastodon of "SA America, reference to, C . gers, on Kila ade a, 1 uption of Mauna Loa, 139 yp eote Foucault. apa with gyroscope, on Cobalt, ses we and nitrite of potash,|} heat. , 119. tro: Comets, aa Pin , 438. G. Comet of 1855, y, Mitchel | Riimker, 439. sag ea ao on a self-sustaining, G. Conrad, T. A., on a new Mathiot fossil tertiary mcile of ‘California, col-|| Gas, diarinating, price &c. at Pari lected by Blake, Geology of Britain, inawiaea of Prins wii queniiades Pes die of, Mohr,| 22i¢ pares) ran wick, of p oe sg 9 Murchison, 276. Crystalline form ee “Twas 411, ig be norther orth America, A. K. Isbis- fe te) of Califor tertiary a described ere a 412, by T. 4. Con of ag ffs te on (in D. French), noticed 15k. Dana, J. D., Second Mineralogical Supple- Geological survey of New Jersey, 2nd re- ment, 193. port on, noticed, 423, on crystals of Chondrodite issouri, reports on, noticed, 151, on Leucophane, ype ge Pectolite, 4 205, reves tour in state oft N. York, 449. c action at Mauna Loa, 24 Dosinc. artiGcial formation of mabonne 194. yey Pod ., climate of San Francisco, for Uae a cee Gibbs ee emical abstracts, 125, , 409, Claussen, on plants furnishing fibre for Gis U.S. Astron. Exped., noticed, 147, Bop 39 and on artificial gutta percha, &c., |g , on an earthquake in Chile, 388. cc Bae ’A., botanical notices, 134, 282. od ay sea soundings, sea of Kamtschatka, J. on hybridization, 135. Di , 284, : plants, for what created, 422- 43% atomacen, = Infusoria. Greg, on meteorites, noticed, 30% ae in the temperate zone, 112.'|\Gregory, W., on Diatomacee in soils, 43 ft and P Dat-bertinry in Northern America, Grunow, Indicator stage for mi Seecouibose, » 338, made b ee Gulf Stream, on temperature in and near, A. Earth, density determined by pendulum ex- ties beret periments, Airy, 359. uake waves, felt on W. coast of U. s., Anns we be Dz. Gutta pes tubes, 4 rtificial, &e., Bi Claus. *\\Gyroscope, experiment with, mak sii to the relation of mechani cal force and heat, 119. of 1851 1 in ‘Chile: J. M. Cian, in . aes W. P. Blake, 450. Ecc clocks Haren 42 i. ectrie cloc arseilles, 405 ; El yrening mere ee, Hn nd on fos, 291 light, 125, aman ee Arctic ae ig ‘sbister, TW. Electric conduction, Faraday, Hatch, , obituary of, sn Hayes, A. A., on native iron ot ‘Africa and F. Canaan, Ci, 153, 157. Faraday, on electric conduction, 368. amd rock, 382. ried phil nrmgh aeons,’ pe Vo - i , Noticed, se eat, relation of, to mechanical force, shown | B:, new fossil fish, w fossil footmark from varie” 8 falls, Ferien, Di modern submerged, Nov: a Sco tia, 440. rests Bo Fo Ho ugh, F. or k by, on meteorological Fossil fish fs, Hitehoock, 96 meryation® : im N. Yor ork, 149. i footmark, from T' alls, E. Hitch-|Hugard’s beat of the minera cock, 97. oe omer’ F 2 | cabinet f the Garden of Plants, wetoed, _ footprints in Pennsylvania, Wyman, 444 Hybrids —s plants, observations on, Mammals of Nebraska, Leidy, 422. _ Silamyouscaling aa i ame Hooker, 454 Mi Ichthyodorulites, on vibes mat hae Imeniun, in Columbite erma ann, 198.