AMERICAN JOURNAL

SCIENCE AND ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY
Proressors B. SILLIMAN anv JAMES D. DAN A,

IN CONNECTION WITH
Proressors ASA GRAY, ann WOLCOTT GIBBS,
,or CAMBRIDGE,
AND
Proressors S. W. JOHNSON, GEO. J. BRUSH, anp
H. A. NEWTON, or NEW HAVEN.

SECOND SERIES.
VOL. XLV.—[WHOLE NUMBER, XCV.1
Nos. 133, 134, 135.
JANUARY, MARCH, MAY.

NEW HAVEN: EDITORS,
1868.

Nea ta,
PRINTED BY TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR, 221 STATE sr.
Miss0uR! BOTANICAL
ARBDEM LiBRARY

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLV.
NUMBER CXXXUL
Page.
t Art. I—Evidences of Glacial action on the Green Mountain
8 Summits; by Epwarp HuncerrorD,......... ...... 1
% II.—Notes on the Quicksilver Mine of Santa Barbara, Peru.
Condensed from a MS. Report by C. E. Hawtey,..... 5
III.—Notes on the Quicksilver Mines of Almaden, Spain.
Condensed from a MS. Report by C. E. Hiway, etess 9
IV.—Extracts from the Address of Sir R. I. Murcurson,
President of the Royal Geographical Society at the An-
niversary meeting of the Society, May 27, 1867, ...... Vo
V.—Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale
College. No. XVI—Contributions to Mineralogy; by
Bevaniy &: Beeron,; 6 hs ee 34
VI.—On the occurrence of thick beds of Bituminous Gneiss
and Mica Schist in the oe in Sweden; by L. L.
RMON io cece Ook on oe 5 Cr ee 0 38
VIL—On a new Binocular Bee hiss for high powers ; by
Re En nis og ke sce ea eka «8 42
VIllL—On aes from St. Lawrence County, N. Y.; by
oe ee eee 47
IX.—On the Setion of hydrated hypéekdoteds acid on Oil of
Turpentine and Camphor; by C. Gizsert WuHEELER,.. 48
X.—On the Oxydation of Diamylene with Chromic Acid ;
let Sind bitten 57
X1.—Preliminary notice of a remarkable new genus of Cor-
sisson es 62
XII.—Note on the shell structure a family affinities of the
genus Aviculopecten; by F. B. Merk, .............- 64

| XIIL.—Correspondence of Prof. Jeromz Nicks, dated
: Nancy, France, Oct. 22, 1867,

eee Reece ee eee eee ee eee

iv CONTENTS.
. Page.
XIV.—A new Meteoric Iron from Mexico; by J. LAwrENncr
SMITH, S55 ss vo ewe ees Toe. a Ree & |
XV. Shoots Stars on the morning of Nov. 14th, 1867, . 78
XVI.—Notice of a peculiar mode of occurrence of Gold asd
Silver in the Foot-hills of the Sierra ee California ;
by. Be Betas ces os Scene ce ve ces ces De ess ss 92
XVIL—Observations on Skylight Polarization i in oivieks: :
by Enwanp O. Cuase,.... 2... 0000 ootcucsiveseese, 96

| & —Editorial Correspondence. — Explorations in Russian

Ww ,
Geography of the Andes of Quito; by James Orron,
99.—Rocky Mountain Coal beds; by F. V. Haypen, 101.
IL.—Editorial Note, 102.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

and Physics—Note by J. D. Dana, 109.—On the Source of Muscular

MER, 112.—On Dynamo-magnetic
© F.R.A.S., 115.—On a real Image Stereoseope, by J. CLERK MaxwE 1, 116.

alogy and Geology.—Extract from a paper on Borates and other Minerals i
Panes and Gypsum of Nova Scotia, by Prof. How, 117.—Pteropodes Situriens
la Bohéme, ete., par Joachim BaRRANDE, 120.—Musée Teyler: Catalogue sys-
pea as de Is Collection Paléontologique, par J. C. WINKLER: Siluria; a his-
tory of the baoege rocks in the British Isles, etc.: Materialien zur Mineralogie
Russlai on NIKOLAI VON Ki Ww, 121.

Botany and Zoology.—Botanical Necrology for the year 1867, 121.—The Journal of
and Physiology, 124.—On the actual state of our information relative to

the ‘ Leporide,’ or picid between Hare and Rabbit, by Dr. Prezaux, 127 His-
tory of the Fishes of Massachusetts, by Davin Humpureys So: MLD., etc. :
Index to vol. I to XI, of Observations on the Genus Unio, ete., by 1sak0 Lea,

LL.D., ete., 129.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Earthquake in Kansas, by Jonn D, ParKER, 129
__ —On the Voleanic Eruption near the city of Leon, by Hon. A. B. Dickerson”
- 131.—Earthquake at St. Thomas, 133.—Earthquake in Western New York, Ver-
: Corrections to a paper “on the Comparative Strength
of Cannon of modern construction, by DaniEL Treap 185,—Cretaceous
Coal in New Mexico, by JouN Teese 136.—On the introduction into the Mo-
rtain species of Shells not previously found in
those waters, by J. Lewis: Pieervetions on the transfer of the Library of the
a aT Institution to the Library of Congress, by Professor Henry, 137.—
Porcelain-like Glass from va war Livingstone, 141. Obituary.—Dr. John
eee rene 141.—Lord

and J. A. GILLeT, 1: The C: id of El ics, Part Third,
by W. J. Rotre and a J. A. GILLET: " Akademisch peeeneiah von Dr. Cart FR.
v. Martius: Physical Géography, Arena: T. AnsTED, M.A., F.R.S., ete. : Re-
port of the Superintendent of the U. 8. Coast Survey, showing the progress of
the Survey during the year 1865: prelate Encyclopedia, 143.—The Chemical
News, 144.

Proceedings of Societies, etc., 144.

NUMBER CXXXIV.

Art. XVIII.—Michael Faraday, his Life and Works; by oe
Professor A. DE LA Rive,..... ER Pe ES ey eee 145
XIX.—Contributions to Chemistry from a a of
the Lawrence Scientific School.—No. 5. On a new pro-
cess of Mineral Analysis; by Frank WicGLEsworTH

XX.—Reéxamination of the localities of Hsueh Antiquities

at Abbeville, Amiens, and Villeneuve ; by E. ANDREWs, 180
XXI—To ascertain the loss sustained in the delivery of wa-

ter from a conduit pipe, when it is tapped by a branch

at any portion of its length; by Taos. GuERIN,...... 191
XXII.—Notes upon some of the Mineralogical Curiosities of

the Paris Exposition of 1867; by Wim11am P. Bias, 194
ae ee on the Lignite Pennie of the West; by F.

V AERO ees in ce aaa ao Se ee ee ous. 298
XXIV.—Some ae on the recent Geological changes in

China and Japan; by AtBert S. BickMORE,......... 209
XXIV.—On the Palxotrochis of Emmons from North Caro-

lina; by Prof. O. C. Marsu,......- a tikes: iT
XXV.—On the Delta-Plain, and the Historical Changes in

the course of the Yellow River; by RapHart PumpPEtty, 219

XXVI.—Test for Bromids; by J. H. Brt,....... eee

XXVIL—Shooting Stars of November 14th, 1867,....... - 225
/TU.—On the occurrence of living forms in the hot waters ‘a
of California; by Arraur Mreap Epwarps,......... 930

XXIX.—Topographical and Geological features of the
Northwest Coast of America; by T. A. Buakg,...... 242

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,

ee A Ph, ne L¥n, +5
Chemistry and Physics. the specifi reg f iron, a ae Eanze Ouase,
247.—On thesis of li id and its I BERTHELOT:
- °

vil CONTENTS.

thylie Aldehyd, A, W. Hormann, 249.—On Franunhofer’s lines, and on the violet
rtion of the solar spectrum, ANGSTROM and THALEN, 250.—Carbonylic Sulphid,
, 251.—Manufacture of sodic carbonate, san eal Allotropie states.of Me-
tallic Arsenic: Metallie Cerium,’ WOnLen » Bh.-Rchicate teat foralkalies, BoEtTTGER :

.—On Glycerin and its derivatives, Burr , 256. —The organic dase, Neurine, (a. )
its discovery, L1EBREICH: (b.) Its atiuil constitution; BAEYER .—(e.) Neu-
rine and choline me DypxKowsky, 259.—(d.) Its rational formula established,
BaEYER, 260.—(e.) Identity of neurine and sinkaline, A. CLavsand C. Kerse:
(£) Synthesis of neurine, Wurtz, 261,—Hydrocarbons ‘of the Pennsylvania Petro-
leum, by C. M. WaRREN, 262.

neralogy and Geology.—The Carboniferous age of a portion of the Gold-bearing
Rocks of California, WiLL1AM P. BLAKE, 264.—Memoirs presented to the Califor-
nia Academy of Sciences, vol. i, part II. ‘“ Principles of the Natural System of
hints: o Rocks, by F. BARON RICHTHOFER, 2 267. Report on the Geol ology of Ne-
olcaniques

pie eles Aleutiennes, de la Peninsule d’Aljaska, et de la Cote F. 0. d’ Amérique,
par M. ALEX? : Not Tremblements de Terre en 1863 avec sup-
pidments pour les ambos enierieures de 1843 4 1862, par M. ALuxis Perrey, 268.

Botany and Zoology.—Miocene Flora of the Polar Regions : Les Fleurs de Pleine Te re
Qeme edition, 1866. Atlas des Fleurs de Pleine Terre, ete. ; par Vilm “ese
& Cie. Paris, 1867,269.—The great Dragon Tree of Orotava, 270.—Geological and
Natural History Survey of abe Aigete ae. etc., by Rev. M. A. Pit og Genera

tarum, by BentHaM and Hi : Hustrations of the Genus “etic by Fran-
cis Boort, 271.—Botani eaaktinctlogy for 1867, concluded, 272.—Memoirs abetnag
ted to the California sue of Sciences, etc., vol. i, part I, by 9 pba :
A Botanical Semi-centennial, 273.

Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Die trockene Distillation des Holzes und Verar-
beitung der durch dieselbe erhaltenen Rohproducte auf feinere, 274.—Reclama-

cene Flora of North Greenland, by Professor OswaLp pean 281. Obituary.—
Christian Gottlieb Ferdinand Engel, 282.—Sir David Brewster, 284.

Miscellaneous Bibliography.—The American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac for
the year 1869, 284.—Sound ; A course of eight lectures, &e., by Jonn Tryp
286.—Guyot’s Pe oe Text Books, 287.—A Journey in Brazil, by Professor
and Mrs. Louis Acassiz

NUMBER CXXXyV.

Page.

Art. XXX. On the Musical Ratios, and our Pleasure in
‘Harmonious Sounds; by Henry Wis FOG EM. on oe 289
‘XXXL On the measurement of wareinge by the method
of comparison; by Wotcorr Gisss 298
cage On the Comparative Efficiency of different forms
ee by Hpwanp C. Pagenane, EE RE 301

, z bs
XXXIV. Remarks on the Geological Formations along the
Eastern margins of the Rocky Mountains; by F. V.

HaypEN,
XXXV. Remarks on the possibility of a workable bed of
Coal in Nebraska; by F. V. Haypen, 326
XXXVI. Character of the Unconformability of the Iowa
Coal-measures upon the Older Rocks; by C. A. Wuirz,. 331
Remarks on the Sostavats oe Formations of

New South Wales; by W. B. Crarxs, 334
XXXVI. The Ainos, or Hairy Men of Yesso; by ALBERT
S. BickmorE, 353
XXXIX. The Ainos, or Hairy Men of Saghalien and the
Kurile Islands; by Atpert 8S. Bickmore, 361
XL. On the étletined of the Mastodon in the deep-lying
gold placers of California; by B. Srrmmran,.-._..-___- 378
_ Note upon the occurrence of fossil remains of the Ta-
in California; by Wu. P. Biaxe, - 881
XLIL Nitroglucoes; by M. Carry Lea, 381
XLUL On the action of Ferrocyanid of Potassium on Mono-
chloracetic ether; by O. Lorw, 383

XLIV. On C.§. Lyman’s new form of Wave apparatus,... 384

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,

Chemistry and Physics.—On the effects of coloration ager by Ss from
an a taking place between a platinum w d the upper surface of a
liquid, E. BecQUEREL, 391.—On the permeability ie an iron to the gases pro-
the reduction of niobium and tantalum, Maritenac, 393.—Researches on Vana-
dium, Roscoz, 394.—On the compounds of niobium and tantalum with chlorine
and oxygen, H. SainTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE and L. Troost, 396.

Mineralogy and Geology.—On the Age of the Gold-bearing Rocks of California, Wm.
H. 397. w h in th

certain Naiades, C. A. Wurrs, 400.—Note on “Cone in cone,” C. A. WHITE,
pee aie _ — _— aga of _—— by the ea Pramas”: and

y of the State
Botany and tila saab Torr. & Gray, and Schizocodon, Sieb. & Zuce., identi- —

tére et l’Origine de la Flore du J: 403.—Genera Plantarum, auct. G. BEN-
THAM et J. D. Hooker, 404.—Traité Général de Botanique descriptive
ique, etc., and J. D: NE: of the Botany

y’s
of the Northern United States: Illustrations of the Genus Carex, FRANCIS
—_— —The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, CHARLES

Vill CONTENTS.

with Descriptions of new Genera, A. E. VeRR 411.—Notice of the Corals and
Echinoderms collected by Prof. C. F. Hartt, at athe Abrolhos Reefs, Province of
Bahia, Brazil, A. E. VeRRILL, 416.—Notice of - Collection of Echinoderms from
La Paz, Lower California, with a Description of a new Genus of Starfishes, A. E.
VERRILL, 417.—On the Families of the ota Anura, E. D. Cope: On the

Spongiz Ciliate as Infusoria Flagellata, etc., H. James Citark: Remarks on the
Geology of the valley of Mackenzie River, etc., F. B. Menx, 418. es oe Ceph-
alopods of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, AupHevs Hyra

Miscellaneous Scientifie Intelligence.-On convenient forms of Experiment with fluid
jets, Francis H. Smrru, 419.—Resolution of the Sounding flame, F. H. Smiru,
421 a to Prof. Smith’s paper, 422.—On a convenient form of Aspira-
tor, ALBERT R. Leeps, 423.—-Height of Mt. Washington, 424.

Obituary.—Samuel Luther Dana, 424.

Miscellaneous Bibliography. oe a a Introduction to Practical Mechanics, Jonny
TwispEN: Berghaus’s Chart of the World, 426.—Organic Philosophy, etc.,

F.
Hues Donerty: Notes on the etane of Hawaiian Islands, with a history of

their various eruptions, WM. T. BricHam: Transactions of the Chicago Academy
of Sciences, 427.
Proceedings of Societies, etc, 428.—Index, 429,

€

Errata.—p. %, for Epwarp A. Cuasg, read Epwarp 0. Cuasz.

Pe a, a MR EI Ee aS Te Retire ne Le we eee ra

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[SECOND SERIES.]

Art. I.—Evidences of Glacial Action on vi Seip Mountain
ummits; by Epwarp HuncERrForp.

THERE are in Vermont five peaks belonging to the Green
Mountain range, which rise to an elevation of more than four
thousand feet. In the order of position, commencing on the
north, we have first Jay Peak, 4018 feet; Mount Mansfield, 4430

— Camel’s H , 4088 feet ; Lin coln Mountain or Potatoe
Hill

, 4078 feet; and Killington Peak, 4221 feet above tide. The
elevations are given on the authority of Prof. Guyot.

In my recent excursions to several of these ese summits, I have
been able to study the evidences of glacial action at those ele-
vations, and to accumulate a number of observations, beyond
those which have been alluded to by others ; so that we are
now placed in a situation to review and sum up the principal
facts, bearing upon the question of the height to which such
action has extended in this state, and upon that of the proba-
ble tea of the accumulation of ice and snow in the gla-
cial e

over the east part of the Pat Gin oe a from north 40°
Am. Jour. 8c1.—Seconp Series, Vout. XLV, No. 133.—Jan., 1868.
1

2 £. Hungerford on Glacial action in the Green Mts.

west,* as nearly as could be determined over a talcose slate
which abounded with crystals of magnetic o

Mount Mansfield presents a long eonins ridge, which at-
tains, in the Chin, its greatest clevation of 4430 feet, while the
Nose, at the southern extremity of the ridge, rises to ‘the height
of 4094 ft, ay the sea. The evidences of glacial action around
the summits of this ridge are very decided. The grooves men-
tioned in the final report of our State Geologists, in close
proximity to great transported blocks under the Chin, at an ele-
vation of about 4080 feet, are well preserved, and I was able to
obtain the following co orrected readings of compass, indicating

the direction of approach of the glacial mass, viz: N. 23°

and N. 25° W.., (two readings on the same line), also N. 28° W.
on another furrow. One of the transported blocks, 25 feet
long, 15 feet wide, and 11 feet high, was doubtless torn from
another portion of the mountain, and its present position, as
it lies perched upon and supported by another smaller boul-
der, indicates that it had been first lifted, and then had set-
tled down into its resting place. The surface of the rock in
situ, aay the great baleen, is rounded, so.as to denote an

sea, and etic 2 in their general direction with the furrows

observed on the western face of the mountain near the boulders
described above.

A very beautiful evidence of glacial action is furnished by
the polished knobs of quartz, on the top of the Nose, at an
alovadicnof Ano4 feet. Numerous such apes masses are found

. the uatee havea isn, Daal to Ba some or one hun-
_ dred feet at loade of the highest Rew fle oe aoe,

Thea raaAt
cadings PY whe 2 a oa |
-

True bearing.
FREE cg ei, ai
t Se pt ie eo ay by 02 Ae

a

EF, Hungerford on Glacial action in the Green Mts. 3

except the fine lines upon quartz, were found upon the sum-
mit, although extended search was made for them, The pres-
ervation of such furrows in the extremely friable rock must
be rare, though they may yet be detected in the immediate
vicinity of the summit on some freshly exposed surface. The
rounding of the cliffs, upon the northern side of the final as-
cent, within the above named distance of the highest point, is
go conspicuous as to at once attract attention, The highest
level at which distinct grooves were observed is judged to be
about 700 feet below the summit, or nearly 3400 feet above
the sea. At this point, in the bridle path which descends the
northern or northeastern face of the mountain toward Rid--
ley’s Station,* in the Wooski Valley, the bearing of the
grooves was N. 20° W. and again N. 40° W., the latter being
on a side of rock and deflected. The ledge at this point was
handsomely polished. The course of the moving ice on this

its progress.
The evidence of glacial motion afforded by the polished

ated, the lines not having been so sharply cut, or not so well
preserv But, in these also, the direction of the polishing
motion is very readily detected from the general character

iven to the surface by the minute gravings. In order to test
this point, and to correct any possible influence of habit, or of
prejudice in myself, I invited my host of the Mountain House,
who was unacquainted with such observations, to determine
independently the direction of the polishing force. His deter-
mination coincided with my own. The directions as deter-
mined oa the «mountain were marked upon the masses in
pencil before-breaking them off from the rock, and the obser-
vations confirmed by careful examinations athome. The lines
we much more distinctly brought out by moistening the sur-

© ‘The point on the Vermont Central B. B. from whieh theascntismede

4 £. Hungerford on Glacial action in the Gréen Mts.

ed
its course. Must not the slow motions of such a glacier con-
form in this respect, as well as in others, to the law governing

the flow of water; that, while the main current keeps its

course, the subordinate and local currents are directed along
and around every considerable obstruction in the way of the
stream P :

Killington Peak rises 4221 feet above tide. Its bare sum-

the summit. These are true transported pebbles, lifted to this
levation from some lower point, probally from the quartz
range to the northwest. With the quartzite pebbles are also
found pebbles of gneiss, with eeapihed edges, and of a very

Bie

a ee ee TT

On the Quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, Peru. 5

different character from the gneiss constituting He. summit,
The home of these gneiss pebbles is not known to

It will be seen from this survey of the alate ae fot the
Green Mountains, that they, present in every instance, where
an examination has been had, decisive marks of glacial action
around their extreme summits. The conclusion follows that
those summits have been enveloped by glacial ice, which must
have been in each case either the beginning of a elaci ier descend-
ing from the summit, or else a part of an extended ice mass,
moving over the entire surrounding country. Against the
former gta might be adduced the form of these moun-

pee CT while abru rupt pr A face southward and east-

ward, more conclusive on this point is the presence of .
i. Jengea on the summit of Killington Peak, which
have had their origin in remote beds at a lower level.

Art. II.—WNotes on the Quicksilver Mine of Santa Barbara, in
Peru. Condensed froma MSS. Report made to the New ‘Al-
maden Quicksilver Co., by C. E. Haw ey,

Tus mine, which has been worked since 1570, is situated on
a bold promontory or Farallon in the summit of the range about

- 1200 feet above and on the south side of the river Huancave-

lica, The strata containing the cinnabar rise almost vertically
from the eae being light-colored sandstone, with occasional
nae

oe of h-gray limestone. The metalliferous stratum

great loss.» The present condition of the mine is de-

plonbi owing Esancipally to the reckless ayaa of the last

_ who robbed the mine of every pillar, and like his pre-

ecessor made no new works to open fresh bodies of ore. In

St Domingo de Cochapata, in the sales of the mine, over

one hundred Indians were buried at one time.

In 1681 the ore which fell in the “«labores” of the San ee

cinto, and was afterward extracted, produced four shoud ee
flasks of quicksilver. The crush in 1786 from the — x

6 On the Quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, Peru.

the upper “‘labores” of Santa Rita, left a yawning chasm 200
feet deep. The repairs of these damages during the working
of the Santa Barbara mine have amounted probably to several
millions of dollars. This has occurred in a mine safer an
easier to work by far than the New Almaden in California.
Extravagant sums have been expended on the great tunnels of.
this mine ; that of Belen cost the Spanish Government nearly
a million and a quarter of dollars.
Since the Peruvian Independence, but little attention has
bestowed on this mine, which, after 300 years, is now aban-
doned to a few Indians who collect and reduce small quantities
of ore from the superficial works. Most of the great works

are closed by caving, or by the accumulation of carbonic acid

surface to re-appear
___ hundred yards.“ 'The whole body of the mine at the Brocal is
_ one vast ruin, and the percentage of the surface ore is too low

On the Quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, Peru. 7

to make it valuable. A deep tunnel, commenced during the
past century, and extended about 200 yards from the foot of the
promontory, but still six hundred yards from the old workings -
of the Brocal, is the only mode of developing these beds in
depth where tradition tells of rich and extensive bodies of ore.

Extensive workings running to the westward are approached
by the Puerto de Santo Domingo, standing midway between the
promontory and the Brocal, Here are numerous large cham-
bers rapidly going to ruin, excavated in a light-colored sand-
stone containing cinnabar i in minute quantities, amounting to
less than half of one per cent. In the same strata with the
Santa Barbara, and in close proximity, are six or eight other
mines belonging to private individuals, formerly productive but
now abandoned.

In the vicinity of Huancavelica there are no less than forty-

vein of cinnabar in limestone formerly mined, and where the
ruins of old furnaces are still to be seen. The ore occurs in

another vein of realgar containing also mercury, and about five
feet in thickness. Immediately —— the realgar is a vein
of a black sooty material of about eleven feet thickness. It
yo ee to be a decomposed sulphuret, but its characters are
obse _ This vein is remarkable from its containing selenium,
sincieijod with sae — arsenic, silver an

e ores of Santa Barbara mine are all poor, not averaging
probably over one-half of one per con The ore is frequently
quite invisible and is disseminated through the rock at times in
feebly developed veins a few lines in thickness, -but generally
without any vein form whatever. There are ores in the lower:

mercury than the ohne eso ere As much oslo is fated
in the St. Barbara mine as in all the other quicksilver forma-
ons of Peru. The arsenical mercury ores were rejected by the
ers, because of the effects of the arsenic in the furnaces.
Sulphate of barytes both in — and closely mingled with
siliceous grains occurs in the min ge quantities of iron
pyrites are also found, much of ohials might no Sout ‘a
ably work

8 ~ On the Quicksilver mine of Santa Barbara, Peru.

The deposit of cinnabar at St. Barbara is not ina vein; as at

New Almaden, but is disseminated through the strata, and in-

-timately mingled with the sandstone. No walls exist, and the
limits of the ore are irregular and undefined. Like ‘all other
similar formations the. quantity of ore is very great and the

The furnaces used in reducing the ores were of stone and
brick, poorly Sate, and thevapors were conducted through
aludels or earthen jars jo cined end to end and leadin ng from the
upper part of the furnace, a distance of from eight to ten
yards, where the smoke and vapor escape into the open air.
These aludels are about two feet long, by a middle diameter of
eight inches, and four inches at the ends. Four lines of them
lead from each furnace, lying side by side upon the ground.
The furnaces and condensers are of poor materials, the open-
ings imperfectly closed, and the firing badly conducted, so that
great losses of quicksilver occur and the workmen suffer from
the poisonous vapors. The fuel is of dried. grass and the dry
dung of the Llama, both scarce and almost valueless as fuel,
the quantity consumed to produce a feeble effect being very

eat. The country is completely without wood, except in a
few deep ravines where some stunted bushes grow, worth about
$20 a cord, equal to 145 Llama loads. None of it exceeds three-
fourths of an inch in diameter. There is some turf, better in
quality than the other fuels, but insufficient to maintain a large
“5 ae operation. The author searched the country for

ten leagues about Sta. Barbara for coal, but in vain. ery
poor quality of bituminous slate exists in considerable quan-
tity about nine leagues from Santa Barbara, but aside from its
low = uality, the distance of mountain roads precludes its use.
tory of this mine shows extreme difficulty from the

want of fuel, and even stoppages for several months at a time.

The author considers at length the questions of labor, quick-
silver lost in reduction, and markets and transportation of
quicksilver, giving much curious information of an economical
nature, which our space exclu

In conclusion, it appears that the St. Barbara district in Peru
is extensive, the mercurialized sandstone being practically in-
a in quantity, but the grade of ore very low, not over

of one per cent, and the richest portions not averag-
cae over 1} per cent. The records of the mines have been
very loosely kept, and offer no reliable data. The furnaces are
pr ble for their worthlessness, which is still more true of
fuel. A system of concentration of the poor ores by ma-

_ chinery and water, which is in aerate quantity, was pro-
ay by Baron Nordenflycht, which deserves serious attention.

=e

The Quicksilver mines of Alinaden, Spain. 9

The labor at Sta. Barbara is necessarily Indian, and very inef-
ficient, the extreme rarity of the air at an elevation of 14,975
feet above the sea (according to Ulloa) adding to the natural
inefficiency of the race. Great numbers of Indians formerly
were employed in these mines. In 1621, there were 2,000 In-.
ians, who were required by government edict to produce 3
quintals (4 flasks) of quicksilver for each Indian per annum.
“‘His majesty pays for the same, $47 per quintal.” In 1681 the
cost of quicksilver to the government, including transpor-
tation to Potosi, was $79 per quintal, and in 1678, its value
at Potosi was $97 per quintal. In 1789 the cost rose to $195
per quintal, so that the king lost that year $197,758, and in
five years, $693,624. In 1681, and for some years about that
time, the average product was 7,500 flasks per annum, with
4,249 Indians at work. At New Almaden nearly six and a half
_ times that quantity of quicksilver has been extracted in a sin-
_ gle year by less than a thousand men. ee

Art. IlI._—WNotes on the Quicksilver mines of Almaden, Spain.
Condensed from a MSS. Report made to the New Almaden
Company of California, by C. E. Hawtey, M. E.

taken out. There are three veins of ore at present worked in
this mine. Ist, the San Diego and San Pedro; 2d, San Fran-
cisco; and 3d, San Nicholas. These are separated by masses of
slate and sometimes enclose thin layers of slate in the ore.
The linear extent of the mine is only about 600 feet, and near
the surface, was much less. The mine is divided into ten dif-

ferent floors or levels, separate from each other by an average eB

P
of about 90 feet, the lowest level being 921 feet fro
* Pliny, lib. 33, chap. 7, a

10 The Quicksilver mines of Almaden, Spain.

The veins in the upper workings appear to have been ve
indistinctly defined, but have increased in power and in quality
of ore steadily as greater depths have been reached. They were
fully developed 1 in their true character only on the 5th floor,
while now in the bottom of the mine at the 10th level the
richness and abundance of the ore in sight exceeds all before
known. The following tabular statement illustrates this pro-
gressive increase in the extent and width of the three veins at

several levels commencing with the fifth.

San Diego. San Francisco. San Nicholas.
Level. Length. Width. Length. Width. Length. Width,
5th, 164’ 14°5’ 426’ 13. 98' 9°6'
6th, 264 16°5 363 49°5 2145 10°7
ith, 495 15°3 511 15°3 412 13°2
8th, 561 26°4 594 14°5 610 18°1
9th, 495 21°5 478 9°1 561 9°2

- The 10th level is not yet sufficiently worked to determine
the length or thickness of the veins, but the ore is of fine qual-
ity, The veins stand nearly vertical and are opened by verti-
ne shafts. Their course is in general N.W. and §.H., and they
separated from each other by slate and sandsto tone. The
fieae extent of these veins is far from being completely proved.
Work has been suspended where the ground became compara-
tively sterile. But it is well known that the mine, extensively
opened in the 17th century by the Fugger Counts, exists in
close proximity on the N.W., while a few yards of exploration
in that direction, or to the 8.E., may show the veins restored to
fruitfulness. The great mine worked by the Fuggers, and
after them until the great fire of 1755, though in close prox-
imity to the present mine, is now wunknown, although the records
aay its great yield and that it was worked to a depth of 825

‘The mode of extraction of the ore with the securing of the
mine is by leaving alternate pillars of the solid ore 4 varas wide,
the space bar void between which, after the ore is removed, is
filled by masonry, or by broken stones supported upon arches

ny, ae galleries of the mine are also turned in ma-
sonry. This system was adopted in 1804 on account of the
scarcity of timber and with a view to the greater permanency
of the work. The reserves of ore thus accumu ated, equal

since 1804 until within the past ast 6 years, since which time very

, ve been removed, the spaces left

; wine less care than the first set of pillars.

umber is used only for tee urposes; the sto uired
for the ‘i fi igh athe

masonry eo in the adjacent

nO |

: a

The Quicksilver mines of Almaden, Spain. 11

The mechanical appliances of this great mine are of the
most primitive description. The ore is raised through the Teo-
doro shaft by 8 mules working a whim with an eftective force
of about 3 horses (steam standard), The amount of water in
the mine is very small and appears to have varied but little in
a century. The system of pumping is slow, expensive and
barbarous. An antique machine of the last century, no-

constant additional force of 30 to 40 men employed in pump-
ing by hand.
The cost of extraction of the aio quintal of 100 lbs. of
n.)

ore is as follows, given in reals (=5 cents U. 8. coi
Excavation in ore and dead ground 7°40 reals
Interior transportation
ew timber, refuse rock, etc 055. *
Tools, 0°92, whim, shops, | Bee

Masonry, 1-25, timbering, 3°67, carpentry; 1-11 6°03

Draining the mine 445°"

Laborers at mine, shaft, yard, ete. 286

Various expenses, 0°78, salaries, 1°48 2°26 “
29°49

Transportation to furnaces, Ose
Cost of metric quintal of ore at furnace, 29°66

This is equal respectively to 67°8 ¢. and 68-2 c, of U. 8. coin.

Much doubt seems to rest over the amount of metal obtained
from the. ye — respecting the relative merits of various modes
of distillati The most trustworthy observations, however,
appear to ‘ sn made between 1851 and 1855, from which
the avereee per centage obtained was 6°9, at the following cost
per quintal (100 Spanish pounds.)

Mining and transportation 197°65 reals.

Cost of reduction in furnace ao36

Flasks 40°00 “
260°00

denejas we find at 16,582 quintals (=22,199 flasks) » Which cost
in the aggregate $304-535, or $13.77 per eae If the expenses
and product of the Almaden mine are estimated separately,
= eenarnen! being a small mine, raises the ratio of cost con-

siderably), it is seen that its average annual yield was 21 468 : ae

ks, costing $268,214.53, or $12.49 in Seville.
apportioned as follows.

ing, per flask $6.53 or 52°25 per cent
Reduction, G87. *
lasks, ipo. ** z
Flasking, 0.09 “ ov «
Transportation to Seville, eo oes“
earner 2.65- 8 205°“
Extraordinary, e oe eee aes on
Total per aS 12.49 100-00

Tn the aggregate these expenses appear as follows, viz: ~
: _ one aieies

intendence, clerks, firemen, etc., 21 11. 80

Expense of Garhseee at Seville, “24

Materials of shops,

Mining (less administration),

Reduction (furnaces

Flasks, seeing and transportation,
ommission,

Transportation of funds, ete.,

Rents, $189.95, charities, $194,

$269,636.45
_ Deducting $2680-05, the profits of Almadenejas, 2,680.05
: And the remainder of 956.40

$26 i
ery closely corresponds with the sum of $268,214.55, she cost of |
21,468 flasks at $12°49 each.

The Bustamente furnaces i in use at Almaden are extremely
defective, depending on a series of small earthen ware cylin-
, joined one to another and leading into a large chamber

for the condensation of the mercurial vapors. Much mercury

Metal or superior mercury, = = 6
dium}

_ Mediano
- Bolas ema of oo of soot from condenser, 17 oo
Bolas without

ws flor ie: nee th yay he ts wold be

The Quicksilver mines of Almaden, Spain. 13

38,551 quintals “ metal,” whi ins P. 0. = i rs quintals peety
- 143,969 ia ga en
6, 1095 ‘ bolas with soot, mie i ‘= re ig 2
45, 985°5 “ bolas choot soot, = 511 “ = 9-349 , id
Total quintals, 32°368
us obtained, 16°101
Loss, 16267.

This loss of 50-25 per cent is equivalent to 21,689 flasks; or,
the ore contained, by the above estimate, 13° 86 per cent and
the amount of mercury obtained was 6° 96 per cent,

Notwithstanding the cheap labor at Almaden, many items
of cost are ph ay high; at 78 cts. per ton of water raised,
the enormous sum of $17, 541 is expended in pumping by
hand! At least one-third the effective force of the mine-
laborers is wasted in the toil of climbing up and down from
the entrance to the bottom of the mine, want of ventilation
makin itional heavy tax on the productive power of
the miners. The cost of fuel for the furnace is extravagantly
high and its quality the poorest.

The great feature of t is mine, in contrast with other mer-
cury mines, is the enormous body of rich ores always in re-
serve and ready for immediate extraction. careful meas-
urement shows that 36 per cent of the vein has been left un-
touched, equal to 2,012,600 cubic feet, which upon a moderate
estimate must weigh 402, 520,000 Ibs. This at 7 per cent would
give 375,685 flasks of quicksilver ; at ten per cent it would
yield 536, 693 flasks, and at 14 per cent, 753,370 flasks of fe
pounds each. This are makes no account of the grea
body of extremely rich ores existing untouched between the
9th and 10th floors of the Almaden mine.

The very heavy are ite fuel, pumping, transportation,

at a cost. not porn one-third of that now r incurred in the
mines at New Almaden in California.

14 _ Address of Sir R. I. Murchison

Art. 1V.—Extracts from the Address of Sir Roprricx I. Mur-

cuison, President of the Royal Geographical Society at the
Anniversary meeting of the Society, May 27, 1867

Arrnica.—Dr. Livingstone.—During the last few months our
thoughts have been directed with painful interest, to the last
enterprise of our eminent associate, Livingstone. For reasons
which I have explained at our evening meetings, and also
through the public press, I have never admitted that there
existed any valid proof whatever of the death of that great
traveller. And now that Arab traders have arrived from a spot
close to the reported scene of the murder, long after the event

was said to have taken place, and brought to the Sultan of

Zanzibar the intelligence that he had passed safely into the
friendly Babisa country to the westward, and that a report has
arrived at Zanzibar that a white man had reached the Lake
Tanganyika, we have fresh grounds for hoping that he may now
-be pursuing his journey in the interior. In truth we have re-
cently obtained good evidence of the mendacity of the man
Moosa, on whose statement alone the death was reported—it
being known that he has given one version of it to the Consul
and Dr. Kirk at Zanzibar, and also to the British resident at

* . >
before him as grand a career as was
“haan explorer, it being now probable that Tanganyika, a

—

—"

before the a _— May 27, 1867. 15

Pursuing subject, Mr. Findlay, after a
-_ n ae ye altitude pe tig of Burton and ae
e first East African expedition, those of Speke and Gran
cai the second, and of Baker on his great journey to the Albart
d a memoir in which be endeavors to prove
that these various altitudes are not inconsistent with Tangan-
yika being the furthermost lake of the Nile system, with an exit
into Albert Nyanza, This important argumentative memoir
will be read on us at our first meeting after the Anniversary,
or myself I give no opinion on a question which, like many
others respecting African geography, can really be “decided by
positive survey only. Let us, then, trust that Livingstone has
been enabled to solve this singularly interesting problem.

In the mean time not believing in ie ia i of Levingstone
on the sole testimony of one of his ¢ y rers
who fled, and who has already given ‘different versions of the
ca tastrophe, I am sure the Society and the public will approve
of the course I recommended, and in which I was cordially
supported by the Council, and, to their great credit, by Her
Majesty’s Government, namely - to send out a boat expedition
to the head of Lake Nyassa, and thus ascertain the truth. If
by this exhaustive search we ascertain that, sceptical as we are,
the noble fellow did fall at that spot where the Johanna man
said he was killed, why then, alas! at our next anniversary, it
will be the sad duty of your President, in mourning for his
loss, to dwell upon the wondrous achievements of his life. ‘Tf,
on the contrary, we should learn from our own corer, and not
merely from Arab traders, that he has passed on into the in-
terior (and this we shall ascertain in six or a ee F

why then, trusting to the skill and indomitable pluck of Liv-
ingstone, we may feel assured that, among friendly Negro tribes,
who know that he is their steadfast friend, he may still realize
one of the grandest geographical paso of our era, the con-
nexion of the great Tanganyika with the waters of the Nile

system.

But even here I would have my countrymen who are accus-
tomed to obtain rapid intelligence of distant travellers not to
ps pad if they should be a year or more without any news of

ur undaunted friend. For, if he be alive, they must recollect
that he has with him a small band only of faithful negroes, nO
one of whom could be to traverse the -— regions be-
rae Lake Tanganyika and the coast. Until he himself re-
rs—and how long was he unh of in his first great
eaweaes of Southern Africa !—we have, theseiecn, little chance

of knowing the true result of his mission, But if, as I fer- .

vently pray, he should return to us, with what open arms will

*

16 Address of Sir R. I. Murchison

the country receive him ! and how rejoiced will your President
be, if he lives, to preside over as grand a Livingstone festival
as he did when this noble and lion-hearted traveller was about
to depart on his second great expedition.

The party which I have announced as. about to proceed to
Eastern Africa to procure accurate information concerning Liv-
ingstone, will be commanded by Mr. E. D. Young, who did ex-
cellent service in the former Zambesi expedition, in the man-
agement of the Lady Nyassa river-boat. With him will be
associated Mr. Henry Faulkner, a young volunteer of great
promise, and two acclimatised men, one a mechanic and the
othera seaman. The expedition, Iam happy to say, is warmly
supported by Her Majesty’s Government, and the building of
the boat is rapidly progressing under the orders of the Board
of Admiralty. The boat will be a sailing one, made of steel,
and built in pieces, no one of which will weigh more than
50 Ibs., so that the portage of the whole by natives past the
cataracts of the Shiré will be much faciliated. The Govern-
ment have arranged for the transport of the party to the Cape,
with the boat and stores, by the African mail-steamer on the
9th of next month.* Arrived there, one of our cruisers will
take them to the Luabo mouth of the ‘Zambesi, where the
boat will be put together, and the party—having engaged a
crew of negroes—will be 1

rd

he great services rendered to Geography by the enlichtened

Governor of the French possessions on the Senegal Dolotal
Faidherbe, who has greatly extended our knowledge of the
ountry along the banks of that river. The most advanced

post of the French is’ Medine, near the cataracts of Felou, 600
miles from the mouth, up to which point the river is navigable
during the rainy months, for vessels drawing 12 fect of water.
With a view to ascertaining the political condition of the

countries beyond the eastern frontier, as also to fix accurately

the geographical positions of places between the Upper Sene-
___ * To the credit of the Union Steam Packet Company the boat has been taken
- that the party sailed from Plymouth on the 1th instante dew tarieey, | a

i
before the Geographical Society, May 27,1867. 17

gal and the Niger, an expedition was sent out by Colonel Faid-
herbe, in 1863, to traverse the distance between Medine and the
important town of Segou, which had been visited by our own
renowned traveller Mungo Park, sixty years previously. The
mission was most ably and successfully carried out by Lieu-
tenant E, Madge and Dr. Quintin of the French navy. Coun-
tries recently desolated by semi-religious wars carried on
Mussulman chiefs were traversed with great danger, and the
positions of the route carefully laid down; the road taken being
a détour to the north, after crossing the Senegal, by Diangounté,
to Yamina, on the Niger, and thence by canoe to Segou. By
this journey Lieutenant Madge has filled up a void in all maps
of the region of the Upper Senegal, and corrected the positions
of many places as previously laid down by Mungo Park and
others; but the accuracy of our English traveller in owe most
imp ortant points is cheerfully acknowledged by his accom-
plished French successor, especially, for instance, in the posi-
tion of Yamina, which Mungo Park fixed at 13° 15) and Lieu-
tenant Madge found to be 13° 17’ N. lat. The expedition re-
turned to the mouth of the Senegal in June, 1866, and the
French Geographical Society in the present year has rewarded
the courageous leader with one of its gold medals.
Asia.—Whilst, with the exception of the probable settle-
ment of the north end of Lake Nyassa by the last Jomeey 8 of

wn y'
At the head of the labors which have elucidated the com-
sot geography of this quarter - the oe , I place fhe
shed

so popular
thier, it was left for Colonel Yule vastly to pb our soln
ance with the amount of information possessed by our one
Am. Jour. Sc.—Szconn Serins, Vou. XLV, No. 133.—Jan., 1868.
2

18 Address of Sir R. I. Murchison

tive map of Asia, such as it was when explored by those earlier
travellers, and when it was ruled over by the different branches

pe, is truly
tonishing. In those days, and even as late as the sixteenth

the King of Spain. Even our own Queen Elizabeth was so

thians.” It was then (1558) that J enkinson, our English trav-
eller, made the journey from Astrachan to Bokhara, passing
J *

and now so fallen through tyranny and misgovernment, No

a great end, is the bringing into real use, for the first time: in
Dee the River Jaxartes “ the ancients (now called the Sy
___ Darla), and navigating it with steamers from its mouth on h
Sea of Aral for many hundred miles into Turkistan and Ko-
a by the erection of forts, Russia

before the Geographical Society, May 27,1867. 19

has established an entirely new and well-protected route between
Europe and China, far to the north of that followed by trav-
ellers and merchants in the middle ages, which was from the
south end of the Caspian.

ch commodities by land and river communications through
Central Asia ; and so long as the line of such commerce
tween them is separated, as it now is, from British India and
its dependencies by mountainous, sterile and snowy regions,
impassible by modern armies, there never can be the smallest
ground of jealousy on the part of Britian.

On this head I was much gratified, at our very last meeting,
in listening to the able memoir of Captain Sherard nm
the actual state of Chinese Tartary, an eno
has become, through the relaxation of the Chinese hold, “no

as from the commentators on his memoir, that, instead of any
apprehension being entertained regarding the late Russian ad-
vances, it was generally felt that it would be greatly to the ad-
vantage.of the natives, as well as to British power in India,
that the influence of a civilized Christian nation should be ex-
tended eastward over a region now becoming desolate through
isgovernment and lawlessness, *
se considerations lead me naturally to say a few words
upon the geographical operations of our medallist Admiral
Boutakoff, which have mainly led to the establishment of the
new Russian line of eastern traffic, and which have*justly ob-
tained for him a high reputation. The first of these enter-
prises might almost be called the geographical discovery of the
* The reader who wishes to become acquainted with the physical features and
boundaries of the districts of Chinese Tartary, so well expounded by Capt. Sherard
born, and of which he prepared alarge map, must consult Keith Johnston’s 5
Library Map of Asia, published by Mr. Stanford, in the preparation of which, Mr.
Trelawney Saunders took a leading part. Sa

20 Address of Sir R. I. Murchison

Aral Sea. For, although this great mass of salt water had
been known to Arabian geographers during several centuries
under the name of the Sea of Khwarezm, though its shores had
- been visited by travellers, one of whom was the accomplished
Russian geographer George von Meyendorf, who described the
mouths of the Syr Daria or Jaxartes, at its northeastern ex-
tremity, and another, General Berg,* who led a Russian expe-
dition along its western banks in the winter of 1825-6, no
ship had ever sailed upon this inland sea. The first vessel
launched upon it was constructed at Orenburg in 1848, and
transported in pieces across the desert, and in it Boutakoff,
after two years of navigation, defined "the real shape of the
coast, established the depths of the sea, and was the discoverer
of the large island in it, the wild antelopes of which came to
stare with astonishment, yet without fear, at their first invaders.

ifteen years have elapsed since I communicated the first

as ‘shall casi mye ignorant of the true geograp hy of

* See the first published notice of the remarkable expedition of General Be
woh Rae of set pao ae poor ” Resslaed the Ural Meutitaina”
ip. 10. a de Berg, and the emperor's represen-

fe sec

ie 2 Se Le
gE a :

before the Geographical Society, May 27, 1867. 21

that in early times, say from 600 years before the Christian era
to 500 or 600 years after it, both the river Oxus and Jaxartes
flowed into the Caspian, the Aral being non-existent. That
afterwards, and up to the year 1300, they fell into the Aral,
and that for the next two hundred years (1300 to 1500) they
came back into the Caspian, subsequently flowing gradually
back into the Aral and forming the sea as we now know it,

Although I know that my colleague will admit that my geo-
logical data must have some weight, I have to claim his indul-
gence for venturing to question the views of so eminent a
scholar respecting the changes of physical features in this re-
gion that may have happened in the days of history. Sup-
ported, however, as I am by the opinions of men ‘on whose
knowledge I place great reliance, I must say that I cannot
regard the Persian manuscript, which was presented to Si

enry by a clever chief of Herat, to be a document of sufficient
value to override the conclusions at which I have arrived on
many independent grounds.

Concerning the ancient course of the Oxus, I see no reason
to differ from the Persian writer and Sir Henry. But when it
is stated that in the year A. D, 1417 the Jaxartes had deviated
from its former course and instead of flowing into the Caspian
(as the ancients had it,) joined the Oxus, and thus, the two
rivers occupying one and the same bed, came into that sea, I
must withhold my assent, This is a novel and striking state-
ment, and before we attach credence to it we must have some
physical evidence to sustain it. In my state of scepticism re- —

arding the value of this Persian manuscript, now for the
t time produced, that which strikes me @ priori as a sign
of its invalidity, is, that when this region was open to knowl-
edge through the long-enduring reign of the civilized and lite-
rary Arabians (say from the 7th to the 13th century), the Aral
was known and-laid down as a distinct water-basin under the
name of Sea of Khwarezm. On the other hand, when after
that period knowledge became dim and local, and civilization
was at its lowest ebb, then it was that the Aral disappeared.
My conclusion from this coincidence of the supposed emptyin
of the Aral, with the absence of records respecting it, mae
be that the sea had existed during all that time, but that
there were then no geographers to record the fact,

In treating this subject, let us first consider the separation
of the Aral from the Caspian as originally dependent on geo-.
logical changes of the surface, and then proceed to estimate
the value we are to attach to the writings of the classical au-

thorities in reference to a region so very imperfectly known to on
them. Asa geologist who has studied this Aralo-Caspian ques-

22 Address of Sir R. I. Murchison

there existed in the latest tertiary, or what some call quater-

nary times, a vast depression on the surface of the globe, ex-
tending over 8,000 square marine leagues, in which a great in-
land sea was accumulated, and which, ina work on Russia,
my associates and myself first mapped out under Humboldt’s

name of Aralo-Caspian.* In that sea there lived an eek
ance of molluscous and other animals, all of species having a
local and limited range, and all strikingly distinguished from
the more numerous animals of oceanic seas. No Ww, owing to

the upheaval of large portions of the bottom of that old in-
land sea, its animal contents formed, ina fossil state, the
Steppe limestone, are seen at different levels over an enormous
area, Owing to these pre-historic movements of the crust of
the earth, eee fossil remains are seen to occupy the strata
on the banks of the lake of Aral, as well as on the shores of
the Caspian Sea. They also occur at various places and at
different heights in the adjacent Steppes, extending westward
to the country of the Don Cossacks to the north of the Sea of
Azof, where I have myself examined them. There is therefore

of alavation that part of the former great sea which be

e Aral was elevated to about 117 ft. above the former a
ern part, or present Caspian, and the seas thus insulated were
separated t h the same movements by the élevated plateau
now called Ust-Urt

Sd the physical condition of the region long before
tradition orhistory, Humboldt has well remarked that the
great Aralo-Caspian depression had a similar origin to the
much deeper cavity in the earth’s surface occupied by the Dead
_ Sea, though the one is only 83 feet and the other nearly 1300
feet beneath the Ocean. Now, if we endeavor to account
| tically for the low present level of the old Aralo-Caspian
. Sea by evaporation only, we are met by the facts that large
. portions of its former bottom have been raised to different al-

* See ‘ Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains,’ vol. i, 303-314, and par-
observe the map and. , p- 311, from a aes the
Cp ands et Gt tao

ie

before the Geographical Society, May 27,1867. 23

titudes in the surrounding region, and that the levels of the
Sea of Aral and the sist are also different, and are sepa-
rated by the great plateau of Ust-Urt. As it is impossible to
explain the existence of the much deeper cavity of the Dead
Sea except by a greater sinking of the earth’s crust, so is such
a shai onion precisely what geologists would ex to see
realized as a natural and compensating result of the corres-
nding upheaval of the adjacent lofty mountains of Asia.
This being the conclusion at which geologists have arrived,
let us see if it be interfered with by any reliable histori ical
records, As to the knowledge possessed by Alexander, or his
contemporaries, it really does not touch the sgag of the
relative courses of the Oxus and Jaxartes toward their mouths,
For Alexander crossed the Oxus at about 400 miles ahve: its
mouth, and the most western point at which the great con-
queror "reached the Jaxartes was Cyropolis, where he passed it
to defeat the Scythians ; and that spot is about —
from the Aral Sea. eeeceungeg neither Alexander nor his
nerals could know anything of the real course of elthée 3 river
for great distances above their mouths. Scholars and compar-
ative geographers doubt, indeed, if any weight can be attached
to the unanimous statement of the Greeks, ‘hat both the Oxus
and Jaxartes flowed into the Caspian, by mouths some 300
miles apart,* when they see how equally unanimous were the

ing the Caspian to be but a gulf of the Northern Ocean!

we see how persistently the followers of Alexander
confounded the Jaxartes itself with the Tanais, and fancied
that they had doubled back upon the rear of Europe.

“The expedition of Alexander,” says Humboldt, “far from
extending or rectifying the geography of the Caspian Sea,
te Papa the Tanais with J ek and ne oe with

e Paropamisus or Hindu Kush. t is through a
si i sn re great Macedo-

graphical hor of a Caspian Sea. > Further on, he says, “ Some
traces of the Sea of Aral, described as a oreat basin to the
east of the Ural or Jaike River, are indeed found in Menan-
der, the Byzantine historiographer; but it is only with the
series of Arabian geographers, at the head of whom, in the
tenth century, we must place El-Istachry, that we first obtain
a certain knowledge of the topography of the countries.Ӥ

elus, ‘both quoted by Stra Sira
¢ ‘Asie Centrale,’ org 14, ¢ Ibid., p. 153. § Ibid, p 156.

0 stadia seme » Eratosthenes, and 80 parasangs according to Patro- — :

24 Address of Sir R. I. Murchison

The truth is, that, when it was thus loosely said, that both
the Oxus and Jaxartes flowed into the Caspian, we must make
due allowance for the ignorance of the ancients of the northern

rtion of this vast region, particularly of the course of the
Soxaticm which no one of them had fully explored, and at the
mouth of which none of them had arrived.

If, indeed, we rely on the sagacious Rennell, he, in his great
work on the ‘ Geographical — of Herodotus,’ may be said
to have established this point, for, in speaking of the old ge-
ographers, he says, “ they understood the Aral to be included
in the Caspian, since they knew of but one expanse of water
in that quarter ; for the Cyrus and Araxes, Oxus and Jaxartes,
were all supposed to fall into the same sea.” This he contrasts

ot from native hea
In his able essay on the ¢! f Life of Alexander the Great,’ Wil-
liams distinctly lays down, in his map of that period, the seas
of the Aral and Caspian as distinct bodies of water. The
same separation is given by Rennell, in his map of the twenty
satrapies of Darius wy and, whilst in it he indicates
ow. ea flowing into the Caspian, and the Jaxartes into the
pen he shows a how the two seas were separated by
what he terms the high plateau of Samob, the Ust-Urt of the

Thirlwall, in his ‘ History of Greece,’ plainly leads
us to roe that the Greeks could have known no thing of the
region of the Sea of Aral and the mouth of the Jaxartes, ex-
cept what they derived from the reports of the King of Kha-
rasmia, who came from a distance in the north to visit Alex-~
erage In short, aug is no historical evidence psoas to

said, 1 ee
‘On the point of the pe eehistone iomatien, of the m
the Cas concur with Humboldt. “If we as-

standing the diminution of surface which the Caspian and
: fae have undergone in the historical anor from

before the Geographical Society, May 27,1867. 25

Hecateus and Herodotus down to the tenth century of our
era—i. e. to the days of the Arab geographers El-Istachry and
Ebn Haukal—the event of the separation of the Aral and

aspian remounts to a geological epoch, which like the sepa-
ration of the Euxine and the Caspian, or the opening out of
the Dardanelles and Straits of Gibralter, are all ante-histori-
eal, or far beyond any human tradition.”

