» THE was | a oF SCIENCE AND AhRio. ae: . CONDUCTED BY Prorressors B. SILLIMAN, B. SILLIMAN, Jr, # ; AND JAMES D. DANA, ' IN CONNECTION WITH _ Prorsssons ASA GRAY, LOUIS AGASSIZ, ann a WOLCOTT GIBBS, or CAMBRIDGE, es “ AND __ Prorzssors S. W. JOHNSON, GEO. J. BRUSH, ann ae. H. A. NEWTON, or NEW HAVEN. + SECOND SERIES. \ Vo.t. XX XVIII—NOVEMBER, 1864. NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1864. PARAARAARA PRINTED BY E. HAYES, 426 CHAPEL sf. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXVIII. x¥ NUMBER CXII. Art. I. On certain Harmonies of the Solar we ; 3 Professor Danie. Kirxwoop, - - Il. Abstract of Prof. sista s Researches on Oxygen Onone and Antozone; by S. W. Jonnson, Ill. On the egos of the Earth’s Atmorpere by es LAND ABB IV. On the Distribution of the 5 Dark Liaw in the Speci of ri Elements ; by Prof. Gustavus Hinricus, 31 V. On the structural characters of the so-called Mninaiion of North America; by Dr. Wm. Stimpson, - 41 VI. The Original accounts of the displays in vive times of the November Star-Shower; together with a determination of the length of its cycle, its annual period, and the probable orbit 8 the group of bodies around the sun; by H, A. : Newt : 1. oe VII. On Wiecsc Physics e Prof. Ww. as easy (eee VIII. On the Improvement of the Elements of a Comet’s Orbit : runnow’s method ; communicated by C. AzsE, - 79 IX. Notes on the Platinum Metals, and their — from each other; by M. Carey Lea, . X. Contributions to Lithology ; by T. Sterry sey: M. A., Fr. R S, 91 XI. On the so-called ‘ Barrel-Quartz,” of Nova Scotia; by B. Siruman, Jr., - - - - - - oe SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, Chemistry and Physi On the f the Sun, Maenvs, 106.—On the Spectrum of Thallium, W. A. Minter: On mead —— eens of various bodies, and on the photographic effects of tra obtained by means of the electric spark, W. A. Mitter, 107.—On the spectrum oo chloro-chromic acid, GorTs- cHALE and DrecusEL: Un the condensation of vapors upon the surface of solid bodies, iv CONTENTS. n the influence of condensation in experiments on diathermancy, Maenu 110.—Note on 7 Vision, 111.— On a new cobalt G. : compound, Braun: Indium, i13.—Note on the formation of een by M. Carey A, 114. ilicat taini ] it of Cwsi PISANI, Rs. & A fi ba ssthaainerane > Es ’ 5 Pt er eee 1” 3h. Compiaision of Tourmaline, Mica, Hornblende and Staurotide, A. MiTscHER- Licu: Contributions to the chemical knowledge of several minerals, by C. F. MELSBERG, 116.—On a Volcanic Island in the Caspian, by Count Marscnat, 1) Notes on the Geology and Mineralogy of the Spanish Province of Santander, by Ww. K. Suttivan, Ph.D., etc., and Joseru P. O’Retiy, C:E.: Notes vea Coal Pit near Peking, by S. Weits Witxiams, 119.—On as robable identity of th. Onei ‘onglomerate of Central New York with the Medina patos in a letter from E. Jewett, 121.—Coal in the Alps of Mt. Cenis : On some new Fossils from the Lin- gula-flags of Wales, by J. W. Sauter, etc., 122. Botany and Zoology. ss (Calluna piensa in Peg — 122,—Lessons in Ele- mentary Botany, etc., by Danret O11 124.—Radicle-ism, 125.— Gothe’s i on “8 Metamorphosis of Pea pac "126. —A. n on Marsilia — Pilularia, 127.-—-A National American Herbarium: Annual Report wh the Trustees of the Director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, 128.—Obser- sicis on the development of Raia Batis, by Jerrrizes Wyman, M.D., 129.—On the ogy of i i mbryol Echinoderms, by eo Cgeal Acassiz: On Dimorphism in the Hy- menopterous genus rigeee etc., by Bens. D. Watsu, M.A., e mineral secretions Sponges, b é C, Waxuica, 131—On the Law of the Production of the Sexes in Plants and Animals, by Prof. Tuury, 132.—Catalogue of North noes Butterflies, by J. Wa. Weivemever, 135, Altitudes of Shooting Stars, compiled by H. A. Newron, 135.—On Sun- spots and their connexion with Saag Configurations, by BaLrour Stewart, Esq., 141.—Observations on the Spots on the Sun me Nov. 9, 1853, to March 24, 1861, made at Redhill, by R. C. Gigi havo F.R-S., Miscellaneous ee? ific Intelligenee-Medal of the Royal Society to Professor William —Award of the Wollaston Gold Medal to Sir R. I. Murchison: Man for- On the Geography of British Columbia and the Condition of the Cariboo Gold District, by Lieut. H. S. Patmer, 146.—A newly discovered pass across the Andes, 147.— Violet colors from iodine: ‘The Holy Land and Dead Sea: Bone-Cave in Borneo eights in the Rocky Mountains: Astrono omy Fin France: Law for the ary an barometrica] maxima and minima in each rig month: Chicago paper: 148—Obituary.—Itud lolph Wagner: Evan Pugh, Ph.D., 149. Bibliography serra nl The art of extracting metals from nae ores, id adapting them to various purposes of manufacture, by Joun Percy, M.D., F.R.S., at Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian ae for the 862: Parrish’s Practical Pharmacy, 150.—-Tables d’Intégrales définies, in Ver- der Koninklijke Akademie van an Wetenecappet I 151.—Notices of New Proceedings of Societies, 151, “Works and (ho CONTENTS. LJ NUMBER CXIIlI. Art. XII.—Barometric Indications of a Resisting Aether; 7 Purny Earve Cuase, M.A.,8.P.A.8., — - 153 XIII. On the Action of Oil-Wells; by Prof. E. W. Rv. - 159 XIV. Description of a new Machine for siadioi and Chart- ing Stars; by G. W. Hoven, A.M., - 1 XV. Contributions to Lithology ; by T. Srerry Sint; M. A. Fr. R. s., 174 XVI. Description of a new vipa of ein my: Wi.iiaAM Prescott, M.D., - XVII. On the rising of Siping: ne casein in Califor, ve: fore the winter rains; by H. Gispons, M.D., - 187 XVIII. Notes on the New Almaden pated ‘ais, we B. Siruman, Jr., - . - 190 XIX. Observations on a Seam of Coal s ree Prof, E. B. Anprrws, 194 XX. On the Chimenti Pictures; by Prof. CHARLES A. Joy, - 199 XXI_ Results of some recent Observations on the Solar morse with Remarks; by the Rev. W. R. Dawes, - : XXII. On Molecular Physics; by Prof. W. A. Norton, - - XXIII. Notice of the Remains of a Mastodon recently discovered in Michigan; by Prof. ALEXANDER WINCHELL, - - XXIV. Chladnite of the Bishopville Meteoric Stone proved to be a Magnesian Pyroxene; by Prof. J. Lawkence SmitH, - 225 XXV. Aerial Tides; by Putny Earte Cuase, M.A., etc., - 226 XXVI. Extracts from the Address of Dr. J. W. Dawson, Presi- dent of the Natural History Society of Montreal, - - 231 XXVII. On Celestial Dynamics ; by J. R. Maver, - - 239 XXVIII. On a supposed change of level in a part of the (ee Mountains; by W. K. Scorr, M.D. From a letter to Prof. O. P. Hupparp, - 243 ' XXIX. Notes on the Platinum ‘Mesile “ M. iia: ice Part 1 Il. On Reactions of the Platinum Metals, - - - XXX. Progress of the Geological Survey of California, - - 256 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. sics.—On a new class of Sulphur compounds, Von OzreLte: Ona _yery sensitive reaction for Iron, NaTaNson : On the conversion of mono-carbon acids into the corresponding more highly carbonated di-carbon acids, Kotse and MéxLiER, 265.—On Thallium, Crooxes: On Cobaltic acid, WinxLER, 266—New method of vi CONTENTS. reduction especially a to a large number of metals: Bromid of potassium, a powerful narcotic: Elem of Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical, by WILLIaM ALLEN Miuter, M.D., eet &c.: Manual of Qualitative Chemical sca a Dr. C. R. Fresenius—American edition, edited by Prof. SamurL W. Jou nature of Heat-vibrations, by Mr. James Crouu, 267.—On Periodic seit in 5 Magnetic condition of the Earth, and in the Distribution of Temperature on its Sur- 4 by Mr. eee: F.R.A.S., 269, f di d Norwegian Minerals, by J. A. Mrcx- Vecacn; 274. Lean nica Pin akse N, 275.—Samarskite, FINKENER: Kupfferite : anerite, a new mineral, HERMANN, pibespes cherite, AUHHO Garnet, Pisanr: Native zinc, Pairson: Es Pisani: Infusorial earth from Bohemia; R. Horr- MANN: a cayern uman remains in the Pyrenees, by Messrs. F. Gar- Ricou and L. Martin, 277.—On further discoveries of Flint Implements and Fossil Mammalia, by J. Wyatt, Esq., F.G.S.: On some recent discoveries of Flint Imple- ments in Drift Deposits in Hants and Wilts, by Joun Evans, E-q., F.G.S., 280.— Lake- dwellings or Pfahibanten in Bavaria: On some Bone- and Cave-deposits of indee th F. A uman Remains in Caves at Gibraltar, by Geo. Busk, oe the Rhetic Beds and White Lias of Western and Central Somerset, and t : of a new Fossil Mammal, by io aa Boyp Dawkins, 284 eR ens he Is as Pecan between th i f the Lias and Oolite in England, by Prof. C. Ramsay, F.R.S,, 285.—-On_ the Permian Rocks of the Northwest “England opie extension into Scotland, by Sir Rk. I. Murcuison, K.C.B., ete. d Prof. _R. Harness, F.R.S., etc., 287.-On the Reptiliferous Rocks and ca eau of the Northeast of Scotland, by vo Harxness, F.R.SS., L. & E.: Coal in ierttgre —On the Geology of Scotia, by Rev. D, Honeyman, F.G.S. Botany and Zoology —New sie of the Northern United States, 289.—De Candolle, Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis, etc., 290.—Bryology of British _ N. W. America: Icones Muscorum, by W.S. Sciuivant: On the Currant Worm of bor, Michigan; by Prof. A. WincHELL, 291—Casts of various parts of the structure of the Goriila, 292.—-Animalcules in hee blood : ad Perici Marine _ Crustaceans in freshwater lakes of Norway, 293—Hymeno : Didunculus: Note on the Muscovy Duck, by Mr. Hiti: The sia of Sees Anatomy, by Prof. Tuomas Henry Hoxuey, F.R.S., 294.—Cast of the Megatherium Cuvieri, in the Museum of the Rochester University: Recherches sur la Faune Littorale de Bolgigae, par Prof. P.-J. Van BenEepen, 295. Astronomy.—Note on a Meteor, by Joun —— 295.—List of Radiant Points in Shoot- ing Stars, by Prof. Hzis: New Comet, 296. ATS. I, | eee oe oe Intellig renre BRarth L. pene yA tha f) s Te, Quarry of — - Quignon : Tatersceanie eanel across the Isthmus between the two Americ _ Note supplementary to the article on the Progress of the Geological Survey of pent of n of the Museum of the Bost. Soc. of Nat. History ; _ Universal E; nd, 300: British Assocjation: Sir Charles Lyell : | Sze Me Rabo Prize to Mr. Sorel : Alger’s Cabinet of Minerals for sale, 301. CONTENTS. in Obituary.—Evan Pugh, Bh.D., F.C.S., 301.—Prancis Alger, 302. Miscellaneous Bibliography —Review of American Birds in the Museum of the Smith- sonian Institution, by S. F. Barrp: Observations on the Terrestrial Pulmonifera of i oRsE: The American Annual Encyclopedia and ter of Important Events of the year 1863: Passages from the Life of a Philosopher, by Cuarves BazsacE, 303.—Notices of New Works, 304. eS 5 e o 2 aw =} M + = NUMBER CXIV. t Page. Art. XXXI. Heinrich Rose, - ae - 305 XXXII. On the cellular structure of Actinophry Eichor by Prof. H. James Cuark, - . XXXIII. On the origin of the Prairies of a Valley of the Missis sippi; by Prof. ALExaNDER WINCHELL, “ « $32 XXXIV. On the Nebular Hypothesis ; by Davip iewintoi i M., 344 ae: Note on a Colored derivative of 5 seca by M. y Lea 360 nav. = the aay of es Eteanrie Spark by its aid of Photog raphy; by Prof. Oepen N. Roop, - : - 361 XXXVII. Dependence of Terrestrial oie on Atmonphri Currents; by Prrny Earte Cuassz, M.A., 8.P.A.S - 373 XXXVIII. On the Principal Causes of orang Fluctuations by Priny Earze Cuass, M.A., S.P. - - XXXIX. A new Meteoric Iron from Wares lay: Ohio. : ile remarks on the recently described Meteorite from —_— Chili; by Prof. J. Lawrence Suita, - - - 385 XL. On a Process of Organic Elementary Analysis, by oman: tion in a Stream of Oxygen Gas; by C. M. —— 387 XLI. On Celestial Dynamics; by J. R. Mayer, - 397 XLII. Notice of a new fossil Annelid (Helminthodes tas. from the Lithographic Slates of ihn ; BB: hs os -Marsx, F.G.S.,.- - - - - 415 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. and Physics.—On the wave-lengths of the lumi d ultra , Mas- cart, 415.—On the determination of wave-lengths by means of interference beets, Brenarp, 416.—On the atomic weight of Thorium and the formula of Thoria, Drza- anew earth, Distinde, 419,—Thallium: Refractory character of alumina and silica, C. see Vill CONTENTS. Biscnor: On the magnetic period depending on the Sun’s retation ; by Prof. GusTAa- vus Hinricus, 420.—The Electric Discharge, FeppersEn, 421 —Interesting Electrical Phenomenon; by C. Piazz Smyru, 423. Mineralogy and. Geology.—On Meteoric Irons; by H. Harpincrr: Ona rtificial Anatase, Brookite, and Rutile; by Mr. HauTEFEvILue, 424. a Pichoneille: sprite Chladnite, 425.—Crystals of Rhombohedral and Dimetric y biaxial, Breit- HAuPT: Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650-1860 (History of anc from 1650 to 1860) by Franz von petites Bs sas —Mineralogische Notizen by Friedrich soap Es! ote on the Cotopaxi and Arequipa; by J. D. Dana: nothe- rium an Ele iit antine Merwaial, 427.— H. von Meyer’s Paleontographia ; Siig zu Naturgeschichte der Vorwelt, 428. salt and Zoolo, eink wn ew Sas station for Heather, 428.--Icones Muscorum, or and Descriptions of most of those Mosses peculiar to Eastern artes America Chiels have not been heretofore aac by William S. Sullivant, LL.D, : Species Filicum of Sir W. J. Hooker, 429.—On the Skeleton of the Gare-fowl ‘ile Repnittel: ‘and the probability of its ‘aie an extinct species; by Prof. OwEN: Synopsis of the Bombycide of the United States, of A. S. Packard, Ae poe of American Birds, etc., by Prof. Spencer F. Baird: Cryptochiton Stelleri, 4 Astrono: onomy.—Discovery of another minor Planet, anes ie Comet II, 1864: Tempel's 10th, 1 4 : q | ticity of Mars, and the general ee of its Surface ; by Prof. cree 435. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence —Discovery of Lake-habitations in Bavaria; by Prof. Desor, 437.—On Spontaneous Cicssien and semi-organized bodies; by E. Fremy, .—Charcoal having the solidity and texture of mineral coal formed nade pressure : : Disco script to Prof. Winchell’s article on the Origin of the Prairies ; ieee oe Author, 444.—. jet d’eau made by means of the heat which air, when er glass, derives from | tish ciation: Report to the British Association, at Bath, on a uniform system of Weights a and Measures, 446.—Analysis of a Hot Spring containing Lithium and Cesium in Wheal Clifford; by Dr. W. A. Micuer, V.P.R.S., 447.—On the Temperature of the Rexen; by Dr. Davy: On Crude Paraffin Oil; by Dr. B. H. Pav: German Associa- _ tion, 448.—White Fish of the Great Lakes of North America, 449. ER Alger, 449 —Capt. John Hanning Speke, 449. Miscellaneous Bibliography.—C —Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, 449.—Organie Philoso- phiyor Man's iru pace in Nata by Hven Doueary, M.D. : The Geological Maga- j zine. by T. Rurert Jonszs, F.G.S., etc., assisted ‘ : by B Henry Woopwarp, FGS.,e wes Introduetion to “The Alpine Guide;” by Joun ‘Bann, M.R.LA., F.LS., etc.: Revision of the Polyps of the Eastern Const of the Uni- a ted States; Se hE Youtl, 420--Neiens of Sow Works, 451. a ing to all probability, fee 1 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SEBRIES.] * Art. L—On Certain Harmonies of the Solar System; by Pro- fessor DANIEL Krrkwoop, Indiana State University. I.—Tne Rotations oF THE PLANETS, In 1849, a very simple formula connecting the rotations of the planets, and harmonizing in a remarkable manner with the elements of the solar system so far as known, was communica- _ ted to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. had never been observed, as greater than that o any other lanet. Hence a determination of the true rotary velocity would claims of this planetary law would soon be decided by telescopic i i Fanatics interest. me | If the solar system has resulted, as was supposed by Laplace, from the gradual contraction of a rotating nebulous spheroid, what was probably the physical constitution of the abandoned uatorial rings in the first stages of their separate existence ? The celebrated author of the nebular hypothesis supposed each of the rings in which the Se a originated to have re- volved, during an indefinite period before its dissolution, as one — continuous mass. ‘These zones,” he remarks, ‘“ ought, accord- i to form by their condensation and by the Series, Vor. XXXVIII, No.112—Juxy, 1964. 2 JD. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies g the Solar System. mutual attraction of their Liga ties several concentric rings of vapor circulating about the s The mutual friction of the molecules of each ring ought to sarees some and retard others, until they all had acquired the same angular motion. Conse- the real velocities of the molecules which are further rom the sun ought to be greatest.”* This view has also been system of waves, or else of a confused multitude of ‘evolving Bion wi not arranged in rings and continually coming into col- sion with each other.” Now the physical condition of the pre rocess of separation commenced, we may suppose a continued succession of rings to have been thrown off in close proximity to each other, each revolving round the central mass in accord- ance with Kepler's third law.’ The result, then, of a gradual nite number of concentric rings, or, rather, of Pg ee plan- etary clades all moving in the same direc attraction of some of these particles, Ba anise into close same! to each other, would cause them to unite, “and in this way we may suppose the planetary Ag sy to have been first es- tablished. In the subjoined diagram, let S be the center of the solar mass; ABC and DEF the orbits ry two adjacent planetary nuclei, B and E; ; and H the point of equal attraction between hem. Let also p, p’ be particles revolving round the center, §, in approximate accordance with the third law of Kepler. Their motion is disturbed by the attraction of H, and, in consequence, they finally coalesce with it. But the orbital velocity of p is less than that of E, while, on the other hand, that of p’ is greater. It is obvious, therefore, that they would not approach the nu- cleus in lines normal to its stirfane: The point of contact of the outer catgh would be behind the center, that of the inner one in advance of it. ese particles, then, ‘would act as oblique oe aoe fee Harte’s Translation, vol. ii, p. 3 ce s Astr. Wa taaepe ii, No. 1, Mey 2d, 1851; ok ii, No. 3, June 16th, Vy oad wok be Weed ‘Bth, 1855, Also, Maxwell's Essay on the Stability ek imperty represent the motions of the D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. 3 forces; their tendency being to produce a rotation in a direction contrary to that of the orbital motion. hen the planetary mass, however, had gained considerable magnitude, the solar attraction would produce a tidal elevation on the hemisphere to- ward the sun. The gravitating force of this protuberant matter would maintain the greatest axis, during an indefinite period, in the direction of the central body; thus causing an equality be- : tween the angular velocities of rotation and orbital revolution, pe as is now found to obtain in the case of the secondary anets. Let us now consider the consequences of further condensation. Let S be the center of the solar mass; AC = D = the diameter of a planet’s sphere of attraction ; and ac=the diameter of the vaporiform planet at the close of the epoch of equality between the angular veloc- ities of the rotary and essive motions, It is obvious that the orbital velocity of a particle at ¢ must be greater than that of the center of the mass, while that of a parti¢le at a must be less. Any further contraction of the sphe- - roid must tend therefore, to accelerate the rotation in the direction : : } 4 ; a 4 JD. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. of the orbital motion. It must also be manifest that the rotation- period at the epoch of solidification will depend upon the ratio of actoSE. Now, it ma : be impossible to determine in any particular case what was the diameter of a gas- eous planet at the com- mencement of the accele- ration of the rotary veloc- ity. We may assume, how- ever, with a high degree of probability, that its ra- tio to the diameter of the planet’s sphere of attrac- tion was the same or nearly the same in each instance; or that B:A’:2 D2 Ds (1h) where D, D’ are the diam- eters of the spheres of at- traction, and A, A’, the di- ameters of the planets im- mediately before passing the limit of equality be- tween the periods of rota- tion and revolution. - The law of rotation as originally announced is as follow: s $i-— “Tet P be the point of equal attraction between any planet and the one next interior, the two being in conjuction: P’ that between the same and the one next exterior. Let also D= the sum of the distances of the points P, P’ from the orbit of the planet; which I shall call the diameter of the sphere of the planet’s attraction ; _, D’= the diameter of any other planet’s sphere of attraction found in like manner; __ n= the number of sidereal rotations performed by the former during one sidereal revolution round the sun; __ n'== the number performed by the other; then it will be found SUR, 3 n? : ni2 > D8 ; —/3 7* (2) , now, T, T’= the periodic times of two planets ; 14 t= their ion d, d'= thei 10n 5 » held at Cambridge, 1849, D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. 5 then (2) becomes 2 z ae hdd ee ey ose (=) : (3) ::D?:D’8; or, by Kepler's third law, 3 dz qi n qedigg i? DE +s whence ae. # 3 2 33 (5): : (5) (3) or, assuming the trath of proportion (1), d\3 \ 3 ee oe a z . Se, miei: (5): (5 (4) It is seen on the slightest examination that in the solar nebula, as well as in each of the gaseous planets, the ratio of the revolv- ing or equatorial radius to the radius of gyration hi through- out the entire process of condensation: in other words, that the rate of variation of density from surface to center was cont changing. Were the solar mass expanded so as to fill the earth’s orbit, the rate of variation of density remaining the same, the period of rotation would not be 365 days, but 5457, The diameter corresponding to one revolution in a sidereal year would be only 12,720,000 miles. If we compute the values : the principal radius of gyration when the spheroid extend the present planetary orbits respectively, we find that the sae mass had reached a high degree of central condensation before t s separation, We find, moreover, that the near the surface of the contracting mass. Probably it so great as to produce chemical action, thus forming an in a state of igneous fluidity by the precipitation of ‘the praia portion of the ynebula, long before the exterior parts had passed from their original gaseous condition. It is not necessary to ee are om as has been eel fe history than some = ay the sun. The formation of a single planet from matter diffused around the circumference of a larger circle, would undoubtedly require more time than the aggrega- tion of a ring of smaller dimensions. Possibly there may be 4 Since writing the —s we have been favored with the reading of nig highly ” interesting researches on the nebular hypothesis, by Davin Teowsriper, Esq., Perry City, N. Y. These ped thematical en sustain the probability of the synchronous formation of different members of the solar system. We are grat- ified to know that Mr. T. is preparing a realise on this subject for the press, and trust it may soon be given to the public. 6 OD. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. rings exterior to Neptune still in the nebular state, or at least not yet collected about a single nucleus. It has been shown that, according to the nebular theory, a planet’s time of rotation ought to be some function of the ratio of the radius of its orbit to the diameter of its sphere of attrac- tion. Those ratios are very nearly equal in the case of Jupiter and Saturn; the periods of rotation are also nearly identical: the ratio, however, is somewhat greater in the case of Saturn; so also is the time of rotation. The ratios again are not ver different in the cases of Mercury, Venus, the Earth and Mars; and again in each instance a greater ratio corresponds to a slower rotation. The form of the function as expressed by the equation, -—z =a constant, s iD? was found by a tentative process. This analogy indicates, as we have stated, a longer period of rotation for Uranus than had been conjectured by some astrono- mers. It assigns, however, a physical cause for this slow revo- lution ; while the short period of nine hours and a half, assumed some writers, has no such basis. The best observers have failed to detect any such polar compression of the planet as 89, equal to that of Jupiter or so great, especially in the case of nized. The preponderance of evi- : -* Main's Rudimentary Astronomy, p. 130. D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. 7 dence, therefore, apart from the reason assigned by my analogy, is unquestionably in favor of a long period of rotation. It is easily shown that the equality between the angular ve- locities of rotation and orbital revolution, which obtains in the secondary systems, is not incompatible with the law of rotation, When the volumes of the primary planets had the same ratio to their spheres of attraction as those of the satellites now have to theirs, the former were still in a state of vapor, their masses ex- tending beyond the present orbits of the secondaries, and not having reached, in all probability, the limits of equality between the two angular velocities in their respective cases. Had satellites, at the corresponding epoch in their history, been equally are, so that any increase in rotary velocity would not have been prevented or arrested by solidification, the same law would doubtless have obtained in the secondary systems. I have believed, however, almost from the time of its first announcement, that the statement of my analogy requires some modification. If it be the expression of a physical law, it must depend on the relation between the primitive momentum of ro- tation and that of orbital revolution. Now the time of rotation have been had the entire mass condensed in a single body. suzzth, the mass of Jupiter being 1. The sum of the masses of : : tion of the rotary velocities of these planets from the precipitation of their secondaries may be wholly negle he mass of made for the earth and moon shows that the precipitation of even this mass upon the planet would shorten the period of rotation 8 Dz. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. only about 17 minutes. But with Bond’s estimate of the thick- ness of the ring, this value of the mass would indicate a density more than three times that of Saturn—a greater density than has been found for any planet, primary or secondary, exterior state of the case, to adopt, without alteration, the received value of Saturn’s period of axial revolution, viz: 10h. 29m. 17s. we use the masses of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus, adopted in the American Nautical Almanac, we find the diameter of Saturn’s sphere of attraction = 85478. Hence the constant of rotation C =—, = 985°161; log C= 2°998507. The diameters of ihe Uli a attraction for the other planets are then found from the form log bat dog n/ —log C). The results, bstciea: are as follows :— Diameter of the sphere of attraction of Mercury, 0°1992 é ee e nus, 0°3801 “ 4%: Mf - Earth, 05340 iy “ce “ tc ars, 0 7731 i si ” 2 Jupiter, 48342 % ° = . Saturn, 85478 is int Kabair oe too large, as seems to have been more re- cently admitted by Leverrier himself. We will, therefore, pe Encke’s value, 53537. The calculation is obvious and need no be repeated. We find The mass of Mate = sastaet- it3 Remarks, 1. This value of Mercury’s mass is considerably greater than = found by Encke, but is very nearly identical with Leverrier’s oS d value. Our mass of Mars is somewhat less than Burckhardt’s. Mr.. researches on the ae! of the sun have led him to the ision that a considerable diminution of that value is actually wt of Pipe ag, 1. aoe D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. 9 with the phenomena observe ; : eae Without entering upon any special discussion of this inter- esting subject, we respectfully submit the following considera- tions: investigation of the effects of such a resistance agrees perfectly ed.” 8 1. The hypothesis adopted by Encke in regard to the medium which causes the acceleration of the mean motion of his comet, is that the density varies inversely as the square of the distance from the sun, and that the resistance is proportional to the den- nad of the medium and the square of the velocity of the moving body. * Am. Jour. of Sci. and Arts, Jan., 1864, p. 55. Am. Journ. So1.—Seconp Srnres, Vor. XXXVIII, No. 112.—Jurr, 1864, 2 10 D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. - 2. Granting the existence of an ethereal medium, it would seem unphilosophical to ascribe to it one of the properties of a material fluid—the power of resisting the motion of all bodies moving through it—and to deny it suc He bec in other re- spects. ts condensation, therefore, about the sun and other large bodies must be a necessary consequence 3. This condensation existed in the primitive solar spheroid, before the formation of the planets: the rotation of the spheroid would be communicated to the ether co-existing with it: hence, during the entire history of the planetary system, the ether has re- . This condensed ether must participate in the progressive motion of the solar system 5. Even if we reject the doctrine of the pains: oo of the lanetary system from a rotating nebula, we must still regard the density of the ether as increasing to the center of the system. e sun’s rotation, therefore, would communicate motion to the first and denser portions ; this motion would be transmitted out- ward through successive strata, with a constantly diminishing angular velocity. The motion of the planets themselves through the medium in nearly circular orbits would concur in imparting to it a revolution in it same direction. 6. Whether, therefore, we receive or reject the nebular hy- pothesis, the Beaders "of the ethereal medium to bodies moving in orbits of small eccentricity and in the iret of the sun’s Totation, becomes an infinitesimal quantity. 7. The doctrine of a resisting medium is not generally ac- cepted by astronomers as an established fact, “It is manifest,” says an eminent writer, “that more extensive indications of such a medium must be discovered before the problem of its existence can be considered as having received a definitive solution. It has not yet affected to a sensible extent any of the other celes- tial bodies, and, until such is found to take place, the question relative to it must remain in abeyance.” Il.—Tne Piayetary Distances. As long ago as the commencement of the seventeenth century, the celebrated Kepler observed that the respective distances of the planets from the sun formed nearly a regular poe e series, however, by which those i stances were expre ke uired the interpolation of a term between Mars and Ju Sather _ a fact which led the illustrious German to predict the detection of a planet in that interval. This conjecture attracted but little : on till after the discovery of Uran istance was found to harmonize in a remarkable manner with Kepler's t — ress ‘course regarded é ‘ D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. 11 with considerable interest. Toward the close of the last century, -rofessor Bode, who had given the subject much attention, pub- lished the law of distances which bears his name, but which, as he acknowledged, is due to Professor Titius. According to this formula, the distances of the planets fronmMercury’s orbit form a geometrical series of which the ratio is two. In other words, if we reckon the distances of Venus, the earth, &c., jrom the orbit of Mercury, instead of from the sun, we find that—interpo- lating a term between Mars and Jupiter—the distance of any member of the system is very nearly half that of the next exte- rior. The series is usually expressed as follows :— 4 = 4+3x2°= 44+3X2!=10 44+3 x 22=16 443 X 23=28 &e. &e. The numbers 4, 7, 10, &., represent approximately the rela- tive distances of Mercury, Venus, the earth, &c., from the sun. The ninth term, however, which corresponds to Neptune, is 388, instead of 300. It was, moreover, remarked by Gauss that ‘the member which precedes 4 +3 should not be 4; i.e. 4+ 0, but 4+14. Therefore, between 4 and 4+ 3, there should be an infinite number; or, as Wurm expresses it, for n=1, there is 3.” a+ br", a+br*-!, a+ br”, &e. In the scheme of Bode and Titius, a=4, 6=8, and r=2; in that of Wurm, a= 887, 6 = 293, and r=2. Both fail to represent, even approximately, tlte relative distances of Mercury and Neptune. I have never doubted that the planetary distances were ar- ranged in some discoverable order. These failures, however, in the series of Titius have seemed a sufficient cause for its rejec- tion, or, at least, some considerable modification. I have, for many years, been devoting such thought and attention to the ‘subject as circumstances would permit, and I now propose to submit my results to the public. In the American Journal of Science and Arts, for September, 1852, the fact was noticed that, “if we commence with Neptune, most remote planet known, we shall find that the primary © Cambridge Philosophical Trans., vol. viii, p. 171. ; 12 D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. a the third; the earth and Venus, the fourth; finally, Mercury is without a known companion. It was also remarked that in each of the three complete pairs, the first, second and fourth, the densities of the members are to each other very nearly as their | volumes; and that the facts seemed to indicate “a similarity in the original constitution of the members of each pair, and an intimate mutual dependence or connection in their primitive condition.” It appeared not improbable that in the first stages of their history, Neptune and Uranus constituted a system of closely associated rings; Saturn and Jupiter, another, &c., and that the law of planetary distances might be found in the relative situations of the centers of gyration of those binary rings. In short, my researches on the subject led to the hypothesis that the differ- ences of the radii of gyration of the primitive rings form a geomet- rical series ; or that d= 4 k= dk? =da ko =...= dink? 3 where & = a constant; ee Deny, Ug) + + Gly = M%yy— May M2 Ns» Maan KC, respect ively ; 4 D?2,+D3 , : 13) a se £ 2 ite the radius of gyration of the first pair, Neptune and Uranus; Diy» Dia» &c. = the distances of Neptune, Uranus, &c., from the sun ; Tay 73) &c., = the radii of gyration of the successive binary rings ; Examination of this Hypothesis. — values of r,,,, & and D,,, are thus computed: Having un vr, 1) 25°20061 1 4)== 0'87270 d, D— 17°51756 sy “eee y (1) Secsaed oath k= 17-51756, (2 ?4)—0°87270) & = 768305 —7,,,, tS} we have the equations k = 3°34189 log = 0°5239916 eee tay =e 244123 log = 0°3876087 oe Ds =3'09800 . D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. 13 The radii of gyration of the primitive rings, together with their differences, are as follows:— 1) == 25°20061 | d;,, = 1751756 log = 1-2434736 f.., = T8305 1d... == Satis log = 0-7194821 $5; <2 P4419) d,.y = “1°h08ss log = 0°1954906 M4) == 0°87270\d,,, = 0°469350 log = 16714991 . 5) == 0°40335|d,,, = 0°140455 log == 1:1475076 1») == 0°26289|d,,, = 0042026 log = 26235161 Tq) == 0°22086|d,,, =< 0°012575 log = 2:0995246 Ts) == 0°20828/d,,, = 0:003763 log = 35755331 oy a= 020451) d,,, = 0°001126 log = 3:0515416 19) == 0°20338 | d,,,,= 0°0003369 log = 45275501 Cc. &e. &e. &e. &e. Toe) == 0:20299\d,,, = 0:0000000 log =— @ Remarks. must have been included between the present limits of Mercury’s orbit. The union of the two rings and the formation of a single planet may thus have resulted from the eccentricity of the prim- itive annuli. Bie 2. The sum of the infinite series d,,jk 1751756 K 3°34189 diy day +45) + ke, = 7-5 = —seaarap = 2499762; and 25:20061—24-99762 = 0:20299 = the distance from the sun’s cury been diminished, during the immensity of past time, from the same cause? Or may this slight and only exception to the strict accuracy of the law be referable to zones or groups of asteroids in the vicinity of Mercury’s orbit, the existence of which has been indicated by the researches of Leverrier?™ 4 Runkle’s Math. Monthly, vol. ii, p. 240. 14 D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. / 4. The radius of gyration of the sixth primitive ring is 0-26289. This distance is near] ual to that of Mercury’s poemalion: Between this and the limit, 0°20299, the formula Application to the Secondary Systems. I.——THE SATELLITES OF SATURN, The distances . ache satellites of Saturn, in radii of the pri- mary, are as follo L as, 31408 | Enceladus, 40319 ee Tethys, 4°9926 Dione, 6-399 WI Rhea, 8932 IV Titan, 20-706 * 7 Hyperion, 25°029 ete Tapetus, 64359 This table is taken from Loomis’s Practical Astronomy. The distances, we are informed by the author, ‘ were derived chiefly from Midler, modified in some instances by comparison with Herschel’s ‘Astronomy and. Hind’s Solar System.” A chasm in the order of distances is observed between Rhea and Titan, and exist in sin thas intervals? y career teas these two satellites rs rag nak btain a series of ten terms, in which the eight known distances are ré resented. with perfect accuracy. It is also are that the limit of the ring-forming process, a Pn Aa a eR ES rs | D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. 15 according to this series, is precisely where Bond’s ring is situa- ted, between the body of the planet and the inner bright ring. The interpolated distances are 12°43 and 35°32 respectively. The radii of gyration of the pairs, together with their differ- ences, are as follows :— Names of Satellites. Rad. of Gyr Differences. I. Mimas and Enceladus, 3°61 2°13 II. Tethys and Dione, 5°74 5°08 If. Rhea and —— 10°82 12°13 IV. Titan and Hyperion, 22°95 28°96 Vv. —— and Iapetus, 51°91 | These differences form a geometrical series whose ratio is 2:385. The sum of the series = 50°59, which substracted from 51-91 gives 1:32 as the limit. The series indicates the abandon- ment of an indefinite number of satellites or rings in close prox- imity to each other, between Mimas and this limit. Now Pro- fessor Vaughan has shown that neither a gaseous nor a liquid satellite, of considerable magnitude, would be stable so near the primary.” Hence the probable origin of Saturn’s rings. IL—THE SATELLITES OF JUPITER, If we suppose the third and fourth satellites of Jupiter to have originally constituted one ring, or syste ociated rings, the first and second, another, and that the ratio of the differences of the radii of gyration was the same as in the pri- mary system, we shall find 1,4) = 21°960 equatorial radii of the planet, No) = ‘036 = . -y a5 isgie * ¢ ne d,) = 4166 “ . dk _ = 6 “ “cc “ se 19°869 and 21-960 — 19°869 = 2°091 = the distance from the center of the primary, within which no rings could have been formed. This again is nearly equal to the distance (2:299) of the point of equilibrium between the centripetal and centrifugal forces. sat we discover no decided indications of the binary arrange- ment in the Jovian system. Is a similar relationship then to be found between the respective distances of the satellites them- selves? ‘The four satellites of Jupiter,” says Humboldt, “ pre- sent a certain regularity in their distances, forming nearly the series, 8, 6,12. The distance of the second from the first, ex- pressed in diameters of Jupiter, is 3-6; the distance of the third _ the second, 5°7; and that of the fourth from the third, ® Proc. Am. Assoc. for the Adv. of Sci. 1856, p. 111. 16 D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. 11°6.” This would indicate a value of & for the Jovian system ual to 2; 7a) =3; and the possible separation of secondary asteroids between the limit 3 and the distance 4°5. Our knowledge of the Uranian system is perhaps too imper- fect to justify any conclusion in regard to the prevalence of a perturbations.” Tl—Tue Mean Distances of THE Pertopic CoMETS, AND THEIR Retation To THE Sovar SysTEM. The celebrated Laplace remarked that, according to the nebu- lar hypothesis, ‘the comets do not belong to the solar system.” He regarded them as small nebule which, wandering through space till they come within the sphere of the solar influence, enter our system from without, pass around the sun, and, unless influenced by the attraction of the planets, or the resistance of the ethereal medium, again pass off in parabolas or hyperbolas. Other astronomers believe them to have originated within the yr system. Perhaps each view may be partially correct. Sev- eral comets, among which we may instance that of June, 1861, have moved in hyperbolic orbits. These, together with many whose orbits seem to be parabolas, have probably entered the system ab extra, On the other hand, a large majority of periodic comets are believed to have originated in the system, and to be- long properly to it. The author several years since called atten- tion to the fact that there is an approximate coincidence between the planetary and confetary periods.* There are 13 known the the radius of gyration of the fifth planetary pair greater than the mean distance of Mercury, seemed, it was thought, sufficient ground for its rejection. At the Albany ae D. Kirkwood on certain Harmonies of the Solar System. 17 comets whose periods are included between those of Mars and Jupiter. Their motions are all direct; their orbits are less eccen- tric than those of other comets; and the mean of their inclina- tions is about the same as that of the asteroids. The perihelia 5 are exterior to the earth’s orbit, and the nearest approac’ of Faye’s to the sun is several million miles beyond the orbit of ars. In fact, there is less difference between the eccentricity of the orbit of Faye’s comet and that of some of the asteroids, than between the latter and that of some of the old planets; so that this body may be regarded as a connecting link between planets and comets. These facts appear to indicate some con- nection in their origin with the zone of asteroids. Since the commencement of the present century, five comets have been discovered, which form, with Halley’s, an interesting and remarkable group. The first of these was detected by Pons, on the 20th of July, 1812; the second by Olbers, on the 6th of March, 1815; the third by DeVico, on the 28th of February, 1846; the fourth by Brorsen, on the 20th of July, 1847; and the last by Westphal, on the 27th of June, 1852. The periods of these bodies are all nearly equal, ranging from 68 to 76 years; their eccentricities are not greatly different; and the motions of all, except that of Halley, are direct. The existence of these two cometary groups was noticed several years since both by Hind and Alexander. The latter supposes the cluster whose times of revolution are nearly equal to the period of Uranus, to have had a common origin. He infers from various facts that in the early part of the fourteenth century a large comet ap- roached very near to Mars, if indeed there was not an actual collision between the two bodies. This ancient comet he sup- poses was thus separated into fragments. That most, if not all, of this cometary group have had a common ry we reg as highly probable: we doubt, however, whether the true expla- nation of that origin has yet been proposed. Again: the comet discovered by Peters on the 26th of June, 1846, has a period, according to the discoverer, of about 138 ears; and Tuttle's comet (1858, I.) completes its revolution in 13:6 years. The perihelion of each is exterior to the earth’s orbit, and their motions are direct. The periods of these bodies are a little greater than that of Jupiter. It may also be remarked that the comet which passed its perihelion on the 28th of No- vember, 1793, has, according to Burckhardt, a period of 12 years. The period of the great comet of 1843 is probably nearly the same with that of Neptune. Other coincidences might be pointed out, but the periods in most cases are too doubtful to be ‘Yelied upon. Those which we have adduced seem to point to an approximate coincidence between the mean distances of the planets and those of the periodic comets. Am, Jour. Sct.—Sreconp Serres, Vou. XX XVIII, No. 112.—Junrr, 1864. 3 2 18 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. May not the exterior secondary rings, thrown off b planets, have been at too great a distance to form stable satellites: ? and in such case would not the detached portions of matter re- volve round the sun in very. eccentric orbits, the degree of ec- centricity depending on the direction of their motion at the epochs of separation from the secondary system? If so, the approximate coincidence between ine _ peri riods of planets and comets would follow as a consequen Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, i 29, 1864. Art. IL—Abstract of Prof. Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone; by 8S. W. JOHNSON [Concluded from vol. xxxvii, p. 335.] Tue 2d Section, entitled The Polarization of Oxygen in the Act of Combustion, opens with an examination of the products of the slow oxydation o phosphorus. The white fumes which are al- moist air. He once er aeioy d them to consist merely of shee t phorous acid, formed by the anes of vapor of phosphorus with =~ oxygen. Afterward, he noticed that they do not readily dis- appear upon agitating with water, and since dry PO, absorbs water with great avidity, he assumed in the fumes the existence of an insoluble PO,, isomeric with the ordinary acid. William- son thought the cloud to consist of PO ;, the last result of the action of ozone on vapor of phosphorus. Osann, at first, denied the existence of any of the oxyds of phosphorus in the fumes on account of the permanence of the latter, as they may be assed through water, potassa lye, oil of vitriol, nitric acid, and solutions of nitrate of silver, arsenious acid, protosulphate of iron, and iodid of potassium, without pereeptible change. Find- ing, however, evidence of the presence of PO, in ‘the water over which the cloud had been allowed to ae until it disap- * The perturbation of such Bagi of nebulous matter was the “ general cause to which the writer referred in his paper on the mean «distances of the riodic , Tei ore the ibaa Association in 1858. Nearly the same idea was mrgrees in a letter dated May, 1863, by pag "lag Ab yn Esq., of Perry City, N. Y. At that time, Mr. T. knew nothing of above-mentio pet paper on the subject, so that the A site esis was with -_ etry original. emarks : a, ~ eset id f the ring might detach small portions that woud not unite a iat e eccentricity wo non pend on the angle of projection. Bes ch only vol. ii, p. 160, Art. 18, wap (58) “This being true, the mean distances of should coincide ap eer nately with the mean distances of the planets. I think we should look brn: ec to have the longer periods of revolution, because biases ote nfo eaene ee plement Sue, ‘ , 3 3 A Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 19 peared, Osann adopted Schénbein’s idea of the existence of two modifications of phosphorous acid. . ; Quite recently, as our readers are aware, Schdnbein has given up his former opinions and now maintains that the cloud consists essentially of nztrite of ammonia. The objection with which he now argues the impossibility of its being constituted of phos- phorous acid, viz: its insolubility in water, he does not appear to notice is equally fatal to this new idea. . Meissner, on subjecting a stream of air that had passed over moist phosphorus to the tests already detailed, obtained with it all the phenomena which characterize antozone. Thus, when the air is washed with solution of iodid of potassium, whereb it is deozonized and thereupon is made to pass through water, it emerges from the latter as a thick cloud. The cloud vanishes of itself after the lapse of about half an hour and cannot then be reproduced, though it is scarcely diminished by agitation for a short time with water; when subjected to drying agents, it disappears, but is formed again on renewed contact with water, if too much time is not allowed to transpire. In the air which is acted on by phosphorus there thus appear both ozone and antozone, asin the case of electrized air; but 20 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. In water which h en traversed by the air from moist phosphorus, previously deozonized by means of KI, no nitrous i no ammonia could be detected. Of the latter, at least only those minute traces everywhere recognizable with potassio- iodid of mercury, were observed. The water, thus containing HO, but free from NO, and NH,, contained PO,. When the antozone cloud produced by phos- phorus is received in a perfectly dry and clean vessel, and there allowed to resolve into ordinary oxygen and water, the latter, which deposits as a dew on the walls of the vessel, has an acid reaction, which is not attributable to the minute trace of 10, it contains, but proceeds from PO,, whose presence is readily made out by the usual tests. which accounts for the finding of PO, and PO, by other ob- servers. It is of course only needful to procure sufficient con- tact between the antozone cloud and water, or an alkali, to arrest these substances entirely. When the air clouded by contact with moist phosphorus is made to pass direct through water for a long time, the latter uires an acid reaction from PO,, After the PO, is removed, or neutralized, HO, may be detected by aid of KI, starch and FeOSO,. Nitric acid Meissner found but very rarely and then in but very minute traces.’ It appears that while in electrized air nitrogen is oxydized by the ozone to a considerable extent, in air streaming over phosphorus the phosphorus appropriates the ozone in great measure. _ The results of the mutual action of phosphorus, air, and water are somewhat different, when, asin Schénbein’s experiments, the air is allowed to stagnate over the phosphorus. In the phos- : pee ecid, as we may designate the solution which forms about the phosphorus in the ordinary ozone bottle, there are found _ Nitrogen tev ation?” Phil, Tr., 1861, Pt. I, p. 496. oe # Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 21 PO, and PO,, as has long been known; HO,, as Schénbein discovered,’ and likewise NO,. As regards the last named sub- stance, Meissner states that its ae is but small, more of it — by phosphorus. in order to demonstrate the existence of NO,. For this purpose Meissner freed the liquid of PO, and PO, by BaO, made it alkaline with KO, and, after suitably concentrating, examined it for NO, by means of FeO ilute SO n a few in- of KI mixed with starch. Meissner assures us that this reaction is entirely attributable to a product of the action of ozone upon an ingredient of the organic matter of the sponge, viz: todine ; and that, on concentrating the water pressed from the sponge and adding to it sulphurous acid, a copious separation of iodine occurs. This reaction demonstrates that iodie acid, which de- com I wit , gave the reactions from which Schénbein deduced the formation of NO, in the slow combustion of phos- | phorus. hes : In the examination of the so-called phosphatic acid, Meissner found evidences of the presence in it of another substance, pos- sessed of reducing properties, opposed to the oxydizing Pa md of antozone. As previously observed, solution of pure KI, free O,, when acidified, after some time suffers decomposition with separation of I, and the rapidity as well as the extent of ¢ 22 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. the decomposition are the greater the larger the quantity and the stronger the quality of the acid added. If now, two equal portions of the same solution of KI, each acidified with a drop of the same dilute SO,, are mixed, one with pure wattr and the other with the same volume of what remains of the phosphatic acid solution after it has been precipitated by CaO, it is seen that the separation of iodine is greatly hindered or entirely prevented in the latter case. Further study of this liquid conducted to the result that it owes this reducing quality to ozone. In fact, when air ozonized hosphorus or by electricity is allowed to stand at rest in a flask until all antozone has vanished, and then the flask washed atedly to remove all phoebe acid or deposited matters, the ozone that remains communicates this property to pure water. ater, as the liquid may be called, gradually loses its re- ducing quality when exposed to air or evaporated on the water- bath. Its properties are the opposite of those of HO,, which ~ Wwe may term antozone water. Ozone water and HO, may exist together in the same liquid, and, under certain circumstances, the former prevents the ox ydations which the latter, if alone, would accomplish. This reducing power of ozone water is only relative, and not an absolute and “invariably exhibited quality. = feissner has fonnd indeed no means of directly effecting oxyda- = _ tions by means of ozone water; but he has learned that in some cases it does not limit or counteract oxydizing influences. Solu- tion of KI, as is known, is decomposed by PbO, with Hbstetion of I. The oxygen of PbO, acts accordingly like ozone. This oxydation, so far from being hindered, appears to be promoted | ozone water. Meissner’s observations on this so-called ozone water are, ieteticd confessedly incomplete.* rec however. , a fact noticed twenty years ago by Schonbein, wits found that water which had been “agitated —o a long time with a large volume of air ozonized nie electricity, w e ectro-negative compared with pure water. Schénbein sale that ozone is taken up by water to only a very slight extent, and its voltaic activity is extremely small. Antozone- water, 1.6, BOL, is e og See compared to aie Meissner has experi- which is negative-active oxygen, it operates like a pore as the effect of electro positive tension. hos sphorus must produce this polarizing effect by virtue of what designate its great chemical affinity.” —}) . 256. ieee which HO,, as in Bios Loa mdsege. ae: Afar baetatebnen Hap ne Sh rieiers Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone, 23 platinum plate be suspended in these vapors, it is positively electrized; when, however, later, ozone predominates, the plate becomes negative.”—pp. 266-7. We have not space to give, in full, Meissner’s interesting the- oretical discussion of this topic, which occupies a number of ages of his book, but must confine ourselves chiefly to recount- thus formed be briskly agitated after a little water has been in- troduced within it, the PO, is shortly absorbed; but the mist caused by antozone remains. When a current of air, charged with the products of the rapid combustion of phosphorus, is transmitted through stron se eile a and then through water, the phosphoric acid is mostly retained ; but the cloud is increased in quantity and density. Meissner detected no formation of HO, in this case. Since all the ozone produced when phosphorus burns rapidly 24 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. is consumed by the phosphorus, no oxydation of nitrogen can occur, and, in fact, none of the oxyds of nitrogen are discover- able in the products. It is known that phosphorus, burning with flame in a hmited volume of air, does not wholly exhaust the latter of oxygen. This is due to the fact that phosphorus cannot combine with antozone, but only with ozone: when, therefore, the former separa over and over again, until the temperature so far falls that antozone acquires a considerable degree of permanency, I until only a minute, and to our tests inappreciable, residue remains uncombined. In the slow oxydation of turpentine and other volatile oils, it appears that oxygen is polarized, the ozone being completely rbed by the oil, resin and other products resulting: while antozone, which does not oxydize the oil, remains free or is dis- solved in it as HO,. This view is sustained by the following experiments. When a stream of air is passed through freshly- distilled and pure turpentine, the latter is oxydized, as when exposed to air, but more rapidly ; but no ozone can be detected. Antozone, however, is contained in the oxydized oil: at least, the latter gives, as Schénbein has shown, the reactions of HO,. When electrized but deozonized air is transmitted through the oil, it is oxydized precisely as by a stream of ordinary air; the antozone produced by electrization being without effect. Ozone, however, oxydizes and resinifies the oil with extraordinary rapidity. es dase process doubtless occurs in the slow combustion of ether. In case of zinc, both the ozone and antozone unite with the ~ PS en IN, LE ee ee EE a ee ee ape cal aaa a tees Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone,and Antozone. 25 The formation of antozone in the combustion of hydrogen is proved, also, by the fact that HO, appears as a product. Bottger made the observation that the perfectly neutral water, obtained burning pure hydrogen in the air, liberates iodine from slightly acidulated solution of KI, and likewise reduces an acid- ulated solution of KO,Mn,O,. Béttger (and Schénbein, also, on learning this fact,) was inclined to attribute these reactions to 2; but since the liquid retained these oxydizing and reducing qualities even after concentrating considerably at a boiling heat, and, moreover, gave Schdnbein a negative result on applying his test (KI with FeO,SO,), it was concluded by both these chemists that nitrite of ammonia is produced in this combustion ; a conclusion which they both have since extended to all instances of combustion. may be bo without losing its characteristic qualities; while NH ,O, NO, in tion. The formation of the antozone mist and of HO, ma served with any flame the same as with burning hydrogen, care being taken that the air which surrounds the flame, or is made to stream over it for the purpose of transporting these products into a suitable receiver, be not heated too strong y- _ The experi- ment succeeds easily with the alcohol-flame; butris difficult when a smokeless gas-flame is employed, on account of the high tem- perature of the latter. ~ The antozone produced in the vicinity of a flame is, in great part, destroyed again by the high temperature to which it is ex- posed, even when the flame is situated in the midst of a powerful current of air. When the combustion is slow or smouldering, antozone ap- pears in large quantities, and in presence of moisture forms the characteristic mist or cloud. Tobacco-smoke, according to Meissner, is a genuine antozone mist, though various products of combustion are suspended in it. When a cigar is “smoked” by an air-pump or aspirator, the larger share of these products of Am. Jour. Sc1.—Seconp Szrizs, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 112—Jury, 1864, 4 26 Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. combustion may be removed by means of suitable absorbents; but the mist remains undiminished, and by passing it throu gh water is actually increased in density, Cold tobacco-smoke, when collected in a bottle, slowly disappears in a manner cor- responding to _ noticed in case of the antozone cloud obtained from electrized air. The water, which is an essential part of tobacco-smoke, comes partly from the tobacco itself, partly from the mouth of the smoker. It is a fact of common observation that the smoke which is blown from the mouth is much whiter and more opaque than’ that which curls from the end of the — and by retaining smoke in the mouth for a time, its density is increased. The fact that tobacco-smoke may be passed through water, as in the nargile, without losing its odor or narcotic effect, is due to the property of the antozone cloud to suspend and transport solid matters, which has already been pein Such are Meissner’s views, which certainly have very m probabilities in their favor, although they are not alto gedlele without further need of pusiesasinal confirmation In the third and last division os this work, the author oe cusses the Ozone and Antozone of the Atmosphere. He first re- views the observations of Halley, Kratzenstein, Saussure, and Forbes, regarding the physical structure of mist, and confirms the fact of its vesicular nature. He next discovers by experi- ment that while it is easy to condense moisture from any moist gas or gaseous mixture by cold or rarefaction, a ts impossible to produce a mist unless the gas is oxygen, or contains this element. The water condensed by are means from pure oxygen or from the atmospheric air always exhibits the character of a clond; that, separated from other asa | or mixtures free of oxygen, always assumes directly the form of rain. Where oxygen is present, the I Meissner states, further, that air saturated with moisture gives a cloud on sudden rarefaction until the pressure is reduced to about 8 inches of barometric pressure. At this levity the cloud is, however, Enema a delicate and transitory, and under a less o cloud could be produced. This stand of the barom- eter i sisponds to a height in the atmosphere, above tide-level, of 27,000 feet. According to Kimtz, the lightest and highest clouds, cirrhi, are formed at an average altitude of 20,000, and test altitude of 24,000 feet. The densest artificial clond ? Bermed 3 in the densest air, and - heaviest cumuli are formed within 5,000 feet from the sea-lev From these facts, Meissner “asa to adduce arguments in — favor of the view that all atmospheric clouds are really due to antozone, and consist of antozone in its union with water. We do not propose to follow the author through the details of his discussion of this physical part of his subject. We shall con- he al ie Meissner’s Researches on Oxygen, Ozone, and Antozone. 27 &; — ° ne) pe} w ¢°] = oA 2) ar) =} a. =. ° So Rn 3 o 0g, oS 09 > °o 5 oF 0g & Sq — 3 < ¢, Ne — progressively and spontaneously, and the decline of activity, chemieally or electrically speaking, is commensurate with its: ee a eh ee ee ea ee Oe oe ee an ee hot indeed directly examined the rain of thunder storms for O,. but he reasons with much cogency that the reactions from which Schénbein has deduced the presence of nitrite of ammo- nia in rain-water may be attributable to HO,, as we have already seen, _Evi * 28 C. Abbe on the transparency of the Atmosphere. zone—positive-electrized oxygen—in the atmosphere?” We see at once that the former question may be regarded as answered when the latter finds a satisfactory reply. Meissner considers himself warranted in assuming that what he has shown to be true in the combustion of phosphorus and hydrogen is typical of all processes of oxydation by atmospheric oxygen, and that, accordingly, this element suffers polarization in every instance where its affinities are exerted. “A bit of phosphorus with its immediate surroundings of air and water, in which it slowly Se raaee of the to oes it discusses, and the PeilicoboMG a ae everywhere exhibited by the author. e are bound to say that the assumption of the formation of nitrite of ammonia from nitro- gen and water is refuted by Meissner, and the true origin of the oxyds of nitrogen that occur in nature is satisfactorily explained. The ozone question by these researches acquires a broader basis and more consistent aspeet than it has hitherto possessed, and the new fields of investigation that are displayed through thsead pages are full of invitation and of promise, Arr. IIL—On the Transparency of the Earth’s Atmosphere; by CLEVELAND ABBE. Bovucuer in his Traité d’ Optique and Laplace in his Mécanique Céleste have investigated the effect of the earth’s atmosphere in absorbing the light of celestial luminaries. The latter has shown that, approximately, the logarithm of the intensity of their ns varies inversely as the cosine of their zenith distance, and, m nearly, as the quotient of the refraction divided by the sine of the zenith distance. If, then, assuming any unit of comparison, we observe the in- tensity iat the zenith distance 4, and the intensity I at the ze- nith distance zero, the intensity ol before entrance into the ee ephere being put at 2,, we have . log — —Q.(0).2 E, dog Aas es a aa) Bs or log E= —2— eet 7 F (1) : % EE Bi 6 i is a constant to be determined, (¢) is the density of © » C. Abbe on the transparency of the Atmosphere. 29 the atmosphere at the time and place of observation, and J is the height of a homogeneous atmosphere of the density (9). Therefore we see that logE, varies with the barometer and thermometer. For the more accurate formula we have, z 6 I 00 sie Range teal Maasai or log E= 5 - log E,, (2) where 9 is the observed atmospheric refraction, and —H a 2 constant equal to — ak .Q.1 This last formula depends on the assumption of a uniform temperature throughout the atmosphere, which assumption, says Laplace, can produce no great error. Therefore for the same place and standard height of the barometer and thermometer we should for all celestial luminaries have E, constant. e numerical values of I and 7, in terms of our assumed standard can be determined from two observations of 7, and 7, at the zenith distances @, and 9,. o this end we have, adopting the approximate formula (1), cos 9, log i, (cos 6, —1)—cos 9, log i,(cos 6, —1) aes cos 6, —cos 0, ++ AoE . 086, logi,—logI cos 0, logi,—logI pet cos 0,—1 ae cos 9, —1 : (4) Bouguer has given, on pp. 79-81 of his Traiié, the result of two observations on the brightness of the full moon, which he made at Croisic in Bretagne, as follows: 1725, Nov. 23d, 10h 30m 9,=70° 44’ =i, = 1681 t times that of aE a ye 15 0 6,==238 49 i,==2500 § 4 standard candles, ‘ ee es Whence he deduces, p. 84, that this ratio => is the loss due to the absorptive power of 7469 toises of air having the density of that at his place and time of observation. On the result of these ahi observations he bases the table on page 332, where we find t E, =+ 0:8123, (A) which number is adopted by Laplace in the tenth book of his Mécanique Céleste. As (1), I — > =" 408149, B Ey = 7 3197-0 + (B) assuming of course the barometer to have becn at 30 in. and thermometer 50° F. during the day. On page 81, vol. xxxvi, of this Journal, will be found some observations which Mr. Alyan Clark has made, which will give 30 C. Abbe on the transparency of the Atmosphere. us a second determination of this constant. I was in hopes of securing a longer series of observations accompanied with a record of the barometer and ee — these seem to be the oar ones available for our present Mr. Clark, by diminishing the eareit jacueian of the sun until itis barely visible to the e eye, thus determines its brilliancy in units of the brightness of a faint sixth magnitude star. How- ever much his results may depend on the peculiarities of his method and the delicacy of his eye, yet we may fairly consider them as comparable among themselves. We have then 1863, thes 2, Boston M. T, mis ee: o,.= i= 783100 times that of the peri a é27=1308000 § faintest visible star, Whence we a assuming the barometer and thermometer to have been at standard heights, pa) — 1847689 0 = 7, 1680904 The difference between the values B and C may be considered as due to the diurnal and other changes in the heights of the barometer and thermometer at Croisic and Cambridgeport; to the differences in the transparency of the atmosphere and ‘the annual and diurnal changes in the same; and to the fact that Bouguer observed the moon at night, and ‘Clark the sun by day, therefore, the different laws of variation of temperature in the strata of the atmosphere and the brilliancy of the atmosphere as illumined by these luminaries will introduce discordances. This latter is the most important source of error; the light which we must measure in observations of this nature being the sum of those rays which penetrate the rangeetbgh plus the light of the atmosphere as illumined by those rays which it absorbs, In respect to this point it is very important that observations be made on the stars, comets and moon, as well as the sun. Mr, Clark’s two observations at 18" 30™ and 10™ p. M. are interesting in this relation. They are as Sion Admitting a large cirele of the illuminated air which surrounds the sun he fin ds, April 27th 18h 30m =, =75° 2 = i, = 1055360 Hage that of faint 3 28th 0 10 $,=28 20 i,=1574400 sible star. Treating these observations by equations (8) and (4) we find: I 1606041 re encanta ~~ 1858843 sath leon (P) the rough agreement af which, with the values A, B, C, is due to the Teg ae influence of those rays of the sunlight =+ 0:8017, (C) none to make a — ret vio in- ee, ee ee Se SN ee Hinrichs on Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. 31 of our atmosphere to the rays of heat and the chemical rays as well as to those of light. * The importance of this matter in cer- tain astronomical studies is not to be underrated; since we often notice the tendency to an erroneous estimate of the relative bril- liaucy of a comet’s nucleus and its tail as seen through the even- ing twilight in the most interesting part of its orbit; also in investigations upon the form of our Milky Way based upon the number of stars visible to Herschel in his guages, or observed by Bessel and Argelander in their zones. or the present we shall merely append a table of the com- puted values of E for the two values of E, given in (B) and (C), together with the corresponding values abstracted from the table given by Bouguer, p. 382. The 2d, 8d, and 4th columns give the E which results from assuming 7,=1. The 5th column contains the quotient zc for the value (C) of E,. oO j Bouguer’s Clark’s rk’s 0 gee oe : observations. observations- deni 0° 0°8123 08149 0°8017 1:0000 10 0 8098 08123 0-7990 0°9966 20 08016 042 0°7904 09859 30 07866 0-7894 0°7746 0°9664 40 07624 07654 0°7494 0:9347 50 07237 07272 07091 0 8844 60 06613 0°6639 0 8 08017 70 05474 0°5496 075241 06537 80 03149 0-3076 02801 03494 90 00006 0-0000 0-0000 Art. IV.—On the Distribution of the Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements; by Prof. Gustavus Huyricus, lowa State University.. As soon as I heard of the great discovery of Kirchhoff and Bunsen, I ore sure that the dark lines of the elements would ve to be distributed according to simple laws, and that these ne might lead us to a knowledge o relative dimensions the atoms. But it was only quite recently that I was enabled to study the distribution of these lines in its detail, Prof. Silliman Jr. having kindly sent me Kirchhoff’s two memoirs. Yet I limited my in er to the group of the alkaline earths and iron; for whatsoe ver s true fe some lem ents will also oun applicable to the ficultides ‘of them; and besides Kirchhoff’s easurements are not at all to be considered as final, neither does te give all lines that may be observed: so that the material at hand ean justify only a preliminary GiveatSpation, to be pel and modified by more complete and more accurate observa’ 32 Hinrichs on Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. As it is well known that some —— American experi- menters are engaged in a more accurate and se ba survey of possible be further developed. It might seem that such an investigation could not lead to definite results, since Kirchhoff’s scale is entirely arbitrary and even changing. But within a small range equal differences on this scale must correspond to equal differences in wave length, for whatever the curve may be (we have found it to coincide with a parabola), representing the wave-length as a function of Kirch- hoff’s millimetre-scale, within such narrow limits the curve will coincide with its tangent. We must therefore first see whether the different groups of lines exhibit any order. ommencing with the Calcium-spectrum, we find a group of lines near Fraunhofer’s G. Representing the intensity by I, the scale-division by K, the successive differences by D, we find from Kirchhoff’s table— Group I, d,=5°0. 1 K ; D. i. C. E. 5¢ 2869°7 5-0 1 2869°7 0 4b 64-7 10-0 2 64°7 0 4 54°7 20°5 4 54:7 5¢ 34°2 34°7 5 It is plain that the values of D are as 1: 2:4; considering these ratios as intervals, 2, and calculating from them and the difference the values C, which would correspond to a perfectly regular distribution of the lines, we obtain the error of this theoretical determination H=C—K, as given in the last column. We see, the error is almost nothing—the last one might easily be conceived as the result of the increased range. Hence we find that this group is very regular, having a principal difference of 5:0, or a simple multiple (here successive duplication) thereof. e second group, stretching from 2653‘2 mm. to 2605°8 mm., has a range of 47-4 mm., which appears to be rather large; yet we find (comparing lines of high and similar intensity, those of lower intensity not being uniformly given): Group Il, d,==2-026. L K. D. i C. EK. ae ren 53°2 0-00 ee (62-9 : : Poke | be oe. 822 8616 Es ag Hinrichs on Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. 33 The intervals are not in any simple ratio, but closely approach to 1:2, yet the great range of this group does not authorize us to give great weight to it, Group IlI,d,—=-75. A very bright group of small range. L K, D. i C. 4b 1533-1 , ‘ 33°2 +10 4b S25 ye - 32:45 = "05 4c 30°2 15 9 80°20 “00 5e 207 iin i 28°70 00 6c 22:7 22°70 00 These errors are pesos within the errors of observation. The intervals seem to be rather irregular, but combining the first two we have 4:2: 8, 0 r2:1:4 The sa seein of such combinations will beisocntd apparent in the seque Group = d ==3°3, K. D : C, E. ad 1235-0 34° ar 4c 29°6 ‘; : 29°6 0 od nee ; 28:3 ‘0 bd ae 24°4 sal, of ad OM x. Se : 21:8 42 3c cS ee : 19°2 0-0 5d 17:8 179 +l Group V, d 5 K. D i C. E 2¢ g049 895°4 + 4b seo 30) : 84-9 0 5b e995. 7g) ' 63-9 0 3d 60-2 60-4 ey only having an error in the extremes. Group Mi 52-3. K. D i C. E. si 740°9 3 40°8 ses’ 3b 36-9 vi : 36-2 Pa 56 317 7 1 316 — ‘l 26 29-0 99. 4 29°3 + °3 2c i OP ie 201 0 26 178 17-8 ‘0 34 Hinrichs on Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. I. The mutual distances of the different lines in ue separate at are multiples of the smallest distance in such g roceed further, we must remember that Kirchhoff himself a Ghewibaice that he did not map all the lines he saw; besides, we know that many lines have been discovered which he did not see. Now the intensity of a line is certainly a less import- ant element than its place; hence it may be that some lines are mapped while corresponding ones are not. Thereby we are per- mitted to group several lines into one group which we will call a all combination, since it consists entirely of actually ob- served lin It would, on account of the above, likewise be proper to iat hypothetical lines, thus dividing a given inter- val into a wirtual combination ; but since such divisions sii iven by the numbers representing the interval, and since we desire to keep this part of our article entirely free "from any hypotiens. it being our purpose to show just what the given facts mean— we will not make any further use of such virtual combinations; what is here said will be snfficient to make the experimenter look to those places of the spectrum which are pointed out by such combinations, e six groups of the enginn aes show the following remarkable physical combinations Group I, interval: observed 1 : 2 4. Group Il, range too great, pelt i oprees the ratio of 1 to 2. Group Ul, observed 1:3:2: physical 4 :2:8, or 2:1:4 Group IV, observed 4 : sake 3332.9.5:3 physical 4 : ee epee ee #4? € or Group V, observed 3: 6:1 Group VI, observed 2:2:1:4:1 physical oe ie Soa | or en 5 These numbers show IL. The intervals in the different groups may be expressed in very - simple numbers, as 1, 2, 3 Thus there is a very great harmony between the intervals of the same group. If this vicheeateeing is to be admitted as a physical ‘fact, it must alg t the whole spectrum of an ele- — And if our riotion ve a physical group, as containing rrespondi me lines, is correct, these p ‘en groups must have ding intervals throughout t e find from the preced- pe me Hinrichs on Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. 35 Physical interval. Group I, d,=5-0 Ae 28 OD) “TI, d,=2°026 A,= 5d,=10'13] “TIL, dj= *75 A,=14d,=105 “IV, d,=1'3 A,= 8d,=104 . NY, ae A <=: 36s IOe “ VI, d,=23 A,= 4d,= 92 5d,=11'2 lengths being for this group considerable. The whole of the brilliant group III has been considered as A,, it forming deci- dedly a natural group. The great approximation of the values eee et wave-lengths will prove very nearly equal throughout. ut now we must farther compare not the range of a group but 1e physical signification ; they may prove to be the only yet known members of less intense groups. Comparing the values of Kirchhoff’s scale with the well known wave-lengths of Fraunhofer’s principal lines, we found by a graphical interpolation the following reduction to wave-length for the various single lines or groups: K. Wave length Differences G.=0™-0042-914+ if d= 8. Group I, 2823 + 0-0 ite + 2632 15tol'9 — 20—1 or +3 6c, 2058°0 57 73 2c, 18328 7-4 904-2 56, 1627-2 89 1104-1 “ «1588 96to9S 120 2b, 1443-5 5 41 “ TV, 1238 12°8 163 1029-3 15°4 195-.-2 V, 825 19°7 250 —-3 “ VI, 742 22:3 285 —-] 86 Hinrichs on Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. _Greater degree of accuracy can not be attained before we have direct measurements of these wave-lengths like those recently made by Hisenlohr. The existing facts give these differences as a of d=8=0™"-(00008 between the different groups of ines. The intervals appear not very regular, but smallest (equal to 0) near the brilliant group III. Extending our view of physical combinations (i. e., such as are marked by actually known lines) to the whole of the spectrum, we obtain the following intervals: Observed, 2:36 223 2952593 7886::32 1 Sol —_ Physical, 2:5: 6 BB 2B Sed ' + oF T 6 +, CO, OSS both of which are almost as simple as possible. The latter would be formed of equal intervals, 6, if the last interval ex- tended beyond 641 mm. K, and if some line should be diseoy- ered within the last observed interval, i. e., about midway be- tween 2650 and 2840 mm. K. Hence the existing observations make it very probable that IV. The principal corresponding lines or groups of lines are equi- distant in regard to their wave-lengths. It will be perceived that these successive laws may be con- sidered as generalizations of the same principle. Hence it is of the utmost importance to see how far other substances give evi- dence of the same laws. We will first consider the other alka- line earths. The spectrum of strontium, as given by Kirchhoff, is too defi- cient yet to be of any consequence. The darium spectram is more complete, but we have too few lines to discern the physical groups; therefore it seems best to rely on the more intense lines as corresponding ones,’ We ob- tain as before: K. G==0""-00042-'914 Differences. 15 2502-4 4c 2 is 1 6b 2461-2 2-8 min = 2031" $-4—=38-4-1 6c 1989°5 62 : 16 13714 11-0 4840-44 le 1287°5 i ee 8 3b 1274-2 12-1 2a 1083.0 143 oie 2a 1031-8 15°4 bis 16 890-2 $-1—-38—-2 4b 874'3 18°5 3a 719°6 19°8 13=- 64-2 2 7187 oe him teenie ioe pan ow Bey enn Hinrichs on Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. 37 Giving the intervals Observed, oh toe 24 8 ee —- ——~ Physical, eet Bt, ee These numbers thus confirm the conclusions drawn from the calcium spectrum. At the same time there appears yet one most remarkable new relation if we compare the interval 40 of ba- rium, which interval seems to be a physical one, with the corres- ponding interval 60 of calcium. For we have Calcium, O= °8 hence 60=—4°8 Barium, O=1°'1 « 40= 4°4 or only a difference of 0™™ 000004 in wave-length between numbers as large as 0™™-00005. Is this physical interval for calcium actually the same as that for barium? Only more accu- rate observations can decide it; but if it proves equal, very great consequences will flow out of it. The magnesium spectrum is represented by Kirchhoff as but one briliant group. We have: Le ; 0. E. Ge 1655°6 58 +8 oe : 48-8 0-0 de 847 5 34°8 4 showing d=7‘0 and conform to the first and second laws (I. and II Thus the four laws, first found for the calcium spectrum, are true for all the members of the group of alkaline earths, as fa: as their spectra are known. From this we conclude that they are essentially correct for all elements. How far this generalization is warranted we will now test by one of the most remarkable ectra: the brilliant and rich spectrum of ‘ron, especially the three great groups of lines in this spectrum, groups almost with- out parallel both in regard to range, intensity, and closeness o the lines. Using the same signs as before, we : Tron, Group I, d,='8, A, =7d ,=5'6. A K. D. i. C. E. 4b ar ae gos cate — re oe hel be 178 0 5d 31:3 86 7 31:4 +1 4a 39°9 ot 40-2 4.3 6c 42°6 20 . 42-6 ‘0 4d 45°6 458 +2 Intervals, observed, 8:13:17:11:3:4 —_—o —o_ —_~ physical, 21 : 28 : 7 or, oa, =: 44, °% 4; 38 Hinrichs on Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. thus having the simple ratio 3: 4:1, and giving the physical — difference 4, =7d.=5'6. a Group Il, dy, A 1d $4 L K. D. t C. E. is 4d —-: 1387-0 aie ‘ 874 +} “4 6c 43°5 ie a 438 +4 8 5d 511 hig : $8 et 5b 52°7 is is $46. 4 41 5b 62:9 i ‘ 630 +1 6d 67-0 pi 7 67-0 0-0 5b 72°6 “jhe ‘ss 72°6 0-0 4e 80°5 aye : 806 +1 4c 84:7 “7 6 846 - ‘1 6c 89°4 ta 5 89-4 0-0 5d 90°9 re 91:0 - A 5 97-5 oi ‘ 974 = 4¢ 1401°6 ae > i0l4 ~— 2 4c 10°5 aie 14 102 = 38 6c 21°5 nee > 14. — 1 5b 23-0 ne ‘ 23-0 0-0 5b 25-4 a : 25°4 0-0 5b 28-2* 278 8 et As starting point for C we made E=0 for the principal lines in © the eaiddle of the group, i.e., Bi: 6d; and 89, 6c. Around these # lines E are very small, but o e extremity SE is positive, onthe other negative: thus Piaay | indicating that the greater values of E are due to the great range—almost 100 mm. K—of the ~ up, a range so great that the wave-lengths can not through- out fuily ¢ correspond to the yalues K on Kirchhoff’s scale. As to the intervals, they again seem at first sight ‘to be very eapricious; yet w e find a, observed, 82.9.522512:62.72102526:2:8: 5:02:14: 9:32.28 ye Nerensacinapaetionetel ——— nae mere physical, 17 : My : 22 pat Ee Sie? ee or, 2A,-+-3d, : 24, : 84,44, SA, «7 OA, FeAl TAL ee the extremities of “which series may be adjusted by extending the observation, thus givin Sdy-+ 2A, : 2A ie a oe > 24,:24,:4,+44,, @ symmetrical series of 74,, on each side of the mann d,, and oo the left 3d,, on the right 4, +d, or 8d,; yet it may be that further ebservations will pt et the eens ingerval 22d, to 21d, and thereby simplify the series. We m t accept the observa- tions at hand, and these show that 4, ="d, is the physical dif- ference of this group, and that these divisions of higher order are erin on le, symmetric in regard to the middle of the whole cing aia that not boul A4,=A,, as ought to be, joi — ve Fe Hinrichs. on Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. 