THE i? 7 AMERICAN JOURNAL SCIENCE AND ARTS. Prorrssors B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr., JAMES D. DANA, IN CONNECTION WITH PROF. ASA GRAY, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. LOUIS AGASSIZ, or CAMBRIDGE, DR. WOLCOTT GIBBS, or CAMBRIDGE, PROF. S. W. JOHNSON, or NEW HAVEN, PROF. GEO. J. BRUSH, or NEW HAVEN. SECOND SERIES. VOL. XXXVII.—-BAYT, 1864. NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1864. PPA PPAAP AAA PRINTED BY E. HAYES, 426 CHAPEL &T. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVII. NUMBER CIX. Aarl. Theory of Earthquakes; by Professor ALexts Perrey, H. The Classification of Animals based on the principle of Ceph- alization; by James D, Dana.—No. II. Classification of nsects, . eee : Safe ‘ HI. On Fossil Insects from the Carboniferous formation in Illinois ; by James D, Dana, : - - - * : - IV. The Density, Rotation and Relative Age of the Planets; by Prof. Gustavus Hinricus, lowa State University, - = V. Researches on the Platinum metals; by Wotcott Grzss, M.D., VI. Tubularia Not Parthenogenous ; by Prof. Henry James Cuarx, VI. Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College. —No. VI.—On Tephroite ; by Geo. J. Brusn, : : VU. Crystallographic Examination of the Acid Tartrates of Casia and Rubidia ; by Jostan P, Cooke, Jr., + . - - IX, Geographical Notices, No. XIX.—Speke and Grant’s explora- tion of the sources of the Nile, 75.—Unger’s scientific re- sults of a tour in Greece and the Tonian Islands, 79.— Guyot’s Physical Wall-maps of the Continents, 80.—Prof. Whitney on the highest mountains of the United States and _ Of North America, 81.—Prof. J. D. Whitney’s Survey of California—Proposed Maps, $82.— Recent Australian Ex- plorations ; Explorations from Adelaide across the Conti- nent of Australia; by J. McDovaty Stuart, 84.—Explor- ation of the Interior of Australia; by Mr. Lanpsporoven, 85.—Explorations in the Interior of Australia by the Burke Relief Expedition, under Mr. J. M’Kintay, 86.—Dr. Liv- _ INGsronz’s recent exploration of the Niassa Lake, 87.—Ex- ploration of the River Vermejo, in the Argentine Confedera- tion—Mr. Porter C. Buss, 88. ‘8 10 36 57 61 iv CONTENTS. Page X. Review of Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina, - - XI. U. S. Coast Survey Reports for the years 1861 and 1862, 95 XII. Proceedings of Learned Societies—Address of the Presi- dent of the Royal Society, - - - 100 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. hysics.—Electrical properties of Pyroxyline-Paper and Gun-cotton, by Prof. JoHn Jounston, 115.—On the wave lengths of certain spectral lines, J. MiLLER, 116. Chemist oo a new metallic oxyd, Baur, 116.—On solid arseniuret of hydrogen, . Wiebernoip: On the crystalline form of Ssiplata of thallium, Victor yon Lane: = a erytlized hydrate soda, Harms: On the constitution of emer, H. Rost, ungsten, Caron, 118.—On a new series of metallic oxyds, H. Rose, 119 Oa cake of silicium with oxygen and ean rogen, WiuueER, 120- —The ieee, of Thallium—Derived from statements of Crookes, Lamy and Botiger, and from original observations, | Analytical Chemistry.—Estimation of Sulphuric Acid in salts of the alkalies, Sroza, 122. Photography.—Dry Process, by MM. TrtsszrE : Aes 123.--Another modifica- tion of the dry process, 124—also by JuLuret, Metallurgy.—On the occurrence of Titaninm in Pig Iron, and some Remarks on the use of titaniferous Minerals in the piepness of Iron and Steel, by Eowarp RILEY, F.C.S Aluminum and A » by I. L. Bett, 133.—Processes of Silver and Gold Extraction, by Guipo KurstTet, 134. Agricultural Chemistry.—Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiolo- gie, etc., also _ Natural Laws of Husbandry, by Justus von Lizzie, edited by Joun LY T 35.--On a function of Roots, Henrici, 136. Sie Fe ee to Paleontology, by Prof. James Haut, 137.—Preliminary No- tice of the Fauna of the Potsdam sandstone, ete., with a letter to M. Joachim Barrande, by James Hau: Preliminary Notice of some species of Crinoidea from the Waverly siktiie series of Summit County, Ohio, supposed to be of the age of the Chemung group of New York, by James Hatt: A Monograph of the Fossil Estheria, by Prof. T. Rorert Jones, F.G.S., 140 Astronomy and Meteorology.—On the new Planet Eurynome, (7), by Prof. James C. Warson, 140.—-Shooting Stars on the night of November 13th-14th, 1863, 141—Ad- ditional Communications on Shooting Stars, 1 Miscellaneous Scientific — eneqers to the Desert of Sahara under Messrs. Martins and Escher yon Linth: Mount Hope erasomes: yong N. Y., 146.-—-The Chemical Chair in Berlin: Prof. Watson s new Ast 1 at Marseilles and Vienna: Prof. Ogden N. Rood, 14 Book Notices.--A Text-book by James D. Dana, 147.--A Tract on Crystal- lography, by W. H. Mituer, M.A., etc. : Se ietoce of Fossil plauts tC by Mr. George Gibbs, by Dr. J. S. Newserry: Reminiscences of Amherst College, by Epwarp Hitcucock, 148.—Frick’s Physical echnies: Waitz's Scenaaaa to An- thropology, translated by - T. Con.inewoon, F.GS., etc.: Petroleum vein in Northwestern Virginia, by J. P. Lesuey, 149, CONTENTS. v Obitwary.—Henry Fitz, 149.--Prof. E. Emmens, 151. Titles of Works received, 152. Transactions of Societies—American Academy of Arts and Sciences: Journal of the Acad, of Nat. Sci., Feb. to Nev., 1862: Proceedings of the Acad. Nat. Sci. cf Philadel- phia, 156, NUMBER CX, Mie: Kitt” The Clateiticathon'of Aatmale based’ ent Wie'principte” of Cephalization; by James D. Dana.—No. III. Classifica- tion of Herbivores, - 157 XIV. Note on the position of pore ee nnong ot make of Vertebrates; by James D. Dana, - : 84 XV. On Celestial Dynamics; by Dr. J. R. sexed, ee XVI. Second Notice of Recent Researches relating to Nebule ; by A. Gaurien, - | 198 XVIII. On the action of very Bee Electric Light en the lodized Plate; by Prof. Qgpen N. Roop, - XIX. On the Invisibility of Nebulous Matter ; by D. TeoweniOl 210 XX. Remarks on the family Pteriide, (= Aviculide) with de- scriptions of some new fossil genera; by F. B. Merk, - 212 XXI. On some Minerals of the Chlorite pie by Joun B. PEARSE XXil. Sieiice of a atl sadioeiien “of Fossils pee i isin Sandstone of Wisconsin and the Lake Superior Sandstone of Michigan ; by Prof. ALExanpER WINCHELL, - XXIH. On the Orbits of Binary Stars; by Prof. Danren Kirxwoop, 233 XXIV. On the best Mode of presenting, in a popular form, the Theory of the Tides, with suggestions for Conese te Jie: trative apparatus; by Wittiam Dennis, 204 XX¥V. Analysis of a Meteorite — Chili; by Prof ee ‘ A. Joy 243 XXVI. Gotha to Litictadys : - *: rider Hoxr,M. A, etc., 248 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Piysics—On the passage of radiant heat through polished, Rie and smoked rock-salt, and on the diffusion of rays of heat: H. Kxopiacn, Chemist he a cyanid of phosphorus, Hitsner and Weuruave: On Indium, Reica and Ricurer, 269. Feet. and Geology—Eusynchite and Dechenite, C. CzupNowicz, 270.—Githite rom Lake Superior: Szaibelyite, 271.—Astrophyllite, F. Pisanr: Bragite, J. A. Micu- AELSON: On Organic Remains in the Laurentian Rocks of Canada, by Sir W. E. Logan, F.R.S., 272.—On Glaciers and other phenomena connected with the Hima layas, 273. vi CONTENTS. Botany.—Nomenclature, 278.—Annales Musei Botanici edidit F. A Guit. Miquet, 281.——Martivs, Flora Brasiliensis, 283-—Species Genera et Onkwte Algarum, auctore Jacoso Georcio AGARDH: Phycologia Avatralicn; 3a History of Aus. Botanical sgt for the year 1863--Professor Martin Martens: Dr. Christian von Steven: Pru H. B. Alfred Moquin-Tandon: Francis Boott, M.D., 283.—Jacques Gay, 292, Astronomy.—-Comet IV, 1863, 292—Comet V, 1863: Comet VI, 1863, 293.—Letter from Prof. James C. Watson on the discovery of Comet VI: Notes on n Be on by F. An- Bott, Esq , 294, Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence-—Account of the easting of a gigantic (Rodman) Gun at Fort Pitt Foundry, 2 Bock einesing> Outlines of a Dictionary of the Solubilities of Chemical Substances, By Fraxkx EH. Srorer, 301.—Chambers’ Encyclopedia: A Practical Handbook of Medical Pi Bi ; by Joun E. Bowman, F.C.8.: Dana’s Manual of Geology, 392. Obituary. —Edward Hitchcock, 302.—Giovanna Plana: Heinrich Rose: Cappocei, 304. NUMBER CXIl. Agr. XXVII. On the Diptera or two-winged Insects of the Amber- : fauna, (Ueber die Diptern-fauna des Bernsteins) : a lecture id Director Lew, at the meeting of the German naturalists n Keenigsberg, in 1861, . : XXVIIL Abstract of Prof. Meissner’s Gress kek on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone; by S. W. Jounson,~ - XXIX. Glacial Action about Penobscot ak ; ey Me. Sou e Laski, - 339 XXX. Contributions ait the ‘Sheffield Vilchus of Yale Col. lege. No. VII.—On the Indirect Determination of Potash and Soda; by Peter Cottier, B.A., XXXI. Contributions to Chemistry from the reboaiy of iis wrence Scientific School; by Wo.cotr Gisgs, M.D.— 1. On the relations of hyposulphite of soda to certain metallic oxyds.—2. On the determination of nitrogen by weight.— 3. On the separation of cerium from didymium and lantha- num.—4. On the separation and estimation of cerium.—5. On the quantitative separation of cerium from yttrium, alu- minum, glucinum, manganese, iron and uranium.—6. the employment of — of fluorid of potassium in analysis, - i. 346 CONTENTS. vil XIII. On the Cretaceous and Superior Formations of West Tennessee ; by Jas. M. Sarrorp, - XXXIV. On the Influence of Ozone and some ohek Chemical Agents on Germination and Vegetation; by M. Carey Lea, 3878 XXXV. Remarks on the Distillation of Substances of different Volatilities ; by M. Carey Lea, : - 377 XXXVI. The original accounts of the Goi in Cay, times of the November Star-Shower; together with a determination of the length of its cycle, its annual period, and the probable orbit of the group of bodies around the sun; by EWTON, — - - . - . - - . - 3877 XXXVII. Note on the Product of the Reaction between the Mono- oe of Potassium and the Bromid of Ethylene, and on eral compounds derived from it; by J. M. Crarrts, - 3890 XXXVIIL On the mechanical and chemical treatment of Gold and other metals; by James D. WHELPLEY,~ - . 401 XXXIX. Mineralogical Notices ; by Cuartes Uruam Seeuike: 405 Page. XXXII. On Shepard’s Paracolumbite ; by F. Pisany, . - 3859 XX 360 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Physics and Chemisiry.—On the spectrum of carbon, ATTFIELD: On the optical distine- PE- Seycer : On the action of light upon nitro-prussi sodinm, Roussin, 408.—On the barometer, as an indicator of the earth’s rotation, and the sun’s distance, by Puixy Earve Cuase, 409.— auve or Anilin purple, Perkin, 413.— } Pipe Beads, by Georce H. Emerson, 4]4.—Elements of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical, by Winttam ALLEN MiLuer, M.D., LL.D, etc., 415 Mineralogy and Geology.—Voleano of Kilauea, Hawaii: I. Letter from Rev. T, Coan, 415: IL Letter from Rev. O. H. Guiicx, 416.--On Glacial Phenomena in Nova Scoti by B. eae Jr., 417.—Synopsis of the Flora of the Carboniferous Period in Nova Scotia, by J. W. Dawson, LL.D., ete. , 419—~Report of J. D, Whitney, on the Geo- logical ee ey of California, 427. bie Mass of Native Copper, by J. B. Townsenp: — | Rhizopods of Canada, in a letter from T. Srerry Hunt, F.R.S., 431.— Ueber dyadische Pflanzen, by Dr. H. B. Getnitz: Beitriige zur Kenntstie der organischen Ueborsesté i in der Dyas und tiber den Namen Dyas: Appendix tothe « third edition of the Antiquity of Man, by Sir Cuartes Lyeiu: A popular and practical exposition of the Minerals and Geology of Canada, by E. J. Cuarman, Ph.D., 432. Botany and Zoology.—On the Popula¥ Names of British Plants, hy R. C. A. Prion, M.D., ete., 433.—Cosson et Germain de Saint-Pierre, Flore des Environs de Paris—Synopsis Analytique de Ia Flore des Environs de Paris, 434.--Des Fleurs de Pleine Terre, com- Prenant la Description et Ja Culture des Fleurs Annuelies, Vivaces, et Bulbeu pleine terre, etc., par ViLMontN-ANDRIEUX : Monographia Generis Lepigonorum, auc- tore N.C. Krxpzere, 435.—Kongliga Svenska Fregatten Eugenies Resa, etc.—Botany of the Galapagos Islands, by N. J. ANDERSSON: Caroli Wright Lichenes Insule Cubs, yi CONTENTS. Isaac Lea, LL.D., etc., 436.—List of the Polyps and Corals sent by the Museum of Comparative Zoology to oF Institutes in exchange, with ee wey by A. E. Ver- RILL: Prospectus of a oan h of the Tetraonine, or Famil the Grouse, by the author, D. G. Exutor, 437. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence-On the Yellow Coloration of faded —— Prints, by M. Carey Lea, 433.—Magnesium tas for Photography Preservation of Animal Substances, Pasteur: The difficulties ivetlene is "he Ga ing of long Electric Sea Cables, acbeseabinig of Iron, 441.—Submarine Voleano in ‘the Mediterranean, 442.—Water in Paris: Academy of Sciences, 443.—Spanish Scien- i my ey eet 446.--Maury’s ip Direetions, and Wind and Current Charts, 447.— Obituary —W m. J. Taylor, 4 Miscellaneous Bibliography.—Boston Journal of Natural History, 447. ene Almanac and Annual Record, dag the year 1864, 448.—Notices of New Works and ings of Societies, 4 Index, 451 ERRATA. Pages 39 to 56, in title, for “ A. Hinrichs,” read “G, Hinrichs.”—P. 212, 1. 3 from bot- tom, for ‘ Pinna, and Avicula Modiola,” read “ Pinna, Avicula and Modiola.”—P, 214, 1. 14 from top, for “ M. perattennuata,” read “ M. perattenuata.”"—P. 216, lines 17 and 22 from top, for “hinge in which,” read “hinge of which.”—P. 219, 1. 14 from top, for “ smooth, rounded,” read “smoothly rounded.”——P. 422, 1. 1 from Ribtiou: for “lon- gifola,” read “ longifvlia,”—P. 423, 1. 7 from top, for ‘ * Loshii,” read Loschii.” AMERICAN f JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Art. IL—Theory of Earthquakes; by Professor ALEXIS PERREY, of Dijon, France.’ ARTHQUAKEs arte a complex phenomenon. It is difficult to refer them to One cause alone, The shocks or series of shocks in a given region may have a special or local cause. Ve may distinguish 2 Number of such special causes acting independently of the pees cause whose general action they modify. More- over, these secondary causes may be modified in their action by the principal cause, the latter manifesting itself only through a differential result. : the phenomena, it is difficult to distinguish those which are the effects of the principal cause from those of special or local causes, The first aim of investigation should be to determine that differential result in which the gag ae disappear; oF, in other words, the influence of the principal cause is brought into strong relief, the differential action making lt manifest, : There is a periodicity as to times of occurrence in earthquakes, as in other Cosmical and meteorological phenomena. When ? Translated for this Journal from a memoir communicated by the author entitled . itions sur lex Zremblements de terre et les Volcans ; formulées M. Avexis Penney, Professeur 4 la Faculté des ciences ijon, adressées 4 M. Lamé, Mem- bre de l'Institut; 36 p- 8vo. Paris, 1863. Mallet-Bachelier, Quai des Augustins, 55. Only the part on Hurthquakes is here | Am. Joun. $cl.~QgcoNp Seigss, Vor. XXXVIL, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 1 2 Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. gous maxima and two minima, the maxima corresponding to the passage of the superior and inferior meridian, and the minima shocks, show that there is a relation between the frequency of earthquakes and the rotation of the moon. Is this relation one of cause and effect? I believe so, after a careful study of the subject, and propose to present the evidence Suppose now the envelop or crust to have so great thickness and such elasticity that it cannot take at once the form of the central nucleus, Pressure and tension in the crust of a greater or less amount will be the result, which will be a cause of frac- tures. ‘These fractures will be the starting point of molecular — vibrations which may be propagated in the crust to its surface _ Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. 3 and have the character of true earthquakes. Such is the first or principal cause of the phenomenon. The two opposite protuberances of the central nucleus together constitute, in their movement of rotation, what we call the great or primary earthquake or seismic wave. The greater the lunar influence, the greater will be the protuberances and the higher the seismic wave. should result, which, in the case supposed, would also cause, when its crests pass under the points of least resistance, the same two seismic waves should ad to, or diminish, one another, or coalesce in one wave, as with oceanic tidal waves. They will therefore manifest themselves at the surface only by their differ- ential or their resultant effects; and their union will form the great luni-solar wave. Its effect will therefore be the greatest possible at the syzygies; and hence the ruptures of the earth, consequent thereupon, should be most frequent at these two epochs in the lunar period: Let us now take note of the diurnal motion of the earth. We now have two new seismic waves; a lunar, the crests of which It is easy to conceive that in their simultaneous progress, these 1 ; Points of view as the luni-solar wave depending solely on the motion of the moon in its orbit. n their progress, these different waves are similar, or, at least, h Sure on the earth’s crust, which, supposing it homogeneous, will experience at these points maxima and minima in c ange o form, and consequently in frequency of fractures; and there- ee maxima and minima in vibrations of the crust, or earth- quakes leal expressions of the physical laws of the phenomenon) will ®nter necessarily the distances of the sun and moon from the farth. But the action being in the inverse ratio of the squares of the distances, the effect should be, under this point of view, Sreater at the perigee than at the apogee. In accordance with this, I have found, that, relatively to the lunar motion, earth- quakes are more frequent at the perigee than at the apogee; and Into these periodical functions of the seismic waves (or analyt- ¢ 4 Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. relatively to the earth’s orbital motion, they are more frequent at the winter solstice ea! at the summer, that is, at the peri- helion than at the aphelio these waves are, siaiale cally, not single waves, but are groups of successive undulations, like the tidal in the ocean. ence there must be a oe, of pressures and tensions in the passage of a seismic wave over a given point. Hence, also, a possible, and probable, succession in the vibrations of the crust. Hence, also, an undulatory character in the earthquake shocks, with alternations of intensity during their passage. Thus e have regarded the crust as eee interiorly an ellipsoidal Hariice, and the central nucleus as li Let us now suppose the nucleus the same, but het inner surface of the crust as having irregularities like the outer,—that 1 mountain elevations projecting inward, and immersed in the fluid mass, and valleys whose depressions are excavated in the crust. Such an internal orographic cdo ould modify the progress of the seismic waves. A wa Se would rise and increase its velo- city and, consequently, its sitive force, between two mountains or elevations that obstruct its passage; it would spread and lose velocity over a plain or in a valley where it could expand and develop itself; and would beat against the declivities or pro- jections encountered. Hence a new kind of ¢ compression, and, therefore, of molecular vibrations, whscls should propagate them- selves to the earth’s surfac ce, and appear as earthquakes. Hence also, beyond question, some partial displacements in the walls of the vaulted crust, and ruptures causing vibrations more or less intense. Hence, ‘also, fssures in the vault, of greater or less ex- tent, and more or less.a An introduction of the incandescent liquid from the earth- quake-wave into these fissures could hardly take place without shocks or vibrations more or less apparent. But it is a question whether such vibrations would reach the earth’s surface. This would depend on their intensity; and also on the thickness and ra peel of the crust, which would necessarily have an important ence. These displacements and ruptures could not take place with- : ote aciulelecs to a an or less ata ne pe ee condition and nature of the region. Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. 5 But are these fractures, as has been said, the only cause of the Sounds which so often precede, accompany, or follow, earth- quakes? It is difficult to believe it. We acknowledge that we are not ready to explain the sounds that so often precede earth- quakes. In the case of earthquake shocks which are continued for a length of time, these sounds are often repeated: And how does the sound-vibration differ from the dynamical vibration which immediately follows it? Moreover, in such earthquake- shocks, continued for a length of time, both aérial and subterra- nean detonations are frequently repeated without any sensible movement of the ground. Many instances of this kind occurred in the valley of Visp in 1855 and 1856.” The sounds are, in fact, one of the most obscure elements connected with earth- uakes _ But to proceed, the ruptures which take place at certain points in the crust shake the neighboring parts, which, in their turn, .under the action of successive earthquake waves, lead to other like fractures. Such catastrophes may again and again follow. e thus account for the shocks which are repeated for a greater or less time after every great earthquake. d he fractures opened at any point will become prolonged in the direction of the line of least resistance. Hence comes the is seen that the waves that are propagated laterally arrive later, Telatively to the passage of the moon over the meridian, at the this kind are the shocks on the Mississippi in 1811; those of Maurienne in 1838; those of Scotland in 1842 and 1843. * The detonations in the valley of Visp continued to occur at intervals even till May, 1861. The later months of the year do not appear to have been marked by any repetition of the phenomena of 1855.—(Letters and Journal of M. Tscheinen, “urate at Greechen.)—Note added August 26th, 1862. { 6 Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. The periodicity of the phenomenon may manifest itself again in the renewal of the shocks. But the maxima and minima of the port is alone sufficient to explain this apparent anomaly. In these two 5-year periods, there was a series of local shocks in a region where earthquakes are unfrequent. The quinquennial period from 1810 to 1815 affords no sensible maxima and minima. But the facts on record are few. During the unhappy years of 1814, 1815, the journals took little note of subterranean commotions, * Prof. Perrey has made out, from the facts which he has collected, for the first f of the present century (from 1801 to 1850), that there were 5388 1 on which earthquakes occurred ; or, counting as so many separate davs 6th and 7th for the quadratures, Arranging thus the phenomena, he obtained for the 5388 days,—2761-48 at the syzygies and 262652 at the quadratures, leaving a difference in favor of the syzygies 134-96 For the 6596 days, he obtained 3434-64 at the syzygies and 3161°36 at the quadra- tures, leaving 273-28 in favor of the syzygies. Ina similar manner, for the half century preceding, or from 1751 to 1800, he ob- tained 1901-18 earthquake days at the syzygies, and 1753-82 at the quadratures, the e in favor of the syzygies being 147-36. ing the earthquake days during the years 1761 to 1800, which occur within at the apogee, leaving a difference of 604 in favor of the igee; or leaving off the outer two of the five days, the result was 3134 at the padincs and 278), at the pogee, or an excess of 35 at t rigee, Taking the earthquakes of o in Calabria as given for the years 1836 to 1853 (18 years) in a Journal kept by M.S. Arcovito, he finds 437 earthquake shocks at the i 349 at the quadratures, or an excess of 88 at the syzygies. He ks wk he less 5° from ° Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes, 7 e central nucleus and the crust? And should not the presence of these gases modify in some way, the dynamic action of the earthquake waves? Is not their sudden explosion, the Cause, at times, of transient disturbances in the central mass? And, consequently, are there not thence sensible reactions against the inner surface of the crust, causing strong vibrations that are propagated to the outer surface is idea, which I have elsewhere brought forward,’ is re- marked upon as follows by the learned author of the Histoire des Progrés de la Geologie. ‘As to these immense tempests which the author raises at the surface of the incandescent fluid, Whose waves of fire beat against the flanks of the mountains which project downward like gigantic stalactites, they appear to us to be a little remote from the domain of science and to pertain rather to that of the imagination.” But, without taxing too much the imagination, can we not See that these chemical actions, which others have made the sole cause of earthquakes, may produce some perturbations, or mod- ifications, in earthquake movements which shall obscure at times the periodicity ? ormerly, especially during the last century, the existence of numerous vast caverns in the earth, for the propagation of earth- quakes, was admitted. We do not deny the existence of such caverns; but, in our view, instead of their favoring earthquake vibrations they would arrest, or at least impede, them. The simplest break will modify the rate and direction of the undula- 1ons. But such caverns should also cause, in some cases, mo- lecular vibrations which, on being propagated to the earth’s surface, would not differ from ordinary earthquakes. The liquid Matter, in entering the cavities, would also cause shocks of a Similar kind. Hence may come some of those facts registere¢ in earthquake tables, which interfere with the exhibition of the periodicity. We pass by other causes to which earthquakes have been at- tributed. Several, although less general than they have been sup- posed to be, may be admitted among special or secondary causes. * Monss the Scandinavian insula, Ve dela Com- reson Besontifqee do ied en Seondinavic, en Lapua, ea, Pars, 1845. . 8 Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. It cannot be too often repeated, that earthquakes are not of one single kind, identically the same. They are various both in causes and effects; I aim simply to bring out in relief the prin- been observed in the Pyrenees and the Andes. In the great valleys occupied by rivers, the mean direction, as calculated by rt, appears to be that of the course of the depression. I have shown this to be the fact with the basins of the Rhone and the Rhine, where the direction is nearly meridional, and the basin of the Danube, which has a transverse course, or from west east. In France, the departments most subject to earthquakes appear to be those about the mouths of the large rivers. The depart- Rhone forms a kind of node with that of the Sadne, is the only one which can compare with the kind just mentioned in number of earthquakes. Whatever may be the cause of the molecular vibration at any be spherical and concentric. How will it then be in a medium which is not homogeneous, or is of unequal density? This can- succeed one another through each point in the sphere of undula- tion and make successive shocks at the earth’s surface, the shocks directly over the centre or focus of the vibrations will be verti- eal: and the obliquity, or variation from verticality, will be greater the more remote the place of emergence at the surface is from the centre of vibration alluded to; or, the locality being fixed, the nearer this centre is to the surface. There can be no rotary shocks; the cases of apparent rotation ndicate the point from which it actually comes? I believe not. The difference in the rocks encoun! should produce deriva- tive and reflected undulations, as in the case of waves of sound. we have explained elsewhere. But does the direction of a shock Alexis Perrey on Earthquakes. 9 Breaks in the rocks, as the caverns referred to, must modify their propagation, vary their direction and weaken their intensity, and may extinguish them; and this may account for the simulta- @ neous shaking of two regions while an intermediate locality is undisturbed—a phenomenon of so frequent occurrence in certain parts of America that the people speak of it under the expres- sion of the earth being bridged within, or suspended. Boussingault recognized, as the principal cause of the earth- uakes of the Andes, the continual and progressive sliding of the dislocated rocks of which they consist; and he considered the phenomenon as incessant in South America, an earthquake taking place, in his view, somewhere in the Andes at every instant of time. ese views are not at variance with my own. Any slidings due to gravity will be caused, or favored, by the daily vibrations whose effects and causes have been considered. Calculation demonstrates the existence of two kinds of waves moving with different velocities around a centre of vibration; Tadmit readily, with Mr. Wertheim, the coéxistence of these two kinds of waves. If then there are several successive sets of vibrations at a given point, each will propagate the double system of waves. It will be the same, also, if there are simulta- heous disturbances at a number of neighboring points. ) waves of greatest velocity of one set will overtake and pass by those of least velocity in the preceding set, and at an interval of distance depending on the interval of time between the successive ns. vibratio disturbance than the passage of two successive waves. In this case, the surface of the earth under vibration, if epg homoge- neous, should present concentric zones in whic the disturbance will be alternately more and less great. I would say, however, that I do not believe that such an alternation of effects from earth- tures on the surface to be upset or damaged should have an identity of construction and of position with reference to the points of compass which cannot be looked for. ee : At some future time, I propose to consider, from this point of View, the occurrence of the first shock more or less light which Precedes often the great shakings, and of the harmless vibrations which separate the disastrous shocks; and also the short interval Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Sens, Vou. XXXVI, No. 109.—Jax., 1864. 2 a0 Dana on the Classification of Animals of relative repose or simple tremulousness which separates two consecutive shocks of moderate intensity. s to the velocity of the propagation of shocks, we make no definite statement. Notwithstanding the trials of Dr. Julius Schmidt, we have no confidence in the results derived from his value to science. Art. II.—The Classification of Animals based on the principle of re by James D. Dana.—No. II. Classification of Inse THE principles which have been presented in my former ar- ticle on the classification of animals may be further exemplified subdivisions of the animal kingdom; an = the present time take up for this purpose the order of Insec The subject may be ABRIPPERY borane by a Aaa tion, arranged so as to be convenient for reference, of thos the characteristics bearing on on de which are of most BeorTiails importance. In connection with the mention below of these found on the pages referred to. Under each head the characteristic to be looked for in a supe- rior group is first mentioned; and then those of related kinds in inferior groups. 2 ss a prea group, (A) a prosthenic eae In an a p (B) a metasthenic condition of different grades o fits (Bg in a still lower group (0) a Riesintta niinie. e 323 -) ese conditions come under the transferent method of ad Bat yg which i is exhibited in a transfer of force and function towards e (preferent) ps ascending grade, or in the reverse direction Cechearent) with descend _ This ROET is similar in nature to that which results in amplificate @ reverse ; in one direction, the descending, it is outward or 1 For Article I, see last volume of this Journal, p. 32i. A Ske Ne, ea based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 11 circumferential diffusion, and may be designated apocentric; in the other, the ascending, it is cephalic concentration or epicentric—the sys- temic centre here referred to corresponding in position to the cephalic nervous mass or brain (p. 322). The degrees of concentration do not generally shade indefinitely into one another. There is a range of variations under a given ype or spe- cific condition of the systemic force; and then a drop-down or saltus to _ IL In a superior group, (A) compactness, regularity and per- fection of structure, with normal proportions and narrow limits of variation. the latter), or a lengthening or attenuation of limbs (long-amplifi- cate), or in a general enlargement (large-amplificate, gross-ampli- cate); (D) a multiplicate condition, or an indefinite multiplica- ‘tion of segments or members, as in Myriapods and Worms, and Opposed to a limitate condition like that of Insects, Spiders, and Crustaceans; (E) an analyzed or elementalized condition, being a mor ion i more or less completely defunctionated condition of any organs or members. (P. 324. 7 V. Sup., (A) a terrestrial mode of life in all stages.—Inf,, (B) an aquatic mode of life, (a) in the adult stage, but not connected with aquatic respiration ; (4) in the larval stage only; (¢) in all stages, with aquatic respiration throughout each. A terres- trial mode of life in all stages may be distinguished as perlerres- ‘y and an aquatic mode of. life in all stages with aquatic f 12 Dana on the Classification of Animals respiration, peraquatic. The latter has been observed on page 330, (Art. [.) to have a dilutive effect on the materials and menopters, and a the other species. Condition a may occur in inferior grades, as among Coleopters, apparently through degrada- tion.—Inf., (B) prematurative, or passing through no period of fest in the young state, as in Insects undergoing no complete 28 = having the power of budding.—Jnf, (B) hemiphytoid, either in accompanied by a fundamental change in plan of structure, but not in accordance with any of the methods enumerated, it being The distinction between Megasthenes and Microsthenes under Mam- mals is of this kind (p. 338); also that of Mammals and Birds; also that Insecteans and Crustaceans among Articulates. In the last, there se | three segments. Moreover, in the highest Ohaitbeaiein the Crabs, includes three more body-segments than in Insects. ‘The differ- ences also between Hymenopters and Dipters (see p. 17), Lepidopters and Homopters, Coleopters and Hemipters, exemplify a general lower- ing of the grade of structure, not referable to any special one or two of the methods of cephalization. The general term potential is applied to cases like the above on page $22 of Art. I, as a convenient term, though Internal eharaeteristies, as those of the digestive, reproductive based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 13 or nervous system, have not been referred to among the above characteristics, because (1) they often undergo very wide varia- tions under a given type, and especially in its inferior or degra- dational subdivisifh ; further, (2) when any internal condition is distinctive of a natural group of species, there is always some type or plan of general structure corresponding to it in limits; and (3) the type or plan of structure is the surest criterion as to whether a group is natural or not. As an example of this last, ture distinct natural groups. Besides other decisive distinctions, the former have without exception prehensile fore-feet, while in the latter, these organs are defunctionated of this power of pre- -Aension, and are simply locomotive organs. CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS. been shown to depend on a transfer of force and function away m the systemic centre; and this by an abrupt transition, pro- ducing an abrupt downward step in grade, ; ; _ This retroferent transfer is exhibited prominently in the wings, the anterior wings in the Metasthenics having little or no use in flying. These organs have been stated to have eminent import- ance in the order of Insects because the type is aérial. There is additional reason for this importance in the fact that the dorsal side of an animal is the superior, and the ventral, the inferior ; or, the former is the more central in the life-system, and the latter the os circumferential. inca o ‘8 the series of legs, as well as wings, may p’ cases transfer of Leama sites Gees the terms Pacbens and Metas- enics become more precise if reference to the wings is included. They will thus be (ategoy being the Greek for wing) (1) Plero- , and (2) Ptero-metasthenics. The two-winged species 14 Dana on the Classification of Animals under the former (the Dipters) have the posterior wings obso- lescent, and those under the latter (Strepsipters) the anterior. Insects of tlie first of these grand divisions are eminently pterosthenic or strong in the wing—Hymenojfters, Dipters, Lept- dopters and Neuropters being relatively good flyers. Those 0 the second are as decidedly podosthenic—Coleopters, Hemipters and Orthopters being relatively poor flyers, and strong in the Jeg. Consequently the terms Pterosthenics and Podosthenics might be employed for the two grander divisions of Insects, as well as for those of Birds (Art. I, p. 343). Yet their use in the two cases would be different; for in Birds the wings and legs are relatively anterior and posterior members, and not dorsal and ventral as 1m nsects. But since the dorsal and ventral parts have a similar opposite relation to the systemic centre as the anterior and posterior, as just now remarked, the difference is one of degree rather than of kind. As there are pteroprosthenic and pterometasthenic Insects, sO there are podoprosthenic, or those in which the anterior legs are stronger than the posterior, and podometasthenic, or those m The Thysanures or Apiers, which constitute the third grand- division, are urosthenic, most of the species having even the the names in the synopsis are added only the two characteristics of (1) perterrestrial (terrestrial in both larval and adult life) ot semiaquatic (aquatic in larval life), and (2) permaturative or pre- uturative. I. Ptero-prosthenics, or Ctenopters. i. Apirens (from Apis bee and penna wing, the wings being approximately like those of the Bee). ; Hi; menopters.—Perterrestrial. Permaturative. b. Dipters.—Mostly perterrestrial. Permaturative. ce. Aphanipters (Fleas).—Perterrestrial. Permaturative. - ? As the anterior pair (or that which is obsolescent in th Strepsipters) is of little functional value in the Pterometasthenics, t i ot of es or four- Winged among them is of much less importance than among the Pteroprosthenics. Moreover, there is a line of gradation from ordinary Coleopters to the Strepsipters based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 16 2. AMPLIPENS (from amplus large and penna). a. Lepidopters.—Perterrestrial. Permaturative. b. Homopters.—Perterrestrial. Prematurative, ¢. Trichopters—*Semiaquatic. Permaturative. 3. ATTENUATES, or NEUROPTERS. a. Apipenniforms.—Perterrestrial. Permaturative, or prematurative. b, Ampli if Perterrestrial, iaquatic. Permaturative, * 4 Lf 7 or prematurative. c. Perattenuates, or Typical Neuropters.—Semiaquatic. Prematu- rative. II. Ptero-metasthenics, or Elytropters. a. Coleopters.—Mostly terrestrial. Permaturative. b. Hemipters,—Mostly terrestrial. Prematurative. ¢. Orthopters.—Terrestrial. Prematurative. © a, Curs : ors. 6. Ambulators. 7. Saltators, or Typical Orthopters. III. Thysanures, or Apters. Lepismians and Podurians. I, PTERO-PROSTHENICS, or CTENOPTERS. neatly adjusted and all well-proportioned. Among them, there * This point is well presented in a recent paper on “ Synthetic Types in Insects,” by A.S, Packard, Jr., (Jour. Boston, Soe. Nat. Hist., 1863, pp. 590-608). The au- thor observes, on page 591, “the clear-winged Sesia [Lepidopter] imitates the humble-bee in its form and flight; the different species of Algerians [Lepidopters} simulate members of nearly every hymenopterous family, as we ean see when re- calling such names as apiformis, vespiformis, philanthiformis, tiphiaformis, scolice- Sormis, spheciformis, chrysidiformis, cynipidiformis, formiciformis, ichneumoni for- mis, uroceriformis, and tenthrediformis. So also other Agerians resemble different f Diptera, as seen in the 16 Dana on the Classification of Animals transporting young and food: the jaws are therefore perfune- tionate in these species to a degree comparable with that of the jaws of a Carnivore among Mammals. The higher kinds also supply the young with food, either by storing it or by direct feed- * ing—a quality approximating to that of the Altrices (Nursers) purpose of flying, and are typical in size, texture and power. he species are all perterrestrial.‘ The above characteristics show that the tribe of Hymenopters takes the lead among Insects, and therefore stands at the head in the subkingdom of Articulates. Note on Size under the Insect-type.—If, then, Hymenopters stand first among Insects, we may learn from the higher of the species the normal size of the Insect-type under its best condition as to stru archetype, and may be less to any degree; (2) the more inferior the group in which large forms occur, the greater the amount of Sormis, anthraciformis, musceeformis, &c. In the Diptera we find Bombylius, resembling, as its name implies, Bombus; and also iphria, which so closely apes the humble-bee in its form, coloration, size and flight, even to the buzz, which is, if here i i i to era, and are normal in the Ymenoptera. The fly to get them has to pass over one sub-order to obtain a bizarre form which i state the Apia” ch is a prevalent an mon family Addition to Note, while in the press.—These, and other observations beyond, for which I am indebted to Mr. Packard, are so apposite to my subject as to cpp as if prepared for the use here made of them. In fact, however, my with its notes was written without any acquaintance with the author beyond what I had derived from his valuable pl sbi also without his knowledge. Some Hymenopters can with their wings or legs; but none are semiaquatic. based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 17 general uniformity. ‘The integuments are less firm than in Hymen- opters. The mouth is simply suctorial, and self-feeding is the in only function. Individuals never live communities. The is attended with (1) an enlargement of the mesothorax (the seg- ment supporting the anterior pair) at the expense of the meta- thorax (or posterior segment of the thorax), and (2) an increased the gree of force thus concentrated is far less than that of the Size, in their many imitations of Hymenopters, in the semiaquatic life of some species, their less strength as compared with size, their habits, &c. It is stated on page 12 that the transition from 1c. , The foot note on the preceding page states some of the rela- tions between Dipters and Hymenopters. On this point West- Wood says: “It seems to be admitted on all hands that the Insects which are the real analogues of the Hymenopters exist -in Ax. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 109.—Jan., 1864 3 18 Dana on the Classification of Animals the Dipterous order, almost every Hymenopterous genus having its representative in the latter.” The analogies as well as affini- female places with the eggs some bits of dried blood; and if so, there is a degree of nursing among Fleas which is an additional relation to the Hymenopters. The body is amplificate behind. The absence of wings is to be attributed to ellipsis through opters—The wings of Lepidopters are typically very ] ; ? paratively narrow, but through degradation of type. The am- the smullest species are far larger than the smallest of Apipens and of most other tribes of Insects, The mouth is haustellate, ‘with the mandibles atrophied or nearly so.’ The species are - § Tt has been argued that since the larves of epidopters have r bles, ‘While the butterflies have these organs only in a viedieputier? eas n sere or husesud: based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 19 ¢. Lrichopters:—The Trichopters, while permaturative like the Lepidopters, are semiaquatic, and he re inferior to both Lepidopters and Homopters. wings are pilose, are tion is evidence of superiority of rank among Insects in general. (See Agassiz on the Classification of Insects from Embryological data.) But as Lepidopters are on various ae : re) ms: ta ’ Condition; it is a degradation of — type, as much as when the digestive system ; d Worms becomes atrophied with growth. Exceptions like these do not set aside the embryogenic law of grade: they only show that this law : 1 b cephalization, before it can be safely followed in determining the grade of s in embry vidual growth, ‘he ‘latter principle, once recognized, more than reciprocates. 20 Dana on the Classification of Animals - the extremity of the abdomen, or the lip, or both, and by this means unites bits of sticks, pebbles, etc., into a portable case or sheath for itself. | All entomological writers acknowledge that the Trichopters — resemble Lepidopters. They have so much the aspect of some Phaleenids, that they were called Mouches papillonacées by Reau- mur; and the larves, according to De Geer, are closely like caterpillars in internal organization. Other Lepidopteroid char- acteristics mentioned by different authors are observed in the ru- dimentary condition of the mandibles, the structure of the legs, the faculty of spinning fibres possessed by the larve, the portable larval sheath closely imitating those of the larves of many Tineids and the Psychids. One genus of Phryganeans is named Hydro- psyche in allusion to the resemblance, and Newman transferred the genus Psyche from the Lepidopters to the Trichopters. The species naturally constitute a hypotypic group to the Amplipens. The hypotypic division of a terrestrial group often consists of aquatic or semiaquatic species. Although the Trichopters are generally united to the Neuropters, they are always placed to one side in a group by themselves, on account of their wide di- vergence frem that type. The parallelism between the subdi- visions of Amplipens and those of the Amplipenniforms on page , further sustains our arrangement. : 3. Attenuates, or Neuropters—The Neuropters are mostly long: amplificate, being generally slender in body, wings and legs; they are also widely diverse in shape and size. The win membranous, but are sometimes partly colored; they are often equal; the posterior are sometimes even the larger, but some- times also much the smaller, and occasionally obsolete. In 4 few species both pairs are wanting. The mouth, unlike that of the Lepidopters and Homopters, but like that of most of their es, is not suctorial but mandibulate. Among the i Two of the subdivisions of Neuropters appear to be represent- based on the principle of Cephalization—Insects. 21 rostrate, the Wings narrow, and the legs and body slender, as in the Tipule . An coreg —The Amplipenniform Neuropters are related to the A Amplipens in having the wings amplificate; but, as follows naturally from the fact of the inferior grade of Neu- ters, these wings resemble rather the narrower forms of the Lepidoptera ieaesti sees although not without exceptions: pair is sometimes a little aba than the anterior. Thes are either Poe or semiaquatic, and either péiamtareeiee or prematurati ackard, Jr., in his memoir already mentioned remarks as follows on the Termite, ee the Panor rpids. “The — ide among a ee cog oye in the Neuroptera their well-known analogues, the Zermites or White Like the true fosrsit: these otnreayng in- sects rear eis of sand or clay, or ey colonies are concealed beneath various ob- jects, or in decayed trees and roots. There are als soa differentiation of the inividoa, iti r. Those characters hich .] Oo Ss =] ) o BS a8 i) s _— 3S mn ot = S a wag n ~] wm occupies the largest part of the head, and i n he gene eral reange mouth-parts, this family differs widely from other Neuroptera. Thor ough the pro- thorax is large, yet the middle region net the body is massed together more than usual. Like the ants, the costal ges es of the wings are well-developed, while those occupying the hinder Bet ns 0 Indeed, bated: the true amily Panorpide assume s dipterous denen Bittacus has its som leasitate 2 he Striking. In both the mouth parts are greatly elongated, and the head much pro- dueed i m that direction, leaving a very short vertex; and the antenne are much the d sh i fe and side pieces, wherein it simulates Tipula ; but the resemblance is still greater in the elongated ees a and al g slende re fully into a comparison of the notum of both insects, we shall find the large meso- um, the short neg and the longer-than-broad | nag : of the metathorax of Panorpa closely resembling those piec Tipula. There is the same — of the first pair of wings. os = h the srnight actin e778 gradually around at the a apex, as the inner r edge cur up just as apidly to meet the costa at the apex which is situated in the Siddle i of the wi so in the di of the main nervures, their relative distances a apart, ¢ and their termination, even to the of th the * of Tipu, genera are strict] logous. Both gene va agree, tations of authors, i in < Sontan thei — ay on their long sages Sil introducing mang’ wegen and patuted' abdomen into the earth, when about to deposit their eggs.” ? 22 Dana on the Classification of Animals lice belong to this group, and thus represent the plant-lice among the Homopters.—(3) The Perlideans, semiaquatic and prematura- tive species, which are Trichopteroid (or like the Phryganeans) in the form of the wings, in the larve being not only aquatic but also living in a sheath, and in the adult eating little or nothing. hus each subdivision of the Amplipens, the Lepidopterous, Remaphnvece and Trichopterous, appears to be represented in the subdivisions of the Amplipenniforms. The subdivisions of Attenuates or Neuropters deduced are the following: 1. APIPENNIFORMS. 1. Termitideans, or Hymenopteroid group. 2. Panorpideans, or Dipteroid group. 8. Aphanipteroid. Group unknown. 2. AMPLIPENNIFORMS. 1. Plannipennians, or Lepidopteroid group. ‘2, Psocideans, or Homopteroid group. 3. Perlideans, or Trichopteroid group. 3. Peratrenvates or Typrca, Nevuroprers, 1. Libellulideans. 2. Hphemerideans. As the higher Apipenniforms, the Termitideans, are prematura- tive, while the Dipteroid Panorpideans and the higher Ampli- each other And, indeed, in the short dy and broad head and long antenne, in the very unequal wings, which are folded roof.like over the omen, in their simple neuration, in the short legs and feeble tarsi, and in their mode of flight and their appearing wi remarkably like the winged plant-lice.” He also illustrates at some length the relations of some of the Planipennians to’ which he he Myrmeleonti Pe hepiopters, in the course he remarks, that among t ds “ Ascalaphus was described by Seopoli as a Papilio, and has been said by Kirby to esemble Heliconia.”. The form of the ante is strikingly Lepidopteroid in its club-like shape, and its rather broad wings a . We add that the of wings are nop , 2 genus of the Hemerobiids, closel: resembles of Bon is called D. phaleenoides, ~ - sea based on the principle of Cephalization—Insects. 23 —— whether the latter groups should not rank before the vision of Apipens), or that of the Lepidopters (the first of Amplipens), it is natural that the descent required to bring the Hymenopterous type down to a Neuropterous level should be maturativ c. Peratienuates or Typical Attenuates.—The body and wings in these species are narrow or long-amplificate, the posterior wings sometimes small or wanting. The species are semzaquate and prematurative, They include: (1) the Zibellulideans, which have the wings nearly equal, and the mandibles stout ; and (2) the Hphemerideans, which have the posterior wings smallest and sometimes obsolete, and the mouth organs in the adult atrophied. The latter show their inferiority in being short-lived and in eating nothing or but little in the adult state; the functions of the adult are almost solely those of the posterior portion of the body. II, PTERO-METASTHENICS, OR ELYTROPTERS. _ 4 Coleopters.—Coleopters, in their compact structures consist- ing of well-adjusted parts, their comparatively limited diversity of form, and their being imitated by many species of other tribes while never themselves imitators,’ exhibit the characteris- tics of a type of the highest grade in its subdivision. At the Same time they show inferiority to the Hymenopters in their * A. S. Packard brings out this fact, in his pamphlet, in connection with the cor- esponding one with regard to Hymenopters already cited. He says “There is similar parallelism of analogous forms between the Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Or- uroptera, which seem bound together by gong such Which do not in turn assume any of their forms. Some Orthoptera are very deat prowl, and some Hemiptera are very Coleopterous-like. The re anno! said,” Be Mr. Packard, adoptin it would seem from his words provisionally, the two grand Saran of Moet at piauisetatas and Haas/elatie; remaiks that e" culminate in the Coleopters and Hymenopters, respectively. As the Hemipters are haustellate, the facts respecting their relations above mentioned go against this old division of Insects and sustai opEse shagorey th Hemipters follow the Coleopters although the latter are ma late,—the distine- tion of mandibulate and haustellate, of minor im- 24 Dana on the Classification of Animals stouter or grosser aie ws and their greater diversity as to size and shape; in the jaws the highest species being perfunctionate to a less degree; wie very decidedly in their metasthenic nature as regards the wings, the anterior pair being only wing-covers or elytra. The mouth is mandibulate, and often rodent as we as feeding. In some species there is a degree of care for the oung that approaches somewhat that in the Hymenopters. They never live in communities for mutual work. The food, like “shat of Dipters, is various, being either vegetable, articulate- animal or vertebrate-animal, the last either living, freshly dea or decaying. The species are mostly perterrestrial. They are all permaturative. ipters—Among Hemipters the structures are rather laxly put together compared with those of Coleopters, the body thinner and ‘softer, the wings usually more or less overlapping ; and their strength for the same size very much less. There are some of the same differences between Hemipters and Coleopters as between Dipters and co ewes Though never very large, they appear to be amplificate species, —sometimes broad- amplificate, being _ for their breadth, and sometimes long- ~ lifcate. The elytra are coriaceous na ty in the basal half; this t thinning of the. w ing-covers comports with their being large. The ii are semicoriaceous. Both pairs of wings are sometimes obsolete. The mouth is mandibulate, and simply wing and feeding in function. The species are mostly per- terrestrial, never semiaquatie ; all are prematurative e Ort rthopters include three grand subdivisions,—the Jirst and second representatives respectively of Coleopters and Hemip- ters, and the third typica (1) The Cursors or Coleopteroid species consist of the Blatta and Forficula groups, which, though elongate, are still comparatively short in body, and much like “‘Coleopters ; the wings in the Blat- tids are rather lax, and the bodies soft for the size. (2) The Ambulators or Hemipteroid species, that is, the Man- tids and Phasmids. The species are often thin and broad, and ‘Simulate leaves, bark and sticks in color and markings; and in this respect this group and the Hemipters show an approxima- tion. There is also some approach between these groups in ~~ based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 25 uch more restricted in size, and therefore do not run off into those extravagances which give to Orthopters their most obvious eatures, : (c) The Saltators, or Typical Orthopters, (Grasshoppers, Crick- ets, &ic.,) differ from the preceding in being strongly podometa- sthenic, a mark of low inferiority. The species show that they are the typical Orthopters by their trim and well-made forms, their great leaping powers, and the absence of any close likeness to other groups. III, THYSANURES, or APTERS. i the Anure, in which it is suctorial. The Lepismians have been often said to be related to both Lepidopters and Neuropters, and some authors regard them as = species of the latter group. Erichson referred them to Orthopters, The reasons for making the Thysanures a third grand division of Insects, and for not including in the same other apterous groups, are as follow: 1. The agility of movement of these species show that they are not degraded “forms pertaining to the inferior limits of another higher type, but constitute an independent type, or, are typical in the grand division to which they belong. : 2. While the Lepismians may be regarded as related to Lepi- dopters and Neuropters, such caudal sete are found in no Lepi- ter and the scales on no Neuropter. They stand in distant relation to both. ; : A. Jour. Scr.—Szcoxp Srrizs, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864, 4 26 Dana on the Classification of Animals 8. The forms among the Lepismians are related to those of Myriapods, as has been observed by different writers, and so also are their movements. Thus they occupy a position between Insects and an inferior order of Insecteans. 4, The third or degradational group of Insects, if such there be, should contain, according to analogy, elongated larve-like forms, such as make an elementalized exhibition of the Insect-type. As the longicaudate Birds, or Erpetoids, constitute the third or degradational division of Birds (aérial Vertebrates), so the longl- caudate Thysanures may well represent the degradational divi- sion of Insects (aérial Articulates). The shorter Podurians are elliptic forms. 5. While Insects of the first grand division are prosthenic, and those of the second are metasthenic, those of the third are, on the scheme proposed, urosthenic, even those few which are not salta- torial using the caudal extremity in locomotion. It accords with the relations in many other departments of the animal king- dom that these three sthenic grades should mark off the three grand divisions. 6. With regard to the exclusion of other apterous Insects, we offer the following remarks. The apterous Pediculi, as Nitzsch long since observed, have no characteristics that would separate them from Hemipters, and the-Nirmids none that would remove them from Orthopters. They are simply inferior wingless spe- cies of those types, as much as the Coccids are of Homopters; and they have nothing of the agility of the Lepismids, ‘There are no points of structure indicating an affinity to any two or more of the higher subdivisions of Insects, or to the inferior Myriapods; they are not urosthenic, being in no way essentially different, as regards their legs, from the types to which they are referred, — Fleas are permaturative, like all Apipens, and in this and other ways show that they have no relations to the Lepismians. e reasons for regarding them as an independent type under the Apipens have been presented on page 18. The Lepismians and Podurians appear therefore to be rightly made the third grand ‘group of Insects. Like the Erpetoid birds, and degradational or intermediate types in other cases, the group may have been well-represented in species in t geologieal ages. At the present time we know of only the two above-mentioned families under this type,sand both are sup- i to have eloser relations to the Pteroprosthenics than to the terometasthenies, If any group ever existed related as closely to the Pterometasthenies, as the above mentioned are to the _ Pteroprosthenics, and if, besides, there has existed a third typical group, the species are yet to be discovered, either fossil or living- - based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 27 Parallelism between Pteroprosthenics and Pterometasthenics. roup. ‘They are the mouth mandibulate, although unlike in that the latter (or highest species) are also suctorial; alike also in being with few exceptions terrestrial, and also in being permaturative. Hemipters an ipters, or the two second subdivisions, are alike in having the mouth suctorial, and feeble species for their size as compared with those of the first subdivisions. The typical Orthopters and the Aphantpters, or the types under the two third subdivisions, consist alike of saltatorial and podo- metasthenic species. (2.) Between the three subdivisions of the Pterometasthenics and the three of the Pteroprosthenics.—The more prominent of the rela- tions between Coleopters and Apipens have just been mentioned. ose of Hemipters and Amplipens are still closer; Hemipters ing so near to Homopters in structure, and especially in the composition of the rostrate mouth, that they have been placed together in the same tribe by most entomologists. The Orthopters and Neuropters, or the third subdivisions of each, show a degree of approximation in the close resemblance in form between the Neuropterous Mantispids and the Orthop- terous Mantids, indicating a tendency to run off into the same style of amplificate structure, and also in the Cricket-like form of the Neuropterous Borei; more profoundly in the resemblance in structure of mouth and the nature of the metamorphosis between the Neuropterous Perle and the Orthopterous Phasmids, as re- marked upon by Westwood. ‘ : us the grand divisions of the Pterometasthenics constitute 4 parallel series to those of the Pteroprosthenics. he further parallelisms, under both the Pteroprosthenics and Pterometasthenics, between the third of the grand divisions of each and the first and second have been explained on pages 20 to 22, and 24. _ The affinities and analogies of species and groups appear hence to be fully exhibited in the system of classification presented, far more so than in any arrangement of osculant circles. (8.) Between the several groups as to the number of subdivisions, “and the grades of types constituting them.—The number of subdi- ‘Visions in the groups, both the higher and lower, is three, as In most of the classes and orders that came under consideration in Article I, 28 Dana on the Classification of Animals Of these three subdivisions both among the Pteroprosthenies and Pterometasthenics—the first and second grand divisions of Insects—the two higher are typical, of different grades, and the third is hypotypic. The same is true of the three subdivisions of each the Apipens and Amplipens, or the first and second grand divisions of the Pteroprosthenics. This is exhibited in the following table, in which the grades are expressed by the Same terms as in Article L : Pteroprosthenics. | Pterometasthenics. | Apipens. Amplipens. Betatypic, Apipens. Coleopters. || Hymenopters. | Lepidopters. Gammatypic,| Amplipens. | Hemipters. ipters. omopters. Hypotypic, | Attenuates. Orthopters. || Aphanipters. | Trichopters. In the third or hypotypic division of both the Pteroprosthenics — and Pterometasthenics, on the contrary, the first and second the three subdivisions appear to be hypertypic groups, while the Uurd is typical; and the hypertypic groups are more or Jess closely representatives respectively of the first and second grand divisions, as follows: or N europters. nibert 2 be AT otertent : : \ Coleopteroids, ypertypic, Apipenniforms. } oS Caketa: B-Hypertypic, : : bee ae yper pic, Amplipenniforms, ar Ambala Typical, Perattenuates. Saltators. Methods of cephalization, or decephalization, at the basis of the succes sive grades of subdivisions, | A. In the subkingdom of Articulates, as shown by the writer and long held by Agassiz, the classes oF special methods of decephalization laid down, ( : In passing from Crustaceans to Worms, the methods illustrated are the analytic, in the resolution of the bod mostly into its ‘Rormal annuli; the multiplicative, in the indefinite number ca") et bo Segments; the elliptic, in the al y ~~ based on the principle of Cephalization—lInsects, 29 B. The grand subdivisions of Insecteans are Insects, Spiders, and Myriapods. assing from Insects to Spiders, the methods of decephal- ization illustrated are the retroferent, case a, in the transfer of one pair of mouth organs to the locomotive series; and ashadeof the , analytic, in the loss of the independent definition of the head and thorax. Pterometasthentes, and Thysanures or Apters. ae _ In passing from the first to the second, the principal method illustrated is the retroferent, case b, as shown in the transfer back- ward of the flying function, and also in the locomotive function cae transferred in a considerable degree from the wings to the eet. In passing from the second to the third, the methods exempli- fied are the analytic, shown in the equal annuli and partial loss of distinction of thorax and abdomen; the retroferent, case b, in the transfer backward to the caudal extremity of a part of the locomotive function ; elliptic, in the absence of wings; prematu- rative, in there being no metamorphosis. rand subdivisions of the Pteroprosthenics are the ters, Dipters and Aphanipters. _F. The grand Micaak' of the Amplipens are Lepidopters, Homopters and Trichopters. é In passing from the /irst to the second, the methods exemplified 30 Dana on the Classification of Animals are mainly the same as in passing from the first to the second under the Apipens. In passing to the third, there are the semt dilutive, the larves being aquatic; and the defunctivnative, the mouth in the adult failing mostly of the organs and function of feeding. The same potential method, which distinguishes Hymenoplers from Dipters, or the two highest subdivisions of Apipens, also distinguishes the two highest of Amplipens, or Lepidopiers and \Homopters, and the two highest of Pterometasthenics, or Coleop- ders and Hemipters. It is not necessary to continue these illustrations further. From the above review of the relations of the successive stages roups, it is seen that the distinctions between them are throughout strictly ordinal, taking the word in its primary sense; that is, all, from the highest to the lowest, are distinc tions in rank, based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 31 their subdivisions (pp. 22, 24). The line for the Homopters is made to run lowest on account of the Aphids and Coccids, Apipens. me oan Hym. ; pe. Amplipens. bis Dip. ae : Attenuates. Col. e' Lep. eerie, #8. Ap. | Hom. Amp. Hem. Or. P. Aph. Tri. | | Thy. a |v / ene bens sod I It which seem to be inferior even to the Pediculi of the Hemipters and Nirmids of the Orthopters. : Designations of the successive grades of groups. The parallelism between the grander subdivisions of the Pterometasthenics (Coleopters, Hemipters and Orthopters) and those of the Apipens, (Hymenopters, Dipters and Aphanipters,) and Amplipens, (Lepidopters, Homopters and Trichopters,) teaches that these subdivisions are codrdinates, or of one grade. This is further indicated by other points of parallelism, namely, that the first subdivision of the Pterometasthenics and Apipens, the Hymenopters and Coleopters, have eminently the features each of a high type; and the last, the Aphanipters and typical Orthopters, are alike metapodosthenic or saltatorial species. So icckaennipattestnniia 3 also under the Amplipens, the 2nd subdivision, or that of Ho- | mopters, is closely related to the second of Pterometasthenics, or that of Hemipters (page 27). : _ Hence, if the grander subdivisions of Apipens and of Ampli- to are called tribes, those of the Pterometasthenics should also So designated. Under the subkingdom of Articulates, there are the classes of Insecteans, Crustaceans and Worms; and under Insecteans, the orders Insects, Spiders and Myriapods. = then the term tribe be used for the familiar groups, Hymen- opters, Dipters, &c., as just suggested, the question comes up as to the designations of the two intermediate grades of groups be- tween orders and tribes : The distinctions on which they are based are so obviously or- inal that they may be well called orders of subordinate grades; and I propose for the first of the two the PON ee stages nd for the second ordinules, a diminutive of orders. will then be as follows. é oo 32 Dana on the Classification of Animals Orders: Insects, Spiders, and Myriapods. Under Jnsects— | Suborders: 1 Pteroprosthenics, 2 Pterometasthenies, 8 Thy- sanures, * Ordinules (confined to the Pteroprosthenics): 1 Apipens, 2 Amplipens, 3 Attenuates or Neuropters. Apipens. Amplipens. Attenuates. Pterometasthenics. . Hy pt pidopters. Apipennif Coleopters. Tribes, je Dipters. Homopters. Amplipenniforms.| Hemipters. 3. Aphanipters. frichopters. Perattenuates, Orthopters. The subdivisions of the three tribes under the Attenuates or Neuropters, (p. 22,) and those of the tribes of Orthopters, (p. 24,) may be all designated swbtribes; there is in the two higher of each a like reference to the higher tribes of Insects. This subject will come up again for further discussion. But, for comparison, I allude here to one other department of animal life—that of Mammals. ] T enidontere no occasion for doubting that these subdivisions are codrdinates re is further reason for the many a Jogies, in t the base of their respective based on the principle of Cephalization.—Insects. 33 grand divisions, lead off apparently in geological time the Insects of the globe—the Neuropters the pteroprosthenic, and the Or- being among Carboniferous species,) and possibly also Coleopters. Nothing is yet known of ancient Thysanures, although it is probable they were in existence at the same time. e should expect also from the association of the Neuropters and Orthopters in the same Carboniferous fauna that there would be examples of intermediate types between these tribes, that is, those which, while related fundamentally to one of the two tribes, presents some characteristics of the other; for in this way the striking harmony in the flora or fauna of an age in eological history was often produced,—as, for example, in the and-vegetation of the Carboniferous era, which embraced com- mon Acrogens (Ferns) and Gymnosperms; and besides these, fh ; * The Orthopterous features among Neuropters appear to be modifications of under the types in this group which have been already mentioned, especially the Lepidopteroid, and not indications of a distinct type of Orthopteroid ; a fossil ies re and also the modern Mantispids, are true Plani- ians in their wings and in their other characteristics of special im : hey properly constitute an Orthopteroid group in this be. Am. Jour. Sct.—Srcoxp Sexims, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 5 34 Dana on Fossil Insects from the Carboniferous. ° Art. IL.—On Fossil Insects from the Carboniferous formation in Illinois; by James D. Dana. Ae The remains of Insects, represented in the following figures, were discovered by Mr. John G. Bronson in the Carbonifer- ous beds at Morris, Illinois. They occur in the flattened iron-stone concretions of the ‘beds. Other concretions of the locality contain various coal plants, and also the re- appear in the Report on the Geology of the State by Mr. Worthen. Among them, ac- cording to Mr. Lesquereux, the following are common species: Neuropteris hirsuta , NV. rarinervis Brgt., Pecopteris Miltont Bret., P. unita Bret., P. equalis Bret., nnularia longifolia Bret. The description of the Crus- taceans we reserve for an- other time. _ Figure 1 is twice the natu- ral size lineally. In general form and the neuration of the wings the Insect is close- ly like the Semblids among the Neuropters, and especially, the Chauliodes i la yy Wy i MM no reason tan MMAR lic J ote ) € species P Pp |S ete 2 that therefore it must have been a Newropter, and not an Orthop- — ter, Yet in the broad costate femurs of the second pair of legs, — and the form of the prothorax, it approaches the Orthdpters of — > Phyllium family, and is very unlike any known Neuroptet the anterior legs are peculiar in having a large and broad femt ig: ak er spines as long as the joint, t 4 s : oe: rie ae GAC i ere SS oo eg es Sa eae ay Se eh ie hal os ac ea Dana on Fossil Insects from the Carboniferous, 35 Wings, is 1 inch 10 lines; and the breadth, from the medial line of the abdomen to the left margin of the left wing, 5 lines. By request of the discoverer, I name the new genus here indi- cated, Miamia, after the Miami University, his ‘alma mater.” In view of the important results of his explorations, the species may be designated the Mfiamia Bronsont. Figure 2 represents, natural size, a mutilated anterior wing of another Neuropter. neuration approximates to that in the genus Hemero- bius, The dotted lineshows RI - the probab : Sa a es ay able length and ~S_-4 TY outh . Se. \ Se er ne of the wing—these SST Organs in the Planipenni- =, I (a ) zai? which, by the second @) expressing the conservation of the areas, mes the simple st Op ve (8) giving, ifc=C for t=0, and « the base of the natural logarithms, e==Ca (9) By the third law = Kepler, i. e. the third of (2) or a= con- stant times c? we hav ahd a=Ae_ gts (10) if A be the value of a for t=0. Thus the distance from the sun does not decrease ment but with a velocity proportional to the decreasing value of a tO _ovae™ Vt ane Soe, el If ee the present age, distance a, and « the correspondin: te an aces differing from the former by # pe re time, then (10) gives ; i. grid BO esol ql 0”) giving the distanes ak x a function of its present Meso s and the interval of time from the present. As the unk 9 enters into », we may instead of (10,) use the log eloga——, (12) A, Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 41 where the unit of a is arbitrary and that of ¢ and 4 may be as- sumed if the unit of is determined in conformity therewith. We then may take for our earth a=100, e=10, A=1; then the unit of # will be known as soon as the amount of resistance oF the density of the ether is given, Neither being exactly known e must be satisfied with an estimate; and thus (12) easi ly bore that if our eurth approaches the sun annually by ten feet, unit of age t is ten thousand millions of years. It will be seen that, ve ie as the st egonare of our earth is known, the unit of # will be determ By means of (10’) or its reaesabink (12) a. ain now enabled to calculate the effect of resistance on the ania of fe cay at any age #, both in future (+4) and the past (— e now to a comparison of the results of this eas with ob- servation, using the following data’ a 9 ray gh Mercury, 38 3-9 1:23 2 Venus 72 9°98 1:07 1 : 100 10:00 1:00 1 152 514 9 Aste 10°0 (assumed.) Jupiter 520 1144 24 rn, 954 94°8 14 08 Uranus, 1918 45°8 18 being 1 year; si iv 119; meant Tee eae by Babinet, 42 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets, These numbers are represented in the annexed diagram, which thus shows the variations in the distance of the lanets mony of the heavens” without taking the element of resistan of these modifications in their position. : The dislocation of strata of rocks is no fact ; we simply see similar parts in irregular position, and conclude by induction that they once formed a continuous stratum; but would it not be equally just to conclude that the heavenly strata, i. e., the planetary orbs, are dislocated, if we can show that, Ist, they approach to @ definite law, as the terrestrial strata in being parallel ; : 2nd, The assumption of the Jorce of resistance fully explains the deviations from that law, as the assumption of internal action ex- plains the dislocation of geological strata? e think the analogy is about as close as can be, and there- fore will venture the attempt, It is a well known fact that the so-called law of Titius or Bode, is pretty correct for all planets from Venus to Uranus; only Mercury and Venus deviate considerably from the duplication of the successive mutual distances. This law—only in the case 0 ercury deviating from the above named—may therefore well be compared to the original level of terrestrial strata, if the laws of resistance as developed in the preceding suffice to explain the actual deviations from it, It is even a priori highly probable that some simple law pre- vailed at the time of the 8} the heavenly spaces. listances, and gave as his final opinion that “ the old planets are altered a little in - caper a (Humboldt, Cosmos, iii, 440 ; Harper's edition, iv, 110.) This seems to another instance of Kepler's divination of scientific results. A, Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets, 43 - Taking now 2 according to this law as the original distance, we find the age # by (12), viz: Distance.” Age. Distance. Mercury, 60 10 |Jupiter, 680 3°0 s, 80 *6 |Saturn, 1320 2:0 Earth, 120 *8 (Uranus, 2600 1:0 Mars, 200 6 |Neptune, 5160 3-0 Asteroid, 360 ? Mean age, 2°25 Mean age, “712 Although there is considerable variation in each separate group, the mean gives a decidedly higher age to the exterior planets than to the interior ones, about in the ratio of one to three. But if this law is correct, it demands that the relative age of the planets increases with their relative distances from the sun (supposing no interchange of place yet to have occurred). Consequently our determination of the age of the single planets appears to be very uncertain, since Jupiter figures with the same age as Nep- tune! But it is easy to show that this is simply a consequence of our taking » constant, whilst it not only is greatly varying, but even varying in different degrees for different planets. For, considering 4 as constant,” and for a certain former period g=ng, e, being the present value of 9), the constancy of the mass gives e7A=93,A, or A,=n3A, i.e. 64 “et 89A~ 89,4, n?—=v,n?, (13) ulated. We must therefore apply a subtractive correction to our calcu- the mass of the planet. By doing so i Saeiee we found the equations of condition pretty well satis- fi by taking this correction proportional to the mass. For th Superior planets we may have (the constant being assumed 01) * These distances seem to afford a good average; the law is rigorously applied, — for 80 ~60=20, 12 0—80=40=2-20, 200--120=80==2°40, ete. The series is, m, m+n, m+2n, m+4n, m-+8n, ete. aa Aes probable that 6 is not ee as on el es _—: the reid or trying it wi velocity of light r {ime whereby we ar cared though different bathe of the heavenly space (ab- 44 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. Mass, Age. Correction. Corrected Age. Jupiter, 25 3 2°5 "5 | Saturn, 7 2 i 13 Uranus, . 1 1 *] 9 Neptune, 2 3 3 2°8 This is already a much more regular series; the mean of the corrected ages for Jupiter and Saturn is ‘9, for Uranus and Nep- tune 1°8, or, whilst the uncorrected age of the former was greater than that of the latter, by this (very imperfect) correction for mass it is as one of Jupiter-Saturn to two of Uranus-Neptune. The conclusion seems therefore well-founded, that a more thor- ough investigation of the variation of » in time, tf possible at all, would give the age of the different planets as regularly increasing un. of our solar system, we shall find the following four laws: First Law. The nearest seconda approaches its primary with advancing age.—Expressing these distances in radii of the central ody, we have: Mercury, 80 rad. of the Sun. Moon SS ot =a ? . Jupiter, Ist Moon, 6 “ « «& Jupiter. Saturn, Ist Moon, 4°“ & & Qaturn. thus showing a decrease with age. Uranus, having its moons proper measure of the closeness. We ha : Nept.-Ur. =1:115 Ur.-Saturn, . 4 Ur.-Sat. =2'247 Sat.-Jupiter. | Sat.-Jup. =1'718 Jup.-Asteroid. Jup.-Ast. ==2°195 Ast.-Mars. Ast.-Mars ==2°195 Mars-Earth “a 4h “ Am, Jour. Sci Vou. XXXVII—p. 36. A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 45 which numbers regularly decrease with the increasing age, con- h of the actual forms of the lunar systems of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus shows that these latter are very irregular, whilst the bam world of Jupiter, the youngest of this group, is as yet very regular, Yet the distances of its moons is not quite regular; for they are, expressed in radii of the planet respectively 6:0 9°623 15°350 26-998. As Jupiter is proved to be older than the interior planets, and as these exhibit sions of age in their mutual distances, the face of old Jove can neither be without wrinkles. Indeed, perceiy- ing that the same law of duplication is applicable to the above distances, and selecting as the primitive values 7 7+3=> 0+6=16 16+12=—28, we get by the known dimensions of these moons the following relative ages: 8 13 7 which, as the third has as much mass as the other three taken together, by the reduction for masses, would become more regu- twice as great as the mean age of the first two. Therefore we Must likewise conclude that the age of Jupiter's satellites in- creases with their distance from the primary. f the masses and dimensions of the members of the more dis- tant worlds were known, we should certainly find this law of the age increasing with the distance from the central body to be Universal Sven by the diagram expressing the results of formula (12). _ We have already seen that the Jovial World indeed a pears Very regular, and that the smaller regularity of the more distant Worlds confirms our result as to their higher age. t what age will the configuration of the solar system corres- Pond to the present configuration of the world of Saturn? The lagram gives the fourth age as answer. For at that time we have the following similarity between the two systems: a For if in (12) ¢, @, A and x are multiplied by a constant n, 9 becomes n9, 46 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. The Rings of Saturn are represented by the hosts of asteroids, which already in the first age intersect the orbit of our earth, but in the fourth age will closely encroach the sun, and (perhaps | together with those meteorites which are not intercepted by any — of the planets) may form continuous rings around the tort either on account of their number, or because they probably will — become melted; they will form not one ring, but rings, because — they will approach the sun according to the amount of their actor », just as detritus is deposited in horizontal layers of variable fineness. . The jour inner moons of Saturn, being very close to each other — and to the primary, will be represented by the four dnterior planets, for these also are at the fourth age very close together and very near the sun, being altogether within the present dis- tance of Mercury. The distances are, then, for the planets [see results of (12) ]: ae Mercury 6, Mars 24, Venus 29, Earth 40; 7 for the Moons of Saturn, now, io Mimas 3°36, Enceladus 431, Tethys 5:34, Dione 684 or whilst the planetary distances will be as a ‘ A Eee VEY the corresponding lunar distances are now as 26724. or only differing in the first number. a The four outer moons of Saturn, now, correspond in configuration — to the four exterior planets at age four ; for the first three of each — are about equidistant, the fourth far above the rest. ‘he dis tances of the planets then are ; Jupiter 360, Saturn 454, Uranus 596, Neptune 1504, and of the moons are now | oe Rhea 955, Titan 22-14, Hyperion 28-00, Japetus 6485, or the relative distances are, a for the Planets as 7:9:12: 30, for the Moonsas 4:9:12: 26, ? pee pected. Comparing the better known superior bodies more i oleae! we must from the smaller distance (4 instead of 7) AES ete Nees ee Ne Ae Ee eRe Ie: » Sie ees be comparatively of small mass, so as to leave Japetus far be uh Po: ee Saree A, Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 47 For in the first place Titan was the first moon which was seen (Huyghens, 1655), so we may conclude its mass to be great enough to afford a safe comparison with Saturn in the scale of Planetary Masses. Rhea, first discovered by Cassini (1672), therefore appears to be less considerable, confirming our conclu- sio d on its comparatively too great dislocation; and finally Hyperion required for its discovery the best telescopes of modern times (Bond and Lassell, 1848), thus proving itself to be but a small moon. Thus the configuration of the lunar world of Saturn corres- n Plants and animals. So likewise in geology all is confusion if We consider the strata in situ, as they are observed to be now ; but this chaos gives way for harmony and symmetry if we admit We rely on inductive reasoning in the explanation of the facts observed in the one case—why, then, not as well in the similar case afforded by the more grand dislocation of the strata of the Universe ? Of course, we would not refer this to practical astronomy, for the ephemeris is exact enough without taking this resistance into account; but in theoretical astronomy, when discussing the slability of the solar system, I think it has been shown. that this force ought not to be omitted. | _ * The r lar develo ; ‘olk of egg: ion is especially itt tis comneion n 7 melon 48 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. Il. The Laws of Density and Rotation.” the entire planetary | to the mode of this development. be Helmholtz,” and others. Yet the minimum in density exhibited by Saturn, and above all the singular motion of the satellites of : Uranus, appearing to be entirely at variance with the very fum — damental principle of the theory, seem to have bronght these — views into disrepute; Brewster even pronounces them to Dé — “the dull and ‘dangerous heresy of the age.” ‘The theory of 3 Laplace seems to have been abandoned without trying to recon — cile it with Uranus—which planet was yet unknown at the time ~ Plateau’s” researches on the equilibrium of fluids did but revive — this theory for a moment.”