In sustaining this view it is to be ama that, whilst
the Aral Sea trends from north to ager the Syr Daria and
its embrachment the Kuvan Daria, hich flow into it from
the east, have had courses at right aus to that sea itself ;
thus favoring the geological view that the great movement
which produced the plateau of the Ust-Urt, separated the
of Aral from the Caspian, and left the chasm occu pied by the
Aral, was also accompanied (as is usual in such slengsions) by
transverse flanking openings in the and on the east,

south of it, is remar

If the Jaxartes ever soe ee to the southwest, as suggested
by Sir H. Rawlinson, it must have joined the Oxus long before
the united streams fell into the Caspian, which is very distant
from the nearest point of the valley of the Oxus. But if such
an union of the great streams ever existed in so southern a lati-
tude, it must have been perfectly well known to the ancients,
and they have made no allusion to it. On the contrary, they
believed and have stated, that ane rivers fell vat ma

by the old a eli traveller Jenkinson, to whom he refers. It
will also be present] i iati

pher Semenof would explain the desiccation of the former or
Caspian branch of the Oxus in another manner. The stop-
page of that iene ee an usual line of ae

untains, a
let Balke: near the ancient desiccated beste of the ‘Oxus:
Such a change of level may, indeed, have been caused by the
same subterranean forces which, in this — evolve, at the

present day, the fires of Baku, and have recently thrown. up - 2

* Humboldt, ‘ Asie Centrale,’ vol. ii, p. 146.

26 Address of Sir R. I. Murchison

volcanic mud-islands near the southern end of the Caspian.
The elevating effect of these forces would deflect the Caspian
branch of the Oxus and cause its waters to unite with the
branches which flowed northward into the Aral Sea
The great distinction between the views taken by Sir Henry
Rawlinson and myself is, that whilst I believe the main out-
lines of the Aralo-Caspian region were determined by move-
ments of the earth in quaternary or later tertiary times, he re-
fers the great changes which he believes to have been made in
the courses of the Oxus and Jaxartes to no very distant histor-
ical dates ; thus referring the emptying and refilling of the
eee hs hollow in which the Aral Sea lies to comparatively mod-
ern t
78 oft, indeed, one argument, which, if sustained, would
at once dispose of my view. In support ‘of the opinion that
sea was non-existent in the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, he states that in those days travellers from Europe
to Asia passed over dry lands since occupied by that sea. If
this were substantiated, the belief I have adopted that the sep-
aration of the Aral from the Caspian, and the upheaval of
the broad intervening plateau of the Ust-Urt, would be at once
removed from a prehistoric period to the days of Henry III,
and the two first Edwards of English histo
Now, surely, if so great a terrestrial change of surface as
this had happened in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries,
the rumor of it would have been bruited throughout Europe
and Asia, Unwilling, however, to rest upon any notions of
my own, I have consulted that admirable comparative geog-
rapher, Colonel Yule, as to the routes taken by the medieval
vellers of that date ; and he having favored me with much
information respecting ‘the whole of th this subject, [ extract from
his letter the appended long note.* By reference to it the

__™* After alluding to the little weight to be attached to the statements of the

Greeks, tracing the imperfect accounts erodotus and his followers, and re-
jecting the Oxiana Ptolemy, which had been made “to do duty,” as he
says, for the Aral on y respectable maps, Colonel Yule proceeds to say :—

__ “We are on surer ground in the narrative of the Embassy of Zem to the
Khan of the Turks about the —_ “pore of the historian Menander,
which r ion, are unfortunate ut fragments, and do not say how
Zemarchus got from Byzantium to Cen "hain. But on his retu te é h

lay to the north of the Caspian we are told that before reachi g the rivers ch
and Daich (apparently the rm _ ral)' he passed for twelve days

the Aral; nor probz y will Sir Henry R cathe rate deny its :
3 y its existence at that date.
dus at of the Act kaon fiat even n the Greeks, once they get actually to
Aral, did recognize its existence.
“We now get to a period regarding which there is no controversy. A long

na

al Society, May 27,1867. 27

reader will see that no foundation for such an assertion is to

be traced in the narratives of these old travellers. For even

when the starting point of their journey eastward lay upon the

ee their line of march is traced either s onves “< re south

of the Aral through the lands of modern Khi r more to

— north of that sea, and probably beyond sighs even of its
ores.

before the

catena of hical vig as Sir Henry Rawlinson tells us, se gn orig ~ two
great rivers as falling into the Sea of Khwarezm, ¢. e. the A t the
s :

Fetghana (the J: asa mage

np 2 the i figes English traveller’ reaches those wll 4 008
he finds the Aral in pee: though his account of it is but hazy; and when
Russian geography springs up at the end of the 16th century, we find eal it al-
ready knows the Aral well as the Blue Sea.”

=: ene then, as we do, how many indications ps to the existence in t

regions in recent rig retes oem times — @ great inland sea, and finding a mlorthie
chain of ¢ evidence as to the Aral itself—either santive tir implicit—down to the
days of modern "geography, I feel it ‘ditt cult to believe ae me the authority of the
Persian MS., that this great sea, nearly 600 miles in uit, with precipitous
sides and attaining a depth of 37 fathoms, pce for a number of Pe or entirely
cease to exist, and then became as we ——

icca’
“ There is one argument on this aha urged by Sir Henry Rawlinson which
I think a review of the facts in detail will scarcely bear out. eae ts to that

we many usuall wed
Henry says, lay exactly across +g site of the Sea of aes yet not one of them
‘mentions it. If this were so indeed, it would be vain to maintain the a

bli

though he writes in the main like a man of sense and reading ; Rigen? s
rapher. iis woes the Dueiper, cn ay the Wolga, and q y Jaic al fall into

Le 3 z
Kazaks,’ in his Sesertatol on the ia tassttes, 462, a quotation hie Russian Soe

geogra:
5 Page! there is a lapsus, w: gas Sir gr a Rawlinson speaks of these mer-
ts as returning with the tea and silk of China; or, if he has pigee for in-

Haji Makes, as the first known to me in any European book.

%

28 Address of Sir R. I. Murchison

In considering what changes have or may have occurred
within the historic period, and quite independent of all former
or geological changes, I necessarily attach great weight to the

opinion I have recently obtained through my friend General
Helmersen from M. P. Semenof, the President of the Physico-
Geographical section of the Russian Geo eographical Society, who
has distinguished himself by his researches in the Thian Shan

the Great Sea, the ‘ Mare Magnum, which has its issue hy St. Georg’s pbannel ss at
Constantinople ;’ and rides for many days along the shores of the C:

ently under the impression that it is but a part o: th ~ ee We picks ae
in passing, if there were no Friar J es among the ancients —— of the more
venial error of confounding the Sea of Aral with the ‘Caspian Be this as it may,
there is no reason for carrying route of Carpini’s a ver the bed of the
Aral. After cro ossing the Jaic, itlay for many pice through the land “y the Can-
gite, or Kankhlis, in which they found few people, but very many an salt-
marshes and lagoons, which they took to be the Paludes Meotides of Gane
and which probably were those which still exist to the north and _— Se

e Aral.? } j

upon the cities and eg ave ted lands of northern Turkestan.
- ubruquis, eight years later, is more correct in his notions

of geography, He ‘dearly discriminates the Caspian from the Euxine, and gives

a fair ace of

it. 6 give the general orientation of his ro g
om Wolga for 45 days and th sou and so continuing
for eight days Ki , acity known to have been in the valley

of the river Talas. i Tae peat: See Furteam wel) be the dake: wil Ae re ou

“ Another traveller, who visited ¢ he court of Mongolia in the —_ year with
Rubruquis, was King Hethum or Hayton, of little Armenia. He, too, after visit-
ing Batu Khan upon the Wolga, rides eastward across the Jaic; i as he passes
the Irtish also, his route must have lain far to the north of the Aral. his re-
turn he passed by Samarkand and Bokhara into Persia.

** Marco Polo eenisge never mentions the , indeed; but neither does he
mention the Jaxartes, and seems never to have been nearer either Kash-
gar. In the oeshiwioaey chapters of his book, in which he speaks of the journey
made by his ae me uncle from the Wolga to Bokhara, he unfortunately 8

no particulars of vd tees? excepting that they went south from Bolghar to
Ukak (near Susator) before striking east.*

“ Probably, however, it w — same as that laid down in the = ext century
from ‘ormation of the merchants who had travelled it, by the Florentine
factor Balducei Pegolotti, elect 1330-1340. This route, ap by mercantile
travellers bound for China, ran from Sarai, on the Wo

neo, or
the Jaic, and thence in negra oan , the capital of
dona to) Oxus, saa 60 miles south
present embouchure of that river in the A he travellers

were in the habit of proceeding to Otrar, a few miles eat of the Jaxartes, and
not far from the modern town of Turkestan, and so forward to the Almalik, near
> See in D'Avezae's edition, p. 743.”
“See the narrative of Carpini's companion, Benedict the Pole, in Ava

p- ore
3 «Ror a detailed examination of Friar William’s route see ‘Cathy and the
ee p- 5699.”

The Tigeri, or River which Polo mentions as crossed the party,
was supposed by Marsdi ten and his suecessors to be the Jaxartes; an Pauthier
has clearly shown it to be the Wolga. (See his ‘Polo’ p. 8; also Cathay,’ p-

a a ee = Pde
before crossing the Jaic. feo ear stone aerate

before the Geographical Society, May 27,1867. 29

chain of Central Asia. Whilst h — like myself, the hy-
pothesis of the een Aral depredsiots bu been emptied and
refilled in the historical period, he refers the desiccation of the
Asiatic rivers and the diminution of lakes to the decrease of
> pete in the high mountains, as well as to great evaporation.

y these causes he thinks that at one Re the Aral Sea may

bet oS Abe rg Av. osha of 9 Parr ad of Chagatai. y thus travelled pet
e Aral. We are Pee ta deed, that if they
etiay 00 a

y
metrical and literal directness, it will rote: d _ through the irk eg north of

tury
same rou mmends—viz., that from Sarai to Saraichik,
and thence to Urghanj and Almalik—was followed by Friar Pascal, of Vittoria,
in 1337," (an Sea ee a few years earlier, in travelling
m to B

“Tt was seabably oh also the route followed by John arene: on his iB aa
king, in 1339-42; but unfortunately, he sa: ryt nothing w:
th i and

_ We have named all the travellers, as far ne am aware, that have left any
record of their journeys in those regions during the period to which Sir H Henry

referred. None of them, we must Sakcinitrisdiow, say anything of the Aral Sea;
: , “2 : >

. © gre p of fra
Mauro, ‘Sehek it contains no Aral, represents the river Amu (or Oxus) ee flowing
i ion 0

2

thing like its proper conditions. Many years after the date of the Russian geog-

raphy 15 which we have alluded as so clearly indicating the Aral under the name
e Blue in his i

ting th
aocnrtits as flo into the Caspian, and a same river, under

the name of Sur, flowing by Tashkend into the ‘ Lake of er with a differ-

ence of 30 mete of he ate aba g the two! Even — de la Croiz, in

ur, has no erent Aho of th
“There oe akeok one medizval map wine at first sight seems to bear strong
testimony to the existence of the Aral Sea in the beginning of the 14th century.
ra th it ; f : 2,

ed by ‘4
Satiy id Hore Teeamoes Capa ot de Bees iat rer position of tho Caaplan
arly a e Yrcanum Caspis or snl in proper iota of Sr Cc
rey

t by a river with another ium,
and full of Islands, which is in a i oe
to the east, toward Sera, ap a third and smaller
into which the Gyon flows (i. e. Jihun or Oxus). I dare not, however, lay much
stre ch contains st nothing else a
exacter information. The multiplied seas may have only out of some
classical “fe

: 5 satay, ay 232.”
s engraved in ‘Bongarsius, Gesta Dei per r Francos,’ vol. ii. There

isa sacat i facsimile of it in the second vile of Vincent; but in this inte. the oe

sea is scarcely to be reco

30 Address of Sir R. I. Murchison

have been diminished, though he is firmly of opinion that such
a deep depression could not have been emptied and refilled. In
reference, however, to the former Caspian branch of the Oxus,
in the existence of which he believes, he supposes that many
streams, now dry or nearly so, formerly augmented the vol-
ume of the Oxus, thus enabling it to supply a branch to the
Caspian by the Gulf of Karabogas, and that to the failure of
this supply we may attribute the drying up of the branch,

term them both Ala Kul simply, because they are unac-
quainted with the marshy and inaccessible isthmus between
them. In Central Asia, too, the River Tchu, through its de-

direction are effected in the course of rivers in flat and sandy
countries is well known to many Russian geographers who
have explored Central Asia,

Thus, the Oxus, deprived of many of its former affluents,
ceased to be able to throw any portion of its waters into the
Caspian, and took the straight course into the Aral, This
natural operation, as Semenof observes, may have also been

subject of the now desiccated. former
may state, on the authority of my cor-
Helmersen, that recen :

memoir was
Feographical Society of St. Peters-

burg, suggesting that men of science should be sent to the spot

to examine into the evidences of that ancient bed of the river, -

ges also to test, by soundings along the shore of the Caspian,
remains of the old site: of that stream could be a tected.

31

less than rahe years the foals have completed the survey of
the whole of that vast interior sea; and it is indeed much to
be regretted that a work of such ereat geographical interest
should have thus been set aside.

In conclusion, my belief is :—1. That the Caspian and Aral

Oxus, as also of the sites of the Caspian and Aral seas, were
determined in a prehistoric period. 3. That at one time the
Oxus emptied itself both into the Caspian and the Aral, and
that the Caspian branch-stream was sent back to the course of
the other portion of the stream, either by the local rise of some
lands between Khiva and the Caspian, or by desiccation and a
want of sufficient power of water. And, lastly, that the Jax-
artes never was deflected from its natural east to west course, to
pass southward, and so reach the Caspian by the southern end
of the great elevation of the Us t-Urt, after a very long course
at right angles to its present direction, to say nothing of its
having in that case necessarily united with the Oxus by the

oe to the north of any line of i cisehcautie between Greece or

Asia was wholly undetermined. May we not ration-
ally infer that the ancient geographers believed that the Jaxar-
tes, as well as the Oxus, flowed into the Caspian, simply, as
suggested by Rennell, from having heard that the Jaxartes ter-
minated in one great sea, and that they naturally believed that
the Aral was then simply the northeastern portion of those
large inland waters of which they had heard, but of which
they knew nothing accurately.

In truth, when we know that the geography of the Greeks,
and even of the Rom ans, was worthless, in regard to any lands
beyond the parallel of the mouth of the Oxus, we necessarily re-
cur to the works of the earliest Arabian geographers, in whi

32 | Address of Sir R. I. Murchison

the Sea of Khwarezm was first exhibited as a separate sea.
. such it also appears in the maps of Rennell, of Williams,

f Yule, and, in short, of all the best authorities, representing
that which I believe to have been the true physical condition
of the region during all historical time, and which I maintain

the Oxus and Jaxartes as lines of reir traffic with Chins
and India, I have no reitadia in saying that the aati river
holds the first place. By reference to the memoir of Lieut.
Wood, in the tenth volume of our “Journal,” describing the
sources of the Oxus, and still better by inspecting the map of
the Bolor Mountains and Upper Sources of the Oxus, which
has just appeared in our present volume (vol. 36), I agree with
the able Russian geographer Veniukof, who, after alluding to
the wild barbarian races which occupy the high tableland of
Pamir and the adjacent mountains, adds this significant pas-
sage : ‘* When we, moreover, remember that this basin of the
sources of the Oxus is closed in on the north, east, and south
by mountains from 15,000 to 18; 000 feet high, and across which
the roads for pack-animals are few and difficult to traverse, we
must arrive at the conclusion, that all idea of converting this
region into a rich aeypot for a trade with India and China
must be abandon

Before I quit the eben of the investigation of Central
Asia, let me ask those of my coun en who read German
with facility, to peruse the great work of Ritter, the ““Erdkunde
von Asien;” and they will at once learn how to value the vast
amount of modern discovery which is due to our Russian co-
tem ies.

On former occasions I have naturally adverted to several of
these remarkable researches; but I regret that, in my last two
Addresses, I have omitted to notice, as I now do with special

bation, the memoir of M. Semenof, published in our
a gas on “Djungaria and the Celestial Moun-
oe As the only man of modern times who has eae

masses of those regions, In so doin , he iat set é nitlede one et
the few errors which the Fae yeas fumboldt fell into in his

* “ Journal of the Royal Geographical Society,” vol. xxxvi, p. 263.

before the Geographical Society, May 27, 1867. 33

grand generalizations, when he was led to believe that the
Thian-Shan—the great axial range of Central Asia—must be
essentially one of volcanic eruption.

Influenced, doubtless, by his — papas of the
Andes of South America, and the rise to their summits of ac-
tive volcanoes, the great traveller was zen na disally disposed to
apply the same inference to the lofty chains of Central Asia;
the more so as all the imperfect data he could collect seemed
~ indicate the existence of rocks of that class

ut as soon as the PhiansShas was examined by the only

often alteri C4 ioaien: into crystallized Ter and elevating them
to enormous altitudes, without exhibiting any true igneous
rocks.

Having already twice a to the recent discoveries in
Asia by the Russians, and we having endeavored to do honor
to them by the award of our Founder’s Medal to one of the
most distinguished Russian explorers, it is now my pleasing
duty to advert to others of their recent labors in that quarter
of the globe,

On former occasions I have dwelt upon the explorations of
Eastern Siberia and the affluents of the grand River Amur and
the mountains to the north. Let us now turn to Central Asia
proper, and see what good documents have been furnished by
the different men of science who have explored those oe
I gather from the ealleine Lh ee tee Geographical So-
ciety that the communica MM. Semenof, Mover aie
Poltarazky, Abramof, Bakkof Goloubel and Printz tz, explain
the physical conformation of tracts and. ‘a eames riches of
regions never before reached in modern tim

Of most of these hitherto promi wil ee the Rus-

Journeys from Siberia to Pekin, i ittins neler, the physi-
cian to. the Russian mission in China, has d down upon a
map all the different known roads acros shoei of w

sian explorers have prepared or are To faciliate ~ ee

that which is called the post road is 1760 versts long, between

Kiachta and Pekin, with 68 relays. If the telegraph, which
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Sreconp Szrres, Vou. XLV, No. 133.—Jan., 1568.
3°

34 B. 8. Burton—Contributions to Mineralogy.

one of our countrymen, Mr. Gordon, who had travelled across
this desert, sought to realize, be established, the journey across
the desert of Gobi will soon be thought nothing of.

As to Bokhara, of which Englishmen have only painful rec-
ollections, on account of the murder of. our distinguished offi-
cers, Conolly and Stoddart, we now know that two Russians,

. Gloukovsky and Tatarinof, who were for seven months
captives there, have added much knowledge to that acquired
by their accomplished countrymen Khanikoff and Lehmann in
1842

Those of our associates who may now visit St, Petersburg
may see pictorial views of Khodjend, Tashkend, and all the
places taken from the Kokandians in the recent advance of the
Russians along the Syr Daria and now forming parts of the
great new province of Turkestan. I learn also, in reference to
this region, so recently opened out to thé civilized world, that
M. Struve, the son of the great Russian astronomer, has pre-
pared a map of the whole province of Turkestan, on a scale of
40 versts to the inch.

Deeply interested as we must all be in this grand opening out
to geographers of a vast unknown country, my first request to
my eminent friend Admiral Count Liitke must be, that as
President of the Imperial Geographical Society and also of
the Imperial Academy, he will procure for our Society copies
of the maps which, to their great credit, the Russian geog-
raphers have prepared.

Art. V.—Contributions from the Shefield Laboratory of Yale
College. No. XVI. Contributions to Mineralogy ; by Brv-
ERLY §. Burton, Ph.B., Assistant in the Sheffield Tabora-
tory.

I. Enargite from Colorado.
Amona a series of ores received by Prof. Brush from
Chas. Johnson of Colorado was a lustrous grayish mi

B.S. Burton—Contributions to Mineralogy. 35

tallic copper. <A qualitative analysis of the mineral showed the
presence of sulphur, copper, antimony, arsenic and iron.

In the quantitative analysis the mineral was decomposed by
the chlorine method; about one gram of it was placed in the
bulb of an ordinary reduction tube and treated in the usual
manner with a slow stream of chlorine gas, the volatilized pro-
duct being made to pass through a mixture of chlorhydric and
tartaric acids. The apparatus employed was the same as recom-
mended by Rose with the exception that the U tube was replaced
by a tube filled with glass fragments saturated with the acid
mixture. The action of the chlorine was continued for nearly
an hour, when the bulb was detached and the chlorids of copper

and iron were dissolved in dilute chlorhydric acid, The ce a
small insoluble residue of undecomposed mine Th

The iron was determined in the filtrate as sesquioxyd and re-
served for the addition of the volatile portion. From the acid
solution containing the volatilized chlorids the sulphur was
thrown down as sulphate of baryta, a after removal of the
excess of baryta salt, the arsenic was separated by the ammo-
nia-magnesia solution, core antimony was ne Pre from

dry current of carbonic acid, ian from this the total wiisivinatt
was calculated. The small portion of iron in the filtrate from

_ the antimony was thrown down as tg 2 redissolved and

converted into sesquioxyd and added to the — thea
obtained. Two analyses ee in this mann

Il. en
Sulphur, 31°46 31°67 31°56
Copper, 47°34 47°82 47°58
enic, 17°67 17°93 17°80
Antimony, 1°25 1°50 1°37
n, ee ee
~ 98°89 99°83 99°35.

a No. 1, the insoluble residue was 2°16 pr. ct., in No. 2, 1°79
ct, ,which amounts have been deducted from the above results.
ratio of the equivalents of arsenic, copper and sulphur is
1:6: 8, giving the formula 30u,S+AsS,. This is the com-
position of Breithaupt’s Enargite as determined — ftp
ner’s* analysis of the mineral from Pe

called Guayacanite from Chili, analyzed and described by Field :

* Pogg. Ann., lxrxx, 283. + This Journal, II, xxvii, 252. +

36 B. 8. Burton—Contributions to Mineralogy.

It is also in close accordance with Dr. Genth’s* analysis of the
enargite from Brewer’s mine in South Carolina, The results
demonstrate the mineral to be enargite, and this conclusion is
fully sustained by its physical characters.

Il. Argentiferous Jamesonite.

In the metallurgical collection of the Sheffield Scientific
School is an interesting suite of ores from the She ne, 8
City, Nevada, and among these Prof, Brush found an argentif-
erous sulph-antimonid of lead which he handed me for quanti-
tative examination. The mineral is of a bluish white color, is
massive to coarsely fibrous or columnar, ues is associated with
quartz, zinc-blende and tetrahedrite. H.=2°5. Sp. Gr.=6-03.

In the closed tube gives a sublimate of eight and sulphid
of antimony. In the open tube affords sulphurous and anti-
monial fumes. 3B.B. on charcoal gives copious fumes of sul-
phur and antimony, with a coating of oxyds of antimony and
lead, and yields a globule of lead, which on cupellation affords
silver. A qualitative examination gave evidences of sulphur,
antimony, lead, silver, copper and iron.

In the quantitative analysis the mineral was decomposed by
chlorine as described under enargite. The contents of the
ere tube were removed and treated with dilute chlorhydric
acid, brought upon a filter, washed with hot water, and the chlo-
rid of lead thus dissolved was precipitated as sulphate, From
the filtrate the copper was thrown down as sulphid by sulphy-

ic acid gas. The residue containing the undecomposed min-
eral with chlorid of silver was washed upon the filter with am-
monia to dissolve the latter, and the silver was subsequently

separated as chlorid by acidulating the solution with nitric

acid. As the first determination of sulphur proved low, an

conegiana absorbent was attached to the end of the tube filled
cme g lass fragments i in the form of a nitrogen bulb apparatus,

containing the mixture of chlorhydric and tartaric acids and a

= te determination made; by this means the amount of
phur was increased more than half a per cent, The anti
eta was determined as in the enargite. The results of two

analyses were as follows :—

a ean,
Sulphur, a 19°06 19°06 1°19 5
Antimony, 29°08 29°45 29°26 "24
Lead, 44

"25 43°68 43°86 "424
Silver, 615 613 614 56480 2
Copper, 172 1°39 155 024
Iron, 05 05 05 |

: 99°76 100°02
* This Journal, Hy, xxiii, p- 420.

B.S, Burton—Contributions to Mineralogy. 37

No. 1, gave 1:34 pr. ct. insoluble residue, and No, 2, 1°72 pr.
ct. which have been deducted from the above. The ratio of dus
combined equivalents of the lead, silver and copper to the an-
timony and sulphur is as 0°50 : 0°24 : 1:19 or very nearly 2:1: 5,
giving the formula 2(Pb, Ag, Cu)S+8bS,. This corresponds
to the formula of Jamesonite, of which it seems to form an
argentiferous variety. The content of silver may indicate its
ether relation to Brogniardite, an antimonial sulphuret of
ead and silver of like atomic proportions but containing a
much larger amount of silver than the Nevada mineral. For
the analyses the mineral was selected with great care, and it
appeared perfectly homogeneous.

Ill. Argentiferous Tetrahedrite.

- This mineral was one of a number presented to the metallur-
gical museum from the De Soto Mine, Star City, Nevada. It
occurs in compact masses of a light gray color and is associated
with quartz, zinc blende and pyrites. It is readily selected en-
tirely free from impurities. Specific gravity 500. On exam-

ination it gave the pyrognostic characters of tetrahedrite, and

and a nitrogen bulb tube was also added to the absorption ap-
paratus as in the examination of Jamesonite. After the chlo-

found by use of the boat that a more perfect decomposition
was effected than with the bulb reduction tube, and as it is

38 L,I. Igelstrim on bituminous Gneiss in Sweden.

rator. The sulphur and the antimony were determined as in
the previous analyses. The iron and zinc in the filtrate from
the antimony were thrown down by sulphid of ammonium, re-
dissolved in chlorhydric acid, the iron precipitated by ammonia
in excess, and the zine subsequently separated by carbonate of
soda. ‘Two analyses gave :—

Balphits toisics eee si: 24°35 24.54

IMONY ys eee Feed ae. 27°35 27°86

Coppers is esi Ve ves vias 27°40 27°42

See ree 14°59 14°49
PANGS Sse Ci i cea ns cha 2°31 ane
POR Ss is cdiks SAGs Kees was 4°27 io

Sneotable, bncs ets cease 0°35 0°56

100°62

This corresponds closely with the argentiferous tetrahedrites
analyzed by Rose and Klaproth from Wolfach.

These analyses were undertaken at the suggestion of Prof.
Brush, and I would here express my thanks to him for his kind
assistance in the above examinations.

Art. VI.—On the occurrence of thick beds of Bituminous
Gneiss and Mica Schist in the Nullaberg, parish of Ostmark,
Province of Wermland, in Sweden; by L. I. Iazustrém.*

blende, mica schist and others, intervene. The bituminous

ite-gneiss at the western part of the high and precipitous
Nullabore, occupying a thickness of more ‘think 120 feet, and
extending along almost the whole side of the mountain. The
dip of the strata is about 70° eastward, and they are covered
first by a bed of hyperite, and then with parallel strata of other
granitoid rocks,

Generally, the bituminous substance is rather uniformly dis-
tributed, through the range, in the gneiss as well as in the mica
schist, and the entire mass has a black color. The naked eve
is hardly able to discern any particles of coal. When penn hi
ground the rock resembles gunpowder, but when ground finer
it grows darker, either of the color of soot, or resembling pyro-
< Rdaeersa gh oe from the author. Published in Swedish in the (fy.

L. I. Igelstrim on bituminous Gneiss in Sweden. 39 >

lusite. When beaten with the hammer, it emits a bituminous
smell, like anthraconite, and also when heated by the blowpipe

e
crucible of platinum, I was not able completely to burn the
whole of the bituminous substance, even after adding nitric
acid several times; a little coal always remaining unconsumed,
The loss of weight, however, was 1203 per cent; the ashes
were gray. When heated in a retort of thin iron, twelve pounds
emitted much combustible gas, while a yellow combustible
oil, as well as a colorless incombustible fluid, was collected in
the receiver. When the gas was allowed to escape through a
hole of one inch in diameter a fine and bright flame was ob-
tained during four hours: during the fifth and sixth hour the
flame grew more blue and fainter. The powder in the retort

_* When weighed in the hand, it feels very light compared with silicates in : ee

40 L,I. Igelstrim on bituminous Gneiss in Sweden.

’ quently our gneiss and mica schist must be removed from the
place they occupy as “ primitive rocks,” to the series of sedi-
mentary and fossiliferous strata, as limestone, alum-slate, &c.

[A section here omitted represents the hyperite, and reddish
granitoid gneiss forming parallehbeds with thin slaty layers of
bituminous mica schist, ‘and fine grained gneiss.| _

Chemical analysis of the rock, by F. L. Exman,

The following are the results of an analysis of various spe-
cimens of Nullaberg rock from the ates nrg of
the Royal Academy of Science in Stockholm.

In five specimens of different character I foand ie eho wing
proportions of organic matter, eer of water included) and
carbonate of lime:

Organic matter, 7°10 10°67 10°36 544 9-08
Carbonate of lime, 2°57 (0°07) 14°30 2.75 0°00

The following is the analysis of the rock, when free from or-

ganic matter and carbonate of lime ;
8i 65-03, All9-61, Fe 0-45, Ca0-19, Mg0-20, K 14-46, Na 1-06 100-00
When larger quantities (40 to 80 grams) were digested at the
ordinary temperature with dilute nitric acid, well determinable
scot were obtained of phosphoric acid and chlorine, as also
of lime, the last even in the specimen 5 (in which, though ‘Bi
grams were analyzed, no carbonic acid was found.) Hence one
may conclude that the ae contains a little apatite. Traces of
manganese and copper were also observed. The siliceous ingre-
dients of the rock were also somewhat attacked, and as may
perhaps be inferred, the traces of silica were separated before
ee oo phosphoric acid.
he organic ingredient may be easily obtained in a y very pure

state by washing, when a suflicient quantity of the rock is em-
ployed. The purest specimen that I obtained afforded after
combustion only 3:17 p.c. of a reddish ash, but still contained
some mineral fragments. The ash, of which such nts
constituted perhaps the principal part, showed no reaction on

urcuma-paper. In a few centigrams, collected after analysis,
I found gypsum, oxyd of iron, silica (and phosphoric acid ?)
Reporenity es amie ie combustion of the organic matter.

€ carbonaceous substance thus purified forms a light pow-
der of a beautiful bluish black color. : It is but sli a2 aa
_ scopic and is not easily wetted with water, V ponte
agelutinates a a little, but without melting or sensibly changing
its state of aggregation, and produces a transient but brilliant
flame; the remaining coal smolders away very slowly. The

L. I, Igelstrim on bituminous Gneiss in Sweden. 41

specific gravity I found to be 1299; after the removal of all
remaining stony matter, it would probably be about 1-27.
Analysis by Pe gave the following results: (ash and
water being rem

The ssabubesea substance obtained from

No. 3. No. 2. Medium.
REDO ses css tee 88°68 88°79 a 88°74
Hydrogen,........ 5°35 5°56 — 5°46
Nitrogen... 23% — — 0°67 0°67
Ox prey i 50% — — — 5°13

The carbonaceous substance is generally but little affected by
solvents. Spirit of 90 per cent pure alcohol became yellow and
dissolved scarcely one per cent* of a substance, probably color-
less when pure and easily soluble in alcohol ; when heated it
— a thick white vapor and slowly blackened. ther dis-
lved 4 per cent of a substance of the same nature but less
pat Chloroform, like alcohol, was colored deep yellow and
left a similar residuum, the quantity of which was however not
determined. il of turpentine had no more dissolving effect
than alcohol or ether, The experiments with alcohol, ether
and oil of turpentine, were performed by boiling the substance
in the solvents for several hours.
warm solution of 1 part of caustic potash in 6 parts of
water dissolved 5 per cent and became black-brown. From
this solution by the action of acids was obtained a very volu-
minous brown precipitate soluble in pure water. After the
extraction of this 5 per cent, the remainder was unalterable in
a heated golution of caustic potash, though aE for several —
hours to its action.

’ small seale, the ‘pd nce 0: asthe as a as ible avoi-
= Thee er se ems

m of the substance gave, rapidly —_ om c. ¢. of
ene of 93° C., collected and measured over wa e gas, a
when full: fully purified from varbonie acid, T found 57 vol peas
bjdvenabons absorbable we bromine: Pe another experiment, —

Ln, aah i,

* Th, 2 Ea Lf.

42 H. L. Smith on a new Binocular Eye-piece.

re the oils were for the most part eae ge during the

distillation, 313 c. c. of gas were obtained from 1 gram of the
substance

In the analysis of the organic substance, no attention was
paid to theamount of sulphur contained. Even in the original
rock, when melted with carbonate of soda, this element plainly
shows —s and in the carbonaceous substance, containing
3°17 p.c , 1 found no less than 0°81 p,c. Whether the
iron Reva in the ash be there in sufficient quantity to unite
with the sulphur and make pyrite, or whether, as is possible,

ere be an overplus of sulphur contained in the organic sub-
stance, is as yet undecided.

Art. VIJ.—On a new Binocular Eye-piece for high powers ;
by H. L. Surrn, Kenyon College.

WHILE experimenting with the apparatus for illumination
of opake objects under high powers of the microscope, a de-
scription = which was cahervaaily published in this Jour-
nal,* the idea occurred to me that by using a small rectangular
prism for the reflector of the illuminator, and a side tube that
could be attached to it at pleasure, a binocular arrangement
similar to that now made by Mr, Nachet could readily be
adapted to any monocular instrument. I sent drawings to
Mr, Wales for this purpose, some time before the publication
already alluded to, requesting him also, to try for the reflector
a plate of parallel glass, in such manner that the light re-
flected from one surface might pass up the side tubg, and the
light transmitted through the glass, up the main tube. Upon
further thought, I devised the eye-piece now to be described,
in order to more equally divide the light in the two tubes; and,
feeling satisfied after roughly trying it, that it would be mauch
superior to the plan I had suggested to Mr, Wales, I desired
aey to pve for a time the semanas of the apparatus for

Thad sent him the pla’
vel t the Tisininator to public em I tried
again the effect of an eye-piece constructed mainly as escribed
ene whi wa tubes, and holding the Aesth °
place simply it; although I did not notice any in-
Jurious reflecti e back surface of the glass plate, es
hrow the fa proposed to make it sufficiently we ha
oe from the posterior surface entirely out of fa

correct for the the transmitted rays by making the

* Vol. xl, No. 119, Sept. 1865.

H. L. Smith on a new Binocular Eye-piece. 43

» achromatic, I sent to Messrs. Powell & Leland a de-

ork,

It apppears that the plan they had adopted was that which
I had, more than six months previously, suggested to Mr,
Wales, and which I had laid aside for the more perfect form.
Evidently, the use of the Illuminator, as they constructed it,
with a reflector of plate glass, first suggested the idea to them.
Indeed, such an application could hardly have escaped the
notice of those clever opticians. Shortly after, came a descrip-
tion of Mr. Wenham’s improvement on Pow ell & Leland’s ar-
rangement, and which was said to afford a light ‘nearly equal —
in each tube.

As this accomplished all I had been experimenting for, I

gave the subject no further attention until after my return from

England a few months since. I learned while there, that Mr.
Wenham’s contrivance » was considered een > it Te-

was very faint.
Wenham, it is fair to say, alludes to the employment of
a ery. thin wedge as a substitute for Powell & Leland’s thick
n his paper i .
jay 1866, and also,
ia s reflected i ‘Messrs =

ae H. L. Smith on a new Binocular Eye-piece.

somewhat blurred or doubled, and also from a sort of parallax,
which causes a movement of the different parts of the image,
readily seen as one looks alternately through the field by mov-
ing the head from side to side; the pulsation of the arteries
causes movement. J have found sometimes this movement a

seen under very high powers. e fact of using both eyes,
with two fields illuminated exactly alike, gives great physical

per
ece at . Of course a plate accurate ound would be
"better ; the sides of common plates of Ae glass as I have
-_ ae & acne less wavy. The thickness of the
; ri orm 1s Imm, it is so slightly wedged-sha
that the difference in thickness of the two ends very come

H. L, Smith on a new Binocular Eye-piece. 45

measured, I find to be only (03™™, and when placed about half
a meter from the eye, and three meters from the sash of a win-

will vary wi
trial. Fig. 1

represents in section this form ; ab is the glass pl ote
transmitted, and d the reflected ray. The cap of the eyepiece

46 H. L. Smith on a new Binocular Eye-piece.

is placed with its reflecting face parallel, but slightly inclined
to the face of the plate a6 ; the proper position is determined

to suit the ordinary varying distance of the eyes. It is obvi-
ous, that in the construction, fig. 2, the di he

eyes may be allowed for, without sliding out the eye-piece by _
changing tubes and rotating the

E. W. Root on Wilsonite. 47

€ union of the two images from the two surfaces of the glass
plate, will be quite undisturbed. It will be apparent that the
glass slip a 6 may be turned aside, so as not to interfere with the
use of the instrument asa monocular. I think, however, no
one who has enjoyed the luxury of binocular vision, so com-
plete as this is, will be disposed to return to the old form, for
even with the common glass I have used, I can percieve no de-
triment to the definition, and but a trifling loss of light.

Art. VIII.—On Wilsonite from St. Lawrence County, N. Y.;
by E. W. Boor,

Unprr the name of Wilsonite, Dr. Sterry Hunt has de-
scribed, in the Geological Survey of Canada, 1863, a mineral
from Bathurst, 0. W., which is principally a hydrated silicate
of alumina and potassa. A short time since I found in the
cabinet of Prof. Root of Hamilton College, several specimens
of a mineral from St. Lawrence county, N. Y., resembling in
appearance the pink scapolite from Bolton, Mass., but easily
distinguished therefrom, by a much inferior grade of hardness.
This mineral in its physical properties, action before the blow-
pipe, and behavior with acids, resembles precisely the wilsonite
of Hunt. It occurs in peach-blossom red, prismatic masses,
ategere. two parallel cleavages at right angles to one another.

ts hardness is about 3°5. Its specific gravity 2°77-2°78. Its
luster is vitreous, and in thin fragments it is translucent. Be-
fore the blowpipe it fuses readily with intumescence to a white
enamel. Concentrated acids decompose it, the silica separating
in a pulverulent from, A qualitative analysis gave the same
components as those of the Canada mineral, silica, alumina,
lime, magnesia, potassa, soda, and water, with a trace of man-
ganese. It also contained, quite intimately associated with it,
some 15 per cent of carbonate of lime.

_ After removing the carbonate of lime with dilute hydro-
chloric acid, the mineral gave as the result of a quantitative
analysis— |

Sid;

50; igh. GO KD
4746 3051 3°63. «S««0'5S OTB 243 G9 = 9943

48 C.G. Wheeler on the action of hypochlorous acid

These numbers agree quite closely with those of the follow-
ing “ao of the Canada wilsonite by Dr. Hunt,

SiO, MgO CaO KO NaO HO
47°70 31°23 4° 14 0°39 9°38 0°95 5°35 = 99°13

The mineral analyzed by me was found several years since by
Prof. Root near Oxbow on the road to the Rossie lead mines in

t. Lawrence county. It occurs in connection with calcite,
green hornblende (pargasite), and steatite (rensselaerite of Em-
mons,) while throughout the whole mass of the mineral small
scales of graphite are disseminate

here can be no doubt but the wilsonite of Hunt and this
mineral are identical.

Wilsonite possesses a composition very similar to gieseckite,
parophite, dysyntribite and agalmatolite. It is supposed by
some eminent mineralogists to be an altered scapolite, while
others consider it to have always possessed its present compo-
sition, and not to be the result of a metamorphic action.

School of Mines, Columb. Coll, N. ¥., Noy. 11, 1867.

Art. [X.—On the action of hydrated hypochlorous acid on Oil
of Turpentine and Camphor; by C. GiLBERT WHEELER.

Ort of turpentine and camphor are chemically closely related,
differing in composition by only a single molecule of oxygen

Dislivs CioH 1.0*
Oi of P turpentine,
_ The intimate relation here indicated, has been by Berthelot
clearly proven to exist, he ha obtained camphor from oi

of turpentine by combining the latter with hydrochloric acid,
+ 3 are it seretront as Cars ae -eeomecrie with oil of tur-

to. have succeeded in obtaining camphor direct from
tine

of turpen
pee to the relation of bodies to the homologous
series of the fatty and aromatic acids it may be observed that
where the number of molecules of carbon are the same, the
members of = fatty series contain more nyerogen while those

fore, with its numerous oes: allied a (terbenes),
occupies a position intermediate between these two impo rtant

* C=12. 0=16. Jahresbericht, 1858, p. 441.
Selene cir a ens — : » B-

on Oil of Turpentine and Camphor. 49
groups of organic bodies, as the following example will illus-
trate:

CioH a C, Hie C,oHy,
Diamylene. Oil of turpentine. Cymol.

That on the one side, oil of turpentine sustains the intimate
relation to the aromatic series here assumed, has been by ex-
periment abundantly illustrated. I need ‘only to refer to
th ; ‘

turpentine and the formation of cymol from cam

relations, however, to the fatty series of the bodies under con-
sideration have not been thus satisfactorily demonstrated.
Now oil of turpentine occupies apparently a similar position
with reference to te c acid as acetylene does to acetic acid,
as is herewith shown

C 1 oH 16 C, ole 0 O02
Oil of turpentine. Ghiaie acid.

CH, C,H,0,

Acetylene. Acetic acid.

It appeared to me, therefore, to be a subject worthy of in-
vestigation to ascertain whether the relations ge expressed
could be proven by experimental research. I e for this
purpose, made use of hydrated hypochlorous acid as a reagent,
dnd have been able to obtain a ee ent toe may be regarded
as belonging to the series of the fatty a

If oil of turpentine (boiling point 159° ¥ is added to a dilute
aqueous solution of hj pocklarsad acid and shaken, it at once
becomes — thick and heavy, and soon settles to the bottom
of the vessel. Were concentrated acid employed, the mixture
would apuily become heated and other products be formed than
that sought, or, under the most favorable circumstances, but
very little of the new body would be obtained. The oil should
be slowly added, not allowing an increas 2 of temperature, and
ceasing when on adding a fresh portion, "bet slight change in
color is produced, or before oe c aractersti¢ odor of the hypo-
chlorous acid can no longer be readily recognize

The heavy oil is aepaested from the aqueous solution by fil-
tration, The latter contains chlorid of mercury, originating
from the oxyd of that metal employed in the ss =

hypochlorous acid, also an organic substance, which,
evaporating the solution, separa arated . as an oil with more or ‘isle
ecomposition, This is the most interesting of the products
of the reaction, and in olen is obtain it pure from the solution
is necessary to avoid the application of a high temperature.

To t this, a cogent tg: common salt is added till the

AM. Jour. Sc1.—SzEconpD SERIES, og ee No. 133.
4

effec
solution is saturated, which is then shaken wie small por-
—Jan., :

50 C. G. Wheeler on the action of hypochlorous acid

tions of ether. The etherial extracts are united and shaken
with a concentrated solution of chlorid of amm onium, which
takes up all the mercury chlorid, the ether i is then removed with

operation a current of dried air is transmitted through the res-
idue in order to more completely remove all traces of ether. .
The body thus obtained is the product of the direct combina-
tion of hydrated hypochlorous acid with oil of a. ge and
on its combustion I obtained the following results

0 eiae gm. yielded 0°6190 gm. carbonic acid and 0-2340 gm, water.

0°298 on ignition with lime, 0°3270 “ AgCL :
thoos figures indicate the formula C, ,H, ,C1,0,.
Theory. Found
O.4= "190 49°79 <3 Sas gs
18 : 746 ei 2 Se ee ee
Cl, 71 2046 wn ee
32 13°29

This misanee is therefore formed according to the follow-

ing equatio
OgHy +2 mer =O, B50

a a C,H, Cl aia ou 04
Oil of turpentine, Dichlorhy rin of ? ow 4 A cin Teoh I,
(Terebentene). Terpen-aleohol. (Turpen-alechol).
role C, .H, Ol, O, Ose 12-4
Dichlorhedrin Raphtein scones

of Naphten-alcohol.

Dichlorhydrin ‘of terpen-alcohol is a colorless, framparent,
viseld substance, oe a somewhat greater consistence than tur-
‘pentine, co mplete ly neutral, difticultly soluble in water, but
ety soluble § in ether and alcohol. On heating its alcoholic —
‘solution — nitrate of silver, chlorid of silver is formed, It —

nnot be d d, for before ‘the necessary temperature is at-

i ic acid is
of, SeSier arth ete

on Oil of Turpentine and Camphor. 51

The above mentioned, as yet unknown, terpen-aleohol I at-
tempted to obtain by treating the dichlorhydrin with baryta;
however, there appeared to result a too energetic decomposition
of the substance. I further tried the action of zine and sul-

mass which still gives a chlorine reaction. However, on digest-
ing that portion not taken up by the ether with alcohol, filter-
ing the same from the insoluble chlorid of sodium, the concen-
trated filtrate when slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid and
shaken with ether, yields, on evaporating the etherial solution,
a body containing no chlorine. This is insoluble in water, but
soluble in alcohol and ether. It yielded no crystalline com-
pounds with metalic bases, and its ammonia salt decomposed
on evaporation. The lead, silver and copper salts, were amor-
phous powders, and the isolated acid could not be obtained
crystallized, but only as a brownish translucent solid. On
combustion I obtained from 0°1360 grm., 0°328 grm. carbonic
acid and 0-1070 grm. water, which would indicate the formula

C,,H,,0;.

Theory. Found.
Cio 120 65°21 - - - 65°75
Pass 16 8°69 - - . ee et

The formation of this acid can hardly be imagined to be
the result of any very simple reaction; doubtless the dichlorhy-
drin, on parting with its chlorine, splits up into secondary pro-
ducts. As the quantity obtained of this body was but small,
I was unable to study its chemical relations more completely,
In view, however, of what shortly follows, and referring to the
same, I would propose ‘‘ Hydrophoronylic acid” or “‘ Oxy-cam-
phinic acid” as a suitable name for this substance. as

Dichlorhydrin of terpen-alcohol is, however, only obtained
in small quantities when oil of turpentine and hypochlorous
acid are brought into contact. The chief product is the heavy
oil first alluded to. A quantity of this was dissolved in alco-

0-270 gm. gave 0-532 CO, and 0-177 H,0=53-74 carbon and 7-28 hydrogen.
| “ & 9-800 > 61 hi 6°92 2

a

0340 “ 9-529 AgCl=38°36 chlorine.

}

52 C.G. Wheeler on the action of hypochlorous acid

These figures lead to no simple or at all probable formula;
the body was possibly a mixture of mono- and trichlorinated
oil of turpentine. A mixture of equal equivalents would de-
mand 53°99 p.c. carbon, 6°08 hydrogen and 39-93 chlorine.

appears to take place where oil of turpentine is employed.
btamed with turpentine a finely crystallized body whieh is

hypochlorous acid on camphor, a substance partaking on the
one hand much of the nature of an aldehyd, and on the other,

that of an alcohol. Its behavior on being treated with a solu-

tion of potassa in alcohol, splitting up into an alcohol (borneol)

and an acid, resembles that ofan aldehyd.+ It does on how-
ever, unite with bisulphites of the alkalies and it admits of
Ving a molecule of hydrogen substituted for one of potassium
* Annalen der Chem. und Pharm., 1867.
t Berthelot, Annalen Chem. und Pharm., ci, 94.

on Oil of Turpentine and Camphor. 53

or sodium, as is the case with the alcohols.* The true chem-
ical structure of camphor must be determined by a further
study of its derivatives.

While a dilute solution of hypochlorous acid acts readily
and rapidly on oil of turpentine, its action on camphor is ex-
ceedingly slow. In the first experiment I allowed camphor to
remain in a weak folhtion of hyponitrous acid for eight days,
and thereupon one day in a concentrated solution. The pro-
duct of the reaction, a white, indistinctly crystallized solid, was
washed with water till no acid reaction remained, dissolved in
alcohol and again precipitated by diluting with water, Itstill

0°3255 grm. gave 0°6035 grm. carbonic acid and 0°178 grm. water.
04995 “ « 9g: es « AgCl

0" 260 i oe oe 0°3 “
From these figures ie a O,H,,Cl1,0, may by calculated.
Found.
I.
Cup = 9905 oer acta Aye “ 57
a, 27 5°66 ”, a 07
GC; 17775 + yf ar - - “A 63 37°11

The formation of this substance can be explained by the
following eames ation:

2(C, ,H, ,0)+5CIHO=C, ,H, ,Cl,0, +5H,0.

The result i is a different and a much simpler one where cam-
phor is immediately brought in contact with concentrated hy-
pochlorous acid; it is at once transformed into a thick fluid,
becomes warm, and after some time again hardens to a crystal-
line solid. This body is the chief product of the reaction,
though a very small quantity of another organic substance is
found in the solution, The crystalline substance is dissolved
in alcohol, precipitated with water and thoroughly washed with
cold water. It is then again repeatedly dissolved in alcohol
and crystallized therefrom until obtained quite pure. On its

analysis I obtained the following results:
0°2320 ave 0°5940 carbonic acid oy 0°1710 water.
eas ee 0 0°16 15 orid of silve ee

ese figures eae et with those of i chlorinated
pts ae

‘alcula’ Found.
GC, . 120 G£05 5 = = CS ORDE
H,. SbFes fo wes 8°18
Cl ee ee

54. 0. G. Wheeler on the action of hypochlorous acid

The following equation expresses the reaction:
ORS: « if /O+ClHO=C, ,H, ClO+H 0.
Camph i)

2
no-chlorinated camphor. ~*

obtained from benzol, monochlorinated benzol, together with
a body named by him “ trichlorhydrin der Phenose.”* Mono-

Treated with perchlorid of phosphorus there remained, after
the removal of the oxychlorid of phosphorus formed, a substance
which blackened on attempting to distill a portion. Its distil-
lation was therefore not proceeded with, but it was washed with
water, dissolved in alcohol and again precipitated by dilution.
The oil-like substance thus obtained soon became a ma
which yielded white crystals on pressing between filter paper.

€ substance was probably either the bady C,,H,;Cl,, or that
resulting therefrom on subtracting one atom of hydrochloric
acid, viz: C,,H,,Cl,.

A considerable quantity of monochlorinate of camphor was
treated with a solution of potassa in alcohol for 6 to 8 hours.
The whole thereby became brownish-red and a large quantity
of chlorid of potassium was formed. On dilution with twice

* Zeitschrift fir Chemie, 1866, p. 67.
+ Annal. Chem. und Pharm , exxxvi, 323; xliv, 301.

on Oil of Turpentine and Camphor. 55

ether, filtered, and thoroughly dried after separ of the
ether. Its analysis yielded the following results
02608 grm. gave 0°6318 grm. carbonic acid.?

02496 “ * 06040 and 0°1870 grm. water,
These figures correspond with the formula C,,H,,0,.
Calculated. Found.
© 5. 190) 85-98 + es 6607 65:99
ne. Ta 8-23

The acid was neutralized with ammonia and acetate of lead

added. 0-2240 grm. of the lead 5 ar gave 0°1180 grm.
‘sulphate of lead =36:21 pr. ct. lead. The formula C,,H,,;PbO,,
- requires 36°42 p.c. The acid is therefore thenobaaia and has
the following rational formula: (C,H;,0) CO. OH. The radi-
cal requires one molecule of hydrogen i in order to become pho-
ron, and an experiment with a small quantity, by heating with
lime, made it apparent that this substance was produced as it
is in like manner from some other camphor derivatives. I
therefore name this body phoronylic acid. Phoronylic acid is
isomeric with camphoric acid ; it is a syrupy fluid, not soluble
in water, readily soluble in ether and alcohol, It has but slight
odor, somewhat resembling cumarin. This odor is especially
marked when the substance is heated with sulphuric acid and
chromate of potassa. The alkaline salts of phoronylic acid are
readily soluble in water and appear not to crystallize; the am-
monia salt loses its area: on evaporation. The salts of the
heavy metals are insolub

The precipitate (A), isantionsd f in the foregoing, dissolved in
alcohol, yielded on evaporation beautiful crystalline needles.

btained pure by repeated crystallization and analyzed, the
following were the results:

01970 grm. gave 0°5130 grm. CO, and 0°1659 grm. H,0,

which idsiaio the substance C,,H,,O.

Calculated. Found.

Oe 120 Ee i ee TPO?

Hy. 16 oe > SS * 9°36

O 32 15 2 2 ee * cide
100-00

The reaction may be thus expressed :
Cy His! 010+KOH = C,,H,,0,+ KCl
——— Pa PY eR,
Monochlorinated Camphor. Oxycamphor.

crystallizes i in small white needles, is easily sol-

a: oe -. |
uble in Fadcobol. insoluble in water, melts at 137 e ,may be sub-

a ‘The hydrogen determination met with an accident.

56 C. G. Wheeler on the action of hypochlorous acid.

limed without change, volatilizes somewhat even in boiling
water and resembles ordinary camphor in taste and odor. Oxy-
camphor is isomeric with camphinic acid dicovered by Berthelot.
According to that chemist, ordinary camphor on being heated
with an alcoholic solution of potassa splits up into borneol aig
an acid which he presumed to have the composition C,,H,,0,.*
He did not analyze the acid but explained the process of its
formation as follows :

2(C,,H,,0) + KOH = C,,H,,0 + C,,H,,KO,
Camphor. Borneol. Camphinate of potassa.