39 Group Il, d,=9; 4,=3d,==2°7. I. K Dz. : i. Cc. E. 5c 2001°6 2001°6 00 6 52 AH ; 5-2 ‘0 6c 72 33°9 38 70 — 2 6c 413 9 1 41-2 at 6b 42-2 ie i 421 — 1] 6c 58-0 a : 583 ++ 3 Be 66:2 3 ; 664 +2 5c 67-1 149 17 67°3 + 2 6a 82:0 826 860+ 6 The great value of the last E undoubtedly is caused by the range of the last interval at the end of a great group; ‘all the other values of E are very small. The intervals are Observed, 4:2:38:1:18:9: — 17 a co 6: 80. 41828: “18 QA, :18A,:64,:84,:6A, and oe pea of pies port ier -18 +6: 336 i —— enemy : give further Os ee thus pied a symmetric division—here into equal parts—of this | great ¢ | The catas of A, differs considerably from 4,=4, ; ig it is obvious that 24, —54 is almost the same as A.A. = These most magnificent groups of the elementary Cobre thus fully confirm the ‘four laws deduced from the calcium s and extended to the alkaline earths. He nce we may conclude . that those laws, in substance, will be found applicable to all ele- ) mentary spectra. But until much more rich and accurate meas- urements, combined with direct determinations of wave-length, . have been made, a further prosecution of this investigation will useless; we therefore content ourselves with this prelimin ‘ research, ho ing that future investigations based upon richer j material wil a ge tend these laws, and by dividing the larger in- tervals, rere that these ronerentet lines are not distributed at random but as regular as the stripes produced by diffraction. far [ "he observations are now at hand, the above four laws seem to point to the following one, including them all: The dark lines of any element are oper distributed over the spectrum, uidistant groups consisting of _equidis- tant lines; but the intensity of these lines regularly increases and diminishes, so as to obliterate : number of Prete and even of groups, thus producing gaps in t alg aes es, gaps which only be hi high eka powers—intense line of light ed great seinen ideo —can completed. 40 Hinrichs on Dark Lines in the Spectra of the Elements. Such observations therefore are most ardently desired, and it seems urgent to construct telescopes for this particular purpose. If we, in the preceding, have succeeded in making the regu- larity of the apparently highly irregular lines probable—for they certainly show ion and simple laws in their distribution —it may naturally be asked: what causes this distribution, and what will probably be the reward of continued researches in this direction ? e lines can only have one of the following two sources. They are either produced by the dimensions of the solid parti: cles or by the intervals between them, i.e., their distances. The —~ latter is impossible, for these lines remain absolutely the same — under such different circumstances as cannot but to some extent change the mutual distance of the particles. Hence the lines must be produced by the bulk of the particles or atoms themselves, andan exact knowledge of these laws and distances must lead us to a knowl- _ edge of the relative dimensions of the atoms, both as to length, breadth, and Peete ess. Thus optics will give us the form and B1Ze, as ‘chem stry has given us the weight of the atoms. The remarkable venalt attained by Pe ring the distance between the calcium groups (48) and the barium groups (4°4) seems to © show that one dancin of the atoms of these two elements is 7 nearly—or if the above values should be found to be exactly 4 equal—perfectly equal. How great the interest of such deter- minations is in regard to the constitution of the elementary bodies needs not to be accentuated. It may yet lead to an ex- perimental demonstration of the existence of a primitive sub- stance, the element of the elements. How the dimensions of the atoms produce these lines is an- other question, and it is Mea difficult even merely to suggest any probable connecting link between the dimension of the — atoms and the luminous wave. But this can not be any serious obstacle to the practical application to the analysis of the elements: for so the alkalies were decomposed by electricity although the connection -arvenpie therein is but imperfectly known — even at the present. : But, however this one be, we hope those physicists who are — fier red by the necessary delicate apparatus will find in this un- — pretending amps investigation sufficient inducement to test—an e think probable—to confirm and complete the — result here aodeiiis from the existing Seer eakionis that: thedark — of the spectra of elementary bodies are regularly distributed. 4 Towa City, March, 1864, = od W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. 41 Art. V.—On the structural characters of the so-called Melanians of North America; by Dr. WM. Stimpson. + In the very interesting series of lectures on the Mollusca, by Dr. P. P. Carpenter, recently published by the Smithsonian Insti- tution, under the heading of ‘Fam. Melaniide” the following pemeee occurs: ‘It is much to be regretted that American col- ectors, who have not been slow to avail themselves of the exu- berant riches lying at their feet, which are so acceptable to European naturalists, have so generally entirely neglected the preservation and study of the opercula; and that so many points in the physiology and habits of these easily-observed animals have not yet been made known.” There is only too much of truth in this remark. Not only “American collectors,” but American naturalists, have been hitherto content with describing, from the shell alone, the multi- tudes of species of Melanians which swarm in our fresh-water streams and lakes, without any attempt to acquire a knowledge of the structure of these animals, or to determine the relations of while studying the characters of our North American Amunico! and [ will present here the results of the few observations which * Smithsonian Report for 1860, p. 206. * The following Coes to ‘pri dete of this species: Paludina dissimilis Say, me igrescens Conrad, A. dentata Couth., A. carinata DeKay, and A. trivit- tata DeKay. All these forms are found living together in the Potomac above “ Lit- tle Falls,” and the exact similarity of the soft parts of the animal, in pattern of Coloration, etc., in all of them, leads me to regard them as specifically identical. Ax. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Series, Vor. XXXVIII, No. 112.—Juxy, 1864. 6 42 W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. that Iam convinced that they cannot be separated genericall Se other than conchological grounds. The same is true wit rd to some other genera of ths family, in iihoh even the neric a eee se But let it not be understood from these re- marks that I deny the convenience and expediency of keeping separate as genera these groups founded on the characters of the shell. As long as our nomenclature is binomial and not trino- mial, every well-marked group of species should be kept distinct as a genus, however trivial in importance the characters upon which it is based may seem to be; and this is all the more ne- cessary in families containing a very large number of forms. A genus is simply the ultimate subdivision of species considered in respect to their relations to each other, and the elimination of the term “subgenus” from our categories seems to be require by the very nature of our binomial nomenclature. The following brief account of the structural characters of Senay Credobrandliite Gas pte as is Bn ed by the diverse character of the external ahs organ General Characters.— ‘he head is ‘phovided with a rather large and somewhat elon ated rostrum, tapering very mgt _and projecting normally considerably beyond the anterior — n of the foot. This rostrum or snout possesses consider- ible mobility and has a strong resemblance in physiognomy to that of a hog, of which one cannot fail to be reminded while watching a crowd of these Melanians feeding at the river margin. It is somewhat contractile, and is wrinkled transversely upon the upper surface, except when protruded to its full extent, when the oe isappear. In the living animal it is but little de- t it becomes much flattened in spirits. It is termina-— ted by ity oval disk, which is emarginated at the middle in front — and behind; the mouth is indicated by a longitudinal slit zs the centre, extending nearly to the posterior margin. The ceal | ee is very little retractile, and its retraction is not ssschepatal by an oe eo of the extremity of the rostrum. The jaws, according to Troschel,*® con very numerous little scales, which Bed a polygoral, and for pe most part a hexagonal, form. teeth on the lingual ribbon are arranged in seven rows, @ dy: 8), and their characteristics, according to the author above quoted, (whose observations on this point I have in part PRN ge ths He, Re EMT Mee Nee oy ee . * ett W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. 43 water to the gills. The duct of the generative organ lies along the right side of the pallial cavity, in the angle formed by the cover any opening in either lamina at this point, so that the gen- erative products are probably discharged from the inner surfaces of, and between, the laminze, which conduct them like a channel toward the external element. The rectum lies in the usual posi- tion, parallel with and close above (to the right of) the genera- tive duct. The fieces are not voided in a continuous worm-like cylinder, as in many gasteropods, but the cylinder is divided transversely, in the rectum, into sausage-shaped sections. Branchie,—The gills, as in most other Ctenobranchiates, are two in number, lying upon the inner surface of the mantle. The principal or comb-like gill‘ is much elongated, extending to the * It is difficult to imagine > be what H. & A. Adams base their character of the he Melaniide,—“gill composed of rigid, cylindrical plates.” (Gen. of i, 293.) The italics are my own. 44 W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. bottom of the pallial cavity. Its width anteriorly is about two- thirds that of the rostrum, but it becomes gradually narrower posteriorly. re consists of ‘fifty or more thin triangular lamina, the height of which is less than their length at the base of at- tachment. The supplementary or feather-shaped gill® is rudi- mentary, reduced to the simple mid-rib, which forms a short, = | linear, fleshy ridge between the left commissure of the mantle and the base of the principal gill, to which it is parallel. y specimens are not in sufficiently good condition to enable me to trace the position of the seta a (the “organ of vis- cosity ” of Cuvier) and its apert Sexual differences.—The Prowobe mvoliats Gasteropods are dis- tinguished as an order from the Pulmonates and Tectibranchs, by having the opposite sexual organs in different individuals, instead of existing together in the same individual. Prior to - the more recent investigations into the structure of the genital =| system in this order, the animals of a considerable number of =| the families composing it were ee cuppoeed to be hermaphrodites, 7 For example, Cuvier states that the sexes are united in the mol- lusks composing his orders Scutibranchiata, Cyclobranchiata, and Tubulibranchiata. And SS some of the most recent authori- ties still continue to regard some of these animals as hermaphro- dites. Carpenter, in his “A sides ” published in 1861, ones that 4 in the order rapes (in which he includes the Troc hide, | Turbinide, etc.) “the arrangements for the continuance of the species, instead of eee separated on different individuals, are united in the same individual, which is supposed to be capable | M - of self-impregnation.”* And Moquin-Tandon, in his work on the terrestial and fluviatile Mollusks of France, and inaspecial article, describes an organ in the generative apparatus of Valvata, = which he considers to be an arab toa gland.” So there | are said to be hermaphrodite Littorinz. But the Trochidz and Turbinide sad all of the Scutibranchi- ata are now known to have the sexes distinct; that the same is the case in the Cyclobranchiata, has been shown b y R. Wagner* and Milne Edwards;’ and that the Tubulibranchiata are not hermaphrodites, has ‘been established by the observations of von Siebold” upon Vermetus, the exactitude of which has been _® It should here be remarked, however, that the function of this organ is a matter ‘controversy. Some have considered it a color gland. But it has been generally regarded as a supplementary gill; and in those genera in which it is most largely > ge aie as Buecinum, Natica, and Cyprea, it pestsiols has a branchiiform struc- I wih the to ture. I: regard it as a true gill, homologous with the right gill of ost same structure and apparently th the same — al orca if -* Smit fates for 1860, = —— tag ologie Bi, 1852), Pear = a — df . é : a rts W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. 45 recently confirmed by Lucaze-Duthiers." Indeed, wherever the generative organs of any of the Prosobranchiates have been sub- mitted to a thorough examination, the sexes have been found to be distinct, and it may now be considered safe to conclude that they are so in all of them. In the groups to which the Melanians have been supposed to ) n might well have been expected. Yet I did not succeed in find- ing it in any of my specimens; and the best endeavors to dis- criminate the sexes by dissection of the internal organs of gene- ration were baffled by their similarity in all individuals, until the microscopic test was applied, when all doubts were removed b the discovery of ova in that organ in some individuals, and of Spermatic particles in others, while the two were never 1. found together; proving the organ in one case to be an Ovary, and in the other a testis. The form of the sper- matic particles in Velania virginica is nearly represent- in fig. 1; the tails should be more slender. The fact being thus ascertained that the sexes are distinct in these animals, notwithstanding the agreement in form of the respective organs of generation, and the absence of a copulatory organ in the male, search was made for some external character by which the sexes might be distin- guished, and it was shortly found that all those individuals in Which the genital organ contained ova, had a conspicuous slit or sinus in the right side of the foot, about midway between the tentacle and the operculigerous lobe; while in those : in which the organ contained spermatozoa, this sinus : Was entirely absent. Fig. 2 illustrates the position of the sinus in the female of Mudalia dissimilis. _ The female Melanian, then, may be distinguished m the male by the presence of this sinus. It_ Consists of a deep pit on the impressed line mentioned in the description of the body and foot, from which a canal, formed by a fold of the superior parieties of the pedal muscles, extends downward nearly to the margin of the pedal dise. My observa- tions have not extended far enough to enable me to ascertain u ; Siti 209. - rete on vis [eh sangied te sa rere Melaniidew by Lea. (Observa- tions on the genus Unio, etc, vol. ix, (1862), p. 40). 46 W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. In view of these remarkable characters of the sexual system, to packs the propriety of dividing the Tzenioglossate Cteno- branchiata into two groups, found it. The only family of Ctenobranchiates in which the absence of a male organ has previously been known to occur, is that of the Vermetidz, which have been recently made the subject of an anatomical investigation by Lucaze-Duthiers. As thes sessile animals, each individual being glued to its place upon some foreign body, and therefore unable to seek out a mate, an intromittent organ would be entirely useless to the male. Cuvier, reasoning @ priori, deduced from this fact of their sessile habits the view entertained by him, namely, that they must have the ower of self-impregnation; and he consequently separated them m the Ctenobranchiata as a distinct order, under the name of Tubulibranchiata. But the circumstance of sessile life is im reality not inconsistent with separation of the sexes. There is no difficulty in conceiving that the impregnation may take place - in the way which is known to occur in the Lamellibranchiata, _ the spermatic particles reaching the ovary of the female throug! the medium of the water, into which they are discharged by the ale. In our freely-moving Melanians, however, such a mode of impregnation is quite unnecessary; it is far more probable : : * Verg. Anat. der wirbellosen Thiere, 1848. W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. 47 the name Anandria. Their lingual dentition is of the same type (8, 1, 3), though differing considerably in details. And it is not improbable that the Turritellide and some of the Cerithia must be referred to the same tribe, although I confess that the suggestion is based upon the examination of a limited number of individuals preserved in spirits. My opinion with regard to the Turritellide is strengthened by the remark of Forbes and anley in their description of this family," that “the sexes are probably united ;” an idea perhaps founded upon the absence of a copulatory organ in the male. And in Kiener’s figure of the Soft parts of Turritella duplicata Lam.," there is represented sinus in the side of the body and foot somewhat like that of the female Melanian Sweeping. The first published description which I have been able to find tentacles, upon an enlargement of the outside basal portion which the eyes are situated, but never beyond the middle of the tentacle; the mouth is, provided with a double row of file-like ? ‘ . - Mauzzie, slightly thickened, and of medium size; edge of the mantle continuous and simple. The exposed parts are colored with blackish upon a yellowish ground, which run transversely : * Thave every reason to believe that the Old-World Melanians are also charac- ized by the absence of copulatory organs, but will not include them in the same roup with the American species, until the fact is established by the study of the animals, or at least of well-preserv holic specimens, _ & British Mollusea, vol. iii, p. 171. a eee ™ Kiener’s “ Teonographie Coquilles vivantes ; Turritelle, pl. 1 * American Journal of Arts and Sciences, xli, (1841), 22. * ae ee wy Fae * 48 W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. across the rostrum and tentacles. Oviparous.” The main fact of importance here brought out is that the animal is oviparous; the statement that the eyes are never beyond the middle of the tentacle would have been better left out, as it might lead to the Beaton that they were pene placed near or at the which is never the case; the mistake with regard to the ont teeth is quite hetaeed. 2 as the: armature of the tongue was little understood at that tirae; and the other characters men- tioned (except the colors) are common to a large number of Ros- trifers, but the description is satisfactory as far as it goes. In his subsequent remarks in the same paper, Prof. H. considers Anculosa to be intermediate between Melania and Melanopsis, and to be distinct from Jflaniu yirginica in the small size and discoidal shape of its foot. But, though the foot may assume this shape when contracted in the act of adhering to a rock in a strong current, it is not dissimilar to that of — in its normal shape, though undoubtedly somewhat shorte the other hand, the approximation of Anculosa to Helanigitts is eestor: as the typical fresh-water forms of the latter group ave the foot prolonged anteriorly beyond the tip of the cian character never seen in the true Meenas The Melanopsis-group seems to be but little understood; so of os aay referred to it (the Clionelle),* as I have cease , are ee and closely allied to the Pleurotomide, Sagiiaris to Clava The next notice on mer structure of these animals occurs in Professor Baird’s translation of the “ pts, Encyelo- ia,” (New York, 1851), article Mollusca, vol. ii, p. the pen of Prof. Haldeman. In this work the Malaniide consti- tute the first family of the Ctenobranchiata, which is thus char- acterized: ‘The mantle is simple, without fringe or siphon ; the head ends in a short trunk, and the food is vegetable, chiefly decaying Alge.” The fami: y is made to include - Melania, Litto- rind, Planazis, Eulima, Paludina, Amnicola, Valvata | Ampulla- ria, Leptoxis, ‘Melanopsis, e and (doubtfally) Scalaria ; ° thus uniting Lamarck’s Mélaniens and Péristomiens, and adding a few genera from various one families. The rather comprehen- sive character of this “ family,” as understood by Prof. Haldeman, ms to depend upon the entirely unwarrantable dependence Seca upon the ornamentation of the mantle edge, as a character . yf importance for purposes of classification. But it must here 9¢ remarked that this character, upon which Prof. H. so strongly nsists in all of his papers, is one of very slight importance, as er ce gt noides = inwome deg eae eae So W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. 49 are even species in which the margin of the branchial siphon (perhaps the most important part of the mantle-edge) is t re are, however, plenty of Cerithia in which the mantle is simple-edged, and these animals have much more intimate relations to Melania than have most of the genera included in “Fam. 1, Melaniidee.” Dr. Lea, in the ninth volume of his “Observations on the genus Unio,” etc. and in minor papers published previously, recognizing the importance of subdividing the numerically enor- mous collection of forms commonly included under the “genus Melania,” has very properly proposed distinct generic names for the several groups of species which are indicated by the con- chological characters. Whether these characters are truly the most important that can be discovered, we do not pretend to de- cide; but there is no doubt that distinct types exist, around which the species may be grouped, in accordance with their affinities. That these genera run into each other, is no argument against the necessity of their acceptance, for the ‘same may be Said of very many genera in all classes of the animal kingdom, especially when we study the remains of their representatives In geological times. Dr. Lea, has, however, erroneously included the genus Amnicola in his family Melaniide.” That —_ be- longs to an entirely different group, near! y allied to the Rissoidee, (if not, indeed, belonging to that family) ; the intromittent organ in the male being distinctly exserted. The next-published observations upon the soft parts of Amer- describes J. subu- terpreted its nature, and considered it a specific character, Thus ; MS z ‘ i pais genus Unio, etc., vol. ix, (1862), p. 40. ie Pecoasiigs ot tes Philadelphia Acad. Nat. Sci. for 1862, p. 588. Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Szrms, VoL. XXXVII, No. 112—Juxr, 1864. rg * 50 W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. ; _ Ata meeting of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- delphia, in February, 1863,” Dr. Lea “read part of a letter from Dr. Lewis, of Mohawk, New York, in which he said that he was ratified with one thing, which was not apparent to him at first. n his notes on Melania subularis Lea, and M. exilis Hald.,two | shells. Dr. Lewis thinks the sinus in the sides of subularis is peculiar, and will be found in the whole group of Trypanostoma and the granular sides of exilis in the whole group of Goniobasis.” ave here a proposition to consider the lateral sinus, which is now demonstrated to be a sexual difference, as a generic char- acter. This simply shows how necessary it is to become ac- quainted with the general structure of the animals we investi- gate, before studying their generic and specific relations. : In connection with the subject of the relations of this sinus, it may be remarked incidentally that Dr. Lewis, in a paper pub- lished in 1861," gives a description of the so-called Amnicola lapidaria (Pomatiopsis), stating that the soft parts in this species are “identical in form with Jfelania ;” and in the paperin the | Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia = & above cited, he gives a detailed account of his reasons for refer- ring the species to the neighborhood of Melania, basing them chiefly upon the similarity in the movements of the animal, and in “the expansions and contractions of the foot in progressing.” Dr. L. was here probably misled by the resemblance of certain sinuses in the sides of the foot of Pomatiopsis lapidaria, to that seen in the females of the Melanians. But the sinuses in the Pomatiopsis are of an entirely different character, having no re- lation to the sexual system, and being. the result of a peculiar . arrangement of the muscles, by which the “looping” method of progression on dry land, characteristic of that animal, is effected ; and they occur on both sides of the body, and exist, of course, in both sexes. We now come to the paper of Mr. Theodore Gill, published in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences for 1863. This: writer (I. ¢., p. 84) alludes only inci- dentally to the Melanians, following bis predecessors in consider- ing them to form a distinct family, which he has, however, re- stricted in a far more natural manner than had been previously done, as he to it. He has also from the Old- World g orms formerly referred for the first time separated the American Melanians; saying, ‘‘The American Mela-_ sub-family, Ceriphasiine,” and (note under wig * W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America, 51 Amnicolide) “The American Melaniide, so far as I know, have ‘ot a fringed mantle, and consequently belong to a different group.” Finally, we have the recent paper of Professor Haldeman, “On Strepomatide as a name for a family of fluviatile Mollusca usually confounded with Melania.”* Prof. H. here says that he had formerly “ proposed, in accordance with the position as- ‘signed by Lamarck to his family Mélaniens, to restrict the name Melania to the American group,” and that “it must not be for- gotten that Lamarck’s family of Mélaniens includes the three Another quotation from Prof. Haldeman’s paper: ‘“ Europeans are averse to giving up the name” for the oriental group; and as it is a matter of little scientific importance, if the Jamilies are properly recognized, I now reluctantly yield it to the oriental form, and consequently withdraw the American species from it.” With regard to this point, it may be remarked that the Testriction of the name to the old-world species is a matter not of _* Proceedings of the Acad. Nat. Sci. of Philadelphia, 1863, p. 273. * M. asperata truncat . sans Vert., vi, (1822), 164. aoe i see eT Deoe. A. WG. Yhil, 1868, p. 272, 52 W. Stimpson on the so-called Melanians of N. America. opinion, but of necessity; since the type of Melania Lamare, and indeed the onl species mentioned by that author when he established the genus,” is the Helix amarula of Linnzus, an old- world Melanian. I trust that it is unnecessary to satan here that the char- acter of the margin of the mantle, whether fimbriated or not fimbriated, though made a family or a a aeaty character by Haldeman and Gill, respectively, is of the slightest possible im- portance in comparison with others easily discoverable upon patient observation. That the old-world Melanians are distinct as a sub-family from the American forms, I do not ay ut American speciesare oviparous. oodward,” a” and Carpenter,” all state that the species of gt Molaniide are “sometimes viviparous,” but do not attempt to establish a dis- tinction on this account between the American and the old-world species, nor do they inform us in what ee area their viviparity has been observed. I am inelitiéd to consider the old-world group as iieeeviparoas) from having found it to be the case in all of the species of that group accessible to me,” while all observations which have been made upon the Ameri- to prove them to as oviparous. species Prof. Haldeman, re referring to the paper of Mr. Gill (abo reo! quoted), remarks t r. G. “there includes the Melaniidz in his ‘Synopsis of the “families rs anes eet oe represented in the fresh-water streams of America,’ although he admits (note under Amnicolidz) that a ‘have not a fringed mantle, and consequently belong to a different cag from the ‘true Melanians.’ How, then, can they be Melaniide? Of this group e forms ‘a peculiar sub- -family, ‘Ceraphusiine.’ From his hetero- geneous Melaniide he rejects certain forms, including Melanopsis and Pirena, (probably P. atra (Linn.) and P. fluminea (Gmel.,) ) to form a family Melanopide (and also a sub-family Melanopinz), to which his Cera (Ceri-?) phasiinze should belong, as a seems to have a simple mantle.” ut it is plain that Mr. Gill, in saying that the American Melanians belong to a different group from the old-world species, did not mean that they belong = Mém. de la Soe. d’Hist. Nat. de Pa irial an vii (1799), p. 75, and Systéme ni’ wt examining. any of the animals of this group eserved in spirits, but nd no difficulty in making out the fact of ovo- Saas toe ont eims et ae the shells, when to the oviduct in the females, was be filled with young ani- mals with four- to six- worled shells about one-eighth of an an inch in a length. © Loe, supra cit, p. 274. H., A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 53 to a different family, as he distinctly states that they constitute a sub-family only ; and he was quite right in considering the fhein ng of the raadtle as not of sufficient importance to form a family difference. Indeed, it is doubtful whether this could be considered as of sub- -family importance, were it not codrdinate with the far more important character of nA a ee alluded to above. The family Melaniide of Mr. Gillis far from being “heterogeneous ;” it was indeed so well restricted, even upon the meagre data then at hand, that subsequent i investigations do not make it necessary to alter its limits, Whether Mr. Gill’s family * Melanopide” is sufficiently distinct in “the: ebstrereydu iin of the animal and the notch in the aperture of its shell,” “ remains to be determined by future investigation. But, in any ia it would be quite unscientific to approximate this group to the American Melanians, on account of their simple pallial margin. [Note.—-While the Rees article is in press, I have an ee: through the apt of Mr. Binney, to examin oe soft parts of a single specimen of the reserved in spirits. Here I find the glandular laminz of the e gene- rative duet ia nearly as in Melania virginica (p.43). The left or ia — is distended wi the pris products, while the outer one is folded o . T. VI.—The original accounts oP the displays in former times of “the November Star-Show ver; together with a determination of the length of its cycle, its annual pe and Pag Bee orbit of the group of bodies around the sun; by H. WTON [Concluded from vol. xxxvii, p. 389.] IN the last volume of this Journal (pp. 877-389) were given the accounts of displays of the November star-shower on thirteen different years, from A. D. 902, to A. D. 1833. From them may obtained some important pels cteine L The length of the annual period—The middle of the first display may be soonest as Oct. 18th, A. D. 902, at 5 o’clock, A. M., Italian time. The same hour, New Haven time, may be taken for the middle of the last shower, nein 18th, A. D. 1 or in old style, Nov. 1st. Between these two dates were 931 years, of which Gin old style) spew ere leap rears There are 19 odd days, and six hours are be added for the difference of longitude. This interval miwen as we: og reat Hence, one os Gill, loc. cit., p. 34. iad Dilcioils ts dels» jess Paper, should be “Pd The hi this group, being marine species allied spf ti 54 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. expect a shower. The two showers in A.D. 1832, and 18338, indicate that the latter was toward the close of one short period. n like manner, the two showers in A. D. 902 934, being only 32 years apart, belong evidently, the Sinoae toward the close of the period, and the latter toward its beginning. The two years A. 2, and A.D. , occupy then, approxi- mately, corresponding places in the cycle. The interval, divided by, 28, gives 33°25 years for the length of one cycle. Various facts respecting these showers are shown by the following table. The first column contains the number of the display as given in the earlier part of this article, the second the year, and the third the day and hour of what I consider the his- toric date of the shower. The hour is somewhat arbitrary. I have assumed that the maxima of the displays recorded in the European annals were 5 o'clock, A.M., Paris time, or 17 hours from the preceding noon. This of course may involve an error of some hours, which is to be borne in mind in considering the remainders in another column. For the showers taken from the Chinese records, seven hours are subtracted from the seventeen to allow for the difference of longitude; and for the two Ameri- can showers, four and five hours are added. No. 8 was observed both in Europe and China, and No. 6 at Baghdad. Hence, three hours are taken from each date. The shower of 1832 was mainly east of Paris, and one hour is therefore subtracted. | In the fourth column is the earth’s longitude at each date, eomputed by Le Verrier’s tables (Annales de I Observatoire, iv, 102-206). Thess longitudes are approximately represented b the formula a — nt, where a is 51° 177, n is 1711, and ¢ is the number of years from the time of tre shower to Jan. Ist, A. 1850. ‘Ihese values of a—nt are given in the fifth column. Subtracting them from the corresponding longitudes in the fourth column, gives the remainders in the sixth column, We may suppose a cycle to begin midway between the dis- plays of Sireubey 1832, and November, 1833. If the begin- ning of a year be ‘reckoned from the day of the ‘shower, “the beginning of the cycle may be written 183250. Subtracting now from this date multiples of 33°25 years, we have the num- bers in the seventh column for the dates of the beginning of the cycles. Subtracting now these from the years given in the sec- ond column, and we have the remainders in the eighth column. Each remainder represents evidently the number of years from the Ms ges of Sinaia) eycle to the time of the shower. oy ae co column contains the sum of the perturbations of the earth’s distance from the sun, ase by the moon and planets, compute Pel “the tables of Le V. The unit is the seventh of the sun’s mean distance, << represents about 9°5 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 55 TABLE. No.} A.D. | Day and hour. | Longitude.| a - nt. Diff’ | End ofcye.| Diff. | Perturb. dh ; ; 1 902 | Oct, 1217 | 24 16°6 | 24 18°1 | — 1°5 201°50 | + 50] -238 © -2 931 410 | 25575 | 25 77 |+49°8| 9384°75 8°75 | +497 3 984 13 17 | 25 31°6 | 26.12°8 | +188 934°7 +467 4; 1002 1410 | 26 44°8 9°2 | -24°4 |) 1001°25 | + -75 | +366 5 1617 2-4 | 2958°6 | + 3:8} 1101:00 126 6 202 18 14 | 82 25°5 | 32 51°4 | -25°9| 1200°75 | 41:25 | +622 7 | 1366 22 17.| 87 47°9 | 87 32°0 | 415 13 -1°00 | -621 8 533 24 14 | 4111°7 | 42 17°8 | -66 15332. -— 25) - 9 602 2710 | 44189 | 4415-9 | + 8-0] 1599-75 | +2:°95 | -881 10 698 | Noy. 17 720°6 | 47 O-1 | +20-5| 1699°50 | -1:50] -—269 1 799 12 0 16 | 4962-9 | + 87) 17 — 25 | -146 12 | 18382 12 50 49°0 | 50 49-4 | - 0-4 832°50 “501 + 37 18 | 18838 12 22 | 50 49°5 | 50 51:1 | — 1:6 50 | + 601 +316 4, The mean motion along the ecliptic of the node of the orbit o the group.—The mean longitudes of the node are approximately represented by the numbers in the fifth column. Hence, the coefficient 1-711, by which these numbers were obtained, repre- sents the annual procession of the node along the ecliptic, longi- tude being reckoned from the mean equinox. e remainders in the sixth column represent the distances of the earth from the mean positions of the node at the times represented in the second and third columns. These may be changed into time by allowing 25 for each hour. Errors of the assumed historic tes a of course included in pani romanlcts. a 5. The length of the part of a cycle during which showers may be oe he ee in the eighth column of the table show that the display in A. D. 1366 was one year before the be- ginning of the cycle, as above determined, while that of A. D. 1202 was a year and a quarter after it. Both were extraordinary showers. Hence the length of that part of the cycle during which extraordinary displays may occur, is at least 2°25 years. The minor displays, Nos. 2, 9, and 10, indicate that unusual numbers of shooting stars, sufficient to attract attention, may seen through a period of five or six years, at least. 6. Does a ring around the sun, of UNIFORM density through its curcuit, properly represent the shape of the group ?—I think not. It 1S not absurd to suppose that the earth passes very near to a ring of bodies, and that by the action of the planets and moon on the earth and the ring, we are sometimes thrown into it, and sometimes pass by without meeting it. Let us see whether this 1s probable. _ if the 3 planetary and lunar perturbations of the earth’s radius vector were at the time of the showers always very large, and of the same sign, it would suggest the existence of a ring passing at the pelle tia outside, or just inside, of the earth’s orbit. But 56 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. : ; the last column of the table shows no regularity. On the con- trary, while the sum of the maxima of all the plus perturbations of the radius vector is 884, and that of the minus perturbations is 958, we have two remarkable showers occurring, one in A. 1202, when the increase was 622, and one in A. D. 1366, when the decrease was 621. If then a uniform ring, crossing the ecliptic just inside or just outside of the earth’s orbit, be su , the cause of the periodicity cannot be the perturbations of the earth’s radius vector. The greatest possible perturbation in either direction being only about 9000 miles, it is highly im- probable that the earth passes sometimes inside and sometimes outside of a thin ring. We might however suppose that the ring sways back and _ forth, and thus produces the periodicity. The mean motion of the bodies of the ring and its eccentricity are unknown, and | hence we cannot speak positively of its irregularities. But it is probable that its radius vector would not suffer larger perturba- tions than that of the earth. The lunar action is wanting, while the earth ought to work the same effect each year. The motion . is retrograde, as will be shown, hence the action of the planets Bee, Seco bers of stragais eee eeas Cea Mw PN ree H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. 57 , or K, having perhaps meanwhile de- ® : , the distances N A, AB, BC, &, being arcs of the orbit described in equal times. The length of the group must be at least two and one- fourth times the distance NA, since a shower may occur during @ period of at least two and one-fourth years; Now it is evident that NA is ;,!5; th part of the whole orbit, For, after a complete cycle, the group must be near N when the earth is there; and the series of points A, B, C, &., cannot go More than once around the orbit in one cycle without causing more than one period in each 33°25 years. 11. The number of complete revolutions in 4 year cannot ex- ceed two. For an orbit whose periodic time is + has a major axis a(4)8, which is less than unity, or less than the distance from the sun to the earth. In one year, then, the group must describe either 2+ 5.1.5, 0r 1+ ss's5) OF gz'zz Fevolutions. _ 12. These five velocities are not all epee probable. Some of the members of the group that visited us last November : the central point of the region from which the paths diverge. Mr. G. A. Nolen found its longitude to be 142°, and its latitude 8° 30’. This lon. 58 H. A. Newton on November Star-Showers. solute motion of each vacetie then, is Seeger very nearly at right angles to a line from it to the n, the deviation being probably not more than bw or three degrets ow if in one year the Broup makes 2 + ;;!,; Tevolutions, time is 33° 25 yea Bi a small ict of the orbit near the perihelion fulfils it. On the other hand, if the annual motion is = revolutions, the required condition is answered through a large part of the orbit. Inasmuch as no reason appears why the earth should nee a group near its apsides rather than else- where, we must regard it bs ab probable that the group makes in one year either 1 + gy'zz, OF 1— g3'z5 revolutions. 13. If either of these two mean motions are correct, the absolute velocity of the meteors will be very nearly equal to that of the earth. Hence, the inclination of the ring to the ecliptic will be about twice the latitude of a radiant, or 17°, the motion being, as before shown (9), retrograde. 14, Let ‘AB be the earth’s path near the node 2. N of the orbit of the group, and let CD be the i i e directions of the at be from A to B, and from CtoD. It a is reasonable to suppose that the shape of a section of the group made by a plane tangent to the two orbits, will be an oval. Also, a curve in that section representing parts of the group of equal density, will be an oval. If now the group has not arrived at N when the earth is there, the maximum display of meteors is to be expected later in the year, that is, when the earth is at m. On the contrary, if the group has passed the node before the earth Petts it, the maxi- mum display is to be expected earlier i in the Now if the group makes 1 + 3;'35 Fevotniioiis 3 in a year, its positions on successive years will pass from C toward D. Henee, in that case, in the earlier part of the two or three years during ‘hich a shower is to be expected, the display would be later in the year than usual, and conversely. On the other hand, if the group describes 1 — ;,',; revolu- tions in a year, its position on successive years will pass from D to ©, and hence in the earlier part of the two or three years the display is to be expected earlier than usual, and conversely. © By the former of these two suppositions, we ought evidently | eC the second supposition the Hd on should be alike. It ought rather to eden there is a tendency to produce these effects, fa) — i) wn ge" 3 =f om @ Ra - = i PHONOLITE, Associated with the numerous trachytic dikes at Lachine is one of the phonolite already referred to. It is brittle and some- what schistose, breaking into angular fragments, and appears to ‘ consist of a reddish fawn-colored base, in which are disseminated # greenish-white rounded masses, often grouped, and apparently coneretionary in their structure. These greenish portions are Sometimes half an inch or more in diameter, and cover from one- » third to one-half of the surfaces. They are not very distinctly Seen unless the rock is moistened. The hardness of the different st apag does not greatly vary, and is nearly that of apatite. : m tic soda removed all of the gelatinous silica separated by the _ *eid, it took up only a trace of alumina; leaving a feldspathic: 102 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. residue which was no longer attacked by nitric acid. The solution was found to contain, beside alumina and soda, a little potash, some lime, magnesia, and iron, and traces of manganese. Ihe greater part of the lime is evident! present as carbonate; for when a portion of the pulverized phonolite, which gave to nitric acid lime equal to 4°36 per cent of carbonate, was boiled with a solution of nitrate of ammonia, there were dissolved 3°87 per cent of carbonate of lime, beside which there was a separa- tion of a considerable amount o oxyd from the decomposed seviagteanyg of iron. From this reaction, and from the entire ab- bs sek analyses, near iets the lime and the iron, as well as a little magnesia, are calculated as carbonates. XIII. is the result as free as possible from the green; and XIv. was obtained with two and a half grams of a mixture of the two colors. XIII. xIV, Soluble silicate, zeolite (a), by ss = AOGF 36°16 Insoluble silicate, aeeinpat ar (6 ie eis 45°75 55°40 Carbonate of lime, - ee, 3°63 436 ng iron, - - - - - - 8°52 Sis ie magn - - - - - - 53 36 10000 =: 10000 In order to fix the composition of the soluble silicate, the larger amount of the insoluble residue and that of the separated silica, alumina, and alkalies, having been carefully determined, and the lime, magnesia, and oxyd of iron calculated as car nates, the water was estimated by the loss. In this way were obtained the results given under xia, and xtva; while the analyses of the insoluble silicate, which is a potash feldspar, are given under x11 0, and xiv 0. XIII a, xiva. Natrolite. oar Mie sc i a Bie eee ae , Alumina, - - - - 24°42 24-88 2609 tite : - - - - - 1293 13°05 1602 14:10 0 1-15 1°28 ooo Kent Water, - - 7 od - 9°54 913 9°05 $10 eS 10000 10000 10000 10000 : a composition, this zeolitic mineral is intermediate between naleime and natrolite; but the readiness with which it gelatin- with acids leads to the conclusion that it belongs, in great ; least, to natrolite. The theoretical composition of these not tee shin peta ot se coaiperionr B gree — si T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 103 xi }, xiv 6. Silica, - . - - - - - - - 59°70 6090 Alumina, - - - - - - - - ae 24 os nme. - - - “ « é é s é E Potash, —- - - . - - - - Hn undet, Soda, - - - - - - « a a 9° “ olatile, - - - - - - - . 993 210 cero of soda is very small. In xX, on the contrary, the arge predominance of soda indicates a composition approaching gone a commencement of decomposition, which consists in the loss of a portion of silica and alkali, and the combination of , Somewhat to the south of Burlington, on the west side of ake Champlain, and near to Essex, there is a great mass of in- ‘vusive rock, found in the slates of the Hudson River formation. As described by Emmons, it is interstratified in an irregular ‘Manner among the layers of the unaltered sedimentary rocks, 104 B. Silliman, Jr., on the “ Barrel-Quartz” of Nova Scotia. and has a fissile and schistose structure, which gives, at first sight, the aspect of stratification to what is undoubtedly an in- trusive rock. When exposed to the action of the waves on the chytes of Montreal and Chambly,—with the latter of which, the trachyte of Shelburne, the only one of them which has been [To be continued. } Art. XILL—On the so-called ‘‘ Barrel- Quartz,” of Nova Scotia ; by B. SILLIMAN, Jr.’ On Laidlaw’s Hill, forming the eastern division of the Waver- ley Gold District, has been found, in great abundance, a peculiar variety of quartz-rock which has acquired a wide reputation under the name of barrel-quartz. Mr. Phillips, of London, has thus described it : “The most remarkable deposit of auriferous quartz hitherto found in Nova Scotia is undoubtedly that at Laidlaw’s Farm. The principal workings are here situated near the summit of a hill composed of hard, metamorphic shales, where openings have been made, to the depth of four or five feet, upon a nearly hort zontal bed of corrugated quartz of from eight to ten inches 10 thickness. This auriferous deposit is entirely different from any- thing I had before seen, and when laid open presents the appear- ance of trees or logs of wood laid together side by side, after the manner of an American corduroy road. i) ik Hy \! al Mi ‘ i rom this So apne have applied the name of — B. Silliman, Jr., on the “ Barrel-Quartz” of Nova Scotia, 105 an appearance not paar a series of small casks laid together side by side and end to e “The rock covering this remarkable horizontal] vein is ex- ceedingly hard; but beneath it, for some little distance, it is softer and more fissile. The quartz is itself foliated parallel to the lines of tlibsbale ang exhibits a tendency to break in ac- cordance with these he headings, see pieaans the upper surfaces of the cor- rugations, are generally covered by a thin bark-like coating of brown oxyd of iron, which is seen frequently to enclose numer- ous particles of coarse gold, and the quartz in the vicinity of this oxyd of iron is itself often ae auriferous.’ The accompanying section, (fig. 1) which I have prepared from a sketch of the place as I saw it a riches will, together with the following perspective view of the opening, convey a clear idea of its ‘peculiar spear AM. Jour. Scr.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XX XVIII, No. 112.—Jutr, 1864. 14 106 Scientific Intelligence. Only the corrugations in the open part of the cut are visible; the extension of the vein to the right and left, in fig. 1, is ideal, the superincumbent mass covering it. I measured, however, the quartzite above, dipping to the right and left at a small angle, and I think no geologist would doubt that the crest of an anticli- nal axis here comes to the surface and has escaped the denuda- tion which has removed the top of the crest in most places. The corrugations, or folds, appear to be accounted for on the hypo- thesis of a lateral thrust producing the undulations. The per- spective view (fig. 2) of this interesting locality was taken from a tereoscopic photograph, showing the appearance of the barrel- = | quartz after the surface-rock (quartzite) had been removed, ant before the miners had broken up the quartz layer for removal. The value of the barrel-quartz has been not so much from its large average yield of gold as from the comparative cheapness with which it has been mined. ‘Thus it appears from the state- ments in the Chief Gold Commissioner’s Report, dated Jan., 1868, ’ that each miner on Laidlaw’s Farm averaged for the last three months of the previous year over nine tons per month, while in other districts the average monthly product per man was from two tothree tons, The average ween of gold was smal],—-about five pennyweights to the ton; the maximum being three ounces, not including remarkable discoveries, like that of the Chebucto ¢ Company, of a mass of this quartz, yielding, as already men- tioned in the Introduction, for a volume of not over two cubic feet, over $4000 in value, of gold. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY. 1. On the constitution of the Sun—Maanvs has communicated a brief + ard t ern Although the temperature of the flame was ck le quantity of heat radiated was much r than before, e Mang cry yin which was 55 millimetres * oo % igs Physics and Chemistry. 107 the non-luminous flame. Variations in the thickness of the plates of platinum employed made no sensible difference in the heat radiated, pro- vided that the plates had the same diameter. When the plate of plati- hum was covered with carbonate of i ina remarkable degree, being one-half greater than that of the plate alone. The quantity of heat radiated was still further increased when, in addition to the covered platinum plate, the flame contained soda vapor arising from a little soda placed below the plate in the flame and not itself radiating heat to the pile. Under these circumstances the covered plate Strontium and lithium behaved like salts of sodium. These experiments Show that gaseous bodies radiate very much less heat than solids or coil, the spark exhibits in the spectroscope five new lines in addition to the well known ‘characteristic green line, The new lines are a very feeble atmosphere of hydrogen, excepting the weakest, but they were in this id somewhat less that of lead.—Phil. Mag., XXxvi, 223. W. G. 3. On the photographic transparency of various bodies, and on the Photographic effects of metallic and other spectra obtained by means of the electric spark.— W. A. Mitter has published an interesting paper u luminous rays y reatly in permeability to the chemical rays. (2) Diactinic sctids (that nf say, solids which are permeable to the chemical rays) preserve their diactinie power both when liquefied and When converted into vapor. ; = 5 _ (8.) Colorless solids which are transparent to light, but which exert a considerable absorptive effect upon the chemical rays, preserve their ab- Sorptive power with greater or less intensity both in the liquid and the 4seous state, % These conzlusjons are equally true as regards liquids, whether the 108 Scientific Intelligence. - surpass rock crystal in diactinic power. Water, ice and white fluor spar rival it, and pure rock salt approaches it very closely. With respect to saline bodies, it was found that the flworids rank first in diactinic power we the phosphates less so, and the arseniates still less. .The sulphites are ess diactinic than the sulphates, and the hyposulphites less than the sul- phites. Nitric acid and the nitrates exert a specific absorptive action, interrupting the spectrum abruptly at the same point whatever be the eo : = er =" is) | me = a ie] sa oa <=] oo fe] ° oe o = is") = A 14°) a) a2} oO oo > oO i) ~*~ <4 Qu ne ° > 3 S = is Lad = refrangible rays almost as completely as a plate of twenty times the thickness. Of the liquids examined, water is most diactinie, and next in order aleohol. Among gases, air, hydrogen, carbonic acid, carboni¢ oxyd and ammonia are about equally diactinic with each other and with water. Other gases and vapors exhibit a marked absorptive power, and this is especially the case with the compounds of sulphur. Chlorine, bromine and iodine absorb most powerfully the least refrangible rays, which is an exception to the general rule; peroxyd of nitrogen and oxyd of chlorine in a stratum two feet in length wholly absorb the che- mical rays; but when more dilute or in shorter columns, they give pecu- liar absorption bands. Aqueous vapor is highly diactinic, though not , diathermic. The reflecting power of different polished surfaces for the chemical rays was found to be very different for different substances, for the same angle of reflection. Gold reflects all the rays very equally, though some- what feebly, and next to gold ranks burnished lead. These two metals reflect all the light of the silver-spectrum, or 74 divisions of the authors scale, while with other metals the reflected spectrum covered only 63 divisions of the same scale. In examining the electric spectra of differ- ent metals taken in air, the author found that as we advance toward . i intense ° ends alone are visible, so as to give the appearance of two dots of Tea P Physics and Chemistry. 109 alloys usually exhibit the lines characteristic of each constituent, but this 18 not the case when one constituent is present in comparatively very small quantity. ‘Thus plumbago, containing 3°94 per cent of iron, gave a distinct iron-spectrum, but no indication of iron was observable in the n respond with those of Angstrém, Alter, and ch gas tinges the spark of a characteristic color; but no judg- ment can be formed from this color of the kind of spectrum which the gas will furnish. (2.) In most cases, in addition to the lines peculiar to the metal used as electrodes, new and special lines characteristic of the gas, if elementary, or of its constituents, if compound, are produced. When compound gases are employed, the special lines produced are not due to the com- pound as a whole, but to its constituents. (3.) The lines due to the gaseous medium are continuous, not inter- Tupted or broken into dots.—Journal of Chemical Society, [2], xi, 59. Ww. @ 32 rd @e # “4 &. So 3 oe ° = e 2 5 = bo @ : baal o~ =. m7 we =] se s ® ct a oO Ss. =. ” and one of the green. When the vapor is mixed with oxygen previously to its introduction into the flame, we obtain a spectrum of a brilliancy which the eye can scarcely support ; the violet rays appear with peculiar ; : ; emi or colder according as moist or dry air was pass was true for plates of other metals. Finally, the results of a they are brought in contact with air containing less moisture than that : which they are placed. It further appears from the experiments of _ method of opposition proposed by P by Mr. Jules Regnauld. On placing the coupling wire of , in oppositi al. wire # 110 : Scientific Intelligence. Magnus that the most different vapors are condensed upon the surfaces of solid bodies to such a degree that appreciable changes of temperature result, Hence it follows that at all times a layer of condensed vapors exists upon the surfaces of bodies, which becomes greater or less with the state of moisture of the atmosphere.—Pogg. Ann., cxxi, 174. W. G. 6. On the influence of condensation in experiments on d inther none heat with almost the same facility as dry air—Pogg. Ann., cxxi, 186. Ww a porous vessel containing four hundred grams of arterial blood ; two other small us vases, of a capacity of sixty cubic centimetres, con- tained a solution of sulphate of zinc; these two vases were placed at the same time in the two sorts of blood. The zinc electrodes were placed in the solutions and did not touch the blood. As soon as the electrodes, which were previously attached to the galvanometer by brass wires, were inserted in the liquid, the current was established. The experiments were made on the 29th of October in presence of chemists, physicists, and other distinguished men of science. The blood ‘rom & yery old horse, in good health, which was to be slaughtered in the course by the deviation of the n le; it indicated, as in the first experiments of Mr. Scoutetten, that the positive current travelled from the arterial to the venous blood across the galvanometer. After having reached the stop, the needle oscillated and became fixed at 66 degs., where it remained for an hour. The galvanometer employed was Nobili’s, with a coil of 10,000 turns. To measure the electromotive force of blood, Mr. Scou- saw at first that the current became reversed; and hence he concluded the force produced by the reaction of the two sorts of blood is com- — Physics and Chemistry. 111 em between zero and 4°50. Proceeding thence to more exact results, ¢ arrived at last at the conclusion that the electro-motive force sought was 1°82; that of Duaniel’s battery being 58; 100 representing the elec- 864, : b) the microscope has been considered jusuly as the greatest improvement has advanced one step further, and, as it appears to me, in the only right direction to give complete satisfaction. Ihave lately received from him a binocular eye-piece, which is, as far as I can at present judge, every . We the best hitherto devised. The only instrument of this form I have had an opportunity of examining was a first class one by Smith, Beck & by reflected and direct vision; how far this was accidental Iam unable to say, as I had no opportunity to examine the prism. The slanting tube, ared to me awkward, and the reflected ray had to travel a longer path than the direct one; moreover, the use of a draw- tube for micrometry had to be dispensed with, as no longer length of draw-tube could be allowed than sufficient to adjust for different distances of the eyes of observers. Perhaps this is not a very serious objection ; culties . Yet it is an objection. The binocular eye-piece meets all these di ed so fi With the higher powers, as is the case with Mr. Wen m’s arrangement, _ ®ome care and special apparatus are required to bring out the full etfect, equally illuminate both fields. I have found that the ordinary achro- fat, oudenser, stopping out the central rays and using the plain side of the reflector, or better a reflecting prism, and the bull’s-eye condenser, 112 Scientific Intelligence. to work very well; and with a arrangement have had fine views of the test objects with the 4th and j5th in. “objectives, Some facts as to the structure of certain of the Diatoma, have been brought out with wonder- ful distinctness; there is a rotundity and solidity “which gives a more complete idea of the structure of such forms as Aulacodiseus Petersii, and the Amphiprore, than can be had by monocular vision. These ef- fects, however, are not to be had but by careful manipulation, and there microscopist would, however, succeed in bringing out very satisfactory effects with the means at present employe With the lower powers, 3 in. to $ds in. or yths in., nothing can exceed the beauty 0 — of oie seen for the first time with binocular vision. The transparent injections poset 1 by Smith, Beck & k are sonatas beautiful. Upon some of these I sonia the Wenham binocular and Mr. Tolles’s 6 piece. Tt i is with opaque objects bility in the eyes—the top and bottom of sonia thick preparations being seen together, or, at least, much better than when one eye alone 1s employed. At the same tim e, the Et sesieonit effect is wonderful : the field of view appears ealdeety: enlarged and comprehensive, and the mag- nifying power in te and the relief to the eyes is very great. The living Diatomacee and Desmidiz are shown with great effect with a good +4;ths or 1th sebectivy. They appear floating at different depths in a vast ocean, and with so little loss in definition that the cilie of Clos- terium Lunula are rea dily rved, as also those of the monads and larger animalcules, which appear like monsters in a vast dee eep. am not at liberty at present to explain the principle upon which Mr. Tolles has been enabled to divide the pencil so far from the objective; it is theoretically, as well as practically, —— and it appears a little strange that so obvious a principle did no once occur to those emi- nent Haro D See who _ dovctad ki so gears time and ek to the ments, ee the wn is hele in ene the same is and manner as the eye-piece. The use of the binocular eye-piece at once tests the quality of the ob- gd as none but —_ corrected glasses will give satisfaction; when wo in are formed by halves of the objective, and calling into especially the extreme portions, none but objectives of angle n Physics and Chemistry. , 113 use of the "pages comparatively a easy, with the higher powers, in the hands of a ce, as now it is with the lower powers under the man- agement of an pied microse rath The eye-piece works very well when applied to the oh but the stereoscopic effect is not equal to that produced when applied to the mi- croscope, owing to small angle of the object-glass. I be yer very fine views of Saturn and the moon with it; there is some slight loss of trouble; and as the condenser of Mr. Tolles’ will no doubt remove this difficulty, the mien eye-piece should weber a part of none se i upped micro - On the Eomibesdons of silica with deutoryd of manganese, oo “Rea — directed attention to the constitution of the two minerals Braunite and Marceline, and has shown that in order to explain their isomor- phism it is necessary to admit that SiO, is, in combination at least, iso morphous with MnO,. ue we have Braunite, - Ot Nin — Min | Mn Marceline. From this appears that all i five degrees of oxydation of manganese are isomorphous with other and corresponding oxyds. lggests that the deutoxyd of manganese may be called manganous acid Pata en » CXxi, 318, Ww. On a new cobalt compound. —Bravun has observed that when a a 80- Sion of nitrite of potash is added to one cobalto-cyanid of potass beautiful dark orange-red color is produced. When the se chied is very concentrated, the solution appears intensely blo he re- on al fr r prake, Chemie, No. 2, 186 1. Indium.—At a recent session of the Freiberg * Siew ie H communicated some further results in regard to this new meta Tiecovsred ed by T. Richter and himself.) Two hundred pounds of black blende ore from the Himmelfahrt Mine, on treatment with chlorhydric wipe and s ubseq uent chai ore and distillation, _ about 43 pounds ball AE a 5 fH oO 2s . Potassium ; by fu sing alone with the cyanid the oxyd is reduced, but only to hatavalans metallic powder. The density of two specimens, rolled ee eer 327 and 343 milli igrams, gave 711 _ ag a a 1 This Journal, [2], xxxvu, ‘ hes Jour. Scr.—Srconp Serres, Vo. XXXVIII, oe '712.—Juty, 1864. : 15 114 Scientific Intelligence. or in water, even when the latter is brought to the boiling point. Hy- drogen reduces the oxyd to a metallic powder, which cannot be fused in the bulb-tube. On charcoal, before the blowpipe, it oe easily, and, while retaining a lustrous mebatien surface, colors the flame blue, and cov- ers the coal with a coating, which is dark yellow while hot, and lighter ellow on ‘cool ing: the hs 0 is volatilized with difficulty when treated reases the dake of the acbinion, Dissolves rapidly in satis goes even when cold and dilute. The hydrated oxyd is completely precipitated of a slimy consistence so sat it adheres to the sides of the vessel; the presence of tartaric acid prevents this precipitation. The ox d is white when cold ; on heating it is pica dark ye oes w. pulpnaare eat ae ea carbon in a stream of chlorine gas, forms white crystalline scales, is very volatile, attracts apr psr with rapidity, and deliquesces. The hydrated chlorid is, for the most part, decomposed by evaporation, leaving a residue of oxyd of sodiaeh or basic chlorid. The sulphate of indium crystallizes with difficulty in indistinct scales. Carbonate of soda throws down fro acid solutions a pisa6: granular carbonate of indium of a white wid Solutions of the neutral salts of indium give with ferrocyanid of potas- sium a white dee it ferrideyanid no precipitate. The most striking pro of the new metal, and the one which led rner is colored blue when an indium- -compound is brought me a Berg. u.. Hiittenminnische Zeitung, xxiii, 142. 12. Note on the formation of Aldehyds; by M, Carry Lea (Com- municated for this Journal.)—M. Carstanjeu describes as new a mode of erosion of aldehyds hy the oxydation of substituted ammonia ode of formation is, however, not new. In the ps of this Sag 5 have already indicated it. I have shown shat when triethyla- y chlorid of gold, the gold is reduced and aldebyd + given 1 of +» Rep. de Ch. Pure, 1863, p. 616, quoted from Journal fiir praktische Chemie. ~ * Mineralogy and Geology. ie Il. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. 1, Pollux, a silicate containing a large amount of Cesium.—Pisant has made an ana ysis of this rare mineral species, and finds it to contain 34°07 per cent of cesia, with but traces of potash. The specimens ex- r L, Seemann, of Paris. One crystal of 20 grams weight had distinct cubic faces, with trapezohedral planes like analcime, thus confirming Des o gum-like on the natural surfaces of the crystals. Colorless, H.=6 5, G.= 2-901. In the closed tube, becomes opaque, and gives off water. In the forceps, whitens and fuses with difficulty, coloring the flame yellow. Small particles of the mineral heated with fluorid of ammonium on a Si Al Fe * H 44°03 15:97 068 0°68 34:07 3°88 2°40=101-°71 Oxygen, 2348 743 020 O19 197 100 213 * With a little lithia. The platin-chlorid of caesium obtained in the analysis showed traces of potash when submitted to spectroscopic examination. It was reduced by hydrogen, and subsequently the quantities of chlorine, platinum and Cesium were determined, aud found to accord with theory, thus showing it to be a pure cesium sa!t.— Comptes Rendus, \viii. sae mineral species was previously analyzed by Plattner, who ob- hed; Si Al Fe koe H 46-20 1639 086 1651 1047 282=-92-75" * With a little lithia. oe 26°13 KCl; and converting the 10-47 soda into chlorid, we obtain NaC KCl into platin-chlorid of potassium, it amounts to 85°65 KCI+-PtCl,, and considering this to be a cesium salt, instead of a potassium salt, * Would be equal to 42-65 CsCl. As the soda in the analysis was prob- ably calculated by ascertaining the difference between the sup “Morid of potassium, and the total weight of alkali-chlorids, this amount is materially lessened when the chlorid of cesium found (42°65) is sub- tracted from the total amount of chlorids (45°87), giving but 3°22 NaCl, * Pogg. Ann., Ixix, 443. 116 ~ Scientific Intelligence. or 1-72 per cent of soda, while we have 35°69 per cent of ceesia in the mineral. Plattner’s analysis would then read: Si * 3 Na H 46 20 16°39 0-86 35°69 1-72 2°32 = 10318 Oxygen, 24°64 766 02 202 O44 2-06 corresponding in all, except the soda, very closely with the results ob- tained by Pisani. The excess in both Pisani’s and Plattner’s anal would seem to indicate that a portion of the alkalies in the mineral were more than traces of potash’in the cxsium salt obtained in bis analysis. Ww sulphuric acid, and 6 ¢.c. of water in a closed tube of Bohemian glass, at a temperature of 220°-240°C., it is completely decomposed. In this manner he has been enabled to determine with accuracy the amount of protoxyd of iron contained in tourmaline and other minerals, Six speci- mens of tourmaline, the same as analyzed by Rammelsberg, were found to stance, Hermann’s supposition that carbonic acid is one of the constituents of tourmaline, is incorrect. Mitscherlich also decomposed several speci- C. F. Rammetssere.—l. Kobellite—-This species occurs at Hvena, in Sweden, associated with actinolite, chalcopyrite, and small reddish white erystals of a cobaltiferous mispickel (Kobaltarsenikkies). Kobellite re- sembles antimony-glance in general appearance; G.—6°145 The analy- sis was made by decomposing the mineral with chlorine. It was impos- sible to get the mineral entirely free from the associated arsenical and Copper pyrites. Composition : ) a ee ee ee 0 Ce Ce . ed (1822 1860 946 256 4425 381 127 0689885 Sulphur combined, «430 379 164 685 218 0°32 036 = 1944 Especial care was taken to ascertain the absolute purity of the bismuth Mineralogy and Geology. . 117 and lead given in the analysis, as considerably more of lead and less of bismuth were found than obtained in the previous analysis by Setterberg. The cobalt was considered as due to the cobaltiferous mispickel, which with the formula (CoS? + CoAs) + 4(FeS2+-FeAs) would correspond to 5°61 per cent. In the same manner, the copper calculated as chalvopyrite equals 3°67 per cent. These amounts subtracted from the ana ysis, and the remainder averaged up, gives for the composition of pure kobellite : Ss B P Fe 17°47 2052 10:43 48-78 755 = 98°75 Sulphur combined, 473 418 755. 088 = 1734 Rammelsberg writes the formula, (PbS) BiS?+-(PbS)8SbS3=S 16-82, Bi 18:23, Sb 10°54, Pb 54:41 — 100. I, Siegenite——A new analysis of the so-called siegenite (Kobaltnickel- Kies) from Miisen shows that the earlier analyses of this mineral are errone- ous. This is due to the fact that at the time they were made no sufficiently accurate method was known for the separation of cobalt and nickel. The Separation of these metals was effected by means of nitrite of cobalt. Analysis of the crystals, selected as pure as possible from associated chal- Copyrite, gave: S 42-76, Co 39°35, Ni 14:09, Cu 1°67, Fe 1°06 = 98-93. Considering the iron as combined with 1°21 sulphur and 1-20 copper, forming chalcopyrite, and subtracting these from the analysis, the com- Position of the pure mineral is as follows : : 3 Co Ni Cu 43-04 40°77 14-60 0-49 giving the established formula RS+R,8,. The amount of cobalt found In former an Dot to varying composition of the mineral, although another specimen —¢. J. B, _ HL Vivianite—An analysis of the vivianite from Allentown, Mon- Mouth, Co., New Jersey, gave: bg Fe Fe Be | G. = 2-68. 28°81 4-96 38-26 28-67 = 100 Oxygen, 16-23 1-28 8:50 25°48 The mineral occurred in concentric radiated crystals of a light bluish- green color, Se Analyses of on of Rammelsber 118 Scientific Intelligence. Si Mg Ca Fe Tremolite (G.==3:003), 57°62 26°12 14:90 0°84 = 99-48 Diopside (G, = 3°249), 5511 18°39 25°63 0°54 = 99°67 Both analyses give almost precisely the ratio of bases to silica of 1 +2. V. Skolopsite—This mineral, described by v. Kobell, occurs at Kaiser- e fragments are colorless and transparent, but the larger mas v a gray, greenish or reddish color. Gelatinizes with ehlorhydrie acid, giving off a trace of sulphuretted bydrogen, an eti a little ear- 8 Re a Pe On Mg “Ra 1, 136 462 35:41 21°39 2:24 15°50 231 12:17 287 329 2, 7 8417 2061 3:16 1470 304 1174 2-73 Mean, 136 4:39 34:79 21:00 270 1510 267 11°95 280 329==100 05 Oxygen, O31 263 1825 9 838 O81 431 1°07 38°09 O47 292 a En i. = 10 64 8-94 n acid and bases, and of 2:3 between the protoxyds an sesquioxyds. Rammelsberg writes the formula, 2k?Si+ Si', which would be a ratio of 2:2: 5, instead of 2:3: 5. e considers it analo- gous to Sodalite, Nosean, etc., and, inclusive of the chlorid and sulphate, gives the following formula for the mineral, 2RC1+ 3 (2R,Si+ B*si3) + s(2kS + 3(2R?Si + BSi,) J. VI. Pyroxene—Analysis of the dark-green augite associated with skolopsite : Bi x Ca Fe Mg Mn 48°02 2°67 2534 13°57 974 1:28 = 100°62 —Jour. prakt. Chem., Ixxxvi, 340. G. Js Be 4. On a Volcanic Island in the Caspian; by Count Marscuatt of enna.—The existence of this island was first made known by Captain Koumani, of the Russian schooner Jourkmen, on the 7th of May, 1861. Its situation is in 39° 34! 14” N., and 47° 15/20” E. from Paris. At the time of its discovery it was 400 to 500 paces in circuit, elliptical im outline, and in surface a plain slightly elevated at centre. About the gases were escaping; the temperature of the waters, according to Mr. Abich’s observations, was 28°-4 R., that of the air being 20°3 R. Mineralogy and Geology. 119 eruptions, and sometimes also is disturbed by igneous eruptions, and by earthquakes, as recently those of May 30, 1831, and June 11, 1859.—Les Mondes, v, 106, from the Institut Imp. Geol. 1863. Univ. of Ireland, &e., and Josern P. O’Remuy, C.E. 196 pp- 8vo. With Ps, views and sections. London and Edinburg. Williams & Norgate, First published in the Ad/antis, vol. ivi—Santander ‘is one of the northern provinces of Spain, lying on the Bay of Biscay. This work treats of the Physical Geography of the Province, and its general geology, and par ticularly of its metalliferous deposits, mining industry, and ores, and is illustrated by a number of detailed maps. The subject of the ores is treated mineralogically and chemically, and also with reference to their geological age and the order of succession according to which the differ- _ ent kinds were formed. A chapter containing five plates is devoted to the deposit of sulphate of soda in the valley of the Jarama near Aran- Juez, Province of Madrid; and another to observations on the mammil- lated, reniform, globular and botryoidal structure in minerals. 6. Notes ona Cave and Coal Pit near Peking ; by 8. Watts Wiz- Met city of Fangshan, much better built and cared for, as its compara- hvely wide streets, solid double gates, and well stocked markets attest. Ween these two towns, and also nearer the base of the hills, are sev- eral channels, in which very large boulders and much water-worn shingle Prove the great quantity and force of the torrents that occasionally flow from the mountains, though during most parts of the year a brooklet hardly finds its way down the dusty bottom. aly 4 The village of Kuh-shan-kau lies at the base of the hills in which the caves occur, and, at the time of our visit, near the autumnal equinox, was ith animals laden with the harvest, which the peasantry were 120 Scientific Intelligence. etation, so that the winding path led up through a succession of pretty spots and along the brink of cliffs, all in charming variety, and, at this e gods committed to his keeping. was a painful object, but did his best to entertain us, assisted by a laic who is the guide into the cave. The throat of the cave just admits a man to craw] on his knees about named the seat of Kwanyin, the Pearl rock, the Eighteen Rahan, the from one of the Another turn carried us off nearly at right angles, and further progress was soon stopped by water—a pool lying across the a ve were told that the end had never been reached in conse quence of this obstruction, and legends of adventurous explorers who have perished in the search are told to inquiring travellers. The entire dis- is ak t caves of Gailenreuth in Germany. The path back to the Tsieh-téi Gan led over the ridge into the upper part of the valley, where most of the convents are situated, grouped in clusters of houses as space has been found for them on one side or the other of the stream. During this wi Mineralogy and Geology. 121 assist the passenger in making the toilsome ascent. We engaged a miner to show us down the largest shaft, which meas- ured on the average only 44 feet high by 5 wide; it is cased with willow Sticks in a secure manner, and the roof is particularly well guarded. The bottom is lined with the same to form a lad er, up and down which the Miners travel in their daily labor. This shaft is about 150 feet deep, and the ladder down to the digging is perhaps 600 feet long. The coal is Ww 7 as his day’s work. The sides of this shaft showed the width of the veins of coal, but the top and bottom were not dug out; at the bottom the Shaft divided and led toward two deposits, but neither passage had been dug out. The whole was very dry, owing probably to its elevation up the hill; but some shafts had been abandoned from wet and bad air, and their mouths closed. The laborers are hired out by contractors, who sell to see the unw ; n road, bring- me their loads of coal. It is delivered in Peking at about three piculs kind, enabling scientific men to compare the numerou and hard coal in this part of China with the European coal-measures.— China Mail, Nov, 26, 1863. y+ On the probable identity of the Oneida Conglomerate of Central New Ye ork with the Medina formation.—E. Jewett, Curator of the State Col- fous at Albany, N. Y., in a letter to one of the editors, states that he has found the Fucoides (Arthrophycus) Harlant, a characteristic Medina fossil, in the Oneida Conglomerate, near Utica, Oneida Co., N -Y., and con- 8raphical reasons, that the Oneida conglomerate is im fact only a northern Portion of the Medina sandstone. The occurrence of this or a related _ “teoid is stated by Dana in his Manual of Geology (p. 230), a specimen AM. Jour. Sct—Szconp Serims, VoL. XXXVIII, No. 112—Juty, 1964. 16 122 Scientific Intelligence. having been obtained from the rock near Utica by the author _ than thirty years since, which was in all sregeom of the same species, although, as the specimen was afterwards lost, the fact is — te the Manual with a query as to the species. 8. Coal in the Alps of Mt. Cenis. —Mr. Dickrysox exhibited ve ‘ae Geological Society of London, at its meeting on Feb, 23d, a number of note taken trom the rocks now being tunneled through the Savoy f Mont Cenis. They are principally from metamorphic rocks, and as per no granite has been touched upon. The most interesting mineral of all is the coal, which is found associated with these metamorphic nel There is no regular dips in any of these vail In one part they are seen standing u like a cone, the coal oe vertical, and dipping in a variety of — ions.— Reader, April 16, . New Fossils from the Lingula -flags of Wales; by J. W. Sauer, Esq.—Since the author’s paper at the last session of the Geological So- ciety on the discovery of Paradoxides in Britain, the researches of Hicks have brought to light so many new members of the hitherto scanty fauna of the Primordial zone that Mr. Salter was now enabled to describe two new genera of T'rilobites and a new genus of sponge, and to com- plete the description of Paradoxides Davidis. Te also a a oe that the fauna of the Lingula-flags shows an approximation in some of its genera to Lower Silurian forms, and some—the shells and a Cystidean—are of genera common to both formations; but the Crustaceans, which are the -. indices of the age of Paleo zoic rocks, are of entirely distinct gen- ; and their evidence quite outweighs that of the other fossils. The Primordial zone is, moreover, in Britain separated from the Caradoc and Llandeilo beds by the whole of the Tremadoc orn at least 2000 feet thick.— Proc. Geol. Soc., May 23, in Reader, Ap. 9 Ill, BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 1. Heath (Calluna vulgaris) in North America.—tThe earliest pub- lished announcement that we have been able to find of Calluna vulgaris as an American plant, is that by Sir Wm. Hooker, in the Index to his Flora Boreali- Americana (2, p. 280), iesued in 1840, Here it is stated that: “This should have been inserted at p. 39, as an inhabitant of New- foundlaud, on the authority of De la Pylaie.” Accordingly, in the 7th volume of De Candolle’s Prodromus, to the Euro ropean habitat is added, “ Etiam in Islandia et in Terra Nova Americe shen But it ge not appear that Mr. Bentham had ever seen an American specim He overlooked the fact (to which Dr. Seemann has recently called atten- tion) that Gisecke, = Brewster's rene at records it as a native Greenlan d. No mention “2 de ade by Dr. Lang, in his capbicat aie ap tes coae she peat ape 48 rare P aadeeak sae ie ! “Newfoundland or even in ST Sete ya ve et Botany and Z oology 123 the unexpected discovery, by Mr. Jackson Dawson, of a patch of Heath in Tewksbury, Massachusetts; adding the remark, that: “It may have been introduced, unlikely as it seems; or we may have to rank this Heath with Scolopendrium officinarum, Subularia aquatica, and Marsi- ; lea quadrifolia, as species of the Old World so sparingly represented in the New, that they are known only at single stations,—perbaps late- lingerers rather than new-comers.” | And w en, in a su uent volume pended upon the confirmation of the Newfoundland habitat. As to that, we had been verbally informed, in January, 1839, by the late David ; that h una collected in Newfoundland by ® es) 2s Ss. 5 o =] Dp b tinent. It is with much interest, therefore, that we read the announce- and presented to Mr. David Don.” The specimens were old, and greatly damaged by insects. Apparently, they had been left in the rough, as originally received from the collector; being in mingled layers between a scanty supply of paper, and almost all of them unlabelled. Among these specimens were two flowerless branches of the true Cadluna vulgaris, about six inches long, quite identical with the common heath of our : British moors. Fortunately, a label did accompany these two specimens, : Which runs thus:—* Head of St. Mary’s Bay—Trepassey Bay, also very abundant.