* ou It will easily be seen that our estimate of the planetary ages — as based upon the resistance of ether and seen in the cont . tion of the several systems, fully agrees with the hypothesis & * This part of the present paper was in part communicated at the meeting of Scandinavian Naturalists at Copenhagen, 1860; see Forhandlinger, 1860, p. ih noes scarcely to be remarked that we only opposed the absolute stability — as ge: ead Laplace. i . rie des Himmels, 1755. “ » Exposition du systéme du monde, 2d éd., Paris 1799, Liv. v, Chap. vi- Astronomie Populaire, ii, 7, Paris and Leipzic, 1855, at a Naturlerens mechaniske Deel; a text book of Natural Philosophy, used the U niversity and Polytechnic School of Copenhagen. ee J i 9. 22 ie ; ee ee ed eee tak ba eT Ree er | art eae a Memoirs of the Life and Discoveries of Sir Tsanc Newton, London, 1855, ii,181- 3 Mém. de PA xelles, vol. xvi, 1843, § 19-27. a : is que suivent les forces attractives pore pe et a 8Ses Planetaires, nous avons vu se produire, en peti Oe maga mene de la pluspart des phénoménes de eaigunioe relatifs Corps célestes, (§ 27). uy Gs * It affords me great pleasure to find an able advocate of this theory in | K ; see this Journal, 1860, [2], xxx, 160-181. A, Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets, 49 Kant and sonlow: according to which the more distant members were first developed. Hence it seems to be worth the while at- tentively to fot out the consequences of this hypothesis in: an analytical form, as only thereby it will appear, whether the planet Uranus disagrees with the theory itself, or simply with the de- ductions of its advocates. The Density 4 of the planets must depend, according to this theory of evolution and condensation, both upon the distance r in the original globe and upon the condensation in time, i. e. age #; as the “density was decreasing from the center of the nebulous globe, and is increasing in time, we have obviously dA dA dA= Gio §,, whereby the first parenthesis of (23) always will be positive; hence we have W=0,.: for. ctemg (24) if c= gi+5, é. 2-+-3(5 52) Now, 4 is most probably constant, as stated above ; and §,, & being ratios, will ikewise be at least nearly constant; hence ¢ represents about the same quantity for all planets. Consequently (24) reads in words: fy The rotary motion in orbit will be direct, zero, or retrograde if the Primitive density A at the orbit was greater, equal to, or less than a certain quantity, c, depending on the position of the orbit in the i (§, and &,) and the variation 0 of the density. If d=o, then c=o, and consequently all planets would have a direct rotation, as hitherto assumed. But must according to all physical knowledge be some positive quantity, however small, as the density a in every globe of some extension Increases toward the center; i.e, if A is at all greater than c it will be so hear the center, and if at all less than c it cannot but be further can the center. Hence we may also read (24) in the following ner: '§2 A! Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. The planets near the sun, A>c, have a DIRECT rotation, which disappears at a certain distance from the sun (A=c) and is followed — by @ RETROGRADE motion of all the more distant planets (having a<¢). ; : The great discovery of Herschel, far from being opposed to the : nebular hypothesis of Kant and Laplace, on the contrary affords. a most interesting and decisive confirmation of it, and makes ib even similar to a most remarkable proposition in the theory of gravitation. For in the latter the orbit will be an ellipse, 4 rabola or a hyperbola, according as the centrifugal force was ess, equal to, or greater than a definite quantity ; so here we Se the direction of rotation determined in the very same manner, he motion of the moons of Uranus is consequently for the ; nebular hypothesis exactly what the nearly parabolic orbits of, comets are for the hypothesis of gravitation. If the density 4 ad been excessively small, all the planets might have beet retrograde in their rotation, although they would have had @ direct revolution. a The velocity of rotation depends upon W and the mass of a planet; we cannot here determine it. But we can show how the position of the axis of rotation will vary. For if—as is highly probable—the ring was not quite symmetric with regard to the lane of the orbit, then there will be a difference of vis viva W, tween these two sides, tending to produce rotation around af axis in the plane of the orbit. Hence the position of the axis of rotation of a planet will be determined by tani) (25) t being the angle between the equator and orbit of the planet, As the direction of the axis W, only determines the position of the nodes of the equator, we must here consider W , a8 positives as been found to change sign at a certain distance in becom: ing negative; so that we see: all planets inferior to Uranus have tdcute, superior to Uranus i must be obtuse. The determination of the exact position of the axis of Neptune” will therefore be of great importance as a test of this remarkable Jaw. __ rigin of the tangential force—As now the contradictions bof tween observations and the theory of Kant and Laplace prove Lt be but apparent,-founded in the neglect of the theory by mathe maticians; we may inquire into the cause of the primitive | motion of the nebulous sphere. ma _ Attractive particles (m) alone cannot give rise to a couple ¢ forces; neither can repulsive particles (u) do it—but by t® ' ™* Humboldt gives i=84° 7’ for Neptune, but does not state whether the mete is direct or not, It must be retrograde or i=145° 53’‘—Cosmos, iv, 181. (Ha A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 53 mutual action of both kinds of particles there will arise a couple N in any plane a, y, equal to N=3™ (ex ¥8) [/(0) 90h (26) if x, y and §, 7 are the codrdinates of m and 4, r their mutual distance and f and ¢ their laws of mutual action. Now this sum 2 of the couples for all particles in the universe can only be zero either by ay—yS=o0, i.e. = (27) or K(r)—9¢(r)=0, ie. f(r)=9(r). (28) But (27) can only be satisfied if m and ware in the same radius vector from the origin of the codrdinates; hence (27) cannot be satisfied in general. Hence if we have fo\Zalr), (29) then N cannot be zero; if N,, N,, are the resulting couples for the other codrdinate planes, there results a force of gyration in the matter filling space Ga (N?-LN)2-LN,2) > 0, (30) which is always positive. Hence, : If the law of repulsive particles, », differs from the law of attractive particles, f, then a rotation wi nee : The laws of magnetic and electric attraction and repulsion Seem to be at variance with such an inequality, and even Principle that action and reaction are equal; but we may well remark that the slightest difference for any atomic distance would be sufficient, and that the grouping of several repelling atoms “ around one attracting atom m may well be _— i With a difference between action and reaction as taken in usual signification. : sent If this non-identity of the two forces of material nature is ad- Mitted, we see a rotation of the nebulous matter to be a direct consequence of this inequality ; by attraction the matter acquires a globular form, the effected rotation produces a flattening of the globe,—and from this moment the axis of rotation will re- main stationary. By continued attraction the size diminishes, ter, a Ting is formed, produci lanet with its satellites, the whole sats med, producing a p : ys . 54 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets, Ww and the high age of Saturn, have already descended to the proximity of this body—as the asteroids will do in the course of about one age. Finally, it may yet be remarked, that we believe we are able to account for the multiform phenomena of terrestrial magnetism by the friction of ether on the earth ;” if this theory should be admitted as a true physical one, the magnetic needle would be directed by the force lost in resistance, or, 10 speak in conformity with the doctrine of the correlation of physical forces, the vis viva lost in resistance is converted into magnetism, The mag- netic needle thus would afford a direct proof of the existence of this resistance, as the pendulum of Foucault attests the rotation of the earth. We believe that our efforts have approached more or less to the establishment of the following conclusions : : Ist. The negative evidence of the non-existence of a resisting medium, as afforded by the motions of the planets during the few centuries of accurate observations, is of no weight whatever in regar urations of time like those contemplated in the theory of the stability of the solar system ; hence it follows, t00, that it is unreasonable to expect here that accuracy of numeri determinations which so highly distinguishes the predetermina tion of astronomical phenomena for shorter periods, but that the immensity of time here under consideration admits of no high _ ™ Of course; for organized beings are more or less cephalized, till in Jan we ’ ih {- * The only—yet very imperfect—exposé of this theory hitherto published, 1 Pe etnngactions ai Folge der Bewegung der Erde.in Aether. Copenhageds A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. 55 accuracy than the immensity of space in the estimation of the distances of fixed stars and nebule. 2d. The present configuration of the planetary system is with- out that harmony and order everywhere else observed when matter is aggregating (e. g. in crystals, etc.); we must therefore suppose, that the original harmonious configuration has been altered by the action of some general cause, displacing the celes- tial strata (orbs) according to the individual mass, size and posi- tion of each body; the same we know to have occurred in the case of the earth’s figure, being at first ellipsoidal, but now to some extent irregular—or the terrestrial strata of rocks, which were at first continuous, but are now greatly dislocated. 3d. This cause has been and is the resistance of the ether filling the heavenly space in which the celestial globes are moving; for e mathematical investigation of the effects of such a resistance agrees perfectly with the phenomena observed, especially in the following particulars : 4th. The configuration of the solar system is exactly as such a resistance would modify it; for, admitting a regular law for the primitive distances, we obtain a determination of the relative age of the planets which increases with the distance from the sun and is the more regular, the closer we follow the conditions of the problem (as in taking the mass into account) ; 5th, Even the different satellites of Jupiter follow this same W; an 6th, Whilst the Zunar world of Jupiter appears to be of about the same irregularity as the planetary world, 7th, The lunar world of Saturn shows decidedly older (i. e. less regular) features, thus confirming the previously obtained result as to its age; it is even made evident that ; 8th. This lunar world of Saturn in its present configuration Temarkably resembles the configuration of the whole planetary world at the end of the fourth age (i. e. according to our estimate, after 40,000,000,000 years); again, mee _ 9th, The lunar world of Uranus corresponds in its configura- tion to a yet higher age, thus again corroborating the determin- ation of its age. bats 10th. The closeness of the orbits, and even the distance of the first secondary from its primary are according to the same law of resistance. llth. This age, as determined by resistance and confirmed by the observed configuration, exactly corresponds to that ascribed to the several bodies in the theory of Kant and Laplace; 12th. The variation of the density of the planets 1s in complete harmony with this theory and the laws of resistance—the mini- © We tri ixty di ing in the successive enlargement of the aban tale A papper Ma ap variation of the age. 56 A. Hinrichs on the Density, Rotation, and Age of the Planets. mum density observed in Saturn being a highly important confir- mation of both theories ; 13th. The daw of rotation affords a most interesting and valu- able proof for the theory of Kant and Laplace, instead of being at variance therewith ; for the theory, if analytically expounded, demands just the very transition in direction and just the same = of axis, as observed in the rotary motions of the planets, ranus forming the transition. 14th. If the laws of attraction are not fully identical with those of repulsion, the created matter would already virtually con- tain the tangential force upon which the duration of the whole world principally depends.’ This is simply an instance of — “throwing the first cause further back,” since the translatory movement no longer needs to be considered as a direct action of the Creator, but as a design, embodied and effected through some previous direct act. selves, the Creator needs no tools, no constant effort for pro- ducing His ends; His almighty “fiat” created the universe, and sun; but since we have abundant reason to believe the whole solar world with all its wonders to be in the great All only @ och in the deep—how great is the Father of this All, if the eath o i f such a Ie sag World is to Him what the last breath of a coral is to us oe oe : z : i ; ‘ é W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 57 Art. V.—Researches on the Platinum metals ; by Wo.Lcotr s, M.D. (Continued from vol. xxxiv, p. 342, Nov, 1862.) THE mass of mixed double chlorids, after the volatilization of the osmium and the separation of the iron and other impurities by washing with a concentrated and cold solution of chlori yg water and afterward with boiling dilute chlorhydric acid. The filtrate and washings are to be evaporated together on a water- bath to dryness, They contain the whole of the ruthenium and platinum present in the original solution. The mass upon the filter, which has a pale buff color, consists of the two insoluble double salts, : 6NH, .Co,Cl,+Ir,Cl,, and 6NH, .Co,Cl,+-Rh,Cl,, and is perfectly free from ruthenium and platinum, _ This process is based upon the fact that the iridium and rho- dium double salts above mentioned are almost absolutely insol- uble in boiling water and in boiling dilute chlorhydric acid, while the ruthenium and platinum salts, which have respectively the formulas 6NH, .Co,Cl,4+3RuCl,, and 6NH, .Co,Cl,+3PtCl,, are easily soluble. | wit tladium also forms with chlorid of luteocobalt a double - Salt which is easily soluble in dilute chlorhydric acid, and which Ax, Jour. 8c1.—Secoxp Serizs, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109,—Jan., 1864. 8 58 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals. crystallizes from the solution, on cooling, in beautiful orange-yel- ow granular crystals. The formula of this salt is 6NH,.Co, Cl,+38PdCl. Any traces of palladium which may have been present in the original mass of double chlorids will therefore be found with the ruthenium and platinum salts. When the mixed chlorids have been thoroughly washed, palladium is never pres The sesquichlorid of ruthenium gives no precipitate with solutions of chlorid of luteocobalt, and appears not to form a double salt with the chlorid of this radical, possibly in conse- quence of the ¢riacid character of luteocobalt and the bibasic — character of the sesquichlorid of ruthenium, the potassium — double salt being Ru,Cl,+2KCl. All the sesquichlorid of — ruthenium present in the mass of mixed chlorids in combination with chlorid of potassium will therefore be found in the filtrate from the insoluble iridium and rhodium double salts. rated to dryness and the chlorid of cobalt dissolved out by boiling — with absolute alcohol. The iridium and rhodium are then to be — nearly to dryness, boiled with a strong solution of caustic potasb, and then treated with an excess of chlorhydric acid, which gives — the double chlorids RuCl, KCl, PtCl, KCl and Ru,Cl, 2KCl, — together with an excess of chlorid of potassium and a little — chlorid of cobalt. This last may easily be removed by alcohol — after evaporating the mixed chlorids to dryness. Platinum and | ruthenium may then be separated by boiling with nitrite of :. potash, evaporating to dryness, boiling with dilute chlorhydri¢ , acid so as to convert the whole of the ruthenium into RuCl, — KCl, neutralizing with carbonate of potash, again boiling with — nitrite of potash, evaporating to dryness and dissolving out the — € nitrite of ruthenium and potash by absolute alcohol. — j Be Sian W, Gibbs on the Platinum metals. 59 The nitrite of ruthenium and potash may then be treated in the manner already described and the ruthenium brought into the form of the double salt of mercury and ruthendiamin, from which the pure metal is easily obtained. This method of sepa- rating the platinum metals gives excellent results, but is not free from objection. In the first place it will be remarked that it does not dispense with the employment of the alkaline nitrites, although to some extent it facilitates their use. But the chief objection is found in the necessity of employing very large quan- tities of chlorid of luteocobalt, a salt which is not to be had in commerce and which must therefore be specially prepared for the occasion, hydric acid. The precipitate on the filter consists chiefly of the H,.Co,Cl,+Rh,C of the corresponding iridium salt. by aleohol, and the iridium and rhodium separated by nitrite of soda and sulphid of ammonium in the manner already pointed out. ; The filtrate from the insoluble rhodium and iridium salts con- tains the ruthenium as RuCl, KCl and Ru,Ci, 2KCI, together Usually with a small quantity of the double salt 6NH, .Co,Cl, +8RuCl, and of PtCl, KCl. The platinum and ruthenium are then to be separated with nitrite of potash and alcohol by the Process already described. This method of employing the 60 W. Gibbs on the Platinum metals, chlorid of luteocobalt is extremely convenient when it is desired to obtain pure ruthenium or rhodium at once from the osmium- iridium. ployed to reduce the IrCl, to Ir,Cl, may exercise a reducing action on the Ru,Cl,, it will be found advantageous after wash ing out the RuCl, KCl and Ru,Cl, 2KCl, to convert the Ru, Cl, 2KCl entirely into RuCl, KCl. This may easily be accom: | plished by adding a solution of caustic potash in excess and then — of hyper-ruthenic acid is observed. By adding nitric acid im excess so as to dissolve the black precipitate at first produced and then evaporating to dryness with an excess of chlorhydri¢ acid, the whole of the ruthenium will be brought into the form of RuCl, KCl. , When a solution of chlorid of luteocobalt is added to one con- taining bichlorid of fvidiutl® is thrown down, consisting of a salt which has the formula rC platinate of potassium, after repeated crystallization, obstinately retains a reddish or deep orange tint arising from traces of the Balt, as well as the separation of rhodium from platinum, ruthe ‘ium and palladium. TI shall return to this ma i “of the metals of this group separately and will then point out — H. J. Clark.—Tubularia Not Parthenogenous, 61 another method of using the chlorid of luteocobalt, which is also deserving of attention. The separation of the metals contained in the mass of sulphids precipitated in the separation of iridium from rhodium, ruthe- nium and platinum, by the method already pointed out, may be very conveniently effected in the following manner. The mixed sulphids are to be dried, separated from the filter and intimately mixed in a mortar with an equal weight of a mixture of equal parts of carbonate and nitrate of baryta. The filter is to be burned and the ash mixed with the sulphids and baryta salts. The mixture is then to be ignited in a porcelain or earthen cruci- ble for an hour at a full red heat, and the mass, which does not fuse, treated with strong chlorhydric acid, which dissolves the oxyds of rhodium, ruthenium and platinum completely, leaving only sulphate of baryta. The baryta is then to be precipitated by sulphuric acid, an excess of which must be carefully avoided, and then a solution of chlorid of luteocobalt added as long as a pre- cipitate is formed. The double chlorid of rhodium and luteocobalt may then be filtered off and thoroughly washed with boiling water acidulated with chlorhydric acid. By igniting this salt and dis- solving the chlorid of cobalt out from the mass, pure metallic rhodium remains. The platinum and ruthenium in the filtrate may then be separated by means of nitrite of potash and alcohol im the manner already described. This method of treating the sulphids requires only a small quantity of chlorid of luteocobalt, is extremely easy of applica- tion and is much shorter than the first method which I haye described. Taken in connection with the process for separating iridium by means of nitrite of soda and sulphid of sodium, it furnishes ‘an easy and complete solution of the problem of the qualitative or quantitative separation of the metals of this group, osmium only being determined by the loss. Cambridge, Nov. 10th, 1863. (To be continued.) Art. VI.—Tubularia Not Parthenogenous; by Prof. Henry JAMES CLARK, of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. tt is with no small degree of pleasure that I announce the discovery of the eggs of the Tubularians. During the middle of ctober I had in my aquarium the three most_common species, this group, on our shores, viz: Tubularia indivisa Lin. (T. Couthouyi Ag.) Thamnoenidia coronata Ag. (Tubularia coronata Abild., Thamnoenidia spectabilis Ag.) —— calamaris? (P. crocea Ag., Tubularia calamaris Van Ben.?). In each of these T have traced the development of the egg, from its inception to 62 H. J, Clark.—Tubularia Not Parthenogenous. objective, yet it was not until 1 applied a } inch objective, of the same optician, that I gained a clear and unmistakable view comprehensible, I must prelude the description by an account of some other discoveries which I have made in regard to the mus- of contraction in these animals; and some indeed have given themselves up to the idea of a contraction of the individual cells _ of the walls, imagining themselves to be warranted in this belief by the Supposed example of the so-called unicellular Infusoria. noted thus in my journal, “March 14, 1862. Between’ the and tentacles, there is a layer of longitudinal fibrillated muscu- lar bands.— e cells of the core of the tentacles are arrang ° is a layer of circular and a layer of longitudinal — 9? * . ae ath bilis’ Ag.). The muscular system, of Tiaropsis, Bou sinyums 1 Sars: y ’ psis, Seek STS, BOP eee kg Sige H. J. Clark.—T'ubularia Not Parthenogenous. 63 Jibrille’ lying between and behind the innermost and middle walls of the disc.” Thus I had verified the existence of a mus- ovis for this divergence from the base upon which I began, ecause I hope thereby to disclose the more general prevalence of this myological feature in the mor hology of Acalephe. During my studies upon the development of the eggs of the W Later, Huxley described the system in Siphonophore, as being in the outer wall, We owe to Allman the credit of having first pointed out, in the hydraform, the nature and true position of the muscular system. He says, ( and Physiol. of Cordylophora, Phil. Trans, 18538, p. 372), “It consists of numerous longitu res, which are j The most elaborate attempt upon this subject is that of Agassiz. _ His of the muscular system of Hippocrene, Sarsia and Tiaropsis, in his monograph, on the Acalephx of North America, Mem. Am. ilar fibres may be witnessed in Coryne, Syncoryne, and other marine — yet &e. ec cau of the walls, produced by contraction, as muscular fibres ; and everywhere the cell of either the innermost or middle wall are described as “ contractile cells” of the muscular layer. The truth is, the muscular layer is composed of fibrille, Pebowe i e 64 HI. J. Clark.—Tubularia Not Parthenogenous. excessively thin, longitudinally fibrillated muscular layer be- ween the outer and inner walls of the stem, disc, tentacles, and branching stems of the genitalia; and whenever the latter pul- lulate to form a genital sac, a medusoid, all the cellular and mus- cular elements enter into the operation, and thus there arises at first a highly contractile, triple walled hernia, the outer wall of which consists of a single stratum of broad cells, each containing ~ a large nucleus; the middle wall, or stratum, forms the muscular layer; and the innermost wall is made up of a single layer of latter also becomes globular. Surrounding this space we have on one side the outer wall at the end of the bud and on the other side, the inner wall, lined by the muscular layer, crane stratum which is the ovigerous layer. Only one step more is now required to perfect the morpholo- — : gical plan of development of this organ, and that is brought ® EL, J. Clark.—Tubularia Not Parthenogenous. 65 about by a simple hollowing out of the ovigerous stratum, so that, instead of remaining a solid mass, it becomes as it weré a lining to the muscular layer, which embraces it. Thus in an end view of the bud we would have a hollow sphere made up of five con- centric layers, succeeding each other as enumerated above. This is essentially the typical form of the meduso-genitalium of the ubularians; for whatever changes occur in the later days of growth, no new morphological features are instituted ? On the walls of the most highly developed medusoid—The immense gelatini- form mass which constitutes such a large proportion of the bell of these free forms u layer, chondrophys ; 8d, the outer muscular stratum, ectomyoplax, which presses ophragma, in eon the mesophragma of | bell Now in the fally-formed ¢ meduso-genital of the above mentioned Tubularians, T. ig &c., only the chondrophys is wanting. ms ect and endoderm 4 gladly adopt for, yet would restrict to, the outer and inner walls of the ccenosare 0 hydratorm ; b it would seem to be a misapplication of terms to call the middle wall,” of the meduso-genital or gonophore, a derm, I apply to it the name and ete 66 G. J. Brush on Tephroite. ‘ former and the latter; there is but one type of development in the medusoids of all the Hydroids. This is what my observations — within the past two years have led me to believe. The further development of the young of the Tubularians proceeds in an unequal degree for the different individuals, some of them grow — much more rapidly than others, and finally, becoming separated — from their matrix, move freely in the cavity of the genital orgal, — until their tentacles are developed so as to present the same one sided cylindrico-claviform outlines as the parent, and then the ie escape into the open sea. Thus they succeed each other unti the ovigerous layer is totally bereft of all its progeny, and noth: S eo ing but a faintly granular blastema is left to represent the outer wall of the proboscis, and its continuation the innermost wall of the bell. I would add finally, that in the males of these Tubu- : | Jarians, not even excepting Parypha, the meduso-genitals af — chap in form, structure, and development with those of the — emale: s ——e Art. VIl.—Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College—No. VI.—On Tephroite, by Gro. J. BRUSH. ‘ ent of the original specimen in the collee tion of the Royal Mining Academy in Freiberg, and with thi neh ied ote oe STN I have been enabled to identify the species at Stirling, where it : occurs in considerable abundance. It has a distinct cleavage ae . . ? . varieties of willemite, which section; this permits its being readily distinguished from the l _ > Annals Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. iii, (1828) p. 26 : thaupt, Charakteristik des Mineral cat Bas ee 9. -* Stirling Hill is in the town of Spart System's, 3d ed., pp. 211, 32 it so much resembles in color and G. J. Brush on Tephroite. 67 lustre. The specimen received from Professor Breithaupt had the following physical and chemical characters—Color, dark-ash tosmoky-gray. Lustre, vitreous to greasy. Hardness, 6. Spe- cific gravity, 410 (Breit.). It was associated with franklinite and zincite; small specks of the latter species were so intimately mixed with the tephroite that great care was required to obtain the mineral pure for analysis, The zincite seemed to be dis- Cloizeaux has shown, from the examination of crystals in his toa cleavage plane, which seems to me to be perpendicular to th 9° 30’ 2H==84° 19’ Red rays, hence 2E=159° 17 82° 59’ Blue rays, hence 2 E=156/ 58’ in air. The indices of refraction of the oil employed were 1°465 for the red rays, and 1-479 for the blue rays. As my small plates were hot cut absolutely normal to the bisectrix, these measurements are sufficiently near those published in my paper to enable us to indentify the species, especially as the position of the plane of the axes, and the character of the dispersion is the same in th cases,” These important observations, in connection with the memoir y Professor Des Cloizeaux, before alluded to, demonstrate con- usively that the optical and crystallographic characters of the ‘ Annales des Mines, 5th Series, se P. 24 ces w. : es. G. J. B. ic an Aripescl bi ney on the anne plane was unquestionably due to * From a Wiles io sof Oe Siac! dated Paris, Feb. 19th, 1863. 68 G. J. Brush on Tephroite. original tephroite are similar to those of chrysolite, and that this isomorphism is further sustained by the chemical composi tion of the minerals, both being represented by the general for- mula R3Si. Before the blowpipe, tephroite fuses easily to a black mass; fusibility =8°5 on v. Kobell’s scale. With the fluxes, gives Te Oxygen, Biion 802 me wig eo 7 8019 1610 1610 usoxyd,- - - 65°59 14°78 Ferrous oxyd, - - - 1-09 0-24 | i RCE Hatt eS ‘1:38 0°55 } 15°92 ime, ~ z * - - 104 0:30 Zinc oxyd, - - - - 0:27 0-05 | jeniiion, => = 4 6 . 0°37 99°93 the cleavage surfaces almost flesh-red. Both specimens were less fusible than the original tephroite, the brown variety “a bi hagas to 5 of v. Kobell’s scale. In all other physical characters these 3 gravity, most mineralogists would, on a mere inspection, deter G. J. Brush on Tephroite. 69 _ mine them to be members of the feldspar group. The mineral that I found at Stirling exhibited a beautiful and vivid green phosphorescence when struck with a hammer ina darkened room. The broad cleavage surface is striated with fine parallel lines. Analyses made by Messrs. Peter Collier and Arnold Hague under my direction in this Laboratory gave the following composition. o. 1, brown variety, analyzed by P. Collier. No. 2, red va- riety, analyzed by A. Hague. Oxygen. 2. mere Silica, 80°55 16°29 31-73 2 Manganous oxyd, 52°32 11-79 4762 10°73 } Ferrous oxyd, 1°52 vt | 0°23 05 | Magnesi 73 309 $1684 14°03 561 17-48 ime, 1-60 0-45 0°54 O15 Zinc oxyd, 5-93 117 41'T 0:94 Ignition, 0-28 0-35 99:93 G.=2°97 99-27 G.=2'87 Both minerals were associated with zincite, disseminated in the same manner as in the original tephroite, and the oxyd of zine given in the analyses is undoubtedly due to this impurity. Des Cloizeaux has also published analyses of two specimens of this mineral, in both of which zincite was present as a mechanical impurity. These analyses, made by Deville* and Damour,’ gave the following results: Bi n M, €a Zn Ign. : 2837 = 59-31 2-16 2-16 0°39 7°58 —= 99:97 Deville. 29°95 = 36-43 196 «61860 «=6©——_—i11 61 1°71=10026 Damour, Excluding the oxyd of zinc in my analysis, and in those by Collier, Hague, Deville and Damour, we have— Bi Mn Fe Mg Ca Ign. 1. 307 6577 109 189 104 0-87== 9993 Brush. Oxygen, 1614 1482 024 056 080 6 2. 8070 866417 = 284 234 042 ——== 99°97 Deville. xygen, 1637 1446 0682 094 O12 ? Phe 3248 5562 1°61 322 170 030== 99°93 Collier. yeen, ‘1732 1253 036 (829 . 04 a $553 5002 «024 «1474S = O'BT== 99-27 Hague. xygen, 1778 1127 - 005 590. 016 . 3388 4120 2922 2103 —— 193=10026 Damour. Oxygen, 1780 9:28 049 8-41 The ratio of the oxygen of the silica to that of the bases in No. 1, is 1614: 15-92. No.2, 16:37:1604, No. 3, 17°32: 16°66. * Des Cloizeaux, Manuel de Mineralogie, i, 38. ° Ann. des Mines, loc. cit. 70 J. P. Cooke on Tartrates of Cesia and Rubidia. Hague, the ratio is nearly 1:2:3, giving the formula Mg%St +2Mn°Si or (}Mg+23In)°Si. The specimens analyzed by Deville 3 and myself, as well as those investigated by Thomson and Ram: — melsberg, are very nearly pure Mn®si, so that we have here repre: sented three distinct varieties of tephroite, each giving a simple ratio and formula. The replacement of manganese by magnesia, as shown by the above results, is exceedingly interesting, in view of the fact, that both chrysolite and tephroite crystallize in the trimetric form. A further analogy is observed, when the varie ties of tephroite are compared with those of chrysolite; for besides the indefinite isomorphous mixtures of magnesia and iron in the various olivines, we have in bollonite an example of a magnesian chrysolite, and in hyalosiderite an iron magnesia chrysolite, (Fe®Si+Mg°Si), while fayalite is an almost pure Irony chrysolite. The analyses of tephroite, here given, seem to ‘ monstrate that the varieties thus far examined have no oxy‘ of zinc in chemical combination, although the mineral is intr mately associated with both zincite and willemite. : New Haven, Oct. 1st, 1863. Arr. VUI.—Crystallographic Examination of the Acid Tartrates of Cesia and Rubidia; by Jostan P, Cooxe, Jr. 1. Bitartrate of Cesia, HO, CsO,C,H,0, ,.—This salt forms transparent and colorless crystals belonging to the oe system, which may present either a right-handed or a left-hand hemihedrism. ‘The axial relations calculated from the aD Zand Y of the fundamental octahedron are ; a:6:¢=>0661:1 : 0-694 The observed planes were +1 +4 (a: 5:6) @i—aa: 6: ac : ~1=~$ (6:8: ¢) to wes abs ec 4 * ~$3= — 4($a: 5: 3c) Me ae Ps ce to aac bie The values obtained for the angles are as follows. Those asterisked were used in calculating the angles given in the sec ond col e aumann and Dana, X indicates the angle between two planes of the fundamental octahedron over the macrodiagonal edge, Y the angle over the brachydiagonal edge, and Z the angle over the basal edge. X= 109° Y = 128° 50’ Z—= 98° 30’ J. P. Cooke on Tartrates of Cesia and Rubidia. 71 4 Observed. Calculated. +1 on +1 over vertex, 81° 30/* +1 on +1 over 7, 51° 10/* +1 on —1 over brachy.-edge, 128° 58! 128° 50! +1 on —1 over macro.-edge, 102° 58! 103° +lon [ 139° 15! 139° 15/ +lon 115° 35/ 115° 35/ Ton I over %, 69° 22' 69° 80/ lion 1% over vertex, 118° 4 These angles were measured on three different crystals similar to fig. 1, and excepting for the angles between 1 the prismatic planes, the values closely agreed gee? on all. The planes +1 were very perfect and the angles between them agreed to a min- ute. The planes —1 were not so perfect, but the angles which they formed are accurate as given above within a few minutes. The planes v1 and 72 were strongly striated parallel to the vertical axis and the angles made by them with other planes could not be measured with any accuracy when the intersection edge was parallel to the direction of the striation. The Same was also true of the angles made by the planes I, under the same circumstances, although no striation was visible and the re- When, however, the intersection-edge was at right angles or greatly inclined to the strize, the angles could be measured within a few minutes, and were found to be very constant. The planes 17 on all the crystals examined were very imperfect and generally only rudimentary, : he crystals of the bitartrate of czsia cleave with great readi- ness parallel to the plane 77, with less readiness, but still easily, parallel to 77, giving in each case brilliant planes of cleavage at right angles to each other. No evidence of cleavage parallel to the basal section could be detected, the erystals when broken or split in this direction always giving a conchoidal fracture. Among the crystals of this salt kindly submitted to our ex- amination by Mr. Allen, two very different types of forms were easily distinguished, which, as we are informed, were the result of wholly different crystallizations. In fig. 1 we have both the Positive and negative sphenoids (which form together the funda- mental octahedron), the planes of the first being distinguished from those of the last only by being uniformly much more de- veloped and having a greater brilliancy. In another variety of this same type of forms, represented by fig. 2, we have only the 74 J. P. Cooke on Tartrates of Cesia and Rubidia. sitive sphenoid. Crystals were also observed intermediate etween figs. 2 and 1 with the planes of the negative sphenoi in different degrees of development. The crystals of the variety represented by fig. 2 contained a small amount of rubidium; but this isomorphous admixture did not perceptibly alter the angles. We measured on three different crysté Observed. Calculated. +1 on +1 over vertex, r B1° 80? 81° 30’ +1 on +1 over %, 51° 10/ 51° 10! 41 on. b 139° 15/ 139° 15! These crystals were very perfect and comparatively large, measuring about 7 millimeters long by 5 millimeters wide in the direction of the brachydiagonal. As with the first variety, no accurate measurements could be obtained of the angles between the prismatic planes. 2. 4. 3. The second type of crystals is represented by the figures 3 and4. On these forms we have the planes of a left-handed sphenoid, —38, which are not found on crystals of the first type and are here so largely developed as to give a very different character to the crystal. Planes of the corresponding positive sphenoid were not discovered, although a large number of crys tals were examined. These planes were very dull and rough, by attaching. to them small plates of mica, and the angles were thus approximatively measured, but the results cannot be relied upon within two or three degrees. The values obtained were Measured, Calculated for 43. x 146° 144° 46’ Y, 9t4e 101° 52/ he Pt gee 88° 42! J. P. Cooke on Fartrates of Cesia and Rubidia. 73 No other probable parameters of these planes would even ap- proximatively satisfy these values. The crystals represented by fig. 3 differ materially from those represented by fig. 4, and were obtained by a different crystallization. All of the first have the planes +-1, which could not be detected on those of the last. On three separate crystals of the form fig. 3, the angle +1 on I meas- ured 189° 15’, the same as on the crystals of the first type. It is evident, then, from this examination that the bitartrate of cesia forms two different types of crystals, which present respectively a right-handed and Jeft-handed hemihedrism. Either acid was used in the preparation of the salt: 2. Bitartrate of Rubidia, HO, ,H,O,,.—This salt re- . sembles very closely the last, with which it is isomorphous. The crystals examined were all similar in character, about 5 milli- meters long by 2 millimeters wide, and very perfect. They belong to the trimetric system and have the axial relations, @.:.b s.e=0°695.: 1 : 0:726 The planes observed, with the exception of —1, are represented on fig. 5, ey are the same as on the last, with the exception of the negative sphenoid —43. Of this no trace 5. Could be discovered. The planes —1, moreove X=108° 40 = Y=2126° 43" - Z=99° 34’ Measured. Calculated. tI on +1 over vertex, 80° 26/* +1 on +1 over it, i itd t1 on +1 over iz, 76° 14! 76° 20° +1 on I, : 139° 47’ =: 189° 47 Ton I over a, 71° 83 71° 56/ li on 1%, Am. Jour. Sct—Srconp Senizs, VoL. XXXVII, No. 109—Jan., 1964. 10 74 J. P. Cooke on Tartrates of Cesia and Rubidia. the crystals of the bitartrate of cesia. As is shown by the fig- ure, the planes 1? are more largely developed on the crystals of — the rubidium than those of the cesium salt, and in this as wellas in the other figures, we have endeavored to preserve as nearly as possible the general habitus of the crystals, as well as the relative dimensions of their planes. . a The cleavage of the crystals of the bitartrate of rubidia 18 in all respects similar to that of the cesium salt, and the same 1s true of the crystals formed by an isomorphous mixture of the two substances. Moreover, the playes 7z and #7 are similarly striated on both. : 3. Bitartrate of Potassa.—We add for the sake of comparison the elements of the crystalline form of the ordinary bitartrate of potassa as determined by Schabus (‘ Rammelsberg’s Krystallo- graphische Chemie,” page 304). His results, reduced to the system of notation used in this article, are “ a:b :c=0°7372 :1:0°7115, X= 100° 20, Y¥ == 125° 46/, Z= 108° 38", For the most pS the same planes occur as on the crystals ; Geographical Notices. 75 Art. IX.— Geographical Notices. No. XIX. SPEKE AND GRANT’s EXPLORATION OF THE SOURCES OF THE NILE. THE great event of the year 1862, in geographical exploration, has been the reported discovery of the sources of the Nile by ve perseverance and boldness of two English officers, Capt. n expedition had been sent out, was immediately called, and in it apt. Speke made a statement full of interesting particulars in = to the route he had followed and the discoveries he had made, ad of a great, fresh-water lake lying close on 8° south lat., and at an elevation of about 4000 feet above the sea line, which he at once conjectured, from its size and position, as well as from all which the natives told him of its extent, to be a principal Source of the river Nile. This lake was called by the natives yanza, a term signifying Water, Lake, Pond, or River, to which the English discoverer added the name of his sovereign, christen- ith the patronage of the London Geographical Society and the British Govern ment, went forth in 1860, on a new expedition, having for his chief object the determination of this specific duestion. Reaching the coast of Kast Africa about the first of October, 1860, Messrs. Speke and Grant made their way to the Southern point of the Nyanza, and thence going northward they traced one of the principal affluents of the Nile from its source in the lake to its union with the great river itself’ This result has been heralded ever where, in general terms, but having receive apt. Speke’s own Report of the journey we prefer to place its details on record here’ Their sagacity, perseverance, bravery and success elicit universal commendation. We understand that volume may be expected from the explorers at an early day, from the press of Wm. Blackwood, Edinburgh. ' v. Proceedings Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., vii, 212-217. 76 Geographical Notices. For an illustration of the relations of the Victoria Nyanza to Lake Tanganika, and the River Shire, the reader may consult to advantage a map by Mr. Ernest Sandoz in the erican Geographical Society’s Proceedings, October, 1862. Capt. Speke’s narrative begins with reminding his hearers that his observations are the results of two visits to the region, and that he has not followed the river from head to foot, but has tracked it down, occasionally touching upon it. His state ment blends native information with his own experiences. He then continues,— i “ After returning to Unyanyembi (the old point) 3° S. of the lake, in 1861, I struck upon a new route, which I imagined, from the unsophis- ticated depositions of the ivory merchants, would lead me to a creek om the westerly flank af the Nyanza, situated on the southern boundary of Karagwé. Geographical definitions were here again found wanting, for, instead of tne ereek to the great lake appearing, a new lake was now fast d x south and east flanks of Karagwé, in form a mountain valley, is sul that the lake receives its greatest terrestrial supply of water, through ie the medium of the Kitangulé River, which, in draining the aforesaid a Luero-lo-Urigi, drains off the superfluous waters of many minor lakes — as the Akenyara in Urnndi; the Luchura, which is the second of — a chain including the Akenyara; the Ingezi and Kara imé; and the little Winandermere, which in Karagwé lies below the capital on 1t8 — southeastern corner. None of these lakes are large—mere puddles in — comparison to the great Victoria Nyanza; but still the Kitangulé, after receiving all their contributions, is a noble river, low sunk like a huge PS eanal, about 80 yards across, with a velocity ef about 4 miles an hour — which appears equal to the Nile itself, as soon as it issues from the lake a by the Ripon Falls. The question naturally suggests itself, What forms these lakes ?—whence originate their waters? It is simply this: the Mountains of the Moon, in which they lie, encireling the northern end and the Tanganyika Lake, are exposed to the influences of the rainy Zone, where I observed, in 1862, no less than 238 year Oe ag | ones. Mashondé, in the upper portion of Uganda, 18 the first place where, in this second expedition ie Victoria Lake, called in these more northern eo : (lo-of) Luta (dead) Nzigé (locust), in consequence of the reputed fact that flights of locusts, in endeavoring to cross t opp’ down from fatigue, unable to accom wing, and, perishing in the lake, have been found dead in den by the boatmen. But, like the word Nyanza, it i i 1 8 greatest difficulty in endeavoring to‘ put together the information Exploration of the sources of the Nile. 77 riably says it runs from mouth to head. In a southerly direction the Uaganda boatmen go as far as the island of kerewé, which I saw on like Dr. Krapf, merely narrated what th rd. .As salt-islands were visited by the natives in search of that mineral, the surrounding waters naturally were conside t by them, deprived as they were of its red sal connecting links, which included the whole area of ground under con- sideration within the limits of the drainage system of the Nile. The Arabs, who, it is now very clear, had heard of everything in connexion tells us of a river trending from the river: Newey, by Mount Kenia, towards the Nile. If such is the case, it must be a feeder to the Baringa, whose waters pass off by the Asua river into the Nile, for the whole ‘asia immediately on the eastern side of the Victoria Nyanza is said ashondé, and roceeding north along the boundary coast of Nyanza to the valley of Katonga, which, as situated on the quarter of the lake, is constantly in view, the land above the lake is beautiful, composed of low With bogey bottoms, as many as one to every mile, even counting at one Period a much fuller stream than at the present day, when the ol Was on the present surface of the water, and its breadth was double that which it now presents. The Mountains of the Moon are wearing down, and so is Africa, Crossing over the Equator altogether, the conformation increased in beauty; the drain- " 8Ge@ system was found the opposite, clearly showing where in the north slope of Africa one stream, the Mweranga, of moderate dimensions, said to arise in the Lake, flowed north, and joined the Nile in the kingdom of Unyroro, where its name is changed to Thafa. Far on, another stream, 78 Geographical Notices. . } The point of confluence presents the appearance f a diminutive lake at a sharp elbow of the Nile, and has hardly considerable velocity, carrying as I have said the palms with it. second affluent in order of position, which, with all the others, is on the right of the Nile, is the Giraffe River, swirling with a considerable stream and graceful round into the parent Nile. greater than the Giraffe River, but less in velocity; so that we may infer their perennial contents are much the same. Unfortunately, the North- q of far greater magnitude tha: streams may be one siver still Unger’s Tour in Greece and the Ionian Islands. 79 comparison would have to be drawn with the Nile above it, which it would very nearly equal; for the N ile, with these additions, has scarcely doubled its importance, considered as it was seen from above entering the Bahr el Ghazal. The Blue River was long assumed to be the Nile only because its perennial powers were never tested. It appears to be a moun- tain-stream emanating in the country without the rainy zone, but subject apart from this feature of the volume of the Blue River, the Nile runs ike a sluice in its wonted course; whilst the Blue River, conjoining with the Giraffe and Sobat, describes a graceful sweep. The Atbara, which is the last, is in all respects like the Blue Nile, only smaller. With one White River, the Blue is freely navigated, owing to the great accessions of the Giraffe and Sobat Rivers, but below the Blue and Atbara Rivers to the sea, the sandbanks obstruct further passage.” Uneer’s Screntiric Resutts OF A ToUR IN GREECE AND THE Jontan Isutanps.—From the recent work of Prof. Fr, Nger, we derive the following epitome of his observations. His briéf tour (March 25—June 10, 1860) was confined chiefly to ubcea and the Ionian Islands, and the results are contributions to their Botany and Geology. He gives species of living plants collected by him, four of which being new are deacHbat: seckera turgida, and Silene Unger’, and with them a new variety 0! and described ten years ago kalk) with Tertiary basins in the centre and in the south. The highest elevation is in the north, St. Salvator, 2900 feet. verai curious natural phenomena are discussed by Unger, a8 for instance, that at Argostoli on the west coast of Cephallenia, Where the gulf waters flow inland through narrow channels of apPearing under the rocks. The force of the water in ed _ : IM oper He supposes it to pass 80 Geographical Notices. brackish springs on the eastern side of the island, which are only one to one and a half feet above the sea level. _ The surface have been observed in other parts of Greece, as the ancient Rheiti near Eleusis, and may perhaps hereafter be traced to marine sources. : i To the question whether, so far as natural characteristics are concerned, the East is susceptible of a revival of its ancient pros- perity, he gives an affirmative answer, having shown by compat — ing ancient testimonies with his own obser¥ations that there has been no natural change there of any account. F : Guyor’s PHysicAL WALL-MAPS OF THE ConTINENTS.—A ant contribution to scientific cartography, and will be found im many particulars, as we believe, superior to other similar works, The author of the maps is Professor Arnold Guyot Highest Mountains of the U. States and N. America. 81 striking manner the predominant slopes and elevations. Besides this, the marine currents, the lines of equal temperature, the zones of vegetation and other physical phenomena are indicated. it is easy to recognize what mountain chains, table lands, or that in such general maps as these, the essential, the predominant, the characteristic, should be given in clear, bold; lines; while Political divisions and the principal towns are also indicated on these maps, in a manner which does not obscure the physical features. The lettering is also well managed. Names are sufii- ciently frequent but are so printed as not to crowd the map, and ndeed so as not to be read at the distance of a few feet. By devices of this kind. a great deal of detail is introduced without are ready for publication. (New York: C. Scribner, 1863.) Pror. WHITNEY on THE HIGHEST MOUNTAINS OF THE Uxtrep Srares ann or NortH America.—Prof. J. D. Whit- hey, Superintendent of the California Geological Survey, dis- Cusses briefly in the California Proceedings, ii, 219, the uestion “which is the highest mountain in the United States and which in North America?” His conclusion is that AM¢. Shasta, the height of which according to the barometrical measurements of the California Geological Survey, is 14,440 ft., probably overtops all other peaks within the limits of the United States, ‘Mt. Hood, spinetimes called the loftiest peak of the Cascade Range, is prob- ably not so high as Mts. Shasta, Rainier, or Adams, and by no ™. Jour, 8c1.—Szconp Sertes, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jax., 1864. 11 ‘ od elevated portions of the Coast Ranges; but, as a general thin the genu- ine Mexican te weer 82 Geographical Notices. means entitled to the supremacy of the chain, although one of ighest points in it. Dr, Vansant’s trigonometrical meas urements in 1860 are reported to have given the height of Mt. Hood as 11,934 feet. Mt. St. Elias has generally been considered the highest mountain in North America on the authority of Malespina’s manuscripts, discovered by Humboldt in the archives of Mex: ico, which assign to it an elevation of 17 ,854 feet. The follow- ing circumstances, in the view of Prof. Whitney, justify us in believing that Malespina’s measurements were grossly incorrect, “In the first place,” he remarks, “La Perouse measured this mountain in 1786-8, and made it only 12,661 feet high; again, on the English Hydrographical Charts, it is given at 14,970 feet. But, secondly, Van- viz: 16,000 and 16,750 feet. But, it may be said with truth, that these figures given by Douglas are of little value, and that they aré considerably above the real heights, n regard to the height of the Mexican volcanoes, there is no uncer tainty. They have been is 17,783 feet in height, and must, ws standing at the head of the mountains of the North American continent.” Pror. J. D, Wurrney’s Survey or CALIFORNIA—PRO- POSED MAps.—The California Geological Survey is likely soon ogist, exhibits what has already been accomplished, - “California is covered by a vast net-work of mountain ranges, Sepa ° i] ? ER o 2 =] =a - e = _ & 2, a ba) eZ) io] The remaining fourteen-fifteent called mountainous, as the valleys include but a small portion of its surface. Into this mountainous region no accurate surveys have ever been carried; even the General Land Office work stops at the base of the mountains. A few ranch lines have been run among the moderat grants were limited to the . Survey of California—Proposed Maps. 83 contain a compilation of nearly all that is known at that office in regard to the geography of the State. The maps, as thus blocked out, have n used by us in the field, by filling in the topography wherever our @ maps which have been or are now being prepared for publica- tion are: a8 minutely as the scale allows, is nearly completed, and will be soo ready for the engraver, 3d. A map of the Coast Ranges, from the Bay of Monterey south to Santa Barbara. It is about three feet by two and one-half in dimensions, #8 on a scale of six miles to the inch and embraces about 16,000 square miles of territory. To complete it will require about another year’s work in the field with two sub-parties. 5th. Map of the Comstock Lode, on a scale of four hundred feet to the inch, completed. 6th. Map of the central portion of the Sierra Nevada; scale not yet determined on. Extensive surveys have been made by Mr. Wackenreuder for this part of the work, and these will be continued during the present Season, 84 Geographical Notices. _ Of the above mentioned maps, Nos. 1 and 2 will accompany the first volume of the Report. Nos. 4, 5,and probably 6, the second volume. ~ It is intended, if the survey is carried to completion, to construct & final map of the State on a seale of six miles to the inch, in nine sheets, each about three feet square. ¢ series of observations, we found to be 14,440 feet above the sea level. This is the first of the lofty voleanic peaks of the Sierra Nevada which has been accurately measured. ‘ In the department of geology proper, our explorations have extended over portions of forty of the forty-six counties into which the State 1s divided; and when it is remembered that the average size of a county 18 equal to half that of the State of Massachusetts, (California having just twenty-four times the area of that State,) some idea of the’ magnitude of our work may be obtained. The chain of the Sierra Nevada may be parallelized with that of the Alps for extent and average elevation; — while the Coast Ranges are nearly as extensive as the Appalachian chain of mountai é We have obtained a pretty clear idea of the general structure of the Coast Ranges from Los Angeles to Clear Lake; the vicinity of the Bay of San Francisco has been worked out in considerable detail, including — Australia. From the Lond. Geog. Soc. Proceedings (iii, 82), which we are indebted for so much information that illustrates — ns progress of British enterprise, we draw the following ¢* racts. @ # # “1, Explorations from Adelaide across the Continent of Australia; — by J. McDovatt Srvarr.—tThis expedition proceeded along the pre — vious route until they reached the point attained by Mr. Stuart in 1861, from which he was obliged to retire in consequence of the inability of 3 his small party to penetrate farther. a ae } eee Australian Explorations. 85 The dense scrub a had in 1861 formed an insurmountable barrier was penetrated after six weeks’ incessant labor, and the other side was reached in safety oa ‘without oss. n getting into clear peo again and taking dean they found themselves in lat. 16° 40’. Ten miles further on, or lat. 30’, they struck on a large r ni nore y a branch of the Riper River which they followed down until its confluence with the main stre known as the Roper River. They found that it took its source in some rocky and hilly land, through which they crossed several creeks running in a northeast direction, until they reached the table-land in lat. 13° 50/ and in long. 182° 30", They aaeee this rina te and came upon a due north. On this course they travelled for about 30 miles, and then struck due east for about 10 to 15 miles; after which due north to the seaport in Van Diemen Gulf, which was reached on the 24th of July, 1862; and on the following day they planted their flag on the beac amid great cheering from the party. The point on the coast reached was a promontory marked on the Admiralty Charts as being 30 miles east of Cape Ho tham e river, which they ‘followed, ran about 40 miles parallel with a river marked on the map as the Adelaide, the difference in the longitude being only from 6 to 12 miles. Stuart passed through much good country, well fitted for agricultural and pastoral purposes. Leichhardt had previously seen this tract, and noticed it in terms not less favorable, Even in the scrub water seems to have been found in sufficient quanti- ties to satisfy the wants of all the party, iogainy the horses, obviating yr aulle Wen. for carrying a supply from camp to camp beyond New- "They were not nearly so fortunate on the return route, ice Mevr than two whole ray before they obtained a or rg ae € taly occasion on whic were inconvenienced Station Mr. Howitt’s party were among t to ; welooins him | after his laborious but pote: mission loration of the Interior of Australia tee Mr. LanpsporoveGn, —Mr Landsborough, who had poner remem vol. vii, p. 5) ag southwesterly for 300 ae from C country. This terminated in some picturesque hills, among witch it was thought that a sheep sess Beat would be well a rp the hills there was more wood and less pasture. crossed on the 19th, followed for some pa and finally left on ‘the 1 Ist March in lat. 20° 3, Near Mounts Little and Brown the river is deep, and seems perennial. ‘The country is probably thinly inhabited, as the 86 Geographical Notices. pow would be necessary. While still on the Flinders a blue range of mountains was visible, and named Branston Range; another moun- Mr. R. Buchannan. On the 29th the party reached Landsborough Creek, leading to Thomson River, where Landsborough came upon an Continuing their course in a $.S.W, direction, and partly under the guidance of natives, some of whom, however, seemed disposed to it had been visited. On the 2ist of May they reached the station of a settler on the Warigo River; and thence passed by Bumaranah on the Darling on the 2nd of June, to Menindie and Melbourne by the usual route. oy 3. Explorations in the Interior of Australia by the Burke Relief Expedition, under Mr. J. M’Krxtay.—The South Australian Burke Relief Expedition was originally organized with the view of ascertain suffered from want of water. Marks on many of the trees showed that dition which perished upon Cooper Creek, after achieving the task 80 tt truth of a report that some whites were living upon a raft in one of the F ereeks in the vicinity. On the banks of the creek were marks of # Dr. Livingstone’s Explorations in Africa. 87 European encampment; the dung of camels proving that it must have been one of Burke’s, while en route to or from the Gulf to Cooper Creek. The remains of one of the party, since ascertained to be Gray, and showing traces of a violent death, were found slightly covered with earth and boughs; and at a little distance two holes very like graves, A subsequent visit to Cooper Creek left but little doubt about the fate of Burke. In the course of December the main camp moved to a double lake, called Appocaldradille. From this point a scout was undertaken to both north and cast without finding water for 50 miles. The party consequently moved on to a deep creck, called Appanbara, where, how- ever, they endured much suffering from heat and bad water. After e first rains in February, it was thought practicable to traverse the For some days the route lay along a creek called ‘ Cari- 21st the expedition commenced its return vid Port Dennison; and on the 2nd of August, after great fatigues and the loss of most of the cattl ‘ the first station in the settled districts was reached.” Dr. Livinastonn’s RECENT EXPLORATION or THE NIASSA Lakr.—The following synopsis of a recent communication from Dr. Livingstone respecting his explorations of one of the Lakes in Southern Central Africa, is taken from the London Geograph- ical Society. (Proceedings, vii, ‘are. Pa ay in the boat: the latter were never able to cross the lake or venture from shore, owing to the suddenness and extraordinary violence of the storms, They ascertained its breadth by rough triangulation, when- Sear x . ht he certain knowledge was obtained in regard to its northern extremity. The lake has something of the boot shape of Italy: it is narrowest at the 88 Geographical Notices. ankle, where it is 20 miles, and broadens gradually to 50 or 60 miles. m is- towards the north; where Dr. Livingstone turned, it disappears altogether. The depth of the Jake is readily to be traced by the changing color of its surface. A belt of bright green water fringes the shore, and varies in found insufficient to reach the bottom one mile from shore. e tem perature of the water is 72° Fahrenheit; its rise in the rain 3 feet. Five affluents were seen on its western coast, of inconideaa aoe their united volume was far inferior to that of the waters of Shiré. Natives, of essentially one tribe and language, throng the southern portion of the lake. Their villages are so close together as frequently to i er men and good cultivators of the land : they were reasonably civil to Dr goons party, and exacted no dues for the right of Shoo” ( The he Niassa for the purpose of checking this traffic as far as may be PAS ticable, and also with the object of further exploration.” 5 EXPLORATION OF THE RIVER VERMEJO, IN THE ARGENTINE — CONFEDERATION—Mr. Porter ©. Buiss.-_The Argentine Con ; Oo : om ) with Mr. Bliss, we shall look with seiseniet ie a fall tic statement of his observations. ee Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. 89 Art. X.—Review of Holbrook's Ichthyology of South Carolina.’ THIs volume is for the most part a second edition, the first haying been published in the year 1855, but suspended with the issue of the tenth number. The plates, stones, and origina drawings for the work having been subsequently Aaiteeed. the fire which consumed the Artists’ Buildings in Philadel- the work has, however, enabled” Dr. Holbrook ‘to give more accurate and highly finished plates and to correct some errors of tributed previous to the destruction of the original plates,.... ” the author “ de- A What strange optical delusion a preoperculum, like that repre- i Homoprion - : Ichthyology of South Carolina, Vol. L Jouy Epwarps Horzsoox, M.D., de., Charleston S.C. Published by Russell & Jones, 1860. ouR. Sci1.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 12 Mee 90 Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. tus, could have been imagined by the artist, it is difficult to conjec- ture. With these remarks, however, special criticism may end, for although some of the other figures might be much improved, most are tolerably accurate. __ eo With regard to the nomenclature of the species, little need be said. The names which will probably be for the most part adopted are given below; those spvcially interested in the sub- ject are referred to the discussions in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, & . Hol- brook has been frequently unfortunate in the application to his fishes of former names, especially in the cases of the synonymy of his Caranx hippos and Homoprion xanthurus. The Scomber hippos L., identified with the first, belongs to a different genus, name instead of rubricauda. The Gasterosteus Carolinus was 28 — | evidently intended for Holbrook’s Bothrolaemus pompanus, no tter As Dr. Holbrook has not uniformly adopted a systematic at * Labrus auritus Linn. Syst, Nat., ed. xii, vol. i, p. 475. ae eS * See Proc, Acad. Nat. Psa Philad., 1862, p. 439. We e yee Mal Be, So aed SPC eo SO ee eee Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. 91 agrus and Serranus nigritus not Scizenide, but severally Sparoid and Percoid; and finally Zrachinotus and Hemulon are not Scopelinidsx, but respectively members of the Scombroid and Scizenoid families as understood by Dr. Holbroo With regard to the systematic arrangement thus corrected, it may be remarked that it is not an exposition of the views now Pesyalent concerning the limits of the families. All the Scom- Lobotes is the type of a peculiar one, and finally Sawrus is the Tepresentative of another, € most doubtedly the foundation of the family Ichthelidae for the recep- tion of the North American fresh water Percoids of Cuvier with considered that the Theraponidae of that author taken from it should be itself subdivided, and the family of Ichthelidae is therefore proposed for some of its constituents. The onl the true Percoids by their physiognomy; that it is probable that the family itself is a natural one ; it has indeed more resem- and in Africa. Like them, the Ichthelidx construct a rude nest, Suard their young and are the most characteristic Acanthop- terygian types of their respective regions. Their arrangement Geolors-and the variation is the number of anal spines are orms * Dr. Holbrook gives to Grystes in the new edition, “branchiostegal rays seven” instead of “ branchial Pectin? pel arg but in a note adds that “sometimes there are but six rays,” ’ 92 Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. distinguished by the equal development of, and the correspon- dence of, the regions of the body above and below the axis, while in the Percoids and others, these regions are obliquely opposed. It is therefore probable that future investigation wi place the family on a firm basis. The family itself is composed of two very distinct types which must be regarded as subfami- lies; the Lepomin# distinguished by the very much greater development of the dorsal than the anal fin, their termination at the same vertical behind, and the equality of their respective soft portions; the EUCENTRARCHIN#, in which the dorsal and anal fins are nearly or quite equal and obliquely opposed, so that the end of the anal is considerably behind the vertical from that of the dorsal ; the soft portion of the anal is longest. These two subfamilies embrace a number of genera; Dr. Holbrook has ad- mitted “ Pomotis, Ichthelis, Pomozis, Ambloplites, Catliurus LAsl) &c., Raf., Centrarchus and Bryttus.". The Pomotis cheetodon B obesus, Grd., Centrarchus pomotis, Bd., Ambloplites interruptus Gd., and Pomoxis hexacanthus Ag., are types of as many additional genera; that typified by Pomotis chaetodon may be called MESO- GONISTIUS on account of the peculiar angulation at the dorsa spine; P. obesus (n. g. ENNEACANTHUS) is distinguished by the nine spines of the dorsal fin; Centrarchus pomotis ANTHAR: | cHus), by the elliptical form, cycloid scales and convex caudal; the Ambloplites interruptus has been already separated under the D chus .. Hyperistius Gill, and Pomoxis Raf., belong to the subfamily Bucentrarchine, : while all the others are Lepominze.’ ; : While we have been thus obliged to dissent from Dr. Hol- 2 gy” 1855 under another title the work now reviewed, and that he _, 4 synopsis of the family of Iehthelide, or Centrarchoids, will be hereafter pub- lished in the Proceedings of the Academy of Philadelphia. There the synonymy of the genera, so much complicated by the mischievous Rafinesque, will be also dis- a rectification of the nomenclature attera ee cussed and pte ? _* “Southern Ichthyology: or tion of th ie 3 itin waters of Roath Caroli yology erties DO taal Londen Wiley outh Ca Georgia and Florida.” New York and London, Wiley & Putnat, 1847. Thave seen only one number of this (If), including pages 1 to 32 and Holbrook’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. 93 finally withdrew as much as possible that last publication from cir- culation and issued a new edition of it with so slight modifica- tions in 1860,—we cannot withhold the praise of the most con- scientious desire on his part for perfection, and the wish that the first volume of the final work shall be followed by others. It is however, doubtful whether the enterprising little state at whose expense the last edition of that first volume was published will feel able soon to continue its encouragement of the abstract sciences, and we may therefore probably hope in vain for the completion of the work. The following list of the species de- scribed under Holbrookian names, with references to the pages e Family Percide, flavescens, oe ne | Family Ichthelide, omotis vulgaris, 8 6 1, 2, (Pomotis) aureus. Ichthelis incisor, 12 13 uy, 1, Lepomis incisor. : ubricauda,? 15 10 ua, 2, Lepomis auritus. Centrarchus irideus, 18 15 wm, 1, Eucentrarchus (irideus). Labrax Americanus, 20 21 “ 2, Morone Americana, “ lineatus, 24 17 tv, 1, Roccus lineatus, Grystes salmoides, 28 25 2, Micropterus salmoides, Serranus erythrogaster, 32 29 v, 2, (Epinephelus) erythrogas- Diplectrum fasciculare, 35 32 ¢ __. [ter omoxis hexacanthus, 39 36 vi, 1, Hyperistius carolinensis, Rhypticus maculatus, 42° $9 2, Promicropterus maculatus, Centropristis atrarius, 45 42 “vn, 2, Centropristis atrarius. 3 trifurea, 49 47 1, Triloburus trifurcus. Family Sparide. Tgus ovis, 58 51 vim, 2, Sargus probatocephalus. on rhomboides, 59 56 1; Family Scombridee, Temnodon saltator, 64 62 1x, 2, Pomatomus saltatrix. Cybium maculatum, 68 66 1, Apodontis maculatus, 94 Seriola Carolinensis, oe . chloris, Bothrolemus pampanus, Cara anx defensor, ippos, “ faleatus, % ichardi, Elacate canada, Echeneis vittata,* Family Squamipinnide, Is gigas, faber, Family Scieenide. ius pe toine Heemulon chr ysopieron, um, Otolthus really thallacsinus, . nothus, = Carolinensis, Umbrina alburnus, littoralis, Mic cropogon undulatus Corvina ocellat arimus recta Pristipoma fulvomacu- atum,’ Leivstorsias obliquus, Hom moprion xantharas, eolatus, Tae Sustemenne Family Scopelinidee. Saurus foetens, Trachinotus la aucus, zmulon quadritineatun, Family Esocidee Raok affini Esox Raweeal ® Seriola is core Ist ed, 9 18 or 198 201 Holbrcok’s Ichthyology of South Carolina. 70 x, 2, Halatractus Carolincensis, 13 1, Halatractus zonatus. V7 x1, : fslerpecombee chloris. 94 Ch aran ngu = fala” 95 XIV, 2; Fae © 101 ° Bcheneis aibiowtdhe 105 xv, 2, Pavsphiiciin gigas. 10 1, * faber. 112 xvi, 2. Ti i 120 xvu, 1. 123 ves XVIII, 1, Cynoscion regalis, 13 2. thalassinus, $91 > Spt “ on 133 2, si roli nensis.. 700 ae. 9." Menticirrus al birt 142 2" littoralis. 145 xx, 1. 149 2, Scizenops ocellatus. 158 xxit 1, 156 2. oe fulyomacu- se 163 xxim,** =a} 170 (inf. = =o) Bairdiella argyroleuca. 168 xxrv,’* 1, Stellifer lanceolatus. 159 2. . 175 ue ie 178 2, (Epinephelus) nigritus. 179 xxv1, 2. 184 1, Synodus fcetens. xxvii1,** 1, o xxvur,’’ 1, ue T. GILL. i U.S. Coast Survey Reports—1861 and 1862. 95 Arr. XT.—U, &. Coast Survey Reports for the years 1861 and 1862. by most of the parties before their proceedings were suspended in consequence either of actual or of threatened violence. Op- erations upon the northern coast were of course undisturbed, but the distribution of labor was somewhat modified during the Summer of 1861, in consequence of the state of things in the Vicinity of Chesapeake Bay. ring the second of the years to which these reports relate, the services rendered by the officers of the survey upon the entirely as before to the systematic prosecution of the general plan of the survey, have been probably of more immediate value to the government than if they had been so. They have recoy- and ascertained their magnitude and extent. In this way they have contributed very materially to the security of our navy and enemy; or as, in the interior, they Secured topographical information of the greatest value, by opera- tions sometimes conducted immediately under fire. 96 U. S. Coast Survey Reports—1861 and 1862. ' € mean time, upon all that large portion of the coast which the rebellion could not reach or affect, the survey has steadily advanced without any modification of its plan, though with an activity somewhat reduced in consequence of the reduc: tion of the appropriations for this work since the commencement of the war. This reduction has been considerable when com- pared with the total of the appropriations themselves—amount- ing to from twenty to forty per cent—but in absolute amount it is so inconsiderable as to excite a doubt as to the wisdom of the he hydrography covered thousand miles, One hundre thousand soundings had been made, and more than ei four hundred specimens of bottom obtained, U. 8. Coast Survey Reports—1861 and 1862. 97 Of manuscript maps and charts, two thousand one hundred and eighty-one had been constructed; and of engraved maps charts and sketches, there had been produced four hundred and ninety-three, The triangulation extends from Passamaquoddy Bay on the’ northeast boundary of the United States, to Matanzas inlet on the east coast of Florida below St. Augustine, with a single interruption of about sixty miles on the coast of South Carolina. From Cape Florida it extends over all the line of the Keys to the Tortugas, It embraces also some portion of the western coast of the peninsula. From St. Marks it is continuous through St. George’s Sound; it embraces Pensacola harbor, the Perdido entrance, Mobile Bay, Mississippi Sound, Lake Borgne and Lake Ponchartrain as far as New Orleans. A branch triangulation extends also through Isle au Breton Sound to the mouth of the Mississippi river. West of the delta it covers most of the coast of Louisiana and Texas. On the Pacific coast, the survey has been less connected ; but it embraces all the principal harbors, headlands and an- chorages. The triangulation is on many portions of the coast considera- bly in advance of the topography and hydrography. This is particularly the case in Maine, in the Gulf of Mexico and on the northwest coast. Upon the Maine and Pacific coasts the work Is being actively advanced. Energetic reconnoissances have also been made in the Gulf, between Mobile and New Orleans, since the outbreaking of the war. : One of the most important of the surveys made during the year 1862, was that of the Potomac river from near its mou up to Georgetown. Connected with this may also be mentioned important topographical surveys of the country around Wash- ington. ‘he survey of the Florida reefs was also energetically pursued during the same period. ; The hydrographic operations of this year of which the results have probably been most immediately valuable, are those upon he coast of North and South Carolina and of Georgia. Hatteras Inlet, Oregon Inlet, the Neuse river to a point above Newbern, the Harbor of Beaufort with its entrance, were surveyed or Tesurveyed so soon as the progress of naval and military opera- tions had opened the*way, to the great subsequent advantage of our commanders. ; : In like manner, on the coast of South Carolina, Georgia and ‘lorida, similar operations were carried on after the occupation of Port Royal. Stono inlet and river, Folly and Kiawah rivers, and N. disto river, were resurveyed and sounded out, the channels being found in some of them to be entirely chan Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serres, VoL. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 13 98 U. 8. Coast Survey Reports—1861 and 1862. ‘Parts of St. Helena Sound, Port Royal Sound, Calibogue Sound, Tybee Roads, Wassaw Sound, St. Simon’s Sound, and the bar of Fernandina, were also resurveyed, and the shore lines of many — of the islands and rivers were traced. All these operations were of essential importance to the success of the national arms upon that coast. ¥ We find in these reports also the usual annual lists of devel- opments and discoveries made in the progress of the survey Some of these consist in the detection of rocks and shoals pre: viously unknown, lying in frequented waters, and others im — bringing to light new and more favorable channels by whieh the approaches to harbors are improved or the difficulties of — navigation diminished. Not less important than these are the — discoveries of changes produced by the shifting of sands, intro — ducing dangers which did not previously exist, and rendering it necessary to alter entirely the sailing lines which navigators have — been accustomed to follow. The total number of these develop: ; ments embraced in the general list appended to the latest report, — amounts to no less than two hundred and sixteen. Besides the : direct benefits to commerce and the national prosperity which £ flow naturally from the positive information gathered by the — coast survey, there are some indirect advantages attending 18 — operations, which are especially important to the interests 0 — science. Of these we find illustrations in the reports before Us, _— in the contributions embraced in the appendices, on the subjects — of longitude, Terrestrial Magnetism, the Solar Spo : expansibility of metallic bars. he papers on Longitude are by Prof. Peirce, and give the results of his computations from 1 observations of the Pleiades for the recent period during which the moon’s path lay across that group. Some of these observ — tions were made both in this country and in Europe, and serve — to determine the errors of the tables, and thus to give additional value to those which were made only in this country. The will also serve to fix the relative longitudes of the places of observation, to correct the places of the stars, and inal : determine the moon’s semi-diameter, and “the necessity of hav ing regard to the A pil crn of the moon in the comp em.” solution of the pro Th e articles on Magnetism embrace the continuation of the ‘ Assistant Charles ott. Besides these, there is pr the regular biennial publication of results found at twenty-t¥? stations occupied st survey parties, for the “J lination, dip and intensity. U. S. Coast Survey Reports—1861 and 1862. 99 A very interesting part of the discussion of the Girard College observations is that which shows the influence o the magnetic horizontal force. In the lunar day there is a dis- tinct magnetic tide having two ebbs and flows. The times maxima are two hours, and of minima seven and a half hours, after the culminations. The influence of the relative positions of the sun and moon on the horizontal magnetic force, though We, at the beginning of this war, been in possession of a topo- ya survey of the country, like the trigonometrical survey of France, or the ordnanee survey of Great Britain, it 1s by no means improbable that there might have been already saved, in the increased celerity and certainty of our operations, a m larger amount to the treasury of the country, than the whole survey itself could have cost. This is one of those lessons which governments only learn from experience. Let us hope that our present costly experience may not have been thrown away. 100 Proceedings of Learned Societies. Art. XII.—Proceedings of Learned Societies, Royal Society Anniversary.—The President’s Address was delivered by ‘ Major General Sazinz on Monday, Nov, 5—as follows. ye est re the scien’ importance of establishing in some convenient locality in her Majesty’s dominions, from whence the southern nebule and multiple stars could discussion in 1853 had terminated in - consisting of the Earl of Rosse, Dr Warren de la Rue, to superintend the construction of the telescope, it the event of the recommendation of the two Societies bein y Address of the President of the Royal Society. 