It appeared to me desirable to analyze this substance and
eetablish | its isomeric character with oxycamphor. A quantity .
of camphor was therefore heated with an alcoholic potassa so-
lution in a sealed tube to 180° for 6 to 8 hours, On opening
the tube an inflammable gas escaped. (Probable H and CH,
from decomposed alcohol.) The contents of the tube were di-
luted with water, the precipitated borneol and camphor filtered
off and the filtrate completely neutralized with sulphuric acid.
On concentrating till all the potassic sulphate had crystallized
out, the mother-liquor was acidified with sulphuric acid, the
precipitated camphinic acid washed ise sta dissolved in
ether and obtained therefrom by evapor, The acid thus
obtained corresponded completely with hat -demtibed Bs Ber-
thelot. It was an almost solid, “fast feste,” transparent mass
which, on account of its peculiar consistency, was very difficult
to entire rely free from moisture, and this doubtless accounts for
the carbon determination in the subjoined analysis being too
low. payor there remains no doubt that the formula
assigned to it is correct and that it is isomeric with oxycamphor.

The results of analysis were: 0236 grm. substance, 0:610
grm. carbonic acid, and 0-211 grm, eee
Calculated. Found.
c.. 120 ia ee
oS 16 — SS 9°91
Oo, 82 ity ere e

Camphinate of lead, dried at 100°, a white ‘nalts wiede
yielded the following results on analysis :

0:1390 grm. substance gave 00787 grm. sare of lead =
38°77 p. c. lead. The theory calls for 38 26

Camphinic acid is perhaps capable of yie dings capric acid, |
or some body isomeric therewi ith, on submitting it to the action
of nascent hydrogen.

A summary view of the established results of the foregoing

Ane St ee oe ee oxii, 364,

J. Walz on the oxydation of Diamylene. 57
investigation and their closer allied chemical relations may be
gathered from the following statement of formule.

Oil of turpentine—Camphene, C,,H, «-
Camphor =Oxycamphene, C,,H,,0.
_ Oxycamphor ee OA Oy (Oth i)

Camphinic a O,,oH,.0,==(0,H,,)00.08
syeamphinie acid (hydrophor-
nylic acid), C,,H,,0,—(C,H,,0)CO.OH
Piveauis acid, ° C, otty, O4—-(CoH...0)C0 08
Monochlorinated camphor, C.48, “ClO
Terpendichlorhydrine, C,oHisCl,O0,

In closing, I acknowledge with pleasure the valuable service
in connection with the foregoing, of my assistant, Mr. Oscar

oew

ee June, 1867.

Art. X.—On = tegen of Diamylene with Chromic
3 by J. Watz, Ph.D.

Ar the instigation of Prof. Erlenmeyer ue Bendel berg who
proposes to ascertain the relative constitu f Diamylene
I undertook the oxydation of this substance wet. chromic acid.
- used amylene which boiled between 35° and 40° C, This
polymerized rapidly and completely according to the
fethel Soscrited by Erlenmeyer* and almost the whole of the
product thus obtained, distilled at 153°-170° C. In order to
test its purity it was ‘treated with bromine in a narrow tube
which was surrounded by cold water; the bromine was added
gradually, every drop added causing a hissing sound and a con-
siderable evolution of hydrobromic acid. “When the liquid
had assumed a reddish-brown color it was purified, washed and
dried according to the usual methods. The product thus ob-
tained was not Bauer’s bibromid (CoH Bry) t | but the mono-
bromid of diamylene oor CoHsBr;. is an almost
colorless oil, heavier than w: er and has a eat but not disa-
greeable odor of camphor, Tt decomposes and turns brown at
100° C. It was analyzed with the following results :

Verhandlungen des naturhistorisch medicin. Vereins, Heidelberg, vol. iti,

iene
at sp shovgh the temperature of the liquid gunieg the operation was about 15°
C., no carbo nization could be observed. Compare: Bauer, Sitzgsberichte der
Wiener Akademie,

$ 0=12, O=16 S=32, &e.

58 J. Walz on the oxydation of Diamylene.
I. 0°2235 grms, of the substance furnished 0-2541 CO, and 0°1063

IL, 0:2098 grms, furnished 0-2472 CO, and 01007 H,0.

Found.

C,.H,,Br, demands: z II.
G, 31°66 31:00 32°20
: 5°01 5°28 5°34
Br, 63°33
100-00

The oxydation—At one time 14 grms, of diamylene were
mixed with 100 grms. of bichromate of potassa, 150 of sul-
phuric acid (spec. gravity=0-1842) and 150 of water ; in @
second experiment 32 grms, of diamylene, 228 of the bichro-

then diluted with water and distilled, furnishing a green oil

to hold some acid in solution ; it was, therefore, neutralized
with soda, washed with water and dried over chlorid of lime.

I. 0-1006 grms., taken from the entire quantity of the oil after

ing with chlorid of calcium, yielded 0-2643 grms, CO
and 01206 HO. i: ;
IL. 0-0996 grms., boiling at 140°-160° C., yielded 0-2690 CO,
_ and 071236 H.O

III. 01646 grms., boiling at 160°-180° C., furnished 0:4552
ae CO, and 01974 H,O.

IV. 02016 frm. boiling at 180°-200° C., furnished 05667
CO,. The determination of the water was lost,

J. Walz on the oxydation of Diamylene. 59

i Il. III. Iv.
C, 70°39 72°15 75°41 15°54
H, 13°30 13°75 13°32 ca
0. A,
The formula C,H,,0 requires 73°68 12°28
“ “ ‘a 6“ 75°00 12°50
acy oe C,H,,0 “ 76-05 12°67
x - ©1550 if 76°92 12°82

10
It would, consequently, appear most likely to consider this oil
as a mixture of these various oxyds and as perhaps still con-
taining diamylene which had not been attacked during the
process of oxydation. It possesses a yellowish-green color, a
penetrating odor of camphor and of mint ; its specific grav-
ity is less than that of water ; it does not combine with bisul-
phite of soda and it is in no way affected by a temperature of
20°C. It appears to be difficult to dry it completely with
chlorid of calcium, and sodium cannot be employed because it
affects Mee oil chemically.
to obtain some farther information pam the

constitution of this substance, or, at least, to purify it by oxyd-
izing the diamylene which it possibly still contained, r “teoatee
6 grms. of the oil with 5 grms. of bichromate of potash, 8 grms.
of concentrated sulphuric acid and 16 of water in a glass bal-
loon connected with a reversed ‘ Liebig’s cooler.’ The course
of this oxydation resembled exactly that of diamylene itself;
the formation of acids, both oily and soluble in water, and of a
resinous substance took place, while about 4 grms. of
which still possessing the characteristic smell and color, now
showed the following composition

I, 0:0907 grms. of the substance yielded 02536 CO, and

0°1104 H,
II. 0°1098 grms. of the substance yielded 03046 CO, and
0:1435 H,0.

I. IL
Cc, 81°69 4 81°53

H,

This composition answers very nearly to the formula C,,H,,O
(which would be the oxyd of tetramylene) which requires 81-08
p.c. C, 13°51 H, and 5-41 0. Still it would seem as if merely
a farther oxydation of the products intermediate between the
diamylene and the acids described further on, had taken place

in this instance, and, consequently, no definite formula can as
yet be assigned to this oil.

—- acid distillate—The acid distillate, mentioned 2

eutralized with ha and evaporated to dryness. colt.
siderable quantity of a salt, part of which proved to be ike:

quescent, was obtained in this way. It was decomposed with

oe ~

~

60 od. Walz on the oxydation of Diamylene.

voluminous mass, which is almost insoluble in water. Two
analyses showed that the dry salt contained 40°66 and 40°88
p. c. of silver.

I. 01773 of the salt yielded 0-0721=40°66 p. c. Ag.

II. 01634 “ & *-- O0668=4088" 46
This composition would correspond to several salts, and we
prefer, therefore, to leave the final decision to further inves-
tigations,

The water which distilled with the foregoing acid had a sour
reaction and the smell pointed to the presence -of acetic acid.
It was several times partially neutralized with nitrate of sil-
ver, and the salts which crystallized out, were analyzed:

I. 0°1589 grms. of the dry salt left 0°1021=64-25 p. c. Ag.

ai - Glew * oy ds * > ON0BG=63'95.. «.

ali. 7 ion. & vy is “ .0:0794=6444 “« «&

iV. O02326-% fe . “sO LG05=6465 ..¢

Acetate of silver requires 64°67 p.c. A

The salt analyzed under IV had er obtained as follows:
the liquid-was left in contact with the oily acid for several days,
and shaken with it from time to time in order to dissolve
as much of it as possible ; it was then separated and subjected
to a fractional distillation, which was suspended as soon as oily
acid ceased to distil. The liquid which remained behind in
the retort was neutralized with nitrate of silver while it was

precipitate was decomposed with sulphuric acid and a great deal of a
tarry substance was thus obtained floating on the liquid. It is soluble in alcohol
and ether, but insoluble in water. When the precipitate is boiled with a concen-
trated solution of pure potassa, sesquioxyd of chromium is precipitated and a yel-

J. Walz on the oxydation of Diamylene. - 61

dryness on the water-bath. A deliquescent salt remained be-
hind which was decomposed with sulphuric acid ae yielded
an oily acid. This acid isa colorless syrup w does not
crystallize at 50° C.; “it possesses an agreeable fruit-like odor,
is lighter than water, little soluble therein, and seems to have
the form 140, (perhaps isomeric with cenanthylic acid),
On account of the small quantity at my disposal I could not
accurately determine its boiling point; but this seems to lie
between 215°-225° C. The salts which this acid forms with
the aatan are very soluble in water and deliquesce in contact
with the

The lime salt is very easily soluble in water; in the dessi-
cator (over sulphuric acid) it dries up, forming a white, anhy-
drous, crusty mass, which is not deliquescent.

The silver salt is obtained as a flocculent — precipitate.
Its composition was ascertained to be as follows ;

I. 0°1471 of the dry § salt left 0: oes ai ‘34 p.¢. Ag.

IL. care ie 0°0486=44°79
i Oster ere vauuaed to combus-
tion, furnishing 0:2245 grms. of CO. and 0:1046 H,0.
Required by the formula C,;H,,0,. I. i, II.
Og: 84 Wht Data’ x05 sd oe caver Bos
Hy 38 549 sae in sea 6°71
Ag 108 4557 “ 45:34 44°79 4...
Re ei tee ara MP Paar
237 100°00
In sie rede I beg leave to state that want of time and
material om extending my experiments far

upon in this article. Experiments in this direction will, how-

my heartfelt thanks for the kind interest and valuable advice
_ which he bestowed upon me during the whole of my investi-
gation.

New York, Nov. 18th, 1867.
lowish a Ree pide appears which is a soluble in water. Sulphuric

s it, and on distillation an oily acid is obtained which seems ie be

ieeuilceeos to the ecmiianeass acids. The GGaaatity which I obtained of it
was 2 sufficient for an lysis. These acids appear to me to be identical or

¢ with caprylic acid sad its next higher homologues

*

*

62 F. B. Meek on a new genus of Corals,

Art. XI.—Preliminary notice of a remarkable new genus of
Corals, probably typical of a new family, forwarded for study
by Prof. J. D. Whitn ney, from the Silurian rocks of Nevada
Territory ; by F, B. Menx.

Amone some fossils sent on for investigation, by Prof.
Whitney, the State Geologist of California, from the Silurian
rocks of Nevada,* there are a few specimens of a new genus
of corals, presenting such an extraordinary and interesting
combination of characters, that it is thought desirable to call
attention to it here.t

The specimens of this fossil contained in the collection, are
slender, slightly flexuous, arched or nearly straight, and sub-
cylindrical, excepting near the lower end, where they wks to
a point, by which they were probably attached, ‘The ey may
have grown in tufts or groups, but all the specimens yet seen
are single, and show no evidences of growing in contact.

o the unassisted eye, the external surface of these coral-
fits, with the exception of obscure annular swellings and con-
strictions of growth, and faintly marked linear septal coste,
seem to be nearly or quite smooth. en examined under a
strong lens, however, it is seen to be beautifully punctate ; the
punctures being minute, of exactly uniform size, and arranged
with mathematical regularity in quincunx, and so closely
crowded that the little divisions between them are scarcely
equal in breadth to the punctures themselves, and form, as it
were, an extremely delicate kind of net work. So remarkable
is the appearance of this punctured outer wall, that the first
question that suggests itself, on examining it under a magni-
fier, is, whether or not it may be merely and exceedingly deli-
cate Polyzoon encrusting the whole surface. A clear exami-
nation, however, especially in carefully prepared transverse sec-
tions, show that the punctures actually pass entirely through
the wall, which is very thin, and that they are not due to the
S of the Polyzoon, nor to surface ornamentation. ~

n grinding away this very thin punctured wall, the septa
are seen immediately within, to be stout, equal, straight and
very equidistant, but in grinding a little farther in, they are

observed to become very regularly waved laterally, exactly like

me ee m the foraminiferous genus Fusulina.
this resemblance, that it was not until after cutie

_ * A notice of the iicvaky ot Witistani rocks at this distant western locality
has already been published by Prof. Whitney in in the Proceedings of the California
Academy of Sciences

and descriptions of this and the other Silurian Silurian fossils from this local-
iy gril be given inthe second volume of of Prot Whstoays pore, on the geology

F. B. Meek on a new genus of Corals. 63

from cross section, that the fossil has not an involuted struc-
ture, that I could get rid of the suspicion that it might be a
new type of Foraminifera allied to Fusulina, instead of an
extraordinary coral.

By grinding still farther in (to a depth of about 0°06 inch,
in a specimen 0°34 inch in diameter), the lateral waving of the
septa already mentioned, is seen to be there suddenly, and so
strongly marked, that they connect laterally, in such a man-
ner as to form a kind of complex inner wall between the great
central cavity and the outer septate zone. This wall, however,
does not completely isolate the septate outer zone from the
central cavity, but is perforated by a series of round equal
canals, very regularly placed one within each of the lateral
curves of the septa, so that those on the opposite sides of each
septum alternate with exact regularity, as do those of each
of the two rows within each interseptal space. These canals
have no similarity to the minute punctures of the outer wall,
being greatly larger and very differently arranged. They do
not pass directly through the inner wall, but are directed
obliquely upward and inward, so that as seen in transverse sec-
tions of the corallites, they present the appearance of a double
row of vesicles cut across.

ted by Prof. Verrill, would seem to1
to the Cyathophyllide ; but its peculiar perforated outer wall

.

64 F, B. Meek on the genus Aviculopecten.

ably typical of a ney: family, in which opinion Prof. Verrill
concurs with me. r this genus I would propose the name
Ethmophyllum.

Among the specimens in the collection under examination,
there are hogar two species of this fossil, That consid-

ameter at the larger end, ‘and was ’ probably re to 6 inches or
more in length, with 112 septa at the larger end. This large
fragment shows that the septate outer zone does not increase
in thickness or breadth in proportion with the size of the

rallites, since it is only 0°15 inch broad in this ape the
Guitene in thickness of this corallite being made up by the in-
creased size of the non-septate interior. For this larger ioe
cies I would propose the name ELthmophyllum Whitneyi, in
honor of Prof. J. D. Whitney, to whom I am indebted for the
use of the specimens.

Of the other species I have seen but a single specimen, which
is imperfect at both extremities, about 2°15 inches in length,
and only about 0°20 inches in diameter at the larger end, an
0°15 at the smaller, with some 24 to 28 septa. In addition to
its much more slender form, it differs from the other species
in having its septa so strongly waved laterally, as almost to
divide the interseptal spaces into cells, nearly to the outer wall.
For this, if it should prove to be a distinct species, I would
propose the name Hthmophyllum graci

The specimens were all obtained ~ Silver Peak, Nevada,
and were discovered by Mr. Clayton.

cccalakailaiaihennaat

Art. XII.—WNote on the shell structure and ad Family affinities of
the genus Aviculopecten ; by F. B

Tw several former publications, I have alluded to the anal-
oer, some of their characters, between the genera Aviculo-

and Pterinea ; particularly i in the nature of their broad,

rowed cardinal plate or area, without any well defined carti-

lade pit. examining e shell structure of several spe-

cies of ‘Aviculopecten, sometime since, Stereo ae able’ to

detect any traces of the peculiar p

F. B. Meek on the genus Aviculopecten. 65

acteristic of the various genera of the Aviculide, I was led
to regard this group as most probably belonging to the Pec-
tincdee and as holding in it a somewhat parallel position to that
of Pterinea in the Aviculide.

Some examinations, however, that I have recently had an
opportunity to make, of the structure of several species of
Aviculopecten apparéntly in a good state of preservation, col-
lected by the Nebraska survey under the direction of Dr. Hay-
den, seem to show that these shells have (when well preserved)
an outer prismatic layer of shell as in the Aviculide, and not
the structure of the Pectinide,

The little experience I have had in making such examina-
tions of the structure of fossil shells, has led me to the conclu-
sion, that negative evidence should be received with great cau-
tion in such cases, since these shells very often have the struc-
ture entirely obliterated during the process of fossilization. In
addition to this, it is probable that they are liable to have the
very thin outer prismatic layer entirely exfoliated, so as to
leave the surface markings tolerably well defined on the lamin-
ated portion just within, which is then very apt to be mistaken
for the original surface of the shell. Those I have just exam-
ined, with one exception, appear to consist entirely of the thin
outer layer, the laminated inner portion having been doubtless
dissolved away after the shells were embedded in i
They consist of the following species, and show what I am led
to regard as a prismatic structure very clearly, viz., Pecten neg-
lectus and P. Hawni Geinitz; both of which have all the external
characters at least, of the genus Aviculopecten, and of course
are not true Pectens; also Aviculopecten Comanus M. & W. and
A. occidentalis Shumard, the latter being well known to have
the flat striated cardinal plate and internal characters, as well
as all the other peculiarities of the typical Aviculopectens. The
others are as yet only known to me from what is believed to be
the outer layer alone, which is too thin and fragile to bear pol-
ishing, but when‘a fragment is carefully cleaned with a camel

ir pencil, and examined under the microscope, by transmitted
light, the structure alluded to can generally be seen with little
difficulty, without any farther preparation, In these, I have not
seen the flattened cardinal plate of the genus, but its absence
is doubtless due to the fact that it was mainly or entirely com-
posed of the wanting inner laminated portion of the shell.*

66 Correspondence of Jerome Nickles.

Art, XITI.—Correspondence of Prof. Jerome Nicxuks, dated
Nancy, France, Oct. 22, 1867.

On some new Fluorids—While examining some time since
the haloid compounds corresponding to the oxyds of a higher
order, I made* the discovery that the periodids are less stable
than the perbromids, which in turn are less so than the corres-
ponding io hcony of chlorine or the perchlorids. These last
are the most stable, so much so in fact, that some of them do
not act upon gold, while the corresponding compounds of bro-
mine and iodine dissolve this metal with varying facility.
From this fact the stability of these compounds may be con-
cluded to stand in inverse ratio to the weight of the equivalent
of the halogen which they contain. Another conclusion seems
to be derived from these researches, that a tendency to depart
from the character of a neutral body and act the part of an
acid is developed along with the stability ; this is one of the
results from my researches on the perchlorid of lead, Fluorine
having a lower equivalent than chlorine, I have endeavored
by way of control to obtain certain of its combinations which
correspond to chlorids or bromids already recognized and
studied. The following will show that these new compounds
all act like acids. Take for example iron. ee of

,h

more stability and Fe*Cl* does not decompose when heated,
and will even form double salts, (for example, 2KCl+Fe? cl?
+2HO, of Fritsche. Now I have found that the sesquifluorid
of iron is still better fitted to form saline combinations, or
- fluo-salts, as they are called by Berzelius, who made known &
+Fe?F?*, and another QKF+Fe:F*, Ihave
obtained analogous compounds, both with sodium and ammo-
nium, and with such alkaloids as quinine and brucine. These
double salts are more or less soluble in water; at the boiling
_ temperature they decompose, leaving yellow ferruginous flakes.
With acetate of lead they give a white precipitate which be-
comes yellow on heating; on the contrary, the white cloud caused
“by the nitrate of lead does not become yellow, but dissolves
under the influence of heat. Nitrate of bismuth has no
es on aioe gives a white precipitate. Ferro-

* Tia ies HE vol. alii, p. 94. sce iw t th vo ii, p. 9.

2 oe

\

On the pretended diffusion of Copper in nature. 67

alcohol charged with fluo-silicic gas; in this case, the red color
is obtained which characterizes sulpho-cyanid of iron, How-
ever, this red color disappears in the presence of an alkaline
fluorid; there is formed a white cloud composed of one of the
before mentioned fluo-salts, and the liquid contains an alka-
line sulphocyanid. Acetate of iron is equally discolored under
these circumstances. On operating with fluorid of potassium
and concentrated solutions, all the iron is precipitated in the
condition of fluo-salt; with liquids more dilute, a little iron
always remains in solution.

hydrates of the organic bases. What I have just said of iron
I compounds

«
*

plays the part of an acid, I shall speak of it in greater detail

~

68 Correspondence of Jerome Nickles.

he has looked forit. The Lat which has led to this wonder-
result offers nothing new. Let it be added, however, that
the author referred to areal with os a the purity of which
he had carefully tested and found to be free from copper. The
evaporations ane calcinations were performed in a platinum
n’s burner.* Impressed with this wonderful
diffusion of a ial which is found everywhere save in the re-
agents employed for finding it, I could not help recalling the
process used formerly for the detection of fluorine,j and I
was led to a like conclusion as regards the diffusion of cop-
In a word, it appeared to me that there was some source
of error, and if it was not in the reagents, it must be found in
the apparatus, sonpein’y the apparatus used for the incinera-
tion. ‘In fact, the Bunsen burners are generally of copper.
This metal is said to be volatile when heated in a current of
gas. Besides, when such a burner is lighted, the flame i is often
seen colored blue by the copper which is volatilize
These remarks in my fevue des travauc de Chimie, t are foun-
ded on facts long since known and utilized in my laboratory,
and which experiments upon artificial light, with which I have
been occupied, brought to my attention. They have just been
confirmed by Lossen,§ who has found that in fact Bunsen’s
burner is the true source of the copper that has been discov-
ered in many of the residues from incinerations ; for in exper-

a phantoms. —In my work on Electro-magnets, I
have stated a process enabling us to fix and preserve the fig-
ures — magnets produce when iron filings are subjected to

_ These figures are known in France by the name of
phanioms, a name given them by the ace Haldat, of
ancy. To fix them, the phantoms are developed upon a sheet
of paper covered over aan wax or stearine, then, a little dis-

* Jour. prakt. Chem., xcv, 368. ¢ This Jour., II, xxi, 395.
ce: Jour. de Pharm. etde Ch., IV, ii,412. Jour. de Pharm. et de Ch., TV, iv, 21.

*

Magnetic Phantoms. 69

tance above, something is placed sufficiently hot (a cover of a
crucible for instance) to melt x or fatty substance.
This last, when made liquid, rises by capillarity between the
gene of the filings, and if the substance is then removed the
atty matter solidifies, sticking together all the metallic parti-

or a long time the magnetic phantom was only an object

of curiosity. But since the applications of electro-magnetism
ve become numerous, these phantoms have been found to be
Very useful. We learn from them, whether the poles of a mag-
net are, or have been, isonomal or antinomal, isodynamic or
sterodynamic, with “points consequents” or not, bifurcate, —
-tnfureate, tubular, circular, etc.* -

* This Jour., Il, xxx, 413.

70 Correspondence of Jerome Nickles.

On the presence of the vapor of water in certain stars—In
the course of his researches on the spectrum of the vapor of
water, Janssen thinks he has noticed its presence in seve
of the stars, among them, Antares, the spectrum of which
presents very plainly the lines and_bands of the vapor of water,
These lines are black, very broad, and have the characteristic
position. Janssen has taken into account the error pro-
ceeding from the moisture of the air. On the heights of Mt.
Etna the air was very dry. The stations where he has made
trials are, Etna, Palermo and Marseilles. Janssen has observed
evidence of the presence of the vapor of water also in the at-
mosphere of Mars and Saturn.

On the ic Rig of the air.—The inhabitants of valleys
know that one of the surest signs of rain is the clearness of
outline mg has color of the distant mountains. It indicates
great dampness in the air, But it may be asked, how does it
happen that this dampness aids the transmission of light, while
it hinders that of radiating heat, as Tyndall has shown. This
question, raised by de Saussure, has again been iheonstieelll

Rive has cone that not yes does the peenrthen dust
become transparent on absorbing the watery vapor, but that
further, the water absorbed renders the dust heavier and makes

it fall to the ground. De LaRive also admits that if the pres-
ence of watery vapor renders the air transparent when it con-
tains dust or organic particles, its presence is no longer neces-
sary for this end in the absence of dust. This explains why

the air is very dry; why the air is so clear over plains of snow,
and why it is sehen the same on the Peak of Teneriffe in oe
sequence of the east wind. In the warm season, and in
when organic life has the greatest activity, the air 7
= charged with this kind of dry vapor, which in calm
diminishes in so wonderful a manner the visibility of
distant objects. Of the various kinds of dust, only those which
are sorae: 4 in water, for example, common salt, according to
, are always in the air, even in re s remote from the
These are the kinds of dust Be pao to the
fertilization of the soil: a chemist, Barral, has even found
phosphates.
According to a meteorologist, Marshal Vaillant, sie
SRR ters re ere the

Physiological effect caused by vapor of mercury. 7

¢

and changes its density and refracting power, effects which do

time in use.

Physiological effect caused by the vapor of mercury.—We
learn from Faraday that mercury is volatile at the freezing
temperature in a confined atmosphere. The chemists of Hol-
land have observed that an atmosphere becomes destructive to
plants if it contains vapor of mercury. The same chemists
have recognized that sulphur constitutes a sure antidote in this
case. On repeating and confirming these experiments, Bous-
singault found that the neutralizing effects of the sulphur lay in
the formation of sulphuret of mercury. e plants sensitive
to mercury resist its action and continue to flourish, if their
leaves have just been sprinkled with sulphur. In this case the
sulphur at the end of a month takes a dull grayish appearance,
due to the sulphuret produced. Sulphur is doubtless a little
volatile at the ordinary temperature, and the tension of its va-
por is not appreciable; but the results obtained show that the
tension is not nul; and as the densities of the two vapors are
nearly the same, and as the equivalent of mercury is nearly
six times that of sulphur, it is evident that one volume of sul-

72 Correspondence of Jerome Nickles.

At Madrid the trials are very encouraging. At the park of ,

wn,

triches often break their limbs from the weakness of the bones;
and the eggs of the birds are also very fragile. It has been re-
marked that ostrich feathers are of the greater value where
there are less woods and thorns in the places where these birds
live. It is on this account that the ostriches of the Cape fur-
nish feathers of medium quality, for they are torn off by the
thick woods of the region, The farther we go toward the north
in the desert and the dry and barren country, the better are the
ostrich feathers.

On fossil man.—Sir Charles Lyell in his work “On the an-
tiquity of man proved by Geology,” in chap, xv, mentions only
two discoveries of human remains in the Alpine diluvium or
Post-pliocene, so abundant in the valley of the Rhine, and espe-
cially at Alsace, in the two districts of the Haut-Rhin and Bas-
Rhin. The first is that of a portion of a human skeleton found
in 1823, by Boué, near the village of Lahr, on the right bank of
the Rhine. e bed containing these bones was the alpine di-
luvium in question (the loess). This diluvium was in an entirely
undisturbed state, and presented its characteristic fossil shells.
The history of this discovery is known, Cuvier, to. whom they
were submitted, on recognizing that they were human remains,
__ * Journal de Pharm. et de Chimie, Sept. 1867.

aes a:

-~

Fossil Man.— Universal Exposition. 73

expressed the opinion that they were from a modern cemetery.
This rich collection was consequently neglected and is now
ost.

layer from which it was distinctly separated. arge quan-
tity of bones of deer, cattle, elephants (Elephas primigenius)
and bison were obtained. As to the human skulls, the T-

sand of Ingelheim and presented to the session of German

Naturalists at Giessen in 1864. These fragments of fossil man
ve been deposited by Dr. Faudel in the museum of Colmar,

where many naturalists have examined them. .
Universal Exposition of 1867—Among the novelties that

may be seen at the Exposition, are those which relate to rim- sat
ary education. Reports were called for by —— pa ae

lic instruction, Mr. Duruy, not only from the primary

se: Correspondence of Jerome Nickles.

of France, but also from those of other nations. The objects
exhibited are of the following kinds:

Ist. Specimens of vise by the pupils of the primary schools,
(penmanship, calculation.)

2d. Plans for the building of school houses.

3d. Drawing by pupils of the primary schoo

4th. Books, apparatus and methods of instruction; general
pedagogy; plans for lectures; methods of reading; of writing;
of instruction in arithmetic, history, and geography; and in-
struction in singin

5th. Instruction in agriculture and horticulture.

6th. Instruction in Natural History.

7th. Needle work of the girls’ school.

8th. Arrangement and furniture of salles d’asile.

ou School libraries,

10th. Gymnastics.

A commission chosen from among ie most pompetens men
was charged to classify and examine all the objects,
ports made on tale occasion have been printed by the order of
the evga e form an octavo vohang, which is not on

lly thea
is an interesting report on the protection afforded. to children

scale, and without government intervention. It serves to in-
cite the other industrial villages to similar provisions for the
working classes.

Another part of this Exposition relates to the pubbcatpat of
maps in relief of the various chains of mountains in F

n, by Mr.
works at the Polytechnic School, Mr, Bardin has called his
mere fetenograplie enseignée par des plans-relief et des dessin.
and numerous reliefs are exhibited at the Invalides,
in age Vauban hall. They will remain there on exhibition dur-
ing all next year.

Banquet of Chemists .—On April 22d, while the Universal
Exposition was in _ progress, the French chemists offered to
| gi anquet. More than 300 per-

k part. there Although the fée is called “ Banquet
of hemi ” there were also en permoett, mineralogists,

Bibliography. 75

acres. Berlin has not 150 acres of ager 9 7 more than Pam
or London ; and it is possible that it necessary to re-
strict the number of departments, instead of admitting all

as heretofore.

\ ‘ant wliguée. aux sciences naturelles
Elemens d’ Electro-chimie applique Svo, 628 pages.

* This Journ., [, xvi, 103.

;

76 Correspondence of Jerome Nickles.

new result to his favorite science a electro-chemistry, to
which he has rendered so great servi

Review of Geology for the year "1864 and 1865; by A.
De.essE and DE Laprarent. 1 vol, 8vo, 279 pages. ~ This j in-
teresting publication appears now for the fourth time. By the
care which the authors use to join the facts which they bring
forward to those which have been presented in the preceding
volumes, they have been able to make this series a history of
the _ of geology since 1860, The work is divided into
four parts; Ist, Preliminaries; 2d, Rocks; 3d, Rock forma-
tions ; 4th, Descriptive Geology. The rocks have been espe-
cially treated of by Delesse, whose valuable works on the sub-
ject are well known; de Lapparent has had charge of the form-
ations; and the other parts have been prepared by the two au-
thors in common

Les Lois économiques par A. DE Metz-Nosuat. 1 vol. 8vo,
739 pp.—This volume is a résumé of the course of political

economy which the author presented in 1865 and 1866, at the
University of Nancy. Little cared for by despotical govern-
ments, political economy is a science quite new among the

rench. It is very little taught in France, and it is only two
years since a chair of Political Economy was first established in
the Faculty of the Law School at Paris. A.de Metz-Noblat has
founded the department at Nancy, and pursues it there with
great success. The beautiful volume of which we give account,
introduces the reader in a very complete manner, to thé science
as established by Sully, Colbert, Vauban, Adam Smith, Mal-
thus, Turgot, Condillac, Condoreet, J.B. Say, Ricardo, Mac-
Culloch, and other celebrated nam

La Science et les Savants en 1866, par VictoR MEUNIER.
3d year, 1867.—The author exhibits ‘here the same ees and
nerve as in the preceding volume, (this Jour., vol. xli, p. 1 10).
The —— subjects are Heterogeny; Ante-historic times;
fabrication of diamonds; aérial navigation ; the whole enriched
with curious biographical facts for any who are interested in
the scientific movement of our times, and the men who culti- ~

became publisher in chief of the Cosmos. He impresses ! his
energy on this periodical. At this moment, he is exposing
the abuses which have crept into the French ‘scientific organ-
ee which, in fact, are inherent in all human
we

J. L. Smith on new Meteorite Iron. 77

Art. XIV.—A new Meteoric Iron from Mexico ; by J. Law-
RENCE SmiruH, Louisville, Ky.

A FRAGMENT of this meteoric mass was placed in my hands
by Dr. Joseph Leidy, of Philadelphia, with the following state-
ment of its history :—‘‘ Sometime ago, the American Philosph-
ical Society deposited its natural historical collection with the
Academy of Natural Sciences. In the collection of minerals
‘there was a special lot of Mexican minerals presented by Mr,
Poinsett, who was at one time U. 8. Minister to Mexico. The
minerals consisted of rich silver ores, &c., among them this
specimen of meteoric iron, which was labelled ‘native silver,

exico.’ It appeared to be an entire meteorite, exhibiting no
where a cut or broken surface ; one end, however, was much
crushed, as if the specimen had been used fora hammer. The

middle, and slopes irregularly toward each end. The face
from which the piece sent was cut is hexagonal, and exhibits
a partial crystalline arrangement without development by an
acid,”

Its structure is highly crystalline, and on the cut face of the
piece I have, the laminz of the crystals are over ;; of an inch
thick and cross each other at the usual angle. The Widmann-
Stittian figures are very strongly developed by acid. Its sp.
grav. is 7°72, and its composition shows the usual constituents
in the following proportions:

s ‘ x 7 = - - - 91°103
: f 7

n

Nickel, Ce eee 557
Cobalt, - - : - ee ee
Phosphoris, © = ee oe 020
Sulphur, Ue SES ares

Coppetj: os (hea ee ee ee trace

78 Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.
Arr. XV.—Shooting Stars on the morning of November 14th,
1867.

Own the morning of the 14th of November, the periodic me-
teors were witnessed throughout the whole of the Western Con-
tinent. The following accounts give the character and extent
- — ear 525 By previous arrangement, the hours from 1054

o 25 a.M., were designated for concerted observations for
siete It was thought that the meteors would be less nume-

rous then than later, and hence more easily identified, and that —

conformable meteors would be seen at more stations, since
their paths would be more nearly horizontal and longer. The
publication of these observations for parallax is postponed
until they can be compared and reduced.

The air was clear, in most places, though floating clouds _

concealed some of the meteors. The moon was but two days
past the full, and hence the numbers seen, and the brilliancy of
7 exhibition, were very greatly diminished,

_ At New Haven.—At New Haven there were two parties,
one ek the roof of Sheffield Hall, composed of Prof, Lyman,
Prof. Whitney, Dr. Wright, and several assistants ; ; and the
other composed of stullents of the College, under the direction
of the writer, and located upon the tower of Graduates’ Hall.
The first party gave exclusive attention to observations for par-
allax, the second counted the numbers visible, although some
paths were charted by Mr. O. M. Harger, and the places of some
others indicated with more or Jess precision.

he was to look. The counting was aloud to avoid duplication.

The feliwitg was the result for the several quarter hours:

9h-10h. 0h-1lh, l1h-12h. 12h-1hb
ns 1 10

Ist quarter hour, 2
f 9d “ 34 2 3 4
3d ; 34 “cc z 2 2 6
wa ee 0 3 7 2
Hourly number, 6 9 13 22
~The —_ a seen in 3% 32" was 47. Soon after mid-
night a di cloud arose in the west, and before the close of
the hoe its it had nearly covered the s

At one o’clock a new party of observers replaced the former
one, and from this time until five o'clock we ie bad about +t fifteen

A

SN As: ae
- oe
aio pa
Ee
jer

Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 79

observers. The first quarter hour was therefore somewhat in-
terrupted by the change of watch, but the clouds were even a
greater hindrance. The following were the numbers counted
in successive quarter hours:

oe a io 7 meteors ; sky about 2 covered.
] 5 “e 80 1 9 “ “ “
80 ‘74 45 12 ae “ + “
45 “ 2 0 30 “cc ce + “
2 0 iT] 15 40 ec “ i ““
a5 SiS cog 41.208 a lee
380 it 45 45 “ oe 4 “
45 (74 3 0 23 6s “ec $+ “
3 0 &“ 1 5 38 ee “ £ “
15 “c 80 82 “ “cc ZL “
30 “ 45 145 “ “ iy “
45 “ 4.6% 2942 “cc “cc as “
=o * 10° oa ** nearly clear.
{ 5 “ 27 4 462 “ “ “c 6c

_ At four o’clock we were frequently losing meteors in our
count in consequence of two or more appearing at the same
instant in different quarters of the heavens. The errors from
this cause increased eh at 4h 274m it was evident that our

ute. They gave severally the f aheviag umbers of meteors
seen ; viz., 32, 64, 31,24, 56, 34, 90, 48, 37, 38, 32,25. Aver-
age 42, 6.

At 45 34m, in another minute the results were, 52, 45, 29,
ane 42, 37, 5 56, 24, 42, 58, 52, 38, 36 ; average 43°8.
At 44 40m they “counted aloud, all to together, | 60 in a minute,

At 45 43™ they counted silently with the following results
for the several persons: 32, 34, 25, 30, 15, 17, 16, 20, 15, 25,
44,27, 26,19: average 24°6.

At 4h 48m the whole co mpany counted aloud in one ie
36 meteors. At 4" 53" a silent count gave the followin
sults for the different persons, viz: 23, 13, 12, 9, 14, 20. , 14,
12, 14: average 14°6.

At 4 57™, one person pone 11 in a minute.

At 4) 59" ten persons counting sing’ for 65 seconds saw
severally, 12, 7, 11, 10, 9, 10, 17, 15 , 13, 9; average per

minute 10°4, se
- _ At 5 8m, seven persons saw severally in a minute, 9, 10,11, |
4,8 16, 8; average 99. At 5® 15", four persons counted
severally ; in’a minute, 4, 3, 7,4; average 45.

4

80 Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

At 5» 18™, seven persons, counting aloud, saw 10 meteors
in the minute. At 5" 28™ three persons saw singly in the
minute 1, 2,1; average 1:3, At 5% 30™, four counting aloud
saw ll inall. The dawn was at this time just beginning to
add to the moonlight its influence in diminishing the visibility
of the meteors.

In order to compare the various numbers in these observa-
tions it is necessary to reduce them to a fixed interval, and to
allow for the cloudiness of the sky, and the numbers of ob-
servers. For the latter purpose I have taken the numbers in
columns B and C on page 194, vol. xli, of this Journal, com-
bined them, and changed their form, so as to make the num-
ber of meteors seen by a single person in a given time the
unit. The following table is the result.

No. of obs. Met.seen. No. of obs. Met. seen. |No. of obs. Met. seen.
1 1°00 5 a'28 ~~» 9 4°15

2 1°88 6 3°58 10 3° we
3 2°47 7 3°80 il 4°47
4 2°93 8 4°00 12 4°63

The table may be interpreted thus: eight persons looking
to divide the

meteors as the average number seen by them individually. a
fifteen observers will see five times as many as one.

Making allowance thus for the number of observers, and
the cloudiness of the sky, I have constructed from our observa-
tions the following table. In the column “No. of meteors,” 1
have given the number visible per minute, by a single person
at the time indicated (N. H. m. t.)

Table showing the number of meteors per minute visible at New Haven by a single
observer during the night of Nov. 13th-14th, 1867.

Time. |N9,0f No.of] ime. [Noo Nof] time. [Metta Obs-|| Time metre, Obs.
he. om. | io Bg ai a Ee h. m.
9 36)| -06 | 5 12 74| 20 | & |} 2 37g] 11) 15 | 4 40 12°0| 15
524/00 | 5 224) 38 524 | 62) 15 43 | 24°6| 14
10 7} 04 374 | 58 3 %4| -76) 15 48 | 78} 12
224 | 04 ; 524 | £3 224 | 1°36| 15 53 | 146
374 | 04 Feu Ees 4| 2°01| 15 57 | 11°0
524 | -06 924 | -24 | 15 524 | 3°23) 15 59 | 10-4) 10
11 7} | 02 ; 374 | -21 | 15} 4 74| 403/15), 5 8 | 9 7
22 | 06 } 524 | 53 | 15 214|616|15 || 15 | 45) 4
37,404. | 6 2 74) 72 | 15 31 21°00} 1 1B} 261. 7
524 | 14 “13 | 15 33 |42°6 | 12 98 | 13| 3
35_lase [14] 30 | $61 2.

‘According to this table one person should have seen a little -

meteors between 15 10" and 4 ais

FSP SOD Pie aE PTT

No. of |No. of

pee eel eeee tee en eee i 5 Seer ate i if
0 SOEUR Bat ER» PIR ON Re 8, ES Peper DD 92 SRBC eS ee Nr

:
4
:
;
}

Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 81

Several of the company reported the numbers seen by them
individually during that time as follows, 380, 330, 191, 180,
276, 335, 92, and 72, The last two were rejected as being ex-

ceptional from some cause, and the

40 remainder give an average of 282.
| n allowance for cloudiness would
30 make the two numbers agree,
i The full line in the diagram rep-
20 resents the numbers in the above ta-

r\ ble. The dotted line represents the
numbers deduced similarly from the
observations at the Toronto observa-
ieet tory, given below.
3h. 4h. 5h. 6h. During the whole time from 1 10™
to 55, the following numbers were
seen by individuals of the company, viz: 813, 888, 635, 913, 790,
737, 792, 600, and 408; average 731, More or less time in the
height of the shower was lost by every one. If we allow for
this cause, for cloudiness, and for the hour from 5 to 6 o’clock,
it is reasonable to assume that the number for one person for
the five hours between 1! and 64 would be at least 900, This
implies about 5000 for the total number visible in the moon-
light. The moon, however, must have concealed one-half or
three-fourths of the whole number. But for that cause there
might have been 10 or even 20 thousand visible.

Very few indeed of the meteors moved in paths which would
not, if produced backward, cut across the q i 8,7, 8
and ¢ Leonis. I watched carefully those which moved in par.
allels of latitude, and every one seen went accurately from the

I suspected a tendency of the eye to carry back the more
distant tracks to parts of this line too near the zenith. The

meteors seen were
the conformable ones. i

82 Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

In a few instances, the train lasted for minutes. As the clock
struck four, one left a train visible more than four minutes;
how much longer I cannot say, as my attention was then di-
verted, It floated eastward two or three degrees,

2. At New Haven.—Prof. Twining furnishes the following
observations which are of special value on account of the great
care with which he observed and discussed the great shower of

1833,

“‘ After half past three o’clock on the morning of the 14th,
I did not again observe the meteors until five o’clock, and,
consequently not until their frequency had become very much
less than in the interval. Still they were, even then, more nu-
merous than I had witnessed since 1833. In from 5° to 5® 10™
I counted not less than fifty that were conformable, and from
that to 5° 22™, 50 more,—making 100 (and probably two ad-
ditional) in 22", Afterward, from 5° 40m to 5" 45, there
were seen but 13, and in the following five minutes, to 5® 50",
only 4, The meteors at five o’clock, compared with those at
three o’clock, had no observed difference of magnitude, or flight.
or duration of trains. From these and the more extended ob-
servations of others, made public at New Haven and elsewhere,
it appears obvious that the scale of this display, compared
with what was observed by myself and a multitude of others
in 1833, was not—at a rough estimate—more than about one-
fifth. This estimate has respect to each of the three following
particulars, viz: the frequency of the meteors protracted through
a long time; the massive character and brilliancy of the longest
and largest; and the duration of the main body or shower.
In respect also of the entire agregate of numbers the disparity
would appear much greater still. In 1833 there were not less
than five hours of full development ; while the same this year
was but a single hour. Again, in 1833, the frequency, pre-
vailing through two hours or more, was estimated by compe-
tent ebservers to from 10,000 an hour to several times that
number. ‘Ten thousand an hour was, no doubt, an over cau-

tious estimate ; while the

Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 83

the dense glow of twilight which made the train invisible.
y a few observers, meteors were seen in the zenith after the
sun had risen,

““A remark may be appropriate here respecting the recurrence
of November meteors which was witnessed extensively in the
eastern hemisphere, The various statemets of this recurrence
furnished by competent and eminent observers in Great Brit-
ain and on the continent, especially the Astronomer Royal of
Scotland and Professor Grant of Glasgow,—also those pub-
lished in the London Times of Nov. 15th,—and the letters of

they were, on the whole, equally extensive and magnificent.

‘On the contrary it is evident that the shower of 1866, at the

?

ag)
Pratt from Marash, in Turkey, to Professor Newton, shows an
exception in Western Asia.”

3. At New Haven.—Prof. Loomis watching alone counted’

500 in one hour.

4. At Germantown, Pa.—Mr. B. V. Marsh, at Germantown,
counted as many as 20 per minute, but had gone into the house
at the moment of maximum display. His nephew, Mr. R. M.
Gummere, watching with him, reported 39 in one minute as
the greatest number seen by him.

5. At Haverford, Pa.—Prof. Samuel J. Gummere, of Hay-
erford College, reports about 1000 meteors seen between half
past 11 and 4 o’clock. The time of maximum frequency was
thought to be a little before half past four. At 4" 25" one ob-
erver saw 140 meteors in one minute; four, five, or six, being
often visible at once. The total number at this time was esti-
mated at from 3 to 5 per second. ee

6. At Toronto, Canada,—The following is an extract from
a letter of Mr. G. F. Kingston, Director of the Magnetic Ob-
Servatory. s

“In the paper which I send herewith, I have given the num-

ber of shooting stars, during each interval of 10 minutes, to-

gether with the average amount of cloud during the in
€: se is ;

“@Vith a view of catching any

With : : : any stragglers in the ou aki ts of |
stream, a watch was kept through the night of Nov. 12th,

\

84 Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

but the sky was perpetually overcast. Prior to 1" a.m., on
Thursday, Nov. 14, the sky was nearly overcast, and about 20
meteors only were seen between midnight and 1" a.m, At1*10=
systematic counting was commenced from the top of the ob-
servatory by four observers working simultaneously. The ob-
servers were students of University College, Toronto, several of
whom remained through the night in the building, relieving
each other from time to time on the tower. Nearly all the me-
teors proceeded in directions which, when produced backward,
passed through the constellation Leo; only about two per cent
being not conformable.

“Many were brilliant in spite of the moonlight, but there
were no audible detonations.

“Thursday night it was mostly overcast till 4" a. m., on Fri-
day. Between 3% 4.m., and 4° 4.m., 11 shooting stars were
counted by one observer, but none subsequent to 4° a. M., al-

count, shows, I think, that the earth was hicopkitg the outer
boundary of the denser portion of the stream,”

Abstract of the number of shooting stars seen at the Magnetic Faalinae at Toronto,
Nov. 14th, 1865.

4h, to 5h. 5h. to 6h.
Portion of No. | Cloudi-| No. | Cloudi-|}
the hour. seen. | ness. seen. ness.
wi. fe eee Bue:

0—10 354 | 0-2 65 03
10—20 430 0-2 48 0-4
20—30 237 0-2 42 0-5
30—40 145 0°2 19 0-6

0 967). 02 to 0-7
3B —60 83 | 0-2 8 0-6
Total, § 44 i $1345 #195
Grand total, 2267

Between 12" and 1%, a. u., the sky being mostly covered with
clouds, 20 meteors were aa The dotted oe in the cut on
page 81 represents the observations in this ta

7. At New Bedford, Mass.—Mr. Robert B. Taber gives *
the different intervals the following numbers seen by him alon
at New Bedford.

ime Me | mimes a
g> 09" to gh 45™ ts af 25™ to 42 30" 97 | 5" 00™ to 5" 05" 140
5. 30 05: . © 2340 Be

Cea i en a Serie Ee ene, Pao Bee EA

Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 85

8. At Hartford, Conn—Mrs. J. H. Trumbull and Miss
Trumbull from two (closed) windows, one looking east with a
range of 130°, and the other almost exactly covering the N. W
quadrant, began to count a few minutes after four o’clock, and
completed their tale of 500 a few minutes after five, the count
occupying very nearly one hour. Of course looking through
glass the smaller ones were many of them lost. 7”
bull at one time saw five in motion at one instant.

9. At Chicago, Ill—Prof. T. H. Safford reports the follow-
ing number of meteors seen at Chicago on the morning of the
shower. There were from 8 to 30 observers.

From 12" 0™ to 2" 20™ 128 meteors were seen.

“ 2 90 “ 2 53 1 43 “ “ “ce

“oe 9 53 “ S 30 6 53 “ “ “

™ 3 30 Moh BD 2599 ses i

is 4 12 Ss: Beh B57 . 27,4 ; Total 8810,

One observer looking to the zenith, counted 420 between
3° 30" and 5" 45" a.m. These are reported as not included
in the preceding count. Prof. Safford noticed that, as nearly
as he could estimate, from one-fifth to one-sixth of the stars
visible to the naked eye on a moonless night could be seen on
that morning.

10. At Evanston, Iil—Mr. Francis Bradley and Mr. Henry
Bannister began their watch upon the roof of Heck Hall,
about half past twelve a.m., of the 14th, Mr. Bradley looking
toward the N. E. and E., and Mr. Bannister toward the N.
and N. E. They counted as follows :

m 12gh. to 1h. 1h. to 2h. 2h.to 3h. 3h. to 3th. 3h. to 3gh.
6 27 102

Fro
Mr. Bradley. }
; 02 738
Mr. Bannister, 2 13 61 :
Total; <28 40-168 102 738
38h. to 4h 4h. to4th. 4$h.to4gh. 42h. to 5h.
Mr. Bradley, 171 170 61 29
Mr. Bannister, 98 94 18 21
Total, 269 264 79 50 In all 1713.

The attention was almost exclusively given to counting,
and the numbers are therefore the more valuable. The uncon-

rmable ones were very few, not much more than a dozen in
all. Two left trains that lasted for three or four minutes.
The prevailing tint in all was blue. Many were brick-reddish, a
while a few were of the latter color on the outside of the train, ©
and bluish in the middle, Mr. Bradley gives the center of the —
radiant, R. A. 9° 51", Dec. +23. He was looking at the ra- —
diant, and saw quite a number of paths within the bend of

&

86 Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

the sickle, but none of them absolutely stationary like some
seen last year,

e numbers seen at Evanston correspond very well with
those seen at New Haven, The latter part of the Toronto
curve in the diagram on p, 81 represents, however, the varia-
tion in the numbers toward the end of the shower better than
the porreepOn ng portion of the New Haven curve.

11. At Ann Arbor, Mich.—Prof. Watson was prevented by
the high wind: which was blowing almost a gale, from making
complete observations. The number of meteors counted was
as follows :

From 3° 45" to 3" 55™, 230 met’rs. | From 4" 15™ to 4" 25™, 230 met’s..
ee 6 185 oe “cc 95 “ 3 11 5 “ce

6“ 4 5 “ 15 250 “6 “cc 85 “cc 45 78 “

At times the flight of meteors was so incessant that only a
portion could be counted. Prof. Watson noticed particularly
that in the vicinity of the radiant point the light of the mete-
ors was of a sea-green tint, with occasionally strong tints of
the blue. The position of the radiant point he found at half
past four to be R. A. 150° 45’, Dec. + 21° 55’

12. At Bloomington, Indiana.—Prof. T. A. Wylie, assisted
by eengrons of the Indiana State University, watched from
od ha.m. After midnight beni. a ae under the
soni ed could be seen in any part of the heavens.
It remained nearly uniformly hazy with some slight alter-
ations until morning. From 9 to 12 but one meteor was
seen; from 1"to 2%, 18; from 2* to 3", 43; from 3* to 4,
—276 ; from 4° to BR, 184. The whole number of meteors
counted was 535. Taking into account the state of the air and
the light of the moon, they were sure that the tenth, and
believe that the fifteenth part were not seen. The gr eatest
number seen in a given time was from 3" 35™ to 3" 363", aver-
aging 142 per minute.

From =‘ 3" 37" to 3° 39™ they saw 3 per minute.
a. 39 “ce 0 “ 5 “

(23 40 ce ay “cc 6 “
™ “.:* 46 = BG E geste
“ 46 “< 47 “ 1 ¥ <4
(74 47 “ 50 6s 10 66
oe 50 (74 55 “ 7 “

4%
me’ meteor was noticed by Prof. Kirkwood prinentiy sta-

tionary.
13. In Alleghany Co., N. ¥.—Mr. J.N. se Gear ee
counted 460 in the hour from half past four to half past five

Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 87

14. At Topeka, Kansas.—Prof. John D, Parker saw 30 in the
quarter hour from 5" to 5}" a.m., and 31 in the next quarter hour.

15. Albany, N. Y. —The following account of the observa-
tions at the et Observatory is furnished by ‘the director,
Mr.

“On the right of the 12th Nov, a general watch was kept
aw but as.it continued cloudy during the whole time, no me-
could be seen. On the night of the 13th, however, it
was peceber ty clear until 114 Pp. m., after which until 3" 45" a.
the sky was more or less obscured by broken clouds. Daring
the evening, for the greater portion of the time, two persons
were on the watch poe The observations were made
by Messrs. Simons, Brandt, McClure and myse

“A little after 1* a. uw. , ten meteors of considerable brilliancy
were noted, emanating from the direction of Leo, and passing
through the constellations Gemini and Canis Major. Clouds
now obscured the greater portion of the eastern heavens.