—S.E. of Newfoundland considerable tracts of it.” The name whose name is frequently cited for New- bh Flora Boreali-Americana.” This gentleman ages. 124 Scientific Intelligence. We should recollect that the Calluna advances to the extreme western limits (or out-liers) of Europe, in Iceland, Ireland, and the Azores. The step thence Newfoundland and Massachusetts, though wide, is not an incredible o: Without doubt these are the very specimens referred to by Mr. Don, then curator of the ——- Societ a And now that the stations where they were collected are made known, we may expect that the plant will soon be rediscovered, ‘aid its ovata character ascertaine We notice ‘heat an earlier announcement of Dr. Watson’s discovery is contained in Dr. Seemann’s Journal of Botany for February last, where In view of this, and of its common occurrence in Ireland, Iceland, and the Azores, Dr. Seemann opines that “its extension to Newfoundiand an the American continent is therefore not so much a paradox as a fact at which we might almost have arrived by induction.” It seems to us that the enduction was — the other way until the plant was es discov- _ on ee - with numerous aan om by Daniet Otrtver, F.R.S., S., pa of the Herbarium and Library of the Royal Gardens, Kew, and Professor of Botany in University College, London. London and Cambridge: Macmillan & Co., 1864. pp. 317, 24m ince a simple fntaleincinet to of exposition. The elements of Structural and Physiological Botany are presented in eight chapters, occupying a little more than a third part of the book, not in strict systematic order, but in a series of essons and easy lessons are de to the Buttercup, upon which all the organs a flowering plant and their functions are compendiously taught. The a lesson introduces “ Common flowers to compare fo Buttercup, : Wallflower, Pea, Bramble, Apple or Pear, Cow Parsnip or Carrot, Pains Dead-Nettle, Primrose, Stinging Nettle; bringing i eis the general morphology of the flower, and the characters of the great exoge- nous or dicotyledonous saa The “fifth deals with Arum, Spotted Orchis, Daffodil, Tulip, and Wheat; bringing out the characters of the monoco- ous class, The r-sched upon a fF vised = successfully employed by the late Professor Henslow ; a good mode of directing attention to re important points in ad — of flowers, and of training young pupils to ~— observati The seventh = sketches the development and mo logy of the organs, rinse root to seed, in regular order. The eighth ‘s devoted to t anatomy, or a the minute structure and vital pi of n remarks on the —_ and nature of classification a bi- nomenclature, illustrates by means of ~—— types. gif iy ht nh ee se dm finally, an ants, and, by a set of examples, nomial Botany and Zoology. 125 how to describe them in botanical language. No one would have thought that so much thoroughly correct botany could have been so sim- ply and happily taught in so small a volume. A. G. adicle-ism.—That the stem or ascending axis in Pheenogamous and the higher Cryptogamous plants is composed of a series of similar parts, viz: of nodes or leaf-bearing points separated by internodes, each internode developed frem the summit or node of its predecessor, is the fundamental doctrine in structural botany. That the embryo (with on developed plumule) is simply the initial term of the series; that its so- called radicle is not root, but answers to internode, just as the cotyledons s to although likely to succeed in the end, make slow progress. Some of these endeavors, or protests, are recorded iu this Journal, e. gr., in the nos. for Nov., 1857, p. 435; in Nov. 1858, p. 416; in July, 1961, p. 126; in Sept., 1863, p. 201; and finally in Nov., 1863, p. 435. In the article last referred to, we noted what we took for an admission decisive of the question, viz: that “the radicle is rightly regarded as an axis and not a root.” 1e word ‘axis,’ as here used in contradistinetion to ‘root,’ we understood to mean ascending axis or stem. e were hasty, it appears ; and our mistake arose from our not considering a third possible alterna- tive, ie. that the radicle might be neither root nor stem, but a fertium ; quid. This very view is now propounded by Prof. Oliver, in the Natural 3 History Review for April last (p. 314), in an article which, replying as it does to our criticism, may be presumed to express the opinion of Dr. ooker also, Propounded by such authorities, the view is entitled to oud at we sup be the accepted view, we have the plant built up by the successive repetition of homologous parts, of ; d joints of stem, each bearing a leaf or leaves at its su ! extremity, and each capable of sending out a root or roots, actually pro- : ‘aly at the u . a i the lower, therefore the aw pper end of the radicle, none at : é _ Mdicle cannot be an internode! This is literally true. The series of “odes and internodes—not being infinite, nor in a circle like the old --Feyptian symbol of a serpent with its tail in its mouth—must needs 126 Scientific Intelligence. in with the one or the other; and in our view it begins with internode, i. e. with axis itself, and not with leaf-bearing apex of axis. But if the name here really confuses any one’s ideas as to the thing, let us substi- tute for internode, Gaudichaud’s original technical esi of merithallus or merithalle, and so have done with this verbal argun The other argument, to prove that the radicle is a een quid, is, at in some respects the behavior of the axis below the cotyledonar Hee is ae to that ¢ above, “apart, of course, from the circumstance that e one develops a succession of leaves, the other a root.” But the i- cle iri the cotyledons, and therefore begins this very succession of leaves,—is to the coty ances and the plusule just what the f thalle is to its leaf or leaves and the terminal bud; and si oe these merithalles, if under and will be pretty sure to produce roots;— would produce a root directly from their lower end, no doubt, were that not impossible u under the circumstances. What the other Snien are is not suggested. Perhaps Dr. Hooker has alluded to them in his admirable Memoir on Welwitschia (p. 17), in his references = — papers of Clos in the Ann. Sci. Wat., on the collet and on rhizotaxie, Upon which it may suffice to remark, that, whatever minor discrepancies there may be between the number and disposition of the vascular bundles in at., 3,18, t. 16 and 17, and to the original subjects which can so readily be examined, as evidence that the radicle, as to internal structure, is pa tertium can but ts “to be regarded as bast of the stem or ceding axis, the same sense as the — internodes of the plant may be so regarded.” If an opposite view is. mss we crave an explicit pest re of the 4, Gothe’s plat y on the Met tamorphosis of Planis, aa into English by Emily M. Cox, is published in Dr, Seem ann’s Jo urnal of by some explanatory foot-notes by Dr. Masters, which will aid the general ler to a correct understanding of this —— essay. It ge be well to translate and reprint Wolff’s Theoria Generationis also, A. @- 5. Equisetum.—tIn the same useful prea (for November, 1863,) is a translation of a paper by Dr, Milde, On the pina Distribution uisetacee. In the summary it appears that At present only 26 pieces of Hquisetum can be d istinguished w with certainty, viz: ten E. pcm sibery E. arvense L., E. Braunii Milde, _E. Telmateia Ehr., E. sylvaticum L., £. diffusum E. Bogotense HS Fone E. palustre L., E. limosum L., and £, littorale Kabler); sixteen E. CRYPTOPORA, as Martii Milde, £. zy Met Botany and Zoology. 127 8. &. elongatum is the most widely dispersed species, viz: in Europe to lat. 51°, N. Asia, North and South Afri i Mexico, sud Chili, Europe with thirteen species does not possess a single peculiar one, ctr speaking, Z. littorale being a Beitr and &. Schleicheri and £. trachyodon being regarded as only subspecie America contains the greatest number of species Go and those of South America are the most peculiar, 2. zylochetum of Peru, and £. Brasiliense of Brazil, have the stem 10 feet hi ty oe an inch in diameter ; while Z. Martii, found in both these countries, is still more i , —— tt Berlin fhaniciorays in 1363, a full list and airancement of the species of Marsi lia (as he, with evident correctness, writes the name). He re- . 7 a under their respective sections. A. Fruits 8 to 20, placed on recurved peduncles in a single row far up the petiole, from the outer edge of which they spring, globose, ponte t teeth. Sometimes more than half way U M. tgs drifolia, L. Connecticut, at ale one known agi where was discovered by Dr. T. F. Allen, (Temperate Europe Sem macropus, Engelm. (non Hock.) Texas. “8 Fruit solitary at the base of each petiole, more or less compressed, | with or without teeth. (Peduncles erect or ascending.) - AC uncinata, A. Braun. Arkansas, Texas. 128 Scientific Intelligence. M. mucronata, A. Braun. oe vestita, Torr.) ramnarire M. Nadine Hook. & Grev. Oregon, New Mex M., tenuifolia, Engelm. Texas. Prof. Braun also enumerates four species of Pilularia. Under the division with peduncles erect, P. globulifera L., the original species, of Europe and Northern Asia. Under the other ‘division, with peduncles bent downward; there is P. minuta Durieu, from t vB pel she i re- gion; P. Nove Hollandie as Braun, of Australia; cad 4 ch is espe- cially interesting, P. Americana A. Braun, from Arkansas! he above account is sbatnatied pint ‘the notice in Dr. conn sb of Botan ge - | National American Herbarium.—Two years ago, Prof, ye ex; made the munificent offer to the Seed, of Cambridge, Massa- chusetts, of his valuable Herbarium and Library, upon condition that a suitable fire-proof building should be erected for their reception, and 4 e subj Relaay! is in a fair way of being disposed of in phate with Dr. to prove a nucleus eg which other collections of much importance will probly accumulat rely hope that, through the well-known liberality of Ameri- can sition: "this Herbarium and Library may be put upon such a footing” 8. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Cambridge, together with the er of the Director, 1863. 56 pp., 8vo. 1864.—The Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambri under the direction of Prof. Agassiz, is making rapid progress in the en- largement of its collections and the arran —— of the specimens. The additions during the year 1863 are as follows pecies. Specimens. Mammals, 117 206 Birds, 820 1676 Reptiles, 183 1984 Fishes, 630 4537 Insects, Between 2000 and 3000 = Nearly 17000 , 273° 3042 f Botany and Zoology. 129 useum, which I have no doubt will soon be imitated by others.” ° 9. Observations on the development of Raia Batis; by Jerrrizs Wyman, M.D., Herse rof. Anat. in Harvard College. 14 pp. 4to, From the Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. ix, pp. xlbag begun previously to the detachment from the ovary of the yelk Which is to occupy it. (2.) The embryo, before assuming its adult form, is at first eel-shaped, and then shark-shaped. Sra The embryo is for a short time connected with the yelk by means a slender umbilical cord; the cord afterward shortens, fie the young 130 Scientific Intelligence. 6.) The nostrils, as in all Vertebrates, consist at first of pits or inden- tations in the integuments; secondly, a lobe is developed on the inner border of each; and, finally, the two lobes become connected, and thus form the homologue of the fronto-nasal protuberance. The transitional stages of these correspond with the adult conditions of them in ot species of Selachians. (7.) The nasal grooves are compared with the nasal passages of air- breathing animals, and the cartilages on either side of these to the max- illary and intermaxillary bones. he foremost part of the head is formed by the extension of the facial disk forward; while this extension is going on, the cerebral lobes change their position from beneath the optic lobes to one in front of them. (9.) Two anal fins, one quite large and the other very small, are de- compares the results with what is already known of the development of our common star-fish, in order to trace out the agreement of the mode of formation of the young in these four subdivisions of Echinoderms. Mr. open star. He says, respecting Miiller’s observations, that it is natural that his i we have in the development of Echi a rom the bilateral to the radiated form, “should have made lateral symmetry. And it not been for the clear idea we now have of the character of the parts of radiated animals, (see L. Agassiz, Contrib. Nat. Hist. U.S., iii, iv,) I doubt not that Miiller’s view would have gained general acceptance among investigators; and the whole frame- work of classification, based upon the idea that a plan pervades the dif- ferent types of the animal kingdom, would have fallen to the ground, if it could have been clearly proven that in Echinoderms we had a trans tion from one of these plans to another.” 11. On Dimorphism in the Hymenopterous genus Cynips, with an linois; by Bens. D. Watsa, 58 Proceedings of the En logical Society of Philadelphia, March, pp. 443-500.)—The Cynips studied by Mr. Walsh eies of Oak, the Quer galls produce males . Parte ’ females of the Cynips spongifica in June. Another portion of them, | ’ similar general character, remain green till a Lae gy eG 3 + i ee Oe erik stoned ' Ss ‘ +. ; oo Botany and Zoology. : of Cynips—the Cynips aciculata, hitherto regarded as a distinct species, all the individuals of which are females, Mr. Walsh appears to prove that the latter, although widely different in many characters, is only another orm of the C. spongifica, and, thence, that this species is dimorphous. The individuals produced in June live but 6 or 8 days; what place in nature, then, the author asks, is filled by the aciculata? In reply, he Suggests, from the analogy of Apis, Bombus, etc., that “the female - On the mineral secretions of Rhizopods and Sponges ; by G.C, Wanucu, (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., [3], xiii, 72.)—Mr. Wallich sustains sult of a sponge-growth within. He shows that the spicules of a sponge commence in vaccuoles in its sarcode-mass, and consist of successive their thickness, the Spines never being tubular. The same general fact ; esieewed true of the Acanthometrina and Thalassicollide. In the tyochide, however, which are intermediate between the last and Sponges, the siliceous framework is tubular, and it is formed of two iso- Metical portions. The shells of @lobigerina among Rhizopods and of : Halionma amon Polvevstines are stated to have often their chambers “ choked up with 6 cs sponge-growth ; whilst the chambers of Glo- bigerina are at times filled with effete frustrules of a free-floating pelagic : Surface Diatom, namel y, Chetoceros. ‘ a Sey tendency to the growth of sponge tissue with its siliceous — Posen 8 ave some connection with the formation of Glauconite _ rial of the green sand) in Rhizopod shells.] is Scientific Intelligence. The second, which is shorter, contains, under the title of “‘ Résumé,” the complete exposition of the author’s notions. The third is a “Notice,” ared by Mr. Cornaz, in which this clever agriculturist describes the experiments which he has made, during two consecutive years, for the verification of the author’s theory, and by which this theory appears to feet to the animal kingdom. He refers, in the first place, to the fundamental that of a female. It remained to fix the precise moment at which this primary determi- nation of the sex takes place. This might be before fecundation, or uring, or after, this act. In the former case, if the fecundation were retarded, this retardation, permitting a more complete development of the the author also knew, from some previous experiments, that, in domestic poultry, the eggs last laid nearly always furnish the cocks of the clutch; and he thought it probable that the last eggs which detach themselves _ _ from the ovary of the fowl are those which have had the most time for during their passage through the upper part of the oviduct. here also, when the feeundation is retarded, ; are the result. by W.S, Dallas, F.L.S., from the abstract by Prof. Pietet iat, ° Universelle,” September 20, 1863, p.91, for the Ann. Mag. Nat. Histy ({3], xiii, 68), itishere cited. a fecundated, as all physiologists are aware, BY ditic degree of maturation, and may again Botany and Zoology. 133 a female ovum, in the second a male ovam. The turning moment (mo- ment de vire), according to the author, is the time (probably very short) ae 2, being common to animals and plants, must be subjected 10 identical fundamental laws in both kingdoms.” If this be true of the : Wh tions by which these same laws are realized in combination. he second and third parts of Mr. Thury’s memoir are here reproduced re, enti a4 parat lea Single generative period (multiparous and oviparous animals in general and ovi ) the first ova are generally the least developed, and produce females; the ast are more mature, and furnish malss. But if it happens that a second Benerative peri . the first one, or if the external or organic con- change considerably, the last ova may not attain to the superior in furnish females. e 134 Scientific Intelligence. eteris paribus, the secre of the principle of sexuality is Tess easy in the case of multiparous animals. 5. In the application of the above principles to the larger Mantineliag it is necessary that the experimenter should first of all observe the course of the phenomena of heat in the very individual upon which he proposes to act, in order that he may know exactly the duration and the signs of the rutting-season, which fr uently 7 in different individuals. 6. It is evident that no certain result can be expected when the signs of heat are vague or equivocal. This is acatvely ever the case in animals living in a state of freedom; but cattle in the fattening-sheds or in the stable sometimes present this abnormal peculiarity. Such animals must be excluded from experimentation 7. From the mode in which the law ruling the production of the sexes has been deduced, it — a this law must be general and apply to all organized beings,—that to say, to plants, animals, and man It is necessary to distinguish carefully the law itself (1 and 2 of this summary), which is absolute, from the applications of it which may be made with more or less facility. Lhird Part—WNotice by Mr. George Cornaz.—lI, the —— Gohan administrator of the estate of my father, the late M Cornaz, Piesdatit of the Agricultural Society of “La Suisse Ro bine at Montet, in the Canton de Vaud, certify that I received from Mr. Thury, Professor in the Academy of Geneva, under date of the 18th February, 1861, 2 stor confidential instructions the object of which was an expeti- cre | verification of the law which governs the production of sex im ing subsequently phi a cow of pure Durham we fiebet I ae- Sars to bikin from them a new bull, which might replace the one whieh Thad bought at great cost, without waiting for the chance of the of a male. I operated in accordance with the ee of Prof. eed and the success again nee ies the truth of the pro hich had been Communicated ¢ e—a process the application of aie is direct and es my Durham bull, I obtained six other bulls, of a cross-breed “sean the Durham and Schwitz, which I intended for work: noasie select- ing cows of the same color and size, I obtained very well-matched pairs bulls. ithe herd consists of forty cows of all To sum up, I have made in all twenty-nine experiments according to Ribiew cng lepemgt all have given the desi red product, male or female: oe no case of non-success. All the experiments were made by pony declare that I ‘rogard the method of Pro, Thu Astronomy. 135 as real and perfectly certain, hoping that he will soon be able to profit all breeders and agriculturists in general by a discovery which will regene- rate the business of sg Ala eeding. (Signed) G. Cornaz, Montet, Feb. 10, 186 ee Aine of gt br American Butterflies; by J. Wm. Weme- 2 pp., 8vo, From the Proceedings of the Bototholepie aE Philadelphie Printed by the Society, 1864.—The species included i: this carefully prepared Catalogue are those of the Diurnal Lepidoptera and the names of all are embraced that are known, pes _ to inhabit the continent of North America from Panama to the Arc rences to the more accessible works are given and also to some siciedl the my. IV. ASTRONOMY. - Altitudes of Shooting Stars; compiled by H. A. Newrox. (Com- bctinte for this gee oe )—The @ following table contains the es altitudes, above the earth’s surface ce, of certain shooting stars, lieved that it ade nearly all those which have been publis ig Nae of them are unreliable, and for all we may reasona y assume a lar, probable error. Yet taken together they have value in investigations in terrestrial physics, and sg furnish a basis for important deductions re- specting the shooting stars themselves. The observations in August and November last will furnish considerable additions to the table. _ In the The and third columns are the dates of observations in local in their estimate. In the fifth column is the computed altitude above the earth’s surface of the shooting star at its first appearance. the geographic mile, the sixtieth part of a degree. In the sixth column is the altitude of the shooting star at its disappearance. In the next two columns are placed such altitudes as the observers, or te gn considered uncertain, and some others which for nn rea- especially unreliable. To the former class belon 9, 16. 20, 35, 39, 40, 48, 56, 65, 73, 83, 95, 96, 102, 103, fee 107, 110, oO ze 146, 176, 206, 219, 223, 228, and 292. There was a s fi a large probable error, for Nos. 8, 50, 51, 60, 79, 88, 90, 91, 121, 123, 124, 154, 160, 196, 200, 217, and 218. The altitudes of Nos. 125, 128, 131, 185, 136, and 167, are very improbable from their magnitude. Other large altitudes, as tell as many of the smaller ones, might perhaps With good reason be also transferred from the fifth and sixth, to the seventh and eighth columns. The following are the books referred to in the last column. Ve die Géschwindigkeit, etc, 8y0, Hamburg, 1800. “creda oly caiennghne emegrmagranle aaron ; erhaltungen fiir Freunde der Phys. und Astr., Svo, Leipzig, 1825. aie Grane, Nachrichten, — to by the letters A.W. ik cai Sternach, ete., 8v0, Berlin, 1852, eae - Geogr. und Meteor., 8¥0, Syvo, Leipzig. 136 Scientific Intelligence. Table of altitudes of Shooting Stars. Date of Obs. |Hour, Mag. REPRESS o, lst ist alt. 2d alt.gist alt. (2d alt. Authorit 1.|1798, Sep. 11} 8.1 — 14 des, Versuche., &e. 2. op oe 20 « 3 13, re I 132 “ 4. Oct. 6, 5/Small 6 “ 5 “lyro.11 4 18 « 6. 9} 8.5) 2 45 « 7 “1° 9.3) of 35 u“ 8 “}.93|. 2 52 “ 9 “1 99 3 88 nt 10. “] 10.1| 1-2 66 “ II. “1 10.8) 2 529 2: “a $3. Usa s 67 . 5 28 = 3 43 * 4 38 sy 3 43 4 20 Bi 2 82 * 1 2 1-2 | 64 i 4 y-1 44 I 68 | 46 7 5 3t °°} 733 Benzenberg, Ster. cc. p. 16. 4 28 “ 5 15 : ‘“ 2 15 Brandes, Unierhalt. ce, 2 5 50 “ 4 4-5 I mall Date of Obs. 61./1823, Sep. 27, 62. “ 63. tid 64. “ 65. us 66) Oct. 7, 67. “6 68. “ 69. “ 7O. “ 7I. “ Vas “ vee “ ed 8, 95. “ se “ SEISBLRS CLS Sraererors ss, a it : ae Aug. 30, Sep. 1, 9, 17; 5, 1833, Aug. 6, z “ 9” “ Too, “ Tor, “ 102, “ 103. TO, 104. “ 105. A to. ; 107. “ ki “ ky 12 1i3./7 i ng 834, Nor 27, . gist alt. /2d alt. Astronomy. 7-8) 4-54 5 8.0} 3-44 5 45 8.3} 2-5 40 8.6) 3-4} 56 | 47 5} 2-4 3} 3 - 4\Large} 79 7 Be | 23 48 | -G3 8} 4-5 1.35 } 35 9} 1-4} 23 | 28 .Q} 1-4 34 9.0] 1-2 | 59 | 62 2) 2 81 | 260 .6|Large} 72 | 46 3) 4-5 55 3 55 a ee 22 6B 44 \' 54 8.6] 3 8.8] 1-2 [183 | 99 81 3 8 10 g.0| 2-4 | 53 | 54 9-2|Small 9-3] 2-3 | 92 9.3] 1-3 | 52 38 8.4) 2-3 44 8.6] 5 53 ee I : 6] 7) 49 TOOL: Ss 1649 65 9.8] 1 71 10.3} 2 | 47 | 29 10.3 29 | 33 9:7 67 9.8 44} 14 10, re 24 9-9 5 10.0 37 10, 49 } 3 10, 104 10, = 3 14 9. 86 9.7 74 10,1 De 10.1 10,2 8 10,5 10, 4 17.8 62 | 25 10.5|Small] 50 | 36 10, 28 92 3 67 | 44 I 6a | 39 18 12 61 36 41 12 53 | 66 ist alt.) 2d alt. 540 69 Authority. randes, l Unterhalt., &e. ce, 'Herther, A.V. xvii, 316. “ ay “ se « iy de ae > ae ae “< “ iis “ “ “ “ec “ “ [343. {T wining, Am er. Jour., XXVi, “ Brandes (son), A, NV. xvii, 17.} &« Loomis and Twining, .US. “ “ Boguslauski, C. G., p. 91. ee N., xvii, 317. ae go An Jour. Sct.—SEconp Suns, You. XXXVI, No. 112.—JULY, 1864, 18 .. Mag. Scientific Intelligence. Ist alt. 2d alt.gist alt.)2d alt. 3 184 -2 21 3 6 3 171 I I 3 182 I 2 4 420 3 I I 414 I-2 200 | 323 r $148 81 2 6 45 1 4178 | 148 r Jr51t | 166 1 86 67 S #115 [135 38 26 a6 | 53 60 | 55 55 28 52 3 26 re a 14 5 16 II 27 12 °6 52 | 192 2 | 72 | 44 2 5G | 54 I 48 32 : i120 | Gos a ae 184 | 176 4 | 68 | 84 4 $128 | 112 es 48 | 48 : I 68 52 I . 176 | 360 3 fo | 3 I 2 2 2 68 52 c I 44 28 2 | 76 | 44 I 80 | 64 24 6 i Fe 451 54 | 54 4-5] 43 | 3 3 2 4 28 |} 32 4 mH | 35 a 4351 35 6 13 15 5 as | 32 5-6 | 22 {| 2: eR Erman, A.W, xv Si7. Segalaus, C. G., p. 101. 6 Petersen, A. WV., xvii, 318. Erman and Petersen, A.W, 2 : [xix, 28. co ‘ Heis, Per, Sternsch., p. 35+ a Coul. Gray., p. 179. ee ee ee ee § , Date of Obs. Hour, Mag. glst alt.(2d alt.gist alt.|2d alt. 5 1847, ‘Aug. ¥9; “9.5 64 184. 10.9 48 185. “| IL.o 72 186. «lar. 40 187. “} rr, 40 188. “ar, 36 189. eae 4o 190. } rh. 4o I9I. Sir rie 32 192. na 60 193. «| to.€ 56 194. me es 28 195. *1ird 44 196./1848, July 29,| 10.0|Large| 28 | 104 197. ug. 10) 97) I 38 | 26 198.1849, July 28, 48 | 38 199. 29,) 11.2] 1 37 | 40 1.4] 1 69 |. Aug. 10, Large] 80 | 18 * Fi) 9:7) @ $1987} id.ab 2 84 | 70 10.9] 3 41 19 Ii.1} 3 74 11.6) 4 i 39 11.9] 4 496 | 272 11.4] 2 72 76 2.1} 3 49 38 10.1 61 | 54 9:8 Sr | at 9:7 35. | 68 9-4 3 56 40 8.6) 2 20 | 16 2} 3 F124 a 7-2|Largey 52 7.7, 2 35, 115 ope 1 4o8 76 6.9} 2 a15>7| 31 7.4 +7 4 7.4, 3 36 | 54 a 4o | 24 9.4| 3 2 7 59, RE 191 44 12.0] 4 6 “ ao ks 4 9-4 52 46 .5/Large 156 | 116 47 | 60 Large} 80 | 56 3-4 20 I-2 Pinte I 2 a7 2 AY | 3d 1-44 52 |} 53 I Aa} 30 I 24 | 23 I I 15 - 5 19 | 14 eee tay 20 3 Astronomy. 139 Rae Pes Weyer, .A. W., xxvi, 212. Schmidt, A. ¥., xxvii dying “ “ p. 142, « p. 124 ff. “ “ “ . “ « ‘ss “ cis Lo “ , “ a“ “« “ “ “ “ “ “ at % “ 6 gg “ = “ . “ “ bes “ « “cc “ “. “ “ “ “ “ “ * “ « “ « “ bed “ “ 'p- 142. Heis, Unterhalt, viii, 15. | “ “ “ “ ‘ “ |Le Verrier, Unterhalt., xi, 254., Heis, Per. Sternsch, Schmidt, Resultate, p. 14s, p.1 of Scientific Intelligence. 1861 July ’ ‘J Date of Obs. 1856, Aug. 11858, Aug. Aug. Ny 8 Hour. | Mag. [ew ee NW RTOR RH Load Ist alt. 2d alt. eh Ist alt. 2d alt, Authority. Ae ~~ |LeVerrier, Unterhalt., xi, 254./ 4 “ is, A. W., 1, 148. sceeeementats 4 9 6 36 46 | 29 128 | 62 67 | 29 186 | 108 216 | 4o 22.|° 39 42 48 | 42 7o | 64 108 | 78 66 | 44 60 | 48 46 | 32 62 | 42 84 | 52 78 | 48 88 | 48 62 | 58 364 34 58 | 58 32 53 1 pg 60 | 48 72 | 60 32 | 20 33 48 | 35 45 | 27 §2 | 72 Pe % 44 148 | 38 168 * 10 1 ’ 58 43 40 60 60 | 46 38 | 18 63:27 47 | 26 3 4t 168 13 o54 a7 27 74 65 | 38 62 - % 4 75 | 73 61 | 45 48 | 36 13 | oF 3 > 105 “68 | 4 Heis, “ Herc, and tie Aa Assoc. Rep., 1862, “ Lid Amer. Jour., [2], xxxv, 14 “ “« “ “« “ “ “ “ “ “e “ “ “ << cid “ ; “ ee “ “ Sees a * Astronomy. 141 a ee Now Date of Obs. Hour. | Mag. jist alt.)2d alt.fist alt./2d alt. Authority. hea Aug. 10, ; ag a © erschel, Proc. Br. Met. Soc., : 7, 22 2 2 . ue 9 a2 oa “/ 10 7 2 73 72 “ “ Lii, 10g. “| 10.8 74 " - 310. “ec 9 g 66 Hi “ “ 311. sl) at.1| 1 54 * - 312. isi 2 7 56 “ “ : by . Co Be: Heis, Ibid., p. 21 | 315. «f y 31 “ “ : 316. “ 72 48 “ “ A 317. “ 74 |} 68 “ “ ‘ 318. “& 64 22 “ “ ; 319. « 55 | 20 - a ‘ 320. « 60 | 45 “ “ : vb “ 88 | 36 “ “ t 322. “ “ “ 303, e Sage d ‘ 324. & 541 497 “ Pr 325. “ png oy “ “ 326. “ 49 38 “ “ 327. = | 28 | 20 = - “se “ 43 | 30 ~ “ 90. & “ “ eS ey | ‘oe 331. ss 86 | 5o at - 332, “ 64 | 48 . es 333. “ | 156 | 55 é # 7 334. “ 84 “ « 33 sé “ ac 4 5. 40 | 20 tH ; 336. ‘bz 42 30 “ “ 337. PY 70 38 “ “ 338. as 102 | 37 = a 339. ‘“ 61 | 48 “ C3 340. ‘“ | 40 36 “ “ 341. Nov, 13,, 9.5 1 49 | 42 Amer. Jour. [2], xxvii, 143. 342, ‘ | 9-7, 1 56 26 | “ec &< The altitudes Nos, 231-239 were computed from the observations. A part of those from No. 25 to No. 87, are taken from Feldt’s article, B a a J 3 5 ag 5 8 fas) S S oO > 5 5 2 S, q 3 F s = # omni 5 Ps Tha error in the two processes, of engraving, and of measuring from the lagram, _ 2. On Sun-Spots and their Connexion with Planetary Configurations ; by Baurour Stewart, Esq., Observatory, Kew. (Proceedings of Royal Society.) The author was led to investigate the solar autographs taken at Kew and Cranford, under the an gereypcrwd of Mr. a Ww a ie = fn sen to planetary configuration. The following law was found to ho :—If the sun’s disc be full of spots at any time, and if one of stom begins to wane as it comes up by means of the sun’s rotation to a _ 142 Scientific Intelligence. bad certain elliptical longitude, another will do the same. In fine, all spots j ave in the same manner as they pass the same lon- itude. The author then remarked that, although this mode of investi- gation can only be considered as approximate, yet it furnishes us with an extremely delicate test of the fact of planetary action; for, if it be once clearly proved that sun-spots behave in this way, the only possible expla- nation is an influence from without. It was then shown that the influ- d short time of intense brightness. Such an alternative is presented to us by temporary stars. On the whole, therefore, this law seems to explain: all that is yet known on this subject, and may, perhaps, be of use as 4 temporary hypothesis.—Reader, April 23, 1864. 3. Observations on the Spots on the Sun from Nov. 9, 1853, to March 24,1861, made at Redhill; by R. C. Carrtyeroy, F.R.S. With 166 London: Williams & Norgate——tThe following is from a notice of this great work (signed J. N. L.) in the Reader of May 7:—[A copy of the work has not yet reached us.—Ens. ‘ All our text-books tell us that the Sun turns on its axis, the period of his axial rotation having been deduced from observations of his spots. ut, from the time of Galileo, who made the period of rotation about @ lunar month, down to our own, authorities have differed very considerably. Thus Grant, in his “ History of Physical Astronomy,” gives a period of 274 8" (he quotes no authority). Laugier found 25-344, and later observers have made it still less. _ Mr. Carrington now comes to the rescue, and tells us that the spots travel at different rates, depending upon their distance from the equator either north or south, and that the different rates are bound together by a law, 80 Astronomy. 143 that he is enabled to represent all the rates very nearly by the formula: 865 — 165’ sin = Jat. Consequently the sidereal rotation of the equatorial photosphere is ac- complished in 30°86 days, and of that at a latitude of 50° N. or S—the question. Mr. Carrington considers that the views of Professor Thomson tudes, and easterly in the higher latitudes; the direction of rotation in such cases being t i i oO w ~ 5 £ - i=] Qu ctf a ) o 2 S 2 oo i=} i) = = 8 ° So oad ss Oo 5 = ad o ° cor o D * 3 so 5 ° ae 5 — : = S oS cr ne && or § ™ oe i=) GQ > fa] B = B S time of each of its particles== 11°11 years; of such eccentricity as to pring its perihelion within the limits of the solar envelopes; and revoly- considerable inclination of the sun’s equator. Let it be further assumed lin analogy wi ptions not regarded as unreasonable in the meteoriferous ring), that the distribution of the circulating matter in it is hot uniform—that it has a maximum and minimum of density at se ; ; , 144 _ Miscellaneous Intelligence. rectly on the photosphere, or intermediately through a series of vortices or irregular movements propagated through the general atmosphere, should break its continuity and give rise to spots, conforming in respect of their abundance and magnitude to the required law of periodic re- currence. If the change of density from the maximum to the minimum region remote from the equator (by reason of the obliquity of the ring), and would give rise to a recommencement of the spots in comparatively high latitudes. If the section of such a ring as we have supposed at its aphelion were nil, the period of 11°11 years would be strictly carried out; the maxima city and period would follow a ‘fixed ratio. But if not, “the sveral: sats of the ring would not eee in precisely equal times—the period of 11:11 years would be that of some dominant medial line, or common axis of all the sections in hick a considerable majority of its matter was con- tained—and the want of perfect coincidence of the other revolutions would more or less confuse without eet the law of periodicity, which, supposing the difference to comprised within narrow limits, might still stand out very prominently. Now, it might ha having a maximum or minimum . er and that their difference Lat times should be such as to bring round a conjunction of their maxima in 56 or any other scala: number of ears ; and thus and his series of greater and lesser maxima. e have given this extract to ee the value a single well-ascer- tained fact ; and we congratulate our author upon the possession of that sagacity which, by limiting his field, has enabled him to produce s facts. V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, 1. Medal of the Royal Society to Prof. William Thomson.—At the meeting of the ire Society of April 18th last, the Keith medal was ted to Pro the Society in 1847, has, during the last seventeen ye many valuable papers to the Society which have added of its ts transactions. A ‘ ‘ | Miscellanecus Intelligence. 145 inorganic processes ; and his fine theory of the dissipation of energy, as given in his paper ‘O i i a8 suc Own, it has one of kindred genius and power.”— Reader, April 23, 1864, 2. Sir R. I, Murchison.—The Wollaston Gold Medal was awarded to Sir R. I. Murchison by the Geological Society, at its annual meeting in February last, for his “distinguished services in Paleozoic Geology, Work on the Geology of Russia, and (3) for his discovery e true re- lations of al] the rocks beneath the Old Red Sandstone that forin the The femains of the common stag, wild boar and hare are very rare. A few teeth of the Irish Elk (Megaceros Hibernicus) are found, and an ocea- ional dental plate of the old Elephast (Z. primigenius) is met with. There is no written record of the existence of the Reindeer, — ~ a — i . de : 146 Miscellaneous Intelligence. . Extracts from a paper on the Geography of — Columbia and oes Doidlision of the Cariboo Gold District ; by Lieut. H. S. Parmer, R.E.—Lieut. Palmer mentioned that since the first tbe of gold in British Columbia in 1858, fresh deposits had gradually been traced far- ther and farther north ward till ultimately the well-known fields of Cariboo had been reached, 500 miles from the mouth of the Fraser. Entruste ted with the task of a gener ‘al survey, he details the geographical outline of the colony, the seaboard of which extends 500 miles, protected through- out almost its entire length by Vancouver and Queen Charlotte islands. This seaboard is indented in the most extraordinary manner by deep and arms of the sea, sateen an extent of sheltered inland navigation, and an actual ae ri igre et such as are nowhere equalled on i! . aaatinis being the almost entire absence of peaks. The rivers on the j east side are —- longer and less impetuous than those on the west; but occasionally some of them rise on the plateau, and thread the moun- tains till they fall ints the sounds. Above some of these, giaciers are said to have been seen’; but nothing authentic seems to be known on t. The apne of the table-land, which is well suited for pastoral pur poses, is described in high terms; the rivers having occasionally hollowed out for heintebecs channels of immense depth, in which occur splendid me of which are mere fissures ;_ in other cases running through broad-terraced valleys, or in vales of gently undulating slopes covered. = with grass and a vst with yellow pines. Here and there : are pretty sheets of water, which, like the rivers, are well supplied with : numerous kinds of fresh- ie fish. Above 3000 feet, the grass, which gradually gets less coat with the increased elevation, gives place to 4 : universal mantle of r. Here farming has proved m erately successful at an slooatioe "of 2100 feet, but Lieut. — doubts — a considerable time must not elapse ere enough grain the more sheltered and wall ivigate valleys, to admit vat its nding 6 market at the mines or settlement Just beyond begins the nena mountainous range, which extends without a break to the watershed of the Rocky Mountains, which as far - north as the Peace river, flowing eastward, forms the eastern boundary et oe on “oy side, The only portion of this unexplored regia to be met, is Cariboo. w Garibon i fies in in ie elbow formed abe the upper waters of the Fraser, and is bounded on the south by the Quesnelle river. A marked phe Miscellaneous Intelligence. 147 nomenon is the confused congeries of hills of considerable altitude, from 6000 to 7000 feet high, thickly timbered, whence subordinate ranges ra- diate as centres. Each valley thus formed is the bed of a stream of > Re Eat 38 oe ae ia (os ae yheet ee tain contains the headwaters of no fewer than six of these within’a simi- Jar area, the streams in every case radiating to every point of the pe- nphery. The views from the summits of these mountains are described as splendid. A succession of auriferous deposits have been traced, following the = = “— a — oh “t oO =] Q ° bans) onal o B £ © o o =| 5 =] o - F | mn i) at - ® S oe i=] dQ > ° S fe) a ° S * . Stier rik wea) il 5 eee A he Et. Sink i I a Se co — co ° i i=] oe ° « i g up, saic Frase Winters somewhat resembled those of England, though the extremes were Sreater; and that the rainfall there is about 54 inches annually.—Proe, Roy. Geogr, Soc., March 14th, viii, 87. 5. A newly discovered pass across the Andes,—Sefor Cox, the son of an English physician at Valparaiso, has discovered a pass across the ; Not over 2800 feet high in its most elevated part. He started in ae 2 from Port Montt, a uew German settlement now containing 15,000 lebca tants, near the island of Chiloe, and proceeded by way of the two tai Lianguilhue and Todos-os-Sautos, and crossed over the pass to the ‘Almost unknown inland sea of Nagel-huapi (Lake of Tigers), on the east- £m side of the Andes.— Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. May 9. 148 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 6. Violet colors from iodine.—Prof.. Hormann has patented in England the process of manufacturing a new color, obtained from iodine, which affords several beautiful varieties of violet. The material, which is to be used for dying, is made by mixing rosaline with the iodids of ethyl, h a cave at Bethlehem, and also on Mt. Sinai; and that the former locality will no doubt be examined by the Duc de Luynes’s expedition.— Reader, April 2. 8. Bone-Cave in Borneo.—A bone-cave has been stated to occur in Northwestern Borneo, containing numerous bones in the hardened guano which constitutes its floor; but none of the bones have yet been col- or examined. y '.. 9, Heights in the Rocky Mountains.—Pike’s Peak, according to ob- servations by C. C. Parry, in July, 1862, has an elevation of 14,215 feet, and Mt. Gray, on the upper waters of South Clear Creek, of 14,245 feet. Mr. Parry remarks: that the observations in both these cases were made under unusually favorable circumstances, and are believed to furnish ac- curate results—C. C. Parry, in the Daily Rocky Mcuntain News, for March 13, 1868, Denver, Colorado Ter. 10. Astronomy in France.—A proposition has emanated from Le Verrier for the establishment of a comprehensive Astronomical and Meteorological Association, the head office to be in the Imperial Observatory. The As- ing its precise rise observations in four-fifths of the averages, and that in the remaining in ape : to cost, including tra jon and mounting, $18,187, and to be fin- ep vigeanmsaaa delaras rae g, 91 . : The tower is to be octagonal in shape, 35 feet in diameter and 100 fest high to the hemispherical top. Another tower, also, is to be erected, for Miscellaneous Bibliography. 149 OBITUARY, _Ruporps Wacyer.—The eminent comparative anatomist, R. Wagner, a died at Géttingen on the 13th of May. e was born at Baireuth in 1805. He studied at Erlangen and Wirtzburg, and afterwards at Paris; m 1833 he became Professor of Zoology at Erlangen, and in 1840, of his investigations on the electrical organs of the torpedo, made in Italy m 1845, 1846, and of other researches. He also contributed to the Handworterbuch der Physiologie, of which he was editor, and to various scientific Journals. Evan H, Ph.D., President of the Agricultural College of Penn- sylvania, died April 29th, 1864. [An obituary notice will appear in our next number.—Ebs. } : VI. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Metallurgy: The art of extracting metals Srom their ores, and adapting them to various purposes of manusacture ; by Joun Percy, =D. PRS. Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Royal School of Mines, *} Part U : Iron and Steel, 8vo, pp. 934. Murray, London, 1864.—This’ SR en ee eee eae - _ o 4 ~ A) y ° 3 we oD Qu Fe S os a ei a onl wn . Qs lh PS) | a = nm a 3 gS od Oo Bs] Lae gq oad ° oo o> @ a) Qu = -} =) 7 % the Cooperation of some of the leading Ironmasters and Metallurgists in Great Britain and on the Continent, in many matters regarding 5B ae Meteo emer eae eed Processes and ‘ Statistics of iron-smelting in this country, and we are glad to notice two large folio lithographs of the Thomas Anthracite Iron Furnaces at Okendaugq omas, Es It is scarcely possibly within our limits to give even a brief synopsis of the work. The first 146 pages are devoted to the physical and bout a hundred pages to the discussion of a tate eee ‘facts of the simple processes for iron-smelting used by the natives of - India, Burma, Borneo, Africa and Madagascar; including also long no- * [2], xxv, 118. om 6 IES The oe, Se eRe, oe Lies ee 150 Miscellaneous Bibliography. tices of the Catalan Process and the German Hearth, of great interest Under sion of the “ hot-blast” and of the “ waste gases”; the form of the blast- furnace; the character and composition of the pig-iron produced, etc. occupying over 200 pages. In the chapter on the production of malle- able tron from cast-iron, are given all the details in regard to Jineries and hearths, and the puddling process, with remarks on special qualities of iron, and interesting commercial details. The section on Steel is equally comprehensive. In conclusion, there is given an exceeding] teresting, sketch af the history of iron. The whole book is full of es able observations and criticisms: the Jatter, though sometimes boa on the personal, are alike entertaining and instructive. It is not only the soe work on Iron and Steel in the English language, bat it is also one of the most — comprehensive and extensive practical bakes ever published on these subjects. G, J. B nual Report of the aes of Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- tution for the year 1862. Washington, 1863.—Forty-five pages of this volume are occupied by the Keport of the Secretary, Prof. Henry, which shows that the Institution is doing a large amount of excellent work “for the increase and diffusion of knowledge,” in the way of the promo- tion of scientific researches and explorations, the increase of its Museum, ‘the distribution of specimens to American Institutions, the publications of new memoirs or works, and the sustaining of a system of lectures at Washington. The lectures of the year are in many cases printed in the Annual Report, and add greatly to its value. The volume for 1862 con- tains the Lectures of Pres. F. A. P. Barnarp on the Undulatory Theory of Light, pp. 107-239; and of Prof. Danie, Witson, of Toronto, on Physical Ethnology, pp. 240-302. And in aanee there are the follow- ing foreign and American selected memoirs: A. Mortort’s introductory lecture on the study of sg —— cep at the Academy of — sanne, Switzerland, Nov. 29, 1860; a memoir by J. Lussock, North American Arc pines ; FLovrens’s Historical Sketch of the ee emy of Sciences of Paris, and also his Memoirs of von Buch and Thenard ; Quarreraces’s Memoir of I. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire; a translation of a paper by T. L. Putrson on the Catalytic Force, or Studies of the Phe- nomena of Contact; views by J. P. Lestey on the Classification of ste and a Catalogue of Prize Questions of Scientific Societies. volume also contains an account of a female mummy from Patagonia. 3. Parrisn’s 5 eracinal Pharmacy: Third Edition, thoroughly re vised and improved, with important additions, With 238 Illustrations, Phil- adelphia: Blanchard & Lea, 1864. pp. 850.—The present edition of _ this valuable work contains many improvements, adapting it to the wants . = | operon physicians and students, and, in general, brings up the . which i it treats to the present standard of the science and art tof , a work of this character painrally gore upon of aie fr whom sigue is more > aida Miscellaneous Bibliography. 151 tell what to omit than to find new matter of interest. So far as we ca determine, the author has preserved a happy medium, and has farnished a hew edition of an already popular work, which admirably maintains the high character universally accorded to previous editions any new and valuable illustrations have oo introduced in this edition, and the publishers’ part has been well executed. 4, Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen. Amsterdam, Véierde deel, 4to, pp. xxxiii, and 572, Tables @Intégrales Définies, par D. Bierens de Haan: and Achis te deel, nde xii, and 702, xposé é de la Théorie, des P’voprset sds ict ey nsfor orma res : oC S er eee oe tw After collecting and arranging the forms of the various known integrals, it ‘as to be — eted that a collation of theorems and methods, and an ex- tension of many of them should follow. The evaluation of over two thousand new integrals is but one of the results in this second volume. Report, a : dete Statistical, on the collection in Geology, Zoology and Botany. reap a the Uni iversity of —— eT to the Board of Re- . Oct. 2, 1863, be a Wincuett, A.M, P: d Rotany. 26 pp. 8vo. Ann Arbor, Michigan 7 864, The peyreiee in gts and Geology at the Michi- among the best ntry. A list of Animals dredged near Ca nib ale Southern Labrador, in ener dan Ns 1860; by A we ou Jr. Po 0 pp. 8vo, with 2 assay Meitrost tr: Cana- : ec. 1 nt, pos ; the No f th prey ear by W. K. Parser, Esq. and T. R. — ee es. 13 pp. 8vo.—From the Ann. and Mag. Nat. hase for Dee, 186 va the ts of Co rative Anatomy ; by Tuomas Henry Hoxzey, eS eno ome ee at a > ‘30 the Roy. argeons, Lond 1864 —The inaugural volume of a series ; : itconsiste of ea Sa 112 of i are devoted w ‘a sketch of the classifi- Cation sera and 190 to the structure and theory 0 f the vertebrate skull — latter sad Force ‘(Kraft und Bite), by Dr. Louis Bécaxer. Translated by i, Collingwood. Sta ted to ome carry out the pate! og theory of nature to its extreme Deiat se result o 2 no imm ser Se Great Brin an etn land. ana Eo ere Lon- Ppehe-lKeenin of the Theridiid es 152 Miscellaneous Bibliography. Histoire Naturelle des Araignées; by M. Eveine Srwon, 450 pp. 8vo. Bak ae 1864. Dictionnaire Général des Sciences, edited by MM. Privot-Descna: 1 and AD. Fociiion, with the collaboration of such men as Barral, Foucault, and ‘Marié Davy C. Pari ses differents types de Deserts et d’Oasis; two jeomaphiete y E. Dew ESOR. trom the i 0. i - 186 8 Sci. Année Scientifique et esr pear = — annuel de travaux scientifiques, Inventions et des principales applications de by science a Industrie et aux arts Paral ont attiré Pattention publique en France © V étranger; par Louis Ficvrer. année. 558 pp. 12mo, Paris, 1863. L Hachette et Cie.—The subjects ce = the heals of Astronomy, Physics and Mechanics, Meteorology, Chemistry, Hydrography (in the course of which there 3 is much in condessnatigh of arate ping. Toe Natoral Reciy se Travels, Public ee J ih asi Agriculture. arts, ! Learned Soci eties, sec past eareahet OF. THE rayon odhen F Nar. Hist., or New York. vit “Nos. 13-16, Dec. 1861—Feb. — —p. 367, An alytical “Synopsis of the oni of Squali, eee ion of the nomenclature of the yh ; I. Gill—p. 414, On the extension of i Cavibaiieroce paergia of the tates so as to in rh ‘ ‘all true ¢ a RF. Steent—p. 420, On certain species of N. American Helicide ; 7. Bland.—p. 449, On the occurrence, within the limite « of the U.S., of Bucep “tet Islan sai ; D. G. Elliot. —p. 455, Deser escriptions of six new species of ~~ of seam si Charadridw, Trochilide and wide; G. N. Lawrence.—p. 461, Cata of a collection ves Birds made in New Grenada by J. MeL ae — sent denied ions of spe- es; G. N. Lawrence,—p. 480, Descriptions of two new species of Mollusca of the pais Curbicula ; 7. Prime.—p. 482, ve Si of new species of Venus; Vol. VIE, No. 1. May—October, 1863.—p. 1, Catalogue of a collection of re made in New Grenada by J. McLeannan, with notes and de escriptions; G. NV. L rence.— ’ the family Proserpinacea, with a sit es of a new species e Proserpina; 7. Bland.—p. 17, Remarks lassifications of N. American Helices fe European authors, and especially by H. and A. Rca and ihe t T. Bland. PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN Pult. .. PHILADELPHIA, Vol, 1X, No, 70.— Solar 5: O. Reichenbach—p. 271, On the number of vi 234, On pots: ae to the : PB. Cha Anguage; P. E. Chase.—p. 283, On the diurnal ‘variations —. : Proc Nat. Scr. or Parraperrata, No. 2, March—A pri 1864. on ed wAdditio tions ra the daialngens of Stars which have cha inged the or which have appeared with different colors at different times; J. Hnnis—p. 51, A new roid genus allied to h Gthr.; 7. Gill.—p. 59, Nete on the nomenclature of genera and species of the read Echeneidoidee ; x. eae .—p. 62, Notes on the Birds of dante aica; W. 7. March and S. F. Baird.—p. 72, Critical re- view of the ese Lae tok Par e en i 12 iex, Benaig Pe . Coue: 2, Synonymy of the species of Strepomatide, a family of fluviatile Mollusca pe aan g N. America, Part 3d; . es Tryon, Jr.——p. 105, New of listena Collected | in Illinois; C. AT elmuth.—p. 106, New species Birds of the families Cxrebide, Tanagr grid, Icteride and Seolopacide; G. ¥. —p. 108, Six new ate ‘of Unionide from Lake Nyassa, Ventral Africa, é&c.; [. Lea.—p. 109, Six new species Sa of ee u, States; ra Lea.—p. a speci Planorbis ; Procellarid, Part I, em I, embracing the Pufinew % Coue Essex Instrture, Vol. IV, Jan., Feb, March, ig No. 1. p-8, On the sodalite at Salem, Mass.; D. M. Balch. On magnetite and at mineral at Nabant; cS essay Ga A Lyge- nide; A. 8. This Soci ppose: ie § Nesveslieny’ Dieeaiory. to be issued in connec and special ¢ ler of Preceding i ih hose address can oe, to F. W, Putnam, Essex AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES.] Agr. XII.—Barometrie Indications of a nnn Aether ;* by LINY EARLE Cuass, M.A., S.P.A.S. IN a recent communication to the Ascéeican Philosophical Society, I stated that there are indications in the hourly prt Metric means, of disturbances which may, perhaps, be owing to & resisting medium. As the proper ae nega of those dis- tu in my opinion, to involve a consideration of and eon The Series between the light, volatile atmosphere, and the ish, ponderous S mercury, is so great, that few persons would expect an any slight variations of one to be accurately recorded by the other. But that such is the case, has been shown by m Barometric i ey eeA HONS 5 and so minute is the apparent corres- Pondence between the two fluids, that it does not seem unrea- Sonable to look even for traces of sethereal disturbance in the Mercurial column. I believe no attempt was ever made to si the daily *®robaric es by general algebraic expression, o the one to which I was led by an a priori consideration ae ie ie of Totation.? The remarkable correspondence between the theo- Tetical formula sia the results of observation, reg as it is, far : a T prefer this spelling for the Srgerdiebes oe. es Sis bd to pervade all space, to it from the liquid Eth * Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. vol. ix, x, p. 285; he ‘Sill Jott: for May. 1864, p. 410, 1864, i Neca. Bi: hacoms Sanne, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 113.—SsPt., 1 20 154 P. E. Chase on Barometric Indications of a Resisting Aether. within the limits of probable error, lends strong confirmation to my original hypothesis, and seems to require a revision of the reasoning which has led to the prevalent belief that all the in- fluence of rotation must be constantly uniform, and therefore incapable of producing any tidal action. Perhaps the error of that reasoning, as applied to the earth, has arisen from considering the joint action of rotation and or- bital revolution, and making undue allowance for the mutual compensation of their mutual disturbances. That such compen- ion must be effected at every instant, I have no reason to doubt, but how is it modified by the stress of gravity and the stretch of molecular elasticity? That stress, at the surface of the earth, is nearly three hundred times as great as would be necessary to retain the particles in orbits at the same mean dis- tance from the earth’s centre; and since it probably follows a different law from the countervailing elasticity, it seems to me that each of the forces must be constantly accomplishing work. The value of this work must form an important element in calculations of the effects of the earth’s rotation, and, if it were properly ascertained, I have little doubt that it might be repre- sented by a formula analogous to the one which I have deduced from the relative motions of the air and the earth’s centre.’ I am inclined to believe, as I have intimated elsewhere, that a due consideration of these relative motions may help to ex- plain other compensations, such as the variations in temperature and the deposition of dew during the night, the fluctuations of magnetic force, &. I content myself, for the present, with @ simple statement of the belief, because its confirmation or ref tation will depend principally upon the results of the investiga tion that I am now inviting. ‘ The following table is constructed from data furnished by Qu i) oO © 4 & Seq o Lar) et o- fa) ~ — o = < ) =, 2) 4 a7, i) ba j ou = 19") Ss ° pe. B ony ee | a ct a * . ’ 1+sin 9 cos Gcosl 2C B=M ( Re 7a) gi? the other columns require no explanation. oe . Tt willl be readily seen that the sun’s attraction js in the same direction as the os ___earth’s, and opposed tv the molecular elasticity, at midnight; but at noon it sc# ea MeL ae zt : te if atau Sea ‘ 7 id Tear aghast ae mt P. E. Chase on Barometric Indications of a Resisting Aether, 155 TABLE OF HOURLY THERMOMETRIC AND BAROMETRIC MEANS, os _ ~o y = & | es | ess | bey | ts? 53 e2 222 S 2 tM S22 bial ee < 2 a= a 6? p | a - h. ° 28 in. + | 2 in. + | 23 in.+ in. in. in. 0 | 64392 | -2985 | -296125 | -2970 002875 | ‘0015 | — 000875 1 | 64731 28 28145 2821 00045 | —0002 | —00065 2 | 64-946 560 67126 | -2672 | -001125 | —0012 | 000075 3 | 64639 | -2553 2572 9563 | ~-0019 —0010 | +0009 | 4 | 64108 2521 25855 2523 | —00145 | -—0002 00125 8 | 68-174 562 2572 2563 | —001 —00 009 6 | 62120 | 2642 267125 | -2672 | 002925 | -0020 | —000075 7 | 61-403 2764 28145 2821 | -—00505 | —0057 | —00065 8 | 61-067 2899 296125 | 2970 | --006225 | -0071 | —-000875 9 | 60:828 3003 3077 3079 | —0074 - 0076 | —-0002 10 | 60-666 | -3061 31225 8119 | -00615 | —0058 00085 1 60-491 8025 8077 3079 | —0052 ; --0002 12 | 60°330 2913 96125 | -2970 825 | --0057 | --000875 1 60-184 QUT 2814 2821 —0375 0044 | --v0065 l4 | 60-002 2646 67125 | -2672 0 —0026 | —000075 15 | 59868 | -2562 5 2563 | = —000 0009 5 | «69779 2550 | ‘25355 2523 00145 0027 00125 | 59-691 2611 2572 2563 139 0048 | 0009 3 | 59°664 2737 267125 | -2672 006575 | “0065 | -—-000075 ) | 59868 2898 28145 2821 $ 0077 | —0006: 20 | 60575 | -3048 | 296125 970 008675 | 0078 | --000875 21°! 61-6 3163 8077 3079 086 084 | —-0002 2262-635 | -3184 | 31225 | -83119 0615 | -0065 | 00035 23 | 63578 | -3117 | -3077 “3079 004 0088 | —uN2 _ The greatest theoretical error, (A-C,) is only 0084 in. at 214, or ‘000297 of the entire height, and *127 of the daily range; least. error is at 54 and 154, 000004 of the height, or -00151 of the range; and the average error 0042 in., which is 000147 of the height, or -063 of the range. f __ The greatest difference between the observed height and the observed average, (A-B,) is at 20%, when it is 131 of the daily Tange; the least difference is ‘0068 of the range, at 1"; the average difference, ‘0639 of the range. _ The greatest difference between the observed averages and the theoretical height, (B-C,) is at low tide, or at 4h and 164, When the difference is less than ‘02 (say ‘0159) of the daily range} the least difference is at 2% from low tide, or at 24, 6, 14% 18, when it is but little more than ‘001 (00113) of the range; ces of temp rat 156 P. E. Chase on Barometric Indications of a Resisting Aether. because the average height of the thermometer from 2 to 154 (61°-7) corresponds very closely with the average from 165 to 1> (61°°66). ° The greatest unexplained reduction of barometric pressure is at 95; the greatest increase, at 204 or 215, Al] these facts ap- pear to me to admit of a ready explanation, on the hypothesis that the disturbances are caused by the resistance of an ether, which is condensed, as Fresnel supposes, by planetary attraction, and I can imagine no other hypothesis by which they could be satisfactorily accounted for.* urn’s inquiry into the nature of heat suggests some interesting speculations concerning other effects of rotation than those that can be measured by the barometer. Recognizing the impossibility that the sun should warm the whole solar system, s a simple incandescent body,—the improbability that its heat should result from continuous combustion, and the probable ap- producing heat of compression, and cold of expansion: 2, that the change of eastward velocity from 69,000 miles per hour at midnight, to 67,000 miles at noon, (sic) necessarily produces ® conversion of motion into heat, and of heat into motion: and 8, that if the earth is moving in a resisting medium, by which itis so retarded that it approaches the sun at the rate of 1,000, miles in 3,000,000 years, its “lift’’ involves the annual abstrac- tion of a heat-force equivalent to 752,665,108,390,000 horse wer The third hypothesis has been often broached ; the indications mulation of heat to supply any loss that may arise from radiation into space, but it must modify the distribution of beat throughout the day in a manner that may be readily calculated. The avail able data are not sufficient to furnish us with complete results, ae ie P. E. Chase on Barometric Indications of a Resisting Aether. 157 but they give curious approximations that seem to open a wide field for profitable investigation. “Sir John Herschel finds the direct heating effect of a verti- cal sun at the sea level to be competent to melt ‘00754 of an inch of ice per minute, while according to M. Pouillet, the quantity 8 ‘00703 of an inch.”* Taking the mean of these two esti- mates (‘00728 in.), multiplying by the latent heat of water (142°6° F.), and dividing by the number of cubic inches in 1 lb. of water (28), we obtain nail 142°6 _ 037076 units of heat received per minute on each square inch of the earth’s surface _ that is exposed to a vertical sun. The weight of the aérial col- umn being 15 lb., and its ratio of specific heat 25, the maximum effect of the direct solar rays is sufficient to heat the whole at- mosphere ees per minute, or 7°12° F. in 12 hours. Now, in consequence of the earth’s rotation, the difference of atmospheric “lift” between noon and midnight, is 182,336 ft. ie minute. The average difference for the twelve hours is one- alf as great. “Rapid rotation, without friction or resistance, Cannot in itself alone be regarded as a cause of light and heat ;”* but we have found in our barometric investigations, that the Tatio of the half-daily velocity of rotation to that which, would conferred by twelve hours’ action of terrestrial gravity, is 00109, which may be regarded as the modulus of heat-producing Tesistance. If we multiply the average difference of lift by the weight of the atmosphere and by the effective resistance, divi- ding the product by the ratio of 5 ele atmospheric heat, and € number of foot-pounds raised by a unit o heat, we obtain 91168 X 15 x ‘00109 | 170 K +25 ; cated to the air by rotation between midnight and noon, and ab- Stracted between noon and midnight. __ The theoretical barometric lift is, as we have seen, -00219 of the entire weight of the atmosphere. Estimating the height of the aérial column when reduced to uniform surface density, at — 24,000 feet, the heat-producing disturbance that is indicated by the barometer is represented by a lift of 15 1b. on each square Pick io height of 00210 x 24000 foc, The quarter day di turbance from this cause is, therefore, 470 X26 = 41°R . : , Itis more than likely that each of these results will require : t Ris weed when the entire influence of the several ‘yndall, Heat considered as a Mode of Motion, N. Y.edit., p. 451- - J.B. Mayer. — 7-74° F, as the amount of heat communi- ee & es . 158 P. E. Chase on Barometric Indications of a Resisting Aether, conditions of the problem is better understood. I have thought it proper to present them in their present crudity, in order to show the true points of departure, and to prepare the way for some further considerations Whatever other heat- disturbing causes there may be, there can be little doubt that the three we have just been considering are the most important. Dividing tine " juehen aa day into four quadrants, and representing the solar effect by S., rotation by R., and barometric by B., it will be readily seen ‘that the pai positive and negative ‘influences must be distributed as ollows s. R. B From 0) to 64, — ni eae “6h to 12h, a ai + “ 125 to ist, nk te ~ * 18h to Oh, + ao The tables of average temperature at any given place would therefore furnish us with four equations for determining the value of each of the disturbing elements, providing those that are unknown were so insignificant as to be safely negl certain limits that can be pretty copula s determine ur discussion of the barometric fluctuations beeen a pndatey of inertia to retard the effects of eats so that the mean daily altitudes are found nearer to 1%, 7}, 13%, and 194, than to 04, 64, 12, and 18". A like tendency is discernible in the thermometer There are three, and only three, quadrantal divisions of the - ay, sear greets: ‘respectively at Ob, at 1, and at 2h, for which could obtain approximate positive values of S., 'R., and B, The maximum solar effect is deduced from the first, and the minimum from the third of these divisions; while the maximum rotative and barometric effects are exhibited in the third, and the r minimum in the first division. e nearest average temperatures are found in the third divi- sion,” as is shown below oo of temperature at 26 8h 14>, and 204, and of the en ay Station. op ronal Daily mean. fo} °o At Girard ne oe eee ows 52°1 52°71 , At St. Helena, 61°65 ‘61 69 ‘The flowing table presents all the codrdinate the Girard College values R., and B., that can be obtained f from the E. W. Evans on the Action of Oil-Wells. 159 Divipine at Srarion, 0, 6, 12, 18h. { 1, 7, 13, 19h. | 2, 8, 14, 20h. Boy ee] ae Be me ff, ps Per ct. |} Per ct. | Per ct. | Perct. | Per ct. | Perct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct, |Girard College, | 45°92 | 41°32 | 12°76 | 31:3 | 49°5 | 192 | 13°8 | 63-2 | 23-0 St. Helena, 25°97 | 42°96 | 31°07 | 15°83) 467 | 375 56 | 566 | 878 The percentages of the calculated values correspond very neatly with the means of the earliest Girard College and St. Helena values. | Calculate M imi vais ae Percentage. | hime Limits. { || 79-49 37°6 35°95 56 45°92 eae ag Sore Hong 40°8 42°14 403 63°2 Bye es eee 4°} 21°6 21°91 12°76 87°8 It may be inferred from this comparison that the rotation ele- ment of daily heat is least affected, and the solar element most ected, by extraneous causes (of which moisture is probably the chief); that the first division gives the best, and the third division the poorest, results; that the proportion of thermometric variation which is attributable to rotation is between “4 and ‘5 o the average total daily variation, and that the most difficult ele- ment to determine satisfactorily is S., which is modified by man local disturbing influences, such as the nature of the soil, amount of vapor, clouds, altitude of the sun, &c. Philadelphia, May, 1864. Arr. XIII.—On the Action of Oil- Wells ; by Prof. E. W. Evans, Marietta College. THE phenomena exhibited by oil-wells suggest various prob- lems, the discussion of which may be of scientific as well as Practical interest. The facts on which the following remarks less liable to be carried away by running water. Prof. KE. B. n, in an article | aadreer: in this Journal, common to fin ; but whatever may be their origin t horizontal 160 E. W. Evans on the Action of Oil- Wells. wells strike oil at the same depth, whether the strata be hori zontal or dipping. It is one chance out of many to strike oil at all, even in neighborhoods where it exists in abundance. ) drill, as it enters the cavity, sinks variously from four or five inches to as ma y feet, sometimes sticking fast, as if between the oblique sides ‘of a narrow fissure. But there are facts con- nected with the history of oil- als ‘particularly their intermit- tent action and their interference with one anot er, ‘ae serve to show the existence, in many cases, of systems ese cavi- ks connected together by channels of noah anin ce more or $8 sy gdamandt us Besin with the most simple case, that of a single or iso- lated om -cavity ; of which a cross section is represented by gw, -1. Every collection of oil is accompanied with varying quantities of gas and water, the gas occupying of course the top of the cavity and the water the bottom, according to the order of their specific gravities. First suppose that a well is bored at so as to enter the gas. Being in a high state of tension the gas escapes, sometimes with explosive violence, mpetee out with 2 Slnetee water there may be collected in the ing. If wat enters the cavity freely, as is usually the case, the oil, floating 6 its surface, is soon driven upward to the mouth (i.e., lower end) of the tube ; it may then be pumped out till the line of division between it and the water rises to the mouth of the tube; after which, mixed oil and water will be drawn. But it often hap- pens that the water rises faster than it can be thus exhausted, and the oil, driven into the top of the cavity, is lost, until the water is reduce y ma- 1 chinery of greater work- ; ing power. But as it can- c not be reduced below the a mixed oil cannot again be obtained So the well. In all wells from which the gas has escaped, there is ultimately a saving of work if the oil is pumped out as rapidly as possible before the intrusion of LY _ water. Secondly, aap ¢ | poe Be the pre is at B enters the oil. In this case, the oil rises in the tube toa epending on the tension of the gas above it; a mode of is illustrated by the familiar apparatus called E. W. Evans on the Action of Oil- Wells. 161 the fountain with condensed air. Sometimes it is thrown into the air a distance of 30 or 40 feet, and large quantities wasted. If the oil continues to be ejected till its surface in the cav- ity descends to the mouth of the tube, the fact first becomes known by a gurgling and spurting action, and the gas, or the greater portion of it, escapes, after which the pump becomes ne- cessary, and the same series of actions take place as in the first ease. But if the gas reaches its equilibrium with the hydrostatic pressure before the oil is reduced so low, we may then pump out the oil till the water rises to the mouth of the tube, after which we shall obtain mixed oil and water as before, till the whole supply of oil is exhausted, provided the pump is of suffi- cient working power to prevent interruptions by the too rapid rise of the water. Next suppose that the boring is at C and enters the water. If the gas has sufficient tension, water is raised until its surface in the cavity descends to the mouth of the tube, then mixed oil and water is obtained, then pure oil, after which the same cir- cumstances exist as in the second case. It must not be inferred, however, that when the water is not thrown to the surface there isno oil. It may happen that the pressure of the gas will raise a column of water only part of the way up the boring, and yet the well be found productive. Hence no considerable quantity of water should be passed without ascertaining by reducing it With the pump whether there is oil confined above it in some side chamber. The Shattuck well on the Little Kanawha had to be drained of water with a steam pump for two weeks before oil was obtained; but after that it yielded abundantly. 162 E. W. Evans on the Action of Oil-Wells. There is a second class of wells, in general more productive, which exhibit the same phenomena at first, but as often as they are exhausted are replenished again, and repeat a certain series — of actions indefinitely, and with remarkable regularity of time. This is to be explained by supposing that they are connec with other reservoirs by slight channels of communication, hose capacity for replenishing is less than that of the tube for exhausting. Let C, fig. 2, be an oil cavity having connections with two other cavities, Band D. Suppose that a well A enters the oil in C. After this well has thrown out oil, and perhaps afterward water, by force of the condensed gas, it comes to @ stop. Then owing to the diminished tension of the gas in the passages, represented by the dotted lines, into C, until the gas in this cavity again becomes sufficiently compressed to raise oil and water successively; after which the well comes to another stop until it is replenished with oil and gas as before; and the same process is repeated an indefinite number of times. The Newton well, on a branch of the Little Muskingum, a few miles from Marietta, repeats this process (with some escape of gas) at regular intervals of about half an hour, expelling about a barrel of oil I A note-worthy fact connected with this well is that when it stops it is necessary to pump out a little water in order to start it again; then the oil issues spontaneously. This is to be explained as follows. ‘The pressure of the gas is not quite sufficient to raise the water to the surface; but the position of the mouth of the tube is such that a few strokes of the pump suffice to reduce the surface of the water in the cavity below that i Now a column of oil will be raised by a given pressure so much higher than a column of water as its specific gravity is less. In this case it is raised not far from a fourth higher (the specific gravity of the oil being ‘816); and the difference is sufli- cient to make it flow over the top of the tube. Examples 0! this kind are common. . ually numerous: the and oil, hike the water, i ir Way in through a multitude res and slight crevices, | l a state of equilibrium | or ap : se om ms BE Pee = een es ee it se : ties near together in the same locality. Especially if it yields copiously for months in succession, as often happens, without any material diminution in quantity, or increase of the intervals tween the successive yields, the rocks in its neighborhood may Saat to contain rich supplies of oil that may be directly e On Oil Creek in Pennsylvania the greatest quantities of oil are found in the same horizontal stratum of sandstone. It woul Seem that this rock is very porous, and perforated like a honey- gas (the “ breathings of the earth,” as they are called,) are to be explained on the same principle as before, by supposing that as ishing flow, until a relative vacuum is again created r which the influx is renewed and gradually increases as at the begin- ’ ning. These regular alternations vary in different wells from two or three times a day to as many times an hour; the inter- : 8, however, gradually increasing in length as the supply of Cations are forced, and the well, deriving new supplies, starts off riod. It often happens that the same well 48 two periods ;—one of variation in the flow, and another of Cessation, consequent on the escape of gas. : ] Amore uniform flow may be secured by making the orifice ___ St the mouth of the tube smaller. This is often desirable in order prevent the escape of gas by the exhaustion of the oil in the “avity down to the bottom of the boring. Sometimes such a = ssa will thus rush out, before the oil raised up by the water, <> the passage again, as not only to render the pump neces- 0 tnpard that to raise oi], but also to diminish materially the tux of oil from other cavities by reducing the pressure of the _ 888 in them. Another expedient sometimes resorted to, when 164 E. W. Evans on the Action of Oil- Wells. the spontaneous flow of oil becomes slight, is to stop up the boring till another “head of gas,” as it is called, accumulates. But the stoppage should not be continued long; for instances are known where the gas has in consequence forced a way from its new channels in other directions, and found vent in other wells. t is not an uncommon thing for intermittent wells to throw out at first 300 or 400 barrels a day, or to yield in all as much as arrels, ‘hey sometimes run two or three years before exhaustion. The productiveness of the Lewellyn well on the if the first sunk, it is itself tapped by them. But some of the most marked cases of interference that are Again, a third well C is $. A B Cc presented by F. It finally descends to a fissure H, which communicates freely it and consequently also with D, and interferes both cavities above the ‘ mouths of the tubes. Pump- : ing the water out of all these simultaneously might bring the oil down again within reach of that tube at least which enters ab the highest point. A better expedient is to stop up tightly the space on the outside of the tube in the well C, just below the stream of water F. This is often effected by lowering a leather ! : : : haa e Bis oi E. W. Evans on the Action of Oil-Wells. 165 Examples differing in details might be multiplied indefinitely. I have aimed only to point out in a general manner the different modes of action, and the hypotheses on which they are to be explained. n the foregoing illustrations the quantity of gas has been sup- posed considerable. In many cases however it is so slight that the pump has to be used throughout. Yet wells of this kind often partake of the intermittent character to some extent. Consequent cessation of flow whenever the oil is red toa certain level, If collections of oil had direct and free connection 166 G. W. Hough on Cataloguing and Charting Stars. with strong currents of water, the See agency of these currents would bear them rapidly a As it is, minute quantities come ts be surface with the ee . showing a very slow process of drainage. As an index of the location of oil-cavities this sign is not “yeliable ; for that whi issues may have been carried by the streamlets many miles along by descending currents, is not likely to wander so far before it issues, But the ‘show of oil” increases in value as a sign with the depth at which it is found, Especially is the find- ing of large quantities of imprisoned gas, though no oil may present, regarded as a good indication that there is oil near. Marietta, May 4th, 1864. Art. XIV.—Description of a new met vee fae oe and Charting Stars; by G. W. H THE progress of instrumental astronomy has been so rapid during the last half century, not only in the —_— of the th older instruments, but also in the invention of new methods of observation, ees at the present time, in certain pinaien of work, more observatio 8 can be made in one year than could formes have been sonas in five = = year — the application of electricity to, the record- in tronomical Observations was first suggested. This ane ciagene idea soon resulted in the construction of Chro- nographs by various persons, by which the instant of transit of a star was accurately recorded in a legible and permanen nt man- ner. Success in the recording of one ordinate of a star’s position would naturally suggest the possibility of fixing the other by the same agency. But with the exception of some experiments made by the late Prof. O. M. Mitchel for the recording of deeli- nations by electricity, this subject, so far as I know, has not been undertaken by any other astronomer. In the formation of catalogues of zone stars, astronomers have almost invariably used the gener yet in a fixed position, and, by means of a diaphragm or scale placed in the focus, deter mined the time of transit so difference of declination. In our method, the Telescope is moved in zenith ciasens, the amount of motion giving us the difference of declinatio: ecb aeeig of observing the —- of ane between two ects, magnifying by m nical means the angular ae acer say the "reese, ies to the late Prof, 0. M. Mitchel, ? put it alia cnense tose ur bei fn account of which willbe dels G. W. Hough on Catuloguing and Charting Stars. 167 | of easy and simple mechanism, a description of which will be | given in this connection. In the cataloguing of zone stars with the Oleott Meridian Circle, during the year 1862, I found it desirable to have some contrivance by which we could observe the same zone, star for star, on a subsequent night. In order that we may be under- Stood, we add that the clamp arm for giving slow motion to the . Telescope in zenith distance, is moved by a screw pressing , against its lower end, one revolution of the screw being about 6’. Play between the two cog wheels), we could follow the same Zone with a deviation of less than 5’. Were the pulleys at- tached directly to the screw, we know the error would be still d : om this fact, we were led to surmise, that difference of declination could easily be read to the tenth of a minute, from # Screw head used for giving slow motion to the Telescope, in _ ‘*enith distance. ‘ ; thinking on this subject, I conjectured that if a cylinder ee Were attached to this screw, and a pen be made to move over it With a uniform velocity in the direction of its length, we could Se Teadily record both Right Ascension and Declination, or, in other 4 Words, make a map of the stars observed. Owing to incon- 7 Venience in attaching such an apparatus to our instrument, the _ #*** Was not put into execution. ‘ gp; Will_now proceed to give a description of the Charting ma- we. Fig. 1 is a perspective of the machine, as seen from the Hatheast. This apparatus is firmly fastened to the south side of ... West pier, It is connected with the clamp arm of the Tel- “seope by means of the horizontal rod (/), 40 in. in length. 168 G. W. Hough on Cataloguing and Charting Stars. A clock work mechanism, having a half second’s pendulum (p), carries the cylinder (a), 6 in. in length and 10 in. in diam- eter; which revolves from west to east, and makes a complete revolution every hour. 4 rane Sj Directly over the cylinder is mounted, on a horizontal axis, the compound lever (61); to the lower end of which, by means G@. W. Hough on Cataloguing and Charting Stars, 169 Each of these pins has a notch cut in the middle, of the form which would result from placing the vertices of two cones to- Rn By this arrangement, there can be no loss of motion ; ides, it affords great facility in changing the rod from one pin to another. The rod (/) is connected with the clamp arm by dropping the , Rotch (z), fig. 2, on one of the pins. The other end of the rod is attached to the lever (J), fig. 1. A sectional view of the mechanism for this purpose is seen in fig. 8; (4, t) being two screws having con- 3. s tectly to the lever (2). a The lever (4) is supported on the — oe horizontal post (e), fig. 1; gisa : Set screw for clamping to any part of the post (e); 2 and 7 are Weights for counterpoising the lever in any position. ; © supporting axis of 6 is seen in fig. 4, where mm are two __ ‘*rews having conical points. By this arrangement, we avoid 4 “088 of motion, and have but very little friction, 2 _In fig. 1, kis an electro-magnet operating the arm (d), at the EMA of Which, and parallel to the axis of the cylinder, is at- *ehed the cross piece j, The dials seen A fig I indicate minutes and seconds. _ Att Jour. So.—secoxp Senms, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 113—Sept., 1864 22 é 170 G. W. Hough on Cataloguing and Charting Stars. _ Now, when the telescope is moved in zenith distance, motion is given to the steel pen so that it moves over the cylinder in the direction of its axis. Whenever we wish to make a record, a key is pressed which closes the circuit through the electro-mag- net, and a blow is struck on the arm carrying the steel pen; 80 that a small dot is made on the sheet of paper covering the eylinder. It remains now to show how the magnitudes of the stars are recorded on the Chart. Various plans were suggested, and I finally decided to represent the magnitudes by different colors. For this purpose we use prepared paper, known as duplicating impression paper. * If a strip of this paper be laid over a sheet of ordinary wil ting paper, and a pen be drawn over it, a colored impression will be left on the paper. In the same manner, if a blow be str with a blunt point, a colored dot will be the result. Now, if at the time of observation an assistant should introduce a strip of Various kinds of apparatus might be employed to take the place of the assistant; but tainty. We at first placed our strips on a belt running over 6 what we need is simplicity and cer i 5 . g Line L a t i Pe ey ee oe G. W. Hough on Cataloguing and Charting Stars. 