101 limited to the occasion which has given rise to them. The considera- tions which apply to a telescope for the observation of the southern nebulz at Melbourne are no less applicable to one which might be estab- ished on a site from whence a great part of the southern nebule could also be observed (as well as those of our own hemisphere), but enjoying the immense advantage conferred by elevation into the higher and less dense strata of the atmosphere. Such sites are to be found in the Nil- Having learnt that a series of pendulum experiments at the gla avai have the opportunity of testing the exactness of the correction for buoyancy by vibrating his pendulum on both its knife-edges in the Vacuum apparatus which is now established at Kew. It is much to be desired that a similar series of pendulum experiments still greater extension, would seem to present a most favorable opportunity for the combination of pendulum i In such case the ulums of the Royal Society might be made available with excellent effect. i eas size of our printed volumes in the present year gives no unfavorable and, I ir i : of the Society, for I 102 Proceedings of Learned Societies. not been less vigilant and cautious than heretofore in the selection of the papers to be printed. Although much care has been given to ing the expenses of illustration within reasonable bounds, the cost of the Society’s publications has been this year unusually high; yet I am _ lad to be able to state that our whole expenditure within the year has fallen within our income. With your permission, I will briefly advert to a few of the subjects which have occupied the Society’s attention im the past year. The researches of Kirchhoff and Bunsen have rendered it in a hi fixed lines. The apparent diurnal motion of the stars causes much . only by their effects. Nor can the astronomical and physical parts the inquiry be well dissociated, so as to be separately undertaken by different individuals ; for the most elaborate drawings can hardly convey a faithful idea of the various aspects of the different dark and bright lines, which yet must be borne in mind in instituting a comparison in cases of apparent coincidence. It is fortunate, therefore, that the inquiry h en taken up by two gentlemen working in concert. Ina sh paper read to the Society on the 26th of last February, and published in the Proceedings, Mr. Huggins and Dr. Miller have described and figured the spectra of three of the brighter stars, and this part of the inquiry will doubtless be continued. In a paper since presented to the Society, Mr. Huggins describes the means employed for practically ception Professor Tyndall has given us the fourth of a series of papers upon : _ Rays of heat; and that certain portions of these heat-rays are tag Address of the President of the Royal Society. 103 werfully absorbed than others, rays from objects at a low temperature eing more easily absorbed than those from objects at an elevated tem- perature. He has also proved that gases radiate as well as absorb; and, hitherto held upon the meteorological relations of aqueous vapor. e Bakerian Lecture, by Mr. Sorby, is entitled by him ‘On the In this paper are embodied a series of observations upon the influence of pressure upon the solubility of salts, in which he has obtained results analogous to the change in the freezing point of liquids under pressure. He finds in cases where, as is usual, the yolume of the water and the salt is less than the volume of the water and the salt separately, that the solubility is increased by pressure; but that, in cases where, as when salammoniac , : ; wv and purposes pursuing his researches upon chemical action under pres- sure. This may, therefore, be regarded as forming the first of a series upon a highly interesting and important branch of investigation, Pp galy inte sg P s metals, has of late years attracted very general attention. ele- mentary gas and each metal show certain well-marked characteristic i ich it i pl sumed are changed? What evidence have we that spectra are superposed, § that we Sisenie the full sum of the spectra which the electrodes and the medium would produce separately? : ‘ To examine these and similar questions in the only unimpeachabl way, that of actual experiment, formed the object of a long and labori- ous research by Dr. Robinson, the results of which are contained in a 104 Proceedings of Learned Societies. in each of five different gases (including air), and for each gas separately at the atmospheric pressure, and at the low pressure obtained by a good properties of the molecules which are present, through a range from great intensity down to a faintness which may elude our most powerful ea io at the extreme south of Spitzbergen, and rmine on @ favorable locality for the measurement of a ine. The result of the first years’ exploration has been the selection of stations, on hills ot proposed are o es. A convenient locality has also been for the base-line. _ The continuation of the preliminary survey to the Sear aoe ome is to be the work of the summer of 1864. The report of the geodesical surveyors has shown that the northern portion presents no impediments which may not be surmounted by courage and Address of the President of the Royal Society. 105 perseverance ; and, with regard to the southern portion, the knowledge . already acquired is considered to justify the expectation that the result, of the second year’s exploration will be no less favorable. Should such be the case, it is anticipated that the necessary steps will be taken for carrying into execution the measurement of the arc itself. erhaps, be permitted to allude for a moment to the P interest with which I must naturally regard the proposed undertaking. he measurement of an arc of the meridian at Spitzbergen is an enter- favorable than those contemplated by its original proposer—by reason of the high latitude of the northern observer—the greater number of stars in the moon’s path, now included in our catalogues, of which a re’ of land above the sea-level; and I may therefore venture to refer them to a paper in the Phil. Trans. for 1824 (Art. xvi), written from Spitz- bergen itself in July, 1823, containing the articulars of a barometrical and trigonometrical determination of the height (approximately 1644 English feet) of the well-defined summit of a conspicuous hill in the * Antoni i,“ 210 per riconoscere la Figura della Terra.” er apg bo ele ae go ety rk peeing an appendix, was printed for private circulation in 1819 by Mr. notes an is Baily, * Am. Jour. Scr.—Seconp Series, VoL. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 14 106 Proceedings of Learned Societies. vicinity of Fairhaven. The barometrical comparison was repeated on several days, the barometer on the summit of the hill being stationary, and the observation of the two barometers strictly simultaneous, the hei gi by igonometrical, was mM excellent accord. The hill may be identified with certainty by the plan which accompanies the paper referred to: it is of easy access, and may be remeasured with little difficulty. | 4 o + ° oO cr o ° fom) BP a Po) = ° 5 ce mg Pa oO =. ~ =] Q ot “ © =] ordnance purposes as to call imperati however, in its com purposes Address of the President of the Royal Society. 107 tifie points which are still more or less obscure—in pre nt attention of her Majesty’s Government the expediency of instituting under its own auspices a and searching inquiry into the possible to be reduced in the proportion of 2 to 3, and the leagth of the gun itself to admit of a diminution of nearly one-third. These conclusions are based on the evidence of long and apparently very carefully conducted Courses of experiment in the imperial factory in the neighbor 00 Vienna. The results appear to be especially deserving the attention of those who are engaged in the important problems of facilitating the employment of guns of large calibre and of great projectile force in the broadsides of our line-of-battle ships, and in reducing, as far as may be possible, the dimensions of the ports. altogether a novel subject of discussion in this country. When the material was first introduced by Schénbein in 1846, its distinctive quali- liability was due to imperfection in its preparation, and ceases altogether when suitable processes are adopted in its manufacture. Perfect. gun- without danger of: deterioration. It is not impaired by damp; and may submerged without injury, its original qualities returning unchanged : 108 Proceedings of Learned Societies. The experiments made by the Austrian Artillery Commission, as well as those for blasting and mining, were conducted on a very large scale; with small arms the trials appear to have been comparatively few. j gun-cotton and gunpowder have to be investigated, both as to the tem- peratures generated in the act of explosion, and the nature of the com _ pounds which result from them, under circumstances strictly analogous to those which occur in artillery practice.’ hh I proceed to announce the awards which the Council has made of the Medals in the present year; and to state the grounds upon which these awards have been made. if The Copley Medal has been awarded to the Rev. Adam Sedgwick, for the Killas Rocks and their Fossils in Devonshire. i Mr. Sedgwick was appointed Woodwardian Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge in the year 1818, since which time, up toa recent period, comprising an interval of upwards of forty years, he bas repose, Under such circumstances geology needed the support and open ad- vocacy of men who, by their intellect and acquirements, and by the re spect attached to their individual characters, their profession, or social position, might be able on the one hand to repress wild fancies, and on the other to rebut the unfounded assertions of those who opp Address of the President of the Royal Society. 109 which to this day holds its high place in the estimation of geologists as the foundation of our knowledge of this impartant class of deposits, whether we regard their origin, form of deposition, peculiarities of struc- ture,-or organic contents. ontemporaneously with this excellent work, he examined the whin sill of Upper Teesdale, showed its claims to be treated as a rock of fusion, and discussed the perplexed question of its origin, Advancing to one of the great problems which occupied his thoughts for many years, he combined in 1831 the observations of the older rocks of the Lake mountains which.he had commenced in 1822, and added a vided honor of the first unrolling of the long series of deposits which constitute the oldest groups of British fossiliferous rocks, ; Still more complete, however, was the success of that work which was undertaken immediately afterwards on the coeval roc of Wales; by which Professor Sedgwick and Sir Roderick Murchison, toiling in sep- arate districts, unravelled the intricate relations of those ancient rock and determined the main features of the successive groups of ancient life which they enclose. These labors began in 1831-32, and in 1835 the two great explorers had advanced so far if their research as to present a united memoir to the British Association in Dublin, showing the progress each had made in the establishment of the Cambrian and Silurian sys- tems, as they were then called; Professor Sedgwick taking the former, and Sir Roderick Murchison the latter for his special field of study. In 1843 Professor Sedgwick produced two memoirs on the structure of ing principally taken from his observations in 1831-82, while the more detailed sections of the eastern part were from those of 1842-43. These two papers gave the complete outline or framework, as it were, of the geological structure of this intricate region. In several subsequent oe 5, eal 110 Proceedings of Learned Societies. mal, and all the great anticlinal and sinclinal lines on which the funda-_ eation. He always proceeded on this principle; nor (from the paucity of _ There _are other important memoirs of Professor Sedgwick’s of which time forbids more than a very passing notice. The memoir ‘On the — bed @ » > } ° B 3 a. & Qu. of fas) 4 g wr 2,3 wn g o -~ = 3 @ < -_ =) n | oO = a oO i=} So _ Carboniferous series, and their position in a trough of the subjacent rocks, which rocks, on account of their position and their organic contents, were concluded to belong to the Devonian, or Old Red Sandstone period, — other localities. Finally, we may notice another joint memoir by these authors in 1830, ‘On the Structure of the Eastern Alps,’ which, howevehy ad no immediate relation to the researches on the Paleozoic formation: — _ will ormeonittenns~ the memoirs which have been noticed art me most part pervaded by a certain unity of purpose. The investig® tions were not on points of merely local Sitpienn but were essential Address of the President of the Royal Society. 111 the elucidation of the geological history of our planet during those early E F periods of which the records are most difficult to unfold. Few persons, with when he first entered North Wales as a geologist. Geologically i d the a complicated mountain or district with those in another, so as to form a distinct geometrical conception of the arrangement of the sewed Mm. 7 extremely doubtful whether any other British geologist forty years ago could have undertaken, with a fair chance of success, the great and diffi- The Copley Medal was then presented with the following address :-— “ Proressor SepewicK,—Accept this medal, the highest honor which thirty-five years, during which they have been more especially devoted 4 that extensive and most difficult order of plants the fungi, have rende Besid pers in various journals on fungi from all parts of the globe, and in particular an early and admirable memoir on British 112 Proceedings of Learned Societies. and difficult, upon which its broad generalizations are founded. Mr, Berkeley’s merits are not confined to description or classification; there are facts of the highest significance which he has been the first to indi- eate, and which in many cases he has also proved by observation and by experiments. We refer to his observations on the development of the tions, and sometimes of the absolute specific identity of various forms of : fungi previously referred to different tribes; and to the recognition, 1 many so-called epiphytal and parasitic fungi are nothing but morbid con- ditions of the tissues of the plant; on the other hand, that microscopié : Kala n te high opinion which the botanical members of the Council of the Royal Society entertain of your researches in cryptogamic botany, especially my- e Council has awarded a royal medal to John Peter Gassiot, Esq ; for his researches on the Voltaic Battery and Current, and on the Diss charge of Electricity throug : most of which are recorded j Address of the President of the Royal Society. 113 2. The identity of voltaic with frictional electricity was denied by many, because it gave no spark through an interval of air, Davy h indeed, asserted the contrary in his ‘Elements of Chemical Philosophy ; but his statement seems to have been doubted or unheeded. Mr. Gassiot, in the Transactions for 1844, has put the fact beyond dispute ; he showed ells, the same or even greater effect could be produced by a much smaller series. The battery of 500 Grove’s cells, which was constructed for these experiments, is probably in some respects, the most powerful that was ever made. 3. The currents produced by electric or magnetic induction are of the highest interest, and the employment of them as a so ree of electri In this new field Mr. Gassiot has been one of the most successful explorers. So early as 1839 he showed that the induction-current gives a real spark, and he found that in the flame of a spirit-lamp it could strike at a dis- tance of #ths of an inch. understood, but Mr. Gassio made some very important additions to our knowledge of it in the Bakerian Lecture for 1858, and his subsequent communications to the Society. ng these may be named his explan- sealed; then, by heating the potassa, th ’ i. Vessels so e: or even totally, absorbed t d alkali is vaporized by heating them, and the gradual progress of the ex- haustion gives a wide range of observation, wt Us ‘ 5. gs of an induction machine is necessarily intermittent, it supposed that the strata are in some way caused by the rmittence, and are possibly connected with the mode of action of the * Aw Jour. Sct.—Ssconp Series, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 15 114 Proceedings of Learned Societies. contact-breaker. Mr. Gassiot has, however, shown that they are per — fectly developed in the discharge of an extended voltaic battery through exhausted tubes. The large water-battery already mentioned shows them in great beauty; the discharge, however, is-still intermittent. j 6. The same appearance is exhibited by a Grove’s battery of 400 well-insulated cells ; but in this case a new and remarkable phenomenon presents itself At first the discharge resembles that obtained from the 7. This change is accompanied by a remarkable alteration in the heating of the two electrodes, Mr. Gassiot had previously shown that, im he: the intermittent to continuous, the previously heated negative electrode — became cool, and the positive was intensely heated. . this liberal and unselfish spirit has been strikingly exhibited. He has had executed a grand spectroscope, furnished with no less than -~ * was entre This magnificent instrament he bas placed at the disposal of any Fel of the Society who may happen. to be engaged in researches req ring the use of such powerful apparatus, The instrument is at present at the few Observatory, where it is in contemplation to undertake the construc tion of a highly elaborate map of the spectrum, as Mr. Gassiot is. still pursuing his electrical researches, and we may bd assured that he will feel this acknowledgment of his labors by the hoya Society not merely as a reeompense for that he has accomplished, but # an obligation to continued exertion and new discoveries.” a medal was then handed to Mr. Gassiot, with the following ! marks :-— _ “Mr. Gasstor,—You will receive this medal as a mark of the deéP interest which the Royal Society takes in the investigations in which y' erst { Scientific Intelligence. 115 are engaged, and of the high value which it attaches to the results with — = have already enriched our transactions. e the grounds on which the medal has been awarded to you by he Curtaiia but it may be permitted to me to express the hope that you will also sno ‘ate with it—as it is impossible that we should not do— the Society’s eee? of ine generous and kindly spirit which has manifested itself, as elsewhere, so also in all your pursuit of science, of which one soetetiel ih ‘others will remain in future times connected with the Societ en ~ Diyeae ones of the Scientific Relief Fund.”— The Reader, Dec. 5, SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. PHYSICS. 1, Electrical properties of Pyroxiline-paper and Gun-cotton.—Prof. Joun Jounston, of Wesleyan University, Ct, has called my attention to aremarkable power in pyroxiline-paper of producing van electrical excitement in sulphur, sealing wax, &c. His note is as tollow Meio University, Middletown, Dee, 24, 1863. Prof. Sitriman—Dear Sir :—We are told by writers on electricity that sul- phur by friction with all other geibiaces — negative’y excited; as cat’s fur, on the other extreme, of friction with all other substances becomes excited positively. But a few da o I made the docotery that sulphur by friction with paper pyroxiline (I will eal it) is excited with positive seers - are also sealing wax, amber, &c. The paper is prepared in the sam r as gun-cotton, which would also in all probability be found to pepe "the si operty. Seg pone br some of the paper for trial. It was prepared by my Pe erhaps pies will think bars matter of sufficient importance to make a note of it in the Journal of Scie Respectfully yours, Joun JoHNsToN. I have repeated and confirmed Prof. Johnston’s experiment nigsagcss it to gun-cotton. I find as he suggests that the latter substance pro Stance pro xluced b sn ip the hp mes or a are ‘ood stances also so prod uce power spacer exten in glass. It is “ificult mine w cotton o P pyrene paper. This seeming anomaly, cnn our ordinary: m f discrimination in cases of electrical excitemen Mands bethaa in ebsiigattel It would appear that of negative shot yet observed, these azotized species of cellulose are the most remarkable— = S80 oe gen ae which the most highly negative electrics hero @ posi B. B. Shi ber 25 , 116 Scientific Intelligence. 4. On the wave lengths of certain spectral lines—J. MiitteR has mea sured the wave lengths of several interesting lines by means of the diffrae tion spectrum. The results obtained were as follows: For the yellow sodium line, Nae, 4—0-0005918™™, For the red lithium line, Lie, 4—0-0006763™m, For the blue strontium line, Srd, 4—0-0004631™m, For the green thallium line, The, 4 0-000534gmm, Pogg. Ann., exviii, 641. Ww. G. II. CHEMISTRY. On a new metallic oryd.—Baur claims to have discovered ina mineral from Rénsholm, an island near Stockholm, a new metal whi he calls Wasium, from the royal family of Wasa. The mineral itself— Wasit—resembles orthite and was found to contain silica, alumina, oxyd of iron, cerium, didymium, lime, manganese, magnesia and alkali, together with a trace of uranium, a tantatic acid and perhaps thoria. About one per cent of the new oxyd is present. As obtained by the ignition of the nitrate it is a brownish sandy powder of density 3-726. Before the blowpipe it gives with borax in both flames a clear and colorless glass which readily becomes milk-white by flaming. With the phosphate it gives a clear and colorless glass bead which does not become opaque on comes lilac-colored, then darker and bluish brown, and on t | appears a ring of a brilliant brown varnish, which becomes broader uM the mass assumes a gummy appearance. Water converts it intoa white oe z * characteristic of the new metallic oxyd. Solutions of the oxyd were pre cipitated by ammonia, the precipitate being insoluble in caustic ee but soluble in carbonate of ammonia. e@ oxyd was also precipitated ; from quite acid solutions by oxalic acid and its salts, It is to be hoped — that a more appropriate name will be found for the new metal, if indeed, actually occurs in the minerals mentioned by Bahr—Wasite, Norwegiat orthite and gadolinite from Ytterby.—Pogg. Ann., exix, 572. W. Ge ‘the same gelatinous precipitate on evaporation. of its watery solutioa — which Bahr insists on as characteristic of the new metallic oxyd.—s.] Chemistry. 117 € a new oxyd of arsenic. In fusing nitric acid the compound of the nose. Its poisonous character may be readily inferred.—Pogg, Ann,, exviii, 615, .G. 8. On the crystalline form of sulphate of thallium.—Victor von Lan@ has measured crystals of sulphate of thallium which are isomorphous with sulphate of potassium. The observed rhombic faces were 100, 010, 110, 210, 101,111. The ratio of the axes is for ThSO,, a@:b:¢c=1: 0°7319 : 0°5539 and for KSO,, a@:b:ce=1: 0°7464:0°5727 The surfaces reflected very well and exhibited an adamantoid lustre, prob- ably in consequence of the large quantity of thallium in the salt. C) position of the optical axes of elasticity corresponded with that in sul- phate of ammonium but not with that in sulphate of potassium.—Pogg. Ann., exviii, 630. . @ 4. On a crystallized hydrate of soda.—Harms has obtained a well crystallized and definite hydrate of soda by exposing a solution of caustic soda of density 1:385 to a temperature of 0° C. The crystals are often very large, have a glassy lustre and are perfectly transparent and color- less ; they fuse at 6° C. and yield a solution of density of 1:405. As the author states that the crystals may be obtained very pure even from so- lutions which contain sulphate and chlorid of sodium, it seems probable that they will afford a ready means of obtaining pure soda solutions for laboratory use. The formula of the crystallized hydrate is NaO+-8HO ; oblique rhombic.—Pogg. Ann., cxix, 170. _ W.@ 5. On the constitution of Columbite—H. Rose has published an ex- tended discussion of the minerals which contain hyponiobie acid. As Specially interesting to chemists we note simply the fact that in pure and undecom varieties the ratio of the oxygen in the acid to that in the bases is as 3 to 1, so that pure columbites may be regarded as mixtures of Nb,O, FeO with Nb,O, MnO. Rose calls attention to the iso- morvhism of columbite and wolfram, and remarks further that the ob- servations of Nordenskiéld, ‘and later of himself, go to prove that hypo- i in the uncombined sta‘ niobie and tungstic acids are isomorphous in te, 80 118 Scientific Intelligence. that we have crystallographically Nb,0,=WO,. A reduction of the equivalent of iungsten so as to make tungstic acid W,0, does not appear to be admissable——Pogg. Ann., exviii, 406. W. G G ote.—Since niobic acid, NbO,, unquestionably belongs to the same argument for writing the chlorids NbCl, and TnCl,. On the other and Marignac has recently shown that the oxy-fluo-tungstates are isomorphous with the fluo-titanates, since we have TiF, CuF=WO,C +WF,Cu. Marignae writes this equality Ti, F,Cu,=W,0,F,Cu, WO,F,Cu, and assumes that @,—=F,. This obliges us to admit that in this compound Ti, =W,, while the view, which we have taken above requires Nb,=Ti,=W, since Nb=Ti in combination i —s produced by tungsten upon the qualities of bronze, cast iron stee metals. The crude tungsten contains iron, manganese. and carbon and 18 now sold at 375 the kilogramme, a price which will probably be still farther reduced. Tungsten as thus prepared was found inéapable of form- with a brilliant lustre so that tungsten steel is easily recognized by® eye. Poor steel requires more tungsten than stcel of good quality. A good cement steel alloyed with 5 per 100 of tungsten gave a steel of excessive hardness which, however, forged very well, though it Tequired rdinary steel. ired much more force than o After tempering, it 4 ing true alloys with copper, tin, and gun-metal, the latter becoming lS harden Chemistry, 119 quired a hardness comparable only to that of the hard white cast-iron. the grains the price ‘a steel would. be increased y only 7 or ae os the 100 kilogrammes.— Ann, de Chimie, Ixviii, Ww. G. € p. tt for further notice of titanium in pig ii Bi On a new series of metallic oryds.—l. Rose si aires a class of oxyds which contain four equivalents of metal to one of oxygen, The type of this class of compounds is an oxyd of copper which has = for- mula Cu,O. When a solution of sulphate of copper is added to an ex- eess of a very dilute solution of protochlorid of tin in caustic alkali a hydrate of protoxyd of copper 1s precipitated, which after a short time becomes yellow, and on shaking passes ito olive-green ; after a time this in turn changes sorte and finally 6g — ed to metallic copper. @ green oxyde t be obtained in a state of purity without great difficulty, owing wr as mie aise to oxydize a also to the difficulty of removing the ‘last traces of tin. Rose has, however, succeeded in aetatinss which’ probably: consists of Cu,Cy, The moist oxy is not OLY oxyd and provoxyd Rose m: vintains that t o suboxyd of sive reg 2 This view, pen he oe oa a long tie time defended, he nti to the alkaline metals, regarding s ash as Na,O an ie recalls the formation by Bunsen “of ‘Bins alkaline subchlorids “by elec- trolysis, and states that these compounds can also be obtained by fusing potassium with chlorid of — or sodium with chlorid of sodium, in a current of hydrogen Rose considers these subchlorids as K,Cl and Na,Cl. He proposes to pia a for the received nomenclature of the basic oxyds, the terms quadrantoxyd, semioxyd, isoxyd, diploxyd and sesquioxyd, denoting respectively the oxyds w we! ormala 4 itten R,O, R written R : O,, Rz04.—Pogg. Ann., ote.—It a pears at least extremely probable, shat ihe ‘yeautitul tive ri eons colors produced y the action of metallic sodium or potassium ‘nie bodies containing chlorine, may be expiained by inpecti Seto jee te aisles sobchineide are found like those menti Seek Sy eames and Rose. I recall, for example, the memoir of 120 Scientific Intelligence, orange yel silicic acid colored brown by amorphous silicium. Heated out of contact =a 4 o ot 3 Ss Oo © =. < =. S cad S c S = = 5 & 2 oa 4 Q Ll = » tJ a ® a a Lod = 4 possibly Si, H,0, 9. _ Compounds containing sulphur, selenium and tellu- rium were also obtained, but only imperfectly examined. The sulpbut compound explodes violently when heated in a tube.—Ann. der Chemie und Pharm., exxvii, 257. We Chemisiry. 121 9. The Characteristics of Thallium'—Derived from statements of Crookes, Lamy and Bottger, and from original observations —Thallium occurs in minute quantities in many native metallic sulphids, especially in iron and copper pyrites. Hence it is often found in commercial sul- phur, in oil-of-vitricl and in the sediment of the sulphuric acid chambers in metallic copper, bismuth and cadmium, and in preparations derived from these substances. It likewise occurs in the flue-dust of furnaces and in certain mineral springs. hydrate (TIO,, HO) is brown and dissolves in chlorhydric, nitric and sulphuric acids. At high temperatures it loses its water but retains its me ed , . . Voluminous. Sulphid of thallium is insoluble in sulphid of ammonium, in alkalies, alkaline carbonates and cyanids. It oxydizes to soluble sul- ates produce no precipitates in solutions of thallium.— Chlorhydric acid throws down from solutions that are not too dilute, protochlorid of thal- 2 From the Editor’s notes to a new edition of Fresenius’ Qualitative Analysis in Preparation, to be published by John Wiley, New Yor 4s, Jour. Scr.—Seconp Szxms, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. te | ss 122 Scientific Intelligence. lium as a white curdy quickly-subsiding precipitate, which requires 50 rts of boiling water and 200 parts of cold water for its solution, and is ess soluble in water containing chlorhydric acid.—Jodid of potassium (next to sulphid of ammonium the most sensitive reagent) gives a | yellow precipitate of iodid of thallium, which appears to be slightly — soluble either in water or excess of the reagent.—Bichlorid of platinum — throws down a pale orange precipitate of platinchlorid of thallium which is slightly soluble in water and is decomposed on ignition, evolving chlo- tral analysis. The spectrum is characterized by a single bright green line coincident with Bad. This line is however usually perceptible for ut a moment, owing to the volatility of the thallium compound, and hence its intensity and duration do not safely indicate the richness im thallium of pyrites, flue-dust, &e. fe Of crude sulphur a piece as large as a pea is nearly burned away ond platinum loop and the residue is examined in the spectroscope; or better, _ the sulphur is mostly dissolved by means of sulphid of carbon, and what remains is tested spectrally. In pyrites, flue-dust, and lead-chamber sediment, it may be usually detected at once by the spectroscope. . The sublimate procured by strongly heating finely pulverized native sulphids in a closed tube, often gives the reaction when none can be obtained — directly from the sulphids themselves. 8. Weal AnatyticaL CHEMIstRy.— 10. Estimation of Sulphuric Acid in salts of the alkalies.—It is well known that precipitated sulphate of baryta may retain alkaline salts in consta Photography. 123 PHoToGRAPHY.— 11. Dry Process ; by MM. TrtsskrE et Jacquremet, of Marseilles — Any eollodion which gives good results by the wet process may be used in this, provided that it contains at least one per cent of iodids and 4 per cent of bromids. The following formula is recommended : Ether, - - - - - - - - 60 cub. c. m.* Alcohol, - - - - - - - 40 - Gun cott - - - - - - gram. Todid of ‘cadmium, - - - - - O70 uc 5° monium, - . - . bats ag Bromid ork ammonium, - 0-40 “ The plate is covered as usual, ina sesitewea® ina bath containing Distilled water, - - - - - . be cub. $:: m. Nitrate of silver, -- - - - - 8 gra Glacial acetic acid, - - eee ae y m. The plate is then snarl toa bath of distilled and filtered water, where it should remain until the plate ceases to appear oily. It is aa passed successively through three other baths of filtered water. first two, filtered spring water may be used, but the last should be “illed with distilled water. The plate is next washed in a solution of tannin, containing Distilled water, - - 100 cub. ¢. m. Tannin, - - - . - - 3 grams. Alcohol of 40 pr. ct. - 5Scub.¢c.m. In preparing this solution the tannin ito : first dissolved in the pure water, and filtered before the alcohol is a efore applying placed in rede See That from the first glass should be — treatment of a seco ate. -Lastly, the plate is washed under a ta supplied with pure water to remove the excess of tannin, and air dried. 1 f exposure for views is stated as from 1 to 14 minutes with a quarter plate Jamin view-lens of 10 c. m. focus, under best conditions. fine camel’s hai Having soaked the plate for a few minutes in pure water, it is next di in the silver bath used for sensitizing and drained. It is then dipped into ‘a shallow flat glass dish containing a sufficient quantity of the gee ersinn y oso water, - - - a bi “i m. yrogal lie acid, - w es * a a Glacial acetic acid, - - - - 10 cub. cm. By rocking the dish the liquid i is kept = pene over the sur- te and the dev re eee is carefully watched by the | ight transmitted t a the glass @ exposu e has been well timed the image will appear slowly, but aa all the dacs sharply defined and the lights wholly unstained. It is then only necessary to add to the ore a few drops ata time, of a weak solution of nitrate silver until the blacks are sufficiently intense * 98-84 cubic centimeters = 1 liquid ounce, 1 gram = 15-4 grains, 124 Scientific Intelligence. in the ordinary way. After again washing, a weak solution of gum ara ye bic is spread over the plate which is then dried and varnished. : that although the washing of the sensitized plate should be begun im ace id. If under ex hasten the development by increasing. the amount of pyrogallic acid and subsequently of nitrate of silver, whet the details are well out ew experiments gives the operator perfect not steady hands, the use of a shallow glass dish in developing as recom mended above will be found of great advantage, especially when the pro cess is prolonged. _ Photography. 125° Seven parts of crushed or ground malt are digested with 24 parts of. warm water, the mixtures being well stirred for 10 or 15 minutes at a temperature of 70° C. It is then slowly cooled and, having been strained through a cloth, is carefully filtered. The same collodion and silver bath are used as in the wet process, When the plate is sensitized it is placed in a flat dish of distilled water, which is waved over the surface until the plate ceases to appear oily. It is then drained for a moment and the malt solution turned on and off, as - directed above for the tannin, when the plate is again drained and dried. The exposure is about the same as with the tannin process. Before de- Crystallized green vitriol, - - - 120 to 170 grains. Ware st apetioas id, - - - - ee (liquid), If sitistent serge he is not ft obitnhet9 at first, to a ea: ort of the same developer may ed a few drops of the following solution, and € process repeated Nitrate of marry - - - - - - 15 grains. Citric acid, - - - - - IGe.5° ater, - 1 ounce The sedis are said to be — to those of the tannin process, es- pecially for transparencies on glas M. Julhiet, a French ph reunnine of a oo the following re- ceipts for the dry collodion process, which are said t maine remarkably fine negatives, excellently well adapted for ieaaine the solar camera, and the beauty of the — prints made by him he attributes entirely to the delicacy of the negat “ Colledion. Alcohol, - - : ‘ ‘ F ‘ Gun-cotton, - - : ‘ : F s Todid of cadmium, - - - - - * a i z z - 05 Bromid of cadmium, - 02 Should be kept for a — to a ‘a tent atid a half until the color, at rst red, becomes orange. + Silver Bath. ¢ Nitrate of Abi - - “ * pice : — — acid, : tad a aig SiG Z - 100 “ Solution of Tannin. Tannin, . : - - : - - s - grams. Water, - - - . : 3 Resta a Alcohol, - - - Before devel , th with « a small amount of dis- tilled ia silent hepa and then flooded with a solution containing Nitrate of silver, - o " - 3 grams. Water, - - . ] ol, - - o ite 126 Scientific Intelligence. which is allowed to rest on the plate for a minute and then drained ¢ when the developer is applied. Two solutions are prepared. if 0. 1. Pyrogallic acid, - - - - - 1 gram. Water, So Hota wy Rael Glacial acetic acid, - - - - 25 cono. - - - - No. 2. Saturated solution of gallic acid in pure water. The developer consists of 5 grams of No. 1, mixed with 15 g ; ARD Rutey, F.C.S.'—The presence of small cubical red crysta with a metallie lustre, has long been observed in the hearths of : blast furnaces—they may be said, in fact, to be universally pr to a grea t less extent—occur most largely in the hearths furnaces where clay iron-stone, or siliceous iron ores (su r. mercial reputation for its quality, and, as a rule, the better the quality’ iron made in a blast-furnace the more titan; < ntity. The red crystals were first supposed by Wollaston to be titanium} Wobler has subsequently shown them = be a mixture of a nitrid | * Read before the British Association at Newcastle, and extracted from London Chemical News, Nos, 20g and 207, Nov. 7 and 14, 1863. Metallurgy. 127 percentage of iron. The following are two analyses of some Norwegian o that has been used in the blast-furnace, and will be subsequently re- erred to :— 2. Magnetic oxyd of iron, Ad ee we 54.72 Titanic acid, - - - - . - 86°88 40°80 ilica, - - - - - - . 13°32 1.58 Magnesia, - - és gs lea ee ain 207 2°13 ime, Oe frre ny ee eA ae “78 "66 Bisulphid of iron (iron pyrites) - - - 1:05 err 100-24 99°89 Metallic iron, - 39 39°62 no longer to be considered one of the rarer elements, as it occurs very generally disseminated, and is a universal constituent of all clays, as was pointed out by me in a paper read before the Chemical Society last year, and recently published, from which the following table is extracted—giv- ing the percentage of titanium in the principal fire bricks used in London. The methods adopted to determine titanium are not at all satisfactory ; the following results would certainly be too low rather than too high, as in all probability the whole of the titanic acid was not obtained :— Table showing the amount of Titanic Acid in Fire Bricks and Clay. A complete analysis of these Bricks was not made, except those of Dowlais, and the Titanic Acid is too low and only represents in part the amount present. Silica. Titanic Acid. Description of Brick. Per cent. Per cent. Stourbridge (Slickman), - - . - 65:11 1:05 = Rufford), - . - - - 63°42 1°05 Neweastle (Lucas), - - - - + 6049 60 > (Stephenson)... 3.= fA x ian cet eps 7 " amsey), - : - - - : Wortley Leeds (farina ai cpio hl ee See 96 Harwarden, North Wales, - - + + 6289 69 Dowlais, South W “ a : * . 63:02 1°04 ellow London clay, (dry), - ee - 62 “50 Ewell brick, Surrey; + * 0 ="). «ty to =< UERE trace Dinas brick, South Wales, - - - - 94°33 Black alder, Devonshire, - - - T5616 “ From the above results it is apparent that in furnaces where clay iron- stone is used, the source of the titanium ‘is the clay in the ore and the shale attached to it. In siliceous ores, such as the hematites, the titanium most probably is obtained from the rutile, which is frequently found in quartz, and perhaps partly from the fire bricks and shale, which is fre- quently used. * These analyses were made in my laboratory by my late pupil, Mr. Betley. 128 Scientific Intelligence. The minerals of titanium, viz. rutile and titanic acid mixed with: iron, are largely found in Norway, and can be brought over to this coum ~ try ata very cheap rate. Rutile, which, commercially speaking, is pure titanic acid, can be purchased here for 10/. per ton, or even Jess if it wee taken in large quantity ; and iron ores, such as shown in the analyses given, can ught at from 20s. to 40s. per ton. a ee Recently a series of patents have been secured by Mr. R. Mushet, for the use and application of titanium in the manufacture of iron and steel, a and for alloying titanium with iron and steel, in which very beneficial we results are claimed for the action of the titanium. i Before entering upon the question as to the effects of titanium, tt will Up to the end of 1862 the author examined samples of pig iron, and Poe but in no case could any distinct evidence of its presence be proved, . ti strengthened by the results of M. St. Claire Deville, of Paris, who. : paid especial attention to the subject; and Dr. Percy observed also that e could never find it. M.St. Claire Deville mentioned to me, nversation on the subject, that he had eget see n a Belfast Iron Ore, dried to 280° Fahrenheit. eee: Peroxyd of iron, Protoxyd of iron, Alumina, - - Titanic acid, - anganese, - eae Magnesia, £ Combined water, - 2 Phosphoric acid and copper, Oe OS et Mea Sey wey oat eee ea ot OR PERE fee ee ee Fe tice Fae, Rosh tt ie ea wee Eset Med aah ors, ene ete * 4 ‘ ' e¢ ‘ ' ' 1 ' So RP SE SOs gg gs Og ‘ Jorss _ Metallic iron, per cent, 23°5 ? _ The use of this ore in the furnace was attended with considerable vantage on account of the high percentage of alumina it contains, 1 Metallurgy. 129 forming a anes readily fusible double silicate with the silica contained in the hem The method pursued to detect titanium was the same as that adopted and oh in my paper in the Journal of the Chemical Society for 1862, age 3 It, however, required no very special method to point out titanic acid was obtained, which gave the reactidns peculiar to titanic acid in the blowpipe flame with microcosmic salt. ‘The whole of the titanic acid cannot be rope with the silica, and a considerable amount is in solution with the ir However, to de termine accurately * The following are eg ree have been adopted to yee the titanic acid: —A weighed portion 0 Boy borings of the pig are treated with fuming nitric acid ina flask, a few drops o f chiothydre acid added from time ‘ tne, the whole being well boiled. The contents of the flask are then transferred into a por dish, evaporated to dryness, and heated strongly. ral igri it yt be found cha oxyd of iron readily detaches aes from the dish, a n be easily t iy and poured on the contents of the ated the di h may strong chlorhydric acid. The contents of the beaker are 4s bollé a for or got Mth = hree hours until complete solution of the iron is effected; and as some ninntity of chlorhydric acid is required for this, my usual plan is to allow a large portion of si ; 0 tained very nearly white after sh ge! off the graphite, and very little iron will be found with it except the pig contain much phosphorus, as the silica invasiehly ie tains more or less phosphate of i ke! from insoluble ce sphid o' yo which ca driven off by boiling. The solution is then nearly neutralized with ammonia, a acetate of ammoma or soda added; and if there is only a a small quantity of phos- phoric acid, there will always be sufficient peroxyd of iron to precipitate it, but if itri a Am. Jour. Scr,—Szconp Serres, Vou. XXXVI, No. 109.—Jay., 1864. 17 130 Scientific Intelligence. titanic acid, oxyd of iron ought to be entirely absent, as it either p vents its precipitation altogether, or materially retards it. This is, fact, the great reason why titanic acid has been so frequently overlooke and so many errors made. Some special experiments on this point wil be found in my paper previously alluded to. be Titanium may, however, be found more satisfactorily and more re during the process usually adopted to determine the amount of grapht t each other, and the filter well washed to remove all the iron. Iti : then treated with dilute potash, and washed once; then re- biog i as to remove entirely the silica. The potash was thoroug washed out, and the filter treated with chlorhydric acid, thoro washed and dried at 250° F., until the weight was constant. This garé the graphite, on burning which a residue of a dirty light brown color was left, which, on being fused with bisulphate of potash and treated ie acid, as will, before, proved that the residue was nearly pure titani seen from the results below :— Graphite and _ Residue Titanic acid of pigtaken. Titanic acid. after burning. obtained. — No.1 Pig 205°68 7°82 1-28 1-085 “9% 05 185 "835 “145 «3 21686 7-04 83 28 and redissolved in chlorhydric acid—is given below :— rains bee : of pig taken. Silica obtained. No.1 120°845 4:29 “ 9 127-93 8°659 “20 “ 3 122°55 9-22 265 taric acid is destroyed; in either case the residue is fused with of or where nitric acid is used, this is driven off with sulphuric aci : bisu tash is dissolved in cold water, boiled for some hours, @ 4 to a ni arm place, when the titanic acid is filtered off an t in a wi with dilute sulphuric acid—dried, ignited, and weighed. If the bi id is not required, then the precipitate produced ( “ dri ; * 8s even in sn has a very ect i , tion of titanic acid, so that it is always advisable to add a littl which reduces the oxyd of iron and facilitates the precipitation of Metallurgy. 131 This residue, chiefly titanic acid, contained, however, some iron, and was not so pure as that obtained by burning the graphite, given in the above table. The following are the tabulated results of the analyses of the three samples of pig: I. II, III. rbon, . - - 3°31 318 311 Silicium, - - - - 1°86 3°28 8:55 on, - - - - - 93°47 92°79 92°04 Manganese, - vie 50 48 1-09 Sulphur, - — - ae "071 058 112 Phosphorus, - - - ‘076 062 093 Titanium, - - - - 1150 “Tl ‘470 100437 —-100°560 100465 In all these the carbon was combined ; and traces of antimony, nickel, copper, and cobalt were found in all three samples. Samples 1. and 1. were No. 3 grey iron; and sample 11. was bright iron. The percentage of titanium given in the above analyses differs from that in the preceding table, due probably to the chlorhydric acid dis- solving some of the titanium. From 15 to 16 grains of the pig are dis- solved in nitro-chlorhydric acid, and the solution evaporated to dryness, the silica separated in the usual way, and volatilized with fluohydric and sulphuric acids, the residue fused with a little bisulphate of potash, dissolved in cold water, and added to the filtrate from the silica. The the Cornish ores used: * Analysis made in my laboratory by Mr, Betley. 132 Scientific Intelligence. Siliceous matter,- - = - - 23°38 21-70 2718 = 2108 © Peroxyd ofiron,- + - + 4196 5632 47°32 02097 Peroxyd of manganese, - - 26°77 611 1625 245 Percentage of metallic iron, - 2938 3948 38814 401877 = _ manganese, 1608 10°25 10°34 155 These ores contained a little phosphoric acid. i The following are the results of the analyses of three samples of this pig; the titanium being determined as in the other analysis of pig ven :— I Il. Grapite, 2. = es +e we 3010 2615 Combined carbon, - - . . 1 1:02 Silicium, - “ - - - 2-590 2°550 8:325 sith A Sync fae ia OOD 86-880 84256 Manganese, - - - - - 5°850 6 370 8-087 Nickel and Cobalt, - - - 110 F Copper with a little antimony, - 060 "045 “064 Phosphorus, - = - disse Ge 147 154 201 ee ee eee 026 026 ‘0iT Titanium, - - i é é 790 1°150 1629 joe: ren Samples 1. and 1. were made with a mixture of 4 Cornish, ¢ bog-ore, 4 hematite; and sample mt, } Irish bog-ore, $ Cornish ore The Irish bog-ore contained 7 to 9 per cent of manganese. These samples of pig were numbers 1 and 2, with here Metallurgy. 133 cult to flux or to get a good cinder; so that it is always necessary to have a large amount of an easily fusible silicate before satisfactory results can be obtained in the reduction of ores containing titanic acid. The following are the results of the dry assays of some titaniferous iron ore, containing by wet assay 39°08 per cent of iron: 1. 2. Tron ore, - - - - : 500 500 500 500 Clay, - - - - - - 100 100 00 Lime, - - - - - - 250 2380 150 180 Anthracite, - - ~ . - 80 15 q 70 930 905 "15 850 cal considerations on the composition of iron and steel. luminum and Aluminum-bronze ; by I. L. Brut, the Mayor of are concerned, new metal has scarcely been such as to require much to be added to those admirable researches bestowed upon the process by the distin tion mages . . the double chlorid subsequently decomposed by fusion with sodium, Faint, however, as the traces might be of impurity in the alum itself, 134 Scientific Intelligence. they toa great extent, if not entirely, being of a fixed character when exposed to heat, were to be found in fo a Bauzite, so called from the name of the locality wh France. It contains— Titanium, - - Sesquioxyd of iron, Alumina, - . Carbonate of lime, Water," is F228 ek Ft P.O CP eh ERE a ae GAY Soe | ert Saou eee ae autem Tee ae ee Ee SM oe See, ee ee Sake 8 The bauxite is ground and mixed with the ordinary alkali of com merce, heated in a furnace. The metal is so extensively used in the als it : be — — that metal, with the additional ay 202, property of being nearly as hard SEE A x, No. 2 Oe, ith 1808. te te Chemical: Nome HE 8. Processes of Silver and Gold Extraction ; by Guivo Kusstsh 8vo. 327, with 7 lithographic plates. (Carlton) San Francisco, 18' From the title page we learn that this work treats of the processes Agricultural Chemistry. 135 in Nevada and California for the extraction of gold and eh and is intended especially for the mining public of California and Neva he first part contains a chapter on the blow ipe, a description of gold and silver ores and the methods of assaying them, besides the extrac tion pro- cesses above alluded to. Part second, is a treatise on the general metal- lurgy of silver ores and is translated from Kerl’s “Hiittenkunde.” It contains further, a valuable series of tables showing the amount of fine silver per ton of ore and the values of silver and gold per ounce in the bar. The book seems to have been written and eh with considera- ble care by one who evidently understands his subject, and from our examination of it we should think it to be well adapted "for the purpose for which it was prepared. IV. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. . Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie, von y ustus von Lizsic. In zwei Theilen. Siebente Auflage. Erster Theil: —Der Chemische Process der Ernihrung der Vegetabilien. Zweiter Theil: —Die Naturgesetze des Feldbaues, Braunschweig, 1862. Also The Natu- ral Laws of guarene ry, by Justus von We cel c. Edited by Jony Bryrn, M. _ New ork : D. Appleton & Co., '3.—The seventh edition of The se faithful Aig satin translation n, is a new book w scope may be im perfectly gathered from the following titles of its chapte ers: Chap. I. Th Chap. II. The Soil; Chap. III. Action of Soil on Food of Plants in Manure; Chap. IV. Farm ee Manure; Chap. V. The System of Farm-yard Manuring; Chap. VI. Guano; Chap. VII. peal Excrements; Chap. VIII. Earthy Phosphates ; Chap. und Rape-Cake; Chap. X. Wood-Ash; Chap. XI. Ammonia and Nit Ni Sk ee XIL Common Salt, Nitrate of Soda, Salts of mo , Li This wo otk is ities n in ike earnest captivating athe pid characterizes the pienso of Liebig; it displ 2h vast knowledge and will be of Sea service to the science of agriculture by exciting Mitaiton and reb. “The work is largely devoted to the adv: of certain doctrines which different soils and felts 2, That the pill thagtl active process 0 gaseous and liquid diffusion eka does not apply in full force to- the 136 Scientific Intelligence. science. : Bs 2. On a function of Roots.—Hewricr (Hennebery’s Journal fir Land- a wirthschaft, 1863, p. 280 et. seq.) has made some ingenious and interest ing observations on the function of roots in supplying water to the plant 7 and on the development, under certain conditions, of special roots destined for this purpose. It is a matter of not infrequent occurrence that plants : Vate to a surprising extent. Henrici surmised t the roots which most cultivated plants send down deep into the even when the latter is b means porous or inviting, are d moist by occasional waterings The grew, putting forth new leaves. After the lapse of several weeks, ! * Geology. 137 not acquire a vivid green color, but remained pale and yellowish ; they did not wither until the usual time late in autumn. The roots continue were vigorous, very Jong and beset with numerous fibrils and buds. In the funnel tube the roots made a perfect tissue of fibers. In the dr earth of the funnel the roots were less extensively developed, yet exhibited some juicy buds. The stem and the young axillary leaf-buds were also full of sap. The water-roots being cut away, the plant was put into gar- den soil and placed in a conservatory where it grew vigorously, and in May bore two offshoots. The experiment makes it quite certain that plants extend a portion of their roots into the subsoil: chiefly for the purpose of gathering supplies of water. 8. W. J. Vv. GEOLOGY. 1. Contributions to Paleontology ; by Prof. James Haut. (Appendix D of the Sixteenth Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York on the condition of the State Cabinet of Natural History, ing the following subjects : h (4.) Note on the Geological Range of the genus Receptaculites in Cauda-Galli, F. Velum, &c.—The author infers, from the fact of the Occurrence of these forms, so far as now known, solely in Devonian rocks, that their occurrence may be found of advantage elsewhere, as indicating Jour. Sci.—Seconp SEaes, VoL, XXXVII, No. 109.—Jan., 1864. 18 138 Scientific Intelligence. a strata of similar age, but adds: “In other regions, however, where the : line between Devonian and Carboniferous is not so well defined as in New York and to the westward, these forms may be found to have @ a closing remark: “ Within New York these fossils are restricted to the force, I leave geologists to decide. These same doctrines, carried out it geological equivalency can never be fulfilled when sedimentary fo are studied over wide geographical areas.” (9.) The Flora of the Devonian period.—After some general obsertir tions on the subject, a recent article by Dr. Dawson (Quart. Journ. Geel. t age there consisting of limestones, A few remarks are added upon the group, exact demarcation of which, however, if it bas any existence, is not yet understood, eo (10.) Preliminary notice of the Fauna of the Potsdam sandstone; with é ieuek ae a beara known species of fossils, and descriptions rom i five plates) —This atisle. © — wgeliot oa below & E z ey : 8 apes Adentity of the forms referred to th Contains descriptions of 3 new ‘i Geology. | 139 they are convex and trilobed, with only the narrow middle lobe trans- versely sutured, the lateral being broad and smooth; it is called Pemphi- gaspis bullata. Professor Hall observes with regard to the distribution of the species of the Upper Mississippi valley : “ Although I have not been able to recognize the successive Trilobite beds of the Sandstone as indicated by Dr. Owen, I can nevertheless refer ed to s of the formation, and clearly separated from the great central mass, we have the Genera Dicellocephalus, Triarthrella and Aglaspis, together with Lingula, Serpulites and Euomphalus. We observe, therefore, that the earliest trilobites are referable to the genus Conocephalites; and the genus Dicellocephalus does not appear in the first stages of the formation, stages of the sandstone, that the typical species of this genus of Dr. Owen appear; and those from the lower m, belong apparently to other genera.” * * ‘ ; tages recognized, the physical con- ditions have been very monotonous hie the entire period; and in ar indications. We find great h trilobi - [We may here remark that the spelling Dikelocephalus, although it is that of Owen, the author of the genus, is wrong, and no authority can 140 Scientific Intelligence. make right a continuation in the error. The word is from the Greek dexsida and xeqady, and therefore requires two letters 7 ; and, also, if the k of the second part be changed into ¢, (as it should be,) the & of the first part ought also to beso changed. The true orthography is therefore Dicellocephalus.—Ebs. | (11.) Notes and Corrections,—under which head, observations are made on Retzia and Lichas fae] Chemung group of New York ; by James Haut. Published at November 11, 1863. 8vo. pp- 11.—This paper, published in orizo . 4. A Monograph of the Fossil Estherie ; by T. Rupert Jones, FY Prof. Geol. and Min. Royal Military College, Sandhurst. 134 VI. ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY. 1. On the new Planet Eurynome @), (in a letter to the Editors from Prof. Jamzs C, Watson, dated Observatory, Ann Arbor, Nov. 1: aT 1 a 5 18638, ~—e Oh 98m 29s +38° 183 3 $F 15 28 10 7 ene Bi | 19 28 48 2 386 23 29.68 2 33°6 27 31 38 2 326 Astronomy and Meteorology. 141 a 6 log. A. 1863, Dec. 1 Oh 33m 47s 2° 35%4 010884 5 3 25 2.4)" 012112 f 9 89 29 2 62°0 0'13349 13 42 68 + eho | 014589 17 46 52 $° 91% 015821 pe | 61 8 8 40°9 017048 25 O 55 44 +4 2°47 0°18255 The correction to be applied to this ephemeris, Nov. 11th, was 4s Ad.= +03. This agreement is very close, considering the fact that the elements were derived from observations made during only the nine days follow- ing the date of the discovery. n several evenings I have made careful estimates of the magnitude of the planet by comparing it with stars of nearly the same brilliancy in its vicinity, and adopting Argelander’s scale. Date, Mag. Date. Mag. Sept. 14, 9°50 Oct. 12, 9°50 26, 9°50 23, 9°20 28, 9°50 28, 9°25 Oct. 10, 9°25 31, 9°25 ii, 9°50 Nov. 3, 9°20 Reducing these estimates to Oct. 10th, and taking the mean, giving the estimates equal weights, we find, ct. 10th, magnitude = 9°3. According to the elements already obtained, adopting this determina- tion for Oct. 10th, the mean opposition magnitude of the planet, M= 10°37, and the magnitude when the planet is in opposition will vary between the limits 9°0 and 1174. . The planet therefore ranks among the brighter members of the Aster- oid Group, and it is probable that the final determination will indicate that it is brighter than results as above. MerroroLogy— oe BR extensive arrangements were made this year for watching for shooting stars on the nights near Nov. 13th. A circular was issued by the Com- mittee on Meteors of the Connecticut Academy, and one by Mr. Robert Brown, Jr., of Cincinnati, inviting the codperation of observers. These invitations were heartily responded to throughout the country. former arranged for observations on one night, Nov. 13-14th, the latter on ree successive nights. The reported results are very gratifying. They show distinctly that there was a larger number of meteors to be seen Nov. 13-14th than on ordinary nights, and also than have been seen on the corresponding night of years immediately eding. A ti from Leo is also very distinctly shown. Sip dame Y at nearly every station whose latitude is.greater than that of New Yor! the clouds and rain prevented successful observation. The following is a brief account of observations made. j (1.) Lieut. Gilliss, of the U. 8. Naval Observatory at Washington, com- municates to the editors of this Journal observations on 213 shooting 142 Scientific Intelligence. stars seen by Mr. Ferguson, Assistant Astronomer, Professors Hall and arkness, and Messrs. S ringer, Eastman, Rogers and Harrison, on the night of Nov. 13-14th, 1863. The duration of flight was in each case estimated, the places of appearance and disappearance, and the appa magnitude. The observations will be published in detail. The average : of the entinates of duration is 0°37 sec. In this list there were— rom 104510" to 11h, 8 meteors. “ 1 1 “ 1 2 | 1 “a “cc 12 “ 1 93 ; “ “ 1 “ 2 42 “ i 2 3 46 a oe “ 3 “ 4 46 “ r ‘“ 4 “ 5h 7m 37 “ec al (2.) At Haverford College, Prof. Samuel J. Gummere, assisted a Prof. Clement L. Smith, Messrs. James A. Chase, Edward T. ca Barney Taber, Allen C. Thomas and R. Morris mage au 316 ing stars between 104 38™ p,m. and 54 16™ a. m. of the me night i The distribution of the flights cyan the hours was as colonia? ‘a8 From 1028 38™ to 11h p.m, 6 meteors. “ 1 es.“ 19 10S ee Fs 12 "ass 40. 4 Je “ 1 %, sc 2 52 “ ig ; “ 2 H 3 67 y . 3 4 aes “ 4 “ (a 64 “ 5 af Nearly two hundred were pact pon he ot and the lines show ecided radiation from = sickle Abog seventy of them were amon g those seen at the Naval Obserss tory in Washington. The paths Pig more than fifty can probably. ig computed, (3.) Mr. B. V. Marsh, at Germantown, watched from 14 is. 5h ai Mr. Philip H. Strubing assisted in Beaten the record. rom 15 to 18 shooting | stars. “ 2 6“ - “ 3 “ 4 M “ “cs 4 “ 5 “ “ 5 “ 5 20m 14 “ Total in 4h = "97 - The were favicibla seconds. (4) Mr. H. D. Vail, assisted by Mr, Wim. G. Rhoads and Mr. Thos B McCollin, observed a t Philadelphia, Ahey recorded 55 paths, 15. bss of w which appear to h ave been seen at | Washington. Mr. C. J. A Astronomy and Meteorology. 143 (7.) To the North and East of these stations the clouds and rain pre- vented observation almost entirely. Rev. H. S. Osborn, at Belvidere, N.J., saw three. Homer G. Newton, M.D., and Mr. T, W. Twining, at Brook- lyn, saw six. At New Haven, Prof. W. D. Whitney, A. W. Wright, Ph.D., J. W. Gibbs, and Mr. Hewitt, with a large party of students, were watching and saw only 32 from 944 p.m. to 145 a.m, The air was very hazy, and after half past one the sky was entirely covered. The paths traced after eleven o’clock indicate a radiation from Leo. Noy. 11th. Nov. 12th. Nov. 13th. Nov. 14th. From 35 45™ to 4h 45m, 9-12 3 10 30 2 1 12 19 Hourly average, 85 2°7 11 245 On the first morning the sky within 25° or 30° of the horizon was ob- scured by the haze. The star ¢ Urse Minoris was clearly visible. On thick on the fourth morning. On the morning of Nov. 15th it rained. — (10.) Mr. Francis Bradley, of Chicago, Ill. says that “on the night of Nov. 12-13th it was cloudy until midnight, and our company of observers 144 Scientific Intelligence. dispersed. At 2 o'clock, a. m., Nov. 13th, I arose and found it partially clear, few or no stars being visible below an altitude of 30° or 40°. The rest of the sky was a little dim. U cloudy and rainy.’ oa (1 i) Prof. O. N. Stoddard, of Miami University, at Oxford, Ohio, aided by a number of members of the Senior Class, observed on __ a Nov. 11th and Nov. 12th. The next night was cloudy. The follo : are the numbers seen: 10h tollh 11h to12h 12h tolh 1h togh om a e 16 19 28 20 Nov. 11-12th, 12-13th, 10 36 40 43 Of those seen the first night, 67 were conformable, or 64 per cent. pe the second night 76 were conformable, or 59 per cent. There were by v. 13th. The sky which had became entirely covered with cloud rt before been partially obscured oe 8, HES At Oxford, Ohio, by Prof. O. N. Stoddard. cKibben. |, Hillsborough, Ohio, “ Prof, Matthews and Messrs. Edwards and Mc : “ Marietta, # “Prof. Evans. “ Pittsburgh, Pa., “ Profs. W. rots. Woods, Burnham and Bradley. “ Bloomi Ind., “ Profs, Wylie and Kirkwood. “ College Hill, Ohio, “ Pro erman, “ Richmond, Ind., “ Profs. Morgan and Moore. “ ier, Ohio, “ Prof. Hamilton L, Smith. “Frankfort, Ind., = aut. J.B, Reno. oN ashville, Tenn., “ Rev. J. Berrien Lindsley, D.D. “ Louisville, Ky., “ E. A. Grant, LL.D. “ Cardington, Ohio, “ Mr, M Allen Armstrong. “ ny, Ind., E. S. Crosier, M. D., U.S. A. “ Crawfordsville,“ = « Prof. J. L, Ca. pbell “ Hanover, . - “ Cincinnati, O : Thomson, hio, =“ Messrs. Robt. Brown, Jr. and C. G, Boemer. Astronomy and Meteorology. 145 (14.) The following observers have reported that they were prepared to watch on the night of Nov. 13th, either alone or with others; viz., Prof. ; Mr. Horace Bumstead, Boston, Mr. F. W. Russell, Natick, Mass., Mr. Esty, Amherst, Mass., Mr. R. Norman Foster, Northampton, Mass., Mr. Hiram A. Cutting, Lunenberg., Vt., Mr. Searle, Newport, .. Rev. Wi Smith, Berlin, Conn., Mr. G. W. Hough, at the Albany Observatory, 1832 there was a display in Europe; in 1833 one in America. Yet the same shower should evidently be visible through several hours (not less than six) in longitude. According to the observations this year there appears to have been a decline of numbers towards morning. We should naturally expect an increase until daybreak, since their frequency it would seem should be proportional to the sine of the angle of elevation of the radiant. If the decrease is real and is due to a diminution of the numbers entering _ It is well worth observing whether there js. a four years period for any single longitude, as might be expected from a ring of small thickness. If we are reason to suppose that it will be more remarkable in Europe than in America. Hi Ae Bo Additional Communications.—After the foregoing abstract by Professor Newton was in type, full Reports were received from Prof. A. D. Bach Superintendent of the Coast Survey, and from Prof. Hamilton L. Smith, of Kenyon College. tps under direction of Mr. Charles A. Schott, Assistant of Coast Survey, and composed of himself with Mr. L. F. P i and Messrs, J. Main, A. Zuambrock, W. T. Bright, L. Karcher, J. Downes, and H. Main,—eight observers,—and to each certain portion of the heavens two observers were generally assigned. Magnitudes were noted, and also the instants of flight to the nearest half second on a chronometer of known error and rate, and with a free command of the heavens down to 15° above the horizon, which was beclouded. The durations of flight Were recorded in forty-nine instances. From 8 p.., Nov. 18, to 2 a. m., Nov. 14, one hundred and seven flights were recorded and more than half them mapped upon the star chart as follows :— Am. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Sertes, Vou. XXXVII, No. 109.—Jax., 1864. 19 146 Scientific Intelligence. From 82 to 9b 7 meteors, | From 115 to 125 8 “ “ a“ 10 “ 10 “ 11 ll “ “ 1 “ 2 - At 10™ 5145 after midnight, and also at 11™ 3045, large ae spl : meteors, the first from 5° N.E. of Sirius and the second from of the same, moved west 60°, in the first instance, and 50° in hel Re "bol nearly parallel to the equator, and the last directly across Sirius. e durations varied from 05-1 to 15-00, and they average 0*-41 for the forty-aine estimated. ie At Kenyon College the pight of the 13th—14th was entirely obscured, x and that of the 12th-13th partially, There were, however, in 331 mine utes after 105 20™ p. m., one hundred and ninety-nine meteors see, via? a N.E. 36, N.W. 35, SE. 58, S.W.17, N.1, E. 7, Zenith 43, 8.2 On the night Vee ‘(11th-12th), i in 210 minutes, ‘from 11% 29m p. My to i about NE. 305 aa S.E. 68, S.W. 24, N.3, E. : Zenith 15. The a (euives further i inquiry sna Sentnatio‘. Shiny of the bigs a i map ee | on the chart, and these vary in are from 2° to 25°. One of the he longest te lies in Perseus and remarkably exhibits a hoot aa peti! having its termination about at right angles to its beg g. i Both of these Reports will be treated ‘ts in detail hereafter, when the : entire mass of returns shall-have been collated and discussed. A. OT = Vil. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1, Expedition to the Desert of Sahara under Messrs. Martins and ie cher von Linth —Through the kindness of a friend we are enabled 10 give the following information relating to an expedition now in from Switzerland to the Sahara desert, under the direction of Mess Martins and Escher von Linth. ached - The expedition left Switzerland on the 11th of October last and : a Algiers on the 18th. From there te, they went to papel 8 and tthe ie of mountains to the north of pene endless Sahara. The letter observ. “They also, like the French soldiéis twenty years ago, and t he he Bom Legions seventeen centuries before, could not help crying, ‘the of the < sea,’ transported as lage were by the i impression of they ramears tableaux. Another selemn moment of their j journey was the : the ‘cluse’ of El a where, after a long walk in a most bar te esert country, they perceived also, on a sudden, the Oasis of Biska’® lineating itself in at most delightful manner with its palm-trees of Sl with their gilded fruits. The contrast between the icy solitude ° Gothard and the lovely gardens of Lago Maggiore is certainly st!®™ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147 of the Bonapartea flourishing finely. The head of the old plant slowly decayed, a part of the leaves fell off, no suckers or shoots have appeared, and by another summer the plant will have died. It is now known, if not ascertained before, that the seeds of this plant will ripen in a warmed conservatory. Many and splendid additions of exotics have been made by the pro- prietors. The air-plants, Zillandsia pulchella and linifolia, were in full bloom a few weeks since, growing upon a dry stick a few inches long, besides others of the Orchis family. Cc. D. Rochester, N. Y., Sept. 1, 1863. 3. The Chemical Chair in Berlin, made vacant by the lamented death of Mitscherlich, has been declined by Bunsen, who could not be induced to leave the circle of friends he has drawn about him in Heidelberg. Dr. Hofmann, of London, has since received the proffer of the place, but rof. Watson's new Asteroid G3) Hurynome, was aroma, Sa > a vations from Sept. 14 to Sept. 23 at Ann Arbor, are given in Astr. Nachtr., No. 1442, and in this Journal for November, 443. See also this number, p- 140. te 5. Prof. Oapen N. Roov.—Prof. Rood, formerly of Troy University, and well known by his numerous able physical papers in this Journal, has lately been elected to the Chair of Physies in Columbia College, New York, and will enter upon his new duties at once. Boox Nortcrs.— 1. A Text-book of Geology ; designed for Schools and Academies, by James D. Dawa. 356 pp. 12mo. Illustrated by 375 wood-cuts, 1864, Philadelphia, Theodore Bliss & Co. Price $1.75. In the preparation of the Text-book the general plan of the “Manual 148 Miscellaneous Intelligence. of Geology” has been followed. Geology has been treated as a history=— a history of the geographical changes of the globe, or those of its eonli- nents and seas, through the successive ages, and also a history of the progress of life from the earliest species to Man; and the illustrations of the science have been mainly drawn from American rocks, so that the Although an abridgment of the “Manual,” it is not a patchwor. extracts from it. The whole has been entirely rewritten and thrown into other literary institutions, and not less those of the general rea would obtain a knowledge of geology without entering into 1 Cetails. [ae] 8 S Ss &. 5 cw & > & S = = = bar) a y S a oa “~< S & ~ ~ w > S 5 Q 8 2 5 fv) a S B~4 a "% is i s 8 — = oe 4 S o fie, Biog' Northan Miscellaneous Intelligence. 149 ful or self-laudatory statements, but inferentially from the simple thread of history. On another occasion we may return to this volume for some valuable statistics of the scientific departments at Amherst. A full list of Dr. Hitchcock’s numerous publications is given, amounting in all to no less than 171, of which 24 are distinct volumes and 69 are on scientific subjects. 5. Frick’s Physical Technics.'—We cordially commend this book to all teachers of physics and especially to those whose situation or cireum- stances cut them off access to a good ¢ollection of physical instru- ments. The arrangement of the book follows Miller’s text book, many of the figures of apparatus being identical. While the most expert demonstrator may gain sore useful hints from Dr. Frick’s book, the less experienced teacher and student will find it an invaluable vade mecum in fon) =) x. ~ x, ~ hy 3 > Ss Q = ior) =. 3 3 ~ ) s ~ a = $ S Ss i = oS =] 2, 6 s co @ fo => 3 < = ~_ ° S. co S ® Anthropologie der Naturvolker, by J. T. Corurnewoop, F.G.S., F.RS.L., and published for the Anthropological Society of London by Longman, Green, Longmans and Roberts.—This work sustains the idea of the the Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., vol. ix, 1863.) OBITUARY. Hewry Firz.—The death of Mr. Henry Fitz has inflicted an almost irreparable loss upon that large class of scientific men whose apparatus is the product of the optician’s skill, while those who knew him person- ally and appreciated his frank and generous character must feel that his vacant place cannot be filled. : It is not saying too much to assert that Mr. Fitz has done more to pop- ularize Astronomy in this country than any other man. In former days hitherto enjoyed only in fixed observatories with costly instruments. r. Fitz was entirely a self-taught optician, and like his friend and co- * Physical 1 ies: or Practical instructions for making experiments in Physics and pememenee Ph. sical Apparatus with the most limited means. By Dr. J. Frick, Director of the High School in Freiburg, and Professor of Physics in the Lyceum. Translated by John D. Easter, Ph.D., Professor of Natural Philosophy ity of Georgia. and 1862. 8yo, pp. 467. 150 Miscellaneous Intelligence. may little remarkable that both of these American opticians were many years is not intended to impugn the originality of Mr. Foucault's discovery, bus simply to record the priority of American invention—it is within the knowledge of the writer that Mr. Fitz used the method of local corree as early as the year 1846. The largest telescope completed by Mr. Fitz was of the dialitic construe tion, having an aperture of 16 inches. It is mounted in the private ob- servatory of Mr. Van Duzee, of Buffalo. 4 The principle achromatic telescopes made by Mr. Fitz are located as follows : One of 13 inches aperture at Alleghany City, Penn. ie - Tyudley Observatory. Albany, N. Y. ed udiad 5 Se 2 Ann Arbor, Michigan. o ee ee . (not yet mounted) at the Vassar College oughkeepsie, N. Y. ! alain 2 ies “a the private Observatory of Mr. L. M. erfurd, New York City. 4, pete ae ig U.S. Military Academy, West Point. _ “ ptivate Observatory of Mr. Vickars, Baltt- more. oe . belonging to the Hon. Chargé to Monte Video eo ee “ Elmira Female College, N. Y. ate ” Haverford College, Penn. ee pee: eae _ private Observatory of Mr. John Campbell, New York City. ‘ co ee yf constructed for the U.S, Astr. Expeditit to Chili, and now there. mee. 8f * “ private Observatory of Mr, Robert Vi Arsdale, Newark, N. J. Mr. Fitz’s optical labors were not con copes, but almost immediately u Within the compass of a short notice it would be impossible to e? merate all the instrumental additions and simplifications for which | t scientific world is indebted to Mr. Fitz, and perhaps it would not be he power of any one person to recall them all: they could only be g red trom a comparison of the experience of those who knew and ré the benefit of his fertile ingenuity, the achievements of which were uded to in his modest and unostentatious conversation. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 151 Mr, Fitz has left with his bereaved family precious legacies of experi- ence and material which it is hoped will enable them to continue his op- tical labors in a worthy manner. Pror. E. Emmons.—Died, at his plantation, in Brunswick, N. C., Oc- tober Ist, 1863, Professor Eszyezer Emmons, M.D. Born in Middlefield, Mass., in 1798, he was graduated at Williams College in the class of 818. He studied medicine and received the degree of M.D. from the sections; and to him was assigned the N.E. portion of the State on the coast of Lake Ontario and south to the counties of Herkimer, Lewis an Saratoga, as the divisions were in 1842, when his report was published. r. Emmons removed from his home in Massachusetts to Albany, that -he might be in the centre of the great geological survey. There he was made a Professor in one of the chairs of the Albany Medical College. To his Geological Report, he added successive reports on the agriculture There his life was closed. On his exhibition of his fossil collections in North Carolina, at the meeting of the Scientific Association at Albany in 1856, Professor Agassiz stated that the discoveries were of a higher character in geology than any published for years. The offices Dr. Emmons held show the public estimate of his qualifica- tions and acquisitions. His labors show that this estimate was not too high or misplaced. Tn his Report on the Second (his) District of New York, which before is examination was unknown as to its geology, Dr. Emmons gave a lucid and full view of the rocks and their relations, and chapter vir and the two following contain his “ Taconic System,” or the rocks between the fossil- iferous of Eastern New York and the primary rocks of the western part of New England. In the Report on the Agriculture of the State, pub- lished in 1843, Dr. Emmons gave an expanded and interesting view of the Taconic System. Though opposed by some of his associated geolo- gists and by some others of high distinction, the author has found support in some distinguished geologists of Europe. Dr. Emmons died ’ 152 Works Received. VIII. WORKS RECEIVED. PROCEEDINGS oF SocIET ata Jahresbericht iiber die Forishritte der Chemie ; herausgegeben von Hepwaxy Korr and Hernrica Witt. Fir Oversigt over det kongelige dnoske “Sie menaeRYs Selskabs Forhandlinger 9g dets Mediemmers Arbeider i Aare Jabrbiicher des Vereins fiir Na fecha im Herzogthum Nassau. Sechrest Heft. Wiesbaden: 186 wae ungen der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel. Dritter Theil. he oder Schiuss-heft. Basel: 1863. Weeteiit der Deutschen rates Gesellschaft. XIV. Band. 2. Heft. 18 li Monat aelcte Brg koniglichen Preufs. Sioiewie ae Wissenchaften zu Bein Aus dem Jahre Mit 11 Tafeln. Berlin g ~ Bulletin de la ‘Société Impériale des peat iy ‘le Moscon, publié ribo’ on Re : ion du eur Renarp. Année 1862. Nos. IJ, III, IV. Mosco ie Verslagen en Mededeelingen re koninklijk se < ——— van ‘Tc ‘Aldecling S ashesiko, 3d and 4th parts. 1862. rslagen en Mededeelingen der ronnklie ‘Akademie van Wetenechappen Afdecine Letterkunde. 6th Deel. Amster Jaarboek van de pr pict — mie van | Weteanttsiapiiel Gevestigd i! ind or, sterdam, voor 18 Bulletins - LAcadém via Hoyal ale des aRES des opr otag et des rod | papa e Année, 2me Sér.,T. XIII, XIV. 1862. xelle Bru x onnés et autres “Mémotres, } pas: par r Académie Royale ¢ Sciences sone Betined et des Beaux-Arts de Belgiq ue. Collection in-8°. —T. 3 a mye on xelles : a abt ch der kaiserlich -kéniglichen geologischen ers: 1861 ee xil et Nro.3,4. The same, 1863. XIII. Band. Nro. io RTS.— ? Report pe opmnioners upon the field Railroad, and Hoo! Tone. Febronry ra , 1868. Boston: Wricht ‘ behen State Printers, Ne pring : co -Fifth Abe ad Report of the Regents of the University of the State of ew York. 862, eport of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1862. Washington: " ie. Report « . the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1861. Agriculture. Mies: ington : METEO ROLOGY AND row aie 1863 exten of twenty-eight years gin a > half from aa — i oo" , 1860. : Caswett, Professor of Natural Philosophy and "Astronomy in Brown Universi Providence, Rhode Island. Washington City: Published by the Smithsonian | ar in the Anantara Contributions to Knowle ledge. October, 1860. Ne se York _ Discussion of the Magnetic and Meteorological Observations made at the College Observatory, i aig hg 1840, 1841, 1842, 1843, i aa ‘845. ond Section, comprising Parts IV, V, and VL Horizontal For y Ae Published by the Siiithsanian ME vat November, 1862. “New York : D. AP pleton & Co. pe Report upon the det eager of the Longitude of America and Europe - the Solar Eclipse of July 28,1851. By Protessor Benjamin Peirce, LLD., &. _ New Discussion of the oe of the M + Pecie on the Ue the Gulf of Mexico, with a Chart of the rds. baa for 1860. By 4 Places of ‘ Ss : Sur Ja Marche annuelle du Thermométre et Bare orhacpl Neérlande ¢ lieux de LEaro) déduite Foerritions simultanées de 1849 . Works Received. 153 ~ C. H. D. vl s Bartor. Publiées par L’Académie Royale des Sciences 4 Am- m. Ams vhs : 1861. Abstract ts of Magnetics Observations made at the Magnetical Observatory, To- ronto, Canada West, during the years pr to 1862, inclusive, and during parts of the years 1853. 1854, and 1855. Toro Reduction of the Observations of the is ep-Sunk Thermometers at the Royal Prof. J. Eve Results of Meteorological pa for Twent ere for H tidirollogiocims ‘Beobachtongn Aufgezeichnet auf Christiania’s Observatorium. Lieferang I ea Il, 1837-1847. Christiania: 1862. Met sche dasiocsiigvah in Neder land en Zijne Bezittingen, en Afwijkin- gen vane em seed ur en Barometerstand op vele Plaatsen in Eur ropa. Uitgegeven door het koninklijk ates ee meteorlegteh Institnut. 1861. The same, 1862. Utr ae Kemink en Zoon. On the Rainfall and Eraporti in Dublin, in the year 1860. By the R = t Havexton, M.D, F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Dublin : baie, the oo and Force of the Wind at Leopold Harbour. By the same. cron r oesterreichischen Fregatte can um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 858, 1859, 9, ‘ibis den Befehlen des Com. B. von Wutterstorr-Ursair. Nautisch- piyrnher Te sna I. ee Gouin Ortsbestimmungen und Fluthbeo- Société de Géographie de Genéve. Mémoires et Bulletin. Tome II].—1re Liv- raison. Genéve: Uber die Siciher der i in den Jahren 1850 bis 1857 sagt. ena Erd-erschiit+ terungen und die Beziehungen derselben zu den Vulkanen und zur Atmosphiire: yon i Kart Emit Kuvee, Lehrer an der a See abode zu Chemnitz. Stuttgart: 861. 1 oaomranhy, Meteorology and Hyetography of Sacramento, Cal. By Taomay pocna AND CHEmist TRY.— in. ; Ca On the Construction of Improved Ordnance, as oe in a letter to the Secre taries of War, and of t ro and the Chiefs of the Bureaus of Engineers, sak of Ordnance, of the United S an Bt Dat re, Teeapwett, late Rumford Profes- sor in Harvard College. er Erdm stag ution th ale fo fol r Bewegung der Erde im Aeter. Von Gustav Sines Cand Math. Copen ge i Love af den kosmiske Pei. at Gustay Hrvptous, Cand. Math. Kjoe- = 11860 of an Electrical Machine of a New Form, constructed with regard to the mire of Gorureal ich By P. H. Vanpepwerpe, M.D., Professor of Chem- a of Physics and Chemistry at the oy at, ¥. ow pe The Observed Métions a te Companion of Sirius ee with poe greg to the disturbing body indicated by Theory. By TF: H. Sarrorp, Assistant at the Ob- preg of Harvard College. From ee edings of the hive Wren my and Sciences, . VI. e: Pe gt maa of a new Cataloguing and Charting Machine. By G. W. Hoven, A.M., Astronomer in eee of the Dudley Observatory. Abstract of a Paper read before the Albany Tnsti Albany : 1868. Am. Jour. Pei Ati Senne, V ot. XXXVII, No. 109. —ia., 1864. 154 Works Received. _— sur la _ Electrique de M. Greet dans or bsg gree oe chirurgicales-et : es opératio oak l'on peut faire avec cet sabes e de la description — rote son anse moignla a température constante. : Preliminary Revearches on Thallium. By William ek Esq., F.C.S. Contin uation of the s MINERAL LOGY AND GEOLOGY.— | Ancient Mining of the Shores of Lake Superior, By Cuartes WHITTLEseT~ — Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Washington City: ge 1863, New York: D, Appleton & Co. sea, The Penokie Mieseal Range, Wisconsin. By Caantes Warrrtxser, of Cleveland, — Qhio. Boston pita Experi sere Researches on the Granites ‘6 deiene Part IIL.