¢ 12 25m a. m., two of great brilliancy, more than double
the size of er shot almost simultaneously from under the
eastern clouds, one moving toward the south and the other to-
ward the northwest, producing phosphorescent lines along their
course, and before disappearance emitting luminous t
From this time until 3" 45" a. m., the clouds prevented all ob-
servations, ;

““At 3°50™ the eastern sky was nearly free from clouds.
The meteors now began to appear with considerable frequency,
and we made arrangements for locating their paths, by means
of the comet-seeker and chart ; as also to record. the times of
fhght by magnetic ip seap any on the Dionogea.

utes the number i 0) on t ‘we Sank it imprac-
ticable, as it was impossible to record all. We desired, more-

Pith brillianey. hi eset than pitced. one eile stars

ies Fapiee of a beautiful and purple color, shot phe ak
southwest near the full moon. It left a train visible for fifty —

88 Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

seconds, 4® 33™—Partially clouded over. 4°41™,—Clear sky.
4% 48m —One larger —_ any previously seen, shot from Leo
eee the eastern hor

» QO1™,—Two of dasieling brilliancy emanated simultane-
ae from the same po and passed through Ursa Major,
disappearing at the northern horizon. The trains remained
visible nearly a Baractit 5° 07m.—A very brilliant one passed
from Leo northeast, its path being very near Arcturus. It left
a train visible sixty-five seconds. 5°08™,—Clear in the zenith
and east, but cloudy in the west. Many meteors pass through
Ursa Major. 5» 20”,—Cloudy. 5° 38™.—Clear in the east.
5° 41™_—A very brilliant one moved toward the north, leaving

a broad train, which remained visible sixty-seven seconds.

Diagram showing the average number of Meteors per Sagar Faget t i: (oe
Observatory, ‘Albar y, Nov. 14th, 1867, from 3h. 50m , tobh

Average No. per minute.

Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 89

“The following table shows the number of meteors counted,
all emanating from the direction of the constellation Leo.

Dudley Observatory

Mean time. No.of Meteors.| Meantime. No. of Meteors.| Mean time. No, of Meteors.
4" 05" a. M. 37 4" 35" A. M. 512 4"53™ a.m. 1000
oa. ” 180 . oo et 610 . oe. 1100
430 * 312 a 5 ail en 708 5. oe 1200
_24°" 406 44400" 802 St So 2 en ee
4°33 * 440 449° "4 900 5 64 © - 18601

the maximum. of frequency occurre
rate of fall was forty-seven in one minute,

“The annexed diagram exhibits the progress of the shower.
Tt shows the rate of fall from minute to minute from 3% 50™
to 5" 50" a. m., as deduced from the preceding observations,
When the shower was near its maximum, six or eight meteors
would frequently shoot out simultaneously, and generally they
appeared to fall in groups of two or more at a time. One of
the most noticeable features, however, was the permanence of
the train after the meteor had disappeared. In a number o
instances it remained visible more than one minute by actual
determination with a chronometer.”

16. In California.—A writer in the San Francisco Times
states that nearly 500 meteors were counted in
between one and two o’clock, on the morning of Nov. 14th.
A correspondent of the Sacramento Union, states that from

een minutes before two o’clock, they gradually decreased in
numbers until he retired, at five o’clock, when an occasional one
could be observed. Dr. Harkness states that when he was first

minutes past one o’clock,

“Tt appears from an examination of the foregoing table, that
at 4°31™ a. M. the

90 Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

little east of the Sandwich Islands. Just beyond these limits
a small display may have been visible. In the Sandwich Isl-
ands any meteors that may have been seen would have the
peculiar characteristics of those seen in the Azores last year.

20. Personal equation—An examination of the numbers
reported in the New Haven observations shows that there is a
very notable difference in the numbers seen by different per-
sons at the same place, during a given interv This ue,
in part at least, to the unequal aidenttvenias and quickness of
eye of the observers, and to the direction toward which they.
are looking. The person of a company who sees the largest
number of meteors during one minute is, moreover, not always
he who sees the largest number another minute.

Hence we cannot rely implicitly upon the counting of one
person to determine the minor variations of density of the
stream of meteoroids, as we pass through it. Again, the num-
bers seen at different places by single observers cannot be com-
pared with the same confidence as the numbers seen by two
parties of considerable size. Individual peculiarities may rea-
sonably be expected to disappear to a certain extent in the
latter case.

21. Form s the curve of intensity—The three curves given
in the diagrams above, as well as all the other observations of
1867 and 1866, show that the damnation of the intensity of
the display was less rapid than the increase. This is due, evi-
dently, to the gradual increase 2 the apparent altitude of the

iant toward morning. erable correction might be
made for this cause by dividing “the numbers expressing the
serge of the’ dispies by the sine of the altitude of the ra-
dian

22. Bre th of the radiant in Latitude—That the radiant
should ek aa breadth in latitude seems necessarily to fol-
low from the very small thickness of the stream. In one hour
the earth moves about 20,000 miles in a direction perpendicu-
lar to ane lane of the meteor group. The duration of the
shower is limited to a few hours at the utmost, and in its
greatest Anionaty to one or two hours. But if the radiant

a breadth in latitude of only a single degree, it would seem
to follow that the group is more than a million of miles in
thickness, which would give us a shower lasting for days.

23. —— of the radiant in longed, and distribution in

perihelia of the orbits of the meteors.—That
the sedines has length implies that the perihelia of the orbits
are distributed oaniterst te 3 in the plane of the stream. If
the radiant is 5° long the direction of the seg motions of
the meteors from the two ends of the radiant differ 5°. The

Shooting stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 91

directions of their absolute motions would differ still more, in
fact more than 8°. This difference, moreover, implies a distri-
bution of the perihelia of the orbits of the individual meteor-
oids along an extent of about 17° in the plane of the group.

It hence follows that when the group is at aphelion it will be
scattered over an arc of similar extent on a circle whose radius
is the aphelion distance, Seventeen degrees on such a circle
would be nearly nine times the distance from the earth to the
sun

un,

24, Comet of 1366.—It was suggested in the May No. of this
Journal (xliii, p. 298) that the Comets of 1866 and 1366 might
prove to be identical. I had not then access to E. Biot’s trans-
lation of the Chinese accounts. The following is an Englis
translation from Biot (Additions to Connaissance des Temps,

, p. 49). !

MO, 1366, Oct. 25th, (period Tehi-tehing, 26th = on 9th
month, day Aeng-tsew) a comet was seen near the star 0 Ursae Ma-
joris, within the circle of tual apparition. Its color was like
that of a handful of flour; it was nearly as large as a bushel meas-
ure. It went southeast, and passed near the group 8, 7, Draconis.
The day Sin-teheou (Oct. 26th) it was at the 1847; degree of the

~

stellar division Oued (determinant star «2 Sco ionis). The day

a

TH e day Kowei-mao (Oct. 28) it was at the 9,89, degree o
Niu. The day Kia-tehin (Oct. 29) it was at the 08% d 0.

the division Hin eres 6 Aquari). The day ¥-sse Soni 30) it
went from the enclosure of 7%e-wei between the stars 4

ris and ¢ Urse Majoris. It was in the division 7¢hin (determ. 7

western star of Lowi-pi-tchin
um); and began to disappear.

ight it was not found there, but another comet was discovered
ia Ursa Major and was assumed to be identical with the first.
The second comet traversed very nearly the same route as the
first in a period not given. :
Both described paths which may be called with entire pro-

priety conformable, being from a radiant several degrees west

of Leo. This radiant cial have a longitude of about 135°,
and would be four or five degrees from the longitude of what
has been styled the apex of the earth’s motion, 1. €., the point

92 B, Silliman on a peculiar mode of occurrence

to which the earth was then moving. The earth passed the
node of the group on the morning of either the 22d or the 23d
of October, and one of the most remarkable of star showers was
witnessed in Europe between the hours of matins and primes.*
The two comets traversed in the sky a course along which the
meteor group would, if visible, have been seen projected.

If this explanation of the Chinese account be the true one,
‘we cannot say that either of these two comets is the same as

reached us too late for this article. Numerous observations for
parallax made at Washington, Germantown, Haverford, the
Palisades, Poughkeepsie, Stamford, New Haven, Williams-
town, Hanover, and Cambridge, need comparison and reduc-
tion before they can be of use. We hope to resume the sub-
ject in a future number. H, A. N.

Art. XVI.—WNotice of a peculiar mode of the occurrence of
Gold and Silver in the Foot-Hills of the Sierra Nevada, and
especially at Whisky Hill, in Placer county, and Quail Hill,
in Calaveras county, California; by B. Stnuman.t

In the search for ores of copper which occurred in California
in what is now known as the “‘ Copper Belt” of the Lower Sier-
ras, deposits of “Iron Rust,” as they were called by the miners,
were observed at numerous points far below the range of the
main gold belt of the Sierras, Several of these ochraceous de-
So had been previously “located” by prospecting miners
‘or gold, before there was any knowledge, or suspicion even,
of the existence of ores of copper in connection with them.

It was a matter of common observation that certain gulches,

of Gold in Calaveras county, Cal. 93

ton of ore. This search for copper has, however, opened up

these deposits so as to display their character in a conspicuous
manner.

strike and easterly dip of the region. All this mass of mate-

tint, and staining the rocks with brilliant colors, a peculi-
arity which the miners have characterized by the name of
“Calico rocks.” This decomposition or oxydation of the sul-

able to the line of strike. But the decomposition which

affected other portions of the ore channel appears also to have
changed them, for they are found to be reduced completely to
the condition of kaolin and lithomarge, or kindred alterations

per ores seem to have been confined to a portion of the de-

found in all the outcrops both in the quartz and in the ‘ calico
tocks’ resulting from the decomposition of feldspathic and tal-
se or chloritic constituents. ae
Accompanying the entire mass of decomposition at both
localities occur both gold and silver, disseminated with remark-
able uniformity in all parts of the ore-bearing ground. At
Whiske Hill, films of metallic silver are visible upon the be

-Cose-masses stained green by malachite or chrysocolla

94 B, Silliman on a peculiar mode of occurrence

offer the best solution which has suggested itself of the origin
of the placer gold which is found in situations so far removed
from the gold belt of the upper Sierras, and away from sour-

ces usually recognized as those to which placer gold may be
referred

Experiments made by myself and by others on a considera-
ble scale, the details of which will appear elsewhere, show that
the amount of the precious metals disseminated in the average
mass of vein stuff and decomposed materials of every name
at Quail Hill, is considerably in excess of the general average
tenor of gold veins in California. The mean of my own trials
gave to the ton of 2,000 Ibs. by assay :

Es BRIE RE ag ie eR Re arp 8G $35.14
2, SAPS ee egy ar oe 15.08
$50.22

While from the working of carefully prepared averages in
considerable quantity by milling process, the tenor of the
precious metals was: :

2 AS 2.9 C2. 0 2 C6 22h CO 0X6, Ob -6-6.5 0 DEO © 2 Oe

fest $35.09
The extreme friable condition of the entire yield of these
auriferous materials renders their extraction and treatment

eee
Cy ae mes

of Gold in Calaveras county, Cal. 95

being washed out by the atmospheric waters, and have followed

sulphate of iron, (Coquimbite) sulphate of copper, (Cyano-
site) and alum. The water of the shaft contains copper
enough to redden the iron tools. At Quail Hill considerable
masses of heavy spar are found, formed probably from the
action of soluble sulphates upon witherite. No gypsum was
observed at either locality.

The mineral species found at Whisky Hill, are as follows:

pene Gold.

etallic Copper. Tron ites.

Metallic Silver. ‘Beige:

R oquimbite

Malachite (green carbonate of copper). Heavy Spar.

Azurite (blue carbonate of co . Hematite (chiefly the earthy varieties).

Socolla (silicate of copper). Kaolin.

Cyanosite (blue vitriol). Lithomarge and various aluminous and

opper Glance (Vitreous copper). magnesian silicates resulting from the

Zine ecomposition of the chloritic and

taleose rocks.

an” list of species is about the same for the deposit at Quail

The line of division between the ore-bearing ground in these
great ore channels, and the country rock is quite distinctly
Seen on both eastern and western outcrop at Quail Hill, and
on the western at Whiskey Hill. At the former place it is
a dark bluish porphyritie rock, probably metamorphic of a

dim

sandstone or siliceous sediment, The outcroppings resemble

and carrying, at times, ores of copper, the commercial value
which is, however, entirely pha to that of the precious
fo

San Francisco, April 16th, 1867, OY ae. ae Z

96 Editorial Correspondence.

Arr. XVII.—Observations on Skylight ORE in Ne-
braska; by Epwarp A. CHa

Tne observations with the Savart piusid of which a

partial report was published in the September number of this

ournal, were continued through the summer and a portion of
the autumn.

On account of the interruption caused by rain, clouds, and
the camp duties of the Geological Survey, I was ‘unable to ac-
complish so much as I desired ; but the low, unbroken horizon of
the prairies appeared peculiarly favorable for observations upon
the neutral points, ee: the following brief summary, may, per-
haps, be worthy of record.

No. of days on which obs. were made, 44

“ of observations, 62
Observations of Arago’ s neutral point,

‘ Babinet’s ‘ : 59

f «¢ Brewster's “ ee 19

Simultaneous Observations.

Arago’ sand Babinet’s n. ps, 36

Arago’s and Brewster’s ‘“ 1

Babinet’s and Brewster’s “ 17

Arago’s, Babinet’s and Brewster’s,

When Babinet’s and Brewster’s neutral points were both
visible,

Snantie'a appeared most distinct, 6

Babinet’s “ “e a¢ 5

Both were equally distinct, 6

Thirteen of the observations were made when Brewster’s
neutral point was below the horizon

1—E£ditorial phe cate at
Explorations in Russian America ; by W. H. tL, (from a let-
ter addressed to J. D. Dana, dated Selous eitahabn, St. Mi-
reechrerpye tel dali 13, 1867).

Pale account of last season’s work i in ee sous may not =
ave cross

and have carefully ¢ xamined the geological

the coun
The Youkon river, the great central artery of this — of
the territory, enters Alaska about midway between the Polar

Editorial Correspondence. 97

and Mount St. Elias.

Br. carbonif. sandstones.

E
: a
E z
2 z
s o
= 3 3
2 +
: ge z
Es 3
a oo Oo
Re 2
A fed
o
= 8
z i 3
- -d $
: 3 a -
2 z
Apr Be
ig] #
2 )s gk é
2 Ee $
ee Set)
= a? g
=k 3 s
3 me ze |
ce g
< : Oo
g $ 2
’ ER 3 Fy
fis e |
Ee : a
chs as °
dn) # (de =
gla 2
By 2
a z
3
=
2
Bs 4
3 33
z Ss m
Pf eae
3 ce i
s Be 3
1 cE: sali
a
2 $ eS
8 33 #3
z os a
FI =e
2: 3
a -
Pd
5
3
—

From ec point about fifty miles it is
ined by the Porcupine river, and

a ae traversed its entire course,

first trip ever made from Fort You-
kon het B. ae to the mouth of
the ri escri

/&@ meeting about 375 miles from Fort
= Youkon, the Tanand river from
= the southeast, and at the bend the

in a south (slightly easterly) direc-
tion 450 miles, meeting the Takite-

sea, in a northwest direction, about

* 250 flea terminating in a tremen-
dous delta, nearly as large as that
of the Ganges. I have obtained
specimens of rock aad fossils suffi-
cient to prove the ages of the stra-
ta, but a very few wo serve
for a general description.

The ann agrams, though
having no pretensions to accuracy
in detail, ig give you some idea
of the ro

Sta: af03- ae Fort Youkon and

stream, we have on

Blue slates and sandstones.

(Sea.) Ciaran ALES

River to Sea 40 miles below the first bend.

98 ‘Editorial Correspondence.

more a 1500 to 2500 feet high. ey were entirely composed
of Azoic rocks, of which a silvery greenish rock of talcose appear-
ance, but very hard, predominates. u seams, slates and
uartzite rock are abundant; and a rock resembling ernie but
with a superfluity of feldspar, and no mica, rarely. The s
generally have a northwesterly di
rue granite appears only one ar rmination of the
Ramparts, and fo ledge extending across the river and mak-
ing a rapid; not, however, a dangerous one les or less,

w
river of mountain ns) comes in and from this point to the mouth, as
a rule the river is wide, with the right bank high and the left bank

0 river

(50 miles 5) he Hight ba bank presents in their order: conglomerate,
luffs = zat gravel, blue talcose slate, conglomerate,

hard blue slates a artzose rocks, blue sandstones and a so

ous rock (Plutonic) with ee stellate spots in it. Granite is
very rare and mica also. und fine specimens of obsidian
on the beach and just above “the Rotoee pebbles of Niagara
limestone salon its Stes ana, fossils. From the bend we d

think covers the blue slates. The coal seam m is very limited, being
on the extreme point of a bluff and the greater part of it has been
denuded. The fossils are very poor, vegetable, and resemble Fuci.
The coal is of good quality, bituminous, non-caking, and leaves
i a The seam is 16 in. w
e paar ae continue pacha the river some 45 miles, more

Ni a in five sided agen on the beach.] From
to the mostly low , but when they approach a
river they are y invariably blue hard ralaky ae andstone or sandy slate:

the rock passing from one into the other i mo omy tibly. s for-
mation extends to St. Michaels, nearly w: rahe
volcanic rock takes its place, sind collie ep ths shore of Norton

eR eS.

Physical Geography of the Andes of Quito. 99
Sound some 30 miles, when it it is replaced by the hard slates and
0 mi e

>
sandstone, and I have followed them u les more to Una-
lakleet river. Here you cross in winter to the Youkon, 200 miles
e

The Inglutélic river emptying into Norton Sound, has a somewhat
similar reputation.

or on :

T have carefully examined the country over which I have assed,

for glacial indications, and have not found any effects attributable
gencie

ions to the westward of the Rocky mountains, although small
single glaciers have and still do exist between spurs of the moun-

in New England, no scratches or other marks of ice te
b oke

remain in the country and carry on the work as long
will allow. I shall’ devote to this purpose the savings of my
Salary as assistant Surgeon for the last two years, about $600,

ai ow
and endeavor to fulfil my pledge of eee out the work left
almost untouched at Mr. Kennicott’s deat ‘
Note on the Physical Geography of the Andes of Quito; by
- James tone (Letter ss D. se dated Quito, Ecuador,
Oct. 12, 1867.)
Knowing your interest on every fact bearing on Physical Ge-
Peraphy; send you a line from the Andes, preparatory to some-
thing more elaborate on my return. The first and most impor- _
tant problem which you suggested previous to my departure, was _
the ope of the volcanic cones. this interesting question I have
ever kept in view in my travels up and down this valley; but

100 Editorial Correspondence. y

T have time to make only some general remarks, Humboldt’s sketch
of Catopaxi is eeeeuy. overdrawn, And yet his mistake is |
eo

iving the north and south slopes. I have found that by means of

evel, that the slope of the west side is 35°; while the west slope
is 40°. Th

volcano; I observed none around Tunguragua, Antisana alone
lo

I

or the snow-limit in Ecuador is 15,790 ft.; yet Car-
guirazo is as snow-clad as Cotopaxi. My theodolite was out of
order, and I could not ascertain its true height.
As to the porphyry of the Andes, it has been said that_ much of

throug

just south of Tungur al
surface, very uniformly 30 feet
them, as some think, it moved

. Rocky Mountain Coal. 101

ame

standard barometer and the boiling apparatus side by side from

the sea leavel up to 15,705 ft., an nda greater conformity at

low altitudes than at high elevations. Thus, the mean prc
ili i mean

I txts ‘been n making extensive hy vale ge in - ravine near roe
bamba, and have taken out over a hundred fossil bones,—a

ey were evidently washed down from ‘another place, as we sel-

on we ee eg Coal beds; by Dr. F. V. Hayven. on a
letter to J. D. Dana, dated Cheyenne City, Dakota Ty., Oct.
Sst, 1867.)

My g Seitpanane during the past summer convinced me that
there is no probability that any workable beds of coal will ever be
found within the limits of ane state of N aber The future profs

Westward to Colorado and Dakot ta. I first made an examination of
the li of the Rocky Mountains,
on the Laramie plains, and there I found an , excellent quality of Lig-
nite in beds from : to 11 feet thick. Rock Creek, a branch of the
edicine Bow river, forms very nearly the eastern limit of this in-
terior basin, and it "extends Ba Boiaci nearly to Great Salt Lake.
T have estimated the are occupied by these noe beds at 5,000
Square miles. The Uni acti railroad tly thro rough
them, and iby next eeaon cake ey 0a n be brow, ht into the market.

in Colorado. Passing over Laramie ra range of monniaitli,

by the, pe stage route, the first coal mines opened are at South
Ider Creek. These mines are called the Marshall mines, and
are robably, the most valuable in the west. By means of the dip
of the strata we find here exposed the finest section I have seen.
eves beds of ignite te, from 5 to 13 feet in thickness, are revealed, _
making at lone 30 ie feet of solid lignite. Dr. Toreey. nade -

102 Editorial Note.

Water in a state of combination or its element 12°00
Volatile matter expelled at a red heat in the fori of inflammable

ses and vapors, 26-00

Fixed carbon 59°20

sh of areddish color or sometimes gray, 2°80

100°00
All the age? of the west, are non-bituminous, but in a furnace
or stove, burn with a bright red flame, give out a good degree of

heat, and, for all MERE purposes, will rank next to the anthracite
coals of Pennsylvania, These lignite beds oor all along the foot of
the mountains, from Pole creek far south into New Mexico. Ihave

ansas and south of Pole creek, to be 5,000 square miles. Very
soon the two great railroads, U. ’P. R. Rs, and the P. R. R. E. D.,
will pass directly though these great coal fields, and then they will
prove as important to this almost treeless west, as the coal fields

of Pennsylvania are to the east. The organic remains show very
clearly that all of these sap lignite deposits are of Tertiary age,
and in an article on the lignite deposits of the west which I hope
to prepare for the March number of this Journal, I shall be able

on the pper in
elevation of the Roc ym mounta a § or F waocnled t y the eee
of the ite river Tertiary beds. en this great lignite basin

most extensive and interesting deposits on the globe. All the
facts which I P< st oo during this trip, only confirm the state-
ments which I mad n article published in the Proceedings of
the American Philosophidal Society, last winter, that the lignites of
Colorado and those in the Naton mountains are only the southern
extension of those so finely shown on the Upper Missouri.

Il. —Editorial Note.

Pror. G. Hiyricus, now of Iowa, is circulating, in connection
with a resumé in French of a memoir of his, entitled Atom Me-
chanics, a charge of plagiarism against the writer—and plagiarism
from an article communicated for this Journal and refused Pee
cation.

alm
rei But it bears on my editorial siscins a t srefotd feel
it renee oie een the oss

“The. er referred to was se to this Journal early in March,
when! “was ce unwell even to ree at it. Pisce December ig
been compe suspend. all head-work even my co
duties ofan hours day aust Cae at oe ; ie ei
my strength, Chad reel resumed te prpertion be new

*

Editorial Note. 103

edition of my Mineralogy, but only through an assistant, Professor
Barker, and was able barely to give the occasional advice required.
The paper of Prof. Hinrichs, on its reception, was put unopened
into Prof. Barker’s hands for perusal and a report to me of its con-
tents. It was the only mode of editorial reading that I was capa-
ble of giving it. In his report, which I regarded as furnishing me
a good idea of the scope and character of the article, there was
not the slightest allusion to the idea brought out in my paper, or
any thing bearing that way. At my request, Prof. Barker, aware

my views, went over it a second time, and added to his former
report the further positive statement that he found no views similar
to mine in the article. It was filled with other discussions, and

n

angry and peremptory note; it was ost immediately returned
to the author after only a very partial perusal. We had already

atoms, at page 365 of volume xlii, which, from the first reading,
had seemed to me fanciful and unintelligible, and as acceptable in

cates), and not with 3 of oxygen as i ; and the view
was ard elaborated, and published in the July number of
this Journal, without a suspicion that Pro hs had ever held,

iaris:
return of his article, our relations had been of the most friendly
d. Knowing of no emer for the charge in the papers return-

| i P
of his Atom Mechanics (in German), sent to the College Library,
(received there July 2d, some time after my paper was wholly
printed , 1 at once referred to the memoir: and, on examina-
wide range of hysics and chemistry, some degree of coincidence
in one part with i

His memoir me Be
i any points in which, on further examination I should find he had

104 Editorial Note.

anticipated me; that I should make such acknowledgment wil-
gly, caring less who brin rings out new ideas, than for the ideas
brought out; and in t the September number, on page 263, a note

Before the September No. of the Journal was issued, Pro
Hinrichs gave an abstract of a portion of his Atom Mec anics in
the Journal of Mining publishe ed in New York City; and in the
course of his SeaictabeRee “historical remarks” (Sept. 7) he took
occasion to make public I his charge of plagiarism. The charge was
followed, in the same Journal, by a brief statement of the facts by
> a that the charge was utterly and completely without
—

statements and aia masisen which have been ar with the fur-
er untrue —— that my former denial bens = full and com-
ind and

who adopt the view to wee and sesquiox eae The gene

rmulas, on the new system, of the Uni escege Bisilicates and
Subsilicates, are those of Odling, Wurtz, etc. The rec ognition of
the grand types of Unisilicates, Bisilicates ae Subsilicates is the
fundamental idea in the classification of the Silicates in my Mine-
ralogy . 1854 (last = and is there brought out more fully

any previous author. Moreover, in this same volume, the

view that the oxyds, from pr otoxyd to tritoxyd, are mutually re>
placeable, on the principle that prey wer equals combining
power (an idea which I had deduced lo gs from the writings
of G and Laurent), is adopted ecsgioek

cis’ points do not appear to be embraced in the
charge, but only the trivial one of placing, in the formulas, the
S of the uniting oxygen, O, — the symbols of the acidic
sic elements,

n
directly opposed to my eubliahea views. I adopted the plan sim-
ply because the formulas thus no are aoe
page, and were more easily comp in a table.

Editorial Note. 105

Now for some facts a another kind. I touch 7 only half a
dozen points out of many in the memoir of Prof. Hinrichs.

In the “ Atom Mochanies ” there are the following penn ate :

§ 253. Chrysoberyl has its prism 119° 46’, or 14’ less than 120°;
the other angle is 120° 7’, instead of 120°. The vertical axis is
given a="81 (Dana) ; but shes form admits of a’=8a=1°21 quite as
well. In this case, however, 1°21 is only 0°01 smaller than 1°22=
/3. So that chrysoberyl must be referred to a fundamental form
differing very little from the tesseral form in a rhombohedral posi-
tion. With this view the formula Be Al, also coincides; by whic

. it is placed with the Spinel group. Dana, it is true, gives Be Al,
: which allies it to corundum; but in the latter a=1°361, which is
very different.

§ 254. We could cite very many such forms; our space however
will not permit it. The two exceptions above given are sufficient
to show that whoever bases a classification upon erystal-systems,
builds a purely artificial edifice, which must give way before the
first earnest investigation. One might quite as well classify asses

_ according to the lengths of their caudal appendages expressed in.

centimeters, as minerals by their systems of crystallization. Brook-

: ite, eo rutile, are essentially alike; in Dana’s system, these

ident y similar substances are inden 3 in three different groups.
us ag a in innumerable cases.

Prof. Hinrichs here attributes to me, in the first place, views I do
not hold, and, _ secondly, presents, as his own, ideas which were pub-
lished by m ein the last edition of my Mineralogy, and the vyol-
umes of this Journal for 18

On pages 196 to 205 of sie Mineralogy, after general observa-
tions on Isomorphism ps homeomorphism as I there term the

talline forms to the tesseral or iso ometri¢ ‘erecea) iter, at

these pages T a ot: use the foreible and clegant compar-
ison to asses tails; but have the idea in this fo "
morphism m [meaning ordinary isomorphism], as Laurent. ‘has observ-
ed, is not confined to forms of the same system alone.’

_t afterward show that rutile and anatase, although made to
differ widely in st in the ordinary statements of the a
autho ical i aie

106 Editorial Note.

Tin is in section I; rutile, cassiterite, etc., in section IT; raga

etc., in section ; anatase, etc., in section IV. say, on

page 196, that these sections Lil, Thy 2, isnetivite 4 a single

group; and that in this group “the basal angle of the fundamental
this

octahedron is near 90° ;” and this group, which includes Anatase,
I name the Rutile group. “This j is in direct opposition to the state-
ment of my views by Prof. Hinrichs.

Brookite (of the orthorhombic system) I do not compare directly

with rutile. ire : lustrate on pages 200 and 202 the near rela-
tions of its prismatic form to the tesseral system. I have not re-
Brot Hi drreceotibed, Vike that of brookite, as so little iipobian as

of. Hinrichs does; andI do not yet see reason to change my opin-
ion on the subject.

With regard to Chrysoberyl, I point out similar relations to the
tesseral or isometric system. A table on page 201 contains ortho-
rhombic species in which the vertical prism is near 120°. this
table, and the same section of it, occur chrysoberyl, aragonite, dis-
crasite, and a number of other species. In the remarks which fol-

ow on the tesseral relations of the forms, I ee went that in this
ag the peu soms is were 109° 28’, the angle of the octahe-
dron. Mor over, in order to bring out this sist ae I have taken
ios: mene sea the symbols af and #4 stand before the values of the
‘angles of the domes of chrysoberyl in the table. The query natu-
rally arises whether Prof. Hinrichs had not seen ai oe Dana’s Min-
eralogy, and the ¢esseral relation explained to his h
Prof. Hinrichs is wrong in making the formula = ree of

oo bane a protoxyd) Be 4i, or that of the Spinel group.
Be®tAl.
An $2 ase Fd the “ Atom Mechanics,” Prof. Hinrichs has the follow-

ae or antimonial silver, has according to Dana, the verti-
cal prism 1 19° 59’; ; deviating therefore only about 1 minute from the
hexagonal. And ‘hia, notwithstanding the admission of many de-
grees of variation in the hexagonal system (in relation to the ver-
tical axis) without destroying the isomorphism! A deviation in
another . however, even so slight as this, is followed by
complete exclusio

The point sacl is this: that I refer discrasite to the orthorhombic
rather than hexagonal system, when there is a deviation of only

$ geometrically orthorhombic, as distinctly so = any other
mbio tae The question n of relation to the hexeaene

system is not one to be considered in such a reference, F

not a has has “Dana” done this, but so have al] other ken a

not onl bees: ct but also in the whole symmetry of the erys-

tten on the Subject ageath thes iN as to any iso-

hexagonal

a Bo relations with the

\

Editorial Note. 107

Prof. Hinrichs refers for the angles of species geomet and

almost exclusively, to my work (edition of 1854), and in this he
e boundless credit undeserved, and is quite anal to the
various authors who are real sources of the information. But

to such men as Mous, Harprneer, Naumann, Rose, von Kosert,
‘Hausmann, Breirnaupt, saat Puitures, Mitter, DesCuor-
ZEAUX, and many others.

Prof. Hinrichs says in § 251:

Finally, it is remarkable how almost entirely the RCI and
RO R203 species belong to the tesseral system; in spite of the
fact that Dana’s antiquated formulas represent the first of these,
PeCl,,as PbCl.

If we examine the hexagonal forms more closely in relation to
their axes we fin

WE Den OU TO TT Tasos 1 a eos g
eeepc 6 13°C. 0 40° 7 Tl dk
so that the 31 species (all the hexagonal minerals, except the sili-
cates and hydrates) represented are very unequally distributed.
They form three groups; that of Apatite, of Calcite, and of the
Elements,

And in § 329:

“The normal form of the deltoid (in the Calcite group) is a rhom-
bohedron of 104° 29’, or an octahedron with the axes 2: y:z=
73:1 /3.” id

The sentence about “antiquated formulas” is a fair exhibition
of the spirit of the writer. I pass it without remark, except to say
that the formula which he substitutes is, in chemistry, of later
origin than my boo.

ehng the Mineralogy, on page 198, I have the Hexagonal ——

anged, with their angles, in a table. The table is divided in
Bastions’ like the others, according to the o statements of
these angles. One section of it, fifth, is that of Calcite, another,
the fourth, is that o of the Elem and i in one of the other t
occurs A patite, Of these shn6el z 5 Se that the third is related to
the fourth, the rhombohedral angle being equally near 90° and but
a little above inste og of si low 90°; oe that the second, which

_ I farther state ye ‘Nike basal angle of pyramid 1 in the Cale . -
section is near 90°; and hence R: R in Calcite, etc., is near 105°,

108 Editorial Note.

making this tesseral feature the direct origin of the angle 105°, as
done by Prof. Hinrichs. Calculating from the angle 90°, we obtain
the angle 104° 29’, which he introduces into his statement of the
fact.

is more than he is now willing to say of me; and but for the return
of his paper, the “Atom Mechanics” would have been written, I
‘ : = ‘

work, save that required to direct my labors. When Mr. Hinrichs’s
manuscript came to the Journal of Science, it was, consequently,
placed in my hands for examination. I read it carefully and re-
turned it to Prof. Dana, stating that in my opinion, the views it
contained were purely speculative; that the assumptions made in
it were not proved, and were not in accordance with facts.

not read Mr. H.’s manuscript personally, and knew nothing of its
contents except what I had told him. “As therefore I had assured
him that these views were not contained in Mr. H.’s paper, even
after a re-examination of it, Prof, Dana could not do otherwise
than publish them as original. : :

A month after the “ Atom Mechanics ” reached the college li-
brary, when for the first time I saw this memoir, I found that the

Chemistry and Physics. 109

tetragonoids over, the crystalline form o , as AB,
ade to depend upon a plane equator, having 7 sides

as a vertical axis ere is here an apparent approximation to

the views of Pro na. But neither these views nor

h
has already acknowledged Mr. H.’s ape of publication.
E

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.
1, Note by J. D. Dana.—In the last volume of this Journal,

Mg, Ba, Fe, ete., to the Na, Li, K, etc. The species of the same group
are to be compared with one another, and not those of different
grou 3
Bases Silica Non-alk. Alk.
CurysoLire Grour.—Chrysolite, ete. ee all non-alk.
Leucophanite Los “ae 44: 1
PuENacite GRourp.— Phenacite, ete. ete all non-alk.
. Meliphanite z 1t Bole
Ermpore GRovp.— Epidote see all non-alk.
: Zoisite Ret all non-alk.
Saussurite 2.2) if eck
Jadeite EAs 2 pee
Mica Grovup.— Astrophyllite Bed 1
Phlogopite Ge Sy 1
Biotite tc ok |
Lepidomelane | ae 1
scovite 3 Bees ge © pee
Lepidolite bes 3S 3.39
ophyllite ia ie |
ScaPouire Grovp.— Sarcolite bit
: Meioni bed
Paranthite eae
Bre es hd
ebel :
i + 46g to

110° Scientific Intelligence.

Bases Silica Non-alk. Alk.
Dipyre pees are 2 aie |
Marialite 1 23 te oe
Levcitre Grovup.— Sodalite je gs all soda
Leucite ear e all potash.
Fripspar Grour.— Anorthite 2 oat AAR | all non-alk.
Lab i A eek SY :
Hyalophane Se se rae
Andesine i ee gear | esd
Oligocase 1 ):5:2¢ date
Albite aS: all alk.
Orthoclase iv. 3 all alk.

The
dote group, are here added to those before alluded to. Jadeitehas
inci : d the

sp.
concludes that it belongs to the Epidote group, and has the same
relation to zoisite as dipyre to meionite.

It is here shown that this relation extends also to the alkalinity
of the species. Moreover it appears probable that Saussurite is
intermediate between zoisite and jadeite, like wernerite between
meionite and dipyre.

Th

the views advanced, as the proportion of alkalies is less than in le-
pidolite, though not less than in muscovite. is to be here noted

wor.
The consideration of the ingesta appears to promise the most
reliable results if the nitrogen be reduced in quantity until just

—_ and a 111

circumstances by the lungs and skin. Observers agree on this
point, —— difference of opinion exists as to its evolution oo
those organs,

alone ; the difficulties of time, generality, absolute determination
of oitatind a a ieeteame of external oe af rea in tora a case
li

eliminated. After e inquiry a t the e popu-
sete I ‘thought it posdible that the “init dietary sales might
rnish the data required, and with many advantages which

sald not ts hoped for from i inquiry amongst the free population.

Through the kindness of Dr. Wi Ison, in medical charge of we

Madras aod ea I was supplied with the dietary-scales in

in that if rhe and from this paper I shall select ort two instances,
e it sd Schatli these diet-scales may ed into
lasses—(1) articles the same quantities of which are served ot

duly, and (2) articles vege are cape in quantity on different

to the first class the bea dear y trinintitaes, of those belonging
to the second the average daily quantities, calculated for one week,
are give ene

Table of Nitrogenous Food served out to classes of Prisoners in the Madras Pens-
tentiary.

B ins Malavce ana OChinae
rahm . ~
Articles ie fe ee ti
fi of prote a tities | Daily quan-| Quantities
Podiacotaime & D ties 0 oe at proteine net pad ids
food. mpounds. pounds.
Beenie Rat yc tbe
; 08
“24
AIEEE ir ice GA Pave CON “24
ssi hslnted 20
mae eas oe. “04
PAA Aad RN “04
wo ee eee e-- +e “03
Henadw cece ee. 03
reek ee ita ch oe Sh ballad daca as “03
ont or t re (eurd-
3 poe oT
z [Potalpe proteine sabes unds.
{Simple im ment poets sa pri

|_ trial focnies ree -fifth les
bio? One-fifth

112 Scientific Intelligence.

Assuming all the proteine compounds ingested in these cases to

be assimilated, and transformed without waste into an equal

weight of muscle, 1 grm. of muscle, giving by its disintegration

1848 meterkilogs. of force (Frankland, Phil. Mag., xxxil, 188 [and

this Jour., xlii, 407]), the muscle so formed would in each case
ive—

143,335
the latter quantity being less by 16,677 meterkilogs, than the daily
i in the work of the circulation and respiration, given

A. B.
Meterkilogs. Meterkilogs.
146,842

em).
It might be objected that the prisoners live in a higher temper-
ature than the subjects, observation on whose circulation and res-

consequently is so much greater in the one case than it was (proba-
bly) in the other, that the effect of this difference of temperature
is probably neutralized at least by these attendant conditions.
But if it be admitted that the difference of 10 per cent can be so
accounted for, the source of external work must be looked for

quired to furnish the internal work alone. The proportions of
proteine compounds given in the Table are above the truth, in
many ¢a

an obstacle in the way of using the electric light, except for lecture
rooms and a few other purposes. But the recent improvements in
i d thermo-electric
batteries have put in our. power to command the services of this
beautiful illuminating agent on any desirable scale of magni-

ae.
In order to examine the question of cost intelligently, let us re
i n measure

fer both electrical and illuminating effects to the com

is equal tothe raising of a weight not exceeding thirteen

one foot high in that time. I have arrived at a simi:
a reducti f recorded experiments ma i
myself, and others. I am satisfied that, wh

ler proper
ceed 15.foot-pounds per minute
of light the power required will be greater.

Chemistry and Physics. 113

Now let us inquire what amount of pee is abe equivalent |
of, or is represented by 15 foot-pounds per min
of No. 18 pure copper wire be coiled into a helix pee spmenneds in
a pound of water, and if the ends of this wire be connected to
the poles of one cell of the Grove battery (pint cup size as used.
in ach ae the Sk veg of the water will begin to rise
at the in 9} minutes, or 0°105° per minute. Now i
the peal ' one pound of water be raised one degree (Fah.)
per minute, this effect will be the scien pgp of 7 772 pounds
Taised one foot high in space per minute; the heating effect then,
of our Grove cell upon the water is ‘the equientaals of 0°105 X772
=381 (call it 80) Sit hace per mi
is well known that a galvanic battery will perform its max-

- imum p york araeg the external resistance which it encounters is
equal to the internal resistance of the battery. Ihave found the
internal resistance of the pint cup Grove cell to be equal, on the
pores’ to that of 100 feet of pure copper wire, No. 18 size.

nce the maximum external effect of the ordinary Grove cell
sy be set down as the ere of 80 foot-pounds a goes

ranged, would be capable of he somewhat more than 5,000
candle lights from a single lam
. ith sulphuric acid costing 34 cents, nitric acid 10 cents, zine
: 8 cents, and mercury 50 cents p er pound, the cost of sues
1,000 Grove cells one hour, while doing their maximu )
would be $27.65. This would give for 5,000 candles a eee of

r candle.
e cost of gas light per candle per hour would be about one
mill, if gas costs $3.25 per thousand cubic feet, and if one cubic
ma pee hour gives the light of three candle
ith the Smee battery, carefully managed, the cost of 5,000
candle lights would be about the sam gas.
Let us now look at the cost of olnecriaiey as developed by the
Magneto-electric machine. The power expended on the machine
* is consumed in fric tion, in heating the wires, m:
a i ich I e

two-thi 1,300 foot-pound — expended
the co agnets, etc. and the balance, 800 foot-
- Seam measured as exte useful effect. Had the external re-
n larger, a Sonat pro mage of the expended power
would | have appeared useful e Suppose, however, that
tilized by this machine

800 te unds per S sineote sould Ibe ut ;
7 fel ie Uliana : g purposes. This wonld be i ae
. ees ae Sot —Gxootn Scan, Yor. XLIV, No, 15%.—Tan;
ee! 8

114 Scientific Intelligence.

of 800—-15=53°33 candles, and the total power required (inelud-
ing on etc.), would be 3,200+-53'33=60, about sixty foot-
pounds per minute per candle.

In the vicinity of Boston, power is furnished, per horse —
at the rate of $180 per year of 313 days of ten hours each, or

180
MEya =0°0575. (53 cents) per hour. If only one-
33,000

fourth of this power could be utilized as light iipee candles

the rate of

ay be the equivalent of one horse power, and would cost
0575-550=$0.0001046, about one-tenth of a mill per hour per
als, being about one-tenth the cost of gas light
t us fora moment take another view of he matter. The

get 495,000—4—=123,750 Nea, or as light, mae 5

hour candle 2 from one pound of coal, through the agency of
steam engine and the magneto-electric machine

With the psmcieene ivt i battery I have heck able to pees.

30,00

130,000 foot-pounds of electricity from one pound of coal= ENT. 60
=144-4=to about 144 candle lights.
_ There is a0 another point of view worthy our attention.
Common gas will yield about ten thousand cubic feet of
gas per ton. This, at three hour candle lights per cubic foot,
would Lae (3X10, 000)--2,000=15 hour candle-lights per poun nd
of ae bout twenty-five cubic feet of illuminating gas weigh
on 60 Hence one pound of gas, after it is made from the
bial will yield a light equal to that of a candle for Pigs tei
hours. One pound of pure carbon, wholly burned to carbon
acid se yields 14,500 units of heat, equal to 772% 14,500=

o

total energy of one pound of pure carbon ¢ oaverted into light,

it

15X365 x24 x60 TFS or one year and five months.

"Thus it will appear that by our ordinary methods of gas light-
Sud sos ges much less ee one —- cent of the oes stored —

Chemistry and Physics. 115

ane, orsome still more reine apparatus, will help us in some
way to bridge the chasm Afteen and twelve thousand
hour candle lights from a pound ‘of coal. — Scienti ce American.
na new ‘ae 0 namo-magnetic Machine ; by Wi-
s now thirty-six i ars since Farada
lectricity and Mag-
netism;’ the foundation then laid has been receiving additional
strength as the superstructure has progressed. Faraday ha gone
to his rest, but the name he always tried to hide behind his phil-
osophy will shine brighter and brighter, until the top stone is raised
in future ages. e machine I am about to describe is a part o

ge how far this machine meets, not Bed that re-
ement, but also Bes of lighthouse illuminati ion.
Per

ure,
ing a coil of copper wire, the terminals of which are Sonieeed
wih the wire surro unding t the ele ctro-magnet ; and although great
effects were produced in the electro-magnet, the current itself could

latter ese it to its normal co Sindy n. But in the machine
have constructed, the power of the Sern nneras is kept ae ay ae
& separate current, to be applied to any u soee can

of the smaller armature, ae bk each eae of polarity i in Pm
armature will auement the macnetism. eg the machine is fi
made it is only requisite to pass a curre’ t froma small vali cot

i ae

“If the armature in connection with the electro-magnet is made —

to rotate, there will be a very feeble current generated in it; this
od Fadil ae siddcoemagtot, will ineenas J power with

116° Scientific Intelligence.

every additional impulse. It will thus be seen that the only limit
rma-

it takes off very powerful currents generated in its wire by the in-
creased magnetism, does not at all interfere with the primary cur-
rent of the electro-magnet.

e machine now at the Paris Exhibition measures about 24 in.
in length, 12 in. in width, and stands 7 in. high; but this being
aiiubtbotly constructed as to its proportions, the results obtained

are, no doubt, much less than they would be with a Lea? phd con-

_ the best effect in the second armature.

ee

platinum
wire, ‘01 in. in diameter, incandescent, and when a small volta-
meter was placed in circuit with the second armature it would give
off 250 cubic centimeters of gas per minute, and in connection
with an electric regulator would give a light equal to about thirty-
ve Grove’s or Bunsen’s elements, the driving power expended

being less than one horse.
I have now to describe a machine on the same principle as that

this pening
quired for the armature, enabling us to take full advantage of the
horse-shoe form of electro-magnet. The shoes of the electro-mag-
net and armatures are so proportioned to each other that there is
an actual break in the magnetic circuit with reference to each

rent given off by the exciting armature may at the precise Mo
ment exert its fu

which the right — an image of one picture, and the left eye
er. These images ought to be apparently in the same
distin! vision ori

Mineralogy and Geology. 117

his two eyes near two apertures, sei he sees the united images, as
it were, behind the optical apparatu

In the stereoscope which I have had made by Messrs. Elliott
Brothers the observer stands at a short distance from the appa-
ratus, and looks with both eyes at a large lens, and the image ap-
me as a ei object close to a4 eh ns.

bo
>
™m
te
=
=]
“OQ
a
=
oO
fe)
fas)
Be
mt
et
oy
lar]
28
Qu
="
co
Lar)
pe
=
2
ian
a)
ic)
°o
=}
ee
S
~
Le =,
_
So
ie io)
co
4

The united

images pos See a real object in the air close ia the large lens.

imag may be magnified or diminished at pleasure, by sliding

the piece aie A ae the two lenses hg Pie fe or farther from the

picture.— The Laboratory, i, 408, Sept. 67.

We regret to announce that this seh little journal is com-
pelled to suspend publication, for want of sufficient support.

the twenty-sixth number which completes the first volume, the ed-

itor, Mr. Join ¢ Cargill Brough, after stating the above facts, and

alluding o the high scientific character of its original articles (in

— we 6 date concur), hints that the Laboratory my reappear

h

II, MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

Extract from a paper on Borates and other Minerals in An-
wi and Gypsum of Nova Scotia ; by Prof. How, Windsor,
8.*—Silicoborocalcite, a new mineral.—The mineral exhibits

i
ameter; they sometimes show when detached, a sub-vitreous luster
in the exterior, = mineral is translucent in thin fragments, its
er is seen under the microscope to be transparent and crystal- _
; the form is possibly rhombic. The greatest hardness isabout
8°55 specific gravity, 2°55. Before the Blongipe. etd fragments
| * The paper is to appear in the L. E. & D. Phil. Mag.

118 Scientific Intelligence.

the inner flame assumin a green color whic e deep wheat
the mineral has lain for some time in water rag baba fuse even
BB, othe. toa ara pec gee glass which when further heated

O, whic
which then becomes clear again and remains so on prolonged heat-
ing. se reactions distinguish the mineral from natroborocalcite
which colors the flame cd and gives a clear bead rendered

much water. In the following analyses, the results under I, were
from a nodule in anhydrite, those under IT, from several fragments,
some perfectly dull, others lustrous in parts of the exterior. The

iO, by heating with C nd HSO, O, was estimated by
deficiency after gravimetrical determinations of mee other constitu-
ents inthe regular way. Analysis of the air-dry har wea gave:
&
——
Water, 1151 1160-115 11-62
Lime 28°90 28°90 28-04
ote 1 aeRO OO SS 1:03 1-03 0°80
oy trace
Sili 15°12 15°27 15°19 15°44
Boineie S010; Jo. Coa cee 43°33 4410
100-00 100-00
achhe soreet pa ie found in nodules in gypsum, is u
ness that — first I thought it might io efflorescent
ber salt, which I ha erly found here in the same m

t is like soft chalk or ohana ie Its flame and. blowpipe re-
actions, except that it does not decrepitate, are those of the harder
mineral ; it gives the turmeric coloration the same way, and gel-
sin similar ¢ eerteners. vet equal ease. alysis of a
es like flour, he dad, en

Water, 12°20
Lime, 28°85
2. Ip 3 RRS = d, 1°86
Magnesia,

Silica, 14-64
Doracw ath oe 45

Mineralogy and Geology. 119

These results agree so closely with the foregoing from différe
specimens in a distinct matrix, that there can be no doubt they all
no toa definite mineral whose composition is constant in its

ing physical conditions. The percentages correspond remark-
abl well with those calculated from the formula to which they
lead. The results placed —— as found, are those of the analysis
Il =~ given, after deducting the amount of CaO SO,, 2HO,
equal to the SO, obtained, which is much greater in this “than in
the preceding analyses whose numbers are so obviously similar,
that deduction in all is quite superfluous.

Calculated. Found.
SHO = 11°43 11°84
. 40a0 = 112 8-44 28°69
2310. = «61°62 15°65 15°25
5BO; = 175-20 44-48 44:2
393°82 100-00 100-00
Of the various modes in which the constituents of the mineral

may be arranged, I prefer the following, and therefore using the

notation so far employed in mineralogy, propose the formula,
2CaO0SiO,+2(CaO 2BO,, HO)-+-BO,, 3HO,

as that of the —_ mineral, to which I give the name Silicoboro-

difference 9 or composition between mine ound in
in the sam t i

be mentioned, being sanaig indicated by these terms; the formula
of the atte. according to my ownresults, when include

some identical grouping, is *
NaO 2BO,, 10HO-+2(CaO BO,, HO)+BO,, 3HO.

For comparison dake’ I add the formula of cryptomorphite, the

other borate found in gypsum here, also rewritten on the same plan

as the preceding,

The constituents of silicoborocalcite are
a of datholite, the only other known hydrated silicated borate
for

This expression shih egies ve ser uaiike e those shown above
In datholite, as in all silicated borates,
the boracic acid is sometimes held to be basic, <a Min., 4th ed.

.

*

120 : Scientific Intelligence.

are quantitatively unlike and physically —— nee comparing the
well crystallized specimens of the former with nodules of the
latter there is a remarkable resemblance desi ole and the ex-
ceptional state in which Whitney formed datholite near Lake Su-
perior, viz., in = Eas Wed white and sara nodules like the finest
marble or some

ose re arthy) jemaiiee of the new borate.
Selenite is oat hapuectty found with slicoborocaleite and arag-
onite occasionally. The new borate has been met with in gypsum

from Newport, about six miles east of Windsor; was identical
by its blowpipe reaction and qualitative analysis, and its powder
gelatinized like that of the Brookville mineral. The Newport

stalline.
New localities for — Both Brookville and New- —
.—At the former an impure earthy gypsum has silicoborocal-

cite and selenite together in nodules, and natroborocalcite in dis-
tinct nodules, sometimes both kinds in a seam of fibrous gypsum.
Other purer kinds of white gypsum and selenite also, hold it alone.
Anhyd ite does not contain it. At Newport, it isin white gypsum.
At both places the nodules are harder inside than out; hardness
about as 3:1 respectively; qualitative analysis showed HO, CaO,
BO,, NaO; in several specimens, the microscope showed distinct
prisms; hence the mineral is concluded to be natroborocalcite.

saudi of theoretical and actual pemeee from formulas
and analyses of this mineral ecleee. 2 Resse
How’s a formula, NaO 2B0,+2CaO 3BO +15H
Lunge’s oe 2B0,)-+5(CaO #80.) aH

How.

Cale. Found. Cale. Found.

oy, SEE Ree 5°82 5°58 7-82 21

Lime, 12°95 12°69 14°71 14:20
agnesia,....-... 6

OEY, sa cue 35°49 36°85 34-04 49

Boracic acid, ..... 45°74 44°3 44-02 44°10

100°00 100- s 100-00 100-00

As regards all the constituents, I see no reason, on comparison
of statements, to accept Dr. L.’s formula in place of my own.
_ 2. 2t Siluriens de la Bohéme, Introduction.
du Byat. § Silur. du Centre dela a vol. iii) ; par Joacumm Bar-
BANDE. Geologist Barrande here announces the dy moned
of vol. iii ili of his great work - the Bohemian Silurian System,
tH ds of the Paleozoic. e volume is illus-
trated by 16 eyes ae a ib The. one adnate fog thy Silu-

Botany and Zoology. ; 121

Salterella, 9 of Styliola, 1 of Phragmotheca, Seven out of the 9
genera are represented in the Fdlataten rocks, while the United
States, Britain, and Russia, have afforded each only four. Bar-
rande refers these Piompea, genera to the Cephalopods. He states
that the plates already engraved for his volumes on Bohemian fos-
sil Ce “ag ds number four hundre

3. é Teyler: ee systématique de la ie a: Palé-
ontalogiqne par J.C. WinkLeR. Cinquiéme et Sixiéme Livraisons.
Harlem, 1

867.—These two site ce eg this valeadla work, which
is one of the best catalogues of the kin r publish

don, 1867. (John Murray, Albemarle street).—Siluria is a wake
of universal interest—as it treats of the foundation rocks and earli-
est life in geology, and of all countries, Its illustrious author who
early began to write out the history, ‘pa assed it through its third
edition in 1859, and now has brought it up to the sect pe time
and issued the fourth. The present volume contains des addi-

whom ~ work is dedicate
erialien zur Mineralogie Russlands, von NiKOLAI VON
4 Kose sai —The fifth volume of this great ute of General
von Kokscharof on Russian Mineralogy has been

FE
r
i
oO
Lee |
oa
a
by
28
2g
E
Fo)
o
m
y
e

copey.
irate Orthoclase opper, Nickel, Laumontite, Stilpnosiderite,
Zoisite, Andalusite, Native Platinum.

