THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. . CONDUCTED BY PROFESSORS B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr., JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or NEW YORK, PROF. S. W. JOHNSON, or NEW HAVEN, PROF. GEO. J. BRUSH, or NEW HAVEN. SECOND SERIES. VOL. XXXV.—MAY, 1863. WITH A MAP. NEW HAVEN: EDITOR 1863. BPP PAAR * PRINTED BY E. HAYES, 426 CHAPEL 8ST. ay CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV. NUMBER CIII. Art. I. Mémoires et Souvenirs de Avcustin-Pyramus Dr Can- DOLLE, Ecrits par Lui-méme et Publieés par Son Fils, I. Description of a method of Reducing Spee re rad ‘Tem. perature; by Prof. J. D. Evererr Ul. Remarks upon the eisai 1 J, . Everett by Prot E. Loomis, - IV. Upon Natural and Artificial ile in some Chietopod Av. nelids; by W. C. Minor, - - F Reiaarks on the Temperature of the ay extreme Seasons in the ‘Temperate Zones as affected by the Variations in the Sun’s Distance stint in its — Velocity in in str eee ; by Wittiam Denn : VI. On the Solution of ‘ on ane Veen by B. 6 Han. RIsoNn, M.D., U.S.A., VIL. Parogiephe | ; by C. Caner, es. so. If. On the identification of the Cattskill ate Sandstone oan with the Chemung; by Prof. A. Wine IX. On the Cause of the —— Taundaton Ee the — by Witiiam Ferret, - X. Ona the higher goodie in - Classification of Mammals; ; by James D. Dan XI. Astronomical Observations with the Spectroscope ; by Lewis UTHERFU XII. The Cheiicat Theory of Interpeneteation = Cuances s. se ‘M., EIRCE XIII. Epasidon of the true nature of cco days problemat- cum; by Cart Romineer, M.D., XIV. Remarks on the family Acteonide, with descriptions of some new genera and sub-genera; by F. B. Meex, - XV. Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of = College. —V. On the ose and — of sapere Jounson and XVI. On Tellurbismuth from Fehaicess, Bootes by I Davi M. Batcu.—Communicated by Dr. C. T. Jackson, 57 61 XVII. Recent — coo, to ee cote : by Profesor a a : A. Gaur Aun foal iv CONTENTS. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Physics.—On a new form of Spectroscope ; ; by Dr. Wotcorr Grsps, 110. General Chemistry —On th See a of Ozone, Scuénsetn: On the eegteete _ D : eel air under the influence of heat, 113.—On a new mode of detecting the Latres of small quantities of peroxyd of hydrogen : On the oxythylene bases, Wons On apna BerTuEeLotT: On anew series of compounds containing hod FRaAnNkK- ND, 115, ee Ley t f ists wea of Magnesia Salts towards Carbonate of Ammonia, Diver n Arsenic in exe erpeid, Buioxam: Estimation of Lime, WicKE: Soemnes ports Hs of Starch Metallurgy.—Metallurgy. The art of Se metals from their ores, and ada opting a m to various purposes of manufacture ; by Joun Percy: Occurrence of crystalli Silicon in Pig iron, -by Prof. Ropert Ricuter, 118.—Concentration er in lead by P: Sa not .desulphuration of iron in puddling, 119.—On in some varieties of iron, 120. Agricultu duced from the Decom of Ca rboni cid by Leaves Mig 0 to the Light; by M. BoussinGav ur, | pero {S$ ea in various Seeds, DraGenporFF: Peat-sand- stone, Dr. Meyn, 123,—On the Sodbneee of Silica in the higher Plants, 124. fo Ss ple with feathers, in a sin er Jurassic age; by A. Wagner and H von Meyer, 129.—Note by James D. Dana, 130.—Additional remarks on the same by . Woopwarp, 132.—-On some additional species that are common to Carboniferous jan ~— with remarks on the recurrency of Carboniferous cies; by ag W. Kirksy, 133.—Geological Survey of Canada.—Re on the ology of Canada: Descriptive io a of a collection of Economic “Min nerals of C anada, and of its am ne Rocks Botany and —Genera pantry ad Exemplaria imprimis in Herbariis hie bus serv: odo “> ita auctoribus G. Bentuam et J. D. Hooker, 134.-——-Darlin Californica, Torr., | heen Collections in the Rocky Mountains, 137. napa Filicum ; by Sir Ww. J. Hoo Zoology. arg sesaraea of peechyres and on the heels ies of the antennary joints in Decapod Cru ; by Wm age M.D., bservations’ on the genus soe etc.; Fixe & Lea, LL.D., Astronomy and Meteorology.--Re-discovery of ica Asteroid (41), 144.--Discovery of a new Aste oe) ioahisas by M. Tempel: Discovery of Asteroid (75), i —Astronom- ical and Meteorological Observations made at the United States Naval Observatory ne the 17), 4k 1861.; Commander J. M. Giuuiss, U.S.N., Superintendent : : Discovery steroid (7 Meteorology —Shooting hoe of November, 1862, 146.—Observations at Pa. by nJ. V. Marsn: Observations at ber ghee panes. 2 7 Prof. S. a Gunsten and Jos, G. pens rvations at Str N MaSTERMAN: | servations at New Haven, by Prof. A. Cv Twinisa, 147. ar wae“ Periodic teors: Shooting Stars of January Ist-3d; by STILLMAN Mas?eauane, ge the forilliancy of the variable Star, Mira Ceti; by Weriiauis Maste Miscellaneous Intelligence —Discovery of Antimony in New Brunswick, 150.— Prof. H. A. oh: Ward's Gevlogeal Museum, 1 152) 7 Book Notices.—Sur la Physique du Globe, A. QuereLer, 152.—Report of a cal Reconnoissance of yee rae made r alien the years 1859-60, | vader direction ag late David Dale Owen, MD. State Geologist; by KicHaRD Owen, M. Obituary.—James Alfred Pearce : Theodore Parkman, 155. Proceedings of Societies,—Bost. Soc, Nat. Hist.: Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 156. * ’ CONTENTS, v NUMBER CIV. Arr. XVIII. Contributions to the Chemical and Geological His- tory of Bitumens, and of Bapoerrons or ee ieee ; by ‘T. Srerry Hunt, M.A., XIX. Origin of the Indian Race of doa: ; by I A. < aaa 171 XX. Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, kept at Marietta, Ohio ; y 8S. P. Winprera, M.D.—[Thirty- -fifth Annual Report], 181 XXI. Walbidees, ; by Jonn M. Ornpway. Part IV, - - 185 XXII. On the Origin, Growth, Substructure and Chronology of the Florida Reef; by Capt. E. B. Hunt, U.S.A. (In a letter to Prof. A. D. BacueE), - - : - XXIII. a of Mineral Localities in | New — Nova cotia, and Newfoundland; by O. C. Marsa, B.A., - « 210 XXIV. On the Correction of the Elements of the Orbit of a Comet; by Prof. James C. tet iA % XXV. Geographical Notices. No. XIX,—Physical Geography of the Report on et ear Pg river, by Humphreys and Abbot, 223.—Red River Basin, 224.—Arkansas and White River Hesin: 225. ir Brians Basin, 227 it Sa was Upper Mississippi Basin, 228.—Ohio Basin, 236.—Yaz Basin: Basin of Small Direct Tributaries, 232.—Recent ey plorations Seconaee ed by the aa ae A i = Sle the Peninsula of California, by Mr. 230—of the Hudson Bay territory, by Mr. Kiantote 237, by officers of the Company, 238—Northwest Boundary Survey, under Mr. Archibald Campbell : Report of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey for 1860, 239.—Desiderata in East Af- rican Exploration, 242. XXVI. On the existence of a ae are islocinns in ane Gila. ose cial Epoch; by James D. Dan - | 243 XXVII. On certain Changes in Wines by J. aa, “ae XXVIII. Observations on the Sphagna of New eo Mets De- gas scription of a New Species; by C. F. Austr XXIX. Foreign Correspondence.—1. On the Seiancs of the io ternational Exhibition,—in a letter from O. C. Marsa, B.A.; Gold: Silver: Platinum and the Platinum-metals, 256.— Aluminium: Mercury, 257.—Copper: New Metals: Iron and Steel: Coal and artesian boring : Canadian collections ; asterism in Mica, 258.—2. Correspondence of J. NickLés: itua Henri Hurran de Seénarmont, 260.—Adrian Etienne Ma de Gasparin: Ed. Francois Jomard, 261.— Publication of the works of Lavoisier, 262.—Ozone and Nitrous Acid—Fixation of Nitrogen in Plants, 263.—Elec- tro-metallurgy—A new kind of ‘industrial’ Painting, 264.— gen Gas to counteract Gangrene: Treatment of Tuber- vi CONTENTS. cular Leprosy, or the Red Disease of Cayenne, 266.— Preservation of Wood, 267.—The Ceramic Arts of the Lon- don Exhibition, 268.— Bibliography. —Recent publications by Hachette & Co., Paris, 269.—By H. Bossange, Paris, 270. —On the —3. nature of nitrogen and the theory of nitrification, 271. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. General Chemistry.—-Report a Memoir of Mr. Lamy eae ee AD secre by Mr. Dumas, 273.—The diestivicw. of the sate! Tillie, W. Cro Analytical Chemisiry.—Alkalimetry, 279.—On the solubility of aS of Lime in chlor- hydric acid, 283. nical Chemistry—Webster’s process for producing Oxygen Gas, 283 .—On the in- dustrial sigieatien bf Cryolite, 285, Photography.—Tise action of light upon a sensitive Ce 286. geen oN Alnminnm-bronze, Lient..Col. StrRanGcE : Age sib: de Resistance mpression, 286.—Matleability : ‘Transverse siren h, ete., 287.—Mineral and Metal aapive cls es eat csi: — a 288.— “ ae do ‘Smelang Magazine, edited = k¥ CURWEN Sacmon, F. GS ee one: HULZ, 290.—Un the it na of nite: acid to benzuie acid, and its coneereien gi Feomer acid in the animal organism, LauTemann: On the composition of the urine of oxen, as related to their fodder HkNNEBERG, S'TOHMANN axe AUTENBERG, 291.—On ints in the composition of soils, ALEXANDER MuLu Miner @ Geology —Manuel de Minéralogie par A. ee Report on GGeologieat pint ‘Mineralogical fect grees ingen by Mr. S.C. Hatuin Frobisher ics Note on sil Echinoderm frum the Blue Limestone (Lower ilertan of Cin- Mg Ohio; a Eh, —— na new i euieane from the Potsdam Sandstone; v. Titus Coan: Arsenids of Copper from Lake Superior, Scurerer, 296.— atalog einer vom 675 Modellen in Seige zur Erlii duterung der “Keystlltarmen der Mineralien, ausgegeben vom Rheinischen A. Kx antz, 297. Zoology. weer to Comcnloy = ii—A focus of the Order Pholadacea and — papers; by Gro N, Jr., 297. Saget vader — the order of a i, and Revision of oe Ni Mialdin reuebe of the Gene j by 1 RE Oe —On tie double star sere in a note to the Editors, by ALVAN CLARK? Al. vie AN otal kk receives the LaLande gre ‘The Astronomical Assuciation of Chicago, 301.—Shooung Stars of Dec, 10th-13ih, 1862, 302. Miscellaneous Scientific peace PB a —— of the Metric System of Weights and Measures, 302.—Pas husen a member of the French Academy, 303. Book Notices. assabet pvt he de! wns of plein Substances, 303—New ps oian eisuees org —'The American Annual Cyclopedia and Register of Pro-. — ess and Event a — Renwick : Melins C. Leavenworth: Dr. Asahel Clapp, 306. “sore and Physics, 306.—Astronomy and era ea an Agel — —-Gevlogy and’ Mineralogy : Zoulogy, N atural sige CONTENTS. NUMBER CV. Arr. XXX. On American Devonian; by J. W. Dawson, . XXXI. On the Flora of the Devonian Period in Northeastern America; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., - . : XXXII. On the nature and advantages of the Globe Lens dag ss Photographic Camera; by CoLeman SELLERS, - XXXIII. On the Glacial origin of certain Lakes in Swnwerunds the Black Forest, Great Britain, Sweden, North America, and elsewhere; by A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S., etc XXXIV. Lucernaria oe oe of Acalephie ; ch Pro. Henry James Ciar XXXV. On the use of = isms of Flint Glass and Bisuphid of carbon for Spectral Analysis; by Prof. O. N. Roo XXXVI. On certain ee prone tgs by Revolving somes ; by Prof. O. N XXXVII. Abstract ie aN of a Magnetic Survey of ek vania and parts of adjacent States in 1840 and 1841, with some additional results of 1843 and 1862, and a amps : by A. D.Bacuk, LL.D., F.BS., cic..: = XXXVIII. On some em inne Sse os Coal Formations nf North Aion ; by Leo Lesquere XXXIX. On © Oceanic species of Proezoans related to the Spouse by James D. Dana, - XL. Key West Physical Notes.—Zodiacal | Light: Micaghana Aa at 388.—Gulf Stream Cloud Bank, 389.—Ray Bands, —Northers, 392.—Hurricanes, 393.—Ventila- tion, 394 acvenoe Fever: A Water Moonrise, 395. XLI. Observations upon some of the Brachiopoda, with refer- ence to the genera bel pon, ss — ~~ S allied forms ; ; by Ja vii XLII. Scientific Gecamesonls ms Lonet on lad ML re UTHERFURD,—1l, Companion to Sirius: 2. ar Ses ny = 8. The Spectroscope, 407.—4. Analysis of the line D, 408.—II. On the Sat al oy the ce = in a letter from Prof, Gro. C. ScHar SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. s and Diacon: Canubatien ions to spectral analysis, BorTrcer: On diu — m Fizean, 414.—On the indices of refraction of fluid. homologots compo & eas Scaiies Ae Set t line, Hormann, 417. “ee viit CONTENTS. * Analytical Chemistry.—On the analysis of Borates and Fluoborates, Marianac, 418, Photography.—Collodion ; by A. JEANRENAUD, 419. Metallurgy.—Thallium in farnace products; by W. T. Roerrer, 420.—Ressemer’s prow cess for the shane ate fi of Iron and Steel, 421. Agricultural Chemistry —Atmospheric Nitrite of Ammonia and its Origin, E. Bouiice, 423, The Nitrogen Question, 426, Mineralogy and Geology.—On the composition of Columbite, H: Rosz, 421,—Kischtimite, anew reg ES Leaseiaele 427.—Ca mre of ne Miocene Shells of the Atlantic Slope, by 'T. A. Conran, 428,-~Geo ology of Vermont, Botany ini Zoology—A new character in the Fruit of Oaks; by Mr. Aupu. DeCan- DOLLE, 430.—Species, considered as to Variation, Dasara! ee. and Suc- cession; by ALPH. DECANDOLLE, 431.---Flora Capensis; by Dr. Harvey and Dr. Sonper, 444.—Flora of Canada—Flore Canadienne, ou Descriptions de ‘Gitiees les Mr. ‘Token Tweedie: Be — D. Greene, Esq., 44 , 449 i. quate Clapp, 450.--Dr. Me- lines C. Leavenworth: Dr. Charles Wilkins Shor 451.--Zoolugy.—Evidences as to Man’s place in Nature ; by Tuomas Henry Huxuex, 451.—On the question whether i i 454.-— 7 SST SR d Mete mesa very it Panopea, Asteroid 70; Elements ' — roid 76: Discovery of ecerovag hs Comet III, 1862, 460.—Comet I, 1863: Star Sih 1085 ae Shooting Stars seen in England in 1862: Auroral arch ee avail Miscellaneous Scientific tga 00 2% ~-National Academy of Sciences, 462. Book Notices.—The National Almanac and Annual Record for the year 18 63: The Geo- 1 Evidences of vs Antiquity of Man, etc.; by Sir C. — Assé Moigno’s new Journal—Les Mondes Revue Hebdomadaire des Sci iences, etc,. 465. ERRATA. P. 20, in Table II, second column, for 55° 41’, read 59° 41’.—p. 48, 1.21 from bottom, for 50,000 read 10, 2 61, 1. 16 from phrase: for “ compliments,” read “ complements.” —p. 147, first line of ote, for Minoris d Majoris.—p. 218, 1, 12 from top, for Labratory read [ y.—p. papel aed for Mogrio, read Moigno. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Art. I.— Mémoires et Souvenirs de AUGUsTIN-PyRAMUs Dz Can- DOLLE, Ecrits par Lui-méme et Publieés par Son Fils, Geneva and Paris, 1862, pp. 599, 8vo. DECANDOLLE was born at Geneva on the fourth day of Feb- ruary, 1778; he commenced his distinguished career as a botanist in Paris in the later days of the French Republic; he continued it at Montpellier until 1816; when he returned to his native eneva; where he died in September, 1841,—on the fifth day of that month, according the opening paragraph of his son’s preface to this volume,—on the twenty-fifth according to the note by the same excellent authority at the close of the Memoir, 489. We cannot account for the discrepancy; but the former is without doubt the true date. peer The twenty-one years which have elapsed since his death have thinned the ranks of those who knew DeCandolle, either person- ally or by correspondence. The Théorie Elémentaire, the Organo graphic, and the Physiologie Végétale have played their part, an have ong ago passed out of general use. Yet, thanks to their influence, but more especially to the Prodromus, the name of De- Candolle is still perhaps the most prominent one with the culti- vators of the science in general the world over,—is associated, not indeed with the profoundest depths, but with a larger amount of botany, than any other name except that of Linnzeus. These are the personal memoirs of an industrious, highly useful, pros- perous, and honored life. Begun at middle age, perhaps mainly for the writer’s own satisfaction, or that of his family, and con- Am. Jour. Sci.—Szconp Ssrizs, VoL. XXXV, No. 103.—JaN., 1863. ] ‘ 2 Memoirs of DeCandolle. tinued, at considerable intervals down to his last year, and evi- dently with a growing expectation of future publication,—they ave appeared none too soon to secure the most interested, but rapidly narrowing circle of readers. The outer circle, however, is as wide as ever, embracing all the lovers of botany in our day, to none of whom can the name of DeCandolle be indifferent. The memoirs portray, not so much the botanist as the man. Indeed, the perusal was rather disappointing to us in the former regard. We expected to get fresh glimpses of his mind at work upon the problems of the time, and to watch the rise and development of the ideas which brought him fame. That could be had, how- ever, only from letters, diaries, or other contemporary records: these are only reminiscences. On this account, too, and perhaps because the record was made with only a dim and distant view to paca the narrative somehow has not all the vivacity and sprightliness, nor the ready flow of language, nor the afflu- ence of anecdote, which those who personally knew the writer would have expected. There are, however, many favorable specimens of DeCandolle’s powers of delineation, and some amusing anecdotes or interesting recollections of distinguished savans and others. The family of DeCandoile (to retain the style of orthography which is kept up at Geneva, in which the De is written as a sub- stantial part of the name) is an old and noble one in Provence; and a branch of it, reaching Naples in the thirteenth century in the suite of the Anjou princes, flourished there, under a name gradually changed from Candola to Caldora, down to the middle of the sixteenth century. Augustin-Pyramus DeCandolle derived one of his baptismal names from his ancestor, Pyramus de Can- dolle, who, becoming protestant, fled from Provence to Geneva in the year 1591, following an uncle who had already been estab- lished there for thirty or forty years. Augustin was the name of his father, in his earlier days a Genevan banker, a member of the state council, military syndic, and, about the time of the outbreak of the French Revolution, Premier Syndic of the little republic. Displaced by an earlier coup d’efat just as he was about to enter upon the duties of this office, he had retired into the country just in time to escape the worst perils of the woful im1- tation at Geneva of the reign of terror, in July, 1794, although he was condemned to death for contumacy, and his property in the city for a time sequestrated. The rest of his life was peaceful and long: he attained the age of 84 years, and died in 1820. Augustin-Pyramus, the writer of this auto-biograpby, appears _ to have been remarkable in his boyhood rather for quickness of _ learning than for scholarship. His early tastes were for belles- lettres and a . Specimens of his poetical productions, both of his youtk of maturer years, are appended to the volume. Memoirs of DeCandolle. 3 Of their merit we cannot pretend to judge. At the age of six- teen he happened to attend a few lectures of a short course on otany, given by Vaucher,—who, living to a venerable age, sur- vived his distinguished pupil. Here he learned the names of the parts of the flower, but nothing whatever of classification, having gone into the country for the summer before that portion of the course was reached. But his curiosity was awakened; and in his leisure hours he began to collect, observe, and even to describe. the plants he met with in his rambles, at first without any botan- ical book whatever to guide him, and without any idea beyond that of amusement or relaxation. The next winter, returning to Geneva and to his college studies, he came to know Saussure, then in his last years and half paralytic. The veteran physicist, while he endeavored to attract the young man to scientific pur- Suits, discouraged his predilection for botany. That he regarded as quite unworthy of serious attention. Another summer passed upon the side of the Jura, however, and the perusal of Duhamel’s Physique des Arbres, of the Researches upon Leaves of the pastor Bonnet (a friend of his father), also of Hale’s Vegetable Statics, which he painfully translated from the English, and finally the acquisition of the Linné de l'Europe of Gilibert—in which the Linnzan artificial classification even then annoyed him by its Mcongruity with the natural relationships which he already of Fourcroy and Vauquelin upon Chemistry, of Portal and Cu- Vier upon anatomy, and of Hauy upon mineralogy, it was at this early period that his acquaintance and life-long = amarck being just then wholly occupied with the discussion of chemical theories. When DeCandolle returned to Geneva in 4 Memoirs of DeCandolle. in ascertaining the capital fact that plants decompose carboniec acid, may be said to have laid the foundation of modern vegeta- ble physiology. The first genus which DeCandolle established (in 1799) was Senebiera. From his narrative it would appear that, during this summer of 1797, the ambitious young botanist of two years’ standing, and only 18 years old, had not only conceived the idea of writing an elementary work, but actually traced the plan and wrote some chapters of it! He even states that from this period date the first observations and the conceptions—con fused indeed, but correct— of the part which the abortion and the union of organs play in floral structure,—namely, the ideas which principally distinguish the Théorie Elémentaire, published fifteen years later. How far these ideas were developed, however, we have no means of as- certaining. One would like to see an extract from this early — manuscript, in confirmation. The following winter he began to study law at Geneva. But with the little State now annexed to the great French Republic, the prospects were not encouraging. A career must be sought elsewhere. DeCandolle determined to study medicine, at the same time prosecuting his botanical studies, so as to have a ouble chance, by falling back upon the former in case the latter failed to support him. In this view, he returned to Paris in the spring of 1798, just : in time to see his patron Dolomieu set out for Egypt, as one of the savans of that famous expedition, and to decline a pressing invitation to accompany him. Taking a lodging in the Rue Co- peau, to be near the Jardin des planies, he attended the hospitals and medieal lectures, which he disliked, but recompensed him- self at the Garden of Plants with the courses of Lacépéde, La- marck, Cuvier, and Hauy, omitting the botanical lectures, as not to his mind, but sedulously examining the plants of the Garden. He renewed his acquaintance with Lamarck, at whose request he wrote a few articles (under the letter P) for the Dictionaire Encyclopedique. Lamarck himself by this time had quite aban- doned Botany. _ It was to Desfontaines that DeCandolle was indebted for an immediate opportunity of beginning his botanical career. It came about thus: L’Heritier, who appears to have been wealthy, had engaged Redouté, the celebrated flower-painter, to prepare drawings of all the fleshy plants in cultivation, it being impossi- ble well to preserve them in the herbarium. The artist under- taking to publish these drawings, applied to Desfontaines for a botanist to furnish the descriptive letter-press. The kind Des- mtaines recommended DeCandolle, and moreover offered to : direct him in the work. He freely opened to the young botan- ist his herbarium and library, and allowed him to study by his oan Memoirs of DeCandolle. 5 side; indeed Desfontaines was his botanical master and fatherly riend. The botanical library of L’Heritier, then much the largest at Paris, was.naturally at his service, until the death by assassina- tion, soon afterwards, of its singular owner. DeCandolle, thus connecting his name and studies with the work of the unrivalled flower-painter, acquired thereby, as he remarks, more reputation than he deserved, and more instruction than he ex nthe course of this same summer, of 1798, an invitation from Alexander Brongniart, the mineralogist, (whom DeCandolle had slightly known, through Dolomien, on his first visit to Paris,) connected him with a small party of naturalists who made an excursion to Fontainbleau. Besides Dejean, the entomologist, then very young, Cuvier and Dumeril were of the party. In the autumn of the same year he visited Normandy, with less celebrated companions, and formed his first acquaintance with marine vegetation. The next year he made a visit to Holland, to consult the gardens and conservatories of that country, the richest in the plantes grasses, which then occupied his attention. One result of this journey was that he induced his friend Benja- min Delessert to purchase Burmann’s herbarium, and thus to lay the foundation of the important collections and library at the otel Delessert which have been so useful to naturalists, and so liberally devoted to their service. During the winter of the fol- lowing year DeCandolle elaborated the Astragalogia, his first in- dependent work of any considerable consequence, and which was published two years later: in this he found opportunity to dedicate to his friend Delessert the Leguminous genus Lessertia. About this time, namely, at the beginning of the century, he beeame acquainted with Mirbel, who had come up to Paris from the south of France, where he had been a pupil of Ramond. Instead of translating DeCandolle’s remarks, we may as well give them in the original. “Il [Mirbel] savait alors peu de botanique, mais il annongait de les- idées, nouvelles pour lui, et dont quelques-tnes l’étaient pour le “eu , car en ne gra partie dans éléments de physiologie quwil publia peu d’années aprés; telles sont la distinction des fenilles séminales et primordiales, Pimportance de létude es nervures principales des feuilles, ete, Appelé a rendre un compt Succinct de cette ouvrage dans le Bulletin philomathique, je me divertis Ne citer que les idées que j'avais suggérées a auteur; je n’en revin- diquai ancune, et ne sais pas méme s'il s'est apercu de cette petite malice, ¢ dois dire que je ne prétendis point, méme alors, que se fit un plagiat Volontaire, mais il arrive souvent dans les sciences qu’on s’appropie, sans sen douter, ce qu’on a entendu dire. : Juuusitecose “Cette circonstance éveilla ma propre attention sur la justice rigour- 6 Memoirs of DeCandolle. euse que jai désiré rendre a tous: la force de ma mémoire, et surtout le ue j'ai eu trés-jeune de noter les faits et Jes idées nouvelles que Jentendais dans la conversation, m’ont mis & méme de pouvoir, bien des années aprés une conversation, citer exactement celui de qui j’avais Mer un fait ou une opionion quelconque. Cette habitude de justice m’a fait beaucoup d’amis, et j’ai eu souvent des remerciements de gens cités pat moi, qui eux-mémes avaient oublié ce qu’ils m’avaient dit.” (p. 91, 92.) To DeCandolle’s credit it must be said, not only that his career was remarkably free from controversies about priority and re- clamations, but that his example and precepts, his scrupulous care to render due credit to every contributor, his respect for un- ublished names communicated to his own or recorded in other erbaria, and the like, have been most influential in establishing both the law and the ethies which prevail in systematic botany (more fully, or from an earlier period than in the other depart- ments of natural history), and which have secured — CO Pte named one of the three candidates to fill the vacancy ee the Academy of Sciences left by the death of L’Heritier. A me compliment, for the contest, of course, was between Labiliardiore and Beauvois. In the canvass DeCandolle called upon Adanson, then very aged, and in his dotage more excentric than ever. f not chosen into the Institute, which indeed he could not pretend to expect, DeCandolle was in that year made a member of that active association,—la pépiniére de l’Academie des Sci- ences,—the Sociélé Philomathique, and was soon placed on the Peittce in charge of its Bulletin. This brought him into in- mate connection with such or ae die (Alex.), Dumeéril, Cuvier, Biot, psecnaspes and ro ma a our ‘wives were 6 introduced 3—then we o lon read our urn to the year 18 Memoirs of DeCandolle. 7 By DeCandolle’s account he was by about ten years the young- est member of this réuwnion. Yet he has the name of Biot an Duméril on his list, both of whom survived him for twenty years: and Biot was really not quite four years his senior, and Duméril only five. As a member of this select circle of intimate friends and zeal- ous savanis, all then pressing on to the very highest distinction, we may well believe that the ambitious young botanist enjoyed, and improved to the full, such golden opportunities, that he learned something of every branch of natural history, and also —what was no less useful at Paris—‘4 connaitre les hommes et les mobiles cachés de bien des choses.” -DeCandolle sketches the following portraits of three of his associates, Duméril, Cuvier, and Lacroix. And first of “The excellent Duméril. He was the ideal of the frank character which we attribute to the Picards. He wasa sincere and devoted friend, always ready to second and render any service to me and mine, cloud ever threw a shadow over,our alliance, which became closer yet when, at a later period, the friendly connexion of my wife with the wid- owed Madame Say determined the latter to marry Duméril. He was ment which he so well knew how to give to the young. The heart in “Cuvier, who was from the beginning the intimate friend of Dumeéril, Was entirely different: and it would be difficult to find two people who acquired the reputation which results from great talent united to a skillful ambition, At the time when the office of secretary was annual he fore- Saw it would become perpetual, and arranged in such a manner as to one secretaryship almost continually, either himself or by others; so 8 Memoirs of DeCandolle. that he found himself in pees to have it without contest when it be- came permanent and well paid. ese first steps being taken, all places fell to him as of themselves, and we saw him successively Professor of the coles centrales, of the Collége de France, at the Jardin des Plantes, In- spector, then Councillor, then Chancellor of the University, Councillor of Btate, Baron, Peer of France, &e. &c. His talent, his aptitude for know- ing and doing everything, made him skillful in every function ; he brought to it pees order, facility for administration, a knowledge of details and of the whole, a sincere ah ' justic —— a disinterestedness which caused him ees be noticed and admired. Cuvier might justly be comnpated to Haller, whom he resembled as much as the difference of nation and time would allow. Both astonished by their extraordinary capacity for learning, knowing equally well natu- ral and historical science, greedy of positive ; facts on all subjects, endowed with wonderful memor and a remarkable spirit of order, capable of great Jabor, and yet gifted with much facility. But at the side of these admi- rable qualities it might be observed that neither had an inventive genius; they observed facts well, but never thought to unite them by a theory that would divine or discover others. , Their characters cor responded even outside of science: both loved power, and sacrificed precious time to the desire of political advancement ;. both loved reading to a passion, even at the hours destined ordinarily for meals and domestic intercourse; both were cold and haughty in conversation with those who inspired them with no interest, piguante and profound to those whom they thought worthy of it; finally both had a certain contempt for that class of ideas called liberal, and held to the aristocratic party. The great size of their heads e them acertain physical resemblance. In one word, it would be dif- flout to find two celebrated men more exactly alike, aia the lovers of metempsychosis might say, if the epochs would permit, that the soul of Haller had aero ithout change into the body of Cuvier. me, seall¢: Cuvier was well-nigh perfection. Notwithstaning the great difference in our respective views of life and of poli cs, n of science in some theoretical hiccahgeote: our intimag 5 ht episode if fifteen days, during which DeCandolle, to his great surprise, had political functions to perform,—being ap- cate one of the three he tt of the department of the Lé man, in a representation of all the departments of the pi Republie, which the First Catal eaited Hacther. —gives us t first glimpse of Bonaparte in this narrative; and DeCandolle’ , 3 iJ Memoirs of DeCandolle. 9 account of the interviews with him, and with his minister of police, Fouché, is well worth preserving. With this transient ex- ception, we have only the most incidental allusions to public af- fairs during the eventful years of the Consulate, the Empire, and the Restoration. himself when he came to reside at Paris. Indeed Delessert, as we have had occasion to learn, became one of Count Rumford’s executors. The admiration with which Rumford’s writings and economical inventions had inspired the two young philanthro- pists was much diminished upon personal acquaintance. “It was after his plans,” writes DeCandolle, “that we had constructed our furnaces, after his receipts that we made our soups, upon his advice at we were induced to substitute such assistance for gifts of money.’ So when Rumford was expected at Paris, they congratulated themselves upon such an acquisition, went to meet him on his arrival, and brought him to dine with them. “We found him a dry, methodical man, who spoke of benevolence as a discipline, and of the poor as we should not have dared to spea' of the poor must be forced to work, &e., &e. reat was our astonishment at hearing such maxims: however we did our utmost to profit y his ad- Vice in practical matters. I had ood deal of intercourse with him, life, Tasked M. Rumford himself for a few notes: h m , and Ppointed an interview at his house to give them to me. I went: what bi nishment when he presented an article entirely comp Lavoisier, the widow of the celebrated cbemist. Isaw something of both, never knew an odder union. M. Rumford was cold, imperturbable, Am. Jour. Scr—Szconp Serres, Vou. XXXV, No. 103.—Jay., 1863. ops 2 10 Memoirs of DeCandolle. obstinate, egotistical, prodigiously occupied with the material part of life, . and in inventions in the smallest matters. He was engrossed with chim- _ her housekeeping. Mdme. Lavoisier-Rumford ..... was a woman of very decided character. A widow for twelve or fifteen years, she had been in the habit of having her own way, and did not like to be contra- dicted. Her mind was broad, her will strong, her character masculine. She was capable of ert friendship, and I could always congratulate myself on her kindness to me. Her second marriage was soon distur joying. er obtained erty and the title of Countess: both were satis- fied. could now arrange the house at Auteuil as he liked: she con- tinued re receive a select circle at hers Of this racy and unflattering sete! we have only to aaa that, however it may have been as to the pension, Rumford’s cuniary means, as shown by his endowments and legacies in t is country, were more considerable than DeCandolle supposed. s to reminiscences of distinguished savanis, we loo _ forward a year or two in the a and select the follovitgh And first, of a person who was well known to a past generation, and to some who still satis a SS was made Minister; and his first act was to overthrow the Inquisition. But the Prince died just as he was coming of age, and Correa was left exposed to the hatred and jealousy of the priests. After a while he ob- tained permission to go to England, where he lived in the society of the savants of which Sir Joseph Banks’ house was the centre. Afterwards he removed to Paris, where he also lived among savants and men of let- ters, and where he showed the most noble character when eo siezure of oe canal Freres quite below his talents; but in conversation all his various knowledge and his ingenious views were sapien exhi- bited. In these days Humboldt and Cuvier often came to my lodgings, where they occasionally met Correa. Although their pet & was far above his, and justly so, on account of their published works, yet Correa always got the advantage over them; and it was by no means the least Memoirs of DeCandolle. ¥ of the enjoyments of our sociable little dinners to see the sort of defer- ence, and even fear, which Cuvier and Humboldt exhibited in the an- nouncement of their opinions before Correa, who, with the grace and sly maliciousness of a cat, would at once expose their weak sides. Like | secuted him ; but he forgot all his wrongs when his sovereign became un- fortunate. Correa died when ambassador to the United States.” The following, of a somewhat later period, is abridged from DeCandolle’s account of the Société d’ Arcueil:— Sone Its founder was the excellent and illustrious Berthollet, who then living in his country residence at Arcueil,..... invited thither, once a month, MM. de la Place and Chaptal, also senators and members of the Insti- tute, were, so to say, Vice Presidents of this little reunion. Humboldt also had a place, and the parterre was composed of Biot, Thénard, Gay- Lussac, Descotils, Malus, Amédée Berthollet, and myself. Later, Berard and Frangois de la Roche were admitted. [And finally Arago, Poisson, and mee, adds the editor, who notes that the last volume of the A/émoires . of the Ranunculacee. e first of these writings was a simple and clear solution [although an incorrect one, as it proves.—Eps. h was insoluble; the second reduced to just pro- cence of organs, to which my Théorie Elementaire was devolea. «s,s “We commonly made our rendezvous at Thénard’s, and went together to Arcueil, as happy with this run into the country as for a holiday. e abo cold I spread my pocket-handkerchief over my feet.” This man, so high im social rank and scientific celebrity, bore contradiction unusually well, and loved above all things truth, When the first works of Berzelius 12 3 Memoirs of DeCandolle. upon definite proportions became known at Paris, I was very much taken with them, and although they were in direct opposition to the principles of statical chemistry he sustained, I did not fear to tell M. Berthollet the high opinion I had of them. Far from taking offense at this preference, he He a me to study the writings of Berzelius. r be- Stations. x Mette ot ora > ease i A and 9 1 1 Canc: sine cold half, Stornoway ........ 4674 8°99 5° 34’ — 38 11°6 Cu lloden Pee eek | 475 10°17 80° 57’ + 16 13°1 BURY vs os vata s bins os 472 10°33 79° 24’ + 01 13°3 Castle Newe.......] 44°2 10°83 80° 29’ +12 13°9 oe eee 44°9 10°89 107. 3 - 02 140 rdeen 45°9 10°69 78° 50! mee 13°8 Fettercairn ..... o--| 469 11°56 83° 29° +41 14°9 ~oreogge wedererese 46°6 11°09 19° 53’ + 0°5 14°3 BAITY 2 vcsscectess| STF 10°54 718° 24' = 10 13°6 I ettins 45'8 1°20 80° 39/ + 13 14°4 Callton Mor 47'2 10°37 80° 87’ + 1°3 13°4 Greenock 484 10°97 ogy! — 2-7 14°1 Baillieston ? 46°6 11°59 80° 28’ +11 14°9 Edinburgh......... 49-0 10°71 fg baa? =~ 28 13°38 CULL. 2s eaciecne tc 48°3 12°02 79° 95! +01 15°5 East Linton........ 47°3 0°66 76° 16’ natn k 37 Berti ek eae 47°0 O74 T1° 437 re 13°8 ae ee coos! 46°2 1°55 83° 56’ +47 4°9 Thirlestane ..,.. 45°1 1°83 80° 46’ +14 52 Milnegraden .......| 47°0 11°08 78° 43’ — 06 4°3 Bowhill ....... yess) 44°2 1:17 | 82° 9/ + 29 4°4 Makerstoun........ 46°8 19°65 Lal tate xs -— 20 3-7 Drumlanzig........} 47-0 11°96 i hes +17 L5°4 oe bb's aie 46°5 10°85 81>. 5’ +18 14°0 Fain ws-.| 467 | 10°94 | 79° 20’ [4-1 TasLe Il.—Results for single years. pon Values of Ey. Values of A,. 1856. __|__ 1857 1858. 1856, , 1857. ) 1858. Bressay (Shetland). . peed (oe Me: Jee ay! wee 78 86 Sandwick (Orkney) .| ....... | 629 2’ | 75° 49/ ws 86 | 83 ‘nen send OIE Td ced a i3° 30" | 84° 19") ey eT ee Stornoway........ «fp B12 SO? | AE" a) Oe 81 ae ee DONOR siesccy, [BOP 20’ | 74° 56 87° 25° 98 104 | 104 East Linton =|. 16°... 4’ | 68°. 27) 1 eee rons ie ‘we PRC i ie od ie 70° 66’ |. 62° 10’ |. Ba" 40° eee : : ee ee ee ee foal 4! eee eee a ee ae pee! To find the centres of the warm and cold halves of the year, The mean value of E, for all the reduce to the beginning of the year, subtract 15°, since our reckoning has been taken from the mid- eee re . See - ~ Se ERD as a EES A SEN OP SN ROE eee ee ADIN. SER RN Se PEP EEA Me ein Seno See POEL YR ES J. D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. 21 dle of the first month. This leaves 64° 20’, which is the inter- val from the beginning of the cold half to the end (or begin- ning) of the year. The complement of this or 25° 40’ is the in- terval from the beginning of the year to the centre of the cold ae which again is 180° distant from the centre of the warm 25° 40’ corresponds to 26 days (nearly) 205° 40’ 6 “909 « “ The 26th and 209th days of the year are January 26th and July 28th, which are therefore the centres of the cold and warm halves of the year, for the mean of the stations. The corresponding dates for any particular station, will be later or earlier than these by the amounts shown in the fourth column. : An expeditious method of finding the centre of the cold half is to assume the complement of E, as representing the interval from Jan, 15th to the required centre. hus the complement o 70° 20’ is 10° 40’ corresponding to 11 days nearly, hence the cen- tre of the cold half is 11 days later than January 15th. This determination it will be observed coincides with that above given. In like manner the centre of the warm half will be 11 days later than July 17th. y taking the sum and the difference of A, and A, we should obtain approximately the mean temperatures of the warmest and coldest groups of 30 days; or if the difference between the tem- peratures of these two periods is required, it can be foun simply doubling A,. These determinations are however only first approximations, and this is my reason for omitting them, all the numbers contained in the Table being second approxima- tions at least. With the joint purpose of testing the powers of the method, A, and K, for single years for a few of the Society’s stations, including three (the first three) which are not contained in the 1857 to 1858, although the absolute times differ by nearly a fortnight. The amplitudes are also less for these two stations than for an others, the amplitude (and consequently the range) at Bressay Slings only about four-fifths of the average derived from the 24 stations, The extreme lateness of Thurston (near Dunbar) seems to be borne out by the results from single years, a8 appears from a comparison with the neighboring station, Kast n. The extreme earliness of Yester cannot be so satisfac- 22 J. D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. torily tested, as the interpolations (in defect of observations) at this station are numerous during the years 1857-8. In the year 56, which is entirely free from interpolation, Yester appears to have been 16 days earlier than Thurston, and 11 earlier than East Linton, a remarkable difference, considering that all three places are in the same county (Hast Lothian). Comparing one year with another, it appears that the seasons were latest in 1857, being fully a week later than in 1856, and at some places about a fortnight later than in 1858. At Thurston the difference be- tween the last two years amounts to nearly 21 days, All the inferences as to dates contained in this paragraph, are derived from mere inspection of the values of HE, bearing in mind that a degree nearly corresponds to a day, and that the phases are ear- ier in proportion as EH, is greater. s an instance of the convenience afforded by the present method, for comparing the climates of different countries, I sub- join the values of A,, A, and E, for Edinburgh, and for Albion Mines, N. S., the former derived from the monthly means of the late Mr. Adie’s observations, embracing a period of 40 years, for which I am indebted to a paper by Principal J. D. Forbes, as epitomised in the Ed. New Phil. Journal for July, 1860, the lat- ter from 11 years observations by Mr. Henry Poole, Manager of the mines. The monthly means themselves are— For Edinburgh. 3669 37°99 4061 44°83 5027 55°66 58-27 57-44 5378 47-47 41-21 36°60 For Albion Mines, 19°85 19:90 2741 37°38 4858 58-14 66:10 65:19 56:05 46°28 3559 24-47 from which are derived the following values of mean tempera- ture, amplitude, and epoch: Edinburgh, Ay—469 A,==108 E,=83° 27’ Albion Mines, Ari A ,==28'°0 E,=78° 13! . Hence, cleared of technicalities, the relation between the two climates may be expressed by saying that the village of Albion Mines is on the average of the year about 5° colder than Hdin- burgh, that its range is rather more than double, and that its seasons are on the average 5 days later. No such definite in- to, viz: | 1st. When the last 2 days of January and first 2 days of , J. D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. 23 March are reckoned part of February, giving February 38 days, and leaving January and March only 29 days each. 2d. When the last 8 days of February are reckoned part of March, so that January will have 81 days, February 26, an March 34 3d. When the last day of January and first of March are reckoned part of February, so that January will have 30 days, February 31, and March 30. 4th. When calendar months are adopted, giving January 31 days, February 29, and March 81. he resulting values of A, A, and E, are as under. Days. Days. Days. Ao Ay E, Jan. 29, Feb. 33, March 29, gives 46°91 10°87 88° 37’ Oe RS RRS OO: oe 10°81 83° 19’ #80, FEEL, OS egg ES ESOS 10°78 88°. 33" BLE MB, OS RacBIy ss eet 10°78 83° 217’ Here a difference of 7 days in the length of February causes a difference of ‘03 in the mean temperature, ‘06 in amplitude, and 18', or about $ of a day, in date. From the last two lines it appears that the difference between giving February 29, and 31, ays does not affect either mean temperature or amplitude, to i places of decimals, and only affects date by about 75 of a Tshall not attempt to show in detail the advantages which meteorology may be expected to derive from the extensive application of the method of reduction here pro Tecognized in every branch of statistical enquiry, et no such measure is usually applied to “date of phase,” and the measures to retard the air temperature, but Iam not aware that different p ae The laws which connect date of phase with extent of range also offer an interesting field of investigation. — Generally speek ing, the causes which retard the former diminish the latter. 24 J. D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. — In the application of meteorology to agriculture, date of phase cannot, without serious error, be overlooked. e earliness of crops at one place as compared with another, must necessarily depend upon this element as well as upon mean temperature and: range, and it will be interesting to ascertain how much of the effect is due to each of these causes. Thus far we have endeavored to describe in general terms the objects and principles of the st method of reduction. The remainder of this paper will be devoted to the mathematical investigation on which the method rests. taking observations of temperature at any place for a suf- ficiently long series of years, it would be possible to ascertain the average temperature of each day in the year, and if the mean daily temperatures thus found were projected into a curve, its‘course would be free from those sudden and irregular devia- tions which characterize the curve of temperature for any par- ticular year. Such a curve would admit of being expressed, to any required degree of accuracy, by an equation of the form y= A,+A, sin (e-LE,)-FA, sin (22--E,)+A, sin (3¢--E,) + dee. x and y being the codrdinates of any one point in the curve, and » A, E,, &ec. being constants. The coefficients A, A, Aj, &c., are the amplitudes of the terms in which they occur, and , H, E,, &c. are epochs. The term which involves A, and H, attains one maximum and one minimum in the space of a year, it is therefore called the annual term. The term involving A, and EH, attains one maximum and one minimum in half a year, it is therefore called the half yearly term; and in general the term A, sin (nz+E,) goes through its entire cycle of values in the “th part of a year. We assume of course that a year is rep- resented in arc by 27, or the entire circumference. For places in the temperate zones the amplitudes of succes- sive terms in the above series diminish so rapidly, that for or- dinary purposes all terms involving A, and higher coefficients — may be neglected. © The mean daily temperatures for any single year or for the average of a few years are too irregular to admit of being ex- pressed with accuracy by any simple formula, but it is possible to represent by a few terms of the above series the probable curve of annual temperature as deduced from the actual daily temperatures even of a single year. It is one object of the Pee ent communication to show how this may conveniently be done. We shall now proceed to the solution of the following problem. — Given the temperatures at twelve equidistant points in the year, it is required to deduce the values of the constants in an expression of the above form which shall be applicable to them. — J. D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. 25 The general term in the expression is A, sin (nz+E,). t this fon assumed equal to P, cosnz+Q,sinnz. This assumption giv A, sin E,=P,, A, cosE,=Q, whence a= tan E,, A?—=P?24+Q?. The transformed series is y=A,+P, cosx+Q, sinz+ P, cos 22+Q, sin 22-4 ke. Let the given oe be denoted by Yo Y1 Y2 Yi1 Then if the time 0 Ocrtglpond to the temiperature Y, the times, or values of z, corresponding to the 12 given values of y are Tespectively OP BO OOF te 4g Si 330°. et the sines of 0°, 30°, 60° and 90°, a denoted by the ab- breviations S,, S,, 8, ‘and S, . Then we have Yo =A, +P,8,40,8,4P,8, +95 ras ot PS; —Q,8, ¥, =A,+P,S8,+Q,8,+P28,+Q25,+P,8,+Q,8,—P,8,+2,8, Ya =A,+P,S, +Q,8,—P,8,+Q,5,—P,8;—Q,8, - P,S,—Q,8, Ys =A,+P,8,+Q,8, —P,8, —Q,8, — PS, —Q,5,+P,8,—Q,S, ¥, =A, —P,S,+Q,5,—P,8, —Q,S8,+P,8,+Q,8, —P,8,4+Q,8, Ys =A,—P,S,+Q,8 itP.S, —Q252.+P,5)+,5, —P,S, —Q,8, ¥6 =A,—P,S,—Q,S,+P,8,—Q,5,—P,8;—Q,8, + P,8,—Q,8, Vz =A4,—P,S, —Q,5 :#+P.8,:+.,8, a P,8,—Q,8,—P,8,+,S8, Ys =A, —P,8,;—Q,5,—P,8, +Q,S8,+P,8,+Q,5, —P,8,—Q,S, V9 ag ae <° o—-Q,S8,-P, cee es ‘eae ate Yio= pe es —Q.5,— i+Q, ¥s=A,+P,S,—Q,5,4P,8,—Q,8,—Pq8)—Qs8; —PaS,— 48s Pasa tid =a e 6 ae anne i ooeee asim’ which contain an larly, adding y, oye rs mie y, toY,, &¢., all the terms which contain P, Q,, P ill disappear, Let y,-y, =k, al ke X8,=4 Y¥i—-y, =k, (k,-*,) X eee Yo-¥, =k, (ko—ky) KS, = ly ¥s—¥, =k, ks XS, =/;5 ~¥ 55 k, And let Ye~wy, j= hy k 5, mm, a It will be found that the sum of J,, Z,, 7, a. I, is 6P,, and the sum of m,,m,,m, and m,is6Q,. | Hen P, andQ, are found Aw. Jour. Scr—Szcoxp Smries, VoL. XXXV, No. rhitdan, 1863, 4 26 J. D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. as in the arithmetical example below; and EH, and A, are ob| | tained by the oe | tan E, = a 1 yA gt ohok' + Qi, or using EH, as a subsidi- ary angle, A; =.Q,, sec By. ; To find P, and Q,, proceed as under. | Ree) By =U Let ¥, = eee a z 4 s. i. ; 41 oe ee K, eK —S,)=L, YotYs = K. ( s) x(= 1) | Yst¥o =K;- (Ky +K,) X So = My Ya T Yao — Fa (K,+K,) x 8,=M, ve ere hs (K,-+K,) xX S,=M, Then will t, Rs = we: M,+M,+M,= whence EH, and A, can be obtained by the equations tan E, = Pe A= Q, sec E.. Qe To find P, Q,, P, and Q, we have hoth,—kp=6P, Ky+K,—HK,+K,+5, +K,)=6P, Rbk Fe Oe (Ent Ke— Ma H) XS = 60, whence EH, A, and A, can be obtained as aia In the ling exa mie the values of P,,Q,, E, and A,, are found for H on the assumption that the mean temperatures of cuiaadae months, may be regarded as iden- tical with the temperatures of 12 equidistant points in the year. The numbers in the first column are the mean temperatures of the months January to June, those in the second column are t mean panto nie of the months July to December. i. IL. Til. ee cone VE Ve 1s pee (L—IL) | in pitria (ITI—LV,) (VX VL) |\(IT+TIV.) jz IX.) 23-9 | 64°9 | —41°0 —41°0 | Ss | —41:00 || —41°0 | Sy “00 23°2 | 65:1 | —41°9 | -+-30 | —72°5 | S,| —62-79 || —113 | S;| — 5°65 801 |. 58:3 rag +105 | —38-7 8, —19°35 || —17-7 | S,| —15°33 389 | 48-2 — 93 | 8, 00 9831S, | — 930_ 483 | 878 Ks¢- ; 6 T2314 6 — 30°28 584 | 27°8 0°6 Siete Bey P= = 2052|| Q= |= 505 | E, = tan" gi = 76°10, A, = Q, sec E,y=—21°14. The coefficients A,, E, and those belonging to higher terms — are aehy comparatively little practical use, and it will not be neces: to append examples of the process | for ae them, 33 thane no difficulty in the application of the form J. D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. 27 The last edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica has an article on “ Meteorology” by Sir John Herschel, in which the attention of meteorologists is called to the great practical utility of the ode of reduction above described, which has been for some time known but has been little used. The formule which Sir John Herschel there gives for deriving the values of the con- stants from monthly means, are in reality identical with those above given, though the identity is not at first sight obvious. He asserts that the values thus obtained are the most probable values, as derived from the application of the method of least. Squares. Also that “it is a peculiarly valuable property of these expressions, that if the approximation be stopped at an m,.... then should it be considered afterwards desirable to carry it a term further, .... it is not necessary to recompute the former coefficients, their values remaining unaltered.”? Instead of using the temperatures of 12 equidistant days, as the basis of calculation, there are obvious advantages in employ- ing the mean temperatures of the 12 months which compose the year; but it will be necessary to apply a correction to the results thus obtained ; for it is not true, even on the average of a long Series of years, that the mean temperature of a month is the Same as that of its middle day. We shall proceed to investigate © hature and amount of the correction which must be applied, deducing by the way some interesting relations between the mean and instantaneous values of variable elements. Y Let OACX be the curve which represents the variations of temperature through the year. Let the ordinates AB and CD represent the temperatures at the beginning and end of an inter- val of time represented by BD. It is obvious that the mean temperature of this interval will be obtained by dividing the area ABCD by the distance BD. mperature of : ponth been applied (unknown to me) by Professor (now dese J. D, Forbes, in a paper read March 25th, 1860, (Trans. R. S. E, vol. xxii, Part I!) remark that the correction has not usually been made. But the method there em- roximate ar different principles from that Ployed w; d gg only approxima: was based on 28 J. D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. First let us suppose the equation of the curve (or the expres- sion for the temperature in terms of the time) to be y = asing, . Let 2c denote the length of the interval BD, and let a’ be the value of x for its middle point. Then the values of x for points B and D will be w/—c and a’+e, and the area ABDC will be the integral of ydx taken between these limits, = a(cos 2’ — ¢ — cos 2+ c) =2e sin 2’, sine <=Z2sm¢..9 if y’ denote the value of y for the middle point of BD. Helen the area bounded by two ordinates whose mutual dis- tance is given, varies directly as the ordinate drawn midway be- tween them. The areas of portions of the curve below the line OX must of course be reckoned as negative. Dividing the expressions for the area by 2c we obtain sine , EOF. which is therefore the mean value of y for the given interval. Let c=", then 27 denoting a year, the given interval 2c will be the ‘th part of a year. Hence the mean temperature of any “th part of a year is to the temperature of its middle point as sin— : =. If the given interval is the /jth part of a year, this ratio becomes sin 15°: arc 15° or 1: 1:0115. | | These conclusions have been drawn on the i 5 ag that — the expression for the temperature is y=asinz. They will still be true if the expression be y =a sin (x + E) for this change only amounts to removing the origin of codrdi- nates along the axis of x and does not alter the values of the ordinates. If the expression for the temperature be y= A-+a.sin(x-+ E) the ordinates will be greater than before by the constant quan- tity A, which represents the mean temperature of the year; hence the temperatures will require to be diminished by the mean of the year in order that the above conclusions may be ~ applicable. The following theorem will hold in all three cases, WZi— The difference between the mean temperatures of any two | equal portions of the year will be less than the difference between J. D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. 29 the temperatures of their respective centres, in the constant ratio of sin Se ~ each of the portions being supposed to be the ith part of a year, where m may be either a whole number or a fraction. Hence the annual range as shown by the curve of monthly mean temperatures will be less than that exhibited by the curve of daily mean temperatures in the ratio of sin 15°: are 15°. Strictly speaking, instead of ‘(daily mean temperatures,” I ought to say “instantaneous temperatures;” but the difference is so small as to be quite inappreciable, since the former are to the latter nearly in the ratio of sine to arc of 30 minutes or of 1 to 1:000013. ' Assuming then that the expression for instantaneous tempera- ure is y= A-+asin (x+E) the mean temperature Y,, of any “th portion of a year will be given by the equation sin = Y,=A+a. sin (e+ E) , m x being the time for the centre of the portion. Hence if the Instantaneous temperatures follow a simple harmonic law, the mean temperatures of equal intervals of time will also follow a simple harmonic law. For the mean temperature of any peri of 80,5, days we have | sin 15° . Y,2=A+a. mee” Si (+E). Secondly, let the expression for instantaneous temperatures be y= A,-+a, sin (e+E,)+ <4, sin(2e+E,). The expression for the area bounded by two ordinates whose distance is 2c will as in the former case fo the integral of ydx between the limits a/—c and 2’-+c as wee = 2A,c+ 2a, sine sin (a’+E,) + 2a, = * sin (22’+- E,) and dividing by 2c we obtain for the mean value of y the ex- pression ; 2c Hence the mean temperature of any ~th portion of a year is Siven by the equation Agha, 8S sin (e+ B,) +42 “5 2¢ «in (2 +E,). t 30 J.D. Everett on Reducing Observations of Temperature. sin = sin ¥n=Ao+4, —— sin (e-+E,)+a, =" sin (27--E,). Let m = 2 and we have for the mean temperature of a half year Ys oe = sin (7 + E,), the third term vanishing, since sin ps Hence the half yearly term produces no effect upon the mean temperature of a hal year (as is also obvious from general considerations), and the riot of the half yearly means is to that of the annual term fi y means, as the radius of a circle is to a quad- rantal a ! The sais of the half yearly means, being | wget of the amplitude, i 18 @,. — which being divided by a, . ne the am- 2 FP) ' plitude of the annual term for monthly means, gives as a quo- tient — the numerical value of which is 1-2879. Hence if SID 75 the amplitude A, deduced from monthly means be multiplied by this number, the product will be the difference between the temperatures of i warmest and coldest halves into which the year can be divi Lastly, let the sey for instantaneous temperatures take the general form : y=A,+a,sin (t+E,)+a,sin(2e+E,)+ . . . . +a,sin (na+E,) It will be found by proceeding as in the preree cases, that — the expression for the mean temperature of the + th of a year is sin= sin = 2 Yn=Ao+@, -—— sin (e+-E,)-+-a, —> sin (22-+-E,)+ m « 4 ah F sin (37-+-E,)+..... +a, a sin (nw-+E,). Hence if A, i: x . A, denote the seit deduced from monthly means, we have | sin 15° sin 30° n 45° j "are 15°’ Ag 030"? Ay=a, = oe $3 sin n< 15° aren 15°" : A,=4, and generally Aa, ‘ Prof. Loomis’s Remarks upon Prof. Everett's Article. 31 Conversely, i a,=A, poe = A,X 10115 d,=A, ba = A, x 10472 m a,=A, a a8 = A,X11107 a,=A, — a = A, x 12092 &e. &e. Hence, to reduce monthly to daily results it will simply be necessary to multiply the amplitudes A,, A,, &c., as above indi- cated. The logarithms of the multipliers for A,, A,, A, and A, are as under. are 15° log. "5 = “0040725 log: = -0200286 log. ona = -0456049 log. pe = 0824980. Arr. IIl.—Remarks upon the Article of Prof. J. D. Everett; by E. Loomis, Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in Yale College. Iy the preceding article, page 18, Prof. Everett has adopted the formula y=A+asin (x+e); to represent the annual fluctuation of temperature at any place, i urve has one maximum and one minimum in the year, which ote; sheorat half a year asunder ; and the curve is bisected symmetric ly at the ature. 32 Prof. Loomis’s Remarks upon Prof. Everett’s Article. eat : 4 - u Sei s S : : 3s s ieee oe ee eee oar ee ee oe Reif) 2) ete e432 eS eel Pe te i) ee ee ee eee ee ° ° ° (e] ° ° fe} io} 1 | 365 | 37°2 | for | 436 | 500 | 56-4 | 61-5 | 62°5 | 58°8 | 53°5 | 46-4 | 417 2| 36°4! 37:0 | foro | 44°¢ | 505 | 56°6 | 61-4 | 62:3 | 58-6 | 53-4 | 46-2 | 41°8 3} 364 | 37-3 | 399 | 44:5 | 50-9 8 | 61°4 | 62°2 | 58-5 | 53-1 | 46-1 | 41-7 4 3) 37-7 | 397g | 448 | 51-3 | 571 | 6 621 | 58:4 | 53-0 | 45-9 | 41-5 2S ‘'t | 38-4 | Zoro | 45°1 | 51°6 | 57-1 | 61 62°0 | 58-2 | 52-8 | 45-7 | 414 6 0 | 390 | for | 45°4 | 51°8 | 57°2 | 61-7 | 62-0 | 58-0 | 52-5 | 45-5 | fat 4; ‘8 | 39:2 |. 4o'1 | 45:5 3 57:3 | 61-8 | 620 | 57-8 | 52-3 | 45+1 | 40°7 8 "5 | 39:2 | fors | 45:5 | 51-8 | 57°4 | 61-7 | 62-0 | 57-7 | 52-1 | 44:8 | 40°6 9 ‘4 ro | 4o'2 | 45°4 | 51 6 | 57°5 | 61-5 | 61-9 | 57-6 | 51-9 | 44°5 | 40°5 10 9 | 38-7 | go3 | 451 | Sag | 57-7 | 61-5 | 61-8 | 57-5 | 51-7 | 44-3 | fog II “6 5 | 4o°5 | 45-0 | 51°3 | 58-0 | 61-6 | 61-7 | 57-4 | 51-4 -o | 4o°2 12 6 3 | 406 | 44-9 | 51°3 | 58-3 | 61-7 | 61-6 | 57:3 | 51-0 | 43-9 | foro 13 “6 “2 | 41-0 | 45:2 | 5°4 | 58°5 | 61°8 | 61-5 2 | 50-5 Be 39'6 14 6 © | 41-3 | 45°5 | 508 | 58:8 | 61-7 | 615 | 57-0 | 50-1 | 43°3 | 39°7 15 | 355 | 38-1 | 41-5 | 457 | 52°2 | 59:0 | 61-7 | 61°4 | 56-7 | 49°8 |.43 0 | 40-0 16 “5 *t | 41-7 | 46-0 | 52°6 | 59:3 | 61-7 | 61°4 | 565 | 49°6 | 42°6 | 403 17 9 2 | 41-8 | 46-2 | 52°8 | 59 4 | 61-7 | 613 | 56-3 | 49:4 | 42-4 | fort 18 3 | 41-8 | 46-4 1531 | 595 | 61-7 | 610 | 56-0 | 49°2 | 42-2 | 39 19 ‘5 | 38-4 | 41-8 | 465 | 53:3 | 596 | 61-7 | 609 | 55-9 | 4g't | 42-2 | 39 20 8 5 | 41-9 | 46-7 | 536 | 59°8 | 61-6 | 60°8 | 556 | 4g°1 | 42-2 | 3g-o 2t | 371 | 38-5 | 41-9 | 47°0 | 53-8 | 599 | 61-5 | 60°6 | 55°5 | 48-9 | 42°0 | 38-4 92 | 37°3 6 | 41.9 | 47°5 | 54:1 | Goro | 61-5 | 60°4 | 554 | 48-6 | 41-7 | 37°9 a5 1 379 rg | 42-0 | 47°6 | 54-3 | 6Go:2 | 61-5 | 60-3 | 55:3 | 48-3 | 41°4 | 37°4 24 | 37°8 | 39:1 | 42°1 | 47°6 | 54-4 | 60°4 | 61-6 | 60°3 | 55-0 | 47°9 | 41°0 | 37°0 25 | 38-0 | 39°5 | 42°2 | 47°6 | 54-6 | 60°6 | 61-8 | 60°2 | 54:9 | 47°5 | 408 | 365 26 | 38-3 | 39°7 | 42°3 | 476 | 54-7 | G08 | 6a1 | 599 | 54-7 | 47°4 | 4o°g | 36:4 27 | 38:3 | 39°8 | 42°4 | 48-0 | 549 | Gr-o | 62-3 | 59-7 | 54°5 | 47-2 | 41-1 | 36°5 28 | 38:1 | 4o-o | 426 | 48:5 | 55-2 | 613 | 625 | 5q°6 | 54-3 | 47-0 | 41°5 | 37°0 29 | 37-9 42°8 | 4g't | 554 | 61-5 | 62-5 | 594 | 54:0 | 46°8 | 41°6 | 373 30 | 37-6 43-0 | 495 | 55-7 | 61°5 | 62-5 | S5qr1 46°6 | 41-6 | 37°4 Si 3e3 43°4 6:1 62°5 | 5g 46°5 376 From this Table we perceive that the maximum: temperature occurs on the 30th of July. The minimum occurs sometime between Jan. 9th and 15th; we will call it Jan. 12th. The in- _ days; that is, the first pepeiple assumed by Prof. Everett is in error by more than a m Tn order to datutncan whether the curve is symmetrically di- vided at the point of maximum temperature, I will compare the temperatures for 30, 60 and 90 days before and after Ju y 30tb. The results are as follows: June 30, 6175 Aug. 29, 59°4 Difference — 2°1 May 31, 656°1 Sept.28, 54° . —1°'8 May 1, 50°0 Oct. 28, 47-0 Ege a be. Thus we see that the fomnperatanes. & for 90 days before and 90 days after the maximum, instead of peing sane , as they should — be according to the assumption of Prof. _ differ by three — degrees; which is one ninth part of the entire annual range. Prof. Loomis’s Remarks upon Prof. Everett's Article. 33 In order to decide how far the precedin — may be peculiar to the climate of Greenwich, I wil x: pale e same com- parison for three stations in Germany, Pie to the materials furnished by Prof. Dove, viz. Berlin from 110 years observations, observations. The averages are taken for intervals of 5 days, and the 7 ae are expressed in degrees of Reaumur’s thermom Mean temperature for each five days of the year. Berlin. | Danzig. | Breslau. Berlin. | Danzig. | Breslau. ° ° ° Jan, 1-5] — 124 — 2°67 —Fo2 July 30-4 | 14°54} 12°94] 13°77 I hg Mra 3°51 5-9 | 14 13-36 | 14:47 T1-15 | —1-20 | —2°46 | ~—3-46 10-14 | 14:87 | 13-50 | 14:26 16-20 | ~o-62 | —2-04 | —2°54 15-19 | 15:14 | 13°68 | 14:34 21-25 | —1-02 | —2°36 | —2°37 20-24 | 1518 | 13°94] 14°55 26-3 0:06 I 1°76 25-29 | 15:50 | 1416 | 14:35 Feb, 31-4} oar 72 | —1°20 |} Aug. 30-3 | 15:49 | 14:18] 14-71 016 | —2:00 | —1°32 4-8 | 15°17 | 14:04 | “14:53 10-14 O44 | at — 1°47 9-1 14° 13-66 | 1 9-19 | 052 | —4-12 | —1-07 14-18 | 1456 | 13-24] 14:26 20-24 1°07 | —1-02 | —0'44 19-23 I 12 13-84 25-1 1:39 | —o-52 0"00 24-28 | 13:86 12:52} 13-41 12-16 —O-o1 083 8-12 | 12:35] 10°80] 11°82 17-21 Ja9 0-52 1°47 13-17 | 11°94} 10°04 fe) 22-26 3-23 054 1°84 18-22 | 11-24 341 10°99 27-31 | 4:16 | 1-28 | 9°85 23-27 | 10°52 q 9°93 April 1-5 | 5:18 | 216) 3-78 || Oct. 28-2 4o| 7:56 22 - 6-20 3-12 5"10 8.03 7 B69 11-15 | 6-92 3-78 | 5-91 8-12 818 | 620] 7 16-20 725 4:58 26 13-17 7°36 36 6°83 21-25 8-07 5:20 71 18-22 6°76 5-08 6:33 8-63 5 80 8:28 23-27 5-82 4:20 5-83 May 1-5 27 6°48 oo || Nov, 28-1 5-16 3-66 464 5 : 716 A 2 479 3-72 3-86 TIaj 9 7°66 9 72 F—1t K 2 74 a 31 16-20 | 10°83 R68 be 12-16 3 214 2°21 21-25 | 11°84 go8 | 114 17-21 2-65 1°04 1 30 30 9°84 | 11°50 22-26 92] O56} 131 June 31-4 | 1 10°60 | 12°20 || Dec, 27-1 1°87 00 13-35 | 11°26 | 13:05 2-6 150} 0°28 0°68 10-14 | 14 11°84 | 13-28 q-11 | 067] -048| o'10 15-19 | 1 12°00 | 12°82 12-16 oO —o Pe 13-73 | 1226 | 1311 side er pis a pee 2) 143 ‘ 13-48 22-2 - ae el eet 9| 1437 | 12:50 | 13:4 eat! ceed | oes | 508 Warm rae Ne ee From these observations we see that at Berlin the maximum temperature occurs J uly 29, and the minimum January 8th. AM. Jour. Scr.—Secoxp Series, Vou. XXXV, No. 108—Jan., 1868. 5 34 Prof. Loomis’s Remarks upon Prof. Everett's Article. The interval from minimum to maximum is 202 days; and from maximum to minimum 168 days. The difference is 39 days. Comparing the temperatures for 30, 60 and 90 days before and after the maximum we find June 29. 14°44 Aug. 28, 18°74 Difference—0°-70 R.=—1°58 Fah. May 30. 12 ‘61 Sept.27. 10 O07 “= 2°54 Tim Apr. 30. 8°89 Oct. 27. 5°56 “ —3°33 =m—7°49 & At Danzig the maximum temperature occurs July 30; and the minimum Jan. 8th. The interval from minimum to maxt- mum is 208 days, and from maximum to minimum 162 days. The difference is 41 days. Comparing the temperatures before and after the maximum we find June 30. 12°76 Aug. 29. 12°27 Difference—0°49 R.=—1°-10 Fah. May 31. 10°30 Sept. 28. 8 -02 a —2 28 sae May 1. 6°21 Oct. 28. 3°88 as —2°33 =—65 +24 * At Breslau the maximum temperature occurs July 81; and the minimum Jan. 10th. The interval from minimum to maxi mum is 202 days; and from maximum to minimum 163 days. The difference is 89 days. Comparing the temperatures before and after the maximum we find July 1. 18°71 Aug. 30. 13°19 Difference — 0°52 R.=—1°-17 Fah. June 1. 12°06 Sept. 29. 9°36 «2-70 Ee May 2. 8°86 Oct. 29. 4°88 «3-98 -8 95 “ The results at these three stations accord remarkably well | with each other, and we must regard them as indicating the law — of climate for that part of Europe. These results also acco pretty well with those obtained at Greenwich; but the decrease — of temperature in autumn is more rapid at the German stations — than it isin England. The average temperature at the three — German stations 90 days after the maximum, is less than the tem- maximum about July 20th; making an interval of 7 months — from minimum to maximum, and of 5 months from maximum to minimum We conclude then that any formula which supposes the curvé of annual temperature to be symmetrically divided at the point of maximum, does not represent climates like those above spec — fied, with that degree of accuracy which science requires. I i a i a e | | W. C. Minor upon Fission in some Annelids. 35 Art. I1V.— Upon Natural and Artificial Section in some Cheelopod Annelids ; by W. C. Minor. THE circumstances of spontaneous fission have been observed in so few species of annelids at present, as to make every additional observation of value, even though only confirmatory of what is already known upon that subject. This consideration, and the fact that all views of its nature in the Oligocheta seem to be based upon the observations of one species—Stylaria proboscidea,—have tempted me to publish the following brief investigations, how- ak they may want of any very special novelty to give them value. It is now nearly one hundred years since the distinguished Danish naturalist, Otto Fr. Miiller, studied the phenomena of Spontaneous fission in the fresh water Naids,’ and his able little work, Von Wiirmen des sussen und salzigen Wassers, Kopenhagen, 1771, largely devoted to that subject, shows that he failed only where the imperfect means at his command led him astray. The multiplication by artificial section had been observed before that, both in the Naids and other animals, and had awakened a good deal of general interest; but the multiplication by sponta- heous fission seems to have been very nearly if not wholly dis- regarded at that time. Nor has its occurrence in the fresh water worms received, since then, the investigation that it seems to de- mand. For with the exception of a discussion by Schultze and Leuckart upon some of the particulars, and, the significance of this phenomenon in relation to budding, some ten years and 4 sweeping denial of its occurrence, or at least of its vital and systematic nature, by Dr. Williams, about the same time, no one, so far as I am aware, has published any extended observa- tions upon the fissiparity of the fresh water Naids since the time of Miiller.2 And yet the statements of Dr. Williams, in to both artificial and spontaneous fission, are such as to suggest at once the importance of a reéxamination.of the whole subject; while the great interest given to this question by the remarkable Speculations of Steenstrup, together with the interesting varie- €s of the phenomenon as observed in the marine worms by . Trembley had discovered it long before this, as he: b in his P. 8. a Vhist. Pun genre de Polypes d'eau douce, 1744 ;-—and Roesel, in his Jnsekten belustigungen, describes the united parent and bud; but the former did no more ‘ae observe the fact, and the latter wholly misunderst turgeschi for 18 Which, so far as there given, I 36 W. C. Minor upon Fission in some Annelids. esate rected Frey and Leuckart and others, seem to complete knowledge than we as yet possess of io waynes 4 in the fresh water group. may here remark that the European species chiefly studied hitherto, Stylaria proboscidea, has not come under my observation, nor am I aware that it has been found in America. Four spe- cies of Naids common in this vicinity, Sty/aria (Pristina) longt- seta, Nats rivulosa, and Dero limosa, found in fresh water, and a marine Enchytreus, E. triventralopectinatus, have been the prin- cipal subjects of my investigation. In regard to the first of these, it may be ge aaete agi our species is identical with that described by Ehrenberg, (Symbole Physice,) as Pristina longiseta, for his Macription 4 is Piss brief to be of specific value. As, however, the characters given by D’Udekem, in his Nouvelle Classification des Annélides ee ea Abranches, priser del’ Acad. tinct fous oe European form of the same genus. The fourth, nchytreus a monic I have not been able to ee with any species described in works at my command, and hav therefore named io the three anterior pairs of ventral sonibe after which the dorsal combs begin. This character appears to distinguish it from Z. socialis, if I ma PE from. th from which a narrow so hagus continues to a ‘Tittle back of the sixth ventral combs. ap re a gradual enlargement of the ali- mentary canal occurs, ending abruptly just back of the eighth, in a narrow twisted tube; and this last gradually enlarges, at the ninth ventral combs, into a moderate sized alimentary canal, in 3 D’Udekem remarks: “Je n’ai pas adopté le rns a admis par Lamarek et Ebrenberg, parce que cette espéce ne différe des s Nais = par l’allonge- sli trés grand de la lévre mip Soar Ce charactére prey compagné d’aucune modification importante dans la form des autres organ je ne puis le considérer com trance’ ur servir a a Bg n genre nouveau.” ere is whit a marked difference in the form and position ‘of the aoa iform anterior enlarge the alimentary caaal, which even the statements and figures of Miiller oak Graithe isen indicate, between the : aids with a long upper lip or proboscis and those with a short one, and the manner of fission differs in these two groups as will be 8 genus Stylaria is sag aa a good one. Ehrenberg’s , division of this genus however, upon of eyes is sent for I have seen Nais rivulosa lose them without any i appare , gassiz stated tha “i as a part of the normal de velopment i in mie eon W. C. Minor upon Fission in some Annelids. 37 which I observed nothing specially marked. The entire length pears, and extends across the whole width of the animal. The angles formed at the sides of the body project, and on the top a slight projection is evident which gradually becomes a distinct proboscis, while, finally, eyes appear back of this fission. Thus th Naid becomes a mother.” . . . “Frequently one may see in € anterior half of the elongated anal ring of the mother Naid and 22nd pairs of combs. Fission occurring in this way after fee gation of the body I shall speak of as the “renewal of On.” 4 (ead . J s : b Schultze considers Miiller in error as to the position at which fission takes pl use he deseribes it as occurring in a segment and not between two. Rav.7! Statement however is si Miill ks of “die Zwischen- " er is simply verbal, as Miiller spea — der Borsten oder die Gelen oe p. 26, and in many other pl ee Y that such is his meaning. 38 W. C. Minor upon Fission in some Annelids. conclude that each bud is formed one joint anterior to its prede- cessor, that there is thus a gradual reduction of the parent seg: ments till a certain point; that then a reformation of rin takes place, and an elongation of ti body of the Naid to re- commence this circle of fission. Schultze, in his article, Uber die Fortpflanzung durch Theilung bet Nais wth roboscidea (Archiv Sf. Natur elapse 1849, T’. xv, p 293,) confirms the statements of Miiller as to the passage over of one oF the parental segments to each id ;° though he is not fortunate enough to observe the recom mencement of fission in the elongated Naid. He observes also (p. 801) that, contrary to what Steenstrup had supposed from the analogy of marine worms, there is no relation to metagenesis in the phenomena of budding i in this Naid, for he had never seen generative organs in the separated buds. He had however never been able to keep these buds longalive. He also had seen (p. 804,) sexual organs in the parent while budding, though he had never seen well de- veloped sperm and ripe eggs present during this process. The phenomena of fission in Sh ylaria longiseta, so far as I have observed them, confirm the statements of Miiller and Schultze in substance ; for there is nearly always a passage over of one parental ring to each bud, and since fission takes place, as I have soi while the parent has eggs and sperm, and I have never en the fullest development of the latter i in the buds, I canis ot believs that there is any such metagenetic relation in this pro- cess as has been observed in Syllis and allied genera. In Nais rivulosa, however, the facts are somewhat different. For in several continued observations of individual Naids, ex- tending in one case over twelve wee ce or twice of a passage of the warcenads rings into the bud; while, after an elongation of the parent body, ‘I have very uniformly seen fission recommence in the point at which buds were given off before, or at some point posterior to it, and once anterior, — and finally, although I have seen fission taking place between each of the rings from the 15th to the 22d, I have not been able to discover that it does so in any order. But nt as in Stylaria longiseta, I have found no metagenesis in the The facts obtained in regard to fission in Daw ee are un- ey meagre; the “comparative a of the meris- carryin off of parents segments by the spt parts, nor _ § Leuckart at first igs the correctness of this view, (Uber die ungeschlecht- liche Vermehrung bei Nais proboscidea, Wiegm. Arch. 1857,) but has since beea convinced of its justice. W. C. Minor upon Fission in some Annelids. 39 My observations upon Enchytreus triventralopectinatus are sim- ilarly scanty, but are just sufficient to confirm and extend the acts observed in the two other short-lipped Naids. In all the cases observed, the separation was of a part wholly new formed, without inclusion of the older segments of the parental body. It is evident from the above facts, that in Stylartu longiseta, as Miiller and Schultze have shown is the case in S- proboscidea, the point of fission moves regularly forward, ring by ring, and more commonly in the former Naid from the 16th to the 12th pairs of hook combs; though the extremes between which I have known it to occur are the 17th and 10th. T'o judge from Miiller’s ac- count it occurs further back in the latter Naid. Further, that in Nais rivulosa, and, as far as I know, in Dero limosa, and in En- chytreus triventralopectinatus, all of which have short upper lips, the buds are given off at one point, though that point may vary in different Naids of the same species, or in one and the same aid at different times. In the latter case the variation occurs a part of a peculiar form of fission of which I shall speak again. Both “parting” (theilung), and ‘‘ budding” (knospenbildung), Cccur then in the Naids, and it may be added that the former appears to be peculiar to the genus Stylaria or to the proboscis ing forms, may here remark that the distinction made by Schultze and others between « theilung” an Venient, does not seem to me a fundamental one. The mere in- clusion of a portion of parental tissue in the bud does not of itself make an essential distinction between this and a wholl hew-formed, but otherwise similar, bud; nor have I been able ; | see any histological or functional differences. The very fact that indivi a wed by the so-called “ budding,” and in another genus, Stylaria, e. the so-called “parting,” leads to this view. Nor, as I think, ough observations are largely wanting in that direction, have eae Processes. They are two varieties of one process; and it various species of aids, ert known, follow distinctly the one or the other plan, or tend to merge them yet more com- etely as one. ¢ bud. little detail will show how closely identical the two forms of ton mation are. In “parting”—‘ theilung”—as has already, 4 great extent, been described by Schultze, we find that from be aes Se is seckas or Maden oy ae gies (ay 31) an ect kapra “parting” fo nterraptn series of bd ae in Nais rivulosa (Sept. 25), which leads me to expect that in some Naids may be redielarty present. . 40 W. C. Minor upon Fission in some Annelids. the parental ring, as a fixed point, there is a continuous ring-form- ation and elongation backward; and that anteriorly to it there is a limited elongation of the general body, also by ring-formation from before backwards. There is, then, unlimited growth back- ward from the fixed point, and a limited or defined growth back- ward toward the fixed point from the place of fission. The pa- rental included ring, the most anterior of the series, is here the fixed point. In “budding”—“knospenbildung”—the most ante- rior ring of the series also, though a wholly new-formed one, be- comes the fixed point, from which, by continuous ring-formation, the Naid elongates backward, and toward which a limited series of ring-formations proceed from the point of fission.? The resem- blance between the two is perfect; and as the fixed point is not related to specializations of the alimentary tube, as I at first sup- posed, and is in Stylaria proboscidea, where it occurs by “parting,” four hook-combs back of the mouth, as it is in Nas and Dero, where it occurs by budding, while in S. longiseta it is six hook- combs back, the genetic relations of the two processes, in these genera at least, are completely one. But, as I have already said, though the distinction appears unessential in the genera I have examined, the terms are convenient and as merely descriptive terms are used here. The “commencement of fission” was observed in a large pro- portion of the buds given off from the individuals of Stylaria and Nais which were under observation, and the result is given in the following table. Stylaria—between 12-183 combs in none. MNais—between 17-18 combs in 3 13-14 “ 2 18-19 ae 14-15 ae 19-20 “ 4 15-16 - 9 20-21 o oe 16-17 " 1 21-22 whe the commencement of fission and continued fission, notwith- 7 There is an interesting analogy between this process in the Naids and the em- bryonic growth of Torebella, as p afd by Milne Edwards. He has remarked, Obs, sur le dével: t des Annélides, Ann. des Sci. Nat., 1845, 3me Série, T. iil, that the first d part is not the cephalic, nor the anal, but the esophageal, and that growth takes place both anterior and posterior to this by succession from before backward. Other speculations and analogies suggest themselves here, but are in our present know wholly premature. ; W. C. Minor upon Fission in some Annelids. 41 standing the fact that whether the former is introductory to series of “partings” or of ‘‘buddings,” its bud resembles that ” creased to something like 33, and then again renewed fission tween 19-20th. Another example that had given off buds Now, while in Stylaria the ‘‘renewal of fission” appears to differ from the commencement of fission, with which I believe pat essentially homologous, only by not occurring as far back, which may be owing to the want of fuller observation, and while of the point of budding, wi rt necessity, without : g, without any apparent necessity, 1 Performing etry function that we might judge from Stylaria Re ee peculiarity. And what is more, it also occurs in Nais or fission,” and other forms of fission is more than a difference of Unction, I am far from claiming that there is any fundamental sg vet Miller seem ice these two forms of fission, and says that “though at first view different “hey ove thictapisit y the same.” Op. cit. s. — _ Ax. Jour, Sct.—Saconp Senizs, VoL. XXXV, No. 103.—Jan., 1863. 42 W. C. Minor upon Fission in some Annelids. difference, like that be tween metagenetic and monogenetic fis- sions. I may add that I have not been able to discover that the point of its occurrence bears any relation to the number of buds already given off.9 he sum of the preceding observations tends to show, that the “renewal of fission” has some special thaw that bins wider enquiry as to its true nature; that the two form fis- sah already known as “ parting” and ‘ budding” both a in the Naids, and ogeur so as to prove their morphologic and physi- ologic identity ; ; that “parting” appears to characterize the Naids with a prolonged upper-lip—the — a ta, While “budding” appears to characterize those with a short one—Nai ats, Dero, En- chytreeus, and wn sonceding to ‘ieee that the bud pro- duced by both these processes is identical with the parent; that as the bnds are here, so far as I know, sagt with their pa- rents in function and structure, there is no metagenetic fission ; and that therefore fission in these Naids, haven’ by “ parting” or by “budding,” is correlative to genesis in the great function of maintenance of the species, aud not a mere step in the his tory of the individual.'° It t may be worth while to refer briefly here to the power of reproduction from injuries commonly attributed to these little beings, especially as Dr. Williams, in his Report on the Britis Annelida, (Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sei., 1851, p. 247), after quoting a summary of Bonnet’s well known experiments, says: ‘‘On the authority of hundreds of observations, laboriously repeated at every season, the author of this report can declare with deliber- ate firmness, that there is not one word of truth in the a Loma a oO ie a S 2 —s & ong, ° re JQ = ag ro) 3 for) < o baw | Me ° 5 ie = poy < t w Sg =e = a] 3 A RS | contradicting the statements so often repeated upon this subject; and I cannot doubt that his experiments have uniformly failed. re some a. differences to be considered in a future paper upon the histologic viata of fiss 10 « From the peed of the two species, Arenicola and Nais, on which the au thor’s observations have been “hicfly conducted, the conclusion may be deduced that the ‘fission of the body’ in every othe nae gerne Anaelida in whieh it Son has for object in like manner to protect and incubate the ova,” “It becomes the last act of the —— worm, since the spel ns into which the ‘body i is sub-divided by yao e food.” “Tt is a catastre A ay ae whi ch Food autumn involves the ecureips ae mat Williams, "R Brit. Annel., pp. 2 1 should be far rd wishing to pieces the foie 1sions I sot all other Annelids by mere analogy, but my observations are, at least, wholly sneneapatlill with a general application of Dr. Williams's tater to the Naids. The exact circle of life and its duration, I have not Ente nor do T feel cer tain that ped of the general gern at Leidy. Flora and Fauna within living ; ia fossularis, and Willia - at large—are absolutely correct. For W. C. Minor upon Fission in some Annelids. 43 But from the almost uniform success of my own, I should won- der that they have done so, had not others reported complete or partial failures in similar experiments.