||M Infusoria, on cleaning ’Diatomacer, Jo WY, i b) of bottom of sea of Kamtschatka, Bailey, in soils, W. Gregory, 434. Iron, native, of Africa, Hayes, 153 of Canaan, Ct., Hayes, 157. = for steel, Cheno t, 25. uy ths ape es Vibister, 4 Americ: yak aes of northern North pF. Jeffreys, J. G., on Foraminifera, 432. Johnson, W. R., on the Rotascope, 146. Jokniede = S§., on po indicator stage for mi- croscope Jou rdier’ 8 fF Pacitultele &e., 408. Julien’s Histoire et Fabrication de la Porce- lain Chinoise, noticed, 408. rage see Vole opp, H., physical properties of chemical compounds, L. Leidy, on the extinct sloth tribe of N. Amer- ica, and ont on Subs ichthyodornlites, and notices of some extinct Nebraska mammals, 422. Level, serrate of change of, along Atlan- tic coast of U. tates, ee on aes sfeoh mter = Jigs, ant ment of car-|| nic acid b by animals, 146. Lignite formation of Arctic ¢ America, 329. Magendie, death o arate pilosophy, Pera day, 2 Mastod n Giganteus of N. ypatean) by J.C. Westen, — oe . America, reference to, J. Mah G. ,on. a Rage voltaic bat- Me docide: constitution of, Metals re or moulded co the hydraulic press, t, 256, Meteor oar ee S. Africa and Mexico, : Mayne stones, fall of, near Hamburg, 146. Meteo; a servations of New York Megersse: oe Ne anes kept at Mari Ohi ica. journal at e i0, oo = ildredh, 189 . ie, oral cale lenda for Lauderdale Co., Ala., rT P. Hatc register, tai for twelve years, 1843— » hoticed, 446. work entitled —— = the Weather, , notice Nera, pale cena = —- for Hiveban gat of —— nS V. Rood, 106. > onan indicator — for, 386. ses, Sci & Factions analyses, Damour, 200. Eukamptite, K INDEX. icroscopie object glasses, on F. H Wenham, 103, J. W. INE Mach ynite a ae aperture of, , 105, w spec cies, Kenngott, 195. Allenite (Orthite) of Sweden, Blomstrand, Allophane of Tennessee, C. T. Jackson, Aine inite, , Ammiolite Teaanetie of Quicksilver), Anat ase, crystal of, Dauder, 195. Anorthite analysis, Deville, 196. y glance, in California, 196.. ipative, ge Pon of, arov, 196 onite, fluor in PLease 196. LD. ie, pyroxen e), 2 \uricha leite tein ee Si Pa., Taylor, 196. seryl, cry Baers 4 in 2 California, Blake, 196, in Trini a - a Blende in Phenixvi ive of Stassfurth, 196. ou . J J y: g d f ey : Babingtonite, crystals of, Dauber, 196. I s (Heavy B I Calamine, crystals, Dauber, 197. Calcite, screw-shape crystallization at Phenixvi ee 197. h red aa New ae 197. eat at 25 Hig, analysi ge oleae a Chon crystals of, Nordenshia 198. : Chirgeoea ron cic i L. Smith, 4 Chr ryso lite, Eiffel, analysis, 198. Cinnabar of Cali rR He. Coal, min Rowney, 198, ‘ai Columbite, composition, oo Copper en angle of Kokscharov, 199. Cryolite e, Leydolt, nburite, com} rts Datholite | aE FH. Schroder, 199. Dolomite, coral rock of Matea, 7. S. Hunt, Datiedifle hated Sing ts 199. | Emplektite (Tannenite), 199 199. | 200. j Guade ast wank Lani, : ease ia INDEX. 455 Minerats— n Ara elo 196 in Caleite, 197, Chinedea enn Galena of Mase i om Wis 202. n Norway, analys G iiaet Sa It, analysis, Glauconite end Sand) of Westphalia, Glottalite (Chabazite), 197, Gold in Califo ornia, Blake, 203. > Gold it mal ‘hi in recoil 203. o- ite ot icon a, Kenngott, 203. Feri 6ld, 203. Gypsu 2 all ed bony Kenngott, 203, an- le of, Dauber. Hematite (Specular ‘Iron), pseudomorph, Herrerite, 203. Heddline new Hecies, Greg, 203. -Hircine, Piddington, 203. aca analyses, 203, Hyperst ikon pd baad Rammelsberg, 204 Scheerer, 204. Tridium, in beet gold, 205. Tron, native, see s Jaulingite, Zephar resich 205. Junkerite iaane. analysis, Igelstrém, 205, Lazulite, analysis, Igelstrim, 205. Le ueopha ne, crystal, R. P. Greg, 205. “ss ‘ ana, monite, of Missouri, Litton, 205. Magnesite