Ill, BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

: 1. Botanical Necrology for the year 1867.

: Dr. Heyry P. Sarrwett, died at Penn Yan, New York, ss
the 15th of November, at the age of 75 years. He was, we
lieve, indigenous to the western of the State of New York,
and when a medical student resided at Goi

al ie e, engaged to the last in the
is eaid that tie illness of which he t
exertion in attendance at the conto of a sick friend.
fond of
co)

_ Scientific sppiageta

red for.
es n they have cae exhausted the easier of the district the
are confined to, are liable to sink into inactivity. Dr. Sartwe

avoided this destiny, and prolonged. to the seat his enjoyment and
usefulness, by making a speciality of the great genus Carex. Dew-
ey, Torrey, Tuckerman, Carey, Boott, all who have published with-

He
ublished nothing else, we pbeliawes sist olla a Catalogue “of the
lants growing in the vicinity of Penn Yan; but he contributed

no little to the — of the publications of others, especially to
those of the writer of this notice and to the Flora of the State of
= York. The Carex which had been dedicated to Dr. ene ist

g.
=
®
pe
=)
°
ae
a)
a
°
ao,
&
ee,
S
=|
Au
a‘
y
eB
see

onth.
‘Professor HESTER Drwey, died at ¢ Heosbester; xe York, -
cember 13, having completed ‘the 83d year of his a age. “ He w
born at Sheftield, Massachusetts, Oct. 25, 17 ie was — at
Williams College i in 1806 ; studied for the nistry ; was licensed
to preach in 1808, and du uring the latter half . of that veut "officiated
in Tyringham in Western _Massachusetts. e same year he ac-

he discharged for seventeen y During his connection with
the Gultace he did much to advance the standard of scholarship

yeer he faeecak: : this city Rochester}, eh, became princip
Rochester Collegiate Institute, which post he held until
ed Professor i phi-

-seven, though he continued to a te some extent till

tieth B hiss The last four years he h Sipser easy and
Ha igh Fe a in the society of of hie family and frends,

Botany and Zoology. 123

beloved and respected by all, and occupying himself still with his
scientific studies and with meteorological observations, which he
conducted a great care and regularity.”

cones, pee i me 1824, was continued year after year
ven few breaks, down to the close of 1866, when it terminated

oilact of the merits of this elaborate monograph, patiently pros-
ecuted through more than forty years. This and the monograph
of Schweinitz and Torrey laid the PS wal ensured the pop-
ularity of the study of Sedges in this count But while the lat-

What; is needed t ender these stores of observation and their
permanent ere ret available, is a ‘pipattinat digest or syno on
something like that which the author contributed to Wood’s

any, in the article Carex, but with all the more important soteeaaigd

?,

work in this way. But at past four-scor and ten he ees not
well be a Beyo et this favorite genus, Prof. Dewey’s

boring

berseverin nial and faithfully, althou hee under ma: many disad vantages,

om Pe rman eke! and honorably impressed his name upon the
Cc

. of. Gon orce H. Murcanrve, of atoals 5 aieanity, the most
rd not already the best Pteridologist of the day, son-in-
— eye, diel of cholera, August 18, 1866, in in: the 43d

124 Scientific Intelligence.

Prof. D. F. L. von Scurxcutenpat, of the University of Halle,
the venerable editor of the Linnwa and of the Botanische Zeitung,
long an active botanist (the published list of his articles and other
works reaches the number of 154), died October 12, 1866, at the
age of 82 years,

Dr. Tazopore Korscuy of Vienna, a well known explorer in the
East, author of a Monograph of Oriental —- Berg other publica-
tions of merit, ees June 11, 1866, at the a

Prof, Wm. Gas RRINI, of Na aples, died 4 ae ‘te close of the
year 1866, at an iawn age.

r. Orto Bere re, of Berlin, author of a Monograph of Myrtaca,
and of several works - we pharmaceutical botany, died in Novem-
ber, 1866, at the age o

ANDON, an excellent botanical explorer and collector,
who distributed extensive collections made in Bolivia, died at Poi-
tiers, France, mg 30, 1866.

Dr, CHARLES Davsen ny, Professor of Botany and Rural
ey in the aecut of Oxford, died on the 12th of Decem-
A. G

The Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.*—The existence
of this journal dates back one year, but the slight attention which
it has received on mee side the Atlantic has led to the preparation
of the following no

The first hes ants of two numbers issued in Nov. 1866 and

on t
iat Paysiology and notices of recent Dutch and Scandinavian con-
trib utions. In addition to the distinguished professors under whose
care the soutnal i is to be continued, the 1st_series bears the names

Ll p in man’s aaacimansee acd God’ a : t it a
not consist in “drawing arguments from an and in insis
syhack ie certain literal seal pReumged of the physic medium ig

spiritual tru has been conveyed to us.

t, he regrets the continuance of the sagen Boas peti ros as to
the eae of the human brain, and comments upon the ap-

ro
holds very decided opinions, viz., the morphological relations of
the scapular arch of all vertebrates with the skull, and the homol-

Safallel pe poaieion, aid: witeli Prof. Owen. , like sate and Flourens,
regard as simple serial repetitions of each other, the convexity of
oe — corresponding with the concavity of the elbow, and vice

ae. John Wood has an interesting paper on human muscular
variations, in which he shows that many of them are ape
with normal conditions in the lower animals, but adds a dee 4
and, we think unwarranted, suggestion that those variat whi
cannot be so referred m ay be ¢ cri of a ee developmen
of the ae frame” in time

rner adds a fourth to his three cases already reported
by Prof. Wyman, Dr, Giinther and Prof. Agassiz, of male fishes

e
Savane some weighty arguments against the sound-

per 01 the C
panzee, ‘Prof Mute hrey discusses at some length the signicane
of the terms Ha " ont “foot” and inclines to think the name

* Cheiropoda” m re appro riate than Quadrumana. Healso alludes
to the “ h finction of the he foot and of all the human organs,

ding that his ite on the subject incline him “rather to search _ a

for and overrate than to ignore the physical peculiarities of man.”
2 to in is certain that in Fe saerninete = oe - iology, we

Ought to insist seers. & w e or teleo Ine

of organs, and st fustitied in seeking for physical

126 Scientific Intelligence.

commensurate with the psychical endowments of man, yet it seems
to us that for zoological purposes, functions must be wholly ignored
and that we have really no alternative between the entire separation
of Homo from the rest of creation on account of his having an im-
mortal soul, and his admission as an animal not only into the type
of verte brates, and the class of mammalia, but also into whatever —
order, or even family, m ay be warranted si purely structural consid-
erations. Teleologically man is a cepa al bei ae; discrete degree

pace e will not permit a special notice of the other articles. No.
1, of the 2d series, — received, is — anaes in size and in

v

classification of the Insectivora; there are anatomical papers by
Prof. r. MacAllister, Dr. Hair and Dr. Dohrn, cases of
deformity with a balaaael and poyenie'on deductions there-
from by Prof. Humphrey, Dr. Chiene and Mr. Goodman, with sev-

on the Ae sige of Anatomy and igtaes while as in the other

which Pro little bodies connected — the nerves ‘of the cornea,

ps keep only give n the cootaaciaage of science ceria: :
and so both show us eee to look for desired information and pre-
vent our over what has been done before, is most earnestly

to be wished for; and though we in America, ae aon aah ars a eae
that we have now a scientific tribunal, and

Botany and — 127

her own journal of Anatomy and Physiology, yet till that time
comes we must either avail ourselves of what is offered fa —
countries, or be continually behind the tim
3. On the actual state of our In formation relative to the up
ride, or Hybrid between Hare and Rabbit; by Dr. Pr IGEAUX.—
there any sexual relations si the hare and rabbit in a
state of nature to which it would be possible to attribute the crea-
tion of a mixed or rmtarenadeats species, to be named on account of
othe configuration, Leporide? The epee and sig some

them which, from their a oes might almost have been mis-
ape p of the ears black and the inferior

characters distinctive of the species, they were never anything but
i ux

t is, however, by no means difficult to bring about a connexion
between the hare and rabbit in a state of domestication; but for
Success we must not pera in spent one aaent individu —_—

This
will occ cur indeed sometimes when a male leveret has been
brought up with oung female cablote, 4 as soon as they become
adult, if _ cage be to constrained in its dimensions. In order
at the experi riment may succeed, it is i ea a to provide a cage
of a certain extent, say of some meters, b
_ and panneliled in others, so that the Seals may escape observa-
tion at pleasure. It is well also to leave several females with the
Soke Eovelesd in order shat -* " have some range for poe ;
| igi ghee sarc near P;
ne shies eaten has bee sale as it sa perfect
‘indubitable, Several female rabbits were

128 Scientific Intelligence.

the agency of a single male hare existing in his menagerie; he
has further been able to rear to the adult state a number of the
elie or, rather, mules so obtained between the two species.

were e both males and fe a apparently strong and well

case of those hybrids between the ass and the horse in which the
latter animal su e male) gives the predominant character to the
offsprin

with very omy aioe animals brought up aaa and enjoying a om
tain liberty, ic shore confined in the hutch. It is of especial im-
portance, in breeding with the male hare, to provide several fe-

war; an
with ease strangle fifty hares in one night. The —
also, is not very productive, and ceases to bear after the t

year. ;
To sum up, therefore, we would affirm that Leporides exist un-
doubtedly under both forms, with predominance of the hare or of

the hare. sg —oneetineempte thing may be said of the hares
reared in hutches ; ‘their flesh lacks flavor, and their multiplication

aa
a
I
a

Z

_ Axe Joun, Sox—gxconp Sunres, Vou. XLIV, No. 138.—Jan., 1867.
| 9

Niscellaneous Intelligence. 129

is too limited to render them a profitable object of industry.— Bul-
letin mensuel de la Société Impériale zool. @ Acclimatation, 2™¢
série, tome iii. No. 7, July 1866.—From the Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

se dee

3, A History of the Fishes of Massachusetts; by Davi Hum-
PHREYS Storer, M.D., A.A.S., etc. Reprinted from the Memoirs
of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 288 pp. 4to, with
39 lithographic plates. Cambridge and Boston, 1867, (Welch
& Bigelow, and b

pp. 4to. Philadelphia, 1867.

dex, as

the work by his friend James Lewis, M. D., of Mohawk, N. Y., o

- he adds, “whose thorough knowledge in this branch of
known.”

J. Earthqu y
sapeoin College, Topeka, Kansas. (Communicated for this Jour-

named States was precipitated in one h g mass into the streets.
he most juiamsive baildinre swayed back and forth and seemed

*

Teady to fall. A train on the Pacific railroad was stopped, the en-
‘§ineer eman jumping off under the impression that the en- —
me was on the point of blowing up, clocks were stopped, and an-
‘fuals hurried about the fields'in

, while some stood still in the

The earthquake was accompanied by a noise. likened by

~

130 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

— to the roar of distant thunder, or to the rumbling of artillery
r a pavement. arge mass of material, referring to it has
Sean collected, out of which the following brief abstract is made.

is generally a little ee sae reste et arian meridians
he time of occurren
The duration of the ibe k was from “ay to Gaity'ss onds. In
western Kansas it was about ten seconds in length, but eer
increased to thirty seconds or more in its progress eastward.
The direction of the shock appeared to “gs bytes the south or
southwest to the north or northeast. This is shown from various

aves in the ceiling of Lincoln College were observed to run from
the southwest toward thenortheast. Rev. R. D. Parker, attending
the dedication of a church at Warrensburg, Missouri, at the time,
observed the — of the church heave as if moved by a shock
from a southwe

to have been one shock increasing in intensity and gradually pal
away. Sage the movement progressed _— the Sage 3 popes

Miscellaneous Intelligence.

131

canal, is reported to have sunk ten feet, showing that the shock
extended to Ohio. The ground sunk bodily, leaving a perpendicular
wall of ten feet or more on all sides. The canal bank was seriously

‘ endangered by the subsidence.
' 2. On the

oleanic eruption near the city of Leon ; by Hon.

city of Leon, on a crowded line of volcanos running through the

State parallel to the Pacific coast.
It commenced about one o’clock in the mornin

with a succes-

sion of explosions, which were distinctly felt and heard.at Leon.
These explosions opened a fissure through the earth crust about

half a mile in length, running from the old fissure in

+ and Orota, which are two of the numerous cones studding the an-
ures

: cient fiss

Before daylight on the morning of the 14th, fire was seen issui

the new volcano in various places. The exp

uing
losions contin-

. P
ued regularly during the whole time that the voleano was ina
State of eruption, sometimes in rapid succession, and at other

times at intervals of half an hour. Low, rumbling

days two craters

: Were opened on the new fissure, about a thousand
ity dischaecihe- $e

heard almost incessantly. In the course oft few

; one at the southwestern extremit cha

built
feet,

sounds were

eet apart, the

and the other shooting out toward the northeast at an angle of

i 1. irc
about sixty feet in diameter, which was constantly filled to

- 132 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

red hot for half way down, while the remainder of its background
work was glittering with innumerable glowing sparks. It was
a secon

fest
cinders, to the height of about 500 feet above the mouth of the
orifice. egular explosions occurred at intervals, varying from
ten to thirty minutes, increasing the force and volume of the dis-
om pr sending t them far up into the rolling clouds above.
The cinders we in d

surface, the two craters being that distance apart and both dis-
; charging simultaneously. The half horizontal crater was about .
twenty feet in diameter. |
On the afternoon of the 27th, after a series of explosions which
seemed to shake the earth to its center, the voleano commenc
discharging vast quantities of black sa and and heavier rocks. The |
column of flame at night was considerably increased in height,
and bright meteor-like spots were seen ascending in the flames to

ually grows deener and coarser. For a mile pee the crater

creases to several feet in depth, and the particles gradually in-
_ ¢rease in size until the . become ee broken rocks. About the
sey of th e cone roun got de rocks from sone to _- feet i in 1 diam-

side, is covered with shard br sha going generally less than a
- foot in g ridge of black scoria leads out from
the branch crater ina ‘northeasterly direction. e slaggy lava-

by the sbarp-
of anna the vlse the es

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 133

into numerous fragments, half buried under the sand and rocks.
The voleano was an active _ interesting sight for 16 days, and
now in its repose affords an ample and instructive field for the

re seen rising from it at a single view. Its soil is unequaled
in fertility, as s finely arian and as evenly distributed as that
of the valley of the Nile or the Mississippi; not, however, by

igated this remarkable region of pte
and it is sincerely to be hoped that it may not much longer re-
i the

The recent fall of sand has been followed by a rope of ert
and though a few days have since elapsed, corn, cotton and g

ave grown more rapidly under its fertiinng influence than T
have ever seen plants grow before. Som sits nd plants it

cent ieoctiend storms iene es and ee w ur-
red in and around the island of St. Thom me oe ney same pe-
= of time which I have been jecedihanc and which undoubt-

ly spran g from the same sienna’ cause, as those earthquakes
were distinctly felt 7 tae wall

2. Earthquake at ir ge From Commodore Bissell
official Report to ee pester Palmer, of the loss of ia
United States Steamer fee ahela, dated United States Steam-
ship Monongahe ov. 21, 1867.—I have to state, with

deep regret, that the Un United, States steamship Monongahela, under
command, is now lying on the beach in front of the town of
Frederickstadt, § St. Croix, where she so aegis by sat oe —

earthquake ever known here. The sh
i to that pie gi asthe iis Phase

134 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

ently deep to float her, and then
These sails were immediately
e

Wh
or thirty feet high, it carried us over the warehouses into the
street of the town. This wave in receding took her back toward

men were lost: these were in the boats at the time the shock com-
menced. * * * * * Persons looking at the ship from shore
declare that the bottom of the bay was visible where there was
before, and is now, forty fathoms of water.

(2.) Communication to the Secretary of State from Orro Frep-
Erick Ravpacn, of St. Thomas, dated Dec. 28th, states the fol-
lowing facts as introductory to a full list of all the shocks, with
their time of occurrenee

The 18th of November was a beautiful clear day, with a fine

Fae
ens
Pa ee ad Ieee

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 135.

a this wave was like a white masonry wall, erect and straight as if
be: built with the aid of a rule; it had not the appearance of ordin-
ary waves. It broke in over the lower parts of the town to the
height of a couple of feet and to the extent of about two hundred
and fifty feet sig according to yg level of the locality. The
rising of the waves was r repeated a second time after an interval
of about ten ic aten. and the Boadd appeared to be even a little
larger than the first, and went a little farthee inland. After these
two waves had passed away, the ocean remained, as far as the eye
could see, quite calm Senn, just as it was before ‘the first shock of
the earthquake had occurred.
The shocks continued yet were felt every few minutes, It was

shocks were felt more pepareey and distinct, and, therefore, seem-
ed as if they were more freque

From 2:45 o’clock p. m. on the Tstk till 2:45 o’clock a.m. m =
19th, there were eighty-nine shocks. From 2:45 o'clock a.
the 19th till midnight, there were two fripdoed and thirty-eight
shocks e shocks became less severe from the 21st of No-

vember.
3. Earthquake in in Western New York, Vermont and Lower Can-
ada.—On the m rning of We seciager sd the 18th of December last,

and at 4:27 was the final one, which was quite severe.
It 1 ook down crockery, and frightened many persons, but did no
Serious fre,

4. Corrections to a paper “on the Comparative Strength of
Cannon of modern construction,” published in the VIith volume
of the Proceedings of the Academy; by DanreEL TREADWELL.

r. Proceedings Amer. Aca oa le f Arts and aera Reed
8, 1867).—In a paper “On the DIIpArAIYS, Strength of
M i ten by me in January, 18 is 66,
r of the same year, and

136 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

mat continued firing with more than 74% of the largest seper a
powder which it may have withstood, and no cast-iron gun with
much as this.

I have not the data necessary to determine accurately the velocity,
and consequently the force, which this reduction of the charge 0
powder must make in the "shot ; ; but if we take the force of the
shot in the direct ratio of the weight of the charge of Bete we
shall have 261, instead of 372°8, as representing the “number of
pounds of shot raised one foot by each eos of metal in thé gun,”
as these numbers are in the ratio of 70 t

I am not able to state what has sonaetedeeh the greatest charge
of powder borne by Armstrong’s gun of 12 tons, carrying a shot
of 300 pounds; but, reducing the charge of 60 pounds, as given
by me, in the ratio of 70 t 0 100, we have a charge of 42 instead

_ of 60 pounds of powder, an 6 a consequent reduction of the force
of the gun — « foot pounds ” to 273 “ foot pounds.”

IT have thought it the ook ares to make this correction, “
in a ol tetas of the force of the Dahlgren & R

iven in the same paper to which this is a correction, the quail
of powder then understood by me from all that had been published

by government Aa ines as constituting a service charge was ta-
ken as one of the factors in assigning the measure of the force to

5. Cretaceous Coal in New Mexi <n a letter from Prof.
Joun LeConte, dated Fort Craig, New Mexico, Oct. 3d, 1867, be
states that through the facilities afforded him by General W.
Wright, Chief Engineer of the eastern division of the Uniots
Pacific Railroad, he has been enabled to make an examina-

us ae and are the same sao mentioned by Dr. New-
pt. Ives’ Expedition) and arry (Re 3

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 137
6. On the introduction into the Mohawk River and Erie Canal

xtract from a letter from Dr. J. Lewis of Mohawk, addressed
to the pte inte eng 9 —“ For the benefit of future col-
lectors, I wou o have recorded, that in the month of Oc-
tober and Nosenber! "1867, I placed in the Erie canal, and the
Mohawk river at this place, several hundred living specimens of the
Molluses Mr. Binney calls Vivipara poetic A large share
of théte were placed in a wide and deep portion of the canal,
nearly a mile east of the central part of the village of Mohawk, a
few rods east of a point against on there has been a “Zand slide”
from the adjacent bluff. A few were placed in the canal above
the “upper lock and ieee " it: ohawk. In both instances
near the south bank of the canal. A considerable number were
placed on the south side of | a wide cu ee it the river, several
rods above the mouth of “ Fulmer’s Cree These were distrib-
uted along the muddy slope in water soe 3 to 4 feet deep, for
a space of about five rods, the adjoining land belonging to

Ezekiel Spencer, Esq. The western limits of distribution is near

of Canton,
T have hes ‘that this effort re cuticle these species will prove
Successful, as they were all apparently healthy and active. A

for similar experiments. Reports rill be oad ents ee are
periments Re by Prof. Henry.)
7. Observations on the t transfer of the Library = opt Smith-
sonian Institution to the Library of Congress; by Pr
Henry. (From the unpublished Te rt of the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution for 1866). Although the present condition
Sant fund is a matter of 128 of eal he there care anor pre
i of equal if not er importa
ging to ne fans ef 1866 eq ao ina

5°
er
s
as
®
= ie
+3
5
oe)
BE.
&

138 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

such books will permanently be retained as are of most constant

for
dation of the sens the Byles of Congress is to be open through-
ith the e

or the torch of the in pak seg ile the rooms of oe
of 2 ec materials. This wing was, moreover, filled to

inding,
oguing of the Smithsonian books is provided by government, an
ant part of _ annual income of the Institution is thus

the wor rie forming a soe =—— not only ranking as first in

fer of the Smit oar ry has fee eunake tended to awaken an
interest in Hag a Con 88, ent aus oe anger’ the

iation of $100,000 has been amaiae by t e Joint Cares
‘mittee of the two houses of Congress for the purchase of the lit
of Mr. Peter Force, “snascssage Be of boo
these additions the library of Congress will be the Jargem,
United States, 2 ea ny Pap ti building is
apie ssoeenal wed.

ct has b d in with this recommendation, and the li-
“i of Mr. Force in moe aceasta ot the Government.

Pe
wb sais

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 139

port of the Smithson library may be considered as an approval by
94 Sree the general policy adopted and the course pursued by
the It wi

to this point, and while the Institution will be relieved from a 2
00.

The propriety of making provision for the separate mainten-
ance of “A x sar AT Feit of relieving the Smithson fund
the burden imposed upon it in this way, will be evident when
the fact is recalled that the plan of the present 4 reemp buil
was adopted to accommodate the museum of the Wil ;
page the care of which had been devolved upon the Institu-

the “3k the law of Congress. But the Board of Regents, afte

e B |
DUL was completed, decided that the keeping of this mu-

seum ought not to bed charge on the Smithson fund, and before

assuming the care of it dates appropriation, at least equal. es

140 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

present exists. Congress has recently made provision, on an
ample scale, for the accommodation of an Army Anatomical Mu-
seum, and for a Museum connected with the Agricultural Depart-

ment, or else to make an annual grant of money, w.
under the direction of the Board of Regents, shall be sufficient
kind

.

properly to support an establishment of this kind.

but owing to unexpected delays the frame was not received in
time before the setting in of frost to complete the covering with

being of new material. To secure the front towers and

the Institution, and unless devoted toa National Museum or wd
some other purpose, it would probably remain for an indefinite”

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 141

unfinished, The reconstruction of the building, exclusive of
this room, will cost $150,000, and if to this be added the sum pre-
a viously expended on the erection of the building, we owe have a
total of $475,000, of which, at least, $400,000 might have been
opal to the principal, or expended. in the promotion of know-

The superintendence of the work is still under the direction of
ys the architect, Mr. Adolf Cluss, and every part of the construction
: and all the plans none been critically examined and discussed by
ee Governm ent.

oe
i4°)
war)
mie
5
ot
=
fas)
gob s
-h
S,
0
a]
i
i]
<
I
i=}
3Q
mn
oe
o
=]
@
ar
iy
@
—"
i)
or
fe")
A
ag
ca")
—
9°)
F:
B
=
5

advices just received in London leave no doubt as to his safety.
OBITUARY.

r. Joun Ruaeies Cortine.—Dr. Cotting died at Milledge-
ville, & on the 18th of October. He was born in Acton, Mass.,

in 1784. The following Docs is from the 8 Recorder.
_ His first fifty years were spent in Massachusetts ; his last thirty
in the valley of the Oconee, in Georgia, at. Mille R

colleges, he perfected his excellent education by several years o
fessional iife 3 in Amherst College, in ig schools and in the

iste Dr. Cotting mss ego Sot and was first neteled in Au-
ta, Ga., where he was aged by some liberal, enlightened

Agricultural survey of Burke and Richland counties. This pgs ate
tant work, the first of its kind in Georgia, was done in the yea
: i gs were deposited in the Medical Col-

3 Sot ,000 to the. service, gee piece Gilmer a appointe ed

_ Years, when owing to financial trouble the legislature withdrew —
the propriation, and the survey ceased. During its progress,
Dr. ¢ ng collected in the eastern counties of the state, a
the extreme er eons “ponnty, Decatur, a rich herbarium |

; to the office of state geologist. The work was carried on fortwo

142 Miscellaneous Bibliography.

peculiar flora, and a cabinet of our fossils and minerals, of wide
scientific interest. Unfort rtunately for the cause of science his col-
lection was distributed among the colleges or otherwise ajepoued
of, and the results of his labors are lost.

Lorp Rossz, the Astronomer, died Oct. 31, aged 67 years.

IV. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY.

from Colton’s Seopeiiies establishment. 16 pp. 8vo. $la year.
New York, one 186 nes Number ese G. — = C. B. Col-

as a record of discovery, exploration and surve
ber contains a summary of what is known in respect to Aldi,

Mercator’s ghee The Journal also contains a selection of
items pertaining to recent discoveries and investigations on differ-
obe.

they will render a good service to scientific readers.
ae oe, is dated October, 1867; the second has not yet reached us.
The Cambridge course of Elementary Physics. Part First.

Bodcston. Adhesion, Chemical affinity, and Electricity. By W. 4.

Roure and J. A, Gr ILLET, Teachers in the Hi gh School, Cambridge,
s. Boston, Crosby & Ainsworth, 1868. 12mo, pp. vi, 324.—
is book aims to be a collection of leading principles, ae than
a mere oad of facts. The molecular attractions, cohesion
and adhesion, are very well treated from the ue o stand-point.
The chemical part follows in the main, the order ann’
modern chemistry. The new notation is used, but jek to the fo il
fitting a of the old. Facts too, are rather scarce ; the

contents 0 each section

Miscellaneous Bibliography. 143

are called molecules”; and again when chemical hragtg- is defined

a that force which causes the elements to comb Moreover

the equation Na,0+H,S0,—HNad80+HNasé, is iv hardly admis-

sible. We think that the book will serve a good purpose neverthe-
24 and commend it to the attention of teachers.

The Cambridge course o Elementary Physics: Part Third,
sitiehow, by W. J. Rotre and J. A. Gituerrt, Teachers in the
High School, Cambridge, Masa. 308 pp. 12mo 0, with numerous
ghana Mensa 1868. (Crosby & Ainsworth, Boston; O. 8.
Felt, New Y rk.) —This little volume is intended as a popular in.
troduction to Acerbis for High seo and ——— and
appears to be well adapted to its - e ruse mathe-

of iti of the planets, have hardly been axial as wood en
. volume closes with “Questions for review and examination.”
4, Akademische Denlvaien von Dr. Cart Fr. Pu. v. Martius,
Mitglicde der K. Bayer. Akademie der Wissenschaften, und Secre-
taer der Mathemat. Files. as00m Classe. Leipzig, 1866. pp. 619.—
At various times, during many years past, Dr. Von Martius has
been called upon "to prevent: ee the Academy above named, bio-
graphical or memorial notices of members recently deceased, a
" work he was peculiarly fitted to perform. He has now collecte
the papers into the volume before us, sy a valuable collection
of forty-four biographical notices, some which have appeare
before, others not, but all have been ail or amended, where
this has been deemed advisable. We have here pleasant sketches
of the lives of many of the men who have been especially eminent
in science in meee who have died during the last thirty years or
more,

might be with ¢ potripasbenkite views of the arran aieaemmeita of the
earth’s surface, The author sees no objection to the Darwinian

ecbiictdd of the Superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey,
showing he Progress of the Survey during the year 1865. 232 pp.
4to, with 31 large plates, mostly maps.—The health of Dr. Bache,
the perintendent of the Coast Survey was already much im-
at when the Report for 1865 was called for, and the work of
its preparation consequently devolved pest ue able Assistant in

re, J. E. Hil This v

144 Proceedings of Societies, etc.

os ig of this valuable and popular Encyclopedia has been is-
ued to Part 119 inclusive, which closes volume 1X, and carries the
ar half through the letter V.
8. The Chemical News.—The American reprint of the Chemical
News, has now become a true transcript of the edie work, an
e commend it to the American public.

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Fif-
teenth meeting, held at Buffalo, N. Y., Aug "1866. = pp. 8vo. Published by
Joseph Lovering, Permanent Sec eretary, Spubeldes 1

Report of the Calcutta Cyclone of October. Salat *y Lieut. Col. J, E. Gastrett

lanf A.R.S.M.

and Henry F. Blanford, A-R.S.M., with Maps aa agrams Rag ries | the
origin and progress of the storm and the track of ‘the rm wave. Printed an
published for the government of Bengal, by order of the ; Leowsendnt Governor.
Calcutta, scape A very ealuahla report, with a complete survey of the facts in
their variou tions.

Pista Boston Soc. Nat. Hisr., vol. xi—p. 132, On Diatomaceous mud
from Pleasant Beach, a 5 C: Stodder.—p. 136, Method of stimulating union
between insects of differe nt species; L. Trou welot.—p. 141, Rocks in Nature and
inthe Arts; A. LZ. Fleury.—p. 151, Meteorology of Cape Flattery, Washington
Territory; J. G. Swan.—p. 161, Annual

CEEDINGS AcAD. Nat. Sct., PHILAD. atea i No. 3, June, July, i 4
u P 8

, Remar Pracichbed Cal. ;
J. “Leidy. Reptiles Poe Owen's Valley, Cal.; E. D. Cope.—p. 86, Certain doubt-
ful minerals; F. A. Genth.—p. 81, Necessity and Velocity of Nebular Rotation ;

: . Law fro
0: Cope.—p. 98, ge te gu ious — of Vitis vinifera L.; 7. Mechan.—p. 99,
New species of Owl, of the genus Scops; D. G. Elliot.—p. 100, A study of f the
gi astound J.
INGS OF THE pp ct —— Salem, Mass. Vol. v, No.4.—p. 97, -
Fattana on Polyzoa; A. aS —-p. 113, Flora of the Hawaiian Ils.; 2. Man:
“Naturalist Directory, p . 33-40, Botany, Archzology, Ethnology. Gannon
logy, Mammals, Bi

NSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN EnTomMoLogicaL Soc. Vol. i, No. 2.—p. 151,
scripti ons of American Lepidoptera; A. R. Grote an dG. T. Robinson. —p. 193,
Catalogue of the described Tenthredinide an a Oroverites of North America; EZ.
N

F THE CALIroRNIa AcaD. Nat. aig Vol. iii—p. 314, On the
: J, Blake.— ely The Pines

.

Hx

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[SECOND SERIES.]

Art, XVIII.—WMichael Faraday, his Life and Works ; by
Professor A. DE LA Rivz,*

: man
through his hands that he could not resist the temptatio

n of
Opening and reading some of them. These readings, performed

“Do not fancy,” he said to me in a letter} of the 2nd of Oc-
tober, 1858, in which he gives me these details, ‘that I was a
profound thinker or a precocious child; I had merely a good deal
* Copied from the Phil. M

-

the ag
the Bibliothéque Universelle,
This ad

146 Prof. A. dela Rive’s Memoir of

of life'and imagination, and the tales of the Thousand and One
Nights pleased me as much as the Encyclopedia Britannica.

“But what saved me was the importance I early attached to
facts. In reading Mrs. Marcet’s book on chemistry, I took care
to prove every assertion by the little experiments which I made
as far as my means permitted ; and the enjoyment which I found
in thus verifying the exactitude of the facts contributed essen-
tially to give me a taste for chemical knowledge. You may
therefore easily imagine the pleasure I experienced when I sub-
sequently made the personal acquaintance of Mrs. Marcet, and .
how delighted I was when my thoughts went backward to con-
template in her at once the past and the present. Whenever I
presented her with a copy of my memoirs, I took care to add
that I sent them to her as a vaany of my gratitude to my
first instructress.”

pleasure of sors him there, "and afterward by the correspond-
ence which I regularly maintained with him
araday here alludes to a journey in which he accompanied

Davy to Geneva in 1814, and in which, during a stay which he
made with his illustrious master at my father’s, the latter
quickly discerned the merits of the young assistant, and formed
relations with him which were interrupted only by death, At
the time when he travelled with Davy, Faraday was his assist-
ant at the Royal Institution in London; and I must say that
he has more than once e fae to me, both by letter and viva
voce, his thankfulness to the eminent chemist, who had Hos
him to one of his courses, and consented, after ru running thro page
the notes of this course prepared by the young pupil, to t
him for his assistant.

After the journey just referred to, Faraday, with the excep-
tion of rare and short absences, never again quitted the Royal
Institution, where he had his laboratory and his residence.

Married toa lady worthy of him, ae who shared and under-

: sions and all his s ntiments, he passed a lite

ually peaceful and modest. He eee all the honorary dis-

tinctions which the government of his country wished to confer

upon him ; he contented himself with a moderate salary and

with a 1 pension of £300 sterling, which fully sufficed for his
a oe

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works. 147

which he experienced did not fail to communicate itself to
those “et listened to him, and their enthusiasm had no longer
ds

Victions occupied a great place in the whole of his being ; and
he showed their power and sincerity by the conformity of his

Cannot suffice to give to man a solid and impregnable basis for
8 religious convictions; but he at the same time showed by his
example that the best answer which the man of science can
ive to those who assert that the progress of science is incom-

(148 Prof. A. de la Rive’s Memoir of

ore, with ee ecnivictinns, is to say.to them, “And yet I
m istia

ratory when his presence elsewhere was neces to a friend or
useful to humanity, Wesee him putting his knowledge under
contribution both.for inquiries upon questions of public health
or industrial applications, and to give practical advice to an ar-
tisan or examine the discovery of a débutant in the scientific

career, Only, as I have already said, with these exceptions, he.

made it a rule not to allow himself to be turned aside from the
labors to which he had consecrated his lif by occupations of
another kind, or by those pretended duties of society whic

It was not that he could not be — sociable when ne-

cessary, or that he did not allow himself some relaxations when,
fatigued with work, he needed some ote But these were
only accidental circumstances in his life, which was so exclu-
sively devoted to his laboratory.

The scientific career of Faraday was equally fortunate and
complete. Named as early as 1823 a correspondent. of the
Academy of Sciences of Paris, he was called in 1844 by this
same Academy to occupy one of its eight foreign Associate-
ships, after sey been associated successively with all the
learned urope and America. He was by no means
insensible ‘5 “hes scientific honors, which he accepted with

enuine satisfaction, whilst he constantly refused every other

ind of honorary distinction.

But it is time to commence the more important part of this
- notice, that which is to be devoted to the examination of the
works of Faraday. Only I may perhaps be allowed, before
speaking of the works cagateen to say a few words of the
manner in which Faraday worked.

Is it true that the man of science who wishes to interrogate
nature must set himself face to face with his apparatus, make
them act to derive facts from them, and wait until these facts
have appeared, in order to deduce their consequences, and
without any : peveonostved idea ? Most certainly the philoso-

d advance such

coverers ; it was assuredly not the one adopted by Faraday.
Tate iu. peocsih tastes eee wae cook ik 3

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works. 149

ed

much perseverance and patience. It is true that it leads with
certainty to a result ; and this is its good side; but the diffi-
cult conditions which it imposes are so many obstacles which
— its being generally followed, except by the highest in-
tellects. :

where he constantly met with some important discovery.
Such a method, if indeed it can be called one, although bar-
ren and even dangerous with mediocre minds, produced great

.

to see, and not seeing what he di ;
_ The works which have issued from his brain, so well organ-

150 Prof. A, de la Rive’s Memoir of

low temperatures. We may notice two. important memoirs—
one upon the explanation of certain optical illusions produced
by bodies in motion, the other describing some new acoustic
figures proceedi m the vibrations of the stratum of air in
contact with the surface of vibrating plates. His alepent sine
y

above 32° F.), followed into its consequences as it has been
by Tyndall, has had a much grea

Let us now dwell for a few moments upon some researches
of longer duration, the publication of which preceded, and
also in great part accompanied, his great works on ec nee
i Parada; unds 0

it crystallizes in little prisms : i ;
by comes he direct action of the sun bicarbonated hydro-
gen gas with a large proportion of chlorine. The other con-

|! Michael Faraday, his Life and Works. 151

‘ bicarburet of hydrogen in a liquid. state, which was found to

a mixture of several compounds endowed with various de-

grees of volatility, and which could be separated by distillation,

Every one knows the advantage, in the production of colors,

derived from this by the illustrious chemist Hofmann, when he
extracted aniline from it.

duced by Thilorier’s method. The condensation could be -
brought to fifty atmospheres, and the lowering of temperature
to —166° F., or 110° ©. below 0°.. In this way Faraday suc-

BN an eee ee cle eee Meee et

.

152 Prof. A. de la Rive’s Memoir of

It is easy to understand all the importance of an investigation
the result of which was to modify completely, the received ideas
as to the constitution of the permanent gases by causing them
to enter into the category of simple vapors; this was to intro-
duce into molecular physics a new and important notion, the
consequences of which have gradually unfolded themselves.

It is also to a question of molecular physics that we must
refer the memoir on the relations of gold and the other metals
to light, published by Faraday in 1857. Among other interest-
ing facts that this memoir contains, we shall cite that of a leaf
of beaten gold, which, when p. laced upon a plate of glass, be-
comes perfectly transparent and colorless when it is brought to
a high ee and which, when seen by transmitted baa

tigation of the various colors shale’ we different solutions
of gold, and especially of the fine ruby-red tinge obtained by
the solution of a quantity of gold which, if agglomerated into
a single mass, would not occupy the seven-hundred- thousandth
part of the volume of water which it colors. It is not neces-
sary to dwell upon the interest presented by researches having
for their object the study of the influence, still so imperfectly
known, of the molecular structure of bodies se their relations
to light, and especially upon their transparen

ng the numerous works of Faraday rélatioe to the appli-
eations of science to the arts, we shall confine ourselves to ci-
ting his researches —— the manufacture of steel, and of glass
for optical purposes, these being the most important.

It -was by the se ae of the Indian steel called wootz that
he was led, in concert with Stodart, to compose an alloy which
had all the ee of this, by combining aluminium wi
iron and carbon. Ina letter addressed in 1820 to Professor
De la Rive,* he relates all the attempts Sone by his collabora-
teur and himself during two years of persevering labor, to dis-
cover the most satisfactory alloys. He indicates, as one of the

* See Bibl. Univ. (1820), vol. xiv, p. 209.

|
:

tad

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works. 153

Although interesting in many respects, the results which Fa-
raday obtained in his great investigation of the alloys of steel

were not proportionate in their importance to the time and
trouble which they cost him. We may say the same of the la-

i
_ borious researches upon the manufacture of glass for optical

purposes, which he made a few years afterward (in 1829). It

; ed heavy glass,
1s found unfortunately to have a slight yellowish coloration
which renders it unfit for optical purposes; but the labor which
Faraday devoted to its fabrication has not been lost; for, as we

see hereafter, this same glass, in the hands of the talented

in 1827, and has since gone through three editions.

— those who are called upon to experiment in the domains
of physics and chemistry can appreciate the immense service
ich thi i mshi them, by teaching them @
Multitude of processes of detail so valuable for them to know,

154 Prof. A. dé la Rive’s Memoir of .

and of which a description was previously nowhere to be found,
so that every one was obliged to undergo an apprenticeship to
them on hig own account. It was necessary that a savant who
for so many years had been struggling with the difficulties of
experimentation, and who had been able to surmount them in
so ingenious a manner, should give himself the trouble to de-
scribe the means which he hademployed, so that his experience
might be of service to others. Faraday was this savant, and
his object was completely attained.

Here, perhaps, before proceeding to another set of subjects,
we ought to speak of certain of Faraday’s theoretical ideas
relating to general physics, and more especially to the nature
of the forces, and their correlation to each other and to the es-
sence of matter; but we prefer not to discuss the opinions
emitted by him upon these questions until after the exposition
of his works on electricity and magnetism. We must, how-
ever, at once admit that his views on these matters are very
contestable, and that, if they inspired him to make experimen-
tal researches of the highest interest, this is a proof that, in
the hands of a man of genius even a bad theory may be the ori-
gin of the most beautiful discoveries.

Il.

completed. Each memoir certainly forms a complete whole;
but one memoir is most frequently followed by another, the
subject of which is quite different. It seems as if the author,
after having treated one question, found it necessary to reco.
himself before resuming it, and to divert his mind from 1t, 80
tos . ing up some other kind of work. __
_ It has therefore a to me that the best thing for me
to do, was to group all these various works under a few distinct
heads, so as to be able to give their essence without requiring
to enter into too many details, The first would include all
— relating to electrochemistry; the second, those
which have for their object induction, whether electrodynami¢

eS

all

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works. 155

action of magnetism and dynamic electricity upon light and
upon natural bodies in general. It is true that there are some

>

that is to say, they are the fruit of some particular circumstances

substances carried up by vapor—experiments undertaken in
consequence of the invention of Armstrong’s machine. Lastly,
there are others which only contain the more or less indirect con-
sequences of the fundamental discoveries, which will be ex-

plained in one of the three subdivisions under which we have

the study of electrochemistry. It was, moreover, to ; ¢
trochemistry that his attention must have been first directed in

many oxyds, some chlorids and iodids, and a multitude of salts,
which do not conduct electricity in the solid state, but, without
any intermixture of water, become excellent conductors when
liquefied by heat, and are not eee by electricity with
Separation of their elements in the same way as aqueous solu-
tions. To the list of these compounds Faraday adds that of

156 Prof. A. de la Rive’s Memoir of

those substances, either simple, like sulphur and phosphorus,
or compound, such as the-periodids and perchlorids of tin, and
many others, which continue isolators when fused as well as in
the solid state. In this first investigation, notwithstanding a
great number of experiments in which he employed the influence

of heat and of electricity of high tension in, the study of the .

conductive power of solid bodies, he did not-succeed in deter-
mining very accurately the coriditions of electrical conduc-
tibility; he only ascertained that, with gme-exception, which he
justly regards as only apparent, there is not a solid body which,
on becoming conductive by its passage to a liquid state, is not
decomposed by the electrical current. We may add, so as not
to return to the subject, that Faraday sometimes had doubts
upon this point, and he even thought that water could conduct
electricity without being decomposed. Now experiment shows
that in all cases, even those which appear most favorable to
this opinion, electricity cannot be transmitted under any form
through a compound liquid body, without this body undergoing
electrochemical decomposition.

As to the causes of conductibility, they are still far from
being known; when we see bodiés, such as the gases, becoming
conductors when greatly rarefied, whilst under the ordinary pres-
sure they are perfect i

this difference, as well as so many others presented in this re-

spect by solid and liquid bodies, is due to the fact that we have

not yet a correct notion of the molecular constitution of bodies.
Perhaps the recent theories of several physicists, particularly
that of Clausius, who regards the particles of bodies as being
- in a constant state of movement, may succeed in elucidating
this subject, which is still so mysterious. Faraday himself

fully foreseen this relation between electrical conductibility and »

the ideas which we may form as to the nature of matter. In
an

nsulators, we are compelled to come to
the conclusion that the impossibility that we find of explaining:

po .
experimental basis, that, in the theory according to which a
Sealtincs : : | .p
arated from each other by larger or er intermolecular m~-

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works, 157

' He shows that the transfer of the elements can only take place
between bodies, the constituent parts of which have an aftinity
for each other; and if these elements separate in a free state -
against the surface of the metallic poles of the pile, this is be-

Cause they cannot combine with the substance of these poles;

: 7
Seen, may serve as poles just as well as solid bodies, Faraday
Jusily rejects the old idea of certain physicists who attributed
electrochemical decompositions to the ord lectrical attrac.

Passes into the liquid; therefore, to exclude any idea of elec-

tothe
chemical decomposition effected by electricity, reserving that —

158 Prof. A. de la Rive’s Memoir of

of analysis for the ordinary chemical decompositions in which
electricity does not assist. Lastly, he gives the name of elec-
trolytes to those compound bodies which are capable of being
decomposed by the electric current.

After this preliminary and general study of the subject, Fa-
raday enumerates the results which he obtained by submitting
to electrochemical decomposition a very great number of com-
pounds, some of them simple acids or simple bases, others sa-
line combinations. He dwells particularly on the secondary

ts often manifested in these decompositions, especially in
the case of aqueous solutions, in which decomposition of the
water and of the substance dissolved takes place at the same
time. But the essential point of his researches is the law at
which he arrived as to the definite nature of electrochemical

we give the name of voltameter to the very simple apparatus
which holds acidulated water destined to be decomposed by the
current, and by means of which the volume of gases set free
by this current in a given time may be exactly measured.
The second principle, that the same quantity of electricity

quantities of tin, lead, chlorine, hydrogen and —— which
are chemically equivalent. Then, rising from the effect to the
cause, he comes to the conclusion that there is a perfect equali

ity
poses a hody and that which
is generated by the which produces the direct

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works. 159

decomposition of an equal quantity of the same, or of a chem-
ically equivalent quantity of some other body. He is thus led
to pay attention to the theory of the pile, and to recognize that
the power of this apparatus originates in chemical action, and
not in the contact of two heterogeneous metals—a contact
which is not necessary either, to produce a spark or to cause a
chemical decomposition. ;
He establishes in the first place, that, either to effect a de-
composition or to produce a spark, a plate of zinc immersed in
. _ acidulated water is sufficient without its being necessary to bring
the zinc into contact with any other metal. He shows that in
every pile the presence of an electrolyte (that is to say, a liquid
susceptible of being decomposed) is indispensable for the evolu-
tion of electricity, Then, distinguishing in the electricity gen-
erated the intensity (or the tension) and the quantity, he studies
the circumstances, depending either on the nature of the chem-
ical action or the number of voltaic pairs associated, which
exert an influence on these two characters of the current. In
a word, he establishes such a correlation between that which
occurs in the interior of a pile and that which takes place in the
| electrolyte interposed between the poles of this pile, that it
is impossible not to admit (with him) that electrolytic de-
composition is nothing but a form of chemical affinity trans-
ferred from the pile into the electrolyte decomposed. ; é
_-. Wishing to obtain an idea of the quantity of electricity which
"18 associated with the particles of which matter is composed, he
endeavors to estimate that which is necessary for the decompo-
sition ofa grain of water, regarding it, as he is justified in doing,
a8 equivalent to that produced by the direct chemical action (of
the acidulated water upon the zinc) which decomposes this grain
: _ of water, He arrives at this incredible result—namely, that this
quantity of electricity, appreciated by the heat evolved by it in
ane a fine platinum wire, is superior to that manifested
in

chemical action that resides the origin of the evolution of elec-

adherent of the chemical theory, he had just attacked the ques-

.

160 Prof. A. de la Rive’s Memoir of

tact alone, if not accompanied by chemical action, is not a
source of electricity. The memoir in which he probes this
question to the bottom is the last which he devoted to this
department of electricity. In it, by means of a multitude of
ingenious experiménts, he demonstrates that the presence of an
electrolyte (that is to say, of a liquid which is at once a com-
ound and a conductor of electricity) is indispensable. for the '
production of electricity in a voltaic couple ; he varies his ex-
periments in a thousand ways, sometimes by exhausting the
number of chemical compounds employed as electrolytes, some-
times by the intervention of temperature or of other agents ;
and he concludes by showing by general considerations the
improbability of the existence of a force of contact.

We may say that this last work, a precious supplement to
the preceding ones, has. rendered perfectly evident the truth of
the chemical theory. This theory, foreseen by Wollaston and
Fabroni, but opposed by most of the physicists of the early
part of the present century, had found a powerful argument in
its favor in the beautiful experiments of the elder Becquerel
upon the electricity developed by chemical actions. It was then
(from 1825 to 1835) that, profiting by these experiments, and

seeking, on my own part, to make others of the same kind
although in a slightly diferent. direction, I published several

memoirs to support and render more precise the chemical theory |

of the voltaic pile. But I cannot but admit that we are in-
debted to Faraday for having based this theory upon irrefutable
proofs, not only by the great number and variety of his re-
searches, but especially by his beautiful discovery of the definite
decomposing action of the electric current—a discovery which
established between the external chemical action of the voltaic
pile and the chemical action which takes place in the interior of
this apparatus, a relation so intimate that it is impossible not
to see in the latter the cause of the former. |

III.

In 1831 ee discovered electrical manetion it is had
most important, although perhaps not the m st brilliant of his

- of the great French physicist upon the mutual attractions and
repulsions veoh oh ia sa ets, Faraday was |
by pS ideas which were rather x disputable and not very
conformable to the principles of mechanics, to assume that an
electric current must. ‘tum. round the pole of a magnet with

sts

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works. 161

continuous movement, and reciprocally that the pole of a magnet
must in like manner turn round an electric current, He verified
this double result by experiment ; and Ampére soon showed its
accordance with his theory, adding to it other facts of the same
nature. Itis not the less true that the discovery of a continuous
movement of rotation due to the combined action of a magnet
and an electric current was quite unforeseen, and at the same
time very important ; for up to that time there was no example
of any such action in physics. It was a first step in the course
which was to lead to the finding of a relation between mechan-
ical movement and the molecular forces. :
Arago (in 1824) was the first who directly established this re-
lation, by his beautiful discovery of magnetism by rotation ;
for he showed that simple mechanical movement could render a
body, in itself non-magnetic, capable of acting upon the magnet.
araday advanced still further in 1831, by discovering that it
was sufficient to bring toward, or remove from, a metallic wire
forming a closed circuit another parallel wire traversed by an

_ electric current, or simply a magnet, in order to develop in the

former wire an electric current. He discovered induction—that
phenomenon which so many others had sought in vain, although
suspecting its existence, but which he alone had succeeded in
producing,

Let us dwell for a moment upon his fundamental experiment.
Two metal wires covered with silk are rolled together round a
cylinder of glass or wood ; the two wires are thus isolated, and

ave all their spires approximate and parallel. An electric
current is passed into one of these wires ; immediately a current
18 Manifested in an opposite direction in the neighboring wire,
the extremities of which are united by a galvanometer ; but
this current only lasts for a moment. The current passing
through the first wire is interrupted ; immediately another
current is developed in the second wire, which is momentary,
as in the former case, but directed in the same way as the pro-

ucing current, instead of in the contrary direction. The mo-
mentariness of these two currents, and the fact of their alter-
hately opposite directions, constitute the two important char-
acters of this new mode of production of electricity. :

Faraday did not stop at this. Starting from Ampére’s idea
that a magnet is only an assemblage of electric currents arranged
round an axis in a manner very analogous to the circulation of
an electric current through a metallic wire rolled into a coil, he

i the replacement, in his fundamental experiment, of the
wire traversed by the current by a simple magnet. For this

| he twisted a'single wire instead of two into a coil round
& glass or wooden tube ; then he introduced a magnet into this
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Srconp Series, VoL. XLV, No. 134.—Mancu, 1868,

ll

162 Prof. A. de la Rive’s Memoir of

mentary but in an opposite direction, is developed at the moment
when the magnet is withdrawn. Here, therefore, was realized
that production of electricity by magnetism which Faraday
had long been seeking, convinced, as he was, that, as electricity
produces magnetism, magnetism in its turn must produce elec-

their number, which appears to be very considerable.
man

J oS ee id
a . >

:

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works. 163

of the magnetic action exerted by the currents which induction
had set up in the copper. We find the second example in the
fact observed by Foucault, of the sudden stoppage which is like-
wise experienced by a thick disk of copper set in rotation between
the poles of an electromagnet the moment the latter is magnet-
ized. This stoppage is such that it can only be surmounted by
a considerable effort, and the disk itself becomes very strongly
heated if the rotation be continued in spite of the resistance it

meets with. In order that such a heating effect should be pro-

duced in a mass of such considerable size, and that we should

this wire is rolled in a coil round a cylinder of soft iron, the

effect produced acquires great intensity by the fact of the al-,

ternate magnetization and demagnetization of the iron which

accompanies the passage and interruption of the current in the

We all know the advantage that has been taken of this
combination in the construction of very powerful apparatus.

isolated conductor by the influence of an electrized body. He
ascertained, what no one had previously suspected, that the
i | between the source of electricity

a great influence upon the effect produced—that, of the vari-
ous bodies, some facilitated the development of electricity at
a distance, whilst others completely stopped it. He named the
former dielectrics; and he proved that these dielectrics, which
are essentially resins, sulphur, shellac, oils of turpentine and

‘

164 ‘ Prof. A. de la Rive’s Memoir of

Y
body), others disruptive (that is to say, effected by the mechan- |
ical disjunction of the particles of.the interposed substance), _

gases. I should never have done if I were to attempt to ex-
plain all the experiments which he made to elucidate these dif-
ferent points and to arrive at an idea of the actual nature o
the electric current. The identity of the current, whatever

mit all Faraday’s ideas, it

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works. 165

induction. . His discoveries in electrodynamical induction have
had still more important consequences, by introducing the
notion of mechanical movement into the essence of electrical
movement, and thus enabling Weber to combine, in an equally
ingenious and satisfactory manner, the mechanical phenomena

- of electrodynamics, discovered by Ampére, with the electrical

phenomena due to mechanical movement, discovered by Far-

ay.
Ampére and Faraday,—two names which will always be
united by the intimate relation of their works to the history
of the science of electricity, in which they have opened such
new and vast horizons ; and yet minds as dissimilar in their
mode of proceeding as similar in the power of their genius.
Both eminently endowed with that faculty of divination which
generates great discoveries, but one of them, Faraday, arriv

ing at them by impression, by a kind of instinct which never
deceived him,—the other, Ampére, advancing with a more cer-
tain step, having as his instrument those calculations which
he handled with such remarkable ability, and thus arriving at
results which he hardly required experiment to confirm, 80

certain was he that this would not contradict him. -

-

IV,

erasing a glass prism in the direction of its length. This pr

two square and parallel ba the 4

; eee Ss.
Which are os ontielad, and which are those by which the po-

a‘

tin Se

166 Prof. A. de la Rive’s Memoir of

larized ray penetrates and issues from the prism, is placed be-
tween the poles of an electromagnet in such a manner that its
length, and, consequently, the direction of the transmitted ray
are parallel to the line joining the magnetic poles. Lastly, the
polarized ray on issuing from the glass prism only reaches the
eye after passing through a Nicol’s prism which serves as an
analyzer. - It is also by traversing a Nicol’s prism before pene-
trating into the glass prism that the ray of light is polarized;
but this may be effected in any other manner.