—See Dugés, Ann. des Sev. 1828, Ite Série, T. xv. It must be remembered, however, that such evidence is wholly negative, and cannot weigh with the posi: tive statements of observers like Miiller, Réaumur and Duges. _ In regard to my own observations, [ may state, in brief, that In Nylaria, Nuis, and Dero, I have hardly ever failed to have the head reproduced, and that the anal end has not on Teprocduced in these genera, but I have seen it reproduced in En- chylreus, in Lumbricus, in Fabricia, and even in a Nereis common on our coast.1' That in the vast majority of these cases I have seen fuod taken again; and, in all, I have seen the incurrent anal Stream, which ceases while either end is closed, recommence. From these and other observations, I am inclined to believe that this power is far more general in the class than is yet supposed, That this power plays a part in the natural economy of life, the healing fragments of Naids that I have found in our pools $a proof. When saved from the attacks of Chetogaster, even the shortest, headless, and almost immovable, fragments may p on to as full a recovery as when preserved by the observer. One instance, I found, Aug. 2Lst, what was apparently five seg- ments of some Nuaid’s trunk, the two ends of which had closed and elongated. This had been preserved for some time, for the & fapid growth, developed eyes about the 22nd, opened the newly formed mouth about the 23rd, was supplied with food, 5-16 then gave off 5 buds in succession at that point till Oct. 8th, When it was lost. . . The thin film with which the Naids line the jars in which they re Kept may be seen to serve, there at least, as a protection against the attacks of the prowling carnivorous Cheetogasters, and Once beneath this, a fragment, like the one just referred to, may Preserved till the eyes and mouth are formed—a period usu- ally of a fortnight. And though we should hardly have expected * llere piece of five segments to be preserved as this was, even though endowed with the power of recovery, yet we cannot re- ee 80 extended and remarkable a function as this appears to ~~? 88 useless or inoperative in the natural course of Naid-life. a Careless observations niade a number of years ago led me to think that the fae ee 4 destitute of the power of recovery from. geen = Rew a thors. y 5 Ways sloughed away ring alter ring, in his experiments. umur re- ani i] tatate - i Bae “S? Mais les essais n'ont peutétre pas éte encore assez répétés ni assez suivis,”— eet a 8.2 Thist, pay jaorm a Np. 69 Thinking the latter statement iy 4 : es ipees the experiments during the past year, with more care, and success, 44 W. Dennis on the Temperature of Art. V.—Remarks on the Temperature of the two extreme Seasons in the Temperate Zones as affected by the Vuriations in the Sun’s Distance and in its —_ Velocity in the Ecliptic; abridged . from a treatise on Astronomy, (in course of preparation,) by ILLIAM DENNIS, Philadelphia, Pa. THE eccentricity of the earth’s orbit being about ,';th of its mean distance from the sun, the whole variation in its distance, or the difference between its greatest and least distances, must be —_ oth of the mean: and from Kepler’s law for the equal description of areas by the radius vector of the earth (or other jleasiy it aves that the velocity of the earth’s motion in its orbit, or the consequent angular motion of the sun in the eclip- tic, varies inversely as the square of this distance. Then, since a numerical quantity ees by asmall fraction of itself has its square increa y (a little more than) the double of teat frac- tion, it is evident that as the distance varies by about 3 oth of its mean value, the variation in the velocity must be about ; ‘th of its mean Again, the amount of light and heat received from the sun in a given time, following the general law of influences emanating as from a centre, also varies inversely as the square of its distance, and therefore follows precisely the same law that governs the variation of the sun’s angular motion in the ecliptic. Hence we conclude, 1. That the whole variation in the rate at which light and heat. are received from the sun, or in other words, the saul of rate at its greatest and least distances, amounts to about 7 of the mean rate. at the amount of light and heat received from the sun while passing through a given are of the ecliptic is the same in every part of its annual course ; ; its greater distance in one part being exactly compensated by the longer time occupied in pass- ing through the supposed arc in that part; and vice versa. Now the present position of the line of apsides i is such that the perihelion or minimum distance of the earth from the sun occurs about the first of January, or near our winter solstice, and the aphelion or maximum distance about the first of July, or near our summer solstice; and as the solstices are the se points of the northern and southern portions of the ecliptic respect ively, it happens that nearly all that part of the ccliptio i in which _the sun is nearest the earth is passed over while the sun issouth of the.equator, and that part in which it is most remote, pps o is north of that line. But since the ecliptic is divided i the equinoctial into equal portions (or ares) it follows from the sec ond of the conclusions just stated, that the sun communicates to the two extreme Seasons in the Temperate Zones. 45 the earth the same amount of heat while over its north hemis- tained by the sun’s increased distance is furnished by the fact that it requires about 72 days of the sun’s influence for its com- pensation. The north and south hemispheres may therefore be regarded as receiving equal shares of heat in the period of a complete year, and popular writers on astronomy seem to have contented themselves with exhibiting this fact without examin- ing, very carefully at least, how the different seasons of the two hemispheres respectively are affected by the manner in which these shares are distributed ;—an inquiry in some respects more Interesting perhaps than that concerning the equality of the shares themselves.’ It is the effects of the variations in the sun's distance and in its angular motion in the ecliptic upon this distribution and consequently upon the extreme seasons in the temperate zones, that are now to be considered. It will be sufficiently accurate for our present purpose, and will tend to simplicity of statement, to suppose the duration of the summers and winters of the two hemispheres to be deter- mined by the sun’s passage through those two quadrants of the ecliptic that have its perigee and apogee for their middle points respectively: these limits will assign to them two periods of Which one extends from about the middle of May to the middle of August, and the other from the middle of November to the middle - February, fully including the extremes of both sea- ow ~ gain by the one process exceeds from day to day the loss by ® other, a gradual elevation of the general or average tempe- ' “Now the periheli ee Present : perihelion of the orbit is situated nearly at the place of the mm Winter solstice, so that were it not for t i just described the effect isphe ‘4 e difference of summer and winter in the southern hem- hee and to moderate it in the northern. . . . As it is, however,no such ine- nail Subsists, but an equal and impartial distribution of light and heat is ac- to both."—Herschet Outlines of Astrondmy, London, 1849. Stal pened extent that the exaggeration and moderation here referred to are pro tosome cnt notwithstanding the compensation. : “Thaesract cP: Astron, London, 1858), illustrating this compensation, remarks: the two warm seasons of our atmosphere (spring and summer) are certainly at the seasons of the southern hemisphere, but they are Mtcar time of longer duration.” Had he employed cold seasons in the Rorth ration it would have run thus —they are certainly somewhat milder at the Sation, but they are at the same time” pe freee which, instead of being a compen- Would of course make them milder still. ; iJ 46 W. Dennis on the Temperature of rature takes place: when the loss exceeds the gain a gradual reduction must of course result. It is by these two processes respectively that the high heat of summer and the severe cold of winter are produced. As it follows directly from the law of compensation just explained that the same amount of heat is re ceived froin the sun during each of the two winters (northern and southern) and also the same amount during each of the two summers, the question of the effects of the variations under con- sideration turns upon the influence which they shall appear to have upon that gradual elevation, and that gradual reduction of temperature from which, as just stated, the extremes of these two seasons result. It will enable us to estimate more correctly the extent and importance of these effvets to observe how pees are concentrated, so to speak, upon these two seasons. Thus sun is not quite 72 days longer north of the equator ae south of it in the tropical year, while it is 42 days, or more than 2 of this whole difference, longer in the north or apogee dace than in the soath or perigee quadrant of the ecliptic: the north- ern summer is therefore 42 days longer than the southern and the northern winter shorter than the southern by the same amount. Again, the whole change in the sun’s apparent sonia which is the index of its change of distance, amounts to 32”, ut in the apogee quadrant it varies from its minimum (about July 1) and in the perig igee quadrant from its maximum (Jan. 1 only about 5”: in fact its mean pisuiencaesee while in either of these arcs does not differ from the extreme limit belonging to that are but about 15. To this it may be added, as not with- out a bearing on the same point, that the controlling cause itself of the change of seasons has its influence in like manner con- centrated upon these quadrants ; for while the maximum deeli- nation of the sun is but 234° its mean declination while in these two arcs is about 203° or its mean distance from the tropics re spectively less than 3°. Let us now keep in view the following 1. The sun is at its perigee at midwinter and at its apogee 4 midsummer, using those terms with reference to the north ail isphere D ae on mae the same amount of heat while passing through het apogee quadrant of the ecliptic, (Summer, north—winter, ponthy's as white in the perigee quadrant, (winter, north—sum- mer, a but is 4% days longer in the former than in the lat 3. "While i in these quadrants it varies but little in the one from its maximum, and in the soi —s its minimum m dista ance; and its pooaici is On an averag r the maximum in both. ae The high heat of seesisey 0d the severe cold of winter are the results of a graddal accumulation of heat in the earth’s sur the two extreme Seasons in the Temperate Zones. 47 face, (including the atmosphere and objects on the surface,) and a gradual reduction of its temperature by loss or waste in those two seasons respectively, and not d/rect results of the gain or loss from day to day. Then, since opposite seasons occur at the same time in the two opposite hemispheres, we evidently have the following results as consequences of the variations in question with the present position of the line of apsices. South Hemisphere. Hemispher sien! Winter colder from the sun’s being more distant North : Summer cooler from the sun’s being more “ Ciistant, . hotter for being longer, ~ “for being longer. Winter warmer from the sun's being| Summer hotter from the sun's being near nearer, arer. - ¢ for being shorter. «cooler for being shorter. ° “ Directing our attention first to the summers we find in these the two conditions of time and distance opposed in their influ- ence: in the northern summer the sun is more distant but the time longer; in the southern the sun is nearer but the time shorter: but as the same amount of heat is received in each, we have only to consider whether its being received in a longer or shorter time will be most favorable to accumulation. If all the eat were retained there would of course be no difference, b as a large portion is lost each day (at night) by radiation, and this continues in the northern summer for a longer t/me, it seems to follow that the accumulation must be greater in the shorter or Ception, for if it me If the supply, supposing its rate constant, were continued indefi- hitely, a limit would doubtless be reached at which, a very high temperature having been produced, the loss or radiation would me equal to the supply, but that the heat of summer is very far below this limit is clearly shown by the fact that the accumu- -“410N continues for about a month after the summer solstice, that '®, after the supply has begun to decline. We are justified then in Concluding that in the short summer of the south not only are €days hotter and the force of the sun’s direct rays considera- greater, but that, other conditions being the same, the accu- Rec wap of heat or average temperature will reach a higher Referring again to the statement of results on a preceding Page, and turning our attention now to the winters, we at once Perceive that in these the conditions of time an anc d to each other in their effects nsated by the so that instead of one being compens not, but comb 48 in the summers, op ined, and distance are 5 48 W. Dennis on the Temperature, &c. other they both conspire to produce the same result. The cold of winter not being, like summer heat, produced by the sun but by radiation or loss of heat in spite of the sun’s influence, (a point that seems not to have been sufficiently attended to by some writers,) it happens that the two conditions referred to have a different relation to each other in the two opposite sea- sons, being as just stated opposed to each other in the one case while in the other both contribute towards the same result. hus in our northern winter not only is the sun near its mini- mum distance throughout the whole period in which the princi- pal reduction of temperature takes place and during which it is most rapid, but the period itself is materially shortened. For these combined influences there seems to be no effective com- pensation, and it can hardly be doubted that the present arrange- ment gives to our northern winters a character very considera- bly different from that which they would present were the posi- tion of the line of apsides reversed. It is remarked by Her- schel, in reference to the southern summer, that “ j.th is too considerable a fraction of the whole intensity of sunshine not to aggravate in a serious degree the sufferings of those who are exposed to it.” But in this case not only is the winter reduction of temperature counteracted by the addition of this ‘considerable fraction’ to the supply, but the é’me of rapid reduction is shortened by about jth of its whole amount. Under these circumstances In the southern winter the two conditions also combine, but their joint effect in this case takes the opposite direction. The cooling process by which the temperature is gradually reduced at this season has its rate increased by the increased distance of the sun, and the time during which this high rate continues 18 extended. While therefore the effect of the present position of the earth’s orbit is to make the winters of the north milder, 1ts tendency to make those of the southern hemisphere more S8é- vere is equally decided: and could a comparison of the two be instituted on the basis of actual observation under conditions any tolerable degree similar the contrast would doubtless be iking:> But 16 fh: 89%, “ 18 ft. 39°25. 2 * OL ft, 40%, “ 24 ft. 40°25. Mean temperature 4 ae a 88°. Mean temperature of the atmosphere since Jan °-9. Rise in mean temperature 0 the lake in 9 days, 0° 6. sates fallen, 1°29 inches, part of which was from 8 inches of snow melt Feb. 27, 1861. Ice 9 inches thick. Temperature of surface water 35°. At a depth of 3 ft 40°°5, at 6 ft. 41°. 9 ft. 41°5, “ 12 ft. 41°66. 3 “ 15 ft. 41°66, * 18 ft, 41°66. a 21 ft. 41°66, * 2a. 40°76. s * 27 t. 40°65. Mean temperature of ys lake 40°-8. Rise in temperature of the lake since Feb. 1st, 2°°8. Water fallen, 2°9 inches—no snow an temperature of the air for the same period, 31° “48, but for the last half of the period the mean temperature ‘was 85 temperature of the spat air at this time was 15°, which probably dimin- ialots, the he observed temperature at the surface. If we call the surface temperature 32° the mean will be $8°, (EES ES ARIS Et RE an OR NE OE ae TERS Eh el Se ata ae REN TD iy, ign ed Seay oT ae Dr. B. F. Harrison on Solution of Ice on Inland Waters. 53 or 86°. After the last observations, I did not visit the lake for a long period, but I believe the ice disappeared early in March. Such a result might have been anticipated as the temperature of the air had already risen several degrees above the freezing point and the water beneath the ice (which was nowhere broken) con- tained heat sufficient to dissolve one and three-fourths times as much ice as then covered its surface. In considering the causes of the phenomena here recorded, it becomes important to take into consideration the temperature of the earth’s surface in this latitude, and the variations of tempera- ture for a short distance below the surface. The mean tempera- ture of the earth at all depths short of one hundred feet is very Ww. UNncoy we 48 covered the surface of the lake, and all agitation of its ters has ceased, the earthy bed still continues to impart its re- 54 Dr. B. F. Harrison on Solution of Ice on Inland Waters. dundant heat to the superincumbent waters. My observations show that the basin of the lake is in much the same relation with the heat of summer that it would be if there were no water in it— that is, it receives about the same mean temperature; but in win- ter the case is widely different. The bottom of the lake is never cooled below 39°, and even this temperature is considerably lower than would be reached at an equal depth (25 feet) in the solid earth, where, if the authorities are correct, the temperature should not fall below 46° for our latitude. The lake in winter has as- similated itself to the solid earth in that it has attained its maxi- mum density and its surface is converted into solid ice; both the ice and the water in this condition are so slow conductors of heat that very little can escape into the atmosphere. Under these circumstances, the tendency to the equilibrium of heat in the earth will raise the temperature at the depth of 25 feet (the bottom of the lake) to its usual amount at that depth from the earth’s surface, and that too quite independent of any accumula- tion of summer heat. Thus we find another source of heat be- low the lake, which we may expect to augnient the temperature of the waters under the ice. It thus happens that the bottom o the lake attains the mean temperature of the atmosphere in the warm season, and that it always is maintained at a temperature 20° above the mean of the coldest months. Water attains its maximum density at 39°-2 F., from which point it is said to expand by a change of temperature in either direction ; yet my observations appear to show that water in wi masses may be heated up to 42° without disturbing its equili rium. I have often found the temperature of 42° at the bottom of the lake (25 feet) when the surface was 33°, and 89° was found only 6 feet below the surface. A mass of water with its maxi mum density at a distance from its surface of only one-fourth part of its depth would doubtless have its equilibrium very easily disturbed by any agitation, as of the wind, and thus bring the warmer water of the bottom into contact with the ice at its sur- face. I do not claim that all the ice is dissolved in this manner, I only propose to show that, when the solution has commenced, natural laws bring into action an amount of reserved heat sufli- cient to finish the solution in a very short time. : When, on the approach of winter, the process of cooling com- mences it proceeds much more rapidly in the waters of the lake than in the earthy bed on which it rests ;—the heat escaping from the water by radiation, evaporation, conduction and convection, the colder water at the surface sinking and the warmer msing; until the water of the lake attains its greatest density, after which the surface water expands as it cools and soon freezes, producing a covering of ice which protects the water from agita- tion by the winds. The process of heating from below then Dr. B. F. Harrison on Solution of Ice on Inland Waters. 55 temperature of the atmosphere was about 26°, from which it ap- pears that the increase of temperature was not due to the atmo- a depth of 3:6 x 264 = 950°4 inches; and since the latent heat of water is 142°, this amount of heat would melt a layer of ice * + 142 = 6°69 inches thick over the entire surface of the ce “SP (26 days), the temperature of the lake rose 2°-8, with the mean Hmperature of the atmosphere 81°48; but during the latter half Se Snow, but 2-9 inches of rain fell; it was warm for the season. Mee with an atmospheric temperature of 81°48 there ayer to be cumulate, including that hon, €xpected that more heat would scenes Foss uling Val of observations the accumulation of heat was as rapid 56 Dr. B. F. Harrison on Solution of Ice on Inland Waters. as in the last, although the temperature of the atmosphere was much lower,—so low, indeed, as to cause a constant loss of heat from the waters of the lake even by bad conductors. The water was at no point found as high as 42°, not even at the bot- tom, although it was as high as last year.” The observations made during the summer and autumn of 1860 show that the water at the bottom of the lake (at a depth of 25 feet,) attains a temperature above the mean of any month in the year in this latitude. How much of this heat is imparted to the earth, or to what depth it feanieaies, I have had no means of observing. The rapidity with which the enter receives heat, after the surface is covered with ice, is as conspicuous this season as it was the last. iin Dee. 17th, sie 7 ng oa 1861, (19 days), the temperature of the lake rose m Jan, 5th to the 23d, (18 days), the paces of as ake aa only 0°-7, with a difference of on! o degrees in the mean tempera- _ ‘of the atmosphere. From 6 an. 23d to Feb. 1, (8 days), there no perceptible change, but from Feb. 1st to the 27th the lamipesiitie of the water rose 2°°8; the temperature of the at- mosphere had in the mean time risen too high to allow any loss “a heat in that direction, and even sufficiently high to supply eat. On the approach of spring, when the a and the i —— heat of the atmosphere have thinned the ice and opened s holes so that the winds may agitate the sina this peat sor of heat accumulated in the lower strata of waters, which n have their unstable equilibrium disturbed, begins to be apple to the ice, which under such circumstances could not be expected to resist solution more than a few hours. It should be remembered that the mean temperature of the earth at a depth of twenty feet is sufficient to supply a ines amount of heat to the bottom of the lake in winter, indepen ent of any accumulation during the warm seaso Similar observations were continued in the winter of 186162, with results so exactly pr seer with the preceding, that their presentation could be of no r value than to confirm the conclusions which bese! Se bet given. * The thermometer used in the winter of 1860 and ’61 gives temperatures & fraction of a degree lower than the thermometer used the previous year. The ob- ions for the summer and autumn of 1860 and winter of 1861 were made with a self-registering thermometer constructed by James Green of New York. C. Dewey on Caricography. 57 Art. VII.—Caricography ; by C. Drwry. (Continued from vol. xxxii, p. 41. No, 277. Carex turgescens, Tor. Boott’s Ilust., No. 221. ca staminifera conica terminali erecta brevi-pedunculata cylin- nN more remote and exsert long-pedunculate, ovate or oblong and short, pale or yellowish, rather loose-flowered ; stigmas 3; fruit ovate- ? ra] bo] — S = @ 3 ~ ® . ba divergent, twice or more longer than the ovate acute and sub-obtuse scale ; 278, C, Rossii, Boott, Fl. Bor. Am., No. 119 and Illust. No. 242, 1860, Spica Staminifera solitaria terminali erecta brevi-cylindracea pauciflo: . $quamis oblongis mucronatis; pistilliferis subternis 2-4 ovatis gis a vel inf ristigmaticis ovalibus 2-6 floriferis et alternis sub-longo-rostratis "4 teretibus et stipitatis bifidis bicostatis pubeseentibus squama ovata oe lata subcuspidata paulo longioribus. ; hiss wink th inches high, erect, very slender or capillary, longer than at the 58 C. Dewey on Caricography. short spikes, pubescent, sub-long-rostrate, bifid and bicostate, tapering at the base so as to be stipitate; Besiata scale ovate-lanceolate and subcus- pidate, sometimes reddish on the back, a little longer than the fruit especially on the lower kes I more than 20 years since at the outlet of Lake Sandford, Essex County, ., and sent to me as C, umbellata, which it somewhat resembled, but having pubescent and two-ribbed, not nerved, frui Though Dr. Bodtt seems to doubt whether this ates is “more than 4 _lax variety of C. umbellata,” it has such characters that “future observers” will not probably doubt its specific claims. If C. umbellata must have joerc spikes at the root, this can not be that species. By some little oe n the description, C. umbellata, C. alpestris and C. Rossii, might be! unit 279. C. Grayi, Carey, in Sill. Journ, 1847. Boott, Illust. No. 148,— C. intumescens var, globularis, Gray in Ann. ‘Lye. N. Y. Spica staminifera unica gracili cylindracea pedunculata; fruciferis 2 = iuterdum = lobosis densifloris per-amplis approximatis foliosi- acteatis pedunculatis ; fructibus ¢ristigmaticis ovato-conicis tereti-rostra- te Fimultiisevate ond Mahe s divergentibus vel deflexis glabris et laevibus bidentatis squama ovata acuta vel cuspidata triplo longioribus; foliis et bracteis glabris culmo multo oo, Culm 15 to 25 inches high, o e (Carey), “ome a robust, smooth, but rough above lower vistillate spike, leafy and both leaves and bracts longer than the culm, and rather wide; "teribiad spike staminate and cylindric, sender pistillate spikes two, ’ sometimes one, approximate and pedunculate, scarcely vaginate or sheathed, large, globose or capitate, with many (15-35) Pees fruit large and close divergent or reflexed ; stigmas three; fruit ovate-conic inflated, terete-rostrate bifurcate ssl and sleek, many-nerved (20-30), thrice longer than the ovate and acute or cuspidate scale. Oriskany, and along the Mohawk and Wood Creek, N. Y., Dr. Gray; Columbus, Ohio, og capes: Menard Co., Mid. IIL, é. Hall, Esq. To Grayi, a strong ‘and robust plant as described Soe We also fi found several others of much interest and yet to be mentioned. ane specimens from ree Hal] had the fewest and the most fruit before se This ies is well characterized, and deserves, as it se received, an “Shean name, which is likely to endure. Yet, it is obvious that a trifling enlargement of the characters of C. intumescens, Rudge, would include under that name, C. Grayi, C. Halei, Carey, C. eee. and perhaps ©. turgescens. Now, these are separated by such properties of plant and Fruit as have separated C. cephalophara and C. EB : iced 1. Near the species above, grew C. Hitchcockiana, in large clus- _ C. Dewey on Caricography. 59 ters, as from one root, to the number of twenty to fifty culms, scabrous, as are the leaves and sheaths also, and by no means easily confounded with C. oligocarpa, Schk.; known also long before the true oligocarpa had. n known by m C. Careyana, Dew., grew beside the last in clusters with many culms, prostrate toward maturity and as it were radiating from the central root to the circumference of a circle three feet in diameter, or more. The shortness of the culm leaves strongly contrasted with those of the preced- ing which much surpassed the culm. : Not far from these was abundant, in a wet place, C. lupulina, far less advanced, while at considerable distance were flourishing C. intumescens, Edge, and C. lupulina, in close proximity, and little more advanced than » Grayi, C. Dewe ana, Schw., was also found in one dense matted oval turf of three feet in length and two in breadth, with the host of culms (hundreds at least) lying prostrate in all directions, light green; a plat of vegetable life more beautiful had never occurred to me. C. marginata, Muhl., so finely described and figured in Schk., but now held to be a var. of C. Pennsylvanica, Zam., is also abundant here, with only radical leaves which are longer than the culin, while those of the latter are stated to be not half so Jong as the culm. The spikes of the former are few-fruited, and sometimes only one or two fruit or none ma- tured, while the latter bear many more fruit. C. marginata should be a var. of the other; C. Pennsylvanica, Lam., var. marginata. ole 2. C. alpestris, Allion—The description of this species, by both Wahlemberg and Willdenow, was given in vol. vii, p, 268, of this Journal for 1824, hough the application there was an error, the description is Correct, and designates’ a species well known in Europe. The following Variety has been found in Texas and farther west, and is here described as 280. C. alpestris, Allion, var, tripla, Dew. Staminate spike terminal, oblong, short-pedunculate; _pistillate spikes ee, rarely one, near the staminate, the upper sessile and the often three filiform peduncles, each with a pistillate spike t *pex, and the lowest or radical peduncle the longest and nearly equallin he culm; all the pistillate spikes short-oblong, loose and few-(3~10- Wered ; stigmas 3; fruit oval-triquetrous, tapering at both ends, some- 9 rather obovate, distinctly nerved, short-rostrate and beak sometimes » Subpubescent or scabrous, sub-alternate, sometimes equal anger than the oblong acuminate or mucronate scale; culm 3-8 inches. i ane about the length of the narrow, rough, or scabrous-pu te eaves, metimes the radical peduncles have equal length, like those of C. Umbellata, to which the prank was do alte vol. xxxi for 1861; but, if _ umbellate spikes give the character, then this may belong, as men- foned by Dr. Boott, to C. alpestris; perhaps it is intermediate between the two Species, It differs from the European form in its fruit bidentate and not with one-lobed orifice, longer rostrate and longer tapered below, and less obovate, * 60 C. siwoesy on Caricography. eculiar position. It was in this position iat 1 first saw the ecies. Mountains of New Mexico, Wright ; Mountains of Texas Mr. Buckley. Neither the species nor variety before found in our ¢ ntry. Remarks and Corrections. C. monticola, vol. xxxi, 1851, is C. triquetra, Boott, in Trans. Lin . Soe.; though it seemed to differ too much from his description, and was evi- dently new. See vol, xxxiii, 1862. ‘Wrightii, vol. xxxi, 1861, differs so much in its spikes and fruit from the descripti on of C, microdonta, Tor. Mon., a stranger to me, that I look for more means of comparison. The same remarks are true of C, Nebraskensis, vol. xviii, 1854, held by Dr. Boott to be C. Jamesii, Tor.; though I hope it me prove to be the plant Fania! in honor g an old friend, “Dr. ame . laevi-conica, vol. xxiv, 1857, with fruit Neate and long-conie, en- tirely smooth and Nien seems too far removed from a species whi ich has broad conic ate with Log to be called a variety of C. tri- chocarpa, Muhl.: t’s Ilust. 42. hurberi, a xxxi, 1861, called C. hystricina by Dr. Boott, though it appeared too different, will probably come under that species in its en- larged characters. J, Haydenii, vol. Xvili, 1854, is too far rane from any specimens of C. aperta, Boott, that I have seen; so that it is properly renamed, if it is C. aperta, Carey. C. riparia, Curtis. C. lacustris, Willd., var. laxiflora, Dew. minate spikes 5-6, the highest and lowest longer than the others, ali slender eylindric ; pistillate ‘spikes 3-4, long and loose-flowered for . Hayd ough C. lacustris was said by Schk. to hs very like the preceding, C. Tart the two have not been alee generally in our country because simens were found to suit one or the other description, As many — in New England answered entirely the deseription of C. ri | of pe, a point now admitted, as well as of C. lacustris; both b the same. See Boott’s Illust., p. 112, right column. TRS SSS DS EE pa ee eee ee emer ere On the identity of the “Cattskill” and Chemung Groups. 61 Art. VIIL—On the identification of the Cattskill Red Sandstone Group with the Chemung ; by Prof. A. WINCHELL, (in a letter addressed to Prof. Dana.) University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 10th Dec., 1862. Dear Sir:—The announcement by Col. Jewett’ of the grounds of his disbelief in the existence of the Cattskill group, within the State of New York, is producing a sensation among geol- Ogists: but it seems to me that no one who has recognized the Carboniferous aspect of the fauna of the Marshall group of Mich- igan and its equivalents at the West, can feel a particle of sur- nse at this announcement; especially if he has been in the abit of admitting the equivalency of these western rocks with the Chemung of western New York. ou will remember that a8 long ago as last March, in referring the rocks of Michigan to their New York equivalents in compliance with your request to 0 80, I expressed my conviction of the equivalency of the Mar- shall and Chemung groups, and of their common Carboniferous character, and entirely omitted the Cattskill in consequence of my disbelief of its existence as a distinct group, and serious doubts about the Devonian character of the Old Red Sandstone of New York. These doubts originated in the winter of 1859-60, and have since been confirmed by observing the close analogy of many Marshall fossils with Old Red Sandstone Sree a me to include within the Marshall (Chemung) group the Amer- X20 representation of that so-called Devonian horizon of the Old also be permitted to allude to the interesting co- incidence of my having last summer communicated to others the °pinion that asthe “Cattskill group” was the only serious obsta- “le to the elevation of the New York Chemung, with its western gn alents, into the bounds of the Carboniferous system, so that obstacle would yet be proved to be imaginary through the obser- Vations of some geologist who would show that it does not in | Teality tebe the Chemung. nis : esearches in the rocks of this age, to whic ave given “pecial attention for the past Sichaen monte: have furnished me with the data for some interesting conclusions, which I shall ae Prepared to present in detail; but the great interest be- Sing to the questions affected by my investigations, will per- PS justify me in saying at this time, that the following results are reached :—Species common to Michigan and Rockford, Ind., th, common to Michigan and Burlington, Iowa, 7;—common to commen oealites, 3;—common to Rockford, and Missour, 6;— a urlington and Missouri, 8 ;—common to Burlington and Ohio, Rares Avot to Burlington and New York, 3;—besides ‘ This Journal, Nov. 1862, (xxxiv, 418). 3 bm = << 62 Ferrel on the Cause of the Inundation of the Nile. an almost universal generic identification, establishing fully the equivalency of the Chemung, Marshall, Ohio, Rockford, Burling- ton and Chouteau strata. The evidences that these localities are all of Carboniferous age are: 1st, The fact that, of the 185 spe- cies now known from the yellow sandstones of Burlington, no less than 40 ascend into the base of the Burlington limestone, while two rise to the upper portion of it, and one recurs in the Coal Measures. 2d. The fact that, of the known species of this horizon, at least 9 occur in the Coal Measures, or upper part of the Carboniferous limestone; while 3d, multitudes of species are clearly the local representatives of Huropean and American Car- boniferous types. Prof. Hall’s recent declaration in the Canadian Naturalist, that large areas of the rocks of New York hitherto regarded as Che- mung do really fall within the limits of the Hamilton group, will at once account for the Devonian aspect of some portions of the Chemung fauna, as heretofore understood; and thus tend to confirm a broad generalization, and complete the adjustment of American to European Paleozoic formations. Art. IX.—On the Cause of the Annual Inundation of the Nile; y WILLIAM FERREL. certain. Of the theories which have been advanced to account for the annual inundation of the Nile, the last, I believe, is that set forth by Sir R. L. Murchison in his annual address before the Royal es hushinal Society in 1859.’ Taking it for granted that lake Nyanza is the source of the Nile, this theory attributes its annual inundation to the abundant discharge of water from this lake uring the rainy season; but it seems to me that this theory 18 not tenable. According to Captain Speke the rainy season only a little south of this lake, is from November to March, and con- sequently cannot vary much from this period at the lake; but * See this Jonrnal, Geographical Notices, vol. xxviii, p. 411. Ferrel on the Cause of the Inundation of the Nile. 63 | the water in the lower part of the Nile, does not begin to rise until the latter part of June. Hence the water would be about seven months in flowing from this lake to the lower part of the Nile, notwithstanding this lake is about 4000 feet above the level of thesea. This would give a velocity for the flow of the water considerably less than one mile per hour, which is far less than the velocity of rivers generally, especially at the times of in- undation. In order to account for the Nile’s inundations, it is necessary to understand the causes of the rainy seasons, and the laws which govern them, in the region of the sources of the Nile, and its principal tributaries. Although we know but little of these from direct observations in the region itself, yet I think we may have a pretty correct idea of them from the observation of the laws which prevail generally at other places in the same latitude. It is well known that there is a belt surrounding the earth near the equator where the northeast and southeast trade winds meet, nearly one half the surface of the globe, very little rain falls; ut the vapor is carried to the latitude where the trades meet, where the ascending currents carry it up to a point where it is condensed, and hence nearly all the rain which would otherwise fall over the whole regions of the trade winds; falls in a narrow belt only a few degrees wide. This belt is not stationary, but vi- brates with the seasons nearly 1000 miles in latitude, having its Coming flooded by the immense amount of rain, an inundatior follows in that sivie which is at its maximum toward the mouth 64 Ferrel on the Cause of the Inundation of the Nile. about the last of March, or about two months after the middle of the rainy season. The annual inundation of the Nile, itseems to me, can be very satisfactorily accounted for in the same manner. Wherever the source of this river may be, it can have little effect in causing the inundation, for it must be a very small part of all the trib- utaries which make up the Nile; and it is to the sources of the principal tributaries that we must look for the cause of the inun- ation. We have seen that at the southern part of lake Nyanza therefore, from May to November, must be between the parallels of about 5° and 17° north latitude. If now we examine a map of this region, it is seen that the great water-shed drained by the Blue Nile, and its tributaries, embracing nearly all of Abysinia, and also several important tributaries of the White Nile, is situ- ated principally between these latitudes. Hence the immense amount of rain falling in this region during the rainy season, must cause an inundation of the Nile, just as it does of the Oro- noco or of the Amazon. From what has been stated, the mid- dle of the rainy season here, must be about the first of August, and the greatest height of the lower parts of the Nile is about the first of October, so that the flood would have about two months to descend. From what we know’of the usual velocity of the currents of other rivers generally, this would be just about the time required. The rainy belt from November to May is perhaps mostly south of the equator, and the source of the Nile or some of its tributa- ries must extend into this belt during this season, else the Nile, flowing more than 1000 miles through a rainless region, from which it does not receive asingle tributary, however small, could not be supplied with water. This isan argument in favor of the hypothesis that the Nile has its source in lake Nyanza; but I think the water-shed of that lake, would not be more than su ficient to supply the Nile at low water, and that if ever the Ge- ography and Meteorology of this region shall be well understood, : the cause of the inundation of the Nile, will be found in lati- tudes farther north, as stated above. ' Cambridge, Mass., Dec, 12, 1862, Nautical Almanac Office. J. D. Dana on the Classification of Mammais. 65 Art. X.—On the higher subdivisions in the Classification of Mammals; by James D. Dana. or structural expression; and when this expression is appre- hended, and its true importance fully admitted, classification will alone would suggest the real distinction between the groups, or ht that Man was not codrdinal with the Monkeys. In fact, nervous system is a very unsafe basis of classification below *he highest grade of subdivisions—that into subkingdoms. The rr subkingdom may contain species with, and without, a dis- di ct nervous system, and a class or order may present very wi Yersities as to its form and development,—for the reason, that J System or plan of structure in species is far more authorita- tive In el acteristios of emitey : ti eminent importance, separating é Mammals But even dene qualities, although admitted to be of . This Journal, yo! ; Journal of the Proceed- . Xxv, pp. 7, 177, 1858—cited from the mgs of the Linnsean Soe, Penton; for Feb. 17 and Ap. 21, 1857. Aw. Jour. Sc1.—geconp Serres, Vou. XXXV, No. 103.—Jan., 1868. 9 66 J. D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals. real weight, are not, to rome zoologists, unquestionable or authoritative evidence on this point, But, while the structural distineticos mentioned may fail to establish Man's independent ordinal rank, there is a character- istic that appears to be decisive,—one, which has that deep found- Sh in zoological science required to give it prominence and authori The eeabicts referred to is this:—that while all other Mam- —~ of the eae and abbreviation of sts posterior portion 18 & of elevation; but further than os; that the transfer of tlhe mitensbe members of the thorax to the cephailic series is the foundation of rank among the orders of Crustaceans. In the highest order of this class—that of the Decapods, (containing crabs, lobsters, shrimps, ete.), nine pairs of organs, out of the fourteen pertaining to the head and thorax, belong to the head—that is, to the senses and the mouth. In the second order, — of the pow there are only seven pairs of organs, out of the fourteen, thus devoted to the Aare, —two of the pairs which are mouth-organs in the Decapods being true legs in the Tetradecapods. In the third or lowest order, that of the Entomostracans, there are only six, five, or four pairs of cephalic organs; and besides, these, in most species, are aghe pediform rm, even the mandibles — namely, (8) that a decline in grade, after the laxness and elonga- tion o the anterior and terior extremities have reached theif limit, is further exhibited by a degradation of the body and espe ale of its extremities. on Classification, page 1395 ; also this his Report on Crustacea, the 1 lained in this paper are Soleus, vol. xxii, . 14, 1856; where aires es exp) oer ae Rie oo illustrated by many examples, and with direct reference classification. J. D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals. 67 Mostracans, al the principle on as In the range of orders. ; : ; ‘ne '§ connection of cephalization with rise of rank is also illus- jan abundantly in embryonic development. It is one of the ental principles in living nature.’ : ie is th hen then, in a group like that of Mammals, in which two nape Prevailing number of pairs of locomotive organs, there is a oe — of the anterior of these two from the locomotive to the Phalic Series, there is evidence, in this exalted cephalization : Tn his Manual a ag > . > of Geology, just published, the writer, speaking of the ancient enol, has preferred to nor ihe eet vertebrated tails rather than heterocercal, be- an characteristic of a prolonged vertebral column is a of inferiority of Was an ae i and the disa of it, in the rs era, ; ce of that abbreviation of the posterior extremity connected with a rise — It is well exemplified, ae. as Agassiz has made in the er thnd wis. the modern Ganoid, the young having a vertebrated upper lobe of the tebeated. oot before reaching the adult size. Another reason for using the term ver- ones sn? hat in some of the ancient Ganoids with vertebrated tails the vertebral is central in the tail, and the form is therefore not at all heterocercal, ip = a. 68 J, D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals. being both of the natural and intellectual philosopher. This cephalization of the human system has been recognized by Carus; but not in its connection with a deep-rooted structural law pervading the animal kingdom. It is the comprehensive ness of the law which gives the special fact its great weight. - Aristotle, in his three groups of Mammals, the Dipoda or two- footed, the Tetrapoda or four-footed, and the Apoda or footless species, expresses distinctions according with this law. The term Dipoda, as applied to Man, is far better and more philo- sophical than Bimana. The erect form of the structure in Man, although less author- itative in classification, is a concomitant expression of this cepha- lization. For the body is thus placed directly beneath the brain or the subordinating power, ped i no part of the structure is either anterior or posterior to it. Two feet for locomotion is the small- est possible number in an animal. Cephalic concentration and posterior abbreviation are at their maximum. ‘The characters of the brain distinguishing the Archencephala (Man) in Prof. Owen’s system, so far as based on its general form or the relative position of its parts, flow from the erect form. an’s title to a position by himself, separate from the other Mammals in classification, appears hence to be fixed on structural as well as psychical grounds. The other Mammals are either true viviparous species, or semt- oviparous. The latter, including the Marsupials and Monotremes, constitute a natural group, as usually so regarded, the most fundamen characteristic of which—the immaturity of the young at birth, by which they are related to oviparous Vertebrates—suggests the name OOTIcorDs. e viviparous species are variously arranged by different zoologists.‘ Prof. Owen, basing his subdivisions largely, as has been stated, on the characters of the brain, makes the two groups Gyrencephala and Lissencephala,—the former so named from having, in general, the surface of the brain es and the F , id 6 m its being, with some exceptions, smoo - See Professor Owen’s memoir already referred to for an account of different earlier systems of the Classification of Mammals, * See this Journal, vol. xxv, pp. 178, 179, for the precise characters of these * J. D. Dana on the Classification of Mammals. 69 The GYRENCEPHALA include, in Prof. Owen’s system, three groups—I, the Unguiculata (consisting, as presented by him, o the orders 1, Quadrumana, 2, Carnivora); I], the Ungulata (1, Ar- tiodactyla, or Ruminantia, 2, Perissodactyla or Solidungulata and Multungulata, 8, Proboscidia, 4, Toxodontia); III, the Mu- he Crustaceans have here also afforded the writer the princi- ples of classification on which he rests his conclusions.’ € orders among Crustaceans are based not only on a dif- ference of structure and cephalization, but also on a difference in the normal magnitude of the life-system. The Decapods are built on a life-system of large size as to plan as compared with that of the Tetradecapods. Deducing the relative size from the mean dimensions of the active species under the two types, the ratio is lineally as 4:1. (See the papers of the author already ferred to.) Moreover, while thus distinct, the subdivisions of the two orders form parallel series—the Brach 8 ural Tetradecapods and the Amphipods, Macroural.’ — rl he life-system in the Entomostracans is on a still smaller an, : Among the viviparous Mammals (exclusive of Man) the first 8roup differs from the second on this same principle—the fact of meet and more powerful type of structure or life-system. 's fact stands out boldly to view on comparing active species Ange iteiples are none the less important because indicated among these lower fhe clates. The turns of a closed spiral are easily mistaken for circles, as was long “se with those of flowers in plants; but if the spire be drawn out long, it then its true are otherwise undi exhibits cha’ me si racters and may display details that are ot ver- nna € class of Crus ine ‘cxstnpes of a type of structure thus drawn out— and yn’ Tanging fr ic mem Rotifer to the highest crabs, the a genera are distributed, so to s in the course of ; $ k, tant i €s, since they are com tively few in number. Fundamental principles peresi eet coe Be therefore exhibited in this class on a magnified scale, easily and understood. Macee nllelism is complete: for the Amphipods differ from the Isopods just as ede from ang saeco in having a larger and less cosines Seid, beating sh larger mouth-organs, longer segments to the body, and an elongated foot- abdomen ; all, points of inferior concentration and cephalization, | 70 J. D, Dana on the Classification of Mammals. aGevos). Judging of the mean size of the life-system in the two divisions from their more active as well as powerful species, the lineal ratio is not far from 4:1, as between the Decapods an Tetradecapods. The orders in these two groups, the Microsthenes and Megas- thenes, have throughout a precise parallelism. “The Bais or Chiropters in the latter represent the Monkeys or Quadrumanes in the former, these orders having so close relations that they are made to follow one another in Cuvier’s system; the Jnsecti- vores represent the Carnivores; the Rodents represent the Her- bivores; and the Brutes or EHdeniaies, the Mutilates. The classification indicated is then as follows: I. Arcnont1a (vel Dreopa)—Man (alone). Il. MecastHena. LUI. MrorosrHena. 1, Quadrumana 1. Cheiroptera 2. Carnivora. 2. Insectivora. 8. Herbivora. 8. Rodentia. 4, Mutilata. 4, Bruta (Edentata.) IV. Odricomea. 1. Marsupialia. 2. Monotremata. It is interesting to observe, also, that the four orders of Megas thenes rise in grade, from the 4th to the 1st, on the principles cephalization stated; and this affords other evidence, super to that of higher importance based on difference in_ type of structure, as to the naturalness of these subdivisions. The spe cies of the 4th—the Mutilates—are characterized by a degrada tion and partial obsolescence of the limbs; by the body rere, a 22, f. 9, ) " Pal. Franc, Terr, Jur, vol. 2, p.178, pl. 288, £7, 8. 92 F. B. Meek on Acteonide. ic ?Subgenus Conacraon, Meek. Shell elongate-obconic; spire more or less depressed, conical, and tur- retted; whorls distinctly truncated and rectangular above, with numerous minute wrinkles near the angle. Body-whorl with slightly convex sides, converging from the summit to the narrowly rounded base Type :— Conus Cadomensis, Deslongch.,** (Acteonina, d’Orb.). (Jurassic.) two types. That they should, however, be both separated from Subfamily RINGICULIN 2. SecTIon a. Genus CINULIA, Gray. The genus Cinulia of Gray, was founded upon Auricula globulosa, of Deshayes, a subglobose shell, with a comparatively very large body-whorl, a short, abruptly attenuate spire, and a single obscure oblique fold on the thickened columella. Its outer lip is thickened and reflected without, and smooth within; its aperture is narrow, and its surface marked with revolving striz. D’Orbigny, in subsequently proposing to found a genus for this and similar shells, under the name Avellan bes first in that conneetion, the same species (Auricula globulosa), so that his genus be- comes exactly synonymous with Cinulia of Gray. d’Orbigny, how- Subgenus Avetuana, d’Orbigny. Shell globose ; body-whorl large; spire much depressed ; aperture narrow, arcuate, sometimes a little sinuous below; outer lip srongit thickened without, crenate within; columella thickened, and provi led with two or three prominent transverse folds; surface with revolving ust ally punctate striz. ; Examples :—Auricula incrassata, Mantell,”® (Ave. d’Orb.); Cassis Avel- lana, Brong. (A. Cassis, d’Orb.); A. Hugardiana,d’Orb,, dc. (Cretaceous) 18 Mem. Soc, Linn. de Normand., vol. 8, p. 165, pl. 18, f. 7. #° Mem. Soc. Linn. de Normand., vol. 7, p. 147, pl. 10, f. 10, 15. 2 Mantell, Geol, Sussex, pl. 19, fig. 33. eis a apres ge AS E. B. Meek on Acteonide. 93 Subgenus Evrryoma, Meek Shell like Avellana in form ; aperture very narrow, arcuate; columella large obtuse teeth or tubercles, at the base within. Surface with com- 8. Auricula decurtata, Sowerby,” (Avellana, Zekeli). Also in- s.) Srorton 6, Genus APTYCHA, Meek, Shell oval; spire moderate; body-whorl rather large. Aperture nar- d tow subovate, rounded below, and acutely angular above; outer li smooth within, inner lip callous, particularly above, but destitute of any folds on the columella, so characteristic of that section of the subfamily, It therefore bears exactly the same relation to those genera, that Acteon- tna bears to Acteon, Tornatellea, Solidula, d&sc., in the subfamily Acte- onine, ons from an elevated to a depressed or sunken spire, are so oe, that within a considerable range of limits, it cannot the thickness or thinness of the shell, &c., and the various combi- nations of these and other characters, sometimes individually of subfamily or sectional value. Teady been stated. it will be remembered that the shells of many of the warty tales Boom a constant tendency to shade off “ Trans, Geol, Soe. Lond, iii, pl. 88, fig. 10. _* Ibid, 2d ser. vol. vii, pl xi, f. 24. 94 Messrs. Johnson and Allen towards genera of that family. From all the facts, I am inclined to agree with those who think the group should be ranged near the Bullide and Cylichnide. In regard to the geological range of this family, we have evi- dence of its existence as far back as the Carboniferous epoch, where it is represented by the genus Acteonina. If we include the genus Macrocheilus, however, it would carry the origin of the family back to the Devonian. It attained its greatest development during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods,—since which it has declined; and, although still represented in our existing seas by a comparatively few forms, it may be regarded as a type proba- bly destined to pass out of existence during the present geologi- cal period. Washington, D. C., Dec. 20, 1862. Art. XV.—Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College.—V. On the Equivalent and Spectrum of Cesium; by S. W. JoHNson and O. D. ALLEN. IN the last vol. of this Journal a method is described of sepa- rating cesium from rubidium by fractional crystallization of the bitartrates of these metals.’ The analyses of the bitartrate of cesium there given, while perfectly according with each other as regards carbon, disagree with the numbers deduced from Bunsen’s equivalent to such an extent that we have undertaken to ascertain whether the salt was impure or Bunsen’s equivalent incorrect. From the great care used in preparing the bitartrate and es- pecially from the fact that its spectrum remained unaltered though the salt was repeatedly recrystallized, we were inclined to suppose that Bunsen had not operated with a pure substance. This might easily happen on account of the small quantity of material at his disposal without at all detracting from the merit of this distinguished chemist. ; uantity of bitartrate of cesium purified by concentrating . m tion of a little hydrochloric acid. : We thus obtained an amorphous mass of a pure white color ? Observations on Cesium and Rubidium, by O. D, Allen, vol. xxxiv, pp. 367-875: on the Equivalent and Spectrum of Cesium. 95 which, unlike Bunsen’s chlorid was not perceptibly deliquescent even in a very moist atmosphere. The spectrum of the chlorid thus prepared was identical with that of the original bitartrate. Both salts gave a red line nearly coincident with the @ line of lithium. In order to determine whether this line was due to a trace of lithium or belongs to the spectrum of cesium, a portion of chlorid was again precipitated with a relatively small quantity of bichlorid of platinum, the precipitate was most thoroughly washed and from it a new sample of chlorid of cesium was pre- Mid; the product thus procured gave a spectrum identical with that from the original bitartrate. Be it not deliquescent, but it is hardly hygroscopic. The unfused and porous salt may be weighed in moist air with as much accuracy as chlorid of sodium. After it has been fused it does not alter in Weight during 24 hours’ exposure to the air in cold dry Weather. It may be fused in a platinum capsule over the gas Ma first estimations of cesium in this form were too low by 4 to tenths of one per cent. ts nitrates of cesium and silver, after the latter had bea original chlorid and the whole was partially precipitated with Ichlorid of platinum and a second portion of chlorid of cesium about half the cesium was again thrown down as platinchlorid, meat this product another estimation of chlorine, IV, was 96 Messrs. Johnson and Allen = a of chlorine was conducted in the usual on a rs by Becker and Sons of Brooklyn, N. Y., w with an ordinary load indicates ,;th of a milligramme aie great decision and perfect constan ney. The data of our determinations are as follows: I, 1:8871 grms. Cs Cl ae at Ag. Cl=" Reaigs Cl, and ¢ 4505 Os. Il. 2°1295 6 sti 64 « 68165 “ II. 2: “ate ye odes - sh Aig — rape ils ™ ‘ 18827 * IV. 1:56165 “ ot eee. Se eEeOR - 1:23272 “ The percentage composition of chlorid of cesium and the equivalents deduced from the above figures are as follows ; sil- ver being considered =107°94 and chlorine =35-46, Stas: Per cent of Equiv. of Cs. ' ¢l Cs 1 21°044 78-956 183°050 Allen. 2. 21°031 78:969 1383°150 _ Johnson. 3. 21:048 78957 133:054 Johnson. 4 21-063 78937 182°892 Allen Average, 21-0 045 78-955 133-036 We may sre 3 assume the round number, 133, as the equivalent of czsi Calculated by this equivalent the formula of bitartrate of exsium corresponds well with the results of experiment. mentioned in the paper referred to, the analyses of this salt fur- nished the following data: : 786 grm. water, and hs CATE Ee ere ice 0° ip “carbonic acid. : 01 grm. water, and II. 0°5966 grm. gave} Os 0370 <* ceehonis acd. II. 1-°3086 grm. gave 0°7708 grm. chlorid of cesium. In two other estimations since made— IV. 2:0347 grm. gave 1:206 grm. chlorid of cesium. fF 8271 * 10857 be . Calculated Found. f Os==1 23°35 Cs==188° : 1, Il. Iv. ¥. C, 4800 17°62 « && 17-02 1600 3702 (ecu co lee is 5°00 1 0° & 31 1 by 88 a -eme ore 88:00 32°31 88° 2 heer eres aeoe woe eee 30 13135 48 Cs0 141° 50°00 PED TED aop0 46-61 4078 27235 10000 282° 100°00. on the Equivalent and Spectrum of Cesium. 97 The equivalent number 133, brings cesium into a triad with rubidium and potassium. We have then two alkali triads, viz: lithium, (eq. 7), sodium (eq. 23) and potassium (eq. 39°1), £9? 9s and potassium, rubidium (eq. 85°36) and cesium. me 1 rine 86 further that some of those figured by K. & B.} are not mapped in their correct positions. To enable other chemists to compare their cesium preparations with ours, we will attempt to describe the caesium Spectrum as seen in our instrument, which has a Single flint glass prism. ._veginning at the left or red extremity of the spectrum, we Will indicate the lines in the order of their occurrence by Roman numerals; I. is a red line of medium brightness nearly equidis- ‘ant between the Fraunhofer lines a and B; IL. isa bright line Partly coincident with, but slightly to the left of and narrower TOW spaces, and which are represented well in the spectrum plate of Kirchhoff and Bunsen, thou h placed a trifle too far to the i t. Then, after an interval scarcely wider than the lines ©mselves, come XII, and XIII , Which are very near each other. 98 On the Equivalent and Spectrum of Cesium. __ For the convenience of those who may use spectroscopes of the same construction as ours, we will mention the degrees on the scale of our instrument, which correspond to the cesium lines. In our observations we have brought the degree 100 (10 on the scale) into the sodium line. Then the blue of strontium is at 156°, the violet of potassium 257°, the red of potassium at 65-6° ; the red of lithium at 80-1°. With this adjustment the czesium lines are as follows, beginning with the red: : IT 80°, III 82-3°, IV 85°, V 87-8°, VI 91°, VII 97-8°, V 101°, TX 106°, X 107-8°, XI 109°, XII 111°, XIII 112-13’, XIV 114-15°, XV 118°, XVI 121°, XVII 157-58°, XVI zt °o The position of the czesium lines on the scale figured = * ho ~I kt en oo | at the top of the spectrum plate in Fresenius’ Zeitschrift, =— is approximatively given in the accompanying diagram, = _u by help of which our results may be directly compared = ~ with those of Kirchhoff and Bunsen. ae The order of brilliancy in the lines of what we sup- =—¥ ose to be the spectrum of pure cxsium, with but the = minutest trace of sodium, is for the red lines as follows: =~ ; e line IV is only made =—® out under the most favorable conditions. II, nearly {=_ coincident with « lithium of Kirchhoff and Bunsen, and & not figured by them, is as bright as their y cesium, our &=—5 VI(?). Among the yellow and green lines to the right =— — of the sodium line, the order of brilliancy is the follow- @_ 2 ing: VIII, IX, XI, XU, XIV, XIII, XV, X. The = yellow line VIII, is hardly less characteristic of the =— spectrum of pure cesium than the two blue lines. It ==—g also is nearly as distinct as any of the green lines when &_ sodium is not present in too large quantity, and is much <& more readily made out than the extreme red line d of =~ rubidium. = To sum up, we find 4 red lines to the left of those = given by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, one of which is as bright =~ 8 as any of the red lines in the cesium spectrum. Fur- =— ther, the red lines of K. & B. are not figured in their =_g¢g true positions, being too near each other and too far to the right. Finally, we observe a fine yellow line and 4 i 3 two unimportant green lines not ane a by K. & B. The lines which we have supplemented to those of K. & B. are not characteristic except in the absence of for- eign matters. For this very reason however they come important to those who are engaged in the study of the new elements. New Haven, Conn., Dec. 24th, 1862. OL MA Ty D. M. Baich on Tellurbismuth from Dahlonega,Ga. 99 Art. XVI.—On Tellurbismuth from Dahlonega, Georgia; by Daviy M. Banca. (Communicated for this Journal by Dr. C. T. Jacxson.)! * THE specimen of tellurbismuth submitted to the following pe _part of a tabular crystal, and was easily separable into thin folia, very splendent, anil PWpipe a small portion entirely volatilized, and the peculiar e little nitric acid had been added; it dissolved quickly and left nO residue. The solution was now evaporated till all traces of tire oxyds were expelled, somewhat diluted, and tested for su phurie acid by chlorid of barium; the non-formation of a excess of bisulphite of ammonia, and set aside for some hours. 1 ah, ® the Editors of the American Journal of Science: Gentlemen—An analysis, % me years since, of a tellurbismuth from Field’s gold mine in Dahlo- ht best. ade a new analysis,—to refer the matter to a chemist, who had ur papers, at that time. I therefore presented to Mr. David M. Suckea carefully selected crystals of the mineral, with the request that he licatj make an exact analysis of them, and prepare a paper on the subject for pub- endows... * *. I have this day received Mr. Balch’s results, which I he oi for publication, and would state that I fully concur with him in the opinion pecan’ namely, that the mineral, being a tertellurid of bismuth, is evidently a ies Tn explanati ; ae ‘ : Anation of the error in my original analysis, I would state that the bis- aa having been precipitated betas the tellurium, carried down with it a portion tea latter and made the weight of the oxyd of bismuth too high, and that of the “ips too low. I was not aware that Thad ade this mistake before I looked ..” My laboratory notes of this analysis, 1 therefore withdraw the name Mee a8 a applicable to this species, and adopt the chemical name given it by Respectfully, c&c., Cuartes T. Jackson. ston, May 28th, 1862.) 100 D. M. Balch on Tellurbismuth from Dahlonega, Ga. teroxyd in the usual manner. Analysis a. ‘827 grm. gave, 4256 Bi = 51°46 pr. ct. 3990 Te = 4826 * “8246 99°72 Analysis b. ‘552 grm. gave, 2847 Bi = 51°57 pr. ct. 2690 Te fog 48:78. <% 5537 100°30 To ascertain whether this tellurium contained selenium in ap- reciable quantity, a portion ("186 grm.) was fused at a dull red eat with six times its weight of a mixture of nitre and carbon- ate of soda, to convert any selenium present into selenic acid. The fused cake was dissolved in water, and a little nitric acid and nitrate of baryta added; no precipitate formed, even after several days, which proves the absence of selenium, except 10 minute traces as evinced by the blowpipe test before noticed. ore was found to be free from gold, silver andiron. The specimen that I have analyzed is therefore a pure tellurid of bismuth, Bi Te, ; thus— Dahlonega. Calculated. a. db. 7 Bi 208 52°00 51°46 51°57 Te, 192 48°00 48°26 48°73 400 100-00 99°72 100°30 been analyzed The tellurbismuth from this locality has ve; he also already by Dr. Genth, with nearly the same results as abo finds the same formula for the Fluvanna county, Va., mineral. Allow me to offer a few remarks on the compounds of bis- muth and tellurium, suggested by an examination of the many ublished analyses of this ore from both American and foreign ocalities. It appears that selenium is present only in traces, and sulphur (where it exists at all) in quantities not exceeding 5 per Prof. Gautier on recent Researches relating to Nebule. 101 cent. The mineral called tetradymite, taking Berzelius’s analyses of that from Schoubkau as an example, has the following for- mula, (BiTe,)?+BiS,, and other analyses agree closely with this, Examples of a compound or complex mineral formed by the union of two simple ones are common; for instance, bro- myrite (Ag Br) and kerargyrite (Ag Cl) unite to form embolite (Ag Cl+AgBr); and others might be cited. It seems therefore probable that when sulphur is present in a tellurbismuth, it is due ‘oan admixture of bismuth glance (BiS,), and that tetrady mite, like embolite, is formed by the union of two simple minerals ; in the case of tetradymite these minerals are tertellurid of bis- muth, BiTe,, and tersulphid of bismuth, BiS,, (bismuth glance, & mineral much resembling the other in its physical properties). The native tertellurid of bismuth in a pure state, has | observed only at Dahlonega, Ga., and the “Tellurium Mine,” luvanna Co., Va., and is up to this time at least, a mineral pe- culiar to the United States. .~4king this view of the subject, the American tertellurid of bismuth should be considered a new species, to which the term etradymite is hardly applicable. In conclusion I would call attention to the fact, that, although by artificial means bismuth and tellurium can be fused together In all Proportions, in their native combinations one equivalent of the former appears to be always united to three equivalents of the latter metal; the bornite of Brazil offers the only excep- tion to this rule and according to Damour’s analysis differs en- y from the other tellurbismuths. » Mass., May 20, 1862. — Art. XVII — Recent Researches relating to Nebule; by Prof. A, Gautier. (Translated for this Journal from the Bibliotheque Oniverselle, for Sept., 1862.) (We have translated Prof. Gautier’s article, both because it furnishes a Compact and clear account of the recent researches relating to nebula, and for the sake of showing our readers the esteem in which the labors of * Serge American astronomers are held abroad. We have taken the li tty to add foot notes on one or two points where some change “eemed desirable.—Eps. ] TuERE is no part of the vast field of practical astronomy Which does not require laborious investigation. I propose to Me general idea of those researches which relate to a very b 8¢ and curious class of celestial ne ska first specially studied Y the two illustrious astronomers erschel and Messier, and recently by Lord Rosse, by Fathers di Vico and Secchi, 102 Prof. Gautier on recent Researches relating to Nebulae. and by Messrs. Lamont, Lassell and Bond, which present peculiar difficulties and in regard to which much remains yet to be ex- plained. I design to speak of nebule, or those small white specks of feeble light which the telescope shows to exist in great numbers in the heavens, and which the most powerful instru- ments enable us to regard most generally as masses of stars situ- ated at immense distances from the earth. ' In this rapid review I shall follow, in general, the chronolo- gical order, commencing with a few remarks upon a catalogue of the positions of 58 nebulee, as determined from observations made at the Observatory of Paris by M. Laugier, chiefly in the years 1848 and 1849, and presented to the Académie des Sciences of Paris at the session of Dec. 12, 1853. This catalogue, pub- lished in the Compie Rendu of that session, gives the right ascen- sion and mean declination of the centers, or points of greatest brilliancy, of these nebulze for Jan. 1, 1850, and also the differ- ences between these positions and those obtained from the cata- logues of Herschel and of Messier. This is the first attempt to determine the precise positions of a certain number of nebula, undertaken for the purpose of serving, hereafter, to decide the question whether these bodies are really situated beyond the fixed stars visible to the naked eye. Researches upon the nebula of Orion.—M. Liapounoff, director of the Observatory of Kazan, at the beginning of 1856, presented to the Academyrof Sciences of St. Petersburg, by the hand of M. W. Struve, a memoir upon the great nebula of Orion, dedu- ced from four years’ labor with an equatorial telescope, having & ower equal to the telescope at Dorpat, and a meridian circle of psold.’ He has undertaken to determine very exactly, by & process of triangulation, the positions of all the stars which his instruments permitted him to see in this nebula, and he has mapped with great care every part of this remarkable celestial object; several sheets are already prepared in which he has given particular names to its different regions. Comparing the results of M. Liapounoff with those previously obtained by Sit John Herschel and by Messrs. Lamont and Bond, M. Struve has » expressed the opinion that this nebula must be subject to changes of form and of relative brightness in different parts. tto Struve has continued (at the Observatory of Pulkova) the labors of M. Liapounoff, and he has put forth the first results of his researches in a communication, dated May 1, 1857, pre- sented to the Astronomical Society by Prof. Airy, on June 12th 1 Ihave only learned of this memoir by a brief notice of it at the end of the “Monthly Notices” of the Astronomical Society of London, for March 14, 1856, vol. xvi, p. 139. Prof. Gautier on recent Researches relating to Nebula. 103 of that year, and published in the “ Monthly Notices,” vol. xvii, pp. 225-230." Struve begins by pointing out the change in the brillianey of different small stars situated in the nebula of Orion, a variation which he has shown either by comparison of his observations with those of other astronomers, or in the progress even of his Own observations. “The existence,” says Struve, ‘of so many variable stars in So small a space of the central part of the most curious nebula in the heavens, would naturally lead us to suppose that these phenomena are intimately connected with the mysterious nature of this body. ... Admitting that the rapid changes of light ob- Served in these small stars, either in the region called Huygens or in that called Subnebulosa, may be connected with the nature of the nebula, one would expect in like manner to observe chan- 8&8 In the appearances of the nebula and in the distribution of the nebulous matter. But observations of this kind are subject ie lead to results which can be regarded as certain. The op- cal power of the telescope, the transparency of the atmosphere, (Varying at different stations), the peculiarities of the eye of the “Xistence of progressive changes, but it will never be possible to demonstrate in this manner those changes which take place in short intervals of time. But the rapid variations of light in the 118 require us to give attention to similar changes, pee S pe- t 1s thus to changes of this kind that we ought a Dog 4 to direct our sttention, and we shall be better able to prove their existence es have had . : : Beal Ee ee of var; 1 occasion to mention the labors of Struve in an article upon the: erable brightness, published in the Bibliotheque Universelle, for September and ineaa ce (Archives, tome xxxvi, p. 5 and 89). M. Otto Struve has recently father as director of the great Russian Observatory of Pulkova. 104 Prof. Gautier on recent Researches relating to Nebulae. the meanwhile, to regard these as positive facts until they have been corroborated, especially by observers located in more favor- able climates and provided with optical apparatus sufficient for of Huygens. Dr. Lamont first mapped this bay, which had never been seen by Sir J. Herschel. The second is a nebulous bridge which crosses the Sinus Magnus, with a point of light concentrated towards its middle. Struve has seen it in winter, sometimes as Herschel and sometimes as Liapounoff represented it, with more concentration of light, but always much more extended than these two astronomers have drawn it, and very much diminishing the southern limit of the great strait. La- mont has represented it only with very feeble traces, and Bond has never seen it at all. The third is a nebulosity surround- ing star 75 of Herschel’s catalogue, and which appeared to Struve to be subject to great changes of brilliancy. The fourth part is a sort of straight canal, joining in a right line the dark space situated around the stars 76, 80 and 84 of Herschel’s cata- logue, with the northern border of the Sinus Magnus near the exterior limit of the bridge mentioned above. The canal, which had never been represented by any other observer, was distinctly seen by Struve, March 24th, 1857, although on other occasions he did not perceive the least trace of it. This astronomer adds, in closing his communication, that the over the Sinus Magnus “has no n seen by The assertion rests 0B no evidence excepting its partial omission in the published engravings of Prof, Bond We are authorized to say that this feature may be distinctly recognized in no less than five original sketches made by him on as many different dates in 1847 and 1848; previous to the publication of the engraving, as well as on the very ‘copy from which it occurs also in several drawings made more Tr = Prof. Gautier on recent Researches relating to Nebula. 105 have too feeble a light to be visible when the micrometer wires are strongly illuminated. He has first placed in one chart 262 Stars and has divided the surface of the same into four sheets, so Constructed as to be united into one. The form and arrange- ment of the elongated luminous clusters, alternating with spaces More or less obscure, emanating from the vicinity of the trape- zum, have been determined by two independent processes, the nebula having been first sketched as a bright object upon a dark Sound, and afterwards as a dark object upon a white ground. I cannot here enter into the descriptive details given in the analysis of the memoir of Mr. Bond. I therefore confine myself Stating his conclusion that the general appearance of the ater part of the nebula of Orion is an assemblage of tufts or curvilinear pencils of luminous matter, emanating from brilliant of his great reflecting telescope. The nebula No. 51 of Mes- Sler's catalogue was the first 24 which this msi arrangement, wont bad escaped the attention of the two Herschels, was dis- vered, Ax. Jour. Sct,—Szconp Sznrms, Vou. XXXV, No. 103.—Jan., 1868. 4 106 Prof. Gautier on recent Researches relating to Nebule. Mr. Bond has observed, in a great number of cases, that masses of nebulous matter are associated with stars, frequently in the form of small tufts extending from the sou uth side. = in the rete of a spiral peliorda with the idea of a stellar conetia tion: for among the objects which present this peculiarity of form are found not only nebulze resolvable into stars but — of stars properly so called, such for example as the great m of stars of the constellation Hercules, where the exterior me evidently have a curvilinear arrangement. Other facts in relation to nebule.—In 1860, Norman Pogson, while at the Observatory of Dr. ree at Hartwell, noticed a change in the nebula, or mass of s rs, No. 80 of the catalogue of Messier, eae in the cs of the Scorpion, an very neara pair of variable >a & and S of the Scorpion, swine: sia a caro powe of 66, the stellar appearance ad very nearly ae ea than usual, wit th a marked central condensation. pt: patie recently Chacornac has obse rved, with the great tele- scope of Foucault, furnished with a mirror of silvered glass, a adapted to high magnifying powers, — annular nebula of Lyra, and he has shown that it may be resolved into a mass very small stars, exceedingly near to oath other, the more brik liant occupying the extremities of the smaller diameter. This ® Prof. G. P. Bond has now en means of publishing a complete account of the Observations made on the * bula of Orion for fourteen years past with the ee refractor at Cambridge, and hopes soon to = about it. The comparisons of the pes I data can hardly fail to be interesting and to bring something new to dee structure has been seen by Prof. Bond, in perfect disti ee with the great t Clark m. Jour. Shjeiitnan ot 184 inches aperture.— “oS SSSR TELE ESF a . Prof. Gautier on recent Researches relating to Nebula. 107 nebula, which was examined for many nights, presented to him the appearance of a hollow cylinder, seen in a direction very nearly parallel to its axis. Its centre, as Lord Rosse described it, is veiled by a curtain of nebulous matter, which is resolved into a thin stratum of small stars. Chacornac adds, in his com- munication upon this subject to Dr. Peters, under date of Paris, June 9th, 1862, published in No. 1868 of the ‘“Astronomische Nachrichten,” that when the eye is protected from all extraneous light the scintillation of this multitude of luminous points, oc- cupying a great portion of the surface of the retina, produces a very curious vertigo. - pass now to the labors of M. d’Arrest upon the nebule. This astronomer directed his attention to this subject while he Was connected with the Observatory of Leipsic, and he published in 1857, in the collection of memoirs of the Royal Society of Saxony, the results of his observations upon 230 nebule, made with a biannular micrometer of Fraunhofer’s construction applied to a telescope having an aperture of 52 lines and a focal length of 6 feet. Prof. d’Arrest is the acting director of the Observa- ty of Copenhagen, and has continued, since September, 1861, his observations of nebule, with an achromatic telescope of 11 inches aperture and a focal length of 16 feet, and with a power estimated to be intermediate between Herschel’s 20 feet reflector and the telescope of the same kind with which Lassell also ob- Served the nebula from 1852 to 1854. The telescope of Copen- hagen has enabled d’ Arrest not only to recognize all the nebulze of Herschel, but to discover more than a hundred new ones objects of feeble light, with the microscopic readings of the cir- cles of his instrument. The result is that his new catalogue does them, by means of annular and wire-micrometers. It will thus be * 800d means of recognizing exactly their proper movements Searches of d’ Arrest. ‘This astronomer has published in No, 1366 of the “ Astronomische Nachrichten” an interesting notice of his latest researches, dated May 20th, 1862, from which I shall ex- Tome details tending to complete those given above. Variation of the brilliancy of the nebule.—M. d’Arrest admits, upon the basis of the great work of Argelander who has made Soe catalogue of stars, that among 50,000 stars already well ‘Own there is but a very small number whose light varies peri- J 108 Prof. Gautier on recent Researches relating to Nebule. odically, and he thinks it is now possible, though with less cer- tainty, to affirm that the same is true of nebule. Sir W. Herschel has divided the nebule into three classes according to the degree of light. D’Arrest has found a great number of cases where nebula, such as had been first classified by Herschel, ought now to be displaced one or even two units in the classification. The latter cause has changed, in the course of a number of years, many of his own estimates of the magni- tude of nebule. But, in view of the great diversity of atmo- . influences in moist climates, for observations of this kind, Arrest agrees with Otto Strnve that it is not possible to be so eonfident in regard to conclusions deduced from variations of this kind. Meanwhile he states a small number of cases where he has been able to show some positive variation. _ The first case of this kind is one deduced from observations of Struve upon the nebula of Orion which I have mention above. The observations upen this nebula recently made by d’Arrest, and frequently repeated, with his great telescope, 02 favorable nights, have confirmed those of Struve, especially those relating to the bridge upon the ‘ Sinus Magnus,” which has been frequently visible at Copenhagen the past winter, (1861-2,) and it has appeared just as it was Salectibeil by Lassell. he second case of well marked variation is the almost total disappearance of a small and feeble nebula discovered by Hind, Oct. 1ith, 1852, in the eonstellation Taurus, recognized by other astronomers and easily discernable, at the commencement 0 1856, with a telescope of 6 feet focal distance. ‘Two years later star at 9°4. Its magnitude was no more than the 10th in 1858, the 11th in 1861 and only the 18th or 14th magnitude in Feb- ruary, 1862. i Sir John Herschel thought that he lately found another ex ample of the disappearance of a nebula, not seeing inscribed 1p the first catalogue of d'Arrest a very feeble nebula described by Sir W: : i . Herschel near two others in the Hair of Berniee, But Chacornac with the aid of the telescope of Foucault proved that this feeble nebula was still visible, and d’ Arrest has aiso 0 ed it with his great telescope. This astronomer mentions also 4 small number ef cases where there may have been a variation of Prof. Gautier on recent Researches relating to Nebula. 109 brightness and even a disappearance of nebuls, but these cases are not as well authenticated as that of Hind. Double Nebule.—Sir John Herschel has remarked, in his great memoir upon nebula published in the Philosophical Trans- achons for 1833, p. 802, that the number of nebule physically connected with others is much more considerable, in proportion to the total number of nebule, than is the number of double stars among the fixed stars." Assumigg a mutual distance of 5 minutes of a degree as the greatest distance of double nebula, d’Arrest has already computed about 50 comprised within this limit, and he has estimated that there may be two or three hun- had any idea of this physical connection between nebule, but Sir John has spoken of it clearly and frequently. There can be little doubt that it will be possible, in the distant future, to calculate € orbits of double nebula. . d’Arrest mentions some particular cases of nebulz of this Sort, one of which is triple. He recognized it only when, on ed. A Very small star is found between them, exactly at the same Place where Lassell found it ten years before. M. d’Arrest will Cite hereafter some other analogous cases of change in the rela- aye Positions of double nebule, when his work upon this subject, determined for some of the double stars. Finally d’Arrest describes a very small number of cases where 6 hee «+ brief analysis of t aluable researches of Sir John Herschel, accompanied i. Pinte, on per a Payee Bibliothique Universelle for eget July, 1834, Arrest i i “A. 7 Nachrichten” a f 50 double nebule, for _citen,” a catalogue of the positions and appearances o : ne beginning of 1861, which he has already recognized and of which a dozen are 110 Scientific Intelligence. he has been able, by comparing a nebula with some small star near it, and repeating this comparison after a certain time, to show slight differences of distance or of position which might indicate a proper motion of one or the other of these heavenly bodies. : I here terminate this brief review, in which I have been able to give only a hasty glance at the actual labors of observers upon one of the more difficult and less advanced portions of astronomical science. y .S. M. d’Arrest announces, in No. 1378 of the “ Astronom- ische Nachrichten,” that he has recognized in the constellation Taurus the existence of a second nebula of variable brightness. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. PHYSICS. 1. On a new form of Spectroscope, (from a letter of Dr. Woxcort Gress to B. Striman, Jr.)—* Messrs. J. and W.G opticians of this city, have just completed, at my suggestion, a spectroscope ts of this kind. In this instrument the prism of flint glass has a re- fracting angle of only 37°: the rays which diverge from the slit are ren- dered parallel in the usual manner by an achromatic Jens having the slit in its principal focus. The bundle of rays then falls upon the first surface of the prism at a perpendicular incidence, and of course makes an angle of 37° with the second surface. Under these circumstances the refraction takes place at an angle so near the limiting angle that the refracted rays emerge nearly parallel to the second surface of the prism. The amount of dispersion produced in this manner is very great, while the loss of light, oceasioned by reflection at the first surface in prisms of 60° placed 10 the position of least deviation, is avoided. The spectrum thus produced esses remarkable intensity and the dark lines aré seen in countless numbers and with great distinctness. The instrument in this form is sub ficient for all chemical purposes, but it is so constructed as to permit the use of i gt Physics and Chemistry. 111 the first. surface is concave, so as to admit the addition of a double con- vex lens of crown glass, appears to be preferable for the spectroscope, in consequence of the saving of light.” New York, Nov. 28, 1862. II. CHEMISTRY. 