—On the Granites F, of Donegal. By the Rev. Samuet Haveuto , F-R.S., GS, Fellow of Trim ity polleee, aad. “cates r of Gases 5 in the Univesity of Dublin. London : 1862. rare rolog y M. er, Mining Engineer, and aed of Fs Faculty of Science at Rennes eaateh from the “ Annales des Mines,” Vol. XI, 1857, by e mueL Haucarton, M.A ellow of Trin- ity College, and Prof Geology in the Uni of Dublin. Dublin: 185% Chemical and Min ee! Relations of Metamorphic Rocks, b ice NT, og from the Dublin Quarterly tora of Science On the Geological epaat u ae the Southern Grampians, By James Nico, .E., F.G-S., Prof. of Nat. ‘Hist. in the Universityrof Aberdeen : On the nae? Bearing Strata of Merionethshire. By T. A. Reapwis, FOS, E88 : : 1862. Robe o on the Chaudiére Gold pian: Canada East. Sept.1863. Printed byor der of the Legislature. Quebec : jel Se of the Chief Gold ‘Commissiover for the Province of Nova Scotia, for the year 1862. Halifax, N.S castor et du pétal ar M. Des ore Note Sur les Propeidiée Tron t biréfringentes et mn .v Forme cristalline de Ta | blygonite. By the same, From a si ere | Observations sur les Modifications permanentes et te pasa ires que laction des : moles apporte a quelques rane optiques de plusieurs corps crista llisés. By Z e same, Rapport dares di —— varicolori aperte nei pa = proprieta della Sigh Tropora Gatto et Caporatt, nel luogo detto il Capan acigno ‘Dae litico. Nota de I Prof, Cav. G. Menge my Riwaens = Ferro Oligisto nei giacimenti ; ofiolitiei “di Toscana. Not ecw fs —— — Pisa : iamo y Wruutaw Pots, Fellow of the ies iety, ete. ete, Be tracted from Macmillan’s s sae gazine - Merge jary, 1 eee With » Note 0 on the ered rial State Crown and its J ewels, by Prof. J. Tennant, F.G.S. ete. Reprinted from the Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archeological Sodlethi Vol. I ae don: The Mansfeld Copper- a eee in Prussian Saxony: their and state. W ith tatistics, Metallurgical age esses, Ad ae eration, Social oe of the Miners, Provident fen By W PE F.G.S., Mining Engineet. printed from the Journal of the Society ‘of Art red n the International Exhibition of 1862. By Mr. Wat. Hawes. A Paper ® before the Society of Arts, June 5th, 18 Ison Geolo — ee oti i Bergens Omegn af Ta. Hiortpant 0g M. Christiani Sidicwets =: ie Ueber lpg ys dec 2 Dr. C. Ta. F. vox Sresotp, k. “siesta Mitglieb der k. Akademie der Wissen schaften. Mimchen, 1 ys fod Daakrivelse over Lophogaster typicus, en Merkverdig Form af de Laver? (ag Krebsdyr, af seen G9 os ianias Universite) ~~” lithographerede Platicher Chelate Works Received. 155 Synopsis of the Vegetable — of Norway. By Dr. F. C. Scuvur Translated from ae MS. by Rey. M. R. Barnard, B.A. British Chaplain, Christiania. Christiania : n the Form of the Cells made by various tee a and by the Honey Bee: with an Appendix on the Origin of Species, i the'R ey. Samuet Haveuroy, M.D., F.R.S. Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. D Remarks on som racteristics of the edad Fauna of the White Mountains, New Hampshire. By re = hte bie Scupper. capo e Boston Journal of Natural History, Vol. VII, Part 1V. mbridge: Nov. Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of New O ntl vin its vicinity, prepared by L. VON RE&IZENSTEIN, Bibliography of North, American Conehology previous to the year 1860.—Smith- sonian Miscellaneous ae Prepared for the csyrtre ed Tostitatio by W. G. ey: Part I. " Ame wale thors. Washington Annual Report of the Triste of the Museum n of Comparative Zobloey, together with the Report of the Director, 1862. Boston MEDICINE.— Medico-Legal Contributions on Arsenic. By Caantes H, Porter, M.D. Albany, Outlines of a New Theory of Muscular Action. By ay wy Peace Haveuron, -D., F.R.S., Fellow, of Trinity College, oevEN Londo The Purification and Disinfection of the System by a or a use of fresh-burned Charcoal and pure Air better than poisoning it for the oe ion aud Cure of the great majority of Diseases. By A.S. L. New York: 1863. The Transactions of the N. Y. Academy of Medi cine — Management of Pulmo- nary Tuberculosis. | By Austin Fuint, M.D. New Yi ms Manual of Etherization: containing directions for t yea tail of Ether, Sn ha ee other Anesthetic agents, - ination, i in af 0 Operations. By T. Jackson, M.D., F.G.S.F. Boston ee eas, Pes ar dam jist 1861, Relazioni dei Giurati. Industria Mineraria e Metal- London ‘Bapoe: of rt Committee of the Overseers of Harvard College appointed to visit eer Peer in the year 1862; together with the Report of the Director. Bos- on tia al Address os ‘bese ag ora LL.D., as Chancellor of ae University, ae M1 The Wa a r, M.D. Sanford, M.D. as Professor of anny Fe “inaiesty fet ale College. Deliv ered September vith, 1863. New Haven: Contents of the Correspondence of Sent Men of the Seventeenth Century, cng at the seeing se Press, Oxfor ee wo volumes, 1641. heroes om at ae and Prof. of MeGaasuaticn ‘a Sakesrs = llege, éffent zung Gevachtniss ingen bee Baptiste Bi io ‘der ae Se der k. b. Akademie dee Wissenschaften am 28. Marz 1862. Von Oart Frieprica Classe. iinchen: 1862, nigs ropes IL. geha en yon Jurtus Fremerey von Liesic, Vorstand der Aka demie. Minchen: eo _ Giornale dell In: nzegnere-Architetto ed Agronomo. Anno IX. Num, 7° e 8°.-— i e Agosto uvertes. Journal Universel des i Moniteur Tilustré des bac armpiy aged sets Octobre-Novembre Expositions Frangaises et Etrangéres et Ind 1863. Paris : 1863. Fe 156 Works Received, ' Transactions of Societies, AMERICAN — or Arts AND Sciences. Vol. VII[.—Part IT.—361, On the Measure of Forces of et mores with sec Velocities ; D. Trea duell.—810, Remarks on Spence e Reser ank Deposits; Francis Bowen.—389, A Hi of the Fishes of Massachusetts, with six plates) <3 Humphreys Storer (com — tinued.)}—435, On Certain Forn Interpolatio P. G. Bartlett.—445, Obser vations on the Language of “, sabe (ened on Wright's edition of the Canter Tales, Harleian MS. No. 7334) ; F. J. Child.—5038, Plante Wrightiane e Cuba he entali, Pars Il. (Monopetelze et heb es); A. Grisebach —537,A Catalogue of aesmeeis — and Clock Stars, for the eer of Observation in Right As censi mses of their positions; Zruman Henry Safford —569, The Sun a airtel Stars BAe = —. OF THE Aca y Naturat Sciences or Purtaverrata. Ve 1. Vm Part FEBRUA ARY, 1862, 5, On the Chilopoda of North mage with a eat aia . all the specimens in the Collection of the Smithsonian Institution ; Hort tio C. Wood, w Unionide of t ited ee R, 1862.—111, Monograph of the Fossil Polyzoa of the Secondary and T Formations of Nort : abb and G. H. tions of Ni irds from tern Africa in the Museum of the Academy of Nat- ural Sciences of Philadel phia ; John C : Ne ide o t States and Arctic America; Jsaac Lea.—MARCH, 1863.—217, je Melanide | the Leroet ome Tsaae Lea —NOVEMBER, 1863.—$ 58, On the Pedipalpi North . GC. Wood, Jr., M.D.—377, New Exotic tied ees me 401, Deseripkitos of the soft parts 0 of one hundred and forty-three species some Embryonic Forms of Unionide of the United States; Jsaac 57, Stan = new and little known species of Birds of the family Picide ay seum Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; John Canin-—¥ol Part y, Saagie continuation of Mr, Lea’s Paper on New Melanide ; PROCEEDING S$ oF THE Acap. or Nar, Scr. or Purtap, 1863, (cine from % ee Gobioi est . . Gill.—267, On the Gobioids of the Ea ra Oba ast of the United States; 7. Gili. —271, On the genus Regen nt =e hep T. Gill.—272, es the genera of Hemirhamphine; 7 American Pam, Soc. Tran sisabae a XII—Part IIT.—Art. 4, Intellectual Symbolism: a Basis “a Science ; Be! Earle Chase, M.A.—Vol. a Californian Mosses ; L. Lesquereuz. Es AMERICAN ma Ro Ps sie JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.} Arr. XIII.—The Classification of Animals based on the principle of Cephalization ; by James D. Dana.—No. III. Classification of Herbivores.’ THE principle of cephalization and its applications rest on the following simple facts : . ( n animal is embodied or concentred force, which force manifests polarity in the results of its action in development, that is, in the oppositeness of the anterior and_ posterior extremities of the structures evolved and also in the dorso-ventral relations of these structures. ... 2.) The primary potential centre is in the head, or more pre- cisely, in the cephalic nervous mass—an animal being funda- mentally cephalized organism. But, besides this, there may (4.) The differences just mentioned are expressed in the a ture of the organism; and all such expressions are necessarily expressions of grade. (6.) Each of these kinds of differences must have expression, or, be apparent, (a) through the various circumstances attending + ad ~ . that far profounder knowledge is requisite for unfailing aoa 158 Dana on the Classification of Animals development or growth, and ()) through all the steps in the ~ progress of growth, as well as (c) in the resulting structures, The above general facts are at the foundation of all the — methods of cephalization, or decephalization, pointed out in Ar ~ ticle I. They receive further illustration in the pages beyond, ot pase explanations on pages 175 to 182. i eee ee he con: tremes of cephalization is one source of the difficulties in the subject of classification. But the law cannot, on account of the trouble it may give, be condemned; for, as I have before 1 marked, it is in accordance with universal truth that smallness, or circumferential contraction, should proceed both from concel tration, and from lack of quantity, although these are opposil® conditions. The difficulties in the way of a right use the principle of cephalization are, therefore, in nature, and must met by the only legitimate means—thorough study. be But he believes that the principle appealed to is right an fon. damental; and if he ventures to present new classifications © departments in zoology in which adepts in these departmen have made trials with diffierent results, it is only to offer such animal kingdom were considered. In the second, one Orders was reviewed and an arrangement given of its suv! sions, down to the grade of Tribes. In the present, the cation of a Z'ribe is followed out, down to the grade of Fan ee) based on the principle of Cephalization—Herbivores. 159 CLASSIFICATION OF HERBIVORES. Under the order of Megasthenes,* the tribe of Quadrumanes, as stated on p. 834, Art. I, is properly hypertypic, that of Carni- vores superior typical, that of Herbivores inferior typical, and that of Mutilates (or Cetaceans) hypotypie. 1. Distinctions between Herbivores and the tribes neat superior and inferior. A. Herbivores show their inferiority to Carnivores, or the superior typical group of megasthenic Mammals, on the basis of the principle of cephalization, in the following ways: (1.) In the fore-limbs being defunctionated of the power of prehension and reduced to simple locomotive organs. (2.) In the fore-limbs being not as much superior to the hind- limbs in strength as in the Carnivores, and even inferior to the hind-limbs in some species,—Herbivores, being less strongly prosthenic than Carnivores, and the species of the larger and most characteristic group being metasthenic. ; In the structure being strongly amplificate—Taking the gp Re : Pe aan . heape exhibits inferiority likewise in its great bulk; it is a marked * In order that the position of Herbivores, as reeognized by the writer, may be (vol. xxxv, p. 65), senting the tribes of t in parallel dete order to exbibit their parallel relations Order I. Mav. Order IT. ENES. Order IIT, Micnostnenes. 1. it aii 1. Chiropters or Bats. 2. Carnivores 9. Insectivores. 8. Herbi “ 4. Ht Mia 4, Edentates. Order IV. OGrocorps. Marsupials and Monotremes. 160 Dana on the Classification of Animals (7.) In the extremely wide variations as to size and shape under the type, and the occurrence of bizarre features.—As, for etc. 7 , being perverted to serve for defense or attack; and the nose sometimes for prehem canines in the same typical species. ie, (10.) In being prematurative in development, the young.amk a aati the power of sight and locomotion almost as soo — as bor ie : The abnormal outgrowths from the body or skeleton of Her bivores—as of horns on the forehead or nose, of a proboseis by an elongation of the nose, of tusks, horn-like in function, by an elongation of teeth, of humps of fat as in the Camel—serve 10 show, and even, if possible, more strikingly than the tendency to amplificate structures, that the vegetative force in Herbivores is far less under systemic control than in Carnivores. The Car nivores may be styled a tight type, the Herbivores remarkably @ loose one. Stepping over the line from Carnivores to Herbivore’ is passing from a group of marked regularity to one full of ab normities, ee 3.-—The superiority of the urosthenic aquatic Herbivores (Si renians) to the Mutilates (Cetaceans) is exhibited in theit— | _ (1.) Having the nostrils never Hl blo nor perverted : to blowholes, these organs being essentially like those of terme trial Mammals. : (2.) Never being multiplicate as to the number of pb or joints, of the digits. 3.) based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores, 161 See on this point, Art. I, p. 828, and beyond, p. 179. Mutilates consequently differ from aquatic Herbivores funda- mentally in (a) being mult‘plicate structures, as manifested in their limbs and teeth, as well as in the less important fact of great length of body behind; and also ()) in being more elementalized structures, as shown in the reptile-like teeth. 1e type is eminently, therefore, a multiplicate and elementalized type, and thus stands apart from that of the Sirenians,’ 2. Prosthenic, metasthenie and urosthenic distinctions among Her- bivores.—The distinctions, prosthenic, metasthenic and urosthenic appear to be an important basis of subdivisions under the Her- bivorous type. The urosihenic species (or those using the caudal extremity for locomotion) are the Sirenians, as the Dugong and Manatus, The distinction of prosthenic and metasthenic is manifested among the other Herbivores in two ways: (1) a higher or pre mary, in the general structure; and (2) un inferior or secondary, in the extremities of the limbs. (1.) Ln the general structure —Under this method, the prosthente species are those in which the fore-limbs are the stronger pair, and the melasthenic, those in which the hind-limbs are the stronger. The former include the Proboscideans, Rhinoceroses, apirs, Hogs and Hippopotamids. The Hog is particularly strong in the neck and fore-quarters. It is well known t fatted hog often loses the use of its hind-limbs from overgrowth, and not of the fore-limbs, although the fore-limbs carry not only their share of a body nearly equally divided between the limbs, but also the heavily weighted head. ’ The metasthente species are the Solipeds and the Ruminants, in which the hind-limbs are well known to be the strong Pe Th f-de- * Thi iti t only the Sirenians but also the Zeuglodonts, which have ‘ oon begtig paris with normal teeth and nostrils, although very elongat ie. 4 sae “= baer eeded than mere ree te hind- lim consequen these metasthenic species are not good for this kin Oe teat a ot cat length of limb,-too little real strength for the long and steady pull which it requires, and which is very different from the mere 162 Dana on the Classification of Animals Such species, strong in the hind-limbs, are well named Sthen meres (from the Greek oGevos strong and syoos thigh). at 2.) In the extremities of the limbs——The sthenic distinction referred to under this head is the inferior of the two becauseit appears only in the extremities of those organs which in their geueral relations exhibit the former. The manifestation of it confined to the hand and foot. As the inner side of the hand or foot is the more central side ‘in the system and the outer the more circumferential—a fact which any one will become aware of on looking at his open hand as it lies on a table—the higher species should have the rincipal strength in the inner fingers rather than the outer he transfer of force from the innermost to the outer, with de- scending grade of species, is well exemplified among Herbivores and the higher Mammals. In Man the inner toe is the stron nus (as figured in Blainville’s Osteologie) 4 U. arctos (ferox) 2, 8, 4,5 are very nearly equal 4 and 5 are the longest, exceeding 3- | i Tapirs, and it is so whether the number of toes be three or four, that movement of the legs demanded of a beast of burden,—too little superiority 19 on ee ae or an ill-adjustment of muscley ma os, ete the purpose, e Camel, one of the hypotypic or degradation uminants, Tak tase lecinded, ated 6 baséd on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores. 168 even stronger than, the vird; and, at the same time, the ji/th is as strong as, or stronger than, the second, if both are not alto- gether wanting; while the jirst is obsolete. The examples in- clude all the so-called paradigitate species, as the Hog, Stag, Ox, etc,, in which the toes are equal (or approximately so) in pairs, the larger pair consisting of the third and fourth toes, and the other, of the second and fifth. In the common Ox, the fourth toe appears to exceed slightly the third in size, and so also, the rudimentary fifth the second. In the Hog, also, the jourth toe is sometimes a little the largest. is sthenic distinction. partially fails among degradational forms, such as the Seals, Sirenians and Cetaceans, in which the structure is so far degenerated that this delicate mark of grade has not its full normal exhibition. _ 8. Distinction depending on the existence, or not, of a power-organ to aid in feeding, additional to those of the jaws.—Carnivores have, as one of their characteristics, organs apart from the teeth to aid in seizing or gathering their food. Amon Herbivores, the Elephant has an organ of prehension of great power and per- fection in the trunk or elongated nose. ‘he Tapirs and Hogs have also an elongated nose, which, although incapable. of pre- hension, except toa slight degree in the former, is a power-organ essential to the animal for the collection of its food. The Rin- noceros has a nose-horn serving in the same way. The nose is thus in all these groups, from the Elephant to the lowest of the The Horses and the Ruminants feed themselves by grazing, using their lips, teeth and tongue for the purpose, but having no id from the nose. | 4, Distinction of gross-amplificate and long-amplificate.— Gross- i 1 enlargement of the structure . . . amplification consists in a genera skeleton and in its fleshy covering ; and when in the latter it is often apparent in the production of an abnormal amount of fat over the body. This fatty overgrowth is the lowest grade of Long-amplification is exhibited in an increased proportional length of the body and its limbs or members, involving in Vertebrates an elongation of the bony structure. The gross-amplificate terrestrial Herbivores are those of the Elephant, Tapir and Hog groups, 10 which there is little differ- ence in the proportions of the body from those of the Carnivores. 164 Dana on the Classification of Animals it is independent of any in the limbs. : Ge The Bovine species are examples of gross-amplification on 4 long-amplificate structure. on The long-amplificate species include all the Ruminants, togethet with the Solipeds or species of the Horse-family among the Non- ruminants. ee This long-amplification is exhibited prominently in the limb, — neck and head. ae (1.) Jn the limbs.—As in other cases, it is manifested mos strikingly toward the circumferential limits of the system. + humerus shows no elongation, and is often even shorter, a8 com pared with the size of the body, in these amplificate species that in more typical kinds. Below the humerus, amplification 8 apparent in the fact that the radius exceeds in length the hume Tus; it is still more manifest in the great elongation of the bones below, especially the metacarpals and phalanges, the former alone being sometimes as long as the radius. The same general facts are true of the hind-limb. Owing to this extension of the extremities, the joint which seems like the knee in the leg o® Horse, Deer, Ox, etc. is really the commencement of the foot than the humerus; and the cannon-bone is two-thirds as vier: the radius. In the Camel the proportions are not very WY little more than one-fifth of the whole limb (measured, 281207 Horse, from the commencement of the humerus to the aa of the digits); the radius is one-half longer than the bu reais and the cannon-bone, or metacarpal, is as long as the ™ Tar The facts strongly contrast with those among the Elephant, eel pir and Hog groups, the humerus in these species being | , and one-third and four-ninths of the length of the whole lim), longer than the radius, ms t would seem, therefore, that the length of the humerus a a standa struct based on the principle of Cephalization—Herbivores. 165 minant is built, : ) Pes nie elongate head, on the type of a Grallatorial or Wading ir This amplification or circumferential extension of the head appears in many species to be concurrent with that in the limbs, as if the two were of like dynamical origin, or had a dependent genetic relation in the structure. pe Re. song-amplification in the head is still farther exhibited in the typical Ruminants through an outgrowth of horns on the fore- his is a frontal elongation, bony in its nature (or having & bony core at least , and peculiar to these long-amplificate spe- cies. In other words, those species in which the bones of the a — long have generally long growths of horn from the 4 - . . . _ 9. Subdivisions.in the classification of Herbivores.—The distine- tions which have been mentioned on the p ing pages point ‘to the same general arrangement of the terrestrial Herbivores, Aw. Jour. Sc1.—geconp Serres, Vou. XXXVI, No. 110.—Manrcu, 1864, 22 166 Dana on the Classification of Animals Two grand divisions are indicated. for aid in feeding, etc. Tl. The Solipeds and Ruminanis, on the contrary, are— (1.) Metasthenic in general structure, and, therefore, STHENO- | MERES. ak (2.) Long-amplificate in the limbs, neck and head, and some times, in addition, sross-amplificate. ie (8.) Long-amplificate in the forehead through an Mer — of horns, except in the superior group of Solipeds and them — rior or hypotypic species. E (4.) Not amplificate in the fleshy part of the snout. bat the (6.) Not Sthenorhines—haying no use for the nose Dut ™™ — legitimate one. ors The two groups are then— : I. The Prosthenics, or SrHENORHINES, including the Blephanh Tapir and Hog groups. ly . If. The Metasthenics, or Sraznomerns, including the Sol peds and Ruminants, . ting to those of the Carnivores; and in the omnivorous pe - ter or tendency of some species. And the relation of the Ls to the Elephant-group is no less striking. These afte : been generally admitted by zoologists. The species of the a and Hog groups, especially the latter, are the most Carmi ae like of Herbivores, pyall - So, among the Sthenomeres, the living Ruminants have Gest been associated in classification. The Solipeds alone ae a arranged in most sy based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores. 167 relations to the Pachyderms, it has close affinities also to the Ruminants. It is a Sthenomere and not a Sthenorhine; but it stands in the group of Sthenomeres, between the Ruminants and the Sthenorhines,’ representing a Pachydermatoid division in the group. The prosthenic species, it appears, are the gross-amplificate, and the metasthenic are the long-amplificate. But this distinction in ing, accordin ; The extinct Paleotheres are other exceptions; for in these Hocene odd organ. i occurs only in the atc Vicdanas rater y an, the nose; and the deduction, we may reasonably doubt the alleged connection between the odd or It al here repeated that the Horse ) having a eidas’ eine decidua. as stated by Huxley, characterizing the igher M : higher Herbi ore Eleph: and Hyrax, at least); but not the species of the log ts the ices of Sinen oh es, nor any of the Sthenomeres. (See Art. II, P.13 ; 168 Dana on the Classification of Animals even in horns and the odd or even in the toes. The true dis tinction with regard to the horns appears to be that already mentioned :—that the Sthenorhines have only the nose—not the forehead—elongated or amplificated through a growth of horns, and this is an epidermic amplification, while among the Stheno- meres, an inferior group, the bony structure of the forehead 18 a | ie + 4Vul If it be sustained that the Camelopard has a central horn on the front of the head, as has been claimed and recently reaffirm | a case of an odd or medial horn occurs among the Paridigilalts; but it is a forehead-horn. : We should therefore make the statement thus: a The Sthenorhines, gross-amplificate species, may have one or two nasal epidermic horns, or horns proceeding from the eacoskelelan. e Sthenomeres, Jong-amplificate species, may have two or more frontal bony horns, or horns proceeding from the endoskelelon. In addition, the exoskeleton, under this inferior type, ‘sometimes contributes large epidermic additions in the shape of sheaths to the horns, as well as hoofs to the feet. l= | III:The third group of Herbivores includes only the Sirenvans —aquatic species that fail of hind-limbs, like Whales, rit” various marks of superiority to the Mutilates, as already brielf indicated. UG: oe The grand divisions of the tribe of Herbivores, which ren n pointed out and elucidated in the preceding pages, Lae e further application 2 = is principle of cephalization. In connection, one or two © ait 2 more prominent distinctions of the higher groups are mentlion’™ Synopsis of the proposed classification of Herbivores, I. Sthenorhines. 8 Prosthenie. Snout servin g as a power-organ, usually elongt e ed. Gross-amplificate, rarely long-amplificate in extinct § a Horns, when any, proceeding from the exoskeleton alone, | | = 1. ProgoscrpEans.—Snout an organ of digital as ae ; rachial prehension. Imparidigitate. Ac tS Elephantids: , 2.) Dinotherids. (?). te 2. TAPIRIDEANS.—Snout imperfectly, or not at all, prehensil ve there never being prehension at the extremity (oT digital | _hension). Imparidigitate. ae (1) Rhinocerotids —Having a nasal horn. A based on the principle of Cephalization—Herbivores. 169 (2.) Tapiroids—Without a nasal horn. Snout elongate, often im- perfectly prehensile. a, Tapirids. b. Paleotherids. (3.) Hyracids.— Without a nasal horn. Snout not elongated. 8. SuIDEANS.—Snout elongate, but not at all prehensile. Paridigitate. (1.) Suids. (2.) Hippopotamids. II. Sthenomeres. Metasthenic. Long-amplificate, even when gross-amplificate. out no ower-organ. Horns, when any, proceeding from the endoskeleton, frontal. 1. Sourpeps.— Without horns. Imparidigitate. (1.) Equids, (2.) Macrauchenids. (?) 2. Ruminants.—Having horns in the typical group, except often in females. Paridigitate. - (1.) Cornigers—Having horns. Frontiferient. a. Cervids. b. Antilopids. ce. Camelopardalids. ({2.) Nudifronts—Without horns. Not frontiferient, feeble in self- defense. ‘ a, Camelids. » 6. Moschids. ec. Anoplotherids. ? ‘TIL. Sirenians. Urosthenic, natatorial. Having a large caudal fin for swim- ming. Posterior limbs wanting. Manatus, Halicore or Dugong, Rytina, etc. In the following enumeration of the distinctions of the several subdivisions, I confine myself almost entirely to those character- istics which are obviously based on the principle of cephaliza- tion, omitting the many anatomical details to be found in zoolo- gical treatises, A. Subdivisions of the Sthenorhines. (1.) The Proboscideans are distinguished by the high charac- teristic of having in the proboscis a prehensile organ of great it 170 Dana on the Classification of Animals power and perfection—one that combines the qualities both ofa prehensile hand and a grasping arm, and which, therefore, 38 more serviceable for prehension than the fore-limb of a Carnivore. Although this is a perverted use of a nose, it is not supposed to be attended with any degeneration of the normal sense below that of other Herbivores. The elliptic condition of the jaws im the species is connected, as already explained (Art. I, p. 400), ioe with the enormous development of the tusks. The forelimb 18 proportionally as short as in the Lion, and the hand-portion evel orter, its length being only one-half that of the humerus. ~ The Dinothere appears to show in its skull that it was a true Proboscidean, that is, an animal with an Elephant-like proboscis. so, it was, in all probability, a terrestrial animal, like an Elephant, or not more aquatic than a Hippopotamus. The fach that prehension is a characteristic of Carnivores and the higher Mammals, and, among terrestrial Herbivores, only of the sup rior species, indicates that it is a mark of high grade, and, there: The Tapiridcans are related to the Proboscideans in the snout, and to the Suideans in this and many other characteristics. — the horn is absent; and if, as suggested by Blainville, the sa a mark of inferiorit Ee Ee Rosie Meer ape Pee Poet aN py alg Se on i eg ah Ie Ls a sell ny ee eM ae ging, ae ei extinct h toes of ce the fore-limbs are four in number, as in the Tapir, and besides thi based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores. 171 Acerotheres (whether females or not) are among the earliest geological representatives of the Rhinoceros group, The Hyracids are degradational forms, having the snout not prolonged and not horned, yet having it terminate in a flat naked space with the nostrils on either side, also having the tail reduced to a mere tubercle, and having the small size, as well as some of the habits, of a Rodent of the Hare family. It is good at digging. This abbreviation before and behind in the Hyrax may be an example under the elliptic method of decephaliza- tion, evincing feebleness in a life-system which is of extreme smallness for the Herbivore-type. The animals of the little Syrian species were long since described as “a feeble folk.” <6 30 : 26). Orns appears to be a mark of elevation. hat they are the highest 3 poebetivadie is also evident from the elegance rm, 172 Dana on the Classification of Animals grace of motion, fleetness and strength which characterize one — or more species of the group, and which combination of qualiti is presented in equal perfection in no other Herbivore. The type, therefore, may rightly claim the first place in its grand division, and not a subordinate one, either between Tapirs and roup. - . ie ftuminants are naturally divided ae two groups.— (1.) The Cornigers or typical specics,—These are (4) furnished | with horns (whence the name applied to them) at least in the males. ‘They are (b) frontiferient, that is, strike with the forehead . in attack. (c.) The foot has great compactness, the two rincipgy oe hoofed, that the animal walks upon them; the hoofs are flat on the inner side and fit well together, so as to look and act much like too short to touch the ground, and are sometimes altogether of the Nudifronts. 4 The two families of Cervids and Antilopids, mentioned in the Synopsis, page 169, are the same in limits as those usuall named, except that the Camelopard is excluded. The Camel pardalid is the special long-amplificate, or Heron-like grouP under the Corniger type. The Ho are persistent, a8 12 om 4 Antilopids ; but instead of a corneous sheath, they have inte 4 covering only the hairy skin. In this respect and, furth eg their extreme long-amplification, in the young animal's ee : horns at birth, and in their using the hind-legs in kicking 3" ie _ principal means of defense, like the Horse, (and not merely 38 based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores. 178 inch board. As the head of a Camelopard is raised seventeen or eighteen feet above the ground, the systemic force in this inferior Herbivore is diffused through a sphere whose radius is nearly twice that of the Lion, and six to eight times that of its superior among Herbivores, a common Stag or Goat—a condition betokening very low grade. Its inferiority among Cornigers is also apparent in the small head and brains for so large a body, g in different ways.— oy (a.) In a comparatively relaxed condition of the extremities, are elongated so as to touch the ground in walking ; and, in one species, not only are the scaphoid and euboid bones disjunct, cannon-bone of the Cornigers and Solipeds. In others, also, the metacarpals are not completely coalesced. _ sa The Anoplotherids are like the Moschids in the lax condition, of the two large toes in the Moschus aquaticus, t : as i , the sa Seah and cuboid bones are disjunct and also the metacarpals an he of horns but the forehead is not used in defense or at- tack, being apparently unfitted for this purpose. (c.) In their feeble means of defence and bizarre shapes.— _ The Camel sometimes bites—an almost universal propensity among animals, there being 2 consciousness of power in the Ax. Jour. 8cr.—Seconp Sentes, VoL. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mance, 1864. 23 174 Dana on the Classification of Animals jaws when none elsewhere. The male Musk-deer is aided b long canines; yet it is a very timid animal, and although it takes extraordinary bounds when fleeing from a pursuer, it is said to become very soon exhausted, and thus is a little after the Grasshopper-style among hypotypic Insects. The Llamas spit, amel has a body out of proportion to its legs, and exhibits awkwardness in features and gait; its hump is ag ab- normal growth of fatty and cellular tissue, having no functional value beyond that of serving as fuel for the craft when out on the desert; and its formation evinces large vegetative powers with consequently feeble systemic control. ; d.) In the presence of canines in most of the species; and in the Anoplotherids the set of teeth, besides being complete, having the canines short and not projecting, as in Man.— The variation from the Ruminant type in the teeth shows a tendency to return to normal regularity and simplicity, as 18 common in inferior species (Art. 1, pp. 826, 440), and is nota mark of elevation toward the Pachyderms. Owen observes that an Anoplotherid resembles, in its absence of horns, its divided metatarsals and metacarpals, its lax toes, and its even and normal number of teeth, “the embryo Rumr through adult life. He speaks of it, again, : ; features of the more generalized (or less specialized) Mammalian type, and remarks upon the same as also shown, though les strikingly, in the Camel. This relation, so correctly presented, hold, that these species are low ™ a condition analogous to that of an animal in an unfinished or young state is one of comparative feebleness. The embryological resemblance, on this view, & tends not only to form but also to force. | e Pachydermatoid qualities in the Moschids, and some among those so regarded in the Camelids, correspond therefore to 4 degradation of the Ruminant-type. . to bring out the Ruminant type-structure. It here appears ‘ the relaxed or enfeebled condition of that force which ] = - a lax state of the digits or extremities of the limbs is attend by modifications of the teeth—the dental series losing its tYP® character by the development of some or all of the missing teeth, based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores, 175 indicative, each, of inferiority of grade. They are feeble in the ead, and have no use for the forehead in attack or defense; they are weak as to means of defense of any kind; they have a lax condition of the extremities; they have a more complete and regular series of teeth, but as a result of a more diffused state of the systemic force, or less systemic control, C. Strenians. _ The distinctions of the Sirenians have already been sufficiently indicated (p. 169). In conclusion, the writer may here state that he does not look upon the classification which has been presented, as in all points that to which beyond question the right application of the princi- ple of cephalization leads; but only as that which, as far as he now understands the facts and the principle, appears to him to be correct to nature : D. Dynamical considerations. On page 174, it is likewise shown that a relaxation of the parts in the extremities of the limbs is concurrent with a relaxing also of the elements of the jaws. : us the head and the limbs, parts alike circumferential, undergo analogous changes under similar conditions—the am- Plification in the head increasing from the basal portion of the skull toward the extremity of the jaws; and that in the limbs mcreasing from the body toward the extremities of these limbs. Now it is to be noted that, while the head and the limbs diminish in amplification toward their basal portions, they are Separated in the same species by a long-amplificate neck. It seems ollow, therefore, that the head is one centre of amplification, nd the bo y another; or, in other words, that there are two distinct centres of amplification, a cephalic and a thoracic, the former the prima tion, should be considered as subordinate to the cephalic, or to the thoracie, centre, or to both equally. In reply, it is to he that in the head. Moreover, short limbs and a short neck go together (as in the natatorial Herbivores and Mutilates), even 176 Dana on the Classification of Animals when the head is excessively elongated; and when the limbs are reduced to fins, as in Fishes, the neck is essentially wanting. Again, the longer cervical vertebrze are those most remote from the body, and the stoutest those nearest it; and, in the Camelo- pard, an animal in which the part of the limbs remote from the body is very much elongated, these cervical vertebrae remote from the body are likewise much elongated. It would hence appear that the amplification in the neck in these species is subordinate mainly to the thoracic or secondary centre. But although this argument in favor of a connection at times between amplification in the neck and limbs may appear direct, we deem it only a doubtful suggestion. In any case, the fact of two systemic centres in Mammals seems to be established—one, the cephalic or superior, quite small in radius and with narrow limits of amplification; the other, the thoracic or injerrior, very large in radius, and admitting of a wide range of amplification. In Crustaceans the head and thorax make one single division of the body, the cephalothorax; and the cephalic nervous mass is often quite near the first thoracic, the two in some inferior peeves being on opposite sides of the esophagus. The cephalo- thorax here corresponds, therefore, to one single primary cen- tre; and this centre is situated near the anterior margin of the mouth-aperture, or between the mandibular and 2nd-antennary segments, where it is placed by the writer in his former articles on this subject. ere is an inferior or secondary centre in Crustaceans, but this is abdominal, as remarked in Art. I, p. 322. In Insects, as the body consists of three parts, a head, thorax or about its are’ ’ m or less independent of the others j : ‘ay uber nate to it. P ers in the amplification reac he highest concentration and greatest elf cumterential contraction; and when in any less degree, ange slag or circumferential extension. 3 hen the systemic control js stil] so great as to keep the parlé , is simply gross-amplif : 7° 2 . d . zt ; a Sross-amplification of the whole bony structure in superior eG A , ! e bused on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores, 177 cies, and of fatty, cellular and dermal tissues mainly, in species of a feebler life-system. But when the control is less complete, the parts of the bony structure increase in length by amplifica- tion, especially the more circumferential portions of them—this amplificating tendency increasing in amount with the distance from the systemic centre or centres—and the structure is long-amplificate. With a feebler life-system, not able to keep the structure evolved to type-perfection, the limbs may have lax or imperfect extremi- ties, that is, lax as compared with their condition in the typigal Species under the t 2. Definiteness of the distinction of gross-amplificate and long-am- plificate—It has been observed that the two higher groups of terrestrial _Herbivores are distinguished, the first, by being very generally gross-amplificate in the structures included, and the second by being long-amplificate, and that the two groups are thus quite well separated, there being but few cases of long- amplification in the former, and the gross-amplification in the latter taking place upon long-amplificate structures. It is a force, to which the above, relating to amplification, is actually subordi- 8 The separateness of th © powers is also illustrated by the arrest of devel- oo in The brain, in Seventh shown by fewer gyri and a greater simplicit of folds, while there is an increase of size up to normal dimensions, See W.C. Minor's translation of articles by Dr. Wagner, in this Journal [2], xxxiv, 188, and, ; ilar, the remark of Dr. Minor on this pofat, on p. 199. * 178 Dana on the Classification of Animals nate—which is, that the force may vary in cephalic concentrahon, and thereby in its distribution along the principal body-axis. : It has been shown in this and the former articles that there is been illustrated from all departments of the animal kingdom; and with examples from Herbivores in the preceding pages. We refer again to the facts among Crustaceans in this Journal (vol. xxii, 14, 1856, and the chapter in the author’s Expl. Exped. Report, p. 1412,) as especially clear and conclusive, and as hav- ing peculiar interest because historically the source in the Wir ter's mind of the principles here explained. 3 Moreover, this backward transfer of force and function manl- fests itself also in the posterior elongation of the structure and also in some anterior dilation. Conversely, elevation of grade 1s manifested in the abbreviation of the structure behind, and to extremity is at its maximum under any type, the structure pe prosthenic in the highest degree possible for that type. But the anterior extremity of the body-axis is not in this maximum State, owing to a diffusion of the force posteriorly, the condition 1s one less prosthenic; by a further loss and diffusion posteriorly; there may be another step down (for such transitions, as we bavé before found, appear to be by a saltus) perhaps to a lower grade methods of dece i ; Seek is « li os os apocentric distribution of force—or io perfect expression of the fact. “hh _* In my last article (Art. IT, p. 1 ificate and retroferent ethods of decephali ( es p. 10) I have referred the amplificate anc a away or centre. This, although true, is but based on the principle of Cephalization.—Herbivores. 179 founder descent to a urosthenic condition, with great length behind and a large part of the force of the structure thrown into the caudal extremity. But, besides the increase of muscular force attending cephalic In the memoir of 1850, Lord Rosse first ee out the spiral form which he had discovered in many nebulz, a fact of great importance as throwing new light upon the constitution of those celestial systems. The beautiful nebula, No. 51 of Messier’s catalogue, (No. 1622 of the catalogue published by Sir John Herschel, in the Phil. Trans, for 1838,) is situated in the constellation Canes Venaticr, near Bootes, in about 13% 23™ of right ascension and 48° of north declination. It had been described by Messier as a double neb- _ Wa containing stars; by Sir William Herschel as a brilliant into two branches. Lord Rosse, in 1845, was the first to dis- er one, but the form of the nebula being such as is reptesetse in the figure, this connection icreases the difficulty of conceiving of any hypothesis to ex- creas I . ble that such Plain it. It appears in the highest degree rs ites pda to Unite to this idea that of a resisting medium, but the supposition i an equilibrigm purely statical is not admissible. Some posi- 200 A. Gautier on recent Researches on Nebulae. tive measurements, whether of changes of brightness, or of form, or of variations of position, will therefore be most highly inter- esting, but they present great difficulties.’’. Mr. Johnston Stoney, m * osse associated with himself in these observations, sitions of different stars situated in the nebula, No. 51 of Mes- sier, as referred to its central nucleus. The nebula No. 99 of Messier, (No. 1173 of Sir John Herschel’s catalogue,) situated about 125 10™ of right ascension and 15° of hern declina- tion, has also given opportunity for some similar measurements. is is the second nebula in which Lord Rosse has shown a very distinct spiral structure. He has described also, in his memoir of 1850, twelve fainter nebulz of the same class, and he sur mised that some others are of the same kind. He described and figured in this memoir five new annular nebule, in addition to the two already contained in the catalogue of Sir John Herschel; some more stars called nebulous, and other nebule of an elongated lenticular form, three of which are represented in the plates attached to this memoir. “ Here,” he says, “in winter celestial objects are usually most distinct, and the sky is the darkest before eleven o’clock at night; the sky bow ever soon becomes luminous and the details of the nebula which are distinct disappear. In spring and autumn the change of light is not 80 prompt nor so decided, but the nights are shorter. Guided by the admir able catalogue of Sir John Herschel (containing the positions and a sum mary description of 2306 nebule) we have examined nearly all the rent a brilliant nebule known, with the exception of a few in the vicinity of have not itted n made, and the most remarkable objects have been # r to a detailed examination, on favorable nights, sometimes ag aid of & micrometer. In our eminently variable climate, when A, Gautier on recent Researches on Nebulae. 201 phere particularly advantageous and very rare, I have decided not to de- fer longer the presentation of this memoir.” ing the details of nebulm of feeble light, as well as to recognize 4 great nuinber that are double or multiple. He also thinks that 1t would be well to employ silver for the second reflection. Lord be says he has often experienced ‘ween numerous observations, 202 A. Gautier on recent researches on Nebule. x ; finiiéy that it could under all circumstances be arranged 1D of Sir John Herschel’s catalogue. The comparison of sults with those obtained by Otto Struve and communicated by 3 in the di of observations descriptive of the greater part of the nebule By | A. Gautier on recent Researches on Nebulae. 203 Sir John Herschel’s catalogue of 1833, arranged in the order adopted by that catalogue, that is, according to their right ascen- sions. These observations are frequently accompanied, in the text itself, by designs rapidly executed upon wood, representin the characteristics of some of the nebula, among which are fif teen having a structure distinctly spiral. memoir is concluded with a list of thirty-five nebule of Herschel’s catalogue which have not been rediscovered in the course of the ordinary observations of Lord Rosse and his as- sistants, and to which it is therefore desirable that the attention of astronomers should be directed anew. e The drawings of remarkable nebule have been very faithfully engraved by Mr. Basire, as were those of the first memoir. pace observes however that the stars are frequently figured too arge, ber, 1862 7 __it does not appear that the observations thus-far confirm the - ideas, previously put forth by some savans, as to the probability observed the more this investiga Mysterious and un chable. ! Il. Various gw cae and Articles relating to Nebule.—Mr. D’Arrest has announced, in No. 1879 of the Astr. Nachrichten, the existence of a third variable nebula, north of the constella- tion Taurus, This nebula had been seen before at the o ; 204 A, Gautier on recent Researches on Nebula, tory of Bonn, by Messrs. Schénfeld and Kriiger, in 1855 and 1856, and in America, by Mr. Tuttle, in 1859. It was then vis ible with a comet seeker of 84 lines aperture, but in 1862 Mr. D’Arrest found that it was seen with difficulty at Copenhagen with the great telescope of his observatory. Mr. Schonfeld, acting director of the observatory of Mannheim, published in No. 1391 of the Astr. Nachrichten a notice of the observations upon nebule recorded in the surveys of the heay- ens by zones made at the observatory of Bonn, in which he de- nies the variability of the light of this same nebula of Taurus, which,he had observed without difficulty, in September, 1862, with a telescope of eight feet focal length. The author regar the variability of the second nebula of this kind in Taurus as no more certain than that of the one discovered in 1855 by Mr Tempel, in the Pleiades, near the star Merope, and designated as variable by Mr. D’ Arrest, in No. 1878 of the Astr. Nachrichten, Messrs. Chacornac having also observed it with him, in Septem- ber, 1862. Mr. Schonfeld considers that the variability of the atmosphere and of the eye of the observer may occasion very fused ligh ry Doctor Auwers, astronomer at Gdttingen, in a letter which follows the preceding article, takes the same view as Mr. Schon feld. From his own observations, made at Kénigsberg in 1858, pecans impressions from nebul of feeble and somewhat dit t. and at Géttingen in 1861, he admits indeed the variabili of the light of the nebula discovered in Taurus by Mr. Hind ia 1852, which appears to have attained its greatest brilliancy 1m I but he‘does not cre ones, the field of vision of these last being in general uite ade ited.” He adds that in September, 1862, he clearly distinguish ed the two nebule in question, with a comet seeker of two focal length : Dr. Auwers has also inserted in No. 1392, Astr. Nachr., cata logue of the exact positions in 1860 of forty nebulae as oboertes with the heliometer of the observatory of Kénigsberg- *" mm the catalogues already published by Messrs. Langier -D’Arrest. These comparisons do not appear to show vad changes of position. _ Doctor Winnecke, ina letter dated at the Observatory of Poal- kova and inserted in No. 1397 of Ast. Nachr., confirms ea Pa i eee ee ee ee ed son announced above, that small telescopes frequently enable: ee > ES * _ A. Gautier on recent Researches on Nebula. 205 to distinguish nebulz better than the larger instruments. He does not think the variability of the last two nebulae of Taurus has been distinctly shown. Mr. D’Arrest, in an article published in No. 1898 Astr. Nachr. acknowledges the variability of the nebula near Merope, and ei out another nebula marked by Jeaurat to the north of leione, in a chart of the Pleiades published by him in the Mé- moires de 1’ Académie des Sciences of Paris, for 1779, which has not yet been rediscovered. He presumes, therefore, that this region of the heavens is especially subject fo variations of Ji The same astronomer has announced, in No. 1407 Astr. Nachr., that Sir John Herschel is preparing a new general catalogue of nebul from observations both ancient and modern, and he gives on this occasion a list. of corrections of the catalogue of 18338, resulting from his own observations and those of Messrs. Auwers and Marth, which Sir John Herschel will beable to make use of in his new work. The later numbers of the Monthly Notices of the Astronomi- cal Society of London contain no articles relating to nebule. I will cite only one article by F. Abbott, dated at his private ob- Servatory at Hobart-'Town, (Australia,) in May, 1862, and pub- lished in the Monthly Notices, No. 1, Vol. 28, apne 32, This ar- ticle, presented to the Society at its session Nov. 14, 1862, with a drawing which has not been reproduced in the Monthly Notices, 18 devoted to a cluster of stars in the Southern Cross designa a Greek letter Kappa. “This ee ee ee tt, “ whi i 1 stated to be com oO t, “which Sir John Herschel s geet in With a telescope of five feet focal length, furnished with an ex- de d f | hundred and thirty-five, and that for the colors only ee ee ‘entation made by Sir John Herschel. Ax. Jour. see ey Serres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 110.—Manrcx, 1864, 7 : 206 A. Gautier on recent Researches on Nebule. Several of the stars have preserved their color, but according to Mr. Abbott, most of them have changed ; all the small stars, from the tenth to the fourteenth magnitude, have the color. _ Prussian blue, with more or less of a tint of red or green mixed — with the blue, with magnifying powers of only 20 to 40 diamet bE ers. cae Finally, I will report a note by Chacornac, entitled “ Nebuleuse = variable det du Taureau,” presented by Mr. Le Verrier to the Academy of Sciences of Paris at its session April 6, 1868, and inserted in the Comptes Rendu of that meeting, t. 56, p. Mr. Chacornac, at Marseilles, in the latter part the first part of 1854, noticed a star of the eleventh magnitude I fo) ern declination, without perceiving any nebula at that point) but he could not see any at Paris near the meridian towards ture, although the atmosphere was very transparent. The 19th of October, 1855, he observed a faint nebula pt mensions, or form. January 27th, 1856, it appeared to Fs quite brilliant, presenting the appearance of a transparent 0° parallel bands, resenti f -] tangular, the greaté lide ihiashia, bBo, a@ form nearly tha gun smaller arc 24 minutes. ecting itself upon this same small star very near to $ of Taner place, ¢ hetey ries: ors th os eee ete O. N. Rood on action of Electric Light on Iodized Plates. 207 November 20th, 1862, Mr. Chacornac could no longer find the least trace of this nebula, while the small star upon which it was projected did not present any variation of brightness; and the | nebula has since been invisible with the instruments of the Im- perial Observatory of Paris. We see by the preceding Notices what a degree of activity and interest the researches upon nebule now inspire, and also how many difficulties they present. It will not probably be very long before we may hope to obtain a solution of some of the important questions to which they have given rise. Art. XVIII.—On the action of very weak Electric Light on the Todized Plate; by OGDEN N. Roop, Professor of Physics in Columbia College. time of taking the picture. - Careful examination of the plate of invisible electric brushes, resting on these points, and under- some experiments to determine whether weak electric light could be photographed. Geisler tubes were used in a dark room, and with the aid of Gunther, he succeeded in obtaining good photographs of the stratified discharge,' as Prof. Wm. B. Rogers ad done some months previously. This led me to attempt the study of the electric brush by the aid of photography, but as its light is incomparably weaker than Toxyline, in which the cotton fibre was somewhat disintegrated, and-by its use I finally obtained good photographs of the post- tive, as well as of the negative h. An ordinary came Was employed, and the exposure | en minutes. The minute photographs were then enlarged as. usual, and prints made from the enlarged negatives. * Pogg. Annalen, vol. exiii, No. vii * This Journal, xxx, 8817. 208 O.N. Rood on action of Electric Light on Iodized Plates. The positive electrical brush consists, as is well known, of 4 short stem with widely branching ramifications; these latter are r ; very faint even in the 2, on the wood-cut, fig. 1, whic is from a photograph magnified ten diameters. t is well known that the s negative brush is much smaller than the posl- tive, and it is often spoken of as a star or mr nute point of light; the photograph, however, shows that this is not the case, but that is structure is analogous to that of the positive brush, only that the ramification begins lower down on the stem, as it were, nearly at its root, as is seen im the wood-cut, fig. 2, which is from a magnified photograph. Negative electric brush, Positive electric brush, Action of weak electric light on the plate in the presence of daylight. —The Geisler tubes in the physical cabinet of the college enabled me now to put the probability of Dove’s suggestion to the test of experiment; some of these were connected with an induction coil and photographed in broad daylight, when it was found tha the image formed by the electric discharge could be easily traced through the length of the tubes, and that even the stratification was still partially visible. In these cases, however, the electri¢ light was still visible to the eye during the discharges. Aecordingly, to make an exact experiment on this point, & sheet of white paper was placed behind one of these tubes and invisible. Nevertheless an intense photographic image 0 it envelope, and a very distinct image of the diffused electri¢ lig _ This experiment is indeed a very erat ak proof of the tee ical activity of the electric light, the more so, as according 3 e of my experiments, the iodized plate is by no means sensitive to slight differences in illumination as the human ey® O. N. Rood on action of Electric Light on Iodized Plates. 209 Among the Geisler tubes belonging to the college I found one in which bulbs of uranium glass were alternated with small tubes of plain colorless glass. When the room was darkened, and the electric discharge passed through it, owing to their fluo- rescence the s shone very brightly, invisible or faintly visi- ble light being converted into bright green light. On taking a photograph of the tube, it was quite surprising to see how blank were the spaces on the plate, where the images of the green bulbs had fallen; after an exposure of four minutes only one of the bulbs could be faintly traced, though other portions of the bright sky fell directly through it on the lens of the camera, the entire aperture of the lens (a ‘portrait combination” of six inches focal length) was used, and the exposure lasted one minute. An examination of the negative plate showed that the thin walls of the uranium bulbs had merely diminished to some extent the chemical power of the rays passing through them. The same experiment with a plate of uranium glass two-tenths of an inch in thickness gave a result like in kind only differin in degree: the chemical intensity of the light being iminishet about one-half. This shows, in accordance with theory, that 1t 1s mainly the dispersed light which has lost its chemical power, and that through a plate of even this thickness many chemi Tays still penetrate. ppt _A photograph of another Geisler tube, in which the interior discharge tube was surrounded by a solution of sulphate of qui- line, was also taken: this liquid by its fluorescent property di- Minished, of course, the intensity of chemical action of the electric light, but by no means to the same extent as the ura- lum glass. Feb. 3d, 1864, 210 D. Trowbridge on the Invisibility of Nebulous Matter. Art, XIX.—On the Invisibility of Nebulous Matter ; by D. TROWBRIDGE. Ir has generally been supposed that if nebulous matter, in the proper sense of the word, or cosmical vapor, exists in the heav- ens, and within reach of our telescopes, it will be visible to the eye, with suitable optical aid. It is proposed to show in this ar- ticle, with some plausibility, that this is an erroneous idea, except in some particular cases. ; Comets are the only celestial objects, whose physical constitu- tion is approximately understood, that afford us anything like 4 distinct notion of what nebulous matter is. By far the greater proportion of these bodies are composed of materials so extreme ri rare that the solar rays can penetrate completely through the e regions of our atmosphere, must be- looked upon as dense and ive bodies in comparison with the almost spiritual texture of these light bodies. A cloud composed of materials so rare, and whose distance from us did not exceed fifteen or twenty miles, would searcely be visible. A comet, however, will be visible when its distance from us is many millions of miles. _ What conclusion can we draw from these facts? Do they not indicate that comets do not shine wholly by reflected light? re the 3d of July, 1819, Arago made an attempt to analyze the light of comets, by applying his polariscope to the great comet of 1819. The instrument showed unmistakable signs of polar ized light, and, therefore, of reflected sun-light. Similar observ ations on Halley’s comet, in 1835, more clearly indicated the ex: istence of polarized light. “These beautiful experiments still leave it undecided, whether, in addition to this reflected solar light, comets may not have light of their own. Even . case of the planets, as, for instance, in Venus, an evolution © independent light seems very probable.” ' “The variable intensity of light in comets cannot always be explained by the position of their orbits, and their distance from the sun.”* “After mentioning Arago’s observations, with his po” lariscope, on Halley’s comet, in 1835, Mr. Hind says, “ Still the variation in the intensity of light is not universally such a8 Should follow if the comet merely reflected the sun’s rays —_ * Cosmos, vol. i, pp. 90, 91. Bohn’s edition. * Cosmos, vol. i, p. 9 % D. Trowbridge on the Invisibility of Nehulous Matter. 211 certain permanent conditions, and we are under the necessity of looking to physical causes inherent in the body itself for an ex- planation of some few observations which appear irreconcilable with the theory of reflected solar light.”* “The molecular con- ditions of the head or nucleus, so seldom possessing a definite outline, as well as the tail of the comet, is rendered so much the more mysterious from the fact that it causes no refraction.” * have collected these facts together to show that reflected solar light cannot completely explain, at present, all the phe- nomena of the light of comets. Besides the above observations, it may be added that the visibility of comets in the day time, and even when near the sun, also indicates a light-generating process in the comet; for otherwise we must suppose them ca- that nebulous vapor is necessarily too diffuse, . render nebulous matter visible 212 F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. higher telescopic power resolves previous nebule? It is very doubtful whether our best telescopes will ever be able to bring lous matter in the vicinity of our system, either planetary or stellar, and ages may pass before our system, in its a through space, will come near any of the small patches that may exist, so as to render them visible to us. Perry City, N. Y., Aug. 31st, 1863. closely connected with the period of the solar spots. It is also known that the auroras influence the needle; and that they are sub- ject to the same law of periodicity as the solar spots; and thus seem to be connected with solar influence. The effect of the auroras is evidently light-producing. a Art, XX.—Remarks on the family Pteriide, (= Aviculide) wilh descriptions of some new fossil genera; by F. B, MEEK. THE existing genera of the family Pteriidx form a group a once so natural, and so distinctly defined, that conchologists meet with little difficulty in deciding what particular genera it should include." When we undertake to classify the more numerorm extinct genera, however, which were introduced, lived out thet term, and passed out of existence at various periods during Wt immense interval of time between the first introduction 0 this presenting various intermediate gradations between the moder! * Perhaps the only question in regard to the limits of this family, as known it our existing seas, respecting which late writers on conchology differ, 1s, wheth : ee incinde t i e think it should, while otbers make sie IN see Soe differs in not having its beaks terminal, but set back some distance from the “a obtusely pointed anterior extremi The beaks, however, are de eens scarcel distinct from the cardi y of the shell scarcely : inal margin, and the general aspect of the to be intermediate between that of Pinna, and Avicula pero Hed know whether or not it has a prismatic structure ; if not, probably be found to belong to the Mytilide. F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 213 representatives of this and some of the allied groups.” For in- stance, no conchologist could be for a moment in doubt whether more properly to the Aviculide or to the Pectenide, Yet In tracing these two families by their fossil shells back into the types, it will be observed that the hinge plates, or denticles, me more and more oblique, until in some of the Paleozoic obscure divisions are to be seen at the remotest extremities of the hinge, ranging nearly or quite parallel to the cardinal margin, as in Prerinia, Bakevellia, and some of the other genera apparently belonging to the Aviculide. In addition to this, in many © the etal of these ancient types, is provided with cartilage furrows, ay Purl ies. of Bake: Sion; and yet in all their other known characters these forms agree with the Aviculide. : iin Tn another direction, some of these ancient groups of Avicult 2 . _ * Whether the introduction, and gradual dying out of the various forms present- ing these intermediate shibastihe Sian 9 from the operation of a law of patie like that termed by Dr. Darwin “natural selection,” or any other, or from repea culous creati it is ject of this paper to discuss. * As typitied ‘or Deadianeagide Sowerby, rehich must no as the Mg of Dolabra, since Prof. King has separated from that genus as f t pro rm oe rig Schizodus, Dolabra? alpina Hall, (Iowa Report, 1, part ii, pl. 29 fig. 2) Am. Jour. Sc1.—Srconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 110.—Marcn, 1864. 28 214 F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. seem to show a disposition to shade off towards the Mytilide or Dreissenide. Amongst the Carboniferous and Permian species — of Myalina, for instance, we see species presenting exactly the — form and other general external appearances of the existing genera Mytilus and Dreissena, to which even yet some paleon tologists will persist in referring them. On a closer inspection, ‘however, these Carboniferous and Permian species, when we call find them with the two valves united, are seen to be always 4 little inequivalve, while their hinge also differs from that of the Mytilide and Dreissenide in having a flat area with longitudinal cartilage furrows. In addition to these differences, 1 have dis g he & ba = v 3 < = g Ka oO i@) a re) “<4 4?) a) ~) S oy a — Q = Cs) =. Ea R m ra) zr & in the true Aviculas. It is true that the same structure has also been observed by Dr. Carpenter in the inner layer of Dreissend, but the unquestionable imequivalve character of Myalina, 10 coh nection with its peculiar striated cartilage area, and the fact these shells are always found associated with marine types, 7? sufficient evidences that they have no very close affinities © Family PTERIID.A (or Aviculide). Shell inequivalve, inequilateral, composed of an inner. lam nated pearly layer, and an outer prismatic substance; left ot upper valve always more convex than the other. AW margin of the right valve generally more or less sinuous er 3 passage of the byssus. Cartilage submarginal, simple, and Ee ee ‘In a single cavity or depression near the beaks, or divided s : distributed in a series of furrows crossing the cardinal fact right angles,—or, in some of the older fossil genera, occupy linear furrows in the cardinal area or facet, ranging more or wed ; — parallel to the hinge line. Hinge with or without pers a io muscular impression generally small and placed near the D sila Pallial line simple, often irregularly dotted. ae Since Scopoli’s namie, Pteria, was regularly established in 17795 While iy pame, Avicula, was not affirmed by any om Ae understanding oF 789. I b = n ideas of genera and species, until Bruguiere adopted it 10 1789. - Gray is right in restoring Scopoli’s name, Pteria, for this genus. * F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 215. The animal in the existing typical genus has the mantle-mar- _ ns freely open and doubly fringed; foot small, grooved, and aving the power of spinning a byssus; palpi large; gills two on each side, crescent shaped, free or connected with each other posteriorly, and to the mantle. The foregoing diagnosis of the shells of this family is framed 80 as to include species belonging to three subordinate groups, the first of which, so far as known to the writer, has no living representatives, and seems to have been mainly confined to the Paleozoic epoch. The other two groups (the Pieriine or Avicu- line and Melinine) are both represented by living species in our existing seas. These three sections or subfamilies may be characterized as follows :— 1. Prerinny.x, (or Pterinia group). : Cartilage apparently occupying a series of linear furrows, ranging more or less nearly parallel to the cardinal margin, in a usually broad, flat- tened cardinal facet or area, Anterior muscular scar sometimes mode- horhynchus, and several undefined Paleozoic groups. A part of the 2. Prerunx, (or Aviculine). Cartilage mainly or entirely confined to a single, more or less defined, depression or cavity behind the beaks. Anterior muscular impression very small, . Includes Pteroperna, Pteria (or Avicula), Margaritifera, Malleus, Aucella and Eumicrotis. The following extinct genera also probably belong here, viz:—Monotis, Halobia, Pteronites and Posidonomya, with apparently some undescribed fossil genera. 3. Meuninz, (Perna or Isognomon group.) , Cartilage divided and distributed along the hinge in a series of furrows crossing the cardinal area at right angles to the hinge line. Anterior muscular scar generally very small. - : neludes Crenatula, Melina (= Perna Brug., not Adanson), Bakevellia, lia, Inoceramus and Pulvinites. and interior of a greater number of fossil species are known. i ] as hinge © Megambonia aviculoides, and M. lamellosa Hall, for instance. 216 F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. nizing the convenience of sections or intermediate groups between families and genera, for it is highly probable that if we knewall the characters of all the species that ever existed, from the be gists, and typified by the existing A. Hirundo. At any rate,l ave never seen a specimen, nor can I remember a figure, of any species showing the hinge of a true Avicula, from any of our American Paleozoic rocks. So far as my knowledge extends, all the Silurian and Devonian species, the hinge in which has been seen, want the cartilage cavity of the modern Aviculas, and have 9 E “ a i. ; the striated hinge facet, or the oblique hinge teeth, (one or the other or both) of Pterinia, more or less distinctly marked. addition to this, most of the Silurian and Devonian, and many of the Carboniferous species, the hinge in which is unknow?, resent more the external appearance of the European species figured by Goldfuss and others, in which the internal characters of Pterinia are known to exist. tained, from the examination of a very fine natural cast of the 10 terior of Avicula Flabella Conrad, from the Hamilton Group, Cayuga Co., N. Y., that it presents all the characters of @ typical Plerinia. The specimen examined is a cast of # ™ valve, showing the impression of three rather long oblique hinge? teeth behind the beak, and of seven or eight shorter ones 12 Aviculas; but Prof. Winchell describes, from the Michigan 10 a form which he refers to the first of these species, a8 having long posterior cartilage facet.” at From all that is now known in relation to the affinities of ‘and shells, we may safely infer that probably all of our Silurian cae Devonian species, especially those of the Hamilton and Che the erred , he the same relations to the existing Aviculas, or Prerias, tbat the shese F. B. Meek on the Family Ptertide. 217 old Aviculopectens do to our modern Pectens.’ For, in the mod- ern types of the Pectenide and Aviculide, the cartilage is mainly Prof. McCoy, Mr. Woodward and others, in referring that genus also to the ‘Aviculide, had it not been for the fact, that, on sub- jecting sections of a typical Carboniferous species (Aviculopecten amplus Meek & Worthen) to a microscopical examination, it was found not to possess the prismatic structure of the Aviculide, but ' 127, pl. cxvi, fig. 10, a, 6, ¢, 4 & f, 9) This genus may be briefly characterized as follows :— Genus GrypHoruyNcuvs, Meek.—Shell small, thick, nearly Or quite as wide as long, very slightly oblique, plano-convex, or sub-hemispherical, the right valve being flat or concave, and the left very gibbous; posterior and anterior margins, somewhat sinuous, but neither valve with a defined byssal sinus. Beaks sub-central; that of the left valve elevated, gibbous, ree incurved, and at the extremity directed obliquely forward ; be ) shell, ranging more or less nearly at right angles to the umbonal axis; in both valves provided with a wide, well defined cardinal area. Ears subequal, not produced, i t and convex in the left, in which latter the anterior one 18 sepa- rated from the swell of the umbo by 4 deep oblique “spt Surface with fine, sometimes decussating strie. Hinge with sev- ~ ral small irregular teeth near the middle. * The i ad between nearly or quite all of the Paleo- elaine woe Basile & our modern seas. 218 F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. This genus includes @. grypheatus and G., tenuistriatus (= Avie ula grypheata and A. tenuistriata, of Munster, Gold; Petref. Germ, ii, 127-8). “In the same group may also be placed, as the type of a dis- tinct subgenus, another little Triassic species described by Mun- ster as Avicula decussata (Goldf. Petref. Germ. ii, 128, cxvi, 12a, b), For this form I would propose the subgeneric name Actinophorus, It agrees with the typical species in all essential characters, ex: cepting in being much more oblique, in having its posterior margin truncated at right angles to the hinge, instead of being — slightly sinuous; and particularly in having the left valve orna mented with strongly elevated, distant, radiating coste or plr cations, I have not been able to see the prismatic structure in either of these types, but, from all analogy, I should suppose it could be detected in specimens in a better state of preservation. So far as known to the writer, this genus has not been discovered im a and has only been found in the St. Cassian deposits of e Tyrol yrol, | Under the Aviculine or Pteriine, it will also be observed that . . 1s Schlotheim, = Monotis speluncaria of King and others); as E. radialis (= Peeten radialis Phillips); and &. Garforthensis, (=Monotis Garjorthensis King). This genus may be described as follows :— convex, the left valve being usuall very convex, and the right flat or a little concave; not distinctly auriculate, the ears being cle large and subcentral, those of the retractors small and sa | near the beaks. Surface generally with radiating, vaulted, ait ~The species of this genus have been usually referred t Bunt. a eo a eee F., B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. 219 smooth, rounded, and without even the most obscure indication of an emargination, to represent the deep, sharply defined, byssal sinus of Humicrotis. I know nothing of the hinge, or of the microscopical struc- ture, of Monotis salinarius, the specimens at the Smithsonian Institution being firmly imbedded in the very hard brittle ma- rix, and not in a condition to show any traces of minute struc- ture. Dr. Carpenter, however, has examined a species—Avicula cygnipes, of Phillips—(which is unknown to the writer), supposed e congeneric with the type of Bronn’s genus, and finds it to possess the structure of the Pectenide, rather than that of the Aviculide. On examining thin sections of our Kansas shell, the type of the genus here described, by the aid of a magnifying power of about three hundred and fifty diameters, the prismatic ee P pearance of some species of [noceramus. They also have a small peculiar concave ear just in front of the beak of the left as well Margin in Aucella than in Humicrotis. Auet t Seem to bear similar relations to Humicrotis, that Posidonomya does to Monotis proper, as typified by Mf. salinarws. It is remarkable that, even in late European publications, we See the so-called Monotis speluncaria placed in the genus : There is still another small group of Jurassic shells represented by one species in our collection from the far West, for which I * 220 F. B. Meek on the Family Pteriide. had thought a subgeneric name should be proposed. Farther comparisons, however, with specimens of some European speci species of this type, have led to the conclusion that these little shells form a section of the genus Humicrotis, probably too closely con- nected by some intermediate forms to merit a distinct subgeneric name. ‘The western species of this section alluded to above is ster: also Mf decussata, and M. Alberti Munster, (Goldf. Pe Germ., ii, p. 138-9,) as well as a species figured by Goldfuss as Monotis echinati, (id., pl. exxi, 6.) . + These shells have much the general outline of the typical spe , c cies of Humicrotis, being short or suborbicular and but very slightly oblique, without any anterior ear, and generally hay- ing the posterior ear much abbreviated. They differ, howevel, ? n conclusion, I would remark that the numerous widely dif 2 ferent types from the older rocks, figured in the various works In many cases, from microscopical examinations, in determining the family affinities of the ancient fossil genera of Avi . Arcide and Pectenide ; especially, where the condition of the Specimens under investigation is such as to prevent the Di of the hinge and interior from being determined. How far, ever, the different types of structure may have been cons be amongst all the ancient genera of these families, remains ' determined by the examination of a larger number of s the same, from co: i i f that species. the same locality paring our specimens with the type o: 8} ’ ature * The figures here referred to are not recognizable, but we know our shell to be | visi BP collected at pce eo Pea iene SG a : . 4 5 J. B. Pearse on Minerals of the Chlorite Group. 221 Art. XXI.—On some Minerals of the Chlorite Group; by JOHN B. PEARSE. | of which there are three kinds—one colored pure — a ve . The fol- The mineral is in distinct crystals. There is the strongest evi- dence that all belong to the trimetric system, closely resembling i e truncated pyramid, but the lateral surfaces are so striated as to be incapable of measurement. ramid is made up of a . The hardness of the green and red is 2°75; the specific grav- ity of the green at 64° Fahr. 2°355, that of the red 2:383, which micaceous plates, with a vitreous lustre, and white streak. | Here blowpipe reactions show the presence of chrome, and silica, the — bsence of fluorine in the green. Traces of the alkalies were shown in the red. Both Fresh and perfect crystals were used for ea t. Same variety, in Srdat to certify undeniably the composition. M. JOUR. Sci.—Suconp Series, VoL. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mancu, 1864. 29 222 J. B. Pearse on Minerals of the Chlorite Group. In no case was any crystal chosen the color of which was im tinct. eh The following is an outline of the method of analysis adopted. After solution by means of carbonate of soda, and chlorhydrie acid, the usual precautions being taken for an accurate estima: tion of the silica, the filtrate was rendered slightly alkaline with ammonia which precipitated the sequioxyds of iron, chrome and nickel oxyd from the sesquioxyds; the latter was then dried, weighed, pulverized carefully with carbonate of soda, and then — nitric acid, was treated by sulphid of potassium, as al separate: the nickel from the lime and magnesia. The lime Wis _ ecipitated as oxalate, and estimated as sulphate; the magnesia — in the usual way. After the solution of th estimation of the oxyd of nickel, the oxyd was redissolved, and : separated by ammonia from the impurities which cling oma ; lowing results—two determinatious bein g generally made of each - Green. ‘. Reddish-green, No. 1. No. 2. Average. || No. 1. No, 2. Si0,*| 28800 28444 28-699 || 31515 82-200 Al,0, 18:375 18-375 || 13-74 see PaO | 810 ‘370 || +231 200 303 1-278 Te Mg,0| 31-766 32483 32-195 || 34871 34-929 H,O | 13900 14185 14-095 || 13-933 14-033 * Si=28-4,0=—16. ag _ The joint weight of sesquioxyds in the green was 40°™% we 4°89 ; that of their separate determinations 24°82, the ann pele firming the former, after exclusion of silica. These 2M a show that the red and reddish-green are identical, but ere ao differ from the green. Since there is one per cent more . mi se : * Chem. News, vol. vi, p- 82. 2 al J. B. Pearse on Minerals of the Chlorite Group. 223 of chrome, and one and a third per cent less of protoxyd of iron in the red than in the green, the first question as to the cause of the difference of color is unanswered by analysis. It is possibly due to molecular arrangement. The following formule exhibit the number of each class of in- gredients, the sesquioxyds of chrome, iron, and aluminum being represented by Al,O, and the protoxyds of magnesium, calcium, Iron, and nickel, by Mg,O, because aluminum and magnesium constitute by far the larger proportion of the bases. Green, 5Si0,+2Al,0,+9Mg,0+8H,0. Red, &., 7Si0,+2A1,0,+13Mg,0+10H,0. Without attempting at present to reconcile these numbers to any theory of the silicates, it will prove interesting to discuss the reliable results of analysis attained by different chemists, with different specimens of this and other minerals referable to the chlorite group. In order to show their mutual relations more clearly, [ subjoin a table of their atomic composition, reducing them all to the proportions arising from two atoms of alumina. * Proportion of atoms in chloritic minerals. SiO, Al,O,; Mg,O0 H.O Analyst. 1, Kammererite, erystallized, 5 2 8 8 ermann, 2. My green, rs 5 2 9 8 Pear 3, Chlorite (average analysis) 6 2 10 8 Rammelsberg 4. Kammererite, fibrous, 6 2 10 8 Hermann 5. Chonikrite, massive, ae 10 6 von Kobell 6. Rhodophyllite, crystallized, 7 2 12 10 Genth. 7. My red, e 7 2 19° 10 Pearse, 8. Kammererite, « 8 2 14 10 Smith & Brush. 9. Pyrosclerite, 8 2 12 10 von Kobell. 10. Tabergite, 9 2 14 10 Svanberg. 11. Kammererite, crystalline, 9 2 11 10 Hartwall, Garrett. 12, Pyrosclerite, impure, 9 2 14 6 Lychnell. ssion. Genth’s analysis of rhodophyllite (6) gives nine or ten sae of water, and twelve atoms of magnesia; my red, and reddish- green (7) give ten atoms of water and rather less than thiniees atoms magnesia. I therefore prefer the formula I have given 4 Genth’s rhodophyllite, with which my red is identical. Smit & Brush’s kiimmererite differs from rhodophyllite by an atom of olivine. These two formule may be regarded as reliable, be- ing derived from well executed analyses of crystallized specimens. 224 J. B. Pearse on Minerals of the Chlorite Group. We may reject at once from the above list chonikrite (6), and pyrosclerite (12) as impure. The kimmererite of Hartwall and Garrett (11) not being quite pure, and differing but slightly from — von Kobell’s pyrosclerite (9) might be referred to the latter, as _ Dana has done. But as pyrosclerite (9) differs by only one atom _ Our critical examination of the above series of minerals lim- its their number to four, viz. Nos. 2, 8, 6, (7) and 8, whieh are * here presented as distinct varieties, together with the formule of Me olivine, augite, and serpentine, for the sake of further diseussio® Nos. SiO, Al,0, Mg,0 H,O : 2. Grastite, 5 2 9 8 Pearse and Hermant 3. Chilorite, 6 2 10 8 Many analysts. 6. Rhodophyllite, z - 12 10 Genth and Pearse. ; 8. Kammererite, 8 2 14 10 Smith & Brush. ugite, 1 1 : Olivine, 1 2 : Serpentine, 2 3 2 : A comparative study of the above shows the following ot ‘ markable differences between these varieties of the chlorite gt0UP’ Grastite + augite = chlorite. Grastite + serpentine = rhodophyllite. ; . Grastite + olivine + serpentine == kammererite. oe In other words, the differences of composition agnor eet bers of the chlorite group are the simpler minerals etofore with them in locality, or from which they have been hereto! es assumed to be derived. e My apology for a new name is that not one of those heretofore prop i: any member of this group is applicable, oe J. B. Pearse on Minerals of the Chlorite Group. 