It is well known that by turning the analyzing prism toa
certain angle the polarized ray is extinguished, in such a man-
ner that the brilliant spot is replaced by a black spot. If,
after this operation has been‘effected, a strong electric current
is passed through the wire surrounding the electromagnet, the
black spot disappears and the bright one again makes its ap-
pearance, Then by turning the analyzing prism a little fur-
ther in the same direction, the luminous ray is again extin-
guished, but this extinction ceases as soon as the magnetic ac-
tion is suppressed by the interruption of the current which mag-

netized the electromagnet. Theaction of magnetism therefore

consists simply in causing the plane of polarization to turn by

a certain angle, and to give artificially to the glass, while itis ,

under the magnetic influence, a property which certain sub-
stances, such as quartz and essence of turpentine, possess
naturall :

Any transparent substance, except gases, may serve, al-
though in different degrees, as the medium for magnetism to
act upon the polarized ray. But that by means of which this
influence is best manifested is the yellowish heavy glass (boro-
silicate of lead) which Faraday obtained in his experimental
researches upon the fabrication of glass for optical purposes.
He happened to have at hand several specimens of this glass;
and it was by using one of these for performing the experiment
just described that he discovered the magnetic rotation of the
—~ of polarization, a phenomenon which would probably
lave escaped him if he had made use of ordinary g! -at first
starting. Thus the long and painful labors to which he had
orm i i ess, in order

- Let us now study the new phenomenon a little more closely,
impo . Some substances we
ing the plane

a

~

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works, 167

the right, and others to the left of the observer. The discov-
ery of Faraday was that the influence of magnetism or of elec-
tric currents develop this same property in nearly all transpar-
ent substances, but with this difference, that the direction of
rotation of the plane of polarization depends only upon the
position of the magnetic poles, or the direction of the currents
with relation to the transparent substance, The law is that
if the north pole of the electromagnet is placed on the same
side as the observer who receives the ray into his eye, and con-
sequently the south pole on the side by which the polarized
ray enters into the substance, the rotation of the plane of po-
larization takes place, to the observer, from left to right.
takes place from right to left if the direction of the current,
and consequently that of the magnetization, be changed. The
action of the magnet may be replaced by that of a coil in the
axis of which the transparent substance is placed. In this
case, again, the rotation of the plane of polarization is v
bserv

s
through the wire of the coil ; and the direction of the rotation
is always the same as that of the current.

Thus, whilst in substances naturally endowed with circular
polarization the rotation of the plane of polarization always
takes place, according to the nature of the substance, either to
the right or left of the observer, in Faraday’s experiment the
direction of this rotation only depends upon the direction of
electric currents or the relative position of the magnetic poles,
since it is completely independent of the position of the ob-
server. These two kinds of action are therefore not identical,

1s allowed to escape, and doubles, triples, or “scx as the
ray is reflected once, twice, or three times. But when, instead
of the magnetic, we have to do with the natural — po-

: & . oat . re-

4

168 Prof. A. de la Rive’s Memoir of

The general phenomenon'so unexpectedly discovered by Far-
aday has hitherto remained unexplained, notwithstanding man
investigations, and especially the persevering and remarkable
researches of Mr, Verdet.

(the same, for ex e, which served for the experiments on
light) places itself equatorially (that isto say, transversely to
is line ro ismuth is in the e ;

such as iron, steel, nickel, &e.
It therefore required ve werful means, such as Faraday

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works, 169

baillif’s experiment, which I had witnessed at the time, He
accepted my reclamation in the most amicable manner, and at
once, with his usual good faith, recognized the priority of Mr.

, Lebaillif with regard to bismuth and antimony

In the numerous researches which Faraday devoted (from
1845 to 1855) to diamagnetism and at the same time to mag
netism, there are some important points which I must indicate,
He discovered the remarkable influence exerted upon this kind
of properties by the molecular constitution ‘of bodies,.and es-
pecially by crystallization. He showed, for example, that a
crystallized lamina of bismuth or antimony can place itself

to the direction of its cleavage. He endeavored to ee
the force which comes into play in facts of this order, which

taken b oxygen in the composition of page, cag he at-
tempted to explain, by the magnetic a igs of gas CO’
bined with variations of temperature, the phenomenon of the
diurnal variations of the magnetic needle which he traced over
all parts of the surtace of the globe. It is impossible for us
Hot to regret a little the considerable time which he devoted to

ti
that it is not in the action of the atmosphere, but mu

investigation, especially as it appears to us. vay eae

¢

170 Prof. A. dela Rive’s Memoir of

in that of the earth itself, or perhaps even in that of the sun,
that we must seek the cause of all the phenomena presented

view upon this particular question. 5
We pass in silence over a multitude of interesting details
upon diamagnetic polarity, upon the distinction to be set up
between magnetic and diamagnetic bodies, and upon the poss!-
ble relation between gravity and electricity. In 1850 Faraday
reverted to this question, which he had previously attempted
but without success, We see that it is with regret that he 1s
obliged to relinquish the discovery of this relation, which he
had twice sought after; but with his usual good faith he ad-_
mits that, although convinced that it exists, he was unable to
find any fact to establish it. If experiment, which he knew
so well how to employ constantly, gave him a negative response
would not this be because his point of view was not correct ?
and did not his error arise from his forming too vague ideas as
to the transformation of forces, not taking sufficiently into ac-
count that it is the work effected by the force, and not =
force itself, that must be considered in questions of this kind ?
ls
We have passed in review the principal labors of Faraday ;
and it only remains for us, in se to complete this notice, t0
endeavor to form an idea of the special character of these labors,

and of the influence which they have exerted on the p
of science ‘sgt

~The first character that strikes us is their number., What
Faraday published in the form of memoirs from 1820 to 1855

Michael Faraday, his Life and Works. 171

is incredible. And what would it have been if, side by side with
the multitude of experiments which he has made known, we
placed in a parallel series those which he never published ? It
is true that if he has left them buried in his journal, it is be-
cause they gave him negative results; but from how many
fruitless essays and erroneous attempts he would have preserved
scientific men if he had not been so discreet !

A second character is the exactitude of the results obtained:
I do not think that Faraday has once been caught in a mistake;
So precise and conscientious was his mode of experimenti
and observing. It must be admitted that in him the han
marvellously seconded the head; he was of remarkable dexter-
ity, and possessed a practical talent, rare and precious in men
of science, which enabled him, when necessary, to construct
and modify his apparatus for himself, with the view of attain-

method or the steps of his master, and, soon quitting the
himsel

_ At the commencement of the present century, thanks to the
important works of which it had been the subject, the science
of physics had acquired a character of precision and clearness
which seemed almost to make of it a mathematical science.
The fine treatise, in four volumes, on Experimental and Math-
ematical Physics, published in 1816 by M. Biot, gives the
Most correct and complete idea of the point at which this sci-
ence had arrived. To the confusion which still reigned in the

ceptions; hence we find it greatly used, as witness the very title |

Sa ake ets ed (in 1820), upon the relations
“he great discovery of Girsted (in 1520), upon the relatio

existing between electricity and magnetism, began to diminish

in this mode of considering the phenomen:

+o

s

172 Prof. A. de la Rive’s Memoir of

distinction so generally accepted between vapors and permanent

gases.
tablishes between chemical affinity and the production.of elec-

the eae of electrical phenomena. By his experiments
on. t.

to construct.

I designedly say, which we are endeavoring to construct ; for
we must carefully avoid thinking that it is already construc”
ted. Since the fine discovery of the mechanical equivalent of

F, W. Clarke on a new process in Mineral Analysis. 173

Let us not, however, exaggerate anything, or refuse to re-
cognize in the too positive ideas which we have just combated
that portion of truth which they may contain. With this
purpose let us try, in conclusion, to lay down in few words
the point at which, in our opinion, in the present state of
science the important question of the unity of forces: has ar-
rived, |

After having for a long time arrested the progress of sci-
ence by abstract and general considerations upon the phenom-
ena of nature, the philosophers finished by adopting, with
Galileo, the experimental method, the only ote that can lead
with certainty to the discovery of the truth. A rigorous and
profound analysis, placed at the service of this method, fur-
nished certain and fundamental results. Reverting to a syn-
thetic phase, many superior minds now seek by means of these
tediously and painfully collected materials to reconstruct the
edifice of which the raising was formerly attempted in vain.
No doubt science has thus entered upon a fertile course, but
only on condition of advancing with sure and consequently
with slow steps. We speak of the unity of force, and of the
transformation of forces one into the other; but do we know
what are forces? do we know their nature? We have cer-
tainly proved transformations of movement, and shown that
one work may change into another work, mechanical motion
into heat, and heat into mechanical motion ; these are, wi
out doubt, the most important points gained by science, and
enable us to get a glimpse of the existence of a single cause
manifesting itself in various forms, But*it is a long way from
this to the discovery of this cause, this single force. Shall we
some day arrive at it? It is possible and even probable;

and in this case the name and works of Faraday will always _

remain associated with one of the greatest problems which the
uman mind can entertain. . ,

Arr, XIX.—Contributions to Chemistry from the Laboratory of
the Lawrence Scientific School.—No. 5. On a new process in
Mineral Analysis; by Frank WicGLEsworTH CLaRKE, 8.B.

€@ operation is performed as follows. One part of the

174 F. W. Clarke on a new process in Mineral Analysis,

finely pulverized mineral is mixed in a platinum crucible with
three parts of fluorid of sodium, and upon the top of this
mixture are placed twelve parts of et et of potash, which
may be either in powder or in small lum

Upon heating, the mixture boils up vicinity, and after a
while settles into a clear, tranquil fusion he boiling is
chiefly owing to the action of the reagents upon the mineral,
and not, as might be supposed, merely to the influence of the ~
bisulphate u pon the fluorid. This is shown by the fact that,
whenever the reagents are heated together without minerals,
although some boiling takes place, the addition of a little
powdered chromite or iron ore fully doubles the violence of
the action.

In quantitative analyses, it is necessary to keep the crucible
closely covered in order to avoid loss from spattering ; and to
heat carefully, so that the mass may not boil over. The bi-
sulphate should never be mixed with the fluorid and mineral,
because a portion of the assay is then apt to escape action, being
left on the sides of the crucible by the boiling of the mass ;
but should be placed upon the top of the mixture as above
directed, as then the decomposition is complete. The mass
obtained by this fusion, is, in the case of some minerals, com-
pletely soluble in water, In other cases, basic salts are formed,
which, although mesos in water, dissolve readily in hydro-
chloric acid, Almost all of the latter class may be rendered
soluble in water, seven by the following process. The fused
mass, after cooling, with out removal from the crucible, is
treated with a small quantity of strong sulphuric acid, se
again fused. The mass thus obtained is entirely solu
water, There are exceptions to this rule, however.

_ J will now describe the results I have obtained with various
minerals, and for the sake of weet will ener faite fusion

completely preci tated. i of no avant
with tinstone, This is besolites few

F. W. Clarke on a new process in Mineral Analysis. 175

which was not completely resolved by this process, Over an or-
dinary Bunsen’s gas burner. This substance required the heat
of a blast lamp.

Wolfram is entirely decomposed, affording a pale yellowish
mass, partly soluble in water. Hydrochloric acid dissolves a
part of the residue, but a white powder, probably the hydrate
of tungstic acid, remains unattacked. Fusion No. 2 possesses
no advantages with wolfram. I should not recommend the use
of this process for the analysis of wolfram, as it is so readily
aap by nitric acid. I made the experiment, however,

Joric acid, But it is always best to treat with hydrochloric

acid, in order to dissolve any basic sulphates of iron that may
formed. Upon boiling the filtered solution, niobic acid is
precipitated. ‘ :

Fusion No. 2.—A larger proportion of the mass is soluble in
water than with the first. fusion, as no basic salts of iron are
present,

Itmenite is completely decomposed, giving a mass closely
resembling that obtained from rutile. Cold water dissolves a
large part of this, but leaves some basic salts which dissolve
readily in hydrochloric acid. * tide ;

Fusion No. 2.—The resulting mass dissolves completely in
cold water, and by boiling the solution, the titanic acid can be
precipitated. a

hromic tron ore is decomposed very easily. In one case in
Which I timed the operation, the fusion was complete in less
than three minutes from the time I began to heat, and that
over an ordinary Bunsen’s burner. The cooled mass is
ight green, partly soluble in water alone, and entirely solubl
in hydrochlori acid.
usion No, 2.—The mass possesses a deeper green color
than that obtained by the first fusion, and a larger proportion
of it dissolves in water. In every fusion that I have yet made
of chromite, however, a small quanti of = salts was

iri varockians .

formed, requiring treatment with

176 F. W. Clarke on a new process in Mineral Analysis.

Emery is rapidly and easily resolved. The mass contains
basic compounds that require hydrochloric acid for complete
solution; although water dissolves a large proportion of it.

Fusion No, 2.—The mass thus obtained is or soluble

n water.

peer —(An exceedingly hard specular ore Brorsl the Til-
den mine, Lake Superior). It was completely resolved, giving
a mass partially soluble in water, but dissolving entirely in
hydrochloric acid.

Fusion No. 2.—The mass dissolves completely in water.

Limonite and magnetite behave exactly like hematite.

Zircon is entirely decomposed. All its silica is converted
into the gaseous fluorid of silicon, and driven off. The mass
obtained resembled that given by rutile. It dissolved almost
entirely in cold water, but the solution speedily became tur-
bid and deposited a white precipitate, which was either Zirco-
nia or some basic salt of that oxyd. By first digesting the
mass with a little strong hydrochloric acid and afterward add-
ing water, the whole went into solution

usion No. 2, afforded a mass vat a beautiful waxy luster,
which was completely soluble in wate

Kyanite is entirely resolved, and, like zircon, freed from sil-
ica. 'The white mass contained basic c compoun nds, and conse-
quently required hydrochloric acid for tara ome solu tion.
second fusion gave a mass entirely soluble in wate

Orthite is completely decomposed, and depen of silica.
The mass was white, and dissolved partly in water. The in-
soluble residue contained Dasic salts and some sulphate of lime,
and hydrochloric acid dissolved all but the latter.

Fusion No. 2.—With the exception of a little sulphate of
lime, the mass dissolved in water.

Quarts sand.—I subjected some of this substance to fusion
with the mixture of bisulphate of potash and fluorid of so-
dium, in order to ascertain to what extent silica would be con-
verted into fluorid of silicon. The fusion took place very eas-
uy, giving a white mass which dissolved almost entirely in

Only a very small trace of insoluble residue remained,
probably not more than one tenth of one per cent of the quan-
tity of sand taken. It is very probable that more careful treat-
ment would get rid of even that small amount. After this it

e to doubt that any and all silicates would
be decomposed and freed from silica by this process. A con-

venient method i is thus afforded for the estimation of bases in.

in mind, however, that a second fusion with
cases be necessary.

= acid will in most

|
|
:
|

F. W. Clarke on a new process in Mineral Analysis. 177

As far as concerns the complete resolution of any mineral,
pure, finely pulverized cryolite may be substituted for fluorid

slags, and cinders, The perfectly white translucent specimens
of eryolite should be chosen for, this purpose.

Hither the bisulphate of potash or of soda may be used, and
although neither seems to possess any advantage in point o
thoroughness, the potassa salt appears to be the most readily
fusible, and is therefore to be preferred.

The following are the advantages that I claim for this process,

First. Speed. Among the different ‘minerals upon which I
have tested the action of this mixture, I have found no case
where I was obliged to heat longer than five minutes, and many
fusions are complete in three, and even less.

When bisulphate of potash alone is used for a similar purpose,
it is usually necessary to heat for from half to three-quarters
of an hour; and even then in the cases of emery, chromite, and
some other minerals, it is almost impossible to obtain absolutely
complete resolution.

y my process, even when the second fusion with sulphuric
acid is necessary, not more than twenty minutes should be con-
sumed in both fusions and the time for cooling between them.

. In | 5
of the mineral is absolutely perfect. Furthermore, all the sil-

pared, cannot be preserved in glass vessels.
Am. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XLV, No. 184—Mancu, 1868.
oN 3

178 «=F. W. Clarke on a new process in Mineral Analysis,

Fluorid of sodium is subject to neither of these disadvanta-
ges, and in the mixture with bisulphate of potassa, has slight
ereeninees as regards rapidity of action.

It may not be out of place for me to mention here a fact
ahi with eg use of Huorid of ammonium for decomposing
silicates, as described by Rose. After fusing the mineral with
the fluorid, he directs treatment with sulphuric acid, for the
purpose of converting the bases into sulphates. find that if,
in the first place, sulphate of ammonia is mixed in excess with
the fluorid, all the bases are directly converted into pa ars
snensry obviating the necessity of treatment with sulphuri

“This mathod can be used for the purpose of determining ‘
kalies in silicates, but is far inferior to J. Lawrence Smith

rocess.

Technical determination of ‘chromium in chromite —Atter
fusion with cryolite and bisulphate of potash as previously di-
rected, the mass is to be treated with a little strong pee! |
acid, and allowed to digest for about ten minutes. Then, upon
boiling, with water, the whole dissolves. The solution should
then be neu utralized, acetate of soda added, and the chromium
oxydized to chromic acid by a current ofschlorine gas, or by
boiling with hypochlorite of soda solution. The chromium
may then be separated from other substances as directed in
Prot. Gibbs’s paper in this Journal for Jan., 1865. When chro-
mite is fused with bisulphate of potash and cryolite, and salt-
petre is added to the mass, as soon as clear fusion is ob
the chromium is nearly all oxydized to chromic acid. If the
mass be boiled with a solution of carbonate of soda and the
liquid filtered, a filtrate is obtained which contains nearly all,
but not quite ‘all the chromium as alkaline chromates, free: om
iron or alumina; but, invariably, the residue upon the filter
contains traces of chromium. When chromite is fused with
the acid fluorid of potassium, a part of the chromium is usually
oxydized to chromic acid by the oxygen of the air; and in one
ease that came under my observation, when I came to heat the
resulting mass with sulphuric acid, red fumes were given off,
ace were probably the so-called terfluorid of chromium.

echnical estimation of iron in ores, slags, and cinders.—
in fusion with eryolite and bisulphate of potash, the mode
of treatment varies according to the method it is desired to
use for determinati tion of the iron. If Penny’s process of esti-

F.. W. Clarke on a new process in Mineral Analysis, 179

assay is placed in the crucible, should take less than an hour to
perform,

This process has -a great advantage over all others, in the
examination of ores, slags, and cinders containing iron, bot
as regards speed and convenience, A perfectly clear solution
is immediately obtained without filtering, all the silica is got
rid of, and it is only necessary to reduce the iron with hydrogen,
and then to titrate. If in an iron ore it is desited to determine

titanic acid and manganese, it is best to make the subse-
quent fusion with sulphuric acid. The clear solution obtained
is diluted to a known quantity, and by means of a graduated’
pipette divided into several portions. In one part the iron ma
be reduced and determined volumetrically; in another, the ti-
tanic acid thrown down by boiling. In still another portion,
the iron, alumina, and titanic acid may be thrown down by
boiling with acetate of soda, and in the filtrate, the manganese
may be precipitated by a current of chlorine gas, or by boiling
with hypochlorite of soda. If fluorid of sodium be used in-
stead of cryolite in the fusion, lime and magnesia also may be
estimated. For determining silica, phosphorus, and sulphur,

oe

other methods must be employe

trouble. Iron vessels are suitable for the operation, but must
be very clean and free from rust. If caustic potassa be sub-
stituted for soda, the deposit of fluorid of sodium is smaller,
and the supernatant solution contains aluminate of potassa,
fluorid of potassium, and a little fluorid of sodium. _ oe
Possibly the fluorid of potassium might be prepared ina state
purity from this solution, but it is) extremely pro lematical
whether this could be done economically. When pure eryolite

-

180 E. Andrews on Human Antiquities at Abbeville, ke.

is fused with carbonate of soda, and the fused mass powdered
and treated with water, uorid of sodium is dissolved out.
This method, however, cannot compare with the first for con-
venience and econom

It may not be altogether out of place to remark in this, con-
nection, that I find that when fluorid of sodium is heated with
sulphate of ammonia, fluorid of ammonium is formed an
— Possibly this may be turned to advantage, although
I have made no experiments upon obtaining fluorid of ammo-
mia in quantity by this process

Before closing this paper I also wish to state that I made
humerous experiments with a view toward applying the mixture
of fluorid of sodium and bisulphate of potash to the estimation
of both oxyds of iron when they occur in minerals; but I met

~~ no success,

uring the course of the experiments described in this s paper,

I have been largely indebted to Dr. Wolcott Gibbs for many
very valuable a and much excellent marion which

aided me exceeding

Art. XX.—Re#xamination of the localities of Human Antiqui-
ties at Abbeville, Amiens, and Villeneuve’; by E. ANDREWS,
., Professor of Cicail in Chicago Medical Col-

lege.

Dvrrve a recent sojourn in Europe, I relieved the arduousness
of other duties by an occasional examination of famous geolog-
ical localities. During these visits, some facts fell under my
notice, which I have not seen mentioned in European works,
and others forced upon my mind totally different inferences
from those usually drawn. Among the ‘localities visited were
Amiens, Abbeville, and other pone of the valley of the river
mme in France, in whose gravel beds are found flint hatchets
and the bones of Man in connection with the bones of the
_ primigenius, the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, and 0
eriver Somme is a small stream, appar-
ently about fifty feet wide, meandering along the “flat floor of
an ancient watercourse of much greater dimensions. The val-
ley is about a mile and a half in breadth from summit to sum-
mit of the bluffs, and not t far from two hundred feet in depth.
In the lo lower part of its course, it is purely a valley of erosion,
excavated in soft chalk; but above Amiens it expands into wide
; which are a ntly the natural undulations
which existed dha the land rose from the 8,

E. Andrews on Human Antiquities at Abbeville, &c. 181

and which are now connected by valleys of erosion extending
from one to another. Upon the floor of the valley and extend-
ing far up the slopes of the sides in many places are the famous
gravel beds, which sometimes attain a thickness of 20 feet,
Upon the lowland gravels rests a bed of peat about twenty-six
feet thick, The discoveries in this valley have mostly been
made by Mr, Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville, who appears to
have used great care to avoid mistakes, and to whose courtesy
I am indebted for much valuable information, Boucher de
Perthes finds in the gravels, as I have already said, the bones
of the Elephas primigenius, the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, and
other extinct animals in such connection with the bones of men,
rude flint hatchets and other human relics, as to indicate that
these great extinct pachyderms have been cotemporaneous with
Man. They seém, however, to have become extinct at the time
of the gravel deposit, for they are not found in the peat above.
Boucher de Perthes inclines to the idea that the gravels were
. the product of diluvial epoch, whose disturbances extermina-
ted these animals, ae
The European geologists frequently speak of the flint imple-

ments of the gravel as found in the “drift.” American readers
may need to be reminded that the gravel of the Somme is not
genuine glacial drift, such as bears that name in America, but.
simply a river deposit of more recent date. It is restri
exclusively to the valley, and appears much like the gravel beds

inking the river valleys of the western states, which also con-
tain the bones of elephants, and are invariably found above
the true drift. we eos |
_ The question of the antiquity of these relics is one of great
rs ogee for conceding their “pager tok there is little

t, it is necessary to suppose that the aS Prvmigentus

has lived later, or ree oe Se than is usually balan

of the peat over it.
Sir John phelind believes that the gravel was an extremely

tion. He contends that it was maa y formed by the river,
while it was slowly excavating the valley from the chalk, and

In th its’ Ami I observed some facts which
have an important bearing upon the question of time. ‘There
1s evidence there that at the time the deposit was formed, blocks:
of ice, or of mixed ice and frozen gravel, three or four feet m

182 E. Andrews on Human Antiquities at Abbeville, &e.

times that of the ordinary summer stream of the Somme. The
facts are these: the mass of the upper gravels consists of chalk
flints mixed with angular fragments, powder of crushed chalk

Amiens, where the perpendicular bank showed a fine section of
the phenomena. At this place the strata of gray gravel

in such a way as to leave the clay stratum in that singular po-
sition, and equally impossible for water to deposit 1 originally
in The conclusion is inevitable, that a mass 0
some material was imbedded there which occupied the space
until the gravel covered it and the clay stratum was laid over
i allowing the clay

least of frozen gravel and ice combined, with enough of

E. Andrews on Human Antiquities at Abbeville, de. 183

the latter to leave a vacancy when it melted. An examination
of the gray gravel adjacent confirms the idea of powerful ice
action. It consists of chalk flints, mixed with broken chalk
of every size, froma fine powder up to fragments as large
as a man’s head. Many of the fragments, though soft
enough to write with upon a blackboard, have preserved with
absolute perfection the sharp angles and edges which they had
at the time they were broken from the cretaceous strata. It
does not seem possible that they could have been rolled a hun-
dred feet in the bed of a stream without losing this sharpness.
It follows that much of the material of those beds was either
dro from floating ice, or else deposited by the mechanical
action of ice fields floating down the ancient river, which crushed
the edges of chalk strata abutting on the valley, and pushed
the debris along to: be left wherever the irregularities of the
channel permitted. The agency of ice is further evinced by
the occasional presence of large boulders of sandstone in the
gravel, some of which weigh a ton. These must have been
transported from far up the stream, as the rocks in the vicinity
are exclusively chalk. The crushing action of ice against the
edges of the valley is rendered more probable by the fact that
the angular mixed gravel is found only in the border beds,
while the strata nearer the center of the valley are washed com-
paratively clean of chalk. :

The envelopment of ice and frozen gravel in sedimentary
beds is by no means a phenomenon peculiar to the valley of the
Somme. In a former article, I described the angular masses
bsg clean gravel which occur in the drift clay beneath the

melt.
The evidence of powerful force exhibited in the gravel beds
of Abbeville and Amiens renders untenable Sir John Lubbock’s

184 HE. Andrews on Human Antiquities at Abbeville, &c.

The valley of the Somme is over a mile and a half at the top,
while the present river does not appear to exceed fifty feet in
breadth. It is safe to say that the present stream spread over
the whole valley, would not be half an inch deep, and making

the irregular meandering of a shifting narrow stream,
eroding this bank and now that. It is broad, forekaeney

channels of communication in the soft chalk extending
the upper to the lower, thus sketching out the lines of the sub-
i ti

verlying the gravel of the floor of the valley is a bed of
peek about twenty-six feet in thickness. Mr. Boucher de Perthes

with praiseworthy care sought for means to determine the
age of this bed; but, as he was probably unacquainted wi

yoo and the time required for it proportionately ete

~. Andrews on Human Antiquities at Abbeville, de. 185

century. He states that there has been no perceptible accretion
to it from time immemorial, so far as the observation of the mod-
ern inhabitants can determine, . He believes that had the growth

erect where they grew, generally birches, or alders. ese
§ were sometimes a meter (39°14 inches) in baighs, but
ong un-

covered in the damp air of a swamp without decay, it follows
that all which are found standing erect in the peat, must have
been covered to their present summits with the increase, before
they had time to rot away. Applying Boucher de Perthes’s
estimate of 14 to 2 inches growth of peat ina century, it would
‘ollow that a stump one meter in height must have stood un-
covered without decay from 1,950 to 2,600 years before the ac-
cretion of peat overtopped it and secured its preservation, The
absurdity of the idea is obvious at aglance. One hundred years
1s a long duration to allow even an oak in such circumstances,

three feet or more in a hundred years, This conclusion is con-
‘d by the existence of numerous prostrate trunks. Some

themselves by the force of their fall is not admissible, because
no oak will bury itself by its fall in a soil solid enough for it
to gow upon when alive.

he remark of Boucher de Perthes, that the growth of the
peat is so slow as to be wholly imperceptible to the modern
inhabitants, is doubtless true and very y explained. The
beds of the Somme belong to the class of forest peats, and not
to that of the moss growths. Forest peats, as may be seen in

186 EF. Andrews on Human Antiquities at Abbeville, ée.
!

thousands of localities in the United States, are formed as fol-
WS: e annual crop o its, twigs, leaves, and windfall
trunks, furnished by the trees and shrubbery of a dense swamp,
amounts to an immense mass of vegetable matter. These added
to a thick undergrowth of , herbs, and moss, are all pressed
against the ground by the winter snows. In the spring they
are flooded and protected from decay. In the summer they are
partly protected from oxygenation by the extreme wetness of the
soil into which they have been pressed. Hence they are only
slightly rotted when they are finally covered up by the fall of the
next autumn’s crop. To one who studies the actual quantity of
this material, a growth of two or three feet in a hundred years is
_ by no means incredible, Thus the increase of the peat depends
upon the presence of the forest; but the valley of the Somme
has lost its forests centuries ago. It is wholly reduced to cul-
tivation and pasturage, Hardly an ounce of grass or a stick
of wood ever rots upon it, but every particle of vegetable mat-
ter is removed for the use of the inhabitants. About Amiens,
- the ground is all drained, and used for market gardens, and in
other parts it is all sown with crops, mown for hay, or graz
for pasture, The peat growth, therefore, is arrested for want
of material, and no further increase will be observed though» -
million years should elapse. Hence all calculations of age,
based on the present want of progress, are necessarily erroneous.
In the excavations of the peat, Boucher de Perthes distin-
guishes near the surface relics of the middle ages: below that
_ to the depth of about six feet Roman and Gallo-Roman remains,
and underneath that, pure Gallic and other earlier traces.
ve no means of knowing how long ago the forests of the
Somme disappeared, but I presume those s occupied by
Rorhan garrisons would be among the larger settlements, and
be earliest cleared of timber. Probably the places where Roman
remains are found may have been destitute of timber, and pro-
duced little or no peat for the past six or seven hundred years.
If so, the deposit of six feet of peat over the earliest Roman
remains was accomplished in about 1200 years, or at the rate
of about six inches in a century. This is much less than the

rate required to preserve a stump three feet in height, but the

iches per century indicated by the depth of the Roman remains.
If. this be taken’ as'a -probdke standerdthe age ones
bed, whose thickness is about 26 feet, would be not far from

i
:
|
|
|

~

E. Andrews on Human Antiquities at A bbeville, dc. 187

5200 years down to the cessation of peat growth, or, adding
the six or seven hundred years supposed to have elapsed since
the clearing of the ground, the present age of the bed would
be about 5800 years. It is impossible to pretend to minute
accuracy in such calculations, but the above results are at least
based on tangible data, and serve to show that in the eyes of
practical woodsmen, the enormous European estimates of time
greatly need pruning.

During my sojourn on the Continent, I twice examined the
gravel cones of the Tiniére, near Villeneuve, on Lake Geneva,
which have been made familiar to geologists by the investigation
of Morlot. Unfortunately I have not at hand his original ac-
count, and am obliged to take his statements second hand, as
quoted by Sir John Lubbock and others,

At the eastern extremity of Lake Geneva, situated upon the
level bottom of the valley of the Rhone, is the little city of
Villeneuye. From the mountains which rise abruptly over the

' very edge of the city, descends the torrent of the Tinicre, which
is dry part of the year, but at other times becomes a stream
some fifteen feet in breadth. This stream brings down annually
@ certain quantity of torrent gravel which has been deposited
in the form of a cone, or rather of a half cone upon the level
plateau on the border of the lake. The apex of the cone rests
against the side of the mountain, and the base extends ina
semicircle around the mouth of the gorge from which the tor-
rent descends, A railroad hasbeen cut through the cone, thus

@g0 the increase of the cone was stopped by confining the course

_ lation, or from 88,000 to 132,000 years. The combined age
of both cones, therefore, would by this calculation be between
96,000 and 143,000 years. It is with great hesitation that I
question the conclusions of an European savant, made respecting

s own country; but having twice examined these cones with
great care, and followed the torrent a mile into the mountains
to study its appearance and action, I cannot avoid the conclu-
sion that there is a very singular mathematical error in estimat-
ing the e of the cones, and an omission of several important
geological facts which vitiate the whole calculation. ‘The nature
of the mathematical error will be made obvious by a few facts.

‘rectly quoted, he first derives his scale of from three and t >
tenths to four inches increase per century from the superficial
lay ers ar they are thinnest, and then applies it without mod-

: | small, and exag-
gerates the total age. It is perfectly plain that the true method
is to take the cubic contents of the strata whose age is known,
and compare the amount with the cubic contents of the whole -
cone; or, in plain la », if the annual rainfall and gravel

E. Andrews on Human Antiquities at Abbeville, &c. 189

layers deposited since the Roman conquest, is to the quantity
in the whole cone, so is the time required for the deposit of
these layers, to the time required for the formation of the whole
cone,

The revised data and calculation would be as follows. The
lower cone is really a half cone, the apex resting against the
declivity of the upper one, and the base being a semicircle,
The dimensions are nearly as follows:

Height of apex, 38 feet.

Radius of the base, feet.

Cubic feet in the strata deposited since the Roman con-
quest, 5,283,205,

Time of deposition of the same, 1,300 to 1,500 years.

Cubic feet in the whole lower cone, 16,116,408.

Time of deposit of the same, 3,965 to 4,576 years.

_ Adding the 300 years, which have elapsed since the deposit
ceased, the present age of the lower cone would be from 4,265
to 4,876 years,

It will be noticed that this is not far from the age which we
estimated for the peat beds of the Somme. It would seem,
therefore, that the period of higher water, which preceded both,
was simultaneous at the two places.

The calculations respecting the upper and larger cone are
vitiated not only by the overestimate of the age of the lower, .
on which that of the upper depends, but still more by leaving
out of view several important geological facts. |
__ The amount of gravel transported by a torrent, depends on
the amount of water in it. Or, in other words, upon the annual
rainfall. It is important to inquire, therefore, into this point.
The fact that at the same period the river Somme had an im-
mensely greater volume of water than now, and the water of
Lake Geneva stood fifty feet above its present level, gives a
eeue! that the torrent of the Tinitre would be found af-

ected by the same causes as the lake and the river. The ex-

amination of the upper cone itself settles this question, for it
carries its history in the channels on its surface. The gravel
cones of the Alps are marked with channels of a size propor-
tioned to the quantity of water which flows in them, because
the stones and gravel are left on each side of the water course
up to high water mark, showing the exact size of the stream.
As the gravel accumulates it gradually raises the bed of the
torrent above the rest of the cone, until the water breaks through
now on this side and now on that, and distributes its gravel
over the lower portions. Hence the comparison of the torrent
channels of the two cones, will show the size of the stream
1ich formed them at the two periods. Now the bed of the

It is possible, however, that this violent action may not have —

existed during the whole formation of the cone, and if so, the
center may be older than the surface indicates. I believe' the
Alps at this point are considered to have been elevated in the

position as to show that at that epoch the valley was already
in existence, and that it had nearly its present size. It must

clusions seem highly probable:
BS Th i

e tranquil period of the lower cone was synchronous .

with the period of peat formation in the valley of the Somme,
and their age would appear to be somewhere from 4,000 to 6,000
years,

2. The violent water action of the upper cone was cotempo-
raneous with the corresponding activity of the Sommein the
gravel period. = :

3. During this period, the water-flow was enormous, the

gravel accretion extremely rapid, and the time occupied by the
deposits correspondingly short.

;

bs

om
a,
&

T’. Guerin on the delivery of water from conduit pipes. 191

Art. XXI.—To ascertain the loss sustained in the delive
of water from a conduit pipe, when it is tapped by a Branch
at any portion of its length; by Tos, Guerin, Civil En-
gineer,

In water works for the supply of a city it happens sometimes
that it is necessary to convey the water in a conduit pipe from
a reservoir situated at a long distance; and before the conduit
reaches the point of distribution it is tapped by a branch so as

0 carry off a portion of the water for other special purposes,
thereby interfering seriously with the proper supply for the
city.

On examining the action of the branch it is easy to perceive
that it causes an increase in the flow from the reservoir; while
at the same time, it causes a diminution in the delivery at the
point of distribution in the city, and moreover, the quantity
carried off by the branch must be composed of such increase
and diminution.

Thus, let A be a vertical section of a reser-
voir supplied from a river, or some other
great source, and let ANB be a conduit pipe
leading water to the point of distribution at B.
It is manifest that if the pipe were cut at the ,
point N, the delivery there would be greater than it had been
at B before the pipe was cut, for the reason that a discha
through a pipe varies very nearly as the square root of the
length inversely; it follows then that the discharge from the
reservoir would be increased by cutting the pipe at the point N.
_ Again, if instead of cutting the pipe at N, n orifice were
made in its side, such that the area of the orifice would be
equal to the sectional area of the pipe, it is evident that almost
as much water would flow through this orifice, as if the pipe
were actually cut across at N (the only difference being the —
amount arising from a change in the direction of the fluid);

A
at B will be a little diminished, and while the orifice at N in-
creases, this delivery will continue to decrease until finally it

~192 T. Guerin on the delivery of water from conduit pipes.

. nothing; while the omnes 9 from A will increase until
becomes a maximum as soon as the orifice at N is equal to
ths section of the p
It follows then, that when j a branch is inserted in a conduit,
the effect will be to increase the discharge from the reservoir,
but at the same time to diminish the quantity delivered at the
point of distribution; and the sum of such increase and dimi-
nution will be the exact quantity carried off by the branch.
To be able to ascertain this increase and diminution separately,
the exact quantity delivered at the point B, is
manifestly of the greatest importance in laying a system. of
water pipes; and although writers on hydra ulics have investi-

pear to have been hitherto discussed. ime a solution of
this question, I submit the following investigati

On reference to D’ Aubuisson’s Hydraulics, ag by Ben-
nett, we find in chapter 3, No. 186,

H—-0251817% = = ‘0006769 3+ (Q2-4" 141724QD2).

This is a general formula employed for the solution of ques-
tions relating to the motion of water in conduit pipes; Q denotes
the quantity flowing per second een the pipe; r its length;

, its diameter, and H, the head on the orifice of efflux ; the
denominations of all these hasanh ae being feet

The second member of the equation is the aha of hig resis-
tance from friction occasioned by the sides of the
7 1s this equation we obtain general values for i and Q
as follows

t= 0251817 oooe769 5 (Q?+4-141724QD?)

Q—— 070862LD2 + te TEDEae Phe y
L-+37-20D \ L+37:20D

L-+-37:20D

Let us assume Q=the quantity delivered at B,
fe mee carried off ie branch,
en
[= eae AN
H=height of reservoir above B,
D=diamete
a rata oP ANB.
On reference to the general value of H, it will appear that
the head which forces the amount to tho e point tN, will be

T. Guerin on the delivery of water from conduit pipes. 193

02518172 7” +-0006769 x = (g24° 141724 gD2),

If H be sides by this quantity and also by the friction
due to the passing of Q through the length 7, the remainder
must be equal to the head which forces the quantity Q through
the length, NB, viz
H—-0251817 z oa 00067695, (2+ 1417249D2)
as ‘000676955 (Q?-4- 141724QD2),

Let this quantity be cabetituted for H in the general value
for Q as given above, and there will result
Pee 1477°30D°5

Q=- - £ —(q? 17249D3
L+37- 20D t. WEE 505 (u bermagesl 0006769 (9 +°1417249 ")
2D2
é ‘00087694 (q2-4- £(a*+-14172400")) + ( sie (oroseaoeny

~ Resolving nF) quadratic equation, the value of Q is found
to be as follow

—070862D*], cE areas
_es T3730p 2* 0251817g2D)—
“070862D7], 2
+ (ear ‘iaD)
Such is the value for Q in general; but when the velocity ex-
ceeds two feet per second, and that of L is great compared to 37
times D, in that case it will be seen by D’Aubuisson, No. 189,

that @=37: 548 |HD*, and hence H =-0007089 44 1a" - Frenithis

u st ‘
ETD) opi t 14172492)

general value for H, it appears that 0007089 =; u 5 - is the head re-
quired to force the quantity q to the point N; ee as it appears
from D’Aubuisson, No. 187, that 0007089 ae is the friction
due to the pom of Q through the length I; it follows that
H—: ‘0007089 — 0007089 55; denotes the head which would

be competent fn force Q trol the length NB. Let this
quantity be substituted for H in the value for Q, and there will

result Q=37°548 | |HD*>— oe lq? This is a convenient

formula for Ate and it ees a correct result wher the veloc-
ity exceeds two feet t per second, and when the senaeh is great
AM. Jour. Sc.—SrcoxD Serres, Vou. XLV, No. 134.—Marou, 1868.
13

194 W. P. Blake on the Mineralogical curiosities

compared to 3720 D; two circumstances which almost ifvari-
ably occur.

The formula for @ gives the delivery at the point of distribu-
tion before the branch is inserted; we shall therefore have
Q—Q= the loss sustained by the insertion of the branch; and
g+Q—Q= the increase of discharge from the reservoir arising
from the same cause. :

Department of Public Works, Ottawa, Nov. 14th, 1867.

L

Arr, XXII.—Notes upon some of the Mineralogical Curiosi-
ties of the Paris Exposition of 1867; by Wittram P. BuaKE.

Tux display of minerals in the department of Mining and
Metallurgy, Class 40, of the exhibition was very extensive, and
although composed chiefly of ores and metallurgical specimens,
there were many objects of particular interest mineralogically,
either for their rarity, their great size or beauty, or as coming
from new localities. There was also a large display of precious
stones, cut and polished, and of ornamental stones, bot
_ wrought and unwrought, such as columns, slabs, and vases of

lished granite, porphyry, marble, and serpentine, or smaller
objects of art in jasper, onyx, malachite, and lapis lazuli.

n these last mentioned objects the Russian collection was
particularly rich. One of the most conspicuous was an ellip-
tical vase about six feet high, sculptured at the Imperial
establishment of Ekaterinburg out of a compact gray Jjas-
per from Kalkhansk. The shaft supporting the basin was or-
namented by an entwined vine-branch with leaves and fruit
exquisitely chiseled in high telief and polished. Two mag-
nificent candelabra with pedestals of rhodonite were shown

m the same establishment. These pedestals were about ten
. feet high, and nearly two feet broad at the base, but were prob-
ably formed of several pieces united. The rhodonite appears
to occur in large homogeneous masses, and to be extensively
employed for ornamental purposes. It takes a high polish, @
has a pleasing rose-red color, slightly mottled with black.

Ivan Stebakoff, of Ekaterinburg, exhibited a great variety ©
of beautiful paper-weights, made of polished slabs of jasper,
malachite, and lapis lazuli, surmounted by groups of flowers
or fruits in their natural colors, cut out of various highly colored
ornamental and precious stones. The government establish-
ment at Tiflis, Caucasus, sent numerous ornamental objects,
some fashioned out of a kind of marble-onyx similar to the beau-
tiful stalagmitic marbles of Algeria and Mexico, and others out
of a peculiar chatoyant obsidian.

”

of the Paris Exposition, 195

U1 :
dark green, chrysolite-green, topaz-yellow, hyacinth-red, pink,
Cinnamon-brown, bluish-black with the luster of steel, and
black with a lavender shade. A peculiar steel-like and graphite-
like luster of the gem was well shown ina tiara and necklace
formed of about forty stones, ranging from one-quarter of an
inch to five-eighths of an inch in diameter, but not, however,
wholly free from flaws, :

In connection with the very interesting exhibition by Mr.
Coster of Amsterdam, of the art of cutting and polishing dia-
monds, there was a remarkably fine display of the rough stones
from all the principal diamond-producing localities. All the
varieties of crystalline form and of color were shown, together
with the minerals and rolled pebbles usually found associated
with the diamonds in the deposits. Inasuite of highly colored
diamonds in this collection, there were two remarkable stones.
One of 29 carats weight (about 92 grains), a pear-shaped bril-
liant, about three-quarters of an inch long, has the property of
acquiring a rose-pink color, on being strongly eated. This
color is retained in the dark after cooling, but if the gem is ex-
posed to the light, the color soon vanishes. The experiment

as been repeatedly performed with like results, Another stone
with a beautiful bluish-black color by reflected light, ap’ sare
perfectly opaque when held between the eye and the light,
Owing, probably, to the total reflection of the light from the
facets of the stone. :

The collection contained masses of the crude black variety.
known as “carbon,” valuable for its powder. oe shaped
fragments of this are found with the diamonds of and

5,

os

196 W. P. Blake on the Mineralogical Curiosities

are sometimes two inches in diameter. Another variety called
“boart,” is translucent, and appears to be a confused crystal-
lization; it accompanies the diamonds of Rio, and is also only
valuable for its powder.

The cascatho, a conglomerate, containing diamonds, evi-
dently corresponds in its origin to the “cement” of gold miners,
and consists merely of the various water-worn and heavy peb-
bles accompanying the diamonds in the beds of streams, cemen-
ted together on the bed-rock by ferruginous, calcareous, or
siliceous infiltrations,

The yearly importation of diamonds from 1862 to 1866 has
averaged 176,000 carats, nearly 1,000 Ibs. troy. Over 400 per-
sons are constantly employed in cutting diamonds at Mr. Coster’s
establishment.

very irregularly compound in their interior structure, none giv-
ing @ uniform tint in polarized light.

est mass weighed 13 . Many of the smaller masses
were highly magnetic, attracting iron filings like magnetite, and
strong polarity.

ing strong :
Native copper with native silver—A mass of native copper
weighing 1400 Ibs., and resembling the copper of Lake Superior,

of the Paris Exposition. 197

was sent from the Kirghise Steppes, Siberia. A small fragment
of native silver, joined perfectly to the copper, as in the Lake
Superior specimens, was observed in this specimen by Mr. Des-
Cloizeaux,

Native silver.—tThe collection from the Kongsberg mines of
Norway contained some extraordinary crystallizations of silver,
“Among these may be noted a cubic crystal three-quarters of
an inch in diameter, with truncated angles; and a group of
modified cubes, twenty or thirty in number, forming a mass
about three inches in diameter. There were also some fine
crystals of sulphuret of silver, and crystals of calcite penetrated
with wire silver,

Proustite.— Some large groups of choice crystals of this
species were in the collection from the mines of Cha arcillo,
Chili, but the most extraordinary exhibition of this mineral
species, in a massive form, was in the United States section, from
the Poorman lode, Idaho Territory. The greater part of one
of the masses weighing about 200 Ibs. was composed of this
mineral,

Torcornalite—Among the silver ores sent from Chili, Mr.
Domeyko notes a new species to which he has given this name;
a double iodid of silver and of mercury, from the Alfinhallada
mine, Tres Puntas.

Cryolite—A mass of this mineral, three feet long and two
feet thick, from Iviktout, Greenland, was exhibited by the
Greenland Cryolite Mining Company. Nearly 20,000 tons of
this mineral were shipped in 1866.

Allanite.—In large crystals from Avegeit, Greenland.

Iceland spar—F¥rom Helgostad, Iceland. The end of a
large crystal 24 feet long and two feet in diameter at the base.
One of the faces was studded with small implanted crystals of
stilbite. The mass appears to be quite sound and clear, and,
With other fine cleavage masses, to be suitable for optical pur-
poses %

ten inches thick. A specimen from the Medno-R mine,

198 F. V. Hayden on the Lignite deposits of the West.

structure has already been noted by General Kokscharov in his
Mineralogy of Russia, Most of the masses exhibited are in
the form of prismatic columns from one to three feet long, and
a few inches only in thickness, looking as if they had been split
out, It may be sawn and cut into any desired shape and gives
sharp and firm angles and points, and is apparently well adap-
ted for pencils, for which it is largely used.

Nephrite —The exhibitor of the Siberian graphite sent, also,
S pate palisand block of nephrite of dark green color weighing

; 8. ;
Stassfurth Mine Products. —This remarkable deposit of
potash salts is being explored with increasing success, and its —

nature and products were well shown by specimens of the dif-
ferent minerals in connection with a very carefully made model.
A large arched recess was built out of large blocks of the rock
salt, in which the numerous wavy sheets of anhydrite could be
easily seen. Glass jars arranged about this recess contained
samples of carnallite, boracite, tachhydrite, kieserite, polyhalite
and kainite,

Borax—aA very interesting series of specimens from the
Borax lake in California was shown in the collections from that
state. Some of the crystals were nearly six inches long, and
from two to three inches thick. Smaller crystals occur of all
sizes, and they are all found in a thick blue clay, at the bottom
of the lake.

Sulphur.—Mr. J, Mottura of Turin, exhibited a fine collec-

tion of crystallized sulphur, celestine, strontianite, and gypsum
om Sicily.

_ Ant. XXIII—Notes on the Lignite Deposits of the West ;* bY
F. V. Haypen, U. 8. Geologist. Published by permission
of the Commissioner of the U. 8. General Land Office.

Tue construction of the Pacific Rail Roads across the conti-

the first range of the Rocky Mountains, ‘hore than 525 miles
west of the Missouri river. The earth is now-called upon more

the most important practical questions of the day. It is my
purpose in this article, merely to state briefly some observations

* Abstract from forthcoming Report of U. S. Geological Survey of Nebraska."

F. V. Hayden on the Lignite deposits of the West. 199

made last autumn in regard to the lignite deposits of Colorado
and Dakota territories. The details will be given more fully
in the final report of the Geological Survey of Nebraska, now
in progress of preparation.
_ The discovery that large deposits of “stone coal,” as it is
often called by travelers, existed in various portions of the west
is by no means a new one, at the present time. The lignite beds
of the Upper Missouri were noticed by Lewis and Clark, 1803
and 1804, those of Laramie Plains by Fremont, 1842, and those
of the Raton Mt. region by General Emory, as far back as 1848.
But the intense interest with which they are regarded now, as
a source of fuel to the vast stretch of fertile but almost treeless
- plains, has been createdsanéw by the advancing westward wave
rought about by the construction of those great national high-
ays. The fact, also, that the coal deposits of Iowa and Mis-
souri are restricted in area and the coal limited in quantity,
and in most cases inferior in quality, and that west of these
states it may be said that there is no true coal at all, renders
any source of fuel in the far west, a matter of the greatest im-
portance. In the valley of the Missouri river and the Yellow-
stone, there are numerous beds of Tertiary lignite, varying from
a few inches to seven feet in thickness.' These formations have

ee

200 F. V. Hayden on the Lignite deposits of the West. )

scarcely any ash, and is quite as desirable fuel for domestic pur-
poses as any wood, Indeed it might be called condensed d
wood, It is non-bituminous, exhibits just a trace of sulphuret
of iron, which decomposing gives a rusty reddish appearance
to the outcrops, and there are seams of jet one to twelve inches
in thickness, which looks much like cannel coal and is thus
termed by the miners. The Union Pacific Rail Road will pass
directly through these great coal fields, and as most of the

ight will go westward for many years, the cars on their return
can be loaded with this lignite, thus to be distributed through
Nebraska at a cost much less than that of wood at the present
time. There are also’ indications of an abundance of iron ore
in the vicinity of these deposits, and the U. P. R. R. Co. con-

tons is taken from this place daily and sold at Denver, at prices
from 12 +

foot of the mountains and dip to such an extent as to expose
the whole series, 11 i
thickness, so that we have from 30 to 50 feet at least of solid
lignite. This is the most favorable locality for studying the
strata inclosing the lignite that I have ever met with in the
west, and this is due to several causes, the principal of which
is their proximity to the base of the mountains, by which they
are elevated at a moderate angle. The following somewhat
remarkable section is approximately correct at least.

45, Sandstone, gray and rather| 29. Sandstone,
coa ine 28. Drab clay passing up into
44. Drab cleft - san feet, bee
43. Lignite 27. Lignite, 5 fe
42. Drab clay. 26. Drab clay, 5 feet
41. Lignite 25. Sandstone, 14 feet.
40. Drab clay. 24. Drab clay, 3 feet.
andstone. 23. Lignite, 74 feet.
38. Drab clay 22. Drab clay, 5 feet.
gnite. 21. Sandstone, 20 feet |
36. Drab clay. 20. Drab clay, 3 feet ,
eh one. - 1 19, Lignite, 7 feet. |
34. Drab clay, 10 to 12 feet. 18. Dish olay, 3 feet.
33. Sandstone, 17. Sandstone, 40 feet.
pe Tien ~~ 16. Drab clay, 3 feet.
i te. 15. Lignite, 5 feet.
30. Drab clay. | 14. Drab clay.

F’. V. Hayden on the Lignite deposits of the West. 201

13. Sandstone. 5. Gray and yellowish gray
12. Drab clay. sandstone.
11. Lignite. 4, Drab clay, 3 feet.
10. Drab clay. 3. Lignite, 11 to 13 feet.