2. On the preparation of Ozone—Scninpetn has given a method of obtaining ozone —QO) in comparativgky large quantities and with great gas evolved collected over water. The gas obtained in this manner Possesses all the properties of ozone as obtained by the slow oxydation o phosphorus or by electrolysis. Taken into the lungs it produces con- traction of the chest and catarrh. It destroys organic coloring matters With the greatest energy ; burns pyrogallic acid completely to carbonic _ Mid and water; does not combine with water to form H 2, but reduces Peroxyd of hydrogen to water, losing its smell and power of oxydation; . oxydizes lead, silver and arsenic in the cold; liberates iodine from me- tallic iodids; oxydizes the protoxyds of lead and manganese to peroxyds; atin sulphids into sulphates, and changes ferrocyanid to ferrideyanid ‘a Potassium, The gas thus possesses all the properties of ozone: it is fi Wever only a mixture of a small quantity of ozone with a large quan- ty of neutral oxygen. The author remarks that it is only the gr yyution of the hypermanganate which yields ozone in the above process. ieiivat sulphuric acid is so dilute as to give a red solution no ozone is Bérrerr claims priority in the discovery of the above method of pre- Paring ozone, recommends a mixture of two parts of dry yperman- Sahiate of potash with three of sulphuric acid, and finds that the addition 0 i i t : flowers of sulphur are instantly converted into sulphuric acid, the B re cag attended by an explosive noise.—Journal fur cfg toms ‘q ’ P 40 and 377, as wey OM the allotropic form of Oxygen.—Scuonsetn has further endeay- ase ‘o strengthen his position in regard to the existence of a positive and negative oxygen, +O and —O, by the following facts. Strips of Pet soaked in a solution of sulphate of manganese are rapidly rendered Mnd 24.70 iB consequence of the formation of peroxyd of mangane or --O produces no such change, but on the con- is ~ ved by hanging’ strips of darkened paper over a vessel in which 7 Serb by the. ation of sulphuric acid a ary of barium, 112 Scientific Intelligence. which with —O gives ‘PbO, in its turn paiaene re 0. to te and neu- hydrogen. The union of equal weights of +O and —O gives ordinary or neutral oxygen. ‘This view, wih is certainly mee and plausible, appears to be contradicted by several facts. Thus peroxyd of hydrogen, HO,, oxydizes acetate of lead and gives PbO,, which with excess ol in r , while neutral oxygen is set free Concentrated iodhydric acid is also decomposed bot and —O and even by neutral oxygen, though slowly. Schénbein endeavors to explain these acts by assuming that the different forms of oxygen may pass into each other and that certain substances possess the power of producing such a change. — to this view acetate of lead, a ee of iron and eae odhydric acid, &c., by contact convert +O into —O, a Tccne ind of matter the same kind of oxygen is always necessary.— Jemreat fur prakt. Chemie, 86, p. 30. Chemisches Contralblatt, No, iy ' e fundamental properties of Oxygen and Hydrogen. ee he pubised a pamphlet with the above title in which the views of Schén- to the allotropic modification of. Se are controverted. The author’ principal conclusions are as follow There are no such modifications of bisa as ozone and antozone Phnsphors with water and oxygen yields ordinary peroxyd of hydrogen a gaseous peroxyd of hydrogen of powerfully oxydizing prop erties whisbs is mixed in variable oe with air or oe he yen of hydrogen in this compound may be proved by pass = * The same result is obtained with the gas spi as) Wy the perme of gas peroxyd of barium by sulphuric acid and whieh Schénbein terms antozon® cy Pure uncombined oxygen ever possesses the properties of thesé 3.) Powerfully aaa hitches BY obtained by saturating various liquid or gaseous organic compounds with oxygen. They obtain in this manner the properties of ‘the mins superoxyds. Oil of turpet tine, oil of bitter almonds, d&ec., are of this class. (4.) Other oils are te indifferent to starch and iodid of pou paper. The vapors of these oils cannot serve as carriers of oxyget paper, e vapors of two kinds of oil, vapors may be tained which neither bleach blue paper nor render white paper blue. (6. cases of oxydation by means of oxygen gas, whether int other or active dark or in sunlight, the oxygen never passes first into ano condition. The author proved that air which had been employed ' — Chemistry. 113 oxydize a solution of sulphate of iron had undergone no change what- ever. . (7) The only method of communicating to perfectly dry oxygen a higher activity is electrization. Otherwise oxygen is never capable of setting iodine free from iodid of potassium. (8. Atmospheric air almost always gives a more or Jess distinct reaction With iodid of potassium paper. This arises from various causes as the atmosphere is a reservoir for all the gaseous substances which are formed bines with iodine or bleaches the blue per. the former we may mention oe acid; among the latter, various hydrogen compounds, as + OC, (9.) Peroxyd of hydrogen (of Thénard) is not oxydized water, or, as Schénbein assumes, HO Q), but a carrier of oxygen of which ali the the 3 a ueing or as an oxydizing agent. According to Heldt, when HO, and PbO, are brought in contact, the oxygen given off arises exclusively from the H = ° from HO,. When hydrate of baryta and peroxyd of hydrogen h former, = of polarity of oxygen is unnecessary.—Die fundamental Higenschaf- a des oil und Wasserstoffs. ; W. G, On the formation of nitrite of ammonium from water and atmo- .” Yr under the influence of heat-—The readiness with which a at nitrogen oe to the equation NH,O, NO,=2N-+-4H0, is familiar to all ™ Sn bei itro: Srammes, acidulated with some drops of dilute sulphuric acid,’com- color to iodid of potassium and starch. The reaction is cible ge more and sometimes less distinct, and the substance of the eru- the ada: RO influence whatever on the result. In a successful experiment, SEditio} e curcuma- containg or copper still is used for the experiment, the water collected pay tarch but with hypermanganate of potash, which is lorized. UR. Scl.—Sxconp SeRms, Vou. XXXV, No. 103.—Jax., 1863. 15 114 Scientific Intelligence. acid, and Schénbein in 1845 showed that the combustion of hydro- carbon jets, &., produced some oxydizing agent, the nature of which was not clearly recognized for want of sufficiently delicate tests. Schénbein now shows that the combustion of charcoal, fats, illuminating gases, wood, coal and phosphorus’ produces the nitrite in determinable quantities. A _ piece of phosphorus burnt inside of a ass which stands upon a ee filled with water, will give, after a few repetitions of the operation, ough ammonia to be “op a by means of caustic potash. The slow combustion of arsenic, in air at a temperature of 200°, also pro- ces ammonia. Schodnbein attributes the formation of nitrite of ammo- nium in all these cases to the heat and not to the act of combustion. occurrence of nitrite and nitrate of ammo nium in the se st Chemie und Pharm., Prof. Battger of Frankfort, claims to have been the first to show by experiment as well\as to announce that in every act of combustion which takes place in air, nitrite of ammonium is formed. (Pogg. Ann., cxvii, 175.) An experiment of Kolbe’s may also be mentioned in this connec of oxygen standing vertically, a rg Nemec gas is soon formed, and the water which collects in the flas a strong acid reaction from presence of nitric acid.—(Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, ome 17 6) 6. On a new mode of detecting the presence of small quantities ef per oxyd of hydrogen. pect a solution of basic acetate of lead is added asic acetate o , a solution of iodid of potassium starch and a drops of dilute acetic acid, when a more or less intense blue color makes its appearance. In this manner it is easy to detect the presence . bese Sir prakt. Chemie Ixxxvi, 129. 7. On the oxyethylene bases—Wortz has described in some ‘aetail I the formation and properties of vee remarkable series of compounds of roe re f ammonia. Their basic characters are perfectly distinet but ih : intensity as the ee of oxyd : —— increases, The formulas (C,H,0,),, NH (C,H,0,)., NH, CLD.) NH; (Co 1Onler NH, C,H,0,)5, NH, C,H,0,);, NH, (C,H,0,),, NH, Analytical Chemistry. 115 and it is possible that bases of a still higher order exist. Wurtz remarks that these bases cannot be reduced to or derived from the ammonia type, whence it follows that there may be, among the neutral bases containing oxygen, bodies which are not compound ammonias, that is, which cannot be considered as derived from ammonia by substitution.— Comptes Ren- G dus, liii, p. 338, W. G 8, On Acetylene.—Bzrtue or has found that when graphite is intensely eated by means of the galvanic current in an atmosphe > with gas-carbon and with purified wood-charcoal, though in this last case with much greater difficulty, perhaps in consequence of the difficulty of heating the very porous mass to the requisite high temperature. Carbon %¢s not combine with chlorine, bromine, or iodine under the circum- stances in which acetylene is formed, nor can pure carbon be made to combine with pure nitrogen. The spark of Ruhmkorff’s apparatus gives no acetylene with pure carbon and hydrogen.— Comptes Rendus, liv, 1042, 1070, agg 9. On a new series of compounds containing Boron.—FRaNKLAND has given a further account of the compounds of boron with ethyl, &c, already noticed in this Journal. Boric ethid, B(C,H,),, combines with ‘mimonia with great energy to form an aromatic, oily, alkaline liquid, . which has the formula B(C,H,),--NH,. Boric methid, B(C,H,), is ; 108137 er a pressure of three atmospheres at a temperature of ‘i C, it condenses to a tr nsparent colorless liquid. It is sparingly ei y three equivalents of oxygen are replaced by three of methyl— ie Royal Society, vol. xii, 123. - w. — CuEmistry, | : “: Behavior of Magnesia Salts towards Carbonate of Ammonia.— fete nds aint the sinabuaitti common in treatises on analytical chem- liane '8 incorrect, that carbonate of ammonia precipitates magnesia salts Perfectly or not at all, and that any precipitate formed, may be redis- «<4 by chlorid of ammonium. If dilute solutions of sulphate of magne- tia, chlorid of ammonium and carbonate of ammonia be mingled, a gran- . Precipitate is formed in ten minutes or 80; the less time being required Pen carbonate is in greater excess. The precipitate thus produced is the aa: 8 salt is decomposed by a little water, carbonate of ammonia being “ssolved, and sisbetahe of magnesia remaining. It dissolves completely 116 Scientific Intelligence. n a large amount of water, but, if the solution be nearly saturated, it shortly lets fall a of magnesia. In solutions of chlorid of ammo- nium and sulphate of ammonia, it is very slightly soluble, and is almost totally Gnsclubde 3 in solutions of-carbonate of ammonia. It is therefore inadmissible to employ carbonate of ammonia in ee eanete B pita of magnesia-ammonia, as Rose has pointed out in his Tra see Chem. Soc., May, 1862, p. 196 Rae 11. On Arsenic in Sulphuric Acid.—Buoxam finds that all cine sulphuric acid contains a trace of arsenic which cannot be separated by boiling with hydrochloric acid, or chlorid of potassium, nor by repeat fractional distillation, either alone or with bichromate or permanganate of tash. Bloxam prepared pure sulphuric acid from sulphurous acid, steam, and nitric oxyd, but only when the sulpburous acid was oases from erystal- lized sulphite of soda and sulphuric acid at a low temperature, and ni- tric oxyd — nitre, sulphate of iron, and dilute eet acid at a very e Bloxam asia the arsenic of oil of vitriol to the sulphur, being able to detect it in the Sicilian sulphur employed in the manufacture of the purest s — n of commercial sulphuric acid.—Jour. Chem. “on - b 1862, 12. Eatnation of Lime-—Wicke converts oxalate of lime into 5 eulphats in the following manner: the dry oxalate is transferred toa platinum cru- cible, and the filter, after it is burned by itself, is added. The contents of e crucible are treated with such a quantity of pure’ concentrated sul- phuric acid that the mass is entirely saturated with it; great excess ing avoided. The crucible is now placed on the san bath until the ne — which consists in a moderate swelling of the mass and efferv cence, is over. Next, the excess of sulphuric acid is expelled by canticill heating over a small flame in a ventilating hood; finally, the residue 18 —— ~— ~ sulphate of lime is weighed. Wicke found this method both ands —_- of execution.—Henneberg’s Journal fiir Land- wirtachay aan 8. Quantitative suaacaaine of Starch—Starch has been pee hith echanical separation, a fermentation and weighing the bonie acid, re conversion into sugar and finding the amount of the iatie Of these methods none are worthy of entire confidence in the majority ee Fehling’s method, the best in most cases, has little value ally conducted, since the more delicate forms of cellulose pass int? by digestion with acids, while the insoluble albuminoids yield bo C “at with acids and diastase, substances which reduce alkaline copper solutions. Dr. Dragendorff of the Rostock Laboratory proceeds with starch detet minations as follows: the ete substance after drying out all hygro ic moisture at 212° is digested for 18-80 hours at a temperature . 212° in 10-12 times its weight of a solution of 03 parts of hydrate potash in 94-95 parts of anhydrous alcohol. The digestion must ~ place in ~— ass tubes, or in a silver vessel which admits of closing perfectly. treatment the albuminoid substances, the fats, the Analytical Chemistry. 117 Sugar and dextrin are brought into such a condition that simple washing with alcohol or water suffices to remove them completely. The chief rt of the phosphoric and silicic acids is likewise rendered soluble. The starch grains are not affected, neither does the cellulose undergo al- teration, either qualitatively or quantitatively. In fact this treatment alcohol of 8-10 per cent, to prevent the swelling up of the residue When the substance is completely washed, the filter and its contents are dried, first at 120° and finally at 212°. The loss consists of albuminoids, fat, sugar and a part of the salts of the substance, and when the last The filter with its contents is now reduced to powder or shreds, and the whole is heated with water containing 5 per cent of hydrochloric acid Ment with potash leaves the stare grains in such a state of purity from tnerusting matters, that their conversion into dextrin proceeds with great y acted upo _ drochlorie acid, after washing and drying, the amount of cellulose, cor gin, gum and insoluble mineral matter is found. By subtracting these from the weight of the substance after exhaustion with potash, the quan- ret eae is however so small as rarely to be appreciable. If need ietnerating and weighing the residae. By warming with concentrated {132° the residue should be washed with water to which some alcohol has 118 Scientific Intelligence. Ill. METALLURGY. 1. Metallurgy. The art of extracting metals from their ores, and adapting them to various purposes of manufacture; by Joun Percy, 4» F.RS., Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Government School of Mines. 8vo, pp. 635. Murray, London, 1861.—This volume—after a brief intro- fact, so for: as our own knowledge extends, this work contains more ose ble original matter (oe any other treatise on ipa Metallurgy which has been published since the classic work of Karsten. The book will prove of great service to both chemists and practical mestellargiet. t is eharacteri y great clearness and accuracy in its statements, giving careful reference to authorities when quoted, exercising a Siecxieaines criticism when needful, and withal * frankness 3 in dealing with unset- tled and questionable points, whic ds the respect and Ke fidence of the reader. The work is x ag by more than one hundred and fifty wood engravings, which are remarkable for their great accu- racy. We look with interest for the second and final volume, and trust that it will soon appear, inasmuch as the author promises to haye it ready for publication before the end of 1862. It will treat of the sub- jects Iron, Lead, ee Gold, Platinum, Nickel, Cobalt, Arsenic, —_ Antimony, Tin, te. Occurrence of piatinse rsa Silicon in Pig-Lron—Pr a a pe has discovered crystallized silicon in a specimen of erystallized pig-iron from a furnace at Gradaz in Carniola (Austria), Fragments of e iron were treated with dilute chlorhydric acid until all evolution gas c ; the residue was thrown on a filter, washed, dried and then heated in a platinum crucible in a stream of oxygen gas until all the car- bon and iron were completely oxydized. The oxydized residue was boiled with concentrated chlorhydric acid, and after solution of the oxyd of iron there recnniie a quantity of graphite-like scales, which, examined under the microscope had a perfect metallic lustre, and a silver-white color. These cae remained- unchanged when heated in oxygen, and were unacted upon when treated with chlorhydric and nitric acids: hea with nitre and carbonate of soda the scales were rapidly cag hoa and on further treatment the product of this oxydation proved to be si ic acid. The knowledge of the occurrence of silicon in pig-iron is a ste off im- portance for the ironmaster, as this may sometimes be the cause of the difficult welding, and other undesirable properties of some kinds of iron. For this crystallized silicon cannot be removed by the ordinary process of puddling ; as has already been shown, it. is not oxydized even when heated in oxygen gas. To remove crystallized silicon from iron in puddling process it would be necessary to add soda, or perhaps litharge Metallurgy. 119 So ing table, showing the progress of the concentration of the silver in the lead in his experiments. Amount of silver in Silver in the Silver in the fluid the original lead. separated crystals. mother liquor. “704 pr. ct. ‘390 —-466 pr. ct. 1°025 pr. ct. "732 318 — "374 1:076 966 *410 — 680 1°450 "988 390 — 624 1°530 1:442 "682 1-922 2-090 . 2011 2°260 2°116 1:728 —2°216 > 2°248 2°206 : 2°268 silver, the crystals separated with difficulty giving a mean amount of 2264 pr, ct. of silver, while the remaining mother liquor contained 2-292 Pr. ct. Two experiments made to determine the point of fusion of ar- Pentiferous lead, gave with a mercury thermometer the following results: ead with 0:0065 pr. ct. silver fused at 321° C. with 0-476 fused at 309° C. of bar-iron obtained from the puddling of pig-iron reduced from iron ores Mich in sulphur, or even from ores when reduced with n been devised for the desulphuration of this iron in the puddling process. thi ng the best of these is the addition of binoxyd of manganese; 5 Ss liable to objection as it is infusible, and thus prevents its becoming roughly incorporated wi e iron; moreoygr, commercial oxyd of he enese often contains impurities which possibly m be taken w he iron in the puddling-process, and influence unfavorably the quality of — ‘iron produced. This subject has recently been studied by Prof. - ful tt Richter of Leoben (Austria). Richter calls to mind the power- ly oxydizing effect of litharge (oxyd of lead), and its use to promote cation i _ experiment he the ton, thus affording a most simple means of correcting two sources of 120 Scientific Intelligence. The experiments were made at the forges of Count Donnersmark at Frantschach near Wolfsberg i in Carinthia, with pig-iron which contained so much sulphur that it was impossible to make it into puddied-bar. The process of puddling was undertaken in two double puddling-furnaces arranged for burning wood. Each furnace was charged with 7 ewt. this iron. To 4 ne of the furnaces there was added 3 Jbs. of sulphid of iron and 4 1b. of phosphid of iron, in order to still further deteriorate the Sg of a cadets Aer avepnts fusion, 8 Ibs. of litharge was ed t subsequent reduction and reoxydation it aga in and again mgt its oxydizing influence on the harmful gate: contained Jn ata iron. fe the slag. After av hour and a half from the time of ch e ir was made into balls, these were shingled, and without difficulty rolled into puddied bar. Inthe other furnace, i in which the iron was puddled i crumble and rolling into bar was not - “a thought of. Besides this, the loss in weight when the litharge was employed was but 11 per cent, while in puddling this iron by the ordinary process the loss was 18 per cent. The puddled-bar obtained from puddling ith litharge proved neither hot or cold short, and was of sufficiently good quality to be forged into iron for scythes. A repetition of the experiments gave a confirmation of these results. Richter adds, that in some instances the use of metallic lead may a be preferable to litharge.—B. u. H. Jahrbuch, x, 505. G. J. B. On the amount of manganese in some varieties of iron.—It is well wide that iron me from spathic ore, and other ores containing man- n the variety of pig iron ee Hoss the Germans Spiegeleisen (mirror- iron), the as been estimated by different chemists from 4to7 pr.ct. In ieee, Dr. K. List published an analysis of a white-iron from Riblinghausen, made from a mixture of ores ‘contain ning to 25 pr. ct. of oxyd of manganese, in which he found but 3°80 pr. ct. of manganese. As the aie was so rich in manganese, List concluded that the iron obtained from its reduction must contain the maximum amount of manganese—that iron could not take up more than 3°80 pr. ct. mange et and that the earlier analyses giving more than this must be incor (Polytechnisches em clv. 119.) Prof, Richter of Leoben has, ec reviewed List’s results, and shows that the differences in the manganese content of iron smelted at different furnaces, or ifferent es does not necessarily depend upon the quantity of this substance in the ore, but upon the temperature of the furnace, and the relative am of coal used in the reduction. The higher the ter temperature, and the larger the proportion of coal in the — the greater will be the relative Agricultural Chemistry. 121 amount of manganese reduced. The basic or acid nature of the slag has also an important influence on the amount of the reduced manganese—it 's easily reduced from a basic slag, but with considerable difficulty from an acid slag. Richter gives analyses of Spiegeleisen from Jauerburg in Curniola and Theresienthal in Bohemia : Jauerburg, Theresienthal. Sulphur, 0-073 ves Silicon, 1902 2°732 Manganese, 7578 22°183 Carbon, : 2°311 The extraordinary amount of manganese found in the specimen from Theresienthal so influenced the properties of the iron, that it was not Magnetic, and had not the power to throw down copper from a solution of chlorid of copper, it simply reduced it to sub-chlorid. Richter further remarks that the same mass of iron may contain more Manganese in one part than another, this is due to the tendency man- Baese hasto separate from the fused mass, and the upper portion of a pig” may thus contain more manganese than the lower portion.—JB. u. H, Jahrbuch, xi, 295, iy, AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 1. On the Nature of the Gas produced from the Decomposition of Car- bonic Acid by oo tothe Tao ; by M. Bousstneauit.—An wateresting paper in Ann. Sci, Nat., (Bot.), 4th series, xvi, p. 1-27, 1862. ‘ "ring to the history of discovery in respect to the relations of plants of the atmosphere, Boussingault remarks, that Bonnet first took notice the emission of air from the surface of leaves; Priest] ized he Plant,—not considering, what is now obvious, that the substance of the ey did not contain, and therefore could not have furnished, any thing this quantity of nitrogen. ; ern times, Daubeny was unable to obtain from leaves oxygen 888 free from azote _leaves of a common Pond-weed (Potamogeton perfoliatus) in beg slightly impregnated with carbonic acid, found the first day 15°70 hie rent of the gas eliminated was nitrogen; the second, 13:79; the l, 12-00; the fourth, 10°26; the fifth, 9°53; the sixth, 8-15; the sev- bes 434; the eighth, 2°90. That is, the oxygen gas grew purer and AM. Jour, Sci.—Srconp Szrtss, Vou. XXXV, No. 103.—Jan., 1863. 16 122 Scientific Intelligence. _ purer, exactly as if the azote retained in the tissues of the plant, or in the water, was gradually expelled by the oxygen. Similar experiments were ; also, trogen. But, after all, he could not obtain any oxygen gas free from azote. Boussingault now devised a new method of proceeding, by which he avoided the difficulty about extraneous nitrogen, &e. e mean results of 25 experiments (which are detailed particularly i in the memoir), made with a variety of plants, are, that 100 measures of carbonic acid gas, decomposed by foliage under the light, gave 97:2 of oxygen gas; and that 1:11 of azote had appeared which, from the plan of the experiments, could not have come from the water, nor have been contained in the At this point Boussingault raised the question whether this gas, which remained after the oes of the oxygen by the pyrogallate and the carbonic acid by potassa, was Hreeegiok and really nitrogen. A suite of experiments, devised ante cuted in this view, brought out the interest- ing see that the sensi poser which, moreover, corresponded ve n the amount of oxygen gas that had disappeared, was oxyd of So « foliage during the decomposition of carbonic acid does not composed by flings in the air? Boussingault concludes his paper with the remark, that the earlier observers looked at their discoveries rather from the hygienic than the = point of view; that, while Priestly announced his brilliant discovery by the statement that plants purify the air vitiated by combus- tion or a the respiration 7 animals, = is curious enough that a century afterwards it should come to be demonstrated, before the Academy of Sciences, that probably ae leaves of ‘al plants, i certainly those of aquatic plants, while emitting oxygen gas which ameliorates the atmos phere, also emit one of the most deleterious of known gases, carboni¢ oxyd! He closes with the pregnant and natural query, whether the un healthiness of marshy districts is not attributable, at least in part, to We add, that what strikes us with most surprise, is to learn that if these results are true, the vegetable machinery would seem to work at & loss, and with a real, though it be a small, waste i material! When any carbonic acid taken into the leaves es passes off unchanged, so much work is not done; but there is no waste or loss in the e process of manu- But, looking at the food of plants and their preduets,—compat ing the raw material with the manfactured article,—it seems apparent » Agricultural Chemistry. 123 that any carbonie acid which is reduced to carbonic oxyd, and given off as such, is so much Joss or waste! We may avoid this unwelcome con- clusion by the supposition that the carbonic oxyd and carburet of hydro- gen are products of the decomposition of some of the vegetable matter coetaneous with vegetable assimilation, but no part of that process itself. This is the more robable, since it cannot reasonably be supposed that carbonic acid supplied to the foliage is resolved into oxygen and carbonic oxyd and both set free,—which seems to be the alternative, 2. Content of Starch in various Seeds.—Dracenvorrr, applying the method already noticed, (p. 116) for estimating starch, found the follow- ing percentages, which are interesting, either as serving to compare the results of his method with those obtained by others, or on account of including some seeds of which hitherto no analyses have been attempted. Dragendorff finds that in the seeds of colza and mustard the starch does orm lose Stéirke of Schleiden). In the seeds of the Leguminose, Dragendorff Supposes a new and undescribed carbohydrate to exist, which has been confounded with starch hitherto, but which, unlike starch, is soluble in potash solution, Cellulose, cork, : by treat- aticle, Henne |Loss by drying./ment with alco- Starch mucilage an rel matin hy, 13°2 Bob = 86 : heat flour, .......... 158 68-7 2-9 glia heise ai 11-0 59-7 61 Bad eet oseedenesee] IEG 466 20-4 Timore gtr 115 575 7-5 eee teehee eens ess} 13° 45°0 12°5 “00th ne gg) EERE 13:3 61-7 79 Beng ga he ta wes 0 873 28°56 wad Oy yenag SE ee 16°7 33°0 2 vee wich, J 108 18:4 px eed, encain 76 23-4 22°9 ss tad aapg 85 99 30°5 senha, ee aS 58 86 oN Teltow tornips,*.... "|! “|dry subet 98 10-4 Otatoes, rie eee ae dry substance 625 59 8. W. J. n the heaths 8. Peat-sandstone—According to Dr Meyn there occurs i of Hannover a kind of suet part which consists of sand cemented by me though on account of its color it is generally thought to be either da or iron-sandstone. It is formed by the evaporation of bog-water— low * nearly pure quartz sand. T ains of sand first acquire a yel- » then a brown, and finally a dark brown or black color. When the vt Solution evaporates, the peat is left in a form no longer soluble in wnt, It gradually fills up the interstices of the sand and makes an im- Wharable Mass, possessing a good degree ardness and tenacity. acid. ; this peat sandstone is placed in ammonia a dark solution of humie Jour po ottined, and nothing but white sand remains—. : 1862, p. 844. * A sweet and mealy turnip grown on light soils for table use. s 8. W. J. 124 Scientific Intelligence. . 4. On the occurrence of Silica in the higher Planits.—The existence of considerable quantities of silica in the bamboo, in the equisetums, in the es and sedges has long been known. @ numerous analyses of the ashes of plants which we now possess, indicate that this substance is an invariable ingredient of the higher plants when they grow in natural soils. We find it in fact in nearly all parts of agricultural and forest plants. The seeds of the bean, quince, lemon, madder and flax are among the few parts of plants in which it has not been detected. : In the ash of the wood of most common forest trees, it ranges from 1 to 3 per cent; in the Carpinus betul it is as high as 4-97 per cent, (Fr. Schulze): in the Pinus sylvestris, 8:39 per cent, (Levi): in the Pinus picea 20°01 per cent, (Hertwig). ~ In the ash of leaves silica is more abundant than in that of wood. The ash of turnip leaves contains 3 to 10 per cent, (Anderson); of Pinus picea, 10-79 per cent, (Fr. Schulze); of the hop, 12°14 per cent, (Nesbit) ; of to nts. The position of silica in the plant is seen, from the percentages above quoted, to be, in general, at the surface. Although it is found in all parts of the plant, yet the cuéiele is usually richest, and this is especially true in cases where the content of silica is large. Davy in 1799 drew aften- tion to the deposition of silica in the cuticle, and announced the idea at it serves the plant an office of support similar to that enacted in animals by the bones, ‘ That silica assumes the form of the cells in the cuticle of the Equise- tums and Deutzias, is well known, Kindt finds that the bairs of nettles, Wicke that the hairs of hemp, hops and other rough leaved plants esi in with silica, According to Wicke the leaves of many forest and fruit trees when cautiously incinerated, leave a silicious skeleton that preserves the form of the epidermis. Mohl has minutely studied the po Sition assumed by silica in many plants. He finds that in some leaves, Agricultural Chemistry. 125 only the upper, in others, both sides contain silica in the epidermal cells. In some the hairs alone, in others the hairs and epidermal cells also, are incrusted with this body. In Deutzia and Ficus elastica the vascular tissue is incrusted with silica. Wicke found that the bark of the beech and maple, Acer pseudoplantanus, are coated with silica. This is especially true of the beech which is literally enveloped in a silicious shirt of mail, Whence the smooth and undecayed surface which its trunk presents. From the inner bark—bast-fibre—of flax, Wicke obtained after destruction of the organic matter, well characterized elongated cell-skeletons of silica. In the ashes of old linen he found 28 per cent of this substance. In the fibers of Manilla hemp, Musa textilis, Aloe hemp, Agave Americana, New Zealand flax, Phormium tenaz, all tenacious textile materials, Wicke found as in flax, the entire cells incrusted with silica, In cotton fibre it is want- ing. In jute, Corchorus teztilis, some cells are partially incrusted. Wicke concludes that the durability of textile fibres is to a degree dependent on their content of silica. this ace According to Arendt (Das Wachsthum der Haferpflanze, P. 180) the different parts of the oat contain the following quantities of silica respectively : Amount of sili Insoluble Parts of dey oer a epee eee oui: Total. Lower part of the ste . 0°33 1-41 174 Middle part of the stem, 0°30 4°82 5-12 re se of the stem, 0°36 13-02 13-38 Lower leaves, 0°86 34°37 35°28 Upper leaves, 052 43°35 43°87 We see then plai f the stem and leaves contain om plainly that the upper part of the s More wn than the ‘fre parts, while the lower parts certainly need to s the greatest degree of strength. 4 In the second vinnie the great variableness observed in the same plant, In the same part of the plant, as to the content of silica, would seem ‘0 indieate that this substance is to some degree accidental. : .. 1 the ashes of ten kinds of tobacco leaves, Fresenius and Will found Tange from 5°14 to 18°39 per cent. The analysis of the ash of 13 samples of pea-straw, grown on different Soils from the same seed during the same year, under direction of the oo Economie Collegium” of Prussia, gave the following percentages silica, viz: 0°56; 0-75; 2°30; 2°32; 2°80; 3°29; 3°67: 5:15; 5°82; 17 3°02 ; 2—Journal fir prakt, Chem, xlviii, 474-7. 126 Scientific Intelligence. he ‘that yielded 140 ripe seeds and had a dry weig grms. in & medium so free from silica that a mere trace of this substance could be found in the root, but half a milligramme in the stem, and 22 milli- grammes in the 15 leaves and sheaths. It was altogether absent from e seeds. The ash of the leaves of this plant es gt but 0°54 per cent of silica and the stem but 0:07 per cen ay and Ogston found in Le ash of maize, leaf and stem together, : ‘98 per Aina of silica. Knop is inclined to believe that the little silica he found in his maize plant was due to dust and did not belong to the tissues of the plant. He remarks, “J believe that silica is not to assed among the nutritive elements of the graminex, since I have made similar observations in the analysis of the ashes of barley.” nop does not inform us as to the firmness of the stem of tlris plant. It would seem however that ‘while silica is not essential to the nutritive in vegetation—is not required for the perfect elaboration of all the cells and organs of the plant—it is useful or even needful to consol- idate the tissues, and thus to insure the vegetable structure against me chanical injury. The fact of its presence in variable amount and its most abundant occurrence in the upper and outer parts of the vegetable struc- ture would indicate that: the plants which contain it in large quantity oppose in their root surface no obstacle to its entrance, and that within the plant it obeys to a great extent the ordinary laws of diffusion until it is made insoluble by losing the colloid and assuming the crystalloid con- dition ; or until it is arrested by the plant-tissues in a manner — we that by which fabrics of dead glintous attach to their surfaces the i ents of mordants and dyes; or finally until it is left in the partes call as a simple residue of the evaporation of the water that is perpetually streaming from the soil through the plant into the atmosphere. s. w. J. VY. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. On a variety of Galena from Lebanon county, Pennsylvania.—The tetowing important _s of the at octahedral galena, from T non county, Pa., has been received from Dr. Torrey, " sh Grores J, Bavst. —My dear sir ‘It is now more than two years e I gave you specimens of galena from Lebanon county, Penney" nia, abel exhibited a serhAeNoly distinct octahedral cleavage. It W to me to be assayed for silver, and proved to be highly argentifer- ous, containing 1794 ounces of silver to the ton. From the same locality there were other specimens of galena, even richer in silver, but having t « Mineralogy and Geology. 127 ordinary cubical cleavage. The octahedral variety was freely distributed among my mineralogical friends, but I was deterred from fulfilling my promise to give you a notice of it for publication, from having been told that a similar mineral had already been described. Not having been able to find any account of an octahedral galena and being assured by you, that none such bas been recorded in the numerous works that you have consulted, I send you a short notice of the mineral It is said to occur in small masses disseminated through limestone, and is obtained while quarrying the stone for the purpose of converting it into quicklime, The mineral is brittle, like common galena, and the fresh Tecently examined by Breithaupt, and noticed by you in the Tenth Sup- Plement of Dana’s Mineralogy, were true hexagonal prisms. urs truly, J New York, Dee. 15th, 1862.” In connection with Dr. Torrey’s important observations, it is appropriate to quote here the result of some interesting Ee made on this and other Varieties of galena communicated to me by Prof. J. P. Cooke, under of March 26th, 1862. Prof. Cooke says: “I have at last examined the galena, and hasten to send you my preliminary report. 1e- dral a is very perfect. I have measured the cleava angles, on a m Cases merely by the pressure of the finger nail on the acute edges of the ng two cube On this I measured the angle @ planes at o ite ends, On this | \ on the octahedral tle ge planes, equal to 125° 16, although in all ir “sé Measurements there is an uncertainty of a few minutes, owing to the ™perfect reflection of the planes. It then occurred to me that perhaps 128 Scientific Intelligence. ordinary galena might have an octahedral as well as cubic cleavage, — that the first might be so marked by the great facility of the last, as the cube angles. id not succeed in taining this cleavage with 4 chisel and hammer, for when I struck in the direction of the octahedral plane, I immediately knocked off a number of small cu u crushing in a steel mortar small cubic masses of the mineral, I could pick out among the fragments occasionally one with octahedral planes like the two I enclose. As tl atter stands now, it would appear that hedral is ga easier. The oc ciel cleavage is therefore nothing ab- normal, b rely an eal development of a constant condition. It will not, therdite I think, be necessary to resort to any pseudomorphism to explain this peculiarity, which entirely disappears in this new view of e case. May not the cause of this unusual facility of the octahedral cleavage in this new variety be simply the pressure to which the vein has been subjected? My experiments with the crushing mortar look - Sates prone” > Sativew:. a subsequent letter, dated April 11, i362, Prof. Cocke gives at results “of his experiments with a hydraulic press. The galena from ie when crushed in a steel mortar with this was found to give numerous examples of octahedral cleavage eng while that from Freiberg gave very few, so “that it was necessary to hunt for some time to find one.” Some specimens also gave indications of what appeared to be a dodecahedral cleavage. Although Prof. Cooke’s results apparently indicate shh galena has an octahedral as well as a cubic cleav vage, still the reas of the es per tego to the octahedral ~ should be thus produced. We t that of hi i varieties. Haidin f has observed that the pre fluor from Ae metric species may also show this double and triple cleavage, but we are not aware that ay ag pe ~ been weal where the cleavag® the Lebanon jae translation of the Treatise on Mineralogy by F. Mohs, vol. ii, p- 69, Edinburgh, 1825. Mineralogy and Geology. 129 dinary cubic cleavage; while in the fluors just mentioned the perfect octahedral or normal cleavage remains preéminent. The fact observed by Dr. Torrey, that the miueral developes a cubic structure by heat, has an important bearing in the consideration of this subject, and would seem to favor its being a case of dimorphism. But if it were a case of dimorphism, a difference between the specific gravity of this variety and that of ordinary galena would probably be observed : find, however, that the Lebanon county mineral has a density of 7°63, Which, although somewhat above that of ordinary cubic galena (7°568), oes not offer any very great confirmation of its dimorphic. character, especially as most works on mineralogy give the density of galena as from 72 to 7°6. If a mass of this octahedral galena could be heated in a close Vessel at a red-heat, without decomposition, until the cubic cleavage was _ 2. Discovery of Remains of vertebrated animals provided with feathers, in a deposit of Jurassic age ; Cresta, Nov. 5th, 1862).—We t from the Bibliotheque Universelle the following résumé of the publica- ons made . Wagner and H. von Meyer on the feathered fossils Tecently discovered at Solenhofen, fou . principal specimen, the object of these communications, is to be n of P. W in the beautiful collection of fossils belonging to Mr. Haberlein emist seems to put full confidence. H. von Meyer has since then that of Archeopteryz lithographica. ; : i Bad goo of the animal made known by these curious fragments is u . '¢ specimen of Mr. Haberlein is the one which furnishes the prin- “ipal data for this discussion. It is an incomplete skeleton, lacking the ane the neck and the terminations of the anterior members. The of hers are preserved toward the base of the wings and about the region ™ the tail. “According to the before-mentioned report, it is this latter oh Which is the most characteristic. The sacrum recalls the form of of a Pterodactyl; the tail which is six inches long is composed of AM. Jour. Sc1.—grconp Sunres, Vou. XXXV, No. 108.—Jan., 1963. iy 130 Scientific Intelligence. humerous vertebrae (20) diminishing uniformly, the last being the small- est, a structure, in our view, more analogous to the organization of Rep- tiles than to that of Birds. The feathers are = upon the bone in a manner entirely unique; they are not set as in a fan, but grow on the two sides of the tail through its whole length, making an angle with it. They thus form, as it were, a flat leaf-like expansion, the extremity of which is much rounded, and extends beyond the last of the vertebra. The feathers of the wings are larger and form a fan upon each side, supported by a short and stout bone, badly preserved, which correspott in position to the carpus. It is preceded by a fore-arm composed 0 single bone (radius), and this by a humerus of equal length ; both a robus This s spinal column, by its free lumbar and sacral vertebra, recalls rather the Reptiles. The left posterior member is complete, the right is reduced to the femur and the tibia. The femur is a stout bone, the tibia is longer and more slender; no fibula can be distinguished. "The has no Reptilian characteristics, but on the contrary approaches some forms of Birds’ feet. The tarsus is thick, composed of a single bone, @ little shorter than the tibia, and parted at its extremity into three pullies to which are oe ulated three toes of Haars se length terminated by strong hoo Specklty of the It hi has some new and anomalous characters in the implantation of ny e haations both those of the tail and those of the fore-arm. Mr. Wagner appears disposed to consider the sho pe chara as Brite fey He relies moreover upon a consider: ich the fact that Reptiles are aeaarely § vari abe. te by James D. Dana.— Without questiantag the above conelt- sion as to the reptilian peculiarities of the feathered fossils, the write would here present some other Pra ide i which ad on the pre and which he believes may aia te determining the nature of the spec special interest. . The abnormal characteristics ascertained are not incompatible with those of the bird type: They are mainly (1) the peculiarities of the mn; a of the ala eS extrem ity. Other minor reptilian features will proba bly be observed on a further study of the skeleton. y ee bey of abnormal forms as the earliest representatives a is in strict accordance with the general tenor of geological history: All the synthetic types of Agassiz (or comprehensive types, as the Ww" has called them) are i hs united with some features of true Reptiles, ete. Mineralogy and Geology. 131 4, The larger part of comprehensive types have become extinct, or neatly so, Cystideans, Cyathonhylloid corals, Trilobites, Labyrintho- donts, Enaliosaurs, Lepidodendrids, Sigillarids, the Dinothere, Sivathere, and others, are extinct; and Brachiopods, Crinoids, Ganoids, Cycads, etc., are far less numerous than in a former age. The extinction of an e fishes, excepting the Selachians, were Ganoids; the Mamm were mostly, at least, Marsupials, and were allied to Reptiles in being sem arous and in some other points. The coexistence of birds of 4 type having some reptilian characteristics, along with the Marsupials and Ganoids and the various Reptilians, would have made, for the age, a the new s ecimens are of this class. At the same time it is to be con- =e Flying reptiles are exemplified in the Pterodactyl, the wings of ich were form , hearly n bats, by an expansi i — Was by dh fa 2 two totally distinct methods of providing for the same variety of ne in one single class of animals—which is altogether contra- Saag The Pterodactyl seems to teach which is the true reptilian ethod, [From an article by Mr. Henry Woodward in the “ Intellectual Ob- Server” for December, 1862, (an excellent scientific Journal of a popular articulars. The paper came into our hands after the above was in oe fs accompanied by a beautiful plate of the fossil. The relation to 132 Scientific Intelligence. ancient Ganoid in the vertebrated tail is recognized by Mr. Woodward. —Ebs. “ Fortunately oer om pee through the exertions of Professor Owen a terhouse (the latter of whom made issue of this present number , it will have — described by cles datus, who thus indicates his conviction that it is a bir pee here appended, it is stated that Prof. Owen, at the last moment, » decided to eve von Meyer’s name Archeeopteryz, still regarding it, however, as a the Rails) from —— and some others, are arme “The ‘ merrythought,’ or a sagen is seen lying seeded the wings The ribs, hall and unbird-like, are detached, and scattered on the sur face, as if the he ad, neck, breast and body had been torn off or eaten out by some other bird of prey or small carnivorous animal, wa andering at low water upon the estuarine flats bordering that ancient "Oolitic sea “The lower right limb is well preserved, and consists of femur, tibia, and tarso-metatarsal bones; to the latter bone four toes ar articulated, one hind-toe and three fore- toes, having severally 1, 2, 3, and (42) joints, as in ali birds, and armed with strong hooked claws. The thigh and shank only of the right limb remain. The pelvis is well preserved on the left side, showing the cup-shaped cavity in which the head of the femur mov — he m (so conspicuous in all known birds) cannot be traced im this ictens unless the stained surface of the stone indicates its remains. That one existed by which a few at least of the sacral vertebrae were firmly fixed dnpikicar may be fairly concluded, for the hind limbs seem well adapted for hopping, cunning or perching; and the wings (which evidently were adapted for flight) must also = received support, 2 proportion to their size, from the body of the animal. The whole of the vertebra of the tail are somupletely and beautifully preserved. They are twenty in number, of a narrow, elon ngated form, the Adieu of which slowly but constantly diminish, so that the the last > The fourth toe bones underlie the second and third, and cannot be certainly as The fossil is lying.on its back, so that we view the underside of its feathers and hones, Mineralogy and Geology. is the smallest. the caudal vertebrze, and the 3. On some addi 183 The feathers of the tail are attached in pairs to Lik vertebra throughout its entire length. arrangements of the tail ss that the great and striking pecaliatity of this tional species that are common to Cheboniferous and It is in the form and number of remarkable creature ego strata, remarks on the recurrency of Carboniferous species ; y.—We c 8 copy from Mr. Kirkby’s paper the following list which will a fal to be of interest to American geologists, whose abors have alr ready shown a es sie of species in the two forma- tions as they exist in North Am List of Species occurring in Carboniferous and Permian Strata in Britain. Carboniferous Name. 1. Gyracanthus formosus, Agassiz. erebratula sacculus, Martin, 1808. 2 lie in Davidson’s Mono- oe of Carboniferous Brachiopoda, re Spirifera ig Rhee 1828. ‘Sag in Dav. . Carb. Brach. don, Sr os J. de C. Bch. igured in Mon. Carb. Camarophoria na, Martin cg pag in Mone Cah, Brach. a3 Ca ia rhomboidea. Pua Hck pared in Mon. Carb Athyris Royssii, L’Eveillé, 1835. Figured in Mon. Carb. Brach. pl. 54. 8. Discina nitida, Phillips, 1836. d pd in Mon. n, Carb, Brach. pl. 54. Pinel in Monc Carb. Bra ch. pl. 54. p Wa plebeia, M’Coy, 1844. taal = plate accompanying pres- 1d Shite ans Miinster, 1830. 12 Cythere inornata, M’Co ered in Syn. Char. Carb. Fine yh pl. 13. Cythere (Bardia) gracilis, Can pe — in Syn. Char. M. Cythere (Bairdia) plebeia, Reuss ‘(Wikby } Figured in the plate accom- Panying present paper. Permian Name. G. formo. Ag., King, in Mon. Perm. Foss. (Ragin, p. 221; Howse, Ann. Nat. Hist. ~ 2, vol. xix, p. 33. T'. elongata, r. suflata, Schloth. 1816. a in Davidson’s Mono- graph of Carboniferous Brachiopoda, 1. 54. S. Clannyana, King, 1848. Fig- ured in Mon. Carb. Brach. pl. 54. S. cristata, a ol BA Figured in Mon. Carb. Brach. pl. 54. C. Schio: theimi, Von Buch, 1834. rae in Mon. Carb. Brach, pl. 54, lobulina, Phillips, 1834. Fig- , ured af Mon. Carb. Brach. pl. 54. ‘A era, J. de C. Sowerby. 1840. Peiteed in Mon. Carb. Bracks 1. 54. fe Konincki, Geinitz, 1848. Fig- ured in Mon. Car b. Brac h. pl. 54, — L. Cre F. retiformis Figured in the plate ent are cae Miinster eg ; — in on. Perm. Foss. pl. 1 gee rans, ge Field Club, hes eB se rie es Ae Bed y (Jones Prt a ky ES Bs Hee ® é P. Foss. ; rans. Tyne. Field _ ‘aL iv, . (Bairdia) plebeia, Reuss. Fig- ured in the plate accompanying pres- ent paper. 134 Scientific Intelligence. 5. Cythere (Bairdia) Schaurothiana, Gane), Sebel Kirkby. Kirkby. Figured int ule plate accom- Figured in plate accompanying panying presen sheuent paper. 6. Pinites Brondling’, Lindley. For the occurrence of these a 1 Trignocarpum Neggeratht, in the Rothliegende, see Howse 0 Bro the Permian Fossils of Northioniber 18. ‘Sigillaria reniformis, Bro Jand and Du — in Annals Nat. 19. Calamites inequalis(?), Lindi, ser. 2, vol. xix, p. 38. 20. —— approzi rong. 4. Geological Survey of Canada.—Report on the Geology of Canada. 8vo, pp. 692 (incomplete).— We have at the last moment received this valuable document as far as seth Many of the more important of its general conclusions we have already been enabled to place before our readers, thanks to the kindness of Sir William Logan, Mr. Bi llings and rof. 7 . . Dese scriptive ate of a collection of Economic Minerals of Can- Ba and of its Crystalline Rocks, (sent to the London International Ex- hibition for 1862). Montreal, 8vo, pp. 83.—This catalogue, re prepared by Messrs. eee and Hunt, seer gs much more VI. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. Geyera Puantarum ad Hxremplaria imprimis in Herbariis Kew- ensibus servata definita ; auctoribus G. Bentuam et J. D. Hooxer. Vol. I, pars I, sistens pee gaat yaen: Polypetalarum Ordines LVI arpa leas—Connaraceas). Lon areca, ere Williams & Norgate, etc. 1862, pp. 454, imp. 8vo othe first w of the preface, “ Linnaeus Generis inventor fuit,” state a proposition which, it would seem, may be questioned, upon the authority of the person who ought to’ know. best. notice of Czsalpinus and others, gives to Tournefort the credit of estab- lishing genera in botany upon pure systematic rules; and later, in the Philosophia Botanica, he declares that “ Tournefortius primus characteres i i i nd further, in Gen. Pl., “ Characteres , & suck, So are they by Jussieu, as would naturally be expected, good extent by Endlicher. The practice now introduced, of citing all Ihe Botany and Zoology. 135 a few pedants, such as Sprengel, who, takin € genera prefixed to order, In this the characters of the and other paseo are given, and these are not repeated in the body the order, which saves roo e rve, also, that the authors Mostly have but one grade o names under the order, f . and that is tribe, except under riko aha where five suborders take their Place, the Dodonee being disposed as of equivalent value with the Acer- and the Staphylee. And the Lardizabalew, reduced to Berberidewe @ happy foresight (a new Chilian genus having since turned up in 136 Scientific Intelligence. confirmation), stand only as a tribe of that order. We perceive however that in Ranunculacee, subtribes appear (probably left by an oversight.) and that in ee both swborders and tribes are admitted, the for- mer in what we take to be the proper sense of the term, viz.; where the type is so far looladie or the characters of such moment, that a rea- sonable question ree be raised whether the groups are not entitled to ordinal rank; e.g. Fumariee, ma the like. Of course there can be no question of suborders in such an order as Cruc = bes Following the conspectus of the true genera of each order, excluded close of the account of the genus to which they are referred. Abnormal forms, or exceptions to the general character of an order, are pata specified in paragraphs which follow the ordinal character,—a great help to the student. Finally, the general sequence of the orders is based upon that Candolle, which has become so familiar, prs dat with the Polypetalons op a with Ranunculaceae, &c. ; scheme however being re- cation of its immediate prodéoomior Sst four years, and this was a wonderful performance for a single person. Considering the greater amount of botanical research which the present plan requires, and the vast accession of materials to be elaborated, we cannot look for an eat- lier completion of this formidable undertaking from the ie pears of two of the best furnished and most industrious of bota A. one in the Sierras near San Juan, the other said to be on Scott’s Moun- pees over 200 miles northwest. The plant is very abundant in one small locality, on a Creo with southern exposure; where a small stream of running water makes a narrow swamp; the soil gravelly ; and with but _ little cannot matter. All the older leaves contained many dead i but none contained water. . . . . The station is at the altitude of between 2300 and 2500 feet, where snow falls during winter, but is exposed to clear mesionded sun for some months in the summer. I shall f phe | seeds to sev pe bona! in the hope that this interesting plant may be Botany and Zoology. 137 A small supply of sound ripe seeds, received by the writer, have been disposed of to the’ best advantage fo ensuring their germination, after is more soko Gees span is little tet as their shape is clavate, no rhaphe is apparent, and the seed-coat is thin, loosely cellu- lar, and beset all over, less thickly at the attenuate base, with spreading an stout, almost scale-like, licen agro The characters drawn from rosa; rhaphe inconspicua : tegmen tenue, ad cee attenuato- apiculatum, Emb yo parvulus in basi albuminis granuloso- siete ; tadicula cylindrica ; cotyledonibus perbrevibus. - Botanical Gullections in the ky Mountains.—The botanical: oe ers of this Journal are familiar with the results of Dr. Parry’s reconnoissance of the mountains of Colorado Territor ry, at and beyond the mining district, last year, that is, in the summer of 1861. The limited collections he then made being much in demand, and his desire for exploration _ men Dr. Parry tevisited this interesting region early last summer (1862,) ac- companied Messrs. E. Hall and me P. Harbour, the a mtg ; i in the mountain pion until siete on foes purpose se are f0 the sedulous labors of his associates, Messrs. Hall and: Harbour. Most of Ol the species collected in 1861,—often too scantily for general distribution—haye now been gathered anew, and many additional ones 4 secured, some of them of great rarity or novelty. Hall and Harbour likewise collected the more rapes. plants of the Plains of * Robertson’s America, Book I. - * Dees, Book I, Ch, 18. ® Robertson’s America, Bouk I, Note 15- © History of the West Indies, Book I, Ch. 3. i J. A. Van Heuvel on the Indian Race of Hayti. 173 After five years more there remained but one third of this num- ber, and in 1533 they amounted to only four thousand.” Subse- quently asmall part of this remnant escaped destruction. “A young Cacique, placing himself at the head of the few that re- mained, made a resolute resistance to their conquerors. Driven at length to extremities, he retired to the fastnesses of inacces- sible mountains, from which he continually sallied forth and har- rassed the Spanish inhabitants, who in the end, struck with the heroism and the moderation he showed in the use he made of the advantages of his position, suffered him and his adherents to leave their retreats and reside unmolested in any part of the island. Their descendants continued to inhabit it fora length of time; but their numbers gradually diminished, and in 1716 amounted to only one hundred souls.” * 1€ population of Cuba shared the same fate, but the de- striction was not so entire. From information given me by in- telligent gentlemen from Havana, it appears that there are still at the present time some descendants of the ancient race near ag0, having the following villages: Holquin, Cobre, Vallamo, Puerto Principe, and Guanaja, whose aggregate population is two thousand. rom what region this ill-fated race, of so amiable, gentle, and ossigat a character, was derived, is an interesting inquiry. tom their greater proximity to North America than to the Southern continent, it might at first view be thought that they t ifferent from that of cane from Florida. But their character, so islands from the not very distant coast of Yucatan, _ = put Bryan Edwards advances another theory of their origin. The antipathy,” he remarks, “which the Caribees manifested ? the unotfending natives of the larger islands appears extraor- dinary, but it is said to have descended to them from their ances- tors of Guiana They considered them (the Haytians) descendec from the Arrowacks of South America, with whom the Cari- be &s of that country are continually at war. Which I collected, on comparing them with the accounts pre- wards. Tascertained that the Arrowacks are spread along the whole lby’s History of America. * Jee and Civil History of America, T Ogi ‘ History of the West Indies, Book 1, Ch. 8. OUR, Sci,—Seconp Sens, VoL. XXXV, No. 104—Mance, 1803. 23 174 J. A, Van Heuvel on the Indian Race of Hayti. the neck. silver ornament is sometimes worn at the ears, and a longitudinal piece of wood is inserted in an incision made below the under lip. They_rely for subsistence on hunting and language, hachi-duada, signifying pepper-pot—from hachi, peppe ot. ‘The cassava cakes are eaten with it. Their cabins are of a square form, of greater length than breadth, constructed of four stakes planted in the ground, opel on all sides, with an angular roof, which is covered with leaves of troobes, a species of palm. In them are suspended their ham- mocks for sleeping, in which also they sit or recline during the day. They are a net-work made of the fibres of the pul4, another species of palm. In the middle of the cabin a fire }8 continually kept, to repel by its smoke the approach of mosqur toes, which abound in their torrid clime. ; _ In support of the oe of Bryan Edwards, the following proofs may be adduced: 1. The Arrowacks bear a great resemblanee in their charac ter to the Haytians. They are, like them, mild, gentle, and be- nevolent. As such they have uniformly exhibited themselves © the Europeans with whom they have had intercourse. en the Spaniards, in their first expeditions to the Orinoco, cited against them the general hostility of the Indians, the AP rowacks alone were friendly to them. Lawrence Keymes, W “ commanded the second expedition made by Sir Walter Raleig to this river, in 1596, remarks: “The Caribes, the Ciawanls, Titivivas, and all other nations, far and near, were ready to jon, against them, except the Arawacas, who were the only nation ” UE STS LAE Se eet a Cee Se J. A, Van Heuvel on the Indian Race of Hayti. 175 whom they could trust.” And again: “The Indians of Moruga (ariver near the Orinoco) sought by all the means in their power to unite all nations into an alliance to invade the Arwacees for being guides to the Spaniards, in showing them their towns and betraying them.”” ‘lo the friendship thus early shown to the Spaniards they ever remained constant. Gumilla, in his History of the Orinoco, written a century and a half after, observes: ‘They are much more attached and more faithful to the Spaniards than any of the nations who have been discovered on this river or in the neighboring regions, for as soon as they are informed of °F aia intended against them, they secretly inform them of Bancroft, in his History of Guiana, says that in temper and 2 (= A = a o —s i=) ox} oO or =) “3 =) BS. i) n m i9°) a S w ct =e ic) B ch B= oO nm = ° oS gg oO wm pail o 72) ot oO oO F Conirmed by inquiries I made on the subject. At the com- this day as intense as ever. It is the height of offense to an aroweck to be called a Caribee, and to a Caribee to be thought k & y. Yet a few words of it have been preserved, and are placed in the following table, which will be seen to agree ; Cayley’s Life of Raleigh, ii, pp. 342, 381. to hap. 10. ty of the Orinoco, chap. Quandt, Nachricht von Surinam. ~ 176 = =J. A. Van Heuvel on the Indian Race of Hayti. with the-Arrowack, the words of which are taken from a Vo- cabulary I formed of this language: Arrowack. Haytian. Pepper, Hachi,” xi. Maize, Mareesee, Ma-i-zi.* Canoe, Canoa, Canoa, House, Bahu, Boa, Bohio. Hammock, Hammaka, Hamaca. Stone, Seeba, Ciba. The following are the authorities for the Haytian words: Axi—* They gave the Spaniards a sort of spice which they called Axi.” Herrera, Dec. I, Book I, Ch. 7. Maizi— They gave the Spaniards a sort of grain which they call Maizium.” Martyr, Decade I, Book I. The author wrote in Latin, an his translator has rendered the word in English Maizi. ‘anoa.—* Their boats they call Canoas,” Martyr, Dec. I, Book Hamaca,—* The beds of the Lucayans are called Hamacas.” Herrera, Dee. I, Book I, Ch. 12. Ciba.—* On the second visit of Columbus to the Cacique of Hayti, he presented him, among other valuable jewels, with eight hundred beads of stone, which they call Cibas.” Herrera, Dee. I, Book II, Ch. 9. ‘oa, Bohio.—“ The word of the Haytians for house is Bua.” Martyt Dec. I, Book I. As Columbus sailed from Cuba to Hayti, the Indians he had on board, whom he had brought from the Bahamas, called the latter island Bohio, It seemed that it signified a land full of cottages. Herrera, Dee. I, Book I, Ch. 15. Martyr was the cotemporary of Columbus, and his work, No vus Orbis, was founded on information received from Columbus himself, and from his companions in his voyages. It may be said that the above Haytian words, which the Span- iards adopted into their language, were spread by them along the coast of Guiana among the Arrowacks; but for this supp sition there is no foundation, since it is not probable that the Arrowacks would adopt new words for things well known them, and for which they must have had names; and, farther, 2 the language of the Caribees on the Orinoco, who from their fre- quent intercourse with the Spaniards would equally have adopted them, these words are not found, as is shown in the followitg table. Haytian. Caribees. Canoa, Couriara. Hammock, Hamacea, Aealto. Stone, Cib Tebo epper, Axi, Pomoui. Maiz Maizi. a ae : : : ; : =~ initial letter H in the Arrowack is only an aspirate, Ae vowel i : ‘This word is of three syllables, and taken from a Spanish writer; ' jaas the sound of the English ee, J. A. Van Heuvel on the Indian Race of Hayfti. 177 The Arrowack language resembles in its structure the Haytian. Herrera says the Haytian was easy to be pronounced and learned, and Charlevoix says that we may judge of its softness by some words which have passed into our language. Such is the char- acter of the Arrowack, which abounds in vowels and liquids, and is remarkably soft and melifluous. Bancroft, who resided sometime in British Guiana, says, in his history of this province, that it is distinct and harmonious, and not unlike the Italian in softness and multiplicity of vowels. Fe allowing Arrowack words, taken from my vocabulary, w this: sho Arrowack. Arrowack. Sun, Hadalee, Earth, Woonabo. Year, Weewa, Water, Woonee. Tree, Ada. Island, Careeree. Hill, Hoorooroo. Lightning, Belbellairo. 4. It is not only very probable, but there are some facts fur- oa r nishing decided evidence, that the Arrowacks of Guiana passed to the northern islands in the West Indies, Hayti, Cuba, &c. Sir Walter Raleigh, in the narrative of his expedition to the Tinoco in 1595, states that they had spread along the coast as fur as this river. “The nations,” he says, ‘that dwell on the South of the Orinoco are Arrowacks;” and, in another place, ob- Serves that “he came to a town of the Arrowacks north of the ~Tinoco.””” Humboldt mentions them among the nations now in the Spanish province of New Andalusia, which is between this river and the northern coast. Being spread so far to the Rorth, they might easily pass to the island of Trinidad, which 'és hear the Orinoco. But that they made this transit is not Merely conjectural. Sir Robert Duddeley, in the account of his Yyoyage to 'l'rinidad in 1595, found in Hackluyt’s Collection, v 'V, gives a list of words of the language spoken in this island, hearly all of which are similar to the Arrowack. But, for brevy- ty’s sake, we give only a few in the following table: Trinidad. Arrowack. Arrow, i Simara. Maize, Maureesee, Mareesee. Bread, Callit, Calee. Stone, Sebath, Seeba. re, Hecket, Hekeehee. Du Tertre, in his Histor of the West India Islands, says that the Caribee inhabitants of the smaller islands, in 1640, united in & general war against the Arrowacks in Trinidad; which not », History of St. Dominga * Cayley’s Life of Raleigh, Appendix No. IX. Histoire des Antilles: 8 J. A. Van Heuvel on the Indian Race of Hayti. From Trinidad, the Arrowacks could readily pass through the smaller islands to the larger ones, Hayti, Cuba, and Porto Rico. After reaching St. Vincent's, all the rest of the Caribee Islands are but a short distance from each other. way ofraillery, wuich had this origin, The Caribees of Domin- ica say that these islands were once inhabited by Arrowacks, and that they conquered them, and, killing all the men,,reserved the females for wives, who retained their language, which resem- bles that of the Arrowacks of Terra Firma; and it is to be note that, among the Caribees of the continent, the males and females speak: the same language.” Labat™ observes, “the Caribees of the islands have three Janguages; one common to all, another peculiar to the warriors and elder men, which is used in their public assemblies, and a third spoken only by the females, and wholly different trom that of the men, who consider themselves dishonored by speaking it;” from which he concludes that with out doubt the Caribees are strangers in these islands, having conquered them, killing all the males and reserving the females. The language of the females,” he says, “ was easier pronounced iJ . ™ Histoire des Antilles, Book I, Ch.40. — Voyages aux Isles de l'Amérique- ® Martyr, Dec. I, Book I * Herrera, Dec. I, Book J, Ch. 15- J. A. Van Heuvel on the Indian Race of Hayti. 179 islands, some inhabited, others not, which they called by-their names; and that there was a continent which was very great, rom which canoes had come to traffic.* While at Hayti, the Indians said to him that there was another large island, called Yamaje (Jamaica), and that Hayti and Yamaje were but ten days’ sail from Terra Firma, from which canoes had come with abundance of loads to barter.” n the other hand, there is evidence that the Arrowacks were accustomed to make voyages to the West India Islands. Sir Walter Raleigh says that, in going up the Orinoco, “ we took two canoes laden with bread bound for Maigueritta in the West In- dies, which the Arrowacks in them proposed to carry thither to exchange ;”’ and he speaks of a town on this river “where there Was a continual market of women for three or four hatchets, and they are bought by the Arawacas, and by them sold in the West Indies.”* In a journal kept by a resident of British Guiana, of which I had a perusal, I found an interesting passage relating to this subject. He was by name James Glen, and in 181 took up a residence for some time in the Indian country at the ead of the river Hssequibo. He appears to have had the ad- vantages of education and a scientific taste, from several notices in his journal of the Indian nations and the natural history of the interior of Guiana. Some of his remarks I transeri d, ‘mong them the following: ‘Previous to the year 1500, the "rowacks were accustomed to go from the rivers of Guiana to the large islands”—which could be no other than Hayti and Cuba. “The year mentioned was eight years after the discovery of Hayti by Columbus, and the settlement of the Spaniards in ag rtich probably caused the intercourse of the Arrowacks to ase, : While, however, the general population of Hayti, Cuba, and the Bahamas is shown with the greatest probability to have cone from South America, it is not maintained that some of the Inhabitants of Hayti and Cuba may not have been derived from Sher parts. In Hayti was a tribe called Ziguayos, different in Tegard to Cuba, two positive facts are stated by Martyr, which give reason to believe that there had been an emigration to it i t re) Yucatan where Grijalva first landed, he made use of Indians of 5 ? . Cuba as interpreters, and at Coluacan, to which he afterw » Herrera, Dec. I, Book I, Ch. 12. * Navarette, ii, p. 260. Cayley’s Life of Raleigh, i, pp. 223, 249. ~ 180- J. A. Van Heuvel on the Indian Race of Hayti. pa the language of the people, he says, resembled that of Cuba.” But it may be said that, allowing that the reasons which have been offered to show the Arrowacks and Haytians to be the same nation are sufficient to establish their identity, it does not necessa- rily follow that the latter are derived from the former. May not the Haytians have sent colonies to the coast of Guiana from whom the Arrowacks are derived, instead of themselves descend- ing from the Arrowacks? To this we reply, in the first place, that the Arrowacks appear to be the original proprietors of that coast. Its rivers, Essequibo, Berbice, Demerara, have Arrowack names. Essequibo signifies a deer; Berbice is from Guarapu che, the Arrowack name of this river. There is a river of the same name Demerara Orinoco, is also an Arrowack word, signifying arrow. Orinoco is probably also Arrowack. Water in Arrowack is Woonie. In Trinidad, according to Sir Robert Duddely, it is Orononve, whieh name may have been given to this river as “the water” em- phatically, from the vast flood which it pours out. Next, we observe that the principal plants cultivated by the Haytians belong to South America, of which may be mentioned,. in particular, cassava or manive, and their manner of preparing it for food is the same as that of the Arrowacks, which has described. ‘The Haytians,” says Martyr, “ never eat jucea, bY which name this plant is sometimes called by them, except it }$ first sliced and pressed, and then baked or sodden; for it is full of liquor which is a strong poison, that causes instant death if drunk, but the bread made of the mass is of good taste and wholesome.” “When Columbus,” says Herrera, “landed at Hayti, he was invited by the Cacique to go and eat axi and cas sabi, which is their chief diet.”” Hachi, it has been shown, is the Arrowack word for pepper, and the repast offered to Columbus was doubtless the hachi-duada or pepper-pot of the Arrowacks, with which cassava was always eaten. There was another cus ‘tom of the Haytians which was evidently derived from South America. Their mode of sleeping was in hammocks, which 38 the general custom in that continent, but not at all found among the northern Indians, and the word hamaka, it has been seé * Martyr, Decade IV, Book I, Ch, 3 and 4. * Herrera, Decade I, Book 1. * Herrera, Dec I, Book I, Ch. 18, 7 Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. 181 Hayti, struck with its great size, called it Quisqueia, which in their language signifies exceedingly great; but afterwards gave it the name of Hayti, from the craggy mountains that were in it.” Martinique was one of the chain of smaller islands inhab- ited by the Carribees, but which, as has been observed, they conquered from the Arrowacks. It was perhaps the invasion of them by the Carribees that produced the strifes and seditions im Martinique mentioned in the tradition as having caused the Arrowacks inhabiting it to remove to Hayti. Art. XX.—Abstract of a Meteorological Journal, kept at Ma- melia, Ohio: latitude 39° 25' N., and longitude 4° 28’ W. of Washington, for the year 1862; by S. P. Hitpreru, M.D.— [Thirty-fifth Annual Report.]* Tee | a Ea 3 BAROMETER. aig) ¢)]8 ess ie ay ¢ wontus. ge |ale(s|oiasg| Puris |e] a lg s (ee Ee> i = Ss e (2/8 (2| 8 /a82 e| els ~t 85°53| 67, 13, 6 95 6678 wat 88°60| 56 11) 12 16 3056N. 90 March, 41-2" 16 11 20) #392 +g 51°59) 81) 30 16) 14 7673 Sea 57°15) 84 22} 9) 3-783) n.,s. & s.z. 35°78| 88 44) 15) 15 2°54) s,s.w. July, = 13°47 98. 64 20 11 3524 é ti 13'17| 98 46) 20 11 3-641| s, an. &N. September, 38°40) 94 | 35) 3 285 ; : , 14°57 | 18} 13) 26 8.,3.W, & N porember, . 41°07] 69 94! 17) 18} ber, 5-87] 68 / | 15 3372s. sw. & NW. Mean, 626s. | | | 48567 The mean temperature of the year 1862 is 52°62, The amount of rain ant melted snow is 42,53,%, inches. pres emarks on the winter of 1862.—The mean of the winter ann is 33°-38, February was the coldest of the series, being Some years falling as low as 21°-00, and others rising to 40°00, J huary is usually a mild month Cort ared with either Decem- y | Dr. Hildreth’ ; teorological ical Observations (for 1828) was pub- lished ; reth’s first Abstract of Meteo pe ara Journal (1820) The beriee hen ninterru the present time, and this is therefore the 85th contribution. y an sidvadene this achisersititi was attached to the last abstract published in teh, 1862, which error we take this mode of correcting, Our oldest Lae yroysting re that the life of our venerable correspondent. has been continued to com- > SO! of his annual contributions.—Ebs, atl AM. Jour. Sci.—Sncoxp Sunmms, Vor. XXXV, No. 104—Maxcz, 1865. — 24 182, Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. oe in due season; but a frost, in the latter part of April, estroyed a great deal of the recently set fruit. The ill effects of a winter without hard freezing are seen more in the soil than elsewhere, the plow and the spade turning it up compact an heavy, instead of porous and loose as it is after ordinary win- ters, showing its effects on the soil during all the season. A very dry time in May or June partly restores that loose texture so useful. The spring was very wet, there falling nearly fifteen inches of rain, about half of which was in April. In this month plowing in this condition was hurtful to cultivation. This excess of moisture caused the decay of a large portion of seed corm, requiring a second and sometimes a third planting. he fields in June afforded an unsightly and unpromising appearance Pastures and meadow lands were benefited by the rains, but the s and hay were much less nutritious than in common yea although the yield was abundant. The flowering of fruit von though ; : abundant and ripened at the usual time, especially strawberres, new varieties of which are annually added to our abundant varie ties. The spring of 1863 is the appointed season here for the 4?" Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. 183 ontrsig of that wonderful insect, the seventeen-year locust, or Jicada.? Remarks on the summer of 1862.—The mean temperature of of the last of June, a disaster in some years of immense damage, destroying whole fields when nearly or quite ready for the sickle. The amount of rain in the summer months was but little over half of that in the spring. The effect was disastrous to crops o Maize and potatoes, especially on the hills and uplands, these Rot yielding half the amount of ordinary years. Rich alluvions Suffered but little. The prices of these important articles of food rose to double their common value. ‘The season was favor- able to sweet potatoes and to melons, which were abundant and of excellent quality. Among the insects injurious to ve Were less abundant than common. | arks on the autumn of 1862.—The mean temperature of the autumnal months is 54°71, which is a full average for the climate. 1@ month of October was very mild, some of the early days being of the warmth of summer, rising to 90° or more. e sea- Was very dry, there being less than five inches of rain for the three months, whereas in some years September has as much — yielded Se gi’ Cicada septemdecim appeared at New Haven in June, 1860. our., Tui, 483—Base ‘ 184 Meteorological Journal of Marietta, Ohio. parched, and some ae suffered from the drying up of springs and wells. Corn had mostly attained maturity by the middle of Sepinindel? ati suffered less than several other articles. The crop of apples was yore: good, especially cer- tain varieties of winter fruit. Pears are but sparingly cultivated on account of ‘the blight,” so aed to attack this tree, rune cially those of a vigorous growth and in rich soils. The best protection is a poor earth and elevated position, near the top to so injurious an extent, attacking only the extremities of the neers and seldom fatal to the whole tree. The past year has n free from the terrible storms and tornadoes which some- seed visit us. In general terms, this year has been a favorable one to the farmer, as well as to the health of the people. Floral wget and ripening of fruits—Jannary 1st, Bluebird heard, and has been here all the winter.—March 6th, Robin appears; 7th, Blue- bird singing; oak, various birds heard; 17th, Blackbirds; 19th Wood and robinss 21st, Hepatica triloba 3 in loon, Dat Iris; 28th, Daffodil, white and blue Croeus.—April 2d, Hyacinth; 3d, Ma gnolia conspicua in full bloom: this beautiful exotic is in most years so early in ria; 19 oth, Tibeuilie fruticosum : 20th, Locust oon Tris iol 22 Syringa fragrans, borage! Harrison rose, Magnolia t ripetala ; 26th, Catar wissa raspber ry; 27th, new seedling Peonies, ten varieties ; sous Syrings Philadelphica; 31st, Strawberry ripe.-—June _ white Iris; 5th, Guert- sey Lily; 8th, blight in Quince tree begins; 9th, Rose bugs in vast muy bers in the country, destroying the young fait of apple and penal 11th, red Cherry ripe; 15th, white garden Lily open, slugs on Pear an d Quince trees, making great destraciion of the leaves; 17th, Kirtland Raspberty ripe; 19th, Magnolia glauca in bloom ; 20th, Catawissa Raspberry Tipe Catalpa in bloom, Wheat harvest begins. —July Ist, Changi pa ripe; 4th, Dew- berry ripe; 11th, Blackberry ripe; 16th, con broom in blossom : 17th, Turk’s-cap lily, Sweet: bough apple an 1 Hale early peach ripe—August 13th, Muskmelon os, 14th, Blue plum; 15th, Hildreth, Seckle and butter pears ripe; 1 h, Watermelons r 5th, Lychnis coronaria in sb 6th, wer grape wo 7th, Delaware grape, second crop of Catawissa raspberry ripe; } e Doyenne pear ripe; 12th, Rebecca grape; 16th, Herbemont grape ripe, Portugal quince ripe ; 20th, Catawba grape. Marietta, J 3. J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. 185 Arr. XXI.— Waterglass ; by Joun M. Orpway. Part IV. [Continued from yol. xxxiii, p. 36.] Its Precipitation by alkaline salts, deposits to be mere silica. uhlmann, on the other hand, pportunity was sought, to investigate the subject in earnest, and either establish or set aside the provisional statement. . m them otherwise unaltered. ence, in every instance, the amount o% each constituent of the solid product may be mad unknown quantities,—one expressing the portion belonging to liquor retained. Analysis gives the sum of the two portions of can cient but the positive ratio of these parts to each other eee see which gives results squaring most completely with | the ascertainable facts. The following detailed examples Will serve to illustrate the nature of the problem and the mode eber ein neues nutzbares Produkt aus Kieselerde und Kali. : a ‘rhea carbonates, as will be oe oh 4 ong nae on bags I aims to preéminence as precipitants. possible that Fuchs b ery the bicarbonates, which many chemists once regarded as normal. This J. te ournal, [2], xxxii, 340. 186 J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. 1.—50 grams of a liquid containing 20 p. c. of Na,Si,, mixed with 100 grams of a 20 p. c. chlorid of sodium solution, gave a copious pre- cipitate which contracted greatly by standing 24 hours. The clear super- natant liquor being then decanted, the deposit was washed several times with cold water. Under this treatment, the product changed from a dense curd to a light flocculent matter, which, after drying in the air, weighed only 0282 grms. It contained 0-224 grms. of silica. 2,—100 grams of the same chlorid of sodium solution having been acid, afforded 31°58 p. c. of SiO, and 20-95 parts of chlorid of sodium. Deducting from the latter the 5-05 p. c. of preéxisting NaCl, we have 15-9 parts of chlorid due to the soda and showing 8°23 p. c. of NaO. By the same mode of examination, the mother-liquor was found to contain 14:09 p.c. of NaCl, 1-41 p.c. of SiO,, and 0°55 p.c. of NaO; the latter two constituents being in such pro portion as to make up NaSi,.,*. 3.—Again, 100 grams of the 20 p. ¢. chlorid of sodium solution, weré mixed with 50 grams of 20 p. c. Na,§j,. After a time the precipitate was collected in a cloth and subjected to the action of a powerful press- The solid, nearly transparent mass weighed 12-1 grams, and was wholly soluble in cold water. jected to the action of pure water is forcibly shown by compat: ison of the less than 0°3 grms. of light matter in No. 1 w ° 17-2 grms, of dense curd in No. 2, or with the 12-1 grms. ° rd i : Secondly, let us suppose the 55 p. ¢. of water in the sincere 4 * In reducing the composition to a uniform representation by empirical equiv® lents, it may be an ithe vasueut on the course adopted in Part III, to take ai. of base instead of one hundred, and let the acid come in decimals. Thus « NaSiy-s is more compact than “Nay oSiz¢o.” J. M. Ordway on Waterglass, 187 curd was pressed, the greater would be the percentage of salt in the residue, the true constitution of the product in No. 2. The mother- liquor in it has just been computed to make up 30°8 p. c., and that quantity of mother-liquor accounts for 0-19 p.c. of NaO and 05 p.c. of SiO,. After deducting these amounts from the Tespective gross numbers furnished by analysis, we find, on car- Tying out the necessary calculations, that the net precipitate Consists of 89 parts of NaSi,.,, and 25 parts of water. 0 likewise in No. 3, the mother-liquor is reduced to 48 p.c., while 58 parts NaSi,.,, and 87 parts of water make up the fe Cipitate proper, And since 58: 37: : 39: 25, the products of No. : ie No, are, as they should be, alike in respect to combined r. by reason of its relation to what Graham calls the ‘colloids,’ has 188 J. M. Ordway on Watergiass. More trials have been fully carried out with chlorid of sodium as a precipitant than with any other salt, on account of the ease and precision with which or may be determined. Many of the precipitates were simply squeezed by hand, because it was only after making siniiereblae orate ss that I found out the ad¢ vantage of resorting to mechanical aid,—No. 3, above, being in’ fact about the fortieth experiment. Among the following instan- ces, the term ‘hard pressed’ refers to the effect of a screw multi- plying the power 680 times, minus the loss by friction. For the sake of pt the numbers have in each case been made to correspond to 100 grms. of waterglass solution though twice or one-half that. quantity was sometimes actually u pete 4-100 grms. of 25 p.c. NaSigg, with 200 grins. of 25 p.c. NaCl, gave a large precipitate, which was ste washed with cold water. ‘The ignited residue weighed o nly 3°22 orm 5.—100 g. of 25 p. ec. NaBios, with 200 g. a 25 p.c. NaCl, yielded 47 ge of a squeezed precipitate wholly soluble in water and containing 34 p-¢. of mother-liquor and 42°7 p.c. of NaSigg3, In the mother-liquor there were 1'7 p. ¢. of NaSiz-s¢. 6.—100 g. of 25 p.c. c. Nadigs, with 100 g. of 25 p.c c. NaCl, gave 45°5 ge of a soluble product containing 31 p. c. of mother- “liquor ‘and 42°8 p. ¢ 0 In the mother- ee there were 2°7 p.c. of ia 7.—100 g. of 25 p.c. NaSigs, with 50 g. of 25 p.c e. NaCl, gave 40°9 g- ofa — saint containing 23 p. c, of mother-liquor and 45°9 p. ¢. of Na In ‘he mother Tighor there were 4°8 p. c. of NaSij-s2 8.—100 g. of 25 p.c. NaBig:s, with 25 g. of 25 p. ¢. NaCl, afforded 33°3 g. of a soluble precipitate containing 23 p.c. of mother-liquot and 42'5 pic: of NaSig.gg: In the ——e there were 10°7 p. c. of NaBia. 9.—100 g. of 10 p. c. NaSig.s, with 100 g. of 10 p.c c. NaCl, gave ote of an opaque eee not Seragk mene in meat Jt ‘contained 5 ing 49 p. c. of NaSig.s is 11.—100 g. of 25 p.c. NaSias, with 100 g. of 25 p.c. NaCl, gave 31 g. of a oe Bee curd containing 29 p. c. of mother-liquor and 42°5 Ih the mather-liquot there were 6 p. c. of NaBi;. 12\—100 g, of 25’ p. c. NaSigo;, with 50 g. of 25 = ce. NaCl, gave pe g. of a soluble precipitate containing 33 p. ¢. of mother-1 iquor 38'8 p. c. of NaSio.50. In the ier Fad ars were 12 p.c. of NaSiz10 13.—100 g. of 10 p. c. NaSio25, with 100 g. of 10 p. ¢. gi 2S" 1:15: g. of a partially. soluble precipitate containing 30°8 ; hee 100 g. of 25 p. c. NaSi,, with 400 g, of 25 p.c. NaCl, Y neld &. a hard: pressed, soluble product containing 7-7 p. c. of rmother-liquo? - 61°2 p. c. of NaSig¢go. The — contained 19-8 p. c of NaSij-50. J. M. Ordway on Waterglass. 189 16.—100 g. of 25 p.c. NaSi,, with 200 g. of 25 p.c. NaCl, gave 11°3 g. of a soluble curd containing 10-7 p. c. of mother-liquor and 54°7 p.c. of Na 19.6. The mother-liquor contained 6°3 p. ¢. of NaSi;.g, 16.—100 g. of 25 p.c. NaSi,, with 100 g. of 25 p.c. NaCl, yielded 6-25 g. of a hard pressed. mass containing 18 p.¢. of mother-liquor and 50°3 p- ¢. of Na ig.5. The mother-liquor contained 10:5 p. ¢. of NaSij.9. 17.—In several different trials, chlorid of sodium had little or no effect on sesquisilicate of soda. 18.— . ¢. KSigs, with 100 g. of 25 p.c. KCl, gave 21:2 g. of a hard pressed, soluble product containing 11°5 p.¢. of mother- liquor and 59°6 p. c. of K3i,. The mother-liquor contained 6°35 p. c. of KSi,. € have a deposit of 126 g. of dry K&i,, while in 6,— the parallel soda experiment,—19°2 g, of dry NaSie.. were thrown wn. A potash silicate is therefore less precipitable than the corresponding soda waterglass. © two following trials were made with reference to Ber- ig doctrine of the partition of bases among contending acids, 19.