of Bolton, Canada, 205. Ty, t, ‘Yes, , 203. Malachite at Phenixville, 206 Manganese ore, 206. Marcylite, C. U. pas 206. Meionite, angles, Melanchyme, Haidinger, 206. Mellite, angles, , 206, Mica, angles, eee! etc., 206. ia e, form, Kenn, net 206. e, at Pheni Mispickel of Copinpo ‘analysis 207. Molybdate of iron Morenosite, Casares, MOOT. Muscovite, Naphtha, 207. Native Iron of Canaan, Ct., y o 557. Liberia, Africa. Nepheline, sues 2 Kokscha Nordenskiéildite, 204 Okenite, analyses, 207. Orthoclase, 201. Ostranite, 207. Paisbergite, crystals, Dauber, 207. Pectolite, Pm ae 208. Perofskite, Be! once ete., Damour, 209, sromorphite a at Mica sg 209. Pseu Pit setia pyroc Pyroretin rj Scleret tinite, 210. xene, analysis, Kjerulf, 210. Byrrhotine 10, Quartz, density before and after heating, Salt i in Califor ria, 210, Schee ereri! e, form, Kenngott, 11. Scleretinite, 210. Ser ReuD®, analyses, S. ne tem , analyses rhe Hay Silver « ete of Chi 13,2 1. maltine from sete Ris oe das fore cat co Aeek faces, 211. Smithsonite under the form oft aclaaik 427. Spi Stephanie, ah Fsaane Schrider 211. Sulphur in California, 2 Tetrahedrite, analyses, 21 212. Titanic Iron, Igelstrém, 212. Tombazite, enn, 212. Tourmaline, Vanadate of tod of cca Sa Vivianite in human s, Nicklés, osgite, Websterite, 212 Wilsonite. 213, edi rca 21 and composition, 213. olfra Wollastonite he Morne Mts., 213. Wulfenite of pom a lle, 213. Xenotime, twin with Malacone, 213. Zincito ited Zine ore), 213. a gs: es, plesiomorphism of, Dela- _ 1 formation of, Daubrée, 194. Minerals, effects of p soe on the density of baatel Cabinet of the, Garden of Plants notice of Hugard Mine ralogy: second a to, J. D. 3. ue works on, 1 ie alnemte clawed animal oils, 1 ose North Highlands, &e., 276. : Mushrooms, actions with, 418. N. Phosphore Sgn Sood Platinum in ¢ aie ak halite, anal wage ste itoid, : 209, Nobrasks fossil mammals, BS, vs correspondence of 117, Jae 403. eVivianite i in human bone Nora Scotia, mode ny piesnansbeg forest in, 456 O. eas Pg utik Beck, Pee Bracon-| »psineng 258, 404 — 118; A. Chenot 255; T W. Harris, Eines die, tif; Sturm, 255 ; Zadock Oils, ultimate analyses as animal, F. H. Al- exan C. Morfit, 133. ,on mn deteanting strong or weak basic properties of, H. Rose, and ozonic actions, Schdnbein, 418. ef Paleozoic strata of Great Britain, Prof. Sedg- wick Paper, ‘plants that can furnish, de Claussen, Payen’ 8 coe Industrielle, noticed, 261. Substances Alimentaires, noticed, 261. Peat bogs of Boh emia, 442. Phosphorus, Bi bases containing, Cahours and Hofmann, 416. elects on, noticed, sai Plants, for what created, A. Gray, 428. table individual in its relation to alternation ofg fgene mong, Hoo ker, 135. ring, Dusach, 132. elot and a an: 415, | ations, &c.,among,62. | INDEX. Silica, gig at i Pirie 194, iluri asin of F Htadeo ’s Bay, etc., 318. Sincloebd, G,, Sainbaticns to meteorology, 86. Soda of manufacturing, 120. Solubility. of otttes and calcite in water, 194. oe variable, in Pisces, ereoscopic vision, W. B. Rogers, 80, 173, ve . Sturm, bse sk of; 255. gar in urine, on determining, 1 Sulphuric acid, eed mode of Siceabieg: Swallow, G , Report by, on Geol. Survey of Micecunt ‘noticed, 151, 427. T; {Telegraph ——— across the Mediterra- Pralsooboas of A. C Telluramyl and pir pi ethyl, 24 Tertiary shells, etc., of Calta ‘Blake, 268. Thompson, Z., obitua