9. Sandstone. 2. Drab clay, 4 feet.

8. Drab clay. 1, Fine ye lorfich grit indura-
7. Lignite, 5 feet ted.

6. Drab ¢

Cretaceous beds, 1, 2, 3, 4, &e.
The thickness of the beds is given when it could be obtain-

beds 6 to 13 feet inclusive have been broken down from the
summit of the upheaval just beyond and thus displaced. - The
inclination of the strata from 1 to 16 inclusive is 8° east, and
the cleavage of the beds of lignite is vertical and exactly par-
allel with the dip. From 13 to 29, inclination is 40°, and the
remainder, 35°. Lignite beds 38 and 42 have not yet been tested
and very little is known of them. They have been exposed in
the search for iron ore. The summit of the hills above all
these beds in the section is covered with a large thickness of

‘superficial drift material, which undoubtedly conceals many

other beds which properly belong to the section. Mines have
been opened on Coal creek, 3 miles south of Marshall’s mines,
but they have been abandoned for the present. Another has
been opened about 20 miles south of Cheyenne City, on Pole
creek, The drift began with an outcropping of about 4 feet 8
inches in thickness, inclination 12° east. The lignite grows
better in quality as it is wrought farther into the earth, and
the bed, by following the dip 200 feet, is found to be 5ft. 4 in.
thick, and the lignite is sold readily at Cheyenne City for $25
er ton. The beds are so concealed by a superficial de-
posit, that it is difficult to obtain a clearly connected section
of the rocks. A section across the inclined edges of the beds
eastward from the mountains is as follows: |
7. Drab clay passing up into areno-calcareous aes com-
posed of an aggregation of oyster shells, Ostrea

onalis
6. Lignite, 5 to 6 feet.
5. Drab clay, 4to6 ©
4. Reddish rusty sandstone in thin lamin, ----------- 20
8. Drab arenaceous clay, indurated, ae
< Massive sandstone 50

qo cece

The summit of the hills near this bed of lignite is covered
With loose oyster shells, and there must have been a thickness”

/

202 F. V. Hayden on the Lignite deposits of the West.

of 4 feet or more, almost entitely composed of them, The spe-
cies seems to be identical with the one found in a similar geo-
logical position in the lower lignite beds of the Upper Missouri
near Fort Clark, and at the mouth of the Judith river, and
doubtless was an inhabitant of the brackish waters which must
have existed about the dawn of the Tertiary period in the
west. No other shells were found in connection with these in
Colorado, but on the Upper Missouri well known fresh-water

along the eastern base of the mountains, and from the best in-
formation I can secure, I have estimated the area occupied by
them north of the Arkansas river at 5,000 square miles. Ac-
cording to the explorations of Dr. John L. LeConte during the
past season, which are of great interest, these same lignite for-
mations extend far southward into New Mexico on both sides
of the Rocky Mountains. Specimens of lignite brought from
the Raton mountains by Dr. LeConte, resemble very closely m
appearance and color the anthracites of Pennsylvania. It 18
probable that no-true coal will ever be found west of longitude

- 96°, and it becomes therefore a most important question to as-

certain the real value of these vast deposits of lignite for fuel
and other economical purposes. Can these lignites be employ

for generating steam and smelting ores? In regard to the lig-
nites in the Laramie plains, I have as yet seen no analysis, but

ee P M
Bolder creek were submitted to Dr. Torrey by the U. P. B. B.

Co. for examination, with the following result

Water in a state of combination, or its elements, - - - - - 12°00
Volatile matter expelled at a red heat, forming inflam-

e gases and vapors, -______ _ ae
Fixed carbon, 2... 52525542 Ae 59°20
Ash ofa reddish color, sometimes gray,.......-.-.-- 2°80

100°00°

A specimen from Coal creek, 3 miles south, yielded similar
results, .

Water in a state of combination, or probably its elements

as in dry wood,__.______. 20-00
* see ;
Volatile matter expelled at a red heat in the form of in-
ammable gases and vapors, 19°50
Fixed carbo ese

Ash consisting chiefly of oxyd of iron, alumina, and a
fittie tlie, ff at gos ae 9-00

——
- 100°00

F. V. Hayden on the Lignite deposits of the West. 203

The percentage of carbon is shown to be in one case, 59-20,
and in the other, 58°70, which shows at a glance the superiority
of the western lignites over those found in any other portion of
the world. Anthracite is regarded as so much superior a fuel,
on account of the large per cent of carbon, and also the small
amount of hydrogen and oxygen. e bituminous coals con-
tain a large percentage of hydrogen and oxygen, but not enough
water and ash to prevent them from being made useful, but
the calorific power of lignite is very much diminished by the
quantity of water contained in it, from the fact that so valuable
a portion of the fuel must be used in converting that water
into steam,

The day of my visit to the Marshall coal mines on South
Boulder creek, 73 tons of lignite were taken out and sold at
the rate of $4 a ton at the mine, andfrom $12 to $16 at Den-
ver. This lignite is somewhat brittle but has nearly the hard-
ness of ordinary anthracite, which it very much resembles at a
distance,

In some portions there is a considerable quantity of amber. |

I'spent two evenings at Mr. Marshall’s house, burning this
fuel in a furnace, and it seemed to me that it would prove to

smelting ores.
Throughout the intercalated beds of clay at Boulder creek
fa ki f concre’

_ like rusty yellow agates. It is said to yield 70 per cent of me-
tallic Sind The first smelting furnace ever erected in Colorado,
was established here by Mr. Marshall, and he informed me that

w

204 F. V. Hayden on the Lignite deposits of the West.

for the production of one ton of pig iron, 3 tons of the ore,
200 pounds of limestone, and 130 to 150 bushels of charcoal
are required. Over 500 tons of this ore have been taken from
this locality and the area over which it seems to abound cannot
be less than 50 square miles. Indications of large deposits of
iron ore have been found in many other localities along the
line of the Pacific Rail Roads, and if the mineral fuel which
is found here in such great abundance can be made useful for
smelting purposes, these lignite and iron ore beds will exert
the same kind of influence over the’ progress of the great west
that Pennsylvania exerts over all the contiguous states, When
we reflect that we have from 10,000 to 20,000 square miles of
mineral fuel in the center of a region where for a radius of 600

, to 1,000 miles in every direction there is little or no fuel either
on or beneath the surface, the future value of these deposits
cannot be over-estimated.

doubtedly Tertiary. Those on the Upper Missouri have been :
m

shown to be of that age both from vegetable and animal rema

Pe

found on the Upper Missouri. The simple fact that Cretaceous
formations Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, are well shown all along the
foot of the mountains, and that No. 5 presents its usual litho-
logical character with its peculiar fossils, within 15 miles of
Marshall’s mines, also that at the mine, 2, 3 and 4, are seen

inclining at nearly the same angle and holding a lower position

has been traced uninterruptedly to the North Platte, about 80
mie,

miles above Fort Lara

any indications of this formation over the eastern range in the

iti Ssessio om . ; :
Wind river chain, which forms the main divide of the Rocky

:

ind river chain. Passing the first range of mountains in the
Laramie plains, we find that the Big Laramie river cuts through
Cretaceous beds, Nos. 2 and 3, continuing our course westward
to Little Laramie, a branch of the Big Laramie, and No, 3 be-

_and in a horizontal position across the Laramie range prior to

its elevation.
_ + cannot discuss this matter in detail in this article, but the
evidence is clear to me now, that all the lignite Tertiary beds of
the west are but fragments of one great basin, interrupted here
and there by the upheaval of mountain chains or concealed by
the deposition of newer formations.
the evidence that I can secure seems to indicate that
there are no valuable beds of lignite west of the Mississippi, in
formations older than the Tertiary.
Postscript,
After my article on the Lignites of the West was in type,
Professor Lesquereux sent me the following very valuable notes,
as the result of his preliminary examination of the fossi

Species from Rock creek, Laramie Plains.

1. Populus attenuata Al. Braun. The identity of these leaves with
the European species is undoubted. 2

2. Populus levigata, sp. nov., related to P. balsamoides Gipp., a
PPecies, which, like the former, is abundant in the Miocene of

urope. .

3. Pieke: subrotunda, sp. nov. Type of neuration of P. melan-
aria Heer, and form of leaves of P. mutabilis Heer, both species
also common in the Miocene of Lk gy ——

cus acrodon, sp. nov., 2 fine oval leaf resembling a chestnut
now time

. leaf, related to Quercus

prinoides V of ou :
ercus Haydeni, sp. nov., lyrate leaf with lobes strongly den-
tate, without near relation to any species, either of the Tertiary
or of our time.

206 F. V. Hayden on the Lignite deposits of the West.

6. Platanus aceroides Lage, one of the most common species of
the Miocene of Europe. It is stig related to, if not identical
with P. obchdantalie -, Of O

Marshall's mine (near Denver).

1. Quercus chlorophylla Ung. Three iy sooet of this species
have been fon red and described in my paper. Mie species of

elli Heer, me oa md n the above paper, es xvii,
figs. 1,2,3. Though th e specimen is eoinemhat obscure, the essen-
tial characters which distinguish the species are well discernible. ©
eo is pe in the Bovey Tracy lignite formations of England, —

ower Miocen
3. Ciaiononvain affine, sp. nov. This species is also found at
ton pass. The leaf from n pass is smaller and might
belong to a diffe pecies, but except the size I do not find

t 8
ground for separation: very near C. Mississippiensis Lesq., and
= closely related to C. hi Heer, of the Lower Miocene of

4. Cornus incompletus ve A part of a leaf apperees round
at the tonne general oe uncertain. It is figured merely for
future its peculiar nervation this ie leaf appears in
close relation to, if not identical with Corn —— ius Web.
Pretty common in the lower Miocene ms Eur

amps.

7. Juglans rugosus, sp. nov., very nearly related to «J. acuminata
Al. Braun, a species extensively distributed in the European
Miocene.

8. Echitonium Sophie Web. The leaf has no visible nervation, .

_* but it ate ersiat like both the forms re European

9. Phyllites sulcatus, sp. nov. The borders of the | leaf are d
stroyed, but the nervation is quite peculiar. It is referable sither
to a Rhodora like R. Canadensis of our time, or represents
pag org lower part. of the winged petiole of the fruit of a Lin-

ia).
10. Lygodinm compactum, sp. nov. The many agate of -,
_ godiums are described from the Tertiagy of Euro
related sei ours. One cbs ‘of a leaf only is presented, "and the

F. V. Hayden on the Lignite deposits of the West. 207

general outline of the leaf is therefore unknown, but the nerva-
tion which is very close and more like that of a Weuropteris, is
of a peculiar character,

Lignite beds near Golden City, Colorado.

1, Magnolia tenuinervis, sp. Not possible to indicate the
general form of the leaf of which a part only is presented. Its
thin and sharp secondary nerves distinguish it from any other fos-
sil species.

2. Lathrea arguta, sp.nov. May be a Pecopteris. No relation
observed of any known species to this one.

fiaton Pass. Specimens collected by Dr. LeConte.

1. Berchemia parvifolia, sp. nov. Related to B. multinervis of
the European Miocene, but still more like tie Berchemia volu-
bilis which fills the southern s wamps. The basilar part of the

e Aga seen and therefore a satisfactory determination is not

int
2. ‘Abictites dubius, sp. nov.

Most of the specimens from Raton pass have some remains o
leaves or branches of a coniferous species which can be referred,
perhaps, as well to the genus Araucaria as to Sequoia or Abies.
As the leaves on the branchlets appear evidently placed around
the stems and not, on both sides of it, and as the scars left on the
bark are of the same form as those of an Adies, I place these re-
Mains in this Benne till they may be studied on better specimens,
The leaves are pointed as in Zuzites dubius Gopp., from the Ter-
tiary of Eur ook except this, these remains have no analogy wi with
any other, published or figured.

3. Echitonium Sophie Web. A small fragment exactly like those
of Marshall’s coal bed and a specimen ‘of Cinnamomum affine
already mentioned from the Marshall’s shales.

Upper end of Purgatory cation, Dr. LeConte.

1. Rhamnus obovatus, sp. nov. All the ‘specimens are from the

same place, and all contain fragments of the’ same species,
none 0: er. is species is peculiar by the form of
the leaves ; it has the character of a Rhamnus but the seco ondary
nerves are closer and more numerous than in any other species
of the genus, even more so thanina Berchemia. Ido not know

of any fossil plant comparable to this.

From this short report on your fossil ecg sehestaod till now,
- it is easy to draw some general conclusion

From Rock creek we have only six epee Two are identical
With species from the Miocene of Europe, and one of them, Plata-
ty aceroides, is not re ex ogee from for to estonsas P. occiden
other species are closely allied to Kurope ertiary
the t ae wo others, ra is an American type ale ee

e appearance of this florula is quite m ay be the
result of Say a ar seca er ces. Po lars and Biietoniroede
live together in the of rivers, and therefore I may mistake

Marshall’s. In me case it is certainly Tertiary and has no plants
of an older formatio
~ In Marshall’s aera eds) we find only ten species of fossil Ue
| tical with Mi

nite of Mississippi, ‘one Cornus, one Jugl and Cinnamo-
mum, all related to Miocene species nd the ‘last one _also closely

Tam much steams to find my views so well a reste RR yours
The ort ae ae met from the strata of Golden City, Raton
Pass and fion, are too scanty to permit considerations

in regard to the oy positions of the strata which have
has yet been described from Tertiary

hese broken remains of a conifer of uncertain '
— the shale of mee P chemia, which is a Ter-

tiary plant, and a leaf of Echitoniwm, and one of Cinnamomum
identical with specimens found at Marshall’s.

The remarks as given above, were sent to me by Mr. Les-
quereux, in the form of a letter, and all the important facts
contained in it are given, o mitting unimportant details. I re-
ee these results as extremely interesting, throwing much clear
ight on many obscure points in western geology. That the
Marshall beds are lower Tertiary, may be inferred not only
from the organic remains, but also from the entire conform- ~
ity, so far as can thee n, of Cretaceous and lignite beds. It
will be difficult a Ww i r
ne and Msoa in the lignite formation in an |
the West . oe

A. S. Bickmore on the recent Geological changes, &c. 209

Art. XXIV.—Some Remarks on the recent Geological changes
in China and Japan; by Aubert 8. Bickmore, M.A.

_ Ly the old and accurate description of China, compiled by
du Halde in about the year 1725, from the full diaries and
journals kept by the Jesuits, who between 1708 and 1717 tray-

over and mapped out all that vast empire, I find these
noteworthy remarks on the changes in the physical geography
of China, since her earliest history.

“In the abridgment of Chorography entitled Kwang-iu-Ki,
we find that the city Chantsien (the capital of Corea in 1694),
where Kipe (the king of Corea at that time) resided, is in the
territory of Yungping fu, a city of the first order in the prov-
ince of Pechili.”

se and
the Nile.” Thence he conducted it through the province of
Honan, and following its channels along the rovince of Pechili,
he drained the lake Talu (i. e., Pehlu) into which the Hwang Ho
formerly emptied itself. This lake overflowed all that country
which now includes the districts of Shunti fu, and Chauchau
and Sinchau in the same province, At last to break its rapidity,
he dividéd it into nine channels, which some imagine were
again united before it disembogued itself into the sea. But
whether they were joined, or if it was only the main channel
that ran into the sea at the foot of the mountain Ki-she-shan,
which was then made a promontory, this is certain, that since
Yu began that great work (about 3921 years ago), this river
has strayed so far from its ancient course; for instead of dis-
charging itself into the sea as it did formerly in lat, 40° it now
falls into the river Hwang Ho, alittle above Hwaingan, a city of
the first rank in the province of Kiangngan about lat. 34°.
Am. Jour. Scr.—SEconp Series, VoL. XLV, No. 134.—Marou, 1868.
MS

-

210 _ A, 8. Bickmore on the recent

It is likewise observable, that the mountain Ki-she-shan,
which formerly was united to the territory of Yungping fu, is
now jive hundred li (about one hundred and sixty English miles)
distant in the sea from this city (and now, 1867, it probably
forms one of the islands near the promontory north of the
Miautau islands). So that the sea gaining on the land by de-
grees has at last overflowed all this tract of ground. It is in-

that happens during the life of one man being not at all per-
ceptible.”

the coal mines near the capital of the empire. From Tientsin
I proceeded directly to Peking, and thence to the mountains
on the north, and along the flanks of this range to the Nankau
pass, and thence to the coal mines, a day’s journey southward.
And in entire accordance with Father du Halde’s statements

a long sand-pit extending out from the mainland to a hig!
hes and forming the western side of the harbor. On this
spit are seen two old sea beaches, as perfect as the present one.

a

\
Geological changes in China and Japan. 211

The highest is but a few feet above the sea, yet it shows what
kind of a change the surrounding area has recently unde one,
and this is farther strengthened by the testimony of the
Chinese, that ‘the harbor is slowly filling up.”

It is seldom possible to obtain data that will give us the rate
of such changes, and therefore the following statements
kindly furnished me by the Rev. Mr. Metier at Tungchan, are
the more valuable.

“ T have learned with some degree of probability that in the
Ming dynasty, some 250 years ago, the water from the sea

include any place to build upon, but to be a safe depot, where
pirates could not come.” :

This elevation of at least 14,1, English feet in 250 years, gives
@ mean rate of nearly five feet in a century, and to realize the
whole elevation of the bed of the gulf of Pechili, we must add to
this rising, an estimate of the quantity of sediment probably
brought down by the Yellow river, the Peiho and minor streams.

If this area had subsided 14 feet during the last two centuries
and a half, instead of rising 14 feet, of course it would have
been 28 feet below its present level, and probably one-third of
x low, thickly populated parts of China would then be beneath

sea,

About Peking the plain of Pechili is composed of stratified
clays, that form in the dry weather a fine, light dust, from two
to five inches deep. When the heavy winds of autumn and
winter set in with violence, this dust rises in one continuous
mass to the very clouds, and forms the dust storms for which
Peking is so justly famous. _ denis

I journeyed over the plain, I- noticed in many places con-.

_, As lj :
siderable quantities of cla stones closely resembling brane

corals, for which, indeed, they have been mistaken, But instead
f being of marine origin, they are formed by the water trick-

bd

212 A. S. Bickmore on the recent

P
where it opens out to the plain, there a r large quantities of!
pe Pp. tte ge q

8
plateau of Mongolia, on which this river of ice probably took
itstise. But a short distance from the mouth of the pass, in

clay banks, the question naturally arises, whether the materials.
now fill the Peking basin have not been so completely
sorted and resorted by the action of the waves as the land has

in height. Besides these evidences of the late presence of the sea
in this region, I was shown at Peking, some shells from banks in
the vicinity, and I believe they were all of the same species as are
now to be found in the gulf of Pechili,

Yellow river, whose irregular wanderings and destructive floods
have gained for it the well merited title of “China’s sorrow.”
All rivers after they have worn out their channels to a certain

banks by artificial levees or dikes, The Po in this way has raised
its bed until the surface of its water is above the tops of the

Geological changes in China and Japan. 213

u
whole = through which it flows in the lower part of its

streams and canals, its waters would readily find a lower channel

which their momentum i
on.
The last } I
when the Taiping rebels were approaching and threatening

country,
Dr, Martin of Peking
nel a short distance below the city of Ifung, and passing north-

x

914 A. S. Bickmore on the recent

ran
markably low and how uninterruptedly level the surface of this
plain must be. No other country has ever had such an artifi-
cial water communication, but what other has such wondrous
natural facilities for one of such a length, and like this at_right
angles to the courses of its two greatest rivers? While the Mis-
sissippi, the Ganges and the Nile flow out through many
mouths, the Hwang Ho now confines itself to one, though a part
of waters appear to escape southward through the Imperial
can

Farther southward, the region about the mouth of the
Yangtse Kiang has also been lately raised, though it may now
be in a state of rest. This change is clearly shown by the bank
of recent shells, described by Dr. Lamprey in his paper on the

ain 29

G :

The mouths of the Yangtse themselves have changed greatly,
and Tsung Ming island, which now has a populatién of half
a million, did not exist in the fourteenth century.

The Tunting and Poyang lakes, which act as immense reser-
voirs for this river, receiving a part of its surplus waters during
the floods and pouring them out again during the dry season,

adjoinin
e, | ma
: land for more than twenty miles
The basins of these, and the other lakes scattered over the
great plain, may be places of a slight local subsidence, but it

Geological changes in China and Japan. 215

is far more probable that they are small areas not yet filled up
with the alluvial deposits of which the whole plain is composed,
and which has been brought down from the mountains mostly
by the Yellow river and the Yangtse.

At Foochow and about the mouth of the river Min, I believe
there is an area that has for some time been slowly sub-
siding. While all the other rivers in China flow out through
a low delta, that they have formed themselves, the Min at once
empties itself into the sea; no delta is seen, yet the Min has
one, as much as the Peiho, the Yellow river, the Yangtse, the
Tsientang by Hanchau and the Sikiang by Canton. Its delta
consists in the small and dangerous banks about its mouth,
and if the deltas of these other rivers were to subside as fast as,
or faster than they are raised by the deposit of sediment over
their surfaces, each would present a phenomenon strictly analo-
gous to that of the Min. When I visited Foochow, I noticed
these indications of a late subsidence, and Mr. Dunn, o
& Co., kindly gave me these corroborative facts. In digging
a well in their compound, “‘at a depth of from twenty-five to
thirty feet below the surface of the ground, there were found
two boards about four or five feet long and one foot wide, nailed
at the ends to a post. At the same depth was found a quan-
tity of broken crockery of the same kind as that now used by
the lower classes of Chinese, and a number of pieces of half-
decayed wood. The earth in which these things were found
was a rather loose mixture of mud and sand, bearing a close
resemblance to what is now seen along the river banks at low
water. The impression upon my mind at the time, was that
we had struck the remains of a Chinese house, and the work-

sou
then in general use. The long pea at the head of the island
SeRcate the city of Foochow), and the remains of Ee and

In the plain about Foochow, as indicated above, the river
Min frequently ¢ its bed by washing away one bank and
building up the opposite one. And at the foreign settlement
a number of lines of stakes are placed in the edge of the river
to catch thi ing sand and clay, and gain land on that
side. At first it might appear that this post with its boards
had simply sunk on one side of the river channel and been

216 A. S. Bickmore on the recent

me that Castel Zelandia, a fort built by the Dutch in 1634, on
what was then an island, is now some distance back from the.
river and in the center of the city of Taiwan fu; also that at
aka0, recent crabs and recent shells are found at a height of
1,111 feet above the present level of the sea.
ring my travels in the north of China, I came to Chefoo
on the northern side ot the promontory of Shantung, and Capt.
Shufeldt, of: the U. S. ship Wachusett, kindly took me over to

bay of Yedo, a plateau some 200 feet high. its top as level as
if made by the hand of man. -A Per a rie Yokohama
back to Kanasawa, Ppt across to the bay of Kamokura, and

of the once continuous plain. ;
__ In the bay of Kamokura is the island Inosima. At present
it 1s connected to the main land by a sand spit, about half a

=

~ “

en ae
i

O. C. Marsh on Paleotrochis. 217

mile long, two hundred to five hundred yards wide, and from
two to five feet above high water level, This I pi, is the
island mentioned under the name of Kamokura, by Kaempfer,
in the year 1691, while on his way from Nagasaki to Yedo
He describes it as follows:* ‘Off the shores of the outer ba
of Jedo, was seen the Island of Kamokura, with high

shores, but of which the surface was flat and wivodbedl: It was
not above four miles in circumference, and was used like several
other islands, as a place of confinement for disgraced noblemen.
There being no landing-place, the boats that carry thither
prisoners or provisions must be hauled up and let down by a
crane.”

North of Niphon, on the island of Yesso, terraces line the
northern shore of T'sugar strait and Volcano Bay, and what
has already been described in Corea, again there, but

ap her
.on a much grander scale. The greatest height to which I have

been able to trace the recent action of the sea, is 1,180 feet.
This was found on the flanks of the mountains north of Ha-
kodadi, but when foreigners are allowed full liberty to travel
where they please over the Japanese Islands, similar phenomena
will undoubtedly be found at a still greater height.

As I passed up the gulf of Tartary, I touched twice on the
western shore of the island of Saghalien, and continued to find
terraces to a considerable height. Again, the village of Niko-
laifsk, at the mouth ofthe Amoor River, is situated on a bluff
that appears to have been recently elevated from 30 to 50 feet
above the present level of the river. Mee

All these facts considered in connection with the dry beds of
friths and bays along the Siberian borders of the Arctic
and the remnants of the old gulf that once washed the eastern
flanks of the Ural, give us some idea of how the Asiatic conti-
nent has increased her area within the later geologic times.

Arr. XXIV.—On the Paleotrochis of Emmons from North
Carolina; by Prof. O. C. Marsu, of Yale College.

In 1856, Prof. E. Emmons announced the discovery, in the
lower “ Taconic” rocks of North Carolina, of some pecu
fossil corals, which he ed as the oldest representatives of
the animal kingdom on the globe, Believing them to indicate
& new genus, he proposed for it the name of Paleotrochis, and
gave a description and figures of two varieties which he con-

_* Vide Hildreth’s Japan as it was and is, p. 357.
% {

bad a
|
ee 218 O. C. Marsh on Palcotrochis.

sidered specifically distinct.* The forms described were found
in Montgomery county, where they occur in great abundance in
granular quartz and slaty quartzite, having a vertical range of
about 1,000 feet, Prof. Emmons attached great importance to
the fact that they occur in auriferous rock, and he hence inferred
that the gold must have been deposited as asediment.' Shortly
after the description of Paleotrochis was published, Prof. James
Hall, in a letter to Prof. Dana, suggested that these forms were
merely concretions, an opinion subsequently controverted. by
Prof. Emmons, who maintained their organic character.
These supposed corals are usually lenticular in form, often
resembling two short cones placed base to base. In size, they |
vary from one-fourth of an inch to two inches in diameter. Eo
_ The exterior is covered with irregular striz or grooves, which |
extend from apex to apex. Many of the smaller specimens have |
at one extremity a rounded knob, and at the other a cavity.
he following figures, from Prof. Emmons’ Report, represent
more common varieties, and are here repeated for conven-

|

|

‘ ience of reference, |
1 |

{

While making some investigations during the past summer
‘on the structure known as “cone in cone,” the writer’s atten-
tion was called to these peculiar forms, and their inorganic
nature was at once suspected. An examination of the interior
of several specimens clearly indicated that they were not corals,
and, as soon as microscopical sections could be prepared, they
were more carefully examined, but no trace of organic struc-
ture could be detected, the entire mass being evidently a finely
grained quartz. The specimens examined were undoubtedly
authentic examples of Paleotrochis, as some of them, preseD-
ted to the Yale cabinet by Prof. Dana, were sent to him by
f. Emmons, and the rest were given ‘to the writer by Prof
W. C. Kerr, the present State Geologist of North Carolina.
~ It follows, therefore, that this name should in future be drop-
ped from the genera of fossils. It is not, indeed, impossible,
or even improbable, that the gold-bearing rocks of North Car-
- olina may yet be found to be fossiliferous, but up to the present
time no satisfactory evidence of their being so appears to have
been brought to light, ‘
* Geological Report of the Midland Counties of N. C., p. 62. Also this Journal,
vol. xxii, p. 389.
t This Journal, xxiii, p. 278, and xxiv, p- 151.,

R. Pumpelly on the Delta-plain of the Yellow River. 219

If inorganic, these forms may, of course, be looked for in
other formations, wherever the same conditions have existed.
Prof. Newberry, ‘of Columbia College, recently informed the
writer that he once observed a somewhat similar structure in
altered Tertiary rocks in Oregon. Nothing of the kind, how-
ea Sa the Paleotrochis, appears to have been hitherto

escribed

New Haven, Ct., Jan. 25, 1868.
a

Art. XX V.—On the Delta-Plain, and the Historical Changes
in the course of the Yellow River; by RarHaEL PumpEnty.}

Tue extent of the great plain of Eastern China is pretty
well known from native and Jesuit authorities. It lies ina

ig
south, ss west of Jiining “ii (onan, and then t turning
east i i wang (chau) and a. of

* Am. & Asnocidiioa of Science, Burlington Meeting, August, 18
t eological Researches in aoe Mongolia and Japan, pantie the Mewid
pode: ‘1863, 7 ee pee: Smithsonian Contributions to
Knowledge, No.

220 &. Pumpelly on the Delta-plain of the Yellow River.

The Shantung boundary of the plain begins at Laichau (fu),
and after describing a great bow to the south it turns west at
Shukwang (hien), and running thence to Changtsiny (hien), in
Tsinan (fu), it turns to the south and around to the south-
east. Keeping this course it remains nearly parallel to the
seein canal till the Kiangsu frontier, which it follows to
the sea,

The city of Peking stands on a raised border of loam, sand,
clay, and gravel, which forms the northwestern skirt of the
delta-lowlands, and seems to extend southward fringing the
mountains along its western side. The name of the Talo lake
(Ta, great, and-lo, plateau or raised plain) seems to refer to such
a border, and in the article on Kichau in Yukung it is said
that “the Lo (plateau) was drained,’’*

The fact, also, that in historical times none of the arms of
the Hwang Ho have approached the western mountain border
of the plam, both north and south of Kaifung, within a less
distance than from ten to fifty miles, seems to point to the ex-
istence of a recent sea mar in, which would be perhaps due
rather to the detritus biongi t
_ the delta deposit of the Hwang H

Ho have been recorded from early times by Chinese historians,
and their documents and maps form the most complete history
we possess of the wanderings of any riv

y t. .
e Yukungchuchi (Peking, 1705), written by Chin Hu

Wei, contains a series of maps in which these changes are laid
own for a period of more than 3000 years, M. Biot has
given the substance of that part of this work that relates to

paper, of which I shall make use in explaining the maps.
* E. Biot, Sur le chapitre ukung, Journ. Asiatique, 1842.
t Sur les changements du cours inférieur du fleuve Jaune, Journ. Asiat. 1843.
The reader will have to refer to Mr. Pumpelly’s volume for these maps.

~

.

—

R. Pumpelly on the Detta~plain of the Yellow River. 921

In the Yukung, a chapter of the Shuking classic of Confu-
cius, it is said that the course of the Hwang Ho was regulated

an
dykes, and had begun to cultivate the extensive marshes of the

ap No. 1 of the series, on plate 4, represents the course of
the Hwang Ho as it existed, in the main, frem the time of Yu
down to 602 B. ©. f ‘

ap No. 2 represents the course resulting from the first
great change, that of the fifth year of the reign of Ting Wang
(Chow dynasty), 602 B.C. .

ap No. 3 serves to illustrate a passage in the writings of

to the southwest, happened, according to Sse Ma Tsien, toward
ra end of the Chow dynasty, during the third century before
rist. =

. At this
Taming (fu) and the sea, which are also given. Previous to
this, under Wentih, about 160 B. C., there was a breach formed
at Yentsin near Kaifung.

1034, when a break occurred at Hunglung, and another, four-
teen years later, A. D. 1048, at Changwu, and the river of the _
Han and the Tang was entirely destroyed. The map covers &

_ period of 977 years,

222 BR. Pumpelly on the Delta-plain of the Yellow River,

Map No. 7 (Pl. 5) represents the courses, under the Sung
dynasty, from A.D, 1048 to A.D. 1194, a period of 146

river, and to the §.E. through the Sz river. Lake Lo appears
from the observation of Clark Abel, and from Chinese meas-
urements, to be about 150 feet above the sea.

Map No. 9 shows the condition of the river under the Yuen _
and Ming dynasties, together with the Grand canal, a condi-
tion which seems to have remained substantially the same till
within the last ten or fifteen years.

In early times the Yangtse entered the sea by three arms
called the Sankiang, i. e., “Three Rivers ;” and Chin Hu Wei
has given a map of these, founded on the opinions of early au-
thorities. I have indicated them on map No. 1 of the series.

A glance at the nine maps of the delta courses will show

ow widely separated have been the limits of divergence of the ,
arms of the Hwang Ho, within the past 3000 years. A mighty.
river, ever turbulent, subject yearly to an enormous increase
in volume, an increase regulated rather by the amount of pre-
cipitation in the distant Kwenlun mountains, than by the local
climate, it has ever been the terror of the countless millions
through whose midst it flows,

From the earliest times an immense force has been at work
to keep it from breaking through its dykes, or, when this has
happened, to guide and retain it between new embankments.
The quantity of solid material carried by the river and depos-
ited along its course, is so great that its bed is rapidly raised, .
and appears to have been, before the last change, higher than
the adjacent country. .

7 Biot says, “‘it is certain that the bed of the river, from Hwai-

_ downfall of dynasties, this "seed. ek of the river has been
turned to account as a weapon of offense, Breaking the em-
bankments has been made to accomplish, almost instantane-
ously, by the destruction of hundreds of thousands of inhab-
itants, conquests that had been delayed by years of brave re-

From the earliest time of colonization on the delta-plain,
the task of keeping the Hwang Ho within its bed has been the
constant care of the rulers of China, both when the country
was united under one man, and when it has been subdivided

oT)

ft. Pumpelly on the Delta-plain of the Yellow River. 223

into petty states. In the latter case in the treaties bordering
on the Hwang Ho, the clauses regarding the regulation of that
river appear to have been the. most important and the most
sacredly observed.

tion of those who inhabit lands where the ae is ne
are easily reache

ithin the last fifteen years one of these great changes has
taken place, apparently from the same cause and with the same
effect as above indicated. Instead of emptying into the Hwang
Hai, or Yellow Sea, the Hwang Ho now has its mouth in the

wang Ho, :
In 1863 the river had not yet determined a channel, but its
waters were spread over large tracts of country, and the city
of Wuting (fu), nearly sixty miles north of T'sinan (fu), was
ost inaccessible,
The present course of the Hwang Ho is indicated, so far as
own, on Map No. 10. © ‘
ing to the great quantity of material brought down by
this river, and to the absence of great oceanic currents, that
might, if prestnt, interfere with its deposition, the delta is ra-
pidly increasing in size, and the adjoining seas are becoming
shallower, *
Probably nowhere can the rate of growth of deltas be bet-
ter studied than in China. Cities that were built on the delta
plain of the Hwang Ho several thousand years since are sti

* Barrow estimated the hourly discharge of sediment at 2,000,000 cubic feet.

s

224 — J. H. Bill on the test for Bromids.

in existence, together with the archives of their history. In
the cases of those that were built near the sea, the distances
from this are given ; and frequent mention is made of towns
mounds, and natural hills, washed by the sea, within historic
times, which are now far inland.

Thus, in B. C. 220, the town Putai is said to have been one li
west of the sea-shore, while in A. D. 1730 it was 140 li inland,*
a yearly increase of 100 feet, more or less, according to t
length of the li. Hienshuikau (on the Pei Ho, in long. 117°
32’ E.) is said to have been on the sea-shore in A. D. 500,f and
is at present about eighteen miles distant, an increase of about
81 feet per annum.

Along the southern shore of the gulf of Pechele the yearly
increase N. E. of Shukwang since B. C. 220, seems to have been

‘not more than 30 feet,

e sea-shore, according to local tradition, was near the
present location of Tientsin (fu) during the Han dynasty.
_Itis also recorded that under the reign of the Han, the
bi _ entered the sea at Changwu, near the present
‘sin Pets

Art. XXVI.—Test for Bromids; by Surgeon J, H. Bu,
_ U.S. Army.

best way of applying the test. | Separate iodids b adium,
and after getting rid of excess of ‘paliaalbtin: by * aiphuretted

Br Be, «2 SR De Ca etal at ha, eo

Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 225

hydrogen, concentrate the solution to about twenty-five cubic
eters,

centim

A test for chlorid in the presence of bromid, as simple and
delicate as the above, is much needed. The writér has sought
s

long for it but in vain.
1607 N. 6th St., Philadelphia, Pa.

—

Arr. XXVII.—Shooting Stars of November 14th, 1867.

Iv addition to the observations upon the November meteors
of 1867, given in the last No. of the Journal (pp. 78-92), the
following have been received

Am. Jour. ScL—Szconp Series, VoL. XLV, No. 134.—Manca, 1868.
15

226 Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

These four observers kept a record of the number of mete-
ors appearing in their respective quarters of the heavens, while
my own attention was mainly directed to plotting upon one of
Mr. Hoek’s star-charts the paths of such as were determined
with sufficient accuracy, and noting with a chronometer the
instants of their disappearance. .

ations commenced at midnight, at which time the sky

was covered with swiftly drifting clouds ; the wind gradually

ied away, and at 3 45™ the clouds disappeared, leaving a
perfectly clear sky.

Before 3 o’clock the number of the meteors was disappoint-
ingly small, partly on account of the clouds, About 3 o’clock
they

t No. observed.
Time of Observation. N. as 8. W. Total. No. pr.th’r. Cloudiness. y
12 to 3a.M. 34 46 att. “118 39 0-7 130) #
Sy = ~ 12 28 936 936 05 472 °
: 02 81 73 °369 1476 0 1476 + 3
415 to 4°30. 113 «168138697. Ss B74 «2.296 0 2296 2
4°30 to 4:40, 251 206 =185 #117 159 4554 0 4554) 4

Totals; © 637 592 505 322 2056

At 5 o'clock 50 were counted in 2m. 20 secs., 1286) ,;
BS O15. 60. is 3 m. 40 sees, 818
53 8 3m. 50 sees., 291 [6
pees © lo ee 5 m. 50 secs., 103) -

The last. column of the table contains the number per hour,
after allowing for cloudiness. The last four numbers jn the
column would require to be rather more than doubled to bring
them up to the standard of four obs rvers.

I do not think the number seen at this place can reasonably
be estimated lower than 5000, and that too in, spite of moon-
light so strong that, aided as it was by the reflection from the
snow, one could easily read or write by it.

_ The radiant, as determined by a rough graphical reduction
of the paths of 82 which were mapped, appeared to be about
1° 30: in diameter, with its center in Dec.+22° 15’ and A.R. 10°
02. A motion of this point from south to north was suspect-
ed, ¢mounting to about 1° or 1° 30’ in the 4 hours from 1 to
5. Theo tions, however, will need a more thorough re-
duction in order to settle this question.

Shooting “ane of Nov. 14th, 1867. 227

Most of the meteors were coil , perhaps one in ten being equal
to a first magnitude star. At the time of maxim um the large
ones were in still smaller proportion. The finest one seen here
_ appeared at 1557™ just N.E. of the radiant. It was considera-
bly brighter than Venus, and left behind it a train of brilliant

- ually changed its form, doubled up, and floated away like a
little cloud toward the N.W. , evidently carried by some atmos-
pheric current in the upper air, Before 8 a. m. the Sy: cur-

‘rent had changed to the same direction, During the last two
minutes of its meet : was impossible to dietionmuick whether
the train was seen b wn phosphorescence, or merely like
any other cloud, by rofieite moonlight. The train of one
other meteor endured 90 seconds, and five others from 30 sec-
onds to a min

An unconformable meteor which Tessar at 5" 15" formed a
beautiful contrast to the others ; it moved from Orion toward
Canis Minor, very like Mars at its nearest oppositions in bril-
liancy and color, and left a train of the same hue. Its appar-

About a dozen of these were noted me the ne
- 2. At Iowa —* (lat. 41° 40’, lon. 14° 40), by Pres.
N. R. Leovarp.—A company of the students of ‘the State
eps § had been formed some three weeks previous to the
4th of November, for the purpose of watching for the meteor
shower and making observations upon it if it ae its appear-
nee.

The lookout was commenced on the morning of Saturday,
Nov. 9, and continued each clear night till the evening of Nov.
13th, four persons keeping watch ata time, or one for each
cardinal point of the compass. With the’ exception of the
mornings of Nov. 9th, and Nov. 12th, no roc meteors were
visible than ma iy be see een.on any ordina ry ni

On ee evening of the 13th, the cuiset “tor a clear sky

poor. A sort of haze see med to prevail and unt

228 _ Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

little past its full, arose before the hour for commencing opera-
tions, and under its light all stars below the third degree paled
away and became invisible. I noticed the Pleiades then just
beyond a lunar-halo, but so feeble was their light, that only
by looking steadily in the direction in which they were known
to be, could they be perceived. I do not believe that a meteor
of the average brightness of the Pleiades would have been
perceived.

of twelve each, to watch respectively, from 10 o’clock to 12
c
— any considerable overlapping of their fields of view.
i:

The paper for the recorder was ruled thus:

arter of
compass.
rection 0
motion

°
a.
oS & Remarks.
2 B

L
0)

ei

= . “is <
lowing is the record of. the numbers counted, and of

& 5
The fol

ceeding from the constellation Leo -

$066 thee ae ee ee
RT oa oo a ee ” 12
OS Sere aa 35 > 6 51
8 er a ea 102 17 119
2to 4- - - - Nearly all conformable, 5,000

Duri
ieee. but through mistake on the part of the person stationed
he w

the direction, é&c., of the brightest, without keeping in his own
mind the total mumber of those seen. The divition of

between 2 and 4 o’tlock was not noticed, so that the last two

In regard to their conformability, as soon as Leo had attained

of careful observation, it was

Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 229

found that nearly all the meteors seemed either to issue forth

from a point marked on our globe by the star 97, near the center .
traced

of the sickle in Leo, or that, if their courses should be

back, at would intersect at that point. For a few minutes,

about 3% 15m a, ‘M., we carefully noticed those appearing in this
quarter of the heavens, and they seemed to indicate a radiant
point at the star mentioned ; at about 34 o’clock it seemed
that the radiant was a line, or, at most, a very narrow ellipse,

having its center at this star, and extending i in the direction of
the star zeta in the sickle.

The exact number of conformable meteors for the last two
hours cannot be given. Out of 1,638 counted by t obser-
vers having their attention directed to this sabjout, only 22
were noted as unconformable.

At 20 minutes before L o’clock, it was found that one per-
son could not record fast enough, and rd fen ibe man
undertook the record for one half of the circuit

At quarter past two, both recorders watt unable to keep a
full record and from this time forward each observer counted
to himself the number appearing in his quarter, and only called
out the most remarkable for record. Some time before 3 o’clock
a second observer took his place at the S.E., and soon after a
second upon the east. The result of their ‘counting will be
seen in the Quarter Table.

Hour. N. NE E SW. W. N.W. Total.
10-11 0 2 3 0 0
11-12 1 1 1 3 5 1 0.733
12-1 S. u4 5 5 4 10 3 6 56
1-2 25 385 20 16 4 6 115
2-3 5 No count.

—_—_ ————<—<—$ «$n
Oe

oo

Total, 727 687 750 1276 514 357 166 560 4937 -

The maximum of the display as to numbers was from 3" 15"
to about 3 40™ a.m. During this period, other parties of nine
_ each were formed and eounged. the stars arty from the con-

4h 08m

Those stationed on the southeast quarter, counted b uae:
dreds from 3 to 4 o’clock, with the following result: Time of
first 100 was 7 minutes; of the second, 5 minutes ; the third,

230 Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

ie

6 minutes ; fourth, 3 minutes ; fifth, 3 minutes ; sixth, 3 min-
utes; seventh, 2 minutes ; eighth, 2 minutes ; ninth, 24 min-
utes ; tenth, 4 minutes ; eleventh, 10 minutes—closing the
count at 3555" a.m. It will be found by adding these times
that they lost 74 minutes, Most of this loss occurred after the
eighth hundred, at 3° 31™, when they were unable to count re-
liably because of the great number that appeared, so that their
maximum would be about 3 hours and 35 minutes by their
b> which was 74 minutes too fast

st.
f the 1,100, they considered that only 5 were unconform-

able.
Color of the trains.—Record was kept of 155 of the most —

luminous trains, with this result :

Green, 49 Very green, 9 Total, 58
Red, 35 Very red, 14 eo ee
White, 24 “94
Train and meteor of different color, ; 24
155

As to the green there was some disagreement—some calling
that blue, which others pronounced to be ;

Inn to the color, it is my impression that the propor-
tion given by the above figures is not true, save for the bright-
est meteors—for of the hundreds that left trains behind them
the greater number seemed to be of a green color —very
many yellow at the middle and gradually changing'to green at
the margin—a color a little darker than the flame of the metal

um, and not far from the hue of copperas, On comparing
statement with the views of several observers, I find all
agreeing thereto.
ere were several particular observations taken. The first
to'be mentioned is, that in some instances a separation took
place baprreen the meteor and its train, before the former di
peare

appeared,
t 9 minutes to 3, a meteor started from the radiant and
proceeded directly over the star Dubhe, (the northernmost of the

p44 pointers); followed by a broad train about 5 d s long. ©

-He separation of the meteor and train took place just as the

crossed the star named. The train remained visible for

the space of 4 minutes, drifting meanwhile to the §.E., short-

ening up as it went, without, however, growing much, if any,

narrower, and disapp fter retreating about 7 degrees.

Th’ hat I had of it gave me the idea of a spl-
ral form, but I could not be very positive about it.

.

At 4 minutes to 3, another meteor left the radiant and pro-

ceeded to the star Zeta Draconis, leaving there a train, behav-

\

Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 231

ing just as the last described, retreating 2 degrees in 3 minutes.
At 3 minutes after 3, another passed over Mizar, (the middle
star in the handle of the Dipper), leaving there a train that
retreated 14 degrees in 2 minutes.

At 8 minutes after 3, a very large meteor passed over to the
head of Orion, leaving there a train 11 degrees long, and al-
most immediately afterward was seen to separate into several
parts and disappear, The train floated a little to the east of south,
a distance of 11 degrees, the middle moving more rapidly than
the extremities, so that it took up the form of a crescent, with
the horns pointing N.W. It should, be noted that this train

ration, one observer thought he saw three small black streaks
descending for a short distance, and curved backward toward
- the bottom.

At 1 minute after 4, another meteor passed over to Sirius,
leaving midway from Leo a train that exhibited the same
movements as the last, giving the crescent shape before
appearance.

A change of course in the path of a meteor was carefully
‘noted in one instance. A little after 34 o’clock, a deep red me-
teor was seen passing very rapidly through Leo Minor, toward
the N.W., describing an are of 15 degrees, in } of a second.
About midway of its course it turned abruptly toward the
west, at an angle of 15 or 20 degrees, with its previous di-
rection. . : : :

Several bright meteors were seen to flash out, remain station-
ary, or nearly so, for an instant and then disappear. As a

* rule, it may be stated that the nearer these were to the radiant
point, the less was their motion.

From a careful examination of the records made, there ap-
amahes to be difference in the length of the arc of flight, which

as some connection with the quarter in which the meteor was
seen. The following exhibits the average length for the last

0 hours :

Length of are by quarters. |
‘ 8. . W. NW.

go © 4° 2989 20° 17° 15° Found from 107 obs’d arcs.

c. i i a 3° tt oo re 20° “ac “495 “ ““
rats 4 I 16
_ The ares described in the N.E., E. and 8.E., are thus seen
to be shorter than the average, but their ¢ime of visibility was

a trifle greater than for other quarters. ss

SO. 0) a0 38). “ 3509 * &

232 Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

In noticing the rate of motion, a difference will be found
with respect both to the hours, and the seat of the compass.
Thus, by hours:
prs S per sec. 12—1,__.19° per sec. 2—3,--21° per sec.

eae

1i—12,- 1 ego: 28" +
By quarters of compass.
N. N.E. E. 8.E. 8. S.W. W. N.W.

20° 18° Ra We 25° 20° aes 20°

velocity ai ares are greater, thus:
N.S NS Be BR. 8° SW OW. + RRW.
EE PP: 800; «28*:... SUR .aeceepe
I will conclude this article with a table showing the direc-
tion of the flights of the meteors, arranged according to the
quarters age they issued.
f flights commencing at 12 o’clock, 1 denoting
ist hour, 2 the 2nd hour, &c.

DIRECTION TABLE.

Origin of Origin
Meteor. Direction of motion. cee Direction of motion.
N. N.E. E. 8.E..8. S.W. W. N.W. N. N.E. Ez ‘SEL Ss. S.W. W. N.W.
Mik -psde ett tae voted i ae 183 3. ee
N. 2i1 | ta aa eae te 4 9 is} ie ke eae eee iiss
a9 ks hoe ce kc
SiC Sa aS TH Go i eS ae
SS edo ae ae fe a eS ee
NE. ho ee ee 2 6 y joa ee wel oe 2 3 +
313 3 ce ca 9 x Lee a a okt Relea
eee eg A ee oe te a ee
l\.. eo aoa Uk Bae f Tec aet aak 1 --
“ae le Ge Ee ES Tee e ian A Saag ba
sto ba 1 M8 Spy Bel ong Bae ee
ae 8 BS Se ey Mies er ee See
Hee see ss 8 ioe tes aka ee ee
SE. = oe ee eS ee.
Ga. i y's is OA oe ae
SD TL are ge Wee eee et Date i.
Totals for these columns: a. BS. Be. " WwW. N.W.

as 3514 a1 18 96 114 6D
were described as to direction during the last ete
ri a ve stations. However, enough is presented to
din tows quarts farthea eneed to direction is to be
fod in those quarters farthest raed Mae the radiant.

Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 233

2d. If the breadth of this table be increased two fold—and
‘the sheet wrapped on a cylinder, the line of maxim irection
will run around it from top to bottom, like the coil of a
helix.

locates the radiant a portion of a degree north of that point of
rg line joining 7 and e Leonis which is one-third of the way
m 7 t

h nd,
could be obtained; and another seemed to be a mere ac-
cidental coincidence in time of two meteors, as they were seen
n entirely different directions, The mode of obtaining the
ights and distances is as follows :
“Mark on the celestial globe the path ae the meteor as seen

nD
represent the great circle in which the fundamental plane cuts
* Observations and discussions. of the November meteors of 1867. U. 8. Naval
Observatory, Washington. veer Meat Printing office, . 8yo, 40 pp. and 3
Maps, ¥ : i

234 Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

soe y of the other station as seen from it, From this point
et fall a perpendicular Q upon the fundamental great circle.

be
which we shall call Z, and the distance SS, will be equal to
the distance of the stations multiplied by the cosine of the

n ;
the side $8, and the adjacent angles A—Z and 180°+Z—A
The sides SP, and 8, P are then found by the solution of this
triangle. The observing stations being projected on § and S,
by lines parallel to the course of the meteor, it follows that the

first station, and A, and A", the corresponding distances as

seen from the other station, Then the meteor and the points

P and § will torm a triangle right-angled at P, the angle at

the meteor being A at first appearance and A! at extinction.
Qais

at commencement. k
D',=PS ,cosec}A!,= distance of meteor from second station
at :
“Finally, the heights of the meteor above the earth will be
ssn I ultiplying these distances by the sines of the ob-

Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 235

each of the unknown quantities, The agreement of these
— will furnish a rough check on the accuracy of the ob-
ions.

f The actual length of the path described by the meteor, as
given by the respective observers will be—

ot.d—cot.4')
and PS, (cot.4, —cot.a',)

“Tf the observations agree, 9 we have also—

=PS§ cos. 4, +88, sreing
ri pres. aaa A! +88, an.Q.

“From the fact: that the errors of pe sa in the direction
of the meteor track are, probably, many times greater than _
those in the perpendicular direction, it on that this method
of determining the heights and distances will be much more
accurate than that in which no sonitak’ is a of the direc-
tion of motion.

“The present observations were discussed in ‘the above way
with a single modification. The precision with which the me-
teors appeared to radiate from the point in right ascension
151° and declination 224° was such, that any deviation of the
recorded tracts from a great circle passing through this point
was presumed to be due to errors of observation. The most

muths A are the azimuths of those points as seen from the
oon radiant,”
n this way he opisines the following heights (in miles of
5280 feet) for 9 me
No. Heigh aa Weight. Height at ending. Weight.

2

10s. bb. * 9
5 “4 & 6 a7 9
6 s2 5 $e * 9
7 90 “ 6 a * 10
8 104 “ A ae 8
9 15 “ 5 58 9
10 "9 « vi 40s il
11 19s * 2 a * 5
Mean, 102 103. .* is

Prof. Newcomb adds, “It appears cae pe obec
wes the mean height of the meteors, at first
miles, and at a stag eres
ohlion at an angle

cnn a SS to great, since the meteors
cry wen thr second, Their velocity being.44 miles per sec-

i

236 Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

aa: evidence that any one meteor commenced at a greater
eight than 100 miles,

“TI would also beg leave to submit some deduction respect-
ing the probable number, magnitude, and nature of the me-
teoroids,

“During the thickest of the shower, meteors were counted at

second, it would seem that in the thickest of the stream
trav ¥ the earth on November 13th, there was an average
one meteoroid in 000 cubic miles In other

appear t ; iles. The breadth is probably ten times
as great, so that its estimated at
36,000 f square miles. The meteoroids are, therefore

from 100 to 200 miler Tooght brilliant
tome wy I le yself compared the more
se a Roman candle, seen at the distance of 200 or 300 yards.
© throw so great a light to the distance of 150 miles would
several thousand millions of common candles.

J

Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867. 237

of heat, and from the experiments of Prof. William Thompson
and others on the increase of pee experienced by a

of Fahrenheit by = BP

feet per second. Hence, a meteoroid moving through the air
with a velocity of 230,000 feet feet per second will be exposed to
a pe ok alia of more than rent Fahrenheit, a temper-

where v is the velocity of the body in in

“Tt is now known that the entire stream of November m
teoroids follows Comet I of 1866, commonly called Tempel’s
comet,f in its orbit. Through the ‘telescope this comet presents
the appearance of a mass of vapor. Bodies possessing this
appearance on the earth, such as steam, smoke, and clouds,
are known to be composed of minute detached pattiales of
dense matter, And no other known form of matter can pre-
sent it, except an elastic gas. The comet in question cannot
consist of an elastic gas, because there is no central nucleus of
sufficient magnitude to prevent its instant expansion through
space. From these considerations, I deem it probable that
Comet I, 1866, is simply an agglomeration of Sn he just
res enough to be visible in the solar rays, And since other

copic comets present the same appearance, it is fuged id
that encapes at comets in general are formed of such agglome-

Prof Harkness from 21 paths observed at nin ae ob-
tained for the place of the radiant R, A. 149°, Dec. +

The determination of the mass of the meteors is ‘ail a dis-
sideratum. Prof. Harkness gives an elaborate discussion of

assump-
tion is neces though known to be not strictly correct. It
it tiduitied only becuse solemcb hike hitiart) filed to. fardiah
any better ee 4 of estimating | the mass of meteors.

eral] tants derived from the burning o

in yy gem Hage m the Drummond light, and from the
electric ligh

a

U.8N, at this observatory, on the Buh of Ja cent 1866.