—100 g. of 25 p. ¢. NaSio.s—containing 5:4 g. of soda,—were mixed with 50 g. of 25 p. c. KCl,—whie 79 g. of g. of 25 p.c. NaSiog were stirred 61 g. of 25 p.c. KCl mixed with 41 g. of 25 p.c. NaCl,—so that in the sum of the in- Similar results were obtained in experiments made with sili- Cate of potash and chlorid of sodium, or with a silicate of one alkali and an acetate of the other. _ The alkaline acetates are rather more efficient than the chlo- Mids, in throwing down waterglass. Owing to the alkaline reac- hon of the acetates themselves, it is not easy to analyze with accuracy the contaminated products, and the results given below, claim only an approximation to correctness. The potash or sod Was determined by neutralization with a standard chlorhydric acid. The tested stuff being dried down with an excess of the Same acid, the quantity of chlorid in the residue, minus the amount of chlorid due to the alkali of the silicate, indicated the pace of acetate. ; a = —100 g. of 25 p. c. NaSigs, with 200 g. of 25 p. c. _gave 39° 8. of a Rend hiesta: soluble mass, containing 59 p. c. net of NaBSiz-¢o. AM. Jour. Scr.—Secoxp Sertes, VoL. XXXV, No. 104.—Manca, 1863. 25 190 J. M. Ordway on Watergiass. 22.—100 g. of 25 p. c. NaSig.s, with 50 g. of 25 p-¢. Nae, gave 41°8 g. of a hard pressed product containing 53°4 p. ¢. net of NaSio¢4. The mother- 7 <7) = a = &. o g 2 ~ S i = = 3 o be] = = a g = = e z = =~ : * : " Mana, in his Report on Coral Reefs and Islands, in fact, attribut 2 “et. . ¥ ‘ Ns made by the triturating waves and distributed by the waves } cur See Pages 41, 42, 57, 62, Fie a 109,115,121, 149, (or in this Journal, [2] xi. 366, + Xii, 32, 36, 330 to 384; xiii, 35, 40; xiv, 78, 79, 83.) where the effects of the the reef are mingled, the proportion will necessarily depend on the proximity 6 é 208 E. B. Hunt on the Florida Reef. fore suppose, that a satisfactory explanation of the growth of the Pacific coral islands demands vertical movements unlike any exhibited in the West Indies. the views now presented are correct, the chronology of the reef becomes stupendous. The most rapid instance of coral ate which I found on the inecikoonnis and foundations of rt Taylor was a Meandrina of about six inches radius, which was produced within twelve years, or the rate was a half inch rannum. Numerous specimens derived from stones or piles whose dates of immersion were known, and whose surfaces were so rapidly coated by vegetation — corallines that we can safely assume the coral colonies to have been planted soon atter im- why thie shite should ay be “identical with that on the reef proper, as the tidal currents supply ample moving water, and the —— is much the same. g in mind that the living reef belt hardly averages 4 mile in don Ere and that this is much interrupted, while the shoal co of the Bank averages between fifteen and twenty miles road, and that this is but a small part of the breadth of the base of this bank, on the original bottom, aside from the marl and sand contributed to the Bay of Florida, we are overwhelmed with the immense demand for time. We ought not to suppose less than three hundred fathoms of detritus built up on an aver age. Moreover, much of this calcareous material is likely t tion and force of the currents, These tidal curreats often have sey strength, and are much modified and increased in force at certain places, or diminished in n others, by the position of the reef with reference to th land. eeping in they carry the coral d gions to dist d again th long fi ar only the shore detritus, and distribute it. It is thus seen t that the same region wm eA differ widely i in its adjacent parts —may seeming gly afford evidence in one plac ce tha’ there is no coral near, and in another no basaltic land, although eit Se few rods, or even close along side. The extent of the land in proportion tot reef will have an obvious effect upon th e char: acter of | the e nel or Jagoon depo- sitions, a i i as in a wide sea enclosed by a distant barrier, the streams of the land a their detritus quite limited. in amount. In such a case, the reef and the growing patches scattered over » lagoon, are the sources of nearly all the materia! that is accumulated upon n the oie Again, p.57: “The r oot fost: wherever broken, shows a detritus origin, ae Again, p, 121 (this Journ xiii, 40),—treating of the precautions necessary to Pe — correctly the rate of growth of reefs, he observes: “It is also necessary hf into whatever ‘hee any bearing upon the marine or tidal currents of t fapton thor hashes ned elo direction, where they eddy, and where not, whet WwW over 3 that may afford debris, or not. All the debris of one plantat ma i ; i he ogee 0 * 4 one will enlarge at the expense of others; or, currents may carry the detrei the channels or aie waters aroun ode frcgi patch, and leave Tittle to aid the pla” se the oi oem ea the hard compact limestone, contain pe a a fossil, which constitutes sv large a proportion of the reef-rock, he s*Y E. B. Hunt on the Florida Reef. 209 have been more than once used by the coral animals, and some must have been swept into the ocean waters. ‘Taking the living reef at one-twentieth the breadth of the total bank, the depth of the bank at three hundred fathoms, and the rate of growth at 2 inch per annum, we find, aside from the other elements of being by the west end from Cape Florida to Tortugas Bank, a great increase of time is still demanded, so that we can hardly, on these data, diminish the chronology of the growth of the Present Florida Bank even toa million years. Appalling as this estimate of time for building appears, it seems impossible hon- only rest on limitless infinities. We can indeed readily make an arithmetical approximation to this inconceivable total. TI Supply the materials. If we assume these masses at 250 feet thick on their northern margin in Alabama, and 1800 feet thick on the present southern boundary, we can safely assume an Average thickness of 900 feet. The length of the general line of oa explanation of this peculiarity is obvious on the principle already discussed— action of a triturating sea,” etc. : 3 ". Dana even considers the question of the transportation of the detritus ed ehatl asse ‘ones, thus originating, are not in process of formation, I venture no positive ie rtion on this subject, yet would express strong doubts. The fact that ar basaltic islands, as we recede from the reef-growing depths, lose more and in the Mate Case o| rial of the island, bears against the hypothesis. o be «9 gx his is speci h eat interest to the researches above detailed by Captain Hunt, wheth Gite. that the formation of the reef consisted in a gradual elongation from the ae Without subsidence—a view also of great interest, and original—be cor- Not, It ma er / 1.93: : y be added here, that the possibility, not to say strong probability, of great gauges of level during and following the Post-tertiary, in the region of the Mexican 48 well as in the other transverse tropical seas of the globe, the ace Pi and East Indian, is one among the many sources 0} that Problem of time connected with the Florida reef.—ys. b, D. ng the proportion of coral sand, till we finally reach a bottom of earth, like _ i is was found t 210 Mineral Localities in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, &c. average cross section of the growing front cannot be less than 250 to 800 miles, or at the minimum a horizontal formation of 250 times the growing zone can be assumed. Taking the rate as before at 24 years to the foot, we shall have for the total time 24250900, on the data as stated; or, we find the total period of 5,400,000 years, as that required for the growth of the entire coral limestone formation of Florida. The rate of coral growth is nearly a rigid one, scarcely subject to fluctuation in any supposable period of time, and the limitation of growth to an outer reef of narrow section is also a necessity of organi¢ habits. If then it be a fact that all the limestone mass now con- sidered is of coral origin, the time of coral growth cannot be reduced below the result given above. It is likely to be much greater, as all the elements have been assumed on the side of @ minimum chronology, and no allowance is made for growth by the west end instead of by the front. The derivation of the substructure of the bank from coral rowth makes the seemingly formidable chronology deduced by rof. Agassiz shrink into insignificance. But is this vastness of time really incredible? Does its shock to our ideas militate against its reality? It is not the method of true philosophy t? belittle nature to our ideal standards, but it is rather our duty to seek facts without bias or preconception. Looking thus squarely at the facts of the reef, in the aspect I have regarded them, the ag gregate of time given seems really and truly insufficient. There - are vast possibilities of error in such estimates, but are we nob quite as likely to err through our preconceptions of limited chronology as by boldly submitting to the guidance of estima tion from actual bases ! —— “Art. XXIII.—Catalogue of Mineral Localities in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland; by O. C. Marsu, B.A., of the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale College. u ; tioned in the Catalogue, especially those in the trap district the Bay of Fundy, are copied from the writer’s notes, which wet? * Many of the notices of localities referred to in this Province are given 8 the authority of Mr. which i cient guarantee for their general accuracy: Mineral Localities in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Gc. 211 taken at the localities during several excursions to the Provinces, the first in 1854. Even these lists may, in some cases, be found meomplete; since the destructive tides of that region are con- stantly changing the outlines of the coast, and thus exhausting the old localities, while at the same time bringing to light others, equally rich in mineral treasures. The notices of localities which the writer has not visited are derived from the best sources of information to which he ha access. A few were taken from the publications of Jackson and Alger, Dawson, and Jukes, which contain much that is valuable i regard to the mineralogy of these Provinces.” The writer is om especially indebted to George F. Mathew, Esq., and are believed to be one of the most common minerals in that Prov- ince, yet on examining and analyzing specimens of the so-called thomsonite from man y of its reputed localities, the writer found is well worthy of careful study. The writer has for several years been collecting materials for a full examination of the dif- ferent Species, and hopes at some future time to embody * Near Black Rock, Kings Co., and at Clark's Head, Cumberland Co, 212 Mineral localities in New Brunswick. The following cae is arranged according to the plan used in Dana’s Mineralogy. Onl nly localities which afford cabinet spec- imens are in fied included. The names of those minerals which can be obtained in good specimens at the several localities are printed in italics. When the specimens are remarkably good, an exclamation mark (!) is added, or two of these marks (!!) if e specimens are quite unique NEW BRUNSWICK. ALBERT CO. Grixpstoye Pornt and Istanp.—Barytes, iron pyrites, lignite. iiseneicss —Gypsum (alabaster and selenite); Albert mines,—' coal (albertite). Pater Rrver—fifteen miles from mouth,—coal. Sseropy Movuntarn.—Alunite in clay, oi Ss iron pyrites, mangan ah 2 Pevonneranted Ephrata URTLE CREEK,— CARLETON mi 1 pi soe: Sit pyrites (mined), hematite, limonite, wad. CHARLOTTE E CO. Beaver Harsor.—Chlorite, jasper: CamposeLto—at Welchpool.—Blende, copper pyrites, ‘erubescite, ga Jena, iron pyrites; at head of Ha roor ie Lute, galena (4 inch vein); at Head Harbor, copperas, iron pyri bin Istanp—on west side tieloies (in amygdaloid), magnetite, Diepievasu River. —On west side of entrance, calcite / (in conglom™ erate), shinlesdouy at Rolling Dam, graphite. GnanpManan.—Between Northern Head and Dark Ha re st amethyst, apophyllite, calcite, hematite, heulandite, jasper, ™ ite, natrolite, sti/bite, thomsonite?; at Whale Cove, clei esd ite, laumontite, stilbite, semi-opal ! ; i at Fish He ad, two miles east Eel Brook, chlorite in quartz (abundant) ; at Rosses’ aie quartz crystals; at White Head, chlorite, quartz crystals. L’Eraye Istanp Harhot —Chilorite, iron pyrites, marble, serpentine; at La Téte, Soper J Py rites, erubescite, galena. Wacastao pavic River.—At en eye naurite, copper pyrites in veils, alachite; one sight & of a mile east, galen Nie River.—At Mills, actinolite ? (in porp 8 ry). Sreety’s Cove.—Hill, half a mile north, isis, iron pyrites, magnet ite, _ crystals, St. Sreeaen.—Four miles north of, graphite in slate, molybdenite i pseesie siaes crystals; at Mill Farm, iron pyrites. boul Wavwie River.—Three miles up, at Cormick’s Mills, pyrites in a garnet, feldspar crystals, tourmaline; at Bartlett’s Pond, quartz GLOUCESTER ~ Baravrst.—Coal, m. Tére-a-coucne River.—Eight miles asia Bathurst copper pyrites (mined), oxyd of manganese ! / formerly m Mineral localities in New Brunswick. 213 CO. Bucrovcue River.—Coal. Cocarene River.—On branch three miles from bri dge, coal. Ricursucto River.—Three miles above Ford’s cm and at Big Brook, coal; at Bassk, iron pyrites; Liverpool, limonite Kovcurmovavasts Rrv ER.—Coa KINGS CO, Ber.terste Bay.—On north shore, galena in limeston hornstone, jasper ; oe Moose Hill, large bed of magnetite on farm of Northrup and "Ben Currton.—Chlorite, apidote, hematite, orthoclase in crystals, prehnite, sie crystals. Hammo p> River. —At Sherwood’s, graphite in limestone. tusror, .—At Darling’s Lake, agate, carnelian, jasper atl .—On ridge south of village, chlorite, magnetite, magnetic Quispamsis. —Copper ay tibed, pies iron pyrites, cbt Sussex.—Near Cloat’s Mills, 0 to Belleisle, argentiferous , galena; one mile north of Baxter’s si “pean ular iron in crystals, limonite ; on Capt. McCready’s farm, east of Church, selenite / / (crystals con- ae i Upnam.—Sal t springs; four miles east of Titus’ Mills, gypsum NORTHUMBERLAND CO. Boistown.—Coal ; also at New Castle and Chatham QUEENS CO. Granp Laxe.—At Long Point, barytes, eopperas, and ed in frog trees; Salmon River, on Crawford’s farm, coal, cop- ts, limonite; New Castle River, coal mines; Coal Creek, ork ONG Reacu Opposite “Van Warts, chlor Wasuspeaoax Rrver.—Two and a half niles from Long’s Creek, ; a few miles above mouth of W. River, on S.E. side = small tive Sete chaleedony, Roragesons jasper, quartz RESTIGO CO. Be hd NE Po mn.— Calcite! sitesi verde SAINT JOHN CO. Brack Rrver.—On coast, calcite, chlorite, copper pyrites, hematite / in crystals, pyroxene oe ear , quartz crystals. Branpy Broox.—Epidote, hornblende, quartz crys Carteroy,—Near Falls, calcite (rv Cuance Harsor.— Calcite (deep red) i in quartz veins, Shiositad in argil- aceous Swe talcose slate. Livres Dirper- Ha RBOR.—On west side, in greenstone, amethyst, ba- ie a ve asta (red), hornblende, muscovite, black tourmaline, Usquasu.—On East side Harbor, copperas, graphite, pyrites; at Shannon’ 8, chrysotile, serpentine East side of Musqu uash, stals / erate). Portiay e Sie i ane large bed of graphite (impure) ; at Fort Howe sal ealaiie (fine crystals in several ei aga Crow’s Nest, R. Sct.—Seconp SexiEs, VoL. XXXV, No. 104.—Manou, 1868. J * 214 Mineral localities in Nova Scotia. asbestus, calcite (fibrous), chrysotile, magnetite, serpentine, steatite ; Lily Lake, white augite ?, chrysotile, graphite, sarpentin steatite, talc; How’s Road, two miles out, epidote (in syenite), steatite mm limestone, tremolite; Drury’s Cove, graphite, pyrites, pyrallolite? indurated tale. Quaco.—aAt Light House Fae large bed of oxyd of manganese; wes of Point, lignite; east of Quaco, at Fuller’s Creek, graphite, iron Aebiagh farther eastward, asbestus, chryslt, black ‘tourmaline. alcite ( oe) red jas rol Bap 8 Pay —Actinolite, — ealcita, epidote, (pistacite and aphid —— specular i PE SrE —Asbestu m éaloite chlorite, apenas iron (in crystals). Wesrseacn.—At east end, on Evans’ Farm, chlorite, tale, quartz crys- tals ; = a mile west, chlorite, copper pyrites, magnesite (vein), ma Po agit Wore and Satmon River.—Asbestus, chlorite, chrysocolla, copper pyrites, erubescite, pyrites. SUNBURY CO. Ormocro River.—Ten ini up north branch, coal. Lincotn.—Bog iron ore (abundant), wa VICTORIA CO. Tasrque River. ey carnelian, jasper; at mouth, south side, galena; at mouth of Wapskanegan, gypsum, salt spring; three miles above, stalactites (abundant QuisaBis Rrver.—Blue phosphate of iron, is er ‘ WESTMORELAND CO, Br.ievoe.—lron pyrit Dorcesrer.—On Taylo sieves nem coal, pag ate stone; on Ayres’ Farm, asphaltum, petroleum spring. Granp ance.—Apatite, selenite ‘(in large crystals). Memramcoox.—Coal (albertite). Sueprac.—Four miles up Scadoue ot coal YORK CO. Nasuwaax Rrver.—Coal ; Jay Cree kk, coal. Poxtock River.—Stibnite? tin — in granite, (rare); Harvey Settlement, wad.‘ NOVA SCOTIA. ANNAPOLIS CO. Cuurs’s Cove.—Apophyllite, natrolite. ne Gates’ Mocwratn.—Analcime, magnetite, mesolite! natrolite, stilbite thomsonite ?° Haptey’s Mountary.—Chlorophevite, heulandite MARGARETVILLE.—Epistilbite?” laumontite, Céblored green by coppe ) stilbite. Marriat’s Cove.—Analcime! (inclosing native copper), chabaaite, heulandite * See note on sotinony — in New Brunswick in the preceding number of this ee. pote 150. ® See In A ch i: from mig ayn li ty has been anibed as satnigng by Prof. gi of Kings College, Nova Scotia; but, in a recent cot rove to be hea an ete writer, t t ite on e n expresses 3 doubt whe Jeg eg Bs ahd D ed frome specimen analyzed. Mineral localities in Nova Scotia. 215 Moose River.—Beds of magnetite Nicrav River.—At the Falls, bed of hematite Parapise River.—Black tourmaline, smoky quarte !! (perfect _— more — one hundred pounds in weight, have been found in the soil Port Grorce.—Faréelite, laumontite, mesolite, = east of Port e Perer’s Porntr.— West side of Stonock’s Brook, apophyllite , calcite, heulandite, dawmontite / (abun dant) rene copper, stilbite. Croix ape £.—Chabazite, heulan Witm t the Spring, copperas. COLGHE ESTER CO. Five Istanps.—East River, barytes /, calcite, dol- omite (ankerite), hematite, copper pyrites; Indian Point, mala- chite, magnetite, red copper, tetrahedrite ; aan Islands, anal- cime, haat chabazite /, natrolite, siliceous Lonp y.—On bran ch of Great Village joven om 09: ankerite, henna, ldsonite, magnetite; Cook’s Brook, an hematite ; Martin’s Brook, hematite, limonite; eastward of Great Village River, on high ground, hematite, limonite ; at Folly River, below Falls, ankerite, i iron pyrites ; on hig land, east of river, an erite, ema- tite, limonite; on Archibald’s land, ankerite, barytes, hematite. Sau IvER.—South branch of, coal, copper pyrites, hematite Suusenacapre River. —Anhydrite, calcite, darytes, hematite, oxyd of ites. ECTO.—Barytes. Carz D'Or.— Anateime, apophyllite !! (large crystals, highly modified), chabazite, f fardelic, laumontite, mesolite, malachite, natrolite, native copper, obsidian, red copper (rare), vivianite anit Ho oe f e of Cap ilbite. 3 Ise Havre.—South side, analcime, apophyllite fe! /, albin ?,” calcite, “shpat ff _— mesolite, stilbite: ! Parsporou okra amianthus, san gypsum, hematite, iron pyrites, vats qua : Parremer Istanp.—Analcime, apophyllite ! / (eh amethyst! agate, apatite vival catite? (nbindant in large and highly modified Crystals) ,cl eadiolite), chalcedony, cat’s-eye (rare), gypsum, hematite, hewlondite casi stilbite / / (very abundant). Ctark ’s Heap.—a nal te, chlorite, calcite, hematite, prehn- ite? Tito Sw WAN's Crerx.— West side, near — eon calcite, gypsum, heula °) iron en east side, at ’s Bluff and vicinity, @ analeime: , ine easionally peace, % native Sone and Nl apophyllite: (rare), calcite, chabazile!/ (white, wine-yellow, a — emer In large and very crest wie puts gypsum, heulandite! etl a native copper, red cop per (rare), siliceous sinter. e from this ly which has for many years passed ender ont name “ alin ric, recently bee n examined by the writer, and si 5 Ai be mere! Y a variety of calcite. 216 Mineral localities in Nova Scotia. Two Istanps.—Moss agate, analcime, calcite, chabazite, islands McKay’s Hzap.—Analeime, calcite, heulandite, siliceous sinter Srronix Broox.—Laumontite. DIGBY CO. Brier Istanp.—Native Sonper, in ize ap. Diegsy Necx.—Sandy Cove and vicinity, agate, amethyst, calcite, chab- azite, hematite! (in pen st phot Saoieehie (abundant), mag- xi i stelbite, quartz crysta Gutiiver’s Hox, "cclkagmeaiia al tilbite : en Cove.—Amethyst, chabazite/ ont an inch in diameter), no a rystals. Nicuou’s Mounratn.—South side, amethyst, magnetite / (in large and mail crystals). Trout Cova.—Six miles east of Sandy Cove, agate, chalcedony. Wiriam’s Bao —Near source, chabazite (green), heulandite, stilbite, quartz crystals GUYSBORO’ co. Carr Cansrau.—Andalusite, abundant in mica and clay slate GuysBoRo’ _—Galena, > naga HALIFAX CO. Gay’s River.—Galena, in limestone. Haurrax.—Southwest of, gar net, staurotide, tourmaline : Tanoier.— Gold / ( oceasionally erystalized) in quartz veins in clay slate, associated with auriferous pyrites, galena, hematite, mispickel, an ite.’ Gold has also been found in the same formation, accompanied by iron asi “= mispickel, at Country Harbor, se Clarence, Isaae’s Harbor, Indian Harbor, La uae w’s Farm, Lawre town, ; Sherbrooke, Salmon ce. and HANTS CO. — —Oxyd of — 7 baton at River.—Gypsum, oxyd of manganese. iat pau Winpsor.—Calcite, ciyplmsesbiis (boronatrocalcite 2), glauber s¢ hayesine. The last three minerals are found in beds gypsum." oF EENESS CO. Mazon Harsor.—Fluor spar / (green). GS CO. Brack Rocx.—Centrallassite, Series cyanolite;" 4 few miles east 4 Black Rock, prehnite ?, stilbite Se Carr Biomipon.—On the coast between the Me and st Split, follow ig minerals tage in many places: seme of t localities are nearly opposite Cape Sharp,—analeime//, agate, pgiek apophyllite !, caicia. dhalcedeite. chabazite, -greiit ioe mala fardelite, hematite, heulandite/, laumontite, magnetite, mesolite, native corhes (rare), natrolite/, psilomelane, stilbite!, thomsonite ? 2, quar Shale a ge ns Bridge, oxyd of manganese. Ha por.—Analcime, heudandite, laumontite, stidbete. Norru Mourranrs —Amethyst, bloodstone {rare), ferruginous eae mesolite (in soil). 1 Lone Porst—Five miles west of Black Rock, heulandite, laumontite!! stilbite Scor’s Daye aaees amethyst, chalcedony, mesolite, natrolite. "This Journal, {2}, xxx, 96,1861. * This Journ, [2], xxiv, 290, and xxii, 8. 2° Ed. New Phil. Mineral localities in Newfoundland. 217 Woopwortn’s ss —A few miles west of Scot’s Bay, agate /, chal- cedony /, jasp LUNENBURG & Co. Cuzster.—Gold River, gold in quartz, iron pyrites, mispickel. Care La Have.—Zron pyrites Tue “ Ovens.”—Gold, on the uk and in quartz veins, iron pyrites, mispickel | Perire River.—Gold, in slat PICTOU CO. Picrov. ho nla of manganese, limonite; at Roder’s Hill, six miles west of Pictou, barytes; on Carribou River, gray cop- per and malachite in lignite; at Albion Mines, coal, limonite: East River, limonite. QUEENS CO, Wesrrretp.—Gold in quartz, iron pyrites, mispickel., Five “aie —Near Big Fall, gold in quartz, pyrites, mispickel, limonite. RICHMOND CO. Puaisrer Coven West of, barytes and calcite in sandstone ; nearer the Cove, calcite, fuor spar (blue), chalybite. SHELBURNE CO. Suetpurnz.—Near mouth of Harbor, garnets (in gece): near the town, rose quartz; at Jordan and Sable River, staurotide (abundant in clay and mica slates), schiller spar. SYDNEY CO.—Hills east of Lochaber Lake, iron and. copper pyrites, chalybite, hematite. Morristown.—Epidote in trap, gypsu observation. and w’’ represent the angles at the earth between the sun and comet, at the first and third ert Sener e shall have cos ahead bas cos ati 9", ( ) Then, if we denote by 7 and “dg the distances of the comet from the sun, at the times ¢ and t’’, we obta 2 Re +R? sin? y, = raid, —R,cone Je Rt, sn sin? y” (7) Let us now put Rs sin @ ae 2 COs an = cos ==¢, R’ein y” Nan", B’cos y=", and equations fe and (7) become OR erp | r = (a —e )2--U% (8) aN (ae EHO? 220 J. C. Watson on the Elements of the Orbit of a Comet: These equations (8) together with Lambert’s equation, (rer! x)? — (npr! — x)= M(t" — 2), (9) where log. M= 9:0137327, will enable us = determine J” by successive approximations, when the value of 4 is giv e may therefore assume a value of 4 ae eans of the approximate elements of the orbit, and then find the value of 4” for which the corres- ponding values of 7” and * will satisfy equation (9). It will be observed that the value of 4” must be shes by trial; and, if we assume also an approximate value of 4”, we may find r” from the last of equations (8) and then papers * from seaation (9). Then we obtain a second value of 4” from the equa Mat 22 — 52 With the value of 4” thus obtained we coe r” and x as before, and n a similar manner find a still nearer approximation to 4”, A few trials will generally give the correct result. When 4 thus been determined we find the heliocentric places of the comet by the following: 4 cos 8 cos (A—@)—R=r cos 6 cos (1—O), 4cosfsin(A—©) =r cosb sin(/—O), (10) 4 sin 8 =r sin }, 1" cos B" cos (1 — 2. Sigh 2: ” cos b" cos (1”/—@"), 4" cos 8" sin (i! -O "y os b” sin (1"—©"), (1 1) dl sin fl main | where 4, b”, and 1,1”, arer pectively the heliocentric latitudes and longi- tudes of the comet at the tines t end S e values of r and r” should agree with those obtained from equations (8). The elements of the orbit are then chad from the heliocentric Lagos Ee means of the well known formule. For the node and inclination, Wé ve tang é sin (3(/-L1)— rere sec b sec ”, bb . tangicos(F(l40)—Q jaan oe =p sec b sec b”, the upper sign being used when the motion is direct and the lower siga when the motion is retrograde, corresponding respectively to the case of where 2” >/ and l"<7. In these equa’ ations, Q denotes the longitude ecliptic. The longitudes i in the orbit are given by the equations: tang (9 — Q )=tang (7 — Q) ase (13) tang (0 — §3 )=tang (2"— $3) sec 4 where 6 and 6” are the longitudes in the orbit. on the accuracy of the computation we have x2 }r—r" cos (6”—8) { 2-4+-r//2 sin? (6” —6). ~ J. C. Watson on the Elements of the Orbit of a Comet. 221 For the longitude and distance of the perihelion we put 4f,a tang (45°-+-w)— J : : and then we shall have Dales tang 20 Mat Sis 2 oe ry ? , Jd sin$ (0 —8) 4 rr" (14) 1 r. sec 20 Jy pees 4 (0'—B) rr” Where 2F=4 (0-+-.6") — 7, q denoting the perihelion distance, and 7 the — of the perihelion. tv and vw” be the true anomalies at the times ¢ and ¢”, and we have v0 — x, v6" — 1, - for direct motion, and v1 - 0, vlan — 6, for retrogade motion. Then for the time of perihelion passage T, we have T= tT Vv" (25 tang? 4v-+ 75 tang 4v), (15) which should agree with the value of T found by using the values of t,o, instead of ¢ and 2, V/2 log —— = 0°0398723. °8 75k The preceding formule are all that are required for finding the elements of the orbit from two observations, when one of the geocentric distances 'S given. To solve the problem proposed, we assume, in the rst ple #0 approximate value of J, and compute the elements of the orbit from the first and third observations, by means of these formule. With the’ elements thus obtained we compute the place of the comet for the time ¢’, compare it with the corresponding observation, and if we denote the oe longitude and latitude by 4/9, and 9, respectively, we shall ve w=, and B’+4-w’=)",, | oe w’ and w’ are the differences between computation and observation. ext, assume a second value of the distance of the comet from the earth at the time ¢, which we represent by J-+04, and compute the correspond- IDg system of elements, and we shall have as before Meu i, and B’--w"=F',. We also compute a third system of elements from 4-44, (04 being the Same 48 before,) and denote the differences between computation and ob- “etvation by « and w, then we shall have’ u=f(d-—d4), u’==f (4), uf (d+04), d values of A—3A, A, and A-++3A, should be so taken that the ag a The assume f ee /2€ Of A—viz, that for which the differences « and w are a minimum Within the limits 4-34 and a++3A, which may always be effect Xt Jour. Sc1.—Seconp SERrEs, VoL. XXXV, No. 104—Maxcu, 1563. 29 222 J. C. Watson on the Elements of the Orbit of a Comet. and similarly for w, w’, and w’. If these three numbers are exactly represented by the expression r z\3 «+#(52)+1(aa) ° where J-+-z is the general value of the argument ;—since the values of 1, u', and w” will be such that the third differences may be neglected, this formula m may be assumed to express exactly any value of the function corresponding to 2 value of the argument not differing much from 4, or between the limits z= -04 and z=-+04. To find the coefficients «, 8, and 7, we have? Argument. Function. Ist diff. 2d diff. x Function. 1st diff. 2d diff. gi Aa) Ha 40a) Sregot Abas 4 J(4 ) J(4+464) I" (4) “0 b+ 4434 fi4+04) $84 ap pty Ot whence by comparison we find a=f(4); B=$}/ (4 - $84)+/'(44404){ 5 and y=4/"(4)- Now in order that = middle place may be exactly represented i in longi- ll hay tude, we shall (aa) +°(za) += 27 from which we find m=" = (6- JB? = #? = 4a) =p, (18) by? ie 4r-p.0d=—0. ( In the same manner, the condition that the middle place shall be exactly represented in latitude BEM or 2—p!.dd= (18) In order that the orbit shall oseally represent the middle place, it 7 quires that both conditions shall sati simultaneously, but it rarely, if ever, happen, that this can be e and we must therefore Having thus determined the most probable value of z, we compl pins ancaee caer of elements, with the geocentric distance Ate corresponding to The applisation of these formule is not limited to the case of three observations. With an approximate value of 4 we may compu elements from the extreme observations, and co mpare any num intervening places, each of which will furnish two equations of co It for the determination of z. Should it be found that the residuals res? ing from the final elements exceed the limits of the probable errors observations, the orbit cannot be a parabola, and it will be necess# determine the excentricity. Ann Arbor, Mich., December, 1862. * The coefficient 8 should not be confounded with the latitude g previously ose Geographical Notices. 223 Art. XXV.— Geographical Notices. No. XIX.” PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE REPORT ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER, BY HUMPHREYS AND ABBOT, — THE report of Captain Humphreys and Lieut. Abbot of the Corps of Topographical Engineers of the United States Army, on the “Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River,” has already been noticed in this J ournal, in an article which gave a Conspectus of the entire work.’ The universal interest now felt in everything which illustrates the Physical Geography of the United States, the importance of this elaborate survey of the tend to determine the most practicable plan for securing it from lundation, and the best modes of deepening the channels at the mouths of the river. The report, consequently, is chiefly Ities of navigation in the channels near the gulf. But the topo- . sult the work itself may turn here for such information. In doing this we shall confine ourselves, without comment, to the ments of the authors, generally employing their own lan- Stage. We regret that the limit of this article compels us to mit some of the interesting details which their scientific zeal and thoroughness have brought together. ; arding the true Mississippi river as beginning at the con- fluence of the Upper Mississippi and the Missouri, eight of its Utaries are so important as to be are arg ee from all the t. In the order of the magnitude of their basins, these are the Missouri, Ohio, Upper Mississippi, Arkansas, Red, White, Yazoo and St. Francis. They are described in the order of their geographical position, first the right bank and then the 1 [2], xxxiii, 181. 224: Geographical Notices. left, beginning with the southernmost, as follows: Red, Arkan sas, White, St. Francis, Missouri, Upper Mississippi, Ohio al Yaz00 1. Red river Basin.’—Few regions so limited in area, say the uthors, are so diversified in character as this basin. hile it ialudes only 97,000 square miles, large tracts of rich allu- vion, a range of primitive mountains, numerous lakes, a rolling prairie, ¢ and: a salt-desert tract are found within its borders. be 2° Marcy, U.S. A., first explored the sources of Red river in 1852. The general course of the stream is thus delineated in his report. The Red river rises in the eastern rim of the vast desert plain known as é Llano LHstacado at an elevation of about 2 z 13 7 g zg) 38 | & | 23 | 232 |S282) S33 River. gE =o g S. | 28 |Sto3) 286 as} 43 | s | £8 | &Ss |3Se*| <32 ne eee ee ae pees Ae 53 Miles.| Feet. | Feet. ; Feet. | Feet. | Feet. |Sq. feet. Ohio river. low water Coudersport, 1265 | 1649 Olean point, 1225 | 1403 615 arren, 1175 | 1187 4:32 Franklin, 1105 | 960 | 3-24 Pittsburg, 975 699 ‘00 Ar sa 889 620 92 45 Marietta, 800} 571 | 0:55 | 1200 50,000 Head Le Tart’s Cee 769 555 “52 10 Mouth Great Kanawha, | 714 522 60 Portsmouth, 620 51 Cincinnati, 515 482 40 20 Above falls, 361 377 | 0°36 } 42 Below falls, 358 353 8-00 64 : Evansville, 187 | 320 | 0:20 15 40 |) outh Wabash, 130} 297 | 0-25 | $3000 150,000 0 275 0-17 a Base aaah —Area of basin, 214,000 sq. m.—Downfall of rain, 41° Annual dis- \charge, 5,000,000,000,000 cu. ft. — Ratio between bowie and Presirherots 0:24. Mess dise charge per second, 158, ‘000 eu 7 Mississippi. low water — 2 remiss F — 3 50 Itasca 1575 | 17°50 15 Satrence we Lac Trave rs, 1394 a6 1°32 150 400 Entrance to Lake Cass, | 1189 | 1402 1:20 175 1, Mouth Leech- =e river, ae 1356 57 Head oy s of Peckagama, 1340 33 120 outh Swan River, 290 “%3 oe a river, 960 | 1253 ‘95 800 20°0 x — “orn | ps 1176 ‘79 Mout row-wing river,| 81! 1130 “05 ul, 653 | 670 | 2-93 | | 1200 0 , Crosse, 514 639 0:22 20 | 140 Prairie du Chie 453 | 600 | 064 185 | | 400,000) Head Rock Isl Pa pies 310 | 505 | 066 | $5000 16°0 Foot Rock Isl’ ra: 295 483 1-47 iL a9 M 0 381 0: 35°0 —Area of basin, 169,000 sq. m.—Downfall of rain, 35:2 in. Aas) mess 3,500, 000,000,000 cu. ft.Ratio between downfall and drainage, 0°24.— rge per second, 105, 000 ¢ u. ft. ——— Missouri low water Source Madie ison fork, | 2908 | 6800(?) Three forks Missour i, 2824 | 4319 .| 29°52 Mouth Sun river, 89 | 8573 | 554 Foot of falls, 370 | 2 81°59 At Fort Benton, 5 4-56 1500 6 At > rt — - pone ie ‘ort Pierre, 147 agi At Sioux City,” B42 | 1065 | 1-01 $2500 | + 10 lee At St. Joseph tts e At — - ~ : 3si_ | o-77 | $3000 35 ks.—Area of basin, 518,000 sq. m.—Downfall of rain, 20-9 in. aeoen » 3,780,000 sa eu. f.—tatio between downfall an d drainage, 0-15.— as ree per second, 120, 000 ¢ Humphreys and Abbot's Report on the Mississippi River. 285 TABLE——CONTINUED. River Se oR. 5 gS-|e°2 geas} 285 - a ah & a Sue | Po. 8 bole! Z2| £8 ee =2 | '3s Fset| age ee ek ee 53 Miles.| Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Feet. |8q. feet. “sony river. high wat 1514 | 10000 fouth’ Sieh spring r.| 1364 34°13 150 fouth Apis hpa creek, | 1823 | 4871 | 12°41 ear Bent’s Fort, 1289 |. 3672 | 20°56 ear Fort Arkinebil 1095 | 2331 6°91 ; 00 : peur reat bend, 992 | 1658 | 653 ear Fort Gibson, 642, 560 | 314 10 oH ear Fort Smith, 522} 418 | 1:18 ye 25 70.000 ear * a Rock, = — 0-61 ” 2-0 = : 6 = 45 —Area of oH ncaa White r.), 189,000 sq. m.—Downfall of rain Gace White r.), 293 in.—Anniual bye scharge (including White r.), 2,000,000 t.—Ratio hte downfall and drainage, 0°15.—Mean dieckuage per cs Gueloding White r.), 63,000 ft. > SSS : ver. high wat, ey 1200 | 24 S14 t Preston, G41 | 4-80 { 2000 49 |i 12,000 At Fulton, 595 | 242 | 1:80 } 10 | 285 |. A sent Of raft, 5| 207 | 0-20 10, reveport 180 0°36 800 25 40,000 Mouth Black river, 30} 58 | ot | Ped ? 0 54 0-14 ) ag rks.—Area of basin, 97,000 sq. m.—Downfall of rain, 39-0 in.—Annual bo dis Te, 1,800,000,000,000 cu. ft. Ratio natwoeh downfall and drainage, 0°20.—Mea charge per second, 57, 000 ¢ u. ft. SEES 4200 Ho re ake. a high wat. or ae 240 a9 0-27 36 17,000! Mout 0 O16 | 850 t 25 | 48 | 50,000 ime rks.— Area of basin, 18, 6 ak —Downfall of rain, 463 in. — Annual d dis- dis tye, 1 000,000 cu. ft. er between downfall and drainaye, 0°90.—Mean Sent per second, 45,000 eu St. Francis river. as wut. Source, 380 | 1150 swamp re: 330 781 9,400 Cee ut | Ba | Bap 21,000, L. R. railroad 55 0°42 Mouth, : 0| 200 | 0-16 } Mad 40 | 87/000 onemarics Gtacce of ee 10,500 sq. m.—Downfall of rain, 41*1 in. BP om di Fatee, 990 ,000,000 cu. ft.—Ratio between downfall and drainage, 0°90.—Mean dlschange per second, 31,000 eu te ieee bt Second, = ississipp high wat. Monti of Missouri, 1286 416-0 8, 1270 | 408-0 | 0°500 20 | 3870 C 1097 | 322-0. 510 Slumbus, 1076 | 310°0 | O71 | +4470 i 50 47-0 | + 191,000 Gaines" lanai B17 | 149.0 | 0820 mh :3’ lan: 647 4 5 Natehez, 0 | 0-309 | b40s0 t 60 | 510 | $199,000 Retriver landing, 816; 495 | 0 44 n Rouge, 245, 0-220 3000 31 200,000. Ce dsonville, 193 | 35°83 | 0-156 243 14 on, 121} 15:2 | 0-147 i4-4 nid St. Phitip, 87} 52 | 0-119 | p2470 a - 199,000 “ad Of passes, 17 29 | 0-1 23. Guls, ; 0 | 0171 Downfall of rain, oe in.—Annual 0 Remarks rainage area, area, 1,5 sea Gneluding 3 outlet Parone), 1,800, 300,000,000,000 cu. ft.—Ratio Ownfall and drainage, 0°25.—Mean discharge per second, 675,000 cu. 236 Geographical Notices. RECENT EXPLORATIONS ENCOURAGED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. fresh water and land forms.” In another connection, we leart from Prof, Baird, the following noteworthy facts. Besides the occur at the Cape; while, as far as observed, the same may dof the strictly Mexican types. The entire Peninsula thus proves to be as specially related to North America in its land fauna a8 is Florida, although the number of peculiar species 18 ™ greater. : : a The marine fauna of Cape St. Lucas proves to be quite a amaic in its general features—much more so than that of opposite coast of Mexico. ; The whole of the collection made by Mr. Xantus had pes arrived in Washington when the report for 1861 was ler that he has collected about twenty new birds, as many reptile _ large numbers of fishes, crustaceans, and other groups 1? ts ever made on the west coast, with the exception of by Mr. Reigen, forming the basis of the report on Explorations encouraged by the Smithsonian Institution. 237 y Mr. Lyman; on the Myriapoda by Mr. Wood; onthe Bats by Dr. Allen; on the Plants by Dr. Gray. The conchology is in the hands of Mr. P. P. Carpenter. It is proposed, when all these examinations are completed, to Combine their results in one general memoir on the Natural We copy, from Prof, Baird’s report for 1861, the following Statements respecting the other recent explorations in which the Smithsonian Institution has been concerned. “ where he had spent th pr collecting egos of birds. He left Fort Resolution in August, 1860, and Teturned to Fort Simpson and proceeded immediately down the Macken- La Pierre's house, occupying four days in the transit, and arrivin, Sep- mber 18th; left the next day for Fort Yukon, at the junction of Por- Cupine or Rat river and the Yukon or Pelly river, in about latitude 65° ed on the 28th of September, 1860. : The latest advices now on file from Mr. Kennicott were written Janu- aty 2, 1861, up to which time he had made some interesting collections ; but these, of course, were limited by the season. He had great expecta- tions of success during the following spring, (of 1861,) which have no doubt been abundantly realized. : No collections were received from Mr. Kennicott in 1861, with the &xception of a few specimens gathered in July and August, 1860, on ve lake. Those made at the Yukon will, however, in all probability Come to hand in October or November of 1862. Am. Jour. Scr.—Srcosp Serres, Vou. XXXV, No. 104.—Marcn, 1863. 31 238 Geographical Notices. r. Kennicott expected to renain at the Yukon until Angust, 1861, ay to start for La Pierre House and Fort Good Hope, possibly to Fort Simpson, to spend some months, and endeavor by early spring to reach Fort Anderson, near the mouth of An enon river, (astream between the Mackenzie and Coppermine rivers,) and in the barren grounds close to e Arctic ocean. At Fort Anderson he expected to collect largely of the skins and eggs of birds, rare mammals, &., and to return to Fort Simpson in the autumn, (of 1862 2,) then to arrive at Fort Chipewyan, 00 Lake Athabasca, by the spring of 1863, so as to get back to the Uni ted States by the winter of the same year. For a notice of the continued aid to Mr. Kennicott, rendered by the pentlenasin of ns Hudson’s Bay Company, I have to refer to the next division of m } stations have thus furnished collections of specim ens and meteorological gaa of the highest value, which, taken in connexion with what Mr. Kennicott is doing, bid fair to m a3 the Arctic natural history and physical of America as well known as that of the United Sta “oat ae among these valued collaborators of the Institution is se Bernard se Ross, “chief factor of the Mackenzie River district, and others, embracing nuinbers of skins of birds and mammals, some pea variety, insects, &ec., besides very large series of specimens illustra ting the manners and customs of the Esquimaux and various indian tribes. Mr. Ross has also deposited some relics of Sir John Franklin, consisting of a gun used by him in his first expedition, and a sword be- longing to the last one, _ obtained from the Esquimaux. Mr. Ross at present engaged in a series of investigations upon the tribes of the north, to be published whenever sufficiently complete, and illustrated by numerous photographic drawins In making up his transtnissions to the Institution, Mr. Ross ‘alk the co operation of nearly all the gentlemen resident at the ditt posts in his district, their contributions being of great value Among them may be mentioned Mr. James Lockhart t, Mr. William ae Mr. J. S. Onion, Mr, John Reed, Mr. N. Taylor, Mr. C, P. Gaudet, ™™ James Flett, Mr. A. McKenzie, Mr. A. Beaulieu, &ec. ‘aos Second in realprec _ to those of Mr. Ross are the contributi of of Mr. Lawrence Clarke, Jr., of Fort Rae, on Slave lake, con nsisting | many atthe nearly soierdies sets of the water fowl, and other } hss of the north side of the lake, with the eggs of many ‘of them, sue black-throated diver, the trumpeter swan, &e. 1 of Other contributions have been received from Mr. R, Ca mpbell, a Athabasca; Mr. James ne of Moose Factory ; Mr. Gladmom bape House; Mr. James Anderson, (a) of Mingan; Mr. George Lies "ston, of Lake Superior; and Mr. Comnolly, of Rigolette. Mr. MeKenale U. S. Coast Survey Report for 1860. 239 furnished a large box of birds of Hudson Bay, while from Mr. Barnston were received several collections of skins, and eggs of birds, new and tare mammals, insects, fish, d&c., of Lake Superior. _It may be proper to state in this connexion that the labors of Mr. Ken- nicott have been facilitated to the highest degree by the liberality of the udson Bay Company, as exercised by the directors in London, the executive officers in Montreal, (especially Mr. Edward Hopkins,) and all the gentlemen of the Company, in particular by Governor Mactavish, of rt Garry, and Mr. Ross, In fact, without this aid the expense of Mr. Kennicott’s exploration would be far beyond what tle Institution could voyage a tr rge and naturalist of the Boundary Survey. Connected with this expedition om is beginning, in 1857, and, in conjunction with Mr. Gibbs, making the Principal portion of its collections, his report on them would have Years has been more successful than Dr. Kennerly. Many new species have been first described by himself or from his collections, while his -Sontributions to the biography of American animals have been of highest interest. REPORT OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OF THE U, S. COAST SURVEY FoR 1860. * Compare Dr. Hayden’s account of this survey, Geog. Notices, No. XVII, this Journal, 2], xxxiv, 99. 240 - Geographical Notices. bay (Galveston) two hundred and fifteen miles, passing over Matagorda Aransas, and Corpus Christi bays and their dependencies, to within on@ hundred and fifteen miles of the Rio Grande. ; The progress on the western coast has not been less satisfactory, peo] the newness of the survey there into consideration. It has included all harbors of California and Oregon, and many of those of Washington erritory, especially those of Washington sound, Puget’s soun aif of Admiralty inlet, the straits of Haro and Rosario, and part of the Gult? Georgia, in the northwest. af Having given, in my letter of last year, a statement of the progres the astronomical and magnetic work, I need not repeat it here. longitude problem has been steadily kept in view, and the oon the total solar eclipse, the path of which crossed from the — ioe part of the United States, through Washington Territory and the iat possessions, leaving the continent on the coast of Labrador, has tables made available for the correction of longitudes and of the lunar a by parties sent out for the purpose in connection with those of othél | partments of the government, and in correspondence with the great E ronomical expeditions of Europe. U. S. Coast Survey Report for 1860. 241 The number of geographical determinations published by the Coast Survey, exclusive of those made within the past year, is seven thousand one hundred and seventy-eight ; the magnetic variations given are up- wards of two hundred; the tidal constants for harbors and coasts, one hundred and ten; and the maps and charts of harbors, bays, inlets, sounds, shoals, &c., drawn, engraved, and published, three hundred, ex- clusive of progress sketches and diagrams.” aps and Charts—“ Within the past year, one hundred and eleven completed, and fifty-five are in progr s. "or and charts of the first class, and an equal number charts of special and eleven titles, of which sixty-eight are of first class or finished maps. € total given is exclusive of seventeen plates of progress sketches. ination of various reefs and ledges, investigation of channels and cur- mnie, &e., with other like services to navigation. Pes Sper aud on the conan of Cape Cod, to determine the feasibility of a canal tution, the Superintendent remarks, we have been engaged for some Atos endeavoring to obtain all the data existing for heights in North America, During the past year a new circular has ; “ngineers, presidents and superintendents of railroads, and to geologists, ®xplorers, and other men of science, to obtain additional results, and with "uch success, 242 Geographical Notices. plies have been received. These furnish data for the height above tide of about thirteen thousand points, of which a large portion has been con- tributed by the explurations for routes for the Pacific railroad, and a con- siderable number by other surveys of the Government. The material received has been mapped by Mr. W. L. Nicholson, who is charged with the details of the work, so as to indicate whether the data were likely to suffice for the construction of contour lines of the surface of the conti- nent, and to show where they would be deficient for that purpose. Sources of information have been pointed out, of which we have not yet been fully able to avail ourselves, but the work has, in a general way, made good progress, and will be earnestly prosecuted.” Besides information on these various topics, the report con- tains an account of the expedition to Labrador, to observe the Solar Eclipse of July 18, Prof. Bache’s Lecture on the Results of the Gulf Stream Explorations, a discussion of magnetic de- clination or variation, and the usual details respecting the ap paratus and personnel of the establishment. DESIDERATA IN EAST AFRICAN EXPLORATION. The following Note was recently addressed to the Bombay Geographical Society, by a Committee of the Royal Geograph: ical Society of London, in reply to certain inquiries. information for the present rude. wants of African geography, of the country between Quiloa and Nyassa; and we have received slight but definite knowledge of the same through Réscher’s ill-fated expeditiom followed up as it was to some degree by Baron von der Decken. Taking yet another step, we arrive at the track of Burton and Speke, still proposes to travel. “th us there is no urgent call for a new expedition that should leave the coast of Africa between the Zambesi and Mombas; but Eastern Africa is almost untouched between Mombas and the Red Sea. ‘The field tha here awaits new explorations is too vast to be exhausted by any single & ified, “The first is to ascend the Juba, the Ozi, and other rivers, a8 ae J. D. Dana on a Mohawk-valley Glacier. 243 partly owing to hostilities between the Somauli and the Massai; but no serious obstruction need be apprehended by a well equipped party, large enough to command respect. “The second and most difficult would be a land exploration through travellers from Aden, where a suitable expeditionary party might, per- d be to lan haps, be collected. Th st promising cours d at Mo adoxo, and to reside there some months, learning anguage an acquiring a hold on the good will of the people, before attempting further rogress. “Additional interest is given to this exploration by the fact that Lieut.- Colonel Rigby, H. B, M.’s Consul at Zanzibar, is firmly persuaded that some Englishmen are now in captivity among the Somaulis; for a report to that effect has been confirmed by different witnesses. He believes them to be a part of the crew or passengers of an East Indiaman, sup- “The last course would be to adopt Mombas as the head-quarters, and thenco to pass into the interior by a route to the north of that travelled by Baron von der Decken. The country behind Mombas is a less un- healthy residence than other parts of the coast; and an expeditionary might be organized there at leisure, with help from Zanzibar. e v. Mr. Krapf resides in its neighborhood; the natives are ed to Europeans ; and the traders mostly speak Hindustani. It would be 'mpossible, at the present time, to plan an exploration in Africa that Would afford hope of a more interesting discovery than one leading from ombas round the northern flank of Kenia, and thence onward toward ae Gondokor — Ant. XX VI.—On the existence of a Mohawk-valley Glacier in the Glacial Epoch; by JamEs D. Dana. ° _ Tae Mohawk river extends in a nearly east-and-west course {averaging about east-by-south,) across the centre of the State of New ork, and connects with the Hudson river near Troy, eight Miles above Albany. It commences its flow eastward at me, est of Oneida lake, the waters above this coming from the river country, on the north. The whole distance from 244 J. D, Dana on a Mohawk-valley Glacier. eet. It is not a synclinal valley; neither is it a valley of de nudation, although, beyond doubt, greatly deepened and ex- tended by the action of waters; but it is what the writer has styled a geoclinal valiey, that is, one formed by the uplift of the crust of the earth on either side, (or else by the depression of the crust along its course,) without any conformity to its slopes m the dip of the enclosing rocks.’ These enclosing’ rocks of the Mohawk depression are in fact, on one side, partly (above @ height of a few hundred feet) the folded and crystallized Azoie, and, on the other, the Paleozoic rocks which were uplifted at a much later period. About midway between Albany and Rome, the valley-depres: sion, taking only the part south of the Mohawk, measures, at a0 elevation of 1500 feet, ten or twelve miles in breadth. But just east of this in Schoharie county, it opens southward along the valley of the Schoharie creek, the principal southern tributary of the Mohawk. This Schoharie valley is bounded, on the west, by the northwestern prolongation of the Catskill Mountains, having here a height of 2000 to 2600 feet above the sea level; on the east, by a spur from the same mountains, called the Helle- bark mountains, which increases in height southwardly from 1000 to 2000 feet, and at whose eastern foot, in Albany county, lie the Helderberg hills, 800 to 1200 feet high above the sea-level. The principal heights of the Catskills, between 3400 and ¢ feet in altitude, are situated to the south, not far from the Jus tion of the two ridges. The range of the Catskills has a height at the Mountain House, according to Guyot’s measurements, © e and eastward to the Hudson. " On the north side of the Mohawk, land 1500 feet in elevation is not met with except at very distant points from the river in the Black river region, towards Lake Ontario, which has t height, and in the Adirondack region, towards Lake Champlai3, whose highest peak, Mt. Marcy, runs up to 5379 feet. ; The Mohawk valley is continued westward in the depress pr * The word geoclinal is derived from the Greek yy earth and xawo I incliné- The Connecticut, Hudson, and Mississippi are other geoclinal valle: J. D, Dana on a Mohawk-valley Glacier. 245 aheight of 631 feet above the sea-level, separates this depres- sion from that of the lake; but the ridge is regarded as only a former beach of the lake.’ The ridges of Schoharie county form the western boundary of the great Hudson valley depression in that latitude—the east- ern making the boundary, if we reckon only to a height of 1000 to 1500 feet, but the western, through the larger part of Schoharie county, if to a height of 2000 feet. The preceding facts are mentioned, partly in elucidation of the following observations on glacier-markings along the Mohawk valley, and partly to show what course investigation must take i order to complete our knowledge of the great glaciers of the Tegion in the Drift epoch. The subject of river-terraces, or stratified Post-tertiary deposits, on the Mohawk and its tributaries, is also one of great interest In this connection, and merits a thorough examination. The deposits have some relation to the Drift, as they belong to the epoch immediately following—the Champlain epoch,—and con- sist in part, at least, of material that had been transported by the ice. They are of unusual extent on the East and West Can- ada creeks and other northern tributaries of the Mohawk. The town of Cherry Valley is situated on the northern border of the southern of the New York plateaus. It is hence near the southern margin of the Mohawk valley, being about fifteen Ss In a straight line from the river; at the same time, it is on one of the tributaries of the Susquehannah river, the general Course of whose affluents is southward. O rvations on the se scratches of this region have, therefore, a peculiar interest. following are the results of important investigations on Subject, made by the Rev. William B. Dwight, as recently com- municated to the writer. He states in his letter (dated Engle- Wood, N. J.,) as follows. far as I have observed the glacial scratches of the State of New York, they do not conform in their course so much to the particular courses of the valleys in which they may be found, 48 they do to the trend of the general — of valleys. “At Cherry Valley, there are two distinct sets of scratches Rearly at right angles to each other, and none between these two. Both’ of these sets appear tn the valley itself. Neither, however, * The depression occupi is situated, like those of nearly all the likes of North America, cat t also of the St Tatennadeli-tin les bound- “y een the Azoic and Palsozoic areas of the continent; that is, between the tea that was comparatively stable dry land from the commencement of the Silurian hi °nward, and which reaches from Canada northwest to the Arctic and northeast r, and the area, stretching southward, southeastward and southwestward, waa, tte Azo, that was during the same time an area of progress and of unstable AM. Jour. Sct.—SEconp Series, VoL. XXXV, No. 104.—Maxcu, 1863. 32 246 J. D. Dana on a Mohawk-valley Glacier. exactly conforms to the present trend of the valley, as shown on the accompanying map. ‘I'he line CY corresponds to the trend of the valley, and MK to that of the Mohawk vallev; and the two sets of lines, NS and WE, correspond to the direction of MAP OF CHERRY-VALLEY REGION, ~ gs, Bry Sy ‘ A, Cherry tile da village ; B, Burned Hill; CY, Course of the po Valle led ae a 7 ; oy t systell the pied glacier courses. ” The direction of the rma ot of these scratches is about north-northeast and south- south net varying to north-by-east and south-by by: -west, and that of the da about east-by-north and west-by-sor “The Onondaga limestone of sh e region is, in ma {as one the village and Judd’s Fa i oe paca hed, the scratches being ch deeply se , system 0 prions The same ean is pet Y hibited on. side of the road leading to Fort Plain (at G), one and a a J. D. Dana on a Mohawk-valley Glacier. 247 miles north of Cherry Valley; and there is one long scratch in the cellar of the Cherry Valiey Academy (D). “Neither the scratches of the road-side, on the way to Fort Plain, nor that under the Academy, correspond with the general course of the valley, or even with its particular course at the locality of the seratches. They seem in every case to run some- what into the hill-side. “On the top of ‘Burned Hill,’ (B) on the west side of Cherry Valley, 400 feet above it, and 1800 feet above the sea-level, the rocky surface, here the Hamilton sandstone, wherever laid bare, Over an area of several hundred acres, is more or Jess planed and scratched, and the scratches are of the easterly system, the course being east-by-north. Half a mile to a mile below Cherry Valley (F), there is another good locality of the east-by-north scratches. These easterly scratches have no apparent connection with any valley in the region. “ About a mile above Cobbles-kill Centre, a few miles east of Cherry Valley, on the Sharon road, there are scratches on the the Schoharie, and not into the Susquehannah tributaries; but the place where these scratches occur is still near the summit of the plateau. All the above courses are compass-courses, requir- Mohawk valley; while the north-and-south system conforms to © slope of the Susquehannah tributaries, though possibly con- hected with a grander movement reaching from the far not “cross the Mohawk valley. eg The Mohawk valley needs to be studied for a full elucidation of the Subject. But there are some confirmatory facts stated by “40uxem, who, as long ago as 1842, announced essentially ‘ame general conclusion, as the result of his observations. * See New York Geological Report, Part III, comprising the Survey of the Third teal District, by Lardner Vanuxem, 4to, 1842, p. 245. 248 J. D. Dana on a Mohawk-valley Glacier. In Montgomery county, near Amsterdam (on the Mohawk), this able geologist noted scratches at various quarries and locali- ties on the Trenton limestone, which were nearly east-and-west in direction,—agreeing thus, as he remarks, with the course of the Mohawk valley. Again, in the same county, near Sprakers, on the north side of the Nose, the scratches conform, as he states, to the valley of the Mohawk. North-and-south scratches occur in the vicinity of this valley according to Vanuxem; but, at the places observed by him, they conform to one, or another, of the minor tributaries. In Oneida county, between Utica and New Hartford, there are north-and-south scratches on the Oneida conglomerate, which conform to the Sauquoit valley; and oD the west of the Oriskany creek, north of Hamilton College, the same system occurs, and corresponds with the Oriskany valley. Vanuxem concludes, from his observations, that the direction of the scratches corresponds with the direction of the valley in which they occur.” The question, whether these drift-scratches and other pheno mena are a result of glaciers, or icebergs, the writer has discu in his Geological Manual, and need not take up here. The absence of well characterized moraines from the most of the country will not be deemed remarkable by those who consider the length of time which has elapsed since the Glacial epoch ended, and the power of running water in wearing to or erly’ avalanches of ice and stones. The glacier of the Mohawk, 13 order to make scratches about Cherry Valley, 1800 feet above the sea-level must have reached toa height of at least 2000 feet; and with this level, if the region had anything like its ’ configuration, it would have buried a large part of the souther> lateau, while its northern border would have had no i New York State, except about the Adirondack Mountains, or 75 miles distant. Vanuxem observes, in concluding his remarks on this subject, 6a - of the scratches harmonizes with the fact that the . he su and extend over too great an extent of the same rock, to have been ioe ice i is oscillatory and rotatory. The direction also of the scratches is in accordance adds existing valleys, and hence ing with glaciers in both respects. with his usual discrimination, ““As matter of fact from actual 0 the glacier-theory will have preference of the two, especially, should the origi ice be substituted, being a more general expression :—glaciers having their O'S . near the line where perp 1 snow ceases, whereas local ice embraces the same," well as all bodies of, solidified water, be the cause of the reduction of temperstar? what , Whether permanent or transien has given rise to it.” p. 24% — it may. J. D. Dana on a Mohawk-valley Glacier. 249 On the Catskills, the glacier scratches reach to a height of at least 2235 feet—the elevation at the Mountain House, and this “9 country through erosion, during the time which has since elapsed, still further enhance these difficulties. But, whatever t teen Mountains and the Catskills, to a Hudson-valley gla- in the vicinity of Penobscot Bay, recently arch, has conclu valley glacier may, with little if any doubt, be added to the number alre dy defined, and probably, also, a Susguehannah- valley glacie rs say states, in his observations on the drift-scratches of the Catskill region (Quart. Jour Geol. Soc. , 208), that while the striations on the ascent of the om the east were “nearly north-and-south alo of the escarp- ment, and not from east down the slope of the hill,” and “ very s' sequent up to the plateau on which ountain House stands, 2850 [2235] feet the - this summit level, on the watershed, the sera! te to west, s “on this plateau, numerous main grooves are seen, cross the hill, and seals P ‘les to most of those o ed the heeth—seemingly inting to the fact that the icebergs [Mr. ae oe reasoning the Lidvenethes which striated the eastern flank of ( in a north-and-south erage the whole was nearly submerged, here found a 8reat escarpment that now faces the Hudson.” He states, also, that these main Brooves are crossed “at various angles” by “minor striations.” Mather, as men- (loned in his ical Report, made long since some similar observations on the Catskill scratches ; ut they were less complete than those by Ramsay. 250 J. Nickiés on Changes in Wine. Art. XXVIL—On certain Changes in Wine; by J. NICKLES.’ AMONG the different substances contained in wine, one of the most characteristic and constant, in connection with alcohol and water, is the bitartrate of potassa. Since a wine will not be accepted as a natural product if it Jacks this salt, it is well known that the manufacturers are always careful to add the bitartrate of potassa to spurious wine. Nothing has ever changed this opinion, although numerous chemical researches have been made every year with the different wines produced in France. Natural wine always contains a proportion more or less appreciable of cream of tartar (bitartrate of potassa), if the wine has not undergone any change. Through recent investigations made at Lyons and at Montpellier it has been discovered that the bitartrate of potassa may be wanting in wines which have ut dergone decomposition, especially in such wine as has become iter. Wine affected in this manner is known in France under the name of “changed wine” (vin tourné), It is very disagree able to the taste, and gives by distillation volatile acids in mue greater quantity than are furnished by normal wine. t has also been remarked that “changed wine” contains more potassa than wine of the same province which has not beet spoiled. But sugar and glycerine are not more abundant m such wine; on the contrary there appears lactic acid, which depends upon sugar for its production, and also another acid with the formula C,H,O,, which is the formula for propionic acid, . which, as we shall see below, is here applicable to an isomerl@ acid. It was at first thought that this volatile acid was derived — glycerine, which is normally contained in wine. But its one is now explained, by a fact which we discovered in 1846 an ay d also as We mie, he production of an acid C,H,O, from the b from the acetic acid may be rendered intelligible by means of following equation: 2" ©,8,0,+C,H,0,=C,,H,,0,: and CasHis20 0-0, 14% () [Acetic acid + butyric acid. ] __ [Butyro-acetie acid.] ? Communicated to this Journal by the author. J. Nicklés on Changes in Wine. 251 Although this acid may arise from fermentation of bitartrate of potassa, it has never, for a wonder, been found in wine which has lost its tartaric acid by means of adulteration. This fact confirms the observation, made long since in the practice of wine making, viz: that when the wine became changed in this man- her, all the crude tartar which had settled at the bottom of the casks disappeared little by little, an observation which confirms this other fact demonstrated by chemistry, to wit, that “changed Wine” contains more potassa than is found in normal wine. This is evidently due to bitartrate of potassa originally deposited in the bottom of the cask, which by redissolving and fermentation has furnished this excess of potassa now dissolved by the aid of the lactic acid and of the butyro-acetic acid produced during fermentation. : _ The “ turning” of wine which is characterized by the designa- hon changed wine (vin tourné), and which follows when the wine becomes bitter, consists essentially in a transformation of sugar into lactic acid, and tartaric acid into an acid containing the ele- ments of acetic and butyric acids, that is to say of butyro-acetic acid. Under the influence of this change the metamorphism of tartaric acid takes place not only when it is free and in solution, uteven when it is combined with potassa and is deposited at tne bottom of the cask in the condition of an iasoluble bitar- e: * The notation of Gerhardt shows clearly the difference hetween the two acids called propionic and butyro-acetic, Take for example the salt of baryta, the erys- talline form of which is identical for the two acids (Rammelsberg, Arystallograph- teche Chemie, ii, p. 161). ‘ e €,1,6 €,0H,0;0 and €,H,0 mais 4 pine coment —oereentiny Propionate of baryta. Butyro-acetate of baryta. : To obtain the but etic acid, it is onl to pass a solution of acetate yro-acetic acid, it is only necessary 188 A and butyrate into a retort containing hot and dilute sulphuric acid, and to condense i 4 Convenient vessel the vapors which are disengaged. The condensed liquid ae tains an acid which being neutralized by baryta gives beautiful flat tees ian rytas’ er In this ease the t Combines to form the butyro-acetic acid in question. 252 C. F. Austin on the Sphagna of New Jersey. Art. XXVIIL— Observations on the Sphagna of New Jersey, with Description of a New Species; by C. F. Austin, Curator of Dr Torrey’s Herbarium, Columbia College. THE region in New Jersey known as ‘‘ The Pines” is literally a region of Sphagna. Nine of the ten species and most of the . Varieties noticed in this paper were collected there by the writer in October last, in the vicinity of Manchester in Ocean county, within the radius of less than half a mile,—the fruits of a few hours search. One of them, Sphagnum Sullivantianum, is new t0 science ; another, S. molluscum, to the American Continent. The bottoms of the ponds in this region are covered to a g extent (often to the exclusion of all other plants which usually 4c in such places) with Sphagnum cuspidatum var. Torreyanum, . macrophyllum, large forms of S, Pylesti and with S. Sullivanha- num. ey are entirely submerged (when at a depth of more than three or four feet), or have their tips just peeping from the surface of the water, and were all brought up together on the boat's oar in the pond at Manchester, from a depth of at least six feet. The more or less inundated marshes on the borders of the ponds are filled with Sphagnum cuspidatum, running ito var. recurvum in the cedar swamps, where this variety abounds, and into the var. plumosum in shallow water,—and this ap, to pass regularly into the var. Zorreyanum in'deep water. The forms of this species which run into the var. recwrvum have 4 slender state of S. cymbifolium abundantly, and of S. molluscum sparingly, mixed with them. The common forms of &. hum and 8. cymbifolium form deep extensive turfs in the cram berry bogs,—these places seeming to be made up of their remains. In sandy, grassy bogs, forming matted masses, S. cyclophyllum and S. pg are abundant. “S. rigidum, var. humile, 0c¢ sparingly on the dry margins of the ponds. ergs: ‘les fies the Pinited time and oe over which the search extended, and the number of species collected, it is reasonab™ to suppose that others may yet be found in the same locality. — The following brief synopsis includes, I believe, all the that have thus far been found in New Jersey.’ 1. SpHacyum acuriro.ium Ehrh.—Fruits abundantly on the borders of sandy swamps, where it is of rather a low sfature; the taller a which grow in peat bogs appear to produce only male flowers ; color ht low whitish; above, brownish tinged with red, often changing to brig £0; sbideuiiintacunen| portions be looked for eee sasha gadlice an: ell an, sdk! ae teues one cet pocotiac bc ale ony 9 - Since writing the sbovs, I Jeam from Mr. Sullivant that be h 8. tabulare ™ Quaker Bridge, New Jersey. . C. F. Austin on the Sphagna of New Jersey. . 258 purple in drying. A cinerous-green, rather loosely spreading, sterile form is found in miry swamps. ; - Spx. Sutiivanrianum (sp. noy.): Speciosum robustum submersum vel fluitans: caulis pedalis et ultra firmus simplex 1 semel divisus, strato corticali triplici et quadruplici e cellulis hyalinis spirali-fibrillosis hyalinis fibrillosis et poris majusculis instructis, cellulis chlorophyllosis ad Concavam folii faciem_positis inque sectione transversali triangularibus: fructus et flores ignoti—Manchester Pond, Ocean Co., New Jersey; col- lected October, 1862. e species has the appearance of an overgrown state of Sph, oliu characters of that spe ‘ies, but is a | branches with eleganily fringed leaves which are very abruptly contracted 0 mto a claw-like base, and have the back at the apex conspicuously dark-colored, with cross-section as in S. acutifolium. The stem-leaves are SO quite distinct, being usually nearly quadrate, but little if any longer than broad, and copiously f inged. “ : SPH. cymprrouium, Dill—Allt he specimens that I have examined, both from this country and Europe, have the stem-leaves reticulated on short, distant, erect-appressed, somewhat club-shaped, with the apex slightly recurved, The following are the forms that I have observed in New Jersey, precisely the same as are found in Europ: ] Swamps; fruits occasionally ; runs into 8. More robust, rather loosely cespitose, mostly of a pale — e low tather distant, the upper crowded ; ves with the cells usually des- te of pores and spiral fibres; branch-leaves slightly recurved abo : ocladum ©. Mill. 2) of y. os ‘anches less crowded above,—the leaves acuminate, the upper half some- What tubular and recurved-squarrulose squarrulosum C. Mill. Synop. ry swamps part 254 C. F.. Austin on the Sphagna of New Jersey. Spy. crcLopny.ivm, Sull. & Lesqx.—Foliis perichetalibus ut ezeteris casulam globosam includentibus.—Apparently a very distinct species; stem and branch-leaves much larger than in any other, often 2 lines or more broad by 23-3 lines Jong, “with a clasping-perfoliate, om distinctly heart-shaped base. —Grassy bogs about Manchester. seen dwarf for ms of this species from Quaker Bridge distributed as “ ‘S. “sera de tinct from S. sedoides——Color blackish-green ; stems 6 inches long w few short recurved-spreading branches. Runs into a large rear form in the water vith stems 1-2 feet _ Spx. rterpum, Schimp., var. nu (8. humile Schimp.)—Stems low, 1 inch high, very compact; aati nearly included.—Dry margin of the pone - “Manchester. ssecunpum, Nees & Hornsch.—Rather loosely cespitose, 8-5 inches higts color above, a beautiful golden-brown, below, whitish; branches in fours and fives, somewhat crowded, thickish towards the base, somewhat attenuated, more or less contorted and of unequal lengths; branch-leaves ovate, acuminate, unequally truncate and about 5-toothed at the apex, varying from closely imbricated to spreading, mostly recurved, me are much so, while others on the same branch are straight or even —8s0 slightly incurved ; cells of leaves larger than in any os that I have seen from other localities,—with numerous small es.— Meadows and pastures in springy laces ; sterile—A form vere re sunken holes ia woods partly ‘inundated, is of a pale green color; stems 6-8 inches longs i ichzeth lateral. At a casual gates rye might be mistaken for either S. cymbifolium or - acutifolium, but particularly for S. ¢ cuspidatum ; but it is at once dis tinguished from the first, with which it grows, by its smaller size and acute ranch- leaves; from the second by its thickish branches with t distinguish it when fresh, but in a dry state this is readily done, for 1 then has the leaves straight (not wavy) on the margin ; male oe very different from the fem ale, , as wees with yellow; branches very shoe and thick, ovate-lanceolate, very na nearly straight, the deflexed ones are clo osely appressed beyond, but oe at, the tumid base; branch-leaves large, orbicular-ovate, rounded at 5-12 toothed apex, very compactly imbricated,—the cells mostly without pores.—Very difficult to distinguish from small forms of Sph. cy” an erat var, a, with which it grows. Bogs and wet meadows: a . Spx. mouiuscum, Bruch.—Was found mixed with small forms oa Soh cuspidatum from about Manchester, and detected by its ellipt pee never cuspidate nor recurved, branch-leaves, which are not wavy oa margin when dry; those towards the apex of the branches are sma " than the rest, but of the same outline (not narrowed as in most § wd mbles S. — one but is a more slender plant, with cross-see tion of leaf as atu pust 9. Spx. penser ee sergeen ae loosely cespitose ; large and 10 C. F. Austin on the Sphagna of New Jersey. 255 lanceolate acuminate, roadly margined.—Runs into the var. plumosum. —In an inundated peat bog in Bergen Co., there occurs a slender pale- Var. Recurvum. (S. recurvum Beauv.).—Densely cespitose, robust ; color pale straw-yellow; stems erect, 5 or 6 inches high; branches in fours and fives, the 2 spreading ones very uniformly recurved, the 2 or 3 deflexed ones closely appressed; branch-leaves small, oblong-lanceolate, strongly recurved and conspicuously arranged in 5 straight ranks. Pericheth t es which seems to connect this var. with the var. laxifolium. a LUM Into ie Torrryanum. S. Torreyanum Sull., in Memoirs Amer. Acad. "8 and Sciences, new series, iv, p. 174).—This fine variety (it appears e ’ species, between which there are all manner of inter- mediate forms.—Deep water about Manchester—Probably does not fruit &Xeept when it occurs in water holes that are partially exsiccated during the late summer and early fall months. ; Var. taxirouus. (S. laxifolium C. Mill. Synop. 1, p. 97).—Nearly as large as the last and resembling it except in color, which is — stem and perichetal leaves fibrillose except the margins below, the latter loosely Spreading ; commonly sterile, but I have a number of fine fruiting — from partially exsiecated water holes, in low sandy woods in 'gen Co., where this variety is common _ 10. Sen ing free, and has much the appearance of the var. Torreyanum of the Ba = o 2 a z =) = o & & 8 = = 3. eel $ 5 ot 2 > $ =} al a oe 2 g elas PPearance when removed from the water, and goes into a shapeless in Ocean Co., where only the large sterile form was found. New York, January, 1863. 256 Foreign Correspondence. Art, XXIX.—foreign Correspondence. 1. On the Science of the International Exhibition. In a letter from O.C, Marsg, B.A., to Prof. Smuman, dated London, Noy. 25, 1862. Tue International Exhibition, which has just closed, contained many objects of considerable scientific interest; and, in accordance with your request, I shall endeavor to give a short account of those which seemed most worthy of notice. interest, and the pr for its separation, which were shown theorel ically and practically, are generally well known, There was, howevély gold by chlorine water, which seemed worthy of more attention than received. The material used is auriferous mispickel, from which the at senic is first separated by roasting.’ Silver.—The silver, exhibited in Class I, possessed few points worthy of mention, many of the most important mines not being re resented, and others very inadequately. Some beautiful specimens of native silver were shown from the government mines of Kongsberg, Norway, 4% of from the Copper mines of Lake Superior; and a good collection various ores from the Washoe mines of California. Specimens of — glance, horn-silver, and ruby silver, from a new locality in Newfound were also exhibited. 9 um, and its uthenium, dr as * The numbers refer to the Official Catalogues of the various departments. on 2 A series Rei in specimens illustrating Plattner’s process W#* hibited in the American Exhibition of 1853, No. 278, Class I. Science of the International Exhibition. 257 deserves particular notice. A single ingot of pure platinum, weighing 8200 ounces, Troy, was the most conspicuous object in the case, and af- forded a good illustration of the progress which this branch of metal- others, The fusion of this mass of platinum was effected in an iron box, which was lined with small pieces of lime, and covered with a lid of similar sy 2 . . . and a pyrometer for indicating the variations of heat lers. of these articles was said to possess, in design and construction, several points of superiority over any similar apparatus hitherto made her objects of interest were platinum tubes, soldered with the same metal, and a er, plated with platinum, showing that the many dif- ficulties attending the produetion of these articles have now - cesstully overcome. T me case contained an ingot of pure iridium "S gold pens as advantageously as grains of larger size. Palladium, thodium, and ruthenium were al i Mens, in quantities never before seen. Many other rare and interesti Substances were exhibited in this case, among which may be mention various salts of uranium, boron and silicon, fused and crystallized, which Deville himself had prepared by the process that bears his name. Aluminium.—Aluminium, also, was well represented in the Exhibition, Vaniety eben objects. e of the more noticeable of these Were philosophical instruments, for which this metal, from its lightness, Strength, and difficulty of oxydization, seems so well adapted. Various alloys of aluminiu i j ays. aluminium tubes, in the French department, indicated that the difficult Problem of rding to the exhibitors, zine was the solder used, and the operation was per- formed m an atmosphere of hydrogen. op eereury. Mercury and its ores were well represented in various parts the Exhibition, the specimens of cinnabar from Almaden in Spain, and ne the New Almaden mines of California, being ea conspicuous, these Metals, were also fully represented, but the collections contained little 258 Correspondence of O. C. Marsh. of especial interest. The display of tin, bismuth, and titanium was quite. small, the only representations of the last metal being a few rutiles from e well known Georgia locality. lopper—Copper ores from nearly every part of the world were exhib- ited in this class; some of the most interesting specimens were very fine erystals of the native metal from Lake Superior, boulders of vitreous cop per from a serpentine (“gabbro” of the Italians) dyke at Monte Catani in Val di Cecini near Volterra, in Italy, and a series of the Hungarian gray copper ores containing about ten per cent of mercury. New Metals.—In the French department, the new alkali metals, caesium ubidium, with some of their salts, were shown ; and also the new metal thallium,® the latest result of spectrum analysis. Manganese, ob- tained by a new process, was the most interesting object in Class J, of the Swiss department. : ron and Steel.—lron was naturally the most prominent object 1m an exhibition like the present, and no small part of the building was occupied by its various ores, illustrations of its Metallurgy and its applications Although this collection was far superior in many respects to any hitherto ade, the recent progress it indicated was rather, greater facilities for the production and application of this metal, than auy new scientific informa tion in regard to it. The chemistry of iron seems still to remain compa! atively unknown. In the British department, some rolled plates for ships were fine illustrations of iron manufacture. The largest of these was 13 tons in weight ; and the shattered fragments of those broken in the recent iron possible is most efficacious in resisting hea e exh etal contained many fine specimens of steel made by Bessem rocess, whic seems likely to supercede many now in use. e display of cast steel by rupp of n, Prussia, has never been equalled his esp weighed 21 tons, and an examination indicated that its structure was up form throughout. in Coal artesian boring—Different varieties of coal were show? great profusion in Ciass I, but do not require comment. The grea i of this substance in the usual methods of mining is now attracting rae attention, especially in England, and processes for rendering the s™ | nee available for fuel were abundant in the exhibition. ‘These were either strata, in searching for coal, or in making artesian wells, formec structive series in the French department. It was exhibited by Deger™ author of “Guide du Sondeur,’ one of the best works on the subject. > ian collections: asterism in Mica.—Among other interesting © * Exhibited by Mr. Crookes also in the English Department. Science of the International Exhibition. 259 value. In this collection were specimens of a magnesian mica, or phlog- opite, from South Burgess, which quite recently has been found to ex- hibit the rare property of asterism in a remarkable degree. This has led to a new examination of the subject, and now this hitherto obscure point In optical mineralogy can be readily and satisfactorily explained. The asterism of this mica was, I believe, first observed by H. Vogel, of Berlin, during a recent visit to the exhibition. On his return he investigated the subject in company with Prof. G. Rose, who had observed a similar appearance, although much less distinct, in some varieties of meteoric Iron, Prof. Rose has just communicated the results of the investigation to the Royal Academy of Berlin,‘ and the subject is of such general in- terest that the main points of his paper may not inappropriately be given in this connection. are clongated, flattened prisms, having the broad lateral planes par- allel With the lamine of the mica. Their resemblance to crystals of kyanite is quite marked, and it is very probable that they belong to that tes. Tabular crystals, also, may be seen, which are apparently quite r prisms. e i e i ave a or ° asterism is easily explained. It is a mere “trellis-appearance” (@itterer- scheinung); and the rays of the star stand at right angles to the axes of those prismatic crystals which make with each other angles of 120°, and hence proceed from the center of the star to the middle of the sides of parallel. it has been observed, is the same as in the present instance. nthe sam paper, Prof. Rose gave the results of his examination of the asterism in meteoric iron, and referred to the previous investigations on this interesting subject. | , Nov, 25, 1862. ~ de G. Rose, Ueber den Asterismus der Krystalle, insbesondere des Glimmers und Meteoreisens, Oct. 30, 1862. See also Phil, Mag., Jan. 1863. 260 Correspondence of J. Nickles. 2. Correspondence of Jerome Sees dated at Nancy, France, Nov. 2, ~ ses —Death has lately made great ravages in the scientific world in Fran Among those who have deceased since the date of my last coresponenee, should especially be mentioned De Sénarmont,’ who was icist, @ mineralogist and a crystallographer ; Count de Gasparin, Fiacagialsbet 1 as an agriculturist, after having sustained an important political position; and Jomard the archeologist and her and the Jast survivor of the “ Znstitut @’ Egy uP, ” that celebrated “institu tion which was formed during the French revolution in connection wit e Expedition to Egypt. e following jn alan may be mentioned concerning ee three savants, Henri Hurran de Sénarmont, born at Browé (Eure et Loir) Sept. 6th, 1808, died mmede July 4th, 1862, at the age nearly of 54 years. Of a serena family, he received a complete education, having entered e School in 1826 which he left to enter the School of Mines. ie he was promoted to the rank of engineer in chief of mines, a and in 852 was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, in the sectio of Minceslonsy in the place of Beudant. For many years he delivered the co ectures on Mineralogy at the School of Mines. The wor miele he has awe are numerous an varied, as is well —_ to the doués de Topacité métallique.” “Conductibilité des subs 8 lines pour la chaleur.” “Conductibilité des cristaux pour Pélectricité de tension.” “Forma es minéraux humide dans les. gies talliferes concrétionnés.” “Formation par voie humide du cort ene € ropriélés optiques bi-réfrin entes es corps t “Propriétés et formes aliens 4 “i “Production oat du preenens: dans les substances e ieiiiates ” “Mem erystallography. He determined a great number of crystalline forms, which Be = eee? by Rammelsberg in his « Krystallographische Chemie, of as mad own in France, by an excellent translation, the treatise Prof. Miller « on Crystallography. ach De Sénarmont was highly appreciated by Biot, who aided bim ™ his in his career, and left to him his sympathy for young students and aversion to public functions which do not belong to th science ; withal he was exceedingly modest ; elected in 1853 to the pos tion of perpetual Secretary in the Academy of Sciences in place Arago, he declined to accept it :? and upon his dea’ he al that no eulogy should be pronounced at his tomb, He ‘Teft many -? See this Journal, [2], xxxiv, 804. * This Journal, [2], xvii, 265. ? Gasparin.—Jomard. 