171 colored paper could be brought under the recording pen. This plan answered the purpose, but made it somewhat inconvenient’ to put our sheets on the cylinder. We therefore removed it and pen he desired, and this too without removing his eye from the telescope : This part of the apparatus is not shown in the drawings, but i i t. So far number of dots to indicate the magnitude, As fast as the stars enter the field of the telescope, they are Surface of the cylinder, so that when our observations are fin- ed, we have a perfect “fac simile” copy of the zone of stars observed. This apparatus we believe is the first which has been con- Cted to record accurately, by mechanical means, the Right Ascension and Declination at the same instant, or in other words, tomake a chart of the stars observed. When the dot is made on the cylinder, a record is also made on the working chrono- ope, which gives us the time to the hundredth part of a second. or the exact declination, an assistant reads the declinometer ale to the five-tenths of a second. Therefore, when o 18 observed, we have not only a complete catalogue of the exact 4n case not read our declinometer scale, we can deter- mine the declination from the chart, within one-tenth of a min- ute of arc. The precision with which this machine will map 0. - ‘Stars is all that could be desired; since if two charts of the same Zone, made on different nights, be placed one over the other, the we will be superimposed so that the eye can detect no difference, _, BY means of movable adjustments, we can set the machine (having our sheet ruled for Right Ascension and Declination) $0 that it will give the position of the zone, at the beginning of the year, asthons sad error, For adjusting in Right Ascen- exact positions. In the observation of asteroids on the meridian, a great deal of time is wasted, especially when the error of the ephemeris is considerable. And even when the error is only 2’ or 3' in declination, in certain portions of the heavens, it is almost im- possible to find the body with a meridian instrument. This apparatus affords great facility in finding these bodies, when we have an approximate Ephemeris; since it is only ne- eessary to observe, on two nights, a short zone of five minutes in Right Ascension and 10 minutes in declination. The com- parison of these two charts will at once show which is the planet, provided it is included within those limits; when, the Ephem- eris being corrected, it can be observed on the meridian in the usual way. This has already been tested in finding some of the old asteroids, using for our Ephemerides Hind’s Supplement to the Nautical Almanac. ; In our ordinary work, as we observe all stars visible, the limit being 13-14 magnitude, it is usually impracticable to observe & zone of greater width than 10’ or 12’; and within these limits, it is not unusual to find more than 200 stars in one hour of Right Ascension. In case we wish to extend our observations over more than G. W. Hough on Cataloguing and Charting Stars. 178 we readily make the necessary correction. The use of this ap- paratus in no wise interferes with our work for exact positions, since we have found the mean error of our observations to be the same-whether the stars were charted or not. Our work for the past year has demonstrated the practical utility of this apparatus. If for any purpose we desire a ma of the stars in a certain position of the heavens, we can mak one in a few minutes, which by any other method would require hours. In the region of the ‘milky-way, where small stars are very numerous, we have charted them at the rate of 480 per hour, and at the same time observed every star above the 14th magnitude. is easily accomplished by merely pricking through the paper, With a series of points which shall at once indicate the magni- udes, ‘Suitable to the instrument. These minor details, of course, will 0 arranged by the observer, as circumstances require. ; Dudley Observatory, March 16th, 1864. 174 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. ArT. XV.—Contributions to Lithology; by T. StzerRy Hunt, M.A., F.R.S.; of the Geol. Survey of Canada. (Concluded from p, 104.) Doterires. The anorthosites, which yet remain to be described, may be divided into two groups, those composed of anorthic feldspars with augite, constituting the dolerites, and those in which sim- ilar feldspars are associated with hornblende. The general geog- nostical relations of these two groups of rocks in the districts under discussion have already been indicated. Grenville.—It has already been stated on page 93, that the oldest known intrusive rocks which traverse the Laurentian syenite and granite in various parts of the Laurentian region, seems, like the hypersthenite and other anorthosites of the Lab- genous the plane of the dike. They are fine grained, dark greenish- gray in color, and weather grayish-white. Under a lens, the mica, and grains of pyrites. It contains no carbonates. Two analyses of portions of the dolerite, from dikes differing a little in texture, gave as follows under xv and XVI: ‘ xv. xvi. xvit, oe i SBS 50-25 52-20 IN 8 a On ee ra BERS 82-10 18-50 t Peroxydofiron, - - - 12650 } 130-00 ee ee ey ae rc SO 9°63 7°34 ‘Magnesia, ee as 4:93 5°04 4:17 ee Potash, oe a ee ge 58 2°14 - Ci Oe 2-28 212 2°41 i Webi 4 el ee 1-00 250 ee: 99-04 100-72 99°26 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 175 exists in the form of protoxyd, and in the second specimen, in Part as a sulphuret. These rocks, which appear to have the composition of mixtures of a basic feldspar with pyroxene, do not differ from ordinary dolerite. resembling somewhat the preceding. It contains small brilliant black grains of ilmenite, with others of sphene, and sm will be successively noticed. fang Montarville_The greater part of Montarville is composed of a Coarse-grained granitoid dolerite, in which black cleavable augite predominates,—sometimes almost to the exclusion of any other mineral. Small portions of white feldspar, and scales of rown mica, are sparsely scattered through the rock, with grains of carbonate of lime. The removal of these by solution from the Weathered surface often gives to it a pitted character. In other cabal the feldspathic element predominates, and the rock Comes porphyritic from the presence of large crystals of augite. The worn surfaces of the dolerite sometimes show alternations this variety with another which is finer grained and whiter. € two are arranged in bands, whose varying thickness and curving lines suggest the notion that they have been produ by the flow and the partial commingling of two semi-fluid masses. other and a remarkable variety of dolerite, found at Mon- ‘arville, appears to be confined to a bill on the shore of a little lake about half a mile northward from the manor house. The Whole of this hill, with the exception of some adherent mections i hal to be composed of a granitoid dolerite, Containing a large proportion of olivine. This mineral occurs 176 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. in rounded crystalline masses or imperfect crystals from one tenth to one half an inch in diameter, associated with a white or greenish-white crystalline feldspar, black augite, a little brown The proportion of olivine is very variable, but in some parts it is the predominant mineral. Its color is olive-green, passing A little silica is however retained in solution, and is precipitated ammonia with the oxyd of iron. Two analyses of different Site SS - 87°18 37°17 = oxygen 19°82 esia, - - - - - 39°36 te SS 15:87 Protoxyd of iron, - - 2c. Oh oie se 5:10 99°06 99°39 The augite of this olivinitic dolerite appears in the form of small crystalline grains, and also in short thick and terminated prisms, which are readily detached from their matrix. They are often an inch in length by half an inch in diameter, and are sometimes partially coated by a film of brown mica. These crystals cleave readily, presenting brilliant surfaces, and are black in color, with an ash-gray streak. Their hardness is 6°0, an their specific gravity 8°34. Analysis gave as follows: Silica, - - 49-40 Alumina, - - - - . = fe z Z - 670 Daa, ere ee ee oe ee es Math er ee ee eee Protoxyd of iron, = - Pe « = . : : 783 da and traces of potash, - - - eo: . oe Volatile, - - - - = ze ‘ ‘ é “50 100711 The augite which abounds in the non-olivinitic dolerite, which forms the greater part of Montarville, does not appear to differ from that just described. ; An average specimen of this olivinitic dolerite, or peridotite, ‘was reduced to powder; it did not effervesce with nitric acid, and when ignited lost only 0°5 per cent. When gently warmed - with sulphuric acid, the olivine was readily decomposed, with the separation of floceulent silica; and by the subsequent use’ a dilute solution of soda, followed by chlorhydric acid, and & second treatment with the alkaline ley, 55°0 per cent of T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 177 magnesia 33°50, protoxyd of iron 26°20, alumina 3:00=1 ; being equal to 18°4 of magnesia for the entire mass. In another experiment, 18:0 per cent were obtained. Taking the mean of the two analyses of olivine above referred to, which gives 39°5 per cent of magnesia, 18-0 parts of this base correspon parts of olivine. The remaining 9°5 parts of dissolved matter represent alumina and silica from the feldspar, and oxyd of iron from the magnetite; both of which were somewhat attacked by the acids. The undissolved portion of the rock equalled 44-7 per cent, and appeared to consist of a feldspar with pyroxene, some mica, and a little magnetite. Its analysis afforded silica 49°35, alumina 18°92, protoxyd of iron 451, lime 18°36, magne- sia, 6°36, loss (alkalies ?) 2°50=100-00. _ In some portions of the dolerite of Montarville the feldspar 18 more abundant, and appears in slender crystals with augite, and with a smaller proportion of olivine than the last. A speci- . men of this variety being crushed and washed gave 3-9 per cent of magnetite, and 10:0 per cent of a mixture of ilmenite with olivine. The feldspar was obtained nearly pure, in yellowish Vitreous grains, having a specific gravity of 2°73—2°74, and nearly the composition of labradorite. The results of its analy- SiS are seen under XVIII. ry whole were dissolved. This portion consisted of silica 87°30, 00-00; XVIII. xix. leg SS ee SG 5360 Adetating 861° Fg BAG AEE CR 960g 24°40 Peroxyd of incon, 08 > ee a ; * Taran genres Sect eee Se 8-62 me ay : ee, si snide sean idice bemcae aoe. ae Cie “ Volatile, - aes ad -60 -80 99°00 The dolerite of Montarville is traversed by veins belon ing Several different periods. In one instance, the black and hig Rougemont.—The rocks of Rougemont offer a general resem- blance to those of Montarville. Some portions are a coarse- Stained dolerite, in which augite greatly predominates, with Sead of feldspar, and a little disseminated carbonate of lime. 4n some parts, the augite crystals are an inch or more in diam- ter, with brilliant cleavages; and grains of pyrites are abun- dant, with calcite in the interstices. This rock resembles the Y augitic dolerite of Montarville. Olivine is very abun- dant in two varieties of dolerite from Rougemont. One of these 1964, 420, Jour. Scr.—Szconp Sexms, Vor. XXXVIII, No. 113.—Szrt., 23 178 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. has a grayish-white finely granular feldspathic base, in which are disseminated black augite and amber-colored olivine, the lat- ter sometimes in distinct crystals. The proportions of these ele- ments sometimes vary in the same specimen, the feldspar forming more than half the mass in one part, while in another the au- gite and olivine predominate. By the action of the weather, the feldspar acquires an opaque white surface, upon which the black shining augite and the rusty-red decomposing olivine appear in strong contrast. The dolerite of this mountain is traversed by numerous dikes, some of which are diorites like those of Monnoir and Beleil about to be described. A dike of compact dolerite, holding crystals of feldspar and grains of olivine is found intersecting the strata of the Hudson River formation at St. Hyacinthe. Mount Royai—tThis hill, which rises immediately in the rear of Montreal, consists for the most part of a mass of highly augi- tic dolerite. In some parts large crystals of augite, like those of Montarville, are disseminated through a fine-grained base, which is dark ash-gray in color, and often effervesces freely with acids from the presence of a portion of intermingled carbonate of lime. At other times this is wanting, and the rock is a mass of black crystalline augite, constituting a veritable pyroxenite, from which - imen examined constitutes about one half of the mass, and encloses crystals of brilliant black augite, and of semi-trans Se amber-yellow olivine. This rock closely resembles the ae peridotite of Rougemont, described above; but the imbedded ery in the dolerite of Montarville. A portion of the feldspar, , _ as much as possible from augite, furnished by analysis the result already given under xtx; which shows that it approaches labra dorite incomposition. => T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 179 Diorires. mountain consists, as already described, of a micaceous granitoid trachyte; but the southeastern portion is entirely different, being adiorite made up of a Spar, with black brilliant hornblende, ilmenite, and magnetic Won. This rock is sometimes rather fine-grained, though the mate, traverse the coarser portions, often reticulating ; and the Whole mass is also occasionally cut by dikes of a whitish or brownish-gray trachytic rock; which are often porphyritic, and may perhaps be branches from the trachytic part of the mountain. ' _ A portion of the coarse-grained diorite selected for examina- tion contained, besides the minerals already enumerated small ~~ Which did not effervesce with nitric acid, and contained no vis- , in associated wi eens black hornblende containing some titanic acid, with a ittle mica and some quartz. (R. H. Scott, L. # and D. Philos. Magazine, [4], xv, 518.) : _.,-/onnoir.—Monnoir, or Mount Johnson, is composed of a dio- _ ‘Tite, which, in its general aspect, greatly resembles that of Ya- Maska just described, except that it is rather more feldspathic, The finer-grained varieties are grayish in color, and exhibit a be Ure of grains and small crystals of feldspar, with hornblende, brown mics and magnetite. Frequently, however, the rock is 180 tion in powder 2 XXII, and xxIII Silica, - Alumina, SS acene Peroxyd of iron, - a So Magnesia, - = - Potash, - Soda, Volatile, XXI. 4690 47-00 31-10 ra ¢ 32°65 16-07 15-90 a 58 abi} 1-00 99-42 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. Xx. XXIII. 62-05 62°10 3:96 8-69 ' 24-72 with the rock of Belceil, seems to con een the trachytes and diorites. Rigaud mountain consists of a rather is made up of a crystalline feld- T. S. Hunt on Lithology. 181 The granitoid dolerites of the Montreal group, containing coarsely crystalline augite and olivine, break through the Lower Silurian strata; and portions of these two minerals, probably derived from these intrusive rocks, are found in the dolomitie conglomerates near Montreal, which in some cases inelude masses of Upper Silurian limestone, and are cut by dikes of a fine- sang dolerite. These, which perhaps correspond to the newer ikes of the same rock at Grenville, show that there were at least three distinct eruptions of dolerite,—one during the Silu. tian period, one before it, and another after it. The trachytes of Montreal and Chambly appear to be still more recent, and to traverse these newest dolerites. The trachytes of Brome and Shefford seem to constitute a group apart; but the diorites of Yamaska and Mount Johnson, although similar in aspect, differ widely in chemical composi- tion. Facts are still wanting to establish the geological age of these intrusive masses, The different dolerites, which are related ferent diorites or the different trachytes of this vicinity are con- taneous. Nor, on the other hand, should even great dis- Cordances in chemical or mineralogical constitution be n ily Tegarded as establishing a difference in the age of eruptive rocks, Evidence to the contrary of this is seen in the contiguous and intermingled masses of black pyroxenite and gray feldspathic dolerite in Mount Royal and Montarville; and it is not improb- eee the olivinitic dolerite, which is associated wi ese, May firsy part of this paper, the various intrusive rocks are only dis- Placed sediments of deeply-buried and probably unconformable Strata, it will readily be conceived that plastic masses of very h an 1000 feet above the present level of the plain, appear _ “qually solid and crystalline with their bases, implies the re. _ Moval by denudation, since the eruption of these masses, of a _ . i¢kness of sedimentary strata much exceeding their present height. This denudation must however have taken place before a 182 T. S. Hunt on Litthology. the eruption of the later trachytes and dolerites; since the dolo- mitic conglomerates, which enclose the fragments both of the olivinitic dolerite and of Lower and Upper Silurian rocks, re- ose unconformably upon the Laurentian and the various Lower Silurian strata, in such a manner as to show that these offered nearly their present distribution at the epoch of the deposition of the conglomerates. then, as is probable, the exposure by denudation of the whole of the eight hills which have been de- scribed, took place at one epoch, these are all shown to havea greater antiquity than the trachytes and the dolerites which traverse the conglomerates. The fine-grained and earthy tra- ehytes of Montreal are consequently far more recent than the crystalline ones of Brome and Shefford; with which, however, some of them agree in chemical composition. The general absence of granite from among these intrusive masses is a fact worthy of notice. Quartz has not yet been de- tected in the feldspathic rocks of Brome and Shefford ; although, as above mentioned, the base of the feldspathic porphyries of Chambly, and of Shelburne, contains a slight excess of silica. The granitic rocks of Shipton, and of St. Joseph on the Chau- diére, appear to be indigenous masses, belonging to the strata of the Quebee group; but the higher fossiliferous formations 10 facts are in accordance with the theory of eruptive rocks devel oped at the commencement of this paper; and it would be easy _to extend the comparison to the intrusive diorites and dolerites about Montreal, and to show their resemblance with the stratified feldspathic the Labrador series. (Zhis Journal, [2], ; ; § : : ; 3 : T. 8. Hunt on Lithology. 183 TV. Locat MeramMorpHism. & . blende, chlorite, and in many cases garnet, epidote, and other b place many of these silicated minerals may be generated by chem- ical reactions which take place among t metamorphism, and in the case of the local alteration of rocks Y igneous masses, it is easy by comparative examinations to trace the chemical changes involved in the production of silicated minerals by the second method. In this way, Delesse has shown that in several cases, where the chalk of Ireland has been altered by the proximity of intrusive traps, the sand and clay which the former contains have been converted into calcareous silicates. Jected to the action of dilute nitric acid, and gave an insoluble : ge 5 _ Tesidue with the composition u. The more thoroughly altered . green is h ~~ limestone was also treated with dilute nitric acid, which 184 T. S. Hunt on Lithology. dissolved the carbonate of lime, and left a residue, the analyses of which, from two different portions of the rock, are given d under III. and Iv. Perey Se eee Sse Oe Alumina, - - - - 1831 Lime, - * * - = 93 Wacoal, 36 st 8 87 Protoxyd of iron, - - - Potash, - - - - 5:55 Soda, Siege ee eS = "89 Volatile, - - - - ase 99°57 5°27 417 3°60 46 314 undet 1:22 ve 90 1:20 98-77 98:04 95°02 The residue from the unaltered limestone, including the silica soluble in alkalies, contains nearly 75°5 hundredths of silica, and 165 of alumina. These, in the vicinity of the olerite, have become saturated with protoxyd bases, including the small por- tions of magnesia and of oxyd of iron which the limestone eon- tains, This process evidently involves a decomposition of the carbonate of lime, and the expulsion of the carbonic acid. It is worthy of remark that while the unaltered limestone contains a little carbonate of! magnesia, the rock from which 111. was ob- 5 oN sen S oO Qu p 3 be] | Q o ° Leary 5 pS) dQ 5 a r co 3 ro sot = far) S) 5 fe) 8 a po marks an intermediate stage in the process, and shows moreover that the alkalies are still retained in combination with the alu- minous silicate. These amorphous silicates, which have been formed by local metamorphism, might, under favorable circum- stances, have crystallized in the forms of feldspar, scapolite, gat- net, pyroxene, or some other of the silicious minerals which 80 n occur in metamorphic limestones, The agent in producing these silicates of protoxyds at the expense of the carbonates the limestone, was Hearn a portion of alkaline salt, either de- rived from the fel infil spathic matter of the limestone, or possibly trated from the contiguous feldspathic rock; whose elevated temperature produced the reaction which has resulted in thus altering this limesto: ne. Similar examples of local alteration are met with in several other places near to the intrusive rocks of the Montreal group- The schists of the Utica formation in contact with a dike of 1n- ass of tra- h dark-green cleavable hornblende, which i ler cases encloses small ded bier omite. (See for a description: and analyses of Silos p. 634.) sa W. Prescott on a new species of Chiton. 185 At Montarville, the shales of the Hudson river formation are altered in the vicinity of the dolerite which forms the mass of the mountain. Some portions of the strata are very fine-grained, reddish-brown, and have an earthy sub-conchoidal fracture, with occasional cleavage joints. The hardness of this rock is not hism. (This Journal, [2 , XXXV1 : 2 With pda ts of local metamorphism I conclude the present paper, proposing however to give in a subsequent one the results of some investigations of certain indigenous crystalline rocks. Montreal, March 15, 1864. —a Art, XVI.— Description of a new species of Chiton; by WILLIAM Prescorr, M.D., of Concord, N. H. When found, to have been of a uniform brilliant red: but now, the most prominent portion of the dorsal surface, (which would Am. Jour. $c1.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 113.—Serr., 24 — W. Prescott on a new species of Chiton. naturally be the first to dry,) is mainly of a chesnut-red, while the sides, together with some irregular blotches on the back, are of a dark brown, approaching in many places to black—ocea- sioned, no doubt, by incipient putrefaction previous to becoming ry: The whole length of the specimen is 68 inches; grea breadth, 3:1 inches; greatest perpendicular height, 17 sc - The coat of mail, or shell-like covering, which gives shape and form to the whole animal, is ovate-oblong, convex above, consid- erably narrowed before and much wider posteriorly. It consists of eight testaceous pieces, or valves, which are imbricate (over- 1. Outline of 4th and 5th valves of C@. Californicus, natural size. lapping each other), with the extremities of their anterior wings deeply imbedded and concealed beneath the skin or mantle. Valves apes, destitute either of sna 3 of growth or geometrical markings and ‘not carinated. A convex tubercle or prominence occupies the centre of the dorsal ees mr each, being most er inent on the 2nd, 3rd, 7th and 8th, much less so on the 4t: Sth, while on the Ist and 6th ini in the form of an elo: ge- n the latter en ee eee ee ee ee Oe SG H. Gibbons on Springs and Streams in California. 187 The first, or anterior valve, is externally in the form of an ob- tuse V, with four deep narrow fissures at its anterior inner margin. The posterior or 8th valve is rounded externally, with a small é same color as the mantle, most numerous on the sides and resembling shagreen, less numerous on the back, and least of all on the convex tubercles. There are also numerous indentations, Which are most numerous on the convex portion or back, giving it the appearance of haying the granules removed by friction. _ The margin is narrow, and, with the whole inferior surface, 18 coriaceous, : ; € gigantic size of the specimen and the peculiar and unique form and structure of its valves render it extremely interesting, and a full description and figure of it very desirable and highly A ae : € name of gigas at once suggested itself ; but as that name already been given to an African species (although one much smaller than this), the name of Caljfornicus (from the tate upon whose shores it was found) has been adopted. It was obtained in California, some 8 or 10 years since, by the v. O. C. Baker, of this city, in whose possession it still remains, Concord, N, H., March 20, 1863. ART. XVIL—On the rising of Springs and Streams in California, : before the winter rains; by H. Grssons, M.D., of San Fran- Cisco, 188 H. Gibbons on Springs and Streams in California. summit and increased considerably in its descent. The dry season commenced rather earlier than common, not enough rain to lay the dust falling after the first week in April. My little rivulet continued to murmur refreshingly by the roadside until July, when it disappeared in places; and by the beginning of August it formed a chain of swampy spots and pools. At the end of August, when I expected to find it almost desiccated, judge of my surprise on encountering a brisk streamlet about 4 mile from the top of the hill, at a spot which had been perfectly dry. From that time it steadily increased, the pools being con- nected for the greater part by a continuous stream, by the 10th of October, though no rain had fallen. Another instance still more striking has fallen under my n0- tice. One mile from the foot of the hills, toward the bay, the county road is crossed by a small winter stream, never more - than six feet wide, which became perfectly dry early in August. The channel of the stream is not more than two feet in depth. In the latter part of August, I was surprised to find in it a small pool of water, at the side of the road. On the fourth of Sep- tember, the wet space extended some fifty feet. On the 9th of October, it had become a continuous, running stream, discharg- | ae five or six gallons per minute. And this happened without a drop of rain. nomenon. The water which falls in the winter and spring pea- to diminish the supply, and carry off entirely the water _ the bed of the stream in the intervals of the springs. _ Season advances, the days become shorter and power of the sun alsodiminishes. Evaporation becc tionally slowe?, cs i , “phen bs ge Figgas 2c se a oa a H. Gibbons on Springs and Streams in California. 189 June 20—sun 15h., night 9h.; or as 10: 6. duly. 20— *. 14h 10h : Oct. 20— “ lih, “ 13h.; “ 1021182. Nov.20— “ 10h, “ 14h; “ 10:14. But this exhibits only the space of time occupied by the evap- orating process. The greatly diminished power of the sun’s Tays in the autumnal months enhances the effect very materially. Besides, it is quite possible that, in the longest days, when the soil is most heated, a portion of the water in the strata supply- ing the springs is drawn directly upward by capillary attraction. This would be an additional source of exhaustion, which woul cease or diminish with the advance of the season. have rains sufficient to penetrate a foot into the soil before Water, and perhaps in the course of the bed other pools will be wa found, where a good supply of water is always on and in the ad ious points along the line of its axis for 2 or 3 miles, and a 190 B. Silliman, Jr., on the New Almaden Quicksilver Mines. Arr, XVIIL.—WNotes on the New Almaden Quicksilver Mines; by . SILLIMAN, Jr. Tur New Almaden quicksilver mines are situated on a range of hills subordinate to the main coast-range, the highest point of which at the place is 1200 to 1500 feet above the valley of San José. Southwest of the range which contains the quick- silver mines, the coast-range attains a considerable elevation, Mt. Bache, its highest point, being over 8800 feet in height. elevation above the ocean. From San José to New Almaden the distance is 18 miles, with a gradual rise of 150 or perhaps 200 feet. The rocks forming the subordinate range in which the quick- silver occurs, are chiefly magnesian schists, sometimes calcareous The workings are approached, however, by a well-graded wagon’ road, skirting the edges of the hills, which is 23 miles in length. hill was known for a long time prior to the discovery that 1 any economic value. In fact, upon the very loftiest and could be obtained by a slight excavation or even by break- ing the rocks lying upon the surface. In looking about for one observes on the summit of the hill, at va- . —— a B. Silliman, Jr., on the New Almaden Quicksilver Mines. 191 beyond, toward the place called Bull Run, occasional loose boulders of drusy quartz, with more or less well characterized te and combs; accompanying which is an ochraceous or erruginous deposit, such as frequently forms the outcrop of mee tallic veins. here is, however, no such thing as a well charac- terized vein, the quartz and its associated metals occurring rather in isolated masses or bunches segregated out of the general mass of the metamorphic rocks, and connected with each other, if at all, somewhat obscurely by thread veins of the same mineral. by means of which all the ore from the various workings of the mine is conveniently discharged from the cars, which convey it n order to reach the lower workings of the mine, the ob- Server may employ the bucket as a means of descent, or he may, i & more satisfactory manner, descend by a series of ladders and Steps, not in the shaft, but placed in various large and irregular penings, dipping for the most part in the direction of the mag- netic north, and at an angle of 30° to 85°. These cavities have €n produced by the miner in extracting the metal, and are f vast ortions; one of them measures 150 feet in a wt 0 rop length, 70 feet in brealteh; and 40 feet in height—others are of Smalle er dimensions; and they communicate with each other Sometimes by narrow passages, and at others by arched galleries Cut through the unproductive serpentine. — : Some sitibers of the mine are heavily timbered to sustain the Toof from crushing, while in other places arches or columns are left.in the rock for the same purpose. _ : 1 2. Phe rincipal minerals associated with the cinnabar are quartz which usually occur together in sheets or 192 B. Silliman, Jr., on the New Almaden Quicksilver Mines, strings, and in a majority of cases penetrate or subdivide the masses of cinnabar. Sometimes narrow threads of these mine- rals, accompanied by a minute coloration of cinnabar, serve as the only guide to the miner in re-discovering the metal when it has been lost in a former working. Veins or plates of white massive magnesian rock and sheets of yellow ochre also accompany the metal. Iron pyrites is rarely und, and no mispickel was detected in any portion of the e cinnabar occurs chiefly in two ssive and a subcrystalline. The first is fine granular, or pulverulent, soft, and easily reduce the condition of v ion; the other turous than Cornishmen, and willing oftentimes to undertake past fifteen years, that the mine for a time eared to completely exhausted of ore. Such a condition of things has, owever, always proved to be but temporary, may always parallel, for the most part, to the pitch of the hill, but at a some t of the famous law-suit, whic! held this company in a condition of doubt, the new parties, into description of the softer kind of cinnabar has been discovered, which, so far as hitherto explored, has a linear extent of at least 70 or 80 feet, and in point of richness has never been surpassed by any similar discovery in the past history of the mine. charge of 101,000 pounds, of which 70,000 were composed of : The small ores and dirt hoisted from the mine are made into _ adobes,” or sun-dried bricks, sufficient clay for the purpose be- ing associated with the ore. The object of these “ adobes” is to uild up the mouths of the furnaces to sustain the load of richer ores. No flux is employed, there being sufficient lime associa- ted with the ores to aid the decomposition of the sulphurets. furnaces are built-entirely of brick, in dimensions capable The of holding from 60,000 to 110,000 pounds, according to the character of the ores employed. The chambers are fired from a teral furnace, fed with wood, and separated from the ore by a wall pierced with numerous openings by the omission of bricks for that purpose opal metal and turn them inward. To ace are discharged. Formerly, no precautions were taken to prevent the escape of mercury through the foundations of the furnace to the earth beneath: now, the furnaces stand upon the foundations, so as to cut off entirely all descending particles of the ig tanthag , be convinced of the importance of this precaution, it is sufficient to watch the opera- Hon of the furnace for a few moments, when an intermittent Ast, Jour. Scr—Szconp Szrms, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 113.—Szpr., 1964. _ 194 E.. B. Andrews on a Seam of Coal. of not less than 25 or 80 feet. Over 2,000 flasks of mercury were thus recovered in a single year from the foundations of the two furnaces. This loss is entirely avoided by the improved construction which has been adopted. é The whole process of reduction is extremely simple, the time occupied from one charge to another being usually about seven d metal begins to run in from four to six hours after the fires are lighted, and in about sixty hours the process 18 completed. e metal is conducted through various condensing chambers by means of pipes of iron, toa “crane-neck,” which discharges into capacious kettles. It undergoes no further pre paration for market, being quite clean from all dross. Deducting 24 years, during which the mines were in a state of inactivity, pending the decision of the law-suit, the average monthly product for 124 years has been not far from 2,500 flasks, of 764 each, of mercury. The selling price in San Francisco is, at present, and has been for some time past, 75c. per pound, while in London and New York it has ranged from 40 to 50c. per pound. San Francisco, May, 1864, Arr. XIX.—Observations on a Seam of Coal; by Prof. E. B. ANDREWS, Marietta College, Ohio. THE seam of coal here described is located in the northern part of Washington Co., Ohio. It extends through the hills for several miles, and is generally of workable thickness. On Bear Creex, a small tributary of the Muskingum river, which latter stream of no other seam of coal of economic value above it in our Ohio _ rocks, although we find perhaps two hundred feet of unproduc tive sandstones and shales still higher. It is about sixty feet higher in the series than a peculiar group of limestone strata, with ee - — a seam of coal now worked at yer) a2 Run on the kingum river. This is very persistent, Pe and, after showing itself overa catsidarable dart of Washington Te. re ee ee ee Tg E. B. Andrews on a Seam of Coal. 195 a marked, that there is great confusion among our geologists rela- of coal at Athens, Ohio. My own investigations to believe the Wheeling and Pomeroy seams to be entirely dis- tinct, while the Athens coal is probably the continuation of the omeroy seam. The Athens coal is probably the same with the ‘ Coal, (Athens Co.) which, by all our Ohio geolo- gisis, is regarded as the continuation of the Pomeroy seam. The omeroy seam, as traced by myself, from Federal Creek into the northwestern part of Washington County, is found to be from Sixty to seventy feet above the very limestone group which is 80 persistent, and which carries with it the Coal Run and Wheel- Federal Creek heeling, and Pomeroy ave everywhere from fifty to seventy feet above the limestone group. Doubtless the seam of coal which is found in the hills above the heeling seam at Belleair (near Wheeling), is the equivalent of the Pomeroy coal. ’ he Bear Creek coal, which I propose to examine, is without e doubt th e geological equivalent of the Pomeroy s 1owever, greatly modified in structure b 1S which I shall hereafter explain. Before the Bear Creek coal disappears to the south, there is evidence of a struggle in that direction between the vegetation and the water. The coal-marsh was repeatedly flood- 1 e pment of sandstones and shales. Thin slate. : nad ehal “ed, and over the vegetation thick deposits of sediment were made We 1. Thick, firm sandstone, 196 E. B. Andrews on a Seam of Coal. The coal was analyzed by Dr. J. S. Newberry and gave: Volatile matter, 49 to 51 per cent. Fixed carbon, $F 467% 6 2% A h eee Fors “ edimentary matter. In the fracture these layers present the ‘abe ante of parting with remarkable readiness with its gas oF ydro-carbons, for the coal is very rich in gas and burns with remarkable freedom. In the grate it differs from the Wheeling eoal, as dry wood differs from wet green wood. Why the presence of these lamin of sedimentary matter—thinner than any tissue paper—should thus facilitate the production of gas, 4 fact which I have observed in some cannel coals, has not been explained so far as I know. Besides these peculiar laminations, there are the usual ones, which most geologists regard as pro- duced by the different increments of vegetable matter, and show- ing perhaps periodicity in the growth and falling of the leaves and fronds of the coal vegetation. The Pittsburg coal exhibits this class of laminations in smooth and highly polished horizon- tal surfaces, and it is by these that this coal is readily distin guished from other Western coals, In the Bear Creek coal we find also laminx of mineral charcoal. This is sometimes found in plates one-fourth of an inch in thickness, It exhibits a fibrous, woody structure, and is very soft and easily reduced to powder. Whether this charcoal is produced by some peculiar property 10 h did not permit the usual of sugar cane, it is perhaps impossible to determine. The first class of laminz, those having a sedimentary appearance, doubt- less tells a tale of water, and indicates that the vegetation grew where it was very marshy and constantly inundated. This water, however, contained only the slightest possible amount of impal- pable sediment, and eould scarcely have been much discolored. ‘his marshy charaeter of the coal field and the overflow of ‘water doubtless-caused an unusual softening and maceration of he fallen vegetable matter, and produced the cannel-like char- ___ aeter of the coal. But while the coal marsh was ordinarily more or less covered with comparatively pure water, at one time ib E.. B. Andrews on a Seam of Coal. roT was flooded by more turbid water, which left a distinct earthy deposit. This thin slaty streak in the coal, now black and highly bituminous, is evenly distributed over a large area, and indicates a general overflow Another interest lowing these vegetable waifs to be floated in and lodged among the vegetation. But the water on which they were borne could have been only slightly charged with sediments, as no such sed- iments, with the exceptions of the extremely thin laminz pre- Viously alluded to, are found in the coal. I doubt whether these bits of drifted wood are to be found in the coal very far inland from the water edge of the coal marsh. I have not noticed them in the same seam of coal where it is mined, a few miles northeast of ear Creek. There is, moreover, evidence to show that the coal changes in character as it recedes from the water’s edge of the Original marsh. It becomes more soft and caking, and less like cannel in fracture and behavior in the fire. These facts are in- ‘eXamined seams of coal in all parts of the Coal Measures, from the bottom to the top, as well as seams far apart geographically, and have invariably found the general direction of these planes the same. So confident have I become in this conclusion, that, 198 E. B, Andrews on a Seam of Coal. in my geological rambles among the hills and mountains, I have often taken my points of compass from the coal, as I have found the seams exposed in the various hillsides. ( n the Bear Creek coal the principal planes lie in the di- rection S. 80° E. Besides these principal or primary planes planes are parallel with each other, and constitute at the point where exhib- ited a perfect and beautiful - system, and as distinctly marked as the primary sys- tem. The accompanying figure, (fig. 8,) shows the systems of planes in a block of the Bear Creek coal. The lines marked a represent the primary planes; those marked 0 the secondary ones. In very rare instances the plane b curves into the plane a, but generally there is a sharply defined angle of intersection. These angles vary in different localities in the same mine; but wherever the secondary planes appear, they are parallel and true to their own local system. The highest angle I have measured is over 30°, but generally the angles are less. So far as I have exam- imed the Bear Creek coal, the secondary planes cross the pr- mary ones in the direction of south-of-west and north-of-east. This brings the primary planes on one side of the east and west line, and the secondary planes on the other (see fig. 4). If these ‘ ie) vv ‘ =" theadih, am > OF SF" . ae al 4% —E a 6} _E ofA q - at Pal CP ittientn ie po me so IRRES— S$ g0°R > . ow . 5 7? may be called crystalline planes, as their regularity and polish _ would indicate, they were doubtless formed at the time of the solidification of the coal, and their direction determined by ter restrial electricity. The great east and west currents of thermal tricity might induce a sort of polarity in the particles of C. A. Joy on the Chimenti Pictures, 199 causing them to part in the magnetic directions north and south. The presence of iron in the coal might have facilitated this are no such planes, nor jointed structure of any kind, in the bi- ina of coal, not thicker than paper, shows these planes perfectly, while nothing of the kind is found in the bituminous slate above and below. There is no jointed structure to be found in any of our rocks associated with the coal. So far as I have observed, these joints are generally found in rocks which have been sub- jected to heat as well as pressure. If this is so, we should not expect such joints in the coal; as in the West, it has never been subjected to any heat, the coal still retaining its full and normal quantity of bitumen. ther lessons may be learned from this seam of coal, but I defer their consideration to another time ArT. XX.—On the Chimenti Pictures ; by Cuaruzs A. Joy, Professor of Chemistry in Columbia College, New York. Pyorograpus of the famous Chimenti drawings have been exhibited in this country, upon the back of which was pasted the following announcement: oe ‘The stereoscopic pictures executed by Jacopo Chimenti, born 640. These remarkable pictures, from the Museum Wicar at Lille, were found to be stereoscopic by Dr. Alexander Tum Brown, when visiting that city in 1859 with his brother, Dr.John Brown. Sir David Brewster communicated this curious discovery to the Photographic Society of Scotland, and Dr. Brown’s account of it was published in the Photographic J: ournal of May 15, 1860, and in the Encyclopedia Brittanica, article Stereoscope. “a In these works, Sir David Brewster expressed the opinion, that as Baptista Porta had, in 1598, published (after Galen, born A.D, 130,) the true principle of the stereoscope,” Chimenti had ~ In order to satisfy himself of their stereoscopic character, Sir Vavid applied for a photograph of them, but failed in procuring it. Mr. \ eclared * See his Treatise on the Stereoscope, pp. 6 and 8. 200 C. A. Joy on the Chimenti Pictures. that the pictures were not stereoscopic ; and Dr. W. B. Carpenter, being of the same opinion, charged Sir David Brewster publicly with dishonesty, in not having retracted his opinion of them, alleging that he must have known that they were not stereo- scopic from copies in his possession. Sir David never saw the pictures till March 7, 1862, when he received a photograph of them from Professor Kuhlemann, of Lille, and found them to be truly stereoscopic! Mr. Wheatstone and Dr. Carpenter apparently not knowing that they should be transposed when placed in the stereoscope, though this is distinctly shown in Dr. Brown's com- munication.” The authorship of the above history of the Chimenti pictures is usually attributed to Sir David Brewster. Prof. Emerson, in the following note, has again called my at- tention to these prints, being impelled thereto by an article from Sir David Brewster in the Philosophical Magazine: : “ Panis, Feb. 24, 1864. — : s I know your lively interest in such matters, you will probably have noticed a letter of Sir David Brewster in the Philo sophical Magazine for January, 1864, in which he controverts the con- clusion I draw from my investigations of the Chimenti Pictures.” It 1s thoroughly and exhaustively. am very sincerely yours, Epwin Emersoy.” In compliance with Professor Emerson’s request, I have been at some pains to obtain American testimony on the matter 10 aces: hree sets of the Chimenti pictures were pasted on stere0- scopic cards. ‘The first set was mounted correctly according 1 Sir David Brewster; the second, as they were found, that 15) wrong, according to Sir David; on the third, two prints the sarfie negative were placed side by side. These prints were sent to persons familiar with the use of the stereoscope, and 4 large amount of testimony was obtained. Truth compels me t say that not a solitary person found them to be “truly stere? copic. __ A few observers imagined that they saw some slight — but as they pronounced the relief to be best where the right and left hand prints were from the same negative, their testimo?. was unfavorable to Sir David Brewster. SS eile Joma, Bov. 10st. C. A. Joy on the Chimenti Pictures. 201 guished observer adhered to his opinion. Out of the mass of testimony which was cheerfully furnished to me, I have made a few selections. Professor William B. Rogers, of Boston, whose opinions upon questions in physical science rank as high as those of any man of science in this country, has sent me the following valuable Suggestions, which I publish at length upon my own responsi- bility, as the writer has gone to Kurope and cannot be applied to for his consent. rof. Rogers writes: “I will state the impression gathered from a hasty scrutiny made both without and with the stereoscope. _ Itis simply this; that the difference between the two pictures 18 such in kind and degree as might easily arise from imperfect or careless copying, and furnishes to my mind no evidence of ving been designed for stereoscopic effect. In my own at- ts of direction of some of the lines, his copy, however generally true, would not fail, on combination with the original, to exhibit decided stereoscopic relief. It is needless to remind those who are practiced in binocular combination, of the exquisite test which it affords of the slightest deviation from identity in the drawings combined. of these pictures may most reasonably be attributed to accident, and can hardl y weigh as evidence that the instrument had then been discovered. ws uch are my impressions from a brief examination of the AM. Jour. Scr.—Szconp Suries, Vor. XXXVILI, No. 113.—Serr., 1864. 202 C. A. Joy on the Chimenti Pictures. is not the remotest approach to stereoscopic effect. There are slight differences between the two, but not of the kind which a copy (and carelessly done) of the other. The positions of the figures differ. In one t other. The same figure is ,'; of an inch daller than the other, and the bench it sits on stands level, while in the other it 1s tipped downward. There are many such differences, which prove conclusively that they never were intended for stereoscople effect. In the stereoscope it is impossible to make these differ- ences coincide.” In a paper “On a method of producing stereographs by hand,”* Professor Rood has shown that where we “adopt the This is illustrated by fig. 1, where A is in the immediate fore ground and D in the background, D | The bulk of the variations in the C Chimenti pictures are not to the right B B or left, but up and down. If these - : A differences were designed by the artist tempt to combine them; so that a majority of persons best effect with the Chimenti pictures when two prints from the same negative are presented to their observation: while experts ue the whole thing as an attempt to practice upon their redulity. : ~ In some of the paintings by Teniers of a chemist in his labo ratory, can be seen apparatus highly suggestive of a spectroscope We trust that no future Dr. Brown will announce that the spec — * Phis Journal, [2], vol. xxxvi, 71, Jan. 1861. W. R. Dawes on the Solar Surface, 203 troscope was so well known at the time of Teniers as to be in- inded’ in the inventory of apparatus of a chemist’s laboratory, Is not the evidence that the theory of binocular vision and of the stereoscope were known at the time of Chimenti, quite as as would be afforded by Teniers’ pictures, to disprove the modern invention and use of the spectroscope The Chimenti pictures must therefore be ruled out of court and judgment entered for Mr, Wheatstone, unless new evidence can be found worthy of the consideration of scientific men. New York, June 1, 1864, Art. XXI,— Results of some recent Observations of the Solar Sur- face, with Remarks ; by the Rev. W. R. Dawes.’ * Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, May 13, 1864. 204 W. R. Dawes on the Solar Surface. tain whether in any part of the photosphere any objects could be found which could reasonably be compared to “ willow-leaves” (as called by Mr. Nasmyth) in their form.—It may be well to state here that I have always found it difficult to devise any ap- propriate appellation for the small bright irregularities of the surface, which would avoid an assumption of their character, or ascribe to them a regularity of form they do not possess. In my first paper I expressed my strong objection to any name 0 this kind, as calculated to convey an erroneous impression. The term willow-leaves seemed utterly inapplicable to anything I had ever succeeded in discovering. A far less objectionable term, as it appears to me, is that of rice-grains applied by Mr. Stone to those objects with which all careful Sun-observers must be acquainted, as there is no difficulty in seeing them in a mod- erately favorable state of the air, and which have been familiar to myself for many years ;—so much so, indeed, that when they were not discernible I invariably abstained from any further scrutiny of the solar surface as being useless. Yet even this appellation conveys the idea of uniformity of shape and size which these objects do not possess, and is, I think, on that ground, objectionable. But 1 have been led by it to apply the term granulations, or granules, which assumes nothing either as to exact form or precise character; and I venture to hope that aped arrow-head, another, very much smaller and within 5’ of it, was an irregular trapezium with rounded corners. The ditions as to brightness or elevation of the larger masses form- ing the mottled surface; just as the brighter portions of that surface, and the fa also, are diffe eral photosphere. +: eS TE LEMUR Ek RG Fo) FFE ere W. R. Dawes on the Solar Surface. 205 W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 207 the distinctions elsewhere seen of the large brighter and shaded masses, and also of the granulations on both, and the pencil- lines, occasionally stippled, by which the individual granules are distinguished. : Precisely the same results attended my examinations of the be found on ance which produces the elevated ridges confuses the minute features elsewhere seen; and that, though there may be some traces of granulation when the facule are viewed almost per- pendicularly, yet this is entirely lost when their sides only are seen near the Sun’s limb. In this position, however, there are often distinct evidences of irregularity in the elevation of differ- ent parts of the ridge; and these may, perhaps, when viewed perpendicularly, produce variations of brightness, like the gran- ules of extraordinary size mentioned above. Hopefield Observatory, Haddenham, Bucks, May 9, 1864. Arr. XXII—On Molecular Physics; by Prof. W. A. Norton. [Continued from p. 78.] j In considering the changes of state through which the same Substance may pass, we have been led to recognize as an im- portant physical principle upon which the mechanical prop- erties manifested in each new condition in a great degree depend, that the physical condition of the individual molecules is lable to permanent variations from the effect of heat; and that these Go which surround the atoms of the molecules. If we take a more extended view, and consider the diverse permanent changes of condition which the same substance may experience, while in regation, we may discern the operation of of a still more comprehensive principle; viz., that the phys 208 W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. rom our present theoretical point of view, such possible changes of condition consist in compressions, or expansions, of the molecular atmospheres; either as a whole, or unequally on different sides. In the former case there will a varla- tion in the size of the atmosphere, and in the intensities of the forces of attraction and repulsion exerted by the molecule at a given distance, but the forces exerted in different directions will have an equal intensity. In the latter case there will bea variation in the form of the atmosphere, and an inequality of action in different directions. The form assumed will be spheroidal, or approximately so, supposing it to have been rection of such axes, then, the limit of stable equilibrium (02, fig. 1, p. 71) will be least for the shorter axis, and greater for When a force of pressure applied to a body determines a peel h 1 } + 1 nm PAMTND evolved would be absorbed again. In . general when mechani- | to a body, the heat evolved, or absorbed, . a hecessa’ P ego: is the Pp , Or be gerne ‘superinduced in the atmospheres of the pa articles, may be W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. +209 ded as asensible indication of the extent of such changes of molecular condition. The mechanical work, of which the heat evolved serves as the measure, is expended in urging the On the other hand, if heat be directly applied to a body, it has a tendency opposite to that of a mechanical pressure, or to expand the molecular atmospheres, and so to reduce the inten- groups, and bring the mass to the condition of a homogeneous and symmetrical arrangement of molecules. pea of the molecular forces under special circumstances. € general nature of these forces, and the Jaws of the variation of effective molecular action with the distance between two Seen (pp. 207, 208) that the mechanical condition of an individual Molecule is subject to change under the operation of heat, and al every particular substance has primarily, and inherently, its own special physical condition, by virtue of which it exercises an 210° W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. the circumstances that determine the crystallization. The gene ral nature of the modifications consists in a spheroidal form im- parted to the molecular atmospheres, and the consequent devel- opment of certain axes of attraction; that is, of diameters of least or greatest length, in the direction of which the attraction has, at a given distance, a maximum or minimum value, and the limit of stable equilibrium (Oa, fig. 1) a minimum or maximum faces of these figures, e have then first to consider the pro cess of crystallization, as it may occur in a single plane. The result of every such process is arrangement of the unite with those already crystallized, three different general modes of arrangement may occur; the new up positions opposite those of the first line, or opposite the mid- . . re: a rectangle, or a rhombus. The two molecular axeS — _wul be coincident 4 sides of the minute pane lar fig: ures that make up the larger rectangle, and with the diagon@* _ of each minute rhombus. The condition ; ied a a Sa en ee Te ee ion essential.to the form®™ W. A, Norton on Molecular Physics. 211 tion of a square is that the properties of the molecules in refer- ence to cooling, (or, in general, in reference to the propagation contiguous molecules are, when in the ee state of crystal- lization, in the same physical condition. That a rectangle may be formed, a group of four particles must unite, but the escape of the sides of the rectangle must: determine a greater com- pression of the molecular atmospheres in this direction than in that of the other side. That the figure of a rhombus may for the first group of molecules, to acquire increased dimensions by successive solidifications of a series of figures similar to the lary molecular action may experience from the loss of heat, and nm . ther, tends to bring all of the line of the first 212 W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. two into the same electro-polar condition, and, in this state of induced polarization, a force of electric attraction will subsist be- sia the och As one particle after another in the line s to with those previously —— its previous Siar ention will be enhanced, and it w Te force upon those not yet oryitaBlizad: At the same the ¢ susie ‘and repulsive action of the contigu- experiences the Teactive te rt in the direction perpen- quires an increased positive polarization on the outer side, lying in this perpendicular direction, and therefore exerts an increased force of electric attraction in this direction. In the varying operation of this induced electric polarization, and of the reflex action just noticed, we may discern the probable origin of those has shown will suffice for the explanation of secondary plan erystallization. To illustrate by a special case, let fig. 2 represent a process of erystalliza- tion in which the veh are ae in successive hen ¢ WwW Cc, ? are the outer inale their si ‘sides tion, in addition to the increasing mo- lecular attraction that results from the the S : ; next step in the process should be the ~ union of the molecules thus spit son all of these peace = pponla have the same ten cra to unite, unless there should he q | : 2 | Ce | : W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 213 attractive force attendant upon the union of the next set of molecules may determine this result. determine the figure of equilibrium assumed, may be inferred from the general considerations already presented (pp. 210 and 211). The compression of the molecular atmospheres in the first plane of crystallization, will tend to develop a third axis of attraction perpendicular to this plane. Various systems of intervals between parallel pairs of these particles, or opposite = Centre, of the quadrilateral figure, which they form.’ Aire ceive spheroids to be inscribed in the polyhedral figures of the compound crystal molecules just supposed, to obtain the repre- ‘Sentative spheroidal molecules of Prof. Dana; which: will also 214 W. A, Norton on Molecular Physics. different fundamental forms, and the various physical conditions 2 which the energy of the molecular forces depend. It is conceiv- able that such differences may result from the heat evolved in the process of crystallization. Let fig. 3, a,b, c¢,d,e, &c., be a line of particles crystallizing 3. in regular succession. en @unites with b, the heat given @ &~e~¢@ = out will expand the atmos- “= “™ — phere of c, and it is possible that after this effect has been produced, the expanded atmosphere will not become condensed under the operation of the crystallizing forces, asmuch as it otherwise would ave been; and hence that the molecular attractive force of ¢ sulted. * The hypothesis of a permanent polarity of atoms, or molecules, has subserved ee er one physical eoneeption, ro! ot late in it as a supposed h of It will be conceded that it is the dictate of true eilosopey to hold it m ee until it shall have abundantly evident t ene 10 ion cannot be deduced from the i nstituti _ and of the primary forces of attraction and repulsion, to which all other "W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. - 215 electric polarity of the molecule may be induced, which may play an important part in the process. on the theory of crystallization here offered, the phenom- enon of dimorphism, and all changes of form, in the same crystal, produced by heat and external causes generally, are but simple Tesults of the modifications superinduced by these causes, in the ‘form, or distance from the central atoms, of the molecular at- mospheres; that is, in the physical. features of the molecules, “ae which the system of crystallization in every instance de- pends, Feat. The general nature of heat, and the general cause of its evolu- 64). ._ Propagation of heat_—Primarily, the heat-pulses are developed In the universal ether associated with the atoms of bodies. ing universal ether may be in part propagat absorbed by the particles they encounter, and partially propa- gated onward again in the same manner to mB __ The flow of heat from one particle to another of a substance tends to disturb the electric condition of the particles; for the — . W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 1zatio just offered, must be ascribed to a feeble polarizing action of oné ode upon another. This appears to be a consequence Mm state of th phers ; _ mines the fluid condition (p. 75), combined with the effective W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 217 of liquids, like water, whose ultimate molecules are compound, a portion of the heat propagated should be consumed in expand- ] Capacity of Bodies for Heat,—The fundamental law discovered by Dulong and Petit, that the specific heats of elementary sub- or atomic weights,—or, in other words, that the atoms of such off again and interchanged with surrounding bodies having the shows that the heat emitted from a hot body is composed of rays of an infinite variety of rates of vibration, between certain limits, The physical cause of this fact will appear if we reflect that the limits. For the circumstances of equilibrium of these atomettes are different, and their rates of vibration when displaced should be different. The fact that the most intense heat-rays, in ordi- nary cases of combustion, are those of low refrangibility, and the phenomena of the evolution of calorific and luminous rays When a body is heated to incandescence, indicate that the electrie atomettes which are nearest the central atoms have the lowest Tate of vibration. : _ We have seen that the expansive action of heat is a necessary ®onsequence of the fundamental principle that the heat-pulses Constitute a repulsive force, and that they are absorbed, more or Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVIII, No, 113.—Sepr., 1864, 28 218 W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. less, by the molecular atmospheres which they encounter. It may be urged as an objection to the notion that radiant heat is a repulsive force, that bodies when heated do not exert any sensible repulsive action upon other contiguous bodies. Weare not prepared to admit that experiment has furnished no evidence of such repulsive action, under any circumstances, but the entire ce of such action upon bodies of sensible magnitude would in fact be no decisive proof that waves of radiant heat do not convey a series of preponderating repulsive impulses; for if these impulses penetrate to the atoms of the molecules, they should be ultimately taken up by their atmospheres, and ex- nded as an expansive force upon these atmospheres, and in urg- ing the molecules asunder; and if they do not reach the atoms, no motion should be imparted to them. Since it is improbable that the more intense impulses of heat will be wholly absor by the particles immediately at the surface of the body upon which they fall, a direct repulsive action of the heat may take ect to a certain depth below the surface. Have we not in the a state of liquids evidence of such action exerted by the radiant heat from the hot vessel upon the liquid resting upon its interior surface? ; It is only when the heat-waves impinge upon isolated parti- es, or a small group of particles, that a progressive motion should be imparted. This supposition is apparently realized in the case of cometary matter repelled by the sun.' Light. The question of the — relation which the two physical agents, light and heat, bear to each other, has not been defini- tively settled; but the weight of evidence preponderates very decidedly in favor of the doctrine of their essential identity. The only “formidable outstanding objection” to this view con- sists in the fact that a strong light may be obtained which has little, if any, heating power.’ According to Melloni, the greet ish light, obtained by transmission of white light through 4 uliar species of green glass colored by oxyd of copper, “ex its no calorific action capable of being rendered perceptible tra- ted by lenses as to rival the direct rays of the sun in brilliancy:” * In the article by the author, “On the Theoretical Determination of the Di- ons of Donati’s Comet,” (see this Journal, vol. xxxii, No. 94, p. 54, de.) it i8 4 rigorous calculation, that the particles o disseminated over the breadth o the tail of the comet, were exposed to a force of re sun, of various degrees of intensity, between two tai imits. In the light (of the theoretical v ws now » we must conclude that the matter ua- : for heat, or of different sized groups of Report of Rey. Baden Powell, MA. PRS, for 1854, on Radiant Heat, 1@ in the Smithsonian Report for 1859, p. 368.) W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 219 May it not be that the explanation of the possible existence of light without heat, thus made out, is to be found in the pres- Tay must also result from transverse vibrations; but this does Aot appear to be a legitimate conclusion if we adopt Professor Challis’s theor , that the Juminiferous ether is a highly elastic fluid, having the same properties as elastic fluids in general, an that the ethereal undulations consist of simultaneous longitudinal and transverse vibrations, attended with variations in the density of the medium, as in the case of waves of sound. For if trans- Verse vibrations, in perpendicular planes, meet in opposite sta °y cannot neutralize each other, and must develop direct vibra- tions, which will take the place of those which counteract each other, and will exert a calorific action. In fact, Prof. Challis Conceives that “heat is the result of the mechanical action of the direct vibrations;” while “light is due to the transverse 2? 220 W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. phere. Accordingly the red rays will proceed from the lower portions of the atmosphere, and the violet from more elevated portions. If the electric atmospheres diminish in density by insensible egrees from bottom to top, there should be no break in the con- tinuity of the rays between the two extremes. But we know, from the existence of bright bands in the spectra obtained from colored flames, and from the highly heated vapors of metals and other substances, that the rates of vibration of the luminous iven off by incandescent vapors, seldom, if ever, vary by insensible degrees from one extreme to the other. e m conclude therefore that the electric atmospheres of highly heated molecules are made up of distinct layers of unequal density. henomena, attending the propagation of light. The absorp- tion of light by a medium may be regarded as the taking up of the ethereal pulses by the electric atmospheres of the medium. In order that a ray may be completely absorbed it must encoun- ter a layer of the electric atmosphere of a molecule, which puls- ates naturally in unison with the wave-pulsation of the ray. n the other hand, a medium would intercept rays that should penetrate to atmospheric layers that are in unison with the rays. Accordingly, if an incandescent vapor should emit rays of cer tain colors, as shown by bright bands in its spectrum, those col- ors, if transmitted through the vapors, should be absorbed, and the spectrum given by erriadiitted hi ght should show dark lines answering to the bright lines of the other spectruam—which is e well known discovery of Kirchhoff and Bunsen. wa Hssiteoe in the directions of the molecular axes. refraction, and that this property is attributed to a supposed } equality of density, or of elasticity, of the ether in the direction lar axes. A mechanical pressure exerted alon also develops the property of double W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. 221 refraction, in ordinary refracting media; and such compressio should give rise to an increased density of the ethereal atmo- 222 W. A. Norton on Molecular Physics. forces, under special circumstances, or by an inequality in the action of the pulses of heat upon the atmospheres of the mole- cul The current consists of an actual flow of electric ether from molecule to molecule, determined by a previous electric polarization propagated from that which’ is the source of the current. ‘I'here are also conveyed in the direction of the posi- tive current, streams of impulses, both by the electric, and uni- versal ether, which, by a partial lateral dispersion, produce the magnetic effects of the current. e mutual attractions, or repulsions, exerted between two electric currents may be ascribed to a change in the tension of the ether between the wires, produced by the lateral actions of the currents. 8 ioe) & 3 B, 5 Hl § = > G8 aa é ce) s : a b> ° = ba) ey ae a portion of its heat from this source. If this be true the re markable formal relations that subsist between the magnetism and heat of the earth, are probably the result, in a great degree, __ 9f this physical bond by which the two principles are partially oe ~ nn ag investigation, by the author, of these oe __ in an article on Terrestrial Magnetism, published in vol. iv, 8€¢- “ond series of this Journal). bas 0 ne: ae ean ee A. Winchell on the Remains of a Mastodon in Michigan. 223 This theory of the origin of terrestrial magnetism, as a part of the general theory of Molecular Physics, here presented, was brought, by the author, to the notice of the Connecticut Acad- emy, about two years since. It appears, from a pamphlet re- cently received by the editors of this Journal, that a theory quite similar to this was propounded several years since by Gustav Hinrichs, of Copenhagen. The theory of Hinrichs, or one hav- ing the same essential features, I find is advocated by Prof. Challis, in the Number of the Philosophical Magazine published in February, 1861 [To be continued.] Art. XXIII.—Notice of the Remains of a Mastodon recently discov- ered in Michigan ; by Professor ALEXANDER WINCHELL. Adrian. The bones thus far discovered consist of the cranium, With the exception of the nasal bones; five molars, four of which lack their roots; the terminal portions of the two tusks, each Were a little the deepest in the mire. It is stated that man ars ago this spot was known as a “ deer lick. 224 A, Winchell on the Remains of a Mastodon in Michigan. It is generally supposed that the occurrence of elephantine remains in miry bogs indicates the mode of death of these pon- derous quadrupeds. It may be doubted, however, whether their occurrence exclusively in peat, or beneath it, is not attributable to the antiseptic properties of that substance. The bog in which the present remains were found, is perfectly identical with thousands of others in our State, which are known, from observation, to be in process of formation in the sites of ancient lakelets, and at a rate which argues a compara- tively short duration for the alluvial period of the State. In- was the bed of a lakelet within a comparatively short period. It is much more credible that the Mastodon under consideration was living within 500 or 1000 years, than that an interval of time, greater than the age of the human race, has been occupied in the accumulation of two or three feet of vegetable deposits, under circumstances which suffer the same work to be accom- lished, in neighboring localities, within the space of a human ife-time. It is more than probable that the American Indian, according to his,own traditions, and according to the evidences adduced by Dr. Koch, has listened to the thunder-waking tread of these monsters of the forest and the field. ; Other mastodon remains have been found at various points within the lower peninsula of Michigan, some of which are Pe- tersburg, Monroe county; the city of Adrian, Lenawee county; Utica, Macomb county ; Green Oak, Livingston county ; Fenton- ville, Oakland county; and Terre Coupée, Berrien county. (See Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist., v, 188, 146, 158.) The localities of he molar teeth of Some years ago, the caudal vertebra of a Cetacean was identified by Dr. Sager from the western portion of the State. ? he remains of the Mastodon noticed above will probably be secured for the Museum of the University, when an occasi0R may be furnished for a fuller account of the fossil mammals of Michigan. _ University of Michigan, June 16, 1864. J. L. Smith on the Bishopville Meteoric Stone. 225 Arr. XXIV.—Chiadnite of the Bishopville Meteoric Stone to be a Magnesian Pyromene; by J. LAWRENCE SMITH, Prof. oes f ’ Chem. Med. Dep. University of Louisville, In 1846, Prof. C. U. Shepard published an account of an exceedingly interesting meteoric stone that fell at Bishopville, South Carolina, in 1843, differing in its external character from other meteoric stones; the fractured mass being exceedingly | white, except where metallic iron and other associate minerals occur. I would refer the reader to Prof. Shepard’s description of it in this Journal, Sept. 1846, p. 381. : The composition of the snow-white mineral (constituting about 90 pr. ct. of the entire mass) as given by Prof. Shepard is— j Oxygen. Ratio of ox. | May 28-25 11°30 i Soda, va ; : - 189 338 From the results of this analysis he considered it a tersilicate of magnesia, constituting a new species to which he gave the name chladnite. ; mit it to a thorough analysis. Hee j To render the chladnite soluble in acid, it was fused with four times its weight of carbonate of soda and potash, with asmall frag- 3 ‘ : - 60°12 59°83 es 5 : Z . 39°22 tise ge agente ee age ; : eroxyd of iron, - . Shp ee ees : : : Rida wis fi Ll Pp fie : 1 14. 74 o 100-61 100-29 ates, Without the addition of a small piece of caustic potash or soda, and never ze a reg - ieasiesdepaian or hornblende without this precaution. I that in 226 P. E. Chase on Aerial Tides. The minute quantity of peroxyd of iron came from exceed- ingly fine particles of iron diffused through the minerals, and could be seen by a magnifying glass. One separate analysis was made for the soda. The constitution of the mineral, as made out from the num- bers in analysis 1, is— Oxygen. Oxygen ratio. Silica, : . ‘ 2 - 31-22 2 Mepeeing 3 at t ; Soda, - . 19 peeping to the formula Mg*Si?, equivalent to the general formula of pyroxene, R?5i?, ; he excess of silica obtained by Prof. Shepard in his analysis is doubtless due to an imperfect fusion of the mineral with the carbonate of soda, an error easily made, if the precautions I have already mentioned are not attended to. “Chladnite” approaches those forms of pyroxene known as white augite, diopside, white coccolite, &c.; these last named minerals having a part of the magnesia replaced by lime. It is identical in composition with Ensiatite of Kenngott, a pyrox- $00) mineral from Aloysthal in Moravia (this Journal, [2], xxi, From these observations it will be seen that the Bishopville meteoric stone, however different in external characteristics from other similar bodies, is, after all, identical with the great family of pyroxenic meteoric stones. . Art, XXV.—Aerial Tides; by Priny Earnie Onase, M.A, ie A THE remarkable coincidence, which I have pointed out, be- tween the theoretical effects of rotation and the results of baro- metrical observations, has led me to extend my researches with 4 view of defining more precisely some of the most im yrtan te atmosphere. The popular belief 10 “ From the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. P. E. Chase on Aerial Tides. 227 deposition of moisture, and other meteorological phenomena. As the height of the wave varies with the changing phases of € moon,’ its effects must likewise vary, in accordance with mathematical laws, the proper study of which must evidently orm an important branch of meteorological science.” __ Besides this daily wave, there appears to be a much larger, bu hitherto undetected, weekly wave. Mr. Flaugergues,’ an astron- Omer at Viviers in France, extended his researches through a Whole lunar cycle, from Oct. 19, 1808, to Oct. 18, 1827, and he inferred, from his observations: ; _1. That, in a synodical revolution of the moon, the barometer Tises regularly from the second octant, when it is the lowest, to the second quadrature, when it is the highest, and then descends to the second octant. 2. That the varying declination of the moon modifies her influ- ence, the barometer being higher in the northern lunistice than in the southern. 8. That the action of the moon also varies with its distance from the earth, the mean barometric height being less in perigee nin apogee, se The observations indicate the following average meridional fluctuations of the barometer: : n asemi-synodical revolution, 1°67 pert 065 in. isti : : in. . a n im the fourth ee of —-006 in.; results which appear to be ecisely accordant, vith Would be naturally anticipated from the combination of the cu- between about ‘9 and 1°6 feet. _! The heicht t ars to fluctuate : in i sgaliee és terse evidences of the effect of the moon’s changes fall of rain, see the published observations of F. Marcet (this Journal, = i -*xyii, 192); and J. H. Alexander (this Journal, [2], xii, 1). _ * Bib. Univ, Dee, 1827, and this Journal, xv, 174. 228 P. E. Chase on Aerial Tides. mulative effect of the moon’s attraction with the daily wave of rotation, and the resistance of the zxther. | weekly tides, a high wave is shown by a low barometer, and vice versd. The daily blending of heavy and light waves pro- duces oscillations, which are indicated by the alternate rise an fall of the barometer and thermometer at intervals of two OF three days. to the following Table of barometric and thermometric means at the moon’s changes. heightot | Hleight of | Height or | BES | oy ’, a €) . z = Moon’s phase. barometer | weekly tides, daily tides. : aay at 2PM. at 4A. M. inches. average. oo iFull, see pees 28°270 — 0115 in. | 0054 in, 61°67° | 60:22° 59°787° | Third qr.,...} 28289 | +0065 « | GOST “ 61°68 60°41 59°924. ee, oS :: 23-282 | +0005 “ | 0064“ | 61-65 | 60:31 | 59716 First qr.,.-.| 28286 | +0044“ 0047 « 1-63 60°37 59°823 In obtaining the above averages I was obliged to interpolate for such changes as took place on Sundays or holidays, when n° The thermometri¢ and barometric averages show a eneral P. E. Chase on Aerial Tides. 229 the sun, and we might therefore reasonably expect to find the clearest evidences of the relation of temperature to lunar at- traction. By taking the difference between the successive weekly tides, we readily obtain the amount of barometric effect in each quarter. The average effect is more than three times as great in the sec- ond and third quarters, as in the remaining half month,—a fact which suggests interesting inquiries as to the amount of influence attributable to varying centrifugal force, solar conjunction, or Opposition, temperature, &c. e Although, as in the ocean tides, there are two simultaneous corresponding waves on opposite sides of the earth, these waves are not of equal magnitude, the barometer being uniformly higher when the moon is on the inferior meridian, and its at- traction is therefore exerted in the same direction as the earth’ than when it is on the superior meridian, and the two attractions are opposed to each other. : : I find, therefore, marked evidences of the same lunar action on the atmosphere as on the ocean,—the combination of its at- traction with that of the sun producing, both in the air and water, spring tides at the syzygies, and neap tides at the quadra- tures; and I believe that the most important normal atmospheric changes may be explained by the following theory: The attraction and rotation-waves, as will be readily seen, have generally opposite values, the luni-solar wave being Descending, from 0° to 90° *, and from 180° to 270°. Ascending, from 90° to 180°, and 270° to 360°. _ While a rotation wave is : Ascending, from 330° to 60°, and 150° to 240°. ic Deccendiny from 60° to 150°, and 240° to 330°. From 60° to 90°, and 240° to 270°, both waves are descending while from 150° to 180°, and 330° to 360°, both are ascending. N consequence of this change of values, besides the principal lunar maxima and minima at the syzygies and quay there should be secondary maxima and minima at 60° in advance those points. : The Sine Seited 3 of these theoretical inferences by the St. ‘Helena observations appears to me to be quite as remarkable as that of my primary se _ If we arrange those obser- Vations in accordance with the moon’s position, and take the Average daily height of the barometer, we obtain the following * Counting from either syzygy. 230 P. E. Chase on Aerial Tides. Table of the lunar barometric tides, Mean daily height of barometer at St. Helena. Moon’s 28 inches + the numbers in the Table. ~ 1844. 1845 1846, rey 0° 2621 3020 2701 2781 15 2650 3058 2693 2800 80 2707 3158 2707 2856 45 2691 3165 2688 2848 60 2625 3077 2688 2797 75 2682 30938 2783 2853 2667 3184 2800 2884 105 2593 3170 2721 2828 120 2595 3124 "2686 2802 135 2677 99 2691 2822 150 2712 3118 2715 2848 165 2710 3104 27385 2850 180 2621 ° 3020 2701 2781 This table shows— ; 1. That the average of the three years corresponds precisely with the theory, except in the secondary maximum, which was late. one ms a : 2. That the primary maximum occured at the quadratures 1n 1845 and 1846, and one day before the quadratures in 1844. | 3. That the primary minimum occurred at the syzygies in 1844 and 1845, and one day after the syzygies in 1846. ‘ 4. That 1846 was a disturbed year; and, if it were omitted from the table, each of the remaining years, as well as the aver- age, would exhibit an entire correspondence with theory, eX cept in the primary maximum of 1844. 5. That 1845 was a normal year, the primary and secondary maxima and minima all corresponding with theory both in po- sition and relative value. . That the deviations from perfect correspondence with theory ean be easily explained by the relative positions of the two aerial ellipsoids of rotation and attraction. : _ 7. That the tertiary maxima and minima, or the turning-points etween the primary and secondary maxima and minima, are less stable than the primaries and secondaries. ‘ At extra-tropical stations I should look for important modifi- cations of the theoretical results, some of which I propose to lain hereafter, _ ina former communication on the rotation-tide, I stated that * the law of tidal variation, derived from an exclusive reference of it ai Motions to a supposed stationary earth, is precisely : -* Counting from either syzygy. | ‘Since the tabular numbers represent the semi-ares of the barometric curve, and f J. W. Dawson on Fossils of the Laurentian. 