225 If I may be allowed to hazard a conjecture as to the introduc- tion of alumina to those simple minerals to build up the chlorite group, I suggest that it is due to the conjoined influence of adja- cent decomposed feldspar, and a solution of magnesia. For de- composed feldspar, I take the most general composition of kaolin, and for solution of magnesia, brucite. Grastite and kimmer- erite may: be supposed to be formed thus: Grastite : Sid, Al,0,; Mg,0 H,O 1 atom of kaolin, 3 2 3 2 * olivine, 2 4 6." braeile; 5 5 1 “© grastite, 5 2 9 8 Kammererite: 1 atom of kaolin, 3 2 3 7 Onvine, 3 6 1 “ serpentine, 2 4 2 oS prucite, 5 5 1 “ kammererite, 8 2 14. 10 moment’s consideration will show that these conjectures are not unfounded. Chlorite is found where talcose matter and feld- adjacent feldspar, and serpentine has been supposed to de- rived from olivine. The locality in which grastite, rhodophyl- lite, and kiimmererite are remarkably developed, viz. Lancaster county, Penn., abounds in brucite. In fact brucite either as such Lancaster Co., enn. We have therefore only hazarded a natural conclusion, that chloritic minerals are formed from their simpler mineral associates, : Philadelphia, Oct. 26th, 1863. 226 A. Winchell on Fossils from the Potsdam Art. XXII.—WNotice of a small collection of Fossils from the Pots. . dam Sandstone of Wisconsin and the Lake Superior Sandstone of : Michigan ; by Prof. ALEXANDER WINCHELL. “a The interest which attaches to every vestige of organic life be ee B 5 & os a 8 —_ e = A =f S 0g = © = ° fo) s 2. S 8 < o 5 S | aa oo © fa - = g ; é i oF region three or four miles farther south, it supports the first er i liers of the Calciferous sandrock. : Me | The high bluffs surrounding the lake are described er : Wood (and also by Prof, Hall in the Wisconsin Report) re rae sisting entirely of bluish or iron-stained quartzite, exhibits 7 ; . be- i) * The present paper was written and accepted for publication in this Journal b* e fore I had become aware of the existence of the very important eee patience . nograp! i" here ex} J : my great admiration. It will nevertheless be observed that Prof. papa form t does not embrace a notice of any fossils found as far south as those whi descrip- : i that some interest must still at pete * Sometimes improperly styled “Spirit Lake.” of Wisconsin and Lake Superior. 227 gradual passage into an overlying conglomerate, which, in turn, assumes, above, the characteristics of the Potsdam sandstone. Both insist on the absolute continuity and conformability of the quartzite, conglomerate and sandstone. Mr. Wood says: “It is in the northern slope of the main ridge (on the east of the lake) that I found these fossils. If the sandstone containin them shall be called ‘ Potsdam,’ and the main ridge ‘ Quartzite, then I should say that they were a continuous deposit; and I do not know of any reason for separating them, only that they differ in hardness; while it is only at the extremes of the scale that this difference is manifest.” Prof. Hall states (Geol. Rep, quartzite is superimposed a little farther south, by the outliers of the Calciferous sandrock, this fact would give countenance to the alternative suggested. ScoLiTrHuS LINEARIS. S. linearis Hall. is present in abundance in some of the frag- ments, in the foretF abe t, cylindrical, nest-like cay ay or three inches long, extending vertically to the planes 0 |. ding. They vary from ‘05 to ‘27 of an inch in diameter. 228 A. Winchell on Fossils from the Potsdam Ortnts BaRraBuEnsis, n. sp. There are several imperfect specimens of an Orthis, apparently of the type of 0. biforatus. The form is transverse, with a straight hinge-line,“ and the sub-equal beaks a little elevated D. Owen (Rep. Wis. Jo. and Min., p. 575) and Shumard (St. Louis Trans., i, 627) have made allusion to the existence of STRAPAROLLUS (OputLeta) PRIMORDIALIS, nD. sp. A planorboid shell, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and having the apex of the spire depressed below the level of the outer whorl. The number of whorls is probably about five, but only the last two are preserved in the best specimens. + tube enlarges very gradual] y, and is marked by a distinct carina just above the peripheral line, above and below which is a shal- oov: Some of the specimens of this fossi] greatly resemble the if rock of New York; but the volutions enlarge a little ee PLevrotomaria? apvena, n. sp. A trochoid or sub-turreted shell, of at least four whorls, which are depressed-convex externally, and apparently destitute * Potsdam of Wisconsin and Lake Superior. 229 of all superficial ornaments. But three whorls have been seen; these are ‘66 inch in height, and the lower one is about “77 inch in diameter—the three being of nearly equal height. This fossil is quite unlike anything described from the Pots- dam sandstone; and there is nothing in the Calciferous sand- rock which approaches nearer than Holopea Proserpina Billings (Pamphlet, Jan. 1862, p. 28), with which this may be eongeneric. A DicettocerHatus PEPINENSIS, et : ce An imperfect cephalic shield shows a narrow border, with a decidedly thickene margin, which is broader than the furrow Yetween it and the front of the glabella. The glabella is prom- ment, with sub-parallel sides and an obtusely rounded anterior ®xtremity. Opposite the middle of the prominent palpebral Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVI, No. 110,—Marcx, 1864. 30 230 A. Winchell on Fossils from the lobes, a furrow passes quite across the glabella, being curved backward in the middle. Behind this is another nearly parallel furrow, and in front is a pair of faint furrows situated nearly op- posite the anterior extremity of the palpebral lobe, and eac traceable about one-third the distance across the glabella. An other glabella, very similar to this, shows three transverse fur- rows, besides the anterior interrupted furrow. A finely preserved pygidium presents a strong convexity, especially in the middlelobe. Aside from the marginal flap, the external outline is nearly semicircular, with the anterior margin considerably curved. The lateral lobes are strongly convex, be: coming less so nearer the border, and abruptly joining the cal dal flap, at an inclination of about 45°. The pleure are furrowed in such a manner that there seems to be an accessory pleura 0 tween each two principal ones. The articulations are seven i0 number in both the axial and side lobes, and extend nearly 10 the terminal apex of the middle lobe. The caudal flap is fat, and about as wide as the middle lobe at its anterior end, au marked uniformly through its whole length by eight or more rigid concentric striz. No indications of caudal spines. _ This pygidium was originally referred to this species on sue information as was accessible, amongst which was Hall’s figure in the Wisconsin Report (p. 22, fig. 4), showing indications of & previously been described. Prycnasris BaRaBUENSIS, 0. Sp. The collection embraces some fragments of the cephalic and caudal shields of a large trilobite, which, while its generic rel tions are somewhat indeterminate, has a certain expression which is peculiar. The head is about 2°4 inches broad, and rather co® vex; the thickened and convex margin of the border is separe ted from the glabella by a narrow, concave furrow, giving the border a width of three-tenths of an inch. Posteriorly, the bor epee borders of the cheek. ‘The surface is feebly eee ate-wrinkled; though with oblique light it is seen to be tai tinctly so, and the character is even better shown with a 10" magnifier, though the cast is preserved in sandstone. 7 _ The pygidium which undoubtedly belongs to the same oh cies is 2°9 inches across, and three-fourths of an inch in _ The middle lobe is nine-tenths of an inch across, and 18 4 Potsdam of Wisconsin and Lake Superior. 231 prominent, with its posterior portion inarticulate and broad] rounded, There is no limiting furrow separating it from the lateral lobes; and posteriorly it fades insensibly into the ter- minal border. The lateral lobes are but faintly articulate, and, meeting behind the axis, form a border three-fourths of an inch broad, which is strongly curved downward on all sides, and presents a circularly curved outline, without any indications of caudal appendages. The foregoing was written before seeing Prof. Hall’s memoir; and I had referred the specimens to Dicellocephalus, with a query. I could scarcely doubt of their generic distinctness, but felt re- luctant to engage in genus-making without ampler materials. I am happy now to recognize Prof. Hall’s new genus as exactly meeting my want. This species differs from P. Miniscaénsis Hall, in its broader and fuller movable cheek and broader margin, and much longer genal points. Il. The University has for many years been in possession of some fucoidal remains from the red sandstone of the sout shore of Lake Superior. As it is so uncertain when any further paleontological data will be obtained from that region, I do not deem it necessary to defer longer a brief notice of these fossil gee pe | different portions of the fronds of recent marine algz, shows how little Pepeniience can be placed upon descriptions founded on PaLZopurycus ARTICULATUS, 0. Sp. Consisting of large, straight or geniculated, compressed-cylin- drical, irregularly articulated, branching stems. The largest * * 232 A. Winchell on Fossils from the Potsdam, etc. stems are an inch and a quarter in diameter; the transverse sec tion oblong, rounded at the ends, or, in other eases, more nearly acircle. ‘The branches are uniformly much smaller than the main stem, and leave it at an angle of about 30°. One of the most marked peculiarities of the species is the somewhat regular transverse constrictions, which occur at intervals of about half an inch, in most of the specimens. At these constrictions the fucoid has shown a disposition to separate, so that most of the fragments present sharply truncate extremities. Surface smooth. This fucoid is found abundantly scattered over the surfaces of slabs of dark red, fine-grained sandstone, from the north flank of the Porcupine mountains, Lake Superior. Collected by Dr. Douglass Houghton, in 1840. PaLzopuycus INFORMIS, Nn. Sp. line. - In some instances it would seem that a hollow, conical iece had been compressed so as to present two opposite edges. Boiisetivea an irregularly elongate piece presents occasional et- largements and tuberculous eminences. ‘here are some indica tions that the plant was branched, some of which consist in the close approximation of co-adapted edges without complete june tio e surfaces are smooth and shining. The fragments vary from half an inch to two inches in width. Abundant in dark red sandstone from Montreal river, Lake sandstone three miles west of Eagle river; and again in wil tion of the lowest fossiliferous sandstones thought by Messrs. Foster and Whitney, and formerly by #4) and still earlier intimated in the unpublished notes of Dr. a ton; or finally, as now intimated by Hall, a formation rang from a horizon below the fossiliferous sandstones of ¥ to the top of the Chazy formation or St. Peter’s sandstone. University of Michigan, Dec. 11th, 1863. ae Paes Sea ene Prof. Kirkwood on the Orbits of Binary Stars. 233 Art. XXIII.—On the Orbits of Binary Stars; by Prof. DANIEL KirRKWooD, Bloomington, Indiana. more than 6000.’ The proportion of these in which t oy is merely optical cannot now be determined: the num- er, however, in which a change of relative position had been detected, was, at the middle of the present century no less than 650. In the motions of these bodies, so far as observed, we fin one general and striking characteristic; the orbits are much more elliptical than those of our planetary system. In Sir John Her- schel’s Table (1850) of fourteen double stars whose orbits bad been calculated, the eccentricity in seven cases is greater than that of Faye’s comet (0°5559); while in the case of A/pha taurt it is nearly equal to that of Halley’s.”_ We propose to in- quire whether this remarkable fact in regard to the sidereal or- bits is susceptible of explanation by the nebular hypothesis. na former number of this Journal’ it was stated that the Tue whole number of double stars hitherto observed is rather h the du- . The components being less than 82’ asunder. , The eccentricity of ‘he former is 0°95; that of the latter, 0°9674. For September, 1860, p. 165. 234 W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. ArT. XXIV.—On the best Mode of presenting, in a popular form, the Theory of the Tides, with suggestions for constructing illustra- tive apparatus ; by WiLLIAM DENNIS, Philadelphia, Pa. Iv is remarked by Sir J. Herschel that “many persons find a strange difficulty in conceiving how they (the tides) are pro- duced ;” and Mrs. Somerville goes so far as to say (Physical Sci- ences, ©. 13), that among those classed as astronomical problems this “is by far the most difficult and its explanation the least sat- isfactory.” This latter statement is perhaps rather broad as it stands, but if it were limited somewhat, so that the singularity of the phenomenon and the importance and familiar interest that attach to it and to its effects should be taken into account, It would scarcely require further qualification. It can hardly be denied that an intelligent comprehension of this subject is rare even among those to whom the causes of most natural phenom- ena are familiar, while to the great majority of intelligent peo ple it is altogether a mystery. It seems, therefore, worth while to enquire whether the difficulties complained of have been re duced toa minimum, or whether they be not in part owing 0 defects or errors in the usual mode of presenting the explanation. aving had occasion, in the preparation of a new elementary treatise on astronomy, to consider this subject attentively, as well as to examine the explanations commonly given, 1 have been compelled to conclude that no small portion of the obseu- rity and perplexity commonly supposed to belong to this sub- ject arises from the want of a proper consideration and statement of the ocean are raised by the moon’s attraction, in many cases, will be that they are lifted up by main strength, as it were, the force of gravity being overcome,’ and having no where observed any similar effect of the moon’s attraction, he cannot conceive how this can be. Nor will it tend in any 0%. "gree to lessen his perplexity if he shall see it stated, (as he may) ten-millionth part of the force of gravity, and that of the sun attraction not even half as great as it. It is therefore imp? fy to show, by a preliminary explanation, that the waters ° * An idea akin to this must exist, it would seem, in the minds of those yee speak of the lateral attraction of the moon at a given place after or age its meridian of that place; as if this disturbing force, so minute © st, and in respect of this lateral action, so greatly reduced by its very pat: ection, or else by the near approach of the place in question to the mean could ever produce any appreciable effect whatever in that way. a W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 235 : do not maintain their general figure and outline under the influence of gravity alone. On the contrary it is well known that by the centrifugal force generated by the earth’s rotation on its axis they are kept at a higher level or greater distance from the centre on other parts of the globe than at the poles, this ele- Yation amounting at the equator where it is atest to about 13 miles, ey are therefore exactly suspended or poised between these two forces, namely, the force of gravity and the centrifugal force just mentioned, and any other force that should in the least degree add to or counteract the influence of either of these 236 W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. nearer, while the tide raised at the same time on the opposite _ ide of the earth results from the earth being drawn away from the waters there because they are more remote than the mass of the earth and are thus “left behind,” or “left heaped up;” and then we are told that at full moon, when the attractions of the sun and moon are opposite in direction, they conspire to produce spring tides in the same manner as at new moon when their at- tractions coincide in direction. Now asit is not easy to see how a body can be drawn away so as to leave any thing behind in two opposite directions at the same time, these statements appear quite inconsistent and are well calculated to confuse and perplex. It is therefore important and indeed indispensable to the com munication of an intelligible view of this phenomenon to explain, as before remarked, the conditions and circumstances, or, to ex: press it more definitely, the relations and dependencies existing among the bodies concerned in it: a course at once so natur and so needful that it seems remarkable that it should not have been more generally and more fully adopted. As the earth is held to its curved path around the sun by the & of will be less sure, Again on the opposite side of the earth or that m ote from the sun, the attractive or restraining force W immediately disturbed: these waters will therefore cee ane : ost Te ca eg Et \ pt cee ty rea aes Mite W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 237 than the mean and therefore not quite equal to the centrifugal force and here accordingly there will be an excess of this latter force: but on this side it is this centrifugal force that acts in a direction opposite to that of gravity, and this excess of it will consequently disturb the equilibriam of the surface waters here _ in precisely the same manner as in the other case. eferring now, for illustration, to the suspended ball before mentioned, let us suppose it to be a hollow globe one or two feet in diameter, of a quite flexible material, as India rubber, having an opening about half an inch in diameter at the top and also at stiff horizontal wires, which are placed at right angles to each other and the extremities of which pass loosely through small Openings in the sides of the globe. Passing this cord over a eter: and attaching a weight, so adjust the weight that it shall sufficient to support the middle horizontal zone or segment of the globe. Let there be two other cords with pulleys and at- tach one to the top of the globe and the other to the bottom, the latter passing down through the opening in the top; then at- tach to the former a weight somewhat more than sufficient to sup- port the top part of the flexible globe and to the latter a weight not quite sufficient to support the bottom part. Now it should’ remembered that in this illustration the force of gravity or Weight of the globe stands in place of the centrifugal force gen- ¢ y the earth’s motion in its orbit, and the tension of the cords, in place of the sun’s attractive force varying at different distances: the cord.attached to the wires at the centre may then represent the mean attractive force of the sun at the mean dis- or most remote side. The globe being flexible, it is evident that the top part will be drawn up somewhat by the excess of the 238 W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. around the earth being a fact as familiar to most as that of the earth around the sun. But action and reaction being always equal, while the earth holds the moon to its course or orbit i ner attracted and held by the moon to an extent proportioned t0 its inferior size or mass, and the consequence is that both bodies against what seems to be a very common misconception 0! revolution of the earth about this point. This material error Consists in supposing that point in the earth where this cenulv lies, or which coincides with this centre at any instant, to be md honary as regards this revolution, while the other parts of # W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 239 earth revolve about it; whereas, it is a revolution of the centre of the earth around this common centre of gravity, every point in the surface or elsewhere having a corresponding motion: it is not a revolution of the parts of the earth about a point within it which remains fixed, but a revolution of the earth as a mass about its larger orbit by the sun’s, and there is consequently a corres- ponding excess of the attractive force over the mean and there- i the former case, a disturbance of the equilibrium of the surface waters—a tendency in those on these two sides to rise to a higher level, and a consequent eaten e > o $ 4 er = | pl or oO -_ rt r~) ce er 4 ) (eo) st. ° oS 77) > So) =I o > oO 5 oO 3 3 a 4 5 a fs a @ i?) =f o h] =) oJ for Must therefore conspire to produce the same effect which will o Course be an exaggerated one: hence the spring tides that are observed about the time of new moon. Nor is what has bee already stated in relation to the earth’s being held to its place b the sun’s attraction in any way inconsistent with this result. It 1s still held by the sun, and with the same force, but the attrac- tion of the moon is added to that of the sun and it is thus not merely held, but actually drawn out of the course which it would 240 W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. have taken under the influence of the sun’s attraction alone and brought for the time somewhat nearer to the sun. Again, when the two attracting bodies are on opposite sides of the earth at full moon, it will be found that the result should held suspended by the sun’s attraction without regard to the moon’s position or action upon it. hile thus held or sus pended, the moon by its attraction draws it somewhat out of the course it would otherwise pursue, bringing it now a little nearer to the sun and then taking it a little farther from it, at one ime hurrying it onward and again retarding it somewhat, (move ments necessarily resulting from that revolution of the earth about the common centre of gravity of itself and the moon ber fore explained) ; but this by-play between the earth and the moon in no way essentially affects the relation existing between the earth and the sun: the former unceasingly pursues its orbit course around the latter, which must therefore constantly hold same direction (at néw moon) conspire to produce a namely, the spring tides of new moon, seems hardly to require separate illustration. It is as if the power of one of these born were temporarily increased, which would of course produce am increased result, It may however be illustrated by 4 ™ ike tion of the apparatus before described. Let the flexible globe be suspended by three*weights with pulleys, representing a5 ™ former case the sun’s attraction, the weights being now con ae" With the several parts of the globe by elastic cords or bands, + W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. 241 they will then represent the constant action o the same time allow the whole globe or any of its parts to move to a limited extent under the action of another force. By means three other cords with pulleys, attach three additional weights to the sarne points to act in the same direction and thus to rep- resent the added attraction of the moon; and by a proper adjust- ment of the second set of weights, and of the size or elastic force of the first set of cords, not only the increased elongation of the earth (the spring tides) belonging to this position of the other bodies, but its temporary approach to the sun, may be when the suspension is completed clamp the cords at the pulleys ; the sun and at . and in like manner does the combin * the disturbing influence of these bodies is to render the sur- tions not so affected, which of course at the same time sink. But I the case we are now considering, while the moons influence 8 producing the lunar tide on two opposite sides of the earth, sun is at the same time acting upon the intermediate equa- 242 W. Dennis on the Theory of the Tides. : words, by tending to elongate the globe in a direction at right angles to that of the moon’s attraction, will lessen somewhat the vertical or lunar elongation. turning points to what it is at the next; but to deseribe these changes—and the same may be said of numerous subordinate of collateral branches of this subject—does not fall within the se QO o — oO tow pose o> cr a") .=™) b=) wD —_ cr Nn oO (a>) 5 oO fe ct co) 3 me) oF S 5 be KK (o>) boot 5 ° fer) oO p oi S $3 peo | Qu g * it “ai be observed that I say “in part,” and speak above of “equatorial sp t ces,” etc. ere seems to be good reason to dou I r in this connection one circumstance has be any means properly attended to, namely, that the lunat be raised in part, perhaps in some cases chiefly, by the pressure of those portion the surface waters lying northward or southward of the central points f the moon's direct influence; these wo he most part wholly usdist un’s influ unar ave is formed theoretically by upon, the edge of the wa e theoretical proportion betw . as been commonly, (not say careless 53 stated as that between the sum sy difference of the two separa ing influences of the sun and m to 3; but even theoretically this is manifestly i : of the case to consider the i ; ilbb as the hear haar es here as the lunar tide alone, C. A. Joy on a Meteorite from Chili. 243 Art. XXV.—Analysis of a Meteorite from Chili; by CHARLES A. Joy, Professor of Chemistry in Columbia College, New York. THIS meteorite was found on a mountain pass, about fifty miles from Copiapo, in the province of Atacama, Chili, by a na- tive of the Argentine Republic, and presented to Mr. Joseph Brower, by whom it was brought to New York, and to whose kindness I am indebted for the fragment used in the analysis. The original specimen has been deposited by Mr. Brower, with a large collection of rare silver and copper ores from Chili, in the mineralogical cabinet at Union College, Schenectady. he outer crust of the meteorite wore the usual dark red color of oxydized iron. Its weight, uncut, was 1784 grams. ‘The specific gravity is 4°35. A polished etched surface gave an im- es on paper of scattered points rather than of regular lines. t also readily reduced copper from its solutions. close inspection of the specimen shewed that there was a large per-centage of stony matter interspersed through the mass, The color and hardness of a portion of this indicated olivine; other fragments recalled the appearance of partially decomposed labradorite. An unsuccessful attempt was made to withdraw the iron by means of a magnet, but the powdered mineral ad- ered to the magnet in association with the iron When a slight yellow precipitate of tin was thrown down, while . Copper was dissolved and afterward precipitated by potash. After expelling the sulphuretted hydrogen from the first fil- by molybdate of ammonia and afterward determined as phosphate of magnesia. or the determination of the iron, alumina, nickel, cobalt, Manganese, and lime, a second portion was taken and treated as before . Suecessively precipitated by ammonia and sulphid of ammonium 244 C. A. Joy on a Meteorite from Chili. and the precipitate redissolved and weighed. The iron and alu- mina were separated from the other bases by carbonate of baryta. The nickel, cobalt, and manganese, were not determined in this portion, but were precipitated by potash and weighed. The separation of the iron and alumina was accomplished by means of the hyposulphite of soda. The alumina was found to be free from the oxyd of chromium. The lime was determined as car- bonate. For the separation of the nickel and cobalt from man- Results : From 37519 grams. 1°134 grms, insol. 2°385 grms. soluble. BaO, SO, 0-6 Mg0,PO, 0-015 000423 P CuO 0-002 000159 Cu Sn0, 0-001 0001 SnO, No. 8. Mn,O, 0-011 No. 2. 1:166 grms, material. Co,0, 0-021 0390 grms. insoluble. Nid 0°124 0-776 “ soluble. | 0-156 CaO, CO, 0°025 0°014 CaO €,U3 0°859 0°6013 Fe 0-039 0-039 Al,O, Mn,0, 0-006 000432 Mn iO 0-077 0:06034 Ni Cale. from No.3) Co,0, 0:013 0:00959 Co From the above figures we obtain the following results: Ae c : - - 77°48 pr. ct. nye A . : yh a Co - o ~~ gS Red ie: 1:23 “ me SS ie ea 055 = (a0 iz g nd é 1°80 “ Al,0, ‘a * 2 5-02 ‘“ i ’ oe me a ms 3°95 se tT - - is = ae z 0-17 “ ee ‘i “ Pe 0-06 “ Sng lah aadvaw 4 aii? wife Se 004 & 98-07 C. A. Joy on a Meteorite from Chili. 245 As the analysis was conducted with great care; and as we have alumina and lime evidently derived from the decomposi- tion of a portion of the mineral, and as protoxyd of iron is easily attacked in silicates, it is proper to assume that the differ- ence is due to oxygen combined with iron as protoxyd. Assum- ing 1:90 pr. ct. oxygen, we require 6°65 pr. ct. Fe to form 8°55 FeO. This will give us for the soluble portion : Fe 70°83 pr.ct. Mn 0°55 pr. ete Ni TT? Al,0, 5-02 Co 1:23 FeO 8:55 Cu 0-06 CaO 1°80 S 3-95 SnO, 0-04 P 017 gpg The average of several analyses gave 68°19 pr. ct. soluble in acids, and 31°81 pr. ct. insoluble in acids. Insoluble mineral portion. tion of HCl yielded brown sulphid of tin. The ammoniacal fil- trate from SnO, was colored distinctly blue by co The filtrate from the sulphid of tin and sulphid of copper was ted with chlorid of ammonium and ammonia and saturated _ With sulphid of ammonium and heated, by which iron, manga- Cipitate was dissolved in aqua regia. From the filtrate from the 7 tg metals the lime was precipitated by oxalate of ammonia the magnesia by phosphate of soda. From the solution in aqua regia, the oxyds of iron, alumina, | mium, were precipitated by carbonate of baryta in the cold. The excess of baryta was removed by sulphuric acid and Manganese precipitated by potash: this precipitate was ex- amined for nickel and cobalt and found to contain traces. AM. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mancx, 1864. 32 hese, nickel, cobalt, and chromium were ee aprta This pre- 246 C. A. Joy on a Meteorite from Chili. The precipitate containing the oxyds of iron, alumina, and chromium, and excess of carbonate of baryta, was dissolved in chlorhydric acid, the baryta removed by sulphuric acid, and iron and alumina separated by hyposulphite of sodas The sesquioxyd of chromium was separated from the oxyds of iron and alumina, as follows: The Al,O, was fused with Na0, Fe,0, was also fused with carbonate of soda and nitrate of potassa, and the mass lixiviated with water,, filtered, saturated with chlorhydric acid, alcohol added, heated to boiling, and the sesquioxyd of chromium precipitated by ammonia. Results : Substance taken = 0°518 grms. Found, SiO, 0°334 grms. 64:478 per cent. FeO 0°0729 14073 MgO 0:06737 13°005 : MnO 0°01678 3°239 Cr,05 0-00907 1°750-2°575 Cr20, Fed Al,O, 0:00593 1144 aO 0-00448 0°864 Sn0,+CuO 0-005 0:965 NiO, CoO 0-002 0:386 0°51753 99°904 Second Analysis, Substance taken = 17114 grms. Found, SiO, 0-713 65°61 per cent. MgO 071549 13°90 FeO 071647 14°78 Cr,0, 0-0140 1:25 Al,0O, 0-0120 1:07 ' MnO 0°0325 2°91 0°0128 1°15 Ni, CO 0-0010 0-09 100°76 Average. SiO, - - - ss 65°04 MgO - - - . 13°45 FeO - - - - 14°42 Cr,0, - Pe - 1°50 Al,0, = - - 1:10 MnO . - - 3:07 CaO - - - 1-01 Ni, Co - - . 0°23 C. A. Joy on a Meteorite from Chili. 247 From these analyses we have the composition of the meteorite as a whole, as follows: Fe - - - 48-298 per cent. Ni - - - - 5°298 Co ~ - 0°838 Mn - - - - 0°375 Cu - - - - 0:040 8 - - - - 2°693 = - - 0'115 siO0, - - - 20°689 insoluble. MnO - - - - 0076. 3:8 ‘0, - - - - Ug, tt Sipe tig NiO, CoO - - - 07 - FeO - - - - 5°830 soluble. FeO - - - - 4'587 insoluble. CaQ_ oe = - - 1:227 soluble Ca0- < - - 0°321 insoluble. Al,O, - és - 3423 soluble Al,O, - - - - 0°349 insoluble. MgO - ‘ . - 4°27 7 pn, = : = 0°027 soluble. Sn0, - i ‘ ‘ 0162 insoluble. 100:076 Metallic portion. Mineral portion. Fe 48:298 per cent. SiO, 20°689 per cent. Ni 5-298 MnO 0-976 Co 0-838 Cr.0, 0-477 Mn 0375 NiO, CoO —-:0:078 Cu 0-040 FeO 10°417 8 2693 MgO 4278 P 0-115 Al,O, 3772 ee EET CaO 1°548 Another anal. 57°657 Sn0, 0°189 42°419 In 100 parts. Metallic, Mineral. Fe 83°76 SiO, 48°61 “a 9:18 FeO 24-47 1°45 M 10°05 Mn 0°65 aL, 8°86 Cu 0-07 CaO 63 ni 0:20 MnO foe . 8 ‘ E Cr,0 x sat ae 6 NiO, CoO 0°17 Another anal. 99:98 Sn0, ‘44 0°78 "99°64 248 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. If we examine the mineral portion under a microscope and study its behavior towards reagents, we shall find at least two silicates in the meteorite; one of them, like olivine, having the formula RO, SiO,, not so easily attacked by acids, and the other resembling labradorite, with the formula «R,O, SiO, + yRO SiO,. Assuming that the Cr,O, was combined with the FeO as chrome iron, the 1°12 Cr,O, will require 0°52 FeO, which must be deducted from the 24-47 pr. ct. FeO. Assigning Mg0, MnO, NiO, CoO, to the mineral RO?, SiO, andthe Al,O,, CaO, to the mineral « R,O, SiO, + yROSIO,, and dividing the FeO between them, we have for the mineral portion: Chrome iron - - 1-64 pr, ct. Cr,0, FeO Olivine, - - 27°43 RO, SiO, i Labradorite- - 70°13 Al,0, SiO0,4-4RO Si0, 99°20 This will give for the composition of the meteorite; Nickel iron (with Co, Mn, and Cu) 48°689 Sulphid of iron, FeS 7405 Chrome iron, Cr,O, FeO 0-701 Schreibersite, (Fe 1:38, Ni 0°67, P 0°115) 1°563 Olivine, RO, SiO, 11°677 Labradorite,* (R04, S10, + 4RO Si0,) 29°852 Tin stone, SnO, 0°189 100-076 Calculations were made referring the silicates to hornblende, hypersthene, augite, and anorthite, but I omit them in the sum- mary as being of a purely theoretical character. The above 18 believed to give the fair average constitution of this meteorite. I must express my obligation to my assistant, Mr. Charles 4, Stetefeldt, for skillful aid in hastening the completion of the analysis. ‘New York, Jan. 1st, 1364, ————— Arr. XXVI.—Contributions to Lithology; by T. StERRY HoNt M.A., F.R.S.; of the Geological Survey of Canada. I. Theoretical Notions—Il. Classification and Nomenclature. : In a recent paps on The Chemical and Mineralogical Relations ks (this Journal, [2] xxxvi, 214), an ace © was made to define the principles which haye presided over formation of sedimentary rocks, and to explain the nature an conditions of their alteration or metamorphism. That paper - T. 8. Hunt on Lithology. 249 may be considered as to a certain extent introductory to the pres- ent one, which will contain, in the first part, some theoretical considerations which it is conceived should serve as a basis to lithological studies. In the second part will be given a few de- finitions which may serve to render more intelligible the classifi- eation and nomenclature of crystalline rocks; while a third part will contain the results of the chemical and mineralogical exam- ination of some of the eruptive rocks of Canada. These results will be found for the most part in the recently published volume entitled the Geology of Canada. Thave already, in other places, expressed the opinion that the various eruptive rocks have had no other origin than the soften- ing and displacement of sedimentary deposits; and have thus their sources within the lower portions of the earth’s stratified views of many modern mathematicians and poyseets the school of geologists just referred to regard as a shell of very limited thickness, The view which I adopt is one the merit of which belongs, I believe, to Christian Keferstein, who, in his Naturgeschichte des Erdhirpers, published in 1834, maintained that all the unstrati- fied rocks, from granite to lava, are products of the transforma- € Origin of metamorphism and of volcanic aie by the action of the internal heat of the earth upon deeply buried sedi- ments impregnated with water. (Proc. Geol. Soc. of London, Vol. ii, pp. 548, 596.) See also my papers in the Canadian Jour- nal, 1858, p. 206: Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. 1859, p. 488; Can, Naturatise, Bes. 1859, and this Journal, [2], vol. xxx, p. 185. 250 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. The presence of water in igneous rocks, and the'part which it may play in giving liquidity to all volcanic and plutonic rocks was insisted upon by Poulett Scrope, so long ago as 1824, in his Considerations on Volcanos, (see also Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lon- don, xii, 341.) This view has since been ably meets Bu eol, hate tassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium, so times with free chlorhydric acid. Similar fluid cavities were oun im in most crystals artificially formed in aqueous s0- merous small fluid-cavities. In like manner, he deduces rom the fluid-cavities in the Vesuvian minerals just noticed, a tetr perature of from 360° to 880°C. The presence, at the same HMé, of bubbles or vapor-cavities and of glass and stone-cavitles In tion was present, along with melted rock, and various gases 47 vapors. * * * * I therefore think that we must conclude visionally, that at a great depth from the surface, at the foci T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 251 voleanic activity, liquid water is present along with the melted rocks, and that it produces results which would not otherwise occur.” (loc, cit., p. 483.) Mr. Sorby has, as we have just seen, determined the tempera- ture requisite to expand the liquid so as to fill the fluid-cavities, provided they were formed under a pressure not greater than the elastic force of the vapor. This of course represents the lowest temperature at which the consolidation could have taken n this connection Mr. Sorby remarks that from Mr. Robert Hunt's observations on the mean increase of temperature in the incumbent strata;” and he concludes that wit regard to rocks and minerals formed at high temperatures, we have “at one end of the chain erupted lavas, indicating as gee and complete * 252 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. vapor, it remained, as we have seen, to take its part in the crys: tallization, in some cases forming hydrated minerals; and the excess of it, as Mr. Sorby suggests, passed up as a highly heated liquid, holding dissolved materials, which would afterwards be deposited in the form of mineral veins in the fissures of super: incumbent rocks. : I have thought it well to give at some length the remarkable results and conclusions by Mr. Sorby, because I conceive that they have not as yet received the full degree of consideration to which they are entitled, and are perhaps little known to some my readers.’ The temperature deduced by him from the exam- ination of the crystals of hornblende and feldspar from Vesu- vius is curiously supported by the experiments of Daubrée ; who obtained crystallized pyroxene, feldspar and quartz, in presence of alkaline solutions, at a temperature of low redness; while De Senarmont crystallized quartz, fluor-spar and sulphate of barytes in presence of water, at temperatures between 200° and 300°C, At the same time the deposits from the thermal waters at Plom- biéres show that crystalline hydrous silicates, such as apophyllite, harmotome, and chabazite, have formed at temperatures but little above 80° C. We conceive that the deeply buried sedimentary strata, under the combined action of heat and water have, according to their rent beds. It is only those rocks which, like lavas, have — ssimilar to those of the undisturbed crystalline sediments. With this ex- ception the only distinction which can be drawn between strati- - fied and unstratified masses must in most cases be based up rocks, or sediments displaced and translated, forming — and intrusive masses. Under the head of exotic rocks 18 ei ever to be included another class of crystalline aggregates, whit are for the most distinguished by their structure from 1) jected or intrusive masses. I refer to the accumulations which © Sie taster bales ing those of Sorby, Pree. Kip. dan Peetton, Moras 13; 1863; had Snot ye Geol. Soc., Vol T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 253 fill mineral veins, and which doubtless have beet deposited from aqueous solutions. While their peculiar arrangement, with the Beeraiaance of feldspar and mica gives rise to aggregates which and crystalline limestones, when a majority of writers, even to the present day, class serpentines, euphotides, and hyperites Ogist is accumulating, from year to year, a great mass of eyi- ce in favor of the indigenous nature of all these rocks. The jetamorphosed in situ,—indigenous rocks, which were altered before the Jurassic dolomites were deposited, (Bel. Soc. Geol. ni [2], vi, 506-516). In like manner we find © ) | x & a ic) rr 4 o i) =] : r 9S a bal cy & 7 s S 3 a PY) J Qu = Ss => ~ s = 3 TA stated that, on qualitative analysis of this mineral, I had found it to contain zinc, and attention was also called to its remarkable resemblance to dechenite. This statement is now confirmed by the analyses of Caud- e now also the fact that in the same article I pointed out the existence of zine in dechenite, and suggested the probability that dechenite and areoxene were identical. About the time my note was published, Bergemann gave the following analysis of arseoxene in Leonhard and Bronn’s Jahrbuch fir Mineralogie (1857, p. 397): Pb Zn As Vv AlPe* 52°55 18-11 1052 16°81 1°34 = 99°33 * With traces of phosphoric acid. Bergemann mentions that arzoxene enite occur together at neutral vanadate of lead. I have examined a specimen of obtained from Dr. Krantz in 1851, shortly after Krantz and Bergemat had described this species, and have found that it contains, not only pei but arsenic, The specimen has the appearance of being pure and vidal tered; it is perfectly homogeneous, has a brownish-red color, is ne - ~~ _ Mineralogy and Geology. 271 except a questionable difference in color. Any one reading v. Kobell’s description of arzeoxene’ and Bergemann’s ‘original description of the physical characters of dechenite? could hardly fail to conclude that they h 2, with hematite at the Jackson Iron Mountain, near Marquette, Lake Supe- Tor. Some of the specimens have the hyacinth-red color which charac- terizes the variety of githite called by the Germans “ Rubinglimmer, It also occurs in acicular crystals of an almost velvet-black ea — ie : ri ticed briefly in this Journal,’ has been further investigated by Stromeyer and Pete acid in the cold, cave a residue consisting of a crystalline powder, and rounded ke of the size of a lentil These kernels are translu- cent, white on the exterior, and interiorly yellowish. Hardness, between 3 and 4, Stromeyer found the limestone to contain 16°6 of crystalline heedles, and 14-8 of the rounded kernels. The specific gravity : former was 2-7, of the latter 30. The air-dried mineral was constant in artz. 8B Fe asf Qu fe ce ti Needles, 36°66 rom 1°66 699 049 0°20 — vir 2. Kernels, 3460 4944 320 1237 020 —— = Nie. 2 Pogg. Ann., Ixxx, 393. * Vol sain yest ee. * Ber, Wien, Akad., xlvii, $48. 272 Scientific Intelligence. The needles contained traces of carbon, and oxyd of manganese, If the chlorine is considered to exist as MgCl and the iron as #e?2H3, and these composition of the mineral will be B 38-35, Me 54°63, H 7:00==100 gives the formula 3(Mg5B?)4+4HO. A similar calculation made with No, 2 gives B 36-13, Mg 51°52, H 12°35=100, and the formula 3(Mg*B*)-+8H, or 4 atoms more of water than the crystalline variety, The composition is related to that of stassfurthite, this last minera being an acid hydro- borate combined with chlorid of magnesium, ‘i szaibelyite i is a basi¢ hydro-borate in which chlorid of magnesium is not an essential constitu ent. [The specific gravity of the borate with ve atoms of water i8 stat to be less than that with 8 atoms of nbs this is probably either a mis print or an error in observation.— 4, Astrophyllite—F. Pisant has ‘ésaihined Scheerer’s astrophyllite It is a micaceous substance, found at Brevig imbedded in w flay the ri Abe cient is associated with catapleiite, ngihasi and large prisms of a black m It forms six-sided prisms, frequently lengthened in the direction of +s shorter diagonal, sometimes in stellated groups and having a basic cleavage. In thin leaves translucent. Color brona- yellow. The powder resembles mosaic gold. Laminz only slightly elastic. H.=3, G.=8°324. Before the blowpipe swells up, and fuses easily to a black magnetic enamel. With soda and borax shows a strong manganese reaction. In the 2 spectroscope gives the lines of lime, Fr potash, and lithia. Decomposed by chlorhydrie acid with ae silicie acid in scales; the solution heated with zine or tin s the reac tion for titanic neha Analysis gave—silica 33°23, titanic ai 7-09, zit conia 4°97, alumina 4°00, ferric oxyd 3°75, ferrous oxyd 23°58, mange trace, og aaa ¥: « 1e Sayeea? ratio aie ca bases to vibe me 5. 5 -Winaiite —J, A. Micnartson has analyzed a ante mn Hell in Norway, which he s says is the bragite of Forbes and Dahl. The ali eral is grayish-brown in color, has an uneven fracture and a met lustre. H1—=4°5. G.=5-40, With salt of phosphorus and borax ' — bead, eam is | greenish- -yellow while warm, and colorless on cooling: mpositio Pecan y Ge C. fin Co tg Po H $610 145. S871 748 4:95 1327 G11 182 089 OW TU from which Michaelson draws the formula — and considers the er ral to be identical with tyrite and fergusonit —d. f. pr. Chem, ‘pragite [Tyrite and furgusonite need further seechiaaten: it may be that and tyrite are identical, but the analyses of Hartwell, Weber a J. B:! would indicate that fer: nat HO and tyrite are distinet species. —& J 6. 2 the Laurentian Rocks. of Canadas eu a letter to the Editors at Ny Journal ben Sit W.E. Lote to the . ted Montreal, Feb. 17th, 1864. .)—In August, 1859, + Mineralogy and Geology. 273 American Association at Springfield, Mass., specimens of what was re- garded by me as an organic form externally resembling Stromatocerium, and found in the Laurentian limestone of the Ottawa. These were de- scribed by me in the Canadian Naturalist for that year, (vol. iv, p. 300 and afterwards figured in the Geology of Canada, (p. 49). In 1863, sim- ilar forms were detected by the Geological Survey, in the serpentine-lime- stune of Grenville, sections of which we have prepared and submitted for aws e finds that the ser- nal, [2], xxxvi, 228,) that these oldest known stratified rocks, constituting the great Laurentian system, are probably to be divided into two uncon- rests unconformably upon the true Laurentian series. It is the limestones of this latter and more ancient division which have afforded the Foramin- » On Glaciers and other phenomena connected with the Himalayas ; (Proc, Roy. Geog. Soc., Jan, 1864.)—Dr. Falconer, after describing the Progress of the Trigonometrical Survey in India, next drew attention to the glacier system of the Himalayas. All the best observers— Dr. Thom- be A any dist h : Mvers which cut them across, rivers like the Indus, the Sutlej, and some ers of the Ganges; but, regarded in one grand aspect, they constitu- ies of mountains with ravines and valleys intervening. Viewed, then, in this light, there were two great ranges which culminated to espe- cially great altitudes, and which bounded the Indus river to the south and to the north; and this being one of the points where the Himalayan attained its greatest altitude, there the a phenomena were the greatest grandeur and upon the loftiest scale. The 274 Scientific Intelligence. referred to that part of the range which bounded the valley of the Indus Bp e north, the Kara-Korum, or Mooz-tagh, or the “Iey range of mountains,” and the other great series of them were the mountains which bounded the Indus upon the south. Although the glaciers upon the Shi- gar valley and in the valley of Bialdoh, which he himself had visited in 1838, were of such surpassing grandeur and importance, as had been mentioned by Sir Roderick Murchison, it was but fair to say that upon the northern side there were glaciers which, so far as description went, were equally grand, if not grander. Those to which he should especially refer were the glaciers at the head of the Zanscar river. Mr. J. A. Arrow- smith was well acquainted with the mountain-ridge to which he referred and the glaciers which arose from it. There was a river called the Che- ciers extending from a very great distance, and having enormous width, and which, until the description that had been given by Capt. Austel, had been unrivalled by any glacial phenomena with which they were ac- ere was the Himalayan chain so remarkable that he should take the rags $ the numerous lakes which jutted pel from the Alps into the plain of Italy. Commencing on the west theré were the Lago d’Orta, the Lago ™a f di Lugano, the Lago di Como, the Lago d’[seo, and te Lago of Garda; in fact, wherever a great valley projected itself from the chain 0 the Alps at right angles to the strike of the chain, there was, See = t lake. Regarding these lakes in a general way, WI" i 3 re 4 ; 3 | | Mineralogy and Geology. 275 o _+he question then arose, What was the physical reason of this great difference between the tropical mountains and those of temperate Europe ? European and Eastern mountains. He looked to the numerous lakes to the north and south of the Alps; and he would put the map of India alongside, where the same kind of rivers were debouching into the plains, carved out a great lake. This was the theory, or rather hypothesis, Which Professor Ramsay put forward to explain the lakes which were so abundant in the valleys of the Alps. A similar speculation, but greatly More restricted, had been advanced by Martillet a short time before. n ced, he it with the most li sition i :tion with his own experience : vely o ition in connection wit! n the Himalayan Mette hen The opposition which he gave to it was ? See this Journal, [2], xxxv, 324-345, May, 1863. by wer, 276 Scientific Intelligence. — FS) oad A = = ao) = ~ n 4 ee =) S or Eh = Me o v7) o 3 oR e os Qu fe) =] < =F o ° = = 5 ® 3 = oa —- nean, and then should have again risen along an incline at a rate about 180 feet per mile. Without going into all the objections, he might state he believed the principal one was, t e mechanical difficulties in slide or incline, upon which all the solid material could be Ger” eg eee OS eT? . & AM. Jour. Sct.—Secoxp Sexres, Vor. XXXVI, No. 110.—Mancu, 1864. e Mineralogy and Geology. oe ner mentioned. If they would look at the map of the Himalayan moun- tains, one of the most remarkable things they would observe on th southern side of the chain was, that there were no great lakes whatever —not one that would compare with Lake Lugano, or wit of the second or third-rate Jakes in the Alps. But, if they crossed to the north- ern side of the chain, where the temperature was much co during export from Thibet, and it was invariably found in connection with hot springs. Within the last twenty years, a remarkab place, The late Count Larderelle, an original-minded and eminently lating that, at no very remote period of time, a plateau in the Hima- at the only rational solution which science could suggest was that, within a comparatively modern period, a period closely trenching Upon the time when man made his appearance upon the earth, the Hima- -Tayas had been elevated 8000 or 10,000 feet. vo ae a ae” a Kane Sa é . a thy 278 Scientific Intelligence. * IV. BOTANY. rules of nomenclature drawn up at the instance of the association by Mr. Strickland and others, with power to.reprint these rules, and to cor- ; respond with foreign naturalists and others on the best means of insuring their general adoption.” “ Accordingly the rules, as originally circulated, are now reprinted [i. e. in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for Oct. 1863, p. 260 et seq. |, and zoologists are requested to examine them carefully, and to communicate any suggestions for alteration or Improve- ment, on or before the first of June, 1864, to Sir William Jardine, Bart, Jardine Hall, by Lockerby, N. B.” As most of the propositions are from their nature equally applicable to botany, and as the new committee comprises the names of four botarists, extremely well selected, it is obvious that the improvement of nomencla- We feel free, therefore, to make any suggestions that may occur to us from the botanical point of view : First, we would reeommend that “the admirable code proposed in a Philosophica Botanica of Linnzus,”—to which, “if zoologists had pa the lapse of time have become inoperative, or were from the first over nice: ex gr, 222, 224, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, etc., most of which are | recommendations rathef than laws. The British Association’s Commit tee has pruperly divided its code into two parts, 1. Rules for re ing the no- the present nomenclature: 2. Recommendations for improving menclature in future. The laws all resolve themselves into, or are conse quences of the fundamental law of priority, “the only effectual and just one.” m . nomial nomenclature, having originated with Linnaeus, the law of pres in respect of that nomenclature, is not to extend to the writings of am fal dent authors,” is perhaps somewhat too broadly stated. The essen thing done by Linnzeus in the establishment of the binomia ture was, that he added the specific name to the generic. ormed genera and generic names; but he did not pretend t ventor or establisher of either, at least in Botany. This merit he ae _ to Tournefort, in words which we have already cited in this Journal \" 'Y, p. 134); and he respected accordingly the genera of Tourn reformer, While, therefore, it is quite out o question 1 1 nomencla- Iso re- to be the in- ue » taking only the liberties which fairly pertained Pos him as if - -. wl Botany. 279 supersede established Linnzean names by Totrnefortian, we think it only right that Tournefortian genera, adopted as such by Lianzeus, should con- tinue to be cited as of Tournefort. So, as did Linnzus, we prefer to write Jasminum, Tourn., Circea, T. ourn., rinus, Tourn., Tamarindus, Tourn., etc. Indeed, it is not fair to Linnzeus to father u on bi ic e names, such as the last two and many more, which Linneus specially objects to, as not made according to rule. Specific names, of courte, can- hot antedate Linneeus, even if the descriptive phrase of the elders were rd : some other genus in zoology or botany, or Jor some other species in the ; 8 Proper in its day, is now inapplicable. Endlicher, who in a few cases en- deavored to a ply it, will probably be the last general writer to change onee In each respective kingdom of nature. “$12. A name which has never been clearly defined in some published work should be changed for the earliest name by which the object shall 80 defined.” Very well. And the good of science demands that unpublished descriptions, and manuscript names in collections, how- “ver public, should assert no claim as agaiust properly published names. But Suppose the author of the latter well knew of the earlier manuscript *r unpublished name, and had met with it in public collections, such name being unobjectionable, may he wilfully disregard it? And as to names without charac ers, may not the affixin name to a sufficient wilful disregard of unpublished names, especially of those in public or distributed collections, is injurious, dishonorable, and morally wrong. In the brotherhood of botanists, it should be a custom and courtesy und scientifie convenience in this respect have the practical force of law, the wilful violation of which would not long be tolerated ; and the distri- bution of hamed specimens, where and as far as they go, is held to be ‘antamount to publication. : ‘to the recommendations for the future improvement of nomencla- ture, in passing under review the “ Classes o objectionable names,” we Wonder that geographical specific names should have been objected to: we them very convenient in botany and, next to characteristic names, about as good as any. Comparative specific names in oides and ine ses are much used by botanists, and are often particularly characteristic, Specific Names derived from persons, used with discretion, and as for a Possible restricted to those who have had to do with the species, as dis-_ 280 Scientific Intelligence. coverer, deseriber, d&e., are surely nnobjectionable. Generic names de- rived from persons are, we agree, best restricted to botany, where, when er eo atey. pple, they are in good taste, if not too cacophonous. As osely resembling renee in large genera it may sometimes be best to are intolerable. But whist can be orettiar: among unmeaning names than R. Brown’s Tellima? Botanists will hardly agree that a Neric name which has been effectually superseded by the law of priority, should never afterwards be bestowed upon some other genus of some Other order, “It has sometimes been the practice, in sting an old Genus, to give to the lesser genera so formed the names of their respective typical yin ies.’ The emai he ee ws ras usage became the pro- ne appening at yu hse thalictroides, Now if we adopt the of Linngus, to which he would probably have adhered had he lived il now, We write the naine ta the authority thus :— Leontiee thelictroides, Lin (Syn. Cauulo phyllum thatlictroides, Michx.) The abbreviated eet of the authors appended stand in pe of the full reference, e.gr. Linn. Sp. Pl. 4, p. 448, and Michx. Fl, Bor-Am. 1,P 205, tab. 21. If the a view be adopted, it stands, in bees os Caulophyllum thalictroides, Michx. (Syn. Leontice thalictroides, Linn,) But, fearfyl lest the ee — should be robbed of his due credit, it has been proposec a Caulophyllum alicia, Linn, This is = only an anachronism mi a century, but an imposition upon Linnzeus of a view which be had and perhaps esate not have adopted. To avoid such fatal objer . thons, it has been proposed to write Coulockyllai (Michx.) ogee — ; which is not only “ too lengthy and inconvenient to and ra rapidity,” but too sonitnncn aod uncouth to be used at all. sat finally, the Committee propose to write,— Caulophyllum thalictroides, (Lian.) (sp.),— which is scarcely shorter, or even to leave out the(sp.) Th 0 rene i but to note that Linnseus originally gave the specific name gs long _ Bot the generic. Who 4, aon be otherwise ascertained. A pretly nee convinces us much confusion is risked Be troub™ and nothing worth tiala secured by these endeavors to put fore Botany. 281 ward the original er than the actual application of a specific name. te-Li enclature broke down in the attempt to combine spe- cific appellation wih description, Here the attempt is to connect it with the history of its origin, which, after all, can be rightly told only in the synonymy. The natural re;nedy for the supposed evil which this mode of citation was to cure is, to consider (as is simply the fact) that the ap- pended authority does not indicate the pipes but only the application at the time being, of the particular name, and so no one is thus robbed of his due. The instructed a very well k knows the bibliography of apecies, or where to look for it; the tyro can learn. “$C. Specific names Boa always be woritten with a small initial letter, even ake derived from persons or places :”—on the round that Peeper names written with a capital letter are liable to be mistaken “or generic. (But no naturalist would be apt to write the name of a species without that of the genus, or its initial, preceding.) Also, “ that _ all species are equal, and should therefore be written all alike” The question is one of convenience, taste, and usage. As to the first, we do not think a strong case is made out. If mere uniformity be the leading consideration, it might be well to follow the example of the American author who corrected Ranunculus Flammula Linn. and R. Cymbalaria Pursh, into R flammulus and R. cymbalarius! As to tasteFand usage, sa “sng there would be a vast preponderance against the ‘innovation, espects personal names and those substantive names whic ta delighted ie gather from the old yi aaeg &e., pe turn to specific use, @. es Ranunculus Flammula, R. Lingua, R. Tho a, R. Fi- taria, and the like. Adjective names of places te pom eihy pe printed with a small initial, e. g., &. lapponicus, ete. DeCandolle writes such names with a capital letter; and this best accords with English analogy, but has not been universally adopted, and probably will not be. F. It is recommended that in subdividing an old genus in fulure, the names given to the subdivisions should bana in gender with that of the original group. ” The practical objection to this is, that old names should be reviy ed for these genera or subgenera, if there be any applica- ble ones, which is likely to be the case in “bota any. A. G. 2, Ain ales Musei Botanici Lugduno- Batavi, edidit F, A. Gui. Mr- QWeEL. Univ. Rheno-Trajec. Bot. Prof, Musei Bot. L. B. Director. Tom. I, fase. 1-4, pp. 1-128, tab, 1-4, ful. Amsterdam and Utrecht. 1863. —Professor Miquel, still retaining his chair at the University of Utrecht, has succeeded the late Dr. Blume as Director of the Royal Botanical useum at Leyden; and that a a — invaluable materials effects of his activity and good judgment, Four numbers of the present Work, each of eight folio wine ia ecu and one colored plate, have * ei during the year 1863; and the work is peng to be eon- ued at the rate of five numbers in a year; the ce 3 florins each. The extent, character, and importance of this Sahliention- may be juc of from the following brief analysis of the contents of the four numbers oR i Miquel himself, a revision ‘ust we ‘we from the indefatigable Prof. Miquel himsell, a of the Araliacee of the Indian Archipelago, with an a nalytical conspec- 282 Scientific Intelligence. tus of the known genera of the order, and the revision of certain genera, as, for instance, of Aralia (from which he again excludes additional case of identity of peculiar N. E. American with N. E. Asian species, of much interest, is adduced, viz: that the Linnean Aralia Zuce., are all referable to our own fawiliar A. spinosa! Specimens from Georgia, collected by the late Mr. Beyrich, are provisionally named an herbarium, from the size of the leaves, &c., that a full suite of specimens is ’ bn . ocarpon, which are associated in North America, but even a third species of the same type, and an analogue of our peculiar V. erythrocarpon, as well as a species which comes nearer to our terest to us. : ‘ ; Pp Fourthly, Filices, presertim Indice et Japonica, are described by Pro- essor Mettenius, but thus far only Gleicheniacee and Q < arranged according to their affinities, and followed by a particular wet count of the many varieties of several species. : Sixthly, by Prof. Miquel we have Ampelidee Nove, with a ane ment of Vitis (including Cissus, Ampelopsis, and Dee a of Vitis pounded, without admitting which it is declared that Quercus and “' tanea cannot be kept apart, viz: Calleocarpus, of two Sumatran 1 and Castanopsis of Don (as a section of Quercus), of numerous ir 1 hestnuts. ane variously regarded as Oaks or C Botany. 283 Eighthly, the Araceae, by Dr. Schott, the renowned monographer of the order. A sheet or two of the first part ends the No. 4 of these in- teresting Annales. A. G. 8. Martius, Flora Brasiliensis: fasc. 33-35. July, 1863.—These fas- hey here occupy almost 250 pages of letter-press, illustrated by 26 plates. Brazil species appear to have been faithfully elaborated by Keernicke, who has also furnished the excellent analyses which enhance the value of the nu- co Gnetum and 4 of Ephedra. The gymnospermous view Is adopted, Ephe- Merely two species of ia, both of which are figured. : The eg by Sugita author, as to the Brazilian flora, include only one Araucaria and two species’of Podocarpus, all three most elabo- rately illustrated by figures, as also is Cupressus Lusitania, an oriental /ypress, planted in Brazil.. The interest of the article lies in a conspectus an arrangement of the order, and in an Ezcursus M on the structure of i scale obsolete. 284 Scientific Intelligence. The tribe Araucariee is characterized by multilocular anthers, the cells linear and hanging free, cupressaceous (i. ¢., simple and globose) pollen, simple scales to the female ament [which appear to answer to bracts and not carpophylls}, inyerted ovules, and naked buds, The tribe Abietinee, by bilocular anthers, with oblong and separate cells, pinaceous (rarely cupressaceous) pollen, double and separate scales to the female ament, inverted ovules, and scaly buds. The tribe Curninghamiew, by the 2 or 3 short cells to the anthers, cupressaceous pollen, double scales to the female ament (the inner one smaller) but completely or incompletely coalescent into one body, invert ovules, and mostly naked buds. To this tribe our author doubifully refers Sequoia ! . he tribe Tuzodinew, by the 3—5-locular anthers, with roundish appo site cells, cupressaceous pollen, the scales of the fertile ament double, nearly equal, and coalescent, or their tips free, the ovules erect, and the buds naked. vincingly defends the gymnospermous doctrine, impugned by Baillon, and Parlatore, and adopts and fortifies A. Braun’s view ae ee inner or ovuliferous scale in the Abietinee is a metamorphosis or of the ovules of Abietinee and Ci Botany. 285 stitute one flower, while in a Pine or Fir each ovuliferous scale, and in a Yew, the ovule itself would be a flower. Unwilling to accept such a con- clusion, which makes the ament of a Conifer in one case an inflorescence t, the flowers or ovules are “secundo gradu azillares.” The fem flower in all Conifera, accordingly, is concluded to be an ovule, and this is the metamorphosis of a lateral axis; while the Jeaves of a primary axis are metamorphosed into stamens. The latter we see frequent con- firmation of in monstrous catkins of Abies, where some of the subtending h we so : _ What a pity this beautiful “synthetic type” did not come to light 1c n inally Dr. Eichler adopts the view of Brongniart, that the Gymno- sperms constitute a true natural class, intermediate between Cryptogams igiosperms. No new reasons are adduced in support of this view ; but on the whole it must be admitted that the grounds for the maintain- anee of Gymnosperms as a peculiar type or class grow stronger; although We could not say with propriety that they are intermediate between ter large reductions, Prof, Meisner enumerates 36 azilian species. _ Ax. Jour, Sci1.—Szconp Series, VOL. XXXVII, No. 110.—Maxcz, 1864, 37 286 Scientific, Intelligence. Much as this tribe luxuriates in these regions, it appears not to furnish esculent fruit, as in our cooler northern regions. Of the proper Hricinee the largest genus is Leucothoé, with 28 species. There are no Pyrolea, and no Monotropee known as yet in the Brazilian Empire; but Mono- tgopa uniflora occurs as near as the southern part of New Granada. A. @ arpu. Vol. IL. pars 3:2. Lund, 1863. pp. 787-1291. 8vo.—We have had the gratification of receiving another and large instalment this classical work. It comprises Agardh’s Ordo X hodomelea, con- d tralian genus, of two species, named Cliftonia by Harvey,—a name long ago pre-occupied in Phenogamic Botany. e work is as excellent in 300 colored plates. It is published by Lovell Reeve & Co., and costs im London a little less than £8. do 6. Thesaurus Capensis, &c. Vol. II, No. 1, 1863.—Professor Harvey, in the midst of indefatigable labors both in Algology and upon the Cape are devoted to subjects of curious interest; five or six illustrate remarka- ble Orchids, and one exhibits an extraordinary Pelargonium with its petals slit up into fine shreds ntinia acris is figured, and the fact Plants indigenous to the Ferpinanp Méuter, Ph.D., M.D., F detailed flora of Victoria Colony, with full ordinal, generic, and s e manner. It is published by the Colonial Government, which appears 19 have been always ready to promote worthy scientific investigation And we trust it will be carried to completion, notwithstanding the more comprehensive Australian Flora. hn la 8. Notice sur les Plantes de Michaux et sur son Voyage au Ct pe et a la Baie d’ Hudson, d’aprés son Journal manuscrit et aulres ments inédits; par Abbé Ovine Bruner. Quebec.—The eee Botany in the Laval University, Quebec, makes an appropriate d or this interesting publication. It is a study of the botanical explo ef and journeyings of the elder Michaux in Lower Canada and, aig _ the Saguenay River and Lake Mistassius, nearly to Hudson's ° Botany. 287 While pursuing botanical studies at Paris, Prof. Brunet had noted with care, all the Canadian stations, in the herbarium of Michaux, and since his return he has been able to retrace every step of this hardy explorer and pioneer by means of his manuscript journals preserved by the Amer- iean Philosophical Society at Philadelphia. Attention was first called to this interesting manuscript, and an abstract given, in our vol. xlii (old series) about twenty-two years ago,—chiefly referring, however, to Mi- chaux’s explorations in the Alleghanies of the Southern States. In the present article we have a full account of the northern exploration, in the summer and autuma of 1792, with lists of some of the principal plants collected at each station, and useful notes upon the geographical distribu- tion or range of the forest-trees of the region. pon Michaux’s remark that the Gaultheria procumbens disappears about ten leagues above Lake St. John, Prof. Brunet adds a foot-note relative to the name of the physician of Quebec to whom Linnzus or Kalm dedicated this well-known plant. Kalm wrote the name Gaulthier ; hence Gaultheria, But, relying upon the French Academy of Sciences, ina volume of whose memoirs the name is written Gautier, Endlicher changed the orthography of the genus to Gautiera, Others have plau- sibly conjectured that his name was Gualthier or Gualtier, hence Gual- thieria or Gualtiera, But Prof. Brunet has settled the matter by refer- ting to the registers of the parish of Wotre-Dame de Quebec (e. g., 1751, Aug, 26), where the signature of this physician is found, written Gaul- tier, Gaulleria or Gaultheria, the original form of the generic name, is therefore not much amiss, and scarcely needful to alter; although Gaul- tera would be more correct, and may at length be made to prevail. having been selected in which (according to the authorities at Kew) they Would be most beneficial to science.” 2. “The General Character of the 288 Scientific Intelligence. ble juice that merits attention, It happened, during the Spanish admin- istration, that a number of written documents, destined to the mother list. Of European botanists we have to record only the following :— theory of deduplication, which he maintained in his inaugural thesis Montpellier, published in 1826. His principal botanical writings (for he wrote also upon zoological and other subjects) are his succinct mono And now with deep sorrow we have to add the name Be rancis Boott, M.D., who died at his residence in London on engg mas morning, in the 71st year of his age. _He was born in meee the 26th of September, 1792, His father, Kirk Boott, came to fal country early in life, from Derbyshire, England, became 4 | merchant in Boston, was one of the pioneers of manufacturing entie” prise here, and one of the founders of Lowell,—the type, if not me the original, of New England manufacturing towns. His ‘oh the dence was on the site now occupied by the Revere House, of whi versit] Boott mansion forms a part. Francis Boott entered Harvard Uni ahet, in the year 1806, and took his Bachelor's degree in 1810. A year sailed being then in his nineteenth year, viz., in the summer of 1811, he and the three succeeding years were mainly spent with his. rela their friends near Derby, where he made the acquaintance of Mrs. er : _ castle, his future mother-in-law, who was something of a botanish _ _ Botany. * 989 fo ge Shaw, Nathaniel Tucker, and Dr. Jacob Bigelow, the est however, afterwards persuaded to accept a collection of books instead, in ; “4” The early death of Dr. Armstrong, cutting short a distinguished tater, imposed upon his friend the duties of a biographer and expositor. i ion, Dr. Boott, in the year 1834, pub- cellence as a teacher. Although he did not continue in this career, i jenti i e was an Versity College), and was for more than a qu a ee of its Senate and nae - oe time in medical practice, and was for many years : the American Embassy ; but he gradually withdrew from professional ates and toils to more congenial literary and scientific pursuits. As 290 * Scientific Intelligence. early as the year 1819 he had become a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London; and afterwards, for the last twenty-five years, he gave it con- tinuous and invaluable service as Secretary, Treasurer, or Vice President, one time it was thought that Dr. Boott might be recalled to his native country and to an active scientific life. Nearly thirty years ago he was offered the chair of Natural History in Harvard University,— a chair which had remained vacant since the death of Professor Peck of his great work, entitled Illustrations of the Genus Carex, a fol ume with 200 plates, admirably representing about that number of ng cies, A very large proportion of them were North American specie hi which he naturally always took a special interest. In the letter of d cation of this work to his friend John Amo: well, Esq., of some? Dr. Boott states that his original design “was limited to the ares of the Carices of North America,” but that the large collections brovgh rawings, engravings, and _ letter- having been produced at bis ® : wings gravings, and letter-press having been pr given away. nor. put forth any promise to continue the w Part Second quietly appeared, without a word of preface. But in 1860 Botany. - 997 110 plates. Two years after, this was followed by Part Third, with 100 plates, making 410 in all; and it is understood that the materials of a fourth volume are left in such forwardness that it may perhaps be pub- lished by his surviving family. ur own estimate of this work has been recorded in the pages of this Journal, as the successive volumes were received. The motto which the author placed upon his title-pages :— “The man who labors and digests things most, Will be much apter to despair than boast,” 1 felicitously expressive both of the endless difficulties of the subject, al is undervaluation of his endeavors to overcome them. A most competent judge briefly declares that,— “This work is certainly one of the most munificent contributions ever made to scientific botany, besides being one of the most accurate; on which account it certainly entitles its author to take a much higher place amongst botanists than that of an amateur, which was all that his mod- esty would allow him to lay claim to.” r. Boott’s health, which had long been delicate, was much shattered in the winter of 1839-40 by a dangerous attack of pneumonia. “ From _ this time he had repeated slight attacks; but no alarming symptoms oc- curred till June 1863, when the remaining lung gave way, and from that time he never fairly rallied. He died at his residence, 24 Gower street, on Christmas Day,—retaining to the last his faculties and all the charac- teristics of his most admirable life.” Dr. Boott was a man of singular purity, delicacy, and goodness of char- acter, and of the most affectionate disposition. Few men of his ardent temperament and extreme sense of justice ever made less enemies or more friends. To the latter he attached himself with entire devotion. If there Flora Boreali- Americana. His British herbarium was long ago simi- larly given to a then young American botanist Another who, twenty- five years ago, called to take leave of him upon return n- his own library, where they were not duplicates. We know of one or Wo instances where he had commenced a critical study of a particular 39 with a view to pe gre a wreecigeege sh that rons ae taken u j e te ; n other =e ag apiece Society of London owes no little of its ed Prosperity to his long and faithful services and his wise counsels. kept up an active correspondence with his friends in this country ; 292 Scientific Intelligence. and for more than thirty years our young professional men, naturalists, and others who have visited Europe, have experienced cordial welcome and thoughtful kindness at his hands. The following gives a good ides of the man :— P coat, knee-breeches, and _ silk stockings, for the very good reason th tinued to wear to the last, and with which dress his casual acquaintance, no jess than his personal friends, will ever associate him. was so tall and thin as almost to suggest ill-health; and the refinement of his manners, his expression, address, and bearing were in perfeet keep- ing with his polished mind and many accomplishments.’ The preceding extracts are all from an excellent article in the Garden- er’s Chronicle for January 16, to which we are much indebted. In the tomaceous plant, Boorria corpata, a genus dedicated “in honorem Fran- cisci Boott, Americani, botanici ardentissimi et peritissimi, amici dilectis- simi, non minus animi probitate quam scientiarum cultu, et morum sud- vitate egregii.” A. G Jacques Gay.— We have just heard of the death of this excellent man and botanist, but without details. The event must have been sudden, a8 an it was, without him G. long life-time, is now done away; and to botanists Paris will seem 0 Vv. ASTRONOMY, 1. Comet IV, 1863.—This comet was discovered by M. Tempel . Marseilles on Nov. 5th. It was visible to the naked eye, shining 4% bright asa star of the 5th magnitude. It appeared as a conden or a nebula, showing a tail about 2° long. The following elements we computed by Mr. H. Romberg. ; T = 1863, Nov. 9-49923, Greenwich m. t. ™ = 94° 46’ 10”6 ) Apparent equinox Q = 97 31 15 2 Nov, 13°5. log.g = 9°849148 otion direct. i The following are some observations of this comet. oh m. t. Lubeck. R.A. : Nov. 19, 18h 30m 4359 © )gh 19m gos-99 «= 18° 22/ 20 Dec. 19°30 "20,18 10° 41-0 13 27 46-81 14 48 50% ce : Astronomy. © 293 ee m. t. Greenwich. Dec. 3, 65 16m 175 m. t. Josephstadt. Dec. 8, 5 48 650 15 46 9:04 +30 14 15 2 R.A. Dec. 15h 46m 358-8 + 30° 16717” was confounded w ; 4 2. Comet V, 1863.—This comet was discovered on Oct. 9th by Mr. Backer at Nauen. The following elements were computed by Mr. Her- mann Romberg. T = 1863, Dec. 27-°70863, Greenwich m. t. m == 180° 17! 53-4 ) Apparent equinox Q = 104 51 28 °8 t of Oct. 14°5. Be 16 20 sk log.g == 0°131934 . Motion direct. This comet appeared as an oblong nebula, strongly condensed in the middle. Its diameter was about 14, and it shone as a star of the 8th magnitud 3. Comet VI, 1863.—On the 28th of December, 1863, M. Respighi, Director of the Observatory at Bologna discovered a new comet (the sixth of 1863). It exhibited a nebulosity condensed toward the centre, with the trace of a tail about half a degree in length. The following are two observations of Dec. 28th. m. t. Bologn RA: Dec. 64 43m 4s 18h 49m 245-80 25° 57! 33"7 gS: ee 18 50 1 “76 26..13.°2 = M. E. Weiss has calculated the following elements of this comet. Perihelion passage, 1863, Dec. 27:9915 ngitude of perihelion, 60° 31’ 22" Longitude of no 304 47 17 Inclination, 64 43 40 Perihelion distance, 0°77301 Motion direct. Comet of 1490. Comet of 1810. Perihelion passage, Dec. 24°477 Sept. 291062 Longitude of perihelion, 5 52° 44’ 42 Longitude of node, 8 45 310 21 2 Inclination, 1 37 61 11 15 Perihelion distance, 0°7376 0:97579 Motion direct. direct. This comet was discovered at Ann Arbor on the 9th of January, as “ttounced in the following letter from Prof. Watson: AM Jour. 8c1.—Szconp Series, VoL. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mancu, 1864 294 ' Scientific Intelligence. “Observatory, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1864, Jan, 13. GENTLEMEN? I have the pleasure to inform you that I discovered a new comet on the evening of Saturday, Jan. 9th, at 64 o’clock. I have observed the following accurate positions : Ann Arbor M. T. Comet a. Comet 6. 1864, Jan. 10, 65 57m 7s 19h 14m 33-37 +34° 6 59 ti. > Ao 57 iv. it. 10. aL 34 52 52 2 5 RS aon 19° 20 «83°35 35 42 47:0 From these places I have derived the following elements of the orbit: T1863, Dec. 27-1413 Washington M. T. at— 60° 17! 39-0 : Q=304 40 49-0 App. equinox, Jan. 11th. +— 68 38 log g== 9°885810 Motion direct The comparison of the middle’place gives: C.—0. Ai cosB=—2"9 ABm— 150 The comet is large and bright, with a tail 14° in length, and a nt- by subsequent observations. Very truly yours oe NY YO" FAMES 0. WATSON" This comet was barely visible to the naked eye during the latter part of January, and in a comet-seeker exhibited a tail about 2° in a . Notes on 4 Argus ; by F. Assort, Esq. (from ior me Astronomical Society, Nov. 13, 1863.)—That the duration of this star's apparition is variable to a great extent is certain; and by comparing present description with the monograph of Sir J. Herschel, taken at Cape of Good Hope, it will, I think, appear conclusive that the apparition . the surrounding nebule is also variable. “a Messier recommended careful observations to be made on such objects with a view to ascertain whether or not any indications ers | u from which Sir Wm. Herschel, by his own observations from 1783 to tt: ; ilar oe maintained the same opinion in reference to the nebule in <) and of later date, Bond, Pogson, Struve, D’Arrest, and others, have © served such changes. i _ Sir John Herschel, when at the Cape, carefully examined 7 Argus Abs ; an 18-inch ‘reflector; “No part of this nebula,” says Herschel, “820% Astronomy. : 295 any sign of resolution into stars.” “It is not easy,” he adds, “ for lan- guage to convey a full impression of the beauty and sublimity of the spectacle which the nebula offers as it enters the field of the telescope.” arrange themselves, and thus the whole mass would, in process of time, be transformed into a determinate number of discrete bodies, which would ultimately assume the condition of a cluster of stars.” : That this condition is partly carried out in the object 7 Argus will be manifest by comparing the Cape description with the present one. A great difference may be caused by the optical means employed, as far as resolvability goes; but if an increased number of brilliant isolated stars, the centre and surrounded OPEN with nebule, in the most dense part of which is situ- ated 7 Argus. The appear- “NEBULA Open space or dark part, and : ee surrounded with an almost innumerable quantity of brilliant stars, many of which are arranged in groups, some being of 4 lue, an eof a muddy color. They are eck Ee brilliant in the dark space, and afford a comparison with the variable star itself. = : _It appears somewhat paradoxical that in 1838, when examined by Sir J. Herschel, the star 1 Argus was situated in the most dense part of the ioe The irregularity of this star, and the nebulosity surrounding it, involve 296 Miscellaneous Intelligence. a principle as to whether its accession and diminution is the effect pro- duced by distance, transits of opaque bodies, or solar spots; or whether the nebulosity surrounding 7 Argus interferes with the light emitted by the star; if so, the increase and diminution, however vacillating, become obvious. VI. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. manufacture necessarily awakened much interest here. Thinking there- fore that your readers may feel a like interest, I take the liberty of sending e Rupert’s drop. In the case of solid cast iron shot, for example, there is maximum diameter within which these can be cast without containing cavities. But beyond this point, the contraction toward the exterioh which is the first to solidify, is so great that these cavities are Ia general the contraction is irregular and the cavities are near the upper surface. Hence it is considered preferable to cast thick shells, in whieh ease the core locates the cavity exactly in the centre. For the same ficulties in casting large guns, it was at first proposed to apply the same remedy. 1at is, to cast the gun with a core, so that the contraction should be uniform from the axis to the surface. | ajor—then Lieutenant—T. J. Rodman had his attention first called : maker” was a wrought iron imported gun, having a bore 7 “ans inches in diameter. Considering the conditions under which 1rom § were usually cast, Major Rodman at once saw the enormous strain ” cast was In ta enter” He then applied himself to the mathematical investigation the conditions under which a central force acts. He found that Barlow us in a gun one calibre thick the distance from the bore to teenie is 8, and the strain on the exterior when fired is only th that om ef 07 | terior. Now if the strain at the interior is the breaking strain, then ' a * Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297 be “two-thirds of that which half a calibre in thickness would offer if outward. But the tension in cooling acts in the same direction, And this latter force far exceeds the former, if we remember Major Rodman’s n the way of casting large guns, was to cast them with a core. is core sides would lie in one groove, the other in the adjoining one, and the connecting part would bind the core together longitudinally. The diffi- culty of procuring this peculiar shaped wire led him at last to abandon t the gun, instead of facilitating it. Instead of the resistance op to the powder bei these guns it is less subject to wear than when it is the last part to cool, method, 48 in the old 298 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The plan thus devised was offered to the Ordnance Department three several times during the years 1845 and 1846. But they thought it im- Knap & Totten, proprietors of the Fort Pitt Foundry, Pittsburgh. They _ agreed to make a trial of the principle at their own expense and also to defray the expense of securing a patent, if he would assign one-half of his right in it to them. This he agreed to do, and the patent was ac . cordingly issued in August, 1847. Preparations were immediately com- menced and the first hollow cannon was cast at that Foundry in the win- ter of 1849-50. This was an 8-inch Columbiad. At the same time and from the same metal a solid gun of the same size was cast. en fin- ished, they were proved with a charge of 10 lbs. powder and one 64 pound shot. The gun cast solid burst at the 85th fire: the one cast hol- manner, with only such slight variations as experience had suggested, The guns were of the same size as in the previous experiment. The one cast solid burst at the 73d fire, the other has endured 1500 rounds and of powder as possible. From these investigations, he came to the con-_ elusion that the old columbiad model was radically defective. He there- 100% rounds, it only remained to increase the size of the guns thus X ey BE of a gun, whose bore should be 20 inches in diameter. Owing howev™ to the great © the great demand for large guns, of the size already made, no AN" F to cast this immense gun was made until the present winter. ! Renae aah Eo eng he pe Miscellaneous Intelligence. 299 The Fort Pitt Foundry stands on the Alleghany river, testing on made land. As guns are cast vertically, with the muzzle up, the first thing to be done is to sink a pit, as deep as the intended gun is long. In this in- stance the requisite depth would carry the bottom of the pit below the water line and water would flow in. A wrought iron tank fills up there- fore half the height of the pit: and this is lined with a layer of brick 9 inches thick, which is continued to the top. A circular pit 30 feet deep and 14 feet in diameter is thus made. Within this the flask, or support e ® >] ss a °o =] key i=) S S sy <4 = Qu & i=} le j=] ~ 3 Ss & co ag & = ae oe 3 oe = ° — 7 2 =< & = oe 3S i B _the furnaces are constructed on the reverberatory plan, the hearth in- clining toward the fire. They are known as air furnaces, and depend on draft entirely. They were charged cold with second fusion Bloomfield Pig iron; No. 4 receiving 39 tons, No. 5 and No. 6, 234 tons each. No. 3 was charged with 18 tons and held as reserve. The fires were lighted iron in the furnaces was tested from time to time to ascertain when it Teached the tight point. At 12%24™, the three furnaces were tapped simultaneously. The metal was conducted in runners to a pool near the Pit, from the side of which, near the bottom, it passed in two runners to ® gun mould, entering, not directly, but through side channels or gates, having branch gates inclined upward toward the axis, at intervals of 12 Inches. The scene just at this time was grand. Three streams of liquid 300 Miscellaneous Intelligence. the gun-mould could be seen the boiling metal slowly rising toward the top. The moisture of the sand yielded up its hydrogen: the rope fur- nished carbonic oxyd; and the sticks with which the surface of the metal a perature of 36° F, had been admitted to the core-barrel before tapping the furnaces, and it then left at the same temperature, the flow being 30 gallons per minute. At 1254547, the mould was full and the flow from the furnaces was stopped ; the entire time of casting being 214 minutes. At this instant, the water left the core barrel at 42°. At 4™ thereafter 52°; 8™- 654°; 14™—814; 25m~91°; and at 30™-913°, One hour after casting, this flow of water was increased to 60 gallons per minute, t two o’clock a collar was put on the flask and more metal was added to increase the length of the ‘sinking head.’ More effectually to retard external cooling, grate bars were placed near the bottom of the pit, around the flask, and the fire on them was lighted at 3% o'clock. The uously through at the rate of 2000 cubic feet per minute. This air com- menced to flow at 24 57™ on the 12th, and continued uninterruptedly until the gun was cold. On the 19th at 35 30™ p, m. the air issued at the temperature of 70°F, the fire in the pit having been extinguished the night previous. On the 23d, the gun was stripped; i.e., the flask was top. But in removal it fractured across the spongy portion, about - inches from the exterior. So that of the thickness of the gun 144 inches, was therefore continued until the 25th. Then by means of two immense steam cranes, this huge gun, weighing 86 tons, was lifted from its pit, and prepared for the lathe. The casting was perfect. All these facts, there re, indicate that 20-inch guns are as easily made as 15-inch. tal The dimensions of this gun when finished will be as follows ae men could load it as easily as five now load the 15-inch gun. mentioned, in crushing the sides of a2 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 301 — iron-clad, would equal that of six ten-inch solid shot: and that of the battering shell would considerably exceed that of seven ten-inch solid shot. This gun being entirely experimental, Government only pays the ex- penses of manufacture. On all guns cast hollow, however, the patentees get one cent per pound royalty. The casting of this gun took place under the supervision of Major Dyer, of the Springfield (Mass.) Armory ; Major Rodman, of the Arsen- al, Watertown, Mass.; and Capt. Benét, Inspector-in-chief of Ordnance, West Point, N. Y.: all of the Army. And there were present Capt. Aulick, of the Ordnance Bureau, and Capt. Berrian, Inspector of cannon and projectiles at this station, of the Navy. Capt. Goodenough of the yal Navy, and the Marquis de Basse Court, of the Italian Navy, were among the distinguished s This immense Foundry is now carried on by Charles Knap, Esq. He has for his foreman Mr. Joseph Kaye, acknowledged to be the best gun founder in the country. G. VII. BOOK NOTICES. 1. First Outlines of a Dictionary of the Solubilities of Chemical Sub- stances, By Frayx H. Srorer. Part Il—The importance which we attach to Mr. Storer’s work now in process of publication leads us to of sources, as is sufficiently evinced by the great number ences given. As asingle example, we may remark that the solubility of nitrate of potash in various menstrua is illustrated by no less than sixty-three quotations from authors on the subject. ‘ _ the advantages of a work like this are two-fold. For it not oe the chemist by placing in an acceptable shape the information whic lus to the completion of an exact knowledge on the subject to which it ne . It exposes, by a si ificant silence, the points which have been overlooked or neglected, or relative to which no observations have een made; thereby inviting active chemists to fill up these lacunes and complete our knowledge. Mr. Storer has moreover given very conscien- tiously his authority for by far the greater num of his statements, therein following the excellent example set by Leopold Gmelin; which is Sie y Ra coming more and more g nipieak-tepret hs is - i isfac J in ¥ . mae reader and to the nevtiors'qaeiel ” To the latter, it aids in giving the just reward of their labors, that consideration and reputation which to- gether with honest and hearty love for the study, is so often the only Feeompense that fulls to the lot of the really scientific chemist. To the 4m. Jour. Sc1.—Secoxp Seuims, Vou. XXXVII, No. 110.—Mancu, 1864. S as 302 Book Notices. reader, it is equally valuable, for in.the case of conflicting statements it enables him at least to form some opinion as to which are most likely to be reliable, and as to the necessity of further investigation. The book is indispensable to the chemical student. We feel the want of the third part, for the sulphates, phosphates and tartrates, etc., and shall welcome its appearance. oI 2. Chambers’ Encyclopedia: a Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. Illustrated. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. Edin- burgh: W. & R. Chambers. 1861-1863, Vols. I-V, royal 8vo, pp. 828 each.— We have in a previous volume of this Journal noticed the commencement of this valuable publication. It has now reached the committed of extending such notices beyond the proper limits of a dictionary of knowledge to the dimensions and scope of elaborate di ae are also introduced, and the electrolytic detection of metals is revived. 4. Dana’s Manual of Geology.—A revised edition of Dana’s at of Geology has just been issued by the publishers (T. Bliss & Sows . cu long-tailed Bird of Solenhofen, copied from the last December number oe OBITUARY. sie Epwarp Hircucoox.—Professor Edward Hitchcock died at sue i usetts, Feb. 27th, at six in the morning, aged seventy years Al nine months, He was born at Deerfield, Mass., May 24th, 119300 BE though enjoying limited advantages of early education he had the pos tion of Principal of the Academy in his ht town, from 1815 mane ag which time he also edited an almauac. In 1811, when on} years of age, he made observations on the comet and solar eclips¢ Obituary. 303 year. His first geological paper, and in fact his first important contribution to science, was his “ Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a section of Massachusetts on Connecticut River,” published with a map in the first volume of this Journal, and dated at Deerfield, Oct.1817. From 1818 to 1825 he was the Pastor of a church in Conway, Mass., still pursuing his scientific studies as is evident from his papers, chiefly on mineralogy and geology, published in the first ten volumes of this Journal. He gave hi : Chemistry and Natural History in Amherst College, with whose history 845 he examine the geology of the State, which resulted at last, in 1841, in a final report in two quarto volumes of 840 pages, with 56 plates and 82 Wwood-cuts. This was independent of the separate reports on zoology and uction—althou; h it was so Much his habit to despond and still labor on, that we felt it not neg : ; vi ? ‘This Journal, vol. ix, p. 107. 304 Obituary. behalf, we find a mirror of his scientific life and labors. How much he was the servant of all work, in his position of President, appears from the following passage : “ My epistolary correspondence in the Presidency was peculiarly _ of a common school, an academy, or a professor in a college—or any one agements, his clear, firm grasp of truth sustained and raised him above all difficulties, and has secured him an honored name in science. And this upil of . pe of the most gentle and excellent of men. Thus in two months eid Bairoreity of Berlin lost two of her most illustrious men, Mitscher ~ Rose. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SEBIES.] Art. XXVII—On the Diptera or two-winged Insects of the Amber- fauna. (Ueber die Diptern-fauna des Bernsteins): a lecture by Director Law, at the meeting of the German Naturalists in Keenigsberg, in 1861. Ises the most interesting results. The objects for such investi- however are so various, that a division of labor is required. uced * We owe this translati i 's interesting I. slation of Director Law's interesting J.ect fauna Diptera to ey: a te Sacxex, so well known for his important contribu- tions to f American : — if be table to English readers who have not access e original. Seif has kindly furnished the notes, containing lists of species aaa Europe reg North America, and which, not being found in the nal, are published the firs time.—{ Note by the Editor.) _ Aut Jour. 3c1.—Secoxp Seeres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—May, 1864. 306 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. tion of this supply is the entire Behrendt collection of Diptera in amber, to which that of A} ; also rich contri- butions from the collection of H. Menge, of Danzig, from that of the Physico-economical Society of Koenigsberg, as well as from the Thomas collection in the Royal Mineralogical Museum at Berlin, without special mention of valuable contributions from individual collectors, who have with praiseworthy liberality sought to advance the aims of science. The investigation of this rich supply of material has, up to this time, made known about 850 species of Diptera in amber, and these all belong to the division of the Diptera proboseidea, while, so far, not a single species of the Diptera eproboscidea has been found to occur. Of these 850 species, however, there are only 656 in so complete a state of preservation that their specifie characters can be Rtabiiinct with absolute certainty. These are distributed over 101 genera, of which 50, with 3895 species, belong to the Diptera nemocera, and 51, with 261 species, to the Diptera brachycera. : In the case of the latter, the chemical decomposition of theit numbers; the family of the Culicide is the poorest. : 3 From what has been said above, as to the frog eniee eS ak : é ily be w place in the systematic arrangement can be assigned only ri Sa difficulty. This is true especially for those fons sae ist Tutely necessary to distinguish those fainilies of the Diptera — brachycera whose occurrence in amber is beyond a dou pie - those which are more or less doubtful. The families which» i On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 307 now known certainly to occur in amber, are the following sev- enteen: Xylophagide, Tabanide, Leptide, Cyrtide, Asilida, The- reuidee, Bombylide, Syrphide, Pipunculide, Hybotide, Empide, Tachydromide, Dolichopodide, Helomyzide, Micropexide, Diop- side and Phoride. The families whose existence in amber is tol- erably well established, are the following ten: Myopide, Tachi nide, Deride, Muscide, Anthomyide, Sciomyzide, Sapromyzxda, Ephydrinide, Drosophilide and Oscinide. As families, which seem not to be represented in amber, we may name six: the Sarcophagide, Lonchwide, Heteroneuride, Opomyzide, Piophilide, and Geomyzide. Finally, there are eighteen families of which it is perfectly certain that not a single species has been found in amber, namely: Stratiomyide, Acanthomeride, Mydaside, Hir- moneuride, Scenopinide, Platypezide, Lonchopteride, Cistride, Cordyluride, Psilide, Ortalide, Trypetide, Phycodromide, Sep- Borboride. Of th = . e families above named, the Dolichopodide far exceed all the others A seemiage The proof of its correctness by the soeaieaton f the species, enclosed in amber derived from different locali- ~_ If the speci is found enclosed in the same piece with the spe- cies b, iin dhae-beca eau to occur in another piece ed with c, we may presume that they belong to the same district- fauna. I have therefore devoted especial attention to those pieces of amber which contained several species, and have endeavored, 308 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. from their examination, to form a catalogue of the species which, under the above supposition, might be considered as belonging to the same district-fauna. Some very beautiful pieces of amber, containing each from ten to twelve species of Diptera have greatly aided me in this investigation. But among most of the amber collectors the unfortunate fashior prevails of dividing the larger pieces, containing several specimens, into smaller fragments in order to show each one by itself and to make a more conven- ient arrangement in the museum. The loss to a true scientific investigation of the Amber-fauna by this mode of proceeding has been so great that I cannot use too strong language in pro- testing against it. Although the catalogue thus formed does not by any means embrace all the species, it is yet comprehensive enough to enable me fully to confirm the supposition that the Diptera which are found in Prussian amber belong to one and the same district-fauna. The assumption that the Amber-diptera represent a fragment only of such a district-fauna, dependent upon special and yet uniform local conditions, must be considered as established, if e composition of this fauna evidently suggests coincident con- clusions as to the nature of these local conditions; or, in other words, if it can be proved that the Dipterous fauna of the am- ber is composed of the different families, just in the same man- ner as families of recent Diptera would enter into the composition of a fauna, subject to certain local conditions. ; _ Now, the composition of the Dipterous fauna of the amber 18 indeed precisely such, as forcibly to suggest some conclusions about the nature of the localities in which it flourished and 10 up with vegetation, or the shelter of the denser forests, 80. they are found in abundance in amber. Of the Dolichopodid@, those species are quite absent which live principally pon | water, or on water plants, while of those more active forms which swarm in open spots, there are only a few scattered bod Sentatives; on the contrary, of those genera whose species 2 “ present day are found lurking for their prey in swarms on ™ ‘On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 309 ground for their unfrequent occurrence in amber, if we assume that the species of these families were already abundant in the Amber epoch, while under the same supposition we could ex- Plain it by the controlling influence of special local conditions. he numerous and very varied forms of the Cecidomyda, whose species are strictly confined each to its peculiar plant, teach us that the flora was one rich in species; this decidedly removes the supposition of the exclusive presence of extensive conifer- lants, if not abundant in numbers, were at least rich in species, while it is by no means app cent form. Next to the Cecidomyide, the species of no other aes the rarity, of Synanthere in the Amber period, would these insects, who seek the plants, which are to be the r 310 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna.’ of their progeny, in open and sunny spots, and hover about these’ lants, or at least in their neighborhood, with great pertinacity. species; and we involuntarily ask, In what sort of a climate lay this paradise for long-legged gallinippers and impudent gnats? If we had any reason to consider the now extant amber-diptera as representatives of a district fauna in general, instea of pte as to the number of species as well as individuals, the g of rarity of Asilide, and still more of the Bombylida, the absence all Nemestrinida, etc., would undoubtedly have indicated 4 cli- in such a case have been but of little importance, as even now the higher latitudes harbor some forms of this kind. I believe Mt nemocera will lose the importance which it other ee would have had; for also in present times, localities of here indicated description, even in much lower latitudes, show ™ On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 311 prevalence in the same degree; at the same time, the presence of a number of Diptera, closely related to some southern species, will gain so much the greater importance, since the rarity of eir occurrence in amber merely proves their rarity in the spe- cified local conditions, without excluding the possibility of their common occurrence in other localities as well as of the occur- that of the southern peninsule of Kurope. An especial interest is afforded by the comparison of the Am- and careful scrutiny only the fossil Diptera found near Radoboj in Croatia. The collection of these Diptera belonging to the 312. On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna, number of species has increased, or even what new forms have been added to the previously existing ones, such a comparison would of course afiord the highest interest. But, unfortunately, such an attempt is impossible, on the one side because of the as yet very imperfect knowledge of the now living Diptera, on the other, because what we know of the Amber-Diptera is but a fragment of a district fauna. In confronting, therefore, both faunas, I will by no means try to discover and to establish dif ferences between them of the above indicated kind, which would be a useless attempt; my only aim will be to refute as erroneous certain conclusions as to the existence of such differences, as founded upon erroneous premises. Fora long time students its close relationship to Electra. Both combine the many-jointed antenne of the Diplera nemocera with the general structure of eed some reason to suppose that the limit between two sections was sharper now than in the Tertiary period, al- though our very incomplete knowledge of the living Dips caution was justified subsequently by the discovery of a Bost American species, published by Mr. Haliday under the name Rachicerus julvicollis, a species which not only forms a most - cided transition between the two principal sections of Diptet™ but shows even the closest relationship with Hlectra and Chryso- themis. My own studies of the North American fauna have On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 313 made me acquainted with three other intermediate forms of this kind, two from the United States and one from Cuba. These species also belong to the relationship of Hlectra, Chrysothemis and Rachicerus, although they cannot be referred to either of servations on the Dipterous fauna of the Amber,” published in 1 A part only of these genera owe their existence to the necessity of establishing for these fossil species generic distine- tions based upon slighter plastic characters than those usually admitted for the separation of living species, and have therefore less claim to be taken into consideration here. Another portion consists for the most part of very striking species, easily distin- ished from all the known living genera. But this circumstance re- and for which I me , the name of Arthropeas, on account of its peculiar su uliform antenna. After having found Arthropeas nana om — ber, I received a closely allied species from Eastern 5! ra, A, Sibirica m., and now I possess in A. Americana m., a from the United States which is even somewhat more nearly re a A. nana. ‘he genus Bolbomyia, two whic Was remarkable for “the difficulty of assigning a suitable tion for it in the system, as ee necies of which occur in — 314 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. Diplonema, remarkable for the elegant structure of its anten- nz, is one of the most striking genera of Psychodie found in amber; Styringomyia, a genus of the Zipulide, hasa very pecu- liar neuration of the wings; both genera when I discovered them in amber were new. I was not a little surprised therefore when I found specimens of both genera together, enclosed ina lump of copal. Unfortunately it was not possible for me to as certain the country where this piece of so-called East Indian copal came from, although I still hope that a well-preserved beetle, contained in it, may help to solve this question. Among the amber Diptera I also found three species of a Tip: ulideous genus, which I called Zoxorhina; it is remarkable for its long, almost filiform, stiff proboscis, for the peculiar structure of its oral organs, and for the abnormal neuration of its wings. Later, I became acquainted with a living representative of this genus in Zocorhina fragilis from Jamaica, and still later I was led to recognize that Westwood’s genus Limnobiorhynchus, founded upon a Canadian and a Brazilian species, was, if not identical, at least very closely related with Zoxorhina. _ Another very remarkable genus among the number of the Tipulide occurring in amber, is the new genus Macrochile. A closely allied genus was recently described by Baron Osten Sacken, in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, under the name of Protoplasa. These instanees, which could be increased by many others, will be sufficient to prove that it would be premature to conclu from the presence in amber of a number of genera, tbe living representatives of which have not yet been found, to the nov existence of these genera in the fauna of the present epoch. The result therefore to be drawn from the foregoing facts and from the considerations connected with them, is in general of & rather negative nature; and this result is, that the facts 1n Our possession do not justify any conclusion as to the existence 1? the Amber period of forms totally different from those now liv: ing in any important parts of their organization—or, to adopt & more positive mode of expression, it seems extremely probable that the generic types which existed in the Amber period, ip been preserved down to our time, The question whether Ao number of generic types has been perceptibly increased since * Amber period cannot be discussed at all, as we possess but @ small fraction of the fauna of that time. ! If the generic types of the Diptera of the Amber period have thus been preserved to our time, the question naturally aes whether this is not also the ease with the specific ty pes, if not Ai at least some of them. The general impression produced by ra - Diptera, even in a cursory examination, has 50 little to the character of novelty in it that we at once feel dispose® © On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 315 yaise this question and to proceed to the comparison with living species. Since the very beginning of my researches, that is, about seventeen years ago, I have very closely pursued this compari- son. I early found that some of the species enclosed in am h ose acquainted with the extreme difficulty attending, in many cases, the discovery of definite plastic characters for the discrimination of undoubtedly different species of living Diptera, will justify me if I attach less importance to the result of a single comparison of a fossil species, contained in amber, with an ex- tremely resembling living one, than to the general average of the results of such comparisons. And this is, as already noticed above, that with the increase in quantity as well as in quality of materials for comparison, the differences which could be traced poorer materials. Thus, not only do we not possess any sufficient proof of the identity of any one species, contained in amber, with a living one, but the results heretofore obtained render it extremely probable that a still greater increase of materials for Investigation will enable us to discover specific distinctions even living species so closely resembling them is a very peculiar one. close link of relationship to additions to the number of old species, but are so to say, the one he bi species, is in my nion irresisti snreindiced observer. nT i On irresistible to any vad atiche sal distribution of the ivi é eci closely enecies enclosed in amber, le Species so closely related to some species patent sige 316 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. result in the course of my researches took place as follows. It appeared at first that the living species of the indicated kind were scattered irregularly and at random over all the parts of the globe. Further inquiry not only increased the number of suc related couples of species, but allowed also very frequently to replace the living species of some previously discovered pair some other, still more closely allied to the fossil one. The fur- ther the research was pursued in this direction, the more it be- came evident that the living species of these pairs have a very definite geographical distribution, as being gradually eliminated from the other parts of the world, they tended more and more to concentrate in Europe, and in a much higher degree in North America. ; I readily acknowledge that my researches have necessarily been influenced by a purely personal coéfficient, which has to be taken into account, in order to establish the absolute value of the result obtained. This personal coéfficient consists in the at- meric proportion of the living species from different parts of the world, which could be subjected to comparison, as well as in the more or less complete knowledge I had of the Dipterous faunz of the different continents. The European Dipterous fauna 8 naturally the best known to me; next comes the North Ameri eam fauna, which I know better than that of all other extra European countries, excepting perhaps that of the Cape, as. possess from that region more than 800 species, collected within a comparatively limited territory. It is therefore unquestionable that the result obtained by me requires a correction, at can have a claim to an absolute value. But should I even it troduce this correction in the highest measure admissible, st enough will be left to enable me to assert with the utmost cer tainty that those among the living Diptera which most closely resemble the amber Diptera, abound in a most prevailing degree in North America and especially between the latitudes of about some amber Diptera are more allied than to any other know? living species. The facts just explained become especially striking through the circumstance that those genera of amber Diptera, whit not occur in Europe, and which for this reason attracted i attention from European students, were in part discovered 12 re i : America, and are in replaced there by closely allied gener. With regard to this, I M will remind only of what has beet a above on the genera Diplonema, Toxorhina, Styringomy ”” On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. . 317 s o a a > = => oO = ie i) 5 i] md Qu —_ ° aad i. @ ‘tS = : 2 =} “a as! © ty P , bas} 1 S The comparison of the North American Diptera with the possible to me, on a very extended scale, through the study of the collections of Baron Osten ken; this comparison showed a surprisingly large number hese species, from 2 83h species, common to both continents, I ean ison Sear 2° co _, 2 personal investigation, the following: A les maculipennis , A Pleles quadrimaculates ‘Say =pictus LW), Anopheles nigripes Staeg., Tanypus choreus Meig., Ceratopogon lineatus Meig., Cecidomyia ~ serdar sad Say (=funesta Motch + = secalina Lw.), Seat trata Say (= recurva Lw i: : Linn., Aspistes borealis Lw., f Fear 9 fenestralis Scop., Rhyphus punctatus Meig. (= me J Say), Ce ia. ferruginea Fab. (= palli a Say), viridis Say Jrontalis Lw.), provided the specimen, communicated to me as. : a to the old world, Hristalis enens » (= xencerus wll ticata Fab. (= cimbiciformis Fall.), Syritta pipiens Linn, Xylota pigra Fab. (=ha- snide 6 318 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. — identical and showing no difference whatever, a large number of species has to be recorded, which, if they had been found in Europe, — certainly have been considered only as slight varieties of other well-known European species, as their only deviation wleocign consists in a slight difference of coloring; but this difference being a very constant one, it becomes extreme- ly difficult to decide w hether such species should be considered as specifically distinct from the corresponding European species, or as identical with them.’ A third, not less numerous category of species, shows, besides these slight but constant differences relative length of the wings or the sion to the whole bole ete., differences which, in order to be brought to light, sometimes re- : — the comparison of a whole series of specimens.‘ A fourth matodes Fab.), Platychirus granditarsus Férst., Brachyopa ag east Fall., Sceno- alli pinus fenestralis Linn, (=pallipes Say), Scenopinus leer vifron , Dolichopus brevipennis Meig., Dol. plumipes Scop., Dol. discifer Stann., Se wchoks pinnae Zett, Prsilopus pallens Wied.. (= albonotatus Lew), Oestrus bovis Fab., yia oe Linn, Gastrus Equi Lin lanophora roralis Linn., lis Fab , domestica — Cyrtoneura meditabunda Fab,, C. stabulans Fall., Meeneda ealcitrans Linn., Anthomyia diaphan ed., Anthom, stygia ig., Arici oides Hylemyia Angelice Scop., Hudrotea dentipes, Hy ‘yia Babee 9 Meig., Homalomyia canicularis 4, manieata, m Lin., H, subpel/ucens aris Fab., Hydrotea armipes Fall., Ophyra leucostoma Wied., Lispe uliginosa Fall, S Scatophaga squalida (=S. fureata Say ?) Seatophaga stereorea Lin., Cordylura hireus, omyza lupulina Fab., Seyphella flava Linn., Jeusonie cy bales ane Fab., Lauxania frontalis Lw., Psila bicolor, i nana Fall, Seiom Fall, Sciomyza albocostata Fall., Dryomyza anilis F t Btepharspire jae 2 Ortals débrces Li ie Ate : Meiz., P! Y, . W., Fall., Scatella Stenhammari Zett , Ockthunes mantis Deg., Ilythea spiloa Hal. phagus ovinus Linn. Olfersia Arde Macq.. Hippobosea equina Lin Besides a great ma uy other species, the occurrence of which on both continents is recorded with less certainty, the following European sis sies are found in G Greenland, according to Steger’s trustworthy statements -——Diamesa Waltlii Meig. .» Ohirono- mus eee — Chironomus aterrimus Meig., C Chicindinin 8 picipes — ‘ preter ipennis Meig., fare a flavipes Meig., “Calliphora erythrocephala M Phiyjtomysa obbeatuile Fal [Rhipidia a. M. cad Symplecta punctipennis may be also added with cer- ACK M Asi instances of such species may be re aie ye hem the North American set and Chrysotoxum bie msgid Linn, elanoceré pictigen Lew. and 7. Un Lion, elanocera and 7 -Peaietun; Fall, Hemerodromia valida Lw. and #. canal Zett. s ere may be named: Bombylius fraterculus Wied. and the European B. major eyes sotorum sp. indeser, i Chrysotoxum fasciolatu: m Deg., Helophilus *P fates and H, rm Fab., cia sp. gh ciel L. peer, on M., Cyrtone rion, ‘Sp. indeser. an, C. assimilis Fall., Gymnosoma par Walk. and a te | C. pudica Meig., Allophyla levis Lw. and A. nar cornis Meig., Pigpets feateia Lw. and 7 Heraclei Liun., Ortalis re ena L pe ten fom ban ata @ sp. indeser. and D. funebris, Hphydra rae and E. micans many other species, On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 319 group may be formed of the likewise very numerous species which, although so like some European species as to be at first glance mistaken for them, show upon nearer examination very definite plastic characters. The discovery of these characters often requires a great deal of attention; nevertheless they are of such a nature that the comparison of even single specimens leaves no doubt as to their specific differences.’ The large number of species contained in all the four groups shows that the Dipterous fauna of North America is not only very much like the European fauna, but that there is between them a relationship of a more intimate kind, which is to be com- pared only with that uninterrupted succession offered by the Dip- terous fauna of the whole northern part of the Old World. mon, w only slightly different in coloring; otherwise their faunas have no p which they can live and their brood can prosper. As the Le lulide show in this respect the nearest approach to them, the laws of their geographical distribution may also be the nearest to f the Diptera. The latter laws differ from those of the other orders of insects, by the wide area of distribution of the Single species and by the configuration of these areas. The not nearly the same for the species of all families, but vary ac- cording to families, so that the climatic character 18 most clearly 5 pe : " AS instances of such species may be named: Chrysopila guadrata Say and Chrysopila nubecula Fall, Leptix vertebrata Say, and Leptis annulata Deg.. Leptis e Het ella bombylans Linn., Helom é an “eOmyza, lateritia Helo Meig., Sepedon pusillus Lew. and Paden spinipen Scop Phibporic opporita Laow and Philygria. punctato-nervosa Fall, 320 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. plicity of the conditions required for the existence of a speci still some families show in this respect peculiarities which do not find a satisfactory explanation in those two causes, On account of the very great extent of the area of distribu: tion of the Diptera in general, the faunze of distant countries have many more species of this order in common, than of any other order of insects, The same causes on which this extent of distribution depends facilitate even in our days the importation of Diptera much more than that of other insects, through the intercourse between countries. It is well known that Musca do- ions of smoked meat and cheese along with him, Piophila Pea sionts and Casei have accompanied him. They occur in Green- beantiful Symmictus costatus is found together with them, from in to the southern extremity of Africa. The barrier of a and the a uction of Medeterus inequalipes, common on th shores of with them, as for instance several of Oscinis and Chlorops with the cereals, also the noxious Cécidomyia destructor. Petalophora cap- wala occurs wherever the orange and the lemon are cultiva and with the extension of the culture of the olive-tree, Dacus Olee has followed it. | Those dis- nently colonize them. It is no wonder therefore that An which for a considerable period of time has been in connie bs always increasing intercourse with Europe, should have wit}. 2 species in common. It would be m a a On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 321 whether the existing intercourse between the two continents is sufficient to account for the large number of species common to both. Iam satisfied that it has to be answered negatively. In order to investigate the influence of a prolonged intercourse of this kind between two countries separated by a sea, I have repeatedly directed my attention to the comparison of the Dip- terous faunas in the countries surrounding the Mediterranean. These investigations, for which I possess abundant materials, . have made me, as far as it was possible, thoroughly acquainted with the influence exercised by an intercourse of this kind on the intermingling of the faunas, and have afforded me a measure of this influence. In drawing a conclusion from the extent of these influences in the countries adjacent to the Mediterranean, to the extent of the same influences as existing in consequence of the intercourse between Europe and America, we have to take into account the comparatively recent epoch when this lat- ter intercourse began, the much greater distance between the two continents, and before all, the much greater length of time required for a passage between them, especially in former years. In'view of all these causes, tending to diminish the probable influence of the intercourse on the intermingling of the faunas, We cannot possibly admit that the occurrence of such a large number of species, common to both sides of the ocean, should be merely the result of an intermingling brought about by this in- urse. It should be borne in mind that it is not with one from Europe to America; it can hardly be doubted that Scenopinus Senestralis and S. levifrons can easily be brought over in ships; the conformity of many species of Scatophaga and rborus can. easily found in their mode of life; nor will it appear very extra- Scribed as a European species, under the name of M. cimbu iformis ; that Hristalis on pe North America, should be a de- Scendant of European parents, is easily possible, as a ship affords the necessary conditions for the preservation of the larves. It Au. Jour. Sct.—Szcoxp Sentes, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—May, 1864, 42 322 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. will be more difficult, however, to explain how JIlythea sprlota, Dichela caudata and D. brevicauda, Ochthera Mantis, etc., should have crossed the sea. The importation of some species, as, for instance, of the beautiful Psilopus albinotatus, discovered by me in Rhodus, seems almost inexplicable, and still this species is perfectly identical with the North American P. pallens. That nevertheless occurrences of this kind, owing to the large numr ; We have to conclude then, for the present, that the importation of species through the agency of frequent intercourse, does not afford & sufficient explanation of the large number of species common to men ones.—Still better known is the influence which certain we exercise on the coloring of all the species occurring there; oo is, for instance, in a very striking degree, the case with Icel ‘A collection from that country, at a cursory view, seems gee tain many new species, but upon closer examination, these On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. 323 The same question may be proposed about those North Ameri- can species which deviate from European species only by slight plastic differences, often merely a small variation in the size of °rgans are of the highest importance, whilst, on the contrary, all the other differences, observable even in the two sexes of 824 On the Diptera of the Amber-fauna. n some former period, as the impression left by such a comparison stock for both, it is to be sought among the Diptera of a former e Dipterous faunge are to be considered as branches of this : the necessary inference would be that at a former period Europe Al aentions. All those problems to which the study of the livi remained within the exclusive limits of Dipterology, partly ow ing to my conviction that the interest of truth is Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 325 Art. XX VIII.— Abstract of Prof. Meissner’s Researches on Oxy- gen, Ozone, and Antozone ;* by 8. W. JOHNSON. Dr. MEISSNER has submitted the ozone and antozone question toan extended and masterly investigation; at least such is our impression from a careful perusal of his treatise, an octavo vol- ume of 370 pages, the preface of which bears the date of Feb., 1863. This book is appropriately dedicated to SCHONBEIN, whose name will stand in imperishable connection with the re- markable discovery of the triple nature of oxygen—a discover which must, ere long, give us a new insight into the relations of matter to force, and modify, in a radical manner, some of the doctrines now current in science. In the preface it is distinctly announced of ozone and anto- Zone that one of them can not be formed without the other simultaneously appearing. This is a discovery of the utmost importance, and we shall endeavor to present briefly the author's arguments in proof of its reality. In the Introduction is presented a concise but comprehensive sketch of the history of the ozone question up to date of pub- lication. Section I. bears the heading: THE RELATIONS OF ELECTRICITY TO OXYGEN, and is divided into two chapters, of Which the Ist, of 200 pages, relates to Hlectrized Oxygen, and the 2d to Ozone and Antozone. These headings are made a propriate by the history and progress of the investigation rather lan by its results. e second section, of 72 pages, is enti- ed: THE POLARIZATION OF OXYGEN IN THE ACT OF COMBUS- that the object of the first part of his investigation is to ascer- fain whether, as all previous experiments would appear to show, the effect of electricity on oxygen is simply to convert it, or a part of it, into ozone, or whether, as Schonbein in 1861 had assumed from theoretical grounds, the ordinary inactive oxygen 8 polarized into the two opposite oxygens, the negative-active 9One and the positive-active antozone. To electrize oxygen the apparatus of von Babo (Verhandl. der Naturforsch, Gesellschaft zu Hreiburg ii, p. 831), imitated from an t of W. Siemens (Pogg. Ann., 1857, B. xii, p. 66, 120) was employed, in which ozonization takes place in a thin Stratum of air, and is determined by the silent discharge from Poor conductors, This apparatus is made as ollows: twelve i fine copper wires, such as are used in covering violin strings, ld about five decimetres long, are inserted each into a very _, Untersuchungen ii .G. Mrisswen, Professor in Géttin- ~ Wit cene Ladee tates rae eure! 1863. , 326 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. thin glass tube somewhat longer than itself and about 03 mm, in width. Each of these tubes is sealed at one end. Into the other end is fused a wire of platinum which, within the tube, is twisted with the copper wire, and without the tube projects an inch or so. The twelve tubes thus made, are arranged within a glass tube 7 mm. wide and 6 decimetres long, so that the pro- jecting platinum wires of six of them are at one end and those of the other six are at the other end of this wide tube. These two sets of wires are each twisted about a larger platinum wire which passes through and is fused into the wall of the wide tube. The tubes of the one bundle are distributed among those of the other as equally as may be; they are, moreover, in close con tact, and the spaces surrounding them are as narrow as possible. On connecting the extremes of these two series of inclosed wires with the electrodes of the secondary coil of a powerful induc- tion apparatus, the electrical discharge takes place through the walls of the narrow tubes and through the air that surrounds . The discharge is unattended with sparks, and on ap sree the ear only a faint crackling sound is perceptible. in the dark the bundle of fine tubes shines throughout its whole length with a reddish-violet light. During the electrical action the air bathing the small tubes is powerfully ozonized. By adapting suitable apparatus to the large tube the ozonized air may be removed and submitted to examination, and its place supplied with fresh air, at pleasure. In Meissner’s resarches the The perfectly dry air, after traversing the ozonizer, was sub- mitted to the action of reagents in receivers of glass connected with the ozonizer by means of a mercury joint, this metal being unaffected by dry ozone. : The first point Meissner sought to investigate was whether dry electrized air, after being deprived of ozone, possessed aa # erties other than those of common oxygen and nitrogen. | odid found that by transmitting it through a strong solution of 1 > of potassium it was readily and totally deprived of ozone; * stream of air thus deozonized exhibited nothing remarka until it had been passed through pure water, but, as 1t eme? from the water, it appeared in the form of a thick white mist, per fectly ‘similar to that formed by the cooling of steam, whic der sometimes so dense as to render the part of the small vessel Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 327 filled with it quite opake. There was no perceptible change of temperature, and the mist was formed equally well whether the water traversed by the deozonized air jindicated 35° or 0° C. The mist also appeared when the stream of air merely passed through a moistened tube, and sometimes the cloud formed at once, when the air escaped from a somewhat dilute solution of iodid of potassium; but in case this solution was concentrated, and especially when the air on leaving it streamed through a chlorid of calcium tube, no mist appeared until the air came in contact with water. The appearance of the mist strictly depends upon the action of the induction instrument. When it ceases to work, the mist disappears, allowance being made for the time occupied by the air-current in traversing the apparatus. The mist is denser or rarer the more or less vigorous the electrical excitement. The same cloud is formed when other d izing agents are employ ed instead of iodid of potassium, viz: pyrogallic acid, and like- wise, when, in the absence of a reducing solution, the dry elec- trized current comes at once in contact with water. Further experiments demonstrated that the cloud is formed when pure oxygen gas, prepared either by electrolysis or from chlorate of potash, is submitted to the electric influence and sub- Sequently treated as above described, while that under the same ee nnn pure nitrogen and pure hydrogen suffer no appar- ent change. The author found himself thus led to the conclusion that when simultan oxygen is subject to electrical action there is forme e- amniov f a dry glass cylinder, it displaces the air, preserving a sharply defined boundary, and by aaa agitation is easily broken into Ss 328 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. flow together to the bottom of the vessel. This disappearance of the mist is entirely spontaneous, and independent of changes of temperature. It is impossible to reproduce the mist in the air out of which it has disappeared, by contact with more water, The water which precipitates from the cloud may be perfectly pure, though it is not so always. The air remaining has all the characters of the ordinary atmospheric mixture, Antozone has thus the property of taking up water, conferring upon the latter the peculiar physical conditions of a cloud or mist, and after a short time depositing it again in droplets as it itself is transformed into ordinary oxygen. y passing the antozone mist into desiccating substances, as chlorid of calcium, it is deprived of water, the antozone becom- ing transparent, but retaining its faculty of giving a cloud when brought again in contact with water. Many strong saline solu- tions likewise deprive antozone of water; hence the non-appear ance of the cloud when the stream of electrized air emerges from a strong solution of iodid of potassium. It does appear however when the solution is sufficiently dilute. i y comparing the capacity for water, of a stream of ordinary air or oxygen with that of an electrized current of the same vol- In the dry state antozone likewise reverts to common oxyge? as shown by a gradual decrease of power to form a cloud with w is conversion goes on, however, more slowly than when it is moist, occupying 1 to 14 hours for its completion. Under the conditions in which antozone so igen! disappears, ough — gh temperature, 235° to 240° (Andrews), which at once weer x : po Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 329 branch currents is deozonized, the other passing on unaltered, it is found when they emerge from a vessel of water that the cloud med by antozone is much denser in the deozonized current on the other hand, that when antozone does vanish from the dry mixture, it involves in its change more ozone than disappears from the rapidly altering moist mixture. ; : * eissner proceeds to an experimental comparison of his Atmi- examining this question the author was led to repeat Sch6nbein’s €xperiments on the production and reactions of HO,. Hi firmed the observations of the latter concerning the character of inch or so in width, furnished with a ground-glass stopper, and filled with water nearly to the top of the smaller tube. BaO, is the ! ’ . te, and the solution of HO, is therefore extremely dilute. Meissner found ‘that to prepare ‘a pure and concentrated solution was Tn distinction from ozone. &M. Jovg. Sc1.—Sgcoxp Suxizs, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864 43 330 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antoxone, of HO, it was only necessary to pass CO, into water, mixed with BaO,, BaO, CO, and HO, resulting. In this way he ob- tained directly, a solution so concentrated that it decomposed under the influence of light.’ Asa means of detecting HO,, the author found Schénbein's reagent, viz: iodid of potassium and starch-paste in conjunction with protosulphate of iron, to possess the greatest delicacy and to be most characteristic when applied with certain precautions, especially when the ferrous salt is employed in very minute quantity. As regards the reactions that occur between this Te agent and HO,, Meissner after adducing the somewhat contra- dictory statements made at different times by Schénbein, is led to conclude that HO, is without effect on KI, in neutral solution, except in presence of some “ predisposing” agent, like FeO, and that contrary to Schénbein’s opinion the first action consists in an oxydation of FeO, to Fe,O, and that the deoxydation of HO, thus begun, continues in presence of KI after all FeO has oxydized and results in the oxydation of KI and destruetion of 2. ‘he presence of any acid suffices to induce the reacton between HO, and KI, instantaneously when the acid is added to a mixture of HO, and KI; but after a considerable interval, and in a much less marked manner, or even not at all as meas ured by the separation of I, when the HO, is mixed with an acid previous to the addition of KI. Our author's theory of the mode in which the well known power of acids to prevent de- eral—but were undeniably those of HO,, while the presence of antozone in the spar was equally certain. As to the condition in which it there exists, or how it may possibly be produced 7 grinding, Meissner feels unable to offer any hypothesis. nich ooked in vain for evidences of antozone in other minerals WA manifest a peculiar odor when submitted to friction. Not even in a compact fluor from Ivikaet in Greenland, which has pe mentioned as having properties similar to that of Welsen' could any be detected. ih _ Oxydized oil of turpentine, Meissner found to give the both reactions as the Welsendorf fluor. He concludes that 1 90 * Debray and Balar Rend, lv, 736-8). d had previously (?) published the same method, (ComP™ - Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 331 antozone or the product of its action on water, viz: HO,, is pres- ent, and that besides, there exists in both a substance which like ferrous sulphate “ disposes” HO, to act upon KI, since they de- compose KI without the addition of FeO, SO,. Returning to the question of the identity of atmizone and ant- ozone, Meissner informs us that a liquid having the reactions of HO, is obtained when a current of electrized air is passed for some hours through a strong and alkaline solution of pyrogallie acid, (which deprives it completely of ozone), and subsequently through pure water. The water slowly acquires a recognizable content of HO, giving with KI and starch no reaction until the addition of FeO, SO,, when an instantaneous liberation of I be- comes manifest. Atmizone, however, appears capable of oxyd- izing water only when it is newly formed. If the stream of electrized and deozonized air is passed through a series of ves- sels containing water, HO, scarcely appears in the second and subsequent vessels, though the atmizone cloud is formed in them all. This cloud, however, is the less dense and well defined, the farther from the induction apparatus it is produced, and it ma ence be inferred that atmizone loses its power of oxydizing HO when its electrical polarity has declined beyond a certain Water had all the properties of the original liquid; while, as is well known, NH,O, NO, and HO, are completely decomposed dissipated by this treatment. : : i . No substance having the properties in question could be imag- Med present save iodic acid which is known to liberate I from Kl and which is likewise formed when ozone acts upon KI. But in what manner this body could pass out of one alkaline Solution and through another, as must be the case here, was diffi- ult to conceive. Meissner at once attempted to demonstrate directly its presence or absence. He therefore put his electrizing f 332 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone, apparatus into prolonged action, (six hours daily for eight days) passing the stream of electrized air first, through strong solution I, then through concentrated potash lye, and lastly a three vessels of water. When this experiment was finished, th water of the receivers reacted very powerfully on KI. It was concentrated by evaporation, in which process it finally acquired an acid reaction, first reddening and afterward bleaching litmus paper. A crystalline residue remained which when dissolved in water and treated with SO, gave a copious separation of iodine. Other reactions confirmed this substance as 10,. On further experiment it was found that so soon as the atmizone .current was deprived of its mozsture it was no longer capable of trans- porting IO,. It would therefore appear that when iodine is set free in the solution of KI by the action of the ozone occupying the periphery of the air bubble, a portion of it, vaporizing im wardly, is there oxydized by ozone to IO, and then is taken up by the atmizone cloud, and by it transmitted through the varl- ous solutions. In the next place Meissner examined the deportment of Schén- bein’s antozone to water vapor, to ascertain whether it possessed the cloud-forming property. By experiments with the gas evolved from BaO, and HO, SO,, this was found to be the 7 and the antozone cloud resembled, in all particulars, that yie! by atmizone. If, for example, a tube containing the just mixed materials for giving off antozone is carried into a flask occupied with moist air, the latter gradually becomes filled with a cloud which disappears again after a short interval. _ Another point to investigate was the deportment of antozoné toward solution of KI. Schénbein asserted that antozone de- composes this salt and oxydizes its elements, while atmizone appears to be unaffected by it. On repeating Schdnbein’s exper iment, and further investigating the subject, Meissner conc that the reaction observed by Schdnbein was due to the sul- phuric acid of the mixture being mechanically projected against the test papers. At least, when solution of KI was placed in vessel beside the tube evolving antozone, no iodine was liber® ted in the former until after the addition of FeO, SO,. peel bein himself has lately expressed the probability that antozoné does not decompose KI. i In one further particular, there is a difference between attr zone and antozone which Meissner was unable to account satisfactorily. Antozone hasa peculiar odor, and when 51 of exeites a choking sensation, while atmizone manifests neither ‘ ed from sub- in all other respects must warrant the conclusion that the tw? are essentially identical. 4 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 333 The author now goes on to give the results of his observa- tions on the deportment of the mixture of ozone and antozone as obtained by the electrization of pure oxygen. He finds that ozone does not prevent the union of HO with antozone, with production of HO,. When instead of pure oxygen, common air is electrized the nitrogen of the latter becomes involved in the reactions, and in water through which the electrized mixture is passed, nitric acid gradually accumutates, but chiefly in the first water-receiver. When the electrized air has become charged with moisture, the production of NO,, (as well as that of HO, which is simultaneously formed,) is lessened to an extraordinary egree, - Schénbein’s statements regarding the generation of NH,O, NO. made it necessary to look for this salt in the electrized air. ' Meissner affirms tiat NO, cannot be safely distinguished from O, by means of KI and starch, for no decided difference in the amount of iodid separated by addition of an acid or of FeO, SO, can be perceived. Nitrous acid must therefore be detected in some other manner when, as in the case before us, it is mixed with HO,. When nitrates are treated with dilute sulphuric acid, NO, is liberated and by contact with FeO, SO,, is reduced with ‘0,. In fact we should not expect to find NO, under these circumstances, as the excess of ozone would oxydize any that might at first appear. Ammonia could not be detected by Ness- ler’s extraordinaril y delicate test. ; ~ On passing electrized oxygen first through a receiver of water and then, in a second receiver, bringing it in contact with nitro- gen (common air), it resulted that no NO, could be detected in the water of the first vessel, while in that of the second, it was Teadily found though in smaller quantity than in the previous €xperiments. It was thus demonstrated that the oxydation of ‘is not, or is not alone, a direct result of electrical action, but 1s the effect of the excited oxygen. 334 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. In what precise manner ozone and antozone codperate to oxyd- ize N, Meissner does not claim to have fully decided. He is dis- ed, however, to think that antozone alone is capable of con- verting N to one of the lower oxyds, probably NO,, and that this unites to ozone forming NO,, which is really the first pro- ozone. Since, however, the numerous trials of De La Rive, Fremy, Becquerel, Marchand and others, have abundantly de- monstrated that ozone is produced when the electric spark 1 dis- solbfen'e charged through pure oxygen, it is obvious that in absorbed from moist electrized air, both it and antozone — k a fact which harmonizes with the statements first made by Fre- The same electrical current gives by silent discharge throug ] NO, and ™ < ks. ance of NO, in case of electrization by sparks is due to the heat J. DeLaski on Glactal Action about Penobscot Bay. 385 “reali in this process, for by heating a current of air electrized y the silent discharge, in such a way that it comes immediately in contact with water, ozone and antozone at once disappear, and NO, is copiously formed. In further experiments, the author demonstrated the presence of HO, in water, near whose surface electrical sparks had been made to play. Thus far we have given quite fully the facts observed by Meiss- ner in the first chapter of his book. He finishes the experimen- tal part of this chapter with an account of observations which lead to the conclusion that the production of ozone and antozone is the result of electrical tension, and occupies about 40 pages in a discussion of the theories of Clausius, Schénbein, De La Rive, and Brodie, and in unfolding his own theoretical views. To tender his ideas intelligible would occupy more space than we have at command. In fact, this part of the volume scarcely ad- mits of abstract. All who are interested in these topics will not fail to study the original. (To be continued.) Arr. XXIX.— Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay; by Mr. JonN DE LaskKI. Previous to the year 1859, the writer, like most ordinary teaders who are familiar with the descriptions of the phenomena of boulder action given in our text books, believed that the drift material of clay, sand, gravel, boulders, and the scoring of the tocky surface of the country, must have been the effects of ice- berg action. Up to that time I had not seen any mention what- ever of the former existence of glaciers in any part of Maine; and I was therefore quite unprepared to doubt that the numerous examples of the striated surfaces about the village where I resided —Carver’s Harbor, Vinalhaven—were other than those made by the chafing of floating ice-mountains over the ledges when these formed the bottom of a continental sea. The theory of Hugh Miller in his « Popular Geology,” a work then recently published, had attracted my attention, which supposes that the eastern de- flection of the Gulf stream, at the close of the Tertiary era, carried Undergoing the pr f submergence, and that the bergs were > mor he cube hills and score and ak them wo sgl as the country went slowly beneath the surface. _ .. But on attentively examining the scratched rocks of the vicin- ity of Penobscot Bay, I could not reconcile the iceberg doctrine with the facts connected with these scratches and with the exten- 336 J. DeLaski on Glacial Action dbout Penobscot Bay, . sive denudation of the country everywhere presenting itself to the eye. It.is quite evident that the formations o obseot to twenty feet and sometimes more; and the slates of the coast have but one usual dip and strike. The irregular denudation of the granitic floor of the region of the Penobscot Bay was cer- tainly posterior to the Tertiary times; and icebergs, if we adopt the theory, ought to have left the country vastly more level, where the granite abounds, than it actually is, The hills of the coast generally rise abruptly from the valleys and the sea. They are scored ‘alike along their eastern and On the other hand, there were examples of denuded and faces of the rocks with great : beneath it with the same delicacy of action as the sides and top of rude and unsystematic blows upon the faces of any of - was removed by piece-meal—chipped away as the snore wood” might chip his fallen tree, or spar; and it is appa re iat afterwards it became scratched by some means—san down smoothly and evenly the face of the rock. ~ J, DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 337 It is quite evident that these chips, some of which must have n many feet in length and breadth, were not removed by a blow, such as an iceberg has been supposed by some writers to make upon the rocky sea-bottom over which it is floating. Again I think it evident that the blow was not given horizon- tally, but rather at a very considerable angle,—say from 40 to 50°—and directed from the north; and that the breaking of the rocky floor.was effected by pressure. These irregular depressions are generally upon protuberant ledges, the “ embossed” rocks of such a result, if the rock which was pressing upon the edge, producing the furrow, had passed along beyond it toward sout horth for two miles, the land continues to rise to not less than AM. Jour. Sct.—Sgcoxp Sentes, Vou. XXXVII, No, 111.—May, 1864. 44 338 J. DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. two hundred feet, and stretches in the east and west direction for more than three miles. Wherever the formation is of syenite—and there are about seventy-five square miles of surface covered with this rock, in Vinalhaven—the hills are broken down on their southern brows into step-like descents. There is one hill of this character in the town from twenty-five to fifty feet high and two thousand broad, nearly wedge-shaped, with its apex turned toward: the north. I found, wherever I examined them, that the striz had com- menced to form at the southern foot of these hills, in straight parallel lines, generally very close up to the wall; and, in one g and shaded ing a little more than one hundred feet directly from the water. The formation here is trap. This hill may extend, east and J. DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 339 pee had been made by a gigantic gouge and afterward bed down in one direction, for I found in passing my hand ceiling—I was astonished to find that it was thoroughly polished to be decisive _ Over the entire extent of the syenitic formation, boulders of 340 J. DeLaski on Giacial Action about Penobscot Bay. the same rock are strewn with wonderful profusion, and num- bers of them weigh many tons; they rest on beds of soil several feet in depth, just as a glacier might have left them as it slowly melted away. Upon the northern slopes of the hills the rocks are torn asun- der in such a manner as wholly to preclude the idea that the work had been done by icebergs. Had bergs halted in such places, and through a long age, chafed against the northern walls of such high hills, the denudation, after all, would have been an insignificant affair; and none but the largest bergs could have worn at all the faces of the hills. But the debris of the stoss side of the hills has been transported over the hills, rather than along their sides; and we frequently find large boulders, evidently not far removed from their native beds, resting on the hills, and often in such a manner that their transportation and deposition could not have been accomplished through the agency of ice bergs or oceanic waves. As I have already remarked, the hills of the coast have a uni- form feature: they are steep on the south, and have a gradual descent from their summits toward the north. I know of no exceptions to this rule. There must be a meaning in this spe eific form of the hills. If the ledges and minor hills of the isl- ands of the great fiord of the State have been moulded into this peculiar figure by glacial action, or that of icebergs, I conclude that the denuding agent must have reached the tops of the Cam- den hills, 1400 feet high, and those of the island of Mount Des- ert, 2000 feet; for these maintain, when viewed from the east or west, the same general contour as the other hills of the coast. It is quite impossible that icebergs could ever have broken down the tops of those high hills. Moreover, if they had been undet water to the depth of a thousand feet or five hundred, the sea which covered New England and the continent to the west would have had a warming influence on the climate, and would therefore probably have been quite clear of icebergs. _ sides of the Camden hills are scratched from their base to the summits. Megunticook, the highest but one, is broken down on its southern brow into a precipice of nearly 300 feet. Here, the strie appear on a vein of colored quartz in a most beauti- fal manner. They are very delicate, and the rock is polished like glass. Toward the north, in the direction whence scratching agent eame, the hill continues to rise till it attains the height of one or two hundred feet above the brow. On descen@ ing the precipice by a circuitous route, and approaching its base, we are at once struck with the fact that this hill has been de nuded or broken down from top to bottom. The perpendicu! wall of Megunticook forms the northern side of a valley and te northern extremity of Mount Battie the southern side; into J. DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 341 valley immense blocks of the gray micaceous sandstone from the brow of the overlooking hill have been projected—not as if they had merely tumbled down and accumulated as talus—for man of these boulders have been carried to a considerable distance over the top of the latter mountain, and are very perceptibly less angular than those which lie at the base of the precipice. To- ward the southern extremity of Mount Battie, strize appear again, one thousand feet above the sea; and the entire top of the mountain bears evidence that it has been thoroughly denuded upon a most magnificent scale. The boulders here found were to the plain below, though this part of Mount Battie is abrupt, falling off at an angle of seventy degrees or more. At this ex- tremity of Mount Battie, along the ascent, the strise runa few egrees-—and in one case as much as twenty—out of the usual from the great hill before them. They are identical in composi- tion with.the mountain, so that we here again see evidence that The striee upon these rocks are developed in the most may be traced up and down, over the tops and along the sides the ledges, the: aries pointing directly ‘toward the high hills ‘on the north On examining the island of Mount Desert, which, like Vinal- haven, is Sahhipenedl of agente and the argillo-micaceous slate, 342 J. DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. there are similar boulder phenomena to those observed fort miles west among the Camden hills. These mountains wh amid these vast ruins, it is apparent that only the irresistible grasp of a glacier could have broken them off and carried them far away toward the south. Here, as elsewhere, the granitic boulders are larger and less angular as we approach the hills from the south. Among these boulders, rocks of other forma- tions are rarely found; and these are from the slates to the north of the hills, having been carried over these elevations, not around them. Upon the northern declivities of these hills, the boulders are not so numerous nor so large as they are on the south, but are generally much worn; and like those on the south, they are syenitic, like the formation of the hills, ut besides the coves and harbors of this great island of Mount Desert, its ledges, headlands and ponds, (some of which last are large and deep,) all trend north and south in conformity to the course of the striz. More than one of its deeper ponds are gouged out of the solid syenite, and we find no evidence of this having been done by any other agency than that of glaciers. Beyond these hills to the north, for fifteen or twenty miles, over a comparatively level country, the Taconic slates again ap pear; and the detritus of these rocks have been but sparingly transported over the granitic formation of Mount Desert. I thi it a safe conclusion that the rocks torn from the hills, the valleys and the plains of the country, were not generally removed to any great distance southward. We find indeed the fossiliferous rocks rom the region beyond Katahdin, a hundred and fifty miles north, scattered over the islands of the coast; brought doa upon the more elevated parts of the glacier, rather than attache to or near its under surface, during their distant transportaon But these rocks are by no means abundant. : . Upon Vinalhaven, as we leave one of the granitic quarries 0? A J. DeLaski on Glacial Action about Penobscot Bay. 343 the western side of Carver’s Harbor and pass along north toward the highest granitic hill in the town, there rises a series of terra one above another, along a north and south course, till they attain the altitude of 150 feet above the water. The highest we meet again another slope, rising gradually toward the south till it attains the usual height of this elevated ridge. I consider this dell as having been gouged out of the rock, as the most of our harbors, coves, and ponds have been, by glacial action. We see the hills not only curving easily to the north, and steep on their southern sides, but we find also that their east and west sides are abrupt. We know that this abruptness, in the southern part of Maine, must have been caused by dennda- _ tion; not such a wearing away as slow moving icebergs would be likely to make, though hundreds of thousands had struck in the Same place. And those east and west sides both low, and high Up the hills, are often seen beautifully, never roughly, scored, A Suppose that when an iceberg touches along the side of a sub marine hill, it would be deflected like any floating body, by the continuation of the current around the hills; it could not uni- formly chafe and scratch the rock in all its inequalities of wall; for we know that the sides of the bergs are not abundantly ape plied with those stone-grooving tools necessary for the smooth- Ing and scratching. And, let me ask, by what means were those oblong and wedge- om ae boulders deposited in the peculiar manner in which we them? They do not lie with their longer diagonals across the strize, but were left by some agent /ead on in their course to- Ward the south. Icebergs could not have dropped them thus, While the movements of a glacier would have compelled the ulder to take this wedge-shape form in many cases, and would have kept its base always directed forward in the line of its Course, __ if then there is evidence of a power so great, acting against the highest hills of the coast, even leaving over their sum- Mits indisputable marks of extensive denudation, we have rea- 80n to believe that the glacier which swept across them was of Yast thickness. Had the glacier reached barely above the top 344 P. Collier on Indirect Determinations of Potash and Soda, of the highest hill of the Mount Desert group, an elevation of 2000 feet, its action for ages might have indeed accomplished the rounding and sloping of the northern sides of those moun- tains; but the ice of a few hundred feet in thickness above their summits, could not have produced that vast amount of denuda- tion required to form their southern brows. It is altogether probable that the glacier far overtopped the highest of the hills, and it is not unreasonable to suppose it to have been at least twice two thousand feet in thickness. . Moreover there is evidence that this glacier was not limited to this great fiord of Maine. It must have extended far toward the east and covered the country on the west. In fact, it was probably a part of the universal glacier which covered the con- tinent wherever the drift striae have been observed. But upon the discussion of this point I will not now enter. Art. XXX.— Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale Coliege. No. VIIL—On the Indirect Determination of Potash and a; by Perer Conner, B.A., Assistant in the Sheffield Laboratory. , dence of chemists, at least, it is rarely mentioned in published investigations. I have therefore, at the suggestion of Prof. John son, made a number of experiments to ascertain the limits of error in this process, he volumetric estimation of chlorine as perfected by Mohr offers by far the best basis for an indirect determination of t alkalies. It is in fact requisite in employing the usual direct method, to procure the alkalies in the condition of pure chlorids before precipitation. . hen the alkali chlorids are obtained free from all foreig? matters, it is but the work of a few moments to ascertain their content of chlorine. _ The silver solution used for this purpose is best prepared by weighing off in a porcelain crucible about 4:8 grm. of clean hi’ tallized nitrate of silver, fusing it at the lowest possible. t and then ascertaining its weight accurately. After fusion © ould weigh a little more than 4:7933 grm., the quantity Bee contained in a liter of water, gives a solution of which.1 ¢. & es ® P. Collier on Indirect Determinations of Potash and Soda. 345 may hold 70 c. c.) graduated to fifths ensures the needful accu- tacy of reading. In my determinations #;th c.c. of silver solu- tion were deducted as the excess needed to produce a visible quantity of chromate of silver. The appended table gives the results I obtained in the analy- ses of the chlorids of potassium and sodium. The salts were ay pure and the quantities were weighed out in each case. order to test the method thoroughly I have varied the pro- portions of the mixtures from one extreme to the other. Summary of Volumetric Chlorine Determinations. K Ci taken. |NaCliaken.) Cl found. hi _ analysis, 0582 | ---- | 02780 | 05725 ~ Bie 1668 ---- | 07940 | ‘16617 a. “1507 ---- | O7168 | ‘15056 ae 3 0590 a 782 | 0317 07881 i 0379 | 03750 as 0169 Grou 0166 01514 en 0429 | 05120 | 05319 ith « se Bo | 09029 et 0182 | 05820 1a 967 0102 | 05217 gigi ‘0101 1600 po sees 01089 oe 1100 og may be seen from the above list of analyses, which includes ‘the determinations I have made, from first to last, for the Purposes of this paper, that in no case does the difference be- tween the quantities taken and found of either alkali chlorid exceed two milligrams, and in most instances it is less than one tailligram, The correspondence between the amounts of chlorine AM. Jour. Sct.—grconp Serres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111—Mar, 1864. 346 Contributions to Chemistry from the as taken and found is of course still more near. The errors that appear in the estimation of the chlorids would be consid- erably reduced, if, as usually happens, they were calculated as oxyds Here follow the formule which I have employed for caleu- lating the quantities of NaCl and KCl, or of NaO and KO, con- tained in or corresponding to any mixture of alkali-chlorids whose total weight and amount of chlorine are known. ue KCl = W x 46288 — C X 76811. : NaO=C X 4:0466 — W x 1°9243. KO W x 2:90248 = C x 48210. i The restlts I have obtained thus demonstrate that the indirect method is in all cases equal in accuracy to the ordinary separa- tion, while in the matter of convenience and economy of time there is no comparison between them. i, st Agr. XXXI— Contributions to Chemistry from the Laboratory of the Lawrence Scientific School; by Woucort G1pss, M.D., Rum- _ ford Professor in Harvard University.—No. I. A acid. Himly’s paper attracted little attention and was soon 10% gotten. ‘T'he subject was again taken up at about the same time by Vohl? and Slater* who a pear been unacquainted by these chemists differ in some particulars, especially as Te - ; copper and lead. More recently Chancel* has employed pate | Posulphite for the separation of alumina from iron, and _ | Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, xliii, 150. "3 ‘The same, xcvi, 237 Chemical Gazette, 1855, 369, he Comptes Rendus, xhvi, Ole. ig 5 Lawrence Scientific School. 347 meyer’ has extended the same process to the separation of iron from titanic acid and zirconia. Other analytical applications of the hyposulphite have been made in which.the salt is employed either as a solvent or in volumetric processes: these do not re- uire notice in this place, The following observations on the behavior of the hyposulphite toward certain metallic salts are interesting from a purely chemical rather than from an analyti- cal point of view. ‘ fickel— When a neutral solution of sulphate, chlorid or ni- trate of nickel is boiled with a solution of hyposulphite of soda, a black precipitate of sulphid of nickel is thrown down, an after very long boiling the precipitation is complete and the so- lution is free from nickel. If the solution of nickel be pre- viously acidulated by the addition of a drop or two of acetic acid the precipitation is more rapid. It is very difficult to de- termine the exact point at which the solution ceases to contain slowly. Rammelsberg* long since observed that a solution of hyposulphite of nickel is partially decomposed by evaporation, and that the dry mass on heating yields a yellow sulphid of He solution of nickel is introduced by a long funnel together with the solution of hyposulphite which should be in excess and concentrated. After sealing the tube before the blast-lamp itis to be heated in an air-bath and kept for half an hour at a temperature of about 120° C. Every trace of nickel is thrown down in the form of sulphid mixed with free sulphur: the tube May then be opened at the point, the liquid allowed to flow into 4 Deaker, the tube cut across and the sulphid of nickel washed Sut. It may be thrown on a filter and washed with boiling Water without oxydizing in the smallest degree. The equation tepresenting this reaction appears to be - NiCl-+-2Na0, 8,0, =NiS-+NaCl +Na0, 8,0,. * Ann. der Chem, und Pharm., exiii, 127. © Pogg. Ann., lvi, 295. 