261 ited works which it is proper to hope will soon be published. Tis last labors were the publication of the works of Fresnel by virtue of a com- mission with which he had been charged by the Minister of Public In- struction. He had collected with care the seattered materials and had written a great. number of ex lanatory notes. He had not had time to complete this ieciele so —- waited for by men of science, which how- ever will be published ere drian Etienne Pierre De Gasparin was born at Orange (Vaucluse), June 29th, 1783. His father was a celebrated member of the Con- vention, and was distinguished at the siege of Toulon. Bonaparte, the exile of St. Helena, remembered in his will this young commander of artillery, who was afterwards a general, bequeathing a sum of money to the children of this revolutionary hero. They had no need of it, how- ever, as = possessed an ample fortune. ant whom we have just mentioned was at first a soldier. Re n ors a distinguished position among cotemporary auinaiiete After the revolution of 1830, he was successively prefect, peer of France, Under retary of State, then Minister of the Interior ats: and lastly Min- t of Commerce and Agriculture. During his progress to power, he i e- med his agricultural studies. At this time he was e member of. the Academy of Sciences, in the section of Agriculture, in bie of Turpin. He devoted — ec to pm and merit title of successor of Olivier de Serres, whose descendant he was by aaa of the marriage of one of ‘his sucess with the daughter of the ‘aa French agriculture ong his works should be mentioned especially his Traité d’ Agri- culture (6 vols. in 8vo.), his memoirs upon the multiplication of races, ‘pon the suutagions diseases of sheep, upon the raising of merino on the culture of madder, and of the mulberry. He made extensive ‘DVestigations in meteorolo ogy, especially upon the distribution of rain, “a pubiished valuable experiments upon solar radiation. He died at nge, his native village, the 7th of September, 1862, French agricul- ri ine hav eee commenced a subscription for the erection of a statue Fran no is Jomard was born at Versailles, Nov. 22, shes Te left Polytechnie school in 1794 and entered as geographical engineer in the school of surveying, (Zcole de Géographie du Cadastre tre). At the * hi of 21 he joined the expedition to Egypt. At the commencement of Campaign he took part in forming a topogra aphieal plan of Alexan- dria, Measured and drew the less known monuments under the direction orpora oa” works, On ar departure — Egypt, contrary ‘itd having ined 1 hima in ie picpnonos he took the opportunity to cet the Ax. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Szntes, V oes MEE No, 104.—Mancu, 34 a 262 Correspondence of J. Nickles. Ionian Isles. Having been engaged on the “ Description de I’ Eqypte,” he afterwards became secretary of the commission appointed to publish the labors of the Egyptian Institute, which was important chiefly by reason of the interest which it i ee for Napoleon, and because most of its members became distinguished m In 1826, after much effort, he teen in establishing the Egyptian school of Paris. Every year ‘the Egyptian government sends to Paris a certain number of young men to pursue their studies, The Viceroy of Egypt, Said- Pacha, i is a graduate of this school. In 1828 Jomard was ization of this service, an organization of great advantage to history, science, commerce and travels. The most of the works of Jomard relate to geogra phy, of which a include all branches, Publication of the works of Lavoisier.—It was in 1836 at the rite pis that Dumas undertook, as he says, the ee engagement of ook ecting and publishing the complete works of Lavoisier. Since that time The ee abot to be prhinbed is the alae : it contains 61 me moirs of Lavoisie 2 years com between the dates of 1770 and 1792. “These are,” “says Mr. ona « the ment caw acteristic * his work. After a careful examination I have r need of annotaticn.” De Jt note from: which we cite these quotations was read lately by othe Paris Academy of Sciences. It is full of new oh unpy lished details in feiaed to the scientific life of Lavoisier, and a most it in the Comps esting appreciation of his services. The reader will find Rendus for ery amt, J pp. 526-528. ait * In the session of ones” Has 10th, Beequerel comm municated age Orleans by he en es of political economy, of canals, of the junctio a number of manos - Lavoisier discovered in the public library weap ae Loiselell, the librarian; and analyzes the chief of t treating n of the Loire Ozone and Nitrous Acid. 263 Schdnbein. Where once he recognized only ozone he discovers now only nitrous acid or nitrite of ammonia. We are far from denying the im- - it is also formed every time that a body is burned in the air (Boettger confirmed by Schénbein) ; in the same manner its production accompanies * Great number of chemical reactions, when they take place in the pres- ence of air. _ We thus find more sources of AmONO, than are necessary to ex Plain the important fact, discovered by Boussingault,’ of the nitrifica- the Eure and to the Seine, on savings’ banks, assu , &c. He ends by the ex- clamation « Honneur au grand chimiste! honneur au grand citoyen! : , io remarks in Cosmos (Nov. 14), ‘it was not difficult to see that this fummunication annoyed M, Dumas, who considered himself al tit ‘Pp $e mine of the inedited works of laren : ris web . ern ee been given on p. - n abstract of Schénbein’s results has already gi p. eips Glen Bret * . me See also beyond, Hunt’s note of reclamation on this “unt’s correspondence, p. 271 (beyond). : ee ia thy O* his wa entitled, sphnerdretss Chimie Agricole et Physiologie,” See also Journal, [2], xix, p. 409. a 264 Correspondence of J. Nickles. tion of fallow land, to account for the origin of nitrogen in plants which ave been raised out of contact with sources of ammonia.° imilar way we can explain the source of nitrogen in myco- derms, without supposing the intervention of a peculiar property of these eryptogams as was done recently by Jodin, a physiologist who ob- served that solutions containing sugar, tartaric acid, glycerine and_phos- phates, and free from nitrogenous compounds, organic or mineral, were yet able to produce rich mycodermic vegetables ‘containing in the condition 4 to 6 per cent of nitrog Enclosed in tubes hermetically aia in presence of an artificial at- mosphere of oxygen and nitrogen, we easily show, says Jodin, a very notable eaibepeie of nitrogen, and this absorption continues, within cer tain limits, even when the liquid contains an appreciable proportion of ammonia or of an albuminoid substance, such as mill : ine abs sorption Schénbein has shown, always takes place in these conditions. codermic plants are able to facilitate it by reason of their avidity for the salts of ammonia, which they take up in proportion to their production, and constantly freeing ae soil they maintain it in a condition to form new proportions of nitrite The process employed by y Schénbein to detect the presence of nitrous acid consists, (as is well ron in the use of a solution of starch con taining iodid of sibel which he pours into the liquid to be exam ined, and to which he adds a little very dilute rg me omit We m es observe that this reaction serves quite as well to recognize the p of ezone, chlorine, bromine, or iodine, as o naka pectoris or hypobromous acid: in fine, that, without wishing to throw any upon the results obtained by Schénbein, we may still inquire — it is proper to attribute to nitrous acid all the colored reactions prod macie et de Chimie, xli, — _ it is sufficient that these contain chlorids, which is nstant fact—and frequentl mi - In presence of sulphuric pat the alkaline chlorids give chlorohyene acid, which, with ogee acid, also set free, _— aqua-regia, the action Since this cjetion was pg nted t » Schonbein (who aon Silla fe pr nego “= we Laie just suggested (See nit de Phar for November, new Glee stuprcs e y.—A new kind of manga Painting. —This kind of — which is just now being applied to many mont recently constructed in Paris, was invented by e artizan who wat lished in Piao the electro-metallurgy of copper, Mr. Oudry, who, PY ng simple process, has sueceeded by the ‘aid 1 of electricity in cover! * On these uestions see also “ Lerons aites & la Société Chimigue de Part ® £861,” p. 188, dc, Paris, chez Hachette. f Electro-metallurgy. 265 statues and other ornaments in iron or brass with a thin layer of copper. One of his last works was the galvanic coppering of the monumental fountains in the Place de la Concorde. Three months sufficed him for Covering 190,000 kilograms of iron with a layer of copper two millime- in thickness, weighing nearly 16,000 kilograms. Persons who know that iron rapidly oxydizes in the presence of a layer of copper which covers it galvanoplastically would not anticipate very great durability for these works of art. ey will have a different opinion when they know. that the layer of galvanoplastic copper is nowhere in contact with the hucieus of iron, and that the two metallic surfaces are completely isolated from each other by a kind of varnish or glazing, which is applied with a brush and which dries very rapidly by reason of the i j contains. The real novelty of the process consists in the applicatiou of Ment of 5700 bladders When the layer of varnish is well applied there is no danger of ~ ©xydation of the iron. It is thought that a greater difficulty may arise ron the unequal expansion of the two metals. The cient of dila- tion of cast iron is 000111, while the coefficient for copper is 0-00171. assume completely the appearance of objects in bronze. Even statues ter ppe i we OD ingled with his glazing colors having @ udry has recently ming’ g > ete ig * gs, and he has learned that this substitution may be made wi ; Valtage, Painting with the glazing, which at Paris they call metallic Painting because it contains a small quantity of porphyrized copper, dries 266 Correspondence of J. Nickleés. more rapidly than the old kind of paint, after the second day it ceases to emit any odor, and furthermore it presents a very fine grain and shines with vivid brightness. Since by reason of tite resiebal of nitre-banae commenced to use instead the min aril oil w ich Canada and Posie vania send to Europe in such great quantiti This new employment, if it becomes general, cannot fail to 1 ale oil of turpentine and the drying mi By mixing the powder of galvanoplastic copper with certain fatty oils, Oudry obtained very beautiful greens of vari gen Gas to counteract Gangrene.—In our last communication we referred to the satisfactory resulis obtained by the use of carbonic acid he treatment of obstinate ulcers. In the Hospital Hotel Dieu at Paris, experiments have — made which induce the belief pa it is Lac i re ion or asta 3 the orygen necessary to the integrity aa t li o a tissue.” The author of this proposition, —— oe de- his care at Hote Dieu ; ‘shes idea occurred to him to expose the h Laugier, the gangrene was arrested, and the parts menaced me AY to a healthy state. The eschar upon the toe disappeared little by little, @ pris formed and the disease was cure cond experiment was made in the same hospital upon paijest “aie 75 years of age. A rapid change took place in the sob If these facts are confirmed in other cases of spontaneous gangrene and a new ‘proof P eisehimeli of Prubereular Leprosy, or the Red Disease ; bout 30 years r. Guyon, yeti in a tropical pio was witness of the liveliest anxiety of a family in which the elder son, from ten to twelve years o , became affected with tubercular leprosy developed spontaneously. A son = a estate ape still remained to paren Dr. Guyon, ng been mine the had ; ts. G g to exa patients, recognized upon their little | bodies podlieatioe of the d disease. These indications consisted in rose-red spots upon the Preservation of Wood. 267 Preservation of Wood.—It has long been known that wood may be Preserved by carbonizing its surface, and in the country this method § generally adopted when piles or posts are planted in the earth, because that wood thus treated very completely resists the action of bot and water. At the commencement of the present century, Berthollet ment vessels is commenced. : The process of Mr. de Lapparent, consists in directing, against the rs y been laid down, and we shall soon Jearn the results. Finally, 268 Correspondence of J. Nickles. the ponents * Holland have made use of the same process for car- bonizing timbers 5 or 6 metres in length, designed to be buried in the earth for strengthening the dykes, which in that sales 2 require con- tinual repairs The Ceramic Arts of the London Exhibition —For the following review we are indebted to Mr. Salvétat, director of the on of Sévres, and member of the Jury of the Exhibition. One general fact, he remarks, is presented by the Exhibition of 1862, _ om fact is ob- served in the ceramic products as well as in very many France, skillful in details, does not possess that Mir eles for practical application which we observe in the Anglo-Saxon race, with their abundant resources, perfect workmanship, admirable fabrics, and industrial organization. But we find in England few of the novel ideas of which such a suggestive collection is crowded into the Ceramic Courts of the French. Fg the French — we find numerous exhibitors who, in differ- — are — roducing ‘ornamental ceramic 0 ee ects s by the Baglin since the Exhibition of 1851. vee abit Copateid Wedgewood, have shown igor what rapidity change is possible in that Some improvements ing som industry has introduced into the ceramic op are worthy of m To the Imperial le ces t Sévres is due the development ¢ of Sar by the aid of which objects are formed of an entire piece ece in ored porcelain mass decorated at a high temperature without Te nated bakings. The number of metallic oxyds which it is possible to introduce into the mass has, as a consequence, considerably increased, and substances have ‘ares added capable of correcting the excess of fasibility of the clays I would also call attention to the successful efforts made 1 han- rio pepanaal of Bordeaux to replace the old potter’s wheel by mee nea The art of brilliant gilding, whereby the cast leaves hg mould bac Lest oped at the rend of its Siecle ers, the Messrs. Du a The disco” ery of oo tsagd metallic | ustre res made by Messrs. Gillet and cat ere Bibliography. 269 e employment of chromo-lithography appeared, it is true, in the exhibitions of Spain and of the aig ee But it should be stated that at Seville it was introduced under a license from a French patent, and that in Germany the specimens exhibited ahdiieed the application of the art to be in a rudimentary condition Mr, Salvétat remarks also that the English exhibitors have produced anew ceramic composition which is a perfect imitation of ivory. The Process of its manufacture has not been made known. pe ; Recent publications by Hacuerre & Co., Paris. Lesons de Chimie et de Physique pong en 1861 a la eres pevgped igue de Paris. nthe se ty ae. to me sprints we noticed last year, and they Bee ee fei et w Poot sam ee , fo urers a, rege mi of ba in fol- ject hg the fusion of platinum ne the production of high temperatures; by Mr. De- Y (the associate of St. Claire Deville On the optical study of sound; by Mr. Lissa sajou nitrification and uses of nitrates in vegetation; by Mr. Clo by E. 2 Bec effects resulting from the sition of light ste ‘different bodies; que Vale the organized corpuscles which exist in the wh sy being an examination of the doctrine of pe ntaneous geeareroe by Mr. Pas shih 8 Populaires @ L’ Association Polytechnique ; 2nd series, 1862, in 12mo. This | ume contains a aeeics of feetares delivered by Babinet ve the physics of the Slobe.—Geoffroy St. Hilaire, upon acclimation t, upon the abuse of fer- mented .—Perdonnet, upon great tention, Heuba erg, upon the bleae uel de Télégraphie Electrique, 4th edition, 1 vol. in 12mo, with figures, Ph This volume | is divided into four pares The ‘s owns ee principles of oe indispensable to the sane of teleg: graphy. arrangement of mera most Padis sacri! employ Po Third, the s ee ore te legeank es, aerial, and Fourth, plicat een Soren —_ ee talegra phy. "a al e “aloues clots | cat bey tic annun was . Bréguet, whe is a member of th Lonriéitte, haa ray his direction tricity ‘mel "Uline to electric telegraphy, and to sober appara betiy ioe which elec- Ys a part; his book has therefore an importance perfectly imate, Mayer ei sally jt re ae ee comme art et comme Industrie. 1 te vol. n12mo. Ma: ayer and Pierson are the p ns, ami who by their beautiful works have cently caused it to be decided that photography is an art, and das in its sphere the same ¢ he splitter a < his canvass and the sculptor at ie latue. Their book does nar "give all the details of the photograph business i c mee r of pl her as to make them a re y ues aire insareensee etails of the atio ay “ft Rony aad te 2 they close th the. eer the d civil nb ‘ebich reoulied' in ging ait Photograp phy’ d in causing photographs to be received in the exhibit vices it. apa —Canal Maratime netion del’ Borodin Mediterranie, a brochure in 8v0,.— is the Faeais | realisation oye an idea of the 17th —. o wit: to Unite Bordeaux to the Mediterranean, so that ships of large tonnage may be relieved ain by way of gh ggg of Gibraltar. om the necessity of g A now i nnioytauit ak as Wipwing . pee the Orient e isthmus of Suez, and Us serve t the West an = Gore nee P th ae e et Politi fe. 1 volume in 12mo.—This mek which gives im Saat dntatis of statistics, 7 oses with a geographical and Sé, rical dletionary of all the localities belonging to this French pro Site ht : tla dillot.— Histoire des A a volume 12mo with one plate. The sagt of Alge- m is ably tri cated | in this book, in which the author proves that the Aral was an better fitted for the pursuit of mathematics, geography and astronomy than wi indoos or the Chinese; he has taken tle nation at its origin, and has studied it th care in the different phases of its exist AM. Jour. Scr.—Szconp Sentes, VoL. XXXV, No. 104.—Mancn, 1863. 35 ve n 270 Correspondence of J. Nicklés.—Bibliography. Ladevi-Roche— Unité des Races Humaines, a brochure in 8vo. The author decides in favor of this unity, after a profound examination of the moral nature of man in connection with an examination of physical facts which have been demonstrated by diff cree hee pete tr set.— Hetérogénie ou Génération Spontanée, in = with plates. Mr. Muss See ‘partean of spontaneous generation, whic e.apeporte by obeervanils which he has made with care in common with Joly of vronlo ne By H. Bossangez, Quai Voltaire, 25, Paris. Achille Delesse.—Carte Agronomique des Environs de Paris, 1862.—For some time pas they have undertaken, in France, to represent the varaauie world sud pa i hie. ess by t he aid pe well ‘atlestod colors. pt the author.— de Char wcourtois.— Vis Tellurique.—This work consists of a natural classifica- Big tion of simple bodies as war as of she saat Ep effected by means of a system of ‘helicoid’ and numerical classification. This classification which depends a cially upon the physical properties of bodies, ay me es, very frequently, to results which accord with Sao ings aA se It was s thus that the place of rub armacie, x1, p. 2 Sy Eheibesives, appear in the table of M. de Chancourtois under the name of inter mediate bodies, results to which M. de Chancourtois has been led from considera tions totally differe : fron our own, e same considerations led him to double certain e gents 3 se as C, O, 8, Se, Te, &e., just as has been done in the nota- tion of Gerhardt. ‘These parallel coincidences ‘are certainly not accidental, they reveal a fundamental law of which the “ vis tellw ” appears to give the ke, A. Scheurer-Ke — nnepe lémentaires de a a pliquée aux Combinasions Oi es.—The leisure imposed by a political imprison ment has given to the author, a young chemist fu : of rps , the idea of making, for the chemical theory upp in his minda hism for the use ni persons who desire to become acquainted with this mbaery: ete ee from the labo : of Laurent a wa Gerhardt t, of Dumas, Wurtz, Hoffman, iliam son, T. Hunt, &e tere theory is explained with great clearness aly supported by nu e form ade DY beg A = author and em oy ps the oe ealeu he has left, that M. H. Laurent a this saseible work. ematician is the son of Au i, hah c= ue eae z gi > tions si as Sela Correspondence of T. Sterry Hunt. 271 3. Correspondence of T. Srerry Hunt, F.RS. (In a letter to the Editors, dated Montreal, February 1, 1863.) Gentl of Schénbein’s and Béttger’s important observations upon the formation trogen. May I beg of you, as an important part of the history of this sub- = notice of it, which appeared in this Journal for July 1861, (vol. xxxii, P. 109) was dated and sent to you in Jan. 1861. (You are aware that the date of 1860, there assigned to it, is a printer’s error.) The observation however has not the merit of great originality, for I was led to it by a remark in @melin’s Handbook (Cavendish Soc. Ed., iv, p. 211) pub- ed in 1850, where Forchhammer’s remark, that rmanganic acid ‘volves “ an electrical odor,” is cited, with a suggestion that this may be le to ozone. . world, In this connection I may be permitted to express my satis- a that the Kantian doctrine of the interpenetration of matter, which Your Journal. See, on this subject, my paper On the Theory of Chemical ges, which appeared in this Journal for March, 1853, (vol. xv, p. 226,) and was reproduced in the LZ. E. and D. Philos. Magazine, and in a Ger- Man translation in the Chem. Centraiblatt. See also my Thoughts on Say that Kant’s Rarer of chemical union “involves a mechanical *heeption, and is therefore inadequate, I, in which chem- “al combination is said to be an identification of the different, is how- ever completely adequate. His process involves an identification not Only of volumes, (interpenetration, mechanically. considered,) but of ay Pei characters of the combining bodies.” See this doctrine gut by Stallo, Philosoph . & the pian hypothesis, sgh note On Atomic Volumes, read betore Nature, p. 87. See also my cn tw , 272 Correspondence of T. Sterry Hunt. “In 1848 Touggsted _ be nitrogen is the nitryl of nitrous acid, NHO,, H,—H,0,=NN, c pondin to the nitric nitryl, NNO», and to the phosphoric” nitryl, PNO, Americas Journal of Science, [2), v, 408 ; vi, 172; viii, 375). It might then be supposed that, like these two bodies, nitrogen should under favorable conditions fix H,O,, and rege Cloes, without the Avatars tion of ammonia, and at the expense of air a r in presence of alkaline matters (Comptes iad xi, p. 135). "The simu ti the el tric spark, and during the slow oxydation of ede orus, bee be explained by he power oxydize amm fre of asmall portion of pig epee nitrite of aration, and Bir # in with the observations of Houzeau, peryiee. its ee action so far as to acidify the ueee. of the atom of ammonia. Certain of the reactions at- tributed to ozone would thus, as many Pobacniste eee aiready maintained, be due to a minute portion of nitrous acid, which is formed when active oxyge® : i ; i cf other hand, €: form a second atom by the Sip rete of the ac ac The € ‘ana “Pa ; ieee marc 1861). These views will a mber I found that a current of air, which had passed through a solution A perman: ganate of potash acidulated ‘with sulphuric ef i vo odor @ action of ozone. This disappeared when the as passed through 2 solution e i electric or a catalytic action accompanying the production of ozone, : the action of nascent oxygen upon 5. Shs nitrogen in the presence of Water, supports the above views, and, as I have earner in the note in qu tion, aa ag the key to a new theory} of nitrification INN The formation of nitrite of ammonia, by the combination of the n eee ne with H,O,, must necessarily be limited i very minute quantities Oy acadilf stability of this ammoniacal salt, which, as is well known, decom ble into nitrogen and water. In order dherohare to produce any nef a quantity of a nitrite by this reiations — _ os the presence of a reactions. _Appreciable traces of nitrite are, according to Sehiinbein - Chemistry. ; 273 over found that distilled Pit mixed witha little potash or ae acid, and evaporated slow wly at a temperature of 50° C. in the open air, fixes n the mo. he has well remarked, this reaction serves to explain the abs ht of nitro- gen by vegetation, and, through the ox ydation of pre the formation of ni- trates in nature. By these elegant ex xperime re he has confirmed in a rem able manner my theory of nitrification, and of the do able nature of free ni- en, It is however e t that, since the publication of my n March 1861, referred to ab , we cannot say with Schénbein that the generation of nitrite of ammonia from nitrogen and water is “ | and wholly Unexpected thing.” (Letter from Schénbein to Farada 1 Maga- oop gh of a nie a slightly elevated temperature are necessary conditions —_— SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY. 1, Geyrrat ee 1 Thal a Ee read before the French Academy, on the 15th hiss tag an elaborate report on the memoir of Mr. Lamy upon Thallium, This 0 ees read, as Abbé Mogrio says, “aw milieu du plus Profond silence,” is mportant and Asean that we print it in fall, va eadintich in the Chemical News of 10th. ‘Report on a Memoir of Mr. Lamy relating to Thallium; by Mr. Domas.’— At the origin of toll Poa: ie iy Fat procuring r hea will, of culti- Yating corn, ae extracting metals, were ror mwa benefits so great that the oO _At the present day, the metals are so numerous that the discovery of a new simple body of this class is less astonishing to ordinary men, although the % new me w,b Spe tiaaieegs a strong light on the characters, simi- lar a 0 Pposite, which. are found in the older metals. § Soon as the bold and felicitous Ehaes of Bunsen and Kirchhoff had dou It was possible to discover traces of metals which wai rae here gel worth explor’ oe was, mene natural enough that Mr. Crookes i Ka os apr and Mr. viaies Pi France, should submit to spectrum analysis of the combustion ites, which e years have played sch i ‘a important part in : ; and it is easy tou : h it, th have by the © ew body whic hi forms the subject of rg i a could not €scaped the pa eee To! of either the one or ae 0 * Comptes Rendus, lv, p. 866. 274 Scientific Intelligence. But, in our pinion, it is neither the process by which the new metal w recognized, nor t one al which furnished it. that commends it to our aie Spectrum analy sis mea aa its procis and manufacturing resides have long since been recognized as fruitful mines to explore. But “thallium is des- tined to aes an epoch in the history of shaeniitey. by the asto cnishing ge —— between its chemical characters and physical properties. It is xaggeration to say, that, in regard to the ouctdetce generally accepted for the metals, oe offers an assemblage of contradictory properties which — * to the name of a metallic parados—the ornithorhynchus of metals. W = detain the attention of the Academy on the history of its ts dis- cove a 'No e disputes that Mr. Crookes first saw, on the 30th of March, ye the pon ive characteristic of thallium in certain alert residues; t he recognized it again in the products of a specim ulphur from Liperi and in those of a pyrites from Spain; and that he desttibed and named thallium as a new simple body. Nor will any one dispute that Mr. Lamy was the first to isolate thallium, and establish, in the sequel, that it was nota metalloid analogous to selenium an tellurium, as Mr. Crookes, who had never obtained it free and pure, thoughit; but that it was, in fact, a true metal. . Lamy announced his discovery to the Société Imperiale of Lille on the 16th of May, —_ and on the 10th of June he submitted to the jury of chemists in London, in the presence of Mr, Crookes, a beautiful ingot of thallium. If the atter ‘peotienias considered that he had any rights - to preserve, he should at once, as is usual in such es is products, instead of silently listening to tl munication of Li depositing - the Royal oe ig t days afterwards, a note abientiog that he had long been aware of the metallic fogs of thallium, and was acquainted with the essential properties of the new body. The historical arate which engages us—for, in celal, the diecosers of ‘ each new simple body has its Jegend or its history—is determined by two a. sew one of these is the nonce of March, 1861, on which day Me. ookes announces the existence of a new body which he believes t me ellie, chikractiett ed by the brilliant green line: the i ena 1862, the a on which Mr, Lamy makes sire the metal as a metal, Ww one posse uh Ite ee in the “aatpl iric acid manufactory of our Jearned confrere, K that ong the sediment of the leaden chambers fed by Belgian ates ich Lamy decoreed son m in tolerably large quantity, and in a mn made it easy to extract; for, by a little aan paldtiody, it could be craig et the state of sulphate ore chlorid, from which combination the metal itself tes be easily separated by means s of zinc, which takes its place, and pre¢! ipital it in pest n the same manner as lea ch at- The Academy will permit us to draw attention to the importance W whi shes, in cases of this kind, to positive characters, like those given by rate trum analysis. We shall see, as we proceed, that, beyond his certal at ae a - © is) = co i Q s Les) Canal o "s = ° = @ 5 3 Sag =] pa as > ) ~ = i) 4 o m 5 from i, Foci of its ite ey means of aie pre esents t the appearance makes & It has nearly the same color as lead; is scratched and cut like it. It mane on paper like that which lead Serge nes it has the same dent at and very nearly the same melting point. It possesses the same specifi oid Its solutions are precipitated black by silphuretted hydrogen, yellow b, go not and a and white by chlorids, just as those of lead are. Wee"... then hesitate pfeil that, without the aid of spectrum analysis, oi this aad ianpareaan roe, remained unrecognized; that, even W! Chemistry. 275 help, it was ef to be mistaken; and that Mr. Lamy has on rece" of great sagacity, when e places, without hesitation, a metal so mu h resembling lead in its essential ee beside the alkali metals, et St and sodium, which it resembles so lit Thallium is a perfect metal endowed in the highest degree with a metallic — as is seen on examining a freshly- aie surface, or on heating a bar n hydrogen, suas aise ing it to coo n that oF was. It is less blue than lexé, lit white than silver, and, in its ee aan resembles tin or ‘innabenk than any other metal. It softens at 100° — nd, if — for some time at that > a ac aap a crystalline structure beco apparent in the ingot: this is shown by the appearance of a beautiful watiene (mois) Phage when the metal j is moistened with water, which cleanses the surface like efore the blowpipe, thallium exhibits some characteristic vioacinaelt It melts rapidly, and oxydizes, giving off odorles ater A ab a whitish —" but mixed with reddish or — tones. Jt continues to the fumes a long time after the setting. os eas sed. alae principal globule = cooled . a ve bule of the metal is placed on a cupel ore ted to. redne s, and then strongly sltaling b base, d potash ; and the peroxyd, which gives up oxygen when heated vith feces acids, and may be converted into a chlorid, which, when heated, gives up a part of its chlorine. Chem ae will having, like potash, a great affini sedi for water, loses its water fealty when ted, or even when cold in a vacuum. ere then remains ee _— anhydrous oxyd while the hydrated ouye | is yellowish white : the oxyd is hy- drated or de ehydrated with equal facility. It will be further oeten § that the Peroxyd of Salon, | in the os aa of Mr. Lamy, has given no sign of the formation of o oxygenated w Thallium burns in dry chortle: It forms three chlorids, one of which cor- | resemble the Corresponding compounds of lead as of patty is scluble; but a The sulphid of thallium aualied by precipieation z te browriieh black ; it re- ier of lead. Jn whatever way obtained, it ~ oxydizes in the r “ee is conve t soluble and etna ulp : eee? allium is very slowly attacked by h lorie aci even tated and ae It hg on the contrary, rapidly attacked by nitric ban sul- Phuric acids, Th er, concentrated dissolves it with a rapidity Which contrasts with the slowness with which the same acid attac 276 Scientific Intelligence. characters to aluminium, the latter being quickly dissolved by hydrochloric acid, which does not attack the former, and resisting nitric acid, which easily dissolves fallin In the state of | protoxyd, thallium forms soluble and crystallizable salts with sebenics. nie eg ulphuric, and phosphoric acids. ‘The carbonate is # very characteristic The salts fox by the pears of thallium with organic acids, which have oat studied by eee Kuhlmann, Jun., are the oxalate, binoxalate, tartrate, paratartrate, malate, citrate, Geovtate acetate, And some others of less im import- ance. All these ae are soluble, and, according to Mr. aareaty revostaye, some of them are isomorphous with the corresponding salts of p Thallium, then, is a new metal well characterized. It is distinguished from hoff. From the examination of the solar sale we may conclude thet thallium ct not exist in the solar a pups Thallium ne nah a ly forms one of the y of alkaline ars the num- ber of which has been doubled by recent le At begining of this century, only two of these ey were known, Saige Forty years ago Sion was added to the number; and w ithin the last pe years three others have been ates rubidium, cesium, and thallium, all three by spemenne analysis From this we may be allowed to hope that the maga ‘e these 0 sora WA alkaline metals, thallium occupies the opposite extremity of a of Sneha lithium forms the first term, and the equivalent weights mark the cae ferent degrees, The aie are, in fact, as follows: Lithium, - “ Ps . , “ ze ki OE Sodium, Oe ee ee ee Pear eT Potassium, <2 26) Sow Gites ey ee ee ee Rubidium, (oe o.-qerces Pe wala es fhe a eS Jee iy beeen Thallium, ois DNR oe a galiy Gas an On this point it has been remarked,— 1. That the equivalent of sodium is exactly the mean of the equivalents of 28 5 ? 2. That by adding double the weight of edicts to the weight of potassium, we obtain the weight of rubidium: 46+39=85; f 3. That by adding twice the weight of sodium to twice the weight of potas sium, we get nearly the weight of cesium: 46+78=124;? 4. t"That t by are aeuhle the weight of sodium to four ‘times that of potas sium, we obtain nearly the equivalent of thallium: 47+156=202. ists; These colusidgrations are of a nature to attract the Saoaie et of ¢ Lise ot and without attributing to them a value that the actual numb of the justify, they show the interest which attaches to the careful comparison equivalents of bodies belonging to the same family. the law he alkaline metals have this peculiarity, that to bring them under nal the of Dulong and Petit—-that is to say, to make their atomic heats eer ights ogee’ heats of gg ites is eee to adel their nt spe *ifiC ® The new weight of cesiwn rbd moti by Johnson and Allen (irwe el 94) does not support the combined numbers above given by Dumas. wail twice the weight oe sodium to eed weight of eet we have approximatel ee ——_ “rotate —Eps. A. J.S Chemistry. 277 this report), ‘oc equa to 0- it is necessary to reduce the atomic asin to 102. In the same wy as a potna pe for its s atomic formula K,O, the prot- rmula T1,0. he atomic oe of thallium will be equal to " 35 and if we do not com- pare it with the volumes of sodium and potassium, it is because these present a seinen which have not yet received sufficient attention from chem placed hear to fe at eas 0 aay | lithium; and also cae, thallium, which has so heavy an pe Aes that t it he ed — by the side of bismuth, 4 metal which possesses the high = of equi We see that the discovery of n w bodies ‘extends the circle of our knowl- laws they lead us to ascertain, and that freer and more general aspect under Which we are taught to regard the properties of individual peinetore, se their analogies, differences, and classification, and even their nature and essence, free himself completely from the unworthy sabia se fd fro e. tributed to him.—Ep oJ ber w Lamy the discovery of ne metal thallium. Mr. Le Verrier had already made 7. ape claim for Mr. Lamy in the journal La France for October 22, 2; and, in reply to a letter of our own in answer to Mr. Le Verrier, patie in the Cosmos for event 5, 1862, Mr. Lamy has since ad- ~— the same claim for him as Mr, Lamy states | Csanean December 19, 1862, p. 681) that it is. = Orta of publication which constitutes se ority of invention,” We are induced to give a short résumé of dates in support of our own claim to the discovery—not only of the new ew but of its metallic Character. Our readers will remember that it was in the Cuemroar News for March 30, 1861, we first cua “The Existence of a New Element, PRopaBy of the Sulphur Group.” The word oe is here some, 1 ce, as showing the doubts we had at the of the *xact nature of the new body—doubts which were further indicated in ll Dumas Bre in Bm 6 the symbol “Tb,” which we have already shown opted for of Chemical News, No. 162, . 13, Jan, 10, 1863. Am. Jour. Sct.—Srconp Sermms, Vou. XXXV, No. 104—Mancn, 1863, 36 ; ° ad Cd a. 4 278 Scientific Intelligence. the title of our next paper—“Further Remarks on the supposep new Metalloid,” in the Cuzmican News for May 18, 1861. Subsequent research soon proved to us that thallium was, in fact, a true metal, but the publication of this discovery was deferred. r. Lamy’s claim for priority of publication, and, consequently, prior- ity of discovery, as advanced by himself, is founded on a communication made to the Société Imperiale des Sciences, de I’ Agriculture, et des Arts, of Lille, on May 16, 1862. On May 1, 1862, however, the International Exhibition opened, and there, in a case, deposited some days before, and open to the inspection of the numerous scientific men of all countries who were present on the occasion, was displayed several grains of the new body, with the following label—'Thallium, a New Metauuic £ ment, discovered by means of Spectrum Analysis, Besides this there card, on which was written ‘Chemical Reactions of Thallium, by which it is distinguished from every other known element. It appears have the character of a weavy METAL, forming compounds which are volatile below a red heat. It is reduced from its acid solution by zinc in the form of a dense black powder, difficultly soluble in hydrochloric acid, readily soluble in nitric acid.’ The above, we contend, was a publication in the widest sense of the word, and in this publication the metallic nature of thallium was distinctly asserted. e metal, it is true, Was exhibited in powder, just as it was obtained by precipitation by means of zinc, but was none the less the pur e for the his letter to the Cosmos, has the hardihood to assert, that Mr. Crookes ‘contented himself with exhibiting to the public and the international jury of Class II, as thallium, some centigrammes of a black powder which was not thallium.’ We shall make no remark on this assertion of Mr. Lamy ; but, as some of our readers may be inclined to ask why the metal was not exhibited in the form of a button, we shall be excused for going into some detail. he source from which we extracted the metal, and the compounds exhibited, was sulphur from the Spanish pyrites mentioned in our paper of May 18, 1861. This sulphur contained no more than one pre’ grains of thallium in @ pound. The metal and compounds we exhi ely, the m in +] cimen for the sake of exhibiting it in a button; it was, the Wee Analytical Chemistry. 279 the metal in our laboratory in January, 1862, as mentioned by him in the Cuemicat News, v, p.350. But it may be evidence that we were aware of the metallic nature of thallium, and acquainted with the essential properties of the new body,’ to state, that early in April, 1862, reference to the books of that firm) for the metal and the salts at that time we had prepared :— ‘ Thallinm (Ouddos)— Oxyd of Thallium—Sulphid of Thallium—Basic hlorid of Thallium—Iodid of Thallium—Sulphate of Thallium— re metal, was in the International Exhibition, at its opening, on the st of May, 1862, to prove priority of publication to Mr. Lamy’s com- munication made at Lille, on the 16th of May, 1862 r. eee read before the Royal Society a few days after we met that gen- that, as Mr. only spoke French, a e ourselves speak but sm ptr it was not possible that by the intervi ¢ have no wish to detract in the least from the great merit of Mr. , as Mr. Lamy seems to suppose, that we Curselves remained idle during the fourteen months which had elapsed “ince we remarked the green line in the spectrum, With the limited ve heartily congratulate him on his successes, and envy him nothing nae but his Opportunities. ltes are, besides the usual graduated apparatus, a standard acid, a stand- aad pee an indicator of the point of neutralization, and pure carbon- N€ of soda, 280 Scientific Intelligence. The standard acid. The use of crystallized oxalic acid, as suggésted by Mohr, has come into general favor, and nothing can be more satis- factory when the acid is pure and of constant composition. It is, however, difficult not only to procure a pure acid, but also to esses it dry with- out loss of erystal-water. To dry the pulverized acid over oil-of-vitriol until it ceases to lose weight, as proposed by Erdmann, or to select unef- floresced crystals by help of a magnifier, is tr ee re likely to in- troduce error. We employ a dilute sulphuric acid, w may be made of convenient strength for ordinary use, by diluting ten para ccatennn of oil-of-vitriol with water to the volume of a | The standard alkali is made from huwandal Caustic potas: yes 1s ~~ in water and diluted until a given volume e. utral- izes 4 to 5 ec. c¢, of the standard acid, as is Niet; oe a ike aa tria als. e alkali-solution thus obtained is heated to boiling in a flask, and 8 little freshly- -slaked — is added to decompose any earbonate of po e boiling is continued a few minutes and, finally, the ley is poured upon a filter, and the filtrate i is collected in the bottle from whieh it isto be used. Care should be taken to bring upon the filter some of the excess of lime that is suspended in the liquid, so that the latter may acquire no carbonic acid from the air. The clear liquid thus —s is a pot ash-lye containing lime in solution. If exposed to the air, the carbonic acid that is absorbed separates as carbonate of lime, Joie the liquid perfectly caustic. It now remains to determine with the greatest accuracy, Ist, the vol- ume of alkali which neutralizes a cubic centimeter of the _ and, 2d, the amount of SO, contained in a cubic centimeter of the "tno of The he kno wl Jour. Air Prakt. Chin, Ixxxiv, p. 424. Tincture of cosine is prepa by digesting ee frequent agitating three grams of pulverized cochi a in a mixture 0 cubic centimeters of strong alcohol with 200 oe distilled eaten, is ordinary temperatures for a day or two. The soluti On caper ora ae be of strong acid and acid salts make it orange or yellowish-orang® To determine the eee Repel be the alkali and acid, 4 8! volume of the latter, e. g. 20 ¢. ¢., is measured off into a wide mow flask, ten drops of scaiiaabliaidaes me “about 150 c. c. of water 1 : added—the alkali is now allowed to flow in from a burette, unti yellowish liquid in the flask, suddenly, and by a single drop, acquires violet-carmine tinge. In nicer determinations, it is important to bring the liquid a fo- ‘to a given volume, by adding water after the neutralization is nea y - For this purpose, two or more flasks of equal —, waged and on the outside of each a strip of paper is gummed Analytical Chemistry. 281 the level of the proper amount of liquid, e.g. 200 c.c. The same amount of coloring matter being thus always diffused in the same volume of the contents of one flask, in which the neutralization has been satisfactorily effected, may be kept as a standard of color for the succeeding trials, as the tint remains constant for hours, being unaffected by the absorption of carbonie acid. The greatest convenience and accuracy of measure- ment are attained by using burettes provided with Erdmann’s swimmer the wide mouthed flasks and Jet flow from the burette a slight excess, e. g. 50¢.¢., of standard acid. The solution of the carbonate of soda is fa- : p allowed to become perfectly cold, then add ten drops of cochineal and lastly the standard alkali to neutralization, diluting to the proper volume. oo. illustrate the accuracy of the process and the calculations employed, 'e following actual data may be useful. The normal acid was made b Sine 5U ¢. c. of oil-of-vitriol to the volume of ten liters and had half € strength above recommended. ‘The alkali was from a stock on hand and more dilute than necessary. : Relation of acid to alkali. Exp. I, 20 c.c. SO, == 82°8 c.c. KO, or 1: 1°64 Exp. II, 20 c.c. SO, = 32°8 e.c. KO, or 1: 1°64 Exp. II, 40 ¢.c. SO, = 65°7 c. c. KO, or 1: 16425 We have accordingly : , lec. SO, = 1°64 cc. KO and 1 c.c. KO = 0°60976 c.c. SO,. Absolute strength of acid and alkali, Exp. 1. 0-4177 grm. of carbonate of soda were treated with 44-2 ¢.¢, of 80,. To neutralize the excess of the acid were required 3:8 . e. KO, Which correspond to 2°32 e.c. SO, (3°8X0°60976). Deducting this from the total amount of acid (44°2—2-32) we have 41°88 c.¢. of acid, *quivalent to the carbonate of soda taken. 41°88 c.c. solution of SO, = 0-4197 grm. NaO CO,. pbkP- TL. 0-4126 grm. NaO Cog treated with 44 c.c. SO, required ae & e. KO. 428060976 = 2°61¢.c.S8O,. 44 — 2°61 = 41°39 c 8° 41°39 c. c. solution of SO, = 0°4126 grms, NaO CO,. It is convenient to calculate how much acid corresponds to 53 deci- Stammes of carbonate of soda, since the relation of any other substance ‘0 the acid is then obtained by substituting its equivalent number for 53 (the equivalent of NaO CO,), thus: 282 Scientific Intelligence, grms. NaO CO, c. c. SO, Pe aR Hts ME TTBS ed inion, I. 04177: 0°53 :: 41°88 : 63°14 II. 0°4126:0°53 :: 41°39: 53°17 Accordingly 0°53. grm. NaO CO, neutralize 53:155 ¢ SeiPgs If the solutions are employed for nitrogen po ae earn how much nitrogen corresponds to 1 ¢.¢. of acid, by the following ae c.c. SO, grm., N. ee c - es ¥ 53°155: 1° :: 0°140 : 0°0026338 nay then write on the label of the acid bottle the following data for calculation. lec KO are OS ORAD:&: c..BO,. Lo. ti Sle 64 cc. KO. 1 ¢.¢ so; re sigs grm. N, As an example of the determination of nitrogen by help of these so ~~ the following mare is of ene acid made by Mr. Peter Col- lier in this La ere ay be adduc 0:3923 rms. hippuric acid were Gea with soda-lime and the am- moniacal products were colteatad in 20 e.c. of the standard acid con- tained in the usually employed bulb tube. When the combustion was complete, the contents of the bulbs were rinsed out into a flask, brought to the volume of 150 c.c. and, after adding 10 drops of cockisiiil the — mete was eh ae in, until the change of color indicated neu- tralization; 13°7 c.c. of KO were required, = 8354 ¢.c. SO, (1 13°7X 060976) hich sortie from 20 ¢.¢. left 11°646 SO, as equivalent to the pice of the hippuric acid. 11°6460-0026338 = pape : = 7818 per cent. The calculated per centage i | The aibinhade of scahinenl over litmus as an indicator, are as oectie . It possesses far greater sensibility. Luckow asserts that water whi of is is tinged faintly orange by it, becomes distinctly red by te addition zoo;cooth of ammonia or y.¢34$,09th of carbonate of lim in When a little pulverized marble is covered with the ailuted tincture allowed to stand for some time, the lower stratum of — ee 2c carmine tinge and by shaking, the whole solution becomes red. Lu ckow considers that in this case the carminic acid attacks the marble and ene a lime salt which causes the change of color. In this way the minu traces of carbonates of alkali-earths may be detected in pulverized mi erals, clays, &e. Alkali-salts meats cts course be removed by washing with distilled water free from tions This extreme (neers allows of aa use of much more dilute solu ~ can be employed with litmus. wd 2. According to ‘Luckow, cochineal is quite cog to carbonic lanl sulphydric a cids, carmin acid bein ng stronger than these. This is Pi for cally true for solutions of par strength. Hence a normal alkali i technical analysis may be prepared by simply dissolving a wet weigh: ey of carbonate a ina known volume of water, a from this AK ‘ dard acid may be easily made. In the neutralization it is not ae pil carbonic acid by boiling. The influence of the latter is er ele once seen when a caustic and carbonated alkali are operated with Technical Chemistry. 283 by side. In case of the former, the point of neutralization (or rather of supersaturation,) is shown by a prompt and decisive change from a tint in which orange predominates, to one in which this disappears and violet is most marked. In presence of carbonic acid the change is somewhat trifle less of it will be found needful to neutralize a given volume of acid, that 10 c.¢. SO, = 7°66 and 7-67 a so" 5 not expelled, 10 ¢.c. SO, = 7°68 and 7-7. These results are as good as identical, In standarding the much weaker acid used for the nitrogen determination above mentioned, he obtained for it a value slightly too low when O, was not removed, 0°53 grm. NaO Co, required in this case but 53°05 ¢. ©. SO, instead of 53°155 as in the other instances, This is a very slight difference and not appreciable perhaps with ordinary deutralized b independent of the small amount of carbonic acid that can come from @ permanence of the color also allows several titritions to be compared directly together. A third advantage of cochineal is, that its solution, prepared as above : may be preserved indefinitely in closed vessels, without decolor- ation or alteration. 8. W. J. 3. On the solubility of Sulphate of Lime in chlorhydric acid.—In this Laboratory it has long been the custom to bring into solution for analyt- aan eurposes gypsum, so-called super-phosphate of lime and other sub- trated dilute, and therefore a saturated solution of the salt in the latter is co- ‘ously precipitated by the addition of fuming chlorhydric acid as well that of water. 8. W. J. . eee Cuemistry. B 3. Webster's process for producing Oxygen Gas.—J. Wesster of Bir- ™ingham (England), has taken out a patent for obtaining oxygen (and Céttain other products,) from nitrate of soda and oxyd of zine, or per- °xyd of iron, subjected to a low red heat in close retorts. @ gaseous 284 Scientific Intelligence. nitrogen, and nitrous acid vapor, the latter of which is condensed passing through water, while the residue in the retort consists of caustic soda and oxyd of zinc. Water completely separates these two, leaving the zinc-oxyd fit for a second operation. The soda solution serves for t products obtained are oxygen contaminated with variable quantities of by a 30 gallon sto moveable colander-like shelves, upon which are strown 48 pounds of res idue, the product of previous operations, and consisting of zinc-oxyd, caustic soda and nitrate or nitrite of soda—this caput mortum stuff 8 moistened with five pounds of water and carefully strewn on the shelves (in the manner of the hydrate of lime, in the common, dry-lime purifier for coal gas). The purifier thus furnished is closed by a lid of stone each charge of 50 pounds, 94 hours. Campbell finds the proporte! nitrogen is diminished by using a moderate temperature and al of water in the purifier. This water becomes very acid from the and NO, absorbed, these products resulting of course from the react of the materials. The cost of oxygen by this process is less than from any other proposed as will appear from the following comparison, based 08 ©” ville’s and Debray’s well known statements.’ 1 cubie meter (= 35°317 cubic feet), rs. “ oe 10 s. d. English currency: from chlorate potassa, 4 “8 — “ oe x. manganese, 487—4 0% e e " « HO, SO, by heat, Iv <==0 10 " . “ “« — "Webster’s NaONO,+-Zn0, 74 “ “ Rid “Do. rejecting all products, 1 9x5 It is plain from this statement that, without considering Mt Oe Webster's process is cheaper than any other: but Deville’s meth pa * Chem. News, vi, pp. 218, 268, See also same Journal, vi, 287 and 259, va, for additional information. 1 ® This Journal, [2], xxxi, 280, 427, and Ann. de Chim. et Phy., [8], lxi, 9” Technical Chemistry. 285 4 pure gas. It is remarked however by Mr. Crookes® that the mixed gas of Webster’s process is as pure as can be used in the arts unless in the metallurgy of the platinum metals. “3 5 : 1O+-Al,O,, and free carbonic acid. An excess of chalk in the ae is found to be advantageous, as it renders the charge less fusible. © operation is conducted in a reverberatory furnace similar to those Usually employed in alkali works. The compound of alumina and soda : inolved in hot water and subsequently decomposed by carbonic acid, th Mention is made of the economic application of the large amount of ® fluorid of calcium produced in the above operation—aside from its Use for making fluohydric acid, it unquestionably can be advantageously Plied as a flux in many metallurgical operations. G. J. B 3 Chem. News, vi, 221. Aw. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Series, VoL. XXXV, No. 104—Maron, 1863. 37 286 Scientific Intelligence. 4, PaorocraPHy.— 6. The action of light upon a sensitive plate—At a recent session of the Photographic Society of Marseilles, one of the members stated his hay- ing failed to obtain a good development in some tannin plates which had been kept some twenty days after exposure in the camera, although some of the same lot of plates had developed good results, when the development took place within twenty-four hours of the exposure.—Mr. Vidal explains this phenomenon by a new theory of the action of the actinic rays upon a sensitized plate. He supposes that under the action of light a certain molecular change, of a transitory nature, takes place, but that, in accord ance with a general physical law, there is a tendency to return to the anterior molecular condition, and that in the process of time a plate ex- posed in the camera would, by returning to its original molecular condi- tion, lose all trace of its exposure, and be ready to receive an entirely new impression, the same as a plate which had not been ex} at all, Mr. Vidal concludes that the physical theory of the absorption of the actinic fluid by certain substances, such as the iodid of silver, 18 the one which best explains photographic reactions e have only to say, briefly, in regard to this theory, that we have no faith in it whatever; it is contrary to our photographic experience; which confirms the theory that the action of light upon the sensitized plate 18 4 chemical and not a physical action. The loss of sensitiveness, or the lack of ability to develope well after keeping—can be readily and satis: factorily explained by referring it to causes familiar to all practical photo graphers. se II. METALLURGY. use of aluminum-bronze as a material for the construction of ast mtg eal and other philosophical instruments. Col ge remarks at, “the qualities of most importance in instrument making are, { strength ; (2) resistance to compression; (3) malleability ; (4) transit) strength or rigidity; (5) expansive ratio; (6) founding qualities ; ( behavior under files, cutting tools, &c.: (8) resistance to atmospheric 1% Hg es Sree ed AH (11) fitness Tensile strength.—The mean of experiments made by Mr. Anderso® d at the Royal Gun Factory, Woolwich, shows that the average pas neh, wo to m pression lied was 59 tons 2 cwt. 1 qr. 4 + af came too much distorted to permit of more weight being applied ¥ an Metallurgy. 287 Malleability.—Mr. Anderson states that, “the qualities of this metal for forging-purposes would appear to be excellent; with the exception of the part heated to a red-heat in the shade, all show that it is a good workable material under the hammer almost up to the melting point.” - pes } yellow brass, an alloy very deficient in rigidity. The specific gravity of the dimensions that would be proper in the case of cast steel. All parts whie would otherwise be made of steel may with perfect safety, and age, be made of the new alloy, particularly such parts fixing, tangent, and micrometer screws. Its hardness and SoMparative inoxydizability point it out as peculiarly adapted for pivots, axes, and bearings. If employed for receiving the graduation of circles, the hecessity for inlaying another metal will be obviated, by which two ee will be gained: the hammering which forms part of the &¢: ges poy os, use of apprehension. With respect to the Ye visibility of divisions cut on this metal, opinions will perhaps differ can only say that I should be well content to observe with them.” 288 Scientific Intelligence. This alloy has been selected by Col. Strange as the most appropriate metal for the construction of the large theodolite for the use of the Trig- Spe Survey of India. The horizontal circle of this theodolite is three feet in diameter, and the effect of using this alloy will be to keep - aah of the instrument within reasonable limits, notwithstanding ts possession of pa and appliances not hitherto bestowed on suc ser uments, In manufacture of the alloy, Col. Strange says that ex- tremely pure copper must be used ; cletrouype copper is best, and Lake Superior soppel stands — giving an alloy of sla hited - ence of iron, which appears to be snopialty prejudicial, Parte the hiloy must be melted two or three ones as that obtained from the first melting is excessively brittle. “Each successive melting, up to a certain poin determined by the working, and particularly the { forging pate of the, metal, improves its tenacity and strength. It is probable that after sev- eral meltings there will remain in combination with the copper a some- what smaller proportion of aluminum than 10 per cent. The present price of English-made 10 per cent aluminum-bronze is 6 shillings 6 pence er Ib, This is four or five times that of gun-metal, but a much smaller quantity of the new alloy than of gun-metal will give the same strength; and when it is considered how small a ratio the cost of material bears to the cost of workmanship 1 in refined apparatus, it will be found that even at the present price of the new alloy its cost is not prohibitory, w whilst the advantages attending its use jp Sax to outweig the increased expendi- ture.”’—L. E, and D. Phil Mag., [2], xxiv, C. Tisster, Director of the Aluminum Works at Rouen, shows that one per cent of aluminum in copper makes the latter more fusible, giving it the property of filling the mould in casting, at the same time preventiog it from rising in the mould. The action of chemical agents upon it Is also weakened, and the copper ae n hardness and tenacity without losing its malleabili ity, thus proving a an ‘alloy which has the malleability of brass, with the hardness of : In transverse sirongsh this silo was found to be more than twice % rigid as either brass or copper. ‘Tissier also finds that one part of alu- minum, added to Same consisting of 96 copper and 4 tin, gives ee a fine colo or, of remarkable homogeneity, of great hardness an fore free from the oxyd coating with which ordinary bronze castings 47° covered. The transverse strength of the castings of this al finds to be two and a half ti imes that of the aay cea brats { bro: allo — Pal technische J foe cl G. J .. y aly s Jou xvi, pA ha: os Silowing sé statistics are aku y fom a paper on os Mines, Minerals Metallurgy. 289 Miners of the United Kingdom, read before the London Society of by Mr. Robert Hunt, Keeper of the Mining Records. Product for 1861. Minerals, Quantity. Value. Lin, tons, 11,640 | £ 725,560 Copper, a 231,487 1,427,215 : «“ 90,696 1,136,249 Silver, “ 2 1,471 Zine, at 15,770 31,113 Pyrites, a 125,135 79,715 Arsenic, - 1,450 10,875 Nickel, ewt 1 Wolfram, tons, 8 29 Antimony, 15 45 anganese, ‘? 925 2,925 omen, ochre, &e., 3,016 3,016 ore, “ 7,215,518 2,302,371 Coals (sold and used), “ 83,635,214 20,908,803 Other minerals, “ 2,222,602 880,114 Total value of Minerals produced in 1861, £27,509,525 Metals produced from British Minerals, Quantity. Value. Gold, 0 78 £ 10,816 Silver, “ 569,530 144,161 1n tons, 7,45 910,762 Copper, 15,331 1,572,480 L “ 65,643 1,445,255 Zinc, “ 4,415 9,101 Iron, a s“ 3,712,390 9,280,975 Total y £13,443,550 Este value of other metals, 250,5 Coa 20,908,803 ae value of metals and coals, 34,602,853 § There were worked, in 1861, 3052 ae 167 copper mines, 148 as Mines, 390 lead mines and 29 si nes—number of iron mines gi ally engaged in mining operations, exclusive of quarries of a —VYournal of the Society of Arts, xi, 94. i The Mining and Smelting Magazine, a monthly review of Practical ¥ ming, Quarrying and Metallurgy, and record of the Mining and Metal arkets ; edited by Henry Corwen Satmon, F.GS., F.CS. Vol. I and II. bondea: 1862.'—Besides the objects mentioned in the title, this mon athly contains original articles of great value on mining and * Published monthly, at one shilling sterling per number. Agents, Baillidre Brothers, 440 icoudony, New You 290 Scientific Intelligence. metallurgical subjects. Among its contributors are Warrington W. Smyth, Robert Hunt, H. W. Bristow, James Napier, J. A. Phillips, Pro- fessor Ansted, and others who are well known to both scientific and prac- tical men. It also contains translations of valuable memoirs from the Annales des Mines and other foreign journals. It is well illustrated with maps and plans of mines, furnaces, etc. We trust that this magazine will meet with the success it deserves, as it fills a want that has long been felt by miners and metallurgists. III, PHYSIOLOGICAL AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. On the Chemistry of Germination—Dr. Max Scnvziz has published ai fiir Prakt. Chem., \xxxvii, p. 129) an extended investigation on this subject. He directs attention to the insufficiency of elementary analysis, as employed by earlier experimenters, for determining the chemical changes 3 aes : ’ _ methods. Various seeds, viz: those of Lepidium sativum, Lupinus al- bus, Vicia faba, and I beris amara, were made to germinate in pure water contained in sealed glass flasks. ‘The chemical changes that took place were stu mee by analyzing the air of the flasks after a suitable interval. . The first rey e a ger ny a vat is set up or made possible decomposition of albuminoid substan 2, This decomposition is pro- duced by the absorption of water ad a oxygen. 3. In its progress, mt gen and carbonic acid and afterward hydrogen are set free. By several xperiments made with crushed seeds, Schulz found that, in decay oF putrefaction, aiogen « and carbonic acid were evolved, pie less rapidly anin germination; but that free hydrogen did not a Se hence canntieide that the rcs of hydrogen, in his exporitiits,# belonged to the germinative process, and was not a result ¢ ing decay. From the crenaaies that seeds will be develope in sea — of suitable dimensions, beyond, or but little beyond, the first stag® owing to the accumulation of carbonic acid, Schulz was not able ve vestigate fully what happens in the later periods of eon In ue few trials that partially succeeded, he obtained the same results as ¥ manifested in the first stage, though the liberation of Pe byae mI peared to be less copious, relatively to that of the nitrogen an carboule acid. > gion _ Pugh, —- hon the Ag. College a Penn., obtained a Jarge amount! nitrogen iD, v ere sachong barley, beans and t aul nf ve: they were placed in water over MC, atmospheric air being removed by communicating the vessel containing ag roger the Torricellian vacuum, (Lawes, Gilbert and Pugh on the Sources of the N¥ of parcel Phil. Trans, part 11, 1861.) ial roe pear to be exper simentally established, that in the chem Ee ee is absence, and nit iy as “8 wv Physiological and Agricultural Chemistry. 291 2. On the reduction of kinice acid to benzoic acid, and its conversion into sr Ae acid in ~ animal mene m.—Accordin ng to Lavremann (Ann. Ch, u. Pharm., exxv, p.9), when kinic acid is heated with a saturated — alias of jodhydrio bet ina sealed tube for two to three hours, at 115 to 120° C, benzoic acid and iodine are obtained. The same conver- sion is ove by bringing into a retort two equivalents of iodine with one equivalent of phosphorus, and, after the two have united and the pro- duct is cold, adding to four equivalents of the crude iodid of phosphorus one equivalent of kinic acid dis: solved i in water to a syrupy solution. On line mass, from which ether extracts impure benzoic acid. The neck js ato lined with crystals of this acid aed: the close of ‘oe process, Kinic acid. Benzoic acid. C,,H,.0,. = C,,H,O, + 6HO-+ 20 The reaction ey sehen according to abet of the ane equations, 1, C,,H,,0,, + 8HI= C,,H,O, + 8HO-+ 81 2. C, (HO. + 81 «= Ci, H, 0, + 6HI + 21 Since kinic wii is thus converted so easily i spit benzoic acid, it occurred to Lautemann to examine whether it would undergo the same change in the animal organism, and appear in the urine as hippuric acid. He found this to be actually the case, in trials upon himself and two other pan 8 grms. of kinate of lime yielding in two experiments 2-2 and 27 rms. of gsm ro Rese 25! ely. Kinic acid having been proved by cwgn ag and Sievert to exist in i quantity in the whortle- t, it becomes rohit that it may also occur in various grasses, and hist it is the origin of the hippuric a acid which is found in ee ri pastured animals. 3. On the c composition of the urine of oxen as related to their fodder — Henne EBERG, Sroumann and RavrenserG, (Ann. Ch. u. Pharm., xxiv, p. 200,) at the conclusion of an important paper chiefly occupied with an ac- Count of the method they employ for the determination of hi ippuric acid, urea and chlorid of sodium in urine, give the following resumé of results obtained with the urine of three o xen during seven m jonths o of 1860-61. p =. 3 5 tie 8 = # e: @ o ~ 2) Ee 45 - § a = 25 | 12 to 1-4 per cen 2. The aidition of considerable quantities of easily digestible oar 9. bean-meal \, starch, sugar and oil, to the proper fodder, oh are tw diminish the amount of hippuric acid, and increase that o Vital Process of “ sin getable respiration” if “ a i nog bat eetocrntted, ng «shown (Ann. mae Pharm., ii, Sup. ek $8), both carburetted = wd shay, (Ann. Chenu. Phorm i, Sap, vo 66), bot carb a Ww. a 292 Scientific Intelligence. - The quantity of bicarbonates in the urine depends upon the amount of pleat or salts of vegetable — —— in the foo he sev- pier ase used as rations in these riments gave, by incineration muffte, oe —— the silloniang quantities of carbonic aeid to 100 not dry substa Cl weit ay, ‘ i - 24 pts. ©0, Bean-straw, - ° we F 16 Meadow-hay, - -~— = 5 pepo! as é Oat-straw, = - : iy é 02 « “ Wheat-st - - w sega? a ‘“ Crushed beans, - i Oo « “ In the urine, the greatest amount of carbonic acid—1°6 to 1°8 per cent— was observed after feeding with clover-hay. In urine excreted after the ingestion of nlaeorsetgn and crushed beans, carbonic acid was totally wanting. The urine from cattle fed on wheat-straw had an acid reaction instance the reaction was alkaline. By adding to the day’s ration of straw 75 grms. acetate of potash, the carbonic acid and the alkaline re- action reappeared. od. n some points in the composition of Soils.—It has been assumed by chemists that hydrated oxyd of iron and hydrated alumina as well as Roe Gites i hdd usual, ingredients of soils, though no direct proat of the een furnished. LEXANDED Motuszr (Die / wirthschafllichen Versizhe Stationes iv, p. 227) has examined various seignette salt when boiled with hydrated sesquioxyd of iron dissolves the latter, gem’ a dark-brown alkaline solution, ‘The hydrated sesqiti- one does not lose its nag A ode air- dae nor We ee at = mee ’ e di which ess a Saoutle ocher-yellow re Red soils, and also : having a light color, yield little iron to a mpared to that whie tain hydrated sesquioxyd, the red, ee ous sesquioxyd, a colored soils appear to contain a silicate on. a Hydrated alumina ria scarcely fond at all. He supposes th alumina exists in nearly all cases as a silica ‘th By digestin Ade aye’, soils of the slctates of Stockholm directly ¥" id, solution of carbo te of soda, or by treatment with chlorohydrie it ort very little silica is is taken up. On the other hand, the residue that ns after — g on them with en al acid yields much ner id en 15 percent. It hen eo that in the soil the pe for the. mos part in a state of combina of the Note—tThere can be little doubt that the. “iydiows silicates of th? various bases occurring in the soil—or its zeolitic constituents #5 they Mineralogy and Geology. 293 y be termed, enact a series of most important functions. ae sti of Daubrée on Metamorphism, Ann. des Mines, [5], xv nfs Smithsonian Report, 1861, have elucidated, in the most clear and striking manner, the conditions and results of the action of warm water on the vi eg en and have shown that cerytallised neg may be produced fi m them y its influence ay and Eichhorn (this Jour., xxvii, 7 1-85) h ave made it in the highest degree ioe that the absorbent power of soils for the alkalies is due to the action of amor- phous oe compounds; and it is hardly to be questioned, that the bad) results of tillage and many of the hitherto inexplicable effects of manures, will be found to bear close relations to the processes of soil- Pe a in which silicates, water and carbonic acid play the chief par 8. W. J. IV. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 2 : 1. Manuel de Minéralogie par A. DesCiomzEavx, Maitre de conférence a "Bole Normale supérieure, etc. Tome premier, 572 pp., 8vo. Paris, —s of mineral species, a and b se means, Gatiacially the form as Town new light on doubtful cesta, ig BR many that Nate ‘been Smed together, and referred others, supposed to be distinct, to , cir true places. Many of these results hbes taal been mentioned nefly in former numbers of this Journal,’ and it is hardly necessary to Pal into details in this place. Suffice it to say that the work is a source original information on minerals, indispensable to all who are inter- ested in having an accurate knowledge of species. 2. Report on the Geological and Mineralogical specimens collected by Mr. C. F. Haut in Frobisher Bay.” one New Yous Lyceum or Naturat History :— One of your committee, appointed to examine the collection of min- i and fossils. made by Mr. Chas. F. Hall in his late Arctic ey enn Pedition, begs leave to report, that he found ao an ate fossils ‘mall in number of individual specimens, and lim n the range of its Ly but t possessing great interest to the pres rat vot Atoti geology. € S] pecimens are as follows :— Maclurea magna (Lesueur), No. of specimens 7 Casts of lower surface. We ee E; “ “ 1 _ Ort y worn ime pea. Heliolites (new spec ele wee - . oe Helio ag . 4 Halysites catenulata (Fischer), = eke ae Receptaculites (new species). . no This collection was made at the head of Frobisher Bay, lat. 63° 45’ N., : » Lh xx. 270, xxv, 896, xxix, a peas te medina * Communicated to this Journal by the L AM. Jour. Sci.—Seconp Sens, VoL. XXXV, Ko. pratt 1863. | 38 294 Scientific Intelligence. and long. 70° W. from Greenwich, at a point which, Mr. Hall says, is ‘a mountain of fossils,’ similar to the limestone blaft at Cincinnati, with which he is familiar. This limestone rests upon mica schist, speci- mens of which he also brought from the same locality. Whether the limestone was conformable to the schist or not, Mr. Hall did not deter- mine. It is much to be regretted that this interesting point was not examined by him, as it is doubtful whether this locality may ever be visited by any future expl he fossils, without doubt, are all Lower aa The Maclurea magna would place the limestone containing it on the horizon of the Chazy limestone of New York. . The Halysites planter has been found in Canada in the Trenton a) — in New York not — than the Niagara Limestone. The End 8 proteiforme belongs to the Trenton limestone. The @ Replaces is is alike the several ceil of the Galena limestone of the West, or the &, occidentalis of Canada, continent. This may be that species, or it may be a new one; which it was, we have no means of determining. The Orthocerata were but frag- identification of strata, corals are not always reliable. Whether these species are similar or identical with any in the Canadian collection, it was + of my niu er to determine, They are unlike any figu by Mr. I. W. - Ite R. P. Srev “6 and some were from the saad in its natural position. There w ger in the rock, it presenting the usual variations in compos osit io he other specimens were an argillaceous limestone determined by! fossils to be Lower Silurian; a single specimen of quartz, crys aad and presenting besides the usual six-sided termination another pyram ose angle was much more obtuse; magnetic iron, some of which in found én situ and other specimens which were evidently pear ne had undergone for some time the action of salt water; a Bo ape iron pyrites, bituminous coal and nodules of flint or jas ae The part of this Report omitted gives reasons for believing te ° ° ing to mine and smelt ores; some otic found wed baie been the result of their operations with the ne iron.— * * * This theory is supported by the traditions of the gc say that the coal was brought snes by foreigners,? as well as bY te * Everything that seems to them peculiar they refer to this source. Mineralogy and Geology. 3 295 entire absence of any indications of geological strata so high up in the series as the Carboniferous formation. The siliceous pebbles seem to have served as gravel for the mortar used in building the houses for car- rying on the various objects for which the expedition was sent out. No trace of any mineral containing silver existed in the collections. The worn by the natives was found to be lead. Tuos. Eeie TON. But little attention was paid to zoology, Mr. Hall not having the means at hand for the preservation of specimens. A single specimen of pyriformis Rathke, an Ascidian mollusk, originally found on the coast of Norway.” Only two species of birds were brought, viz: Colymbus tor- quatus Brunwich, and Plectrophanes nivalis Linn. mammals, he obtained two Lemming’ which were referred for de- termination to Prof. S. F. Baird of the Smithsonian Institution. He informs me that they agree best with Georychus helvolus Audubon, and ® should so consider them for the present. | Gzo. N. Lawrence. Jou from the Blue Limestone of Cincinnati, by G. Granam, J. G. ANTHONY dU. P. Jamas, illustrated by a figure from a drawing by the last-men- tioned. In a recent letter from Mr. James, the writer learns that the . bee So to it, Deriving the name from the true discoverer, the species will then ere amesit modern Limulus : The shield is three times as broad as long, has a strong thickened border, rounded lateral angles, and small but quite prominent eyes. ents h i a one is a straight spine, which may have been, Prof. Hall obse ag spine of this species. is ites, found in the Potsdam sandstone of Canada by Logan, may : Proceedings of the Portland Society of Natural History, vol. i, Patt 1—This volume of 100 octavo pages is the first publication, in 296 Scientific Intelligence. form, of the Portland Society of Natural History. It contains many papers of interest, a plate of coa! plants of the Carboniferous age, and a valuable geological map of the northern portions of the state of Maine. If the future numbers of the Proceedings are equal to the first, their pub- lications will contribute much to the progress of science. ost of the papers in Part 1 appear to have been communicated by smembers of the Scientific Survey of Maine: and we understand that the be deposited in the rooms of the society. The following are the titles of of Maine, by G. L. Goodale, Botanist to the Maine Scientific Survey :— Catalogue of the Mammals and Birds of Maine, compiled by C. HL B. F. Fogg, M.D. :—Fossils of the Potsdam Group of North America, by C. H. Hitcheock :—Grooved ‘Boulders in Bethel, Maine, by N. T. Troe, M.D.:—Description of a new species of Carpolithes from the Miocene Tertiary o Vermont, by C. H. Hitchcock. present condition of the Crater of Kilauea on the island of Hawaii ; es Rev. Tirus Coan.—The a facts on the — con- dition of the crater of Kilauea are taken from a ne dna o Prof. C. S. Lym melted lavas 20 to 50 feet hi h. “ Qeoasienstip it overflows, or vei its 0 mit & lava is piled up, rising into se A and turrets, © as to sys ve in the distance, a cathedral. This i is called Pelé’s Temple. elevated by upheaving forces, and the eieediesa once the “Black Ledge, " ee — portion of the crater. I think the central area is not more than 600 sl low the highest point in the outer wall of Kilauea. Near this serine portion of the crater rests an irregular and broken ridge of ase masses of very compact basalt filled with grains of olivine or chy ae 7. Arsenids of Copper from Lake Su, —ScHEERER vir : rid und Hiittenminnisches Zeitung, xx, p. 152, an account of a pein a metallic mineral found as a boulder on the banks of the a — near Superior City, iia He found it to contain 86 ee _ of copper ane 14 pr. ct. arsenic. On the weathered surfaces it was ng hi while fracture fn was yellow, tarnishing and becoming on ave to the air. It was considered by several members * See this Journal, [2], xxii, 75. Mineralogy and Geology. 297 “Miners’ Union” at es to be a furnace product, perhaps made by the Indians. Dr. Kenngott very properly classes this substance with whitneyite ( Uebersicht, 7861, p- 114), and the mass is unquestionably a Tr. Genth (this Journal, [2], xxiii, p.191). A further notice of this boulder has been sent to Prof. Silliman, Se by Col. Chas. Whittlesey of Cleave- land, from which we extract the following facts. It was found on the small pieces of cale-spar. The fragment analyzed by Scheerer gr sent to him by Col. Whittlesey through Mr. Boole, who was then a student in ro etig Col. Whittlesey considers that this boulder was transported to the St. Louis River, from some vein, by the northern drift. - had the usual worn aspect of the copper boulders of the Lake Su uperior region. writer is informed by Mr. C. F. Eschweiler, Giperiarandett of the _ Royale Mine, that a vein of arsenids has recently been discovered on the property of the Columbia Mining Company at Houghton. The whitneyite is there found associated with native copper and domeykite. %, Catalog einer Sammlung vom 675 Modellen in Ahornhols, zur beucue der Krystallformen der Mineralien, ausgegeben vom Rhein Be susetlien: Compiiie des Dr. A. Krantz in Bonn. pp. 50, Sen: nn, 1862.—This sien is a —— ‘of collection of erystal models now made by Dr. K The models 1 to 78 illustrate the Pe namnetric system, 79 to 151 me dimetric system, 152 to 343 the hexagonal system, 344 to 506 the trimetric system, 507 to 645 the Monoclinic system, and 646 to 675 the triclinic system, ee these are 81 models of twin crystals, illustrating twinning in 44 spec catal The models are made with the ene I many of them se eopies from models furnished to Dr. Kran a ey are made of maple, aa have an erat © diametes of 6 centimetres {about 2 inches). They are sold in Bonn sy 120 P: thalers, Gud. B, V. ZOOLOGY. a Contributions to Conchology, vol. ii—A Monograph of the Order . holadacea and other papers ; as seat W. Trvox, Jr. Dec. 31, 1862, Ferry, Seams ] the United States,” (13-82),' “ Synopsis of the Recent Species of ? See this Journal, [2], vol. xxiii, March, 1862. 298 Scientific Intelligence. chenide, a Family of Acephalous Mollusca,” (33-62), “ On the Classifi- cation and Synonymy of the recent species of Pholadide,” (63-93), “Notes on American fresh water Shells,” (95-96), “Monograph of the Lies Teredonide,” (97-126), and “Description of a new Genus and Species - Pholadide,” (126-127). The Pholadacea, as will be seen from the above list, are divided into three families, first severally distinguished by Mr. Carpenter. These fami- ies may be natural, the Teredonide being most justly separated from the Pholadide, with which they had been confounded until distinguished by Carpenter; but, to the number admitted by Mr. Tryon, would per- haps be properly added another, the Aspergillide of Gray ; the presence of fringes or tentacles at the front of the mantle, and ‘the consequent development of tubuli radiating from the edge of the anterior disk of the tube, conjoined with the modification of the other part, appear fully to justify that distinction. There would then be four allied families, Pholadide, Teredonide, Gastrochenide and Aspergillide or Brechitid . The propriety of the erection of this group of families into an “ order, s has been proposed by some and adopted by Tryon, is extremely questionable. The genera of the Pholadacea accepted by Mr. Tryon are numerous, but apparently not more so than are natural. A number, it is true, have en The “ description of a new genus and species of Pholadide” forms a0 Appendix to the monograph, and makes known an — addition n, fro w York Bay; monograph is exhaustive, almost every reference to any genus eine cies having been given. The author proposes to publish an illustrate? descriptive monograph of the same Pholadacea at a future time, nished with requisite material—for which he appeals to collectors. of _ In the “Notes on American fresh water Shells,” the subdivision © the genus Vivipara Montfort (properly Viviparus), into four sabgenee _Vivipara, Tulotoma Hald., Melantho Bowd, and Haldemania Tryo”, proposed. This view will doubtless be accepted, although the ert guishing characters of Melantho are not given e latter includes ordinary Paludine of the Eastern States, and is distinguished by form of the shell, the sigmoidally sinuous outer lip, &e. A family pt nicolide is also proposed for the reception of Amnicola, but is unacce panied by a diagnosis. The distinction of that genus from the pert ride as well as Littorinide and Rissoida, is justifiable; it is indeed m nearly related to the Melanians but has no lateral jaws. The chi Zoology. 299 of the family, as well as of the Viviparide, and the subdivisions of each, will be given in another place by the reviewer. ne genus Amnicola named by the reviewer Chilocyclus, while the latter, distinguished by its large, globose body-whorl, is called Somatogyrus. ; z memoirs, brought together in this volume, are valuable contribu- tions to science, and will doubtless obtain for the author the merited . thanks of the scientific world. It were to be wished that more con- chologists would imitate him in precision and knowledge of bibli- ography. . Grin. 2. Analytical Synopsis of the order of Squali, and Revision of the Nomenclature of the Genera ; by Tuuopore Gruu. pp. 42(-47). (Re- printed from Annals of New York Lyseum, vol. viii.) On the Classifi- cation of the Families and Genera of the Squali of California; by Tux- OpoRE Ginx. (Proc. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phila., Oct., 1862).—The two articles cited are devoted to the systematic revision of the families and genera of Sharks, which the author regards as constituting an order of Elasmobranchiate Fishes, distinct from the Rays; the ordinal name of d cies, and f the generic names are given. As a sequel to the 8, synonyms of the ge g . this, to the number adopted from others, gives a total of fifty-eight Tepresented in our present seas; to that number, six others are super- added in the supplementary article on the Californian sharks. distribution amon three families, and in the union of the Millerian families of the Gaechircas Trianodontes, Galei, Scylliodontes and Mus- The A, lapidaria itself perhaps belongs to the Aciculide, and consequently to ' family from the other species. : 300 Scientific Intelligence. and the subdivision into subfamilies is likewise original. ‘The principal changes in the nomenclature result from the revival of names proposed d by Prof, are eight families of Squadi represented along the eastern coast © Ces. : ene @, oo : = S. Q 8 N $ 8 = = ey > $ ¥ 3 = Q & o~ = S. 2 = 8 = < 3 dontoide, Notidanoide, Spinacoide, an inoide. 3. On the mode of development of the marginal tentacles of in ie Meduse of some Hydroids; by A. Acassiz. 14 pp., 8vo. From a Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol.ix, August.) On Alternate Generation” Annelids, and the Embryology of Autolytus cornutus; by ose p ro . Soe. the marginal tentacles of Meduse. Designating each new intert co series by ¢ and a number, added as an index expressing the order 10 ®™ of the several series, he makes out a formula for the order ment, and also for the number of tentacles. Thus, in a young Tiarop the formula for the number of tentacles is 2i=4T ,+-41,-+167, 241, . ai | or in other words, the sum of the number of tentacles equals 4 of the 416 first in the order of time, +-4 of the second (or those next developed), ee of the third. In two older stages of the Tiaropsis, the formulas af St=4T ,-+-47,4-16t,+-8t, +82, 401, and St 4T 4-4t,4+161,+8¢, +87, +161, = 56t We refer to the paper for other examples of these important results. Astronomy. 301 In the second paper above mentioned, the author has illustrated, b ror ; — excellent figures, the reproduction by fission of some Annelids, and 1, On the double star u Herculis, (in a note to the Editors of this as dated Cambridgeport, Feb. 20, 1863.)—In the summer of 1856, i 2, Atvan CLARK ocein the LaLande Prize—The LaLande Prize of a gold medal, value 500 francs, has been awarded by the French ees Mr. Clark made this remarkable observation, has been purchased Chicago Astronomical Association. Ne The Astronomical Association of Chicago.—This new association ve purchased the great 184 inch object glass made by Atvan Crarg of Cambridgeport, Mass., for the University of Mississippi under the or- Mi of President Barnard. The price paid was $11,187, the same sum ssissippi was to have paid for it. It will cost about an equal sum to Mount it properly, th; '¢ congratulate the prosperous city of Illinois on the possession of 's remarkable objective, which already, while mounted only in a rude wood, has won for its talented maker the LaLande medal. he possession of such an instrument implies a well organized Obser- leek? with all its appointments, for the endowment of which Chicago heither the spirit nor the means. Jour. Scr.—Szconp Senizs, Vout. XXXV, No. 104.—Mancn, 1863. 302 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 4, Shooting Stars of Dec. 10th-13th, 1862.—Mr. Bengamin V. Manse writes from Philadelphia, that on the evening of the 10th of December, between 10454 and 11, he noticed about half a dozen brilliant meteors. They radiated from the vicinity of Castor and Pollux. The next morn- ing, during the half hour, 4" to 434, they were not remarkable for num- ber or brilliancy, but all radiated from the same vicin ity. n the morning of the 12th, Prof. Gummere and Mr. Battey saw at Haverford, Pa., 28 in 1} hours, ‘nearly all of which radiated from a point about midw ay ‘between Castor and Pollux Mr. Marsh adds, “the report which Mr. George Wood made on the 11th Dee., 1861, (this Journal, xxxiil, p. 149,) would agree very well with this radiant, so that I think there is strong reason to conclude that from the 10th to the 12th of December the meteors mostly belong to oné group radiating from the vicinity of Castor and Pollux. Is it not prob- VII. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. pe Scienti fic application of the Metric System of Weights and Meas- ures.