231 the same as the law that is derived from the consideration of the relative attraction of the two bodies revolving about their com- mon centre of gravity.” That such would be the case might have been reasonably expected from the dependent connection of rotation and revolution with gravity. was therefore led to believe that the daily lunar tides might be indicated by the same expression as the weekly lunar and daily rotation tides. On investigation, I find that such is indeed the case. If M is the barometric mean for any gues day and Place, and @ is the moon’s altitude, the lunar tide may be ex- pressed by MC (sin 9cos4), C being a constant to be determined for each station. The rationale of Mr. Flaugergues’s second and third inferences thus becomes evident; the phenomena of ocean tides are con- nected with those of the air, which, being subject to fewer extra- neous disturbing influences, can therefore be more easily inves- tigated; and the long-suspected obedience of the principal me- teorological changes to fixed mathematical laws is at lengt ted o demonstrated. Art, XXVI.—Extracts from the Address of Dr. J. W. Dawson, President of the Natural History Society of Montreal, at its annual meeting, May 18, 1864.’ Fossils of the Laurentian, and much older than any rocks known to contain ossils. € oldest remai ivi in til this discovery, had been test remains of living beings, un a peiedial ie ate. 2 From the Canadian Naturalist, 1864, 232 J. W. Dawson on the Fossils of the Laurentian. ilton and Chemung groups in the Devonian; or to that of the Lower Carboniferous conglomerates and sandstones, the C period. This recurrence of cycles of deposit cannot be dental. It is more or less to rah seen shronghont the geological scale, and in all countries; and, as I have elsewhere pointed out, it includes numerous subordinate cycles within the same forma- tion, as in the coal measures. Eaton, Hunt, and Dana have called even ore precise views of the dynamics of gee oe Se ae ort ng mo ___ 98Y and of the lapse of geological time. ‘The progress of the i ee Mee St yes ARSE Eo PN Oe ee ee ee -Teasons: J. W. Dawson on the Drift. - 233 earth has, like most other kinds of progress, been not by a con- tinuous evolution, but by a series of cycles, of great summers and winters, or days and nights of physical and vital change, in each of which all things seem to revolve back to the place of beginning, only to begin a new eycle, or new turn of a spiral, similar to the last in its general course, though altogether differ ent In its details, accompaniments and results. On the Boulder Drift of Canada, There is another subject of great geological importance, on which the publication of the report enables strong groun en. I refer to the conditions under which the Boulder Drift of Canada was deposited. It has been customary to refer this to the action of ice-laden seas and currents, on a continent first subsiding and then re-elevated. But this opinion has recently n giving way before a re-assertion of the doctrine that land glaciers have been the principal agents in the distribution of the tions might be urged against it, and that it was not in accord- h the facts which I had myself observed in Nova Scotia and in Canada. The additional facts contained in the present report enable me to assert with confidence, though with all hu- mility, that glaciers could scarcely have been the agents in the Striation of Canadian rocks, the transport of Canadian boulders, or the excavation of Canadian lake basins. In making thi “J The facts to be accounted for are the striation and pone of rock surfaces, the deposit of a sheet of unstratified clay an Stones, the transport of boulders from distant sites lying to the its application to such regions as those of the Alps, bergen or Greenland, hax ap eared to me inapplicable to the drift deposits of eastern America for the following, among other 1. It requires a series of suppositions unlikely in themselves 13, , 1864. Am. Jour. Sci.—Seconp Sekres, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 113.—Serr-. 30 234 J, W. Dawson on the Drift. sult of the immense accumulation of ice supposed would be ‘to prevent motion ene ad by the want of slope or the coun: teraction of opposing slopes, or to induce a slight and irregular 2s alla the margins or outward from the more proml- oe It is to be observed, also, that, as Hopkins has shown, it J. W. Dawson on the Drift. 235 only the siding motion of glaciers that can polish or erode sur- faces, and that any internal changes resulting from the mere ried boulders for hundreds of miles, and left them on points as high as those they were taken from. On the Montreal Mountain at a height of 600 feet above the sea, are huge boulders of feldspar rom the Laurentide hills, which must haveebeen carried from 50 to 200 miles from points of scarcely greater elevation, and over a valley in which the strie are in a direction nearly at right angles with that of the probable driftage of the boulders. Quite as striking examples occur in many parts of this country. Itis also to be observed that boulders, often of large size, occur scat- tered through the marine stratified clays and sands containing sea shells; and whatever views ma entertained as to other boul- 5. The peat deposits with fir roots, found below the boulder clay in caer ees, the remains of plants and land snails in the marine clays of the Ottawa, and the shells of the St. Law- Tence clays and sands, show that the sea, at the period in question, Aad much the temperature of the present Arctic currents of our Coasts, and that the land was not covered with ice, but suppo’ Vegetation similar to that of Labrador and the north shore of the St Lawrence at present. This evidence refers not to the Jater period of the Mammoth and Mastodon, when the re-eleva- tion was perhaps nearly complete, but to the earlier period con- 286 J. W. Dawson on the Drift. temporaneous with, or immediately following, the supposed gla- cier period. In my former papers on the Post-pliocene of the St. Lawrence, I have shown that the change of climate involved is no greater than that which may have been due to the subsidence of land and change of course of the Arctic current, actually northeastern America, strong reasons against the existence of any such period of extreme glaciation, as supposed by many geologists; and that if we can otherwise explain the rock-stria- tion and polishing, and the formation of fiords and lake basins, the strong points With these theorists, we can dispense altogether with the portentous changes in physical geography involved in their views, and which are not necessary to explain any of the other phenomena, It is on these points, more especially, that the Report of the Geological Survey throws new light; though Sir William, with his usual caution, has not committed himself to theoretical con- clusions; and in one or two local eases he seems to favor the glacier theory. It has long been known to geologists, that m northeastern America, two main directions of striation of roe! surfaces occur, from northeast to southwest, and from northwest to southeast; and that locally the directions vary from these to north and south, and east and west. Various attempts have been made, but without much success, to account for these direc- tions of striation by the motion of glaciers; and while it is quite easy for any one prepossessed with this view to account in this way for the striation in a particular valley or part of a valley, 8° may exceptional facts occur as to throw doubt on the explana tion, except in the case of a few of the smaller and steeper mountain gorges, In the Report of the Survey of Canada, a valuable table of J. W. Dawson on the Drift. 237 be settled, in answering these questions, is the direction of the force which caused the strie. Now, ave no hesitation in as- serting, from my own observations, as well as from those of others, that for the southwest striation the direction was from the ocean toward the interior, against the slope of the St. Lawrence valley. The crag and tail forms of all our isolated hills, and the direction of transport of boulders carried from them, show that throughout Canada the movement was from northeast to south- vailing set of strie; for we cannot suppose a glacier moving f from the Atlantic up into the interior. a the other hand, it is eminently favorable to the idea of ocean drift. A subsidence of } America, such as would at present convert all the plains of Canada, and New York, and New England, into sea, would de- termine the course of the Arctic current over this submerged present Arctie current along the American coast has its deep Lahore as well as its sand-banks. Our American lake basins were admitted, there is no height of land to give them momen- tum. But if we mabpiee ‘he land submerged so that the Arctic eurrent flowing from the northeast should pour over the Lau- a seit ow exceptional cases appear to belong mostly to the later period of the 238 J. W. Dawson on the Drift. over the Middle Silarian escarpment; an though less closely connected with the direction of the current, still under water, Then the valley of the Ottawa, that of the Mohawk, and the low country between Lakes Ontario and Huron, and the valleys of Lake Champlain and the Connecticut, would be straits or arms of the sea, and the current, obstructed in its direct flow, would set principally along these, and aet on th i oh northwest and southeast di- rtion of the process I would attribute the northwest and aah iati i iS vi ern America, though I must dissent from any view which would ae to them the principal agency in our glacial phenomena, Under a condition of the continent in which only its higher oreakers 18 visible almost to their summits; 22 ° observed in Canada and Nova Scotia many old ng ; : J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 289 tobably shingle beaches and bars, old coast lines loaded with ulders, “ trains” of boulders, or “ oza ost of them con- an to my mind the impression of ice-action along a slowly sub- siding coast, forming successive deposits of stones in the shallow water, and burying them in clay and smaller stones as the depth \. increased. These deposits were again modified during emer- gence, when the old ridges were sometimes bared by denudation and new ones heaped up. Tsshall close these remarks, perhaps already too tedious, by a mere reference to the alleged prevalence of lake basins and fiords in high northern latitudes, as connected with glacial action. In Teasoning on this, it seems to be overlooked that the prevalence of disturbed and metamorphic rocks over wide areas in the north is one element in the matter. Again, cold Arctic currents are the cutters of basins, not the warm surface currents, Fur- ther, the fiords on coasts, like the deep lateral valleys of moun- tains, are evidences of the action of the waves rather than of that of ice. Iam sure that this is the case with the numerous indentations of the coast of Nova Scotia, which are cut into the softer and more shattered bands of rock, and show in raised beaches and gravel ridges, like those of the present coast, the levels of the sea at the time of their formation. 35 Art. XXVII—On Celestial Dynamies ;* by J. R. MAYER. _ ‘THE surface of the sun measures 115,000 millions of square Miles, or 64 trillions of square metres; the mass of matter which Jn the shape of asteroids falls into the sun every minute is from 94,000 to 188,000 billions of kilograms; one square metre of Solar surface, therefore, receives on an average from 15 to 30 grams of matter per minute. : To compare. this process with a terrestrial phenomenon, a gentle rain may be considered which sends down in one h Jayer of water 1 millimetre in thickness (during a thunder-storm ‘the rainfall is often from ten to fifteen times this quantity); this fagal’ action only existed. The increase of volume could scarcely be appreciated by man; for if the specific gravity of these cos- Mical masses be assumed to be the same as that of the sun, the . Extracted from the L. E. and D. Phil. Mag., [4], xxv, 399-402, from vol. xxxvii, p. 198 of this Journal, * [Centripetal !—Ts. ] 240 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. enlargement of his apparent diameter to the extent of one second, the smallest appreciable magnitude, would require from 33,000 to 66,000 years. Not quite so unappreciable would be the increase of the mass of the sun. If this mass, or the weight of the sun, were augmented, be the consequence, whereby their times of revolution round the central body would be shortened. The mass of the sun is 271 quintillions of kilograms; and the mass of cosmical matter an- nually arriving at the sun stands to the above as 1 to from 21 to 42 millions. Such an augmentation to the weight of the sun ought to shorten the sidereal year from gaamth to sasmnth of its length, or from $ths to 8ths of a second. , e observations of astronomers do not agree with this con- clusion; we must therefore fall back on the theory mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, which assumes that the sun, like the ocean, is constantly losing and receiving equal quantities © matter. This harmonizes with the supposition that the vis viva of the universe is a constant quantity. VIL. The Spots on the Sun's Disc. The solar disk presents, according to Sir John Herschel, the following appearance. ‘‘ When the sun is observed through @ owerful telescope provided with colored glasses in order to essen the heat ats : eyes, large dark spots are often seen surrounded by edges which ich are before. When they disappear, the darker part in the middle of the spot contracts to a point and vanishes sooner than the edges, ate ae Oo i iresieie ae J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 241 “That portion of the solar dise which is free from spots is by no means uniformly bright. Over it are scattered small Sak spots “Near large 4 2 or extensive groups of them, large spaces ; e covered with peculiarly marked lines much Sephiar than the other parts of the surface; these lines are cur- ved, i theory explained in these pages Bethe shine Gas’ & aoe physical heliography is, from the nature of the subject, very mited; even sses e extraordinarily high temperature which exists on the sun precludes the possibility of its surface being solid; it doubtless consists of an uninterrupted ocean of fiery fluid ster. is gaseous envelope becomes more rarefied in those As most substances are able to assume the gaseous state of “8sregation at high temperatures, the height of the sun’s atmo- Sphere cannot be inconsiderable. There are, however, sound reasons for believing that the relative height of the solar atmo- ere is not very great. : not very great. . Jour. Sci.—Seconp Series, Vou, XXXVIII, No, 113.—Szpr., 1864. 31 242 J, R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. Since gravity is 28 times greater on the sun’s surface than it is on our earth, a column of air on the former aa cause @ pressure 28 times greater than it would on our 1s great pressure compresses air as much as a pester of 8000° would expand it. In a still greater degree than this increased gravity do the qualities iin to gases affect the height of the solar atmo- atmosphere rapidly diminishes as we ascend, and increases as we descend. Generally speaking, rarefaction increases in a geome- trical ti Aen ihe the heights are in an arithmetical pro- . gression. If we ascend or descend 21, 5, or 30 miles, we find our Readéphiaie 10, 0,100, or a billion times more rarefied or more so rapidly with the "teeig as the latter joan If we assume 08 increase and decrease on the sun to be ten times slower than tis on our earth, it follows that at the heights of 25, 50, and 300 miles, a Farehaatiod of 10, 100, and a billion times respect ively, would be observed. The solar atmosphere, therefore, stor! ne attain a height of 400 geographical miles, or it cannot uch as ;},th of the sun’s radius. For if we take the density of the lowest strata of the sun’s atmosphere to be 1000 times greater than that of our own near the level of the sea, 4 density greater than that of water, and necessarily too bel then at a height of 400 miles this atmosphere would be 1 billion times less dense than the earth’s paras that is : say, nd human Dediees ererasrees% it has ce here s, when free fry any solid particles, a deli at the a peat let ee :dinsurbances od the iar sais gees guia by most ‘epson ad and party to be # cansed by the direct Jnfinence of = W. K. Scott on a change of level in the Green Mountains. 243 streams of asteroids, The deeper and less heated parts of this fiery ocean become thus exposed, and perhaps appear to us as Spots, whereas the elevations form the so-called facule. According to the experiments made by Henry, an American physicist, the rays sent forth from the spots do not produce the same heating effect as those emitted by the brighter parts. We have to mention one more remarkable cireumstance. The Spots appear to be confined to a zone which extends 30° on each side of the sun’s equator, The thought naturally suggests itself that some connexion exists between those solar processes which produce the spots and faculs, the velocity of rotation of the sun, and the swarms of asteroids, and to deduce therefrom the limitation of the spots to the zone mentioned. It still remains enigmatical by what means nature contrives to bring about the uniform radiation which pertains alike to the polar and equato- rial regions of the sun, : [To be continued, } Art. XXVIII.—On a supposed change of level in a part of the Green Mountains ; by W. K. Scort, M.D., From a letter, dated Buffalo, March 28, 1864, addressed to Prof. O. P. Hubbard, of Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H.’ of getting the subject before them. I have therefore concluded to make a general statement of these facts to you, presuming ~ * Dr. Scott addressed the following note (dated May 9th) to Prof. Hubbard, in reply to a request from the latter that he should permit the publication of the above letter, a “LT have heretofore refused to have any thing ? Anthony, until the hill, the mountain, e by competent pe : gage publication may draw the attention of — ig seal t ve the subject, and thus bring about the parents made Sian socka taal dashes You cannot conveniently come, you may induce some one else to do so. : i ed on the subject, all from «1 send y ema copy of three letters which : rast aaa from the eldest daughter of : Yours, &c.” x 244 W.K. Scott on a change of level in the Green Mountains. that you know these gentlemen and will be willing to communi- eate to them what I write. In the year 1796, when I was eight years old, my father moved to a part of the town of Hoosick, Rensselaer Co., N. Y., known as Mapletown. His house was on the road from Ben- nington, Vt. to Troy, N. Y., near the Mapletown meeting-house, about four miles from the village of Bennington. The residence of the late Garret Van Hoosen is within a few feet of the site fourth of its height. In 1808, after having learned something about linear per spective, I made my first attempt at landscape painting in water colors. The view was taken from a front window in our house, and the picture embraced the whole of Mount Anthony which was visible from that point. I well remember how much trouble I had in representing the white spot on the mountain; and I re- member, too, what a miserable failure the whole performance was,—I mention these things to show that my recollections are not vague and shadowy, but clear, distinct, and certain. I left that place in January, 1808, after having finished & course of medical lectures at Dartmouth College. After an ab- sence of fifty years, I visited it again to see my friend, Garret Van Hoosen, who lived, as I have before mentioned, within 4 few feet of my old home. During my journey there I thought almost as much about seeing Mount Anthony again, as seeing my old friend; but when I arrived there, no part of the moun- of the hill, which was cultivated, and see the top of the moul tain, so low that it was certain that no part of Pola be see2 . _ from the house if no trees were on the hill, ea a , W. K. Scott on a change of level in the Green Mountains. 245 My first impression was that the whole of this change was due to the subsiding of the mountain; but reflecting how many feet it must have settled to be hidden from our view, I gave that up, and settled upon the opinion that Russel Hill must have risen, for one foot rise of that hill would hide twelve feet or more of the mountain. Had I been a practical geologist, I should have sought for some evidence of its having risen; but knowing very little of that science, I could only glean a few facts obvious to every one. The road in front of the house in question runs nearly north- east for about fifty rods, and then turns east and crosses the line of Russel Hill continued. I say the dine of the hill, for the hill itself does not cross the road. Near where the road crosses that line is a stream, on which was a grist-mill in 1800. As it now 18, there appears to me to be no fall that could be used for that p e; and the owner of a meadow some sixty rods above the mill told me that that meadow was formerly a very rich and productive one—that the mill pond never set back far enough to injure it—but that now, whey there was no dam, it was so Wet as to be almost worthless.—Below the mill for many rods, when I was a boy, the water was still enough to be a convenient place for little boys to bathe in. Now, there is quite a fall there —enough to make a valuable water power. Following the line of the crest of the hill across the road, we come to a barn-yard, belonging to the widow of Lyman Andrews, which, in 1800, was supplied with water brought from a spring than the barn-yard to give great velocity to the water, so that it i small orifice memory of one man. und : this, for the inhabitants of that district had changed many times in fifty years, and most ° or moved to parts unknown. ; by the name of Lebbeus Turner, who lived there several years . 246 W.K. Scott on a change of level in the Green Mountains. and moved away about 1805, who was still living. He was a man of intelligence, and still retains his mental powers. was a nailer, and had a house and shop near my father’s house, on the opposite side of the roa I wrote to him, asking if he remembered the white spot on Mount Anthony, and where he used to see it from. He answered’ that he could always see it from his house, and described its shape and general appearance. He also said that he saw the storm on the mountain when the earth was washed away. This was before he lived in the neighborhood in question. His letter 1s quite interesting. I then made him a visit, and found that he is wife were both clear in their recollections about it, and both certain that there could be no mistake about the mountain having been visible from their house. I had likewise an inter view with his eldest son, Stillman Turner, who now lives im Worcester, Mass., and he is equally clear in his recollections. Mr. Turner’s eldest daughter, too, remembers that the white spot on the mountain could be seen from their house. I have like wise a letter from Mr. Jacob Hallenbeck, who has lived all his life in another part of the town of Hoosick, and who was very n at Mr. Turner’s shop, and he “thinks he remembers hav ing often seen the mountain from that place.’ In a conversation with him after the letter was written, he spoke with absolute certainty of having seen the white spot from the back window of the shop. All this appears to me to be sufficient. evidence of the simple fact that Mount Anthony, and the white spot on the side of 1 could be seen from my father’s house and that vicinity, in the beginning of this century. All the rest is conjecture. Tn order to ascertain how much the hill has risen, we must first find out how much higher the top of the mountain 18 than the bottom of the white spot, the distance from the mountain to the hill, and from the hill to the house; and all this will make quite a job of work. It is to be noted also that the white spot is not now visible from a distance, for it is covered with a growth of shrubs and small trees which have sprung up within the last thirty or forty years; but its boundaries can be easily : for so much earth was removed that a high bank was left at the sides and at the top of it. If any geologist, whether employed by the State of yo or not, should deem this of sufficient importance to be worth 4 i 1 undertake -eareful survey and a scientific investigation, and wil _it, I shall take great pleasure in transmitting to him what I know _ about it, much more menmely : og than I have done in this comm nication, and to send him what letters I have received on © bject; and further, should he desire it, I will meet him on the Ss J + oS Will PWO from OVner vee SO te ee ie foe Oe a pee. W. K. Scott on a change of level in the Green Mountains. 247 spot and point out to him the various localities of which I have written. I should like, too, to have him see my witnesses and cross-examine them; for unless the evidence is strong enough to perfectly satisfy the public of the truth of my statements, I The following are copies of letters to Dr. Wm. K. Scott, attesting to the facts above stated. “Letter from Lebbeus Turner, of Aurora, Erie County, N. Y., dated East Aurora, Dec. 17, 1855. T received a few lines from you last Thursday, asking me to give you Some information respecting Mount Anthony. well remember that when we lived in Mapletown the mountain was visible from our houses, and the white spot or streak on the side was plainly to be seen: the length of it went up and down the mountain. € mountain was seen some way below the spot; but for a number of years that spot has gradually filled up, and is now grown over with bushes of a size to obscure the spot. I presume the trees on the inter- Vening hill have grown to a larger size than they were in those da therefore I may justly conclude that Mount Anthony has not sunk down, nor the intervening hill risen to obscure the sight of that grand pile of rock and earth. ell remember the time when that white spot was made. I was something like eight years old. At that time we lived on the Oak Hill, where Miner Roberts lived. There was a very heavy thunder shower Passed over the mountain from the southwest, so as to entirely o seure it; Wwe could distinctly hear the rain roar; and as soon as the rain was over and the mountain was visible, that spot appeared. The neighbors at that time said that a cloud broke, and a large brook ran down the mountain. My wife remembers well that the mountain was visible from our house. [Signed,] Lesseus TuRNER.” ” “Letter from Jacob Hallenbeck, of Hoosick, N. Y., dated Hoosick, . Sept. 14, 1856. __You wish me to pen my recollections on the former appearance of Mount Anthony, and its present appearance from the place where Turner’s shop used to stand. I think I can recollect some forty-five or fifty years ago, the mountain was plain to be seen from the place where the shop then was, but cannot be seen from that locality now, in consequence of ‘ " : ‘stood, when viewed separately, have all the same nao - me they ‘ever had; but taken together, they present quite a different appearance from what they pm ISR I think there must be some alteration 248 - M. C. Lea on the Platinum Metals. in the form of the ground. I cannot believe it is owing to optical delu- sion, for I think I can see distant objects as well as I ever could. [Signed, ] Jacos HaLLEnBEcK.” “ Letter from Stillman Turner, Esq., of ooee % a son of Lebbeus Turner, dated Worcester, April 2, Your pte Ba is at hand, in which you wis aT me to state, ac- cording to my best ressllslion, whether Mount Anthony could be see from my father’s old residence in Hoosick, and also about the white ae on it. The most that I can say at this time is, that Mount Anthony was to me no rare sight to yey for I think it was visible from almost any point in the vicinity of our old place. I certainly recollect seeing it D Ww certainly in that neighborhood I could see the white spot spoken of; but I do not feel justified in oT whether the mountain could be se n from Signed our old residence or no [Signed,] Srittman TURNER.” Note th Phere K. Scott.—From the hill of which Mr. Turner speaks, no part of is now visible. Nor can it be seen anywhere in that imme- diate Seighhathood Art. XXIX.— Notes on the Platinum Metals ; by M. CAREY LEA. Part. Il. On Reactions of the Platinum Metals. (IIL) REACTIONS OF HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA. In the first part of this paper I described the rao of ses- quichlorid of ruthenium — hyposulphite of soda, a substance which will probably be found to be the best touchstone w phan nium is modified when one or more other metals are present in the same solution. The remarkable posseitarr which the plati- num metals of exhibiting in many cases reactions, when mixed, wholly different from those which they show separately; renders this a point of much importance. by Lr pone pints is to have a little ammonia added before eady mentioned. The ammonia must be in sufficient quan to ensure that the solution after the addition vot the so- on of the cori metal shall be alkaline. um o.3 phite of soda axed — ammonia and boiled, a rich sherry- a | “tee polaned.nolation. rah ammonia and boiled a the reaction : 4 M. C. Lea on the Platinum Metals. 249 of ammonia alone, which produces a pale straw color—in both cases a very dilute solution is supposed to be used. and the color deepens to a rich wine brown. Protochlorid of Palladium.—To apply the test to this metal, communicate a pale lemon color only, to the liquid. By boiling, this rapidly darkens to a wine brown shade, increasing in in- tensity until it finally appears black. Dilution however shows that this results from its intensity only ; the diluted liquid is clear from troubling, and has a warm brown tint. Detection of Ruthenium in Presence of Iridium by Hyposulphite of Soda ae and other Reagents. For the following examinations, solutions of sesquichlorid of ruthenium and of chloriridiate of ammonium were used. Both in a state of perfect purity were weighed dry, dissolved, and ixed in the following proportions: Ru,Cl,, 1 part; chloriridiate of ammonium, 10 parts. The hyposulphite test was not in any way impaired by the resence of iridium. : Sulphocyanid test gave a red coloration, but much less clear than in the absence of iridium,’ and much inferior to the reaction with hyposulphite. — san : Acetate of lead ‘ ded and boiled gave a precipitate, in which the purplish shade characteristic of ruthenium was very evident. = aN 3) 1 part; eee 20 agar yposulphite gave a periect reaction. : Salpline paid eddie brows coloration and unsatisfactory. Acetate of lead gives a precipitate still distinctly colored by ruthenium. It is to be regretted that to judge cor- : is test fails when the Ru is in proportion to the Ir less “Sorging A ung. pe tomate 1 ; Rahs ie A sooalsiivt ene ea e i i ; of Ir. sro eile oe aac Stall ~ Ast. Jour. Scr.—Secoxp Sunres, Vou. XXXVI, No. 113.—Szrr., 1964 32 250 M. C. Lea on the Platinum Metals. rectly of this test, it is necessary, either to be very fa- miliar with the color of the precipitate which the lead salt produces with a ruthenium solution, or else to pre- pare it for comparison. Ru,Cl,, 1 part; chloriridiate, 50 parts. Hyposulphite gave a perfect reaction. - Sulphocyanid having failed in a solution containing a larger quantity of ruthenium, was not here again tried. Acetate of lead gave a precipitate which when carefully compared with that afforded by a perfectly pure iridium solution, exhibited a shade of difference, but scarcely suf- ficient to afford any criterion. At least, this must be re- garded as the extreme limit of the sensibility of mixtures of Ru and Ir to this reagent. Ru,Cl,, 1 part; chloriridiate, 100 parts. Hyposulphite, perfect ruthenium reaction. Ru,Cl,, 1 part; chloriridiate, 200. Hyposulphite, satisfactory ruthenium reaction. Ru,Cl,, 1 part; chloriridiate, 500 parts. va Even in the presence of such an enormous excess of iridium t, ruthenium is capable of being detected by a Poe tised eye by means of the hyposulphite test, although the clear rose color produced in the previous trials was here changed to an orange shade. jum, — Dr. Gibbs has proposed a test for ruthenium by the use of alka- line nitrite and sulphid of ammonium. It my wish to com- evolved by the reduction of nitric acid through a potash solu tion, and also with nitrite of soda prepared from the nitrate. 18 an important point, the neglect of which may cause the pres ence of ruthenium to be overlooked, when it exists in sufficiently _ after this precaution has been taken. ~ an interval ab laitend leds M. C. Lea on the Platinum Metals. 251 I found no effect from hyposulphite. Selecting one containing sufficient ruthenium to render the sulphocyanid test available, I tried it; but equally without effect. The ruthenium had lost its power of reacting even in solutions which contained it in the Proportion of ;';th of the iridium present. It was immediately Suspected that in consequence of the dilution, it had become ecomposed. ortion of the solution was then boiled with a little chlorhydrie acid, when it at once recovered its sensibility to the various reagents. It was long since pointed out by Claus that neutral solutions of sesquichlorid of ruthenium were decomposed by boiling with Separation of oxyd of ruthenium, and that even without heat the separation took place by standing. But it appears that even acid solutions spontaneously decompose when very dilute, if the excess of acid present is small. eee I therefore recommend that in all cases where it is intended hours nearly the whole of the Ru falls to the bottom, leaving Detection of Ruthenium in Presence of Platinum by Hyposulphite of Soda. _ Small quantities of Pt scarcely affect the ruthenium reaction. When aioe quantities are present, the color produced es es ture of that which would result from each separately, and there- ‘ore rather a wine, than a rose color. ¢ Mixtures of Ir and Pt, or of Ru, Ir and Pt. : “Tn all these mixt the reaction of the hyposulphite is that Srachaetinorr sp prairie co abit of the separate colorations, 252 M. C. Lea on the Platinum Metals. - The hyposuiphite is a valuable test for the purity of iridium, and affords an easy indication as to whether other metals of the latinum group are present, Let the chloriridiate of ammonium = boiled with HCl, and then ammonia be added until the solution assumes the pale olive color produced by alkalies in solutions of bichlorid of iridium. The solution should be sufficiently dilute that, after the ammonia has been added, it becomes nearly color- less. Now add the hyposulphite and boil. Jf any increase of color whatever takes place, it is a certain indication of impurity. If the liquid becomes rose color, ruthenium is present; if wine color, platinum is probably present; if brown, palladium is probably indicated. REACTIONS WITH TETRATHIONIC ACID, Tetrathionic acid is capable of giving useful reactions with metals of the platinum group, and especially with palladium. Ru, Cl, boiled with tetrathionic acid is somewhat decolorized, and finally becomes muddy and grayish. : uCl, boiled with tetrathionic acid gradually darkens in color, becomes muddy, and finally throws down a brown precipitate. But if the acid be at first supersaturated with ammonia, the s0- lution becomes yellow and remains clear, ir,Cl,, when boiled with tetrathionic acid, the pale, almost colorless dilute solution darkens rapidly, and by some moments tation without heat is highly characteristic of the protochlorid 5 of palladium, and the tes of water. Ina few drops of this very dilute solution, the pres” ence of palladium was made evident by this test. When the quantity of palladium present is so very minute as in this cast no precipitation takes place, but a brown coloration is developed. And as this coloration is produced in the cold, it is highly chat acteristic of the metal in question, : PtCl,. Tetrathionie acid produces no effect in the cold. DY _ boiling, a wine brown color is developed, but no precipitation ___As this test for palladium appeared likely to be a valuable __ One, a series of experiments was undertaken to ascertain whethey ___ Tike so many of the old tests for metals of the platinum group» M. C. Lea on the Platinum Metals. . 253 the reaction would be affected by the presence of other members of the group. Mixtures were therefore made of solution of pro- tochlorid of palladium with the following subst tive] Sesquichlorid of ruthenium, Bichlorid of ruthenium, = all (V.) REACTIONS WITH SULPHATE OF QUINIA. With sulphate of quinia, protochlorid of palladium gives a bulky buff colored precipitate, which becomes somewhat black- on boiling. Neither ruthenium nor iridium give similar reactions, (VI) REACTIONS WITH PROTOCHLORID OF TIN, Ru, Cl, boiled with SnCl becomes perfectly colorless, if the so- lution is yery dilute. Stronger solutions show a pale straw color. RuCl,, boiled with a small quantity of SnCl, gives a buff col- ored precipitate, which dissolves, in an excess of the precipitan to a solution which, by further treating, passes to a splendi blood-red of great intensity. : : The buff colored precipitate is soluble in solution of potash, producing an intense brown liquid. he Ir,Cl,. When the sesquichlorid of iridium and ammonium is boiled with SnCl, and potash added in sufficient quantity to re- dissolve the precipitate which it at first produces, further boiling produces an abundant leather-colored precipitate, which is insol- uble in any excess of potash. : : I felt much interested to observe whether this reaction would take place in the presence of sesquichlorid of ruthenium in the solution; and had the satisfaction to find that it did so. We thus ave a mode of detecting iridium in the presence of ruthenium, Which offers certain advantages. ee _ The best way to observe the reaction is as follows: To the _ Solution of sesquichlorid of ruthenium, edd a little acidulated Protochlorid of tin, and boil till the color disappears and then 254 MM. C. Lea on the Platinum Metals. add excess of potash. The liquid should be perfectly clear and very nearly colorless. The addition of a single drop of dilute solution of sesquichlorid of iridium communicates a yellow color, 2) @ Qu ie, Le | oO gs, ce) me oo = @ oy — rs v4 | : c mS 7) bg oS ie) cr Qu oO ie) o al 2) a N » or pet ° Bp ° ar) > oO (VIL) REACTIONS WITH AMMONIO-CHLORID OF ZINC. A solution of clorid of zinc in excess of ammonia gives an interesting and beautiful series of reactions with the metals of the platinum group. The metallic solutions, which are to be subjected to this test, must be either neutral or slightly acid. The presence of alkali in excess, or of acid in large excess, nat- y interferes with these reactions, To obtain the zine solution in proper condition, chlorid of zine must be added to ammonia until the smell of ammonia be- comes tolerably faint, and a considerable proportion of zine ne remains undissolved. The liquid is then to be filtered off, and should be used without too much delay. In this condition the affinities are in a state of very unstable equilibrimn. The itat tion , the precipitate which falls carries with it a part or the whole of the platinum metal, which imparts to it a characteristic coloration. The following are the reactions: Ru,Cl, a brown precipitate: the solution becomes colorless. RuCl, a rose-colored precipitate: the solution becomes color- ess. Ir, Cl, a pale buff precipitate: the solution becomes colorless, or nearly so. IrCl, a fire-red precipitate: solution decolorized. . _ With platinum and palladium the tendency of ammonia t0 m double salts, interferes, and prevents any characteristic Te action from the zinc solution : * (VIIL) ACTIONS WITH SOLUTION OF FERRIDCYANID OF POTASSIUM IN CAUSTIC it SODA. When this solution is added to ruthenium and iridium solu- M. C. Lea on the Platinum Metals, 255 Ru,Cl,—bright yellow liquid. » | RuCl,—the same, but more on a wine color, _ir,Cl,. When toa slightly acid solution of sesquichlorid of iridium, enough of the solution in question is added to make the liquid strongly alkaline, a green coloration is produced at once, which by boiling becomes olive. ' But if the iridium solution be first rendered alkaline with am- monia, the addition of the above reagent gives a bright yellow coloration, which by boiling becomes deep wine red. (IX.) REACTIONS WITH SCHLIPPE’S SALT. A solution of Schlippe’s salt mixed with an equal bulk of ammonia, and added to the solutions of the Pt. metals, gave the following reactions: Ru, Cl, by boiling, a blackish precipitate. RaCl,. When the solution containing the bichlorid of ruthe- nium is boiled, and a single drop of solution of Schlippe’s salt added, a yellow transparent liquid is obtained. A larger addition gives an abundant light brick colored precipitate. When this larger quantity of solution of Schlippe’s salt is added, a slight warming is sufficient to throw down the pre- tate. Ir, Gl, A similar precipitate is obtained, but only after some minutes’ boiling. ~ : IrCl,, is instantly decolorized by solution of Schlippe’s salt ith ammonia, and when boiled remains clear for a few minutes, then lets fall an abundant brick-brown precipitate, In this it is distinguished from RuCl,, which lets fall the precipitate by a slight warming. PdCl. As ammonia precipitates palladium at once, the follow- ing course was adopted. monia was in a test- tube, and a little palladium solution added. Heat was ap- plied till the precipitate, which at first formed, was redis- solved. An addition of Schlippe’s salt then produced an instantaneous and abundant brown recipitate. PtCl, treated with Schlippe’s salt (without ammonia) gave an immediate dark brick-brown precipitate in the cold. K ;- Osmite of potash, dissolved in dilute caustic potash, gives with the aid of heat an immediate black precipitate with Schlippe’s salt. _, The following substances gave no characteristic reactions with _ the platinum metals: fulminurate of ammonia, nitroprusside of m, picrate of ammonia, nitrosalycylate of potash, purpurate ammonia, benzoic acid, chloranilamate of ammonia. 256 Geological Survey of California. The new reactions which I have described in this pape in- clude characteristic criteria for all those cases in which it has been considered most difficult to pmcicna ey pete and rhodium offer no difficulties; the first can always be reqngniae with ease by its behavior with chlorid of potassium, and t latter by its behavior with caustic alkalies. For the other me per I propose here very briefly to recapitulate what I consider the chief points of interest here developed Ru,Cl,. The characteristic reaction of sesquichlorid 0 thenium is its beautiful coloration when boiled with ‘povutolils of soda. See section third. RuCl,. Bichlorid of ruthenium is recognized by its rose- i Precipitate with ammonio-chlorid of zinc, as described in section seven > ‘te t Iridium is best detected by its behavior with proio- chlorid of tin and potash. The — ah mode of application have been already described in sectio PdCl. e reaction of iotcohioria ‘of palladium with ‘etra- thionic acid is highly characteristic, —_ cannot well be con- founded with any other. See section For ascertaining the purity of solutions of iridi ium, particu larly as respects ruthenium, the hyposulphite of soda is epacislly vs ae as desoribed at the end of section third. ladelphia, May SS. Arr. XXX.—Progress of the Geological Survey of Califorma. Proressor Wurrney, having recently returned from California, is DoW engaged in superintending the publication of a portion of the ma ateri collected by the Geological Survey of California. He communicates speed statement in “regard to the present condition and probable future of the Survey :— oe interested in the California Survey will already have learned ng of its progress from the brief re reports, or letters to the Governor of t that Satay which have appeared fide time to time, during the past three years, and of which extracts or notices, more or less complete, have ‘in this awn (See Journal for July, 1863, and May, 1964.) No serious opposition has been made to the continuance of the Surveys during any of the Levuletive sessions, pat on the pa of economy, es aegenent which was urged with a reason than usual before the oe, gi ; Since, owing to a variety of causes, ites it is not ne essary here to specify, the finances of the State, for the past three or _~years, have pote ce pao a condition. The vast extent of area to 2 explored, the of subjects claiming attentio fe to carry-on this work with anything like satisfaction, eve@ : which would be deemed ample on the Atlantic side | ed, the n, and ae y expense of E vaesting on everywhere on the Pacific slope, make it a Geological Survey of California. 257 of the continent. The heavy and entirely unprecedented rains of the h 4Ppolnt, to complete the geological survey of the State, and to prepare a g. The appropriation being so small, for the next two years the work will necessarily be continued on a rather small scale ; but it is thought that, if Following the provisions of the present Act, each volume of the Re- ts no hereafter to be published will form a part of the Final Port, which it is believed will comprise about ten large royal-octavo Volumes, The first volume to be issued will comprise the first installment of the Paleontology of the State. It will be illustrated: by 32 crowded plates on steel and stone, which have been for some time in the hands of the engravers, and of which the accompanying text is now passing rapidly through the press,° ‘ or B i arty exploring in the central portion of rewer, now in charge of a p: ty : ede -. A P ila Nevada, in a letter recently received the journey from to Visalia, through Pac ’3 Pass, and across the plain of the San Joa- | One of great hardship, owing to the extreme difficulty of procuring water or along the whole route. a ; rats 27: 2h 7. . + pm rd tn (‘alifarnia 3 the engraving of the plates will still require some time, the letter-press, which sanghesed inthe inns ed by itself 4 limited ber of copies, to which 258 Geological Survey of California, ossils. The second volume of the Paleontology of California will be devoted to the Tertiary formation, and to such additions to what had already been done in the lower formations as may have been accumulated during the exploring the region of the high Sierra Nevada, south of the Mono Pass and the region examined Jast year: a portion of the State which 1s al- most entirely unexplored, and of which we know only that it contams some of the loftiest and most extensive mountain-groups of the Sierra. Some of the principal results of the Survey, up to the present time, may be thus briefly summed up: 1. Topography.—For a sketch of what had been done in this depart- ment up to the beginning of the season for field-work in 1863, see this Journal, vol. xxxvi, p.119. During that season a reconnoissance was made in the High Sierra, from the region adjacent to the Mono trail (whieh trail leads from Big Oak Flat or Coulterville, along the edge of the Yo semite valley, to Aurora, a little south of the 38th parallel of latitude) to the northern line of the State. Nearly all the high points of the Sierra Nevada, on this line of reconnoissance, were ascended and measured bar- ometrically. The highest portion of the Sierra Nevada is that near the head-waters of the Tuolumne river, west and southwest of Mono 1s The culminating peak of the Sierra, the hi one of the numerous unnamed peaks of the Sierra, was cal : Mount Dana, in honor of Professor J.D. Dana. The next point in height to this—the centre of a magnificent group of snow-covered pea named Mount Lyell: it is about 15 miles, a little west of south, from Mt. Dana, and about 100 feet lower than that elevation. The svenery of this portion of the Sierra is truly Alpine, and can hardly be surpassed in grandeur. Geological Survey of California. 259 These traces of extinct glacier action were afterward discovered by us Shasta. the Henness pass. Thus our observations, when combined, will enable US to give the first approach to a tolerably accurate map of this great chain of mountains, It is uncertain, as yet, how and in what form our topographical work will be laid before the public, except that the publi- cation of the maps of the vicinity of the Bay of San Franci do the Monte Diablo region has been determined on, and they will be Soon placed in the engravers’ hands. It is believed, however, that suc arrangements will be made as shall ensure the publication of a map of the entire State, greatly improved on anything which has yet appeared, and as large as can be conveniently used for a wall-map—say, on a scale of twelve miles to the inch. A map of the central portion of the State, own very numerous hypsometrical observations. The data collected in the course of these oe ccenies ave been employed by, Major Wil- liamson in working up the observations taken by the U.S. and California in 1861, in below the level of the ocean. eology.— t time, and including this season of vo. e p r field-work, we may be said to have been chiefly engaged in making a ological reconnoissance of the tate, and we have travelled But conside 260 Geological Survey of California. of that region. He has now joined an exploring party throu eastern Oregon, emphatically a g region he can hardly fail to bring back geological facts of importance. The expedition was to start from Fort Klamath, on the north end of Kla- oe region; those who have consulted this gentleman’s publications on the districts examined by him in the Alps, especially in Tyrol, an extremely difficult region, we shall have to wait many years. . In alluding to a few of the results of the Geological Survey in this = department, it will be necessary to be extremely brief; for, } Were a suitable place for it, details would hardly be intelligible without Maps and sections. Perhaps the most striking result of the Survey is the proof we have © eo es tte that extremely important and highly fossiliferous rias. ° great Triassic belt of the Pacific coast has been most fully e* d by the Survey in the latitude of 40°, and over a width east an¢ of nearly four degrees of longitude (117° to 121°). It is from this Geological Survey of California. 261 formation extends from Mexico to British Columbia, occupying a vast area, although much broken up, interrupted, and covered by voleanic and eruptive rocks, and usually highly metamorphosed. Among the specimens from the Humboldt and Plumas county, Mr. Gabb recognizes at least four species as identical with European, while the whole facies of the collection is most strikin ly like that of the Hallstadt h Halobia, Monotis, Avicula, Pecten, a a Monoiis being the most widely diffused and the most abundant all. Accompanying this Triassic formation in the Sierra Nevada; and prob- E ugh, iaceien have been found to justify mentary portion of the great metalliferous belt of the Pacific coast of ‘orth America is chiefly made up of rocks of Jurassic and Triassic age, With a comparatively small development of Carboniferous limestone, and that these two formations are so folded together, broken up, and meta- Morphosed in the great chain of the Sierra Nevada, that it will be an immense labor, if indeed possible at all, to unravel its detailed structure. While we are fully justified in saying that @ large portion of the auri- r of t of metam I jassic and Jurassic = a 8 = =) 5 ro = 8 Lord : g =. S SS to the west of the 116th meridian. On the other hand, we are able to State, referring to the theory of the occurrence of gold being chiefly lim- ited to Silurian rocks, that this metal occurs in no inconsiderable quantity 12 Metamorphic rocks belonging as high up in the series as the Cretaceous. Allusion has already been made to the wide-spread occurrence in Cali- fornia of the Cretaceous formation. The coast-ranges of California and Oregon, indeed, are to a large extent made up of rocks of this age, thi al ps (Div.B). This latter should probably, judging from its stratigraphical po- Sition, correspond. with the For Hill group, or No. 5 of Meek and Hayden ; 262 Geological Survey of California. although all the species, with a single doubtful exception, are peculiar to California, and that species is referred to one described from No. 4 2 New Jersey and Tennessee. last-mentioned ranges were uplifted and metamorphosed after the close of the Jurassic period, we have not positive evidence that this took place prior to the Cretaceous epoch. Still, combining all we know of the geology of New Mexico and Nevada Territory, there appears to be little doubt that the system of the Sierra Nevada extends over a consider- able area, east and west, embracing a number of nearly parallel ranges of mountains, some of which, indeed, are little inferior in extent and ele- vation to the Sierra Nevada proper. e have recognized at least three distinct periods of upheaval and metamorphic action in the coast-ranges. The main one was at the close of the Cretaceous epoch ; the next in importance was after the deposition of the Miocene tertiary—or, at least, of a group of strata which, for the present, may be referred to that age. The next in age is a system of east and west upheavals, which took place at the close of the Miocene; am the third is one which appears to have commenced during the later Plt ocene, and to be still going on. _ Itisa very interesting fact, that the exterior of the coast-ranges—that is to say, the mountains nearest the Pacific—are of earlier date, or older - geolo yy the interior ones, or those which border the Sacra mento and San Joaquin valleys. This is a repetition on a smaller scale of what has_ the course of events in the formation of the whole hl hal } first marked continent, the exter having out, and the interior ~~, Geological Survey of California. 263 The vast Tertiary formations on the flanks of the Sierra Nevada, so im- portant as being the locality of the hydraulie mining operations, are not of marine origin, as has been s Poceses asserted, deposits, their position, age, and other characters, are exceedingly inter- esting ; ‘but it is impossible, in this inistieeting: to do more than hint at There is perhaps no subject cars ge with v8 geology of the Pacific coast, in regard to which ther so many misapprehensions, as there are in what has been published be cstesieaial on ahs nature and distribu- tion of the detrital deposits which are so extensively voile by the methods known as hydraulic and tunnel mining. It has been assumed that these deposits are of marine origin, and that they originally ex- tended over the whole western slope of the Sierra Nevada, a condition of things which, were it true, it would be of vast importance 1 California to “i but the real facts of the case are entirely differe In the first place, these deposits are uot of marine ee as is proved by the Biot that, although frequently found to contain impressions of leaves, masses of wood and imperfect coal, and even whole buried forests, as well as the remains of land — and occasionally those of fresh water, not 3 trace of any marine production has ever been found in them. Again, these detrital depts: are distributed over the flanks of the Sierra j in any such ae as they wo ave been if _? were the result of the action of the sea. On shinee contrary, there is every reason to be- lieve that they consist of materials which have been brought down from the mountain-heights above and deposited in predzinting valleys : some- imes in v. ry narrow accumulations, simple beds of ancient rivers, at other times in wide lake-like expansions of — water-courses; and this under the a action of causes similar to those now existing, but proba- of itu: The e deposition of this auriferous detritus was succeeded, throughout the whole extent of the Sierra Nevada, by a ‘tremendous outbreak of vol- They effect of abe oe which has taken place _—s these streams = stops flowed down the mountains, has been most extraordinary. For Ow, these de epoeita eo gravel a overlying voleanic materials, ins — of is f a ae Northampton, Mass., Aug. 1, 1864, 264 Geological Survey of California. it was at the commencement of the present geological epoch: what were once valleys are now ridges, and the ridges of former times were where the immense cafions of the rivers flowing down the western slope of the Sierra now are. The proof of this assertion, and the interesting bearin it has on the tunnel and hydraulic mining interests of California, will be fully set forth in the Reports of the Survey. The Mammalian remains found in the tunnel and placer diggings of California seem to belong to two distinct epochs. The oldest represents the Pliocene, the other the Post-tertiary. The former are found under the volcanic beds, the latter in deposits which have been formed since the period of greatest volcanic activity, and which apparently belong to the ch of Man. For it appears that the facts collected by this Survey, when fully laid before the public, will justify the assertion that the mas- todon and elephant, whose remains are so widely and abundantly scattered before the scientific public with as little delay as possible. 4, Metallurgy and Mining—P articular attention will be paid to these 7] » ° ay g o @o 5 oO o ia ‘) ou ° mh 2 ° = am 5 ge oo i= oO 5 >. o o e processes _ 5. Botany.—It is believed that the progress in this department, under Prof. Brewer’s direction, has been sufficient to warrant the assertion that a “ Manu: Botan alifornia” will form a portion of the w of the Survey. The large collections o plants already made have been help to the study of the botany of the Pacific coast. 6. Zoology.—The working up of the zoological collections of the Sur- vey is now in progress under Dr. Cooper’s direction. It has not yet been ecided how many volumes will be required for their full deseription and illustration. m been already stated, they will be sold at a moderate price, and the pro as required by law, paid over to the common school fund of the J. D, Waitney- i ’ Scientific Intelligence. 265 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. On a new class of Sulphur compounds—Vow Oxrre.z has suc- ceeded in shewing that sulphur, like selenium, tellurium, lead, tin and many other elements, is capable of forming a true organic base with ethyl, and doubtless, therefore, with other organic radicals. The iodid of the new radical is easily formed by the direct combination of sulphid of ethyl with iodid of ethyl, the reaction being expressed by the equation CO, Hit = (Capel. The ney iodid is a beautiful crystalline body which is easily soluble in water and alcohol and crystallizes from its solutions unchan itrate of silver precipitates iodine from an aqueous solution of iodid of triethyl- sulfyl as iodid of silver, while a nitrate of the new base remains in solution. Oxyd of silver and water digested with the iodid yield the ngaged in investigations which appear to show that nitric acid con- Verts triethyl-sulfyl into a new base which contains S, as a hexatomic mstead of a tetratomic element, the hydrated oxyd being probably @ rose color resembling that produced in chloroform by traces of iodine. Of course the precautions usual in testing for iron by sulpho-cyanid of Potassium must be taken in employing Natanson’s ss. By u of it, the author easily detected iron in a solution of chtorid of platinum, in which, on account of the yellow color, sulphocyanid of potassium as Same process. When mono-chloracetic acid is heated with a solution of With a large excess of potash, ammonia is given off and malonate of pot- Am. Jour. Scr.—Seconp Series, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 113.—Szpr., 1864. 34 266 Scientific Intelligence. ash is formed, from which pure malonie acid is easily obtained. Kobel represents the reaction in this case by the equation H 7 C,0 KO, C, o2N ¢[0,0,]0+KO.3HO=2KO. [CoH.)"| ¢2 02 [Ost HN. e pr me process @ small quantity of a crystalline acid was prepared, which on being heated, au- inal paper. We design at present only to notice a single point, the rela- tions, namely, of thallium to the alkaline metals. Crookes maintains that it belongs to the same group with silver and lead, (sic) a view which, as he says, is generally taken in England. It seems difficult to under- thallium show plainly that it is essentially monatomic, and the very inter- esting discovery by Church of a silver alum only illustrates the analogy tw N ded metallic cobalt is heated with a strong solution of caustic potash, 4 deep blue solution is formed which proves on analysis to be a co of . Cobaltic acid has the formula CoO,, and belongs therefore to the group of manganic, ferric and chromic acids. The blue solution Chemistry and Physics. 267 6. New method of reduction especially applicable to a large number of meials—Mr. Poumaréde has proposed to use the vapor of zine as a ucing agent, and has obtained by this means a large number of inter- esting products. Peligot, exhibited to the Academy of Sciences, at its session, March 28, specimens of nickel and cobalt thus made, and also magnificent crystals of iron. 1. Bromid of potassium, a powerful narcotic—Bromid of potassium after having been used as a remedy against diphtheria, photophobia, ete., has been proved to be a powerful narcotic. It produces its effects with- Be As ; .D, third London edition. New York, John Wiley. 1864. 512 pp. 8vo.— e alkaloids, Prof. Johnson has substituted the accurate and plain eo. nplete to the date of publication. The value of this text-book is too well recognized to be ouleand upon here; it has already passed through Sag pat: the solid condition, the tendency In the gaseous, the liquid, or perhaps the s Ee ee, Ua changed. The foree of cohesion binding the molecules together exercises ho effect on the rapidity of vibration. 268 Scientific Intelligence. I had arrived at the same conclusion from theoretical considerations several years ago, and had also deduced some further conclusions regar firmed by the experimental results of Prof. Tyndall. One of these con- clusions was, that the heat-vibration does not consist in a motion of an - aggregate mass of molecules, but in a motion of the individual molecules Each mo excursions across centres of equilibrium external to the atom itself? It as some others which will presently be noticed, are entirely hostile to such . ati . oye . to be affected by the state of aggregation, r the tension of the atom in regard to the centre, the more rapid ought its movement to be. is is case in regard to the vibrations constituting sound. The That heat-vibrations do not consist in excursions of the molecules of ws also, as a necessary conse- with the hardness of the body, because an increase in the stren of the foree binding the molecules together would in such a case tend to vor the rise in the rapidity of the vibrations. These conclusions ght into the hidden nature heat-vibrations, east some light on the physical the conclusion that Chemistry and Physics. 269 expansions and contractions of the atom itself, This again is opposed to the ordinary idea that the atom is essentially solid and impenetrable. rs the modern idea, that matter consists of a force of resistance acting from a centre.—Phil. Mag., [4], xxvii, 346, May, 1864. 11. On Periodic Changes in the Magnetic Condition of the Earth, and “ “sn Distribution of Temperature on its Surface; by Mr. BaxenDELL, A ia a < oO ao oO bs) Qa. fer) — ~) = pS) S Xq o Ss = oO 2 oO z ° 3 is°) =] 8 S re oe > @® = oO ity % follows, the unit of value being one division of the scale of the magnet- Ometer, or 26°3" of are: . from Diff. from general general | ___mean, mean. Day. pts. Day. pts. 1 - $18 9 —. 7:86 Ce = BOR 10 - 799 8 - 3°32 1 = 010 4 + +18 12 + 45 5 - 480 18 + 14°83 6 - 021 14 + 9-22 7 - 1659 + 119 8 -~ 666 16 + 5:99 _ A projection of these numbers shows that, of the seventeen consecutive 12 days, e 478 per day, the mean for the year being 39°86. The ratios of the sol of minimum, to the mean value, are therefore as 1 to 10-09, and as * to 834, 270 Scientific Intelligence. ing, until, in 1859, it amounted to about 82 days. A glance at-these re sults at once suggested the idea that the variable period thus found was in some way connected with, and dependent upon, the great solar-spot period, the minimum value occurring in the year of minimum frequency . of the solar spots, and the maximum values in the years when the spots were most numerous, Several series of thermometrical observations were now examined for only 11°79° of plus differences, the mean ratio of the amount of excep tional differences to the total amount being therefore as 1 to 25°7. a At Petersburg the average temperature of the warmer half of the _Period is not less than 3° greater than that of the cooler half; and as this of temperature is repeated at least twelve times in every Ye" SEER Ree Fo ere Sara ee eS ay tS ee ee Chemistry and Physics. 271 it must necessarily exercise a powerful modifying influence over many meteorological phenomena ith reference to the differences between the maximum and minimum Observatories, it is remarked that a little consideration will serve to show that in the early stages, at least, of an inquiry like the present, little or no reliance could be placed on results derived from series of observations in which every seventh day, or fifty-two days in the year, were complete blanks. It has, in fact, been found that the omission of a single day in 4 year will in some cases produce a very sensible effect upon the fing Tesults for the magnetic period. Hence it is that the author regards Some of the values he has obtained for this period as being open to cor- oS Pa ° @ 4 = o °o cr < oO o ay a oe ° » o or oF o Seal a 2 © r. ' With regard to the probable cause of the variability of the short Period, the author remarks that the subject is one of great difficulty ; for, been applied to the explanation of astronomical phenomena. It is therefore not without any consi : Serve that the facts would perhaps be best explained by supposing— Ist. That a ring of nebulous matter exists differing in density or con- Stitution in different parts, or seve asses of such matter forming a discontinuous ring, circulating round the sun in a plane nearly coincident with the plane of the ecliptic, and at a mean distance from the sun of about one-sixth of the radius of the earth’s orbit. 272 Scientific Intelligence. Changes in the amount of heat received from the sun, sufficient to pro- duce the variatio no doubt t Soe ee ficult though not to the extent indicated by the observations; but it is di hi : to conceive that they could produce the differences in the epochs W : t action of the oer ring of nebulous matter is principally of a Dx” aetic, and but slightly of a thermal character. me It is suggested that the greater range of variation of the magnetic, ad compared with the temperature period, may be due to the inertia rr ae elasticity of the great currents of air, the inertia tending to arger? te temperature period, and the elasticity to shorten it; but as the hee | will act with greatest effect w magnetic period is at its minimum, oe Chemistry and Physics. 273 Greatest distance of the ring = 16,921,000 miles. Least “6 “ “ orbit of Mercury; and, from a discussion of the probable mass of the ~ Ot Adams and Leverrier established the existence of Neptune before that planet had been actually seen. This ring, however, owing to its prox- 274 Scientific Intelligence. must in some way have an important influence on the phenomena of our own atmosphere. The facts now given convert this suspicion into a cer- tainty ; and it is pe u that meteorology can never take rank as a true science while our knowledge of the sun remains in its present imperfec Moreover, there is little doubt that many questions of high physical interest depend for their solution upon our taining a more intimate a aero than we yet LO with the opera- tions which are going on in the great centre of ou em. It is there- fore much to be desired that some of the many wri te mire which are eats here Tt may be aa that the values of the variable-temperature period, given in this paper, were derived from observations made at St. Peters- burg, Wardoe, Gorki, Barnaoul, Irkoutzk, Nertchinsk, Yakoutsk, Pekin, Madras, Novo-Petro whe Lougan ane anne va, Milan, Brussels, Green- wich ; ego st in Greenland Si tka, on the northwest coast of Am he comparison of the variable-temperature period with the wolaeapot per iod ‘ettents over the twenty-seven years, 1833-59, and therefore includes three maxima and three minima of solar-spot fre- queney.—Proceedings Manchester Lit.and Phil. Soc., March 8, 1864. "9 4 Il. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. ome a flesh-red eh radiated structure, and but a feeble lustre. H=5- =2°22. In the closed tube gave water, and B.B. fused to a white cpaln glass. Dee ecomposed by acids, Composition: Fe Ca K 47°73 26°04 0°53 229 13°37 0°40 10°24 == 100°53 showing the mineral to be natrolite in which a small portion of the soda is replaced by lime. (2.) Schefferite: a supposed new variety of Pirate oc- eurs at Langbanshytta. Color, reddish-brown. H.= 5 G.= 3°39, B.B. fuses slowly to a black glass. With borax and salt of phosphorus gives an praia ne bead in the outer flame, becoming cole in the i Ca Mg Mn Fe Fe Ign. 52°31 86-1909 10°86 = 10°46 «1°63 S897 = 0°80 = 98-92 — 2719 H43.. 434. 286.087 . 1:19 13° 67 The a el li to bases is 2:1, and the author places the Jeffersonite, Teis ee ; Mineral near associated with rhodonite, and bh Mineralogy and Geology. 275, on, would . B. : 3.) Hedyphane.—Hedyphane, from Langbanshytta, has a grayish- white color, inclining slightly to yellow, is translucent, and has a greasy lustre, and uneven fracture. B.B. fuses easily to a white enamel, and on charcoal, gives an arsenical odor. H=4. G.=546. Composition: Cl B Pb a 3°06 3°19 28°51 57°45 10°50 2°93 0°86 This js equivalent to 11-70 PbCl, 202 B, 28°51 As, 48-13 Pb, 10°50 Ca, giving the formula PbC!+-3[(Pb, Oa)?(As, B)].- (4.) Orthite-like mineral from Aaré near Brevig—tThis dark-brown i vi the fracture, and in thin splinters is transparent to translucent. Hardness, ween 3 and 4. G.—3'44. Not erystallized. Composition: ; Ce (Os ‘ing “¢ “Be 2 r Fe Ca Mg Na 1. 29°91 9-79 15°60 168 427 281 544 642 14:93 045 245 5:50 et? 2. 2880 1147 14:12 1-49 17°51 16°06 @r. is Analyses 2 was by Nobel, who obtained also 0°83 (?) precipitated by sul- Phuretted hydrogen. The mineral was decomposed by chlorhydrie aci A portion of the iron existed as protoxyd, but the small quantity of the Mineral operated upon would not permit its determination. The author considers that the mineral is nearly related to Hrdmannite.—Jour. prakt, vhem., xc, 106, - G. J. B. 2. Kokscharovite—Hermann has further investigated kokscharovite, The specimen examined was associated with lapis-lazuli and calcite, # after careful picking out, the coarse powder was separated from adhering cite by dilute chlorhydric acid. : : The mineral thus purified was in erystalline fragments of a dirty-white Color, with a vitreous lustre, and was translucent on the edges. G.=2°97. In the closed tube, gave only traces of water. B.B., in the forceps, fused easily to a white translucent pearl, coloring the flame yellow ; with borax, omposition : ‘Save a clear colorless glass. posi oo ORE Pe Oe . Kk Be igs. 4599-18-90 240 12°78 1645 1°06 1°53 0°60 = 99°01 | «Oxygen, 23:39 850 053 363 646 018 03 276 Scientific Intelligence. The form of the mineral, as has already been stated in this Journal ([2], xxvi, 354), is that of hornblende; if the alumina is considered as replac- ing silica, the oxygen ratio of these to the bases is 2-98 to 1, differing very materially from all of t e aluminous ae oe and pyroxenes investiga ated by Rammelsberg, iste requiring a portion of alumina to be ic in order to be included under the general Seieals (R°R)Si?. — prakt, Sapa Ixxxviii, 197. G. . Samarskite—Finxener has found that samarskite centile seeds nia ‘and thorina, both of these substances having been overlooked by aed analysts, Analysis gave 4°35 . ct. zirconia and 6° sn pees . Rose in Ber. Preuss. Akad., Nov., 1862. . Kupfferite—Kupfferite is from a staptiie mine in the Tunkiosk Mountains, and was named by Kokscharow in honor of the eminent physicist Kupffer. It has the form of actinolite, and is remarkable from “A containing oxyd of chromium. A similar enneral has been obtained when fresh, but on exposure weathering to a brownish color. In: thin splinters, translucent. Lustre, vitreous. H.=5°5. G.=3°08. In the closed tube, gives traces of water, but is otherwise unchan nged. -B.B., in the foroepe, becomes opaque and white, but is — Dissolves in borax, giving a chrome-green glass. Compositio Si €r Ni y : . bas tat Seas re = i by oe1=10000 Oxygen, 29°85 0:38 014 134 083 ~ 12-03 phate thou Gum baierreees in she Urals, It ioiabien wavellite in its e of occurrence and also in composition. It is found lining clefts ina quartzite, forming a thin botryoidal coating. Color olive-green 10 verdigris-green, the darker color being due to superficial oxydation of he i ace a fracture fibrous, Lustre dull, under the magnifier glistening. greenish-white. H==5. G.==2°65. In the closed tube, decrepitates and gives off much water. In borax fuses easily. giving reactions for tr. Acids attack the mineral vale iia rfectly, but it is easily - ved on boiling with Pvatie soda, leaving a black residue consisting the oxyds of copper and ir Analysis ve: eA a Fe Ou H : 37-48 3°52 372 pedie = 905 | ieee 1902 1750 O78 075 1860 | Hermann makes the formula eres ey —Jour. prod oe ie ee Mineralogy and Geology. Q77 6. Forcherite—The name Forcherite has been given by Avnnorn toa ellow opal found in gneiss at Reittelfeld in Styria. An examination by L. Maly proved the mineral to be hydrated silicie acid colored yellow by es 7 of arsenic.—Jour. pr. Chem., Ixxxvi, 501. i by chlorhydrie acid, but more rapidly when the mineral is previously ignited. Composition : i EL Fe Mg Mon,Na Ign. 39°38 1611 8-65 36°04 100 traces, 031 = 101-49 P : neo m been applied to three minerals: (1) a variety of iolite, (2) to datholite, and (3) to scapolite. Pisani suggests the propriety of drop- Plug the name altogether— Comptes Rendus, lv, 4 so the diatom deposit from near the Louisa-spring in Franzensbad. Analyses: 1. Upper layer, Bilin. 2. Lower layer, Bilin. 3. Meisters- dort. 4. Franzensbad. 1. Ammoni 0:03 0-01 Potash : 002 0°30 024 0-40 0-30 tr. he ne Magnesi — 0-43 ' Lime, 7 0-41 0-44 064 tr. Alumina, ferric oxyd, 681 540 5°60 0-91 Sulphuric acid, 0-12 tr 0°54 — Phosphoric acid, 0°24 tr. tr. o-19 Silica, 74:20 80°30 Lhd db Organic matter, 4:20 1:30 3-2 ; Water, 13°30 10-90 7-00 6-00 (loss) 99°63 99:08 10052 10000 No. 1 is the “tripoli” or polishing powder; it has a density of 1-862, Absorbs water ella cating up about 14 times its weight, and splits Into thin plates. Density of No. 2 equal 1:944; it is harder than No, 1, and not used for polishing. None of these infusorial earths scratch glass, The total amount of nitrogen contained in No. 4 was 0-491 p. c.—Jour, Prakt. Chem., xc, 467. G. J.B, 11. On a cavern with human remains in the Pyrenees ; by Messrs. F. Garricou and L. Martiy.—The cavern which has been explored re- cently by Messrs. Garrigou and Martin, is one called Zspélugues, situated 278 Scientific Intelligence, in the commune of Lourdes, and the department of the Hautes Pyrénées. Two years since, it was visited by Alphonse Milne Edwards and Lartet, who published a detailed description in the Annales des Sciences Natu- relles. Messrs. Garrigou and Martin add many interesting facts to those brought forward by these two earlier observers, from which we cite the following :— . _ “Within the cavern, toward the entrance of the great hall, there are great numbers of large blocks of limestone lying together upon a be rounded stones. Among these blocks, and especially at their base, are heaps of cinders and charcoal, some fragments of which occur at differ- rent places in the general deposit of the cavern. Bones, jaws, and teeth deer, Aurochs, Ox, Mole, Field Mouse, and Birds. We add, to complete this list, a Goat smaller than the Bouquetin and larger than the Chamois, and a Sheep of the size of the Go The bones of all these animals are broken like those of the Kjoekken- modding of Denmark, of the lake habitations of Switzerland, and of the caverns, of the age of stone, o iége. Among these paleontological fragments, some, on careful examination, led us to infer that the domestication of certain animals had been im practice during the period under consideration. represented by one of the principal markings in the drawing. We will conclude what we have to say of the upper part of the cav- ern it (a complete description of which is given by Alph. Milne _ Edwards), by saying that the specimens collected in this part seem more fresh, less altered, and less colored than those of the lower layers. This Mast fact has sroaady cmapennerst the minds of those to whom we have >. Mineralogy and Geology. 279 ~ (2.) Lower layers.—The list of animals found in the lower beds of the cavern differs a little from the precedi ne We notice the Horse, tho Tochs but larger than that found in the upper beds, the Bouquetin, large Sheep, two Rodents, and some bones of birds. The teeth of the Horse are more abundant than those of the Ox or Reindeer, but the bones of the Reindeer are more numerous than those of other Ruminants, ll these bones are broken like those which are found in caves inhab- * ited by man; the heads of the bones alone are entire While the bones of the surface are grayish white externally, those of the lower part of the deposit are colored red, as at Bruniquel, Lyzies, May-d’Azil, and Izeste. The former do not adhere to the tongue, a evidently contain gelatine, while the latter adhere to the tongue and contain no gelatine. In order to be sure as to the gelatine, we burned two fragments of bone on live charcoal; that taken from the surface afforded almost immediately an insupportable empyreumatic odor, and the other, taken from below, no odor at Throughout the extent of the bed or et by us, even to the rolled pebbles at the surface, there are found, along with the bones, wrought ints, and also instruments and tools made of the horns of the Reindeer and common Stag, and of bone. More tes four hundred flints, most of 3 — and coarsely so, were turned out. These may be slneebhad as follows BR y se 3 aang in the fae beds. The sculptured bone represents, as nearly a8 we can judge, a fish with ventral fins and a div ided tail. The skill of The “aaa objects — be divided — two categories : those coarsely Wrought, a ° e finish. collection of —_— is very ly lies’ thal of the ua of Izeste Sitesi Pyrénées It appears evident thi us that the inhabitants contemporary with Inferior Sa and those he cavern of Izeste, had a We patio per from Bivar of the Aurochs, the existence of domestic animals, the _ Sbone finely sculptured, that the upper an age more dhe siet of tis iocec tee i ante oon, 280 _ Scientific Intelligence. Edwards and Lartet, the age of the Aurochs, with which Man was con- porary. As to the lower beds, it is evident to us, from the abundant remains of the Reindeer, including large quantities of its horns; from the coarseness of its wrought objects, its worked flints and its sculpture; from the red- dish brown color of the bones, and from the absence o gelatine and-their adhering to the tongue, that they pertain to an epoch more ancient than the preceding. It was the age of the Reindeer, parallel with that which The cave of Lourdes has thus afforded the first example of the direct 12. On further discoveries of Flint Implements and Fossil Mam- malia ; by J. Wyatt, Esq., F.G.S.—The opening of a section at Sum- of the upper level at Biddenham. Although, as might have been expect- ed, some of the species of mammals were found to common to the two localities, yet that under notice furnished some species of mammals, as well as of land and freshwater shells, together with a few types of flint implements, differing from those met with at higher levels. r att described the section at Summerhouse Hill in detail, show- After describing the implements from near Southampton, and having shown that their condition is identical with that of the materials com- the author then described the Fisherton implements, and the ravel-pits from which they were obtained. The relation of the high-level gravels (in which the i y : : t discussed, and the geo ts p: described, lists of the and the Land and Freshwater Shells) Mineralogy and Geology. 281 15. On some Bone- and Cave-deposits of the Reindeer-period in the south of France ; by Mr. Joun Evans, F.R.S.—The deposits to which the author particularly called attention in this paper are those which have been, and are still being, explored under the direction of Mr. Lartet and Mr. Christy, and which were visited by him under the guidance o . Hamilton, Professor Ru- pert Jones, Captain Galton, Mr. Lubboek and Mr. Franks. Mr. Evans , of the same species from all the caverns. The author then discussed the antiquity of the deposits according to four Methods of inquiry—namely, from geological considerations with regard ence of the remains found in them, from the archeological character of the objects of human workmanship, and from a comparison with similar deposits in neighboring districts in France; and he came to the conclu- cumstances under which these discoveries were made; and states that 1¢ contemporaneity of the human remains with those of the extinct and other animals with which they are associated together with the flint and fone implements is shown by the evidences of the plastic condition of calcified mud Ax. Jour. Sci.—Szcoxp Series, Vor. XXXVIII, No. 113.—Sepr., 1864. . 