348 Contributions to Chemistry from the This process answers extremely well for the analysis of nickel ‘salts and gives more accurate results than the precipitation of the nickel as oxyd by caustic potash: it also requires less time since the sulphid may be washed with the greatest ease. On the other hand, as [ shall show, it is of very limited application as a means of separating nickel from other metals. The sulphid of nickel precipitated by heating with solution of hyposulphite of soda appears black at first, but after ignition has a dar bronze yellow color. It is unchangeable in the air, and may be boiled with strong chlorhydric acid without being sensibly at- tacked. Strong sulphuric acid exerts no action upon it: nitric acid oxydizes it to sulphate of nickel. It may be heated ina covered porcelain crucible without oxydation, but by roasting in a current of air is converted into a basic sulphate. For quan- titative purposes it is best, after washing and drying the sul- id, to burn it with the filter in a porcelain crucible so as: convert it into basic sulphate, to add to this a few drops of sul- phuric acid, evaporate to dryness and gently ignite the resulting neutral sulphate, from the weight of which the nickel may be calculated. The sulphate must be completely soluble in hot wate! se has shown that the sulphate may be completely converted into oxyd by strong ignition.’ ltj—The relations of cobalt to hyposulphite of soda are nary atmospheric pressure is almost impossible, In a seal tube, at a temperature of 120° C., the precipitation is cones ll cases, now- ever, it is best to treat the roasted sulphid with a few drops of sulphuric acid, evaporate and ignite gently. The cobalt (i) then be calculated from the weight of the sulphate. Cobalt by this process; as in the case of nickel, however, the nA completely precipitated together as sulphids b hyposulphite of soda at 120° C. ag is eat to weigh oth scaptbee as sulphates and then determine the cobalt by Stromeyer’s method as mo fied by Dr. Genth*, and myself; the oakel is then found by simply subtracting the weight of the sulphate of cobalt } that of the mixed sulphates. _ | * Pogg. Ann., cx, 132. * This Journal, [2], vol. xxiv, p- 86 Lawrence Scientific School. 349 _ Jron—A. solution of peroxyd of iron becomes of a deep vi let color upon the addition of hyposulphite of soda; after a short time the color disappears and the iron is reduced to prot- oxyd. According to Fordos’ and Gélis, the reaction which takes place in this case is represented by the equation Fe,Cl, + 2NaO.S,0, = NaCl + 2Fe0!+ Na, 8,0,. omy to the air, and is not sensibly dissolved by strong chlor- y The boiling must be continued until the whole of the sulphurous acid is expelled. Chancel applies this reaction to the quantita- tive Separation of alumina from iron, but I have always found that the complete precipitation of the alumina is, to say the . extremely difficult. This may be due to the formation of a sul- Phite which is not decomposed by boiling. When a solution of alum is heated to 120° C, with a strong solution of hyposulphite f soda the whole of.the alumina is precipitated after a short time, as a hydrate mixed with sulphur. The precipitate is white and of a peculiar semi-gelatinous charactér; it 1s more easil Washed than the ordinary hydrate thrown down by ammonia, It ® Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, viii, 351. 350 Contributions to Chemistry from the 20° C Zinc.—W hen solutions of gulphate of zine and hyposulphite -140° C0, tated under ordinary atmospheric pressure from boiling solutions. When a boiling solution of sulphid of sodium is added to a boiling solution of sulphate of nickel or cobalt, the sulphids are 2. On the determination of nitrogen by weight. Bunsen” has given a method of analyzing nitrates and nitrites salt in a single analysis, This method consists essentially im igniting the salt in an atmosphere of nitrogen gas, absorbing the. oxygen evolved by metallic copper, and collecting the water 12 a chlorid of calcium tube. The nitrogen in the salt is given by he loss of weight in the apparatus. ‘a _ In those analyses of nitrates or nitrites in which it is only de- sired to determine the nitrogen, the following process may 0@ employed with advantage. A hard glass tube, about six inches in length, is sealed at one end, and its volume determin it filling it with mercury and pouring this into a graduated ve ra The tube is to be carefully dried and weighed with a good cork+ itis then to be filled with finely divided metallic copper, PT& jared by reduction of the oxyd, so as to ehable the operator t0 judge of the quantity necessary. The salt to be analyzed 8 then weighed and mixed with the metallic copper, either 1n # * Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, lxxii, 40. Lawrence Scientific School. : 351 contents and cork is again weighed. The wéight of the copper 7 dividing this weight by the density of metallic copper. A 352 Contributions to Chemistry from the eterminations aré made it will be found convenient to employ printed forms for logarithmic calculation, the logarithmic con stants of reduction being printed upon the form itself in thei proper places.” even with the hardest combustion tubes. Where many a 8. On the separation of Cerium from Didymium and Lanthanum, The methods which have been recently proposed for the sep- aration of cerium from lanthanum and didymium are familiar mixed oxalates are tested the oxalic acid is oxydized to carboni¢ acid before the characteristic cerium-yellow appears. For the purpose of testing it is sufficient to dissolve the salt to be exam- ined in nitric acid diluted with its own volume of water, to add a small quantity of pure peroxyd of lead and boil for a few minutes, when the smallest trace of cerium can be detected by the yellow color of the solution. The reaction is here ex actly analogous to that of nitric acid and peroxyd of lead with solutions of manganese, which last is oxydized, not as Crum supposed, to hypermanganic acid, but, as Rose has shown, 10 Sesquioxyd. : When a solution containing a salt of cerium dissolved in st: pero * Such pri ' : journal at 4° such printed forms may be had from the publishers of this Ji VY a nm al Lawrence Scientific School. 353 the protoxyd of cerium in the nearly insoluble double sulphate of soda and cerium metals is only partially oxydized b heating with strong sulphuric acid and peroxyd of iad xleiosagie oxygen is freely evolved. A solution of hypermanganate of potash has no immediate action upon a solution of protoxyd of cerium either in nitric or in sulphuric acid, the violet color remaining unehanged even in ahot solution. On boiling for some time, however, the color changes slowly, the solution gradually becomes yellow and a rown flocky precipitate is thrown down, which consists of hy- ‘drate of sesquioxyd of manganese. According to Stapff, a solution of hypermanganate of potash isimmediately decolorized by a solution of the sulphate of po- ium and protoxyd of cerium in chlorhydric acid, but after some time chlorine is evolved and the sesquioxyd of cerium found is reduced to protoxyd. It is clear that in this case the Bpizing agent is chlorine. The further investigation of this subject was committed to Dr. T. M. Drown, who has obtained the following results, en a solution of cerium, didymium, and lanthanum, is treated with nitric acid and peroxyd of lead in the manner pointed out above, the deep orange colored liquid evaporated to dryness, and heated for a short time to a temperature suffi- ciently high to expel a portion of the acid, it will be found that boiling water acidulated with nitric acid dissolves only the salts of lanthanum and did mium, leaving the whole of the cerium in the form of basic nitrate, insoluble in water. The insoluble matter is to be filtered off and thoroughly washed. A current of sulphydric acid gas passed into the filtrate removes the lead, after which the lanthanum and didymium may be precipita- together as oxalates, which if the process has been care- fully performed, are perfectly free from cerium. The mass on the filter is readily dissolved by fuming nitric acid. Sulphydrie acid is then to be passed through the solution sufficiently diluted With water until the lead is completely precipitated. The cerium May then be thrown down by oxalic acid, ignited and weighed a Ce, O,, or as sulphate. In this manner Dr. Drown obtained in four analyses of the same salt DiO and LnO = 24:84, 25°31, 25°54, 24°65 per cent. Nitrate of protoxyd of cerium obtained by this process gives, When tested by the spectroscope with transmitted light, even In Very thick layers, a scarcely perceptible indication of didymium. Tmay here mention that Gladstone’s lines farnish, with proper are, the most delicate test for the presence of didymium which We Possess, is only necessary to transmit the light through Very thick layers of liquid and to employ a condensing lens so Ax. Jour, Sct.—Szconp Srrres, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864. 46 854 Contributions to Chemistry from the as to throw the transmitted light directly upon the slit of the spectroscope. 4, On the separation and estimation of cerium. gramme of oxyd is a good working proportion. The solution is then to be boiled and a hot solution of oxalic acid or oxalate of ammonia added. On cooling, especially when the solution has been well stirred with a glass rod, or shaken, the oxalate sepa ates in large crystalline grains of a pale rose-violet color. he precipitate is to be filtered off and well washed with boiling water, the washing being extremely easy in consequence of the coarse granular character of the precipitate. The filter is then to be pierced and the oxalate carefully washed down into a crucible, after which the water in the crucible may easily be removed by evaporation and the oxalate dried at a temperature of 100°C. The equivalents of lanthanum and didymium are so near to that of cerium that no very sensible error is committed by consider _ ing the mixed oxalates as consisting simply of CeO C,0, +829 In mineral analyses in which the relative quantity of oxygen the acids and bases must be determined with accuracy, it may be desirable to ascertain the quantity of oxalic acid ina weighed alee of the oxalates by combustion with oxyd of coppet, rom this the acid in the entire precipitate may be found, and the oxygen in the three bases will then be one-third of the oxy: gen in the acid. 5. On the quantitative separation of cerium from yttrium, alumin- um, glucinum, manganese, tron and uranium. The relations of the three metallic oxyds of the cerium to sulphate of potash have long been fainiliar to chemists, @ x have furnished methods of separation from other oxyds a Pinta ct « use. In examining this subject I have oe be : phate of soda possesses great advantages over sulphate of po" ‘the double sulphates of sodium and the protoxyds of cerium, Janthanum and didymium, being ibeolntely insoluble 10 a rated solution of sulphate of soda. On the other hand, Lawrence Scientific School, 855 double sulphates of sodium and glucinum, aluminum, yttrium, _ protoxyd of iron, and sesquioxyd of uranium, are readily solu- ble in sulphate of soda and may easily be washed out from the highly erystalline insoluble double sulphates of the cerium group. In the analysis of minerals in which cerium occurs with one or more of the other oxyds, the following method may be employ- ed with great advantage. The oxyds are to be brought into the form of sulphates, dissolved in the smallest quantity of water, and a saturated solution of sulphate of soda added, together with a sufficient quantity of the dry sulphate in powder, to sat- urate the water of solution. It is most advantageous to use hot solutions. The insoluble double sulphates of soda and the ceri- um metals separate immediately, as a white, highly crystalline powder, which is to be brought upon a filter and thoroughly washed with a hot saturated solution of sulphate of soda. After washing, the double sulphates upon the filter are to be dissolved in hot dilute chlorhydric acid, the solution largely diluted with water, and the cerium metals precipitated by oxalate of ammo- ia, in the manner already pointed out (4). From the filtrate, the oxyds of the yttrium group may be precipitated at once by oxalate of ammonia, after peroxydizing the iron by means of orine water, and rendering the solution slightly acid with chlorhydric or sulphuric acid. The only precaution to be taken in this process is to reduce the iron completely to the form of protosulphate before precipitating the cerium with sulphate of soda. This is best accomplished by means of a current of sul- phydric acid gas passed into the hot solution. The precipitated sulphates always contain iron when this precaution has been neg- lec This iron is easily detected in the filtrate from the oxa- lates, and may be precipitated by ammonia and added to that obtained from the main solution. 6. On the employment of fluohydrate of fluorid of potassium in analysis. The facility with which the double fluorid of titanium and po- fassium, or fluotitanate of potassium, separates In a crysta line state from hot aqueous solutions, on cooling, suggested to Woh- ler the best method at present known for obtaining pure titanic acid. In Wohler’s process, rutile or titaniferous iron is fuse With an excess of carbonate of potash, the fused mass treated with water, which leaves the greater part of the iron undissolved and the filtrate saturated with Faediydtic acid. By recrystalliza- tion the fluotitanate TiF , KF, or perhaps more correctly, ph ge AY, may be obtained in white, scaly crystals, resembling boric acid; from this salt pure titanic acid is easily obtained by pre- tion with ammonia. Marignac modified this process very “Cvantageously in the treatment of zircon to obtain pure zirconic 356 Contributions to Chemistry from the acid. The zircon was fused with fluohydrate of fluorid of potas- sium directly. In this manner a perfect resolution of the min eral was easily obtained; the fluozirconate of potassium was then dissolved out from the insoluble fluosilicate by hot water, acidu- lated with fluohydric acid. The observations of Wohler and Marignac suggested to me a further extension of the same pro cess, the general result of the.investigation being that fluohy- drate of fluorid of potassium or sodium may be employed with great advantage in resolving minerals containing metallic oxyds of the types RO, and R,O,. The special results are as follows. ucinum.—Glucina, purified from iron and aluminum by the usual methods, is to be fused with twice its weight of fluohy- drate of fluorid of potassium, and the fused mass treated with boiling water, to which a small quantity of fluohydric acid has been added. On filtering a notable quantity of the insoluble fluorid of aluminum and potassium almost always remains upon the filter, even when the separation from glucinum has been carefully executed, by means of carbonate of ammonia. The filtrate, on cooling, deposits colorless transparent crusts of the double fluorid of glucinum and potassium which are easily puri- fied by recrystallization. This method affords the simplest—l am almost disposed to say the only—method of obtaining a chem- ically pure salt of glucinum. The double salt is apt to contain an excess of fluorid of potassium. To obtain it perfectly pure for analysis, Mr. J. C. Newbery fused the fluohydrate of potassium with an excess of glucina. The salt as thus obtained gave him Calculated. Found. Glucinum, - é é wi 5°74 5°70 Potassium, - - i - 47°73 47°76 Fluorine, + - * - 46°58 46°50 100-00 99°96 which corresponds precisely with the formula G,F,+8KF, #f glucinum be taken as 7, or with GF+KF, if glucinum be taken as 4°66. In this analysis the fluorine was estimated by the loss. Berzelius gives the formula G,F,+3KF. Glucina may be 0 tained directly from beryl, as Mr. Newbery” has found, by fusing the finely pulverized mineral with fluohydrate of potassiult, dissolving out the soluble double fluorid of glucinum and pe slum, and purifying by recrystallization. As, however, Dery’ contains only 13 or 14 per cent of glucinum, this process 18 ne economical, It is better to separate the other oxyds as far be possible by the ordinary methods and then to purify the ae glucina by the process above pointed out. It is perhaps wort 1 notice that while almost all proto- and sesquioxyds give 19S ~™ Prof. Joy had already re: be completely resolved by fusion with fiuorid of potvninen Heed See Ponfien: Ae July, 1868. = e Lawrence Scientific School. 357 uble double salts with fluorid of potassium, the fluorid of gluci- num behaves like a bifluorid, so as to suggest that glucina may: possibly be GO, instead of GO orG,O,. Ammonia precipitates glucina directly from the solution of the double fluorid. When a solution of fluorid of sodium is added to one of aluminum and —- the whole of the aluminum is thrown down in the rm of cryolite, Al, F,,3NaF, while the glucinum remains in solution. It is probable that this method will give accurate quantitative results. Hyponiobie acid.—I am indebted to the kindness of Prof. B. Silliman, Jr., for a liberal supply of columbite from Middletown, Connecticut. Mr. F. W. Tustin has found that the finely pul- yerized mineral treated with a solution of three times its weight the mere process of cee thus obtained by fusion in a platinum crucible gives a ass has then a greenish tint. It must be rubbed to ver, fine powder before boiling with water acidulated with fluohydrie acid. After passing sulphydric acid gas through the solution and filtering, the hypo-fluoniobate crystallizes in colorless acicular crystals which must be purified by repeated crystallization, The salt is much more soluble in hot than in cold water. In this Process a considerable quantity of fluosilicate of potassium, fluo- tid of calcium, quartz, and other impurities, usually remain upon the filter, with the sulphids of tin and tungsten. The difficulty in this process consists in separating the iron, when, as in the mineral columbite, this is present in comparatively large quan- In this case very large platinum or silver vessels and nu- merous recrystallizations become necessary. It is better, there- Im preparing large quantities of pure hyponiobic acid to fuse with fluohydrate of potassium, dissolve the fused mass in Water as before, and filter to separate quartz, fluosilicate of po- tassium and fluorid of calcium, evaporate the solution to dryness and heat with pure sulphuric acid until the whole of the fluorine 358 Contributions to Chemistry, etc. ten and tin. After thorough washing, it may be again fused with fluohydrate of potassium, and the double fluorid obtained mic and sulphuric acids may be precipitated together by acetate of lead. The precipitate after washing is to be boiled with eaustic alkalies, or with sulphur and carbonate of soda. 4 From what has been said it will appear that fluohydrate possesses peculiar advantages in resolving those mim or gutta-percha. Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 18th, 1864. F. Pisani on Shepard's Paracolumbite. 359 : Art. XXXII.—On Shepard’s Paracolumbite; by Mr. F. Pisani of -Patiad::5.:: PROFESSOR SHEPARD has given the name Paracolumbite to a black mineral found in small grains, or irregular seams, in the study its chemical composition. I have thus ascertained, that the paracolumbite is nothing more than a titaniferous iron, mixe with a little gangue, from which it is extremely difficult to sepa- rate it entirely by mechanical means. The mineral occurs in lack granules that on pulverization give an equally black pow- der. Hardness 45. Density 4:353. Before the blowpipe fuses toa black magnetic globule. Partially attacked by chlorhydrie acid, and this solution heated with tin gives a violet color. En- tirely decomposed by prolonged heat with concentrated sul- phuric acid; the addition of cold water gives a solution which on boiling becomes cloudy with deposition of titanic acid. Shepard,’ on the contrary, states the solution obtained by decom- position with sulphuric acid is not rendered milky by boiling, and that the metallic acid contained in paracolumbite is not Utanic acid. A quantitative analysis made by attacking the substance with bi-sulphate of potash gave the following results: Titanic acid, - : : 35°66 Ferrous oxyd, - - - - - $908 Ferric oxyd, - . P> * - 8°48 Silica and insoluble, - - - - 1066 Alumina, u ‘ Z : ¢ 7-66 Lime, % z : & 3 Magnesia, A s . . - 1:94 100°54 Deducting from the analysis the silica, alumina and lime Which belong to the gangue, it is obvious that the mineral is an rdinary titanic iron, Paracolumbite cannot therefore be con- Sidered’a distinct mineral species. It is identical with titanic iron, * Communicated by the author. * Mineralogy, 2d edition, (1857,) page 287, Paris, (France,) Feb. 4th, 1864. 360 J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous Art. XXXIII—On the Cretaceous and Superior Formations of West Tennessee ; by Jas. M. SaFForp, Lebanon, Tenn, In this article I propose to enumerate and describe briefly, so far as my examinations will permit, the Cretaceous and higher formations of West Tennessee. But before commencing with the lowest in order, it will be well to notice first the formation of gravel that is so common and conspicuous in the Western Val- ley of the Tennessee river,’ and that rests upon all the formations occurring in this region excepting the alluvium of the bottoms The Western Valley Gravel.—This formation is, by no means, continuous over the whole area to which it belongs. It occurs in patches, or detached beds, depending much, in this respect, upon the nature of the surface on which it rests, and upon the ex- tent to which it has been denuded. The beds, however, often cover locally large areas, the observer travelling upon them with- out a break for many miles. Their thickness is not great, rarely exceeding fifty or sixty feet, and being generally much less. This gravel was doubtless deposited after the valley had re- ceived, for the most part, its present general form. _ Its beds are found upon the bluffs of the river, upon the uplands back of the bottoms and upon comparatively high ridges, being always the uppermost formation. It is often seen as far back as eight ot ten miles from the river on both sides. On the eastern side it extends farther, and frequently caps the very high ridges of this part of the State, some of which are 800 feet above the sea. In this direction it extends, at some points, a few miles beyond the he worn pebbles are sometimes locally mingled with angular cherty fragments; but in such cases the beds are in the vicinity of Paleozoic rocks, the known source of the angular chert. Not unfrequently masses of the gravel may be seen cemented, usually by oxyd of iron, into heavy blocks of coarse conglomerate. 4 some of the iron-ore banks within the limits of this formation, we find sections presenting mingled masses of worn pebbles, am gular chert, and heats in irregular fragments and in “ pols the masses occasionally cemented into solid blocks. * Or simply the Wester : i i mparatively narrow and broken valley slaoegie-windh ts ‘ocean pe ag est Tennessee may be designated as . Bottom aeate Modern. 8. Bluff Loa Post-tertiary. 1. Bluff Gein vel, ps 6. Bluff Lignite, ip Seri Tertiary ? 5. eo nge San “e LaGra : oup, y Tontiaty. 4, Porere is Group, (pro- vision ne 3. Ripley on ‘oup, Lye tirel; Cretaceous. 2. Green ies or the shell-bed 1. Coffee San * Atno point in Tennessee have I seen gravel run- ing under the Cretaceous beds, In .—5 ae might be tis as the remains of ie ancient shingle of the Mbt sea, or estuary, far, however, as m my o rats "have extended, I 4am compelled to refer air the deposi at least, to the same e epoch, As to the waters which brought, aod deposited this the impressions received in the field are that ts, in Tennessee oJ & * z =’ s & Ss - a ro cm 5 8 < & bes ® #5 He 8 ° ne = n Tennessee with the wal’ of the Mississippi, the ¢ ais re ‘eostig havin ng bee ed the Mississi u of West Tennessee. In eae par lens =p, in one or both, these bodies of water may Drs, Harper ris ene, in their respective Missis- tpi Re iate this gravel w: i“ is ee a? weocrnt fa ferns ne which “Orange Sand.” hey state, overlies the = part of the State of ceals, to The von. many of its ermal age ve nd originally appli me fa sional sere of te te the mos rt * to Hilgard’s Northern Lignitic. With the in netion of the gravel described pid “aessee of the « Orange Sand” as understood by th G ® “SHTIN OZT ‘avou IIVH NOLSHIUVHO YF SIHANAW ABL PXOTV NOILLOUS Bggs2e <{ = \ \\ “ 361 It is certainly ous beds in she Western valley. L mets low wa- 1703 :| = Buntyn 304, — Germantown 378. — Collierville 379. — Lafayette 316. -—~ Moscow 352. — La Grange 531. ~ Grand Juncti’n 575. ~ Saulsbury 536. — Porter’s Cr, ~ Middleton 407, uddy Cr. — Chawalla 409, — Miss. & Tenn. Jine. - Corinth 434. — Glendale 495. — Burns 463, | Tuka 555, A _ Miss. and Ala, line. ve, Iam not we to admit the existence Aw. Jour, Scr. Riise SrRizs, eis XXXVII, No. i —May, 1864. 47 362 J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous On the map and in the section accompanying this article the areas occupied san by these beds are laid off, and are numbered as aboy The Paleozoic rocks occupy a narrow irregular belt, (marked 0, 0, upon the map,) averaging about five miles in width, . lying along the western side of the Tennessee river. This be is interrupted near the southern part of the State, in a county, the river bending to the west and striking ee san ; berg, ‘Genesee, (Black Slate,) and Sub-carboniferous epochs. I do not, sipiere ropose to dwell upon these here, hese F neretole pass n to the beds and roups enumerated abov ot The Coffee Sand.—This, the oldest ee group seen * the surface in Tennessee, overlaps the western bevelled olf 0 the Paleozoic rocks. It is ns northern extension of the et ati Charle ston R. R. the Alama, hough the nortenstar rer of Messiah th id at <% Sor Raven ~ me negors Its base-lin ne arabe oe foot 1 of Chi shetion, fe 12 a oes points of the section are about 5s ~ da = aie” and Superior Formations of West Tennessee, 363 bighee sand of Hilgard, which most likely ought to be included in his Hutaw Group. Its outcrop occupies a belt of territory varying from about two to eight miles in width, and running more than half way through the State.“ (See 1, 1, on the map.) As before stated, the Tennessee, in the southern part of the State, strikes this group. The river here washes the sand, along its western bank, for eighteen or twenty miles and presents us, at intervals, with several bluffs that exhibit interesting sections. to 100 feet in the gravel bed described. The principal ones, (indicated on the map by short heavy lines,) are the Coffee Bluff; sometimes > With in the series. It very generally contains woody fragments and leaves converted more or less into lignite. Silicified trunks Of trees are not uncommon. The maximum thickness of the ~y in Tennessee is not known; it is probably not far from t eet. A section of the bluff at Coffee may be taken as a type of the materials and stratification of this group. 4. On top ; gravel and ferruginous conglomerate. 8. Sands, with thin laminz of slaty clay; much like No. 1 below. 10 feet. 2. Slaty clay, with but little sand; contains fragments of wo _ and leaves, ; - Grey and yellow sands, interstratified with numerous thin aminz and some thicker layers of slaty clay; strata of sand Oceasionally from three to six feet without clay. Leaves, in agments, and pieces of lignitic wood abundant. — Projecting from the mass are the ends of two large trunks, their bark con- verted into lignite and their wood silicified. — : Contains pyrites and yields proto-salts of iron and ferrugin- ous waters, Extending to the water's edge. ‘ . - 65 feet. 20 feet. ‘ ‘ ec A : There is some i rd to the northern limits of this and the succeeding Brae (No. 2.) a ioe. onan upon the map by the broken lines bounding the ne limi satisfactorily known as far as the lines continue un- : but beyond this they are not easily determined and require more examina- tion, outline given is probably not far from the correct one. 364 — J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous yet it is difficult to obtain good specimens. None that I know fossils, to Mr. Wm. M. Gabb, of Philadelphia, who described it as Volulilithes Saffordi, giving “Tennessee” by mistake as the locality. (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., [2], iv, 299.) The specimen was obtained from a cut about three miles and a half west of 2. The Green Sand, or the shell-bed.— At many points along its eastern edge this bed is seen resting upon the Coffee sand. I mass consists generally of fine quartzose sand mixed with clay, forming a clayey sand, which is more or less calcareous. It con tains green grains throughout, though not abundantly, and fine 7 scales of mica. Owing to the clay present and a certain degree of the series. Below the soil, for ten or twenty feet from the surface, the Green sand is usually converted by atmospheric agencies into? greyish or dirty-buff tenacious material locally called goin a from its tendency to cleave, when losing moisture, in irregula! block-like masses. “cee It abounds in shells. Exogyra costata, Gryphcea vesicularts, r trea larva and Anomic, are found at nearly all exposures. r numerous points, whitish clayey or marly “bald places, ° “glades,” nearly or quite destitute of soil and vegetation, #@ to * To obtain good water in the region of the Green sand it is often necessary bore through the formation to the Coffee sand. Upon reaching = drinkable wa ng and Superior Formations of West Tennessee. 365 met with, strewed over which, individuals of the species men- tioned, and of others, are abundant, the large shells being very conspicuous. ‘This formation is preéminently the shell-bed of the Post-paleozoic beds of West ‘Tennessee. A list of species col- lected is given below. It -_ contains wood and leaves, but not as abundantly as the Coffee This bed is the sortie ektindlioh of the Rotten limestone d Mississippi and Alabama. Its outcrop in Tennessee occupies the surface averaging about eight miles in width for at hast half way through the State. (2,2, map and section.) Fur- ther north it soon becomes inconspicuous, Its limits in this di- rection have not been satisfactorily made out. The broken lines mark its probable extension and termination. Its thickness is ' known from data supplied by the well-borers. Along the west- ern margin of its outcrop it varies from 200 t 350 feet, the maximum being in the southern part of the Sta The list below contains the species collected io myself from this nie These, together with the species collected from the g group, were submitted to the examination of Messrs. Sea a Gabb. The eo — were described by them in the Jour. Acad. Nat. Sei., v, 2d series. In their descrip- tions some are referred to aoe ‘localities. The principal and correct localities are indicated upon the: map by small crosses, and will be designated in the list by letters. They are as che (a.) The first, at the wrt tele of the bed, in a cut of the Mem an (0.) The “Bald Hills,” ee or i miles north o i in Tennessee, miles northwest of Monterey, in MoNairy cou (¢.) A bank about 2 24 miles east of Purdy, (Pu) Tena and very near the top of the bed. es A cut in the Memphis and Charleston Railroad very _ the point where the railroad crosses the Mississippi and Tennessee lin : Platytrochus iahabtae ae and Bets, - -- - d, 2. Corbula crassiplica, G - d, 3, Crassatella vadosa, Ans ‘(Syn. c Ripleyana, Con. te tee a, ¢. 4, Astarte crinulirata, ore 5. Venilia Conradi, Mort. 4 . 9. Arca Saffordi,Gabb, - : + * d. 10, Nucula Cee Gabb, - . ‘ t : d, 1h. Cuculle Tippana, Con., - : : r ¢. 12, Clenoides (Lima) pelagica, Mort., - * 5 a. 4 C. reticulata, Lyell and acicrs - . 4 sé a. 4. Pecten virgatus, Ni ilsson, - - - = a. 15, Neithea occidentalis, Con y Cm - - - a,b, (Syn. P. quadricostata, Radiol 7a perhaps quinguecostata of Mort.) 366 mS M. Safford on the Cretaceous 16. Ostrea Larva, Lam., (Syn. O. falcata, Mort., not Sow.) - -a, 5,64, 17. O. plumosa, Mort., - - - - - a, b, 18. O. lecticosta, Gabb, —- - - - - a,bed, (I think this must be O. crenulata, Tuomey.) 19, Hrogyra costata, Say, - - ‘ ‘ - 65,64 20, Gryphea vesicularia, Lam., - - - . a, b, ¢. (Syn. O. convera, Say, and G. mutabilis, Mort.) for - - - - 21. G. Vomer, Mort. - a, , 22. Anomia tellinoides, Mort., - - - - a, b, 23. A. Argentaria, Mort., - ee = -. Ohne 24. Placunanomia Saffordi,Con., - ‘- - - a,b,o,d. (Syn, P. lineata, Con. P. lineata can be connected with P. Sa fordi by intermediate forms. The species is an abundant and variable one. Its individuals are often much larger than those _ fi . ed. Figure 21, pl. 46, (Jour. Acad., vol. iv.) sh ws the ap- _ pearance of the tooth after the enamel, that coats the inside of the valves, has been removed. Since the species was described, a few 25. Scalaria Sillimani, Mort., “ 26. Natica rectilabrum, Con., fe . 27. Volutilithes Texana, Con., ae * 28. Rapa (Pyrula) Richardsonii? Tuomey, - FREER 29. R. trochiformis, Tuomey, 30. Anchura abrupta, Con., g ) Saf ee = 1. Baculites yi » pay, 32. Enchodus ferox, Leidy, “ : 83. Sphyrena, sp. ? - 34, Ischyrhiza mira, - e Besides these, I have in my collection from this bed uncertal species of Teredo, Serpula, Rostellaria, Fusus, Turritella and Del- phinula. : 1 8. Ripley Group.—This is a provisional series, and 1s ey” upon observations made along and in the vicinity of on Memphis and Charleston Railroad. It is only in this region t determinable species have been found, although search has De*" made elsewhere for them. Its northern extension has beet ™ ferred from the general bearings and relations of its strata of those of the adjacent groups. ) Its outcrop occupies a belt of the surface, (8,8, on the pe extending through the State and being, along the railroad, & mh fifteen miles wide, but having a less average width. This che is in general rough and hilly. The high ridges dividing © — of the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers lie mostly WI" ) SSS s - and Superior Formations of West Tennessee. 367 The group must be of considerable thickness, not less than 400 or 500 feet. It is mostly made up of stratified sands. Oc- casionally an interstratified bed of dark slaty clay, ten to thirty feet thick, is met with, but more frequently a sandy bed lamina- ted with clayey leaves. In its lithological character, the group ig much like the Coffee sand. Its sandy mass, as seen at the sur- face, is very generally yellow, brown or orange, its contents bein eroxydized ; occasionally, however, in partially protected or in resh exposures, its material is dark colored, abounding more or less in fragmentary lignitic matter. The outcrop of the group very commonly presents layers or masses of ferruginous sandstone locally indurated by oxy of iron. This sandstone often occurs in plates, scrolls, tubes and other curious shapes. At some points, especially upon high knobs and ridges, it is found in heavy massive locks from two or three to fifteen feet in thickness. The occurrence of such sandstone is, however, common to all the sand-formations of West Tennessee. In this group it appears to be especially abundant. branch of Cypress Creek, (of Hardeman,) and near the “old stage road.” Each point is indicated upon the map by a small Cross, _ The following is a list of species from the two beds, to which it will be seen quite a number of the forms are common. = Al of them are described in the Jour. Acad. Nat. Scv. of Phila., vol. iv, 2d series, The localities are (a.) limestone ; (b.) sand-bed. 1, Corbula subcompressa, Gabb, - - 2 - b. 2. Venus Ripleyana, Gabb, - - : - a, b. ____On the ma ‘oe this article, Muddy Creek is the first stream rep- Tesented east of na onthe calico’. M. is Middleton depot. Dedicated to Prof. H. A. Gwyn, of Saulsbury, Tennessee. 368 J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous 3. Crassatella pteropsis, Gabb, - : - - ab, (Conrad had previously given this name toa species of Crassatella; Jour. iv, 279. I therefore propose C. Gabbi for it.) . 4. C. Monmouthensis ? Gabb, - ee 6. Cardita subquadrata? Gabb, - - - - b 6. Leda nrotexta, Gabb, - - - : - b, 1. Modiola Saffordi, Gabb, - ‘ : nce ae a 8. Ostrea denticulifera, Con., - - - er * 9. O. crenulimarginata, Gabb, - - - : 6, (If No. 8 is referred to the proper species, then O, crenulimargin- ata, Gabb, is, I think, its lower or larger valve.) 10. Grypheaa Vomer, Mort., - : 11. Turritella Tennesseensis, Gabb, - - f 7. 12. 7. Saffordi, Gabb, - . - - - 1 } - Pe ae 14, 7. pumila, Gabb, = as 15. Nutica rectilabrum, Con., - sciola 17. Neptunea impressa, Gabb, - 18. Callianassa ? Gwyni, Safford, - © * . 19. Lamna gracilis? Ag, - 20. Crocodilus ? (Tooth.) It will be seen that but two species of those given, Gryphea Vomer and Natica rectilabrum, are common to this group and the Greén sand. Localities in Mississippi, however, furnish series of fossils which unite the groups more intimately. It will be found perhaps that the two form paleontologically but one SASS KCTS SSP €. ge He ee F formation The group also contains wood and leaves. The leaves are generally found in an imperfect condition and have received but ittle attention. As the age of the beds containing them are nown, their study would be ver interesting in connection with that of the leaves of the formations further west which are ica scales, is dark when wet and whitish grey whendry. The thick ness of the series is perhaps 200 or 800 feet. In this are usually several beds of slaty clay from five to fifty feet in thickness. Hardeman county, on Porter's Creek,* is a heavy bed said a 00 feet thick. Ihave seen as much as 50 or 60 feet of it exp " The first creek on the map, west of “M.” (Middleton,) on the M.& ©. R. BR and Superior Formations of West Tennessee. 369 face occupied by the group is about eight miles wide. It be- comes narrower as we follow it northward. (4,4, on the map.) The belt appears to be the northern extension of Hilgard’s “Flatwoods” region, the group itself forming the lower part of his “Northern Lignitic.” I have met with hard layers, “ rocks,” in this series containing shells, but as yet have found no deter- Along the Memphis and Charleston Railroad, the belt of sur- It b Tennessee. It occupies a belt about 40 miles wide, which runs in a north-northeasterly direction through nearly the central por- tion of this division of the State. (See map and section 5, 5.) As seen in bluffs, railroad cuts, gullies, and in nearly all expo- are met with. These often contain vegetable matter. Now and ® This Journal, [2], xxvii. 363. Ax, Jour. Sci.—Srcoxp Serms, VoL. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864. 48 370 J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous ’ happy condition of the country. The following is a list of the species as revised by Mr. Lesquereux: ; sitll myrtifolia ? Willd. 7. Andromeda ssf affinis, Prunus Caroliniana, Michx. * Andromeda a, Lsqx. $ Laurus Caroliniensis ? Michx 9, Hleagnus renga Ls 4. Fagus ferruginea, Michx. (Fr uit.) 1. Sapotucites Americanus, Lig 5. Quercus crassinervis, Ung. . Salix? densinervis, Lsqx. 6. Quercus Saffordii, Lsqx. The first four are recent; the others are new or unknown. In a letter to me of Feb. 18 61, Mr. Lesquereux expresses the opin- ion that they are of Miocene, br most likely of Upper Miocene, age. In deference to my e ent friend’s opinion, I shall re- gard the group as Miocene fide more light can be thrown upon the question. *° Had it not been for the ‘present condition of the rE ea more ample material would have been placed in bis ands fi I have Rot ae able to find even the cast of a shell in this series. The discovery of a few known species, if such exist, is a Betdcacai 6. The Bluff Lignite—This is a provisional group, and con: sists, especially in the middle and southern parts of the State, of a series of stratified sands with more or less sandy slaty clay, osed below the panel “of the Missiseitps blufis. At ae rere it scarcely appears above low water. About one ban red fe the series has been seen below the gravel. In_ this Nees it contains from one to three beds of lignite, which are from aoe a foot to four feet in thickness. group has no marked eastern outcrop, and may thin out © T must confess eee I cannot rid bef of the citi pee that this gro up is o—* least Eve I do not know that I can assign a good reason for Key im- on. have say they were absolutel de pra on account of - unsatisfactory won I see too that sagen is inclined t ce his “ Northern Lignitie,” which inc i one Sand pare at the very boftons of the Eocene. and o ef Fetebeess to the erat abore, it will be remarked that two of the rece recent spe cies are given wit uery ; oubt, too, is ae N (this Joma loc. o with reference to the i ic sired of ‘the ‘nut of ee ferruginea I a aware that Mr. and Superior Formations of West Tennessee. 371 lignite, by which it is characterized, do not ear to extend very far east from the range of the bluffs. (See section 6.) In my “ Reconnoissance,” p. 102, may be found asection illustrating the Bluff formations. Below, I give another taken on the Missis- sippi, at Randolph, Tipton county, the river being four or five eet above low-water mark. 8. Bluff Loam, 68 feet. Fine siliceous earthy matter of a light ashen or a light buff color, in an easterly direction beneath the gravel; at least, the beds of a 6. Bluff Lignite, 90 feet. inches thick. Some thin laminz of lignite occur below this bed. This portion in all, - - - - - 48 ft. A portion not exposed in place where the section was taken, but seen in part at another point; consists of laminated sand ee above. Down to the water's edge. 2 ft. aves from the Bluff lignite, at least from the portion in Tennessee, haye not, so far as I know, been examined. by Mr. Lesquereux. (This Journal, [2], xxvii, 364.) ies i kness from ten to with everywhere more or less coarse gravel, and has usually alayer of white or variegated clay at its b gravel 1s ase. generally the most conspicuous portion. This is sometimes ce- _ This bed is remarkable for its extent in a general direction Parallel with the river. It is seen along the face of the Missis- sippi bluff, from the Mississippi state line to Kentucky, and both Ways much beyond these limits. * Thave gi i the line of bluffs that all along overlook A step sd deepen oe Rigs tter The bluffs are the western esca ttom. This escarpment is cut by the narrow ys of the rivers flowing from the east, but for general purposes may be regarded tinuous. 372 J. M. Safford on the Cretaceous : Its eastern outcrop is not well marked. It appears to extend — from 15 to 20 miles eastward from a straight line drawn through — the most westerly parts of the bluff. The bed is represented on the map and in the section by a dotted or broken line. (7,7) Tt will be seen that the narrow river-valleys of West Tennessee — cut this and the Bluff loam into sections. Ack 8. The Bluff Loam.—This, the topmost of the bluff formations, — is generally a mass of fine siliceous loam, somewhat calcareous, and usually of a light ashen yellowish or buff color, but some- times lacking the yellow tinge. It is indistinctly stratified; con- tains land and fresh-water shells, and frequently oddly shaped calcareous concretions. It has in Tennessee a maximum thick ness of about 100 feet, ranging generally, however, from 30 to 80. In the bluff at Memphis, it is from 40 to 60 feet thick, and presents in its lower part, along a well-marked horizon and ina vertical position, earthy ferruginous casts or moulds of what may have been the long tapering tap-roots of some tree. The loam rests directly upon the Bluff gravel, and its range and extent are shown upon the map by the spaces included his ; the broken lines representing the outcrops of the gravel, Its eastern limit, like the eastern outcrop of the underlying bed, 18 with difficulty defined; both are alike given approximate are The following species of shells have been collected from formation : 1, Helix appressa, Memphis. 6. Planorbis bicarinatus, Memphis. 2. H. hirsuta, - 7. Cyclas,sp.t Z 3. H. monodon, - 8. Amnicola lapidaria, . 4. H. solitaria, Dyer county 9. Lymn 5. HZ. profunda, Hickman, Ky. 10. Succinea, sp. ? “ low high-water mark of al beds ° sand, clay, gravel and vegetable matter of the ie Be om. Ido not propose to dwell upon it here. As a WHO © extent in Tennessee can be seen upon the map. (9,9.) 'S This Journal, [2], x, 56. M. C. Lea on the Infiuence of Ozone, etc. 373 Art. XXXIV.—On the Influence of Ozone and some other Che Chem- ical Agents on Germination and Vegetation; by M. Cargy LEA, Philadelphia. and the labors of Boussingault, Knop, Stohmann, Ville, Sachs, and many others, are daily adding to our stock of knowledge and developing new and interesting fac he studies of these chemists have, however, been directed almost entirely to the effects of the absence or presence in greater or less proportion in the soil of those bases and acids which are there commonly found. With respect to other agencies, little has been done since the valuable investigations of ‘l'urner and Christison, made more than thirty years ago, in which they examined the effects of chlorhydric and nitrons acid gases, chlorine, sulphuretted hydrogen, cyano- gen and some other gases. Géppert about the same time pub- lished some investigations upon the influence of cyanhydric acid. The effect of all these substances was very much what mi have been anticipated from their tendency to attack organic ssues, : The examinations which I propose here to describe have been made in a somewhat different direction. The most curious result obtained appears to me to be that relating to the effect of a highly ozonized atmosphere upon the roots of plants. I have also found nde tirely neutral, may exercise a powerfully poisonous influence upon vegetation, when disseminated in the atmosphere sur- ounding it. Pated before introducing it beneath the bell glass. Two sets of experiments were made: in the first, the water with which the seeds came in contact was made to contain those Solid substances which are most essential to vegetation. In the 874 M. C. Lea on the Influence of Ozone second, very pure river water was used. For the first, phosphate of soda, silicate of potash, sulphate of magnesia, nitrate of lime and sesquichlorid of iron were added to water in a proportion such as to be equivalent to three-tenths of one per cent of solid matter. In order to afford a just term of comparison, two yes- sels every way similar were filled with this prepared water, were covered with gauze so that the gauze should rest on the surface of the water, and were placed under bell-glasses resting on glass pee. Wheat and maize grains were placed on the gauze, and eneath one bell-glass was introduced the ozone-generating mix- ture. 2d day.—Germination appeared to be more advanced in the vessel containing the ozone. Seeds, however, of like origin, and exposed to the same influences, germinate so irregularly that much importance is not to be ascribed to this. 3d day.—The seeds in ordinary air had overtaken the others. They were already covered with mould, of which no sign ap- peared on those exposed to ozone. 4th day.—Mouldiness much increased in the one, still nonein the other. The rootlets of the plants exposed to ozone begin to exhibit remarkable effects, extending themselves upward ir stead ownward, and becoming pinkish at the extremities. 5th day.—Ozone plants much behind. 8th day.—The disposition of the roots of the plants exposed to oz row upward still continues. Of the wheat plants, fully one-half the rootlets have shot directly into the air. The only maize plant which has as yet germinated has sent up @ healthy plumula over one inch in length; its three rootlets are all directed upward and away from the water. Nothing in the least similar has taken place in any of the seeds not exposed to the influence of ozone. ately ed to grow; the strongest plant attained a height of six inches, and developed six did xceed one-tenth of those produced : f the equal number of hea seed ne curious result 0 almest 1 nee of roots was that the wheat plants oe on Germination and Vegetation. 375 greater part of them fell over on one side. The flatness of the grains of maize afforded their plants a better suppor stands, which air is of course saturated with moisture, mould began immediately to form, and increased until the surface of the gauze which rested on the water was completely covered, Nothing of the sort was visible in the bell-glass containing an ozonized atmosphere. but their stronger vitality enabled them to resist longer. It was also remarked that the extremities of the leaves of some wheat plants, growing in the same vessel, became yellow. But those wheat plants which had germinated in the ozone atmosphere, al- though much smaller, were perfectly healthy, and the leaves showed no disposition to die at the ends. Pasteur has lately shown that the putrefaction and oxydation of organic bodies is effected to a very large extent by the inter- vention of the lowest order of vegetable organisms. That in Ing the salts already mentioned. The results obtained were pre- cisely the same. ‘These trials afforded a double set of parallel €Xperiments, similar sets of seeds having been exposed to the action of saline solutions, and to that of river water nearly pure, in both cases with and without the influence of ozone. Clearly, therefore, to nothing but ozone could be ascribed the inverted tendency of the roots, as this always followed its presence, an Ver appeared in its absence. * See Rép. de Chimie Pure, Sep. 1863, p. 479. 376 M. C. Lea on the Influence of Ozone, ete. (2.) Carbonic Acid. Experiments were made to ascertain the effect of a complete removal of carbonic acid from the atmosphere surroundin plants. The seeds were placed on gauze strained over a ae of water, which was set in a dish containing concentrated solu- tion of caustic soda, and the whole was covered with a bell-glass, A similar arrangement was made, exclusive of the caustic alkali, to afford a term of comparison. No appreciable difference could be observed. It is probable that seedlings, within the height which they can attain under an ordinary bell-glass, still derive a sufficient supply of carbon from the seed. Be this as it may, the removal of carbonic acid from the atmosphere surrounding them did not interfere with their growth. Experiments made with seeds placed in an atmosphere of cat- bonic acid accorded with results obtained by other observers, a8 to total prevention of germination under circumstances other wise favorable. The seeds, however, were found to be not in any way injured, and germinated freely on exposure to the at mosphere. ee It seems probable that in those cases in which germination has been observed to take place in an atmosphere of carboni¢ acid gas,’ the exclusion of atmospheric air has not been'sull- ciently well maintained. (3.) Simple and Compound Ethers. Seeds were placed on gauze under a bell-glass, as before, and an open narrow-mouthed vial containing a little ether was Intro duced. Germination was entirely prevented. Nitrate of methyl produced a similar effect. (4.) Organic Acids in Solution. Two organic acids were selected for experiment: oxalic adi as being reducing, non-nitrogenous and sharp; picric act issolved in water lutions d small resulted from the acid reaction of the solutions, other so of acid as before, viz.: three-tenths of one per cent. | neutral solution of oxalate, a slow germination followed; 12 * Lindley, Int. to Botany, p. 359. H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 377 Art. XXXV.—Femarks on the Distillation of Substances of different Volatilities ; by M. Carry La. __ SOME experiments which have been recently published b M. Berthelot recall to me a similar and remarkable case whic ’ pointed out, we would naturally an to find it principally in case, when the less substituted ammonias predominate in quan- ty. Almost the whole of the triethylamin passes over in the first opie of the distillate, and subsequent ones, though rich Mm ethylamin and diethylamin, scarcely contain a trace of tri- ethylamin, —— Anr. XXXVI.—The original accounts of the displays in former times of the November Star-Shower ; together with a determination of the length of its cycle, its annual period, and the probable orbit of the group of bodies around the sun; by H. A. NEwrTon. I the followin ges I pro to give, so far as I can, the Original accounts Of ice Hoplays of shooting stars which may be Considered the predecessors of the great exhibition on the ing of Nov. 13th, 1833. These accounts afford data for the determination of the length of the annual period, and the thirty-three year cycle. They farnish additional arguments (if Such arguments are needed) for the theory that the shooting stars Jour. Scr.—Srcoxp Sexes, VoL. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864. 49 378 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. the time during which the swarm of bodies furnishing the No- vember meteors revolves about the sun must be limited to one of five accurately determined periods, one of which is more probable than the others. They will serve to direct future ob- servation, and perhaps verify or correct such hypotheses as have been, or may be presen Several catalogues of ancient star-showers have been pub- lished. Nearly all the accounts given below are cited in Ba or in part in these catalogues. I have copied so far as Ie from the original writers. A few citations not heretofore ian are added. Translations are given of many of the passages, for some of which, _ for other valuable aid, I am indebted to the kindness of frie I. A.D. 902. Near the middle of October, A. D. 902, occurred one of the most remarkable star-showers on record. The following a counts, although the recorded dates differ, refer evidently to the same e phenomenon. 1, “En la luna Dyleada de este mismo afio murié el ey. Ibrahim Becsece aqu uella no che se vieron como lanzadas infinitas estrella Muvia 4 derecha é amie ¥ “et prea este afio el one be Estrellas,” Gee ria dela Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana, 8°, Pari , p. 1 xl, 353, First quoted ro Von yosntthott In the month Dhu-l-Ka’dah of this same year (380 re H.) died ee 5 Torte a the Ahmad, and that night there were seen, as it were which scattere . themselves like rain to right a “left, “and that year r was year of the sta et a no Dox ominicae Incarnationis 902 urbs Tauromenis a Sarracenis eee § Eodem anno in visi sunt igniculi in modum stellarum per ae dis Ba an Rex Africae residens s r Cosentiam Calabriae civitatem, Dei fis Teal mortuus est.” Chronicon Romualdi IT, Archiepisc. Salernitani : Murator M-" — Ser., vii, 160, {This Journal, x1, 354.) First quoted by Mr. Herrick. 3. “Hoc tempore noctis medio visi sunt igniculi in modum s tellarum hue I . diseurrere. Tune Civitas Rhegium a filio Regis Asor ca . apta est. z, nocte rimenis capta est a Saracenis. Rex vero Africes super Cosentian nen i 1 Set quadam e ci judiclo mortuus est.” Chronicon Vulturnense: Muratori, Rer. 415. i, pars 2, 4. “ His itaque patratis, vix eat sex dies efuxer nt, cum visu f que mirabile e prod, ingen m omnibus timorem incussit. xa per noctem volare, militumque instar confi visa cottenttiers sy a . Poke don Sancti Procopii ; ngeriptore Neap.: Muratori, Rev. Ital. Sohblds ennne Diacon? H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 379 | In the preceding paragraph are related the razing of Castellum Lucullanum from fear of the Saracens, the removal of the citi- zens to Naples, and the crenata of the bo y of St. Severinus to the Peteapetl that bore his name. The razing of the town occupied five days, and was finished on the 4th day before the Ides of October, that is, Tuesday, Oct. 12th. Ina note Cajeta- nus says: “Joannes Diaconus cum PS icone tm corporis Sancti Severini e Castello Lucul- lano Neapolim enarrasset, itum dixerat a Pontifice, et sigh ad illud inquirendum 4, Idus Octobris; ut in ejus Basilieam deyentum est, post Missarnm solemnia, detur- bato altari, caren humo o, inte, hata m adbut geen at inventum; cumque tet Kal. Nove embris, ‘Portenta, quae A aattantut. eveneres ula sque Jost arnt % um eodem pn see > ‘Tabromehiaan expu ugnay erat, et Sanctum Proceiark abate interfecera’ In other ag he contends that the year of the capture of Taormina and the invasion of Calabria was A.D. 908. He re- fers to his notes on the life of St. Elias Ennensis in the Vitae SS. Steulorum for the proof. I have not access to this work, but am convinced that the year is A.D. 902. The minuteness and consecution of the Arab ‘ehronicles of these political events make itimpossible to suppose the year in error. 5. “Anno i erine xs incarnatione Domini nongentissimo secundo indice. 5. 3. Idus tobris regnantibus Leone et Alexandro augustis residenteque quarto Benedicto Romano peatities, Partenopenss duce Gregorio et Stephano conele episcopo, fac- tot imo Se pe oO 2 i=] = Jo a< oO ge _ ie] + = i nD — =| B mn ag | He q o> sce ie) D fae — i) fF) ae ° "y 3 ic} a 77) ' edire ¢ : nlserioor ties Ttalia j in articulo Martis ponte ab eius giao liberata sac Unde qui- lam astruere volu uerunt, ab illius morte signum esse factum ste Sed quia on solum in Italia sed in toto mundo yisum est, magis creden midi “ey ane m esse sensentioin dicentis : “ Erunt signa in sole et luna et stellis ; 3” neque in tale — ied iSemy yr: regis morte in universo orbe Deus ostenderat.”’ Chron- Salernitan z, III, p. 549, n. “902. Ostensa sunt hoc anno portenta; stella velud pluvie per maximam noctis Ben caden nites: Piles et site sakoate tes ut testantur navigantes et molen- : aturalem cursum = ip a nocte, hoe est in 5 Kalend. Octobris, non habue- runt, An i, 590. nalista Saxo: The moi account in nearly the same words is found in the Annales Palidenses: Pertz, xvi, 60. The year 903 is, however, Biven as ah date. 7. The followin account refers, if the date is correct, to Nov. lth, A. D, 899. Sati it seems probable that the year should be 380 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers, changed from A. H. 286 to A. H. 289. The extract was first quoted by Mr. Frihn, Bull. — de V Acad. de St. a vol. ili, p. 310, from Hist. Sarac..... a Georg. E]macino ... op.. Th. Erpenii, p. 181. om slay)3 ess KAS, (POA od CXS Ctaley cytileds Gow Rin by » alae oa eal vs ice 23 Up aes ss om oe wee 3 eligiad ee ais |. eh sal seer Laity ad In the year 286 there happened in Egypt a rthquake, on the Fourth Day [of the week], 0 on the 7th of Dhu-l-Ka’dah, jasting: from the middle of the night until morning; and so-called flaming stars struck one against another violent Ys, while being borne eaten and westward, northward and southward; and no one could bear to look toward the heavens, on account of this a aha menon. It is very desirable to determine the day on which this re markable shower occurred. The historical evidence, however, is — conflicting. The years A. D. 901 and 908 are mentioned, an e latter contended for, but both are manifest errors. even if they were several days apart, especially if thes h of the king’s death some days after it happened Among the Arab annalists, moreover, there is no agree as to Pint day of his death. Abu-l-fida states that he S died at of dysentery on ~~ night before Saturday the 19th day of the 11th Moh, A. , 289 (Annales Muslemict .. . J. J. Reiskii, &¢. 4°. Hafniae, il. 280), But the 19th of Dhu-l- ‘Ka’ dah was Mon- day instead of Saturday. Jannabi, according to Mr. Friha, * The following may refer to the same event. The ra gt aie was then ia H July. “903. Hoc anno mense Augusto stellae de 8 per isae sunt de cidisse.” Annales 8. Quintini Veromandensis: Pertz, xvi, 50 oT, The ictu (re of the following statement ab * doubtless suggested Fa shower. “Anno 901 descendit Abraham rex Sarracenorum in Calabriam, e6! : aeerotam viele et itil est ictu fulguris.” Lupi "Protospatas ea Rer. Ital. Ser., v, 38. is also not saatagbahts that the ig oa from than = Latif, ahora: by Mr. pion de this ot thet ae oe 354), refers to the we wee “2 gsuriccd inet © cag 290 [of t ijrah, inning oan ; me in Egypt, which seattered themselves sigecalls a air rhea boing the whole expanse They caused vent ¢ terror and increased continually.” H. A. Newton on November Siar-Showers. 381 agrees with Abu-l-Fida, while Ibn-al-Khatib says the death was on the 18th. Nuwairi says it was the night before Saturday the 98th of Dhu-l Ka’dah, A.H. 289 (Ms. 702 A. fol. 58 vers. and 54 rect, of the Bibliothéque Imperiale at Paris, cited by Noel des Vergers, Histoire de V Afrique, &c., p. 144). Again, Mr. Sédillot gives for the date the 12th of Dhu-l-Ka’dah, or the 18th (Comp- tes Rendus, xxix, 746). Ibn-al-Athir says he died on the 19th (extr. fr. the Kamil-at-Tawdrikh of Ibn-al-Athir, as edited in part by Amari in his Biblioteca Arabo-Sicula, p. 242). The 19th. of Dhu-l-Ka’dah was the 25th of October, while the 28th was the 8d of November. Amid this confusion of dates it would not be easy from his- torical evidence alone to detect the true day, of the shower. But when we know that the subsequent displays point back to the morning of Wednesday, the 13th of October, we feel justified in calling that the date. It is expressly given in the Chronicon itanum. The six days mentioned by Joannes Diaconus may oooh s be counted from the beginning of the razing of Castel- m Lucullanum and not from its close. If the extract from Elmacinus refers, as I suspect it does, to A.H. 289, it implies also that the shower was on the same Wednesday morning. II. A.D. 931. “931, Méme période Tchang-ching), 2e année, 9¢ lune, jour ping-sw (15 Octobre), Te Aprés le cinquiéme coup de tambour, jusqu’au jour, on vit, au milieu et dans les quatre parties du ciel, plus de cent petites étoiles filantes allant en sens divers.” E. Biot, Catalogue Général, etc., p. is catalogue is from the tent Volume of the Mem. Roy. Acad. Sci. de Paris. A. D. 931. Same period, second year, ninth month, the 23d day of the cycle (Oct. Ith). After the fifth watch until daylight, were seen, above, and in the four quarters of the sky, a hundred shooting stars moving in different directions. In Biot’s memoir successive events throughout a night are al- ways related without a break at midnight. Inasmuch as the pose, the morning of Oct. 16th. III. A. D. 934. l. “934. Période Thsing-thai, Ire année, 9¢ lune, jour sin-tcheow (14 Octobre) .... Sree Si acer ai ,> sina Jement cette méme date: ‘Il y eut beaucoup €s filante 2” FB. Biot, Catal. ete., Pp. _ A. D. Porind Thi-thes, first Year, ninth month, 38th day of the cycle (Oct. M4). The collection Sin-ou-tai-sse simply says at this date “there were many shoot- ing stars all at once.” ; iS “9834. Indictione 4, Defunctus est Joannes Abbas II. Kal. Aprilis, fer. 2. Et it ipso Anno apparuerunt signa in coelo de stellis quae Moro at e aliae fils ie in e . at the end of Chronicon ie Muratori, Rer. Ital. Scrip., vii, 961. Also in Ann - Casinates hf Prrtz, iii, 172. Quoted by Mr. Herrick. The year of the indiction is in error, as the day before the Kalends of April was not Monday, in the year 382 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showe:'s. 3. “934. Igneae Remis in Coelo acies visae sunt discurrere, et quasi serpens ig- neus, et quaedam iacula ferri eid Idus Octobris mane ante lu ucis a Mox h. ae pestis diversis afficiens humana cor pora mor is.’ n. Bouquet, Recueil d des Hist. des Gaules, &e., viii, 189. Als ona, “ae and in Poo. Bouquet, viii, 166, Quoted by poe Chi asles.° Nearly the same sf . ae in Hugonis Chronicon: Pertz, viii, 359; in i. iii, 586; and e Chronicon Virdu wnense : Dal, cee viii, 290. . By a change of 1 the year, the following quotation (first cited by Mr. Frihn) from Eutychtt .... Annal., 11, 529, would refer to the same display. “er ol, Kew) who oe BAxK)! isd eG se ats x; ~e us eS) gd Pu bh ged) oT And there was an earthquake, in Egypt, on the aoe day of Dhu-l-Ka’dah of this year [A.H. 323] ; and flaming stars struck against one another violently. The 3d day of Dhe- 1-Ka’dah of 323, A. H., is the 4th of Oc tober, A.D. 985. But the same day of the year 322 is the 15th of October, A. D. 984. The European chroniclers seem to imply that the shower was on the morning of the 14th of October. The Chinese and Arab accounts, on the contrary, point to the morning of the 1éth. It En 6 bectak on voyalt ne gra saraiin dol ne e suivie Pane izai he de pha Groiles. elles, on a ercut deu étoiles gro comme un dixiéme de boisseau: ce lérent, Pune jusqu’a Veto Lang (Sirius), Vautre jusqu ‘au Teou u midi (9, 2, 7, Sag- ittaire) et elles dispa et ee oe Catalogue, &c., p. A.D erio fth Year : r, ninth’ month, 35th day of the eae Abr idth}, ‘hier’ were seen cricie thous: rr 3) — stars, whic appeared group 4, 7,6, Cancri, and went as far a oup A, u, Ursae } a: General large star was sae followed by a half score of small stars. Among them were seen two stars as large as a quart tncasure; t Pe went, one to the star Sirius, the other “to the group 9, ¢, 1, Sagittarii, and van hed. The date in this case I pa to be the morning of the 15th of October, for the reason before given. Probably the radiant at this time was in Cancer, rather than % in Leo. Vy. 2D. OL. “1101. 17 Octobre, Visae sunt stellae be coelo ee , i, 217, as quoted by A. Perrey, Comptes Rendus Vie AD: soon) sted by “The following accounts of a shower in this year are Cl Mr. Prahn ‘fro rom the Arab writers (Bull. de Acad. de St, Pel ii, 314). _ H, A, Newton on November Star-Showers. 383 1. From Suyiti’s Husn (cod. 525 Acad. Se., fol. 342): cle pst hn cep Sle! (ob Rhona canals pn i Ri | oy Ady Yeti tac Caer tsi ve bets at a . ati cyatales cyarayle ae Riw de set a BW IS bre And in the year 599, on the night of Saturday, on the last wa of Muharram, stars shot hither and thither in the heavens, eastward and westward, and flew st one another, like a scattering swarm of locusts, to the 3 right and left; this - enomenon lasted until day-break ; people were thrown into cons ternation, and cried to God the hepa High with confused clamor; the like = it never happened except in the year of the mission of the Prophet, and in the yea 2. From Dhababt ’s Duwal 2 aps (cod. Bt O. 524 See ie ali a Suess¥l eres Brey Sul . ws is S23) ant wyillas, ex d in the year 599, at the beginning of the year, stars shot hither and thither An at Baghdad, and flew one against another, like a swarm of locusts; this phenome- — until day-break ; and people cried out in supplication to God the Most 3. From vit 1. — ad-Dimashk?’s Akhbdr ad-Duwal (cod. 529 Acad. Sc., Opals, osu aL eral alle 3 Kelemacdy cypzandy emi Ri By Ft ply lled allt 3) GS} esis at Sus ce 3 pias ot 4 the year 599, the] d of Muharra ith yan nd day-brea ea Sietnte were thrown i felis constern patie and made importunate sup pli- cations to God the Most High ; there was never the like seen ire on the coming Out of the Messe enger of God—on whom be benediction and pea 4. From Haji Khalfah’s Tukwtm at-Tawdrikh : aw Self wee ro seout 50 a In the year 599 there was a shooting hither oe nthe of stars in the heavens, uring the whole night of the last day of Mu ‘The last day of Muharram, A. H. "599 1 was Saturday, Oct. 19th, . 1202. As the days are counted from sunset to sunset, the night before Saturday is here spoken of. VII. A.D. 1866. cc. “ Vindo 0 anno de 1366, sendo andados xxii dias do mes de Octubro, tres ssioass i antes do fllecimento del Rei te Pedro (de Nesteent), se oa on ceo hum movim Gann: qual os homées virdo nem ouvir, ; es fol » desda ~~ no ite | por te © correrao bodaina outs ee gtd e para o P: e, o de serem jun Come¢ardo a correr humas para huma parte e re weg para ieagiorceng E despois de: oO * = 9s 01) Kin oa 8 que isto vido, ede rao tam grande medo da pap iage aga andi como at- € culdava rtos, € que era vie a fim do mundo. Nine do Lido ; ‘ Crcistcae dante de Port sn reformadas, Parte 1, Lisb. 1600, fol., quoted by Humboldt, Kosmos, Stuttgart and Pabinges, 1850, iii, 384 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers, In the year 1366, and xxii oy 4 of the month of October being past, three months before the death of the King Don Pedro (of phe cies there was in the hea eavens a f. ovement of stars, such as men never befofe heard of. From midnight on- ward, all t the stars moved from the east to the eats and after being together, the b o move, some in one directio ers in anot And afterward the’ fell from the sky in such numbers, and so thickly sy nape that as they desce: i i the air seemed to be in w fora long time. Those who saw it were filled with such great fear and dismay, that they wore astounded, imagining they were all dead men, and that the end of the me. a net m anno (i. e. 1366) die sequenti as festum xi ep virginum, ab hora tutina usque ad horam primam visae sun t quasi stellae de coelo cadere continua et in tanta ee uod nemo narrare sufficit.” eit siae Pragensis, cited by Boguslauski in Pogg. Ann., xlviii, 612. “1366. Scintillatio stellarum, ‘“ ane factum est in nocte undecim milium vir- ginum. ” Annales Veterocglences : Pertz, xvi, 45. e ing of the 23d of October. The second account is not incon sistent with that time, although the most natural inference from the passage is that it was on the morning of Oct. 22d. VIII. A.D, 1583. ge 533. Période Kia-tsing, 12e année, 9e lune, jour ping-tse, (24 Octobre), «.. +» Dubin —— te gr e coup de tambour (de 244 heures du matin), dans les quatre parties du ciel, il y eut une quantité innombrable d’étoiles filantes, grandes et petites, aaieart ensemble en ligne droite et transversale : cela dura j jusqu’au jour. E. Biot, Cat . 208, (oer 3 1533. Pe riod Ki Kia-tsing, t elfth year, ninth month, the 13th day of “ ¢ 24th), ..... from the fourth: to the fifth watch (from 2 to 4 a..), in the four ee of the “heavens, there were innumerable shooting stars, great anid el moy- map cen in ont! and oblique lines. This continued until daylight. stellarum anno 1533. 24. Octob. noctu visa sunt multa millia stellarum ales aes edie i inter se di imicare, ut quasi incensum videretur coelum; sunt omnes : ; asi tal Ly ery ° hes mtg Fiirstensberg, quoted by A. Savarik in Pogg. Ann »P = The manuscript volume in which this passage is found was written at Wittenberg between A.D. 1520 and 1540. Halle is . 43° W. from Wittenberg. I s ss eit that these accounts refer to the morning of the 25th of October bh SEY WE & F tee 1602. Méme période ( Wang-li), 30e année, 9e lune, ...... jour sin-sse (27 are, on Vit mea sh pyre nes de’ petites étoiles peg se BFR eat ‘et se per ri econ be ‘Pendant la nuit, 4 la cinquiéme heure, ily I parut a uN. E. une nak zane bees et d’une coul re é aru ‘ er et q @’Orion) et s’avanca jusqu’aux étoiles de la Ménagerie céleste (7, 5% % Aprés cette apparit on, il y eut deux ae étoiles qui suivirent la grande, mall et y eut plusieurs ccutaleiee étoiles filantes, grandes et Pere confonducs, qui 'suivirent In méme direction.” E. Boe, Ontalogue, 210, - 1602. ag a _— h Feat, ninth iow 18th day of ofthe ele (Oct 27th, 0. 20. 8.), several hundr rs were seen, whi ch part . hen’s Daring the ments at the e fifth hour, a star appeared in the N-E. as large as 4 hen egg, and of a blucish white color, it left a bright train. From N.E. of the st" H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 385 gent ~ pions it =o sma: ° due west. In the south appeared another s a pestle a fey ba Its Beg! was whitish blue, its train eames, aa its light Wiwsised'¢ ae: art d 8.W. of the belt -_ quadri- ral of Orion, and passed to th Lae ‘ "Brida ni. After this were two € group small stars which followed the large one, and. still later there were se veril hundred Shooting stars, great and small, wae and confused, which followed in the same di- rection. x, A.D. 1698. Mr. Wartmann, of Geneva, has cited a notice of unusual num- bers of meteors seen on the 9th of November, A.D., 1698. XI. A.D, 1799. The remarkable display on Tuesday morning, Nov. 12th, 1799, is well known from Humboldt’s combi i$ with oxygen and with bromine, has been published in the Rendus of the French Academy of Science, liv, 1277, and lv, 382. The é used in this note are H=1; C=12; O== 16; S32; Br=80. Monosulphid of Potassium and Bromid of Ethylene. 391 tance distils in great abundance, while a large quantity of brom- hydric acid is given off. Above 205°C. the distillation of the Stallized substance nearly ceased, and the small pets Which passes over from 205° to 240° is mixed with a yellow oil, of which not enough was obtained to determine its properties. t this temperature a trace of sulphuretted hydrogen, besides bromhydric acid, is found in solution in the water. 892. J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction between Of the different portions of the amorphous body whose analy- ses are given below, the melting points of Nos. I]. and III. were near 145° C.; but as the substance first softened and then became partly liquid before it melted entirely, this point could not be very accurately determined. The melting point of No. V, which was more precisely marked, was about 125° C, The substance was prepared for analysis by washing carefully with warm water and drying at 60°-70°C. Some portions were also washed with alcohol to insure that no bromid of ethylene Temained attached to them, but this precaution was found unnecessary. Analyses made of different preparations gave the following ults : I II, It, It, Iv. IV, C 36°81 34:96 34:27 2oy 34:20 34°49 H 5°86 549 5°78 Cs aa ‘93 5 S 4494 45°98 42°95 43°05 42°05 42°12 Br 12°56 13°76 17-49 saws S (by loss) 18:00 10017 10019 10049 In order to determine in what degree the relative proportions of the bodies entering into the reaction might influence the com pevigen of the product, in one experiment (No. V) 1 part romid of ethylene was treated with 4 part monosulphid of i tassium in alcoholic solution (= 1} equivalents); in another (VJ) ‘sulphid of potassium (7 equivalents) and the mixture was allowed to stand 48 hours after the formation of the precipitate. A determination of bromine gave: v. VI. Br = 27°91 &c. 11°95 ethylene, C,H,S; but is a body whose composition varies be in the different preparations, and which contains a considerab! amount of bromine, even though the quantity of monosulphid potassium employed may have been largely in excess. The question arises, is there any relation between the percentage amounts of the constituents of this body which is constant 12 all the analyses, and which may give a clue to determine its com Position ? : pe An inspection of the figures given above shows that in all the talyses the percentage of C is to that of H as 6:1, the same ratio that the percentages of those elements bear to one another in ethylene, so that it would appear that this radical remains Monosulphid of Potassium and Bromid of Ethylene. 393 intact during the reaction; further, as will be seen by the table below, if the bromine in each analysis be supposed combined with the amount of carbon required to form with it bromid of ethylene, the remainder of the carbon stands very nearly in the same atomic relation to the sulphur that these elements bear to one another in the sulphid of ethylene, namely, 2:1; so that the idea naturally suggests itself that the body in question may be abromid of ethylene in which a part of the bromine has. been replaced by sulphur. The numbers in the table were obtained by multiplying the _ percentage amount of bromine by 3, subtracting the product _ fom the percentage of carbon, and dividing the remainder by 12, the atomic weight of carbon, and then comparing the num- ber thus obtained with the percentage of sulphur divided by its atomic weight, 32. 1, II. il. IV. » ©:8 = 20771 1°92 :1 1:96:1 1:98: 1 _ There is, however, a fact which speaks strongly against the above hypothesis, founded on these numerical relations, namely, that the bromine in the amorphous, sulphuretted compound is lisengaged at a not very elevated temperature in the form of bromhydric acid, a property which indicates a molecular ar- tangement of the bromine, with reference to the hydrogen, very erent from that in the bromid of ethylene, as this latter can be heated to a very high temperature without suffering decom- Position, A theory in regard to the nature of a body, which depends merely on its percentage composition and is at variance with its chemical properties, is inadmissible; and in the ab- sence of any reaction which could throw light on the subject, the tational formula of the immediate product of the action of bromid of ethylene on the monontiphid of ethylene must be undetermined. It is worthy of notice, that, although a crystallized substance S easily obtained by the decomposition of the amorphous body by heat, its product of oxydation is not among those which are tmed, when the latter is attacked by nitric acid at the ordinary : fmperature, the crystallized sulphid of ethylene can be obtained in consider- able quantity by the decomposition of the amorphous compound _ -*9r analysis were taken: SE a JOUR. Sor.—geconp SeRres, VoL. XXXVII, No. 111.—May, 1864. ie * ‘, 51 ‘ 394 J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction between I. 01735 grams substance, obtained 02540 grms.CO, and 0°1082 ; Il. o1790 “ «“ «96946 Ba,0 SO, sein, TIL 0°2531 “ se 09845 “ Ba,0S0O, I. m. Theory C,H,S C= 89-93 Sela Meee 40°00 H= 6°92 + yoke aes 6°67 s 53°25 53°37 53°33 10000 This analysis leads to the empyrical formula, C,H,S. The sulphid of ethylene is a solid body, somewhat volatile at the ordinary temperature, and has a peculiar odor, whi although disagreeable, is not nearly so strong as that of mercap- tan. It is slightly soluble in water; in alcohol, ether and bisul- phid of carbon, it is easily soluble, and more so when the sol- vents are hot than at the ordinary temperature. By gradual evaporation of its solution in the bisulphid of car- bon, the sulphid of ethylene may be obtained in transparent crystals of considerable size with brilliant surfaces, which, how- ever, after a short time become dimmed by the slow evaporation of the substance in the air. I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Friedel for the measurement of these crystals. They belong to the clinorhombic system. In the larger crystals, the base (P) is usually much developed; in the smaller, the faces (P) and (a’) are nearly equally developed. The faces observed are, oc P=(M); 0P=(P), and Pa =(a’). Vertical axis on in- ; clined axis =47° 59’. Prismatic edge of base on inclined axis =27° 38’. ? Angles measured. Angles calculated. Pot 6 yo, G1" ae 81° 13’ Frm 112 30 M:M 69 44 ey }ii 3] Te ee ON, pee ies ante Pe i 3 : ee of In polarized light a system of rings is observed very oblique 2 to the face (P), and another almost normal to (a’). The solidifying point of the crystals, after they have been aioe is 112°. The boiling point is 199°-200° C. ) The i i aqueous or in alcoholic solution, or even when heated to ts boil ; ing point in an atmosphere of the gas. It is readily attacked by concentrated nitric acid; red fumes are given off, and : paid 5 tallized product of oxydation is formed. Only traces r phuric acid are produced, even when fuming nitri¢ acid is em ployed. e oxydation by means of bromine in the eerste of water gives rise to the same crystallized product as that? tained with nitric acid. - Monosulphid of Potassium and Bromid of Ethylene. 395 ~ When dry chlorine gas is passéd over the sulphid of ethylene, this latter is attacked with energy, and chlorhydric acid is given off, even though pains may have been taken to prevent the tem- perature from rising; chlorhydric acid is also disengaged when chlorine is passed into a solution of the crystals in the bisulphid of carbon. Bromine unites directly with the sulphid of ethylene, form- ing a definite compound, and if care has been taken to prevent the temperature from rising, no bromhydric acid is given off. A determination of density of vapor was made, by Dumas’ method, on a portion of the crystals purified by repeated crys- tallization from bisulphid of carbon. The substance which re- mained in the balloon was entirely unaltered at the temperature (266°) of the experiment. Temperature of balance, pe: 242.0 a “ oil-bath, ag Increased weight of balloon, 0°5535 Capacity of ; 348 cubic centimetres, Air remaining in s c. ¢. Barometer during the time of the experiment =766'8 mm. 4°213 _ Another determination, made at the boiling point of mercury by Deville’s method, failed, because the substance was decom- posed at this temperature. The determination given above necessitates the doubling of the empirical formula, C,H,S, of the sulphid of ethylene, in der to make it the rational formula in accordance with the law of Ampére: that one molecule of all bodies in the gaseous form occupies two volumes of space, if one atom of hydrogen is con- sidered as occupying one volume. The sulphid in question would thus be the product of the condensation of two molecules _ of monosulphid of ethylene into one. . Condensed products of this nature, belonging to the ethylene group, have been made known by the researches of Wurtz and 2 mY lene isin 3h and the still more condensed compounds of ity of ethylene, combine with two equivalents of bromine, play the same part in the glycoles derived from them as the 396 J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction between tween this body and the oxyd of ethylene, and that which should be attached to the accordance of the formula with the law of Ampére. The latter consideration seems to be the more Hi he < 2) —, = 5 & a) S Qu Cae ot _ m 5 ° or 5 7. (2) J so — & on = ~) oe > @ 2 3 ° 5 al et B oO =] = i=) i=] a Res i ene the diatomic sulphids; but as an incertitude exists, I shall re tain, in the present memoir, the formule fur the sulphid of ethy- lene and for its compounds, which I assigned to them in my first communications to the French Academy of Sciences, when I was unacquainted with the density of vapor of the sulphid of ethylene.’ Oxyd of sulphid of ethylene—This body is the only product of oxydation of the sulphid of ethylene by nitric acid at a tem- perature not exceeding 100° C. It is best prepared by treating the sulphid with a small excess of fuming nitric acid, and then washing, once with a small quantity of water, and afterward with ordinary alcohol until the product is freed from acid. An analysis of the body prepared in this way and dried at 100°C, gave: Sie Gram. G % ft Gram. I, 02801 substance taken; 03230 CO, and 0:1365 H,O found, II. 02104 “ “ 0-2410 “ eNOS Ill. o1968 « “ 06010 Ba,O SO, ‘ a 1II Theory C,H,SO. C = 81-45 31-25 pia 31°58 H = 641 5°36 an 52 s= ede 41-92 42°10 o= one: 21:06 100°09 a _ * Mr. Husemann, who obtained the sulphid of ethylene by another reaction, 8 well as by the one with monosulphid of potassium, and was occupied with its study at the same time as myself, was the first to publish a determination of its d of vapor in a note in the Chem. Centralblatt (ises, . 497), which appeared a short tine after the publication of my note in the Comptes Rendus (vol. liv, p- 1277); aml he deduced from this determination the rational formula ( G28), and named 4 ’ i the body sulphid of diethylene. Mr. Husemann also studied the product of ra stitution of chlorine in the oxyd of sulphid of ethylene (the compound 0180) as ie to determine directly its rational formula), and obtained the body (67H cIso crystalline form by the action of chlorine water on the sulphid of ethylene. fact, that this body is the first product of substitution of chlorine in the oxyd phid of ethylene, speaks rather against, than for, oubling of the k mula, C,H,SO, although it ean not be regarded as deciding the question, as Wo" have done the exi | Call | existence of a compound (c2H, so) ere? _Monosulphid of Potassium and Bromid of Ethylene. 