—The establishment of the International Decimal Association in the year Tse) has at length resulted in the nt Bison nt of a Committee ee of merous witnesses of great eminence, has seniiad to Parliament a repor m e recommending the adoption, throughout the British Empire an and an . iste dence of 39 witnesses and an analytical index, forms a “blue hse nearly 300 pages. Besides matters of the utmost importance whee to the improvement of education, the pro f domestic adi and foreign commerce, and the advance of the general interests of ioe it merits the attention of all who are engaged in scientific pursuits ¢ : account of its statements in regard to the progress of the Metric Sy: among chemists, physiologists, and other philosophers. The witnesses ic se testimony relates to this subject, are, Thomas Graham, F.BS $i o Les | ° mr, ct t= ce) = S a Y 3 oO ba | Se o ba] ° , OQ So S o Be oa £ °o Ss tes] 2 - lw il -missi ' int _ it} . . the lost s missioners appointed by the British Government to restore chitectite in University College, Fonds and a Juror of the international Bxbibi, - tion; Dr. Bolley, Director of the Polytechnic School and nicole 7 Paar oe, at Zurich. The testimony of these gentlemen 8 > 3 lowing effe in Within rite last oa years = Metric System has m ade great P oe in the British Islands so that it is used almost exclave in che “pursuits. It now nine a sort of common scientific language U0 “everywhere. Papers published in England = = national and measures are neglected on the continent, being so far unin Scientific men generally look forward to the seein adoption of fi at ‘system, being of opinion that no other can prevail. It begins : wots ee ela Miscellaneous Intelligence. 303 ce in elementary English books. It is used in papers read before the al Society, On the other hand, the English weights and measures are so complicated that it is impossible to use them, and some of them, such as the scr uple and the drachm, are eile known even by name. The grain has been decimally divided for more than 30 years, aed ‘Mr. Oert- ling of London now makes delicate a with grain weights, which are commonly used by chemists and 4 the colleges. As far as scientific investigations are concerned, the o Engiish method is entirely . In our scientific jo ournals, ee are almost universally given in grams, and lengths in millimetres. In Switzerland, as well as in other continental nations, the Metric System is the only one in use for scientific Purposes : without its adoption se conte write on chemical or physical matters. In Alexandria the bui ali use the metric form employe by the Prench and Italians, Pei Sint and confusion being pro- duced in architecture and enginee ring the diversity of wei hts and u t the late International Bslibiticn in London the foreign jurors endanas in despair Pe task of drawing parallels between the values of British and foreign go : The claims of scie ence, to eh the benefit of the Metric System, have ___ likewise been represented at an interview, on the 18th of Nov ember, with the Rt. Honorable Milner Gibso n, M.P., President of the Board of Trade. On this occasion, Professor Cae of ‘the British Museum showed the Value of the system in the study of natural history. The majority of Be Pets in this science include the elements of weight and imeasure, ‘Zn science, innumerable mistakes arise from their variety, their Gr iotrieee and their want of system. Uncertainty arises between avoirdupois and Woy, and between eee of the inch into tenths and twelfths, both of Which are called “lin the United Tayng and the South American States, the employment é Metrical System for scientific purposes is all bat: universal, and, ii : Si institutions of learning where this system is employed by teachers, ‘“¢ results are always most apres ory. 2. Pasteur has been chosen and confirmed a member of the French o Academy, j in ae section of Mineralogy, in place of De Sénarmont, de- a feet, Des Cloizeaux was his competitor (ez equo), in the second rank es and in the third Hébert. The vote stood thus: 60 votes, 31 avis for a majority, the first ballot AA Pasteur 36, Des Cloizeaux Delesse 3.—Session of Dec. 8 VIII. BOOK NOTICES, Storer’s Dictionary of Solubilities of lr ped Substances, 1_Mr, a here presents us the first installment of a work on which he has i long engaged with well known seus and which is destined to ®onnect his name inseparably with chemical literature. This of the First Outlines takes us nearly to the close of the letter C, probably a Near approach to one third the bulk of the entire work. Paar itst Outlines of a Dictionary of the Solubilities of Chemical Substances. ‘Be : H. Stoner. pe cease t a 4 I, Svo, pp. 232. Cri ei Francis, 1868, B. Westermann & Co., New York, 304 Book Notices. the action of acids and alkalies, as well as the influence of one on the solubility of another. The alphabetical arrangement makes the work one of extreme convel= ience for reference, as it proceeds on no principle of selection, but gives the names of all substances, each in its proper place, with formulas of constitution, and in all important—we might almost say in all pe £ases, with references to original memoirs or authorities. The a ment of substances is by the acids rather than by the bases. Thus ‘the all the salts of these electronegative substances. It of course falls into the plan of this work to present full tables of solubilities of all the im- portant substances of common use in the laboratory, as ammonia, ae acid, the aceta tes, &e. &e. "The qualities of accuracy, fullness, see _ this Die alytical student who has well mastered his Fresenius can afford to 3 without it, while manufacturers mt pharmaceutists will find it the most ee convenient vade mecum at their comman Mr. Storer tells us in his preface that ie was driven, after pre ‘ years of labor, to the expedient of printing, in order to fa cilitate the The present work is shite as its is eee in rae points a general outline requiring innumerable details to fill up each § neat feature. But taken as it stands it is a monument of amazing labor, dition, and skillful ewe Such “compilations” can be ma an by the hand of a master. Mr. Storer has for some time been reco RE cee aie as See ie aed aad gr ourn Which have lately appeared from his pen in our pages, on a great varie, of subjects. The article on coal oils, published in the modell form of a review of Dr. Antisell’s book, has been very widely re reproduced, is oo dhe ¢ complimented by Wagner i in the Jahresbericht, while rere nee home ey abroad, pete quoted by Kerl, Otto, fg and ote ae 4 nn ~ amie Editor of that wall b knows ae rnal. pre assured of the early completion of the "Firat — iabor coker wih any author a longer life or more sustained a 3 than is _— in the completion of the work in all its por 3 according to the original plan, ich 2. New American Cyclopedia, vols. XV and XVI—This work, s been sea 4 six years in baat is completed. Some of the —_ — indg Book Notices. 305. vol. xv which are of most scientific interest are Steam and Steam ine, Steel, Sagar, Symbols, Telegraph, Telescope, Thermometer, Tides, Tobacco, » The most elaborate article in this volume is very naturally United Slates, which fills 122 pages, and contains a vast amount of valuable matter in a compact form, In volume xvi we notice the following titles of scientific interest: Vol- no, Warming and Ventilation, Weights and Measures, Walrus, Whale, Wheat fly and Moth, Winds, Zeuglodon, Zine, Zoology, and many more. A list of contributors, with the titles of their articles, is given in vol. xvi. Among them we find very many of our best authors in all departments. A mere enumeration of the principal ones would exceed our present lim- Us. One of the daily journals gives some statistics of this great literary enterprise, from which we borrow a few items?’ The present work of Messrs. G. Ripley and C. A. Dana is the first original general Cyclopedia completed in this country. Dr. Lieber’s valua- ble translation of the German Conversations-Lexicon, made many years ago by that industrious and erudite scholar, with the assistance of a staff of has left it ehind ; and no attempt was ever made, we believe, (beyond the issue of one supplementary volume, the xivth,) to bring up arrears in Monthly supplements like those printed by M Brock er- specially conversant. The labor of revising the articles as written, and again revising the 0 n Were sent to the authors, or to experts, for verification and correction. The cost of the revision alone amounts to considerably over twenty thou- sand dollars, The number of titles or subjects treated is about twenty-seven thousand 804 pages, of 52 million “ems” printers tenga requiring, for ° copies printed, over 12,600 reams of white paper. the tebellion, over 17,000 subscribers to the work were registered, of which ral sta! : se the enterprising publishers, have invested over four thousand dollars in this great literary venture, of co ee 306 Works Received. purpose intended in their —- as a general and popular reference, they are quite sufficient in most cases, and often perfectly satisfactory. The work as a whole is full ‘of information, accurate, and well arranged for reference. In any condition of affairs it would be a creditable produe- - tion, but continued to a eit end amidst a great civil strife, it is pe euliarly creditable to all concert : We understand that the Saige is to issue a npr gre volwall which will bring the work up to the present times, to be follow ed here- 4 after by ve issue of an annual volume, entitled American Annual Cyclopedia and Register‘ of Progress and erteng the iat volume of which, for 1861, has been on our table forsome months, and that for 1862 will be soon "issued in a style identical _ : the American Cyclopedia = OBITUARY. We have to record the death of several men of science since our last 1, James Renwick, long Professor of Physics in Colambia College New York, died in that city about 8 close of January, aged 78 years © enwick’s treatise on the Ste ir Bitig thie was ong a an authorit American. For many years Prof. = si Aig) retired from active ser + vice, enjoying with dignity an ample fort e 2, Mens C. Leavenworta.—Dr. Ladveaworts died near New Or q stothaty Chih. until at the call for volunteers, well ars and by no m neans firm in health, he went cheer to offer his life a nictttiet for his country. i 3. Dr. Asanex Crapp, a botanist and naturalist, died at an adval vil , Dec. 17, 1862, at his residence, New Albany, Indiana. He well known to collectors in botany and geology. ‘His chief palit , is a Report to the American Medical Association on the plan United States useful in medicine. 4 IX. WORKS RECEIVED. _ MaTHEMATICS AND Puys ine Report of th © Thirty-First Meeting of the British Association —- ment of Soentes & held at Manchester in sesuiomsaps. 1861, Lon 0, pp. 340 and $20. : ying “an . AMIN Perrog, LL D., re Ravlond edit ion, oston end Ca ds unroe & Co. 1861.. 8vo, pp. 327. a Théorie Mathématique de la Musique; par ALEXANDRE-P. ] “on ~ Density of Steam; Pr ge Fes &e. xg ‘the Tra ~ al Works Received. 307 gi ss nicest ontributions to Know edge.—Discussion of the Magnetic and co er gaan at the ‘Glonea College Observatory, - Phitadelphi, fa rt tt II. Investigation of the Solar Diu ee ED Ww Declination, ey its Annual Inequality; by A. D. Bacun, LL.D. Washi ington, oh 1862. The same. Par ‘IIL. recites of the Influence of the Moon on the Mag- netic Declination by A. D. Bacur, LL.D. Washington, June, 1862. pe On Meteorology; by Prof. J OSE eset, of Harvard University. Continued _ from the American Aimanac for Contributions 1 to pee ged for t the year 1861, from observations taken at Isle Jesus, Canada East; by Caanies SmaLLwoop, M.D, LL.D., Professor of Meteor- in the Un aren ty of McGill College, Montreal. Jntorno alla Corri ispondenza che passa tra i ‘enomeni peeiatig e le variazioni @intensita’ del Magnetismo Terrestre; memoria del P. A EC - ec aad Progressi eas Meteorologia. Discorso ine ak Pontificia Accade- Tibernia; dal P. LO Seccut, d. C. d. G., pea re duitOnnerraseee del Collegio ae: il giomo 8 Aprile 1861. Roma, 1 port of the Regents of the University of the Pres ‘of New York, on the longi- tudes of the Dudley Observatory, ee Hamilton College Observatory, the City of € Syra researches on the Au seciete ’ Boreale: es, and the phenomena which attend y A. pe 1a Rive. From the Phil. Mag. (Suppl.) for June 1862. Declination, obtained from the Photograms in the years 1858, 1859, and 1860; By Maj orge eneral Epwarp Sa- BINE,R A, Treas. and V.P.RS. From Proe. Roy. Suc., Sink 1861. Fy ponies ean Ri Sige sha Circumpolar and Time Stars, —— for C use of the U.§ vey; A. D. Bacus, Supt. Washington, 1 e “% he Physical Constitution of Comets; oe OLINTHUS GREGORY Downes, F.R.A.S. Cone eration on “bee ne Snag PR attending the Fall of Meteorites on the Earth; by R.8.L. & E., &e. From the Philosophical Magazine eteoreisen von Sarepta; von dem w. M. W. Harpryaer. Mit 2 Tafeln. rey der Wissenschaften vorgelegt i in der r Sitzu ung am 24 Juli 1862. We cone to account for the physical condition and the fall of Meteorites upon Sur Plane inca, & &c. From Brit. Assoc. Report, 1861. Be AGRIC A Ma ven of ¢ Chem! st rete stive rsd Theoret ical; by WiLLIAM ODLING, MB., : ERS, &e. Part I. 8v Hig ag a Lond ondon: Longman, Green, Longman & Roberts. On Mauve and Magenta: a epi tlic cago in i 2g ees of the Royal Institu- = of Great t Britain: by A. N, Ph.D., . F.R.S., President of the : Pell l Society. London: Ww. Saneat” & Bons. “ Re liminary Researches on Thallium; by WiLttaM Crookes, Esq., F.C.S. 1862. « ee ; Frei a Oo mE Sere g ow Be og oO be o 3 ~ 45) 5° oO? ae) So RSs as B ro hy aah we Re cl lations 5 a'Tsomo hisme qui “sgn entre les Métaux du groupe de : va ieee haa “aa ated to Hon. Isaac Newton mitted . WETHERILL, Ph.D., M.D., Chemist pT, Tyson, State Agricultural Chemist, to the . Balt manufacture f the Sagi aw Valle Michigan A WINCHELL. «The Salt Company of Ononda, icuse, 1862." aq Salt rt on the ae of pce, by C ah 308 Works "Redeivdll. rhea to the knowledge of t Sorghum saccharatum, W.). Albany, 1863. Seok Stainenetens Xv Y. State Agricultural Bo ciety, 1 Circular. from the Commissioner of Agriculture of the United States, on the rieultural, Mineral, and Manufacturing Condition and Resources of the U: States. ago 1862. GEOLOG PE oy pte of the Primitive World, Me of en ical and Paleoutol a 4 . Unger, of Vienna. Edited IGHLEY, F.G.S., F. ‘s, ce. Ib nica by 17 photographie plates. ion ae ode of Formation of some of the "iiver-valeys in the in of Ireland; by J. Beete Jouxkes, Esq., &c. From t wart. Jou eol. Soe. for Nov., 1862 Geological Survey of Canada.—Descri mye Catalogue of a collection of the Eco- nomic Minerals of Canada, oad 8 - Crystalline BockE oe ent to the London Inter i i ovell. Notice of some new and ‘imperfectl ‘known Fossils from the Primordial Zone eo Sandstone and Calciferous Sand Group) of Wisconsin and Missouri; ty May, 1862. From the Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sei Description of new species of Fossils from the Devonian and Carbonif iferous Rocks of the reins 4 hig nutes ges A. Wuite, of Burlington, Iowa. From the Proc. Boston t. Hist., 362. tions of Fossils Seas the Marshall fo Huron Groups of Michigan; bY ALEXANDER WINCHELL. From the Proc. Philad. Acad. Nat. Sci., Sept., 1862. Notes on aby Surface Geology of the Basin of the _— eat Lakes; by Dr. J. 8. New BERRY. Fro e Proc t. Soc. Nat. Hist., May, 1 Ueber peg sane kroleformize Ve sung des Rutils; von Gustav Rose. e des sige I. Groupe Probatoire, eon renant la be cen Haidinger, la Colonie se ci et la Coulée Krejci. Par Joacuim BARRANDE dos faits Matériels. Bar Joac prom Sesdoroida’ with asa ea es raw aed Geatrokbiia. Merits and allied forms; by Jam Albany Institute, Feb, p. 23. “a Y, ATURAL D Annual Re eport of the Trustees of the Museum 6 of Comparative Zoology, ron with the roe ta of the Director. Boston 4 Mat for a crates: of the North Aeneid Orthoptera; by Samuel } Sot ean” From Boston Jour. Nat. Hist., Vol. Pee No. 8. i nig om ae re i On the genus Colias in North America ; by Samuen H. Scup F ceed. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Sept. po North oo Miscellaneous Collections.—Synopsis of the Neuro tera of America, with a list “ the South Aaations species; prepared for t e 8 Institution by Herm me ark Washington, July, 1 of forty: Description of a ne ‘of Fen mow spel of the family Melanide, and suales five new species, eseription nee Pee new , ee) . te of en! Unit Description of two new species of Exo d one Monocondy scription of a new genus (aosiopadis) of ‘the family Malan idee ri el hn cies. Description of eleven new species of Melanide of the Unit reigns ae Isaac Lea, LL.D. Philadelphia, 1 @ oe on — number 3 Unionide. He tye oi of Fifteen new species G ni ies ‘dveen, and 22 ponte peat by a in Lea, LL:D. eee mite De la Méthode Si de entale dans l'étude du Phénoménes de la Vie; P° Baltetin of | the. er York Academy of Medicine. Vol. II, N aie i ria—Vomiting in is“ New York: maavee Bros. yi Bro, ; The Institutes of Medicine ARTIN PAINE, -» &e. coed net er & Brothers, ety 8vo0, pp. 1130. + Sonat Of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester. 1861. ehroceedings 0 of the Laer st and Philosophical Society of Liverpool. ae rete dell’ WF Tgegnere-Architetto ed Agronomo. Anno ix. Num. 7° 8 ’ ; e Agosto ilano. Pag “Journal of Natural said Vol. vii, No, 11. Boston, 1861 (P! ) BP. 300-828. as nates), ip Him added Sy 35! 5 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] —On American Devonian; (ina letter to the Editors f.S. 0.6 from J. W. Dawson, Principal of McGill University). Gentle your January number, I observe that some American geologists are Inclined to refer certain rocks, hitherto regarded as Upper Devonian, to the Carboniferous period. Will you permit me to State some facts, derived from the study of fossil plants, which seem to me to militate against this view, at least in so Eastern America is concerned. : In my investigations of the Devonian flora of Eastern America, Carried on for several years past, and the latest results of which are published in the number of the Journal of the Geological Society of London for November, 1862, I have deseri or identified sixty-nine species of land plants from Devonian beds; and of these only 10 or 12 are even probably Carboniferous spe- Most abundant species are also found in the undoubtedly Devo- é sandstones, as well as at Perry in Maine, in both of Dian G: 2 Which localities the flora is quite distinct from that of even the west Carboniferous beds, (‘‘Sub-Carboniferous” of some au- thors). At St. John, New Brunswick, where, in beds which I leve to belong to the Upper Devonian, there is a more abund- _ nt flora than at the other places mentioned, a larger number, * Including the beds formerly incorrectly referred to the Catskill group. 1863, AM. Jour. o1.—SEcoxp Series, Vou. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, a 40 310 J. W. Dawson on American Devonian. but still only a small proportion of the species, are probably Carboniferous. In Pennsylvania, in so far as j the statements of Mr. Lesquereux and the figures given by Prof. Rogers, the flora of the ‘‘Vergent” and “Ponent” series ap- oe to be of similar character with that of the Chemung of ew York. In Europe the observed facts are not dissimilar from those above stated. Goeppert enumerates fifty-five species as known to him in the Upper Devonian, and of these only six seem to be Lower Carboniferous. Of forty-six species from the Cypridina Shales of Thuringia, described by Unger, only four are Carbonif erous. The scanty flora of the Devonian of Scotland and Ire land, described by several British authors, appears to be equally distinct from that of the Carboniferous rocks, while it closely resembles that of our American Upper Devonian. It is also to be observed that several generic and sub-generic forms of the Devonian are wanting in the richer flora of the overlying system. In the Carboniferous system, while it is true that there are somewhat different assemblages of plants in the Lower, Middle, and Upper members; and that, within these, there are minor differences, arising probably from local causes affecting the er tribution of species, and also from the greater or less amount : driftage, and the greater or less coarseness of the sediments; there is a grand unity of the fossil flora throughout. Even the lowest Carboniferous beds, at least in Eastern Americ re genera and most of the species are identical with those of Fo middle Coal Measures, separated from these lower beds ¢! he arine Limestones and the Millstone Grit. On the other ii so soon as we descend to the Devonian, we find some new gene™® and a distinct assemblage of species. athe The only apparently exceptional case known to me, an Witt may have some connection with the facts stated by Prof. rich chell, is that of certain beds at Akron and Richfield, Ohio, "ie have, I believe, been regarded as equivalent to the bed :. vonian of New York. In asmall collection from these es E shown to me by Prof. Hall, I observed two species W! the regard as identical with Lower Carboniferous forms, W a an _ distinct, and characteristic of another period. I do not at , Tocks including one flora and a part of another almost en evel J. W. Dawson on the Flora of the Devonian Period. 311 appears in Eastern America. Such gaps are usually local and bridged over somewhere. In the West there may bea transition, 4s would indeed seem probable from the Ohio plants mentioned above, in connection with the peculiarities of the physical geol- °gy; but in this case I should not suppose these beds of pas- Sage to be precisely equivalent in age to the Chemung group, but rather to be newer, and possibly wanting or represented by tren deposits in New York. If such intermediate or passage beds exist in the West, and if their plants have not been already collected and studied by Dr. Newberry or Mr, Lesquereux, it would be very important that a fe. 4 i Sy a : m, = : uv the, be supposed to connect. I may add that, for this purpose, * Most unpromising fragments, especially if capable of showing ——— Arr. XXXT.— On the Flora of the Devonian Period in Northeastern eae ; by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of eGill University, Montreal.! eg paper by Prof. Dawson is the one alluded to in his pre- ~ Communication. The 2d part containing descriptions of Species is omitted. ] " The existence of several species of land-plants in the Devo- han rocks of New York and Pennsylvania was ascertained _ Gany years ago by the Geological Surveys of those States, and Several of these plants have been described and figured in their _ > “ports.* Tn Canada, Sir W. E. Logan had ascertained, as early t yO in the ‘Proceedings’ of this Society.’ More recently a Messrs Matthew and Hartt, two young geologists of St. John, _ ew Brunswick, have found a rich an interesting flora in the foau;metamorphic beds in the vicinity of that city, in which a few sil plants had previously been observed by Dr. Gesner, Dr. . Copied from the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, Nov., 1861. ; ~ and rsead ny ian the é eology of 2 New York; Rogers, Report on sie: Vania. * Quart. Jour. Geol. Soe. Lond., xv, 47 a = i aes A 2 312 J. W. Dawson on the Flora of the Devonian Robb, and Mr. Bennett of St. John; but they had not been fig- ured or described. These plants were described in the Cana- dian Naturalist, together with some additional species, of the same age, found at Perry, in the State of Maine, and pre served in the collection of the Natural History Society of Port land. The whole of the plants thus described, I summed up i the paper last mentioned as consisting of 21 species, belonging to 16 genera, exclusive of genera like Sternbergia and Lepidostr- bus, which represent parts of plants only. : In the past summer I visited St. John; and, in company with Messrs. Matthew and Hartt, explored the localities of the are aetpypes | discovered, and examined the large collections whic ad been formed by those gentlemen since the publication of my previous paper. The material thus obtained proving unexpech edly copious and interesting, I was desirous of having oppor nities of fuller comparison with the Devonian Flora of New ee te; and, on application to Prof. Hall, that gentleman, i consent of the Regents of the University of New York, a 4 d to describe the new species. : * L Notices or rae Locatittes or THE DevontaN PLANT 1. State of New York.—The geology of this State has been © a fully Peieaied by Prof. Hall aid his Wolleagtes and the paral : lelism of its formations with those of Europe has been 80%" sively made known by Murchison and others, that it ¥ prof = or me to state that the fossils entrusted to me by a fall ae from the Marcellus Shale to the Catskill group sae a ve, and thus belong to the Middle and Upper Ys igioDS ritish geologists. The plants are distributed in the subdi these groups as follows:— oe * Vol. vii, May, 1861. Omens hes | Period in Northeastern America. 313 Uprrer DeEvontan. Caiskill Group.’ Cyclopteris Jacksonii Dawson. ae ge punctata, x nov. roxylon sien Ta, Simplicitas shomepre's opteroides, sp. no Lepidodendron Gas pianum Dawson, Psilophyton princeps Diasan BP rad Group. Sigillaria Vanuxemii Geeppert. Lycopodites Vanuxemi, sp. nov. — gracile, S noy. Cyclopteris Halliana Gappert. “ sp. n ophyton princeps pidodendren: Chemongens Hall. | Acanthophyton spinosum, sp. nov Rhachiopteris striata, sp. nov Mrippie Devontan. Hamilton Group. Syringoxylon mirabile, s “ h aa noy. yton princeps Dawson oie fe on — , 8p. n Gordan amie (2) Dawson. Siville ———, sp. no D "| i ifolia Dawson. : faenksths um reniforme, sp. nov. - Cyclopteris incerta, sp. n mites Transitionis s(?) Ge ppert. Bhachiopteria str! riata, bot ok —— inornatus, sp. nov. —— tenuistriata, s lepidodendron Gaspianum Dawson. —— pinnata, sp. no rrugatum Daw. 2. Maine.—The only locality in this State that has hitherto afforded fossil plants is Perry, near Eastport, in the eastern part and trappean or tufaceous rocks, which, according to the recent servations of Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, ® rest unconformably on shag or slates holding Upper Silurian fossils.” I have little oubt that these beds at Perry are a continuation of part of the Series observed at St. John n, New Brunswick ; and it is probable that th Bone, ey are re, Upper Devonian. The following species occur at 18 plac Lepidod ia Megaphyton? af eae ce ronnie rote Aporenyion’ Cyc lcshace ead Jacksoni Dawson. Pslephton pi wig Ber nov. laps ceum fave at nov. | Sphenopteris Hitchcockiana, er _ 3 Eopade—Dowaaian beds holding fossil plants occur in P anada, in Gaspé, and in Western Canada, at Kettle oint, ue Huron. At the former _ there is - extensive Series of sandstones and shales, regarded by Sir W. E as presenting the whole of the Devonian series, and con taining ; Now included in the Chemun , Report on the Geological Surrey of — now in the press. » See also notices Cees n and Prof. Rogers in re a ¥ 314 J. W. Dawson on the Flora of the Devonian plants throughout, but more abundantly in its central portion.’ At the latter a few plants have been found in shales of Upper Devonian age. The plants found at Gaspé were described in my former paper, and are— Prototaxites Logani Dawson. Psilophyton robustius Dawson. Lepidodendron Gaspianum Lawson. Selaginites formosus Dawson. Psilophyton princeps Dawson. Cordaites angustifolia Daw The plants from Kettle Point, noticed with doubt in my former paper, I may now refer to the following species :— Sagenaria Veltheimiana Geppert. | Calamites inornatus, sp. nov. g =] pond a ° my S oO wm @ ° a n ie) ba | < i) ag (2) =) ie] KH nm oR pe) oars nm & os oO ped =) wm e) 5 ® Qu oOo &. — i 5 ined. The oldest rocks seen in the vicinity of St. John are the s0- called syenites and altered slates in the ridges between the city and the Kennebeckasis River. These rocks are in great part eissose, and are no doubt altered sediments. They are uae of greenish colors; and in places they contain bands of dat slate and reddish felsite, as well as of gray quartzite. In theit upper part they alternate with white and graphitic crystalline = limestone, which overlies them in thick beds at M’Closkeney' a and Drury’s Coves on the Kennebeckasis, and again 0D ©” St. John side of an anticlinal formed by the syenitic or gneissose rocks, at the suburb of Portland. These limestones are seen in a railway-cutting five miles to the eastward of St. ae and at Lily Lake. Near the Kennebeckasis, they are une a formably overlain by the Lower Carboniferous conglomerate : which is coarse and of a red color, and contains numerous frag: _ ments of the limestone. wee ® Re of the Geological never of Canada; paper on the Devonian plants of ‘ G - Soc. Lon ay : - Bruns: ” Gesner’s Second and Third Reports on the Geological Survey of New #F ‘wick . tae in waists Report on the Agriculture of New Bronewite : granite, oC ge. tack fourm e —_ is penetrated by « thick vein 0 graphie Kes of a i ge ae Period in Northeastern America. 315 At Portland, the crystalline limestone appears in a very thick bed, and constitutes the ridge on which stands Fort Howe. Its colors are white and grey, with dark graphitic lamine; and it Contains occasional bands of olive-colored shale. It dips at a very high angle to the southeast. Three beds of impure gra- phite appear in its upper portion. The highest is about a foot in thickness, and rests on a sort of underclay. The middle bed is thinner and less perfectly exposed. The lower bed, in which a shaft has been sunk, seems to be three or four feet in thickness. It is very earthy and pyritous. The great bed of limestone is seen to rest on flinty slate and syenitic gneiss, beneath which, however, there appears a minor bed of limestone. Above the great limestone are beds of a hard grey metamorphic rock, ap- parently an indurated volcanic ash, associated with some sand- Stone; and this is succeeded by the great series of gray, olive, and black shales and flags which underlie the city of St. John. hese rocks are well exposed on both sides of ‘Courtney Bay, in the city of St. John, and in Carlton. Though somewhat con- torted, they have a general dip to the southeast, at angles of 50° to 70°. In some of the beds there are great numbers of Lingula, The comparatively coarse shales above described are succeeded by a thick band of black papyraceous shale, much contorted, and with a few thin seams of calcareous matter arranged in the con- of a greenish rock, consisting of coe igeee paste, or an amy gdaloid trap or a mass of fragments of such material too : = Gesner’s Second Report. 316 J. W. Dawson on the Flora of the Devonian intimately connected to be separated from each other. It is evi- dently a stratified member of the series, though its beds are very unequal in hardness and texture, and probably also in thickness. This portion of the series is well exposed on the east side of Courtney Bay, in the southern part of the city of St. John, and in the direction of Carlton, where its tufaceous or trappean members constitute prominent elevations. It seems also to be this member of the series which, turning to the south, constitutes Cape Meogenes. Reposing on the rocks last described, is the most interesting member of the series, consisting of hard buff and gray sandstones, with black and dark-gray shales. The sandstones contain nur merous Coniferous trunks; and the shales, which are sometimes highly graphitic, abound in delicate vegetable remains, often 12 a very perfect state of preservation. These rocks appear on the east side of Courtney Bay, near Little River, at the extremity of the point of land on which the city of St. John stands, and 18 the ledges and cliffs on the shore westward of Carlton. In_ these places they are quite conformable with the underlying rocks, though the dip gradually diminishes in ascending. — o rocks newer than the above are seen at Carlton or in the city of St. John; but near Little River a few beds of r shale and coarse sandstone seem to indicate the commencement of as new member of the series, the coast-section failing at this point, Mr. Matthew has, however, succeeded in finding a continuation of the section further inland, exhibiting first, in ascending order, gray sandstone and grit, with dark shale holding fossil plants among which is Calamites Transitionis. This may per hand regarded as the top of the group last mentioned. oat ad = PRE ae : : ‘ dred Pes 5 ee a eticee Tae est beds seen, as beyond this place they are bent ina syneli a a : Another most important observation of Mr. Matthew is = i near Red Head the member of the St. John series aig" a lage It dips to the northwest, y up as follows, the thicknesses stated being from measuret et : : Period in Northeastern America. 317 and estimates made bY Mr. Matthew, and to be regarded as merely approximate.' Carboniferous System, Feet. Coarse red conglomerate, with pebbles of the underlying rocks, ae constituting in this vicinity the base of the Carboniferous stem. Devonian System (or perhaps, in part, Upper Silurian). 1, Dark-red and oun weet laggy sandstones and grits; coarse angular conglome - 1850 2. Reddish conglomerate, ah quartz cebtbee: ssideh, purples and grey sandstones and rill ‘Aig Babi gray, and pale-green shales, A few fossil plan an6e 3, Blackish and gray hard shale and arenaceous shale} bu ff aa gray At ae and ~— re fossil pias Crustaceans and Spirorbis, - - 2000 4. Reddish isdiplomerate, “with ‘daly panto and’ rounded pebbles; trappean or tufaceous rock; red, paps and Fi Seas cnnahvortee and shales, Thickness variable, - 1000 5. eae Papyraceous _ with layers of cone-in-cone concre- 3 6. Ps d, ‘generally coarse jaye micaceous, » Bray slintes sik flange ae various shades of color, and wit reddish shale and tufa- ceous or trappean matter at rate lego: ns, burrows, and trails of animals, 0 feet or more. 7. White and gray crystalline limestone, with fiends ~ ale an beds of graphite 600 feet or more. 8. Gneissose and ie metamorphic beds with: bands of quartz- rock and slate. Thickness u The Devonian age of . shen members of this great series of beds I regard as established by their fossils,"* taken in con- hection with the unconformable superposition of the Lower Car- boniferous conglomerate. The age of the lower members is less in. They may either represent the Middle and pide De- Vonian, or may be in part of Silurian age. Their only determina- ble fossil, the Lingula of the St. John shales, affords no decisive * Tn my i te in the Canadian Naturalist, I gave a sectional view of the gen- eral a ent, as observed on a line of section from the Kennebeckasis River to se extremity of the peninsula on which St. John stands. The, sections referred to In the text represent the ries, on the east side of Courtney Bay, ae immediately to oe east of St. so “oho, ith the paeaton ascertained by Mr. ; thew towards a * The panne animal ienseine of the plant-beds No. 3 aecord very well with the evidence of the fossil plants. They are a pie Trilobite, apparently a Phillipsia, St rus, ra Luryp- genus, staceans are now in the hands of Mr. Salter. (See his paper on these fossils, read before the Geological Society, May 21, 1862.) There is also a shell, *pparently a ema, and irorbis, Am. Jour. Scr.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, 1963. 41 318 J. W. Dawson on the Flora of the Devonian Period, etc. solution of this question, and the evidence of mineral character is not to be relied on in the case of beds so remote from those ions in which the Devonian rocks of America have been most minutely studied. is Te In mineral character, Nos. 1 and 2 of the above sectional list might very well represent the Old Red Sandstone, or Catskill group, of the New York geologists. Nos. 8 and 4 might be re- garded as the analogues of the Chemung and Portage bbs es No. 5 would represent the Genesee Slate; No. 6 the remainder of the Hamilton group; No. 7 the Corniferous Limestone; and No. 8 might be regarded as a metamorphosed equivalent of the Oriskany and Schoharie Sandstones. The entire want of the rich marine fauna of these formations is, however, a serious 0b- jection to this parallelism, If, on the other hand, we employ as our scale of comparison the development of the Devonian sys tem in Gaspé, Nos. 1 and 2 will correspond very well witht upper member of the Gaspé series, and No. 8 with the rich plant-bearing beds of the middle of that series; but no mineral equivalent of the St. John shales and limestones occurs at Gaspé, unless we seek for it in the Upper Silurian. The rocks of the St. John group extend along the coast as far as the frontier of Maine, and there can scarcely be any doubt that the plant-bearing beds at Perry represent some portion the St. John series, most probably Nos. 2 and 3 of our sectional list. At Perry, the plant-beds rest on a trappean bed, which may be the equivalent of our No. 4, a member of the series much more constant in its occurrence than would be anticipated from its composition. According to Prof. Hitchcock, this last bed at Perry, rests unconformably on shales containing a Ling’ apparently not identical with that of St. John, and also_ other fossils of distinct Upper Silurian forms. The analogy of P erry; therefore, as well as of Gaspé, would point to an Upper Sil : St. age for the lower members of the St. John series, though at John they appear to be conformable with the overlying 0 it On the other hand, the unconformability at Perry ren ee a possible that the lower members of the St. John series a fee wanting there; and to assign a Silurian date to the lower re : at St. John would imply the entire absence of the od : + in imme characteristic Lower Devonian marine fauna observ and in Nova Scotia, as well as in Maine, though no os ae diate connection with the Perry beds; while, if the whole be 8 of St. John be Devonian, the absence of this fauna would 0? accounted for by the metamorphism of the lower beds. id ___ In the present state of the evidence, it would be premature . decide this question, which may be settled either by the ¢ “ “a eovery of portions of the lower beds in a less altered state," by tracing the St. John series into connection with the sm" — Coleman Sellers on the Globe Lens, etc. 319 deposits in Maine. In the meantime, therefore, we may be con- tent to regard the upper members of the series as belonging t the later part of the Devonian Period, leaving the lower mem- _ to be regarded as Lower Devonian or possibly Upper Si- urian, tee gentlemen of St. John, who, under the guidance of Messrs. atthew and Hartt, have diligently explored every accessible i within some distance of the city, and have liberally placed tir collections at my disposal for the purposes of this paper. Dadoxylon Ouangondianum Dawson. ; Cyclopteris obtusa Geppert. singe palpebra, sp. nov. | —— varia, sp. nov. “gmaria ficoides (var.) Brongn, —— valida, s Calamites Transitionis Geppert. | Neuropteris serrulata, sp. nov. 1, “aaneformis Brongn. | ——— polymorpha, sp. nov. Asterophyllites acicularis, sp. nov. ' Sphenopteris Heeninghausi Brongn. — latifolia, sp. nov. ——— marginata, sp. nov. ~— scutigera, sp. noy. —— Harttii, sp. nov. — longifolia Brongn. — Hi a, Sp. nov. wso Hymenophyllites Gersdorffii Gappert. ee ta, sp, nov. Ky nophyllum antiquum Dawson, —— curtilobus, sp. nov. Plonatset dlenetane* sp. nov. Pecopteris (Alethopteris) discrepans, sp. Le €ndron Gaspianum Dawson. nov. Yeopodites Matthewi Dawson. — ot ingens, sp. nov. : SUophyton elegans, sp. nov. —— (——) obscura (?) Lesquereuz, ~~ glabrum, sp. nov. Trichomanites, sp, nov. Cordaites Robbii Dawson Cardiocarpum cornutum, sp. nov. ~— angustifolia Dawson. obliquum, sp. nov. Cyclopteris Jacksoni Dawson. | Trigonocarpum racemosum, sp. nov. (To be continued). a Arr. XXXII.—On the nature and advantages of the Globe Lens Jor the Photographie Camera ; by COLEMAN SELLERS, ‘HE Globe Lens for oer ie mee cameras, patented by Messrs. Harrison and Schnitzer of New a iscovery of the use of collodion, seemed to leap into its present . high position at one bound, at least so far as the chemistry of 320 Coleman Sellers on the Globe Lens the art isconcerned. The negatives of to-day look like the nega tives of the first experimenters, and the chemical process of their roduction is essentially the same. But with the optics of pho- tography the case is ditferent—here there has been a steady im- provement. The wants of the portraitists have been met by the construction of new objectives suited to the style of pictures to be produced. In these instruments depth of field with free ad- mission of a large volume of light was what was most sought for. Theory could not dictate what shape or combination of lenses would best produce this result, and patient experiments were Te sorted to. ‘The requirements of landscape photography are quite different from those of portraiture. A portrait tube may be used to take views if it be provided with a stop or small opening to limit the amount of rays passing through it and thus to deepen the field, or increase the ‘reach’ of the instrument as it is technically called. This involves loss of light, and consequently diminishes the quickness of its working. We hear continually of rapid or instantaneous photography, and are often led to believe that the rapidity is to be ascribed to some wonderful sensibility of the chemicals used, but this is only partially true, and to the optician is due the most of the merit of instantaneous pictures. te trait tube with its full opening will, in a sky-light room, proauce a picture in perhaps ten or fifteen seconds. This same inst? ment, with the same opening and same chemicals, exposed to #8 extended view in bright sun light, could not be opened and shut arge an area of space being concentrated on the same — not be brought into focus at the same time. a The human eye, when the head is at rest, takes in an angle of view of at least 70° or 80°, the whole of which is not see clearly at once but can be examined in detail by the almost UF conscious rolling motion of the eye in its socket—the arnt oS Hence a picture of a landscape, for instance, to fill the eye a seem a true representation of nature, should include an angle at least 60° 6 for the Photographic Camera. 321 rent. I planted the camera and hoped soon to peel off from this charming view a cuticle (as Dr. Holmes says) which like plates of mica could be split and re-split for the collections of my friends. ut on the ground glass I found nought but the tumbling water. No rocks, no bridge, no stony river bed—the poor camera in its empty head was incapable of taking in the whole of the charm- ing picture. One of the dreams of the photographer has been of an instrument which should embrace a large angle and thus sat- isfy the wants of the eye; but, with the majority of the attempts in this direction came other evils, the greatest of which was dis- tortion of the marginal lines. The aplanatic lens of Grubble is said to comprise an angle of 70°, but in a view before me of Trinity College, Dublin, taken with this lens, there is a curvature of the straight lines of the roof of more than one-eighth of an inch in its length. Mr. Sutton’s panoramic lens, a sphere of glass ed with water, includes a very large angle, over 100°, on the the picture be bent to the curvature of the plate upon which it Was taken, and thus viewed near the centre of the curvature. he Harrison and Schnitzer globe lens consists of two achro- Matic meniscus lenses placed with their concave sides together, and so made that their outer curved surfaces form part of a per- fect sphere and the light is admitted through an aperture placed midway between the two lenses, 1e., in the exact centre of the ex- tig tpass. The focus of such a “0s one and three-quarter inches in diameter is two and one-half Inches for distant objects, measur- as from the surface of the back ®ns to the ground glass D. The : Sircle of light produced is five nes ‘nches in diameter, and from this ma be cut the oe ork o _ Square of a stereoscopic picture. The included angle of light ' the five inch circle is 75°, and in a three inch square picture Cut from it is contained just four times the area of any in- Strument I have ever tried, suited to similar work. The re- _ narkable property of this lens consists in its absolute correct- e oT production If it is used for copying purposes, the _ Marginal lines are copied as straight as the originals, and, if — 322 Coleman Sellers on the Globe Lens size, when reproducing the size of the original. As the lenses increase in size and length of focus, the plates covered increase in size, and the amount of glass in the lenses bear a larger pro portion to the brass work in which they are mounted, and hence the included angle of vision is increased, so that while in the 24 inch globe the included angle is 75°, in a 12 inch globe (that is, one of 12” focus) the included angle is over 90°. It has been said that the light, being admitted through a round hole m4 plane plate in the centre of the instrament, must be muc more intense at the centre of the field than at the margin, and some writers have stated this fault to be one of great magnitude. Practice however does not show the evil to be so great as they represent, if it exists at all. By reference to the cut, it W be seen, that the dotted lines « representing a pencil of light of the diameter of the centre opening passing through the axis of ™ instrument, and y y representing a pencil of light passing thr the same opening obliquely, doubtless the area of the centre one will be the largest, but as it passes through much thicker a Ae than the rays yy, may not the ultimate effect of each be equ ized? I do not pretend to any knowledge of the theory of of : tics, and must confine myself to facts. In the trial of many va these lenses, of different sizes, I have never found the err exist, and all the pictures I have made with the globe ~ : are remarkable for the even illumination of the field. ae the last two meetings of the Photographie Society of Mie ae — (February, 1863,) the merits of these lenses have D&™ ne iscussed—full credit for correctness of reproduction was ac corded to them by all; but the quickness of working wright he ight B tioned b tl ho stated that in broad sun i a 10n 'y one gen eman, who sta atin oro oe obit ! 1 had exposed an engraving for several minutes and h an under-exposed negative, while all others present who tried them were unhesitating in their assertions remarkably quick workers when the size of aperture into consideration. A few days ago I placed in bright an engraving from the London Art Journal, and cople leman who questioned its quickness. oper, assuming great intensity in the light and shOW! © Kable symptoms of over exposure, so that I can beat! that they were - was taken jon® | igs ee a ot plate with the same size instrument as was use@ - of 95 : exposure @ ae ve an impression which flashed up instantly ing for the Photographic Camera. 323 with sharpness, admitted, at In the English journals, when the accounts of this instrument tortion to marginal lines, but since it has been proved to be no failure, and its success is no longer an experiment, comes the declaration that it is “ old, very old.” Everybody had been making them for years and there is no merit of invention due to the patentees! Granting that lenses may have been made with an external spherical focus, as is the Sutton case, it will be dif- t to produce a lens, made previous to the invention of this how described, composed of two achromatic meniscus lenses com- hed as these are and producing a like result. The theory of Operation and mode of construction of the globe lenses admit of their bein g readily made of various focal lengths, and thus, by the of a series of instruments, the whole included angle can be made available on any size plate that may be desired; the six Meh focus coverin ga 64x84’ plate and the 12” focus lens cover- ing 14" 18" each including the same angle. One great advan- tage of short-focus lenses, when there is no spherical distortion, is 'n the appearance of perspective produced. If, for instance, we Would view a machine or statue to the best advantage, we stand at such a distance from it as will admit of our viewing the whole Now a picture be made by an instrument of long focus, it . iv (the 23” focus), this perspective effect may be too much exag- the a sizes it is not, and with the globe _ Year or so ago, Messrs. E. and H. T. Anthony pu Of ster graphs of Niagara, which seemed to me when I first saw : them to bring to my mind all the wonders of the stupendous 324 - or projections of any kind upon the trihedral thread, 3 Lh hom & o 8 =} s. i) c 2 4. or a 3 BS. bs =) oO - bone] 4 oo As ot ° = “ & o> gradua perfectly s € angles of the ibeasa appear, at first ae as if they might be spiral ows of sete, but a most careful and prolonged examination, with one of Spencer’s 1 objectives, convinces me that rey 8 are truly the angles of a twi of the cell. The other kind of nettling cell is much more sim mple i in structure, yet more remarkable. The seer shaft is very slender, in fact no larger t than “a rest of or often it does not project into the axis cylindrico-o but presses ¢ othe side of of the latter, and extends four —_ of the wags to its Curved sweep nearly to the aperture of the cell, fr ethan i again Per with long sweep, which is repeated eight to ten eile until the inner face of the ir a close coi i ise, i ~Xcept at the end, where it cae slig htly and seas in a blunt tip. The cell itself, when retroverted, is sensibl diminished in size, and narrows rapidly into the filamentary portion. It would se a a re perfectly incontestable that, _ 88 the cell diminishes in size with the expulsion of the thread, it forms the propell- : ‘98 power, and, by the contraction of its wall, forces its contents outward, ‘ 354 H. J. Clark on Lucernaria. a typical affinity to the fixed hydroid generation of the Sarsia, Bougainvillize, Steenstrupix, etc. The simple, almost unilocular chymiferous system is hardly more medusoidal, as regards the multiplicity of its subdivisions, than in some of the Tubularians, such as Tubularia and Corymorpha, which are described in Pro- fessor Agassiz’s fourth volume of his “Contributions.” In con- nection with the hydroid form of Lucernaria, I would also mention the total absence of a veil. This might, at first thought, appear to furnish an argument in favor of the high relations of this genus; but I think it is to be deemed as one of the signs of its inferior connections. However, let us look at the progress of velar development. In the ephyra state of all Steganoph- thalmata, the veil is at one time greatly in the preponderance, when compared with the size of the whole individual; but with owth it gradually becomes less conspicuous, and, finally, 1 some adult genera of this order, it remains as a mere trace a veil, or, as in Cyanea and some Rhizostomide, it is altogether obscured. Now, it is noteworthy that among the lowest of this order, such as Pelagia, we have a strong resemblance to the ephyra state, and the ephyroid, tongue-like veil is quite promb nent; and in Chrysaora it is hardly less so; ascending the seale, we find it yet more inconspicuous in Aurelia, and still more 8° however, is not the case, for as I know, from the study of the younger stages of Lucernaria, that it never passes thee os f in point of structure as the merest pigment eye-spot ° Gymnophthalmata. pee Thus, in balancing the value of the organisms of this a0 at we are inevitably led to the conclusion, on the one hand, that Lucernaria does not stand as a totality above all other Acaleph®, nor, on’ the other hand, does it, by any means, belong he em; and that much less does it affiliate exclusively with the into consideration, also, the eyes, which are found to be mee comprise not only the original ocular lappets, but also a part t aes, ise, the veil must be still farther inward, and very pro bly a ee a s corresponds to it, the two merging into each other. nally becomes a simple cavity. In Rhizostoma, Stemolph™ channeling is ried out than in Cyanea ; in fact, in He ™ little beyond Aurelia in this © ‘The ephyra-like appearance of Cyanea is illusory ; the lobes, about tot at : H. J. Clark on Lucernaria. 355 Gymnophthalmata. The only relation that it possibly can be considered under is that of a correlation to both types of Acalephe, —viz.: to the Gymnophthalmata, including the Siphonophore, and to the Steganophthalmata; yet not as a graduated con- the reptiles ; but, at the same time, containing organic features which separate each of them as a type from the others. Tn order that no confusion may arise here, I would state most explicitly that I do not consider the Ctenophore as one of the orders of Acalephze, but deem them to be a class by themselves, _ €qual in value to either of the classes of Radiata, whether Polypi, Acaleph, or Echinodermata, and standing next in rank to the Echinodermata. The division of the alimentary system of Cte- hophoree into two portions, as among Polypi, is sufficient to sep- arate them from the Acalephe, since the typical form of the Corresponding system in the latter is a wnity ; moreover, the é ‘ y position and peculiar relations of the tentacles of Ctenophoreg are hardly of less importance, in these considerations, as dis-. ‘inetive characters. I cannot conceive that the Ctenophors ma be included in the same classific type with the Acalephx without doing violence to correlative ideas such as are expressed in the fganism of the former; and much less can I admit that they have the most distant relation to the Polypi, excepting that, like the latter, they are Radiates. The same kind of arguments that have been used to show that Ctenophore and Polypi belong to one class might, with equal justice, be advanced to prove that € Acalephze are Polypi. We must not mistake a similarity for an identity, any more than that the cry of a child would identify it with a cat, because their voices sound alike, and cannot always be distinguished the one from the other by any single faculty of ur sen ses, The following tabular view presents at a glance the of the Lucernarie to the other orders of Acalephee, and at the _ Same time indicates the position of the Ctenophoras among the * other classes of Radiata. Potrer, ACALEPH. CTENOPHOR#. EcutnopERMATA, Stegano; h- thalinsta. thalmata. . 356 Prof. O. N. Rood on Prisms of Flint Glass, etc. Art. XXXV.—On the use of Prisms of Flint Glass and Bisulphid of carbon for Spectral Analysis; by Prof. O. N. Roop. In a letter to Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., which was published by him in the September No., 1862, of this Journal, I deseribed a new form of bisulphid of carbon prism, provided with compound faces, which corrected the distertion usually attendant on such prisms. I ventured at that time to suggest that large prisms of this kind approached a degree of optical perfection not attainable by the best flint glass prisms yet produced. Some late experi- ments of Sigmund Merz,’ one of the successors of Fraunhofer, furnish a confirmation of my opinion, which I certainly did not expect to receive from that particular quarter. In my letter] mentioned the discovery of two new lines in the interior of the line D, which made in all three fine lines that were thus enclosed, one having previously been laid down by Kirchhoff. To effect this, three bisulphid of carbon prisms of 60°, with a flint glass prism of 45° were employed; the sum of the refracting angles was then 225°. Now Merz states that by the use of a number of glass prisms, the sum of their refracting angles being 270°, OF 45° greater than that employed by me, he discovered a secon line in the interior of D, but nothing more; the third line 1t ap- pears was invisible. This second line observed by him I may remark, in my spectroscope was apparently as strong as that late down by Kirchhoff, so that it was a matter of some wonder that . it had escaped resolution in his hands. a Merz then employed eleven glass prisms, the sum of ree refracting angles being 480°; with these he discovered the 7 line I had previously seen, along with two additional quite Ane lines. He therefore describes the line D to consist of: two q! ‘ie broad lines, (those commonly known,) two of less breadth, 4 three fine lines. : Re _ When we consider that this optician had at his command tht : best flint glass prisms in the world, and observing telescopes - have hardly ever been surpassed, the argument to be pede = favor of bisulphid of carbon prisms properly corrected, is I think | a strong one; particularly when I mention that the teles - used by me were the common cheap French article, various’? amended to secure an approximation to achromatism. | an : __ Farther, according to the observations of Merz, a single a _ prism (48 lines) used with a large condensing telescope : ines in diameter), shows D resolved into five lines, demonstrating cme thus the value of size in the apparatus; this seems again ™ “a an excellent reason for the use of bisulphid of carbon OP©™ ground of its far greater cheapness, © Pence Dale, R. I., March 10th, 1863, — jer das Farbe lesnstvan on Bi 1 Merz i - Miinchen. Pog A nnalen, -und 6 d. polytechn. Vereins fir d. Kénigr. Bayern, Oct. See O. N. Rood on Revolving Discs. 357 Arr. XXXVI.—On certain Appearances produced by Revolving Dises ; by Prof. O. N. Roop. - Dove, some years ago, succeeded in producing a lustrous ap- pearance, by the binocular combination of geometrical figures, A circular disc of white card-board, 9 inches in diameter, with f its surface painted of a dead black, was caused to rotate by clock work at varying rates, while the bright light from a win- Night-hand aperture some of the white portion of the disc was It was found that with slow rates of rotation (2,3, revolutions Per sec.) the strength of the lustre was not impaired, and it was Just as plainly perceptible with more rapid rates. But when the disc was made to revolve so fast that its surface Seemed covered by a uniform tint of grey, and the so-called flickering had ceased, no lustre in the proper sense of the term — coul seen, the appearance being exactly that which is pre- _ Sented to a single eye under similar circumstances. When a dise of this kind revolves at such a rate as to we of a uniform tint, the duration of the impression produced on eye Wy the white half lasts with undiminished force while the black half is passing before the same eye, so that while the . nght eye is being objectively impressed by the white surface, the left eye has retained a niljecuhe impression of exactly the _ Same nature and strength; both eyes are then really in effect im- _ Pressed all the time in exactly the same way, and in consequence _ Of this no lustre is perceptible. But when the rates of rotation _ 4re lower than that above indicated, a different binocular com- _ * Farbenlebre, pp. 171 and 177. * This Journal, May, 1861, _ _ Aaé Jour. Scr.—Secoxp Serius, Vor. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, 1863. ue 358 O. N. Rood on Revolving Dises. bination takes place; here, while one eye has objective white light presented to it, the other retina is affected by a rapidly fading subjective impression, so that the two impressions are during most of the time of unequal intensity ; the result is lustre. lutions per second there is a loss of definition, and directly the appearance becomes a little puzzling; with a higher rate, as for example 4,2, per sec., the disc takes on a very remarkable appear ance, described by some as flickering, by others as “glitering. To make a little examination of it undisturbed by its surround: ings, I cut a circular aperture 2 inches in diameter in a large piece of card-board, and viewed through this with a single eye a por tion of the revolving disc. The appearance presented I can de- scribe in no other terms than by calling it lustrous, with rapid variations in the intensity of the light. In this case the stro objective light is seen through the weaker fading subjective 1” ression, and the latter is of course at regular intervals percel¥ distinct by itself, so that the eye is in effect acted on by two masses of light of unequal intensity, and is also sensible of theit e = sou oo ° S et sa © o yrs 0) 8 Smad o et p> oO o Ou Leo) fa) © ux | QO i4°) =] g @ ae oe a) ag B 2, of light is seen. It much resembles a mass of /um the expression may be allo bctagel ded in any ascertain whether this aerial appearance i ig plored this aerial | : Meese Pee Oe Cite tet She ee Neca 5 na A. D. Bache on a Magnetic Survey of Pennsylvania. 359 Art. XXXVII.—Abdstract of Results of a Magnetic Survey of Pennsylvania and parts of adjacent States in 1840 and 1841, with some additional results of 1843 and 1862, and a map; by A. D. Bacus, LL.D., F\R.S., Mem. Corr. Acad. Sci. Paris, Mem. Nat. A. S., Superintendent U. S. Coast Survey. INTRODUCTION, Iv the years 1840 und 1841, I made a detailed magnetic sur- vey of Pennsylvania and adjacent parts of New York, Ohio and Maryland, determining at a number of stations suitably selected, with regard to the course of the isomagnetic lines, the magnetic declination, dip and intensity; to these I added some dip and intensity observations in 1848, while on a tour through western New York and Canada. _ The total number of declination stations is 16, and of dip and “same stations 48. On assuming the duties of Superintendent of t S leisure to work up these observations, although Mr. J. Ruth and _ Observations and: results in the Smithsonian Contributions to ‘ Knowledge. The observations of 1862 greatly enhance the value : of my older operations, and furnish the means of presenting re- _ Sults for two epochs, about 20 years apart, thus, not only giving _ “€ most modern values but also determining, by the known sec- ~ ular change of the three elements, any intermediate results. _. The fruits of these labors, undertaken for this continent, at a _ omparatively early period and comprising the three elements, _ 4nd the whole conducted systematically, with instruments well Constructed for the time, will no doubt afford adequate means 2 Watching, hereafter, the secular changes of terrestrial magnetism ‘Within the geographical extent of this survey. 3 ae 360 A. D. Bache on a Magnetic Survey of Pennsylvania The declinations were determined with a new Gambey decli- nometer belonging to the Girard College: the astronomical ob- servations were made with a sextant and vertical circle and chronometer. (Grant, No. 3861.) The dip was determined with a portable circle by Robinson, and the intensity with Lloyd nee- dles by Robinson, and a magnetic bar and cylinder according to the method described by me in the American Phil. Trans., vol. ¥, 18387, in which the vibrations are made in a rarefied medium. The full paper, with records, will shortly be printed in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Abstract of results of Declinations, observed in Pennsylvania and adja- cent States in 1840-41. These observations were made with a Gambey declinometer belonging to the Girard College. One division (small) of the scale was found equal to 1454, as determined in 1844 at Sandy Hook by Lieut. G. M. Bache. (See Coast Survey Records.) 1 large division = 60 small divisions. The observations were made with telescope direct, with slit to the right hand or Z, and with telescope inverted with slit to the left or W.; also with needle direct or hairs wp, and with 0D le inverted or hairs down. With needle north, W. readings are +, E. readings —; with needle south, W. readings are —, 1. Te™ ings +. Recapitulation of Results for Magnetic Declination, 1840. a? 1. Harrisburg, Penn., July 25, 12"5 W. 2. Huntingdon, “ July 30, 1 52°3 , 3. Homewood, near Pittsburg, Aug. 10, 08 ‘0 w 4, Johnson’s Tavern, near Brownsville, Aug. 17, 0 25°2 ike 5. Irwin’s Mill, near Mercersburg, Aug. 24, 0 54°4 6. Baltimore, Md., Aug. 27, 2 16° Recapitulation of Results for Magnetic Declination, 1841. 1. Philadelphia, Penn., July 20 and Nov. 1, 3° 53"°7 Ww, 2. East a“ MBS 80 . on, 3. Williamsport, “ “98 4, Curwinsville, “ Aug. 1, 5. Mercer, ‘5 4 6. Erie, ° eS a wooen,. oka“ 3s 8. Ellicottsville, “ . th a“ e RPwWnoodeH ww . Bath, 10. Silver Lake, Penn, “ 23, Recapitulation of observed Latitudes, 1841. Williamsport, Penn., 41° 140 regi 40 Curwinsville, “ 57 7 Mercer, . 41 13°8 - 42 07°5 and parts of adjacent States. 361 Dunkirk, N. Y. 42 29°3 Ellicottsville, “ 42 18°1 « 20:8 a ? Silver Lake, Penn, 41 56°6 Comparison of Declination for secular change. Results of 1840-41 and of 1862. 1862. . Annual oe (Schott.) |Increase. Philadelphia, Girard College, | July & Nov, 1841 | 3° 53""7 W./5° 00/0 W.! 3/2 Harrisburg, July, 1840|3 12°5 © |3 44°5 «| 15 Williamsport, “ 1841|3 ‘31-2 |4 25-7 «| 96 Johnson’s Tay. near Brownsville, Aug, 1840olo 25:2 “|1 13-6 «| 2:2 Erie, . 1841|0 30°00 “ |1 33-0 « | 3-0 Bath, «“ 1841|3 31-4 * |4 47°9 “| 3-6 Mean, | 2°7 _ Harrisburg was occupied in July 1862, and all the other sta- tlons of 1862 in August. Longitude. By Chronom. | Ftivey. | adopted.” | adopted trie p C8 sea f oY otto Wilhamsport.) 77 01-3 7 OS'S 77 02 Curwinsville, 78 36:6 78 35 78 36 ie — o 12°5 80 05 80 06 80 06 unkirk, 79 27:0 79 22 79 22 79 23 Ellicottsville, | 78 46-6 78 42 78 44 Silver Lake, | 75 593 76 05 76 02 Milford, 4 53-1 74 50 74 515 Distribution of the Magnetic Declination for the epoch 1842-0. From the comparison of observations for secular change, we ve: From the preceding 6 stations the average annual increase 2'"7. os Toronto (between 1845 and 1855) 2'3 (see vol. iii of the 9rento Observations). ; General table of results referred to the common epoch 1842-0. No. u Observed decl. Re’d to Declination Station. Date. Ww. bh 1842-0. : 1 | Harrisburg, 1840, July 25 3 125 +40 3165 ;: ‘ « 30 r-52-3 Tt Near Pittsburg, wi Aug, 10 o 080 “ oO 12:0 4 Near Bro ville, “ ug: 17 o 25°2 “ Oo | 5S |Near Mercersburg,| “ «34 0 544 ng o 58-4 PS Baltimore, “* veo 2 16°5 “ 2 205 | 7 |Philadelphia, | 1841, {SUP | 3537 | 407 | 3 544 he « July 3 38-0 +13 39 9 | Williamsport, ‘ w Bd 3 ors 3 32-5 10 | Curwinsville, #. Aug.3 1 45°1 &“ 1 46° 11 | Mercer, “ «©. 4{ -o0 512 “ -0 499 12 | Erie, “ “ 0 300 “ o 31: 13 | Dunkirk, “ “ 12 o 525 “ o 53:8 14 | Ellicottsville, “ “ 34] 2 357 “ 2 37-0 15 | Bath, | “ y 3 31-4 «“ 3 32-7 16 Silver Lake, “ “ 9 30° “ 4 315 * Colton’s Map, 80° 10’. 2 Tbid., 79° 22-5. 362 A. D. Bache on a Magnetic Survey of Pennsylvania No. Station. Latitude. Longitude. yore y °] 1 | Harrisburg, bo 27 76 88 3:97, 2 | Huntingdo 4o 51 78:03 1:94 3 | Near Pittsburg, 40°47 79° 0°20 4 | Near Brownsville, 39°99 79°80 049 5 | Near Mercersb 39°78 7793 097 6 | Baltimore, 39:30 76°61 2°34 7 | Philadelphia, 39°97 a5: 59 38 8 aston, 40°70 75°25 36: 9 | Williamsport, 41-23 77:03 3:54 10 | Curwinsville, 40-96 78-60 177 II : 41-23 80 27 -0'83 12 rie, 42°13 80:10 2 13 | Dunkirk, 42°49 79°38 0-90 14 | Ellicottsville, 42°30 78:73 262 15 ath, 42:35 77°35 355 16 | Silver Lake, 41-94 6°03 452 Mean, 40°98 77°95 2°08 The small extent of the survey, as well as the comparatively small number of observations, will not permit the introduction straight lines. This assumption also serves for the recognin of = local disturbances as indicated by the differences of o served and computed values. Let D= + 2°08 + 2dL + ydM cos L, where di=lat. —40°-98 dM= long. —77 °95. The 16 conditional equations have been formed and valu x, y and D found from the normal equations are as follows: a= +0:5102 Ke y= — 1:206 D= + 2°-08-++-0-5102 dL — 1-206 dM cos L. A comparison of the observed and computed d ge shows ‘Ge icauty of introducing a term involving aLdM cos bi this has been done, and the solution of the normal equ@ gives us the following expression. : D=+2°14-10513 dL—1-231 dM cos L—0-203 dLdM eos be Comparison of observed and computed values. A Observed | Computed | Observed esa | Declination. | Declination. — Computed. y 36 Harrisburg, 3°27 42°67 + Huntingdon, I° 182 +407 Near Pittsburg, 0°20 o13 +04 | Near Brownsville, 0-49 o16 | +420 Near Mercersburg,| 0° 1°54 -34 | Baltimore, 2 2°21 +08 values 5 eclinations and parts of adjacent States. 363 Table continued, . om Stations. iseslsation. Declivatios: ~ Conpenil ° ° Philadelphia, 38 381. | 405 aston, 3-6 441 ~46 msport, 3:54 3°16 +23 Curwinsville, 1°77 151 +16 -0'83 o'04 ~54 rie, 0°52 044 +05 Dunkirk, og 1°29 -23 Eliicottsville, 2°62 r +40 ath, Sea a, 3-50 +03 Silver Lake, 452 466 -08 The probable error of any single representation is +194. The curves of 0°, , pass through the following positions: tat 41° 00" Lat. 42° 30’ Lat. 39° 30’ Long. 80 15 Long. 80 33 Long. 79 54 7... bet, - 41° 00° Lat. . 42° 30’ Lat. Long. 78 07 Long. 78 46 Long. 77 05 4° Lat. 41°00’ Lat, 42°30’ Lat. 39°30’ Long. 75 56 Long. 76 59 Long. 74 17 These curves have been finally adopted. | Distribution of the Magnetic dip, ~ —— of the isoclinal lines, for ‘ en sons more convenient ce oe of the usual analytical ression for the representation of the observed dips and for the "an pears the stations have been divided into six groups, llow No. |” Group I. Latitude. | Longitude. Date. Observed dips o é o i 1 | Philadelphia? 39 58-4 | 75100 | Feb, 1842 | 91 571 2 | Doylestown, 40 18 75 10 July 1841 72/931 3 | Easton, 40 42 75 15 “ 1841 2 4 | Reading 40 y 75 55 “ 1840 72 32:2 5 Pcunaowe. 39 3 75 51 ? Aug. 1840 71 4072 6 | Baltimore, 39 17°8 76 36°6 «1840 71 33-9 7 | Washington,‘ 38 53-1 77002 | Sep. 1841 71 15: 8 | Harrisburg, io 16 76 53 July 1840 72 20° 9 | Duncan’s Island, 4o 25 77 Of “1840 72 35-0 to | Near Mercers , 47 Ps f Aug. 1840 Sy 473 L Mean, 39 571 76 16- 1841-0 | 72 04°4 | ao mie? is the mean from groups of December 1840, October 1841, and Au- | * This station has been added to the discussion, as we have observations in 1840 and 1841; see Appendix No. 26, Coast Survey Report of 1858, Mea 2 ‘ip from in 1841 Several observers in 1841-0, 71° 183, and in 1e40-5, ate 13’5. Mean, 71° 157-9 364 A. D. Bache on a Magnetic Survey of Pennsylvania. No. Group If. { Latitude. Longitude. | Date. Observed dip. ° ‘ 12) i ° U 1 rmagh, 40 29 79 04 Aug. 1840 72 18°7 2 | Fros gh, 9 41 78 56 “| 6 71 313 3 ar Brownsville, | 39 59°5 79 478 we 71 535 4 | Near Pittsburg, 40 28 79 595 ya. 72 32" 5 | Economy, 40 37 80 16 et 72 35:0 6 | Wheeling, 40 08 80 42 a. te 72 “ 7 | Steubenville, 4o 25 80 39 cee 72 32° Mean, 4o 15°4 79549 | 1840" 72 13°2 | No. Group UT. Latitude. { Longitude. Date. _Obeerved ‘dip. | i 1 | Warren, hr 17 80 50 Aug. 1841 7 59°9 2 | Mercer, 4.138 80 16 Od 72 572 3 | Ashtabula Landing,) 41 54 80 47 “ 73 235 4 rie, 42 07°5 80 06 a 73 466 5 | Dunkirk, 42 29°3 79 23 cs 74172 6 | Ellicottsville, 42181 | 7844 ne 74178 7 | Berlin’s Tavern, 41 16 79 36 pated a 72 528 Mean, 41 48-0 79574 | 18416 73 307 | No. Group [V. Latitude, Longitude. ; Date. Observed dip. | eee , G7 ° fedt be 1 | Curwinsville, 40 57°7 78 36 Aug. 1841 72 497 2 | Belvidere, 42 13 78 06 ce 74 095 3 | Bath, 42 20°8 77 21 A ie 4 42 76 17 pope Ae 5 | Silver Lake, 4t 566 76 02 * 6 lk e, 4114 75 58 July -“ 7 | Williamsport, 41 140 77 02 4 8 | Bellefonte, ho 55 77 49 de he 9 wistown, 4o 35 77 36 « 1840 10 | Huntingdon, 40 30°5 78 02 | Mean, Ai 24.5 77 16-9 1841 4 No Group V. Latitude. Longitude. Date. 1 | Niagara Falls, §3 04 79 05 Aug. 1843 2 | Toronto Ob, 43 3g°5 79 21°5 “49 3 | Rochester, 43 07 77 39 waa te ao44 42 53 77 02 July S48 se, 43 03 76 $9 * 6 | Oswego, 43 26 76 3 Aug. “ Mean, 43 12.1 77 38-6 1843°6 No. Group VI Latitude. Longitude. Date. I §3 05 75 14 July 1843 | 2. | Schenectady, 42 3 57 ei 3 ; 42 437 73 40°7 Aug. “ | 4 | West Point, 4t 23-4 73 57 July “ 7) ew York, d I 3 56:3 Dec, 1841 6 | Milford 4.19 74 51-5 Aug. ‘ 7 Bushkill, 41 07 75 02 pie 8 | Princeton, 40 20°7 74 396 July 1843 ) Mean, 41 416 | 74248 1842°9 ee ® See Appendix No, 32, Coast Survey Report of 1856. This station was * owing to the numerous sinekveinia taken in this locality (at Lunatic Asylua Dip in 18413, 71° 410; in 18425, 72° 383, and parts of adjacent States, . 365 Recapitulation. No. Group. Latitude, Longitude. Date. Observed dip. _ 10 i 39 57°1 76 16:8 1841-0 4 7 IL 40 15°4 79 549 1840°6 72 13°2 7 Kil. 41 48-0 79 57°4 1841 6 73 10 IV. 4t 245 77 16°9 1841°4 IS 177 6 43 12°1 77 38:6 18436 74 a 8 VI 41 40-6 74 248 1842°9 73 47 Mean, 41 23-1 77 349 1841 73178 | (November) (Number of observations = 48.) _By comparing the differences in latitude and corresponding differences in dip, for each place, with the mean values of the ree their general accordance was ascertained. None of the &, Y, 2, p, g, a8 well as 2, are to be determin ication of the method of least squares, from the observations themselves. Locality. Date. | Dip. | Date. Dip. ee Annual ° 4 | ne | Washington, ca 1841 7 15° Aug. 1862 | 71 190 +015 Harrisburg, July 1840 | 72 20 July“ 72 316 +0 50 Near Brownsville, Aug. “ at 535 atta 71 56°9 +015 « 1841 | 73 466 Aug.“ 73 52:2 40°27 a sia): :|fe | se liamsport, a ~ 72 544 . . 72 51-0 -~o'f Philadelphia,’ Feb. 1842 | 71 571 Ae 72 058 +0°4 ; oe Mean, |i) +0718 Am. Jour. Sc1.—Srconp Series, Vou. XXXV, No. 105.—May, 1863, 47 366 x | Observed | Group. observed. computed, —computed._ I 4107 4 057 +0°050 II. 41 4216 -0'017 41 4:143 -0°040 IV. 3-912 3-876 +0°036 Vi 4035 0°000 VI. 3-618 3-616 +0°002 VIL. 3-858 3-846 +0-012 VU 3-606 3-605 +0-001 Ix. 3-665 3-708 -0°043 and parts of adjacent States. 373 The difference between the lines of this and the previous hy- pothesis shows the large amount of local irregularity. _ The lines of this hypothesis pass through the following posi- tions: 4° Long. 81°-0 Long. 77°°5 Long. 74°-0 Lat. 39 58’ Lat. 39 47’ Lat. 39 36’ 40 Long. 81°-0 Long. 77°°5 Long. 74°-0 Lat. 41 01’ Lat. 40 49’ Lat. 40 39’ 38 Long. 81°0 Long. 77°°5 Long. 74°-0 Lat. 42 02’ Lat. 41 51’ Lat. 41 41’ 36 Long, 81°°0 Long. 77°5 Long. 74°-0 Lat. 43 04’ Lat. 42 53’ Lat. 42 438’ The observed and computed values of X by the previous and last hypothesis compare as follows: ; x Le Station. by prev by last observed. | jh ase : rgateenta: ~ Philadelphia,* 417 19 -0'02 4-14 +0°03 Doylestown 419 411 +008 4:08 +0'1L Easton, 412 4:02 +0°10 4 +0°12 ing, 4:00 410 -O10 4:08 -0'08 Frenchtown, 431 4:27 +0°04 4:22 +0: Baltimore,* 4:26 4 32 -0:06 4:29 -0° ashington, 4:34 4 —0-06 4°37 -0'05 Harrisburg,* 4:07 4it -0-04 4:10 —0'03 n’s Island, 3: 4:08 -O-12 407 -o'll Near Mercers # 4:18 4:21 -003 420 | ~002 h, 403 4 06 -0'03 a 08 -—0:05 Frostburgh, 429 4:20 +0'09 4:24 +005 Near Brownsville,* 4:20 4:14 +0-06 419 +0°01 Near Pitts 4:05 4 -o-or 4:09 -0'04 nomy, 4:00 4°04 -0-'04 4-07 -0'07 ng, 4:05 Ait -0'06 4:17 -or12 Steubenville, “94 ‘O7 -o13 me SET, 98 94 +0'04 3°95 03 ercer, 4-00 +006 “95 +0°05 Ashtabula, “84 +0:04 “83 +0-01 "29 Sr -0'02 fe ig | +002 62 -0'08 70 -0:08 Ellicottsville,*. 72 75 -0'03 “7 —O'01 Berlin’s Tavern, 4-02 “93 +0°09 +0-08 insville,* “00 “98 +0 02 +O01 Belvidere ‘67 3-75 0-08 74 -0'07 h, “68 "70 —0'02 70 -0 02 2 , 61 te & “O12 “74 -0'13 Silver Lake,* 48 “96 +0°02 7 +0 Wi rre, 9 3-93 “03 3'9t +0:05 Williamsport,* 98 1°36 “92 +0°06 3°92 +0°06 Bellefonte, 4:07 ‘ 99 +008 : 9 +0:08 Lewistown, 3-98 40 -0'07 4o -0-07 Huntingdon,* 410 4-06 +004 407 +0°03 Niagara Falls,* 57 3-62 -0 05 358 -O 01 -Toronto,* 54 203 +o°01 3-49 +0°07 Rochester, 56 3-57 -oor 3-56 0-00 Geneva,* 64 35 +0-05 3-60 +0°04 Syracuse,* 56 53 +003 3 000 Oswego, “47 3-46 +00! 3-49 -0'02 Ax. Jour. Sct—Srconp Surtes, VoL. XXXV, No. 105.—May, 1863. 48 oe 374 A. D. Bache on a Magnetic Survey of Pennsylvania, etc. Table continued. : x x. Stations. observed. |, A oN 4 Utica, 3°55 3°49 +0°06 Schenectady,* 3-51 3-51 0-00 roy, 3-58 3:52 -0'06 West Point, 4-04 3-85 +0'19 New York,* 4-01 4-01 0:00 Milford,* 3-77 3-88 -O'FL Bushkill, 3-86 3-92 -0:06 Princeton, 4:23 4°07 +0°16 tion and dip +0°062. For the previous hypothesis, these quan- tities are respectively +0:030 and +0:059, showing but } ttle gain in the representation of the observations by the additional term dLdM cos L. : For the general representation, the probable errors are 0 050 and +0°051. Representation of the total force, From the expressions : X=3'900 —0°1934 dL-++-0°0134 dM cos L, I=73°25-+-0-912 dL— 0-0690 dM cos L, we have to deduce the total force p=X sec I. In the expression for X, dL—=lat.—41°34 and dM=long. —77°°45, in the expression for J, dL=lat.—41°-32 and dM=long.—77°'39. We have in Long. 81°00 X= 4200 we Lat. 39 971 =71°828 } agirendins Long. 77°50 X= 3°600 oe Lat. 42 89 I —74°-676 t — Long. 74°00 X= 4200 ) 4a. Lat. 39 -60 I —71°-861 | gas1s-49. Assuming in the expression for the-total force, 9=9 o +/+2dL+ ydM cos L, dL and dM as in the expression for X, we find: 7 ~=13'55+0-0451 dL—0-00682 dM cos L. _ The lines of equal total force of 13°45, 13°5, 13:55 . . pass through the following positions: and 188 L, Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of North America. 375 13°45 = Long. 81° Long. 77°°5 Lat. 39 31’ Lat. 39 07’ 13°50 Long. 81° Long. 77°°5 Long. 74° Lat. 40 37’ Lat. 40 13’ Lat. 39 49’ 13°55 Long. 81° Long. 77°°5 Long. 74° Lat. 41 48’ Lat. 41 19’ Lat. 40 55’ 13°60 ~—- Long. 81° Long. 77°5 Long. 74° Lat. 42 49’ Lat. 42 25’ Lat. 42 O17 The observed and computed values of ¢, at the stations where the bar and cylinder were employed, compare as follows: ; Observed : Station. observed. com uae — computed, Philadelphia, 13°45 13:50 -0'05 Harrisburg, 13-44 13-50 -0'06 Huntingdon, 13:51 13:52 0°00 Homewood, 13-49 13-50 -O'O1 Johnson’s Tavern, 13:54 13-4 +0°06 Irwin’s Mill, 13-40 13-4 -O Baltimore 13-4 13:46 +0°03 illiamsport, 13-5 13-55 000 Curwinsvill 13-55 13-53 +0°02 ercer 13°64 13-53 +O°1L rie, 13-57 13-57 0:00 Ellicottsville, 13-97 13°59 +018 ath, 13-72 13:60 +0°1 Silver Lake, 13-47 13°58 -O'1r ilford, 13-50 13 56 -o'06 Schenectady, 13°45 13°63 -o'18 Syracuse, 13-61 13 63 -0'02 Geneva, 13°63 13°62 +0 OL Niagara Falls, 13-64 13°62 +0°0 Toronto, 13 84 13-65 ge The probable error of any representation is 0-066. Arr. XXXVIII.—On some questions concerning the Coal Forma- tions of North America; by Leo LesQuEREUX. (Continued m vol, xxxiii, p. 216. Concluding Remarks on the Fossil Ferns. THE examination of the fossil ferns of the coal, as far as it under review in the former papers,’ would apparently © Viz., their contour and nervation, the only P font generally pre- Served in the shales of the Coal Measures, * Vol. xxxii, p. 193, Sept., 1861, and vol, xxxiii, p. 206, March, 1862. 376 L, Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of North America. be comprised in the three sections formerly examined: the Neuropteridece, the Pecopteridece and the Sphenopteridee. 2d. That, from the scarcity of fructified specimens of fossil ferns in the Coal Measures, it would be supposed that most of the species were without fruit. If not, how can we account for the total destruction of the sporanges, either borne on peculiar stems, or attached to the lower surface of the leaves, as we fin them in the species of our time : 3d. That the scarcity of large stems that have been or might be referred to ferns would lead us to suppose that, during the formation of the coal, the fern trees were of rare occurrence, at least when compared with the great number of ferns, which, i — to arborescent species, can be called herbaceous oF shrubby. These three questions must be considered separately. | Ist. If it is certain that characters taken from the form of the leaves and from their nervation are sufficient for a kind of gen- eral classification, applicable to the stratification of the © easures, it is true also that this classification fails to give us & clear insight into the true relation and the affinity of our f species. ‘T'o be exact and scientific, an analysis of the ferns must take into account the form and the position of the fructifications; and when these are absent or undiscernable, as is generally the case with the specimens found in the Coal Measures, we ate not authorized to believe that all the species, referable by their nervation and the form of the leaves to a commo esil ferns r- tive effort, the little we know of these fructifications shows 4 pe : greater diversity of typical and generic forms than are in : by the leaves and their nervation. The fruiting leaves 0 original shape. American specimens of this species pe! of it agree with the beautiful figures that Mr. Goeppert has aha : tlet and rather resemble a raceme of 1 bearing buds of flowers, of a dicotyl L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of North America. 377% species. Fine specimens of these supposed Antholites have been cea by Lindley and Hutton, trom the Coal Measures of ngland, and by Dr. Newberry, from our own coal fields. I have found also some small specimens of these peculiar remains at Pomeroy, Ohio, and at Port Carbon, Penn. All these, either naked or bracteated nutlets, appear to be only branches of fruit- ing stems of some ferns of an unknown t a likeness of position to those of the Danaew of our time. But not of direction, indeed; for, in this species of our Coal Measures, the nervules are arched and dichotomous or forking like those of atrue Neuropieris. Another remarkable specimen, preserved in a pebble of carbonate of iron, from Morris Co., Illinois, represents also a branch of a species of fructified Neuropteris. In this, the short, ovate, slightly pointed leaflets, about one inch long, and eply cordate at the base, are attached to the rachis by a short pedicel. They are slightly convex or inflated in the middle, with ’ Narrow margin apparently reflexed, but at the same time flat- tened all around. The scarcely visible veins are distant and ’pparently forked once, or the surface, generally quite smooth, ‘8 marked by irregular undulate cross-wrinkles, somewhat re- Sembling those of the fructifications of an Odontopterts. In this Case, the spores appear to be placed in large flakes, covering, xcept a narrow border, the whole of the lower surface of the leaves, as is the case with the fruit-bearing leaves of some species _ Osmunda of our time. Thus, in the same genus, there are §pparently two far different types of fructifications. ___A peculiar specimen of fruiting fern, belonging to the Cabinet of Amherst College, and labelled, Mansfield ? Mass., shows a Pinnately divided frond or rather pa whose secondary Tachis is pinnately subdivided into short branches, bearing nu- ™erous groups of fruit dots, placed four by four on each side of &common branchlet. . They appear attached to it, each by a very slender pedicel; and, round as they are, with a depressed point or 378 L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of North America. in the middle, they look, at first sight, like the fruit dots placed on both sides of the medial nerve of a Pecopteris, whose derma or foliaceous tissue has been entirely destroyed. As no trace of _ this tissue can be seen, as the pedicels do not resemble veins, but are curved in a peculiar way, and as the fruit dots are at some places scattered and not in regular order, this fossil raceme is more likely the fruit-bearing part of a species whose sterile frond is possibly known with other characters. If it is so, this species would have a relation to the genus Aneimia of the living ferns, and thus, it could not enter into any of the three general divisions mentioned above. Bee Er (ie i ne SE Pe he o rachis, are straight, pretty thick, ascending to the ar ets divisions and pinnately branching. The distant simple vel lets, no more than three or four on each side, slightly arched, wee ing in a broad angle, bear at their extremity a group of six nae sporanges, placed just on the borders of the divisions. T nh sporanges, united by their margins around a common recep Ried appear, by this disposition, like small stars with round 1@ o Considering only the form of the leaves, this species should © 2 fig. 2. bbles arietta. the pebbles have as a matrix a piece of fern or of some other fossil pian _ Species are the same both in Illinois and in Ohio, I consider both ine Ae hy als t * 7 ) ier 1. &. +h y r TY . ir , ACCOR : No. 4, just below the bass sontolog > g Beets ing to the same evidence, is at or near the level of Coal the Mahoning . The most abundant species : is hirsuta Lsqx., Pecopteris arborescens Brgt., Pecopterzs Milton’ | hirsuta Lsqx., Alethopteris Serlii ek Asterophyllites, “2 : * a Ce a Se i ere eee ane ee L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of North America. 379 placed in the genus Alethopteris. But it differs widely from it by its nervation and especially by its fructifications. These would bring this species near the genus Asterocarpus of Goeppert, or the Heptocarpus of Braun, to which it has no affinity whatever by the leaves and the nervation. From examples like this, which, though few in number, are nevertheless every day multiplied y new discoveries, we can admit, I think, for the coal epoch, far greater diversity of typical forms than could be supposed at first sight and from superficial researches. 2. What is said above is already an answer to the second study of the fossil fruiting ferns very difficult. _ 8. Is the small proportion of fossil remains of true arborescent €rns in the Coal Measures, compared with the great quantity of leaves and stalks or petioles of the same family, a proof that, contrary to the opinion generally admitted, the arborescent ferns Were not a predominant character of the vegetation of the coal epoch? If we consider as remains of true arborescent fe’ only those whose bark is marked by large oval cicatrices, left at the base of the fronds, at the point of their parting from the Main stem, in short those known under the family name of | aulopteridee or Protopteridee, it is certain that they are very Scarce in the Coal Measures both of Europe and of America. In his Genera, gia only, distributed in five genera. And from these =e 880 L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of North America. on the contrary, we admit with most of the European a cture, com @ rather than to the Protopteride or ferns. As the Psaronius epee an ; which I have examined in Southern Ohio, I have fou the smallest in size, whose uncovered stems evidently oe long oval scars, the external character of the arborescent fert oi Now, admitting the species of Psaronius as true arbo wk ferns, the question of their distribution in the Coal Meast the and of the place and importance which they occupied. Hier vegetation of the coal epoch is still unsolved. Where dit h the come from, all these trunks of the same genus; all pine same peculiar structure; all horizontally broken in frag sonal varying from one inch to one foot in length, and thus panste at some peculiar and isolated localities, where they appear ¢ . ‘they had been heaped by some wonderful and wnacco! 46 sney ? I do not know in our Coal Measures of another © °O! a trunks of fern trees except that of Shade riveh; © It begins at Athens and extends southward as far as har'es At least, I have seen trunks of Psaronius scattered . Geol. 869, pl. 13, fi a oo Geol. nage gh oe ape name of Caulopteris insign'® Worthenii, sp. nov., Ill. Geol. Rept. ined., pl. 14, fig- 1 = ks Se ee ot eee eS ee ey t <2, SSE) eg ee eS Nees eS ee eee ASE Ras Ee te a Oe OH RET TS Cregg a Pa Ne et ee eS ees! _ Sears just one inch broad. In the second, three inches and a half L, Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of North America. 