36 282 Scientific Intelligence. the form exhibited by the Celtic cranium from Engis, Switzerland; (8) jaws and teeth of individuals of different ages. After noticing other smaller portions of human crania, the lower jaw and teeth of an adult, the upper and lower jaws of immature individuals are described, the characters of certain deciduous teeth being referred to. The proportions of the molars are not those of the Australian, but of other races, and especially those of ancient and modern Europeans. As in most primitive or early races in which mastication was little helped by arts of cookery, or by various and refined kinds of food, the crowns of the molars, especially of m1, are worn down, beyond the enamel, flat and smooth to the stumps, exposing there a central tract of osteodentine without any signs of decay. The paper was illustrated by a view and plans of the cavern, and by figures of the principal human remains, and of two implements of bone on which the Viscomte de Lastic had discovered, on removal of the bree- cia, outline figures of the head of a reindeer and the head of a horse in profile— Proc. Roy. Soc. in The Reader, June 18. 17. On Human remains in Caves at Gibraltar ; by Gzo. Busx. (Let- ter addressed to the Editors of “The Reader,” and dated 15 Harley street, series of caverns and fissures, on Windmill Hill in that place. I also stated that Captain Brome had forwarded, some time before, a very large valuable collection of various animal and human remains which other remains from a different place, about 200 feet lower down than the Windmill Hill Flats. These remains, as we understand from Captain Sayer, were procured some years since by Sir James Cochrane from * very deep and till then unexplored cavern, the entrance of which 18 12 his own garden. And again, within the last few days, we have been fur- nished with additional human and other bones from Captain Brome; large Rosia Bay. : In my former communication I gave a rough list of the chief animals whose bones were contained in the first collection sent by Captain Brome, _and referred to some great peculiarities observable in many of the humaa bones. The second collection forwarded by the same gentleman, although it has not added many new species to those contained in the former, has _ Yet been of inestimable value from the additional means it has afforded Mineralogy and Geology. 283 us for the proper identification of many of the species. The human re- mains contained in the second collection were, as in the previous one, very numerous, but, unfortunately, in an equally fragmentary condition, especially as regards the crania. In the two collections we have nearly and, taken in conjunction with the uumerous more or less perfect frontal a cireumstances, any further contributions to our anthropo- — materials from Gibraltar became of the utmost importance to us, James Cochrane , cave was a welcome addit f this kind. It is for- ately quite perfect, except that the lower jaw properly belonging to ithas been re ne of a different individual, and we are con- bone. The skull itself, as were most of the bones with which it was ac- companied, was encased in a very hard gray stalagmitic crust, in some parts several inches thick, and evidently the result of very and slow ition, t when this was »y oO ¢ally compared it as to allow of any definite opinion being given on the oceasion as to its nearest probable affinities, In one respect it Is of extreme interest i i 284 Scientific Intelligence. opening): and nearly the entire face, including the upper jaw, with most of the much and curiously-worn teeth. As it is precisely these parts that are hing in the Neanderthal calvarium, of which the present is, ae a of 1814 had crept into a sealed fissure in the Rock of ib will not now enter into any further particulars concerning it, more oe which:are leo contained those of = “stn one, if not of two, wholl — tinct species of Rhinoceros, and of several other: animals which are extinct, so far as Europe is concerned.— The Reader, July 2 18, On the Rhetic Beds and White Lias of Western and Central Somerset, and on the Prabenedeey of a new Fossil Mammal in the gray Marlstones beneath the Bone-bed; by Mr. W. Born Dawxtns.—After describing the sections in the district, and showing the paleontologica: relations of the White Lias to the Avicula contorta series and the zone of Ammonites planorbis, the author enunciated the following conclusions + Q). That the true position of the White Lias is immediately above the contorta zone of Dr. Wright, oe at the base of the Lower Lias ‘shale; (2) that it is entirely distinct from the Rhaetic beds, lithologically and: paleontologically ; and (3) from the discovery of Rhietic fossils in the Gray Marls below the — that the latter belong to the Rbetie Rests sNa-then:y deseri oe ee aa malian ridged Mineralogy and Geology. 285 lax can not be determined; Mr. Dawkins has, therefore, named it provis- ymnopsis Rheticus. In conclusion, he traced the ran: ials in space and time, showing that, of the six families Geological Society, where the description of the specimen was read, the greatest possible interest was excited; and, although there may be a — | Scientific Intelligence. “The rc a that may be drawn from this general survey of the phenomen 1. That shaink. are 213 species common to the uppermost part of the a Lias and the Oolite. The break is by no means complete. 2. That progressively, from the lowest to the highest Oolitic forma- tions, large percenta ages of species pass upward without any approach to a total break either in the whole or in individual Groups, excepting in the instance of the Cephalopoda of the Inferior and the oli 3. That species often disappear from an jnctadbadintie formation to re- appear in a higher one, and the principle of migration and return is thus pea yan ae each s cha etorized its own fossils, disappear, tone saunas of Cheltenham _ cept the 1a8, anparenty as rap cag as if it formed i i late: Sue i overlapped the Fuller's Earth, passes across the Inferior Oolite, a0 turn seems to lie on the U per Lias with a ee as perfect as if 1 no formation anywhere in the nei borhood came between them. In sands, ban -plants, and beds of coal, occur in such a manner as to leave no doubt of the presence of terrestrial surfaces on which the plants grew) and all these phenomena lead to the conclusion that various considerable oscillations of level took place in the British area during the deposition of the strata both of the Inferior Oolite and of the formations that im- rock are both absent, sad the Oxford clay was pointed out to me » by Mr. Howell, — directly and ggoonste quite comformably on _ great ite. fragmentary character of the Portland rocks is ¢ all. eae ie probable that the Seer of level that these phenomeua indi- ace msl be intima — — with the loss of old, and the appear — ance W, species in ; for it is certain inthat ee conformity, case of digas Great Oo Oolite lying on the Upper Lias, is often 4e is in pertes-p roof of direct aco and it 1s Mineralogy and Geology. 287 e ) strata are very different in magnitude from those of the Paleozoic age mity.”? r. Ramsay, in his address, next considers the Purbeck and Wealden Strata, his remarks on which he commences as follows: “We now come toa period in the geological history of the British marin zoic rocks in which, though not accompani parent physical disturbance, the break in the succession of species 21. On the Permian Rocks of the Northwest of England, and their .B., ete., and Pro- or R. Harkvuss, F.R.S., F.G.S.—In this paper the authors propounded a @ E a =) ms Ps) oS Q a bad [es] B °o 4 . > ~) B or a o ra iss) c= E MD 2 B. n -*~ ° s a o ~ conformably united with the Magnesian Limestone, or its equivalent, and form the natural upper limit of the Paleozoic deposits. They affirmed that thus a tripartite arrangement of the Permian rocks holds good in rla to exist in the Permian deposits of Germany and Russia, thus proving the applicability of the term Dyas to this group of rocks. e difference in lithological details of the Permian rocks of the north- West of England from those on the opposite side of the Pennine chain, Was next adverted to; and it was observed that, with so vast a dissimi- ny et are, however, somewhat comparable to the relations of the Lower and aad idovery rocks to each other, or to the variations in the subdivisions of Magnesian limestone, which were formed during minor oscillations of level. 288 Scientific Intelligence. The discovery, by Professor Harkness, in the central member of this siliceous group in Westmoreland, of numerous fossi plants identical with the species of the Kupferschiefer in Germany, and in the Marl- slate of the Magnesian Limestone of Durham, was given as a strong proof of the correctness of the authors’ conclusion The ep eo scarcity of igneous rocks, and the evidence of ners ful chemical action, in the Permian strata of uct is contrasted w their eaulenne in deposits of that age in Ger ; but proofs are nevertheless brought forward to show that the hentai of Cumberland and Lancashire was formed in the early accumulation of the Permian deposits. In describing i in detail the different members of the Permian group of the northwest of En land, the authors define the ae and upward tain bands of salearonss breccia (the “ brockrum > of the praetic whic oceur in the central portion of the series, contain much magnesia, the lower breccias, 00 of the same mountain-limestone fragments, ie no trace of it; nor is it to be detected in the upper member, or St. Bee Sandstone.—Phil. Mag., [4], xxvii, 542. 22. On the Reptiliferous Rocks and Footprint wig _ - ron of Scotland; by Professor Harkness, F.R.SS. L. he author showed ome ‘the Poort sandstones of Rossshire ase the upper rtion of the Fed Sandstone formation, and that the strata em- raced in a line - section from the Nigg to Cambus Shandwick, from above the gneiss to the foot-print sandstones of Tarbet-ness inclusive, are on throughout, and are referable to each of the three divisions of the d Red Sandstone— e—namely, the conglomerates and yellow genie alent of the Caithness flags—containing Osteolepis, Coccosteus, and Acan- thodes, and thus referable to the Middle Old Red; thirdly, conformable strata, consisting of conglomerates, and foot- bearing and other sandstones, er Botany and Zoology. 289 of the richest copper mines of the world—those of Aroa, to which an i is now making a railroad, sixty miles in length, ten of which have already been finished. The soil is of extreme fertility, and mahogany and other precious woods abound.—Reader, No. 74, May 28, 1864 try could be obtained. The author described each of these sections in detail, giving lists of the fossils found in the different beds, which proved them to be of Upper Silurian age; and he further considered that they conglomerate of Lower Carboniferous age, while trap-rocks occur on the nd south.— Z. EZ. and D. Phil. Mag., [4], xxviii, 74. Ill. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 1, New Scirpi of the Northern United States—Among the species which, by continued research, are one by one added to the Flora of the Northern United States, are a few Scirpee, to which we may here call attention, The most conspicuous addition is that of a tall Scirpus of the trigueter section, which was last year discovered by Mr. A. Commons and Mr. Wm. M. Canby, on the eastern shore of Maryland, and which has been named S$. Canbyi. It is as tall a species as S. Olneyi, but has its radi- cal leaf remarkably developed, as also the involucral one, which appar- ently continues the stem; and the spikes, which are half an inch long, are all on long and slender rays, which com pairs from the nodes a 7) rhachis, from the axils of bracts or involucels. The character Superans desinente; umbella sessili dichotomo-composita ; umbellulis S€pissime biradiatis involucellatis, radiis omnibus elongatis plerisque mo- ‘ostachyis; spicis oblongis ; squamis laxe imbricatis oblongo-ovatis acuti- sculis dorso virid i ibus late scarios im paullo superantibus. Jour. Sci.—Srconp Sexis, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 113.—Seprt., 1864, 37 290 Scientific Intelligence. : Two or three years ago we identified Scirpus pauciflorus in the North- ern States, on occasion of its being sent from the northern part of Illinois by Dr. George Vasey. We then ascertained that it had long before been founded with the very distinct S. planifolius, e have this summer re- ceived from another part of our northern frontier, viz: from the vicinity of Buffalo, New York, still another Scirpus of this group; one whic may be — and we trust definitively, distinguished by the following diagnosi — us —— (sp. nov.): folio e vagina suprema involuto-fili- form pk pi m br reviori, caeteris brevissimis vel subnullis; squa rantibus : the plains between — and Williamsville, Sam York, Hon. George W. Clinton, June, 1864.—The hypog ogynous bristles a are perhaps rather g hairs than in S. pla- w t acc y pointless scales of the spike; the midrib or keel, instead of projecting into a cusp as in S. planifolius, vanishing quite below the blunt and sea- rious apex of the scale. In naming this species after its fennel 7” welcome back, with this gift in his hands, a deserter of thirty years from the botanical ranks, into which he enlisted in youth, and from which he was led away by the demands of an exacting profession. And we con- fidently wish him a success worthy of his name and lineage in his laud- able endeavors to promote a knowledge of the botany, and to complete the public rahe of his gic — e. Scirpus csprrosus, L.; a subalpine species, which Dr. Pitcher, however, had collected re pte outlet of Lake Superior, and we had ourselves met with on the higher mountains of North Carolina, has this year been detected at Ringwood, _in the northern part of the State of Ulinois, far distant from any mountai ELzocuaris simpLex, Torr., has to he added to the Flora of the Northern States, having been detected by Mr. Wm. M. Canby, in 1863, on the Eastern Shore of Ma aryland. Eveocuaris rosretiara, Torr., has been af pea detected in the she ound. The other part, which will be yet larger, is dev * the a rbiacee ; and a iculus of it, containing the genes fiu- rbia, was issued in the year 1862. The volume now before us con- stg eo te rt in his war ae seat also from Michigan, and that he takes it to Ey Botany and Zoology. 291 ocky Mountains and upon them he was gleaning after Drummond, who left nothing for his successor to discover, But on _ the western side, and on Vancouver’s Island, he found much that was ‘Bovel and interesting. While publishing the new species now brought to light, Mr. Mitten also revises the collections of Drummond, both the Northern and the Southern Mosses, and characterizes a goodly number species which had remained obscure and. undistributed, or had been confused with others. Again, others are descri rom Bourgeau’s, Coulter's, Fendler’s, and Wright’s collections. A good set of the dupli- ¢ates of Lyall’s and Bourgeau’s muscological collections, sent to this country, has been placed in the hands of Mr. Sullivant. er 4. Icones Muscovum ; y Wm. 8. Suiiivan —Weare able to announce that this, the most exquisite of all illustrated bryological works, has been punted, and is about to be issued forms an imperial 8vo volume, G. A. G _ 5. On the Currant Worm of Ann Arbor, Michigan; by Prof. A, — Wivcnet, (Condensed from an article in the Detroit Free Press of July 9, 1864.)—This “currant worm,” is the larve of a Hymenopter of the ‘enus Selandria, and is named Selandria Ribis by Prof, Winchell. It ___Was observed by him last summer. This summer it has been still more abundant, and has, in places, completely denuded the red currant bush of its foliage, doing it considerable injury, though for the present year ‘the crop of fruit does not seem materially deteriorated. @ worm was first seen, May 23. Individuals were then about one- fourth of an inch in length, and had just begun to depredate upon that Part of the foliage nearest the ground. They devoured rapidly the whole -_lssue of the leaf, leaving only the thicker part of the nerves, and move ‘from leaf to leaf, gradually extending their ravages toward the summits ‘he stems. Proceeds one, two or more short, stiff hairs. Number of segments of the ody 14 (including head and tail), of which the 2d and 12th, are’ yel- ‘owish green. The 2d, 3d and 4th segments are furnished each with a t of feet; the 5th is short and without feet; the 6th, 7th, Sth, 9th, and 11th with short, extensile prolegs—that is, fleshy protuberances, be used as legs; 12th and 13th, segments without legs. 292 Scientific Intelligence. spells of activity were occasioned by the presence of a female insect about yellow except the head and wings, while the male has, in addition, con- siderable black upon the back. were visible—the pulsating dorsal vessel, the intestine, the tracheary or breathing system, the mandibles, the feet, ete.; and the animal moved in its nidus, On the fourth day the em ryo escaped from the egg and began to eat. This is the most rapid embryonic development I have ever witnessed. é When the larve first eseapes, it is whitish, and one-tenth of an inch in length. It beeomes one-third larger in twenty-four hours, and attains full growth by the 25th of June. The brood then begins to moult and descend into the soil as before. In this situation it probably remains until the succeeding spring. he following is then a summary of its history: : May 17th, first brood of flies appear from larves or worms which went into the soil the previous summer. May 2ist, first brood of larves, be coming noticeable about May 23d. June 3d, moulting and burrowing in progress. June 16th, appearance of second brood of flies. June 20th, second brood of larves escaping from egg. June 25th, flies disappear. June 28th, moulting and burrowing of second brood. Incubation of ovum three or four days; time to moulting and burrow- life-time of fly ing eight days; time in burrow, first brood, thirteen days; nine days. - orilla—Dr. Avzoux Botany and Zoology. 293 casts “y great perfection of the following parts in the structure of the animal :— worm, and called it Distoma Ca but Dr. Cobbold, who is especially n the science of intestinal worms, states that it is the Distoma : hematobium, and that the disease is the same that is well known in Parts degraded, are attributed by Mr. Lavoeat to the several cephalic segments considered 48 vertebra.—Les Mondes, May 26. 9%. Marine Crustaceans in freshwater lakes of Norway.—G. O. Sars (son of Prof, Sars) has detected in. one of the freshwater lakes of Nor- > & red Copepod, the salt-water species Harpacticus chelifer of Lillje- i the Mysis rel the sea, in the Post-tertiary period, and that they have i Gammarus (probably 294 Scientific Intelligence. found in Lakes Baikal and ee ; and _ also is fects, by Loven as originally marine.—Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., [3 nx 10. Hymenoptera.—the following oil on American Lismenpter by E. T. Gn kESsuN have been published in the course e two past in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society “7 vThleaeeaie Proceedings for June 1863, On a new species of Massaris ; for July 1863, List of th e WV. American species of Bombus and Avathus ; for Nov. 1863, On the Vv. American species of the genus Nomada ; for Feb. 1864, On the N. American species of several sead of Apidae ; for April 1864, yresiptone of North American Hymenopiera—Apide. 1] unculus.— At the meeting of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, of March 15th, Mr. Cassin called attention to the collee- tion of birds presented by the Smithsonian Institution, and particularly referred to several species of great rarity and scientific value. The @ specimens are aaa to a extant. if "19. Note on the tees Duck ; by Mr. Hitt. (Proc. ee Nat. Sel. geese,” 13. The Elements of fom Anatomy, by Taomas Henry imag F.R.S., Prof. Nat. Hist. “Hiss: School °f ee | and Prof. of luscoida, and the latter into Fetes es si Penrice oe with an : it more feeling than philosophy, spl the subdivision of Radiates = Cuvier, a PE ee of it,) is eet. up—part (t « oeaonsin pone Brun called the Calenterala, ‘m ~ big Bolted. with the Scolecida to. make | ‘ a | | | eS SS - _ The preface states that it is the intention of the author to make this ork the first of a series—to be followed by a second “On Man and the ther Primates ;” a third on the remaining Mammalia, and others,—so as eventually to bring out “a comprehensive, though condensed, systematic ” 14. Notice of the Megatherium Cuvieri, the giant fossil Ground-Sloth f South America, presented to the University of Rochester by Hiram ibley, Esq. 34 pp., 4to—The Geological Cabinet of the Rochester Papers of Van Beneden on the fauna of the Belgian coast. It treats de- Et, and in part embryologically, of many of the species there und, ; IV. ASTRONOMY. - Astronomy, — 295. ’ 296 Scientific Intelligence. the noise and bustle of the street, cars, é&c., was most plainly distinguish- able) and then died out. n the annexed diagram it seemed to appear first at point A. The tail, which remained two or three seconds in view, had the a southwest of Boston, and as the view I had was in a direction opposite to that of Hartford from Boston, and taking into account the angle of elevation as shown by the height of the building near me, I think this body must have been a very large one and at a very great distance. 2. List of Radiant Points of Shooting Stars ; by Professor Hz1s.— This paper consists of a list of all the radiant points of shooting stars ob- v n orded during eleven years before 1860, at other times of the year than in August, November, and December. They are arranged as general radiant points of shooting stars, or as general centres of ema- > . . . > 5 nation of shooting stars, in successive half-months of the year from Jan- fair sequel to his discovery of a star-shower existing on the 10th of thoroughly examined.—Proc. uly 9. 3. w Comet.—Mr. Tempe. discovered a new comet on the 5th of July, having the appeurance of a diffused nebulosity of some 3’ or 4’ in diameter. This comet was seen by Mr. Respighi at Bologna, on the 6th, and by Prof. F. Karlinski of the Cracow Observatory, on the 11th, neat _ Mr. Valz gives the following approximate elements. Passage 0’ helion Sept. 7-05, mean time at Marseilles; dist. of perihelion 1°8235 long. of perihelion 289°'37; R.A, 66°-56; inclination 1°45; movement retrograde. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 297 Vv. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, Quignon has given seat interest to eiploatiois at that place. At the meeting of the Academy of Sciences of July 18th, Mr. de ee nted the results of new discoveries of human remains in co mu- nications from Mr. Boucher de Perthes. From these oorivhinnieatlols it appears that on the 24th of April last, Boucher de Perthes, along with Dr. Dubois, physician of the Hotel-Dieu at Abbeville, found, in a yellow- ish-brown bed to e right of the quarry, a portion of a a uman sacrum, fragments of tee bones, some of which were parts of a cranium, and a human molar tooth. On the Ist of May, they sbtatned's on further ae ging, three small fragments of a cranium and a part of a tooth. On th 12th of May, Mr. Boucher de Perthes was joined by Mr. H. Duy They procured from the brownish-yellow bed, at a depth of six to seven feet, portions of a cranium. On the 11th of May, besides fragments of bones, a human jaw-bone was turned out, which was perfect excepting the extremity of the right enu mies of specimens of bones collected amounts to 200, and they were all found within an extent of about 130 feet. Part are of animals, @ catalogue of which is soon ves re made out. The human pict ap- Parently indicate a very small race of men.—Les Mondes, July 2 teroceanic canal across she Isthmus between the two y de 1cas,— Ax. Jour. Sct.—Secoxp ND SERIES, VoL. i. XXXVI, Ni oO. 5 ae 1964, 38 298 _ Miscellaneous Intelligence. mann, King, and Gardner, (referred to on p. 258). The party had made opinions, based on all the information we had been able to obtain with ; high lake and Visalia trail, and probably only from that direction. Mr. King started about the middle of July to attempt to reach them, an enterprise t may seem strange that this fact should have remained undiscovered 80 long. But it must be remembered that the region is an inconceivably rough and difficult one to reach, and that we have never been able to learn that it h isi i Journal, “that it contained some of the loftiest and most extensive mons ___ tain groups of the Sierra.” To make the statement more correct, it DOW appears that the words “some of” should be omitted. * SPP eS ee et - - Miscellaneous Intelligence. 299 Bombyx Roylei—has been introduced into France. The three before in- troduced are the ZB. mylitha Fabr., from Bengal, B. Pernit Guerin-Méne- ville, from North China, and B. Yama-mai G.-M., from Japan. The new species is from the plateaus of the Himalaya, on the frontiers of Cash- mere. It lives on a thick-leaved oak, the Quercus incana. Guerin- Méneville states that the worm can be easily acclimated in central and tions for the care of the Yama-mai of Japan, published in Guerin- Meneville’s Revue de Sericiculture comparée (1863, p. 33), serve also for & new species.— Cosmos, Ap. 28. tained that this is owing to the diminished pressure of the atmosphere on the Mexican plateau. It follows that cannon may serve as a kind of barometer for measuring altitudes— Les Mondes, July 7. per. from Maize—In the manufacture of paper from maize, for two days, at the end of which time they are separable into three parts: (1) the coarse rihs or veins, which serve, like hemp or flax, for tive oxyd of d afterward, with care, 1 part of sulphuric acid. Sa ns a wood by means of a brush 4ve seconds in a solution of oxalic acid (1 of acid to 100 of water) ; next, after washing it, it is put in a vessel containing a solution of gallic acid (10 grains of acid to 300 of distilled water): and finally washed again and dried. The process should be carried forward with care and prompt- ‘Ness, that any accidental discoloration of the paper may be avoided.— ‘Cosmos, March 24. , M. 2 : 9. The ravages of Insects a cause of their destruction.—It is well known that after ia have for 5 or 6 years —, their en on the trees of a region, they often suddenly disappear, and have no fu Teturn again for two or three or more years to come. It has been shown 300 Miscellaneous Intelligence. | that the destruction is sometimes at least a result of their numbers. The larves or wor —Mr. Stahl gives solidity to friable specimens, even if of loose material like a mould in sand of a shell or bone, by running in a mixture of resin and spermaceti melted together.—Les Mondes, May 26. 11. Elevation of Lake Geneva above the sea.—The mean level of Lake * Geneva has been determined, by levelling along the railroads here terml- nating, to be 372°362 meters above the mean level of the Mediterranean, and 371-562 meters above the mean level of the ocean.—Les es, ay 26, from the Arch. Sci. Phys. de Genéve, Jan., 1864. 12. Investigations in Egypt.—A legacy of 20,000 francs has been be- queathed to the French Academy of Sciences by Miss A. Letellier, which, under the name of the “Savigny Foundation,” is to supply young 200 ogists with the necessary means of continuing Savigny’s investigations m Egypt and Syria.— The Reader, June 25. : 13. Isthmus of Suez.—The canal, which has for some time been in construction, from Ismailia to Port Said, has been completed, and fresh water is now furnished across the line of the desert, as well as at this important port. : 14. Making of Oases.—Mr. Martins, in an address at one of the Soirées scientifiques of the Sorbonne, gives a glowing account of the effect over the African desert, through French enterprise, in sinking Artesian wells. He predicts the time when immense lines of railways shall run from the Mediterranean to Senegal, and from Senegal to the Red Sea; and whea Suez, with its finished canal, shall become “le foyer des relations avec la feconde Afrique, le boulevard de toutes les mers, la route de tous les 15. Acclimation of English Birds in Australia.—The Thrush, Black- bird, Skylark, Starling, Chaffinch, various Sparrows, and the Wild Duck, are already domesticated in Australia through the efforts of the Acclima- tization Society of Victoria. Great success has also attended the Society ’s efforts to introduce good fresh-water fish into the rivers, and it is expect that the Salmon will soon be naturalized in Tasmania. al 16. Dedication of the Museum of the Boston Society of Natu a History.—The new building, recently erected at Boston for the Natur History Scciety, was dedicated on the 2nd of June last. The —_— is an elegant and imposing structure of granite, brick and freestone, the classic style of architecture with Corinthian pilastres, nearly square in outline. At the centre of the east front there is a grand doorway of granite, supported by massive buttresses, o i _ to be placed life-sized figures of Miscellaneous Intelligence. 301 of January, 1865. The building is to be of brick. Its regula- | be similar to those of the last London exhibition. Articles are to be received between the Ist of October and 12th of December, 1864, 18. British Association—The next meeting of the British Associa- tion, to be held at Bath, will open on Wednesday, the 14th of Septem- Sir Charles Lyell is the President for the year. 19. Sir Charles Lyell—Sir Charles Lyell, geologist, has been made a onet, under the title of Sir Charles Lyell, Baronet of Kinnordy, in the county of Forfar. 20. Prize to Mr. Ruhmkorff.—The prize of 50,000 franes, offered by the Emperor Napoleon for the most useful application of electricity, has been awarded to Mr. Ruhmkorff for his induction coil. The king of* Hanover, having heard of the award, forwarded to Mr. Ruhmkorff a large gold medal “ pour le mérite.”— Reader, July 9. 21. Prize to Mr. Sorel_—The prize founded by the Marquis d’Argen- teuil for the most useful discovery for the perfecting of French industry, has been awarded to Mr. Sorel, the inventor of the process of the “ zine- ae of iron,” known under the name of galvanizing iron.—Les Mondes, ay 26 Monday tions wi F é Ba Nal yl me he a tee anak 22, Alger’s Cabinet of Minerals for sale.—The mineral cabinet of the i late Francis Alger is one of the best in the country, and will be a valu- 3 acquision to any institution desiring a first rate collection. It can : be examined at the former residence of Mr. Alger, Fourth street, Boston. For terms, which it is stated will be low, reference should be made to SE Sewall, or Francis Alger, administrators of Mr. Alger’s estate. OBITUARY, Evan Puen, Ph.D., F.0.S., President of the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania, died at Bellefont, Pa., April 29, 1864, aged 36. r. Pugh was one of the most able scientific men of this country. A blacksmith’s apprentice at the age of nineteen, he bought the residue of his time, supported himself for one year at the manual labor Seminary at Whitestown, N, Y., and after teaching a private school for boys in Ox- Pa., his native place, for about two years, he went to Europe where he spent four years in the universities of Leipsic, Gottingen and Heidel- and in Paris, a most diligent and successful student of natural and Mathematical science. At Gdttingen he honorably sustained the examin- ations for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. : From the outset, his mind had been attracted toward agricultural Science and his studies shaped themselves more and more toward his fu- ture career, though he found time to study, as he had the capacity to ‘Master, the highest mathematics. Before leaving Paris he addressed to Mr. J. B. Lawes the distinguished English agriculturist, so well known by the numerous and valuable researches carried on at his estate of Roth- se near London. the question, then so t _ &nd Ville, as to the assimilability of free nitrogen by vegetation. Mr. _ Lawes received this proposition favorably and signified his willingness to have the research carried on in his laboratory and to defray * Sacnlt, _ Provided Dr. Pugh could satisfy him of his ability to estimate nitrogen “With a certain aoe of sie Dr. Pugh repaired to Rothamstead, 302 Miscellaneous Intelligence. modifying his devices until he demonstrated, beyond any reasonable doubt, that Ville, and the Commission of the French Academy which reported fav ia on his researches, were wrong, ee Boussingault right. Alt r. Lawes was anxious to retain Dr. Pugh in his laboratory ata pa remuneration, and notwithstanding the latter was passion- sel fond of Ser pnd the fields of scientific research, he returned home n the autumn of 1859, after an absence of six years, to assume the pres- less of the Sedeomene College of Pennsylvania which had been offered *him. He entered at once upon his new duties with characteristic energy and intelligence. He had visited and carefully — the chief agri- cultural academies and schools of Europe, and his idea of what an Amer- ican eae gi college should be was as definite as it was comprehen- sive and ju Fora little more than five years, Dr. Pugh labored untiringly in estab- lishing his college on a broad and enduring basis, securing funds, plan- ning and superintending the erection of buildin ngs, and besides taking the eneral guidance of the institution, himself giving a in scientific pple chemistry, mineralogy and geology. In the midst of his heavy duties still heavier cares, he continued vigorous ad with every prom- ise “a oo usefulness until one week previous to his unexpected death. ugh’s career as a scientific investigator — 1 when he was a stu- ee ‘with unusual promise; but was suspen n his assuming th presidency of an unformed and struggling Snstitation, rashnonaly ‘never to be resumed. While in Europe Dr. Pugh made the investigations that form the sub- jects of his published contributions to science. They are principally the following, viz: so nes args identisch mit Pikraminsdéure, Journal fir Prakt, Chemie, Miscellaneous Chemical forme, eee eae: Gottingen, 1856. On a new meth e Acid, Quart. Jour. Chem. Soc., xii, 35; and On the Sources of ye Nitrogen of Vopitation with outa ri Matic to the question, whether 3 nts assimilate fre or uncombined Nitrogen, Phil. Trans., ii, 1861, 150 a esi Fi ae 3 The last mentioned investigation was made in connection with Messrs. hh and Gilbert; but Dr. Pugh’s share in the work was by no means sults are in a high degree satisfactory. He did not merely con conclusions and refute the errors of Ville, but by i careful bubaati gation of collateral questions demonstrated a rare degree talent i in handling a scientific questio _ The Agricultural College of Pa., the first institution Sa pee kind estab- in this country, was attaining a high degree of su and prese ness, as a result of the rare combination of scientific ators practical know: oe with administrative energy which characterized its lamented Presi- His sae he to Pennsylvania and to the nation which can- ea a ‘Avgzr, author of “ Alger’s Phillips’s Mineralogy,” died _ on he wiht Neer yuri og Bs hi inna aaa: ae Miscellaneous Bibliography. 303 VI. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1, Revie nu American Birds in the Museum of the Smithsonian In- stitution ; by 8. F. Barrv. Part I, North and Middle America. Shee 1,2 an ’3 48 pp., 8vo; to be scinued: Smithsonian Mindellenesal 4, i h cal notes, of the species in the Smithsonian Collections, it will include references. to 1 species exami anywhere by the author, rene a Mention, at the end of or families, of species not se der the term “ North America” is comprised all of America north of * the part south of this line to ihe continent of South America anaee with the West Indies. The references, in the first three sheets issued, are very complete, and the critical notes full and seuiyartied such as ans - expected from the accuracy and science of the aut e specimens of the Smithsonian Institution have a collected biely by the various government exploring expeditions or by speci gy this head will, as the author states, be one great object before him. ervations on the Terrestrial Pulmonifera of Maine, including a Catalogue of all ae — of Terrestrial = Fluviatile Mollusca known lo inhabit the Sta ; by Epwarp S. Mor 64 pp., 8vo, with numer- ese represent the she lls of a number of the ota Die and also, for many “of them, the Cae plate, and the lingual membrane with its denticles, besides, in a few cases, other details, such as magnified views the exterior surfaces of the shells, ete. w Yo ane 1864, ey asa ——— h sud with a cusibbe of 304 Miscellaneous Bibliography. . Abstracts of ing perigee Observations made at the Magnetical Observatory, Toronto, So t, during the years 1854 to 1859, inclusive. 186 pp. 4to. Toronto, An Giaentaty Text-book of the Microscope Bp a description of the meth- ods of preparing and ira ee objects, &c. ; yd: rirrits, M.D., F.L.8. 12mo. London, 1864 — Van Manual of the Metalloide; by James sont ms D., F.R.S., &c., Prof. Chem. Univ. Dublin. pp. viii, and 596. London silipar #4 Owen, F.R.S., &c. 15 pp., 4to, with 4 fitogs plated —From the ‘Trans actions of Societ Expeditions 4 the Glaciers; including an ascent of Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, Col du Géant, and Mont Buét; by a ee of the Thirty-Eighth Artists’, and Member ‘the A Alpine Club. London wth Central Alps, taclading the testo Oberland, and all Switzerland — ralaheocbbed of Monte Rosa and the Great St. Bern ard, with Lomba the adjoining pares of the Tyrol; by Joun Batt, M.R. LA, ‘Late President of the _ Alpine Club. Alpine guide e book e Dolomite ie Mountains Excursions through Tyrol, Carniola, and Friuli, in 1861, "1862, and 186 ; with a geological chapter and pictorial llastrations from origina rawings on ke spot ; “by Jostan Gi.pert and G, C. Caurc London, 64.—Longman 0. British Conchology ; or an account ss the Mollusca which now inhabit the rie Isles and the surrounding Seas. comprising the Brachiopoda, an sae from _ Family of Anomiide to that of Mactri ide; by Joun Guts Jerrrys. Londo 4—Van rst. The Stream of “bife on our globe: its Archives, Traditions, and Laws, as Te vealed by m s in Geology and Paleontology. A Sketch in “Untech- Soe its Progress and ng and Som by J. L. Mirroy, M.R.C Flora Fossile dell’ Etna; by Francesco Tornasene. 147 pp. 4to, with 10 plates. gee tologie Naturelle, ou Etude philosophique des étres; by M. FLouness. 3d fission Scfentifique dans ’Amerique du Sud, par le Dr. B. Scunerr. Large 870. Nowvelé Table Barometrique; par M. R. Rapav. Small pampblet in 4to- Sur la Viticulture fe sud-est de la France ; par Dr. J. Guyor. 1 vol. large Sy0- 4 pp. Paris. Imperi: UA abllerws der ‘ateeti nigtichen zoologisch-botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien. For the year 1863, Vol. xiii, 1336 pp. 8v0, with 25 plates. Acta Academie C. L-C. G. Nat atures Curiosorum, Vol. 30, 4to, with 19 plates. Dresden, 1864. sae von Mihren und ésterreichisch Schlesien a of Moravia and Austrian Silesia). Die Resultate der Hohen enmessungen in Mihren und 6. Schlesien, und eine Hahe enthaltend; verfasst von Carl Korist, Prof. am k. polytechn. Landesinstitute in Prag etc., und herausgegeben Vo n Werner- vereine chforschung von Mabhren und 6, Schlesien. 150 PP» ae 1 g ae et +} i Pe necen Tenney LJ | | - AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [SECOND SERIES:] Art. XXXI.—Heinrich Rose. WHEN a man who for more than the lifetime of one genera- enjoying by birth or position intercourse with men already dis- tinguished, able to join with and assist them in their researches, : Selves with others of even greater distinction in their individual departments. At Arcueil, Berthollet gathered about him the brightest names of the chemistry of his day; and Berlin was a Centre to which the fame of Humboldt attracted much of the _ Am. Jour. Soz—Seconp Series, Vor. XXXVIII, No. 114.—Nov., 1864, ge 9. — 306 Heinrich Rose. learning and genius of our own times. Humboldt himself is gone, and y. Buch, Ritter, Dirichlet, and now, too, Mitscherlich and Heinrich Rose. In what way then did Rose get the name which he has left? e was born on the 6th of August, 1795, in Berlin, where his father and grandfather were pharmaceutists and chemists. The grandfather is now best known as the discoverer of the fusible alloy called after him, Rose’s metal; his father, a man of considerable scientific reputation, died in the year 1807, in the days so dark for Prussia, leaving a widow and four young sons. nD city was besieged by the French under Gen. Rapp, and was near losing his life from the typhus which prevailed in the town. He served in the campaign of 1815, with his three brothers, and on his return remained in Berlin until the end of August in the following year. He was not a pupil of Hermstiidt, as has been asserted, but was engaged at this time in the laboratory of Klap- roth, as we learn from the discourse which he delivered before the Berlin Academy in memory of Berzelius. “T had the good fortune in my youth to assist the celebrated hus, I was able to compare his ways of operating with those of tered the pharmacy of Dr. Bidder; his leisure time was passed . . - \ - hi . mica. Here he remained two years. In December he was joined by Mitscherlich, who was already known to Berzelius in Berlin. In the spring of 1821, his brother, Gustav Rose, its compounds with ae | Heinrich Rose. 307 numerous audience, and gave him the opportunity of imparting ideas to numbers of young chemists who came to him from all parts of the world. His lectures were marked by their sim- plicity and their soundness. In referring the phenomena of chemistry to the views which are alike their cause and explana- tion, he avoided all theories built up in advance of the facts, The facts were stated in his lectures, with their explanation in the plainest words, and the experiments designed to illustrate them were made in the simplest way, and, if possible, without Seemed to be his aim to avoid distracting the attention by the complexity or elegance of the apparatus, and to familiarize his als assistan cau : to be brightened, he found the Professor busily employed after a =] et © ct me ® S ue. | = o ® a. a "S Toes et @ 3 5 b> a oD lecture in restoring to them their former dingy hue; re- h 308 Heinrich Rose. was over, he returned to the laboratory, and ever with a bright smile and kind greeting for the young men whom he found there at work. Beside the public instruction given by him as Professor, Rose was in the habit of receiving a few pupils into his private labo- ratory, and teaching them, partly himself, but chiefly through his assistant, the practical operations of analysis. ’ Without neglecting accuracy of execution, it was his principal care that analytical operations should be conducted upon cor- rect principles; and he always gave his personal attention to the selection of the most suitable course, and then followed the analysis in its progress with an interest which kept up that of his student. en a new subject was presented, the question was often asked, “ How will you do this?” The answer was listened to with patience and interest, and the sources of inac- curacy of the proposed method clearly and kindly pointed out, or a better one suggested. The number of his pupils was i we through his assistant, was not received without hesitation. one never made use of his students to perform the drudgery and ee ear ee Or ee Pagers ete GANG teh ae ee RROD Sr ee eee Heinrich Rose. 309 —— “undique latius Extenta visentur Lucrino a lacu.” The laboratory was in the house in which Rose had his pri- vate dwelling, and consisted of only three rooms: an ante-room filled with chemical preparations, the working laboratory, and a cabinet for the balances and other nice instruments. All fur- hace work, and the preparation of the reagents, was carried on in the cellar. Behind these was the auditorium, or lecture- In considering these writings, it must be remembered that they extend over a period of nearly fifty years. It is difficult to a: ncidents in the life of Rose, I am indebted to a Private communication from his brother, Professor Gustav Rose the distinguished i erystallograpber of Berlin, wi soil is shown, /irst, by its physical characters. Not only has it the fineness, color and veg- etable constitution which characterizes such soil, but we actually discover in it abundant remains of lacustrine shells, disseminated. hundreds of miles from the present limits of the lakes. If, among older formations, we are ermitted to infer the origin of e sediments from the nature of the included organisms, the €vidence from testaceous remains is not less conclusive as to hature of the prairie sediments. The lacustrine origin of the soil is shown, secondly, by the . necessary effect of geological changes of level which are gener- Mie admitted to have taken place. From the head of die Even the increased dlevation se te on the position of ol ills of Niagara at Queenston—that is to say, the level of lake Erie at the time when the falls began to excavate their great Hall, York, 348, 383; Lyell, 6 Sigg in N. A. Vi. Visi 2, Fae: i862 Desor, Fete ee Whit Whitney's Rep. L. Sup., 204, 212, » 253; Hubbard, Mich. Geol. Rep., 1840, p- 102; Whittlesey, inks Journal, ¥, 31; Logan, oe a 910, é&e. * 834 A. Winchell on the Prairies of the Mississippi Valley. gorge—setting back through the chain of the lakes, would cause a rise in lake Michigan, above its present level, of 25 feet, This small elevation of Jake Michigan would probably open an outlet toward the Illinois river, But it is highly probable that the escarpment at Queenston, by extending further north, attained, in consequen much higher level, of which we have equally the indisputable records. We need but refer to the well known proofs of aque- ous erosion along the shores of the lakes, extending from their present levels to the altitude of 200 and 300 feet. Mark them in the escarpments of the south shore of lake Erie; in the lake ridges of Ohio and Michigan;* in the caverns and arches and purgatories of Mackinac island*—especially in the side of “Sugar .” whose base is now inland and elevated 150 feet above the surface of the water. Whatever may have been the barrier which dammed the waters to these heights, the evidences of their former presence are incontestable. But the moment we grant this ancient level to the waters, they inevitably escape from us toward the south, through the valleys of the Illinois and Mis- sissippi rivers.* Turning our attention in this direction we find corro large volume of water. At Lamont, this valley is distinct, with its bounding bluffs and its “ pot holes” worn in the solid rock of the ancient river bed. But with the waters of lake Michigan standing one or two hundred feet above their present level, how much of the region south and west of Chicago must have been submerged? ‘The ancient lake must have reached its arms into Towa, northern Indiana and southwestern Michigan. These, the - writer is convinced, were the relative levels of the land and water _ * We are aware that Col. Whittlesey has attributed the higher ridges to a sub- marine origin, and that Sir Charles Lyell has advanced the same opinion in refer- _ence to the ridges of lake Ontario. In regard to the latter, it will be remembe that lake Ontario is 330 feet lower than lake Erie, and may easily be surrounded found to enclose lacustrine shells. To say the least, even if we do not insist upon r custri igin of the higher ridges, the lower ones, which blend with the ter establish a former altitude of the lakes which is quite 5 * Foster and Whitney, Rep. L. Sup, ii, pp. 164-6; Winchell, Mich. Geol. Rep» the earlier portion of the gorge of the Niagara was undergoing excavation a large portion of the waters of the lakes was being drained through the val- ley of the Illinois river, the force and of erosion must have been materially di- nished below the present standard by the diminution of the volume of water. A. Winchell on the Prairies of the Mississippi Valley. 335 which they saw the proofs had nothing to do with the formation | of the prairie soil.* sp The aqueous origin of the soil of the northwestern prairies a was intimated by George Jones in 1836,’ who compares the prairies and barrens of Illinois to the marshes, dykes and sand flats of Holland. Lesquereux, in 1856," ascribed the general _ formation of prairies to water, and in 1861” reaffirmed his posi- tion in reference to the prairies of the Mississippi valley. Prof. J. D. Whitney has distinctly asserted a lacustrine origin for the prairies of the northwest,” and Dr. J. 8. Newberry ” has recog- nized the evidences of a former efflux of the lake waters over the Kankakee ridge in northern Illinois. The indications, in- deed, seem to be sufficiently patent to induce the genere of living geologists to the doctrine of the lacustrine origin of the soil of the prairies. a 2. Lacustrine sediments inclose but few living germs. _ OF the seeds which find their way yo a body of fresh water, _ * This Journal, xxiv, 187. Ib., xxvi, 98. < = 2. Bete or the esse ete he was the first to assert the cota : the Alabama prairies and to maintain it—even in opposition to views eg by yume i his Jou XXxili, p. 225. ‘es “4 Bullet. on Nat. Sti Neuchatel. 11 See 2d Geol. Rep. Ark. 4, Hall’s Geol. of Iowa, i, p.25. a Proce. Bost, Soc. Nat. "Hist, vol. ix, May, 1862. * 336 A. Winchell on the Prairies of the Mississippi Valley. 3. Diluvial deposits, on the contrary, are found everywhere re- plete with living germs. which the sudden appearance of unwonted species occurs. 1st. When a change is produced in the physical condition of n = me 5 pom) [a o; my Qs ie) be] 3 Qu 4 ba] cf a oe to ag 122] o E po ° o pS ca o = es germs must have previously existed in the soil. 2d. When a change is produced in the chemical nature of the soil. Illustrations are familiar to every agriculturist. How pes must have lain dormant in the soil at a greater or A. Winchell on the Prairies of the Mississippi Valley. 337 to their growth. It can hardly be doubted that the germs ex- isted in the soil, ready to germinate whenever free sunlight, warmth and atmospheric air should be permitted to rouse their latent vital energy. the same nature is the recurrence of par- ticular forest growths upon the same soil. Not unfrequently the Second growth is of a very different nature from the first. In the “old fields” of Virginia and other southern states, the soil, cleared originally of deciduous trees, and then abandoned, after years of continuous cropping, sends up a growth of pines instead _ Of deciduous trees. Many similar examples will suggest them- Ve selves to the mind of the reader. 4. The living germs of the diluvial deposits were buried during the glacial epoch. Whence come the germs of that vegetation which is every- Where springing up in situations to which recent seeds could not have been distributed? This question has agitated the mind of many an inquirer who would have shrunk from the proposition which we here venture to enunciate. Let us examine the acts, will greatly increase the number. Yet these plants, probably older than the Claiborne sands, show, according to Lesquereux, : t material, and we may fairly presume that further investigations “the greatest affinity with species of our own ime.” From ner beds of the middle or earlier Tertiary, we have still other wos, Acorus calamus.” It is true that Dr. D. D. Owen has assigned the deposit containing these remains to the Quaternary _“ This Journal, [2], xxvii, 363. ® This Journal, [2], xxvii, 364. AM. Jour. Sc1.—Szconp Szrres, Vor. XXXVII, No. 114—Nov., 1864. 43 338 A. Winchell on the Prairies of the Mississippi Valley. period; but as their position is 120 feet below the ferruginous sands containing Megalonyx Jeffersoni, and as the nature of these species is incompatible with such a climate as we universally as- sociate with the glacial epoch, it is quite likely this assemblage of vegetable remains represents the general nature of the arboreal flora in existence near the close of the Tertiary period. Although our positive knowledge of the vegetation of the period immediately preceding the advent of the reign of ice is confessedly meagre, it is certain that all the facts in our posses- sion point to close specific correspondence with the modern veg- etation of the same regions—modified certainly by the fact that, even in the latest Tertiary, the climate was considerably warmer than in the same latitudes at the present day. (2.) The general eflect of the events which ushered in and marked the progress of the reign of ice was, to destroy the veg- egation flourishing over all the northern portion of the continent and mingle its forms with the cubic miles of debris detached from the underlying rocks. We find the trunks and limbs of trees buried 50 and 100 feet deep in this diluvial rubbish. It is im- ossible that myriads of vegetable germs should not also have een stored away. The drift deposits became the vast granery in which nature preserved her store of seeds through the long rigors of a geological winter. (3.) But what evidences have we that the seeds of plants are capable of retaining their vitality through a geological period? (a.) The ordinary process of destruction of vegetable tissues is merely an oxydation of the carbon and hydrogen entering into their constitution. It is seriously doubted whether the requisite conditions for such oxydation exist at considerable depths in the soil. It is stated that the piles sustaining the Lon- tained on piles driven 650 years ago, and they are yet perfectly Cedar, (Thuja occidentalis), bearing scarcely a trace of the wors ae Sent agencies upon them. Indeed it is known that A, Winchell on the Prairies of the Mississippi Valley. 339 asserted, and generally believed, that wheat is now growing in t 7 _ eircumstances alledged is not wholly incredible. It is further a England, which was derived from grains folded in the wrappings 340 A. Winchell on the Prairies of the Mississippi Valley. of Egyptian mummies, where they must have lain for two or three thousand years. Prof. Gray does not fully credit the ac- count, but Dr. Carpenter, the eminent physiologist, gives it his full endorsement. Dr. Carpenter even goes so far as to give g S & ve 3 2. oO mM ee 5 $9 oO E. ie S ; ne eep in the earth, not by human agency, but bv some geological — change, it is impossible to say how long anteriorly to the ecrea- tion of man they may have been produced and buried, as in the following curious instance: Some well-diggers in a town on the Penobscot river, in the state of Maine, about 40 miles from the sea, came, at the depth of about 20 feet, upon a stratum of sand. This strongly excited their curiosity and interest, from the eit cumstance that no similar sand was to be found anywhere in the neighborhood, and that none like it was nearer than the ‘Bea- ach. As it was drawn up from the well it was placed in a pile by itself, an unwillingness having been felt to mix it with the stones and gravel which were also drawn up. But when the work was about to be finished, and the pile of stones and gravel to be removed, it was necessary also to remove the sand e . only of the same nature as others less critically noted, which daily pass before our eyes, in the upspringing of vegetable forms from the diluvial materials thrown out of wells, cellars and other excavations. . Such a fact, so striking and so circumstantially aipaters i See * Carpenter's Elements of Physiology, Am. ed., p. 41. A. Winchell on the Prairies of the Mississippi Valley. 341 More superficial portions of the drift deposit had yielded to the destructive agencies of a geological period, the action of the sea would have uncovered and brought to light some of the more deeply seated and better protected seeds. If, then, our reason- mgs are correct, returning spring time vivified into activity. the myriads of germs stored away by Nature from before the reign of ice; and the continent was again clothed with those forms of verdure which had adorned it at the close of the Ter- tary period. But at this moment in the world’s history, the re- he bosom’ of the slime no plant could start, for the germ was not there. From beneath the load of slime, in the diluvial de- sane below, no plant could raise its head, for it was sealed rmetically from air and light and warmth. A shining coat of ergence of the continent, we have not overlooked Darwin's experi- ments recorded ip th r a # Chronicle for May 26th, 1855. While the experiments show a w er of resistin destructive influence : ts onde: Sea water, it is still apparent that the conditions of the experiments were such as _ to — no light on the fate of seeds buried deeply in a submarine sand bed. It will be remembered further, that the filtration of sea water through a mass of sand, deprives it of its saltness, so that this agency in the destruction of vegetable germs poy in a submarine soil a great extent eli Compare Proceedings Bos, Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. iii, pp. 92, 103. * Test against it, but it is certain that all other theories are’ ul- 342 A. Winchell on the Prairies of the Mississippi Valley. verdure clothed everywhere the more ancient surface of the rift; and here and there in the abandoned lake bottom, rose a knoll crowned with its emerald crest—an island perhaps in the former lake. Thus the prairies were at first a naked and herb- less waste. . 6. The vegetation which finally appeared on the drained lacustrine areas was extra-limital, and was more likely to be herbaceous than arboreal, agencies, and especially the two more important ones, w effect the distribution of any except the smaller and lighter soil; an would be able to plant itself along the belt thus destined to be- come the “ barrens.” : hus the prairies were treeless because the grasses first gained foothold and then maintained it. The Indian, perhaps, made his appearance at this time, and formed an alliance with the grasses in their contest against the trees; and thus decided the question in favor of the grasses. : ‘This is our theory of the origin of the prairies, and the ence of trees from their surface. Fatal objections may > seg A, Winchell on the Prairies of the Mississippi Valley. 343 1. The old and popular belief that the treelessness of the prai- ries was caused by the annual burning of the grasses by the Indians,” is now generally admitted to be inadequate. west may have originated in extreme aridity of the atmosphere ™ —as others have from the highly saline character of the soil— but all our discussions have had reference to the prairies of the Mississippi valley. 4, A theory often urged is the considerable humidity of the soil of certain prairies,” and especially the wetness of the subsoil in contrast with the dryness of the soil during summer.” It is singular that such an opinion could be entertained when it is so well known that there is no situation so wet but certain trees will flourish on it—the willow, the cottonwood, the beach, the ash, the alder, the cypress, the tupelo, the water-oak, the tama- rack, the American arbor-vite or some other tree—some of them - delayed by the circumstance that neighboring forests are gener- t 5. Prof. extreme fineness of the prairie soil is the cause of the absence of trees; and the author of the article on “Plains,” in the New “ opted t Against this theory we see several weighty objections. Many 31. Th 'rof, Dana allude to the prairies of the F Geol ) America] has her t prairies and pampas?” See also Cooper, hson. Rep., aa: Ser am 1859; Lambert, Pacific R. R. Rep., p. 166. — * Atwater, this Journal, i, 116; Bourne, Jé., ii, 30; Lesquereux, 2d Ark. Geol. ep.; Western Monthly Magazine, Feb., 1836 : Bogelmann, this Journal, {2} xxxvi, 384. > Jowa Geol. Rep., vol. i, p. 24. 344 D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. sustenance exists. But the fatal objection to this theory, and all theories which look to the physical or chemical condition of the soil, or even to climatic peculiarities, for an explanation of the treeless character of the prairies, is discovered in the fact that trees will grow on them when once introduced—not water- ° loving trees exclusively, but evergreens, deciduous forest trees, and fruit trees—such as flourish in all the arable and habitable e fact alone militates fatally against the views advanced by Whit- ney as well as those of Engelmann, Bourne, Atwater and others, who have attributed the distinctive character of the northwestern prairies to an excessive humidity of the soil. University of Michigan, Aug. 30, 1864. Art. XXXIV.—On the Nebular Hypothesis; by DaviD TROWBRIDGE, A.M. ory of the subject first, and then the phenomena of Nature are compared with the theoretical conclusions. The only apology which I have to offer for going over 80 much of the subject is that I attempted to prepare some articles on detached portions of the hypothesis, and found the explana- tions, which would be necessary to render the subject intelligible to those who had not made the matter a study, so many that the space demanded would be nearly equal to that occupied by the present paper. . That there is a growing interest in the subject, is known to every astronomer that has paid any attention to what has been written. Itisa great problem yet to be completely resolved. The complete analytical treatment of the nebular hypothesis presents many difficulties; and without such aid it seems impos sible to ascend to the origin of the solar system. .I now submit what follows to the candid judgment of my readers. Compare Wells, this Journal, i, 331, where the forest is said to be encroaching 8 the pr ri s about St. Louis; En, Ibid., [2], xxx 389; Edwards, Rep- et sp vecnie-er-eon reg Eero sana ot Remake D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. 345 THE THEORY, 1. GroLoey has revealed the fact that it took immense ages of time to form the earth, and fit it for the habitation of man. he same science also oints, somewhat definitely, to a ti when the earth was in a highly heated condition. Mathematical view, is derived from the physical constitution of Comets, rations, perhaps action." As the Operations of heat become less and less potent. I. Of Stellar Systems. tation respecting the existence of any such nebulous mass, even if such a body now exists within the range of telescopic vision, as IT have attempted to show in a former paper in this Journal. Cannot define ol. xxxvii, [2], p. 210. _* Chemical action should not be left out of the consideration, but at present we unot define its operations so well. Vi oe Ax. Jour. Sct.—Srconp Sextes, Vou. XXXVIII, No, 114.—Nov., 1864. : 44 * 346 D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. again we are reduced to conjecture. We cannot determine, our conceptions, but rather to have been an amorphous mass, like the clouds of vapor which float in our atmosphere. If we could suppose this great nebulous mass to have been symmetrical in form and homogeneous in structure, in the process of cooling and condensation there would be little probability of its gene- i i i uy under such conditions the matter would condense into a sphere. But we have not the remotest evidence—nay, all our evidence is to the contrary— that the original nebulous mass was homogeneous. It is a very difficult thing to find even a small amount of matter perfectly homogeneous. We must, therefore, conclude that the probability against the homogeneity of the original gaseous mass, is many millions to one in favor of it. Even if it were originally per- fectly homogeneous, but of irregular shape, the attraction of gravitation, and the other forces of nature which acted upon it, would soon * cause it to become heterogeneous in its constitution. 5. Again, if we suppose the original fluid mass to have been of equilibrium;* and such a change would generate a motion tation about one or more axes, It is highly probable— caused by the form of the body, and the heterogeneous nature * In saying that such a result would be soon reached, it must not be su that we mean “soon” accordi s ing to our ideas of time. A million of years might _ ® It mast not be supposed that because the conditions of equilibrium are not sat- will be a “ breaking up” and a separation into ae masses, but ; Bip es D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. 347 of the materials composing it, and perhaps other things—that the fluid would cool unequally in different parts, and in such places it would condense unequally, and thus, if they did not already exist, different centres of attraction would be produced, Around these different centres, matter would accumulate and condense, and these nuclei, so formed, would revolve around their common centre of gravity. As soon asa rotatory motion ad commenced, centrifugal forces would begin to act; and as the process of cooling continued, the attraction of gravitation would have a greater control, (for the tendency of heat is to ex- oa all bodies, and thus to operate against the attraction of co- esion, and also of gravitation in the case which we are consid- ering,) and thus the mass would be condensed, and the rotatory motion thereby increased. But an increase of rotatory velocity would also increase the action of the centrifugal force, and this process would continue until in some parts the centrifugal force might equal the force of gravity, and a separation would take place; and in this way each nucleus might ultimately be sepa- rated from all the others, when each would pursue its own course around the common centre of gravity of the whole. 7. Each nucleus would itself be in a condition very similar to that which at first existed in the original great flui The same laws and forces acting on each nucleal mass, would Senerate a motion of rotation, if the previous separation had hot already given it an initial rotatory velocity,’ and this mo- tion would generate a centrifugal force, as befvre, and each of Nese masses would separate into parts. This process of separa- ton would continue until such a result could no longer ensue, During all this time, it must be recollected that the original nu- eleal parts would continue their revolutions around their common eentre of gravity, while the parts into which each original nu- Cleus was divided would continue their revolutions around their common centre of gravity. In this way each division, or sys- tem, would continue its own independent revolution, and at the Same time it would be earried around the common centre of gravity of the greater system of which it formed a part; just as satellites revolve around their primaries, while the primaries are at the same time carried around the sun, and the sun around Some more distant centre. It is in this way that we would ac- Count for the existence of clusters of stars. 8. Notwithstanding the probability that the detached parts Would have a motion of rotation impressed upon them, yet we can- Not so easily infer that this motion would be in the same direction 348 D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. which separated as we have just supposed, a binary star wou ul be produced ;° and where there were three, a ternary system ould be found to exist in clusters, and that these pings are but parts of a cluster of clusters, and so on, each forming, as : were, an island universe. 1 the suns that make up thes clusters must be in motion,’ each nataeice its own individual course, while, at the samestime, it will be carried onward in its greater orbit ‘around the centre of gravity of the cluster e which it forms a part, and so on to the great centre of the w far as observation as yet enables us to judge, it is saath” that the stars wre arranged in clusters, but how nearly the grander conception, that the clusters are themselves arranged into sys tems, is true, we cannot at present decide 10. As each sun forms the centre of a a planetary system (in all probability), there must have been as many centre s of con- densation as there are suns, or fixed (?) stars as in common /an- guage we call hess 11. Now, although we have been unable to tell just how 4 motion of rotation commenced, et we have shown what condi- tions must be fulfilled in order for she: matter to condense into 4 sphere without generating a rotatory motion; and as those con- * If several centres of condensation pop. as we apie supposed, and any one of them should separate from the others, it would seem to be more Tikely that the d portio = ie ean tes cise that would « cause it ae rotate in the op- peer Le os aes vol. xxxvii, 1864, p. 233. where Prof. Kirkwood cies ted for the great eccentricity of the orbits of double stars, as compa : ets. , ‘the suns of the universe have been formed by an h process @ as I ___ have described in the text or not, since they exist, the Tera ae Mecharies toate _ pong cppahersgpoer sew tee the telescope detects te clust ead ‘same p teach t the clusters must, be in motion. motions are di 5 ealtchat a D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. 349 - ? at a motion of rotation would result from the cooling down of the nebulous mass, the attraction of gravitation, and other forces of nature which might operate. 12. The preceding general considerations may be regarded as applying with more force to the development of the sidereal sys- tems, such as the Milky Way, and other starry clusters, than to the formation of the solar system, or to any single system of a sun and the planets which revolve around it. We have now given a sufficiently lucid exposition of the development of the Starry systems—the island universes—for our present purpose.” We shall now descend from these general considerations in ref: erence to the structure of the universe, to a view of the princi- ples which governed the formation of the solar system, accord- ing to the nebular hypothesis, and thus to see how far we are able to go in accounting for the general structure of that system i of which we more immediately form a part. It is mainly in this part of our subject that we must look for that proof of the truth : of the nebular hypothesis which will be in any great degree Satisfactory. ditions are almost impossible,—perhaps quite so in nature,—we see th original nebulous mass broke up before they took that form— hecessarily symmetrical—which the conditions of equilibrium require, we have evidence that the smaller division, the single nucleus from which the solar system was developed, had so far that form may have been. : : 14. A fluid mass which does not rotate on an axis must ulti- mately become spherical in form, whatever be the law of attrac- fon." But if it have a rotatory motion, it can never become a s: a more complete discussion of that part of our subject which pies to the formation of the starry clusters, see a very able treatise by Stephen A a LL.D., Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy 1n the College of New Je wa published in Gonld’s Astronomical Journal, vol. ii, and entitled, On ” gin the Forms and the Present Condition of some of the Clusters of Stars and several of the Nebule. It occupies 29 pages 4to. _ ~~ Courtenay’s Mechanics, p. 355. 350 D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. tion of equilibrium. The conditions of equilibrium are these: the fluid matter must be arranged in strata the density of which throughout must be the same. These strata may differ from each other in density, or the density of each one may be the same—that is, the body may be homogeneous, Also the result- ant of all the forces acting on any one of these strata, must be directed towards the interior of the mass, and be normal to all the strata.” the time of rotation will be reduced to 2h 25m 26s.* If the pe- riod of rotation becomes still less, the fluid mass can no longer hold together; in other words, the equilibrium will no longer exist. 16. It has never been proved, so far as I am aware, that when the body is heterogeneous, there are more than one form of equilibrium, If the rotatory motion be slow, the demonstrated form is one of small ellipticity.* But if it never has been roved that there are more forms of equilibrium of a revolving eterogeneous mass, than one, it is, perhaps, nearly certain that, at least, two forms exist for the same period of rotation. Isit more reasonable to assume, as has been done, that the very ob- late form is a little less oblate than the corresponding form of & homogeneous spheroid? Since the form of small ellipticity 18 fess oblate in a heterogeneous spheroid than the correspondin form of a homogeneous one, does it not seem probable that the very oblate form of the former, is still more so than the similar one of the latter: 17. We shall now assume that the primitive rotating solar mass was, at least, mostly an aériform fluid body, and that i a a ; approximated to a very oblate spheroid. Before proceeding of a stratum, t a particle on this surface has no tendency to move in irection, pote Pareon have DsV =0= the force acting on the particle. Inte Grating aod V = B= gs Airy’s Tracts, 4th ed., p. 148. * Tb. p. 149. _ _* Ib., pp. 150-175; Pratt’s Fig. of the Earth, pp. 63-79; Math. Monthl fii, pp. 166-182. The problem of of small ellipticity. 7 the figure of a heterogeneous earth is one © astronomy, and it has been melred onl be OS D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. 351 further with our theory, however, it will be advisable to enquire into the nature of the constitution of the primitive spheroid. For that purpose let us suppose the spheroid already separated into rings by the processes of Nature. That being done we have the means of arriving, approximately, at the prin- cipal radii of gyration of the primitive spheroid at the time the several planetary rings were abandoned. To do this we shall proceed as follows :— The principle of the Conservation of Areas,” teaches us that if rotate on an axis, every point of which has the same angular velocity, the angular velocity multiplied by the moment of inertia with respect to the axis of rotation, will give a product that is constant for the same body. Let M = the mass of the primitive spheroid ; k& = principal radius of gyration ; = time of rotation; A = a constant; m == 314159, &e. Then QeMh* ce AT Oe IB So long as M remains the same, A will, also; but if M vary, so ) will A. Hence, as soon as the solar spheroid has thrown off a . Ting, the spheroidal mass, M, will be changed, and therefore A | willbe no longer the same quantity as before the separation. But, according to Dr. Galle, the mass of the sun is 788 times as ye as the mass of all the other bodies of the system together.” ets; that is, T, its period of revolution, being the same as that the ring at the time the fa, Obes abandoned by the solar k? oT . Cc ees Loti Bee ee ee p Mite ae sik _ Let the mean distance of the earth from the sun be 1, and the _ Mean distance of any other planet be a; then by Kepler’s third _ law we have ’* The reader will find this principle demonstrated in treatises on analytic me- chanics 7 Cosmos, vol. iv, p. 362. 352 D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. 3 eet ate FP ee ea a eee This value of T in (2) gives sr Ge OF lo 18. To find the value of &,, we may consider the ratio of the radius of gyration of the sun to his radius the same as the ratio of the similar quantities in the earth, without material error. If we take, for the present, a for the equatorial radius of the earth, and « for the ellipticity of the surface; then if the earth be homogeneous, the moment of inertia with respect to the axis of rotation will be 8 rind bei be —é), in which ¢ is the density; and if the earth be heterogeneous, the moment of inertia will be Mirae fy Ba fa'h(t a \]da's 5 ae 0 in which ¢’, a’ and «’ apply to any stratum below the surface. Since the earth is a solid of equilibrium, we easily find the value of the integral of the second member of (5), by the methods oii in works on the Figure of the Earth.” In that way we n ise yee ee. The time of rotation of the sun is approximately 25434, and his radius, 441,000 miles. The time of revolution of the earth around the sun is 3654256. With these numbers and the co- efficient of a? in (6), we easily find the logarithm of the coéfli- cient of a* in (4) to be 8:000845, 10 being added to render the index positive. By enclosing the logarithm in brackets, (4) becomes | k=[s000ss5]a®# . .... - (7). By means of (7) we can easily compute the value of & for each of the planets, 19, Let a, represent the mean distance of Mercury from the sun, a, that of Venus, and so on to a, for Neptune, a, being the mean distance of all the asteroids; then we have _ ® See Pratt’s Figure of the Earth, pp. 72-74. It would have been sufficient for our purpose to consider the sun ‘oe alia but for the fact that I afterwards of density in the solar spheroid. D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. 353 TABLE I. log a, =9'587822, # log a, + 8000845 = 7691710 = log k, “" a, = 9859338, “ a,+ “ = 7895347 = “ ky “ a, =0°000000, “ a3+ “« = 8000845 = “ ky a, =0-182897, “ agt “ =813801I7= “ &, “ a,;=0°486951, “ a;+ “ =8366059= “ hy “ a@g==0°116237, “ ast “ =8538027= “ ky “ a7==0-979496, “ a,+ “ =8735467= “ k, Sg == 1 2820093 a,+ vd = 8963041 = “ k, “ ay =1477654, “ agt “ =9-109084= “ k, The logarithms in the last column of numbers in the above table, give for the corresponding numbers those in Table II. TABLE Il, k,=0°004917 = 468,900 miles. k,=0-007859 = 749,300 « k,=0-010019= 955,500 “ “010019 = k, =0013741 = 1,311,000 “ k, = 0023281 = 2,216,000 « § =0°034516 = 8,292,000 = 5,186,000 ‘ ky =0°091842 = 8,759,000 “ - 8 = o II i —_ i) ot nr rs II oe fo § to res Ls ° oe o s Nepiunian ring was separated, and no discontinuity in the sphe- One of the rings from the centre; then for the spheroid within the outer diameter of the ring a, equation (7) will give for the - Moment of inertia, calling B the coéfficient of a?, | Mk? = MBa?; and that of the ring, or shell between a and A, will be : eas Bai M’k’? Mk? BIM‘A? Ma] 2. ee Ax. Jour. Scr.—Szconp Series, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 114.—Nov., 1864. 45 (8) 354 D, Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. But equation (5) gives Me? —Mit= Safe De iti—tida se From (8) and (9) we have B[M’A? —Ma*] = * af¢ Dalas(1—2) Wa oe Differentiating (10), A being a constant, we have sBMat= = mpD,[as(1—e). . . . - + (1) We do not know the relation between a and e, and we might assume any abapete relation that would cause e to become 0 at the centre; but it will be sufficient for our purpose to suppose & constant. ‘This 5s. will cause (11) to assume the form = == Ha 3 . ° ° * * (12) From this equation, we see that the gukevold increased in density very rapidly near the centre. If the density at the mean distance es we earth from the sun be called unity, then =a=H=1; and the density at the mean distance of the sev- eral planets will Pa as given in the following table. TABLE ITI, Name. Density. Mercury, Oe eas) STF opine Venus, - - - - - 31070000 Earth, - - - - - T-oD0oC000 M - - . - 0-23440000 perils - - - - 019760 Jupiter, - - - - 000311300 Saturn, . - - - 0-000387310 Uranus, - - - - 000003234 N ees + eS - 000001485 above nutnbers, however, must be considered as vale a very rough approximation to abe true density. 2. I Sr ES es the angular motion of all parts of the solar : wMk? — A = constant, or pene =oA, .. ~ (18) = =e principle of the vis viva gives “ iy a Seelam = W suppose . . (14) legitimate ; nue k. D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. 355 in which y is the distance of any particle from the axis of rota- tion, From (13) and (14) we have creases with the loss of heat, we see that as the solar spheroid gradually cools down, the living force of the mass gradually in- a eases. Or in other words, as the body loses its heat, the at- F traction of gravitation has a greater influence and increases the . __ living force of the body. : ven if the angular velocity of all the parts is not the same, we may arrive at an approximate result, provided the different strata differ but little in angular velocity from the mean. Let “ represent the mean angular velocity of the body, then the true angular velocity may be represented by w-+-w’, wit w, &e., in which we shall suppose w’, w”, #”, &c., so small that we may - neglect their squares in comparison with »?. We hence have 2 (mv?) = my? (ato )2 =F (ma? +2mow') y?=w? Mk? +2u5(mo'y?)=W and 2m(w--w')y? = aMk? + 2(moi'y?) — A, Therefore w= 2Aw—w?Mk? = of 2A —oMk?], foe ew (EOP From this equation we also see that W increases with. We May also have W = Ao-+w (ma'y?). _ Either of these expressions for W will approximate to Aw as _, &e., diminish without limit. From this we conclude that as S00n as a rotation has commenced in a nebulous mass, its living force will increase as the mass cools. much width; but the materials being somewhat heterogeneously * If different strata have different angular velocities, A will no longer be a con- - Jo find an expression for the angular velocity in this case, of any one stra- and tum, let W unctions of r, such that dr is the thickness e stratum = angular isw. The vis viva of the part immediately within the Stratum of thickness dr will be W— r, and the su the areas will be —D; Aér. We hence have W—Dr Wér=wA—oDr Adr; or by (15) Dr W= Dr A,a=P*Y —_p,w, This result js obtained by supposing the spheroid ca C Dr A : is oi pant the stratum $r to have the same pee all its parts; and that y is the same as that of the s 356 D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. have coincided approximately with the plane of the equator. The first planetary ring abandoned would have an inclination to the boa. of the ecliptic nearly the same as that of the phn | ar m could not be ex aad when we reflect that the inclination of - the planes of the planetary orbits to the invariable plane, is con- ntly varying from planetary perturbations, and has been for immense ages.” 25 an the same manner as that in which the first ie was separated at the same, or about the same time; and an investi- cae which will be given in a note, seems to strengthen the Opinion - «, History of Phys. Astron., p. 1 * Smithsonian Report for 1861, BS 210. *° I will make this prediction, it if more planets beyond Neptune be discov- ered, the inclination of their orbits will differ but little from that of the portale ane. * See this Journal, [2]. xxxviii, 5. The investigation referred to in the text, is as follows: The attraction of a homogeneous oblate sphervid on a particle withia its mass is, paralle Litsesst es y, and z, = a os 2rz9) —z— sin-'e- — | t.vge0¢ (oappoes), 2reype, and = noe 4rez| = 33 sin-! e b aeeeve, pr If u be the distance of the attracted particle from aie axis of rota- ie il be sez? + y?, and U=2reupe Wi ed eee jonas cu hha? to the axis of beads See Todhunters Analytical Statics, p. 265.) Call the centrifugal foree F = oye = angular ve ___Tecity of rotation, Call the ratio of F to U, R, then R=y, = ne ae ae sre se hat Ris independent of, the datas from the axis of rotation, Hence D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. 