ary of, 30 (Borge? of west coast of U. Shwe A. D. Bache, r the Atlantic coast of U. States, A. D. B wisi of Mexico, 28. nsformation into benzoic alco- Tungsten, researches on, R 416, age, J., translation of. Pia on alumin- ium. Unio, on a new, T. A.C ‘onrad, 172. a rsal Exposition, Paris, 256, 261. aig on metallic, rugs De R. fan ae of, in the t Raindrop-marks, J. Wi Report of Coast Survey, for 1 —* W. B., on binocular ey 80, 173, on re of iron in coal meas- ures, Rood, adapting the microscope a a goniometer git for determining index of re oe “y ON preparin aluminium from ecryo- lite, eal Sete : ied on ning strong or weak basic properties of Gteie 130, 41}. V. Vegetable se a in its relation to spe- cies, Vienna Scientific Publications, 303. Volcano of Antuco, -_ noticed, 148. auea, Soe of, T. Coan, 1 conte T. Coan, 189 2a. . D,. Dana Voltaic, see Galvanic. Warington, on — of excess of heat on the aquariu! Waves "of ries earthquake felt on the west coast of U. 8., A. D. Bache Wells’ of Year Book of ‘Agriculture, 15 Wenham, F. H., on the aperture i: object feanee 03, remarks on paper by, J. W. Bailey, 105. Wharton, F. Stillé, on Medical Jurisprudence, 1 Wilkes’s bing tt of the whitened —— 301. Wohler a telluramyl and celenmethyl oa Wyman in-dron marks. Rotascope, W. R. Johnson, 146. 8. ae combinations of, 119. Sin he ae op on elscopi appearances of, W. R. Schinbeln and ozonic actions, 418, Sedgwick pai apg British Paleozoic Rocks, no- see eS of the Paleozoic strata of Psion 343. rystalline form, &c., ot 411. fossil footprints in Bemeytrani 444, Selenmethyl. Wohler and Dean, _ Serpentine rock, A. A. Ha ayes . ge | meteoric iron of 8. Af. bP rrigam & supposed new of Mexico, 21 Sieh the no-xitnee of paring, per light, F. ee Barnard, 31 +317, 399. [°° et Gia io, Conrad, 172. Yiilis'e Expedition to Chili, noticed, ati 00 omit Society for Acclimation, 407. 1 YALE SCIENTIFIC SCHOOL, CHEMISTRY AND NATURAL SCIENCE, LECTURES. FIRST TERM. General Chemistry, - - - Prof. Benjamin Situiman, Jr. SECOND TERM. Geolog Prof. James D, Dana Oheiiiacy af Huitding Materials, Prof. BENJAMIN Sia, JR. Agricultural Chemi istry, : Prof. Joun A. Por “ THIRD TERM. Mineralogy, - Prof. James D. Dana. Chemis stry applet to the Aus, - Prof. BenzamIn ee enc Jr. Chemical Philosophy, - Prof, Joun A. Port ASSISTANT INSTRUCTORS. Samvr. W. 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Sekaie! & Co, 343 Broad- way, New Yor March, 1855, [tf] GENERAL INDEX TO THE FIRST SERIES OF THE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. IN ONE VOLUME OF 348 PAGES, 8vo.—Price, $3. A Few 7 ty remain for — in the hands of the Publishers. Enquire of & Dan See a oae second page Cover. New Haven, March 1, 1851. 3 MICROSCOPES—SURVEYING AND OTHER INSTRUMENTS. Messrs. J. & W. GRUNOW, OF NEW HAVEN, CONN. Messrs. J. & W. G. make to order AcHRomaric Micsoercras of superior excellence i in all respects, and of every variety of form and price.—ALso— Surveying and Astronomical Instruments, whose superior excellence of workmanship, construction and accuracy, have been frequently acknowledged. For the quality of their instruments, Messrs. J. & W. G. are per- mitted to refer to the Editors of this Journal. To Profs. D. Olmsted and W. A. Norton of Yale College; Prof. W. Gibbs of New York Free Academy ; Profs. C. R. Gilman and A. Clark, M.D., of the Crosby Street Medical School, New York; Dr. H. Vahntedale: Morristown, N.J.; Prof. J. L. Riddell and James Jones, M.D., New Orleans, and Dr. J. L. Smith, Toutuvitle, Priced Catalogues sent to order. (July, 1855.