381 the banks of the Great Kanawha from its mouth to Charleston. The geological horizon of the strata with which they are con- nected is not satisfactorily determined; though it is certain that their place is not far above the top of the Mahoning Sandstone. They are apparently imbedded in a kind of soft sandstone, which at Shade river is separated by a covered space of 10 feet from a bed of coal 10 inches thick, which I consider as the equivalent of Coal No. 5. I say apparently, because it is not certain that they were originally derived from this bed of soft sandstone or hard clay, exposed on the high water of Shade river, where they appear eroded, this erosion is evidently due to the process of maceration, at or before the time of petrification. As no remains of this genus are found in connection with the shales of the coal apply as well to the silicified trunks of the Coal Measures. In any case, and though we know but little about the distribution of the vegetation at the coal epoch, we are authorized to conclude, ‘rom the former remarks, that the species of ferns predominant i the marshes of the coal were especially shrubby or herbaceous Species of small size, while those of the sandy or dry solid gtound were especially arborescent. Before leaving the Cazlopteridece I have still a few words to say of the size of the cicatrices of their bark, compared with the di- ameter of their stems. These cicatrices, generally distant, placed 0n the stems in the spiral order two-fifths, are, when found in a £00d state of preservation, nearly oval or obovate and elongated at both ends, by a somewhat deep furrow. They bear in the middle the mark of a simple fascicle of vessels in the form of a orse-shoe, and the central scar is surrounded by an oval annulus, Of the two specimens formerly mentioned as having been found _ ™ the sandstone of our Coal Measures, and whose somewhat lattened stems have preserved their form as well as the cicatrices _ Of the bark, the one, four inches in its greatest diameter, has the Am. Jour. Scr.—Szconp Sexies, Vor. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, 1863, 49 382 L. Lesquereuz on the Coal Formations of North America. in diameter, the scars are not quite one inch broad. Now the largest and most remarkable specimen of a Caulopteris that I have ever seen and a notice of which has ever been published (Caulopteris insignis Lsqx.), shows a piece of bark with a single but entire cicatrice of just three inches in diameter. Admitting that the proportion of the cicatrices to the stem is, in this species, the same as in the former ones, this must have belonged to a trunk of fern of less than one foot in diameter. This agrees well with the size of the trunks of Psaronius of Shade river, whose diameter is mostly between four and eight inches, rarely reach- ing one foot. The genus Megaphytum Art. should, according to Prof sears of fascicles of vessels, in the form of a horse-shoe; just like the Caulopteridec, but without a marked annulus. These Brongniart supposes. It is even evident, from the forms of the cicatrices, which are a little flattened at their base and more elevated at the upper part, that the fronds which were ong attached to them were ascendent and closely appresse a deeply and irregularly striated and furrowed as if it had me covered by rootlets, just like the surface of a Psaronius. The cicatrices of Megaphytum Wilburianum Lsqx., still more a : wi the genus Megaphytum as intermediate between the Ly and the ferns. Calamitaric. The species of this group of fossil plants have as ape : , with characters: the stems hollow, regularly striated, articulate articulations more or less distant, marked by a depressed or : cular ring, or by an elevated margin, bearing whorl: : ants: of the Coal Measures, which have been P. or less united at their base. ‘The five principal genera Of L, Lesquereuz on the Coal Formations of North America. 383 8 h like sheaths around the articulations, this separation appears inadmissible. It is for this reason that most of the European Vv at least, two species of Asterophyllites bear, in the axils of their leaves, those small oval or cordate-oval seeds, observed by Mr. Brongniart, and far different from the cones of the same genus le large stems of Asterophyllites equisetiformis Ll., they contain noth- Ing under their scales but a pulverulent matter, as Mr. Brongniart 48 seen it. Possibly the flattened seeds, in the axils of the leaves of Asterophyilites, could be considered as a kind of tubercles; but Treally believe they are true seeds and that all the species of the _ Cardiocarpum are referable, if not to the genus Asterophyl: , at least to plants related to it. At some places where Aste- _ Tophyllites are abundant, these seeds are seen sometimes in plenty, Varying in form from round or oval to cordiform, eh bearing a narrow win g, emarginated at the top, and even broadly _ Winged, as shown by the beautiful specimens figured and de- Scribed by Dr. Newberry.’ They vary much in size, being oy as small as a pea, but sometimes as large as a walnut. then, as is evident, these fruits belong to Asterophyllites, or to plants related to this genus, it is not possible to refer them to EHywisetacece, and so the opinion of Mr. Brongniart is con- firmed. But now, the fruits of the genus Culamites are still en- trely unknown. A single specimen, figured in Sternberg’s Flora, Vol. ii, pl. 14, fig. 1, under the name of Volkmannia arborescens, apparently coming from a stem of Calamites, has the form of _ 8 long ear or cone, bearing whorls of narrow, linear, obtuse, Somewhat open leaves, resembling the cones of Asterophyl- : * Annals of Science, No. 13, (May 1, 1853), p. 152, No. 2. 384 L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of North America. articulated and striated pedicel, having fast the ‘alt form as a small branch of Calamites Shou Gar Art. The form of those of Asterophyllites. Thus the relation of both genera, @ a acters, would be complete. But, even if this aflinity of forms was perfectly ascertained, the question concerning the true rela- tive place of these plants would not ie eres For the inter- nal structure of the Calamites, as far s known, removes them evidently from the Dicotyledones id establishes their re lation with the Hquisetacee. It is one of those numerous il mas offered for a eat to the patience and long re researches of the Palzontologis American specs do not add much to what was already known of the different genera of this group. I have not vee in our Coal Measures a single trace of an Hguisetites. I did not ~ even suppose that species of this genus could be found in as Measures. The beautiful specimens figured and descr by Geinitz do not leave any doubt on this question There is near Carbondale a forest of standing Calamites im- external surface of the stems. ven the coaly matter sometimes covers it has disappeared. The fgg are Suckowii Brgt., Calamites ornatus Brgt., which Mr. Geinitz ae - siders as the same species; Calamiites vissse Bret, and Calt matus Art. ‘The size of the stem varies from three six —- rarely attaining eight inches. A number of th appear to have been crushed upon themselves when still stan® for the aes or rather the external surface, is often push "of folded within the stem, all around the circumferen ce. This, ‘ ; , proves cee 1e stems of the Calamites were hollow cy+# L. Lesquereux on the Coal Formations of North America. 385 ders, covered with a thin but strong bark. No remains at all of roots, of fruits, or of leaves, are found in this sandstone and in connection with the Calamites. It is very difficult to establish the relation of the cones of Asterophyllies with the branches, to which they are rarely found attached, and thus to fix the true species. For this reason, I think it more convenient, though less scientific, to give different names to each of the parts of the plants, as long as they have not been found in evident connection. The roots and floating filaments, formerly known under the names of Hydatica prostrata rt., are now considered by Prof. Geinitz as the roots of Aséero- phyllites foliosa Lindl. They have been found attached to large Stems apparently belonging to this species. The roof shales of the coal at Pomeroy, Ohio, are, in some places, covered with these tadiculose filaments, and, though I have not seen them attached to the stem, the abundance of branches of Asterophyllites foliosa, und on the same shales, confirms the views of the celebrated German author. But Mr. Geinitz also refers the cones known as Asterophyllites tuberculata Ll. & H., to the same species, and €se cones are not found at Pomeroy. Per contra, they abound on the shales of the red ash coal at W. W. Woods and at the em vein of Port Carbon, near Pottsville, where Asterophyllites equisetiformis is plentiful, and where I have not found Aséerophyl- lites foliosa or Hydatica. At W. W. Woods, with numerous re- Mains of Calamites, the three species of cones named Astero- phyllites tuberculata Ll. & H., Asterophyllites aperta Lsqx., and Asterophyllites lanceolata. Lsqx., are also in great quantity of ments _ , A beautiful species of Sphenophyllum, S. bifurcatum Lsqx., has . been found in ms coal inferior to the Millstone Grit re, Arkan- _ Sas. It may be the same species as the small specimen figured _ and described in the Pennsylvania Report as rophilum trifo- : hatum Lsqx. Difficult as it is to fix the specific characters of a __ Sphenophyllum, this species, from the great number of specimens _ €Xamined, may be considered as a true one. It shows that the __ leaves of this genus are united at the base by a narrow margin _ his union exists for the leaves of Asterophyllites and of Annu- _ “ma; and thus their whorls of leaves are more of the nature of . Psi, deeply cut in laciniz of various forms, than of true — deaves Since the time (1854) when I delivered my report on the fossil plants of Pennsylvania, I have seen nothing in our fossil . _ Plants to change my opinion concerning the fructifications _ f the genus Annularia. I supposed then, and still suppose, _ "at these fructifications were borne on the top of the leaves, _ Within the inflated and hollowed medial nerve, in a kind of el-like cavity, like the spores of some species of Hymeno- 386 J. D. Dana on Oceanic Protozoans related to Sponges. phyllacee of our time. Prof. Geinitz, indeed, has published, in his magnificent work on the fossil plants of Saxony, as fructifi- cations of Annularia, (pl. 18, figs. 8 and 9) a beautiful cylindri- eal long ear with an articulated and striated stem, bearing, at the articulations, whorls of short, linear, pointed leaves, and in their axils round sporanges or fruits. These fruits are undoubtedly of the same kind as those of the fragments described above, and, to my belief, belong to the genus Asterophyllites. Against my opinion, still is this fact: that nothing, among our recent ferns, would lead us to suppose that there ever lived species of ferns with whorled leaves. But we see, in the vegetation of the coal epoch, some peculiar features of a far nrore abnormal and unex- plainable character. The question can be decided only by well preserved specimens. And though I have recently seen two specimens of Annularia sphenophylloides Ung., the one from Newport, R. 1, the other from Illinois, whose appearance did perfectly agree with what I suppose to be the fruit-bearing leaves of Annularia, this appearance is not distinct enough to permit a positive assertion. If my supposition concerning the fructifi- cations of Annularia should be confirmed, this genus would ap- E~ as a link of transition between the Zguiselacee and the erns, as the genus Sphenophyllum appears to be one between the Lycopodiacee and the Ferns. Art. XXXIX.—On two Oceanic species of Protozoans related to the Sponges; by JAMES D. Dana. THE Spheerozoum figured below (fig. 1a) was collected by = writer in the Pacific, near latitude 30° N. and longitude 173° W., during a calm, on the 26th of May, 1841. ee Figure la represents the gelatinous globule of natural size : Fig. 1. Fig. 2. The ocean’s waters were filled with this species, and eat presented in figure 2a. The minute dots covering the gloouts _ oneof which is magnified in figure 14, were closely crowded xe _ Shown in figure la. In this respect, the species d widely J, D. Dana on Oceanic Protozoans related to Sponges. 387 388 Key West Physical Notes. Art. XL.— Key West Physical Notes.—1. Zodiacal Light. 2. At mospheric Transparency. 3. Gulf Stream Cloud Bank. 4. Bands. 5, Northers. 6. Hurricanes. 7. Ventilation. 8. Yel- low Fever. 9. A Water Moonrise; by Major E. B. Hunt, Corps of Engineers, U.S. A. Some observations on physical phenomena, incidentally made by me during my period of duty at Key West, (1857-62,) may not be devoid of interest, and their discussion may have some scientific value. C 1. Zodiacal Light—During the winter, and yee: in Feb i est a re red the mista- kably when Venus was not visible, and so late as to exclude the idea of twilight refractions as their cause. if shadows by zodiacal light have before been nc | aga corroborated my impressions, leaving no doubt that ut dimly outlined shadows, of readily observable darkness, ae 1e Out with a clear lustre a ] rency.—There is a beauty in the sky a ail to impress even casual observers eS nd fullness of numbers Atmospheric Transparency.—Gulf Stream Cloud Bank. 389 which almost exceeds the display on the brightest and coldest nights of a northern winter. It seems singular to find a climate 80 moistened by the Gulf Stream, still glorying in the starriest nights. Association had made a lavish display of the starry hosts seem the peculiar prerogative of clear, cold, winter nights, and yet here they came forth, amid moisture-laden tropic airs, with a magnificence and profusion I had never seen excelled. It needed no long acquaintance with the equable climate, the nearly unvarying temperature and the steady trade winds, to see that the reason of this phenomenon is to be found in the prevalent tranquillity of the atmosphere, where it is so little influenced by contrasts of land and sea. These small keys scarcely vary the ocean conditions. I have known the thermometer at Boston pass through a longer range in one day, than in the whole year at Key West. The winds are mostly gentle and steady in diree- tion. There are usually no conditions of great contrast and no regular admixtures between upper and lower strata. The Tequisites for developing visible vapor are rarely prevalent, and have only twice known positive fogs at Key West. However moist the air may be, if the atmosphere lacks the conditions of contrast and intermixture to make that moisture visible as vapor, the sky should seem habitually clear. Such is the obvious fact at Key West. With a climate never, even after the severest northers, below 45°, rarely down to 55°, and seldom rising to 90° in the shade, it is not to be expected that the admixture of con- ‘asted currents should often cool to the dew point portions of this moist warm air. The equability of atmospheric conditions is thus the real reason of the rare beauty of the sky and the ich display of starry splendors, so attractive amid the soft and balmy airs of this locality, which lacks but one degree of being tropical. There is much in the quality of these nights to suggest Hat the astronomer would find his ise here, but the sum- Mer mosquitoes, rain and yellow fever are rebutting facts. Fi _ Winter observations, the conditions are truly admirable, 8. Gulf Stream Cloud Bank.—Among the striking local phe- nomena of Key West, is the formation, shortly before and after _ Sunset, of a grand bank of clouds above the Gulf Stream, rising _ Some 200 to 500 feet in prevailing height. In running along the Gulf Stream or its margins, this bank is habitually seen : Tey sunset hours, and a profuse atmospheric moisture is felt while sailing in the evening over the warm-water belt. Key a West being about 12 miles north of the regular Gulf Stream _ Waters, this cloud bank rises gradually along the southern hori- _ 200, stretching from E. to W. in massive and irregular fleeces, _ dark below and silver gilt above, under the rays of the settin _ San. When the prevailing S.E. wind is brisk, this cloud _ AMt Jour. Scr—Skconp Surims, Vou. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, 1863. | 390 i. B. Hunt—Key West Physical Notes. spheric waters. When the meridian is past, and the falling SUB rature declines — until, as the sunset approaches, the water laden stratum over “8 * of Newport are obvious consequences OF "” rae Somat in shore, of great masses of aly Ray Bands. 391 heavily charged with invisible vapor from the Gulf Stream sur- face. As these air masses arrive over the littoral and Narragan- sett waters, still cold with the accumulated cooling of the winter, their temperature rapidly sinks until the dew point is reached, and a fog results. It is in spring and early summer that this fog mechanism is perfect; but as the Bay, shore and shore waters get heated up in the advancing season, the change of temperature by shoreward transfer grows less, until in the late summer and fall, when fogs are rare 4. Ray-bands.—The appearance familiarly known as “ the sun drawing water” is very frequent at Key West. It is not un- common to see the rays in the east, converging to the point oppo- site the sun, and as much below the horizon as the sun is above, which I will call the anti-sun. Sometimes the converging ray- bands in the east are nearly or quite as distinct as those in the west. The unusual frequency of these exhibitions is a result of the inshore drift of the Gulf Stream Cloud Bank. The ray- beams, through the breaks in the cloud masses, are made visible by the diffused and tenuous vapor incident to the evening cooling. ; and anti-sun, according to the customary perspective. Here is a notable point of singularity. So long as the W. and E. : truly rectilinear and sarees When a ray band is distin- | long _ 88 we see only the disjoined W. and HE. systems of convergent _ bands, we see them correctly in space according to simple per- Spective laws, just as when we look at the rails in a long, straight of railway. When however we look on a continuous luminous band across the sky, no distinctness of mental or logi- eal conviction can make that straight band or beam in atmo- Spheric space seem anything but a grand arch, widest near the _ own, and resting on the sun and anti-sun as piers. I think it 392 E. B. Hunt—Key West Physical Notes. perspective reality as the solid ground itself. Were we to see e earth, and ver confuse le case of hard to on from k the and moist climate, which the Gulf Stream carries with it, 18 a the winter occasionally relieved by the dry, cool, exotic air ©” h the “norther.” The wind before a norther nearly always 206 ei around by the south and west. The south wind is apt to bl te ae West. The traverse of the wind through the western qua a : is usually quite rapid. When it reaches the W. or ae - Ps ed e i: ore ss. Leaves Northers.—Hurricanes. 393 there will be a dash of rain, which however speedily gives way to clear, dry, cool air. Amid all the wild inaugural ceremonies of the norther, the cool, brisk air sweeps away languor and ex- haustion, and raises an effervescence of spirits which is quite equal to enjoying the mad dance, with all its dust and darkness, In afew minutes the wild humor passes, and the norther settles itself to work. Steadily it blows on from the N.N.W. or N. for a day or two, working around very slowly to the eastward. About the third day, its oe is mainly spent and it shades out into a mild and delicious N.E. breeze. Still working slowl eastward, it settles at E.S.E. when the regular trades prevail for &@ Season, "until another excursion by the south preludes another circuit of the compass. The norther of Key West is unmistakably a —— of cold air, moving along the earth’s = from N. to 8. with a flow as of a great air river. During the moments of st eae be- tween the head of this SOR ad the previous, warm, moist air, there is such a sudden cooling of portions of the la tier, that it sends down sometimes a few dashes of rain drops, and forms the dark vaporous mass which shows in the distance as the Bethe Bank.” When the current is fully established, there isno more admixture and hence no more rain, but instead a ng faces of the brick walls of Fort Taylor, making it seem suddenly gray with age. ‘There are usually from five to ten regular northers during the winter half-year, the first coming in No- vember and the last in March, though feeble imitations occur late and also during the winter. Last winter there was no thorough norther until March, and there is considerable irregu- ty about their numbers and occurrence, but, in all, the type is as above defined. 6. Hurricanes—As the Key West winter ~ its northers, so the summer has its hurricane or hurricanes. I have witnessed. but two; one quite severe and the other moderate. Mr. Redfield so fully worked this ground, that it need only be remarked by me, “5% ‘wanag two gales conformed to his theory of revolving Storms. 7s nna uce two sets of barometer: observations, taken at Key Week during the August gale of 1861. The first. Was made by 8 Charles Howe, the Collector, at the Custom House, as follo Lae te. | Barometer. Wind. =} Character of the Weather. ] | 1861, 6AM 2P.M. _ Ang.14, | 3050 | 3046 | North. Eresh. ech a 14 ahaa ‘ oe a o’c. P. m. Barom “ het ode snes of to th. 99-94 : tlo'c. A.M. wie shifted from oe E. to “s. a blew until 5 0’c. when i MT, 2) 2040544 30°60 ps ee — rating and baromete : ing. Ie cara a a Oe aia magsiben ° to 82°.” 394 E. B. Hunt—Key West Physical Notes. The second series was made at the Coast Survey and Smith- sonian Magnetic Observatory on the Fort Taylor grounds. Aug. 14th. 9.p.™. 29°936 Aug. 16th. 2p.m. 29°796 15th. 7 a.m. 29-788 7 9 se 2 P.M. 29-700 17th. Tam. 29990 oe “ 16th, 7 a.m. 29°504 ™ cay 30°140 by a rapid rising of the waters in Key West Harbor, and in the gale of 1846 this heaping up on the south side of the Key amounted to about 7 feet. 7. Ventilation.—The close neighborhood of the Gulf Stream renders the air of Key West peculiarly warm and moist. ‘This makes free ventilation and shade the chief essentials for all in i : ine? uter d interior of the magazine is enough cooler than the ou as air to cause an active deposition of moisture; so that the ne SSS Ree agit mes ence eats es A) agg its effects. saturated noon and afternoon air is the worst of all in There seems to me but little doubt, that a careful study seh les, in their application to the preservation of supp!"* cy Yellow Fever—A Water Moonrise. 395 in store at Key West and other like positions, would reverse much of the existing practice, and would enable us to preserve for a long time the stores which are now so speedily ruined b moisture. The adoption of closed inner chambers, artificially dried, with an exterior ventilation, under the roof and within the outer walls, to keep down the temperature, would add enor- of flour and other perishable stores, would certainly justify a most careful experimental research under the strict guidance of Scientific indications, sata that such is the fact, and can only interpret what I ve myself seen as indicating that an odor is then thrown out on the air which the keen scent of the scavenger bird detects | mafar. The material particles, whose diffusion is thus testified _ to, seem likely to afford the means of trans rting the disease _ On the air, in a manner quite agreeing with the facts of its p gation. The hint, thus afforded by the keen-scented etal _ May have value in assisting to comprehend the mode of convey- _ ing and diffusing this fatal malady, and the particles scented may indeed be the actual fomites so much talked of and so little Understood, in discussing the controverted questions of contagion and communication. = _ _ 9. A Water Moonrise.—When becalmed in a beautiful evening : between the Reef and the Key, the water being very tranquil, I bined luminous figure. As this seeming contraction p ; 396 J. Hall on Cryptonella, Centroneila, Meristella, raising a cohering disc from its surface. There was no ¢ point between the disc and the disc-reflection, but a seemingly distinct curve, concave outwards. As the dise rose above the water, this curve opened, and a broad connecting column to bind the dise and its reflection, just like a coherent water column between the lifted — and the level water surface. In- material connection between the disc and reflection was perfect, both before and at the instant of visible separation, This ob- servation has interest in its relation to the contact a of eclipses. Art. XLI.— Observations upon some of the Brachiopoda, with réf- erence to the genera i gens ec bopae Meristella, and allied ; by L. ract of a paper read before the Albany Institute, Heute 3, 1863. (Communicated by _ the author.) “IN the sa a the Paleozoic Brachiopoda, we the general external form, and ine of + the shell, for detetmiontion of the generic relations, until more extensive collections may furnish us with weathered specimens, or with crystalline or silicified ones, which, admitting of being i cut, and macerated in acid, will enable us to ascertain the true interior characters. In many instances, so nearly do very distinct genera approac each other in their external form, that reliance on this alone i very uncertain, and will surely lead to much confusion, if insis upon as the means of generic se tetan ores of For a long time, and vie e began to it mene belong to distinct nies were embraced in che ‘esate ' Terebratula and Atrypa, At a later period, when the gen Rhynchonella had been ean in its application to beg seozoic species, we find numerous species, which from @ ternal form had been pedorred oe that genus, possessing ¢ incompatible with it — of the most common of these is Zerebratula ouneata = : cuneata = Retzia cuneata, and which will pro arena aemh pbeerystions by the 1 the stenetions of the erraions by the author. rr comin and allied Brachiopod genera. 397 be found to differ from true Retzia, taking its place near Rhyn- chospira. So long as we remain unacquainted with the interior of the shell, we are compelled to refer the species to some genus having similar external forms, though the fibrous or punctate texture may in many instances prove a valuable aid in these references. Among the forms most difficult to determine, are t umer- ous smooth or finely striated terebratuloid shells, having either ovoid, elongate, sub-circular or transverse forms. Among the genera of one family which in recent times have been established and proposed to receive these, are Athyris (= Spirigera), Merista (= Camarium), Meristella and Charionella; while the subdivis- ions of the terebratuloid forms in another direction have given Lerebratula proper, Lerebratulina, Waldheimia, Terebratella, Cen-. tronella, Cryptonella, Rensseleria, etc. The first four are of the athyroid type, and have internal at as in Spirifer. The shell in all these is fibrous, and we have herefore in the external shell the means of separation from those of the other type. In all the latter group we find modifications of the internal ap- pendage, called in Zerebratula the loop; but in none of them Spires exist. Moreover, in ail these the external shell is punctate ; and we do not yet know a punctate shell, of the external char- acter here indicated, which contains internal spires.” The external characters, therefore, of the terebratuloid forms may be made useful jn indicating the family relations of the pecies, and may prevent us from referring to the family of Spiriferide those which belong to the family of Zerebratulide. In the Thirteenth Report on the State Cabinet, published in 1860, I proposed the name of Meristella for certain forms which I regarded as separable from Adhyris and Merista; and for the Semi-plicated forms otherwise of similar character, I suggested _ the name Leiorhynchus. At the same time I described un- _ der Zerebratula the following species: 7. Lincklent, 7. rectirostra, _ L£ Lens and 7. planirostra ; under each one, distinctly stating the Shell structure to be punctate, which character at that time _ afforded me the principal means of distinguishing these from ) os species of similar form, as Meristella Haskins’, M. Barrisi _ and 4. Doris, which, with Atrypa scitula (4th Dist. Report) = Me- Tstella scitula, have at a later peroid been placed by Mr. Billings among the typical forms of his Genus Chariwnella. Having ascertained some farther characters of these punctate Terabratuloid shells, I proposed in the Fourteenth Heport on |, * The plicated forms of Retzia and Rhynchospira are of course not included in the designation above made. The Nucleospire also approach the terebratuloid (HS, but these shells have an area on the ventral valve and a different hinge Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, 1863. si 7 398 J. Hall on Cryptonella, Centronella, Meristeila, the State Cabinet,’ page 102, the name OCryptonella, givin one of the characters “shell structure finely punctate.’ os marked in a concluding paragraph: “The species of this genus are more elongate than Verista and Meristella, and those now known are less distinctly marked by mesial fold and sinus; while the beak is more attenuate, often a ae flattened, and rarely so closely incurved as in the genera ted. e punctate structure of the shell is a distinguishing feature” +168) Fifteenth Report on the State Cabinet, I gave (at page set [13 1. 8) some illustrations of the muscular imprints, dental sli ete., with figures of a single additional species from the Lower Helderberg group.‘ * Made to the Legislature April 10th, 1861, and published in July, 1861. ‘In the Canadian Naturalist and Geologist st for October, 1862, we find the fol- lowing iupaditen of the relations of the _— Cryptonetla “The genus Cryptonella, illustrated on pl. 3, p. 133, is precisely identical with ionella, described by me in the Canadian Journal of March, 1861, p- 148, - dian Journal (March, 1861), oe 0. Piss I, p a48 enus CHARIONELLA. “Since the ies going arti cle on Devonian fossils was h ten, I have ascertained the sk charact ters of the so-called Aérypa or 2 yi er co species, the middle portion of the same plate is obs ners por emer 3 only small, thin, nearly vertical septa (socket a gory: ), one side of the cavity - the umbo. of the d oe i but are not so convex, and are besides more elongate ovate, or approach A bratula in general form. I shall give further details and some figures } the next | number of gad a is oe is only proposed as a sub-genus, to be retained in case grt a In the ; Canadian Journal, No, xxxm, p. 273, we have “ i Sie hieterting to the illustrations). ‘“ The first iiaré exhibits a specim gal valve partly removed, showing vis — spires. The other and i ete along the mi a — (=Meristella a Hall) | there is a well developed hinge plat ne which exte i § Goon f iz unm, : the mii ; In Charionella there is either no mesial septum, or one thi spe t to the margin near the front. parts. This I believe to be not a and allied Brachiopod genera. 399 In September, 1862, Prof. A. Winchell, in his “ Descriptions of fossils from the Marshall and Huron Groups, of Michigan,” pub- lished a description of Centronella Julia, in which he describes the loop, which is proved not to bein accordance with that of Cen- tronella as described and illustrated in the Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, vol. iv, April, 1859. Through the kindness of Prof. Winchell, I have been put in possession of some specimens of this species, with parts of others illustrating the internal structure, together with drawings repre- senting the loop. n examination of the external characters shows that the shell has the form and texture of Crypionella. ‘Both valves with reg- ular lens-like convexity, shell obsoletely striate concentrically, and having a minutely punctate structure.” The form and other characters of the cast are like those of species referred by me to Cryptonella. In the ventral valve are two delicate, slightly cur- ving dental lamellze, which are shown in casts by a narrow slit on each side of the beak. “The casts exhibit on the ventral side a delicate impressed line extending from the beak to the middle, and on the right and left of this a fainter one; on the dorsal side, a median impression, with two fainter ones on the night and two on the left.” These characters appertain to the casts of Cryptonelia (see fig. 9), as shown in the ventral side of large individuals; having three defined, slightly impressed spa- ces, limited by narrow lines which extend to the middle of the ang below which there are sometimes vascular impressions Visi ings of Prof. Winchell, is shown in figures 1 and 2, which are four times enlarged, and are thus described: “A delicate ribbon- like loop originates from the stout blunt crura on each side of € socket-valve, having its flat sides at first vertical; the two branches of the loop proceed at first in lines parallel or a little Convergent, and then gradually diverge, widening as they pro- and assuming an inclined position, until, approaching the front of the valve by a regular curvature, the lower edge has become anterior, giving the band an angle of 30° with the plane temporary wall formed by disease of the animal, because both spires are crowded into the smaller of the two cavities, the L being empty.” ne genus Charionella, therefore, clearly belongs to the Spiriferide, and the typical species cited are, in nose originally placed by me under the genus Mfe- ‘Tstella, in 1860 (Thirteenth Report on the State Cabinet, p. 84), and han oa under Terebratula, from the characters of which I proposed the genus Cryptonella in 1861. ‘The former belong to the Spiriferide, and the latter to the Terebratulida. 400 J. Hall on Cryptonella, Centronella, Meristella, of the shell: appreaDne the median line, tbe band rapidly widens, and the front margin is drawn forward. in a Jong acu- flected downwards, forming a double vertical plate, not quite reaching the ventral valve; the upper edge of which, when viewed from the side, is : eee z flatly roof-shaped, while the lower edge describes two convexities, the greater anterior, — a notch between them. The surfaces of a loop and median ps are covered with minute ob- liquely conical pustules in some places S seeming to become spinulous.” ~~ wee d of the atta with the te. incbell.—Fig. 3. thar view of the ot of a blate form "7. Ven and Julia ie calarpad to coi passin dora 1 and iP a 6 and views of Cryptonella Meta, from the Schoharie grit. Fig. 4 is given simply to show the dental Jamel. e ius ver tral valve; the delicage impressed line in the centr in ‘one on each side, described by Prof. Winchell, ue no ey the figure. These marks, however, are shown and sharavteting the ventral rare or casts of this ee ne | nown species of the ge - In roast Fifteenth Henk, on ae. State Cabinet, I gave the ‘ yi te 8 of the a palye and fig. 9 of the a tral. valve, Figures 10 and 11 are dorsal and * and allied Brachiopod genera. 402 views of Cryptonella eximia, from the Lower Helderberg group, the earliest species of the genus known to me. Figs. 8 and 9. Dorsal and ventral views of Cryptonella (generic illustrations).— Figs. 10 and 11. Dorsal and profile views of C. eximia. The genus Cryptonella may be characterized as follows: Genus CryproneLta Hall, 1861.—Shells terebratuliform, equilateral, inequivalve, elongate or transverse, ovoid or sublen- ticular in form, without median fold or sinus, or with these fea- tures very slightly developed towards the base of the shell. Ventral valve with the beak extended or incurved, and termin- ated by a circular foramen which is limited on the lower side muscular and vascular a aon below the rostral cavity. In the dorsal valve, the of the crura, support a slender loop, the two _ Median line, extending into the cavity of the ventral valve, as shown in fig ve v n in figure 2, which, while looking upon the dorsal side of the loop, may sometimes 402 J. Hall on Cryptonella, Centronella, Meristella, be seen projecting backwards between the hands of the loop, as well as extending in front, as shown in fig. In casts of the ventral valve, we find the marks of two thin dental lamelle extending to a greater or less distance below the eak, Along the median line in the ventral cast, there is usu- ally a narrow ; flattened space limited by a slender line; and on each side a less distinct narrow space, limited in the same man- ner. In the cast of the dorsal valve, there is a — impresse line, and two of less strength on each side 0 The species of this genus, known to me, are ‘the Cryptonella (Centronella) Julia, and those described as Terebratula in the rteenth Report on the State Cabinet, and which in the Four- teenth Report were referred to Cryptonella, viz. Or yptonella (T.) 7 eee C. (7) Lens, C.(T.) planirostra ; and C. eximia, of the Fy, Report as well as a new species from the Schoharie grit. The Terebratula Lincklent, which has the se chara with a median swale a and convex at the sides The character of the genus, as given in the descriptions and 3 ene: of Mr. Billings, are as follows GEN ENTRONELLA, Billings,’ 1859. — “ Generic Si ters : “Shells, having the general form of Zerebratula. Do valve with a loop consisting of two delicate ribbon-like lamellx, which extend about one-half the length. These lamellx ae first curve gently outwards, and then ap- 13. proach each other gradually, until at their lower extremities they meet at an acute angle; then, becoming uni- ted, they are reflected backwards to- wards the beak in what appears to be a thin flat vertical plate. Near their origin, each bears upon the ventral side a single triangular crural process. ‘ Name, from the Greek xevzgor, a spur. 14 (5). Longitudinal section, shor a This genus is intermediate between ing the position of the loop ™ Terebratula and Waldheimia. In the the interior. a nw, former, the loop is short, not exceeding greatly one-thi ee of the shell, and not reflected. In the latter, it extends a . 18 (4). Interior of tee ripti orth os from the Canadian Naturalist and oe and allied Brachiopod genera. 403 nearly to the front, and is reflected, but the laminw are not united until after they are folded back.” In Centronella, as thus illustrated, we have a simple loop, or the two limbs becoming united at an acute angle at the point of greatest anterior extension, whence they recurve in a thin verti- cal plate which is not attached at either margin; approaching, in some respects, to Waldheimia. This internal feature is accompanied, in the cast of C. Glans- fagea, the typical form of the genus, by other differences which distinguish it from the casts of typical species of Crypionella. 6. 16. 1 1% = Fig. 15. Ventral view of cast of Centronella Glans-fagea.—Fig. 16. Dorsal view of cast of the same.—Fig. 17. Profile view of the same. In the cast of a ventral valve of C. Glans-fagea, fig. 15, we _ The interior of the ventral valve of Centronella impressa* shows Similar strong rounded and blunt dental lamellx, with a deep _ Tostral cavity and muscular markings, which would give a cast Similar to that of C. Glans-fagea. The cast of the dorsal valve of C. Glans-fagea presents a slightly concave surface, and on each side of the apex two large and deep cavities made by the bases of the crural processes ; and between them is a narrow filling of stone. The centre is Mar i crura, are some points marked as if for muscular attachment (see b, fig. 16). * A very distinct species from C. Hecate (Billings) of the Oriskany Sandstone, which differs mainly in size from Cnctseaelte lthyohonaiia ?) alveata (Hall), Tenth Report on the State Cabinet, 1857. 404 J, Hall on Cryptonella, Centronella, Meristella, The interior of C. impressa presents a very strong double pro- cess below the beak of the dorsal valve, corresponding to those in C. Glans-fagea. The external form of all the species heretofore referred to Centronella is a distinguishing feature, and, when proved to accompanied by an internal apparatus so different from that of Cryptonella, will serve to separate them from all the allied orms. As before remarked, it has been mainly upon modifications of this internal loop, or the apohysary system, that the separation of most of the genera in the family of Zerebraiulide has been made. In Cryptonella, we observe considerable analogy with ensse- leria, where the slender bands of the loop expand and unite i 19. rocesses. Fig. 18. Dorsal valve of Rensseleria Suessana, showing the internal P t rig. Fig. 19. Longitudinal section of the same, showing the relations of the pe am 20. Interior of dorsal valve of 2. ovoides.—Fig. 21. Longitudinal section of os ; ‘ i : n a broad plate, which is obtusely or acutely attenuate in : and on the ventral side marked by a ridge along the in - janction; from which, at the posterior margin, proceeds @S°™ and allied Brachiopod genera. 405 der process in the ventral cavity. We may readily conceive of this central longitudinal ridge or carina, along the cicatrix of the two parts, being produced into a thin vertical plate, projecting backwards in the line of the process from the base of the con- joined lamellz in Aensseleria, when it would much resemble the median plate of Cryptonelia (see figures 18, 19, 20 and 21 From the data here given, it will be seen that the genus Cryp- tonella is nearly related to Centronella; differing in the external form of the typical species, and in some features of the cast. Since the preceding observations were printed, I have received from Dr. Rominger a figure illustrating t : interior of Centronella Glans-fagea, as ob- served by him (fig. 22). Admitting the identity of the species, this figure of the loop is quite different from that given by Mr. Billings for Centronella Glans-fagea ; and shows essentially the same character as that of Cryptonella. Should this internal structure prove to be the true structure of Centronella Glans-fagea. Centronella, the minor differences inted Interior showing the loop, out in the form of the shell and of the cast, from. Dr. C. between Céentronella Glans-fagea and au- Pomisger. thentic Cryptonella, are scarcely sufficient to establish generic distinctions, At a later date however,’ Mr. Billings has published Ceniro- nella Heeate, giving, in fig. 99a “a specimen with the dorsal valve temoved, showing the loop which is covered with minute crys- tals of silex.’’ In this species, having all the external characters of a congener of ©. Glans-fagea, no indication is given that any difference had been observed in the character of the loop, from that published in 1859. or for reference to existing genera, are yet exhausted, among the Terebratulide of the Upper Silurian and Devonian rocks, * Canadian Journal, May, 1861, p. 272. Am. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Sentrs, Vou. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, 1863. 52 ; 406 J. Hall on Cryptonella, Centronella, Meristella, below the beak of the ventral valve not so great, nor the del- tidial plates so conspicuous as in species of that genus. Ona critical examination of the interior, 23. have, so far as I know, for the first time the positive determination of es g genus in our Devonian rocks. Figures 23 and 234, 2, Tlustrations position and proportions of the boise of Lerebratula Romingeri Win- are shown in fig. 23, which is an out- ell. line of the shell from the dorsal side, twice enlarged. eb 230 pared so as to show in a very Ledinbaatciey manner the loop in its entire extent. The specimens correspond with those I have received from M. de Verneuil under the same name, and therefore we must regard them as authentic. The external form of ica is not unlike some of the less gibbous of Cryptonell, 25. directed down Fig. 24. Dorsal side of 7. melonica, bagi the crural processes dire a. wards.—Fig. 25. Ventral side of specimen, looking into the dorsal ae : 26. Profile view of same, the figures ‘vice! enlarged. and is much less gibbous than the usual forms of Waldheim The lamells are nearly parallel and near together, and the fa? is extended four-fifths the entire length of the shell, when see : recurved, and, turning back, extends two-thirds of the dista : to the _: of the “ge valve; and the crural apg es farther from the base of the loo oop t than is represente ed 1 ef of a ae Siitée of Waldheimia, and are opposite the extremly © Aerie loop. ie tie The above ae illustrate all that has been Wee cies, (To be continued.) Companion to Sirius.—The Spectroscope. 407 Art, XLII.—Scientific Correspondence. I. Letter on Companion to Sirius, Stellar Spectra and the Spectroscope, rom Lewis M. RurHerrurD, dated 175 Second Avenue, New York, March 31, 1863. Gentleme 1, Compan anion to Sirius.—The poppet and Sane of the c 954. Last year, the position resulting from a mean of Pass zi measures, on six nights, mean epoch March 28, was 84° 58! 46”, while twenty-eight measures of distance gave 10” 09, From a comparison of these results, it appears that, while the change in distance, 0-55, is so small that its existence cannot be asserted with oe ae a marked change of position has taken place, amounting to 3° 37’, reac so decided that the motion m 2 taken as flly wished: this rate of motion, assuming circular and in a plane perpen- in about 100 years, or, [ baborat twice as long as the period ascribed to ed to orbit attributed to the opaque body supposed to dei: the great star, but I have been unable to lay my hand upon the of Bessel and Peters upon this subject, in time for this letter. 7 still wonder that Clark’s great little star has so long escaped detection; it is a much less t 2 tdlar ectra ctnes writin ou in December (p. 71, this volume), I have mounted my siceoomien spectroscope in a more firm d convenient manner; I have added m, by means of which the spectrum from a spirit lamp is constantly present in the field of view, during the observation of a star: I find a most useful check, and Mainty, found that each line in the spectrum of the star has its counter- in the solar spectrum. _ 8. The Spectroscope. _~ I have employed the bad weather, this winter, in the construction of a large nt Cage te age eg 20 inches focus and 1°6 aperture; the sae of which I have so far used but six, are hollow cases of brass cast in one piece, with Ruse Sores carefully ground, Upon which are camaiad plates of glass, originally made for shades for artificial horizons, and consequently nearly plain and parallel; I say nearly, for I have yet to find one aan tie of plain and parallel gine ; these prisms under certain conditions perform beautifully ; the obstacles S _ Kirchhoff’s central line are not difficult, being readily : ‘ seen with three prisms of 60°, of bisulphid and one of 45°, of glass (it: being possi of the interference 408 Scientific Correspond to fine performance are two-fold. 1st. I find no specimen of bisulphid of carbon homogeneous in density : upon shaking or disturbing the posi- tion of the prism a violent agitation of the image occurs, and in exam- ining it without the eye-piece, after the mode adopted in detecting veins in an object-glass, the whole interior of the prism is seen full of waves and striz, presenting the appearance of alcohol and water not yet thor- oughly mixed; this trouble is cured by time, from a quarter to a half hour being a sufficient rest. 2d. The brass frame is so much more oval opening, from which Mr. Clark has prepared CS, prisms, hol : nearly a pint of liquid, and exposing faces of about five inches — by three high; two of these proje¢t a spectrum from Deleuil’s eee which the 10 p. 414 of this S., JR. a 4. Analysis of the Sodium line D.—As I said above, my brass PUSH under favorable conditions perform admirably; with six of them lam confident that I haye seen the line D composed of . nine (see figure); this diagram is rude, not founded i \[3 a not upon measures, but merely a copy of a sketch made : | vhen I first saw the lines; the three on the right of © possible to use four of 60° on account tral on@ ie telescopes). Of the three in the left compartment, the cen Tight’ ‘most difficult, and all require the best adjustment and 1g On the Origin of the Nitrites, &c. 409 the first, which flash but for a moment; close upon the green side"of the soda line is a group of four lines, three quite strong and one faint; further on in the green is another group of three lines, and finally the violet line 8 is double, about as widely separated as A. e measured the places of these lines, but will send you the results when obtained. The orange strontium column is beautifully resolved into close and fine lines. am very truly yours, Lewis M. Rurnerrvrp., Il. On the origin of the nitrites, &c., in a letter to the Editors from Prof, Gzo. C. Scuazrrer, dated Washington, D. C., March 18th, 1863. Gentl letter from T, Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., on the theory of nitrification depend- the reproduction, from the “Z. #.and D. Philos. Magazine, for January, On the n theory of Nitrification,” read by Mr. H. “ before the French Academy of Sciences, on the 15th of last September.” Mr. Hunt also says, “ My object is to claim for myself the new theory of nitrification, which Schénbein seeks to found upon his recent experi- ments, and which I published nearly two years since.” umble worker in the cause of science, I would also ask permis- sion to contribute my mite to the history of this subject. In the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1861, there is (p. 305) a Report on Nitrification presented to the Smith- sonian Institution in 1858 [1856] by Dr. B. F. Craig, in which the fol- lowing passage occurs : ; “Viewing the subject by the aid of such lights as science affords, the _ Concerning the combination of oxygen and nitrogen, is that propounded __ by Dr. G. C. Schaeffer, which is based upon that general chemical action by which various bodies assume the elements of water in such a way as to produce salts of ammonia. This action takes place very commonly " Since this letter was written, the following note has been furnished by Dr, : “March 29th, 1868. “The date appended to m per on Nitrification, which was published in the Smithsonian Report for 1861, is 2 mieprint. The real date on fearon ipt i 1856. I did not » which will account for the occur-_ B. F. Craic.” _ fence of this and a few other typographical errors. 410 Scientific Corr lence. z separation of the elements of water, and which will regenerate the salts reassuming them. They are known to chemists as amids, anhydrids or uitryls]. Supposing nitrogen to act in the same way, Viz: to assiml- late four equivalents of water, it will form néérite of ammonia, whieh, by a well known tendency of the nitrites, will pass into the condition of nitrate. [The action consists in the assumption of the water by two equivalents, of the nitrous oxyd in one case, and of the nitrogen in the i In the case of nitrous oxyd it may be represented thus N,0,+ H,0,—=NO,NH,; and in the case of nitrogen N,—+H,0,=NO% NH, |. If potash be present, the nitrite of potash will be produced by — decomposition of the ammoniacal salt, and the ammonia set free may itself be nitrified. Without going into theoretical discussions, this hypo thesis may be alluded to as one arrived at by legitimate analogies, an which it would be interesting and useful to test by experimental invest ations.” . sa The foregoing passage is exactly copied from the Report, with a ‘ exception of obvious typographical errors and the incorporation of : foot-notes enclosed in brackets, cet As a further contribution to the history of the subject the following . reference may be made: Proceedings of the American Ae ae tion for the Advancement of Science, Fourth Meeting, held at New Haven, ces Conn., August, 1850, there will be found on page 206 a paper ‘Coll, - “ On a new test for nitrates, By Prof. G. C. Schaeffer of Center VO" the kindnes of Mr. Hunt. eaeadis upon A few quotations from this paper must conclude this intrusiop "r” - your patience. - tow has hithert® “New test for the Nitrites and Nitrates, &e.—Chemistry 28s ™ “al furnished no distinctive test for the nitrites when presented vats, t2@ quantities. From the supposed unfrequent occurrence of these sa want of such a test has never felt. pa ied For several years, I have been engaged in a research which has a _to believe that the nitrites are of far more frequent occurrenc® © nly supposed, and that they have been mistaken for nitrates process, with pure sulphuric acid and protosulphate of 1M Physics. 411 give the same reaction with both classes of salts.” Among the difficulties encountered is named this one, “the nitrites are generally either de- : adi : care required in making this test, the following words are found: “ With these precautions, I have found this test astonishiigly delicate, in fact “sate with those for iron, iodine, &c. Using fused nitre, I have de- tected the presence of 1 pt. in 617, 000 pts. of water; a bystander, wholly ignorant of the nature of the operation, pronouncing as to the color. Yet this salt contained about one-half its weight of undecomposed nitre.” It is very doubtful eres an er notice than this, of the presence of nitrites in rain-water. ee on the continent, and, as the much valued Reports of the Smithsonian Institution are widely distributed, the verification of the quotations above cited can readily It is a matter of regret that = want of time and the absence of docu- mentary evidence, soon to b2 supplied, prevents, at present, the continu- ation e my eotiteibations to the history of this subject as connected with cal science; since the result, it is believed, would show another and an sattiée origin "for these views than any which has yet been assigned _ to them —_— SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENG e- I, PHYSICS. e - The electrical spectrum is =gevioa tees of two ee spectra, the one belonging to the metal of the electrodes, the other to the gas through . ct spark passes, the two spectra being distinguishable by the dif- 2 in appearance. Metallic compounds and metallic sulphids have _ ote their luminous spectra the same lines as each of the bodies which the und contains, and this affords a ready method of qualitative 412 Scientific Intelligence. and belongs to both magnesium and iron. Calcium has three strong lines at the. violet end of the spectrum, of which two correspond Hi lines, and the third in order forms with one of the iron lines the above- mentioned strong double line. Calcium has also six lines coinciding with lines of the G group, three between G and F, and groups of fine lines at E and between Eand G. Aluminum exhibits two strong lines pi lines between H and G which appear to correspon . the strong blue strontium line between G and F has no correspon 5 line imthe-solar spectrum. The author assumes further that the ineY | belongs to hydrogen. An interesting discussion of the theory of a mometric heat concludes Angstrém’s memoir, which, it must be er bered, although first published in English in July, 1862, in reality PRY ceded the important memoir of Kirchhoff.—Z., E. and D. ae pas a one has observed .—GLapst of the fame 4 Physics. 413 tual angular measurement. The yellow sodium light is wanting. The chlorids of copper, platinum, gold, mercury, nickel, cobalt, zine, iron, sodium, potassium, and barium, all exhibit the characteristic violet light when sufficiently heated. The explanation of these phenomena is not apparent in the — aha of our knowledge —JL. and £, Phil. nee xxiv, 417, December, G. n the Solar Becabein m.—Merz has communicated a few notes on the Dsdicetithen of the spectrom and kindred subjects, which are Worthy of attention. The author in the first place gives a resumé of the results of Fraunhofer — spectra-of fixed stars, and then quotes very briefly from a men Prof. Donati of Florence, which we a ve hot seen, and which yecener a the ae ‘tra of Sirius, Vega, Procyon, Reg- ulus, Fomalhaut, Castor, Atair, Capra, Arcturus, Pollux, Aldebaran, Rigel, and Antares From _ observations . appears ‘niece, ac- posting with a face of 19 lines resolved D into three lines. When eleven prisms were used, with an angle of about 480°, D was resolved into sei lines. The vated expects that great advantage will result crease in the size of the prisms and telescopes, ‘and proposes to area in that direction— Pogg. Ann., exvii, 654, Dec. 1862. Ww. G. nee Prof. Rood’s article on Merz’s results, p. 356 this volume.— 4. A new Spectroscope—Littrow has devised a new form of s a in which only one telescope is necessary, and in which four prisms made to give the same dispersion as ei ht with the old eed eee “* this instrument the bundle of rays which diverge from th @ slit are rendered parallel in the usual manner by an achromatic lens ikon at ah eh end of the oo telescope a rays then traverse rn be whole spectrum can = brought a pmagevie into the eke of : also nap. | been dearibet though very obscurely, by Janssen.’ The adjustment of . the prisms in Littrow’s apparatus ought to be adopted in all wpe eogerat opes aC = which more than one prism is employed .— Cosmos, xxi * Comptes Rendus, June 23d, 1862. Wie Jour. Sct.—Srconp Sexes, Vor. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, 1863. 53 Ww. G. 414 Scientific Intelligence. n the Spectra of the Alkaline Metals—Wo.r and D1acon have aoe ve spectra of the alkaline metals produced by very high tem- n chlorid, and heatéd to a convenient cape, The h age on issuing from oe tube, is mixed with oxygen and burned. Under circumstances, many metallic chlorids give remarkably well defined ee long-continuing spectra. Metallic sodium gives in this manner six well- defined lines between C and Fy upon a faintly colored ground, whieh, however, is not continuous, but exhibits two sudden variations in inten- sity. Potassium gives a magnificent spectrum, in which eleven lines— for the most part already noticed by Debray and Grandeau—are observed. Chlorid of lithium gives four brilliant and characteristic lines. Finally, the chlorids of copper and zinc Ly very well defined spectra of fee intensity.— Compiles Rendus, lv, 6. Contributions to spectral fori ysis.—Borreer has published a ‘tow notices wy to the spectral analysis, from which we extract what is nD um gives, according to Béttger, between the yellow and the violet, a ae large number of equidistant dark lines. Native selenid of wareury gives the same reaction hen coal-gas, before reaching 4 a great number of bright aed in the red and nae which, however, last but an instant. Fluor spar gives, in addition to the calcium lines, beautiful clear blue line, which, according to Bottger, is characteristic of fluorine. Béttger found this line in all the varieties of fluor spar as well as in chemically be fluorid of calcium, but not in eryolite or fluorid of potassium. The spectrum of cyanogen—long since observed by —is of extencbdiniel beauty —Journal fir Prakt. Chemie, \xxxv, ee . On the spectrum of Sodium.—Fizzav has made the very. plored thy observation that metallic sodium in a state of active combustion gives continuous spectrum in , the line D appears as a dark line. Potas d magnesium do not give continuous spectra under the cumstances, and Fizeau’s iogaticn at present stands entirely without even an attempt at i ag — Comptes Rendus, liv. cea [Draper’s experiments have shown that metals up to a white heat bs) continuous spectra. Ata hi = temperature each metal appears to ei a discontinuous spectrum or one marked by brilliant lines with interven” veal Ki same Cil- isolated, pein wenper rature the eo again become continuous, : being different for each substance Physics. 415 of burning sodium, which in itself gives a continuous spectrum, passing through the portion of the flame ignited at the edges in contact with the air and of lower temperature, or still more probably through vaporized metallic sodium which has escaped combustion, will reverse the brilliant line D, and thus give a dark line upon a continuous bright spectrum, this explanation, upon further knowledge of the facts, should prove correct, it will not be necessary, with Kirchhoff, to suppose that the solid y of the sun is ignited or luminous. For the temperature of the pho- tosphere may reasonably be supposed to be highest nearest the surface of the body of the sun, since there the condensation is greatest. Those layers or strata nearest the sun will then give continuous spectra, and the rays from there passing through the outer strata will give spectra tion by dividing the heat of combustion by the specific heat. According to Favre and Silbermann, we have for the heat of combustion the num- ber 3195, which, divided by 0°5, gives for the temperature of combustion 0° C., w i under a constant pressure. But if the specific heat of soda, NaO, in the form of vapor, be taken as one-fourth of that of water, we shall have for the temperature of combustion 12780° C. It appears by no means . AB, he. ip. Ag. Ar. ha. dn. 6-878 6-564 5'888 5°260 4°843 4°291 3°928 _ €xpressed in hundred-thousandths of a centimeter. The employment of _ the three hydrogen lines, «, 8, 7, permits the observations to be made at I times and with the greatest facility and accuracy. Landolt furthe determined the indices of each subsiance for a series of temperatures, C ter was in each case plunged directly into the liquid; the prism and : liquid were heated to 30° C, and allowed to cool slowly, the observations made from degree to degree. The method of measurement em- 416 Scientific Intelligence. ployed was that of least deviation. According to Cauchy, the connection between the wave lengt and corresponding index of refraction is ex- pressed by the equation B < ae ’ in which A is the coefficient of refraction, and B the coefficient of > persion. If the indices ug and ty be determined by direct measuremen for a given substance, we have the two aon He =A+5 . a B by Pas 7 from which we find s —Uae B= aes Ps Swen Hy ne, 5 Roa ph 7 ee . ee Thus for water the indices found were . Mg == 133120 Mg== 133723 ' From wu, and #y and the wave lengths 2 4. — 6°533 ; a we obtain for the constants A and B at 19° C. the values A= 1:32386 B = 0:31328, - Caleulating from these the value of wg, we find ug= 133722, = . agrees very closely with the actual rmonarreaniet 1°33723. For the < D the calculated index was 1-33290, the value found by direct measure — ment also 1°33290. The author gives the values o B for e ed substance at each temperature measured. With these values he also calculates the indices of refraction of each substance at th perature of 20° C. for the seven Fraunbofer’s lines ; = = > oe a formic and end with wnanthylie ane are as aio The edie of re fraction increase with the number of equivalents of carbon and hy er but by no means uniformly. The indices for all the increase “a about th as the wave lengths diminish. The curves 70 same degr the different acids are not equidistant, but, excepting in the irvegt- formic acid, are nearly parallel. The coefficient A also Saag: °C. larly with the carbon and hydrogen. The diminution in A ne becomes Sa from acetic acid upward, but the differences are very | small. The ch in the case of formic acid is less than nin any of the cient B mente —— with the increase of carbon Phe ps the case nf fie acid. Also the elongation | Chemistry. 417 trum, as measured by the difference 4 — a, increases with the pon of the acid in the series, excepting in the case ‘of formic acid. The author promises a further discussi sion of the results of his measurements, as well as an examination of the indices of the homalogenn aleohols C, Honea +0,.—Pogg. Ann., exviii, 353. II, CHEMISTRY. On the coloring matters derived from aniline—Dr. Hormann has bahlighea an elegant investigation of the colors derived bias anilin, which places the chemical nature of these substances in a clear point of view, Hofmann finds that the red coloring matter, produced by the action of the chlorids of carbon, tin, mercury, and other metals, and of certain oxydizing agents upon anilin, is an organic base which hes the formula This base he terms Rosanilin; in a pure state it is a perfectly colorless crystalline body, rinaced solable $ in water, and be- coming red on exposure to the air. It dissolves in alcoho with a dark red color. The change of color is at accompanied by a change of weight. On distillation, the base yields anilin and a carbonaceous mass, The sprig is GC, oH, gN,,2HO. The base is triacid, but forms three f C,,H, N,-HCl % The salts with one equivalent of acid are very stable; they exhibit for the most part a green metallic lustre like the wings of eantharides. The ey are red by transmitted light, and their solutions have a magnificent red color. The salts with three equivalents of acids are yellowish-brown, ony the mass and in sol ution. The chlorids C,H, oN. Hcl and 40 3H lized salts; the triacid chlorid (oer moh on heating to 100° C., an comes indigo-blue, which Hofmann attributes to the Kodi ah of an un- stable intermediate chlorid. The author describes several crystallized salts of rosanilin; the acetate C,,H,,N,.C,H,O, is the most beauti- ful. The action of nascent cs n converts apices into somal is 0, = N,, awd it yields two tien of wall erystallized catia wi monacid aud biacid. ‘The most remarkable property of this base is the ation of a nitrate so insoluble that chrysanilin is the best known Teagent for nitric acid. One gramme of nitrate of potash in one litre Water imm: immediately gives a crystalline precipitate with a solution of chrys: 418 Scientific Intelligence. anilin. The formulas of the three ba8es described by Hofmann exhibit a remarkable eo ik of homology in which H, is the con- stant difference. Thus onus - . . Cries Rosanilin, - - - - of oN® Leuceanilin, - - - Ci gts: The conversion of chrysanilin into rosanilin and legcastils appears possi- ble, but has not yet been effected. Dr. Hofmann has also examined the beautiful blue coloring matter ob- tained from erude chinolin by the action of the iodids of methyl, Oe and termed cyanin. The iodid of this base has the formula NI. Another base homologous with this is found in the commer- cial cyanin. Its formula is Ci .H, sN2l, and it appears to pre Gy a C,H, EERE es in the second we have 2C,,H,,NI4+KO, HO=—C,,H,,N,I+KI+2H0. —Comptes Rendus, liv, 428, lv, 817, 849 Awatyticat CHeEMIstry. 2. On the Analysis of Borates and Fluoborates.—In solutions which contain only boric acid and alkalies, Marienac (Fresenius's Zeitschr ift fiir hee ytische Chemie, drittes Heft,) determines the former as follows: The solution is neutralized with chlorhydrie acid and chlorid of magne- sium, or better, chlorid of magnesium- ammonium is added in such quan- — tity that to one part of boric acid at least two parts of magnesia are LB ent. The liquid is now made ammoniacal and finally is evaporated to — : dryness in a weighed platinum vessel. Should the addition of ammonia a cause a precipitate which does not readily vanish on warming, ge a moniac must be put in until the liquid becomes, by ee During the = ees part of the as acid. A small amount of the latter always goes it | solution. The filtrate and washings are treated with ammonia © again ir Beigua ignited, and washed as before. The second filtrate and w ashin nee & e once more treated in the same manner, when. great The three atu are ignited together in an open crucible as strong as possible and so long as to decompose the traces of chlorid of mag we imate they may ai When they are P iitieses it ea : n na: 1e of sulphuric acid re a pe ili th — with — of an alkali Analytical Chemistry. 419 Should an insoluble, heavy, gray residue remain on treating with acid, it must be collected and its weight deducted from that of the borate of magnesia. It is platinum. The subjoined example illustrates the method and demonstrates that alkali-chlorids in large excess have no serious influence on its accuracy. ‘764 grm. of pure borax, containing 0-280 grm. of boric acid were dissolved with 2 grm. of chlorid of sodium and 3-2 grm. of crystallized chlorid of ammonium-magnesium were added. First residue = 0°5720 ; yea : contained magnesia = 0-3053 - contained boric acid = 0°2667 grm. Second residue = 0°1040 dé “ “« = 90093 « contained magnesia = 0°0947 { er Third residue = 0:0645 i « &€ — 9.9099 « contained magnesia = 0°0625 a "i Total, 0°2780 Other determinations gave results of equal accuracy. From insoluble compounds the boric acid is obtained in solution by fusing with thrice their weight of carbonate of soda and exhausting the mass with water. or ammoniacal solution of chlorid of calcium. The precipitate of Ca Fl Process (except that no fusion was made), 0°1883 0:1362 erm. of boric acid. In the analysis of borofluorid of potassium a loss of fluorine equal to 1:5 to 1°8 per cent occurred which Marignac thinks might have been avoided by employing a caustic alkali in the fusion. Wed. Pxrotocrarny.— 8. Collodion—We translate from La Moniteur de la Photographie for February 15th, 1863, the following letter addressed to the editor by _ A. Jeanrenaup. Mr. Jeanrenaud is a well-known skillful amateur pho- _ tograph pher. ' “Mr, Editor :—If you and several other psec had not requested = results I have obtained, that it will be useful.to make my formula __ known to your readers, I do it with the more pleasure, as T hope _ ‘hat those who shall take the pains to try it will have no reason to 420 Scientific Intelligence, regret it. This formula is less empirical than it seems, for it is the te sult of a long series of researches and trials, eye which “ on be useless to dilat: Such as it is, it is good, and has given several years very peuitatt results; and, | may add, that cries ‘thet collodions, time has upon it no other influence than to improve it, which has determined me always to have a supply a year old on han Formula, For ; eo of collodion, == 35} fluid ounces. Ether 800 grammes, 284. ae Alc : a 250 * 88 “ Na soluble gun pane 8 i 123 grains. Todi of cadmium 9 2 139 Upon complete, talitici twenty-five drops of pure bromine are added. The color becomes very intense, for there is some iodine set free, and a consequent formation of bromid of cadmium. om this litre I extract 100 grammes—one tenth part of the whole Giiantihy one ii place in a separate flask. Into this 100 grammes are dropped twelve or thirteen rops of highly concentrated liquid ammonia. A very thick golden- ellow precipitate is formed, so thick that it will not mingle with the a filers se even by vigorously shaking the flask. It is not easy to define with chemical exactness the eonstitation of this precipitate; but whats is certain is, that it suffices to add to it a few drops of crys tallizable acetic acid to dissolve it and render eh’ collodion pe rfectly limpid. This last operation with acetic acid is somewhat uncertain, & the quantity varies according to the quality of the alcohol and ammo used. I now pour back into the first Hask the 100 grammes upon which I have just speiton: and let the whole stand for fifteen days before using it. During this time the collodion, however red on : e, changes gradually until it attains at last a pale straw-color, W tint it ought to keep. If the collodion is found to be insuficlony t iodized (althongh the 7 adie wou above given sin _ oo, of 3 ne Ag er stals of amtabs of silver; I have never had any reason ! see of this, on the contrary I think it is to the reaction wh" duces them that we iia ie te the good qualities of this III. METALLURGY. W. T. Roeper, (communi at ; ia ras pen big oie the he mais! te rears Metallurgy: 421 ~. In addition to the above om the spectra of sodium, potas- eleme It is els the dust which remains lying on the boilers, or is deposited on the iron doors or shutters of the boiler-chamber, which gives the -_ lium reaction, while that which has fallen to the floor does not show é€ reason probably i is, that it is volatilized by the higher heat of the flame, and escapes throu which seem to act as condensers. Ihave not been able to detect it in the ashes of anthracite from a common stove, while they beautifully dis- play the sodium, potassium and lithium lines. Bethlehem, Pa., April 8, 1863. 2. Bessemer’s process for the production of Iron and Steel. —This method for converting the purer varieties of pig-iron is steel and bar- iron is constantly i increasing in favor among European In a recent nT a to the “ Berggeist,” Prof TUNER states that thousands of ¢ f Bessemer-steel and iron are now annually produced in England ‘and ecuas that Bessemer-stee] is already an ar- ticle of commerce in Germany ; and that _— wor erected for the anak of this method in-Fra Whenever the proper raw-material is used, piace 8 process see steel which in all respects is fully equal to the best ailithes of cast-steel ; and iron of as good quality as the best forge-iron. The loss in converting pig-iron into steel, by this method, is 12 to 15 pr. ct., and in makin ng bar- Iron 18 to 22 pr. ct. In 5 to 10 minutes, 15 to 20 ewt. of fluid pig-iron are converted into steel or bar-iron with scarcely any cost for ri — without hand labor. The pressure of blast used is from 4 to 14 at Spheres, and the — is 800 to 1200 cubic feet of cold air of aa ordinary atmospheric de sity. Only good ¢ aceae is adapted for conversion by this method, and the reason of the failure of the earlier experiments was the employment of i improper and inferior raw-material. Swedish pig-iron is now alwa used in England for the production of the best sorts of steel and iron. n some of the new iron works attempts have been made to improve the quality. of English pig tr which has been carried to the ee of con- version, by adding to it melted Swedish pig-iron; manganese compounds have also been used rig ate same purpose. But the separation of the Mr. Crookes has recently announced that he has found thallium in compara- yd large a entities in the deposit t from us flues of Mr. Spence’s pyrites burners nchester.— Chem. News, vil, 150.—e. J. B. Am. Jour. ites —Anconss sland: Vou. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, 1863, Ss 422 Scientific Intelligence. the proper temperature, the relative amount of blast to the rigs operated upon should be carefully vomited. If too mar the process goes on slowly, and much heat is lost by radiation; on the other hand, if too much blast is used, there is also a loss from the heat carried off by the air which is forced ae the iron before it has —_— the desired mposition. The pressure of the blast must, at all events, be greater than that of the column of i iron in the furnace, in order ‘that the bath of molten iron shall be are 1nd penetrated and the whcle melted mass - violent agitation, In Sweden the pressure of half an atmosphere n most cases been found sufficient, while i in England a pressure equ ‘to ib atmospheres has been used. Tunner places ene oy emphasis on the employment of a ae pret: a thee hot bi He says that if the blast were to be heated to , or geen even to 500-600° C., the pee would un- questionsbly ‘proceed with great regularity and completeness, and the dif feu Ities e manufacture of soft bar-iron and steel would be overcome. ssc it is to be borne in mind, bhakti in order to produce a given va riety of steel or iron, the process of conversion must be inter rupted — ever the refining has reached the desired point; this last is determi by observing the character of the gases and sparks which escape ~ The cost for furnace cpa: ne less than: was at first gore but Be when the jron | is a sepmderation the length of time that has been necessary to nee the ess has accomplis shed so much in so han a time, we have vig to hope that the day is ies far distant when the still rema’ difficulties in this Pp e853 ill a minimum.—?' nisches Journal, clxvi, 447. [A wide field is open for the application 9 in _ Bessemer’s pone in this. country, where pure iron ores, fully equ’ 7 Sangh to those of Sweden and Norway, occur in such abundan Agricultural Chemistry. 423 Iy. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 1. Atmospheric Nitrite of Ammonia and its Origin—E. Boutie de- scribes (Ann. der Ch. u. Ph., cxxv, 21-33) the results of long study of this subject, made at the same ween as, but independent of, the investigations of Battger and Schon arral found in the rain water eoliected at the Paris Observato during the si ending June, 1852, an average of 151°81 — of nitric acid and 41-82 grms. of ammonia per cubic metre. These results have not been th Willi confidence on account of the did daches of the methods at Barral’s disposal for the eae of nitric acid. Bous- the first of these conclusions is based are , purely qualitative in character. According to Bohlig the most “Se emg reagent for free am mmonia and carbonate - ammonia is chlori mercury—a solution containing but 30 monia giving with this salt a perceptible white turbidity. lf 40 ce, of aa exempt from ammonia (such is the water of many Springs, but distilled water rarely,) is mixed vith 5 drops of a solution of corrosive sublimat te (1 of salt to 30 of water) and the same quantity of a solution of the purest carbonate of potash (1 of salt to 50 of water), the whole remains perfectly clear for days together in closed vessels, If the solutions are much more concentrated, oxyd of mercury will separate. If water containing a mmonia in combination with the stronger acids be with corrosive sublimate and carbonate of potash, the same reac- tion—turbidity from separation of amido-mercuric chlori ace as happens with carbonate of ammonia and sublimate gone: double de- composition occurring between the ammonia salt and carbonate of * Boblig — testing the water of each considerable rain for a year, was any prea produced by sublimate alone, while that in sublimate ahaa carbonate of potash together in all cases gave a tur- bidity or even a precipitate. Contrary to the statements of the books, Boblig also found that the first portions of the distillate from 424 Scientific Intelligence. of nitrous acid (calculated as nitric acid). The former first added carbonate of potash to a litre of the water, then slowly evaporated toa normal ingredient of atmospheric waters. ‘tself is result, it was warrantable to infer that the atmosphere : contains no nitrate but only nitrite of ammonia. To examine the atmo sphere more directly, Bohlig passed 20 cubic feet of air slowly teen Agricultural Chemistry. 425 and then again urged. Here, the air, that occupies the helm of the still, yields, according to Boblig, its nitrite of ammonia to the condens- ing vapors Diicsisther says further that the statement of Schénbein, that water and nitrogen unite directly to form nitrite of ammonia, appears doubtful, ause the evaporation-experiments of the latter were made with un- limited quantities of air, and no account was taken of the preéxistence in it of the nitrite. But the nitrite always occurs in the atmosphere, though in Se RRR that vary extraordinarily with meteorological condition ma “1 eve n its quantity was scarcely diminished by oe é lowing: 50 cc. of pure water were distilled in a sate stream of air (more than three cubic feet) made free from nitrite of ammonia by pass- ing through of vitriol and a long potash tube. The temperature rose from 12° to 100° C. After cooling, oi distillate gave no reaction either for sheet or nitrous acid. is experiment was repeated in the same manner, save that a less quantity of unwashed air was passed through it. Both the distillate and the a in the retort gave most decided reactions for an ammonia salt, though nitrous acid was not detectable, from the sy delicaay of the iodine starch test. ive orms. of carbonate of potas , free from nitrous acid and ammo- pice a Was present saris minute traces » most perceptibly in in water which condensed on the sides of the bell and collected in a capsule placed underneath. This result indicates that the small amount of nitrite of ammonia found in tlte acid liquid was not produced in the experiment by union of water-vapor and nitrogen, but was simply con- densed from the atmosphere. Bohlig promises further poeeehen 3 in _— the air that feeds the flame shall be first purified from nitrite of ammonia. It is plain that one —— por iees Tequires preven experimental revision. The facts our possession are certainly not sufficient to — @ lower ey thn the specimens from Bodenmais and 426 Scientific Intelligence. warrant the assumption that nitrite of ammonia is formed from nitrogen and water; while at the same time some of Schénbein’s experiments are scarcely explainable on ~~ other hypothesis 2. Lhe Nitrogen Question.—Liebig, Nicklés,? and others regard the theory of Schénbein with, peirnaracin favor, since in their view it re- lieves the “nitrogen question” of agricultural chemistry of all em bar- rassment, and demonstrates that the atmosphere is to — a source as abundant as unfailing of combined or assimilable nitro We must emphatically dissent from any such nanchaaiiin for two st sons: Ist. It is not proved that there isin the atmosphere lable nitrogen than corresponds to what has already been pa in a manner that we must at present regard as entirely trustworthy, by Way and = aca Lawes and Gilbert, at Rothamstead, Eng i collected all the rs of rain, snow, dew and fog that could be gath- ered during the aa 1855-6. Way analyzed these waters, and found in them, for 1855, 7:11 lbs. of ammonia and 2°98 lbs. of nitric eins acid, for 1856, 9°53 lbs. of ammonia and 2°80 lbs. nitric acid—am mounts corresponding to 6°63 and 8:31 lbs. of nitrogen, respectively, for an acre of surface, 2d. It is not proved that any nitrogen is made assimila converted into nitrite—by the act of ev aporation. Until solid facts have n. accumulated to a considerable extent, especially until quien investigations really demonstrate that combined nitrogen is mu . abundant than appears from the researches of Way and Bousst ingly we are not warranted in making such positive deductions from the re- sults of Schénbein, interesting and valuable as they are. s. We de V. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY, ig mineral toxyd of ‘and Connecticut. The specimens from these localities vary ex in their pie! their powder varies in color, and by careful nea at they are more or less decomposed. The ¢ not cnequet traversed by rifts and seams, and, on being ract @ ra i i and from the I] and their always constant; their powder is cherry c md from the analysis of these unaltered specimens mistry ap ; peas to eee: ith edition. 2], Xxxv, af a i ge Se Mineralogy and Geology. 427 can arrive at a correct interpretation of the true composition of this mineral. Nine analyses of the columbite from Bodenmais have been made in Rose’s seep by Rose, Afdéef, Jacobson, Chandler, Warren and Finkener, The empine§ examined eget the different densities 6°39, between ee —. an the Hypovdtimnbie acid in 5 ee analyses were: 22407,.1: > 1: 3°7, 1: 3°87, 1: 3°56, 1: 3°53, 1: 3:4; 1:33:34, and 1:3:16. € specimens of columbite from Connecticut showed less alteration than those from Bodenmais. Among them, however, were some speci- : n the densities 6-048, 5-583, 5°708, 5°483, ties the same peculiarities in regard to streak and powder as observed in ae mineral, The oxygen ratios were 1:3°63, 1:3°48, 1:3°13 “ad 13 The speci- Mens which contained the largest amount of ypoeslambi ‘acid had the highest density, and had also a black powder e observes that the columbite occurring in the Greenland eryolite is unquestionably the purest yet found. The crystals have suffered no decomposition, and all the specimens have therefore the same specific gravity. Selected fragments gave this density as 5°374 to 5°376, in From — pasta ig Rose hie that in the purer varieties of co- Iumbite—t which have suffered no alteration or deccmpastiga ine oxygen of on hypocolumbie acid is three times that of the oxygen of the protoxyd of iron and manganese, that is, the relation of oxygen of the acid to that of the bases is as 3:1. An analogous relation exists in wolfram, the ratio between the tungstic acid and the bases being 3:1, and the bases also consist of protoxyd of iron and manganese.—Jour, prakt. Chem., \xxxv, 438. G. 3. 5, 2. Kischtimite, a has mineral.—T. Korovarrr describes, under the name seagate , a new mineral from: the gold-washings of the | prakt, Chem., Ixxxv, 442). ‘The mineral was not enyinaliitad color dark brownish-yellow, steak much lighter; fracture sub-conchoidal; lustre tween greasy and vitreous; friable, and in small pieces transparent. a 428 Scientific Intelligence. gives off water and becomes darker colored. Soluble in the fluxes: with borax in the outer flame gives a yellow glass, in the inner flame faint yellow, which on cooling becomes colorless; with salt of poxphors gives the same reactions, except that both beads are colorles . The powder mois tened with sulphuric acid gives off finohydrie acid. Be a traces of chlorine. The acid solution gave no precipitate with sulphy- drie acid gas; in the neutral solution sulphid of ammonium gave a color Jess voluminous precipitate, insoluble in caustic potash, but soluble in excess of carbonate of ammonia, thus indi icating the presence of the oxy of the cerium metals. The filtrate from the sulphid of ammonium pre- cipitate left no residue on evaporation and ignition, showing the absence of alkalies and alkaline earths. Three analyses ga 6 i La Ce Fl O (loss) is 17°19 2°20 87-46 26-78 612 2. 19°65 35°66 28-84 5-97 3. 198 scree pte 6°96 Mean, 17°19 2°20 36:56 27°81 6°35 9°89 From this, Korovaeff deduces the formula 6Ladi+(€e+Ce,Fl;+2H) or staG- Cah 0)?-+H, which on calculation equals 6 17-28, H 240, La 37°67, Ce 25: 23, Fl 1-52, O 9°60—=100-00, approaches een te from Ma usso, described and an The Ki for this new spec = 3. olan of ‘the Miocene Shells of the Atlantic ree i, by T. of Corrav.—In the last number of the Proceedings of the orig Natural —— of perce ore (Dec., 1862, pp- A fin Mr. rad has give a Catalogue which must prove an invaluable mpm | not only to silseconslowns et to those students of recent peed a. ke the shells of our coast a subject of study. The preree d oon shells epee vadblished, particularly those merous and scattered, that to collect and “xe Ze EL aesaesty pcadtticiairy 1 to their investigation, —would be by extended a work for every one interested therein to undertake for self, It is a subject for congratulation that this work is no all, by one so competent and so well —— with our Tertiary nz as the distinguished author of the “ Catalogue.” Mr. Conrad states that the Miocene of our Atlantic slope ext 7 from New Jersey to Sonth Carolina, and he inclades in it th “Pliocene” of the latter State. The newer Plincesd or Pleiooee _ the coast rests immediately upon the Miocene, and there “abs “ 530 rai of extinct forms between these two formations. . Spec sof shells are found in the Miocene, the proportion of a Gastero orga Sh being 1:1:° ae Mr. C. thinks that the ee y acknowledged to occur in this forma Mineralogy and Geology. 429 be greatly reduced, and he rejects from the list no less than 18 which were formerly supposed to be identical with recent forms. He even groups of species, we can never reach a firm basis. The true principle seems to be sufficiently plain, and has, with few exceptions, been gene- rally followed. bames proposed by all authors who were not strictly binomial in their specific nomenclature. An author may name a genus, and give its an entirely different system in his “Zentamen Methodi Ostracologice.” “a each designated by a “phrase” according to the general pre-Linnzan authors. Witness, for instance, on p. 114 above ed, where we find,—“Genus I, Patella integra. Species I, Striata. 