357 hang together until they had accumulated to such an amount, that, by their own attractive influence combined with the consid- erable difference of angular velocity of the internal and external parts, the whole of the strata whose centrifugal force equaled the force of gravity—and perhaps some more, in consequence of friction and cohesion—would be separated from the solar body, n consequence of the extreme rarity of the external parts of the solar spheroid about the equator, when the first ring was if it were possible for R to become 1 for a point on the equator, it would be 1 for all Points of the spheroid. If the revolving body be a hom us spheroid of (249 pe—w?)(ade + ydy) +479 Vezdz=0, or fe (1- ) (ede + yay) + ede = (1B) ede + ydy) + igi 2rege Jie e If R=1, then ye=0=e? — sin-'e, Hence e . a Pry aioe. Put e=sina, then A=tana. There are an infinite number of Toots to this ion. Since every value of ¢ except e==0, is greater than that of the spheroid of awiftest it i A ae that the equation be == 0 does not apply to a spheroid: but it indicates that there is a discontinuity. 358 D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. abandoned, such ring would be of considerable width, greater, very probably, than that of any other ring. We are thus able account, in a yery satisfactory way, for Prof. Kirkwood’s “spheres of attraction,” in his beautiful ‘ Analogy.” nearest and most distant planet. But in consequence of the want of a perfectly symmetrical distribution of the materials composing the primitive spheroid, we should not look for an ob- vious law regulating the distribution of the masses of the several planets thus formed. It is sufficient to find that the planets gradually increase in mass as they are situated farther from the sun, until we arrive at the greatest mass, and thence a gradual rease. _ 80. If the materials composing the rings were so distributed as to cause a greater amount to be detached from one side of the — of the equator of the spheroid, than from the other side, t would cause a change in the direction of the axis of rotation __ @f the revolving body, and thus the second ring might be Somewhat inclined to the first. For a similar reason the third ught differ in inclination from the first and second; and so on D. Trowbridge on the Nebular Hypothesis. 359 to the last."* But since the mass of the largest of the rings in our system is but a small fraction of the mass of the sun, the oo oo ® > : oO gS < oO 5 v atively less of such materials than the inner ones? Accor ing to this view, the sun should possess comparatively more metals a length of time? and would he not be more intensely lumin- Spe eee ETP Np Cee Core Rag a ee ge A B @ 3 eae =| a a @ mn S jem] ce) 5 & ca (a) {7 cs 5 ct ° ny ta) et = =) ao ee wf a i) c “—t S .) sy . around the sun in the same direction. _» Solar spheroid, it might depart in either extreme of distance rom the approximate law. Such, at least, seems probable. __ ie am unable to see sufficient evidence of the synchronous formation of the plan- dvocated Prof. Kirkwood, I believe, by Prof. Alexander. its to each other, and to the solar equator, I furnish evidence against it, Prof. Hinrichs finds evidence of the successive 360 M. C. Lea on a Colored Derivative of Naphthaline. In the process of ring-making, and the breaking-up of the rings to form planets, the general principle of the conservation of areas would hold good, but the vis viva of the system would, as we have attempted to show, gradually increase, owing to the greater influence of the force of gravity in consequence of the loss of caloric, which acts as a repulsive force, from the system.” [To be continued.]} ArT. XXXV.—WNote on a Colored Derivative of Naphthaline; by M. Carey Les, Philadelphia, In the course of an examination of the compounds of napth- thaline, the following observation was made, and, as at the nt day, every colored reaction belonging to the products of coal-distillation is a matter of interest, I publish it. While preparing some sub-chlorid of naphthaline C,, H, Cl; by passing chlorine over naphthaline, I washed the crude pro- duct with ether, and separated the etherial liquid by filtration. exposure to the atmosphere, the ether passed off; there re- mained a small quantity of a pale yellow transparent watery acid liquid, which separated itself from the denser and more colored portions. Placed by itself in a small capsule, it depos- ited after a time a bright blue film. The liquid was poured 0 from this film into another capsule, when it gradually deposited a further porti form of solution wholly destroyed the color, nor was it then re- stored by chlorhydric acid as when it had been rendered purple by ammoniacal vapor O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. 361 Art. XXXVI.—On the study of the Electric Spark by the aid of Photography ; by Prof. OcpEn N. Roop, of Columbia College. Il. ON THE FoRM OF THE FIGURE PRODUCED BY THE INDUCTION COIL.* In the March number of this Journal for 1862, I described a new method of studying the electric discharge by allowing it to fall directly on a sensitive photographic plate, where it produced ___ latent images of certain forms, which, under the action of the 4 developer, yielded very fine and sharp characteristic pictures. It : was shown at that time that there was a very marked difference .. between the positive and negative figures, the former consisting | essentially of one or more stars and rings in combination, while 2 the latter was made up, for short discharges, of a collection of | : dots or minute circles, which, by the use of a greater length of ; discharge, became converted into two or more thick concentric ngs i the case with the dust figures of Lichtenberg. In my first paper, the term positive figure is applied to the one produced when the prime conductor charged with positive elec- tricity is made the positive electrode, and the sensitive plate the _hegative electrode; a mode of speaking which is common enough, ‘@nd there traces its peculiar figure, and, correspondingly, that the negative electricity travels over to the sensitive plate (positive electrode), and there acts to generate a figure of a different kind. Ow the electric discharge. is rendered possible by the presence Of material partickes of some kind between the electrodes; in the Act of discharge these particles are heated till they become lu- ‘Minous; if they consist of air, the discharge through them can be traced as a blue or violet line, while at or nearly at the same : * For No. 1, see volume xxxiii, page 219, 1862. : Ax. Jour. Scr.—Szconp Szriss, Vou. | No, 114—Noyv., 1864. 46 362 O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. instant of time, metallic particles are torn off from each electrode, as shown by Feddersen, and, in an ignited state, projected in the general direction of the other electrode. The source of the light, then, is twofold: 1st, from the heated gas, and 2d, from the finely divided heated particles of metal. It therefore becomes of interest to inquire by what particular portion of the luminous matter these photographic figures are traced. Making the sensitive plate the negative electrode, for example, it might be supposed that the figure formed on that electrode was produced, Ist, by the ignited particles charged with negative electricity in their act of departure toward the positive electrode, and 2d, that it was partly due to the arrival of luminous metallic particles from the positive electrode, and 3d, that a portion of it was due to the line of heated gas which extends from one elec- - trode to the other. That the figure is produced only by the Ist and 3d of these causes the following considerations will render probable. Feddersen found during the discharge of a Leyden Jar that when a resistance was introduced into the circuit sufficient to reduce the discharge to a single one, viz: so that in one act the positive electricity flowed toward the negative electrode and the negative electricity toward the positive electrode, that me- tallic particles were torn off from each electrode, and projected merely in the general direction of the opposite electrode, being often thrown sidewise wide of the mark, or im other words, that very often the luminous finely divided metallic particles did not seem to bridge over the chasm between the electrodes, which were joined sometimes only by a fine line. ig. 1 is from two photographs obtained by him under such circumstances, enlarged two diame- ters. ave made some experiments on the spark from an electric machine, operating with very different appa- ratus, but still have obtained corres. ponding results. A glass plate, 4 - then firmly pressed together, the tin foil being next to the sé tive surface, and a spark from an electric machine dscns e se e arrangement: the tin foil plate was then shifted O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. 363 sitive plate was developed with pyrogallic acid as usual, when it was found that pictures of the path of the spark had been tr This path was very often not continuous from one electrode to the other, sometimes there were two or even three breaks in it, while it often happened that the discharge from the positive was not in line with that from the negative electrode. See figures 2 and 3, which are enlarged $ and 5 diameters. With a microscope magni- a etl fying 20 diameters I have err tions in the electric spark when dis- 3. charged freely in the air. OO . _ We are therefore led to conclude that it is probable that the photographic figures are traced mainly y the luminous particles just before their departure for the op- posite electrode, and if any effect is to be ascribed to luminous particles coming from the opposite electrode, it is only that of a diffused and faint blackening of the plate. Luminous material particles are here spoken of because it is held, (as Pliicker very properly insists,)' that electric light existent by itself is a fiction. In all his experiments with the Leyden jar, Feddersen found that the discharge proceeded simultaneously at each electrode, positive electricity starting from the positive and traveling to- ward the negative electrode, while at the same exact instant of time negative electricity started for the positive electrode. This 1s also known to hold good with voltaic electricity, and there Seems to be no reason why it should not also be true with the induction coil, so as to render applicable to the induction spark the results obtained with the Leyden jar or electric machine. The following set of experiments on the induction spark was undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. W. Gibbs o __ his was in order to make a comparison of the figures obtained with those previously secured in using frictional electricity. The plates were sensitized as described in my first communica- _ two insulated metallic points were fastened at varying distances Pogg, Ann., Bd. exiii, 274. 364 O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. vantage of this mode of experimenting is, When the poles of the induction coil are united by a metallic or liquid conductor, on completing the voltaic circuit, a current is induced in the induction coil which circulates in the opposite current circulating in the opposite direction from the first. In this case, the poles of the coil are alternately positive and _arapidly revolving mirror, and find it made up of a very con siderable number of discharges, but according to what has been above stated, they are not to be regarded as oscillatory, but _ (it is hoped,) can hereafter be applied to the elucidation of more ie Viz: that which is formed on the sensitive plate used as negative "Length of the discharge 1’, of an inch, O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. 365 (a.) When a brass ball is used as positive electrode and the moist plate is connected with the negative pole of the coil, the figure consists of a central thick and irregularly shaped ring, and an external portion formed like an irregular star; see which is enlarged three diameters, as also are all the other draw- ings of the spark in this number, except where the contrary is expressly stated. The central 4 portion within the first mentioned ring is more or less blackened, sometimes being quite dark, so that the ring can hardly be distinguished. In One case 14 sparks generated under the above mentioned circumstances were allowed to fall on the sensitive plate, which was then somewhat hereafter simply by the expression ‘‘ washed plate.” In these fourteen cases, the interior of the above mentioned ring was uniformly darkened, and of a purplish color by transmitted light. It often happens that two of the external starlike figures are produced and superimposed; this was very beautifully shown in this washed plate, as well as in some which were unwashed. This, and other indications, obtained in positive and negative figures,” point out that it is a matter of chance whether single, double, or triple sparks are obtained by the ordinary manipulation. (6) When the positive electrode is a metallic point, a figure like 5 is obtained, its interior being often more or e ess shaded; it is also generally surrounded by a diffused faint mass of shade. (c.) When two points are used, as before de- scribed, the figure remains essentially the same as With a single point. - and the so-called luminous “atmosphere,” and it will be shown at the conclusion of this article, that when the effects produced by the two different portions are pe amet the aecrggehuig tears the figure generated by frictional electricity 1s much closer it here appears. : * Compare figure 22. 366 O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. Length of discharge 2; inch. The forms are as above de- scribed. tric ure like 1, (in the first No. of this memoir), except that the central portion of the disc is occupied by a dark disc; others resemble the figure marked .5 in the same wood-cut, except that the two fine rings are not re- produced in the induction figure. 1,'5 inches, more or less irregular star, as seen in fig. 7, resembling in many respects those pro- duced by frictional electricity ; the fine rings however being absent. It seems to consist of two parts, a star with a sharp outline, and a circular mass of shade, which, when unsymmetrically placed, is seen to be distinct from the star as in fig. 8. The starlike portion corresponds with that shown in fig. 4, and the black dise with the black ring there figured. 8. this memoir; it is to be remarked, however, that the lines making up the figure are much thicker, viewed under the micro- scope, as if they had been traced by a blunt quill instead of a fine steel pen. O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. 367 formly black, or with the central portion only slightly lighter than the rest of the disc. It is true that uniformly shaded discs of this kind can be detected with the microscope on plates pre- pared with frictional electricity, but then they are much smaller than when the coil is used. Forms like V (in my first article on this subject) are also constantly produced. Form of the Negative Figure, viz: that which is generated on the sensitive plate used as the positive electrode. Length of discharge ;', inch. (a.) When the brass ball is used as negative electrode, a form like fig. 9 is produced, consisting of a number of dots, and gen- erally two circular discs with a central nucleus each. There are often many more dots than are indicated in the wood-cut. It will be seen that this figure closely corresponds with that produced by frictional electricity, with the exception of the two discs and nuclei, and these, as will be shown, are generated by the “Jumin- ous atmosphere.” : y ; (6.) When the negative electrode is a metallic point, we have a central nucleus, and a uniform disc of shade, fig. 10. This, with the exception of the central points, corresponds with what was often obtained in using frictional electricity. 9. 10. c.) With two points, the figure remains as In 6. When a ae plate is aera many markings of a peculiar, but hardly starlike nature are revealed in the nucleus, see fig. 11. _It will be noticed that the size of the negative induction figure is nearly the same as that of the positive, whereas wl c- tional electricity, the negative figure was much Jarger. #; in. The forms are about the same as above indicated. 3 in. (a.) When the negative electrode is the brass ball, the figure remains as above. (>.) When it is a point, a new fig- ure is produced, see figs. 12, which are magnified six diameters. These 12. tricity. The central to the atmosphere. 368 O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. zs in. Much like the last. #z in. Also much like fig. 18, or like fig. 10, the cireumfer- ence of the circle being a dark ring. 7s and ;,in. Like fig. 12, except that the figure is 13. enclosed in a ring. 7, in. Like fig. 13, the white ring being often sha- ded uniformly with the exterior ring. Using a point, figures similar to 12 are obtained, their outline being quite circular. These correspond with those ob- tained by frictional electricity. This is the limit of the negative spark ; and on separating the electrodes farther, the negative brush is obtained. This pro- uces, as with frictional electricity, only a general diffused blackening of the plate, which is, however, slight in intensity when compared to that obtained by machine electricity. Form of the figures produced by the “* Luminous Atmosphere.” the negative pole, es 5: his : of the so-called “ atmosphere’ woul those O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. 369 the “atmosphere” consists simply of heated — we should expect merely a general and ill-defined blackening of the sensi- tive plate, which would probably be much alike at the two electrodes. The following experiments will serve to show that in point of fact the most remarkable difference does indeed exist between the positive and negative figures generated by the movable at- mosphere; that these figures are for the most part definite and delicate in outline, and filled with details that strongly suggest the idea that they are produced either by many discharges of varying intensity, or by a continuous discharge subject to con- stant and often tolerably regular fluctuations. These results serve therefore to a considerable extent to confirm the views set forth by Mr. Rijke. Mode of Excperimenting.—The apparatus was arranged as be- fore, a metallic point or brass ball being used as electrode, and € spark was generated while a current of air traversed the sur- face of the sensitive plate. It was found in practice that blow- mass of details quite invisible before. — the brass ball is positive electrode, figures similar to fig. 14, are pro- duced, consisting of a s ia Which is generated — >_> the electrode, while the at- mosphere produces the long Gn od tail, wich is often filled * with complicated cross markings, as it were interwoven. Fig. 15 was produced by Temoving the electrode to 15. ¥s in., and here it can be Seen that the movable atmos- phere starts from a central Star corresponding to the inner ring in fig. 4, while the external star of fig. 15 also corresponds to that seen in fig. 4 With a spark ,4, in. long, figures like 16 (only partly = 4, rawn,) are produced. Here we have a star corres- : setae to that whichis produced by 16. _ Mictional electricity, with the luminous atmosphere emanating from near its Pe, Centre. The same may be said of fig. 17, obtained with a spark one inch in : : tength. Fig. 18 was produced by a point, the spark being 7 inch. Ax. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Szrtes, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 114. -, 1864, 47 370 O. IN. Rood on the Electric Spark. Prof. Rijke, in order to test his the- ory, caused the discharge of a large induction coil to take place between insulated brass points, which were con- nected with the poles of the coil b two strings wet with distilled water; the diameter of these strings was 5™™, their length 4 of a meter. Under these cir- cumstances, ali of the electricity developed is subjected to a very considerable resistance in passing through the water, and he found that in this way, in conformity with his theory, the bright ticed hereafter, may throw some light on the mode in which electricity’ pro- gresses over imperfect: ly conducting surfaces, similar to 19 are still obtained. : These experiments explain to a considerable extent the differ- ence between the positive figures as obtained by frictional elec- tricity and by the coil, showing them in great part to be due the presence ef the luminous atmosphere. Form of the Negative figure produced by the Luminous Atmosphere. When the negative electrode is the brass ball, and its distance ys inch from the sensitive plate, the “atmosphere” is blow? ke... out, producing ee: ae 21, consisting of an external heavy black streak, irregular- 9 ly shaped, and often not over && ve d at its ed its O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. 371 interior being occupied by a canal with sharp edges, along which are disposed sharp round dots, &c. The portion of the spark not moved by the current of air consists of a mass of minute, rather ill-defined dots and rings, or simply of a uniformly shaded circular disc. Both of these latter forms seem identical with those produced by frictional electricity, and we are there- fore led by the inspection of the negative figure to the same con- clusions arrived at by the study of the positive. It often hap- pens that from the collection of dots and rings, two or three of the black tails have their origin, showing that a double or triple spark been generated; see fig. 22, magnified 4 diameters. It will be noticed that the actinic power resides mainly in the “atmosphere,” the col- lection of dots and rings being com- paratively faint. _ When the length of the discharge Is increased, the figure remains un- altered in character, except that the tail takes its origin from figures like 12; see fig. 23 (only partly drawn), length of spark ,*, inch. tional electricity, often vanishes entirely, a result quite in ac- cordance with the theory of Prof. Rijke. On certain fine Markings which often accompany the Negative Figure. When the sensitive plate is used as positive electrode, the ne- gative figures, obtained without the use of a current of air, are often accompanied by peculiar fine markings, which usually ex- tend outward toward 24. ey consequentl a : bear a much agter magnifying power than the negative figure itself An example of this kind is seen in fig. 24, magnit seven diameters, the distance of the electrode from the sensitive 372 O. N. Rood on the Electric Spark. plate being ;%, of aninch. Another is represented in fig. » mag: nified 12 diameters ; the length of the ee was ;, of an inch. A large number of these markings were obtained on different plates, and their agreement in character is so decided that they cannot be attributed to accident os Further, their connexion can always be traced to certain nega- tive figures, and often into their interior. When two metallic points are used as before described, and positive and negative figures generated under them, it would be expected that these lines, marking passage e eeateninn: would extend from one figure to the other. This is not the case, the markings being le re; Se eat ge, over the sensitive surface, of cone a the minute and often r regular ications which attend sie de- velopment of the electric light under such circumstances. We should suppose that electricity would not produce much more than a streak more or Jess continuous under these circumstances, and these markings I consider among the most curious of the results obtained, suggesting as they “often do the perspective view of a cylinder wound with a right and left-handed spiral. No markings of this kind have in any case been observed in connexion with positive figures, and I have not obtained similar tracings by the use of frictional electricity. They are proms connected with the movable atmosphere, as they can often be sae directly to the impression left by this constituent of the Spar When the sensitive plate forms either the positive or negative electrode, and the length of the spark is ;'; of an inch, on re moving the plate into a dark room, it is fan d ee te develop- ment that a very small dark ring about 1_ of an inch in diam- eter has been produced. It is alwa : “nach fainter when the plate is used as 2 est sinscoies e iodid of silver be re- . moved from the film by hy aight of nk the eney positive and mo rings is considerably reduced, and then it becomes quite difficult to distinguish the positive figure. I cannot say at present whether these rings are produced by light, heat, or apes see: though the relative intensity of , and their occurrence on both electrodes, render the _ Supposition isitpscbialte | August Sist, 1864. P. E. Chase on Terrestrial Magnetism. 373 Art. XXXVII.—Dependence of Terrestrial Magnetism on Atmos- _ pheric Currents; by Puiny Earte Case, M.A., 8.P.A.S.* ON account of the mutual dependence of all the forces of na- ture, and the reasonableness of Prof. Faraday’s conjecture, that they are often, if not always, convertible more or less into each other,’ it seems probable that the disturbances of the magnetic needle may be as closely connected with the earth’s rotation, and the continually changing position of each point relatively to the sun, as those of the barometer and thermometer. Ampére held that the earth is an electro-magnet, magnetized by an elec- tric current from east to west, the current being excited by the action of the sun’s heat successively on different parts of the earth’s surface as it revolves toward the east. The friction of De Lue, and by Gen, Sabine’s observation, that when the sun and moon were on the meridian, the magnetic variation reached 5°, but when they were in quadrature, it fell as low as 2 fa _ The great forces of nature can be measured only by their dis- turbances or their deviations from uniformity. The action of gravity is so nearly uniform at all times and in all parts of the globe, that it is difficult to imagine any crucial experiment that Could demonstrate its relations to magnetism. Perhaps a needle, €xperiments were tried, to show the relative influence of gravity Upon each extremity, both before and after magnetizing, and when subjected to artificial magnetism, so as to produce various amounts of deviation from the normal dip and declination. Or, centrifugal force, so applied as alternately to assist and oppose the effects of gravity, as in large fly-wheels revolving with va- * From the Proceedings of the Am. Phil. Soc. _, Phil. Mag,, [4], 5 6 % See correspon of M. J. Nicklés, this Journal, [2], xvii, 117, &c. _ * This Journal, [2], xix, 424. | ¥ 374 P. E. Chase on Terrestrial Magnetism. rious degrees of rapidity, may indicate variations of magnetic influence, that can be explained only by the conversion of of the proposed solutions have been satisfactory to the learned philosopher who first started the discussion. ‘orces. We speak, indeed, of weight, as if it could be predicated only of bodies at rest, and as if it were so entirely distinct from mo- apparently an impossible condition of matter, for, to whatever extent the action of opposing forces may be relatively neutral- ized. the same, whether the particle fall freely for any given time, oT remain apparently at rest. All the potential energy which 1s cr eh Mag., [4], xv, 81. _* The potential energy of gravity is represented by g = 32 ft. per second . The earth's rotation allowing only about 54, of this amount, or *1107 ft. per second, to be converted into actual energy the remainder must be employed G overcoming: 4 242 ee - 2 molecular elasticity. The formula a=(“* )s gives 26,221 miles as the radius tan’ oscil : ions, it may perhaps be possible to reconcile the sev” s of Newton, Faraday, ah and Challis, respecting the nature ag., [4], xiii, 281-7, and xviii, 447, 9q9- See Phil. Mag P. E. Chase on Terrestrial Magnetism. 375 spective amounts of motion that the two forces would produes if they were able to act freely for the same time. The ifficulty of determining the repulsion of molecular elasticity precluding any satisfactory use of the former measure, I employed the other;* and the precise accordance of the results, thus obtained, with the results of observation justified the correctness of the h po- thesis, in the same manner as the accurate computation of plan- _ Gravity, therefore, with the same propriety as heat, may be considered as ‘a ' manner in which the circulating electric current is excited. There is a species of mechanical polarity, of which I have never seen any notice, that is apparently produced by motions Tesembling those to which the air is continually subjected. It may be exhibited in the following ways: 1, In the middle of a basin of dai lay . one se of 20% substance (floating it by corks or otherwise, if it is heavier than Water). After the water has become still, lift the basin carefull by one hand, and hold it at arm’s length. The intermittent Muscular action produces longitudinal vibrations, which tend to * Proc. Am. Phil. Soc,, ix, 284. 7 Phil. Trans. 1831. * Ene. Bri : “ Magnetism,” : i * The effect desvetasion on the magnetic needle may be shown in a rough way, by causing an ordinary grindstone to revolve rapidly, and bringing a compass near “* By Becquerel. t Plucker. 376 P. E. Chase on Terrestrial Magnetism. bring the floating strip into a line with the outstretched arm, and the tendency may be increased by moving the basin gently up and down. 2. Hold the gimbals of a binnacle compass so that it can swing only in one direction, and cause it to move like a pendu- Jum in that direction. The needle will tend toward the line of oscillation. Vessels may have been lost from ignorance of this fact, for it is not unusual for compass pivots to become so worn that the needle moves sluggishly, and, in order to start it, the compass-box is shaken. If one of the gimbal hinges should be rusty, the shaking would bring the needle toward a line perpen- dicular to the axis of the free gimbal, and the captain might easily suppose that he was sailing rorth, when his course Ww due east or west. . Take an ordinary pocket compass, grasp it firmly between the thumb and finger of one hand, and move it-quickly up and down through a small are. The needle, as in the last instance, will tend toward the plane of motion. This experiment may be variously modified, according to the length and directive en- ergy of the needle, the steadiness of the operator’s nerves, &e. Sometimes a simple grasp, with a powerful muscular contraction, will bring the needle into line, without any other vibration than that which arises from the irresistible nervous tremor. Some- so rapidly as to become nearly invisible. isd The polarity in each of the three cases here enumerated, 18 different individuals over the needle. me can bring it into ine at once, with scarcely any perceptible motion, while others are obliged to use considerable effort; the needle does not seem at all times equally susceptible; it often appears more easy to produce rotation in one direction, than in the other. There’ may, therefore, be a natural connection between these exper ments and those of M. Du Bois Raymond, who attached se em to dip into two cups of salt water. Dipping the fingers of each hand into the cups, and alternately bracing the muscles of actory results, but M. Humboldt was more to these phenomena the well-known evidences current, circulating around maguets, and if we This Journal, [2], viii, 405. ti hee P. E. Chase on Terrestrial Magnetism, 377 Suppose that electricity consists simply of vibrations, it will seem perfectly natural that the magnet should obey the strong- est vibrations, arlow’s and Lecount’s laws for the distribution of the in- duced magnetism in masses of iron, are precise y the same as if motions of different portions of the earth, provided the magnetic axis coincided with which the magnetism depends, and to hope that a careful stud mospheric polarity, precisely analogous to that which was indi- cated by our experiments upon the control of the magnetic needle by mechanical vibrations. In consequence of the earth’s rotation, this condition exists only at the instant of noon. At all other times, the flow of the Z wh ct af ch ° a. = JQ 2) z < i) Lor | Pe = z <4 o n oF - ® SS © oS cr 2) ag. ct a ® iH “Until it is so rarefied as to rise again. is process of alternate rise and fall, is continued until the air reaches the pole, and then Teturns by the same law, and in a similar manner, to the equa- Ss ‘ David Brewster, to coincide with the magnetic poles. Now, if we consider that in addition to these permanent cur- Tents, there is a continual motion of silent convection, the warm ar rising, and the cold air descending in parallel columns, like the particles in a vessel of boiling water,” and if we remember 4 Halley, in 1686 (Phil. Trans., No. 183), explained the trade wind, and the ne- cessity of a reverse upper current, but he found it “very hard to conceive why the limits of the trade i pra be fixt about the 30th degree of latitude all around . the gl problem has been solved by Prof. Ferrel. I am not aware that poi vut the combined effects ef convection, absorption of heat d the daily superposition of the rotation- and temperature-cu . ‘i 1 i i i im t agency than has generally been sup If we close the lower drafts of a common air- stove, and open a register immediately over the fire, the cold air does not rush i velocity to the surface of the fuel, Serres, Vor. XXXVIII, No. 114—Nov., 1864. 378 P. E. Chase on Terrestrial Magnetism. that the warm air is charged with moisture which is condensed as it ascends, parting thereby with much of its heat and elee- tricity, we can hardly deem it necessary to adopt Dr. Dalton’s hypothesis that ferruginous matter is the source of atmospheric magnetism. Still, the existence of vaporized iron in the air un- doubtedly contributes an increased intensity to the magnetic currents, and it may probably be an important agent in the pro- duction of magnetic storms. two vibratory systems above mentioned are conjoined during the hours when the sun is above the horizon, and the laws of motion applicable to the first system correspond pre- cisely, as I propose to show hereafter, with the laws of the solar- diurnal magnetic variation deduced from General Sabine’s ad- - mirable discussions of the St. Helena observations. It is not so Upper regions, where the air is not so much affected by —v" ation f the earth, it may oscillate, as suggested by Red a Tat eS i a SR ne Ot» Seek eee ee eae aa _ ” Set et ct ket OL a ing explanation. P. E. Chase on Terrestrial Magnetism. 379 ‘ward or westward, in accordance with the theory of M. Dov The disturbance of the ether, dependent upon the relative at- t _ Having thus ascertained the causes and directions of the prin- cipal normal currents, the ordinary theory of winds enables us a centre of polarity with an attractive energy that disturbs the atmospheric equilibrium, tending to produce wind and rain. I the disturbance is confin limited area, there is a well- known cyclonic tendency, the portion of the eddy which is near- est the equator generally flowing eastward. Mr. Galton™ has ingeniously shown that, in descending cyclones, the direction may be reversed, and I should expect a similar reversal to be of frequent occurrence in the neighborhood of some of the power- ful ocean-currents, at points where they tend to produce back- ward eddies. Such points are found midway between the Sand- wich Islands and California, about 85° west of Chili, near the west coast of New Holland, in the Indian Ocean, northeast of Madagascar, and in other places. The effect of ocean-currents in producing cyclones, and di- recting their course, is well illustrated by the repeated observa- tions that have been made in the Gulf Stream. Prof. Lesley’s _ Mteresting account of the series of storms encountered by t Canada on her one hundredth voyage," exhibits the natural Consequences of the friction of two belts of air at different tem- peratures, moving in opposite directions. The warm air over the Gulf Stream, and the cold air over the Arctic currents that w nearer to the American continent, are both borne very Nearly in their normal directions, but with the approach of win- ter their parallelism becomes almost vertical, the cold belt be- comes wider from its encroachment upon the land, and the vor- that arise from their concurrence are frequently brought own to the surface of the ocean, instead of taking place in the a regions of the air, as they usually do during summer. ,, While sudden, violent tempests that are occasioned by local listurbances over a limited area, are almost necessarily cyclonic, am inclined to adopt Espy’s theory with regard to long storms, hat usually “the wind will blow in toward a line rather than Oward a point;’’ and in favor of this hypothesis, as well as of he periodicity of weather-changes, I would suggest the follow- - % Phil. Mag., Sept. 1863. %* Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., ix, 361. 380 P. E. Chase on Barometric Fluctuations. turbance and the same stormy culmination. [My attention has been called by the Journal of the Franklin Institute, to some extracts from the London Atheneum for Janu- ary, announcing a paper on Magnetic Storms, which was read by Mr. Airy before the Royal Society, in which the Astronomer Royal appears, in some measure, to have anticipated my views upon the sources of terrestrial magnetism. As I have not yet seen the paper in question, I do not know how far the priority may extend; whatever may be its limits, will give me pleasure to yield my claims to so distinguished an cautious an investigator, and to find that my own independent conclusions have been so ably corroborated. And I believe I have good grounds for hoping that in the specific solar action which I have pointed out, Mr. Airy will find the precise ““occa- sional currents produced by some action or cessation of action of the sun,” for which he is looking.] Arr. XXXVIII.—On the Principal Causes of Barometric Fluctu- ations ;* by Puivy Eagiz Cuass, M.A., 8.P.A.S. THE powerful and prejudicial influence of an inveterate sci- entific error, is shown in the following dogmatical statement 7 Mr. Joseph John Murphy, an investigator who has lent usef aid to meteorological science.’ : In the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for April, 1864, p. 183, he says; ‘‘ Were the atmosphere not acted on by heat, 1 would be everywhere at rest, and every level surface, at ara ever height, would be an isobarometric surface. .... The earths ? From the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. me Mr. Murphy was an early and independent adcheti of so much of Mr. Wities explains the polar depression of the barometer by centrifuge ction. Mr. Ferrel’s paper, which appears to have been the first publi- t ined a true explanation of the equatorial as well as the polar bare” form, in the summer of 1856. 3 4: : at greater in his essay on “the motion of fluids and solids ge to the earth's surface,” which was published in the Mathematical Monthly ‘vol. i, p. 140, sqq. P. E. Chase on Barometric Fluctuations. 381 rotation cannot produce currents, but it modifies them when they are produced by the action of heat.” here can be no doubt that heat is one of the causes, and in most places it is, perhaps, the principal cause, of those atmos- pheric disturbances which are modified by rotation, but the as- sumption that the atmosphere ‘‘ would be everywhere at rest,” oped for differences of temperature, leads to palpable absurd- It may be freely admitted that Galileo, in attributing the ocean tides exclusively to ‘the rotation of the earth, combined with its revolution about the sun,” attached too much importance to the simple combination of the motions of rotation and orbital translation, but his mistake is no greater than the opposite be- lief, which is now too prevalent, that there is only a single in- fluence which can produce any important tidal effects in the at- mosphere. ¥ which are functions of the latitude, of gravity, and of time, | Subjoin, in illustration, a Table of the average daily lunar barometric tides. Station. | Station. 1 pid Siena ne ‘La Hours, Pane en are Cee ee : St. Helena. Girard College. | St. Helena. Girard College. in. i in. i 0 —-00006 +00313 6.| 00276 -00308 1 --00051 841 q 00242 00389 2 —00172 +00291 8 —00121 --00290 3 00253 +-00214 9 —00046 -"00206 4 —00315 00011 10 +00021 +°00013 5 —00330 ~00144 11 +00035 +00149 The existence of the tidal Jaw, which, as we have seen, should ees differences in the respective ratios of “5, ‘866, and 1, at , 2, and 3 hours from the mean tide, is shown in the following ® See Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., ix, 283-4. _ * This is evidently only another form of a single element in La Place’s law of the _ [present it in this shape, both because I obtained it independently, and be- ‘tee it makes the resemblance to my rotation formula more striking. 382 P. E. Chase on Barometric Fluctuations. Table of tidal differences and ratios. Medien Nene Differences of Barometer. HT Ratios : ; 1A, Qh. Bh if Qh. 34. » Before 2b, “00121 | 00166 | 09207 B85 “802 q =s | After 2b, 00081 | 00148 | 00158 “501 905 31, | Before 8b, * 00121 | -00155 | -00209 B79 142 + | After 8h, 00075 | -00142 | 00156 “481 917 gm | Mrax, . . ~ | 00099 | 00151 | 00182 B45 830 * Mean ratios, "536 $41 hel + Before 4h, 00225 | 00302 | -00852 639 "858 Sy | After 4h) 00133 | 00297 | -00328 405 905 e M3 Before 10h, 00219 | 00303 | 00352 602 861 =x After 10h, 00136 | 00300 | 00328 415 915 L EA EAN, . . . | 00178 | -00800 | 00340 || °524 | -884 ) Mean ratios, “B15 "885 ji Aa Grand Mean, or average of Mean ratios, . .|| °525 863 By a partial interpolation for the true time of mean tide at St. Helena, I obtain for the ratios of the means ‘557, °866, and 1, Corresponding precisely with theory at 24 from mean tide. The tables furnish suggestive evidences of the effect of declination, the varying tidal influence of attraction, when acting with an against rotation, and the resistance of gravity to the tidal flow may be constantly tending to accumulate the terrestrial sether, as well as the atmosphere, in a spheroid with a major axis In th 1843, to September, 1845 (Phil. Trans, 1847, p. 48), gives for the ratios of the MEA™, 7497, "832, and 1, which, if averaved with the mean at Girard College, gives 4°?" 9 ‘. ea call this “Fresnel’s theory,” since it follow xtremely tenuous and elastic material = ppose:l to But I believe M, Fresnel has ¢ agreement of the hypothesis with observed ble remembrance. honora P. E. Chase on Barometric Fluctuations, 383 case of the ocean and aérial spheroids, may be modified by rota- i It appears to me that one of the most probable results of the rotation of the earth with its atmosphere, in an ethereal medium, would be the production of two systems of oscillations, moving with the rapidity of light, one in the line of the earth’s orbit, and the other in the line of its radius vector, and that those systems would be constantly so related that while one tended to retard, the other would tend to accelerate the earth’s motion. | | vapor tide, and the solar tide. It would be presumptuous in the | present stage of our investigations, to attempt to fix the precise amount of disturbance which is attributable to each of these two tides, but from the following considerations we may derive con- Jectural results, which appear to me to be more satisfactory an philosophical than any that have been heretofore obtained. he theoretical maxima of the rotation tide, allowing an hour for the lagging of inertia, occur at 4" and 165; the minima, at 108 and 22h, The solar attraction maxima, with the same al- : lowance, should be found at 1 and 185; the minima, at 75 and : Av". assume that the attraction tidal curve is symmetrical, and regard all the deviations from symmetry as occasioned by differences of temperature and vapor, we may readily construct the following approximate daily barometric tidal table (p. 384). ‘ Imperfect as these first approximations confessedly are, and : probable, nay, almost certain, though it be, that a large portion of the residual tide should be transferred to the temperature and vapor column,” yet I think, the above table will be found sug- i bsence of any long series of observations at each hour of the lunar day, Prevents our eliminating the effects of solar attraction In a similar way. Never- the , [ propose at some future time to attempt the elimination, so far as prac- tieable with the tables at my command, in the hope of thereby effecting a more te determination of the temperature and vapor ti the Peeeggad! a solar tide greater than -002 in., which would be equivalent to -0005, 0009, and ‘001, at 1, 2, and 8 hours from the mean tide. This would reduce the quarter-daily residual tide at St. Helena, to the fullowing form: ih. 2h. | Ah. 5h. " ore — 0033 —-0029 ~ 0012 + 0008 + 0019 + 0019 + 0020 plained, one at midnight, and the other in the hottest part of the day. 384 P. E.. Chase on Barometric Fluctuations. TaBLe. Girard one aie 1842-44. St. Helena, 184446. Mean height, 29-938 inches.* Mean ght 28-2821 i inches. g ri E 2. 3 + 3 £. 3 >i aoe ae = a 2 ae =e pe iital| og | GF | Ea | Bab fog 4 ae 23 £5 |) sge2 = fos 3 Sse = aes ei 3 |2=5 3 sss | ss Za 3 ssa | 2s =.|5 8 2 =iehal ae i ee Ela! ae oh in. in. in. in. in. in, 0 | 9438 | +0126 | —-0031 | --0045 2985 | +0149 | +0085 | —-Wu20 : 0055 5 +0021 | - 2 15 | —-0126 | — --0045 2660 | --0149 | + 3 909 | —0217 | —-00 1 2553 | --0258 | —0003 | —0007 4] 90 0252 | --0U53 | +0005 2521 | —-0298 0010 | +0008 5 911 | —-0217 | --00 0022 2562 025 0015 | +0014 6 | 917 | —-0126 0124 | +0040 2642 | --0149 | —-0040 | +0010 7 92 0170 | +0040 276 —0067 | +0010 8 935 | +:0126 | --0196 | +0040 || -2899 | +0149 | -—-0081 | +0010 g | 942 | +0217 019 0022 || 3003 | +0258 | —-0090 | +0014 10 | 945 | +0252 | --0187 | +0005 3061 | +0298 66 | +0008 11 946 | +0217 | --0122 | --0015 3025 | +0258 | --0047 | -0007 1 941 | +0126 | —Or 0045 || -2913 | 4+-0149 | —-0087 | --0020 13 938 +0055 | -0055 277 —0021 | —002 14 | +935 0126 | +01 —"0045 2646 | --014 -0020 15 | -933 | --0217 | +0182 | --0016 2562 | —0258 | +0006 | -0007 16 | -934 | —-0252 | +0207 | +0005 2550 | —0298 | +0019 | +-0008 17 0217 | +02 +0022 2611 | —0258 | +0031 | +0014 18 | -950 | —0126 | +02u6 | +-0040 2737 | --0149 | +005 0010 19 | -95 170 0040 289 +0067 | +0010 “966 | +0126 | +0114 | +0040 3048 149 | +0068 | +°0010 21 | °968 | +0217 | +0061 | +0022 || -3163 | +0258 | +0070 | +0014 22 | *967 | +0252 | +0038 | +0005 || -8184 | +0298 | +0057 | +0008 23 | -958 | +0217 | -0002 | —-0015 || 3117 | +0258 | +0045 | --0007 . of valuabie inferences, of which the following are per- aps among the most important. 1. That the apparent Seshtaitot of the solar and residual curve near the peu of is barometer may perhaps be owing to xthereal Roe 2. Tha e | eggning, * is un cee ‘le and Pape hi Aig is s smaller than the rotation ‘That there is bat one high ert ne low temperature tide ven Breet bo a Piaune J. L. Smith on two Meteorites. 385 reach their maximum in the evening, when the aérial absorption of heat from the sun ceases to be in excess of its radiation, and y their minimum in the morning, when radiation ceases to be pe. See than absorption. i . 6. That the effects of temperature upon atmospheric pressure . That the daily temperature tide increases, while the rota- tion tide diminishes, as we approach the poles. 8. That, in consequence of rotation, there should be a slight tendency to vertical ascending currents at 44 and 164, and de- scending currents at 105 and 22h, 9. That, whatever modifications the table may require, there’ can be no doubt of the existence of the three tides, with maxima and minima near the times specified, or of the possibility and Art. XXXIX.—A new Meteoric Iron from Wayne County, Ohio. —-Some remarks on the recently described Meteorite from Atacama, Chili; by J. LAwRENcE SairH, Prof. Chem. Med. Dep. Uni- versity of Louisville. Meteoric Iron of Wayne Co., Ohio. THE existence of a mass of meteoric iron from Wayne county, Ohio, has been known to me for some years; but I have delay Noticing its existence, hoping to obtain the mass and thus give a more complete description of it than I am able to do. My attention was first called to it by Prof. James C. Booth, of e U.S. Mint at Philadelphia, it having been brought to him by Peter Williams, of Wooster, Wayne county, Qhio, who sup- osed it to be a mass of silver or some other precious metal, Prof Booth saw at once that it was meteoric iron, and tried to Procure it from Mr. Williams; but from some notion of its pos- sessing considerable intrinsic value, he retained it, and since that time both the iron and Mr. Williams have been lost sight of. 3 Prof. Booth detached a small perses “ i Be which spe- men he placed at my disposal, with the following memoran- d | Me eoric fhe ween me in 1858 by Peter Williams, of Vooster, Wayne county, Ohio. It was a rounded mass, weigh- Am. Jour. Sct.—Seconp Series, Vor. XXXVIII, No. 114—Nor., 49 386 J, L. Smith on two Meteorites. As it is a well authenticated meteorite, it is proper to make a record of it. Its specific gravity is 7-901, and it is composed of— Iron, - - : - - - - - 93°61 He Nickel, : - - - - - - 6°01 Cobalt, . - - ‘ e x * 73 Copper, - : - very minute, not estimated. Phosphorus, - - - - - - 13 100°48 There was a very small quantity of manganese, that has been estimated along with the nickel. The new Alacama Meteorite. A fragment of the meteorite lately described by Prof. Joy, (this Journal, March, 1864, p. 243,) has been sent to me by Prof. C. F. Chandler, z nity of carefully examining it. I had at first supposed that it might be in some way related to the well known Atacama iron; was said to have been found in the Janacera pass. The meteorite from Sierra de Chaco was, at the time it was described, unique in its physical characteristics; the close resem- blance to it, therefore, of the one under notice, and its coming from Atacama has induced me to investigate as far as possible the relative position of Sierra de Chaco and Janacera pass. The best authority on the geography of Chili in this country, is doubtless Capt. Gilliss, of the U. S. Observatory at Washing- ton; in answer to my enquiries on the subject, he gives the fol- lowing information : ; _“T do not know any po in Chili named Janacera; there 18 a river Jarquera, which has its origin near one of the passes ID Atacama, and very probably there may be a pass of the same mame. The river Jarquera is to the northward and eastwar of Chaco, the former being within the chain of the Andes, and Chaco most probably is in the western or coast range. 1hey are from 120 to 150 miles apart.” : As it is important to locate this meteorite correctly, I have "written to Prof. Domeyko on the subject. The village of Chaco is situated near latitude 25° 20’S., and longitude 69° 20’ W- ‘om Greenwich ; and its height above the sea is 8,778 feet. _ ire C. M. Warren on Organic Elementary Analysis, 387 the combined aid of chemical and mechanical means; and, be- sides the iron, I have been able to separate small but distinet ce of chromic iron, small spherical masses of olivine as eautiful in color and as transparent as that from the Pallas me- teoric iron, and also a pyroxenic mineral; and perhaps with a larger amount of material to work upon, other minerals might have been recognized. I have nothing to add to the careful chemical examination by Prof. Joy, having detached mechanicaily most of the minerals that he deduced from analysis. ArT. XL—On a Process of Organic Elementary Analysts, by Combustion in a Stream of Oxygen Gas; by C. M. WARREN.* capable of affording as accurate results, in a majority of in- Stances, as can, perhaps, be claimed for any other analytical pro- cess. Nevertheless, there are instances, and they are doubtless fruitless of good results, pure oxygen, as a combustion agent in analysis, would seem, of all substances, the one most naturally suggested. This apparent difficulty is probably the chief reason a, ges why it has not long ago been brought into general use; its * From the Proceedings of the Amer. Acad., Boston, March 8, 1864, vi, 251- 38s ©. M. Warren on Organic Elementary Analysis. position products, containing the hydrogen, had been burut at the expense of oxyd of copper. By a very simple device I entirely obviate the danger of ex- os control the distillation of volatile substances and prevent too rapid combustion; it being essential in this, as in other pro- the combustion should proceed slowly, and with & good degree of regularity; otherwise it would be difficult to regulate the supply of oxygen to meet the demand of the burn- ing substance. By having the column of asbestus of consider- able length, the anterior end of which only is ignited, the sub- stance, if volatile, becomes diffused through a large “ee and the distillation thereby easily controlled, as only a small portion of the substance need then be heated at a time. Doubtless @ -+ Thave used only asbestus in my experiments thus far, and in every instance C. M. Warren on Organic Elementary Analysis. 389 shorter tube would answer equally well for many non-volatile bstances. It will be observed that the asbestus packing is but the bar nearest or most remote from the ame, Or an interme- diate point, according to the temperature required. he steadiness of the heat thus applied, and the facility with which it may be regulated by simply moving the bar, render it decidedly preferable to any other means which I have employed r that purpose. I had for a long time used such a bar for the Same purpose in the old process, with extreme satisfaction. In Some cases a bar of copper laid on the combustion furnace,’ one end projecting into the flame by which the tube is being heated, and the other end raised and extending toward the substance, has been found to answer a good purpose. 2. In the case of volatile bodies (I have not yet analyzed any others by this process), I have found the combustion to most satisfactorily when, having first heated about four or five inches of the anterior portion of the tube, which includes the oxyd of copper, and started the flow of oxygen, I apply the ted bar to the bulb containing the substance, and immedi- ately expel the whole of the liquid,—which becomes at once * Tt has occurred to me that my safety-tube may serve as the basis of a more simple and equally accurate process for the analysis of gases by gradual com = instead of explosion, in which weighing would take the place of measurement. oO : fastened together with wire, no harm could ever occur from overheating. A expe Bohemian glass, thus protected, m: yses; indeed, become almost a ent fixture upon the aces ld a eh ooo Vents the glass and metal from adhering together,—which 1s proba! . : = fhe that sudden cooling and pte | It is important that the iron trough only cause of breakage of wrar May take place with perfect security. 390 CC. M. Warren on Organic Elementary Analysis. the supply of oxygen only requiring attention. In the ordinary way, on the contrary, in which the heat is applied only on one side of the substance, the latter, if volatile, is constantly chang: ‘ing position backward in the tube, necessitating a corresponding movement of the heat in the same direction, which requires constant care and considerable skill. This proceedure—referring to the immediate expulsion of liquid from the bulb, ete.—implies that that portion of the tube immediately forward of the bulb should not already be too warm, which might easily be the case with a body of very low boiling-point. It would then be necessary to expel the sub- stance from the bulb no faster than the oxygen would absorb it in the proper proportion; which, as experience has shown, may be easily accomplished. With a body of extreme volatility it may be necessary also to place a dish containing pieces of ice under the bulb; as even the temperature of the surrounding air might in such a case eause the substance to pass forward too rapidly. 8. The oxgen is admitted through Liebig’s potash bulbs con- taining sulphuric acid; and the carbonic acid formed is absorbe by similar alba with potash; to which is attached a tube filled not extend much backward of that part of the tube where it is desired that the combustion should take place, so that the temperature of the principal part of the column of asbestus may remain under the control of the operator, by means of the ca , or otherwise. ~ Indepe of the use of a metallic bar, as described above, or any novel a : i the heat can be lated by this furnace with a nicety as great as, Or eV by the use of Th itions in this furnace, between the cocks, are two apart; so that the gas from one of the jets ignites bout two inches of the tube. To rely, therefore, alone u the cocks for regulating t burning the substance, would doubtless often lead to bad Its; but the heat ~ be made to approach the substance in the m adual ner,—next to : by a metallic bar,—by making use of a piece of thin Loge about _ two inches and half an inch wider than the top of the furnace, t If this ple 2 is laid on the wire gauze covering the furnace, conn th ee ee nee e from igniting under it, the gas all | soe om. igniting d of the plate, and to C. M. Warren on Organic Elementary Analysis, 391 with soda-lime and chlorid of calcium, as recommended by Mulder,‘ to take up any traces of carbonie acid which may es- cape absorption in the bulbs, and the trace of moisture which is invariably carried forward from the latter. Special care should taken to select both sets of bulbs with the view to have the Openings in the one as nearly as may be of the same size as those of the other, so that the bubbles of oxygen, considered as representing volumes, entering the sulphuric acid bulbs, may be Teadily compared with the bubbles or volumes of carbonic acid entering the potash bulbs; these bubbles may then serve as a valuable index by which to regulate the supply of oxygen. Especially is this true in cases where the composition of the body analyzed is pretty nearly known, as then the number of bubbles of oxygen required for every bubble of carbonic acid produced may be readily calculated. But as it is, in any case, advisable to conduct the experiment 80 that there shall always be an excess of oxygen passing unab- Sorbed through the potash bulbs, and as this excess would sel- dom be large even if a sufficiency of oxygen were admitted to burn the most richly hydrogenized body known, it may gene- Tally be well to admit enough for such a case. _ : volume of oxygen actually consumed in burning the lightest liquid known—probably of the formula C, H, ,—which Thave separated from petroleum, and which contains a larger Percentage of hydrogen than any other non-gaseous body, as compared with the volume of carbonic acid formed, is as 1:62:1; the fraction representing the oxygen which is taken up by the hydrogen of the body, and which of course becomes condensed and disappears from the volume of carbonic acid. In burning this body with just the equivalent quantity of oxygen,—as- suming that the combustion would be complete under such cir- @ iu it With = ‘== —— = S=SS SSS = SS ES — i ai i SS |S SS SS SSS Bea SSSSSSS= BS SSS =| —s = =z SS Ba] SSS C. M. Warren on Organic Elementary Analysis. 393 . mixture. Having seen no indication that any other than gas- : eous bodies escaped the combustion tube in such a case, it oc- | curred to me that such an analysis might be saved by collectin the gas over mercury, and, at the close of the combustion, be- __ fore detaching the absorbing apparatus, conducting it a second ___ time through the combustion tube.* As a matter of economy, So, in the saving of the excess of oxygen, when a considerable ___-humber of analyses are to be made, this idea seemed to recom- mend itself; as the oxygen would, at the same time, become purified from any traces of combustible matter which might be present, and could then safely be collected as pure oxygen, and finally transferred to the oxygen gasometer. _ I therefore constructed for this purpose the apparatus which is represented in the background of the preceding figure as attached to the anterioreend of the absorption apparatus, At the close of the combustion, when only pure oxygen appears to enter the potash bulbs, the flow of oxygen is interrupted; the communication with that portion of the drying apparatus which is back of the short U tube, A, is closed at 6; and the tube B— __* As the time consumed in an experiment is so short, and the quantity of com- bustible as present, if any, so very small, and that mixed with a very large quan- tity of oxygen, it is not improbable that the gas might as well be collected over Water: as the quantity which could be absorbed by the water in so short a space of time would probably be inappreciable. Aw. Jour. $ct.—Seconp Serres, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 114.—Nov., 1864. ae oa Ra a4 394. §C. M. Warren on Organic Elementary Analysis. which is movable in the cork—turned up.’ The joint at ¢ is then disconnected; the end leading to the receiver C tightly closed with a piece of glass rod; and a communication estab- containing water,—not shown in the figure,—for collecting the use, would hardly be compensated for. So that, while I wo not, therefore, recommend the use of an additional quantity of oxyd of copper, I would also discard the other expedient of col- lecting the gas over mercury, or water, etc., unless the saving of the surplus oxygen, together with the additional security af forded, should be considered of sufficient importance to recom- mend it. As the passing through of the gas the second time requires no attention after it is once started, and occupies but @ short time, during which the operator may attend to anything else, I much prefer, for myself, to retain in use that part of the Pp : t operation; especially in the case of volatile liquids. In the latter case, the neck of the bulb—which has previously been ‘provided with one or more scratches on its side near the end— 3 * That this tube may not e as a siphon, the outer limb is formed by at- _taching, near the bend, a flexible tube, of larger bore than that of the alase tube. xible tube is preferable to glass, on account of the readiness with which > any change of position of the ylass tube, by which it may always the receiver underneath; and prevent waste of mercury. apts itself to { of C. M. Warren on Organic Elementary Analysis, 395 ___is introduced into the end of the combustion tube, and broken _off by pressure against the side of the tube; the bulb itself is then allowed to drop in, and the end of the tube immediately closed with a perforated cork containing a glass tube, 4, connect- ing it with the drying apparatus, This connecting tube is con- structed of hard Bohemian glass; the anterior end of which is drawn out to a short, blunt point, and the opening nearly closed in the blowpipe flame, to the size of a small needle; the object of which is, to increase the rapidity of the flow of oxygen at that point, and thereby diminish the liability to loss from diffu- ‘sion of gases or vapor backward into the drying apparatus, which is always too liable to occur when the posterior end of : the combustion tube is not sealed. eh aie een eas, Re 2 connecting tube is packed wit bestus in the same m the combustion tube, and during the combustion is heate h one of Bunsen’s burners. In case vapor of the substance should reach this tube, notwithstanding the above precaution against it, it could not reach the drying apparatus as such; but would be the end of the combustion tube. In the performance of an analysis, the first step should be to expel the moisture from the combustion tube, while hot, by passing through it, for some time, a stream of dry air from the gasometer.’ The tube should then be filled with oxygen, before the substance, if volatile, is added; as otherwise particles of un- burnt substance might escape during the displacement of the air, d occasion loss. The absorbing apparatus, having n pre- viously weighed, is then attached, and, if the excess of oxygen employed is to be saved, the oxygen again admitted to expel Much time saved and uncertainty avoided ting the anterior end of the ion tube, at the close of y's operations, with a set of stationary dry tubes of ample capacity, which may stand back of the furnace out of the way, com- ication with which is establis' by s of »t ’ ing a tus, At the close of work, the anterior end of the combustion tube should Athy tightly corked, the fire extinguished, and the tube allowed to cool in dry air, It would thus be always ready for immediate use. 896 CO. M. Warren on Organic Elementary Analysis. down till the level of mercury in this tube shall be half an inch to an inch below the level of mercury in the receiver O; an from time to time during the combustion the position of this tube is adjusted so as to preserve about this difference between the levels of the mercury, or at least so as to prevent the mercury in the tube from ever rising above that in the receiver. In this manner the mercury, instead of offering resistance to the passage of gas from the combustion apparatus, and thus in- creasing the internal pressure upon the joints, which would be objectionable, actually operates advantageously by producing partial exhaustion, and thus diminishing the internal pressure upon the joints, and consequeutly the liability to leakage. The distillation of the substance is now commenced, and conducted as previously detailed above. So soon as condensation of mois- ture appears in the neck of the chlorid of calcium tube, indi- roses at combustion has commenced, the flow of oxygen may more convenient and less liable to lead to error. At the close of the analysis, therefore, I expel the oxygen from the apparatus by admitting air from the air-gasometer,* saving for further use the oxygen which is expelled during the first five or six m)n- tes. Thus far I have applied this process only in the analysis ° The oxygen-gasometer and the air-gasometer each having a separate drying the ti med in changing from much me consul ¢ from one to the other is very shortened, as the necessity for displacement of the oxygen or the case may be— is contained in the dryimg apparatus is avoided. Each drying apparatus consists, 1st, of ig’s bulbs, containing sulphuric acid; 2d, o nches high (nearly 3 feet of tube), fill ith soda-lime for acid; and 8d, of two such (5 to 6 feet of tube), filled with chlorid of calcium, The object ™ imensions is to avoi sity of t ee ters stand in a pan of eopper, which is provided with outlet to the sink, so that they may be filled without o_o degree of permanence . J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 397 use the process in my other investigations), I have thought it its applicabilit l th d will x ; Seah nm : as a general method, and will report the results labiensioeairemepais Arr. XLL—On Celestial Dynamics ; by J. R. MaYER.* [Concluded from p. 243.] VII. The Tidal Wave. a forces and motions on the surface of e earth may be traced back to the rays of the sun. Some pro- cesses, however, form a remarkable exception. _ One of these is the tides. Beautiful, and in some a “Sareea researches on this phenomenon, have been made by ewton, Laplace, and others. The tides are caused by the at- traction exercised by the sun and the moon on the movable ue an analysis of amyl-aleohol, made in my laboratory by my friend Mr. Storer, this sake of familiarizing himself with the process,—it being his first analysis by i$ apparatus,—the fo lt was obtained. Ontlety in ces . 68°58 68:18 “= Hydrogen, .-.--+ 1 ‘From L. E. & D. Phil. Mag., [4], vol. xxxv. 398 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. parts of the earth’s surface, and by the axial rotation of our be obe. The alternate rising and falling of the level of the sea may be compared to the ascent and descent of a pendulum oscillating under the influence of the earth’s attraction. The continual resistance, however weak it may be, which an instrument of this nature (a physical pendulum) suffers, con- stantly shortens the amplitude of the oscillations which it per- forms; and if the pendulum be required to continue in uniform motion, it must receive a constant supply of vis viva correspond- ing to the resistance it has to overcome. Clocks regulated by a pendulum obtain such a supply, either from a raised weight or a bent spring. The power consumed i raising the weight or in bending the spring, which power is rep- resented by the raised weight or the bent spring, overcomes for a time the resistance, and thus secures the uniform motion of the pendulum and clock. In doing so, the weight sinks down or the spring uncoils, and therefore force must be expended in winding the clock up again, or it would stop moving. Essentially the same holds good for the tidal wave. The moving waters rub against each other, against the shore, and against the atmosphere, and thus, meeting constantly with resist- é ° come to rest if a vis viva did not exist compe tent to overcome these obstacles. This vis viva is the rotation of the earth on its axis, and the diminution and final exhaustion thereof will be a consequence of such an action. : The tidal wave causes a diminution of the velocity of the rotahon of the earth. This important conclusion can be proved in different ways. The attraction of the sun and the moon disturbs the equili- brium of the movable parts of the earth’s surface, so as to move the waters of the sea toward the point or meridian above and however, the moving water esistance, in conse- rs experience r : quence of which the flow of the tidal wave is delayed, and high water occurs in the open sea on the average about 24 hours after : waters, but also in a slow progressive motion from east J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 399 to worn Sire tidal wave produces a general westerly current in the o This « Pret is opposite in direction to the earth’s rotation, and therefore its friction against and collision with the bed and shores of the ocean must offer stirs where resistance to the axial rotation of the earth, and diminish the vis viva of its motion. The earth here plays the part of a fly-wheel. The movable parts of its surface adhere, so to speak, to the relatively fixed moon, and are dragged in a direction opposite to that of the earth’s rotation, in consequence of which, action takes place be- tween the solid and liquid parts of this fly- -wheel, resistance is overcome, and the given rotatory effect diminishe Water-mills have been turned by the action of the tides ; ri effects produced by such an arrangement are distinguished | in remarkable manner from those of a mill turned by a sa stream. The one obtains the vis viva with which it works from the earth’s rotation, the other from the sun arious causes combine to incessantly maintain, partly i in an undulatory, partly in a progressive motion, the waters of the ocean. teats the influence of the sun and ‘the moon on the ro- ‘Ocean likewise exercise a manifold influence on the velocity, di- rection, and extent of the oceanic currents The motions in our atmosphere, as well as those of the ocean, presuppose the existence and consumption of vis viva to over- come the continual resistances, and to prevent a state of rest or equilibrium. Generally speaking, the power necessary for the production of aérial currents may be of threefold origin. Either the radiation of the sun, the heat derived from a store in the in- terior of ~ earth, or, lastl y, the rotatory effect of the earth may the source. As Ai as quantity is concerned, the sun is by far the most important of the above. According to Pouillet’s measurements, asquare metre of the earth’s surface receives on the average 4-408 units of heat from the sun per minute. Since one unit of ‘vis viva equal to 1620 Km, or + tis whole of the earth’s surface ‘in the same time 825,000 billions of Km. A power of 75 Km ‘per second is called a horse-power. A roid to this, oxy — of the solar radiation in oe work 0 nd te ae 3 the earth’s surface would be equal to 0'36, “id the total | fect for the whole globe 180 billions of horse- not Giconsiderable portion of this enormous quantity bape vis viva is 400 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. consumed in the production of atmospheric actions, in conse- quence of which numerous motions are set up in the earth’s at- mosphere. In spite of their great variety, the atmospheric currents may be reiuced to a single type. In consequence of the unequal heating of the earth in different degrees of latitude, the colder and heavier air of the polar regions passes in an under current toward the equator; whereas the heated air of the tropics as- cends to the higher parts of the atmosphere, and flows from thence toward the poles. In this manner the air of each hemi- sphere performs a circuitous motion. It is known that these currents are essentially modified by the motion of the earth on its axis. "1 olar currents, with their smaller rotatory velocity, receive a motion from east to west con- trary to the earth’s rotation, and the equatorial currents one west to east in advance of the axial rotation of the earth. The former of these currents, the easterly winds, must diminish the rotatory effect of the globe, the latter, the westerly winds, must increase the same power. The final result of the action of these opposed influences is, as regards the rotation of the earth, according to well-known mechanical principles, =.0; for these currents counteract each other, and therefore cannot exert the least influence on the axial rotation of the earth. This import- ant conclusion was proved by Laplace. ; e same law holds good for every imaginable action which is caused either by the radiant heat of the sun, or by the heat which reaches the surface from the earth’s interior, whether the action be in the air, in the water, or on the land. The effect of every single motion produced by these means on the rotation of the globe, is exactly compensated by the effect of another mo- tion in an opposite direction; so that the resultant of all these motions is, as far as the axial rotation of the globe is concerned, = 0. In those actions known as the tides, such noe Het oe by which the} -four hours; it is clear that much more powerful effect d by the sun’s heat would hide this action from observa- ‘influence of these air-currents, however, on the rota- the earth, is, according to the laws of mechanics, : ae é J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 401 _ The combined motions of air and water are to be regarded rom the same point of view. If we imagine the influence of the sun and that of the interior of our globe not to exist, the motion of the air and ocean from east to west is still léft as an obstacle to the axial rotation of the earth. The motion of the waters of the ocean from east to west was long ago verified by observation, and it is certain that the tides are the most effectual of the causes to which this great westerly are produced in the ocean to those in the atmosphere. This is he moon aff _* of the globe. Let the earth be divided by the plane of ‘Meridian in which the moon happens to be, into two hemi- abe one to the east, the other to the west of this meridian. it is clear that the moon, by its attraction of the eastern hemi- Sphere, tends to retard the motion of the earth, and by its at- traction of tl tern hemisphere, to accelerate the same rotation. _Under certain conditions, these tendencies compensate each Am. Jour. nee See Series, Vor. XXXVIII, No. 114.