397 _ The oxyd of sulphid of ethylene is readily soluble in water, and still more so in an acid solution; it is but slightly soluble in alcohol and in ether. Its solution in water has at first a sweet taste which afterward becomes astringent. small prisms terminated by two faces forming an obtuse angle form of a fine powder, on the addition of water. The depos ~ Ron of the crystals in the sealed tubes results probably from the NZ nitric acid, whereby water is set free, and also, perhaps, be- _ tase they are less soluble in this acid when saturated with a hyponitric acid than when pure. : _rovided the oxydation has not been carried too far, an analysis of the crystals, taken from the tube and washed thor- _ SUughly with warm water, gives a little more carbon and hydrogen _ al correspond to the composition of the deutoxyd, showing . that they still contain, as an admixture, a little of the protoxyd. _ =e deutoxyd can however be obtained perfectly pure by dis- Solving the crystals in fuming nitric acid, precipitating by the 398 J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction between addition of water and then washing the precipitate with boiling : Ww : ater. The product thus obtained, and dried at 100° C. gave: Gram. ~ Gram. Gram. I. 02818 substance taken; 0°2210 CO, and 0°0985 H,O found. If. 01642 S 0°4112 Ba,O SO, : I. ul. Theory C,H,S0. CO. 2 2 26-00 ome 26°08 Ls ee “i eas 4°36 a 34°36 84°78 Ones Hadi’ 84°78 100-00 25-22 p.c. O, and 4:37 p.c. H, instead of 26°08 p.c. C, and £36, 4 p.c. H, which the composition of the deutoxyd requires. In roducts lline form, and as they are accompanied by other pr an oy uble, but neither the salts nor the acid have been obtained in? se eS i : Monosulphid of Potassium and Bromid of Ethylene. 399 -‘The bromid of sulphid of ethylene.—It has already been men- tioned that the sulphid of ethylene combines directly with bro- mine without disengagement of bromhydric acid. Whether this combination can take place in more than one proportion is a question of particular interest, and at the same time is one, which from the manner in which the union of the two bodies is ected can be easily resolved. When a solution of bromine and another of sulphid of ethy- lene in bisulphid of carbon are mixed together in different pro- portions, one or the other being largely in excess, a light yellow colored precipitate is formed, which always has the same compo- sition after it has been purified by washing with bisulphid of carbon. Of the preparations analyzed below, No. I. was forme in a solution containing bromine in excess, and No. II. in a so- lution containing an excess of sulphid of ethylene. Gram. Gram. Gram. I. 04596 substance taken; 01840 CO, and 00705 H,0 found. 05864 “ “ 0-915 nd. : AgBr fou IL 04776 “ “ 08140 ‘“ “ a It Theory C,H,SBr, © -==. 1092 dace 10°91 1S eS Se of (3 peat "88 Br == 72-59 72:53 72°72 8 Me 14°54 100-00 heat at a temperature considerably under 100° C., ana even at the ordinar temperature it is decomposed with disengagement of brombydric acid, after standing several months in a seal Itis worthy of remark that the bromid of sulphid of ethylene Ssents no analogy in its properties with a body having the mula, C,H ,SCl,, which was obtained by Guthrie by com- Ba, directly ethylene gas with the perchlorid of sulphur, : The purity in which the foregoing compounds are obtained by ae Addition of bromine Kid Oyen to the sulphid of ethy- ae proves a fact which could not be demonstrated by a simple Analysis of the latter, and only with small degree of accuracy by : ‘determination of density of vapor, namely, that this sulphid is 2 od chemical) y pure compound, and not a mixture of various stages 400 J. M. Crafts on the Product of the Reaction, &c. of condensation of the simple molecule, C,H, S; for in case it were composed of such a mixture, the quantity of it which would combine with a given quantity of any element must vary according as one or another of the different stages of condensa- tion predominated in different preparations, The sulphid of ethylene is isomerous with a crystallized bod obtained by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on aay ‘ and as [ at first suspected that the two bodies were identical, | was induced to prepare the latter in order to compare it with the subject of my research. It was obtained from aldehyd by the process of Weidenbusch, and after having been once distilled and separated from its volatile products of decomposition by washing with alcohol, it was repeatedly crystallized from various solvents, but was usually deposited in the form of silicy fibres, much too fine for crystallographic determination. Only once, by gradual evaporation of a solution in bisulphid of carbon, were crystals obtained of sufficient size for measurement; they were in the form of long lamellar prisms with well formed faces, which preserved their brilliancy in the air a longer time than the sulphid of ethylene, showing that the substance is less vola tile at the ordinary temperature. According to a determination by Mr. Friedel, the prisms be- long to the right rhomboidal system, and have a cleavage paral- lel to their base. Two parallel faces are much more largely developed than those of the primitive prism, giving to the ery tals their lamellar appearance. ; Angles measured. Calculated. * CP Iee = ° oP: acP x» = 137° 40’ 137° 30’ CP: 0 P= 9G" 90° Two systems of rings are apparent when polarized light 8 passed through a thin piece obtained by cleavage in ad perpendicular to the plane of cleavage. ne The solidifying point of this sulphid is not very distinctly marked; when a delicate thermometer is plunged into a portion which has been melted, the mercury remains stationary an 1 stant at 95° C., while crystalline flakes are seen to form 1n the melted mass, which then becomes soft and solidifies complete! only at 70° C. a When the body is heated in a retort placed in an oil-bath, oo tillation commences at 205° C., but the point of ebullition mS¢ gradually to 260°, when a partial decomposition takes place 4m a charred mass is left in the retort. sk: - The sulphid obtained from aldehyd is destroyed by chloriné or bromine with formation of various products. When iM with nitric acid, sulphuric acid in notable quantity 18 ; formed, but no intermediate product of oxydation, which can © hea a ay See ee as oe = J. D. Whelpley on treatment of Gold and other metals. 401 isolated. It will be thus seen, that this body differs widely in chemical as well as in physical properties from the sulphid of ylene. This research was made in the laboratory of Professor W urtz, to whom I owe my thanks for his kind assistance and valuable suggestions. Paris, August 11th, 1863. \ Arr, XXXVIII.— On the mechanical and chemical treatment of Gold and other metals; in a letter to Prof. B. SILLIMAN, Jr., from JAMES D. WHELPLEY. AGREEABLY to your request, I send you herewith a few mem- oranda in explanation of our new process for preparing quartz- ose ores of gold for amalgamation. This process, so far as I am aware, together with all the ma- chinery employed in it, was invented and constructed by Col. .J. Storer and myself. _ Our researches in this direction began in the Spring of 1860 in Philadelphia. We experimented for several months upon a small scale, testing most of the then known processes for reduc- tion and desulphurization of ores. It then appeared to us that ses requiring long periods of time, such as are employed y skillful chemists in the laboratory, could not be applied to rge mining operations, where masses of several tons have to be treated at one operation. A few grains of sulphuret of iron or copper heated to white- Ress In a platinum capsule will be thoroughly desulphurized, but a mass of ore weighing several Soienade of pounds can not handled in this manner. The ore fuses in the furnace, taking the form of slag, and holds the sulphur confined in its substance. Ifon the other hand the finely pulverized ore be spread thinly Over a hearth 14 feet in length and 8 or 10 feet in diameter, with ee access of air, and the heat either radiated from the roof or i up through the hearth of the furnace, a very thorough P constant turning and ex- Posure of fresh surfaces, taking care that the temperature does A large access of atmospheric air is necessary for the manage- nent of this process, and it is aided by the addition of chlorid o sodium, and other reducents. Thoogh perfect in the end, it ; I ; i cause of the care re- qUired in regulating temperature and handling of the material. ever, very valuable to us. We discovered that the first Jour. Sct._gecoxp Serres, Vor. XXXVII, No. 111.—May, 1864. 52 : 402 J. D. Whelpley on treatment of Gold and other metals, condition of thorough desulphurization was the reduction of the ores and sulphurets to an impalpable powder. The reason of this is evident; viz: that the effect of heat upon a particle increases inversely as the square of its diameter. Microscopic atoms are readily acted upon by combined air and moisture at acherry-red heat. Pieces of the size of mustard s will resist the action of the best managed furnace for hours, and the difficulty increases with the size of the particles directly as the squares of their diameters. A theoretically perfect process, therefore, requires :— 1st, That every particle shall be microscopically small,—in the condition of fine, floating dust. 2d, That the particles do not touch each other while hot. 8d, That when metallic grains, as of gold or copper, have to be separated from the ore, the contact of water with the heated particles is necessary. We constructed a furnace in which finely pulverized ore-dust was floated in a current of hot air and flame, passing down through a flue leading from a hard-coal fire, at an angle of about 45°, and then resting upon a horizontal hearth or sole.’ We discovered at this time that moisture or the vapor of water in large quantities materially aided the process of desulphuriza- tion in free air, and we constructed and applied a steam appa ratus by which a volume of steam was made to pass down the inclined flue with the ore-dust, the atmosphere, and the products of combustion. : At this point we encountered several serious difficulties. The inside of the inclined flue became lined with stalactoid masses of semi-fused ores, and the sole of the furnace caked and covered with the same. When a certain quantity of burnt ore had ac- cumulated on the hearth, a trap was opened and the heated mass pushed through into a water-bath. The agglutinated masses on being withdrawn from the bath, were re-ground, and passed a second time through the furnace. A sufficiency of atmospheric air could not be applied throu the furnace doors, and a very large percentage of the ores & eaped through the chimney into the open air. he last of these difficulties was overcome by placing a power ful fan wheel of copper (which served also as a water or Spray wheel) in the chimney itself, or in a chamber of it, and by cP rying the horizontal flue some 75 feet beyond this wheel. |. The steam from the furnace and the spray from this wheel, working over a pool of water which formed the floor of a of zontal flue, effectually wetted down and saved the flying dust ore, > This furnace was built and worked in Charlestown, (Mass.) in May, Ju0® ol July, 1861.—3, v. w. J.D. Wheipley on treatment of Gold and other metals, 408 _ The brick floor or sole of the furnace was abandoned, and a water-floor substituted. Over one end of this pool or water- h, a perpendicular flue was erected, from 12 to 15 feet in height above the surface of the water. The flames of four fires were poured into the top of this flue > effect of two fan-wheels: the first, the copper spray-wheel uready spoken of ;.the other, an auxiliary fan blower, sending air into all the fire-boxes, The top of the furnace was left open, and a column of air, bearing pulverized ore, driven directly from the pulverizing mills, down through the centre of the perpen- dicular flue. The operation of this machinery balanced and regulated the force of the draft so well, that while ore-dust was driven in at the rate of 1200 pounds an hour, carrying with it an excess of atmospheric air, if a side door of the descending flue were epened, a feather would float in the opening without being wn either way, e then discovered that the immediate quenching of the fused particles of ore, by the water in the pool and in the chamber be- ond, was essential to a thorough separation of the metals. The ted particles on touching the surface of the water are explo- ded into still minuter fragments, a degree of fineness unattain- le by any other means. The entire apparatus is constructed With a view to this result, oe The water lining the bottom of the flues is a circulation com- éted by an outside canal. The water thrown up from, the Copper dash wheel, returning circuitously, falls back into the Tace pool. This water, after some time working of the fur- hace, is Of course charged with sulphates of iron, copper, and other metals. The insoluble metal falls to the bottom with the “iment, which is composed chiefly of silica and iron. In this et the gold will be found ready for washing and amalga- n The sediment is drawn out by the workmen, as fast as it accu- mulates, through the submerged arches on which the brick flues ®t water chambers are established. _The condition of the sediment is that of a smooth plasma Without grit or coarseness of grain. Using only floating dust, 10 tons can be worked in ten hours with these results, in a fur- hace of the size indicated. More extensive machinery would Sve larger returns, We built our flues and water beds under the furnace and also Under the horizontal brick archway leading therefrom to the sPfay-wheel, of common brick thickly covered with ordinary piraalic cement, We found this a very good lining for the descend cash wheel was built of wood, over a brick and wooden water 404 J. D. Whelpley on treatment of Gold and other metals. channel 75 feet long, 6 feet wide, from 20 to 30 feet high. This was filled with vapor of water and sulphurous acid from the furnace pools, which made a fine rain; carrying down any minute ore-dust which might escape the action of the dash wheel, also condensing large quantities of sulphuric acid from the sulphurets. The gold ores most free from sulphurets are easily worked. When the sulphur is in excess, the supply of air and moisture — must be proportionately large. ; In regard to fuel, the finer the ore-dust before burning, the more economical the process. In pleces where wood alone is accessible for fuel, the fire-boxes should be from 20 to 80 inches deep, below the fire-bridges; 8 inches for coal. : Crushing machinery.—For crushing gold ores previous to fine grinding, any ordinary crushing machinery may be employed that will reduce them to pea- or gravel-size, as they must not be larger than this before entering the pulverizer. : e crushing mill used by us is a patented invention of my own. It consists of a very heavy and solid bar of wrought iron, revolving in the bottom of a cast iron tub as close as possible to the sides and bottom of the tub. : This bar carries at either extremity a hardened steel or chilled iron plate, with a cutting edge welded to a soft iron back to pre vent rupture. ; The sides of the tub are pierced with holes from an inch to half an inch in diameter, forming a coarse sieve, . Two of these bars may be used crossed, working four cutters, held together by a cast iron center piece of great strength an solidity, through which an upright shaft passes, furnished with a step anda pulley. The speed of these cutters is a little more than 10,000 feet a minute. The broken pieces of quartz ave thrown out of the holes in the side of the tub at the rate of /iv? tons an hour. Pulverizing machinery—The pulverizing of the crushed oe performed by flat plates of thin iron faced with chilled-iron, ® tached to radiating arms; somewhat like the paddles of a steam boat wheel. These revolve inside of a east iron dram, as clos as possible to the sides and very near its circumference. A hort zontal shaft passes through the centre of the drum. is The material, gravel size, is poured in on one side at the a% by an automatic hopper, which measures the quantity. fan _A powerful draft of air, foreed through the machine by ‘ as ower forming an essential part of the apparatus, draws pp te dust through a hole on the opposite centre of the drum, Wi" ‘ also passes, C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. 405 ‘The dust is then carried by this fan blower and driven into the top of the furnace. The minimum rate of delivery for a mill of ordinary size is 1500 pounds an hour. Of this last machine I can not give you a more minute account, as its successful operation depends upon interior details, obtained by long and costly experiment. The maximum rate of produc- tion we have not yet ascertained. All the new and important features have been patented by - Col. J. J. Storer and myself. _ As soon as possible, I will furnish you with working plans of the furnaces built and worked by us. We have ground the hardest copper ores of Vermont and the quartz of Nova Scotia In our pulverizing mills. I know of none more difficult of re- duction, Boston, Mass., March 5th, 1864. Art. XXXIX.— Mineralogical Notices; by CHaRLEs UPHAM | SHEPARD, of Amherst College. Ores of Antimony.—This metal is rather recently made known to us as entering into the mineral wealth of this continent. The antimonite has been reported from a place called Soldier's De- ight, in Md.; and from Carmel, in Penobscot Co., Me. About teen years ago, very distinct specimens, though in small quan- ity, were brought to me from Cornish, N. H., by Prof. F. Shep- herd. The Breithauptite has for several years been known as existing at the Chatham (Conn.) nickel mine. But at neither these localities was there any flattering promise of the metal In workable quantity. It now, however, promises to be pro- duced from more than one American locality. Beside the South Ham, C. E., mines of antimony, of which a notice is here sub- mitted from C. H. Hitchcock, Hsq., as the result of a very recent Strvey, we find mention made of two other localities in his ~~. report on the geology of the State of Maine (1863), one of these being in the Province of New Brunswick and the other in the eastern part of Maine. t. Hitchcock, in presenting me with his notice of the South Ham Mines, submitted also several other ores of antimony un- Enown on this continent before the discovery of this mine, a de- “nption of which I append to his account. nif. Hitchcock's Statement on the Antimony Mine of South Ham, ¢ £—The rocks are the common talco-micaceous schists of the uebec Group of the Lower Silurian. The strata run N, 55) ‘ 406 C. U. Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. E., and dip at a high angle N. 835° W. There are three me- tallic lodes upon the hill cutting across the strata at various angles, and all intersecting with one another so as to forma triangular space. I have seen but one other example of a cross lode in Canada. A trial shaft has been sunk upon one of the veins, and at a depth of 15 feet shows an increase of the lode from 18 inches to three feet, with very distinct walls. This lode has been traced with the course E. 15° N. for a distance of half a mile. The — two other lodes are a very little smaller, and have the courses .E. an . 28°. The intersections of the veins have not been exposed. ‘The dip is variable, the first and second dipping toward each other. West of the lodes and higher up the hill is a small bed of serpentine. I have not been able to trace either lode across it, and suspect the serpentine has cut off the lodes, as the gangue the lodes appears on the west side of the former. Numerous small leaders to the main lodes traverse the schists, and are all charged with antimony. ee The gangue is mostly a quartz rock of a dark bluish tint The metal is disseminated through it generally unostentatiously, but occasionally in both large and small lumps. Dr. Hayess assays for the proprietors show that very unpromising portions of the gangue yield 80 per cent of antimony. The richest pol tions of the lode vary in position, sometimes on the foot and sometimes on the hanging wall. The native metal is the com mon form of the occurrence of the antimony. The ores occur only occasionally, and not in workable quantities. A company has been formed to work the lodes, with flattering prospects of success. The mine is about thirty miles distant from either Danville or Athabaska stations on the Quebee branch of the Grand Trunk Railway. CO. H. Hircucock. The new ores are stiblite, senarmontite and kermesite.’ ‘ The following account of the antimony mine of South Ham, C. E., is published ia the Report on the Geological Survey of Canada, by Sir Wm. E. Logan (1863), #88 note to page 876, from which it appears that Professor Shepard's observations 2 here mostly anticipated: al Boal “ A deposit of this metal has lately been discovered in the township of § i Ham, on the twenty-eighth lot of the range east of the Gosford road. is seri ing in a vein or , of from six to sixteen inches in thickness in argillite, which is penetrated by numerous smaller veins of the ore. The portion of ‘the antimony is in the metallic state, as lamellar, or more rarely, #8 fin granular native antimony ; but the sulphuret, antimony glance, also occurs ™ radiating prismatic crystallizations. Besides these, the white oxyd of antimony: a massive and fibrous, is found in this locality, associated with small crystallin of the red oxysulphuret of antimony, kermesite. These latter ores are tal only the results of superficial oxydation. From the specimens already workable from this locality, it would appear probable that antimony exists here in y. It is accompanied by quartz and a li wn-s Eps. quantity. little brown-spar.”— C. U, Shepard—Mineralogical Notices. 407 1, Shblite—-This occurs in crusts upon antimony and quartz, and in pseudomorphs after antimonite, the remains of whose field, It is imbedd i It Was In close proximity to minute erystals of cassiterite, a spe- Diino frequently found in the granite of the adjoining towns of Goshen and Norwich. Jan. 7, 1864. 408 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. of carbon as observed in various flames containing this element, and in the light of the electrie spark passed through dilute carbonic oxyd and bisulphid of carbon, Swan observed in 1856 that all hydrocarbon flames give four groups of rays, which are respectively faint yellow, light green, spectrum of cyanogen gave—as stated long since by Draper—a splendid series of bands which became still more distinct and brilliant on feeding rm the spectrum of carbon, and as the blue band is the brightest, he explains in this manner the blue color of many flames. The “ blue heat of a Deville’s furnace is doubtless a case in point.—Journal of Chem. Soc., [2], i, 97. W. G 2. On the optical distinction between hypermanganie acid and com nds of sesquioryd of manganese.—Horpe-Szyuer bas found that & solution of hypermanganic acid exerts a powerful absorption upon greet and green-yellow rays. A solution of phosphate of sesquioxyd of man ganese exhibits the same action. If, however, the solution of this salt is diluted more and more, tl he spectra gresnally disappears without. the appearance of definite bands, W ilute solutions of hypermanganic acid exhibit five distinct absorption 3. On the action of light upon nitro-prussid of sodium.—Rovssin has proposed a method of determining the chemical intensity of light which 18 based upon the decomposition produced in a solution of nitro-p | Physics and Chemistry. 409 of sodium mixed with sesquichlorid of iron. The author recommends a solution containing two parts of this nitro-prussid, two of dry sesqu chlorid of iron, and ten of water. The solution is to be filtered and kept judge of its value——Zes Mondes, March, 1864, 415. W. G. . rometer, as an indicator of the earth’s rotation, and the sun's distance ;' by Pi ARLE Crase.—The existence of daily baro- ey occur in all cl , and at all ons; 3, opposite effects are ced at different times, under the same average temperature. Thus at St. Helena, the mea hree years’ hourly observation gives the fol- lowing average barometric heights : From Ob to 12h 28-2801 in. From 185 to 64 28-2838 in. “ 12h to oh 28-2861 « “ 64 to 18h 282784 “ The upper lines evidently embrace the coolest parts of the day, and in warmest, Dividing the day in the first method, the former to the latter is ,-2 95.5, 0r 00109. This ratio represents the ttlonate elevation or depression of the barometer above or below its Mean height that should be caused by the earth’s rotation, and it corres- »s Very nearly with the actual disturbance at stations near the equator, From Oh. to 6h. the air has a forward motion greater than that of the farth, so that it tends to fly away ; its pressure is therefore diminished, 8 greatest ; ; Pp an arometer rises, rit 12h. to 18h. the earth moves away from the air, and the barometer .) While from 18h. to 24h. the increasing velocity of the air urges it gage € earth, and the barometer rises. : From the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. AX. Journ, one Series, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864 410 Scientific Intelligence. If the force of rotation at each instant be resolved into two compo nents, one in the direction of the radius vector, and the other parallel to the earth’s orbit, it will be readily perceived that whenever the latter tends to increase the aerial pressure, the former tends to diminish it, and vice versa. Let s==the height of the barometer at any given instant; M=the mean height at the place of observation; -90°==the hour angle; c==the earth’s circumference at the equator; ¢—-24 hours; g=the terrestrial gravity; 7==the latitude: and a simple integration (aes =)" R? {2 gives the theoretical formula, B=M This formula gives a maximum height at 9h. and 21h, and a minimum at 3h. and 15h. The St. Helena observations place the maximum at 10h. and 22h, and the minimum at 4h. and 16h,: an hour later in each differences an the results of theory and fA But by ta the grand mean of a series of sleerrailonk sufficiently extended to ance and eliminate set Eppoipel opposing inequalities, the two results According to our Pesala, the ae of altitude at 1, 2, and $ hours from the mean, should be in the respective ratios of *5; ° $66, 1. The actual tiference, es ta to the mean of the St. le: servations, are as follows Differences of Barometer. Diff. of time, lh. 2h. sh. lh. Before 1h, 0166 0298 0365 “455 After “ 0159 0266 Uu298 534 Before 7h 0122 0202 0243 502 After 0135 0239 0297 “455 Before 13h. 0136 "0248 0284 479 After “ 0131 “0215 0227 ‘HTT Before 19h. “O161 -0287 0348 +463 After... #! “0150 0265 “0286 524 0145 0252 0293 495 The mean of the above differences varies from the theoretical meaa less than zy455 of an inch. If we take the mean of the ratios, instead the ratios of m3 means of the observed differences, the coincidence i still more stri pa of Time, lh. 2h. 3h. Means of Observed ratios, 498625 864625 —«:1-000000 et ae Means, ‘500000 866025 ~—«1000000 represents the effective ratio of an entire day. But there is in each e SE: acceleration, and a half day of retardation, and the ratio for each : day is $2 = gt Physics and Chemistry. 411 _ The calculated time for the above observed means differs less than 20” om the actual time. Observed Means, 498625 *864625 1:000000 Theoret. Diff. of Time, 59/ 48/’ 119/ 40/” 180’ Observed “ “ “ DOL 0 120 0" 180’ The varying centrifugal force to which the earth is subjected by the ipticity of its orbit, rust, in like manner, produce annual tides. The disturbing elements render it impossible to determine the average monthly height of the barometer, with any degree of accuracy, from any observa- tions that have hitherto been made. We may, however, make an inter- esting approximation to the annual range, still using the St. Helena rec- ords, which are the most complete that have yet been published for any station near the equator. Comparing the mean daily range, as determined by the average of the observations at each hour, with the mean yearly i as determined by the monthly averages, we obtain the following Fesuits Daily Annual Approximate Year. range. range. Ratio. Solar distance, 1844 0672 in. "1650 in. 24553 137,070,000 m. 1845 0646 “ 1214 “ 18793 80,300,000 “ 1846 0670 « 1214 * 1°8120 74,650,000 “ 8)-1988 3)4078 3)6°1466 0668 “1359 2-489 95,446,000 “ Mean 0663 -1290 1-9457 86,056,000 “ 2)1326 2)-2649 2)8-9946 0663 90,702,000 “ 1324 The approximate estimates of the solar distance are based on the fol- lowing hypothesis : 0 A==area described by radius vector in time ¢. Let ¢', a’, r’, a’, represent corresponding elements of the annual revo- lution, “Then? Ayal ters Set as But the forces of rotation and revolution are so connected, that a liffers but slightly from a’. e2:e'2:irir rf fi oe e'?r very nearly. =a _ It may be interesting to observe how nearly r (22,738,900 m.) corres- ‘Ponds with Kirkwood’s value of + (24,082,000 m.), A more thorough ‘omprehension of all the various effects of gravity and rotation on the Rmiy ere, would probably lead to modifications of our formule that ould show a still closer correspondence. 412 Scientific Intelligence. There is a great discrepancy between the determinations of the solar distance that are based on the records of 1844 and 1846; but it is no greater than we might reasonably have anticipated. On the other hand, it could hardly have been expected that any comparisons based on t the observations of so short a period as three years, would have furnished so hear an approximation to the most recent and most accurate determina- tion of the earth’s mean radius vector. In order to obtain that approxi« mation, it will be seen that I took, Ist, the mean of the ranges and ratios for the three ora years ; 2d, the r ranges and ratios of the mea re- sults of the e years; 3 3d, the grand mean of these two primary means, I oak euk of no other method which would be so likely to destroy the effects of changing seasons, and other accidental disturbances. The following table exhibits the effects of latitude on the aerobarie tides. The differences between the theoretical and observed ranges may be owing partly to the equatorial-polar currents, and partly to insufficient observations. Station Lat. Mean height. | Mean range. Ratio. Theoret. ratio. Arctie Dew "8°37 29-789 in, 012 in. 000404 000527 Girard College, 39 58 29:938 ‘060 “002004 002046 ashingto 88 53 30-020 062 002065 002079 St ORS ca 15 57 28282 066 2344 00256 Equator, 0 30-709 082 -002670 “002670 The theoretical ratios are determined by multiplying the equatorial ratios by — The formula, a ET ~ —, (¢ indicating the ratio of R the mean range to the mean height,) oe : Theoretical Ratio. Observed Ratio. Latitude, 0° 002190 “002670 % 78 37’ “000432 showing that the ratio is less near the A and greater near the equator than our theory indicates, a natural consequence of the centrifugal force at the equator ‘and the cold surface currents that produce the trade winds, The revolution of the sun around the great Central Sun must 4 cause Baronateé fluctuations that may possibly be measured by de licate instruments and long and patient observation. The Toricellian columa n the suuckel of jangeteiae —Peasoz has 4 pabblbise an extended memoir on tungsten and its compounds, and has arrived at conc clusions which differ very widely from those received by. chemists. These coneli- sions, in the author’s own words, are as follows (1.) Tungsten, according to the constitution and properti oo oh belongs v to the group of biatomic (sic) radicals, arsenic, antimony, phos (2.) Its ng phe A ndipda ci deduced from numerous experiments . 19is. io 153° =8)) (3.) shy ator es, two compounds with oxygen: oxyd WO,, se oxyd. b. mes acid WO,, tungstic acid. | | | Physics and Chemistry. 413 _ (4) By their union these two compounds may produce a third oxyd (of the class of saline oxyds of Dumas) which corresponds to the formula WO0,+W0,=2WO,. (5.) Tungstic acid is polybasic; its simple or double salts are repre- sented by the general formulas (WO,),MO, HO+Aq. They easily form double salts by uniting, either with each other: (WO,),MO, HO * (wo')eMo, Ho f TA% _ 6, or with simple tungstates, (WO,),MO, HO wo>Mo,Ho f TAY The formulas comprise the paratungstates and certain acid tungstates, (8.) Sulphur, chlorine, and bromine combine with tungsten, producing compounds which correspond exactly to the oxyds and acids formed with oxygen, (9.) Tungsten does not produce an oxychlorid any more than phos- Phorus. The compounds which have been so designated are combina- tions in definite but variable proportions of anhydrous acid Whig ey corresponding chlorid.—Ann. der Chimie et de Physique, Jan. 1864, 93. Ww. G pile & new organic base, to which he has te new base is a black glistening erystalline ¢ ; specular iron ore. Mauveine dissolves in alcohol, giving a violet solution Which oo aed a purple color on the addition of acids, It is a very e@ 8, On Mauve or Anilin purple— PERKIN has discovered in anilin strongly it yields a basic oil. The formula of mauveine is C,,H, N et m a boiling alcoholic solution in small prisms possessing & lant green metallic lustre. Its formula is C,,Ho4 ed be fe . salt combines with bi i i f beautiful crystalline ichlorid of platinum to form a haPound, the formula of which is CssHasNa: BO re deseri several other crystalline salts, which serve to prove the Ww. 29 Correctness of the formula adopted.— Proc. of the Royal Society, xii, ibs 414 Scientific Intelligence. 7. On Crystals in Blowpipe Beads ; by Gzorcr H. Emzrson.—Obser- vations which I have made during the past year on the opacity produced by “flaming” in beads of borax, or microcosmic salt, when charged with certain substances, have established the fact that this opacity is due to the presence of crystals of a definite form, which varies with the sub- stance employed; and, also, that the same substance, in some cases, gives a different crystalline form with the different fluxes. The crystals are generally so minute as to require a good hand-lens, or even a compound microscope, to examine them advantageously ; and, in order to facilitate microscopic examination, the loop of platinum wire should be at least a tenth of an inch in diameter, and quite circular, and the bead very slightly convex. A little practice will enable the operator to regulate the density of the opacity—a very thin film, or cloud, extending partially over the surface of the bead, being all that is desirable. have found it convenient to alumina, glucina, zirconia, zinc, cadmium, bismuth, silver, tin, tungsti¢ acid, molybdic acid, protoryd of cerium, selenium and tellurium, With copper and uranium I have noticed what seems to be a ome T have, thus far, obtained crystals with baryta, strontia, lime, magnesia, way I have obtained a gray, metallic precipitate on the reheated portion of the ed surface of a borax bead, colored dark blue with oxyd of cobalt; 7 . naked eye; but it is occasionally necessary to employ a magnifying power of one hundred and fifty diameters, or even more—to clearly distinguist able certainty the presence of two substances, so that they may both be recognized, as may be seen in beads charged with mixtures of tungst? and titanic, and tungstic and niobic acids. Mineralogy and Geology. 415 ‘Twould refer those who may desire a more extended account of this method of blowpipe analysis, including particular descriptions of all, and engravings of some, of the precipitates observed, to a paper entitled “Observations on Crystals and Precipitates in Blowpipe Beads,” to appear in the forthcoming “ Memoirs” of the “ Boston Society of Natural History.” Cambridge, February, 1864. 1, Elements of Chemistry : Theoretical and Practical ; by Witu1am Auten Minter, M.D., L.L.D., Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London, &c., &. Chemical Physics, Part II: Electricity and Magnet: From the third London edition. New York: John Wiley, 535 general purposes of the higher student of chemical philosophy. l, I. to accommodate the Il MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 1. Volcano of Kilauea, Hawaii—tl. From a letter to Prof. Lyman, lake has risen and thrown its fiery jets far over its rim, sometimes shoot- ing them upward 40 to 100 feet. The upward pressure of the Java has opened seams in some parts of the crater, from which it has flowed out im and covered exte on its lower side, and floods of molten rock have there been disgorged. __ he whole circumference of the crater under its surrounding walls has been submerged beneath molten lava, and some portions of it seve times. By this circumference, or outer belt, I mean the limits of the so- called “Biack Ledge.” Of course, there is no Black Ledge there now, it ving been overflowed and obliterated more than 10 years ago. the northern portion of the crater, in the region where the foot-path de- and reach, by the usual path, the floor of the crater, on account of the Sea of fire bi: its plaacldiat Siamese floods of Java ia deposited and se ut wal made it about 700 feet; probably it is not more than 600 Row, 416 Scientific Intelligence. The central area remairs undisturbed, except that it is greatly elevated by the lifting forces beneath. It is quite a distinct table-land, probably 500 to 600 feet higher than it was just after the great tapping process of 1840. Mauna Loa is quiet, and we have no symptoms of disturbance except at Kilauea. We are looking for some grand demonstration in the latter: —the time we do not predict. [In order to make the preceding account, and also the following, intel- ligible to readers that are not familiar with the crater of Kilauea, we a a few explanations, although but a repetition of what has appeared in this Journal. e operations described above are confined to the bottom the eruption of 1840, the central portions of the pit, having an area one third of the whole, sank 300 to 400 feet below the circumferential por- ferential portion, forming a bo is the part called the “black ledge.” Within ten years after 1840, the lower pit had become filled up through the overflowings of lava over its bottom, so that the limits of the “black ledge” were already mostly o literated, No great eruption has since taken place.—z. D. : If. From a letter from Rev. O, H. Guutcx, Missionary of the American Board, residing at Kau, on the Island of Hawaii, dated Kau, July 26th, 1863, cited from the Evangelist—We found the crater gle active, was fresh and still warm to the feet, though perhaps six weeks oli. Crossing this late flow, which in this spot was but thirty or forty rods in width, we proceeded directly to the great lake, three miles distant, 1? the south side of the crater. The lake, which is continually varying @ size and form, we found to be perhaps four hundred and fifty feet ™ diameter, and twenty feet below the surrounding bank, and exceedingly active. : I have visited the crater but once before this, and that was In 1846 or 1847. The lake was then elevated above the general floor of the crater, and appeared to be enclosed by a stone wall. While we were wn Proaching it, the surging lava broke through the stone wall and ran ol toward us, and we were able to approach the flow and take out spect mens on the ends of our long walking-sticks. This time we saw ie Sh tee orci rai tl ; ; j Mineralogy and Geology. 417 lake as travellers have spoken of it for years past. It is not often, how- ever, I think, that it has been found more active. Different caverns at the side of the lake were continually spouting forth their fiery foam, while waves of liquid fire occasionally broke upon the rocky banks like areturning tidal wave upon old Ocean’s shore. At intervals, sometimes of a few seconds, and at other ‘times of half a minute, a large fountain broke forth in the middle of the lake and threw up its rounded crest of P thrown up twenty or thirty feet. The whole lake, except in the spot of active ebullition, was covered with a tough crust or scum of a pale leaden ‘color, resembling the skin that forms on the surface of a pot of liquid Jead or iron. This crust was in continual motion, being drawn in from different directions towards the centres of ebullition ; as it entered the foaming mass, or the fiery fountains, it was at once consumed and re- solved into molten lava. Ever-changing scenes of fire were visible in the different portions of this crust, which floated like thin cream on the sur- Smal! stones thrown in sank partially through this skin as if into mud, The appearance of the fiery fountains throwing up their lurid wave eight, ten. or twelve feet, and sending their spray to a height far ‘above, was awfully and indescribably grand. The scene was ever changing; first the greatest display of fireworks, fountains spraying and jetting, would be in one quarter of the lake; then in another ; then in three, four, or five different points, all at once. At irregular intervals of a minute or two, a small cone of twelve or fifteen feet in height, and removed some forty feet from the lake, utters the most Unearthly roaring and snorting, as if from ten thousand demons confined below. These sounds, as well as the jettings and spoutings, seemed to from below . next bsided. A few acres covered by the glistening lava was all that the morning showed of that night’s work of Modern Pele. : ch asight travellers to Kilauea are permitted to behold. The volcano tm ive than i r years. There are occasional slight 2 On Glacial Phenomena in Nova Scotia; by B. Suman, Jr. . om a Report on the Gold property of the New York and Nova Scotia te Company. 56 pp., 8vo, 1864.)—The most striking physical of this whol i o the eye of a geologist, next perhaps to the uptilted state heaters hail is the waren evidence of a high , of glacial action, which has ‘so worn down and polished the rocks that their’ edges everywhere resemble the leaves of a book which has AM. Jour, Sci.—Seconp Series, Vou. XXXVII, No. 111.—Mar, 1864. 54 1g = 418 Scientific Intelligence. been cut with a dull — in the binder’s press, in a direction at right angles to that of the leav Over very considerable me ss glacial _— has been so thorough that nothing whatever is left on the rocks the grooves and striae which accompany their polish. ie other cases, abe glacial drift is seen, composed o _— rarely rounded, fragments of quartzite and clay slate, imbedded in a tough clay, resting on the surface of the pales rocks. This detrital matter is auriferous, but the large — of coal angular fragments of rocks would render it very difficult to wash, per when it occurs in situations where water cou!d be aaa obtained for sluicing, The gold which it contains is coarse and angular, often still attached to the quartz, and showing but little evidence of long trans- portation. The “ Boulder Lot,” at Sherbrooke, has yielded a consider- object of attention. Everywhere over this whole district the eye of the observer is constantly arrested by the long lines - granitic and quartzitic pn which have been left in trains by the ancient glaciers upon the surface of the pol ished rocks. These at esse recall strongly the seein of the Swiss — and rival them in the magnitude of the travelled blocks. Some of ost striking cases of this sort which I saw were in the vicinity of Roaancdehes Harbor, also on the flanks of the Musquodobit Moun- — and on the elevated plateau between Jeddore Bay and Ship Harbor, —_— Barrens. Here the boulders of white quartz are also very abun eee Some very conspicuous blocks of a like epost occur on the hills north of Oldham, in the vicinity of Gay’ sR The general course of the strike of the rocks is east an a west. tween Hammond Plains and Tasigier, for a ee nearly 100 te this east and west course is so marked that it may be considered univer sal. This course is not usually over 5° or 6° away pais the magnetic meridian, and is usually south by that quantity. But to the east and west of the points named, the strata bend round to the sea, so that the whole system assumes very much the form of a long bow, whose ¢ or ~ is the coast line, the asia at each end losing themselves in the ocea iieaesiasles for a great part of the whole coast, the glacial scratches, or the course of the glacial drift, has been almost at right angles to . strike of the rocks. A most conspicuous éxample of this may ‘be seen th nd Tower, near Halifax, where a large surface of the harder anne is completely denuded, and shows splendidly the whole phenomena of cial action. These facts bear in a most important manner, it Wi val a the reget of the gold. They account in fact, for the gene nce of alluvial gold. ‘ust __ If we consider for a moment the physical and geslagice: features } described, it at once becomes evident that the great mass 7 print rials which came from the scouring off of the coun try by glaci — has gone iuto the Atlantic Ocean, where the gold is er ii Sable. Island, which, by McKinley’s map, is distant about 1 00 ‘miles a eT, | | Mineralogy and Geology. 419 no geologist can doubt for a moment. It follows from this view of the case, that the occurrence of extensive “diggings” in Nova Scotia is a ; been prac- tically recognized from the outset, as comparatively few efforts have been sands exist in remunerative abundance. ) which can be drained, will probably furnish considerable deposits of allu- vial gold; and the same is true, no doubt, of certain river estuaries an J. W. Dawson, LL. D., F.R.S., F.G. (Condensed from the Canadian Naturalist.) —The following list includes Geological Society, and by Mr. R. Brown and the author, in the list ap- pended to “ Acadian Geology.” i . The present synopsis was prepared not so much for immediate publica- tion, as in aid of the writer’s investigations of the characteristic plants in the numerous coal Leds at the South Joggins, and of the conditions of formation of those beds : but as some time may elapse before the publi- tation of these researches, and the want of a list of the known species 1s much felt by those engaged in the study of the Carboniferous rocks, it has been thought advisable to print it in the present form, ; he new species have been described in the Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, for Dec. 1863, with mention of their collectors and _ localities, The part of the Carboniferous system in which the species occur has, how- ever, been stated ; and as some confusion has lately arisen from the use of the term « Subcarboniferous,” by authors, it is proper to state that the ‘ Lower coal formation” in this paper is equivalent to “ Subcarbon- : flora. } the in subordination to these main divisions, will be fully detailed in e ; o #ye : tem groups are indicated in the following pages by the initials L.0., M. C. » 420 Scientific Intelligence. _ [have included in the list such plants from New Brunswick as are known to me. Those from Grand Lake in that Province are I believe on the horizon of the Middle coal formation, though tending to the Upper. A collection formed by Sir W. E. Logan at Baie de Chaleur, in beds of the Lower and aera Middle coal formation, includes also some species whieh in Nova Scotia are more pg a one ae of the Upper coal formation. This apparent mixture of plants of different horizons, may be a conse- quence - the comparatively small shiuiedees of the New Brunswick coal rmatio In a present unsettled state of the species of coal plants, it much diffidenee that I venture to publish this list, which will without doubt admit of many corrections and improvements, even in the memoir on the formation of the Nova Scotia coals, with which I propose to fol- low it. I have, however, endeavored to avoid adding to the load of syn onyms, and have in all doubtful cases leaned to the side of identity with nown species rather than to that of giving new names. I may add, that the increase of my collection has enabled me to reunite es specimens which I foe regarded as representatives of distinct species. But for the rge number rs specimens which I have been enabled to examine, I should save tin] the case of several variable — as for example Alethopteris lnchitia and Lepidodendron corrugatu m, have erred in this I am constantly more and more convinced ‘that no satisfactory ress can be made in fossil Deheny without studying the plants as occur in the beds in which they are found, or in large num mbers 0 _ mens collected from those beds, so as to ascertain the relation of their ~~ 8 to a other. Dap on, Unger.—Large quantities Z -abee coniferous pe are found i in aie saunstodee of the coal formation in Nova Scotia; but, after slicing more than one hundred ioe sae “the following are the only species I can distinguish. It is to be observed, however, that the differ ent states of preservation of fh trunks rdnide their study and compat ison very di pec a sie Acadianum, s. te M. C.; D. materiarium, 5% M. and U. C.; D. antiquus, s. n,, L. ; D. an nnntatien, 8. %.; Aravcarires, Unger.— Species, — Araucarites gracilis, 8. ”., U. 6. Clipe edet Brongt.—Under this name I include four subgenera, Vidy Favularia of Sternberg, of which S, elegans i is the type; ¢ .) y- Hidolepi of allel of which S. seutellata't is the type; (3.) 5 ig a ype. ~ To these may perhaps be added Asolanus of Wood (Proc. P hilad. At. Sci.), though most of the specimens of Sigillaria destitute of ribs are I would place Syringodendron and Calamodendron as members of z) gymnospermous “fanny Sigillariacee. Stigmaria may pireicant provisional genus, to include roots he rei with the ene rey flip Seca a) el poh M.C.; 8, (Fav.) te C: sellata Bronje 8. (Rhytidolepi) seutelata rongt., WM. pee C: S. ase: } Schfotheimniana Brongt., M. C.; S. (Bh.) Sal Brongt 5 wnli Dawson (Jour. Geol. Soc., x.), M.C.; niform is Brongty Se et Pe Mineralogy and Geology. 421 pec enn retytel Cig Yair n., M.C.; S. catenoides, a 000K: “To im _ ve in some gon rtant point that part of “To establish a n compl rigorous +-abediy of the stability of vet librium in floating bodies” (June 30th, 1864)—6,000fr. “To invent and choice of the competitor” (June 30th, 1864)—3,000fr. Bordin for “some notable improvement in the mechanical theory of heat” jas 30th, 1864)-—3,000fr. “On the comparative anatomy of the nervous system of fish” (August 31st, 1864)—3,000fr. “On the production of hybrid animals by artificial fecundation” (Dee. 30th, 1865—8, 000fr. “For the improvement of French paleontology, either by showing the anatomical characteristics of one or more types of Vertebrata, and thus affording important data for the study of our Tertiary fauna, or else by treating of fossils coe belong to one of the least known classes of that great branch of the animal kingdom”—5,000fr. “To give a com plete history of pellagra” (March 31st, 1864)—5,000fr. “On the application of ming to therapeutics” (March — a a etn The Academy tries and cdlitna of interest in the Pacific ocean. The squadron, whi ises several war vessels, arrived at Montevideo, Buenos Ayres, ©. iL in oes natn last, from which point the naturalists went overland to V paraiso, where the fleet was ordered to meet them. We do not a the destination of the expedition after leaving Valparaiso, win as it isn unlikely that this group (Sandwich Ids.) will be visited soo our columns a list of the savans engaged in this comnmissioB, on pee Don Fernando Amor, Professor of “Tateral History, who will attend to ee. and entomology. Den Francisco de Paula Martinez, Professor of Natural History, who will give his attention to os crustacea and mollusca. for Don <8 Deb Menudl Alasuged, MD.,oby! han -tty-atseeid: taebe wsieusny 0 anthie repology. Miscellanecus Intelligence. 445 ' Don Bartolome Puig, M.D., naturalist, who is to assist in preparing and preserving the collections. _ Don Juan Isern, 2d inspector of the museum, naturalist, who will at- tend to botany. Don Rafael Castro, photographer and draftsman.—Sandwich Island 10, Vegetable Ivory Vegetable ivory, in contact with concentrated _ sulphuric acid, takes a splendid red color, almost equal to magenta, At first it is pink, but gradually becomes deeper until it attains a purple, when the acid has been allowed to act for twelve hours. 11. Hrpedition to the Desert of Sahara, under Messrs, Martins and Escher von Linth.—A brief notice of the starting of this expedition is given at page 146 of this volume, r. Desor, who was one of the pry states in his letters, published in the Swiss journals, that from h going from Biskra and returning was about three weeks. Although ef, Mr. Desor regards the expedition as having accomplished important results. Tis attention was especially directed to the geological age of the Sahara; and he cencludes, with Escher von Linth, that it was a vast- sea at the commencement of the present epoch, and that only recently has it become dry. He is established in this opinion by the frequent oc- currence of a marine shell, the Cardium edule, found to-day on the shores of the Mediterranean. r. Desor is of the opinion that the elevation of the Desert above the sea though a recent was not a sudden occurrence, but was gradual and marked by successive steps. The party brought home a number of fish from the Artesian wells of the Desert, belonging emy on the subject of periodical meteors. The facts are dec rom his own repeated opera and those of A. Herschel, Esq., in England, nx; the 5th-13th of December, (having been of late years a fine ses) radiant half way between Alpha Gemint and eo patie Bir Mentioned, together with others requiring observation. He remarks 446 Miscellaneous Intelligence. the Nov. 13th-14th period is not visible in Australia, according to Pro, Newmeyer ; but those of Aug. 9th—-10th, with other periods, are. In addition to the above, Mr. Greg has commenced an extract from tories, and Hawkhurst ; it giv ves the heights, paths, brilliancy, directions, and estimated mass of twenty observed meteors of that period. Their average upper limit was 82.50 miles, and their average disappearance t 58 miles above the sea-level. The former heights varied from 55 qlee at the lowest, to 131 miles at the highest ; the latter heights from 35 miles at the lowest, to 84 miles at the hi ighest. The paths varied, in absolute length, from 18 miles to 100 thiles, and averaged 47°5 miles; and the durations varied from half a second to three seconds, and the ve- locties range all the way from 23 miles to 71 miles a second. The radiant was near Gamma Persei. An attempt was also made to estimate the masses of the individual me- teors by the heat developed—taking the apparent light as its measure, and comparing the latter with the amount of coal gas which would yield is put at near one and a-balf pounds avoirdupois, varying from 20 grains to 74 pounds. It is scarcely necessary to remark here that this last determination must have required a large amount of assumption, and can be received only a an approximation of the rudest description. Even as such, pares it great interest and value. cians - 18. National Academy of Sciences—Titles of memoirs resik and ‘of oral communications sande at the January Session, 1864, at Washington? 1. The elements of the mathematical theory ‘of quality. First Ne moir; a Perce. 8. The Saturnian System. First Memoir; Bensamrn Per varieties an species ; a —o 5. On the metamorphoses of Fishes; L. Aca their 8. On the geographical dbaton ‘of Fishes as i bearing ups affinities and systematic classification ; L. Aas lege Ob- serv n the years 1840-45; Parts IV, V, VI. Horizontal Foree; investigation of the eleven year period of the solar diurnal aire al annual inequality, and of the influence of the moon. Abstract; A. © Bacue 8. Discussion of Magnetic Observations, dc. ; Parts VI, Vill wth 1K Vertical a i investigation of the eleven year period od of the iation and annual inequality, and of the influence of the aga Miscellaneous Bibliography. 447 8. On the force of fired gunpowder, and the pressure to which heavy CRABB guns are actually subjected in firing ; . P, Banyarp. - 10, Description of an anemograph, designed for the University of Mis- sissippi; F. A. P. Barnarp. - 11. On materials of combustion for lamps in Light Houses; Joszpx Heyry. 12, On the Parallelogram of Forces, and on virtual velocities; T, Srrone. 13. On photographs of the Solar Spectrum ; L. M. Ruruerrurp. 14. On the tangencies of Circles and Spheres ; J. G. Barnarp. 15. Observations of the Planet Venus near the times of her inferior Conjunction, Sept. 28, 1863, and subsequently; Prof. Srepnen AEx- ANDE 16. Brief note on the forms of icebergs; Prof. Srepuzn ALEXANDER, 14. Maury’s Sailing Directions, and Wind and Current Charts — _ Wm. J. Tayzor.—Prof, William J. Taylor died at Philadelphia, April 6th, aged 31. He was for several years a resident of iladelphia, and department of Mineralogy. In the autumn of 1859, he was called to the chair of Chemistry in the Medical College at Mobile, Ala., where he spent but one season. Returning north, he settled near Berlin, Worcester Co., Maryland, and, on the breaking out of the war, was a very ardent Supporter of the cause of the Union. He aided in raising a regiment, of ne he was Major, and continued in re pile service woe Le months, In his early death, mineralogical science Joses an active able investigator, BE promt an jaa ie and whole-souled patriot, ; V. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. _L. Boston Journal of Natural History: Vol. VIL, No. 1, 1859,—- Arr. I. A Supplement ‘3 the “ Terrestrial Mollusks of the United States ;” by W. G Brrwey. Ree ae No. 2, 1861.—Anrr. II. Observations upon the Geology and Paleon- tology of Burlington, Iowa, and its vicinity; by Oaaries A. Warrz.— TL On the Hymenoptera of the genus Atlantus in the United States ; y Eowarv Norton.—IV. Descriptions of new species av ea from © Carboniferous Rocks of the Mississippi Valley ; by James Hau. ~ . 448 Miscellaneous Bibliography. No. 3, 1862.—Arr. V. Notes on new species of Microscopical Organ- isms, chiefly from the Para River, South America; by Lorine W. Bar teY.—VI. Contributions to the Comparative Myology of the Chimpan- zee; by Burt G. Witper.—VII. On Alternate Generation in Annelids, and the Embryology of Autolytus cornutus ; by A. Agassiz.—VIII. Ma- terials for a Monograph of the North American Orthoptera, including 4 Catalogue of the known New England Species ; by Samuex H. Scupper. 0. 4, 1863.—Art, IX. Observations on the summit structure of Pen- Acassiz.—XII. Prodromus of the history, structure, and physiology of the order Lucernarie ; by Prof. Henry James Crank, of Harvard Uni- versity, Cambridge, Mass.—XIII. Monograph of the genus Callinectes; Atsert Orpway.—XIV. On the Fossil Crab of Gay Head; by Dr. uu1aM Stimpson.—XV. On Synthetic Types in Insects; by A. 5 Pacxarp, Jr— XVI. Description of a “ White Fish” or “ White Whale” (Beluga borealis Lesson) ; by Jerrrres Wyman, M.D., Prof. of Anatomy in Harvard College—XVII. Remarks on some characteristics of the In- sect Fauna of the White Mountains, New Hampshire; by Samvst H. Scupper. 2. National Almanac and Annual Record, for the year 1864, 642 . 12mo. Philadelphia, 1864. George W. Childs.—The National Al- manac for 1863 was noticed by us early last year (xxxv, 465). e vol- ume now issued sustains the same high character, and _ besides is much increased in value by a still wider range of subjects, and fuller details. While remarkably complete as a national work, it also contains much information on foreign countries, their sovereigns, governments, areas, populations, finances, armies, navies, commerce, navigation, ete. ete. Astronomical and Meteorological observations made at the U. S. Naval Observa- tory during the year 1862, Capt. J. M. Griurss, U. S. N., Superintendent. 700 pp» 4to. Washington, 1863. Published by authority from the Hon, Secretary of the avy. Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the year 1862. 632 pp» Bro, with plates and wood-cuts. Washington, 1863. . The Geography and Resources of Arizona and Sonora: an Address before the American Geographical and Statistical Society, by Syivesten Mowry of New edition. 124 pp, 8vo, with a map. San Francisco and New York. 1863. A. Roman & Co. pp., 8vo, from t Proceedings of Appleton’s U.S. Postal Guide, containing the chief regulations of the Post Office and a complete list of the Pust Offices throughout the U. States. March, 1864 Published quarterly. 25 cents. cilaiee aa Report of the British Association for the meeting at Cambridge in 1862, 9-9 and 244 pp., oe tose £1. e : by R. Howat Synopsis of t eology of Durham a rt of Northumberland, by . Hows and J. W.Kirsy. 34 pp., 8vo. Published 1 by the Tyneside Naturalist’s Field Club, Aug. 1863, Miscellaneous Bibliography. . 449 On the Nomenclature of the Foraminifera, by W. K. Parker, Esq. and Prof. T. R. Jones, F.GS, 20 pp., 8vo; from the Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. for Sept. 1863, P-, Synopsis of the psi e ee Terrestrial palous of the State of aine, by og 8. mga 4 pp. 4to. Portland, Me.-—This catalogue includes the names specie Dictionary ot es and hes allied ig of — ieee founded on f the late Dr. Ure, by ER ACW. F.C.S., ted by eminent pam tbtor va Soin Volumes, ate Vol. Il, "985 pp. Tecan 1864. Long er Matert inux de b stpechcnetr par M. Detessr, Ingevieur des Mines, Prof. de Geol. a l’ecole norma 27 6 pp.. 8vo. Paris, 1863. Exposition Universelle de 1862. Musée Teyler: C t de la collection f pg ren hag par T.C. Winxuir. Ist liv 24 pp. “large 8vo. Harlem, 1863. Les Hér oes De Becton als folge — Bewegung der Erde im aes yon GusTAY Hinarcus, Cand. Se th. 44 pp., 8v« sl amap. Copenhagen, 1860. cet e Waarnemingen in erland, "ete, uitagegeven door het kon. ned. Met iaclons tek tuut, 1862. Utrecht, i 3: epee Takttagelser : utgifna af kongl. svenska Vetenskaps-akademien, bearbetade af Er. Edlund. 2d vol. 1860, and 3d vol. 1861. Stockholm, 1861 and Kongliga svenska Fregatten Eugenies a omkring Jorden under Befal ya a re irgin, aoren 1851-1853, utgifna “af k. svenska Vetenskaps-akademien. nae Heft 10, Zoology ; Heft Ly iouay: —Also an edition in Sean “ ‘he Procerpines or Acap. Nar. Sct. Pater ye —OCTOBER and ee ER, 1863,—273, On Strepomatidse . a name for a family of fluviatile Mollusea, usually confounded with palit S. 8. Ha eee, escription of a collection of ci Notes on the Birds of Jamaica; W. 7. March, with voi ss by S, F. Baird.—304, Notes on the Mimidx of Jam sien Bio: rd Hill—306, Synonymy of the species of Strepomatide, a family of Fluv tile Mollusca, cahabisies North a ket Part I; George W. Tryon, Jr.—322, N rs on the Picide John Cassin. —DECEMBER. —329, Description of the Genus Stereslepis Ayres; Theodore Gill.—330, gear tion of the Genus Oxyjulis Gill; Theodore Gi it eae, Note on some recent - tions to the Ichthyological Fauna of Mibsichiawite: Theodore Gill,—833, Note on the species of Sebastes of the eastern coast of North America; 7heodore Gill— 336, On some new and singular intermediate forms of pee F. W. Lewis, M.D.—346, Synopsis of the species of Hosackia; Asa Gray.—352, Synopsis of the e f yids Wm. M. Sandy FEBRUARY 2, The Crania of Covina torquatus and C. Adamsii compared; Elliott Coues, abe a Se bas . vy lusea inhabiting North America. Part Il; George Proceepixcs or Boston at. Hist., vol. ix. 295, E Sapplanentary notice of Neosorex palustris: A. ill, —229, me t of frogs ; he zo f life on. hi: zh okie oat 8. .— 233, di to the wue of the Birds find @ ais: Me., and about the Bay E. Verrill.—234, On antimony pol ee Brunswick; A. A. Hayes 935 ‘kie mineral rai ze, onsin; Chas. D y.—245, On the Sea Serpent, #.¢. Asciap —246. On the pees of the andreecium of the F . ‘ 450 Miscellaneous Bibliography. J. T. Rothrock.—249, Malacozoological Notices, rin 1, on the cage Gundlachia; Wm. Stimpson,—252, On impregnatio me * rs ; J. Wyman.—2538, Notice of rill: —27 igrati the eggs and young of a Ss r; A é. On migration of the — swa ‘wie A. BE. he ee be 9, Dewviniee or bee new Birds from the Baha- uy ryant. ervations on an a yman,—286, On cer- tain seabiiehie or "exceptional ete with Janeiutons ‘of new genera and species, ete, - lt Walsh PRooEEDINGS OF Fr Arts AND Sciences, vol, vi-—1, Obituaries of Nathan “Appleton, seta 7% ‘Diiot, Richard | Sullivan, Cornelius C. "Falto on, Luther V. Bell, Sir Francis il Peter Barlow, and J. B. Bio t.—35, ae ng jogue of onere Stars: Polar and Clock Stars, for fim reduction of observations in right ascension, with a discussion of the positions.—37, On the phlvscieek of some new or obscure species of plants, of monopetalous orders, in the collection of the U.S. i e tis, section xa je Spas Gray.—81, “Standard Mean Right Ascensions of Cir- cumpolar an d Time Stars;” B. A, Gould.—85, Supplement to the Ichnology of New England; E. Hitchcoe on Ue 92, On an echo in a large chimney; B. A. Gould— or Procrepines or AMER. Pati. Sociery, vol. vii, 1860.—329, eon —_ -slates in Europe and America; J, P. Lesley—831, On gold and silver 0 Washoe ; bois.— Annual Address, by the President, Dr. Wood.—339, On:4 a slitting thermometer and barometer; J. P. Lesley—342, On a new aneroid barometer; P. Lesle ey.— 347, ucane Bee of H. D. Gingn 3 J. R. Ingersoll —363, Obituary of Wash- e Stone-im in - ago of Pape De 5ois and Eekfeldt,—281,*On the structure of a ie e Brandywine; J. P. Lesley. —285, ‘Investigations into the laws of English Orthograpy and Pronanciation ; R. L. Tafel.—37 8, On phosphoric acid in agricul ; Dr. Emerson.—380, On metaphysical discussion; /. P. Lesley —883, On the beni of an Arctic Expedition ; LL Hayes.—Vol. ae Me ie t Vocabularies of African Dialects; Alexander Orummell and . Le , On the Taconic rood tem; Jas. Ha 126 6, Average health ot ‘Philadelphia i ubeis. —30, Ont lachians and the a formation in Virginia; J. P. Lesley.—39 e glish Tal . > t; HR. 59, Sept. 12th : oa ereren na “curtain” aurora of J uly 23d; J. P. Lesley.—64, Obituary of Prof. Géscge ode Dr. Dunglison—70, Obituary of Dr. Geo. W- rs Dr. Duitipon 86, On the skull of the Helmet Hornbill; Dr. Harris—88, ‘ i ; ? Powel—9 o i= PS) Q =. o ae DR oO 8 oo — S = : s Lee ace ee FR % 5 bond * = > oO o eg ‘3 3 i = to letters of classical alphabets; Chase.—183, On an aspha — coal *6id 5 is in bn wee Virginia; J. P. Lesley.—208, ei agers to Prof. Lawley on the Cape Breton “O®” Dawson. —224, On assay-balances; Dubois (For eonclndee of Didliogtaphy: see page 456) INDEX TO VOLUME’ 2AAXRVIT, A Abbott, F., notes on n Argus, 294. ey; American, proceedings of, 156, National, poesia of, 446. aed 4 rnal of, 156. dings of bec 449. at mn flees re) — by ican ep viorstions, ir ae containing tungsten, Caron, 118. Almana' a National, and Annual Record, notice of, 448. nu and aluminum-bronze, Lf L. Amber-fauna, Diptera of the, Lew, 305. Annnerst geet Heminlscenees of, by ZB otice of, 1 Amphibians, position of, among Verte- brates, J. D. 4 Andersson, N. J. whey of the z lapagos Is slags, notice Anilin purple, wate in. Animal sap on preserva- on Ant! ropology, Waitz’s Introduction to, “se of, 149. ony in Canada, 405. Anignity of Man, 3d appendix to Lyell’s, aed Confederation, explorations in, Ocles stial d dj amics, 187, Comet TV. imams, ; 1 __VI, 1863, 293. Density, rotation and relative age of the 79), 140, 147. Nebuiz, recent researches on, 1 aes lous matter, invisibility of, 210. Notes on n 294. et Ps ae nts of, Newton, 3 um of carbon, 408. sy: 84, 212. P d, 443. ceeiaenk ey Royal Society, 87. Ge. , Species, Genera et Ordines Barometer as an indicator of earth’s rota- tion and s' pes s ceria P. E. Chase, 409, Bell, I. L., inum and aluminum- bronze, 133. n Chemical _ vacant, 147, Binary stars, liss, P. C., e& eplorations ins. America, = Plowpipe beads, crystals in, G. H. Emer: Blyth’s new edition of Liebig’s Chemistry, otice of, 1 Boott, Francis, ‘obituary of, 288. Boston Soe. Nat. Hist., Journal of, 447, roceedings = 449, cou necrology for 1 38. Oo Agardh, Gen. et ru Andersson, Ga alpago: fe denlepigy 436. Brunet, Plantes de Michaux, etc., 286. Cosson '& G.de ‘ Pierre , Flore des enyi- pate de Paris, 434. , on flora of the Carboniferous, alum Harvey, Prey cn Australica, 286. Kt stag graphia gen, Lepigono- um, 435. LT jall’s plants of British ames 287. Mart rtius, Flora ae ae , Annales, = , Plants of Vi icto oria, 286. , Po ular names of British plants, See ME Lichenes Insule Cube, 436. Mii Prior, i cg aga x, Des Fleurs de Pleine nih dig coriatia ‘a thymifo ‘olia, 287. Gaultheria, 0: igin of t e, 287. Somes rected by ozone, rae. 378. Gym 6 aaeess structure of flowers in, Ink plant, 287. Womenhiere , 278, ~d4 Tal ineralogical sate a 270. on dechenite and areo seceeer cite Lake Paperior; Or. tephr Cc vis eres crystals of tartrates of, J. P. Cooke, cairn Wasiney, 82. Survey, reports on, and peney of, by “3 , ON wasium, 116, Cap) Barker, G. F., on casting of 20-inch gun at Pittsburgh, 296. Cel = uary of, 304. ag alloys containing tungsten, 118. estial dynamics, J. R. Mayer, 187. 452 (NDEX. of BEET classification based on, J. ae cre seme I tract on, by W. H. Miller, Chambers’ Eneyelspeas, notice of, 302. iveacie ne ioe pipe beads, G. H. Emerson, otice of work by, on ca- Chemical Chair in opie id 147. CHEMICAL WORKS, n of :— Blozham’s Medical Chemistry, 302, Miller’s Elements, Liebig’ s Chemistry, 135. a —— %e A argo of Solubilities, 301. HE. eins a of hydrogen, 117. Cesia and rubidia, tartrates of, 70, Carbon, spectrum pear n, separation ‘of, from yttrium, Co are Sepstals ie ‘bio mnie beads, 414, Cyanid of phosphorus, 269. Distillation of substances of different Praag 377. Et ar Be, co leer of a sulphid of po- m on bromid of, 390. anganic acid and compounds of; manganese, optical dis- . —s . sg gy of czesia and rubidia, P. Cooke, Jr., Cidnowies, on eusy nchite and dechenite, 270, Dan n Classification, based 01 a, J. D., cepbaiieation’ Insects, 10; tiorepiee S¥f Embryology in classification, 19, 184, Insects in geolog’ ac al histor: Carboniferous insects, amplificate Soa. general obserya- ions on, 175. Megasthenes and microsthenes Herbivores in er rie: history, 183, hi s among position of Amphibia brates, 1 Text-book of Geology by, notice of 1 Manual of Geology, notice of, revised edition of, 302. Daws W. , Synopsis of Carboniferous Flora of Nova Scotia, DeLaski, J., on n glacial a action about Penob- scot Bay, ennis, heory of tides, 234. 445, itrogen, determination of, 310. Nitro-prussid of sodium, action of light upon, 408. Oxyds, new metallic, 116, 119. Oxygen, ozone, and antozone, 325. Platinum-metals, epee and soda, indirect determination Silicin um, compounds of, with oxygen drogen, 120. tain spitailia. a oxyds, Sulphuric acid, estimation of, 122. Thallium hate ag, Sag atoys of 118. Ri further, “Phot Pst ag min i B. gt Tabula aria not Siok: Classification as Nie on cephalization, J. D. , 10, 157. Coan, T., pn Kilauea, 15. y Reports, review of, 95. “36. ier, P, indirect determination of pot- and so as gag see Ast omy. ke, J. Pod on crystals of tartrates o eas and ps ia, 70. dry process a # in photog graphy, 1 —— Cosson, «alo b P des Environs de Paris, by, Ons, JH 6 = — of reaction pede ion potassium and Dromid of native, of L. Cee = Desert "of Sa ahara, expedition to, 146, y of iron, 441 rune a, ces of different vol- M. C. Lea, Lea, 377. atilities, Earthquakes, theory of, A. Perrey, 1 440, Electric eable, pire gaara oh cv laying, n of, on iodized a 207. Electrical rs erties of parr! ne gun ¢ vat op n, J. Johnston and B. a3 oa Elevations, a e Height. Elliott, D. G., corres of a monograph e Tetra onine, 437. on crystals in blowpipe 151. 140, 147. 46, 445. Emerson, G. H., [ beads, 414. (Emmons, E., bel pe hag of, 1 anis ah Explorations, see Goopeaphtesl Notices. F Binet gl f the , Himalayas, 27. sideigh até oman: f, 149, Tren Academy, s of, 443 Prick, Me notice o: Physical G Galapagos Islands, botany of, 436. “ti . ier, A., recent t researches on —_ : Gay, Jacques, obituary of, 292. itz, H. B., on onganie ie ote : gee and on the name Dy of, 483. Permian ptante, noticed; Technics by; {NDEX, Geographical notices, D. C. Gilman, 75. GEOLOGICAL WORKS, ete., netien ap 0 a — Mineralo ogy. and geology of, ‘an, Dane's 8 oo tecenr of Geology, 302. Text-book of Geology, 147. Hail’s Contributions to Paleontology, || Halt ‘on the Crinoids of the Waverly, sendrtous, 140, | m the Fauna of po Potsdam, 140, Gente on the ok .» Mo cess on fossil Es- uate on Anuigit of Man, appendix to Greece, etc., Wi eye Reports on California, GroLoey and PaLEoNTOLOGY :— Carboniferous flora of Nova Scotia, Daw- son, 79. 82, 427.) ong the Him ae 5 SE H | Hall, oes x snistatiems to Paleontology by, review of, Cr lab boy me ag Waverly sandstone by, ea of, 140. Fau na of the Potsdam sandstone by, Harms, on hydrate of soda, 117. “a s Phycologia Australica, notice of, Heat, passage a radiant, through rock- salt, Knoblauch, 267. He eight of mountains in North America, Hemeristia onlin Hen ‘anction eat | Shea classification ws pal 157, imalay a glaciers of, Falconer, 273, sole s, G., on density, rotation, and relative age of the planets, C, #H., on antimony in Canada, Hite. hock, &., reminiscences of Amherst College by, notice of, 149. “| Holo ook's Pr (ethsoldes of 8. Carolina, re- view ot, in N ova Scotia, 4 Herbivores, early, 183. Thsects, early, 32, i ‘Laurentian fossils i bpm 272, 4381. | Lithology, Potsdam fess, Es “Halt, 140 Winchell, © Pteriidee (or ‘Avicalide), F. B. Meek, 212., Volcanoes, see Volcano. Germination as affected by ozone, etc., JZ.’ C Lea, 32: » platinum metals, £7. chemical abstracts, 116, 269, 408. , 116, 267. relations of hyposulphite of soda, &e. i ggilctermination of nitrogen by weight,’ nen of Soshpdaee of fluorid: of potassium in analysis, 334 opgeparation and estimation ie ae Gill, T., review of Holbrook’s ie of 8. Caro an, D. C. a cetieabilnk sales 7D. | Sucal action about Penobscot Bay, J. 273 among the Himalayas, falconer, 47 in Nova Scotia, B. Silliman, Jr., Gold, mechanical and chemical treatment! of, J. D. Whel processes of xt t 134, Grastite, See z on nomenclature ‘Ivo —— T. R., on low ¢. A., on a meteorite from sake 243, Kila Gray, A’, notices of botanical works, 281, Kindberg, 7 c., M 433 9 i ie kwood,. Fes go on eyanid of phosphorus, 269. | ent T. &., contributions to lithology, ge Laurentian Rhizopods of Canada, 431. I Ichthyology of 8. Carolina, review of Hol- brook’s, 89. ‘Indium, 269. Ink- sve t, Jame. | eggs od siseteation noh J. D. J, 2 aes 10. he C rous, J. D. e Amber-fauna, 305. omaee tite Fira E. Riley, 126. containing = en, 118. ry, vegetable, J I Jameson, on ink-plant, 287. Johnson, 8. gh cn deve 121. chemica notice of Ticbigs Chemistry, 135, J., on Fe We hia gencris Le- onorum by, no en D., on orbits of binary stars, 278, Greece. oe Saban of, Unger des 445. || Knoblauch, H,, on 9g of radiant heat on through "rock-salt, Gun-casting at Pitebargk: 296. Kuestel, G., processes of a and Silver Guyot’s Physical Maps, notice of, 80. extraction, noticed, 134, ~. Lang, V. von, on suilphuret of ee 117. Laurentian fossils he - Can W. £. Lo- gan, eo beees Scientific Bebbal, contributions , 546. by, toc Tea, 2 to genus Unio, notice of, 436 . C., notice of Storer’s Dictionary of Soluvilities, ‘S01. on influence of pene etc., on ger- mination and vegetation, ae yellow gop of faded pho th Z Bon to- on a petroleum vein in Vir- uiebig s Chemistry, notice of new edition) Lithology, contributions to, 7. S. Hunt, Livingstone’ s explorations in Africa, 8 Lew, on Diptera of the Amber-fauna, 305, sow gett ari riea, 287, Magnesium light for photog Maps of California, propose ical, 80. s, M., obit tuary of, 288. ‘Marines Flora Brasili liensis, review of, 283. Maury’s s Sailing Directions, ete., Report of) National Academy on 447, iy er “Wee n oxygen, ozone, ie deb Chit, C. A. Joy, 243. wi us on e, 272. Miter Mer” s( CW. i. ) Deeesetey | notice of, 414. iler’s (W. A.) Crystallography, notice of,” Astrophylie, ‘272, Chisrite group, 221. n, sic INDEX. gpg Annales Musei Bot. ete., notice Mogain-iandon, C. H. B, A., obituary of, Mount Hope Nurseries Miiller, F., Pla _ of the one of Victo- ri by, notice Miller, J.. on pre lengths of spectral lines, 116. N ie, popular, of British plants, review Nattonal Almanac and Annual Record, notice of, 448. National A Ne - le Nebuious matter, invisibility of, D. Trow- 210. cademy, see Academ , recent researches on, A. Gautier, berry, J. S., ice of memoir by, on fossil plants ‘of x W. Boundary, 148. New metallic ea Bahr and Seen 116. ay. n||Vewton, ., on original accounts of No- vember aah ower in former times, 377 Nicklés, J., on wasiu ia Nile, exploration of, menclature in ntendl History, A. Gray, | | Nova. co cotia, Carboniferous Flora of, J. W. g ial action in, B. perce re 417, EEE apse meteors, see Astron 0 OBITU Danes Boot, 288. Cappocci, 304 Ebenezer Emmons, Bis Henry Fitz, 149. Jacques ya i 2 Edward Hitchcock, 302. Martin Martens, 288. C. HBA, oon senda 288. Giovanni nsec 304. Heinrich Christian ‘on Steven, 288. m. J. Taylo Pec. fade toot to, by J. Hall, sats Sala ee rt Paris, water works about, 448. r, on Pagliani’s n de re of presery- ing animal substances, minerals of the chlorite ving re oup, Penobscot cot Bay, glacial action about, J. DeLas Periodical meteors, 2. P. Greg, 445. n mauve or anilin purple, 413. Permeability 0 of iron n theory se: earthquakes, 1. yite, 271. piers ‘} ns Acad. Academy. ilade os see c Tsfeal Boe. Amer, 156, 450. ‘PHOTO appessocga | Action of electric light on the iodized — plate, 207. ahs 4 INDEX. PHOTOGRAP Dry proces, 123. 455 Silliman, KG ee on glacial action in Nova a ae tT, 440. Society, § Ye ee cosineatia Yor faded prints, 438. Solubitities, nenice of Storer’s Dictionary hm Technics by Frick, notice of, 149. ae = an indicator of earth’s rotation and sun’s distance, 409. Electrical Aiecsostores of pyroxiline pa- er an n cotton, 1 Heat, oan a val radiant, through rock sa Optical distineti en between hyperm: ganic acid and compounds 0 seats oxyd of man “art e, 408. Permeability o n, 441. tog Tt a eae of, 116. Spe arbon, 408. st of arthquakes A. Perrey, 1. Theory of tide _ , on astophylite, 272. n paracolumb » 309. Pitsburg fandry, ening of a 20-inch ee Plan & Glovanat, obituary of, 304. Planets, density, rotation and relative age’ f, G. Hinrichs, 36. pin metals Preservation of shania al substances, 440. Priov’s Popular Names of British Plants, . ast 433. red by Wa Academy, 443. Preriidee F. B. Meek Pyroxiline paper, eetial properties of, J. Johnston and B. Silliman, Jr., 115. R iad Thee notice of, 456. foci n er, on indium, 269. Sieg ee of the Azoic, 273, "481. Ri a es tit pense in iron, 126. action of weak electric 4 on the ‘iodized plate, 207. x raat professor in Columbia College,|/y Roots, cole n of, Hen bari H, on columbite, Pitas new series ay! metallic oxyds, 119. reps moirs oy. on nebule, noticed, 8, 5 . Roussin, on action of E59 on nitro-prus- sid of sodium Royal Society, 1 R abide. envi of tartrates of, J. P.|| Watson, J. me South American ride gts 88. Spectr, see Physic: d Grant’s explorations, 5. PT eat e see Astronom Steven, Christian von, obi tua of, 288. Stolba, on n eatimation D of sulphuric acid in salts of the alka -|| Storer’s Di tee a Solubilities, notice ol, Stror romeyer, on szaibelyite, 271. Sun’s heat, origin of, J. 2. Mayer, 187. m Tides, theory of, W. Titan ium in iron, 126. d, J. B., on a large mass of native Troost, on permeability of iron, 441 Trowbridge , D., on invisibility of nebulous matt Tuckerman s Caroli aed 20 Lichenes In- sule Cube, n Tubularia not parthenogerions, HJ. Clark, Tungsten, alloys containing, 11 ing, A. C., on shooting ot U Unger, on geology of Greece, etc., 79. 141, 445. 445. Vegetable ivory * "affected by ozone, etc., is aru as Verrill, A. EB. List of had and Corals, etc., by, notice of, 437. Volcano of Kilauea, " Coan, 415. pabuenrine, in ie Mediterranean, 442, Wasium, Bahr and Nieklés, 116. Water in Paris, 443. U., on = VI, 1863, 204, Cooke, Ji on Eurynome, te Cadaonoagt nid cyanid tof of pees 269. ord, J. I, P ae Giusshent of of gold and other netal: on enn ad pose su ted ae” of West Tenn Whitey J.D D., reports on California Sur- edition yey, 7. 1 Sailing Directions, Maury's, noti Sheffield Laboratory, comtalinsicns iat 67, Shepard, C. U., mineralogical notices, 405. Shooting stars, see Astronomy. — » B., Jr. a pyroxiline paper and gig on om abstracts, 116. on heights of mountains in N. Amer- Wiederhold, on arseniuret of hydrogen, 117. j Mt A ot tele “8 ke Su r san gee | Wéhler, on compounds of siliclum with | oxygen and 10, , 456 INDEX, | AL WORKS, etc., notices of:—. ||ZooL_oacy.— Vertebrates, i bag? creme 437. Man,. caahadaenital in, 162, 179, ~ 80. Edentates, 182, _ Lea, on the cus ent, 436. Megasthenes and Microsthenes, 181 Verrill, Polyps and coon of Mus, Comp.||4 Diptera of the Amber-fatina, 305. See 2 further, G oka Insects, classification ‘of, Dana, 13. Insects, Carboniferous, of Illinois, D Cepha i Rabe as a basis of classifica- . ¢ n, Dana, 10, 157. | Mollusks. Embryology in classification, 19, 184. Pteriide (or Aviculide), Meek, 212. iates. ‘ —- bians, position of, among Ver- —— not parthenogenous, C tebrates, > Carnivores, relations of, to Herbivores, P, — relations of, to Herbivores,| aonivgien: classification of, Dana, 159.|! votozoans. en aL of the Azoic, or Lauren eee ee continued from page 450.) Index Geographicus, being a list, alphabetically ito of the principal } on the globe, with the en oa in which they are situated, and their latitude seca Broige none with special reference to Keith Johnston's Royal pp. | London an burgh,—- Win. Black w« sons. 218, The Bs Review of Literature, Science and Art. No. 64, V>l. III, 19, 1864.—This weekly Review, published in Leashes by James Bohn, is espe valuable to scientific men fur its abs of the pri iti scientifi it tific miscellanies. The number here mentione —scientific news touching on a variety of topies—an acco s Soirée of the 12th of March—Note on Bone Caves in “Bor ge ye y Se Huxley by C. Carter Blake and J. Hunt—Note on the re ion of the earth's rotation by B. Frankland; Proceedings of the Academ Vienna and Brussels, and of various British Societies Archeological, Antl hilo Asi Statistical, of Arts, Royal of Edinburgh, Royal of Glasgow) and tute of British Architects, In Nos. 62, 63 and 66, the origin of Lakes ussed by Feioulan and others, in continuation of, ~ Hse in sition to, the article by Falconer, cited at page 273 of this volum [The following were received too late for further notice in this number.--E . . The Gray ce of the Medulla obl grin sed gag sh by J Joun Ree 76 gg strated by 16 4 tlithograpiep oe series 0 raphs, giving the entire topography o rp 5 , ER? ; copies, by copies from the ne Basted origin Contributi Es pene ecepted for publication, August, 1863. A manual ta lementary Probleres in the Linear Perspective of Form by Epwarp S. Warren, C. E., Prof. Descr. Geom., ri te nic Institute, and author of “Draftsman Manual,” and “G scriptive Geometry.” 116 pp. 12mo. New York, jax John na Wiley. ~An ex t man 225 vi The th of Life, or or mal-respiration the enjoymen’ life of man, by akg os Catity, author of poe of of travels amongst the “ 8 pp. 80, w ‘ with 25 Illustrations, New York, 1864. Miley sensible and somewhat humerous essay, with serio-comic truthfe ‘Illustra at Mutsecsel. Progreny by Huznsenr Srencer. shaadi & 1664-—-D. Appleton & Co 2 lect : meeps andSk sont Rensselaer oh oo = 3 oF