1. Indica, major, striis planis,” etc. 2. “Cypria, strii Phd ete, and so on, including 22 species under the “species Striata,” until We come to “Species II, Reticuluta seu cluthrata” with 7 species; “Spe- cies II, Virgata vel circinnata,” with 4 species; “ Species IV, Levis,” With 5, and so on. Klein’s species in fact corres ond more nearly with san genera. Again, very many of his generic names are composed. -Of two words, and the most enthusiastic of his modern followers do not Am. Jour. Scr.—SEconp Series, VoL. XXXV, No. 105.—Max, 1863. 55 430 Scientific Intelligence. claim priority for these, with the exception of H. and A, Adams, who e sometimes the first word of the binomial phrase for the generic name to be established! To this objection it is answered that wherever Klein’s names are (accidentally) uninomial, they must be adopted. But if this method of settling the question be allowed, we shall have all writers who are affected with the prevailing rage for change, seare through every forgotten and almost extinet work at all relating to natural history, which has appeared since the invention of printing seizing upon every case in which an author happened to designate & group of animals by a single name, and adding this to our already over- burdened synonymy, to the suppression of the name last in vogue. nd further, when we have got to the date of the invention of printing, there will be some who will insist that the distribution of a certain number of copies of a manuscript constitutes publication, a and back to the still older names given by writers who flourished during .and before the Middle Ages! Naturalists, averse to the more severe studies in the realm of nature herself, will parent archeologists, and cheaply earn reputation by seeking for prior names to replace those which have become well known. We have thus dwelt upon Klein’s case because it is one of impor tance, not only as a type of many, but on account of the great number with as much reason as the first = has been, But to drop the question of simple nomenclature, we may, in concli- h we a Numbers of species formerly huddled together in old ge ace in the very appropriate. We are now enabled catistactorily to el our Miocene fauna with that of Europe, and with that of i epoch on our own coast. *D. a vith —s y of Vermont——Announcement has been issued pe 4D. y Hager o af Teoadeneilie, Vt., that the Geological Report of ny TH : quarto will hereafter be disposed of by him at six dollars a copy: *™™ edition is nearly exhausted. ek VI. BOTANY AND gies un Nouveav oor, : outes shieres dans le Fruit des Chénes et sur ee meilleure eer : assiduously engaged in Prodro romus, and has had ise him the.authentie types ished species, and an amount of materials as to many of oe dried specimens may serve, leaves little to be rn al er a pur anical interest, and, sir Science, need Botany and Zoology. 431 noticed here. The new character unexpectedly brought to light is that of the position in the acorn of the five atrophied ovules as respects the seed, or kernel, which results from the fertilization of the sixth ovule, the only one which ever matures. eCandolle shows that the aborted ovules do not disappear as the fruit grows, but persist, just as they are well known to do in the Horse-chestnut and Buckeye, and that they may be found in the ripe acorn upon examination. It appears that the ovules in the seed. Moreover, all the Oaks which mature their fruit the first year. bear their atrophied ovules at the base of the seed, or at least below its middie. Oaks of biennial maturation are divided in this respect, some ; having these ovules below, others above; but most of the North Amer- case of the two Cork Oaks, so in general, it is not coérdinated with other important differences, and therefore it serves merely to distinguish related anus group in which the ovules are inferior. ; _DeCandolle notices a peculiarity in the embryo of our Live Oak (Q. the Old World amined in this respect, apparently to determin of two ‘ could have little doubt; but we solicit fresh acorns of the coming season, posts. A. G, riation, Geographical Distribution, and Succession.— Etude sur UEspéce, & Voccasion d'une Revision de la Fam- Selle, and separately issued as a pamphlet. A less inspiring task cou hardly be assigned to a botani : ne Sent Quercus and its allies. The vast materials assembled under De- Candolle’s hands, while disheartening for their bulk, offered smal] hope novelty, The subject was both extremely trite and extremely difficult. 432 Scientific Intelligence. Happily it occurred to DeCandolle that an interest might be imparted to an onerous undertaking, and a work of necessity be turned to good ac- count for science, by studyi ing the Oaks in view of the question of Species, hat this term — ‘means, or should mean, in peg history, is “ae then in the progress of science se come to assume a new ful interest. Botany and Zoology, Geology, and what our piece feeling the want of a new term, proposes to name Epiontology, all lead up to and converge into this class * questions, while recent theories shape a point the discussion. So we look with eager interest to see what light the study of Oaks, by a very careful, experienced, and conservative bot- anist, particularly — with the geographical relations of plants, may throw sey the subjec The course of inv can in this instance does not differ from that or dinarily bcsdend by working botanists ; nor, indeed, are the theoretical con- clusions other than those to which a similar study of other orders mig! not have equally led. The Oaks afford a very good occasion for the dis eussion of questions which press upon our attention, and perhaps they offer peculiarly good materials on account of the number of fossil species, econceived notions about species being laid aside, the specimens in hand were distributed, according to their obvious resemblances, Ito groups of apparently identical or “nearly identical forms, which were sé¥ erally examined and compared. Where specimens were few, on countries little explored, the _— was easy, but the conclusions a OF be seen, of small value. The fewer the materials, hood of forms intermediate aeiee any two, and—what ge not ap , sd senties upon the old law-maxim as Sonenne ae are readily nough defined. Where, however, specimens abound, as in the case the the Oaks of Europe, of the Orient, and of the United Sates of which imens amounted to hundreds, collected at different ages, in va spec localities, by botanists of all sorts of views and preiletine e were data fit to draw useful conclusions from ere, as DeC iantious, more varied than if a8 had observed a hundred times ry had . ~ that vast herbaria, into which contributions from every source have ee ee for years, furnish a possible data,—at least are far better than a0Y e amou sonal herborization,—for the comparative en of related forms ett over wide tracts of territory. But as the ce * A name which, at the close of his poker, Rn ors e proposes for the study | 4 the succession of organized nena, 20 mprehend, therefore, palaontoiy and ponmaaa under what is called i ‘eal and zoology,—the whole lor = parallel to hi sta sais ta former, to that of nized beings, as respects origin, «We [with the word, notwithstanding the eee } ontology, the science of being, has an hive existence,—i, ¢., is a synonym or ® deparieen Botany and Zoology. : 483 rials increase, “ do the difficulties. Forms, which appeared totally dis- tinct, approach or blend peri indermediate gradations; charac stable in a Hnited number of instances or in a limited district, prove un- stable occasionally, or when observed o wider area ; and the prac- tieal question is forced v upon the iautaniasict reper. here is probably fixed and specific, and what is variant, pertaining to individual, variety or race? ation of these rich materials, certain characters were = oO * 2 a. as ae assignable reasons. Such characters, rse, are not specific, although many of them are such as would have been expected to be con- Stant in the same species, and are such as generally enter into specific defi- nitions. Variations of this ore ———s with his usual painstaking, classifies and tabulates, and ev resses numerically their frequene cy in certain species. The inl are - benagh well to view in a systematic enumeration,— (1.) Of characters “oe Frequently vary upon the same branch: over a dozen such are men 2.) Of those re candied vary upon the same branch: a smaller number “ these are mentioned. (3.) Those so rare that they might be called monstrosities, Then he enumerates characters, ten in number, which he has never found to v ary on the same branch, and which, ws gree may ped be Species, even these characters must be taken with allowance. In havir.g first brought ge ss groups of the lowest order, those forms which varied upon the same ock, he next had to combine similarly Various forms which, though de found associated upon the same branch, Were thoroughly blended by intermediate degrees. “The ooh ‘oups (varieties uh races g thus co ted, T have given the rank of speci i to ih e groups next abo ee suebe. which aiffer | in other i.e., either in characters which were not found united upon ee individuals, or in those which do not show transitions from one individual] to For the Oaks of regions sufficiently kip the mri thus formed te vate — ich factory bases, of he proof can be furnished. It is quite otherwise those which are represented in our herbaria fone single or few specimens. These are provisi species,—specie ich h er fall to the rank of simple va- —— occurring inthe same genus or in the same family. For example, ean - are fact Sa aves Tler, Q. coccifera, Q. acutifolia, &c., have the leay metimes entire and sometimes toothed upon the same | branch, e i rom one tree to another, I mi a hag ag ag my nsis to Q. Sartorii of ego vonage since these two differ only in their entire or ‘hate toothed ieties From the fact that the length of the peduncle varies in Q. Robur and d many poy ‘Oaks 1 might have combined Seemannii not admitted these Q. ii Liebm., w saliciflia Née. I have inductions, but have sri proof in n each particular case, Many 434 Scientific Intelligence. species are thus left as provisional; but in proceeding thus, the progress of the science will - more regular, and the AT less dependent upon the caprice or the retical opinions of each auth This is safe si to a certain degree ude, no doubt, as respects pub- he cannot conne nat ocular proof with a near relative, from which it differs only in particulars which he sees are pao in better known species of the same group? We suppos But if so, little improve- ment for the future upon the state of cee revealed in the following parapraph can be expected. Gene the ass state of our knowledge, after having seen nearly all the specimens, and in some species as many as 200 representatives from different localities, : eee that, out of the 300 species of Cupulifer will be the Prodromus, opera t least are provisional aeons country, or a saly de de: sribed it is difficult to believe that above on of the actual phcns in botanical works will remain unchanged.” _Such being the results am ii want of ade nae Bile how ej ga aceon with that of other botaniate of daar experience, ihe “They are mistaken,” he pointedly asserts, “ who repeat that doubtful spe ies are in a feeble minority. This seemed to be true, so "long a8 a eke Sibscetistiabs forms flow in, and doubts as to specific limits augment.” k DeCandolle insists, indeed, i this connection, that the higher the ran: of the groups, the more definite their limitation, or, 1 trietly fewer the am ign ous or doubtful forms ; ; that genera are ie are 3 to very yw ae intermediate forms to light, p siete wee bot- “ one syste tematist. ‘They are mistaken,” we think more than y 7 oie and a anist will say, “ who repeat that he ete part of our natura tl lin tr ibes are absolutely limited,” however we may agree iy Jess com" up this pone feity of aes groups, iaciiiee, is rather A On the other hand, that varieties should be less re ws from the very terms employed. They are ranked lar ae Yat ust because of their less definiteness. _ Ea ie eee Botany and Zoology. 435 Singular as it may appear, we have heard it denied that spon varieties occur. DeCandolle makes the important announcement that, in the Oak genus, the best known species are just those which present the greatest number of spontaneous varieties and sub-varieties. The maxi- mum is found in Q. Robur, with twenty-eight varieties, all spontaneous, itation or limitation, but without appreciable change of specific form or character; that is, without profounder changes than those within which & Species at the present time is known to vary. Moreover, he is careful to state that he is far from concluding that the time of the appearance of. a spec Europe at all indicates the time of its origin. Looking back still further into the Tertiary epoch, of which the vegetable remains indi- with Seographical botany and zoology, of anatomical structure and cl contemplating the present state of the species of Cupulifere in and retreating, and this wholly irrespective of man’s agency. : This is inferred of the Turkey Oak from» are . the great gaps found in its present geographical area, whic r- Wise inexplicable, and which he regards as plain indications of a partial extinction. Community of descent of all the individuals of species is of _ Sourse implied in these and all similar reasonings. * 436 Scientific Intelligence. An obvious result of such partial extinction is clearly enough brought to view. The European Oaks (like the American species) greatly tend to vary,—that is, they manifest an active disposition to produce new forms. Every form tends to become hereditary, and so to pass from the o Linneus this Common Oak of Europe was all of one species, But of late years the greater number of European botanists have re- garded it as including three species, Q. pedunculata, Q. sessiliflora, and Q. pubescens. DeCandalle looks with satisfaction to the independent conclusion which he reached from along and patient study of the forms (and which pia Gay, Bentham and others had ia reached), that the view of Linnzus was correct, inasmuch as it goes to show that idea and the ponciital application of the term spenee gece remained un- changed during the century which has elapsed since the pabliasigns the Species Plantarum. _ But the idea remaining unchanged, the facts under a slight and very supposable change of circumstances, = —— varicties of Q. Robur, which Decadal Te no means the most common. Were these to die out, it is clear that t three forms which have already baie so frequently taken for species, wot be what the group of four or _— nes admitted species Wh : closely surround Q. Robur (see p. 435) now are. The best ee such a case, as having in all probability occurred, through geogr or segregation and partial extinction, is that of the Cedar, thus opal -into the Deodar, the Lebanon, and the Atlantic st Ro case admirably worked out by Dr, aslags two or three years ‘chet A special advantage of the Cupulifere for determining the antiquity of existing species in Europe, DeCandolle finds in th character of their fruits. However it may be with other plants We e size and natural causes across an sete of the sea ina adie to seri os bore oe much more the spontaneous establishment of a forest of or ©. nuts in this way, DeCandolle conceives to be fairly im mpousible in i ~ contrary to * experience. From such considerations, i, Gr from dispersion of the existing species, with occasi | aie deposit - - thought to be shown that the principal C of the Old W. ained their actual extension before the — of Bic ily, Sardinia and Corsica, or of Britain, from the _ This view once ma and this course once entered upon, an ursned farther. Quercus Robur of Europe with its bevy of admis jew, Jan., 1862. See this Journal, [2], xxxiv, 148. Botany and Zoology. 437 derivatives, and its attending species only provisionally admitted to that them species or varieties.” onceen ate are 3 fossil leaves from dilu- vian deposits in Sed =. she by Ga udin, which are hardly te: oie: able from those of Q. ur on the one hand, and gers those of @. D lasii, &c., of California, on the other. N6 such leaves are found in ay Tertiary deposit in Europe; but such are found of that age, it ap in Northwest America, where their remote descendants still flourish, ‘So that the probable genealogy of Q. Robur, traceable in Europe up to the commencement of the —_ epoch, looks eastward and far into the past on far distant shor Q. Ilex, the bree ae ‘Oak of Southern Europe and Northern Africa, reveals a similar archeology ; but its presence in Algeria leads bog y 4098 ite regard it as a much more ancient denizen of Europe than Q. R and a Tertiary Oak, ¢. ilicoides, from a very old Sissi bed in Switzerland, is thought to be one of its ancestral forms. This high an- related species in Central Asia, in Japan, in California, and even our own Live Oak with its Mexican relatives, may peed enough be regarded as early offshoots from the same stock with Q. L In brief,—not to continue these abstracts a ad remarks, and without rerence to Darwin’s particular oles (which DeCandolle at the close very fairly considers),—if existing species, or many of them, are ae ancient as they are now zie thought to be, and were subject to the physical and geographical changes (among them the coming and the going of the Glacial epoch) which this sukguity implies; if in former times they were as liable to variation as they now are; and if the indi- viduals of the same species may claim a common ocal rigin, then we cannot wonder that “the theory of a succession of forms by deviations of apr forms” should be regarded as “the most natural hypothesis,” ssi the ge esersh: advance made towards its acceptance in some form . - ot question being, not, how plants and animals originated, but, how came the existing animals and plants to be just _ they are and sickens they are? it is plain that naturalists interested in sach inquiri Mostly looking for the answer in one direction. "The general adrift of Opinion, or at least of expectation, is exemplified by this essay of DeCan- dolle; and the set and force of the current are seen by noticing how it carries along naturalists of widely —, views and prepossessions— Some faster and farther than others,—but none way. The tendency ~ We may say, to extend the law of eet or something analogous to it, from inorganic to piss nature, and in the latter to connect the oe with the past in some sort of material connection, The general- ization may indeed be e xpressed #0 as not to assert that the connection is Sehetic, as in Mr. Wallace’s ennla: “Revere species has come into At. Jour, as Serres, Vou. XXXV, No. 105.—May, 1863. 56 438 Scientific Intelligence. existence coincident both in time and space with preéxisting closely allied species.” Edward Forbes, who may be called the originator of this other than the same laws, whatever these may be. n. In an mentary treatise published in the year 1835, he adopted and, if we rightly remember, vigorously maintained, Schouw’s idea of the double or multi- ple origin of species, at least of some species,—a view which has been carried out to its ultimate development only perhaps by Agassiz, 1m the denial of any necessary genetic connection among the individuals of the same species, or of any original localization more restricted than the area hem so curious and extraordinary, of the actual geographical je tion of the species. In the present essay, not only the distribution b ; mething derivative; : while some noually i) favorable to Heer’s view. . As an index to the progress of opinion in the direction referred tO nf will be interesting to compare Sir Charles Lyell’s well known se de 20 or 30 years ago, in which the permanence of species was ably ai tained, with his treatment of the same subject in a work just Issue® England, which, however, has not yet reached us. with 4 A belief in the derivation of species may be maintained along ee conviction of great persistence of specific characters. This is the = tiene Swiss vegetable paleontologist, rea ni Pipes e len change of specific type at certain periods, and perhaps me Pictet. ee atone silat views in his elaborate eo on Elephants, living and fossil, in the Nutural History Review forte ary last. Noting that “there is clear evidence of the true Mam drift having existed in America long after the period of th forts? when the surface of the eountry had settled down into its present Bk, _ and also in Europe so late as to have been a cotemporary of the Irish ion of a best Botany and Zoology. 439 and on the other hand tbat it existed in England so far back as before the deposition of the boulder Clay ; also that four well-defined species of ber of the remains aii three . these sige have been exhumed over a or" persistence and uniformity of the characters of the molar teeth Aa the earliest known Mammoth and his most modern successor ing the observation to be correct, what strong proof does it not afford of. the persistence and constancy, throug out vast intervals of time, of the dis- tinctive characters of those organs which are most concerned in the ex- istence and habits of the species? If we cast a glance back on the long vista of physical shone which our planet has undergone since the Neo- zoic Epoch, we can nowhere detect signs of a revolution more sudden rvation, in so far as it has extended over the European ae is, that the specific characters of the molars are constant in each, within a mod- “sai pone of variation, and that w uonhee meet with Sse form Dr. Falconer continues, (p. 8 nib pilin which I draw from these Hie are not opposed to one of the leading propositions of Darwin’s penne “ie him, I ana no faith in in oad i t the Mammoth a - is and E. antiquus, were not the s mee which the — a prim and anus sprung, a at we must loo! wi their indent ‘he nee affinity, and that a very close one, of the European E. me omer. E. planifrons of India; and of E. primi- arr with tage existing India Another reflexion is equally strong in my mind,—that the means which ree, been mp ee to explain the origin of the species by ‘ Natural Selection,’ Fieaces, are inadequate to account for @ phenomena. “The law of phyllotaxis, which evolution of lea’ &round the axis of a plant, is as nearly constant in its manifestation as any of the physical laws connected with the material world. Ea e, however different from another, can be shown to ome series of continued 440 Scientific Intelligence. nature, a deeper-seated and innnate principle, to the operation of which Natural Selection is merely an adjunct. recent, cannot furnish a species which has had a wider geographical distribu- i i e extreme sed through a long changes of climatal conditions, than the Mammoth. If species are so unstable, and so susceptible of mutation through such influences, why does at extinct form stand out so signally a monument of stability? By his admirable re- h of the biological sciences of his day; he has laid the foundations of a Entertaining ourselves the opinion that something more than natural selection is requisite to account for the orderly production and succession of species, we offer two incidental remarks upon the above extract. First, we find in it,—in the phrase “ Natural Selection, or a process of variation from external influences,”—an example of the very common confusion of two distinct things, viz., variation and natural selection. The former has never yet been shown to have its cause in “ external influ- ences,” nor to occur at random. As we have elsewhere insisted, if not inexplicable, it has never been explained; all we can yet say 1s, that plants and animals are prone to vary, and that some conditions favor variation. Perhaps in this Dr. Falconer may yet find what he seeks: for “it is difficult to believe that there is not in [its] nature, a deeper-seated and innate principle, to the operation of which Natural Selection is merely an adjunct.” The latter, which is the ensemble of the external influences, including the competition of the individuals themselves, picks out certain variations as they arise, but in no proper sense can be said to ongiate em. Secondly, although we are not quite sure how Dr. Falconer intends to apply the law of phyllotaxis to illustrate his idea, we fancy that a perti- in this 7 one s me of the Tort period in the se ere Oe, the vegeiation of the Tertiary pone © - southeast of France rnb Count Gaston de Saporta, published in the Ann. Botany and Zoology. 441 Sci. Wat. in 1862, vol. xvi, pp. 309-344,—which we have not space to analyze,—is worthy of attention from the general inquirer, on account of its analysis of the Tertiary flora into its separate types, Cretaceous, Austral, Tropical, and Boreal, each of which has its separate and different history, —and for the announcement that “the Aiatus, which, in the idea of most geologists, intervened between the close of the Cretaceous and the. begin- ning of the Tertiary, appears to have had no existence, so far as concerns the vegetation ; that in general it was not by means of a total overthrow, more easily than in our [European] soil—less vast and less extended south- ward—refuge from ulterior revolutions.” The extinction of species is at- ged North America and Europe in former times. Most naturalists and geolo- gists reason in the same way,—some more cautiously than others,—yet perhaps most of them seem not to perceive how far such inferences sumptions in their favor,—and to be, perhaps, quite as capable of being turned to good account as to bad account in natural theology. cles has a pertinent application here. uote at second | “The a pest of interference can mean nothi re than that the Supreme Will has so moved the hidden springs of nature that a new issue arises on iven circumstances. inary issue is supplanted by a hi ; , essential facts before us are a certain set of phenomena, and a r Will movil m. How moving them? i uesti r buman definition; the answer to whi does not and cannot affect the Divine meaning of the hen we reflect that this Higher Will is everywhere reason and wisdom, it seems a juster as well as a more oi rehensive view to regard it as operating by subordination and evo- lution, rather by interference or violation.” 442 Scientific Intelligence. Among the ae naturalists, indeed, such views—taken in the widest sense—lave one and, so far as we are now — only one thorough- going and thoroughly. eee opponent, viz. gassiz. Most naturalists take into their very conception o a species, explicitly or by implication, the mica n of a material i resulting from the descent of the sige composing it from a common stock, of local origin, Mr, Agassiz wholly eliminates community of descent from his idea of species, oe even conceives a species to have been as numerous in individuals and as wide spread over de or as segregated in discontin- uous spaces, from the first as at a later perioc The station which it inhabits, —- is with other naturalists in no wise essential to the species, and may not have been the region of its origin. In Mr. Agassiz’s view the ea anes is supposed to mark the origin, and to be a part of the character of the species. The habitat is not merely the place where it is, but a part of what it i Most naturalists recognize varieties of species ; sek many, like DeCan- dolle, have come to conclude that varieties of the highest grade, or races, so far partake of the characteristics of species, and are so far governed by the sama laws, that. it is often very difficult to draw a clear and certain distinction between the two. Mr. Agassiz will not allow that varieties or races exist in nature, apart from man’s a Most naturalists Saleh that the origin of species is supernatural, their dispersion or particular geographical area, natural, and their ex paris when they disappear, also the result of physical causes. In t Mr. at if op vaderstood, all — are el independent of nuinber of species as seen survived from one epoch to t the through more than one formation, especially from the Tertiary into the Post-tertiary period, and from that to the present age. nega s at ea understood to believe in total extinctions and total new creation successive epoch, and even to reco _ no —— species co- temporary with extinct ones, except i recent exterminations. These peculiar views, if sustained, will effectually dispose of every form of ot hypothesis. Returning for a moment to DeCandolle’s article, - are disposed "4 notice his wees of Linnzeus’s ‘definition bs the m species (PI ha Bot., No. 157): Species tot numeramus quot diverse me moe in principio sunt create,—which he declares — pee and the — that has been propounded. “So, to determine if a form is specific, it sary to go back - * origin, wake is impossible: A defiaition by 8 character which ca er be verified is no definition at all.” f it species. ‘On which nay A. Pi Jussie cling a aga definition : :—* nunc rectius definitur perennis indivi Botany and Zoology. 443 —— successio continuata generatione renascentium.” The funda- mental idea of species, we would still maintain, is that of a chain, of which genetically- -connected individuals are the links. That, in the practical recognition of species, the essential characteristic has t inferred, is no great objection,—the general fact that like ccaenionn like mption being that of the uniformity of nature. The idea of gravita- ies, that of the atomic constitution of matter, and the like, equally have onay o @® so) = i} 3 & = i) Ss Pp ° Laas) oy Ss o ac S ba] Sc. a © , a Ba) =) o o = Fa ° oo al -@ "9 o = s $2 o a o as come in which we may accept, with DeCandolle, their successive origination, at the cain a: of the prement era or before, and even by derivation from other forms, then the ‘in principio’ of Linnans will refer to that time, whenever it was, and his proposition be as sound and Wise as ever. n his Géographie yest (ii, 1068-1077) DeCandolle Wipe 15 this: subject at length, and in the same interest. Remarking that of the two great facts of species, viz: likeness among the individuals, an alogical connection, zoologists have yenerally preferred the latter,’ while botanists have been divided in opinion, he pronounces _ _ former as essential thing, in the following argumentative statem ant a — jai été Bet ah — ma ens as de Tepe a mettre dé- dissent la ressemblanc s desc ession. Ce n’est pas seul fcthin a cau a "cieonst es propres au sagen vé , dont je m’occupe exclusivement n’est pas non plus afin de sortir wget définition des théories et de Ja rendre le on possible utile aux naturalistes ipteurs et A ‘un motif philosophique. En toute ag il faut aller au fo. s questions, quand on le peut. Or, pourquoi la reproduction ntes. Si lon obtient des cro somaniaict c’est que les ao a analogues ; Si ces croisements donnent des produits féconds, c’est que les individus étaient lus ianbarces si ces produits eux-mémes sont féconds, c’est que la ressem- @ ressemblance est le fond; la reproduction en est seulement la manifestation et la mesure, et il est logique de placer la cause au-dessus de l’effet.” We are not at all convinced. We still hold that genealogical connec- tion, rather than mutual resemblance is the fundamental thi tgs Bg P oo citing Fiourene' t Mie te ang n'est qu’ ~~ condition second- aire; la condition essentielle est la descendance: ce n'est pas la ressemblance, c'est la succession i ios ubviden, qui fait l’espéce.” 444 Scientific Intelligence. suppose, he includes them in that species. This will be more apparent should the discovery of the transitions, which he leads us to expect, here- after cause the four provisional species which attend Q. Robur to be merged in that species. It may rightly be replied that this conclusion would be arrived at from the likeness step by step in the series of forms; but the cause of the likeness here is obvious. And this brings in our ‘motif philosophique.’ ot to insist that the likeness is after all the variable, not the con- daa and are more correctly distinguished by people in general, as 18 shown by vernacular names, But we have no space left in which to present some evidence to the contrary. : Here we must abruptly close our long exposition of a paper which, from the scientific position, ability, and impartiality of its author, 1s likely at this time to produce a marked impression. , We would also direct attention to an earlier article in the same important periodical eile onfig- of, and commentary on, the introductory part of Heer fe Helvetie, as reédited and translated into French by Gaudin, with addi- tions yy the author. Se weak 3, Flora Capensis; by Dr. Harvey and Dr. Sonper; vol. ii, 1861-62. The second volume of this excellent work extends from the Legumnos® to the Loramthacee inclusive, that is, it concludes the Polypetalous orders. Almost half the volume is devoted to the Leguminosa@, elaborated by Dr. Harvey, and much the greater part of the other half is occupied by the Bruniacee, by Dr. Sonder (who assigns no definite character to separate them from Hamamelidew), the Crassulacew, by Dr. Harvey, the fesembryacew by Dr. Sonder (Mesembryanthemum counting 300 ae including 7 not sufficiently known), and the Umbellifere, by Dr. Sonder. Montinia is transfer Dr. Harvey from the Onagracee to the Sazi- agacee. The close affinity of the latter order to Rosacee is recogn by placing it and its immediate allies next after Rosacee in the wir « See thin Jornal, vol. xxix, [2], March, 1860, . 165, for the enunciation of this obvious principle. seams : Botany and Zoology. 445 4, Flora of Canada.—Flore seen: ou Descriptions de toutes les Plantes des Foréts, Champs, Jardins et Haut du Canada, &c.—Par PAbbé Provaxcut, uré de Pukped Gitebes: Joseph Darveau, 1862. 2 vols, 8vo. pp. 842.—It is pleasant to find that Botany is attract- ing so much attention in Lower Canada as to call into existence a Cana- dian Fiora in the French language; and it is much to the credit of the Abbé Provancher, for zeal and enterprize, that he should have produced such a work as this, in so good a form and so neatly printed. It is of course substantially a compilation; and the author is evidently a neo- phyte, of limited acquaintance with the plants around him; but he makes a fair beginning, in a work which may for the present ides well serve the educational end in view. The critical Flora of Canada and the other Provinces is yet to be written, and will be of a different order The wood cuts, “over 400 in number,” which illustrate the orden: and which here appear in such novel guise with their French environment, are every one taken from Gray’s Botanical Text Book, eoaag five of the Ferns from the Manual,—a preference which speaks e for the good taste of the Abbé than does the omission to mention the source. A. G. 5. The Tendrils of Virginia Creeper terminating in flat expansions or di. sks, by means of which this climber readily ascends smooth trunks and walls, appear to have attracted Mr. Des Moulin’s attention, at Bordeaux, as a great curiosity. They are described at length fe bim m in the Transactions & Gray, Flor or VA om 245 beta! eek and thes venerable Dr. Distiogeo 8 Flora Geir 2d Ved. p- 158 (1837). Proba rte there is still earlier mention of it; as the fact has been familiar to us fro ese disks are figured i in "First Lessons in Botany, p. 38. We may add that on the same “plant may often be seen these disk-bearing tendrils and others which act in the ordinary manner. Although we have never see 6. Vites Devenié teabionle a Duranp, de (P Académie bes “Sei- ences Naturelles de Philadelphie, etc. Memoire précédé d’une Introduc- tion par M. Ca. Des Movtins, ete.—In response to demands from the French Society for Acelimatisation and from Mr. inc Moulins — the part of the naturalists and vine-growers of Bordeaux, the excellent Mr. Durand of Philadelphia, long with other practical information commu- nicated a condensed but very careful monograph of t American species of Vitis. This monograph,—a most laudable attempt to illustrate an veep “tape group of species,—is published in the Actes de la Société Linnéene de Bordeauz, vol. xxiv, issued at the close of the last year, venti ainplifie in bulk by the garrulous introduction, intereala- tions and notes of its French editor. Seven pages of this introduction are devoted mainly to a criticism of the two words by which the present Am. Jour. Sc1.—Snconp Series, Vou. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, 1868. 57 446 Scientific Intelligence. writer ser nenined the genus Ampelopsis, viz.: “disk none.” The sub- stance of the whole is, that Mr. Des Moulins admits that no disk is to then stating, in effect, that the disk in Ampelidee is nothing more than a development of the common receptacle of the flower (to which we have no present occasion to object), he insists that this disk equally exists “plus ou moins fort,” i re de ti where it is not sata at all. veloped it in bh em Such are the facts. If now it be yea that pasate disk, Bentham and Hooker fil., we observe, is ysis made —a view which we can no more confirm by observation than we can that of Des Moulins; hi it has the immense advantage of baiag —_ in fewer words than the latter requires of pages. 7. Vegetable Productions of the Feejee Islands —A “ Blue Book,” entitled “ Correspondence relative to the Fiji Islands,” May, 1862, gives a full and official account of the arrangement between ~~ British Consul Mr. Pritchard, and Ebenezer Thakombau, claiming to be king of t Fiji Islands, for the cession of the latter to the British crown, and of the appointment of Col. Smythe as a commission to visit these islands and to report whether the acquisition would be desirable—whereupon commissioner visited the islands, accompanied by Dr. B. Seemann p, who was instructed to explore and report upon their vegetable produc uctions and secaltais Col. Smythe very sensibly reported that Thakombua, although perhaps the most res of the independent chiefs, had no elai his offer. ioe ea most ae ug is the a ppendix, containing Dr. See- manu’s elaborate Report on the Vegetable p roductions and Resources the Vitian or Fijian Islands. This treats, 1, of the climate, soil, and = in general of these islands, and, 2, of the Colonial Produce, so-called, re as sugar, coffee, tamarinds and tobacco, which they may be expected to yield, as — certain oils and fats, farinas, and spices. 3. The st oe of the le. This “is the same all over Polynesia, — derived, tao the upon as a delicacy, from which the pt were aly pred cu ae some of the sy Her coral a the inhabitants live almost entirely upon cocoa-nuts. The Samoans place the bread-fruit at the head 4 ig Again, the Fijians ake more of a yam than of the others, pom oer rislands in the greatest perfectio on, and in an st of cisions” Of edible fruits there is a long list, the bread Botany and Zoology. 447 this account, was eaten with the leaves of three vegetables which were other Polynesians, they prepare an intoxicating drink, from the root of for whom they perform the office. ... Some Fijians make it a point to chew as great a quantity as possible in one mouthful; and there is a man of which it is inferred, that, if the Polynesians are of Malayan origin, they must have left the cradle of their race before the extraction of toddy from the cocoa-nut tree, or even the tree itself, was known there. In , this palm itself is thought to have made its way by the drifting of its fruits across the Pacific from east to west, through the Polynesian Islands, and to have reached Ceylon within what. may be called historical times. 6. Vegetable Poisons, Under this head is an interesting account of the kau-karo (literally Itch-wood), the Oncocarpus Vitiensis A. Gray, which acts like the Poison Rhus of North America and of Japan, only with ten- fold virulence. Indeed, a drop of the juice, falling upon the hand of one of . Seemann’s companions, “ instantly produced a pain equal to that pro- duced by contact with a red-hot poker.” The Hxcecaria Agallocha, known through the East, is equally virulent with its ally the Manchineel tree i tcinal Plants. None of real importance are brought to light. 8. Scents d the better sorts are now cultivated with success; of Timber, the most 448 Scientific Intelligence. equal his well known Botany of the Voyage of the Herald; and it can not fail to be interesting and important. A Synopsis Plantarum Vitiensium, or List of the Fijian Plants at pres- ent known, has just been issued by Dr. Seemann, corrected up to date. We note that he has overlooked Mr. Sullivant’s folio, of the Musci of Wilkes’ Expedition, in which fifteen mosses not in his list are enumerated or described from these islands, and six of them are figured. The Lichenes by Mr. Tuckerman, the Alge by Prof. Harvey and the late Prof. Bailey, and the few Fungi, by Messrs. Curtis and Berkeley, also published, but sparingly diffused, may also add something to the list. A. G 8. New Edition of Gray’s Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States—We copy the Advertisement to the revised edition, 1863. —*“ The additions and alterations of the Revised Edition of this work, now issued, are mainly the following “], The addition of an entirely new part, entitled Garpen Botany, AN In- TRopUCTION To a Know.epce or tae Common CuitivaTeD Pants: ; xxix-Ixxxix. By this, the common exotics, no less than the wild plants, are made available for botanical classes, which will be a great convenience in many cases ost of these cultivated plants are everywhere eer er generally at hand for botanical illustration; and it is desirable that they = ” be scientifically known and rightly named. And there is no great di wis in studying them, if double flowers, and those which are otherwise in am a strous or unnatural condition, be avoided, at least by beginners. ‘Jt is att ously absurd and highly inconvenient to mix in the cultivated with beac ants in such a work as this. But a separate account of the common ex! are annexed and subsidiary to the Botany of the Northern United States, espec! f “ in School Edition, will doubtless be popular and useful. Directions ¥; Pp. : ‘ ° . t} e ents, has been altogether revised, much simplified, adapted to eC = hanger _ “3. Numerous corrections in particulars have been made throughout te body of the work, whenever the required alterations could well be xi ing upon the stereotype plates. Many others, suggested by acute a do te ged correspondents, or by my own observation, are necessarily deferred un work can be Te Botanical Necrology. 449 “5. Eight plates have been — crowded with figures, illustrating all the genera (66 in number) of Grasses. They are wholly original, having been drawn from nature and engraved by Mr. Sprague. ie “au be of great assistance in the study of this lone difficult, and rm a8 mily. “The flattering eae pen the Manual has t with stimulates the author’s endeavors towards its c ei “improvement; om regard to which he _ solicits aid sia: his earrenpidey 9. Botanical Necrology, 1862. ‘SF “th three botanists of Holland who all died in the earlier weeks of the year 1862, viz. ume, Van Rie i ye, and "De Vriese, a brief record was made in this Journal for a Pro coy MN. Blyit, of the University of Christiania, the most distin- guished Norwegian botanist, died on the 26th of July last, aged 70 years. He had amassed vast materials for be illustration of Scandina- vian botany, and had commenced the par of his Norges Flora, the first eons of which appeared in 1 Wm. Borrer, Esq., of Henfield in Sth, England, one of the vene- rable alla hovies and botanical friends of Sir James E, Smith, and whose name has long been intimately associated with English botany, died on the 10th of February, 1862, in the 81st year of his age. r. James Townshend Mackay, the author of the Flora Hibernica, Gig the director of the Botanic Garden of Trinity College, Dublin, died five days later, viz: on the 15th of February, at an age little less venerable than that attained by Mr. Borrer. Dr Kieser, the late President of the Imperial German Society of Naturalists, and who has been Professor of Medicine at the nha, rsity of Jena ever since 1812, died on the 11th of October, aged 3 years. He is to be honorably mentioned among the botanists, on a kre of two early essays on the anatomy and physiology of plants, one of which, in the year 1812, took the prize offered by the Haarlem Academy ; and for ‘his Elements of the repay A 1 Plants, the earliest German treatise of modern times, published in 1 r. Joachim Steetz, of Hamburg, died on she oth of March, 1862, in the 57th year of his age. He was a medical practitioner, who de- voted his leisure hours with assiduity and much success to systematic polany, ae especially, in his later years, to the Composi n Tweedie, a Scotch gardener, who ected Buencs Ayres to Seine ‘Botadeal collections on the lata, the Parana, and the Uru- guay, &c., more than thirty years ago, and kaneis fond of the coun- try that he made it his home, died a Santa Catalina, near Buenos Ayres, on the first of A ril, 1862, at the age of 87. To him we are vet arvard University i in ie ‘year 1812; he first pursued legal selina, partly in the then celebrated school at Litchfield, Connecticut, and was duly ‘admitted to the Bar in Boston. He then took up the study of 450 Scientific Intelligence. medicine, and completed his medical course in the schools of Scotland n Greene did not engage in the practice of either profession. «An ample inheritance, which rendered professional exertion unnecessary, conspit- ing with a perm aeg guiet and contemplative disposition, and a re- came antel: attached, and whom he was highly apprecia In botany, as in pm ‘Gis else, Mr. Greene sought a be silently useful. He never himself preeeer any of his discoveries or observa- tions. The few species to which his name is annexed were given to the world at emedieed But his collections were extensive, his eter so far as he could, ‘to su He athered a choi tanical library, he encouraged explorations, and he “eabictia to all the large purchasable North American collections,—beginning with those of Drummond in the Southern United States and in the then Mexican province of Texas. These, being distributed under numbers, amo the principal horbarts of the world, and named or referred to in mono- graphs or other botanical works, were of prime importance as standa rds of comparison. Such collections and such books as Mr. Greene brought together were dre the pj ig most needed at that time in this coun- try; and now, when our wants are somewhat better supplied, we should not forget the seiatilidl service which they have rendered, nor the dis- interested kindness with which their most amiable and excellent owner always cma them at the disposal of those who could ady ini ers! of which he was one of the pateye and the first President, —and Py which as ifck be preserved for the benefit of future New “ee botanists, by whom his memory should ever be age lly eeinge The genus Greenea, established by Wight and Arnott upon o rare Rubiaceous shrubs of India, barely anticipated a similar tinny ingly cultivat ; aye jes Clapp, of New Albany, Indiana, died on the 1 17th 0 a oot e | , hor of his exact age, but we suppose he had my or quite reached ree-score years a eeigape Pa ahasg botanical pu “one merit nd importance viz., A s or Systematic Catalogue sf inal Plants of the Dakied, ‘Siater, which forms an 8vo volume Botany and Zoology. 451 222 pages. It was presented to the American Medical Association in May, 1852, and published during that year, at Philadelphia. A rare _ of the order Composite, which inhabits the southern borders of exas, was dedicated to Dr. Clapp in the Botany of the Mexican Bound- ary Survey. me upon our southern coast than he zealously began to collect the plants he met with, and to note their peculiarities. Alt his scientific acquirements and insight were not great, his zeal and devotion to botany were thorough and genuine. A. G Dr, Charles Wilkins Short died at Louisville, Ky., March 7, aged 69 years. A notice of his life will appear in our next issue. LOGY-—— ? 10, Evidence as to Man’s place in Nature; by Toomas Henry Hvx- Ley, Fellow of the Royal Society. 160 pp. 8vo. Londen: Williams anc ate.—The able zoologist, Prof. Huxley, discusses in the first chapter of his work, “The Natural History of the Man-like Apes,” or the Orangs, Gibbons, Gorillas and Chimpanzees; in the second, “ the Re- lations of Man to the lower animals;” and in the third, the “ Fossil -re- mains of Man.” The second topic is that towards which al] the rest of e work points; and the conclusion of the whole is, that man belongs structurally to the same order with the Quadrumana, and constitutes among the Primates (as the order is called, after Linnzus), the family of Anthropini ; and further, that “if man be separated by no greater strue- tural barrier from the brutes than they are from one another, then it seems ow that if any process of physical causation can be dis- covered, by which the genera and families of ordinary animals have been .7 452 : Scientific Intelligence. approximation to the truth as, for example, the Copernican hypothesis was to the true theory of the planetary motions” (p. 107). The main argument of the work has been met by the writer in his article (this volume, p. 65), on the Classification of Mammals. It is there shown, that Man stands apart from all other Mammals, on the basis of a characteristic of profound zoological value. The character- istic referred to is this:—that, in Man, the fore-limbs are withdrawn completely from the locomotive series, and transferred to the cephalic j and, thus, a very large anterior portion of the body is turned over to the service of the head, while the posterior or gastric portion is re- uced to its minimum. This condition of extreme cephalization in the system is of the very highest significance, and places Man alone. Man’s erect structure is a part of its expression. The nature of the feet in Man,—they being made simply for supporting the body, and not, as in the Quadrumana, for clinging or grasping—is a concomitant featare which the brute has no share, and to the possession of which no Whatever the point of view, then, we see reason wholly to dissent from the sentiment with which Prof. Huxley concludes his chapter “0? the relations of Man to the lower animals” (p. 112): “Our er al for the nobility of manhood will not be lessened by the knowledge, t Man is, in substance and in structure, one with the brates; for he alone rossesses the marvellous endowment of intelligible and rational reby, in the secular period of his existence, he has slowly accumu Botany and Zoology. 453 lated and organized the experience which is almost wholly lost with the cessation of every individual life in other animals; so that now he stands raised upon it, as on a mountain top, far above the level of his hu abe fellows, and seabaligared from his grosser nature by reflecting, here and there, a ray from the infinite source of truth.” It is possible apes in the present age of the hertz Serer gee ~ various stages of weight as argument, since the question is as to the fact whether, under nature’s laws, such a transition has taken place as the gradual change of an Ape into a Man, or, whether Apes were made to be, and remain, Apes. In the Ape, the great muscle of the foot, the flexor longus pollicis, di- vides and sends a an to three or are of the toes, while in Man, it oe alone: Is it a fact that this, and the ma wd _ h = individual differences, is very tae among the vided anes Soi now toe The few ieienias of ancient skulls of — capacity, made re- cently in Europe, indicate the condition of some of the early tribes on e lower pithecoid form,” that is, re that of the Should similar discoveries be made all over the A protng a . JouR. Sci.—Sxconp Series, Vou. XXXV, No. 105.—May, 38 \ 454 _ Scientific Intelligence. depths; by Wm. Srimpson, M.D.—In a paper on the Diatomacee found in wud collected at great depths from the bottom of the sea 0 elow ttom. The experiment was successful; the quills coming etly filled with mud of the usual character occurring at such d in such latitudes. One of the quills having been submitted to me -microscopic examination, was carefully wiped and cut in middle, in order to secure for examination a specimen, as nearly as pos- sible free from any chance admixture from the water near the surface. In this specimen I found an abundance of diatoms, some of which, ap- ae Coscinodisci, appeared to me to be undoubtedly living, judging rom their fre: t sh a ; It is exceedingly doubtful whether sufficient light can penetrate to = great a d to i are suppose to require for their existence and multiplication. ' alee kaos, it is by no means certain that some amount of light does not so penetrate, and, if we deny the existence of vegetable life in these Botany and same 455 whic must, ultima se dese their sustenance from ner cae kingdom. The supply which wed might obtain from the dead bodies of those organisms which die at the surface, and slowly sink through two or three miles of water to te bottom, seems tota tally cae for Dr. Wallich has proved that the animals, starfishes for instance, not only exist at those depths, but exist in great numbers. We wonld call the attention of those who may have an opportunity of obtaining speci- mens of the bottom at great depths, to the great importance of a mi- croscopic examination of these specimens as soon as taken from the “ Fresh water should, of course, be used in spreading the mud upon the slide. genus and species of Pholadide, m oo Smithii,” I have satisfied miyucit that Mr, Tryon is wrong in considering the accessory valve as double, and that the shell in question is a true Martesia. It is, in fact, very closely allied to M. cts sig which often presents an accessory ni of precisely the same charact Wa. Stimpson. On Part II. of Prof. G. Tons $ Prodromo della Teonografia Gene- aad “degli Ofidi ; by E. D, a the constantly appearing con- tributions to Her iy are more valuable than those upon the serpents, issued by Prof. G at AN, director of the Museum = Milan. This value is however dependent rather r upon the number of new forms made known, and the beautiful ons illustrating the work, hae upon unusual merit in the diagnoses, or in recognition of cotemporary labors. The second part, which has come to our hands through the kind atten- tion of Prof. Jan, treats of the Calamaride. It is not our intention to discuss the classification of the suborder of the Asinea,* but we will re- ra with characters by which we can isolate them in a natural manner. It has therefore seemed best that the term “family” should be restricted to = three groups here mentioned. It is true that among Colubride@ the are as varied as are the relations of these “families,” and it may “ag said that the simplicity of opbidian structure has deprived us of the means of defining groups, whose equivalents are elsewhere much more gpnsible. Admitting this to be the case,—how nearly equivalent are pds groups anywhere, and how uniform is zoological rank ? Unti it ¢ n be age that this rank is not to be expressed by er formula * Eurystomatous serpents with an unabbreviated os maxillare. subor- ders of the a as ted by the writer, are, on the one hand, the Proerogly. pha and Sa a, on the other, Tortricina (Tortricide and Uropeltide and Seolecopii Typhlopide). * Former d subfamilies by the writer. 456 Scientific Intelligence, previously described, which is not a matter of surprise when we consider the scattered condition of herpetological literature. - _ Prof. Jan separates from Rhabdosoma those Mexican species which possess two pairs of geneial plates, which is probably a judicious change. If the Catostoma chalybeum of Wagler belongs to this group, that au- thor’s name will pertain to it rather than to Rhadbdosoma, as has been urged.® In the work before us, however, it is referred to Hlapoides of Boie, a genus with keeled scales. If Wagler’s statement, “squame le- Nut., on the Coluber amoenus of Say. is species was called vermt- formis, white the name amenus was retained for that since called Helene by Kennicott. Under the impression that the two represented distinet genera, the Helene was called Carphophis in the same work, and follow- ing on the same page. As the true application of the name vermiforms could not have been ascertained at the time of its publication, Carpho- phis must be retained, though erroneously characterized, and established upon a species different from the afterwards accepted type. Prof. Jan is in error in identifying Virginia Harperti® with the V. Va- leriew on p. 24. Ile also employs the name Conocephalus for the genus Haldea, which we have shown to bé inapplicable.’ So Winia 1s the older name for Slreptophorus, and should be employed in its stead. Aspidura carinata (p. 29) is the Haplocercus Ceylonensis i published in 1858. lapops Petersi is E. plumbeater’ of three years earlier date. In the genus Homalosoma we find Contia of Baird and Girard included? I have already alluded to the range of this genus over both continents ;* it embraces in the Old World the coronelloides and melanocephala of Prof. Jan’s enumeration, with the Coronella m esig of Martin. Psilosoma Jan, will probably be accepted as a well esta lished genus. fm ; The genus Elapomorphus has received many accessions, within a few years, through the labors of Duméril, Giinther, Reinhardt and Peters. s adopted in the Prodromus, it embraces four or five distinct genera. Prof. Duméril early * alluded to the very peculiar dentition of his &. Ga- ' * Monatsberichte Preuss. Acad. 1859, p. 275; Pr. A. N.S. Phila. 1960, p. 339% _* Ginther, Proc. Z, S$. Lond., 1860, June. ® Pr. A.N.S. Phil. 1862, p. 249. * Pr. A. N.S. Phil, 1860, p. 76. T Loe. cit., 1860, p. 566. * Loe. cit. 1862, p. 339. * Rev. Mag. Zool., 1856, p. 468. Botany and Zoology. 457 bonensis, and he has since made it the type of a genus Miodon, which Was anticipated by Urobelus of Reinhardt. The very anterior position the grooved tooth, which has but three solid ones in front of it, sug- ge the yet undiscovered point of ora from Asinea to the Proie- roglypha. Microsoma Jan, is an Elapid of the same region, possessing Many of the peculiarities of Urobelus. There are probably three, we two, genera of this group in South America besides Jan’s Elapom mojus ; they are Apostolepis, Hlapomorphus verus, and Phalotris,*® corr esponding to the sections marked by asterisks in the table on p. 42. Homulocranium was referred to Tantilla of Bd. & Girard on the ground of priority of the latter in 1861 "' of this, Prof. Jan does not seem to be aware. He describes an H. Wagneri, said to have been brought from Florida, which probably does not belong to the genus on account of its se * nal scutum. lapotinus, descri as new, and allied to Hlapo- us, is also near to Tuntilla as far as the characters given enable us to decide. The posterior superior maxillaries are not grooved ; if other differences exist, we are not informed of them. aang! head of ee ees Prof. Jan unites a number of African Ligous rostra ( Tao hynchus a ‘oonioe in nse must be placed near Proteie ray. orhina De Fil. is Sympholis Cope, of prior date, Dr. ge je eateaslon ot the posi- tion of Ficimia Gray is as interesting as unexpected ; Amblymetopon of Giinther has never been properly separated foes “se if a difference exists, We will accept for the present Zzorhina Jan, but his Oryrhina is Chio- nactis Cope (long ago characterized by Hallowell), and discovered on the morning nl Nov. 28, by Professor Respighi, at a a, and three days later bY Dr. Brabos a So. oa i lloring elements i been communal Astronomy and Meteorology. 461 T = 1862, Dec. 28°18262. 4 oo 126° 9° 42"-6 Q = 355 44 57-9 ee 42 22 52 5 log. gs = 9°9044 Motion retrograde. Comet I, 1863.—This comet was discovered by Dr. Bruhns of Leipeic, on the morning of Dec. 2d. The following elements have been computed by ” fn of Berlin. - 1863, Feb. 352928 Berlin m. t. - = A A eB Apparent equinox, et 1G Sb ae a an a a 85 21 42 ‘8 Bs ke rides log. g = 9°9002165 ets eee 6. Star Shower in December, 1565.—In a Sagenbuch der Lausitz by Karl Haupt, published in the Neus Lausitzisches Magazin (Gorlitz, 1862), among A cab i am Himmel, gathered from old Lusatian chronicles, i is the followi “On the 3d of December deg? there fell at Sorau fire from heaven like flakes of snow.”—Magn s, (Joh . Lam.) Historische Beschreibung von Sorau, Leipz., "1710, ito. 7. Shooting Stars seen in England in 1862.—The usual displays of shooting stars this year (1862), as seen near Manchester, have not been as well marked as usual; that of August 10th-11th, perhaps ‘id so than for the Jast fo ears, but the acne was not md favorable. vena of Nov. 9th-1 othe! was not in the least marked, e as regards the numbers or radiant. But the more newly d weather period for Dec. 10th-12th has been exceedingly well defined, and the radiant point, both for the last year and for the present one, perfectly referable to a part of the heavens halfway. between § Aurige and « Geminorum.— R. P. Greg in Phil. Mag 8. Auroral arch of ne 9th, 1863.—On the evening of April 9th, there was noticed at New Haven some appearance of an auroral fight between 7} and 8 o'clock. About 9 o’clock, white columns rose m the eastern and western horizon, and shot up towards the m their 9 inclining from a vertical direction about fifteen degrees towards the south. A line of shorter columns connected the two columns just mentioned, in such a manner as to form a tolerably regular arch, spanning the heavens, and _ passing oma over the Dipper. This arch was evi- dently formed of short stream rs parallel to each other. —— of them ENare ~~ 10° to 15° in le gi os nd for some time — ted the =. se ash : ’ the Bull. At 10 o’clock, the column in the east had disappeared entirely, while that in the west had very much faded, fat extended up nearly or _ quite to the meridian. During the entire evening, there was noticed a _ & _? This, it will be observed, is not the proper anniversary of the November shower, Am. Jour. 8ct.—Szconp Surtes, Vor. XXXV, No. 105.—Mar, 1863. 59 ‘ 462 Miscellaneous Intelligence. very strong auroral glow above the northern horizon, with the usual dark segment beneath it The following notice of this aurora appeared in the Newburyport Daily Herald of we 10th, with the signature P., presumed to denote Dr. Henry C. Perkin neck of Leo, thence enveloping Gaster and Pollux covering the space between the feet o e Twins, swerving thence a little to the nortir wisps of light strikingly resembling those seen in the tail of Donati’s comet, and so beautifully and truly represented in Prof. Bond’s drawing of that body.—p Pe oritenion duals are requested to ae in their observations on this auroral arch, which was probably seen over sufficient area to furnish data for approximate estimates of its hei ight.] VIII. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. National Academy of Sciences—Hon. Henry Wilson of Massa- chusetts, in the Senate of the United States, at the last session of Con- press, brought forward and secured the unanimous passage of the fol- wing bill entitled, “A Bill to oe the ae Academy of Sciences. “ Be it enacted by the Senat. pe d House of Representatives of the United States of Amer- ica ‘ongress Marylan id; S$. ALEXANDE New Jersey; A. D. BacueE, a large 4 Ad BARNARD GEORGE a uis, Missouri; J. Pennsylva ~ Gisps, New York; J. M. GILLIss, United States ‘Naval ior re ‘gente Jy; A. A. Govutp, Massachusetts; B. A. GouLp, Massachusetts; ASA GRAY, assachu- ‘setts 5 Guyot, Ne ew Jersey; James Haut, New ere osePH HENR mY, a eo ; E. S fanialoage at large, Illinois; Epwarp Hircucock, "Maneachtisette: ‘ oe BARD, United States naval le ervatory, Conn peehoae? eYS, UD States army, Pennsylvania; J. ed = ECONTE, ‘United States oh Pen — J. area Seen J. P. Las ¥, Pennsylvania; M. F. LoNGSTRETH, ‘enusy. ja “s 8. NEwBERRY, . MAn : J. 8. ae "¥L A. Newton, Connecticut; BeNsaMIN Perrcr, Massachusetts ; om ed United States my: Indiana; wiraain Roaees. Pennsylvania ; ra » W. B. Rogers, Massachusetts; L. M. Ruruerrurp, New Y at large ; Bu magne Smuuiman, Connecticut; Bens. York: tte RONG, ae Ai ses Rag Torrey, New York, — States saaacttn H ihaiog ts as eg chosen, are pad by 2 Ses “ihergmenasil orate, by the name of the And 1 her enacted, That the National Academy of Sciences th erin eu eto ns Foren ba Miscellaneous Intelligence. - 463° nation, or otherwise; to provide for the election of foreign and domestic members, to the division into classes, and all other matters needful or usual in such institution, and nid report the same to Congress. aid from appropriations which may be made for the purpose, but the Acad a o> > 8 a fas) [7] Fc mz 4°) ao) & ” a be z ao) a =I 4) =) & — i) wef [= : mm” et | 7) S + i] Lac ct iz oe PR ee et Agreeably to an invitation from Mr. Wilson, a majority of the cor- porators named in this Act met on the 22d of April, at 11 a.m. in the Chapel of the University of the city of New York, for the purpose of organizing the National Academy of Sciences. The body was called 0 order, with a few appropriate remarks, by Mr. Wilson, who was pres- ent by the request of a lar mber of members temporary or- ganization was secured by the choice of Joseph Henry of Washington and Alexis Caswell of Brown University as Chairman and tary, _ The corporate members elect under which of these two classes and in which section of that class they will inscribe their names. The classes are subdivided thus :— , oh cs A. Class of Mathematics and Physics—Seottons: 1, Mathematics; . Scores 3, Astronomy, Geography, and Geodesy; 4, Mechanics; ? emist - K B. Class of Natural History.—Sections 3 i Mineralogy and Geology; at each January meeting. of the classes, together with four memb t Academy, constitute a Couacil for the transaction of such business as is assigned to them by law or by the Academy. * As these Rules are subject to change prior to their _ gt we in — there is an obvious impropriety in publishing them in detail, at pi ut § much of their provisi Far concn ti L or nization of the Academy, and as are not likely to be materially altered, we give in this notice.— : 464 Miscellaneous Intelligence. required by the Government of the United States or its es, to members specially conversant with the subject; and, with the Council, to direct the general business of the Academy. The duties of the othe The judgment of the Academy is to be at all times at the disposition of the Government upon any matter of Science or Art within the limits of the subjects embraced by it. The President of the Academy is competent, in special cases, to call in the aid, upon committees, of experts, or men of remarkable attainments not members of the Academy. cae The Annual Report to be presented to both Houses of Congress, is to be prepared by the President of the Academy, and before its presentation is to be submitted, first to the Council, and then to the Academy at the January meeting. The abstract of a memoir may however be sent by any member to the Home Secretary, to be printed and circulated among the members during the recess of the Academy. These are the most important features of the organic law of the National Academy of Sciences. An election was held under the rules when the following officers were chosen almost unanimously : President, ALexanner Dattas Bacug, Washington, D.C. Vice-President, James D. Dana, New Haven, Conn. ign Secretary, Lovis AGassiz, Cambridge, Mass. Home Secretary, Wo.cort Gis, Treasurer, Farm ernment, and also to the Academy at the next stated meeting. New York. Treasu an Rocers, Philadelphia. we OFFICERS OF THE CLASSES. Re Class A. Mathematics and Physics. : > Cambridge, Mass. ecretar: Cambridge, “ New Haven, Ct. ye Obioy (3s eee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 465 After the completion of the organization, each member present, a ably to the requirements of the organic law, took the oath of allegiance prescribed by the Senate of the United States for its own mem in addition thereto took an oath faithfully to discharge the duties of a member of the National Academy of Sciences to the best of his ability. orn in the midst ofsa great political revolution, the National ee of Sciences, created by the supreme law of the land, stands pledged t the powe er which has called it into being, and to the world to pt its : ah with fidelity. ‘The members of the Academy named in the Act had before them a ments of a comet, J. k, 301. Big Black Bis Blytt, M. W., Boh Borates ae fluoborates, analys ri me Botan AP fe u grease, oe 6 144.||Borany :— ephvireni yp Hereu ASTRONO: Ouon: mri hae Panopet, asterold( 70), pedleccrseia' meteo Shooting stars ror Dec. 1862, B. eM Marsh, ~ of J: 1s S. M an, 149. an, ha Nov. 1862, A. C. “Reining 146, seen in ‘Bogland in 1862, 461. Star shower in 156 Stellar spec Taurus, second nebula i in, 110. Water-moonrise, . B. Hunt, 395. Works on, receiv ved, 5 Zodiacal light at Key West, Hunt, 388. Atmospheric nitrite of ammonia, ete, Z ig, arp ang” E. B. Hunt, 385. pie bg arch, ustin, C. F., Spliagna of New Jersey, 252. Pecan Pl he at, 4 B. Bache, A. D., ae survey of Penn- 8 Ait ete Basen , L. W., antimony in N. Brunswick, Bale, +p. D., s eer from het bie d, 134 ulphid " carbon "prisms 4 , 356 ; Pyeo eological history 0 oxam, arsenic in Sulph death of, 44 nlig, ane atmospheric nitrite of ammo- is of, Ma- ac, 418. compe eo of io aoa 115. r, Wm ric acid, he nia, e gnae, orn, terete ; collections ecology, I Rocky Mountains, Caricograph €. Dewey, 5 Darli ingtonia Californi ica, 136. Fiore Fidensis, announced, 448. Flore Canadienne, Z, Provancher, 445. Bentham wd re r Plantarum, @. "'D. Hooker, reviewed, — oe el 2 oy wb ppppp le me = E 2 Es INDEX, 467 Gray's Ma nual, new edition, 448, CHE Collodion of A. Jeanrenaud, 419, New character, i n the fruit of Oaks,|| Colori ring —— from aniline, Hof- Mann. DeCa Species, consider ed as to variation, dis- Composition of soils, A. Muller, 292. tribution and succession, DeCandolle, Species Filicum, ba J. Hoo, Estimation of lime, Wicke, 16.” ery tng nitrite of ammonium by aid of heat, Schénbein—Bottger, age 138. Sphagna of N. Jersey, C. a Avilla. 252. fondanieant properties of oxygen sey Synopsis Pieatarite Vitiensium, 448, Tendrils of Va. Creeper, A. Gray, 445, oe productions of the Fiji Isl- . Seemann, hydrogen, Heldt, a 1 applications of eryolite, G. J. Natore ning gas evolve d by _— ex- Vites acest Aiea. E. Durand, posed to the light, ep crties 445, rib, to spectral analysis, 414. formation of ger eng of ammonium by aid of h piepinacon of ozone, 111 Boussing et Physiologi e, noticed, 270. N fd ms d f New mode o ges om vd of hy- drogen, Schénbein, 1 : é Maui 4 lene ane, Wurtz z, 11 ‘ault, Agronomie Chimie Agricole!| Preparation of ozone, Schénbein, 111. i tion of starch, Gosutitees determina 116. nature of the evolved by leaves vagendor, sch yare, to the light, 1 Reduction of kinie to Lang are: —_ etc., Brac classification of, Strahl—Stimp- son, Sulphate of lime ‘solnbie in cblovighablc réguet, Manuel de Télégraphie Elec- acids, S. W. Joh cog trique Thallium, p Mecbetiaaes o9'3 Brewer, "beritugiodhs pn 136. Theory of nitrification rice by T. Brush, G@, J., arsenids of e &. Hunt. me galena with Soraitrak’ i e, "128 td Bs G. C. Shaeffer, 409. metallurgical a as, 118, 286, 420. || Urine of oxen rs relation to ig "Hen- mineralogical abstra ts, 426, eel ‘ohmann, hee at ass, v *. ee C. Webster’s p for pa ey oe warns equivalent and spectra, S. W. Cuan ay on chest ae California, paiiieseedie pate ; explor’ns ogy 236. | take ot ni oe ai. i lora of, Cla ‘ Deseri er oil e or ’ Beonomic Acalephe, 346. P ryetalline Roc _Prodr dromus mI a Re eport on Geolo boss noticed, 134. Canal Maratime de l’ ean a la Mediter- ranie, A. Dupe Carbonifero — fase vagal fa species com- mon to, J. W. Ki. tz, 297. Cans and Chemung Ou tontifice: jaa of, Nook ok pg pee ln Exhibition, Sal- Chancou de, Vis Tellurique, ee emical’ wes of interpenetration, C. irce, 78. =~ oI ISTRY eaieen, ” Berthelot 115. .etion — light on sensitive — 286. | kal 8S. W. Joh 79. of the Lucernari#, no- eed, Clapp. ‘Asahel, obituary of, sera of Mammals ib in quer Coast fav rvey Report, 239. Comets, see Astronomy. ,Connecticut-valey g glacier, 249. "|| Conrad, T. A., Catalogue o of Miocene shells of the Atlantic Slope, noticed, 428. a to Conchology, G. W. Tryon, 7. Oink J Ps galena with octahedral cleay- ED, review of Jan’s Prodromo della con ografia sjonernie deat Ofidi, 455. vob arsenids 0) rush S06. Coral, Glass, of Ja: Cotecipoaninas wa ‘Sting 358, iCrustacean, new, from a of Wisconsin, J. 16, |\Cryolite, industrial salons of, GJ. ear- ? 985. Cryptonella, Centronella, Meristella, ete., S. gy mero gat of models of, a no! Chlorids, Violet flame of, Gladstone, 412. 1 ae and 0. Tres oe of germination, Schultz, 200,| Cyclopedia, American . New American, com: O0k D. f Mammal 8, 65. INDEX. Florida Reef, gtowth, chronol B. Hi Hur ans ifr ie ps _— Mohawk-valley pew Jceanic Protozoans allied to sponges, ‘alasterina stHF Jamesi idence ‘“s to > Man" 8 hae ~ biel ~ JW. merican veo an, 309. ra of American Devonia DeGimie, A ‘io new cha eatin in fruit » as ao” distribution, Sia _Ausustin-Pyramus, biogra- wed, 1 Bay of, rev tans Agr onomique des Envi- rons de Paris, 1862, 270, es ux, A, , Manuel de Mineralogie, not : W. Stimpson. ey magne salts £ toward caneente of asco erge unt of starch in various Dictionary af feta FEL. Storer, ee oak of , am seeds, > a a determination of starch, al Maratime de l’Ocean , Can: i eaiterrnte 269, £., Vites Boreali- -Americane, 445.) Eaton, D. C., cag gg W. J. Hooker's Species Filic 2D , 243. Fra’ Note on ‘Aachaaserss lithographica, FY ankland, b mpounds, 11 115. — agent tmes ce solar spectrum, Ang- Frobisher Bay, Hall’s collections at, 293, Galena — ge ag cleavage, Torrey— Gaspa i Se TP a de, obit uary of, 261 geet g counteracted by oxygen, Ray- s Ga leh, “y “recent researches relating to nebule, 1 Genera Plantarut In, etc., Bent. J. D. Hooker, reviewed, be ae Gray, verge tg eographical Notices, D. 0. Gilman, 223, Geographie Physique et Politique “er PAL gerie, A. Fillias Geoloxieai Evidences. of the antiquity of Man ye Recomnoissance of Indiana by D. D. en, he. Owen, 154, ican Devonian, J. W. Dawson, 309. Archivopte eryx iithographica, 129. oschists, history of, unt, br Carboniferous and Permian J. W. Kirkby, — — Me ae 2 groups, identifi- catio = formation of ‘N. sar ee A. Win- t, 875. oryptoneli, co Meristella, Poaiiean vertebrates in Jurassic 129. ora 9 n Devonian, J. W. Daw- 311. Frobisher Bay, C. ae Hall’s collections Pi reg Paved, $0 eology 0 oe price ae: rei ae in Mohawk Valley, W. B.D . D, Dana, ar Echinoderm, fossil, by Cinci Emerson, BE, photographie abstracts, 286,|) 419, meron Me boncatinly a Association Po- meg. og ticed, 269. 6 “Man . place in Nature, Wty, 16 age HI loration of Eset, Africa, desiderata in, Glacial ori sh ‘of certain lakes, ondition of, 7. Coan, 296. Mohawi-valey er, J. D. = ey ii, J. D. hy a cean, J. He geology, rece ved, 308. Exploration oe ecramaged by Smithsonian| F. Fifi Islan Islands, = une productions of, B.) 3 Pitan fa Geographie Physique et Poli- de PAlwerie, 269. ee in some Anneli W. C. Minor, 35. sien Germination - chemistry of, 290, hemical pet so a Lil, 417. Pai Physical se ateacte 411, il, it notice 01 f Tryon! 8 Contributions to onchology uali of California, noticed, 299. ghomenelatare of the 414. Retains, 412, Gita D. C. Geograph ) . nae INDEX, Glass Coral of Japan, W. Stimpson, 458. Globe lens for Photographic Camera, C. Sellers, 319. ray, A., cc Californi ica, 137. Hall’ and Harbour gape: collec- tions in the Rocky = nual of Botany, soar ‘edition, 448 saya gas evolved oy eaves, 122. w of a lie on a new char- acter’ ‘a ‘fruit ° 30. on pr dy of Species, 431. Review of ‘Genera lantaram,’ 134. ites Boreali-American,’ 445. Tendrils of Virginia Creeper, reene, Benj. D., obitu uary of, 44 Guilt Stream Cloud Bank, Z. B. Hunt, 389. H. Hall and Harbour’s igen cope in the Rocky Mts., 137. aul, C.F, collections at “Frobisher ie reports on Hall, J., Crypronela, Centronella, pee tella,’e C., — bar dam Crustacean, 295. Harvey 9 and Sender. Flora Capeassts, £64 469 Birt grec of, in puddling, 2. and steel at English Exhibition, 258. J; Jackson, C. T., Tellurbismuth from Geor- gia, Jan, G., Prodromo della lo eo Gen- ereie degli ee review Jeanrenaud, A., crs for olealisn, dam Johnson, 8 V., all mical paca, wit 123, 290, 418, Ni itrogen question note on composition of soils, s, 292, occurrence ca in the higher plants, 124. a a of lime soluble in chlorhy- dric acid, Johnson, S. W., and 0. D. Allen, equivalent and mi kg aae of cesium, 94. |Jomard, E. F., obituary of, 261. || Kaskaskia river basin, 232. Hunt, 388. T. Coan, 296. lauea, present condition of, Bayt, 7 ndian Race of, J. A. Van gen wa £6, soar a to Carbon- Heat, Australian, r, D. G. von, death o f, 449. Helat, es img properties of oxygen Krantz, A i nents of crystal models, and hydrogen noticed, 297. Henneberg, urine of oxen, 291. L. Heterog eg ou Génération Secubinde: raitint Micha Sioles Aes 8 Humats Hildreth agro nag’ S Mete- orotogiea Tour to ees, 1 Lakes, giactal ort se Feifation of ld ae Hi mig eet mologous compon one mag Arabes, Bi dae, 269. pas H.. Theorie _ on 3 Hofmann, colors from aniline, ng cele, cs eteation Siti, fg coker, J.D. ot. Bentham, ‘Genera’ “soie acid, etc. in animals, » 201. ae Hudson-valley glacier, 249, Ley ft pond b foe ws ublication of works of, Unto, Hudson Bay, explorations of, 237. c, 143 Leavenworth, Melines C., obituary of, 306, Humphreys on Abbott’s Report on Mis- sissippi Ri Hunt, E — ‘Florida Reef, growth, chro- nol , 197. ais Abie Notes at Key West, 383. nt, T. Sy Bitumens and ns san laims theory of nitrification, 271. Murricaned at Key West, & B. Hunt, 398. grag T. H., Ev: idence as to Man’s place, ature, reviewed, 45 Hydrogen, properties of, relat, 112, I. Ice, solution of, on inland waters, BF. — 49. Indian Race of Hayti J, A. Van Heuvel, 171 a Geolog' D. D. Owe | “Owen noticed, 1 Sihcimathonal Exhibi tion, Science of, 0 Marsh, 256. Ueramie Arts of, Salvétat, 268. Interpenetration, chemical theory of, C. Peirce, 78. Ss rell, 62. Legos de de Chimie et de by. Pro- 1861 a la Soc Chemique Abbé Moigno, noticed, 465. Leoquereuz. Leo, coal formation of North 3i6. 1 Reconnoissan by] ny Oa bt.” alt pegeeri report oal of Indiana, 155. es attains of, Wicke, 116, troscope, 413. mis By OF Everett’ method 7 reduc- cernari the ‘commctype of Acalephe, 7. i ernarie, Prodromus of, Clark, 459, Mackay, Jas. T., death , 449. ge igen salts, behavior of, toward car- te of ammonia, 8, 115. Magnetic gd of Ponnayivinia, ete., A Am. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XXXV, No. 105,—Max, 1363. 60 470 mma eg ropnmeyery of, J. D. Dana, 65. Manganese, a Richter , 1 >0. an’s place i in nature, 7. H. Hiucley, 451, Manual of Botany of Northern States, A. Gray, revised edition, 448. of, in some irons, 2. INDEX. Mining and Smelting Magazine, 290. ‘Miocen ne shells of Atlantic slaps: Pr dhs oticed, Lr igelaaigiy i basin, p yhysic sal geography of, ene mphreys and Abbott’s report t, 223. er and tributaries, tabular Mississippi riv Manuel de Min a Des Cloizearer, 393.) view of, r basin, 23) ‘Mohawk- valley ae J. D. Dana Marignae, age tome of horates pe “3 418. {Moonrise over water, # B. Hunt, i rsh, B. eors 0 862, 802. | Ahiller, A., cots pontson B of soils, 02. ie , O. C., Catalogue of Mineral Local-|' Mitsset, of Jan. 1 43. Mathematics, works 0 on, received ran 368. s! ide. ete. Mensures, mneitie aor of, 302. ee cs On, Sats ed, 308. Meek, F. B., Wodctecplan Memoires de Recaaby dolle, reviewed, A. Gra: oe llic ae ,O RGY Amount of | manganese in some irons, Concentration of silver in lead, Reich, Crystallized silicon in pig iron, 2. Rich- Destipinration of iron in puddling, #. oapeicher: A Metaniarey, *y Percy, noticed, 118. Thallium in —< products, Meteoro thee observations vite a U.8. 256. jiancy of vino ew star 306. La Photographie con-| Sh ramus DeCan-} W. T. Oaks, 1 1, Hetérogenie, ou Génération Spontanée, 270. | . National Academy of Sciences, organized, Almana AC, oe a 465. ‘Nebule, see Astronomy, Nickles, J., iano in wine, 250. r correspondence of, % | voc bg Jurassic feathered verte-/) Joachim Steet Ho. peates; John Tweedi Meyn, peat-sandstone, 123. Odeurs et Sven, Theorie Physique des, — “re products of Great) 7 Nickids, n relan : . 230. aaa News ina Warsh, 210. Seo" Gr oe pac rt ‘Ti. e vier . rt h De Coa, agg. ||2 Oxyethylene anes, ‘urt2, wining um 4 neral works on, receive ae ‘ : Mune. ogy, ¥ d, 308 Bhai ses nto properties if 183. i : ee. Vf “phat logge 150. eg or counteract gangrene e, Ray- _ Arseni P Se of, H. Rose, 426. Don. peer, Geological Reco od, of «ot fndtana, by Pa noticed, Ozone, p r abe rites Bitige’, 111. é ta nies, 8 INDEX. Pi Painting, metallic, Oudres, 471. — #., crystallized silicon in pig-iron, Decibphindel of iron in —, paneer a(?) James sii, J. 4 ge ane, 295. s, Carte Agronomique des isis ae Roepp vr, W. Z., thallium in fu rnace pro- BEL ein obituary of, 155. dncts, 4:20. i a Pasteur, member of French Academy, 303 rg C., Plenrodyctium problemati- Pear obituary 55. Leptocerlia Boi shay 0. N., Peat-sandstone, J Peirce, C.S., chemical ‘theory of interpene- ration, 78, Pennsylvania, magnetic survey of, A. D. Bache, 359. Pe nobsto ot-bay glacier, 249. , d., ‘Metallur: rey, noticed, 118. Perini hes ee ife sig species com- mo Philadelphia ‘Acad. oC Nat. Sci. ing Peotone, raphie considerée comme art et comme neste Mager et Pierson, 269. PHOTOGRAPH — of light on sensitive plate, Vidal, » proceed- Formula for collodion, Jeanrenand, 419. Globe lens fer camera, C. Sellers, 319. Physical mbit aphy of Mississippi basin Humphreys and Abbott’s Report, 938,” Platinum ah platinum metals, *956" bree die problematicum, C. bees Portland Soe. of Nat. Hist., ame carbon for for Pedoaeat re of wood Prisms of bisu Lae of eet din |Rutherfurd, L. a, S4. appearance’ produced by re- volvin ig disk 7. Bisulphid of carbon prisms for spee- tral analysis, tae stronomical observa- tions tho peer Ray 3 Companion to Sirius” stellar spectra, and ioaenaens, 407. St. Francis river aiid 1 227. Schaeffer, “, origin ‘of nitrites, 409, Scheerer, arsenide of co per r, 296,” Scheurer-Bestuer, ncipes Elemen- taire de la Theorie Chimique des Types liqnée aux Combinasions ed, 270. | sent ve allotropie fi ee of oxygen, 111, of hydrogen, Semacin of ni itrite of ammonia, 113. preparation of ozone, sar hge G. ‘ane pise tien Pg Pro iin of the History, Structure and! Geen, of the Lucernarie, H. J. ‘siomaaces pean lated ZOans, OC related to sponges. J. v ban + Cy ponges, cher, ee Flore Canadienne, etc., noticed, 445. z = ists, history of, = = unt, 15 analysis of, Whitney, Q. Quetelet, A. Sur la Physique du Globe, reviewed, 152. RB. Ramsay, A. 0, x wlaciat one lakes, 324. , urine 0 + ee #. - Hunt, sO e of Caye 266. sere ) + ae of ‘finid homologous com- pounds, oat of ndolt, 45. Renwick, ary “x Reirpreape of, 306. Payot Sikes, =v appenrances produced by, | Schultz, Heo % chemistry ‘of germination, noticed, 290. MF pete of International Exhibition, 0. C. ‘ar: | Sédillot, istoire a Hn noticed, 269. ‘Seemann, B., vegetable ree Naar of Fiji Islan aeteea gas ri for photographic. camera, Senarmont, bituary, 260. ¢ Sheffield iaoiatory ‘Contributions, 94. eal Shooting sar re of, in the higher plants ca, occurrence of, in the er S. W. Johnson erent crystallized, in pig-iron, R. Rich- Sillima B., Jr., note on Quetelet’s Phys- ique ae Globe, 1 book notices, 184, 146, 152, 303, 304, ~ National Academy of Science, =. obituaries technical chemistry, 233. spectroscope, 408. Ss ee presibicise sex 9% of, oe enefurd, Reich, 119. rius, companion to, Z. M. Preiged vgn explorations en; | cedings. caw oD aaniyels of, De Ruther- fu og spect Fzean— Gibbs, 414. polls, sri, of, A. Miiller, 292. peers spe in, Merz, 413. lubil cage Dictionary of, FH. Storer, 303, - netp of ice on inland waters, RF. Tarrison, Lagroeet and Harve , Flora Capensis, no- Reich concentration ¢ of silver in lead, 119. irons, 120. Fim study of, Alph, DeCandolle, 431. 472 sg of alkaline metals, Woly and Dia- rteliar, Le AC Rud utherfurd, 407. pe ectral analysis by prisms of flint oe. -and — of carbon, 0. N. : ributions to figer. wees new fo orm, Littrow, 43. utherfurd, 4 ge aaa seman: L. M. Rutherfurd new form i 10. Spectrum, solar, Me; 413, bgp pe lines i hy An — 411. Sphagna of New Jerse C.F. Aus nm, 252. Searancvker i in 1565, tar iar amount of, in yarious seeds, Dra- quantitative determination of, Dra- Steetz, <—o death of, 449. Stim classitication of Brachyura, ete., 1 9. Diatoms on deep sea bottoms, 454. genus Dit lothyra, 455. review 0 Conrad's ae of Mio-) cene Shells, 4: Stohman, urine ac oxen Storer, oo Dic ctionary gs Solubilities, noticed, 303 lassifica of Brachyura, 139. Sur la or ue de Globe, A. Quetelet, re- > sens as manuel de, Bre- pe oetsidi ure, extreme oe of, in te: eae zone, W. rvations, method oF reducing, J. D. ig aery 17. remarks on Everett’s article, & Tendrils of Virginia creeper, &c., A. Gray, 2 Dumas— ee furnace products, T. Roepper, Theorie Physique des Odeurs et des Sa- rs, J. d, 270. icklés, notice des Series es, Laurent, nolend 270. Torrey, J. tah Tryon, G. W., Jr., mon raph of Phole- &c., noticed, z ink Tunner, Bessemer’s are Tweedie, John, th o Twining, A. C., remarks on m alee 149. stars of Nov. 1862, 1. || Yellow fever, Z. INDEX. U. ionidz, observations on, £ Lea, no- 143. Unité des Races Humaines, Ladevi-Roche, U. 8. Naval Obsery atory, observations made at, /. HM. Gilliss, noticed, 146. wae at Rey 0 West, £. B. Hu nt, rmont, Geol f, price raised, 430, Vertebrates, feathered, in Jurassic, A eyer Vis Fellurique, Biguyer "de * Chancourtois, notice Vites Boreal “American, 2 #. eben g 820 Des Moulins, reviewed, 445. W. ee A., Jurassic feathered reptiles, - Waterglass, J. I. adopt 185. Water moonrise, # B. Watson, J. = , corrections "of elements of a comet, 2 21 Webst ae uli s for oxygen, 283. Weights, inetric system, 302. Wicks ri _ sin, > icke, est ation of lime Wihchell, A., atidestion of Catskill and aaa ri Nickles, 250. ine, changes in ickles, Wolf an anges ’ Spectra of metals, 414. Wood, preservation of, 267, , Ar cheeopteryx lithograph- ica, 1 ll warts, expels bases, 114. Yazoo river basin m2 Hunt, 39. Z. Zodiacal light at Key West, Hunt, 388. ZOOLOGY :— a of Brachyura, e Stimp- son, of mammals, J. D. Dana, a on deep ’sea-bottoms, vr Stimp- Siienos. as to er Lae Fs in nature, Hall's colleetione re yrobisher Bay, @. VN. La Lucernaria the ecenotype of Acalephe, a 5 346. Observations on genus Unio, Z Lea, no- tic Oceanic Protozoans related to sponges, J. D. Dana, Works on, received, 308. 61° 80° eons | ISO-MAGNETIC LINES =~ OF PENNSYLVANIA “=~ bel FOR i849. BY A.D. BACHE, SUPDT. U.S.CDAST SURVEY en. Se ee oe OR ASHTABULA Lé 2 r s ea sty he os et fee b Bee. ae = tf ee elie J} * Ny We : i ‘S } FCONOM fae : ae is silty Ad 7. 2 4 Mee aa N v j G ih 9 See tee oe nll er MAGNETIC STATIONS DECLINATION i842 -------- DECLINATION 1862 —— INCLINATION HORIZONTAL FORCE -------- TOTAL FORCE Ppeniaalise! 2 “% 74° eee {39 | | | } i} 1 | | { |