—Nov., 186400 wo 402 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. other, and then the action of the moon on the earth’s rotation be- comes zero. This happens when both hemispheres are arranged in a certain manner symmetrically, or when no parts of the earth can change their relative position; in the latter case a sort of symmetry is produced by the rotation. The form of the earth deviates from a perfectly symmetrical sphere on account of the three following causes:—(1) the flat- he attraction of the sun and the moon disturbs the equilibrium of this mass, and two flat mountains of water are formed. The top of one of these is directed toward the moon, and the summit of the other is turned away from it. A straight line passing through the tops of these two mountains is called the major axis of this earth-spheroid. : In this state the earth may be imagined to be divided into three parts—a smaller sphere, and two spherical segments at- . elevations of the tidal wave. The attraction of the moon on ‘| the one nearest the moon, is attracted toward the west because its mass is principally situated to the east of the moon, and the opposite mountain, which is to the west of the moon, is at tracted toward the east. The upper tidal elevation is not only pposite protuberance. ‘The pressure from east to west of the upper ele- vation preponderates therefore over the pressure from west east of the opposite mountain; according to calculation, these quantities stand to each other nearly as 14 to 18. From the re- lative position of these two tidal protuberances and the —— -sp 1 ' toward the centre of gravity of the moon, a pressure results, J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics, 403 from the magnetic meridian, and which, while tending to return thereto, exerts a constant lateral pressure. The foregoing discussion may suffice to demonstrate the in- fluence of the moon on the earth’s rotation. The retarding pressure of the tidal wave may quantitatively be determined in the same manner as that employed in computing the precession _of the equinoxes and the nutation of the earth’s axis. ried distribution of land and water, the unequal and unknown depth of the ocean, and the as yet imperfectly ascertained mean difference between the time of the moon’s culmination and that of high water in the open sea, enter, however, as elements into such a calculation, and render the desired result an uncertain quantity. In the mean time, this retarding pressure, if imagined to act at the equator, cannot be assumed to be less than 1000 millions following calculations. he rotatory: velocity of the earth at the equator is 464 metres, and the consumption of mechanical work, therefore, for the maintenance of the tides, 464,000 millions of Km, or 6000 mil- lions of horse-powers per second. The effect of the tides may _ consequently be estimated at =+,th of the effect received by the ~~ The pelédities of rotation of a sphere stand to each other in the same ratio as the square roots of the rotatory effects, when the volume of the sphere remains constant. From this it fol- lows that, in the assumed time of 2500 years, the length of a day has increased —4,,th; or if a day be taken equal to 86,400 Seconds, it has lengthened 1th of a second, if the volume of the earth has not seanped: "Whether this supposition be eee _ ©r not, depends on the temperature of our planet, and wi discussed in the next chapter. ~ The tides also react on the motion of the moon. The stronger attraction of the elevation nearest to, and to the east of the 404 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. moon, increases with the tangential velocity of our satellite; the mean distance of the earth and the moon, and the time of revo- lution of the latter, are consequently augmented. The effect of this action, however, is insignificant, and, according to caleula- tion, does not amount to more than a fraction of a second in the course of centuries. IX. The Heat of the Interior of the Earth. Without doubt there was once a time when our globe had not assumed its present magnitude. According to this, by aid of this simple assumption, the origin of our planet may be reduced to the union of once separated masses. To the mechanical combinations of masses of the second order, with masses of the second and third order, &c., the same laws as those enunciated for the sun apply. The collision of such masses must always generate an amount of heat proportional to the squares of their velocities, or to their mechanical effect. _ Although we are not in a position to affirm anything certain respecting the primordial conditions under which the constituent Pp existed, it is nevertheless of the greatest 1n- terest to estimate the quantities of heat generated by the col- lision and combination of these parts by a standard based on the finitely small in comparison with T, and when e=T—a=34T- These form the limits of all imaginable ratios of the parts T-« Terrestrial heights are of course excluded from the following is, and amounts to 8685 x T ee: pages eae Perce bare SJ J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 405 If we assume the earth to possess a very great capacity for heat, equal in fact to that of its volume of water, which when calculated for equal weights = 0°184, the above discussion leads to the conclusion that the difference of temperature of the con- stituent parts, and of the earth after their union, or, in other words, the heat generated by the collision of these parts, may Tange, according to their relative magnitude, from 0° to 32,000 or even to 47,000°! ‘With the number of parts which thus mechanically combine, the quantity of heat developed increases. Far greater still would have been the generation of heat if the constituent parts had moved in separate orbits round the sun before their union, and had accidentally approached and met each other. For various reasons, however, this latter supposition is not very probable. Several facts indicate that our earth was once a fiery liqui ass, which has since cooled gradually, down to a comparatively inconsiderable depth from the surface, to its present tempera- tu he first proof of this is the form of the earth. “The form of the earth is its history.” According to the most careful | measurements, the flattening at the poles is exactly such as a liquid mass rotating on its axis with the velocity of the earth would possess; from this we may conclude that the earth, at the time it received its rotatory motion, was in a liquid state; and, after much controversy, it may be considered as settled that this liquid condition was not that of an aqueous solution, but of a 7 well is 671 metres in depth, and its water 34° warm. Thermal springs furnish a striking proof of the high temper- ature existing in the interior of the earth. Scientific men are agreed that the aqueous deposits from the atmosphere, rain, il, dew, and snow, are the sole causes of the formation of springs, The water, obeying the laws of gravity, percolates through the earth wherever it can, and reappears at the surface in places of a lower situation. When water sinks to consider- able depths through vertical crevices in the rocks, it acquires the temperature of the surrounding strata, and returns as a thermal eS to the surface. c om waters are frequently distinguished from the water of ordinary springs merely by their possessing a higher tempera- 406 J, R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. ture. If, however, the water in its course meets with mineral or organic substances which it can dissolve and retain, it then reappears as a mineral spring. Examples of such are met with at Aachen, Carlsbad, &c. In a far more decided manner than by the high temperature the origin of the interior heat of the earth as follows:—“ No one of course can explain the final causes of things. This much, however, is clear to every thinking man, that there is Just as much reason that a body, like the earth for example, should be of, and requires explanation. _ Newton's theory of gravitation, whilst it enables us to deter~ mine, from its present form, the earth’s state of aggregation 10 ages past, at the same time points out to us a source of heat _ seytdan enough to produce such a state of aggregation, power ul enough to melt worlds; it teaches us to consider the molten state of a planet as the result of the mechanical union of cosmica’ masses, and thus to derive the radiation of the sun and the heat the bowels of the earth from a common origin. fae e rotatory effect of the earth also may be readily explained collision of its constituent parts; and we must accord- ’ J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 407 ingly subtract the vis viva of the axial rotation from the whole effect of the collision and mechanical combination, in order to obtain the quantity of heat generated. The rotatory effect, how- ever, is only a small quantity in comparison with the interior heat of the earth. It amounts to about 4400xT kilogrammetres, (T being the weight of the earth in kilograms) which is equivalent : units of heat, if we assume the density of the earth sequence of the action of a resisting medium, or from some other raised some thousands of degrees in temperature, and conse- quently the surface of the earth would be converted into a fiery ocean. At the same time, the velocity of the earth’s axial rota- tion would be somewhat accelerated, and the position of its axis with regard to the heavens, and to its own surface, slightly al- tered. If the earth had been a cold body without axial rota- tion, the process of its combining with the moon would have im parted to it both heat and rotation. Sen a It is probable that such processes of combination between dif- ferent parts of our globe may have repeatedly happened before the earth attained its present magnitude, and that luxuriant vegetation may have at different times been buried under the fiery debris resulting from the conflict of these masses. creasi per t earth’s crust, must have caused frequent disturbances and revo- lutions on its surface, accompanie gh Masses and the formation of protuberances; on the other han tation are closely connected, it is clear that the youth o our planet must have been distinguished by continual violent trans- formations of its crust, and a perceptible acceleration of the ve- 408 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. gone ages. While we are surrounded on every side by the monuments of violent volcanic convulsions, we possess no record of the ve- locity of the axial rotation of our planet in antediluvian times. It is of the greatest importance that we should have an exact knowledge of a change in this velocity, or in the length of the day during historic times. The investigation of this subject by the great Laplace forms a bright monument in the department earth’s rotation to the mean time of the moon’s revolution deter- com- of a day therefore may be considered to have been constant during historic times. This result, as important as it was convenient for astronomy, was nevertheless of a nature to create some difficulties for the physicist. With apparently good reason it was concluded that, if the velocity of rotation had remained constant, the volume of ears to the extent of ;1,th of a second, or ,!.th part of a day, , 43,000,000 that during this long space of time the radius of the earth on iG6i in volume, as a result of the cooling-process, J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 409 is however, closely connected with the changes on the earth's surface. earth cannot comport itself differently from any other mass, however small it be. In spite of the heat which it receives from th I of its surface. Between the tropics the mean temperature pro- duced by the sun is about 28°, and the sun therefore is as little able to stop the cooling-tendency of the earth as the moderate warmth of the air can prevent the cooling of a red-hot ball sus- pended in a room. _ Many phenomena—for instance, the melting of the alae near the bed on which they rest—show the uninterrupted emis- sion of heat from the interior toward the exterior of the earth; and the question is, Has the earth in twenty-five centuries ac- tually lost no more heat than that which is requisite to shorten a radius of more than six millions of metres only 15 centimetres? In answering this question, three points enter into our calcu- lation :—(1) the absolute amount of heat lost by the earth in a certain time, say one day; (2) the earth’s capacity for heat; and (3) the coéfficient of expansion of the mass of the earth. _ As none of these quantities can be determined by direct measurements, we are obliged to content ourselves with probable estimates; these estimates will carry the more weight the less they are formed in favor of some preconceived opinion. _ Considering what is known about the expansion and contrac- tion of solids and liquids by heat and cold, we arrive at the con- clusion that for a x reli Si of 1° in temperature, the linear contraction of the earth cannot well be less than saute part, a een which we all the sp sos adopt because it has been ised by Laplace, Arago, and others. oe ast i moaned fa cmt for heat of all solid and liquid bodies which have been examined, we find that, both as regards Am. Jour. ~~ Serres, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 114.—Nov., 1864 410 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. volume and weight, the capacity of water is the greatest. Even the gases come under this rule; hydrogen, however, forms an exception, it having the greatest capacity for heat of all bodies when compared with an equal weight of water. In order not to take the capacity for heat of the mass of the earth too small, we shall consider it to be equal to that of its volume of water, which, when calculated for equal weights, amounts to 0°184.' If we accept Laplace's result, that the length of a day has re- mained constant during the last 2500 years, and conclude that the earth’s radius has not diminished 14 decimetre in conse- quence of cooling, we are obliged to assume, according to the remises stated, that the mean temperature of our planet cannot ave decreased ;1,° in the same period of time. The volume of the earth amounts to 2650 millions of cubic miles. A loss of heat sufficient to cool this mass z},° woul be equal to the heat given off when the temperature of 6,150,000 eubic miles of water decreases 1°; hence the loss for one day - Fourier has investigated the loss of heat sustained by the earth. Taking the observation that the temperature of the earth increases at the rate of 1° for every 30 metres as the basis of his calculations, this celebreted mathematician finds the heat which responds in one day to 7°7 cubic miles of heat, and in 2500 years to a decrease of 17 centimetres in the length of the radius. According to this, the cooling of the globe would be suffi- which is annually lost by the earth; for simple conduction through terra firma is not the only way by which heat escapes m our globe. 7 _ In the first place, we may make mention of the aqueous de- posits of our atmosphere, which, as far as they penetrate our 1 The capacity for heat, as well as the coéfficient of expansion of matter, a8 ® Tule, increases at higher temperatures. As, however, these two uantities act in opposite ways in our calculations, we may be allowed to dispense with the influence which the high teuiperature of the interior of the earth must pong t from 0° to 100°, it is to be considered, on the other hand, that the coéfficient of ex f 2 ansi Mea © fs - soli } hem, whilst 100°, it is about six times as great. Especially great is the contin d expansion of bodi ' change their state of aggregation; and ¢ taken into account when considering the formation of the earth's crust. tween 0° . E nit J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics, 411 earth, wash away, so to speak, a portion of the heat, and thus accelerate the cooling of the globe. The whole quantity of nos. As the heat which accompanies the molten matter to the surface is derived from the store in the interior of the earth, their action must influence considerably the diminution of the earth’s heat. And we not only to consider here actual eruptions which take place in succession or simultaneously at different parts of the earth’s surface, but also volcanos in a qui- escent state, which continually radiate large quantities of heat abstracted from the interior of the globe. If we compare the posed, and thus opening a door for the escape of heat, Of the whole of the heat which passes away through these numerous outlets, too low an estimate must not be made. To have some basis for the estimation of this loss, we have to re- collect that in 1783, Skaptar-Jokul, a voleano in Iceland, emitted sufficient lava in the space of six weeks to cover 60 square miles of country to an average depth of 200 metres, or, in other words, about 14 cubic’ mile of lava. The amount of heat lost by this one eruption of one volcano must, when the bigh tem- perature of the lava is considered, be estimated to be more than 1000 cubic miles of heat; and the whole loss resulting from the to thousands of cubic miles of heat per annum. This latter number, when added to Fourier’s result, produces a sum which evidently does not agree with the assumption that the volume of our earth has remained unchanged. In the investigation of the cooling of our globe, the influence of the water of the ocean has to be taken into acount. Fourier’s calcultions are based on the observations of the increase of the temperature of the crust of our earth, from the surface toward the centre. But two-thirds of the surface of our globe are cov- ered with water, and we cannot assume @ priori that this large area loses heat at the same rate as the solid parts; on the con- trary, various circumstances indicate that the cooling of our globe proceeds more quickly through the waters of the ocean resting on it than from the solid parts merely in contact with the LIT} ere. ‘ dies first place, we have to remark that the bottom of the 412 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. ocean is, generally speaking, nearer to the store of heat in the interior of the earth than the dry land is, and hence that the temperature increases most probably in a greater ratio from the bottom of the sea toward the interior of the globe, than it does in our observations on the land, Secondly, we have to consider that the whole bottom of the sea is covered by a layer of ice- cold water, which moves constantly from the poles to the equa- tor, and which, in its passage over sand-banks, causes, a8 Humboldt aptly remarks, the low temperatures which are gen- erally observed in shallow places. That the water near the bottom of the sea, on account of its great specific heat and its low temperature, is better fitted than the atmosphere to withdraw the heat from the earth, is a point which requires no further discussion. We have plenty of observations which prove that the earth suffers a great loss of heat through the waters of the ocean. Many investigations have demonstrated the existence of a large expanse of sea, much visited by whalers, situated between Ice- land, Greenland, Norway, and Spitzbergen, and extending from lat. 76° to 80° N., and from long. 15° E. to 15° W. of Greenwich, where the temperature was observed to be higher in the deeper water than near the surface—an experience which neither ac- cords with the general rule, nor agrees with the laws of hydro- statics. Franklin observed, in lat. 77° N. and long. 12° E., that. the temperature of the sea near the surface was —}°, and at @ depth of 700 fathoms +6°. Fisher, in lat. 80° N. and long. 11°R., noticed that the surface-water had a temperature of 0°, whilst at a depth of 140 fathoms it stood at +8. 3 As sea-water, unlike pure water, does not possess a point of greatest density at some distance above the freezing-point, and as the water in lat. 80° N. is found at some depth to be warmer than water at the same depth 10° southward, we can only eX- plain this remarkable phenomenon of an increase of temperature with an increase of depth by the existence of a source of heat at the bottom of the sea. The heat, however, which is requ! to warm the water at the bottom of an expanse of ocean more than 1000 square miles in extent to a sensible degree, must amount, according to the lowest estimate, to some cubic miles heat a day. The same phenomenon has been observed in other parts of the world, such as the west coast of Australia, the Adriatic, the zo h iore, &. Especial mention should here be made bservation by Horner, according to whom, the lead, when from a depth varying from 80 to 100 fathoms im the mighty Gulfstream off the coast of America, used to be hotter n boiling water. .- The facts above mentioned, and some others which might be clearly show that the loss of heat suffered by our globe J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. 413 : during the last 2500 years is far too great to have been without sensible effect on the velocity of the earth’s rotation. The rea- son why, in spite of this accelerating cause, the length of a day has nevertheless remained constant since the most ancient times, must be attributed to an opposite retarding action, This con- sists in the attraction of the sun and moon on the liquid parts of the earth’s surface, as explained in the last chapter. According to the calculations of the last chapter, the retard- ing pressure of the tides against the earth’s rotation would cause, during the lapse of 2500 years, a sidereal day to be lengthened to the extent of ;,th of a second; as the length of a day, how- ever, has remained constant, the cooling effect of the earth during the same period of time must have shortened the day ysth of a second. A diminution of the earth’s radius to the amount of 44 metres in 2500 years, and a daily loss of 200 cubic miles of heat, correspond to this effect. Hence, in the course of the last twenty-five centuries, the temperature of the whole mass of the earth must have decreased ;',°. - The not inconsiderable contraction of the earth resulting from such a loss of heat, agrees with the continual transformations of the earth’s surface by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions; and we agree with Cordier, the industrious observer of v pro- Se ete PU ea a ee ee eee eee aie 4 Le ee Pe adders aes . Cesses, in considering these phenomena a necessary consequence a of the continual cooling of an earth which is still in a molten : State in its interior. cooling of its then very hot mass. This accelerating cause - ually diminished, and as the retarding pressure of the tidal wave il appear to be ts shortest 414 J. R. Mayer on Celestial Dynamics. circumstances which, according to mathematical analysis, would tend to lengthen the duration of this period of the earth’s ex- istence. The historical times of mankind are, according to Laplace's calculation, to be placed in this period. Whether we are at the vanced the supposition that the loss of heat sustained by our globe must at some time render it an unfit habitation for organic life. Such an apprehension has evidently no meer aa for the warmth of the earth’s surface is even now muc e de- pendent on the rays of the sun than on the heat which eal ior ma. miles per diem. The heat therefore obtained from the latter source every day is but so in comparison to the diurnal heat sy te from the sun. e imagine the solar radiation to be constant, and the heat we Bak from the store in the interior of the earth to be cut es we should have as a consequence various changes in the physical constitution of the surface of our globe. The tempe lane of hot springs would gradually sink down to the mean temperature of the earth’s crust, volcanic eruptions would cease, earthquakes would no longer be felt, and the temperature of the water of the ocean would be sensibly altered in many places— circumstances which would doubtless affect the climate In many es of the world. Especially, it may be presumed that Western urope, with its pleasant favorable tat would become colder, and thus perhaps the seat of the power and culture of our race transferred to the milder parts of North America. _Be this as it may, for thousands of years to come W an so far as historic records teach, the climates, the temperatures of thermal springs, and the intensity and frequency of volcanic ; a aig are now the same as they were in the far past. _ It was different in proreetons aver when for centuries the _ earth’s surface was by internal fire, when mammoths lived in the now sninhabitabla lvoe regions, and vn the tree- ferns and the tropica -fish, whose oman — are now char 1 at home in all a er ais . ag Tea ae Scientific Intelligence. 415 Art. XLIT.—WNotice of a new fossil Annelid (Helminthodes an- tiquus), from the Inthographic py a Solenhofen; by O. C. Marsa, F.G.S., of New Haven, C DuRING a geological excursion which I recently made through the south of Germany, I spent several days at the lithographic quarries of Solenhofen, in Bavaria, and was so fortunate as to obtain a rich suite of fossils from that well known locality. One of the most interesting specimens in the collection is a new Annelid, which is so well preserved that not merely the outer form, but also the inner structure, can be determined with considerable certainty. The fossil is about 84 inches in length, and 2 of an inch in breadth. The alimentary canal is straight, of nearly equal size throughout the body, and appears to be filled with its original contents. This is, I believe, the first instance in which any part of an Annelid itself has been found preserved; the fossil remains hitherto referred to this class being either calcareous tubes allied to Tubicola, or certain impressions, ; tracks, and borings attributed to Annelids, but most of them more or less problematical as regards their ori igin At the last meeting of the Geological Society of Germany, held here on the 6th inst., I mentioned the discovery of this spe- cimen ; and, as it was evidently quite different from ang Ee previously meri I proposed for the species the mame He minthodes anti A careful eobipdtach with living forms will probab ly be ne- cessary to determine the true position of this fossil among the Annelids, to which class it undoubtedly belongs, diciough's some points in its structure seem to indicate other affinities. A description, with illustrations, will soon be ready for publication in the American Journal of Science. Berlin University, July 12, 1864. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I, CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS, 1. On the wave-lengths of the luminous and ultra-violet rays. —Mas- con- 416 Scientific Intelligence, seven hundred lines more refrangible than H, 9 from among them, for the sake of comparison, the lines L, , O, P, Q, R, already employed by physicists, as well as two others, S ai T, still more refran-_ gible and not previously studied. The wave- lengths were determined by” means of a ruled glass, executed by No bert, and containing about 44 lines to the millimeter. The following tabls gives the results of the measure- ments in thousandths of a millimeter B 068667 F 0:48596 N 0°35802 C 065607 G 0743075 O 034401 D_ 068880 H 0°39672 P = 0°33602 E 052678 L 0°38190 Q 0°32856 &b 051655 M 0°37288 R 031775 numbers contained in this table are the means of ten series of experiments which closely agreed. The author believes them exact to at least half a unit in the fourth significant figure, exzept in the case of the ultra-violet rays where the observation is more difficult. The numbers are in a little higher than those of Fraunhofer in his second series. — Comp ndus, \wiii, 1111. 2. On ‘the determination of wave lengths by means of interference iodide —Bernarp has re-invented and presented to the Academy of Sciences which the solar lines could be seen. If m be the eae of bands com prised between two rays corresponding to the wave-lengths 4 and #, and 8’ the differences between the — and extraordinary indices for these rays, and e the thickness of the plate, the value of 4 may be de- —, in which m is to be taken as positive duced from the equation 4= 5 or negative according as 4 is smaller or greater than i’. To determine the wave-length of any line in the spectrum, it is therefore only necessary to know a single wave-length, as for instance that of D, and the uantities 5, 0’, e, given directly by observation and determined once for all for the same whee = is —_ necessary to count the test of included lines me rays is produced by a plate of quartz 0°999"™ 12 oh "Tipe seach by wax to ssaideenmbics as to cover be ‘ e Chemistry and Physics. 417 half the width of the opening with a height of five millimeters; the inner border of the plate was parallel to the slit of the collimator. The I the following wave-lengths, taking Fraunhofer’s value for D, namely, 5888 ; A 7602 C 6557 E 5266 G 4305 ae 3969 border B 6865 Da F 4858 Hf 3967 centre. only original part of his paper—that the arrangement he proposes will give a simple and precise method of classifying the spectral lines, d —Comptes Rendus, lviii, 1153. WG 3. On the atomic weight of Thorium and the formula of Thoria.—De- being in each case resolved by sulphuric acid in the manner recom- mended by Marignac for cerite. The sulphate of thoria is heavy, white, the mass changes to clear and colorless crystals, which, according to arignac, belong to the oblique rhombic system. The sulphate was dried at . Upon this view, the sulphates must be written 2(ThO,, “Am. Jour. Scr.—Snconp Serres, VoL. XXXVIII, No. 114—Nov., 1864 33 > 418 Scientific Intelligence. 100; from Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, xviii, 343. Ww. G. 4. On Yittria.—An investigation of this rare earth by Porp in Woh- ler’s laboratory leads to the not unwelcome result that the metals erbium and terbium, which have long figured in our books and taunted our ig- orance, have no real existence; what has hitherto been consid ou in the form of sesquioxyd, as the protoxyd is not precipitated ime. e hydrate was found to have approximately the formula Yttria is a strong base which expels ammonia from its on boiling, and exhibits much analogy with magnesia; all of its erystal- them and does not arise from manganese or didymium. yttrium, when examined by the spectroscope, exhibit five distinct black absorption lines, which do not correspond with those of didymium, but are characteristic for yttrium. Of these lines, one lies in the extreme ee ae metal as 34, within the limits of the errors of the analyses: this Is l gen. The author has analyzed and described a large num- rendered the chemical history of the metals tolerably Chemistry and Physics. 419 complete. For the descriptions of the salts we must refer to the original memoir.— Ann. der Chemie und Pharmacie, |v, 179. 4 a Sonal © ae BN] 3 “4 ~ o 3 = 5. a “ Sesquioxyd of iron and some Mn, 1:82 271 Magnesia, - - - - 29°78 36-71 Lime, : - - - - 1°70 1" Loss (alkalies), - - 1:80 Rammelsberg concludes that the so-called chladnite is not a tri-silicate of magnesia, as made by Prof, C. U. Shepard in his analyses, but does not further educe the nature of the species. : : Dr. A. Kenngott, in his Uebersicht der Resultate Mineralogischer For- Smith appears to be owing to the fact that the latter, having a better Am. Jour. Sct.—Srconp Syrtes, Von. XXXVIII, No. 114.—Nov., 1864. 426 Scientific Intelligence. ane for eee — the pure white chladnite from the the meteorites, tates in his paper. In consequence of this, Prof, Smith crore in “his carefully made analysis no alumina and no om but cam the ingredients of a true enstatite, as he himself has anno De Ds 4, On petal: of Rhombohedral and Dimetric species often optically bi- axial—Brurruaurr has published, in Poggendorf’’s Annalen, cxxi, 326, a Seance of the quartz of Euba (near Chemnitz in Saxony), which Prince Salm-Horstmar had found ied bd best a biaxial shige Ann., 6 334), and in it claims to ha ave firs et is observation he occu tr bout + per cent of o ies we iron. It occurs in four narrow veins . in. to 2 ft. thick), associated with a feldspar aioli Breithaupt pro scribe under the name of paradozite,—a mineral which he had hitherts found only in tin-veins, and which, even in the Euba veins, afforded some tin ore on pulverization and w ashing. ‘These tin-bearing veins of Euba occur in the Permian red sandstone (Rothliegende). Breithaupt observes also.that chalcophyllite, most apatite and —_ since so a sce by Rewer ¢ also states that a grossular garnet from Siberia is uniaxial along one tetragonal rig sand that the manganesian garnet, of high specific gravity, is A an isotro Th tdticns froth the normal wriazial condition under the Di sae Shire observed. The amount of variation, uae is the point of greatest interest, is not mentioned by Breithaupt.—s. p. 5. Geschichte der davies von 1650-1 360 | pegtt of Mineralogy from 1650 to 1860); by Franz von Kopett. 704 pp. 8vo, with 50 iets ot Mi 1 lithographic ‘able Munich, 1864: J. G. Cotta. ie —a scholar in every sense o rm ra well oet)—an orl investigator—and a thorough mineralogist. His work is pam | div the od of the history ito progressing sciences of chemistry and sot the third, the Mirman! time, from 1800 to 1860. : Mineralogy and Geology. 427 Under each of these sections, the author takes up separately the physical, chemical, and taxonomic divisions of the science; and under the third, these divisions are further subdivided for separate treatment. The work closes with a history of mineral species, in which the time and author of original discovery, and many additional details, are given. . Mineralogische Notizen; by Friepricnh Hessenpere, 6 (finfte Fortsetzung), 42 pp. 4to, with 3 plates. From the Transactions of the Senckenburg naturt. Gesellschaft at Frankfort, v, 233.—This con- tinuation of Hessenberg’s admirable crystallographic papers includes arti- cles on crystals of Hematite, Blende, Malachite, Cassiterite, Sphene, Linarite, and Chalcolite. 7. Note on the volcanic peaks of Cotapaxi and Arequipa ; by J. D. Dawa.—In the sketch of the peak of Cotapaxi published by Humboldt, the slopes, as deduced from its profile or outline, are 52° on the right and 50° on the left. Dela Beche copied this figure in his Geological Ob- server, with the inclination a little more reduced, viz: to 48° and 45°. In photographs of this voleano taken from near La Tacunga, by Camilius Farrand, the average angle on the right is 27° 15’, and the steepest 19° 30’; while on the left, the slope is almost uniformly 30° 50’. In another view (see the following figure), from nearly the same direction, but taken from the base of the mountain, the greatest slope of the right out- oa trast between the true slope and its caricature. Arequipa, seen from the Carmen Alto, as shown by a photograph pub- lished at Lima by the “Sociedad Fotografica,” has a slope of 32° 50! in its outline or profile on the right side, and 27° 45! on the left side. The Si of this voleanic peak are therefore very nearly the same with those o otapaxi, nes 5 7 angle of 45° in a voleanic cone (such as Humboldt gave in his views), could have been made only by ejections of cinders; while slopes elow 34°, as are these here referred to, may be a result of ejections of of the Haute-Garonne in France, a pelvis of a Dinotherium has been found. It is of immense size, being 1-8 metres (5 ft. 11 in. English) 428 Scientific Intelligence. from one crest to the other of the iliac bones, 1°3 metres (4 ft. 3 in.) in height from the inferior symphysis of tNe pubis to the extremity of the superior spine of the iliac bones, and it indicates that the animal exceeded in size the largest of ancient elephants. It resembles most the pelvis of similar bone, much more perfeet, was obtained, approximately triangular in shape like the cavity. These are, beyond question, marsupial bones. The writer states that this vrtealation of the marsupial bone with the ilium instead of with the pubis, is not surprising, considering the many other abnormal characteristics of the Dinotherium ; and further that the tusks would enable it to bring within reach, The trenchant ridges and deep channels of the teeth show that the food was of a kind requiring powerful mastication, and therefore that above stated rather than the roots of plants. The size of the Dinotherium is further evidence on this point; for an elephant eats 150 to 200 kilograms (330 to 440 Ibs.) of food per day; and so many ‘pounds of roots would have soon exhausted the supply about the lakes they were supposed by Buckland to inhabit, Its tusks, besides subserving the purpose mentioned, must have been also their principal, if not only, means of defense. Being turned downward, they were ially adapted to strike with heavy blows the smaller ani- mals that would be re? to attack ta m. The writer also observes that while the neck of the huge animal w: ry short, the trunk must have been of great size, and that its use inched, in all probability, the putting of the young into its abdominal pouch, as well as the feeding of itself— From a letter from P. J. M. Sanna Bola; of Toulouse, in Les Mondes, oes of Se _ 9. H.von Meyer’s Paleontographia ; Beitrige zur Naturgeschichte der Vorwelt ; edited by W. Dunker—has reached its 13th volume, parts one and two ‘of which are just published. Ill. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. "1, Anew American station for Heather—The Newfoundland habitat of Calluna having been confirmed (vide i Journal, [2], xxviii, pha we have now the pleasure to announce that ssor Lawson,—late of King’s io te bs now of Dalhousie College, Halifax,—has bad the to light a new locality from the island of Cape Breton. seine ‘specimen which Prof. Lawson sends us was collected, on ‘a0eh of August last, “in a wet, springy ee among Spruce stumps, y soil, a a clay, on the farm of Mr. Robertson, St. Ann's, .» Cap e Breton Island.” He states “ke “it has been known gon’ eA a Highlander when mowing ee oe 2 Se ot ey ag ON fay eK oa eee me Oo hk ay omen DB | ae Re SC oS a oe ce Sle est seg ae en ee 2 (eee - a shes Rae as et Pato se, OE he ee Sie de cL Re. Mae to eee ab ees Botany and Reolegy. 429 who immediately ran to his master, Mr. Robertson, exclaiming, ‘I have found heather.” Full enquiry into the whole circumstances leads me to the belief that the Calluna has not been planted at St. Ann’s, but is a genuine native. There is only a small patch of it, not much more than RYAN ACTOS. 6.6 de). ts surroundings at t. Ann" $ are most appro- priate. Both in scenery and vegetation there is ‘siikiog resemblance to the Scotch Highlands. Gelic is the common language, and all “s gen- uine manners and customs of the Highlanders are there.” It is interest- ing to notice that the Heather appears to be even more restricted in this new station than in that at Tewksbury, Mass..—the indigenous character here with the rival claimants of the 2. Icones Muscorum, or Figures and Descriptions of most of those Mosses peculiar to Eastern North America which have not been heretofore Newfoundland, but is verging to extinction, not being able to compete egy soil. commonly two pages ‘of letter-press being devoted to each. The detailed descriptions are in Latin, as also the explanation of the plates; the ha itat and the geueral remarks are in English. The plates represent the oss of the natural size, as magnified, and with an ample series of ex- miite analyses ; for the most part there are as ma ny as twenty ey Bsa h plate. The drawings are placed to the credit of Mr. Au vant’s direction. They were engraved by Mr. Wm. Dougal, o = who ghee the plates of the Musci of Wilkes’s agi Explor Expedition. Probably upon no work of the kind has an equal pines of labor, knowledge, and expense been lavished. Only a small edition has been printed, “and it is published at a. price ($10 in gold) which, however considerable at present, will, it is understood, be ve: feed fronr covering the cos 3. Species Filicum : by Sir W. J. Hooxer. Parts XV an a XVL completing the fourth volume “i parts 2 XVIL and XVIII, constituting the sass and last etary econd half of the fourth volume an . 0 P. foe aeeibad in this Journal ({2], xxii, pr eae and and he she recently again described, figured, under the name o 430 Scientific Intelligence. osum, by Dr. Kellogg of San Francisco. No mention is made of the Californian P. faleatum Kellogg, an older name than P. pi eli ome Ea- ton, nor is the fact noted that besides P. awreum two other West In- dian forms, P, Plumula or P. pectinatum and P. Phyjllitidis have been collected in Southern shia a Fol ; aime ol: m (which as here arranged peppers: Suborder , Polypodiee) is Subordes X, Grammitidece, with eleven genera. Jamesonia, the first of them, is reduced to the original J. phere of the Andes. Wothochlena has twenty-seven species, of which five, WV. sinuata, ferruginea, candida, dealbata, ‘and Fendleri, occur in the region ay under the name of unghuhnii. tant is extended so as to include sige nominal Sear and not less than seventy-four species. This genus is most widely known fete the gold “~ — ferns of the aiherralocien, G. sulphurea, calomelanos, etc. G. t laris, one of the most golden of them all, is, may appropriately, a heh zen of California. G. podophylla Hook., species, is doubtfully identified with Mr. Charles Wright's No. 819 froth New Mexico. Brainea, Meniscium, and Antrophyum, do not occur in the United States. best taria lineata is found in Florida. Tenitis, Drymoglossum, and Hem er which Fée has made nineteen genera, Moore seventeen, and even the careful Mettenius not less than six, is here a saa into tw o,—Acrosti- chum, of one hundred and sixty-seven species, aud Platycerium of five. One species, A. aureum, is found on the coast of Florida, and in similar r sec- tions than this; and the arrangement here adopted has = saat aa of being intelligible and convenien In an appen ndix is given the Cyatheaceous genus Matonia, before ie The fifth volume contains the usual index i species and an tribes, suborders and genera to the whole w ee and useful work, which the ve ose uthor commenced more than twenty years ago, is now happily elite: but it will give = to all aiedonte of Ferns to learn by a note at the end of the vo ar aiming a well-earned leisure—he “is sei if life and health Ss spared him to aie ish, a volume, to be entitled ‘Synopsis Firicum,’ with brief characters of ‘the se sections, genera, and species of Ferns (omiting all really dubious ones), with general habitats, refe ev: nee, for synonyms, more full localities ay the pages of the present work ; progress Ae" e, undacee, Marattiacee, and Ophio- a needful supplementary volume to the Botany and Zoology. 431 ‘about with them so voluminous a work as the present.” Such a volume is much needed, and we sincerely hope that he may be able to complete this important and spirited undertaking. D. 67%. On the Skeleton of the Gare-fowl (Alca impennis), and the proba- bility of its being an extinct species ; by Prof. Owen.—It is assumed that the extinction of a well-marked species of animal is a matter of v great rarity in the historical times, at least as compared with prehistoric as good evidence of several species having become extinct within the last two centuries. Of these, Prof. Owen instanced the Dodo (Didus in- the Aptornis, in New Zealand; species of the nocturnal parrot, Nestor, adagascar. The Apteryx appears to be verging toward extinction in Proc. Zool, Soc., in the Atheneum, July 9. 5. Synopsis of the Bombycide of the United States ; by A. S. Pack- arp, Jr.—Part I, From the Proceedings of the Entomolo Society of Philadelphia, June, 1864. pp. from 97 to 130.—This paper is a commencement of a “synonymical list” of the Bombycide, with ex- tended notes. The part here issued takes up the Lithosiidee and Arctiade. 6. Review of American Birds, etc.; by Prof. Spencer f. DaTRD.— Sheets 4, 5, 6, containing pages 49 to 96 of this important work, an- nounced at page 303, have reached us. These finish the Turdide, and take up, in order, the Cinclide, Sazicolide, Sylviide, Paride, Certht- ade and Troglodytide. : a 7. Orypinehtion Stelleri—The Chiton described at page 185 of this volume, by Dr. Prescott, is the Cryptochiton Stelleri of Middendorf. 432 Scientific Intelligence. ITV. ASTRONOMY. 1. Discovery of another minor Planet, Sappho, (0). —Mr. Pogson, of the Observatory at Madras, announces the discov very by him of another small planet, on the 3d of May last. Its light was that of a star of the Oth-11th magnitude. Its position May 3d, 13 44m 118 Madras meau time, was, « = 16 12m 33-41; d = 16° 47! 10'"8, He has given to it the name Sappho. 2. Comet II, 1864, A very faint telescopic comet was discovered in ma Berenices, on the 28d of July, by Donati at Florence. It had a small star-light nucleus. In a few days it was lost in the sun’s light. Mr. Kriiger, of Bonn, gives the following elements, computed from the observations of July 28th, July 31st, and Aug. 2d. Perihelion passage 1864, Oct. 11-088, mean Berlin time. mt 169" 0° 26" Q = 31 5912 baie ve ave eres ting stars on ‘the night ‘of Aug. 9-10th, 1864. —At several laces ements were made to watch for the annual return of the August meteors. But fey tiess roca New England and the Middle States the air was so smoky that, on the night of the 9th, but a few of the fix stars near the sce were visible. isted me. ogi we saw 44 meteors during these three hours after which the clouds became too thick for us to observe. At Belvidere, N.J., Rev. H. 8. Osborn and Mr. G. H. Coursen saw be- tween 10h 20m and one o'clock, 29 flights. There was the same smoky _ sky as in New Haven. __ At Philadelphia, Mr. B. V. Marsh and Mr. R. M. Gummere saw through ws 13, os 105 40™ and 124, of which 12 were ce hs . ; T. Astronomy. 433 10$h—1 Lh, 11h—12h. 12h—Ib. tiie - - 13 38 60 Eas’ - - - 9 38 31 Sout th, - - 7 33 54 West, - - - 12 30 7 41 139 152 Soon after midnight one observer ceased to watch. The fo ollowing numbers were seen during the next ali and a half hours by the other three, making in all 1026 ite te 1h—2h, 2h—3h. 3h—3}h. North and eg 92 112 0 East and South, 75 80 13 South and West, 93 130 59 260 322 112 The small number seen by one observer during the last half hour was probably due to his fatigue and sleepiness. There seemed to be a large number of unusually fine meteors, apparently a larger proportion than usual. Only a small proportion of the whole were unconformable.. night, Mr. Bradley oe thirty, between one-half and two-thirds of which were conformabl t Lawrence, in Rise nsas, Mr. Wm. H. R. Lykins counted between the setting of the moon ahont half past ten) and one o'clock, over 300 me- aa sky was beautifully clear and cloudless, Mr. George Scarborough, in a letter from Riverside, Kansas, to the ee pes Press, states that on the same night from 104 to 1044, he unted sixteen meteors; from 1044 to 115, seventeen the next half i from 125 to 124 (sic), twenty. sive were nites. At one o’clock, not very well, he retired, bot a at three o'clock, ae uring one ahi. counted fifty. hat nights of “he 10th and 11th were unfavorable, but between 34 a © .M., Aug. 13th, he counted but séz meteors, though the sky was cle Mr, H. P. Tattle, on ia the Spee off Charleston, reports that he sat up to watch from 9! p.m. to 44 a. m., and saw only seventeen (?) dur- ing that time. The sky was 3 remarkably clear. H. A 4. Repor ey Luminous Meteors ; by Mr. J. GLAISHER.—The Report contained numerous observations of fireballs, or the largest class of me- teors, contributed for the eee prese: ted. The largest fireball de- scribed was the 5th o E rcs tee 1863, which produced the vivid | impression of lightning over the whole of the British Isles, Fire- balls described in Paris are greatly underrated, for meteors of the largest class are there rated as only six times brighter than Venus. Two small prepa were seen in a short space of time on the 21st of January, and o of the largest size on the 4th of July, 1864. Two fireballs closely flowed the observation of a large meteor at Athens by Dr. Schmidt, on the 19th of October, 1863; one in England, and the second on the coast of oo. This preference of individual dates is now well known, and es the attention of the Committee. Like the fireball of 1783, the Oe Ma het diveas pula We RL No, 114.—Nov., 1864. 55 : 434 Scientific Intelligence. meteor was composed of large and smaller globes, recalling the showers of stones at L’Aigle and Stranraer. The mechanical theory of the heat, roughly estimated from the light of twenty shooting stars, doubly ob- served i in August, she — the ne weight of these to have ee accounts for their want of penetrating power. Prof. Newton and Mr. Herschel have concluded independently, ot shooting stars commence at seventy miles and disappear at fifty miles above the surface of the earth.’ At sixty miles above the earth, shooting ee are far more frequent than at any other altitude, and they are Sone daerentd more between forty and eighty miles above the earth than in all other elevations put together. The region from forty to eighty = above the earth is the “stable at- mosphere” of Mr. Quetelet, as determined by the heights of shooting stars. It = on the received law of decrease of density, comprise lested by their presence. It appears necessary on this account to re- trench very greatly the weights of unproductive fireballs and shooting stars. Examples in the present Catalogue of a collapsing and res kindling meteors appear to favor an hypothesis that chemical affinities, unknown at ordinary temperatures, produce in sinha meteors a consid- erable portion of their unaccountable excess of light and heat. Ten me- teors have been estimated in the past year by a their apparent courses to the stars. The average heights and velocities ese are :— Height at first appearance, we miles ; at oem nt 68 miles ; length of path, 79 miles; velocity, 49 tuiles. per second. Frequent t observations of the radiant ete of shoetibibeties are recorded in the present Cata- logue. These have been observed on the 10th of August, the 30th of November, and the 6th of December, 1863, the 2d of January, the 10th and the 20th of April, and the 10th of August, 1864, by referring the meteors to twelve perspective charts representing the whole circuit of the constellations as they appear at akon of two hours above the wapors of the horizon in the latitude of Greenwich. The longest paths on these maps can be traced correctly with an aontind ary rule; and by their pro- corded, slowly accumulating from year to year, al more correctly to the eye by this means thai ge st rd oe wer ya without the aid i. maps; while shies radiant points observed in the past year, 1 it was — Fieved, would ete escaped attention had not maps been specially ya of ‘: vided i in adva' The observations of meteors on the 9th and 10t of ugust, 1864, ded display, ranking very nearly with the average of the phenomena, which, in the clear sky and sna the noon amounts to between thirty and forty per hour for a single observer wton afore wm that he has not & arrived at the conclosion here stated. Pie Ve ee ee Astronomy. 435 constantly regarding the sky near the zenith. In numbers there was not half, and in brilliancy not more than a small fraction, of the display of the previous year. It was less striking on the 10th than on the 9th o any indication of periodicity can yet be traced in the fluctuations of this compiling of the present Report, for this date has long since been no- ticed by Baumhauer, in 1845, and again more recently by Wolf, while would assign, if the planet had been originally in a fluid state ac- cordance with hydrostatical laws, a planet similar to Mars, and rotatory ’ 436 Scientific Intelligence. 1853, discussed the results of measurements made with the helio- meter, and arrived at substantially the same result. Although the late Mr. Arago referred to some of the author’s views regarding terrestrial one of the poles of Mars, a great mass of brilliant matter, analogous to a mass of terrestrial snow. This very substance is even supposed, with great probability, to seriously interfere wi accuracy of telescopic observations, owing to the optical disturbances arising from the irradia- tion of such an extremely bright object. It is also manifest that if this its dimensions to vary, and thus the power of the disturbing influence. circumstances show that great caution should be used in accepting a ago, when controverting and disproving an erroneous theory of the Earth’s figure, put forward by Playfair, and which has since acquired rial ocean. I have assign ; osing the ocean to have its present volume. It also a s that if the Earth had a very great ellipticity, such, for examp' so frequently assumed for Mars, the reverse would take place, and : Miscellaneous Intelligence. 437 the dry land would form an equatorial belt, while the poles would be enveloped in water. The dimensions of these circumpolar oceans, with the assumed ellipticity of Mars, could be also assigned, and they should . exist on its surface, unless there should be great irregularities in the density draw any conclusion from the results hitherto observed, and especially : . © 2 Ss BY o =} — ee o s a fas] a D or wn ° S o o @® n = i eo] o © a = a = Pp » 3 a hamal > @ = ce ¢ le @ _ —_ = Dp = oS i e ances are partly due to the presence of a liquid on its surface, we must conclude that its ellipticity has been generally exaggerated, and that the results of Bessel and Johnson’s observations are, upon the whole, nearer to the truth than those of other observers.— Proc. Brit. Assoc., from the Atheneum, Sept. 24, 1864. V. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, 1, Discovery of Lake-habitations in Bavaria; by Prof. Drsor.—The following account of the discovery of ancient lake-habitations in Bavaria, is from the Journal de Genéve of June 9th and July 6th. Prof. Desor Prof. Liebig was, to his great regret, unable to pany us. We began ot explorations on the right bank of the lake ; this offered us only some Roman remains of little importance. We reached a little island situated on the left bank, in face of the new sum- mer palace of King Max, now in process of erection. Here seemed to be a place where we might reasonably expect to find the remains of those ancient structures, if any had ever existed about the lake; and in fact we had not made the tour of the island before we discovered many me, DO! 1 ‘ fir, were so distinct that we could count through the water, here three : feet deep, the rings of growth of the trunk. The wearing of the piles at this place is i action of iee. Prof. vy. Siebold was delighted at the sight of these foundations, counting back thousands of 438 Miscellaneous Intelligence. years; for every thing indicated that here, as at Lake Constance, we had eome upon the age of stone. at is most remarkable is that these piles, which are almost a foot in diameter, frequently with a projection at the top, have the appearance of being continued in a line into the island, p esti as we had observed the year befo ore at Isoletta, on Lake Var so that it is very probable that the island of Starnberg, “while ars ihe name of Isle of Roses (Roseninsel), from the beautiful roses which are cultivated there, is (like that of Lake Varése, and that of the little Lake of Inkwyl) an artificial island. ut piles alone si not satisfy us. Remains more characteristic must be found if we would demonstrate that there existed here, as in Switzer- land, constructions ate and inhabited by ies not by ae vers. Benz was not long in discovering fragments of pottery. These included, as in Bviteerland, vases of a black color, impe ety burned, aaioned with the , but yet rudely ornamented ne e edge, sometimes with a groove ‘pidielinaes with impressions made oy the fingers, or ith a ring of i impressions a by both the fore finger and thumb applied to the neck of the va Prof. von Siebold, our zoologist, looked earnestly for bones among the gd and in less than two duet pa e had found remains of the horse, the ox, the wild boar, and ‘Ke wolf. fans which was not least bon aia cen broken, ete er foe that the ey aad been accumulated es of ‘soimals to ‘ebact Pues 3 marr phe You will rape? mee dap an expedition so successful, how eager we were to return to Munich and make known our discoveries to our friends, it is the great news of the day ; Bavaria has its eS fae: that the impulse has been given, all will press to the wo rof, von Siebold starts to-morrow morning with Benz for the lake of Chiem. " Or- ders have already been given to drag around the island of Roses and I do not doubt that, below the ae, seen layer of mud, hatchets and hie of flint will be discovered. Next we must copie: the Austrian r I am convinced that they too are not wanting in piles. [The editor of the Journal de Genéve of July 6th, wide the ‘oneal Ba of t etnies og its most active members, Profs. v. a ‘and Moritz as already obtairied interesting results. Already the number of pls examined b eon with the assistance of Mr. Desor’s fisher- man, amounts to eight, distributed among six lakes; two in lake ekg one in lake Chiem, si in lake Scblier, one in lake Seeon, one in _ dake Ammer, and yet one more in another little lake. At lake Chiem, eon appears to be artificial, like the island of Roses in lake ; 80 that a i) which, at the commencement of lacustrine ed so strange as to ‘pat it in piebi a is now decidedly estab- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 439 The greater part of these points have not yet been explored in detail, and consequently up to this time have furnished only the more common and abundant objects, particularly bones broken to extract the marrow, and fragments of pottery. From their general character, they would referred to the age of stone; but, before deciding positively, it is import- ant to wait the result of more careful investigations. Already, since the first examination, the piles of the island of Roses have furnished some objects in bronze, especially a hair-pin of large size, and quite similar to those of the Swiss lakes. As that island contains also Roman remains, and others belonging to the early centuries of the Christian era, it affords an example of a continuous occupation, such as has been observed in many of the Swiss lakes, particularly at Steinberg, on Lake Bienne, near Nidau. It is evident that some of these points have never been without island, includes many fragments of the same lacustrine pottery, which assed unheeded till now—another proof that in order to see, one must look with experienced eyes. Now that the way has been opened, we do not doubt that the lakes of Bavaria will prove as rich a mine as those of Switzerland.” : . Lake-habitations have been since found at Olmutz, in Austria, of the most ancient kind: and at the southern end of Lake Garda there are others abounding in curious bronzes. . : ; 2. On Spontaneous Generation and semi-organized bodies ; by E. Faesy. Yhemical synthesis enables us, beyond doubt, to reproduce a large number of proximate principles of vegetable and animal origin; but organi tion, in my view, puts an impassable barrier to these synthetic repro- ctions. ‘ = 410 Miscellaneous Intelligence. : 45 nomena of vegetation, and which germinates when submitted to the in- important: that of organic impulse (entrainement organique) = ; The semi-organized bodies may feel the vital impulse, and thus become involved in the process of organization by living beings under whose in- fluence they may be; they then form membranes, tissues, ferments; they can then organize themselves and decompose themselves; in a word they will be themselves living. It is thus that I understand the part played by albuminous substances in the phenomena of organic development and decomposition, tioned above, they may take or experience actual and ‘complete Organ; is time with an announcement of these first r communication I will take up the Miscellaneous Intelligence. 44] 3. Charcoal having the solidity and texture of mineral coal fo under pressure.—We have received from Mr. Robert Safely, of Cohoes, - Y., an account of the conversion of a portion of the wooden ste a ee iu Tad Sass oP eet bee i texture and appearance ordinary mineral coal, along with a specimen of the coal. The step was of oak, and about 10 inches through ; and when ing clogged with dirt. Mr. Safely states further that the fall of water to which the wood was subjected when it was converted into coal, was exactly 25 feet; and as the diameter of the wheel is 5 feet 7 inches, the pressure on the wheel would be measured by a column 5 ft. 7 in. in di- . ameter and 25 ft. high, less what is due to the water striking the bucket P at a small angle to the plane of the wheel. The gearing, wheel, shaft, : ete. weigh about 3 tons, which would give for the pressure upon the step, if the whole weight of the water was reckoned, about 20 ton 4. On the field of Vision in Man; by F. Foucovu.—Mr. Foucou gives the following results of his measurements of the amplitude of the field ‘ of vision in the case of two persons, Mr. Leboucher and Mr. Puchot Mr. Lesoucuer. Mr, Pucuor. i Right eye. Left eye. Righteye. Left we : Superior limit of the field, 68° 12! 63° 14% F 5 ° 3 Inferior limit “ fc oe 74° 41’ 16° 46’ 44° 3 Internal limit « 60° 5/ 67° 25’ 59° 54’ 64° External limit “ 101° 23° 97° 03’ 107° 52/ 99° Horizontal diameter of field, 138° 9/ 137° 55’ 129° 34” 128° Vertical - 161°28’ 164° 287 167° 46’ 163° The following conclusions are stated : That in the same individuals, the field of vision has approximately the same breadth in the two eyes along the same diameter, while the : horizontal and vertical diameters in the same eye differ widely. That in both eyes, in the case of both persons examined, the angle for . the outer limit of visibility is greater than a right angle, so that a ray of : light making an obtuse angle with the axis of the eye can nevertheless duce an image on the retina. That the angular limits of vision are not the same in different persons ; this difference for the superior limit of visibility amounts to 10° at least, but is almost nothing for the inferior limit; for the outer limit it may be 6°; for the inner but slight. Au. Jour. Scr.—Secoxp Sens, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 114—Nov., 1864. 442 Miscellaneous Intelligence. except at the joints, where he had succeeded in maintaining a certain degree of pliancy. The results obtained by Mr. Segato in this direction were altogether wonderful, and many strangers used to visit his collection at Florence, where he had settled. Nevertheless he was not encouraged, first, on account of his political principles, and, secondly, because the clerical party, which was then all powerful, got up a ery of impiety against him. His secret found no purchasers, and he died in consequence of a complaint which he had contracted in visiting some of the wildest parts of Africa. A short time after his death, the late Abbé Francesco Baldacconi, director of the Museum of Natural History at Sienna, ob- tained certain results which led to very strong hopes that Segato’s secret might be re-discover r. Baldacconi’s process consisted in steeping the anatomical specimen for several weeks in a solution of equal parts of corrosive subli an lammoniae, a mixture which by the earlier chemists was called sal alembroth ; and in 1844 a liver thus prepared was sent over by him to the Academy of Sciences here. This specimen had acquired the consistency of steatite, or of serpentine, and was per- fectly incorruptible. The Italian papers now state that a Sardinian nat- uralist, Professor Marini, has re-discovered Segato’s secret. His still more remarkable results than his predecessor. He has constructed a small table entirely composed of petrified animal substances, viz: brain, blood and gall, and having quite the appearance and consistency of brec- cia. His preparations are incorruptible, they preserve their natural color, and will resume their original state on being immersed in water for some time. Professor Marini intends to exhibit = preparations in ad aris now known to extend far to the west, ini cies as ian Sea to Van, Diarbekin, Malatia and Ienischehir. A considerable fall occurred in Oroo- miah, to the southwest of the Caspian, in 1829. It is common a:so in es Africa over Sahara. The manna is ground to flour and made into bread. Mr. - Hogg suggests, in The Reader of Aug. 13, that the ve southeast or northeast, which, falling with the rain, quickly Mr. Hogg refers to an article of his on this manna and the manna of the Israelites, in vol. iii, pp. 183-236, of the Zransactions of the Royal Society of Literat ture. B, Seemann, in the same Journal, observes that the manna of the Scriptures has been regarded, and with better reason, - the substance called manna which exudes from the Tamarix Gallica vat. es that , , from Dr. Landerer, ee Athe ! > in favor “ofthis opinion. He ot alkene ee eee a oleae Dales 5 = Sar nC CLE ng SES eis eNO am Boer Ne een Mine Coe T SP LAME OPEN Tate LPR Ree ee MEP Ie Re Sea ley rh am ASCH TC EPS: oe een ata . Miscellaneous Intelligence. 443 currence during the sojourn of the Israelites in the wilderness, On an ancient Factory of Flint Implements; by Abbé C. Curva- of arrow-heads, hatchets, knives 15 to 20 centimetres long, of lance- heads, &c. have been obtained from it. Cut stones (noyaua taillés) of of industry.— Acad. des Sci. Paris, from Les Mondes, Aug. 25, 1864, 770 8, Discovery of Fossil Stone Implements in India.—At a recent meet- Scotland and Ireland, had been met with in large numbers in Central india, but never actually imbedded in any deposits. They were inva- d i single and very doubtful fragment of a stone implement had been found by Mr. W. Theobald, Jr., in examining the deposits of the Gangetic plains near the Soane river. This occurred in the Kunkurry clay of that district; but, with this exception, he was not aware of any stone imple- below the surface, cut through by streams, and in one such place, from which some of the specimens nens on the table were procured, there stood an 444 Miscellaneous Intelligence. old ruined pagoda on the surface, evidencing that, at — - the time of its construction, surface was a permanent one. of gravel owas in a places exposed on the surface, and had Best sorely de- nla and it was in such localities, where these implements had been ashed out of ~ bed, and lay strewed on the surface, that they were tricts where they rred, W noble remains of what would by many be called Druidival aie: eles of large standing stones, cromlechs, eaten often of large size and well Sat a all of whic sh were tradi- found j in these andine structures were esc Sar n. No snfohnailk whatever regarding these stone implements eat is obtained from santry, who had sine ah unaware of their promesge eBee of the 332); by the Author: In my article on Prairies, the belief is ex that the assumption of the onibility “ the almost indefinite suspension of = vitality of seeds, required by m sand ag would eas the greatest end Nature,” p. 285, et 8eq. This werk has but ‘at fallen into my hands. Mr. Marsh ae with Dr. ——— thet the _— of seeds Sr Miscellaneous Intelligence, 445 known in the primitive forest within a distance of fifty miles; also, Dr, Dwight’s account of the appearance of a field of white pines, on sus- was exclusively of angiospermous trees. “The fact that these white Pines covered the field exactly, so as to preserve both its extent and figure,” says Dr, Dwight, ‘and that there were none in the neighborhood, are decisive proofs that cultivation brought up the seeds of a former forest = limits of vegetation, and gave them an opportunity to germ- has ho. aston established in Denmark * the researches of Steen- — on the preis or Forest-bogs, of that country lows Acad. Sci. i, =e al that “a great store of frre” is found lying “at their whole lengths” in the “fens and marises” of Lancashire and other counties, where not even bushes grew in his time. (See further, Monee Man and 5 selbte p. 222.) No doubt such extinct forests have flourished in merica, even since the Glacial epoch, and have stocked the pacotion i soils with their stores of vitalized fruitage, svete some future resur- rection; and no do so the “fens and marises” 2 of Lancashire, under suit- able circumstances, would reproduce from their granaries of forest fruit, the arboreal repuetiod which had flourished and disappeared before the an conques Ann Arbor, Mich., Oct. 15, 1864. 10. A jet dean made by means of the heat which air, when confined confined urider glass, if it receive the ‘i rect rays of the sun, will be- come much: heated, far se the temperature of the rays, owing to the | glee nin pepo she hotbed to the rays of the sun. Two curved tubes rnished with stopeocks pass under the black bell, one of them to sup- = water — it is required, the other to yj exit rs the Beings oe ne 446 Miscellaneous Intelligence. heat in its passage through the walls of the bells, an effect that goes on accumulating without cessation—the air situated above the water dilates, and by its pressure causes a jet to rise, attaining sometimes in Mouchot’s trials a height of nearly 33 feet. When the water is exhausted, a sereen placed before the sun will cool the interior and cause the water to return, or a new supply may be introduced through the supply-pipe. ie times the shade “aio over the apparatus by ner caused i oat much to their surprise.— Les Mondes, Sept. Method of hesthigitiip the larves of Weevils. sable, Marsaux has used splithaiine with success for exterminating the larves which for some years have suas fas the ges in the — . eras The poison- fatty solid, has first to be reduced to powder r and mixed with fine, st sa t is powdered by means of an iron cylinder, or a wooden pestle armed with iron.—Les A/ondes, Sept. 8, 12. British Association.—The British Association met at Bath o Wednesday, the 14th of September. In the accounts of the oui which have reached us from England, the only American name men- tioned among those of “distinguished Foreigners” is * Commodore Maury of the Confederate States.” Sir Charles Lyell delivered his inaugural — in the theater of Bath. Besides the usual scientific meetings, several geological and archeological a conversa- zione in ee “ Assembly-rooms,” Thursday night; a discourse in the the- ater, Friday evening, by Professor Roscoe ; another by Be Livingstone, onday ; and a Microscopical soirée, Tue he session close t the recent meeting 2788 tickets were sold, making for the income from this source £2964. The balance in hand is tate to be £3622, 17s. The oa, SERRE has, also, funds in Consols to the amount of £8500. The ches in science, carried forward under the auspices of the Aasocintion, nese in ein ee while for the present year the large sum of £2037 has just been The Report for the meeting in 1863 has been issued, making a volume of more than a thousan British Association will meet next year at Birmingham, when Sir Charles Lyell will surrender his presidency to Prof. Phillips, of Oxford. 13. tity to the British Association, at Bath, on a uniform system ness Rap f mitorenes.--The Committee of the British Association re- M.P. (who was aes of Com ons, and who conducted the meas- i tk h Parliament), the Master of Miscellaneous Intelligence. 4aT the Mint, Sir John Hay, Prof. Hennessey, Mr. James Heywood, Dr. Lee, Prof. Levi, Professor Miller, Prof. Rankine, Rev. Dr. Robinson, Colonel Sykes, M.P., Mr. Tite, M.P., Professor Williamson, Mr. Purdy, and Mr. ates, Among the recommendations of the committee are the following: | (4.) That it be recommended to the government, in all cases in which statistical documents issued by them relate to questions of international interest, to give the metric equivalents to English weights and measures, (5.) That in communications respecting weights and measures pre- sented to foreign countries which have adopted the metric system, equiva- lents in the metric system be given for the ordinary English expressions for length, capacity, bulk, and weight, - (6.) That it be recommended to the authors of scientific communica- tions, in all cases where the expense or labor involved would not be too great, to give the metric equivalents of the weights and measures men- tioned. 14. Analysis of a Hot Spring containing Lithium and Cesium, in MILLE bg is 230 fathom level; average yield 150 gallons per minute; specific grav- ity at 60° F. 1007. 646-1 grains of fixed salts per imperial gallon are obtained on evaporation. These consist of Grains. hlorid of potassium with a little chlorid of cesium, 14°84 Cc Chlorid of lithium, = - - 26°05 Chlorid of sodium, = - - - - - - asset Chlorid of magnesium, ee ne 8°86 Chiorid of calcium, = - « * - - - 216°17 Sulphate of calcium, - eT St te 12°27 of iron, manganese and aluminum, - - per 448 Miscellaneous Intelligence. : Cubic Inches. In 1 imp. gallon the gases amounted to . 8:91 Consisting of — Carbonic , - - - - 1:89 eee, 8 oy ei Gare eee re 1-72 Nitrogen, - - - - - - - . 5°30 Ratio of oxygen to nitrogen gas, : Proc. Brit. Assoc., Pom The Reader, Oct: 8. On the Temperature of the Sexes ; ; by Dr. Davy.—The at. g Aristotle that a man possessed more warmth than a woman, had disputed; and it had been held by uae as the result of mo oe ge re- ’ sear , that the temperature of women was slightly ee aia to that of men, "The author censidered the si opinion the more t; Taking the sit the temperature of males and females was as 10: 38 = 10°13. The r of some elaborate experiments recently instituted was that the six fowls hoes the Bb atte of 108°33 for the fordia to 107-79 for the latter— Proc. Brit. Assoc., from The Reader, Oct. 8 n Crude Paraffin “Oil; by Dr. B. H. Paut. ~The author re- marked that very oe Aare ‘had hitherto been paid to that portion of crude paraffin oi hich was heavier than water, and its existence had d . He fed, however, that the oil obtained from cval, or any nage? oreesteae We! distillation at a moderate heat not exceeding low cisel} "the e same as the oils heavier than wae beg are contained i in the oe aad ockae bituminous minerals, which are exceptional in so far as they yield by distillation a _produet containing the light oils in much ‘proportions e heavy oils—Proc. Brit. Assoc., from The Reader, Oct. 8. 17. German Association —The twenty-ninth meeting of the German pocation, = this year at Giessen, was brought to a conclusion on the > after eg nis meeting, more than a pera — TS an associates ing. present. Spontaneous generar al theories were among the matters discussed at some length.— Miscellaneous Bibliography. ct) 17. White Fish of the Great Lakes of N. America.—A writer in the Atheneum urges the introduction of the “ celebrated White Fish of the Canadian Lakes” into the “lakes of Cumberland and Scotland, now al- most valueless,” . «» OBITUARY. Francis Atcer.—Francis Alger was born in Bridgewater, Massachu- setts, March 8, 1807, and died suddenly at Washington, of typhoid pneu- monia, Nov. 27, 1863. His taste for Mineralogy and other branches of science was first awakened in 1824. In 1826, he went to Nova Scotia ad adapted to American science by the addition of lists of localities, VI. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist.—This valuable bi-monthly sci- entific Journal, published at Montreal, under the auspices of the Natural ‘istory Society of Montreal and containing its Proceedings, closed its first series with the end of the 8th volume, and began its second with Am. Jour. Scr.—Seconp Series, Vou. XXXVIII, No. 114.—Nov., 1864. 450 _ Miscellaneous Bibliography. February of the present year. The editors for the year 1864 are Dr. J. W. Dawson, Prof. T. Sterry Hunt, EK. Billings, Prof. 8. P, Robbins, 2. Organic Philosophy, or Man’s true place in Nature; by Hucu Donerry, M.D. Vol. [, Epicosmology. London; Triibner & Co.—Mr. Doherty introduces his work on Man’s true place in Nature with the statement that “Man is not merely a skeleton, nor is external nature a congeries of bones.” “There are in man a body and a soul, and both must be well understood before we can discover his true place. The hu- man skeleton is but a fragment of the body; and though, to those who are well versed in comparative anatomy, a part of any physical organism may show the nature of the whole, still a fragment of the body gives no adequate idea of the living soul, which is the man.” He proceeds from this as his basis, and bringing to bear upon his great subject a wide range of philosophical knowledge, has produced a work that will be read with interest and profit by those interested in the great question of the day. His views of classification of the various departments of nature are to a PY . 1864: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts and Green. Price 1s.—Con- tipper ogy, and also of Prof. A.’s magnificent series of drawings made from life by Mr. J. Burkhardt. The plate con- figures of five species—Bunodes Stella Verrill, Rhodactinia Davisii Haleampa producta Stimpson, Zdwardsia sipunculoides Stimp- esting ips ng Miscellaneous Bibliography. 451 Annual Report of am Geological Surve “¢ “A —— for 925 year 1862-3. Memoirs of the G iain Survey of In Paleontologica Indica. Vol. II. Part 6. The Fossil Tom the Raj net pi te Ben ae by T. Otppam and Jouy Mo orris. Vol. ee eg as Foss Cephalopoda of the Gaines Rocks of India (Ammonitide); by F. Srote a ntologie Fr. rave, ou Descriptio n ae animaux invertébrés fossiles de la Fra Tome VII. Terrain Crétacé; Livraisons 8, 9, 11, 13, 14; by G EAU. 1862, 1 Jahres bericht Prasat die Fortschritte der Chemie, etc., for 1863. First Heft. Gies- sen, August, —The _ hresbericht is now edited by Heinrich Will, aided by Cc. Bohn, Th. sored A Knop. Rambles in the ecg“ Mathtaing, with a visit . the pee ies of Colorado ; by Maurice O’Coynon Morris. London. 1864. ue Eld On the Right Ascension of the Pole Star as i bsiosses rom naervation; by T. AFFORD, Assistant at the Observatory of Harvard College 3 pp., 8vo. From the Proceedings of the American mere of Arts and clones, vol. VI. Printed for Saag Observatory of Harvard Col A Register of Pre ang in Colinas from 1800 to 1863; by Dr. Joun B. Trask. 26 pp. 8 m the Proceedings of the California Acad. Nat, Sci. San Francisco, 1864. ere: EDINGS 0 tae Acap. Nat. Sct. die top owe Racha i weet pay ae ) fornia; 7. Gill. 151, Wetes on some + laa s in Icht gy (aK species Pereopais ; history of the name Gymnotus; genus Hing Cam; mpe melange of Ra- finesque): 7. Gill.—p. 153, On new v species va ile eR from Puget Sound, col- lected by. the Naturalist “¢ the N.W. Boundary Commission, A. H. Campbell, Commissioner (spécie: f Crustacea of the denen — pete dothes, roides, Caprella, pan gee Anonyx, Gammarus, Amphit , thea; of fyi : o> ad - 3 =] io] 9 a aa o oO i. = ® a") os E iS 3 =] Po zF oF © [ 28 ga, pelise ra neuen aspi L'unicata of the genera Cynthia, ‘Chelyso ma; of Holothuride of the genus Penta ta); W. Stimpson.—p. 161, The influence of the Earth’s atmosphere on the color of the Stars; J. Ennis—p. 166, Contributions to the Herpetology of tropical America (species of Caudisoma, ee on - uca, Chamzleolis, Eupristis, Xpho- OCEEDINGS oF THE Essex Institute, Vol. Iv, No. 2.—Notes on the family Zy- nidze, with two pi pedir ncluded; A. 8. Packard, Jr.—Catalogue of Birds found at Spr ingfield, Mass., with notes on way Pani Habits, &e., together ies a list — the Birds found in the State and not yet observed at Springfield; J. A. Puc ROCEEDINGS OF THE AwER. Patt. Soo, Vol. IX, No. ahe-Page 291, Height of tides; P. #. Chase.—p. 294, a Dace element in England; H. Coppee.—p. 330, Obit- uary of W. _Darlington; a fe James.—p. 345, Barometric fluctuations and temper- ature ; Chase.—p. 35 5, Heat and muscular energy ; hase.—p. 360, Syevtane of paper wood; R. Briggs.—p. 3 w flax-fibre m. : Emerson.—p. 367, Magnetic currents; P. E. Chase.—p. ir sr _ marten corps #. Peale.—p. 372, Letter of Prof. Zantedeschi on spectral —Synopsis paper on the influence of Ether - ae Solar System; A. ent. 888, On the Abbeville quarries; J. P. Lesley. p. 395, Effects of rotation on the barometer ; . Chase,—p. 399, On the ties soe ose Seca iotiee Oatcslor ihene Ble tla oot C rative Osteology, to con- Comparative Osteology, an mentary as of Comparative sist of 12 plates is ce a n stone cee “av eerste kins, Esq., the fig- ures | pee center by P rol on me Bor EY, F.R.S. eee Archeology, heme the Primitive Condition of Man in — ; by Jonny Lussock, F. RS. President of the Ethnological Society. 1 rot ea aot numerous woodcut illustrations. bscriptions are solicited for oe eee work, to be issued by the K. K. G of ieakgocke botanisel vee esellschaft Nou emgage Blattaires, par M. Charles Brunner de Wattenwyl. Subseription price in Vienna, 4 Austrian flo- rins, Twal sookine “isripton of about Wee cea ot Wax Dias family, many of them new, with 13 copper-plates. INDEX TO VO LUME XXXVIII. A aes C., transparency of the atmosphere ape ell, periodic Gears in the magnet- earth, ism of the Beneden’s oleae &e., ’ 295. ow’s method for the elements||Pinocular microscope, Smith on Tolles’s, Brunn ofa comes orbit, 79, Academy of Nat. Acid, cobaltic, Wi nkler, 266. — monocarbon, converted into dicar- Gicaroess Clark on, 381. ther, se ee Ether Comp. 7 Tok notice of memoir b ryology of pee gan ores steers : “agonal aey for sale, 301. Alger, F., obituary of, Alps, coal in, 122. American 451. Andes, new pass across, 147. on a seam of coal, 194. Sci. Philad., Proceed- RS ae of English birds in Australia, report, by, on Museum of , On em- Phil. Soc., Proceedings of, 152, ysi ee ee Warren, Bp 111. Bischof, on a new verbo # 419. Blood, animalcules electricit ty = Bowen, 110. Bone-cave, s | agp Fert ae 122, 289, 428. OT mus, 2 Equiseta, geog. distrib. of, 126. pagent essay on the metamorphism plant Heath i in N. Ameri 122, 428. al American, 128. of crystals sometimes biaxial British ie gbiertanr 301, 446. Bro: assium a narcotic, 267, acto on pollux, 115. ato sl British American , 291. EB. Animal substances, petrifactio n of, 441. — = Fee M Tpttoucn’s Bneyelopedts ‘308. ret ee al anatase, etc, 424, Astronomi t Ch j ctnioal and Sicscareianton! pm tion of France. Lael Astronomy, see CoMET, METEOR, oly ralegs SHOOTING STARS, "SOLAR system, Sun ao German ‘ Atmosphere, on transparency 0 seo 28.)) Atmospheric curren currents, origin of, Mayer, Atomic weights, Rose, 324, B Babbage ’s Passages from the Life of a Phi- _losopher, 303. : : tes Review of Araneta Birds, 303, California, on 5 the sng survey of, by Whitney, 256, 208 laciers i in, 258. Kew n mines of, Silliman, Jr. high mountains 3, rising of sp i i y n Naturalist and Geologist, 450. ariboo gold district, arrington on Sun spots, aspian, volcanic pote in, 118. atalysis, H, Rose, 31 ave, bone, in Borneo, 148, ave- —- in the Holy Land, 1B. 2. of - gman’ eriod in South- mn e evcaieee =f Pg D382, INDEX. psa formed under pressure, 441, Chase, 1, barometric indications of a tides, 221 dependence. ‘of terrestrial magnetism on oe currents, 373. e of heroide tric fluc tuations, 380. Georiatre history of, cana with the life of ose, Chiton, species of, 1 185, 431. ctures, C. ‘A. de Chimenti pic ‘oy, 199. Chlorochromic acid, spectrumf, 109, oe Actinophrys Eichornii, near Peking, S. 119. in sees 288, onas f, BB way 194, obalt compound, new, Braun, 113. Gobaltic 2c id, 266. omets’ orbits, Brunnow’s method for elements of, ese 79. of eee Crol roll, J., pose of erratic: 267. Crookes mn thallium, 266. Crystals, rhomboledra and dimetric, sometimes biaxial, 4: D Dana, J. D., slopes of Cotopaxi and Are- quipa, 427. Dawes, W. R., on the solar surface, 203. — J. W., fossils of the Laurentian, rift, 233. DeCandolle’s Prodromus, 290. Desor, E., on lake-habitations, 437. Devonian, see GEO Dexter, W. P., biography of H. Rose, 305. us, un Dinccietan. o a Marsupial, 427. oherty’s — Philosophy, 450. Dolerite of Canada, Hunt, 175. — bry wave — cur: “heat - Platerion 453 ae to the Holy Land and Dead Eyes, field of vision of, seca F Fish, White, of Great Lakes, proposed in- troduction of into Reon, 449, a see GEOLOG ghey s Manual of Qualitative Analy- ae: on spontaneous generation, 439. G reer iron = 8 inventor of, 301, Geos ical . E : h distribution of Equiseta, 126, ological survey of California, Witney, " rer Es gc Santander, &c., 119, sonee “Anneli, , fossil, of Solenhofen, Marsh, Barrel-quartz of Nova Scotia, Silliman, 1 iforn transition to Terdary, ae 287, Devonian nature of sandstone, in Rosshire, Scotland, ee Dinotherium a = ol igges of Canada, sores ift, Dawson, 283. an remains, s see Man and Cavern, Laurentian fossils Lias, transition to Oolite, in England, fame Y, Lin; flags of Wales, fossils in, Salter, ae Mastodon in n Michigan, Winchell, 223. Oneida conglomerate, £. Jewett, 121. Pe nO Murchison, 287, Quicksilver mines of California, 190, Rheetic beds of land, ian rocks of N. Scotia, Honeyman, Tertiary in ara piesean: 5 ge Triassic in Eng- land, |, 284, 285 ae of the Sierra Nevada, Whit- gi egg cho . ng of, in ime, Mayer, 407. See further, VoLcanic. ociation, Eeypty| ey for Eivooet ons in, 300. ||German Associa 448, Eke pn dec bree overs ©. P.|| Gibbs, ny chemical abstracts 106, 265, 415, Blowin discha arge, Feddersen, 421. spark, study of, by aid of photogra- phy, Blecticiy of of the blood , Scoutetten, 1 0. the dark lines in the spectra formation of, Rose, 319. | en Gibbons, H. e rising of streams in California, 187, Gibraltar, tar, hi man remains in caves in, 282, Glaciers in Californi sac laisher, luminous meteo: Gold in British Co amibieg Padbee dis- tri Gold oe in Nova a Silliman, 104, li | ett hat, ik, ppt eal of chlorochromic acid, 109, Gray, A., Botanical pee aad se a a ea ena ata Tietiecions of, at Cambridge, 128. 454 INDEX. _ [Lithology, 7. 8. Hunt, 91, 174 Hist., N. Y., Annals of, 152. Haidinger, on meteoric irons, Lyceum Nat. ; — ee, on the Elgin (Rosshire) sand- BG 7 ue de, expedition of, to Dead Heat packed by the earth from the sun, of interior of earth, Mayer, 404. of earth, cooling of, in past time, Heat-vibrations, Croll, 267. Heath in N. A 258, 298. cky Mountains (Pike? 8 ok oa ag of, by gunnery prac- nts magn period depending on the sun’s op tee Hough, G. H., ona machine for catalogu- ing stars, 166. t T. S., contributions to lithology, 91, 174. Huxley’s Comparative Anatomy, 294. Indium, Reich on, 113. Infusorial earth of Bilin, analysis of, 277. pigerros ray , a cause of their de- heats, violet colors from, 148. sensitive reaction for, 265. Jet-d’eau from air heated under glass, 445. Jewett, F., on gp Ribera ie 121. Johnson, "s. of Meissner on ‘Ozone, 18. Joy, C. A., on the Chimenti pictures, 199, K — D., Harmonies of solar system, Metall lurgy Me alae ae Lyell, title of baronet to, 301. Magnetism of the earth, dependence of, on atmospheric cur rents, Chase, 373. of the earth, on periodic changes in, Bax reap 269. Magnetic period SepenciNg on the sun’s rotation, ‘Hinrich Magnus, cox ptitution of the sun, 106. msation, 109, 110. Mammals, Trial, of Engla and, 284, 285. Man, penn the Reindeer in France accompanied by the Mastodon in Cal- iforn “flint ‘implements of, etc., in England, Glenluianiiee of, in India, ancient factory of “flint- implements oe s of, in a cavern in Ags Pyren- of, in caverns of Bruniquel and Gibraltar, vom 28: d of vision age He. n, 435. aw eae GS . ‘fossil Annelid, 415. n Michigan, 323, tial dynamics, 239, 397. | Meissner, os, oan ppt of reducing, Pouma- 267. f Percy on, 149. notice 0 i 8. Hunt, 18 158, see Meteorite, Bishopvile J. L. Smith, pos Ram ‘ ngott, 425, elsberg and Ken Kobell’s Geschichte d. Mineralogie, 426, oa Jods Fait 386. . ” |hMeyer’s Paleonto tographia, | Microsco = gee wedy of “Tolls, 111. ior tices of Norway, marine crustaceans in,|| Miller, Bet : 2988. on shite ie tnneprenc i Lake-habitations in pa 439. analysis of : gig ring in Bavari — , 447. berg's, 42 cephalic vertebra, 208, , ee of History of, by Wren fossils of, Dawson, 231. v. Kobell, - ; C., platinum m etals, 81, 248. gy temas note ‘on aldehyde, 114. artifici on a colored derivative of naphtha- Brookit, ae 424, pois Coven Min, See 243. || of certain a INDEX. MINE : eB ES J. A. Michaelson, 275. Hornblende, Mitscherlich, 116. q Meier ott Jarred Rammelsberg, 116. Kokscharoyite, Hermann, Tica, Mitscher eben 116. minera Orthite-1 1, 275, adozite. Planerite, cP aietnds , 276. ollux Fisaniy, ney 115, ‘yroxene, analysis, Rammelsberg, 118. oot Euba, 436, adiolite, J. A. aeons 274. d pov artificia ener, 276. japolite, coined identical with, 277. ° e, J, A. Michaelson, 274. epee irs alysis, pale nt 118. taurotide, Mitseh erlich, 116. ic) is i ni i y y aoe Zinc, native, of Australia, 277. Mitscherlich, A., on separation of sesqui oxyd and protoxyd of i M, a Molecular physics, rse *s Pulmonifera of Main Murchison » Be I., medal to, iss Murchison, 0 the Permian of Seed Muscovy duck, 294. Mus pote, of Boston Soc. N. H., dedication of, i set Zoology, at Cambridge, report on,|| Ram N a Molluscs *Pulmon: mite era, rial, of Maine, notice of work pr ney Morse, Musco — Aas U. 5 pears notice of Verrill Raia ‘Batis, 4 — of, notice of orig ate ions in, 131. Sexes, production of, hore ry, 182 af on pees "Lavocat, 298. erte e cc. cimess ge of ak Cambridge, report on, Butterflies, notice of Weidemeyer’s Cat- ag of, 135.