—tf G. P. PUTNAM & Co., New York. EXPLORING EXPEDITION REPORT ON CRUSTACEA. By James D. Dana. 2 vols. 4to, 1620 pages, and 96 plates in large folio, partly colored. EM OF PEER ALOGY» By James D. Dana. 4th edition. 2 vols. 8yo, 320 an pages. New York, 1854, ent t methods of determining the k trong basi ] an oxyd : Ga ino class of alcohols, 414—Researches on iodated propylene, 415,—Re tungs- ten: New bases containing phosphorus, 416.—Nitrite of potash and sesquioxyd of co- balt: On the quantitative determination of ei 417.—On metallic Uranium: On crystallized silicon and carbon; On Ozone and Ozonic actions in Mushrooms, by M. Scuénesetn, 418. : logy.—Deseription of two eh ha is spa M.D., 421. —Notices of remains of extinct Mammalia, recently ered by Dr. F. V. Hayden, in the Bad Lands of Nebraska, by Josep Lerpy, sip Sage 422.—Second katoi — 2 the Geo- logical Survey of the State of New Jersey, for the year 1855, 423.—Geo ces Survey of Missouri: Pseudomorph of Smithsonite, 427. Botany and Zoology.—For what purpose were plants created ? 428.—Researches on the Foraminifera; Part I, General Introduction, and Monograph of the genus ee pes b y WittraM B. Carrenter, M.D.) F.R.S., &c., 429.—Notes on British Foraminifera, by J. Gwyn Jerrreys, Esq., F.R.S., 432.—On the presence of Diatomacer, phys t a i vhi ion, by WiLLiam Gazc- ory, M.D., F.R.S.E., 434,—On the Injurious Effects of an excess or want of heat and light on the aquarium; by Rozert Warincron, Esq., 437. Astronomy.—Variable Star: New Comets, 438—Two New Plafets : Elements of Fides : ee 7 Author, 439.—On a modern ‘henge Forest at Fort Lepreenics, Nova Scotia, J. W. Dawson, Esq., F.G.S., 440.—Bohemian Forests and Peat-bogs, by Dr. Hocu- STETTER, ea Eo Footprints, by J. Wyman, 444—On — eee a of New ee 2 451, ok a The next No. of this Journal wili be published on the first of July. CON TENTS: ’ Page. Ant. XXXI. oe oe of San a for the nae 1855 ; y H. Gres XXXII. On. the Gales of the Hlidson’s s Bay ‘Terrichien: and of portions of the Arctic and een: Regions. of America; by A.K. issioree, M. A., M.R.C.P., &e:, -- - 313 of Iron in Coal Measures ; by Prof. Witt1AmM B. Rogers, 339 XXXIV. Subdivisions of the ee hear = Great eee ae according to Prof. Sedgw ade. XV. New method of dissitegrating masses “of Fossil Diato- fF ___ macez; by Prof. J. W. Bartey ee seer On the hon: masrigtage of larizing Silica in the Organic ee Kingdoms ; by Prof. W. Barter XXXVIL On the cen anaes fatélg: sisade the Har. ton Se for ascertaining a mean Geanty of the Earth; .. by G..B. Arey, Esq., F.R.S., B59 | xxxvie On the rate of Eraporation 0 on the Tolaré Lakes oF oe 3 California ; by Wm. P. Brak Stas ee On Electric Conduction ; : te Prof, Fanapay, D.C.L., etc., 368 the Occurrence of numerous Fragments of ‘ir-wood in. slands of ue be Se Archipelago; with Remarks on e Rock Specimens brought from that Region; by me iaexivk Lapoay- MoacHts0% D.C. ce F.B.S.; a . 357 _ On the Eart auake of f April 2, 1851, in “Chile ; ; J. M. GILLISS, A. M., U Vv. a a ae to 2 the article on the Theory hr Ree attributes the Zodiacal ‘ing = 2 Earth 5 by Prof. F. A. P. Bannanp, V. On the Presence of Vivianite eS by Lieie ee 38