238 Shooting Stars of Nov. 14th, 1867.

: Mass of Meteor, in grains.
Light of Meteor. A. B. B,

10 Jupiter a= 2533° 108°6 8114
Jupiter 253°3 10°86 0°811
Sirius 162°0 6°99 522
iat shag, star <2 ules sack 21°6 0°929 069
Cd Inkg. B0AF 2a = 7°43 318 024
SG thie wars Oo sos 2s 3°71 159 012
4th mag. star __..._-- ames 2°21 095 007
5th mag. star... 22240222 1°46 0°063 0°005

“Tt is almost certain that the masses given in column C are
too small, because, in order to obtain thém, it would be neces-
sary that the whole mechanical force of the meteor should be
converted into light, without any obscure heat whatever. Un-
der the circumstances such a result seems impossible. On the
other hand, the masses given in column A are probably -too
large, because meteors burn at an immensely higher tempera-
ture than coal gas. The temperature at which the Drummond
light is produced is among the highest attainable on the sur-
face of the earth by any known process, and it probably ap-
proaches more nearly to that of the meteors than any other ar-
tificial means of illuminati
may fairly adopt the numbers given in column B as tolerable
approximations to the actual masses of these meteors.

“Tt will not escape notice that all the larger meteors leave

ce eee

trains behind them, and as the light of these trains is not taken
account of in the formula given above, the masses, just found,
should in strictness, be slightly increased ; but the uncertainty
in estimating the brightness is so great that the small error thus
introduced is scarcely worthy of mention. Finally, notwith- |
standing all the uncertainty to: which the method here em- |
ployed is liable, yet it would seem that we may reasonably con- ‘i
clude that the mass of ordinary shooting stars does not difer |
greatly from one grain.” *
Prof, Eastman locates the radiant (by means of recorded
paths), at R. A. 1484°, Dec. +223°.
Up to 16" 37™, one thousand meteors were counted, four .
observers being engaged a part of the time, and two the other |
part. From this time successive hundreds were counted by |
four se ag in the following intervals; viz., 4™, 5" 30s, 5" 35%,
45s, 9m 2s, 9m 375, 10™ 31s, and 18m 20s

ie

red. In several instances the middle of the train was greeD,
* The cloud left behind by the larger meteors fill eee re
The mass of the meteor must be sufficient to ere

- 1h, a mined. gp. A. N-
*

.

Se ee ee MG ee

A. M. Edwards on the occurrence of living jorms, &c. 239

and the edges were tinged a deep orange or red. Many of

the trains remained visible several seconds, and sometimes even

minutes after the disappearance of the meteor. The train of
0. 52 was very brilliant, and visible about five minutes. It

oc to float toward the north as if driven by a steady
reeze,”

Art. XXVIII.—On the occurrence of living forms in the hot
waters of California ; by ArtTHUR Mzap Epwarps. (Ina
letter to the Editors, dated 49 Jane st., N. Y., Jan. 23, 1868,

1 speci
during the prosecution of the State Geological Survey,
and so wrote. I received but one specimen from hot or saline

I made, as I ha requested, a very careful examination,
with these results. I found it to consist mostly of fine sand,
mixed with a little of what seemed to e refuse of d g

and h. laced under Orthosira aan W.S., and by
Smith in his § The number o | f this species
is § webaale its determination. - Besides this, I

> .

-

ad

240 A, M. Edwards on the occurrence of living forms

have no proof were living in the water of the Geyser, and might,
a

may be desirable to refer at some future time. In the number
for January, 1867, vol. iii, of Max Schultze’s “Archiv fiir Mik-
roskopische Anatomie” is a paper by Ferdinand Colm of Bres-
lau, entitled “Researches on the Physiology of the Phycochro-
m Florides.” in, besides mentioning many facts
| « egetable physiology, he states that
certain Oscillarie, namely, the Beggiatoa (one of which, B.

emperature,
geologists, were Oscillari or rather Chroococcacee.” Now sa
the hot springs of California there have been found Oscillarwe

nee belonging to this order, besides Diatomacee.

tney says, (Geology of California, vol. i 94), “Both
mand a ACen f Calin vol. page 80), Bel

in the hot waters of California. 241

Diatoms in the thermal waters of Central and Southern Europe

Irants us in expecting large additions to the Icelandic Dia-
tomaceze from this source alone.” Now it would be of extreme
interest to ascertain in what way and to what degree the saline
and hot waters affect species of Diatomacee, as collections
might be made in fresh water if it occurs near the hot springs.

Besides, these forms from the saline as well as from the fresh
waters of the Pacific coast should be very carefully com
with those found in the immense deposits so common in that
part of the world; one of which deposits Frémont found on the
Columbia river, and others have been detected by the State
Geological Survey of California in that State and elsewhere.
The origin of these deposits, and all facts connected with them,
are of especial importance at,the present time. It must, at the
Same time, be remembered that the fact as to what constitutes
@ species in the Diatomacee is by no means settled, as less
really is known of the life history of these minute organisms
than of almost any other plants. Moreover, in the study of the
Diatomacez and allied families, the observer has presented to

m extremely advantageous opportunities of himself
acquainted with many points inthe phenomena of cell-life in
simple as well as more complex plants and animals. I therefore
ask the codperation of every one at all interested in the prose-
cution of science and the acquisition of knowledge, to the
furtherance of this branch of study ; and to such as are able
and willing to collect I will furnish plain printed directions, and
to all who desiré to pursue this branch of investigation I will
gladly furnish all the assistance in the shape of information and
Specimens in my power. ; a

Am. Jour. Sct.—Srconp Serres, Vot. XLV, No. 134.—Mancu, 1868.

16 . aioe:

242 «TA. Blake on the Northwest Coast of America.

Art. XXIX.—Topographical and Geological features of the
Northwest Coast of America; by T. A. Brake, A.B.

A FEW moments spent in the study of the map of the world
reveal the fact that the coasts of the continents, in high lati-
tudes both north and south, which are bordered by high moun-
tain ranges, are peculiarly cut up and present a most intricate,

and, if I may use the expression, ragged shore line.

As an instance in the northern hemisphere, we have the coast
of Norway, bordered by the Scandinavian range, and in the

southern, the eastern coast of Patagonia from the parallel of
40° south, ‘bordered by the Andes.

The northwestern coast of America is no exception to the
general rule, but shows, perhaps on a grander scale than in
either of the examples cited, the result of the slow but mighty
erosive action of glaciers, the formation of which is the natu-
ral result of atmospheric humidity, and a low mean annual
temperature, due not only to geographical position but to high

/

_ The published and glaringly inaccurate charts of the north-
_west coast of America, north of the Island of Vancouver, fail
to give an adequate idea of the vast archipelago of islands and
net-work of channels with which the whole coast of British
Columbia, and that of the lower and eastern part, below 59°
N. lat., of our new territory Alaska, are fringed.

The straits of Fuca, lat. 48° 20’ (approx.), are the southern
inthian channels which

The western and northern shores of Vancouver are generally

from the straits of Fuca, and although possessing many ad-
vantages of climate and location, is ‘am elo under the
cts of the reaction due to its rapid and unhealthy growth
during the great Frazer river gold excitement of 1858. :
The shores in the neighborhood are rocky; the characteristi¢

Sees Pe ee See Te eee

T. A. Blake on the Northwest Coast of America. 248
rock consists of feldspar and laminated hornblende or pyroxene

and is probably eruptive.

The most marked geological feature is the absence of rough
surfaces and angular summits. The rocks are everywhere
rounded, scooped and grooved. As might be expected, erratic
boulders, the material of which is foreign to their present po-
sition, are of frequent occurrence, thus giving us another link
in the chain of evidence which proves the special agency of
glaciers in the peculiar configuration of the coast.

In the outskirts of the city, between it and the hill called
Beacon hill, at the head of the small inlet which forms the
harbor of Victoria, an ancient sea beach has been exposed by
digging a ditch or drain through the alluvial land, the bottom
of which I should judge to be at least twenty feet above tide
water. The shells which occur there are, according to Mr.
Harford, the conchologist of the Alaska expedition, all of exist-
ing species. The occurrence of this beach proves a compar-
atively recent upheaval, subsequent to the extensive denudation
and erosion caused by glacial action upon the underlying rocks.

From the slight elevations in the rear of the city, a grand
view of Mt. Baker, seventy miles distant, is to be had. This

The climate of Victoria is mild and equable. A set of me-
teorological observations taken there during the years 1859,
60 and ’61 shows the mean annual tem ; t
50°Fahr. The coldest weather in 1860, being in January and

ebruary, when the thermometer indicated a range of from
47° to 22°, or 10° below freezing, and the warmest in June, the

throughout the year, and greatest in the winter mon
—< e

244 TT. A. Blake on the Northwest Coast of: America.

sources I learn that the beds are much faulted, involving gr
expense in their exploration, and that they stand at a high pe
gle. The shipments from these mines have been constantly
mereasing, and have probably reached a total amount of over
two hundred thousand tons, The coal is probably of the same
geological age as that of the Mt. Diablo mines, and is very
similar to it in chemical composition, as shown by the compar-
ative statement of analyses given by our state goulogiosd in his
cr oe A (ist vol. geology). The difference, pedo is in favor
Diablo coal, that containing a maller percentage
of ash, tboneb more water; ; why the batter is not as well suited
r ocean steamers, in the absence of vip - the Nanaime
which is so extensively used, I do not unders
The shores of Vancouver, ‘and the smaller aaa with which
the inland waters to the east are studded, are lined with recent
deposits, soft and friable, mad horizontally stratified and
rarely over fifty feet above the wate
The most important river of British Columbia is the Fra-
zer, which flows into the gulf of Georgia just north of the forty-
ninth parallel, or the northern boundary of Washington terri-

The outlying islands afford an admirable barrier against the
encroachments: of the sea upon its comparatively broad, alluvial

Above this river is a series of long and narrow inlets, often
stretching inland for from forty to cog A miles, from one to two
miles only in width, and walled with high and abrupt moun-
tains, ane wooded with HP: trees to an elevation,

half ais uid Bees-of- this a where no paemeiogs were saad
at three hundred fathom

mown" ies indeed like sailing through a succession of

Yo Semite

- ‘Sitka Island, in our new territory, is a mass of unexplored rug-

i mountains, many of which are capped with perpetual snow.
e town is situated at the wie of Sitka bay, the entrance to

which is marked by t the symmetrical volcanic cone of Edge-

combe, which is the second of a series of volcanic peaks border-

+
T. A. Blake on the Northwest Coast of America. 245

ing the coast and culminating in Mts. Fairweather and St. Elias,
the heights of which are variously stated. The latter is in clear
weather plainly visible ata distance of one hundred and fifty
miles

The rock in the vicinity of Sitka is a grit, sometimes coarse,
often passing into argillite. The trend of this formation seems
to be parallel to that of the coast. It xitnds as far south as
the Deep sea, a remarkable fresh-water lake twelve miles south-
west tr Sitka, on the opposite side of which syenitic granite
occu

iainistoies highly gg Fe is found within a few miles of
the town on the north; The vegetation and general appear-
ance of the bolas is very similar to that already described,
though the beautiful Sitka spruce which is remarkable for its
grace and the mathematical regularity with which its branches
grow from the central stem, replaces the Douglass spruce of
lower latitudes. Trees faa to large size, many from six to
ten feet in diameter being see

Of course but little is een of the geology of the country.
It is only along the shores that the rocks can be investigated ;.
the roughness of its surface, and thick growth of timber and
masses of fallen and decaying trees, covered with deep moss,
always saturated with water, almost ‘preclude geological obser-
vation. I have yet to learn ‘of a man, white or Indian, crossing
from one side of Sitka island to the other, a distance of not
over twenty miles in some places

The meteorological statistics kept for the Russian government
show as a mean of twelve years’ observations, the mean annual

temperature at Sitka to be 42° 9’ (Fahr.), the extremes ps |
very small. The same observations give a mean annual rainfi
of eighty-three and a inches, the maximum

ne hundred and five in

badens Chatham aig nik of Sitka island, the rocks are
metamorphic, stratified mica schists, standing alm vertically,
and showi ng a elism in their trend to the line of the

ink ie straits, north of Sitka island, the ice from them falls
into the sea, and so pent is the accumulation as to render nav-
igetinas dangerous. In lat. 59° along Chatham straits, every
fathd sdaypeosios hae g foci hei tee
These glaciers are to be seen at semana the mquth —

a
246 TT. A. Blake on the Northwest Coast of America.

of the Stachin river, and the lowest known limit on the coast
is about 54°, at the head of the narrow inlet on the coast of
British Columbia, east of Fort Simpson.
At the head of the peninsula of Alaska is the commence-
ment of another great line of volcanic action which extends to
the southwest, forming the peninsula and then, curving to the
west, the long chain of Aleutian Islands—“ stepping stones,”

as they have been aptly called, between the two continents— '
stretching i

far toward the Kamschatkan peninsula.

The rocks on the island of Kodiak, east of the Alaska pe-
ninsula, metamorphic sandstones and shales, also show a gen-
eral parallelism in their trend to that of this line of upheaval
—trending N.E. and 8.W. instead of N.W. and 8.E. as on the
coast of the main land.

During the time spent by the recent expedition at Captain’s
bay, island of Unalaska, Dr. Kellogg, two of the officers of U.
8. R. Cutter Lincoln, and myself made the ascent of Makushi-
uski Mt., a volcano on the northern end of the island.

A detailéd account of the ascent may form the subject of a
‘future article. From our observations the height of the vol-
cano was ined to be, approximately, five thousand six
hundred feet, that of the snow line, three thousand one hun-
dred and sixty-eight feet.

No vegetation is to be seen above an elevation of two thou-
sand five hundred feet, except that low form of vegetable life
called ‘red snow” which occurred at an altitude of from four
agen to four — five hundred feet. An incipient
glacier curves grace around through a gorge on the eastern
flank of the cnruielon se

The island is marked by the entire absence of trees, though
the hills are covered with a thick growth of grass. Its northeast-
ern_end is madé up almost wholly of volcanic rocks.

Perhaps the most remarkable view of volcanic cones and

| L utline, showing
it to be a in its early stages of development. In 1863
its eruption was the cause of the loss of many lives, whence its

are vast in oe
that the rocks are bare, and that apparently in very limited
areas. The angle of side slopes of Shishaldin is about 35°.

—

——— ae

|
|
;
+
|
a

.
Chemistry and Physics, 247

Exaggerated ideas have been formed of the known mineral
wealth of Alaska.

y, be-
ing nothing more than lignite pratt: that found Be the
Arctic coast), and is of the most recent geological age. The
coal on Ounga island is exposed in a bluff rising two hundred

’ feet high fan the sea. Our own discoveries may lead to some-
thing better.
Magnetic iron ore is reported, but is not known certainly to
exist in any large deposits. Lead ore, galena, is also reported
ve been found at various places.
Native copper is found on the Copper river, but the hostile

esata’ of the Indians in 1 that locality has oa its ex~ _

plorat

lary
and bay of rsen at Serfierra ere pin of Al

Maetidée bones and teeth are found at Escholtz bay, Kotze-

bue sound, and on the Pribulow islands.
the interior topography of the country little is known;

recent explorations made by Mr. Dall, who has explored the
Youkon river extensively, will undoubtedly give us more au~-
thentic and reliable information in regard to that than any
heretofore avail able.

San Franeiseo, January, 1868.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

1. On the specific magnetism of iron; by Prrvy Earte Cuase.*

—In my communication on the numerical relations of gravity and.
magnetism (Trans. A. P.S., vol. xiii, p. 126), after adducing various

evidences ¢ of a —— that had been long suspec endeay-
ored to obtain ximate valuations for the constant factor, K,

which was intro oad} in the comparison of the tidal forces with the:

foree of equilibrium. These approximations led me to “suggest.
* veil ios Proocedlagije tha American Philosophical Society, Nov. 15, 1867.

~

248 Scientific Intelligence.

priety of considering the element of density (or of its correla-
tive, the square of the time of molecular aieanign), in connection
with both A and M.”

In the qtr after this suggestion was made, Dr. Menzzer an-
nounced, as a se sai result SP at aati Annalen, Nov.

7 time of sonorous earroe! ion nye 2
2. From o seetenizonn on terrestrial magnetis
Tidal differences byadaey iterenade): .
M lagnetic variation & (time).?
3. From Menzzer’s experimen
' Weight « (magnetizing power).?

This indirect confirmation, of a conjecture which was at first
based on a plausible analogy, encourages me to ho ope that the fol-
lowing comparisons between molecular and cosmiea kinetic values
mA help to raters the specific magnetism of ir

\ceording to Tredgold, iron may be sioiepatiad about yz/5o with-
out permanent alteration of structure. Now the ratio, at the
earth’s surface, of solar terrestrial attraction, is about +z'zo, and
four sige the ratio of the specific gravity of air to that of iron
8, approximately, between r2'00 and y755. Although this
somewhat m — to ot f the least value, or
about goby of the total force, ae is ete little greater than Helmholtz
or

‘Condensation across the position of eq minimum, oF
vice versa, the effect produced by any constant force would be four
t as during the half oscill either extreme

to the point of equilibrium. The ratios of wave-velocity to elas-
ity and density, and of revolution to distance from the center
‘tietis oo - various experiments upon the relations of mag-
spe ty to tenacity, in iron, and of magnetizing power to
haar or to specific heat,* in coils ot different metals.

* The specific heats of sail
i ee 7 times that of ‘h: habe cobalt, and Sein diene atte A oy oe ans e. er
sf rou nd th aio beeween sland ferential perso gre eon:

would aoe ie peneraliy rbd rps “corms rte oso aden relations w.

Chemistry and Physics, 249

If such experiments should show any intimate connection be-

tween elasticity and specific magnetism (a result which it does

not seem unreasonable to anticipate), some of the mystery in

Yopellok an interesting physical fact i is now shrouded will be happily
8

2. 4 a new synthesis of eee acid and its homologues.—
Brrrneor has succeeded in converting eee C,H,, into
quntic: acid by the direct addition of oxygen

4H,+0,=—C,H,0,,.
As the same chemist had already sleen that acetylene may be
directly formed — its elements, the synthesis of Sage acid re-
quires but two successive operations. e@ Ox ent em-
pera is Ay Rermanenyaig of potash, the solution of which is to.
d

gradually shaken as ie as ibs color disappears. The oxyd of man-
ganese separated is then filtered off, when the filtrate will be found

ro of any element.

Ethylene is oxydized by hypermanganate of potash almost as
readily as acetylene, carbonic and formic acid are produced, to-
gether with a considerable quantity of oxalic acid. In this case
we have the nt ion

Al aM Rear GB hanger ae gee
lylene, C, 1, : % oxydation wit sosanagan e of potas
in SAAT EES ds: inalonic acid C C,H, +0,=C,H,0,. Acetic and
carbonic aida are formed at the same time as * products of the
oxydation of malonic said

pk Bes C,H,, also yields malonic acid, but in larger quantity
Pan aliylen ~H_+0,.=0,H,0,+H,0,,
oxalic, ome ‘ene and carbonic acids are formed at the same

e by a secon dary oxydation. Amylene, C,.H,,, app ars to

a aaah % of pyrotartaric, succinic and malonic ack Sty- «
rath yields benzoic and carbonic acids. Oil o f taipenting ields
4 resinous acid and a neutral volatile substance having eal vs of

ie

SD,
Ww. Hormann has ‘tad that

ie hé ‘Mloaliol ja divented upo: descent t platinum spiral,

eal of < irony threenecked ii of two liters’ capacity
Beth bk heicht of about five cen eters wi moderatel, erately
warm methylic te otha The first neck is provided with a tube

250 Scientific Intelligence.

descending to the very surface of the liquid; into the second is
fixed a loosely-fitting cork which carries the platinum spiral, the
third neck communicates with a condenser the lower end of which

tor by which a current of an through the whole
system. The spiral is then heated to redness and plunged into the
bottle. After a few minutes, irritatin vapors are formed and
oh of liquid soon condense in the receiver. If the current of

air be properly adjusted, the platinum spiral remains incandescent

for hours, and even for days, and there is no omens in Sea

of an aspirator to keep the whole spiral incandescent. A harmless

; b its presence by prepar
methylic sulph-aldehyd, €H,S, which is a beautiful white erys-
talline substance fusing at 218° C., and subliming without decom-
sition. The author promi ore e
the new aldehyd, which can hardly fail to prove a most interes
substance.— Proc. Royal Soc., Xv1, 156. W. G.
4. On Fraunhofer’s lines and on the violet portion of the solar
spectrum.—ANestTR6M and THALEN have communicated to the Royal
Swedish Academy of Sciences a memoir on the part of the solar
spectrum between G and H, which is accom died by a map, and
Serves to complete the work left unfinished by Kirchoff. :
thors find that with a single prism of 60° filled with bisulphid of

carbon, and with a magnifying power of 40, all the lines upon

about 90 millimeters aperture and 3 meters in foe

image of the sun as thus concentrated was allowed

to fall upon the slit of the condenser. In the neighborhood of the

lines H and H,, a colored glass was employed to exclude all foreign

Tays. measurements were made aie by a glass micrometer

d into the eye-piece and partly by a filar micrometer
whenever it was le to illumi i

H were too faint

,

Chemistry and Physics. 251

‘ en, in place of the in rium, a galvanic Ty
of fifty jars was used with metallic points for poles, a much greater
h ;

n lines correspon
the authors have increased to 220. In the interval between G and
H . .

thors to suspend their researches. Angstrém and Thalén consider
it certain from their investigations that manganese and hydrogen
i here. T thre

exist in the sun’s atmosp 0 the e hydrogen lines alread
wn to exist, they have added a fourth which corresponds to the
most remarkable line betwee authors do not fin

rz (Pogg. 54
ith a flint glass prism of -60° and sufficiently large to admit a

5. C nylic Sulphid.—This body, intermediate between €0.
arbonylic Sulphid. is body, cena ie 2

excess of carbonous oxyd. Moreover it was decom gain by

the heat into its constituents. Recalling then the fact that cyanic

acid, by taking up the elements of water, was decompo to

carbonic dioxyd and ammonia according to the equation
(€0)"HN-+H,O=H,N+€0, ag

(in which cyanic acid is viewed as the imid of carbonic acid), Than

saw that analogy required a similar decomposition for sulpho-cyanie

acid thus ;—
(€S)"HN-+H, 02=H ,N+€65.

a es
ss

252 ’ Scientific Intelligence.

Experiment confirmed this theoretic view. By the action of
strong sulphuric acid, the sulphocyanates take up H,© and yield
he gas with effervescence. The method of its preparation is as
ollows:

acid and four volumes of water, is placed as much potassic sulpho-
cyanate as will allow the mass to remain fluid e evolution of

2
>
4
[4°]
Qu
et
°
tS
a]
Z
ot
=
i=)
=|
i)
a
e
=
ia)
om
2
o
e
oO
BP
or
gl
@
=r)
hea |
R
oe
2
z
“%
E
oO
Es
$
|
5
iy 3]

a
recallin perhaps that of H,S, though not at all disagreeable. It
is soluble in its own volume of water, to which it communicates

a ee . ee Eee an e

: : H
potash solution gives a copious black precipitate with ammonlo-
Ugente nitrate ; no trace of cyanogen was found in the filtrate.

fan temperatures, Passed over heated mercury in a

ulb-tube, no change is observed, though if long boiled in the gas

bs * mereuri¢ sulphid is formed, When sodium is treated in

_* The success of this device is $ in all
il oe The 68 is Gos ee

Chemistry and Physics. 253

the same way, a white crust is produced at the common tempera-
ture, which by heating easily melts and becomes darker, At a
low red heat the sodium ignites, burning with a brilliant light
and leaving a black easily fusible mass, containing no trace of

If heated to low redness the gas is decomposed. This fact may
be used to determine its composition as follows :— :

Near the closed end of a U tube, a fine platinum wire is fused,
stretching across the tube. This arm being filled with the gas
over mercury, and its volume ascertained, the wire is maintained

_at a bright red heat by means of the battery. About the wire the
as is decomposed; thick heavy clouds of yellow sulphur-vapor
all down the tube till the decomposition is complete. After cool-

ing, the residual gas possesses the original vo ume. It is odorless,
does not render baryta-water turbid and burns with a pale blue
flame ; the product of the combustion renders baryta-water at once

milky. It is hence carbonous oxyd. j

i Milligrams.
Since, therefore, 1 vol. (22°33 ¢.c.) carbonylic sulphid weighs 60
and 1 vol. (22°33 ¢.¢.) carbonous oxyd weighs 28

The weight of the sulphur in the gas is 32

he peg 1 that this compound is contained in
can assert almost positively t : Paskanly ; and also in
gary. He sustains

and perhaps in those

254 Scientific Intelligence.

It is recognized by the following reactions: 1st, Potassic hydrate

deprives the gas or its watery solution, at once, of its

monia. 4th, Iodid of starch is decolorized in a short time by this
gas.— Ann. Ch. Pharm., Suppl., Band V, 236, Oct. 1867. 4

¥,

im a current of steam, producing HCl and Na,€r@,. The mass

is drawn from the fire, mixed with charcoal and again heated; by
which Na, €6, and €r,0@, are produced. The sodic carbonate is
extracted with water, and crystallized. The chromic oxyd is ready
for a new operation.— Bull. ‘Ch. Soc., IL, Vili, 299, Oct. 1867.

G. ¥. B
7. AUotropic states of Metallic Arsenic—When arsenicum is
_ sublimed in a stream of hy gas, there is obtained, beside
het sublimate of hexagonal crystals, having a metallic luster, a

When pure arsenicum is sublimed in a quick stream of hydrogen
gas, the hexagonal Mei 4 is deposited nearest to the heated part
of the tube, next amorphou is thrown _

and it is easily oxydized by

passes rapidly into the gray.
e amorphous glassy black arsenicum is obtained when the
vapor is cooled to 210° or 220°C. It is readily procured in crusts
5 or 6 millimeters thick, by subliming the metal in a stream 0
: hydrogen, through a tube, one portion of which is bent in a U
a 7

dilute nitric acid being without action u nit. It constitutes the
arsenical mirror the Marsh test. eS .
The density of the hexagonal variety was found to be in three
ecimens prepared by different methods 5°728, 5°726, 5°727 at 14
J.— Ann. Ch. Pharm., exliv, 110, Oct., 1867. 6. FB
8. Metallic Cerium.—W sure has recently prepared this metal

quantity of argentic iodate. ,

- €8, and the H,6 is attached. The

Chemistry and Physics. 255

by igniting the double chlorid_ of cerium and potassium with so-
dium. Metallic globules weighing 50 to 60 milligrams were thus
obtained which consisted essentially of cerium. color of ce-
rium is between that of iron and lead

iolenc
of fire. In the pulverulent state it takes fire even at 100° ©.
When the slag, from which the metallic globules had been sepa-

rated, was treated with water, a glistening purple powder was left
ich : ; “ Sega

which upon analysis gave cerium 72°20, chlorine 18°38, oxygen
8°41=98°99 ; giving the formula CeCl4+2CeO. [Or €e,(6,Cl,),
the dichlorhydrin of di-meta-tri-ceric base].—Ann. Ch. Pharm.,

exliy, 251, Nov. 1867. G. F. B.
9. Delicate test for alkalies—According to Borrrcer, the color-
ing matter of the ornamental plant so common in our gardens,
alled Coleus Verschaffelti, is readily turned green by.alkalies. By
digesting the fresh leaves in cold absolute alcohol to which a
few drops of sulphuric acid have been added, for 24 hours, a so-
. 5 0G

in natural waters.
Its sensibility is very great; a piece of the paper held in the flame

» Pr. Ch., ci, 290, 1867. GF. Be
10. Method for the direct determination of oxygen in organic

ance of 6 or 7c. m. from this, another boat containing a weig
i erenty the tube commu-
nicates with two gas holders, from which either pure hydrogen or
pure nitrogen can be supplied at pleasure. The operation is com-

ss
applying heat to the copper turnings, to reduce any oxyd present.
e hydrogen is then completely removed by a current of
nitrogen, and the ordinary apparatus for the absorption of the
: combustion is proceeded with

in the usual way, and when it is finished, the argentic iodate is
any remain-

_ gradually heated. The oxygen thus evolved, burns.

eed Sg (See |

the
carbon atom), one by H, and

256 Scientific Intelligence.

ing carbon and reoxydizes the copper, reduced from
urnings. Wh

usual. A fresh calcic chlorid tube is now attached, a current of
ydrogen is sent through the apparatus, an per-turnings
are heated. formed by the excess of oxygen from the

iodate, is now reduced; and the water which results is collected
oe

in the ealcic chlorid tube. From this water, the amount of oxygen

argentic iodate evolved ‘2125 grm. oxygen, ‘2125 —*133=°0795
“ne Se of oxygen used to complete the combustion. In
j 4022

mm. €0, and the -090 ere a
oxygen, the whole amount needed to burn the b y. Of this the
argentic iod: hed +0795 grm.; hence the substance itself
yielded -4022~— -0795=-3297 grm. oxygen, The -452 m of oxalic

at
eV

Lh Pile
but interesting paper upon the rational constitution of these bodies.
Starting with the fact that lycerin must contain one alcohol-resi-

CH, i -OH (€H
jeieu or €(OH) ; as well as) €H-OH or €(6H)
ec €H,-OH 66-6H | €0-0lf

for glyceric Buff goes on to decide between them. If gly-
ceric acid had the | formula, then it is evident that by replac-
two atoms of hydryl fehio are united to the middle

e other by Cl, a chi

‘

Sao ae ms

*

Chemistry and Physics. 257
CH: ’ .
acid of the constitution { €HCl would be formed. This acid
€0-0H

corresponds to the ordinary lactic acid eH-OH. Wichelhaus

has, however, ee that glyceric acid jreated with Lom om

rie chlorid does not oem this chlorpropionic acid, but o:

isomeric with it. Of course (assuming the equality of the fue

carbon units of nésenetion); this can only be a chlorpropionic
,-OH :

acid corresponding to sarco-lactic acid, €H, whose constitu-
- . €0-0H

€H,Cl
tion is{ €H, _. Hence the formula of glycerie acid must be
9-0H
€H,-0H €H,-0H
| €H-OH and that of glycerin €H-OH . The action of phos-
€0-6H
P oric chlorid, then, substitutes chlorine for a hydryl-atom, belong-
Ing, not to an aci id, but to-an alcohol residue; producing a body
different from the br romine-compound obtained ‘by the direct action
of bromine upon propionic acid. In this body, as Buff has shown,
the bromine is attached to the middle carbon atom, giving the

€H,:
forinula ) CH Br , which may be compared with that of the chlor-

propionic acid of Wichelhaus, given above.

To which of these forms do the chlorhydrins et ? Is the
elite in monochlorhydrin attached to the middle or to one of the
end carbon-atoms? This question er has answered by reducing
monochlorhydrin by means of sodium-amalgam. arn a a
less liquid was obtained, boiling between 185° and 1
ponding ewe to propylenic . os se is body Dy sn simple
oxydation yields the ordinary la
molecular constitution. In ‘order “3 decide hie point, the conver
sion into lactie acid was effected by means of platinum-black ;
the lactic acid thus formed was converted into the zine salt, oie its
character established. It is hence certain that in the action of
chlorhydrie acid upon glycerin, the chlorine replaces a hydryl-atom
bel longin ging to an external carbon-atom, thus:

Glycerin. Monochlorhydrin. cr glycol. Lactic acid.
€H,-0H €H,Cl Le
€H-9H €H-OH €H_OH €H_0H
€H,-0H €H,-0H oH, -9H €0-0H
In dichlorhydrin, a similar reduction would produce, accordin

as the second atom of chlorine is united to the midale or to the
outer carbon atom, propylic or mopeogielie alcohol, thus :—
Am. Jour. Sct.—Srconp Szrms, Vou. XLV, No. 134—Marcu, 1868.
17

4

258 Scientific Intelligence.

€H,Cl €H, €H,Cl €H,
€HCl as 4 ©, €H-OH = <'€H-OH
€H,-0H Seger 2-OH €H,Cl
Isopropylie aleohol.
This reduction, effected thy ie yielded a clear mobile
fluid; boili ° to 85°, corresponding in composition and
properties to Fsoprop lic alcohol. To confirm this view, it was
oxydized huric oH and potassic sn pg and yielded
ba bodies may ne a represen
Glycerin. Monochlorhydrin. Dichlorhydrin. Iso lic alcohol. Acetone.
ene oH (eH, (eH (eH. €H,
€H-O0H €H-O0H €H-OH €H-OGH {€0
€H,-0H €H,-OH ( €H,Cl CH, €H,
Ann n, Ch. rm., Suppl. Band V, 247, 1867. B.

ie ~_* “ig ee (a.) Tis discovery. oan! October,

argyan
1864, Lresretcu (Ann. Ch. Pharm., exxxiv, 29) obtained from an al-
eoholic es of ~ brain, a erystallized substance hota "the com-
416. hich he gave the name Protagon.
On boilin this wre sid oe hydrate for 24 hours, it was decom-
posed, and yielded glycero-phosphoric acid, two or more of the fatt
. a new basic substance which he ca neurine (70907).

tralized with ehlorhydti acid, evaporated to consistence

d trea wit aoe alcohol, a
bright to orange-yellow precipitate was thrown down, which was
filtered off, and washed with absolute mleobol. This sonnet is

in = upon neurine. He red this base by Liebreich’s
method, obtaining m2 ws ee * hygroscopic ke The
platinum-salt separated in large yellow. prismatic pmo Seow
evaporating’ its aqueous solution in a vacuum, Alcohol threw
down this solution the same salt in yellow granular orystals ;
— upon iene reo: a “3 ir - portion separated. These
three cts, how results upon analysis; (1)
gare (CH ©, Noch PC yea oH ,NCD PHC, (@) (€,His
o the oe that neurme

was f germreerwe nee — = more er to unravel its
constitution, he heated a moderately concentrated solution of the
chlorhydrate with strong iodhydric acid and some red phosphorus,

e

~

Chemistry and — 259

re-
placed by chlorine, giving €,H,,NICL Heated with freshly pre-
pocet argentic oxyd, _ | iodine-atoms were removed, and the
0 ted.

dy €,,Hs.N,OCl, These reactions suggested the.
imilari ined . W.

P
ayhsiance, €. H, oN» identical in propertic the compan

ce C,H, wis
Rant €,H, DL “ ots itsl must be either ackeee

a(€2
monic hydrate, N(€ Ly ean [HO] He. He ei that the
variation in the analyses may be due to the presence of both these
bodies. He also calls attention to the facility with which neurine

wh aa saan choline identical.—In March, 1867, DyskowsKy
soi pr. Ch., ¢, 153) published a paper upon the identity of choline

neurine,
SRR, of either of these bases was concentrated in avacu-
um over sulphuric acid, two kinds of erystals appeared.
were long-pointed, six-sided, ——— erystals in thin tables ; the
others were yellow octahedro ; these latter were less solublé in
r

* Dybkowsky calls attention <nbiies srs of his W italacai ‘in
“large yellow prismatic me ra obtained by evaporation, and in ‘“‘ yellow gran-
tals,” by precipitation with alcohol; and says that ~ eee ieee

eh i ce this is not yellow,
and falls, on the addition of p sieose in spt in ‘. The prod of te de-

scribe | Ss yellow o

may be so teat fe es Baws s iran but this tater Treadily to oc-
—_ too: is the k body _~— alcohol sn aT as a crystalline pow-

the formula

‘Ons.
der. [It is to be re
5H, .NCI for the chlorhyd rate, whichis €H; Hi Meaty SClor or the Nd compound ;

© others give €.H,,NOCI, ie es L;)a( 2H [HON rethyt base.

y it not that the ged evapora-
Since these bodies differ 0: bly by FE proioazed +e

tion changes in this way th oestagaane 63 gyethy! neurine base
nyl compound?—z.]

-

260 Scientific Intelligence.

fact that the physical and chemical — of choline and neu-
rine are precisely alike, Dybkowsky co s their identity by quo-
ting a statement from Naumann upon bas aaa a of the crys-
talline form of the two platino-chlorids, The paper ends with some
reasons for supposing that protagon exists in the bile, and is there
the os of the choline, as itis known to be of neurine in the

xtract.

(a) Tis rational formula established.—In a more recent paper,
Baxryer (Ann. Ch. a exlii, 322, June, 1867) has published
some farther j investigation nneurine. Concluding from his pre-

us experiments, that the platino-chloria was ir in composi-

sky 8 paper apparently), he examin esoeckotilg. ‘first obtained
by Liebreich, produced by adding a coltion of Lert o a not too
dilute abltiont n of neurine chlorhydra is precipitate consists

of yellow microscopic needles, difteultly soluble in cold but readily
in hot water, being eee when the a cools in brilliant
yellow needles: ; and o n long well fo
prisms. These gave u apie analysis the formula € ‘H, ,NOCI, AuCl,
the composition being quite uniform. The presence of oxygen ex-
eludes the vinyl hypothesis and fixes the constitution of neurine as

trimethyl-oxethyl ammonic hydrate (CH,),(€2H, Lapa 6;

Se (€H,),(€, Hl, [HO)NCl Todo acid ©
rts. t:

body into trimethyl-iod ethyl
porns a (eH) (Cal DNL This iodid corresponds pre-
cisely with the bromid artificially prepared by Hofmann, and, as

of siecieleralptomeese’ agen el ©, AA rHOpsH,
is produced, The oxethyl base is —— sily re-converted in

oe compound, is easily so converted. The gold salt of the Le
compound has the formula €,H,,NCl, AuCl, ; hence the salt pre-
viously described by Baeyer as ©; Hagty OCl, consists of two
molecules i the chlorhydrate with one of erystal-water (€, H,,N
Dctas 20. As the oxethyl and the vinyl base differ only by.

, may not neurine be th sonenst compound with a oosleerts of

HL) a(€ 06,H,0 Cl, AuCl being
neurin which one cas " sk eat en is aicibeed 6 by peers The

em gests its synthesis by the action of me
thylie road a upon one

ad

&

Mineralogy and Geology. : 261

m presence of an excess of platinic chlorid, coincided completely
with those of the sinkaline-salt, not only in form but in angular

measurement. :
The auro-chlorids were also found to be identical in properties.
The salts of both bases behave alike on heating -and evolve the
characteristic odor of trimethylamine.
(£) Synthesis of neurine—On the 16th of Dee. last, Wurtz
made a communication to the French Academy upon the synthesis

.

of neurine. He first attempted its production by the method sug-

first a
gested by Baeyer, by treating oxethyl-ammonic hydrate with me-
thylic iodid. “But t ough scsemeatel, the yield was very
Its direct synthesis was then accomplished by uniting trimethyl

3
amine with glycolic chlorhydrin, ‘ental +> sat |
5 3
: (€.H,[Ho} .
on NOI. Five grams of trimethylamine were heated

a 7
with ten grams of glycolic chlorhydrin in a sealed tube in a water

262 7 Scientific Intelligence.

has compared this auro-chlorid with the sam

yielding 31°8 per cent of platinum, the theoretical quantity. Moist

8. Hydrocarbons of the Pennsylvania Petroleum; by C. M.
ARREN, (from a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Brookline, 25 Feb.,

those of Pelouze and Cahours. ut I contend that the superiority

it not seemed more a gee that these should appear ee

sults, I desired to repeat some of the elementary analyses, by ca 4
pro the hope of obtaining more exact results whic

.

memoir) to raise a doubt on this point, would not justify di
formule rom those that I published. : ‘ sees

I will give below a few of my analyses and on oa densities, in-

2 of one or two members of each of my three series-

are well grounded, especially those of the 3d series,

oe ‘ Ege Mes

Chemistry and Physics. 263
Ist series.— Oil of boiling point, 61°°3,
Vanor gravity at 0°, 0°676
ae densit found,. 3°053
required for ©,H,,, 2°974
\ é € 83°88
ie results of analysis gave H 16°58
100°46
Theoretical numbers on €,H,,, 1 16-28
100°00

2d series.— Oil of boiling point, 68°°5.
= sg ifie gravity at 0°, 0°689
re.

or density Yound, "038
€ 84°43
100°24
Theoretical numbers as above.
3d series,— Oil of boiling point, 195°°8.
= pang gravity at 0°, 782
apor densit found, l 5-480
V. d. req nina for €, rH22, weer
Results of analysis, | H 14°65.
99°98
ay
Theoretical numbers on €, ,H, 3, | y eas
100°00
Oil of boiling point 216°°2, ;
spesiéc vity at 0°, -. 0-791
apor Pore ee z , é -, 6164
-d. required for Kino Whe tak eraee* 5°812
“ “« ssa ead ane ain giny .
© 85°74
Results of analysis, nen : =: - - : H 14°66
Fen
100-40.
€ 85°73 °
Theoretical numbers on € aH, i H 14°29
6 “ “ © .4H. the same.
een © 84°78
. « © €,,H 2s; H 15-22
100°00

_ retical vapor density is below that found by experiment.

older than the Carboniferous,—not a trace of any Silurian or De-

264 Scientific Intelligence.

analyses to settle this question. Then to determine the probable
formula o y l ely

elouze and Cahours gave to their body boiling at 216°-218°,
the formula €,,H, ., the theoretical vapor density of which, by my
9.

calculation, is 6°365; their determination of the same was 6°569.
BS :

> *

contain full details

hydrocarbons that I have separated from Pennsylvania petroleum,
and I will send the article soon after, for i action in 4 Ameri-
can Journal of Science.

He I rl a

Il. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

1. The Carboniferous age of a portion of the Gold-bearing Rocks.
¥, California ; by Wutiam P, Buaxr.—In a former No. of this’
ournal™ Prof. W. H. Brewer, in noticing the reports of the Geo-.
logical Survey of California, observes as follows: “ We are now led
naturally to consider the question of the age of the rocks of the
auriferous series in California. They have been regarded as older .

statement from Prof. Whitney;+ “We have not a particle of
eupenos to sustain the theory which has so often been brought
orward that all, or even a portion, of the auriferous rocks are

vonian fossil ever oe been discovered in California or indeed
the west of the 1 meridian,”
* Volume xii, No. 123, May, 1866 ,
May, , P. 361, a
+ Report of the Geo! Survey of California, vol. i, Paleontology, Preface.

a ee ae

ee at
= 7
bi
> 3
zi 2

Bese! ee ie ee ea | ere ee Pee Maer eo era Sa eS

i

Mineralogy and Geology. 565

for the Geological Survey to show that the gold-bearing rocks were
: is is an error, inasmuch as the
writer of the present notice had several years before distinctly

u
ity of thei —~
ence was admitted. These assertions are sustained by the follow-

pears to form ,a lon trending northwes'
lumne and Calaveras counties. It probably extends much farther
both north and south. It is believed to be to and con-

rock is doubtless metamorphic, but as no fossils have beer
d in it, it is impossible to decide upon the period to which it
should be refe I y Carboniferous limestone, this
formation having been rec in the northern part of the State,
ce he

ations west of the great central chain
‘ F © i . . ca
State were those recognized by Dr. J. B. Trask, and noticed in his _
Report of 1855, These were not perhaps identified as gold-bear-
* “On the age of the gold-bearing rocks of the Pacific Coast.” This Journ.,
xlii, July, 1866. fs
Report of a Geological Reconnoissance in California. -4to, 1858. Preface, -
aan (Author's edition of the Geological Report in vol. v, of U. 8. Explorations
urveys ) ‘ |
- ¢ [This limestone is traversed in places by quartz veins bearing gold],

is ha: oa oe

266 Mineralogy and Geology.

ing. In the geological Report by Dr. Newberry the possibility of
the gold region being Carboniferous is mentioned. He says:
“from its relations to the limestone discovered by Dr. Trask near
the base of Mt. Shasta, and which is of Carboniferous age, one may
suspect it to belong to that era.”* On p. 29 he observes: “If, a
seems probable, the fossiliferous limestones of the mountains con-
nected with Mt. Shasta shall prove to be continuous with the lime-
stones of the Sierra Nevada referred to above, they will perhaps
serve as a awe by which to unlock the whole structure and age of
the great Californian range.”

In a descriptive notice by the writer of the gold veins and de-
posits of New Mexico, the following observation occurs: “It is
remarkable that in one place at least, gold occurs in strata of quart- .
zose sandstone probably of the age of the Carboniferous, and in
great ferruginous beds rather than in veins,”

At the time the foregoing observations were made, it was the -
commonly accepted opinion that gold bearing rocks in general and
especially in North America were of Silurian age. To venture to

rany portion of the California formations to a period more
recent, and as late as the Carboniferous, was a bold step in advance,
Lif it was not initiative, it is at least one of the links in the

e regarded: as characteristic of the rocks of any particular geo-

logical epoch and that it may be found in formations of any period
e the conditions are favorable. ’

If in opposition to the evidence which has been presented, it

valley has afforded additional evidence, and yet Mr. Brewer ver

justly does not positively assert the Carboniferous age of this belt

southward, but says “all these limestones are of the same litho-

logical character, and there seems little doubt that all the patches

are of the Carboniferous age that lie in nearly a direct line from

pe ote Klamath river to Tahichipi valley a distance of over
mi

In the article by Prof. Brewer on the age of the gold-bearing
rocks of the Pacific coast,§ he controverts the writer's statement
t the Silurian age of the gold rocks of California has not always
been assumed, by partially citing paragraphs from
8

iy paragraphs, it is
covery should they [the rocks] actually prove to be Silurian by
* Pacific d Reports, i, p. 22;
Rrotectinge Seas Geen i A a
‘This Journal, xli, May, 1866, p. 362.
Tid, xlii, July, 1866, p. 116.

— and Geol. 267, .

with it. Moreover the para iil does not state that the “ conelu-
shen, ” as rewer says, “but that the conclusion was _ ained,
and this single conclusion is pope in full, so that there i 0 possi-
bility of mistaking which one of Sir R. L Murchison’s conclisions
was intended by me. The following: is the paragra

seer ing: very modern ; that it is one of the of gold is geclog formed -
metals; the rocks being probably impregnated with it after the
Miocene period, and but a short time before the epoch when the
powerful and. general denudations took place which destroyed the
large extinct mamm

Thi is paragraph follows a description of the various forms of
auriferous drift, and no reference whatever is made to the Silurian -

or Devonian age of the rocks.

The other statement, given in my preface, of the probability of
the presence of Silurian formations, when fully quoted, as in the

encement of this article, bears internal evidende: of the in-

justice of this imputation b Prof, _ Brewer. A full eeay ots of

ery of Silurian pet sem - fr silver and ees region of Neve

Seed any other point than the raving in respect to the Garner
aap 0h of = eed _ the gol;
Haven

6. Mem
vol. i, pa rt IE ¢ Principles of the 1 Matveral System KA Voloanie

F. Baron RicnrHoren.” 95 pp. 4to. San Francisco,
s—athe wg classifies voleanic rocks in the following orders

SOebere first: RayoultE ; fam. 1, Nevadite ; 2, Liparite ; 3,
Rhyolit

Cviben doth -dedcinits : TRACHYTE; fam. 1, Sanidin trachyte; 2, Oligo-
oat Wanna

* Report Geological Reconnoissance in California, pp. 278-9. ¢ Siluria. |

268 Scientific Intelligence.

Order third: Propyiire; fam. 1, Quartzose propylite; 2, Horn-
blendic propylite; 3, Augitic propylite.

Order fourth: Anpestre; fam. 1, Hornblendic andesite; 2, Au-
gitic andesite.

Order fifth: Basaur; fam. 1, Dolerite; 2, Basalt; 3, Leucito-

phyre. :

The late date at which this paper is received, prevents any ex-
tended notice. The author shows that he is familiar with his sub-
ject through extended observations of rocks in place, and his me-
moir is an important contribution to this department of Geology.
Some of the theories adverted to are at variance with views held
by some eminent geologists, but the well known scientific charac-
ter of the author, the value of his labors in a similar field before,
and the amount of field observation and experience which he brings
forward to support the conclusions arrived at, give them an espe-
cial weight and value. Ww.

H.
3. Report on the Geology of Nebraska—The final report of

lre
stage of preparation. Mr. Meek, the Plonctaris. has already
b

fi and described over 100 species of Upper Carboniferous syd :

the Calif ere are.over 350 figures, some of whi
afford means of comparison of the American forms
with those identified by Geinitz and others h European types.
The whole n done in that careful, exhaustive man-
ner, which ch: all M 0 Twelve plates

h aracterizes all o
of fossil — Cretaceous and Tertiary, will accompany the
report. There will also be a map and full illustrations.
,_ the preliminary report of Hayden, written in the field, is printed
in the annual report of the issioner of the Land Office, and
ll soon be distributed, It comprises nearly 60 pages, and treats
quite fully of the geological, agricultural, and economical resources

~

of the State, and calls the special attention of the people to the

importance of cultivating forest trees. It is very desirable that

these surveys should be continued until every territory west of the

Mississippi is carefully examined and re n.
4. Documents sur les Tremblements de Terre et les phenomenes

ern and northern Pacific ocean and Northwest America ; and h
€ returns, in his memoir of the above title, to the subject of the
Aleutian Islands and Alaska, regions in which this country has noW

a Paha sain
sible to but very few readers,

5. Note sur les Tremblements de Terre en 1863 avec ig 7 dBc
pour les années antérieures de 1843 & 1862; par M. ALExis PERREY.
214 pp. 12mo, Présentée & Académie royale de Belgique, le 4

Oe alee eG ae eee eee

¥

EE Dh Tae sae elias Os ah |

‘

Botany and Zoology. : 269

ports on earthquakes and volcanoes by Prof. Perrey are the result
of a vast amount of labor, and are of great value to geological
science. f=

Ill, BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

1. Miocene Flora of the Polar Regions.—We have heard much
of late of the extensive collections of fossil plants from various
pre of the arctic regions, which have recently been studied by

of. Heer. We have not seen his Flore Fossile de Régions Polaires,
but an article in the. Bibliothéque Universelle, translated for

" i

the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, gives an interesting

_ Summary of the striking results

The arctic fossil flora counts 162 known species, of which 18 are

Cryptogamic, 9 of them Ferns of large size. There are 31 Co-

nifer, 14 Monocotyledons, and 99 Dicotyledons a al Seventy-
8

Iceland, and Spitzbergen, no less than of Arctic America, mostly re-
semble existing North American species. There is a Spruce very

ern trees, Seguota or Redwood, now represented in California only,
in two species, had four species in the Miocene po , three of
which occur at the same level in Central Europe. One of these

t
the S. gigantea. A third, from Greenland, is intermediate between
these two. The bearing of facts like Sip is obvious, as also that

cies being from Japan. The Cypress family is represented b
Taxodium and the allied Glyptrostrobus, also by Thujopris, a
H wer

all three approaching certain United States species. There were
then, in these now icy regions, forests of various deciduous or ever-
green broad-leaved trees, as we oniferse of various forms,
“vines and ivy entwined these with their branches, and beneath
their shade grew numerous shrubs and elegant erns. A. Ge.

2. le Pleine Terre. 2°™° édition, 1866. Atlas des

. urs de Ple :
Fleurs de Pleine Terre, ete.; par Vilmorin—Andrieux

270 Scientific Intelligence.

zee —The first — of this sigan little work was noticed at

ime of its appearance. This second edition is considerably
, abet one fifth ae added to the ioe of the page, and the
pages increased to nearly 1300. It enumerates and briefly de-
scribes, in popular language, but in a good degree scientifically,
the principal hardy herbaceous plants in ornamental cultivation in
France, and gives details asto their management and propagation,

cifying their varieties, often with considerable fi

this work, the Atlas, now issued, is 7 invaluable addition. It is

res containing the explanation be sure are
sure each naperihna being cd two and high, and look more
natural through the botanist’s lens than under the naked eye; but

agni ss
td are so chosen as to illustrate a very great variety of d prior
ilies. The work is published by the celebrated seed me!
chants who a it, Vilmorin—Andrieux & Cié, of the Quai de ih

?
8. The great Dragon Tree of. vsirpiided econ tieg King
Nestor of + com ieee is no mo A dra of it mr
y Mr. Borda, one hundred years ago, rise ttbhaheds about 60 years
no i. wonder helate first drew scienti ¢ attention to this veg-
er

destroyed half he! sisi and it has recently been described, meas-
ured and photographed by Prof. Piazzi Smyth. He gave the —
trunk a girth of 484 " at the lowest accessible part, and a height of
60 feet. Fenzi of Florence, who © announces the demise of the tree,

Botany and Zoology. 271
makes the circumference about 78 English feet, but intimates that
he was not able to measure it exactly. ited it, a year
ago, “it wasstill in excellent health, its immense crown covered

wi
although completely decayed in the interior, sustained vigorously
the spreading mass of fleshy branches and sw ord-like fo He

charges the destruction of this famous historical mematnent to the

was, it is said, as hollow and about as large in the year 1402 as in
recent sea and the hollow had even then been used immemori-

4. Geological and Natural History Survey of North Carolina;
Part IT. Botany, containing a pee a of the Indigenous and
Naturalized Plants of the State; by Rev. M.A. Curtis, D.D., &e.
Raleigh, 1867. pp. 158, '8vo. —An Aaaiatey je sonal ‘cata-

e. Its greatest interest is in the Cryptogamic part, which occu-
pies ipoeiree more than half of the volume. The Flowering
wont ae are 1873, the Flowerless “ins of which 2392 are
order to which Mr. Curtis has apne Hp
greater hn of his scientific ee: “Acknowledgment
Sullivant for assistance in arranging the list of "Maa ai
Hepatice, and to Prof. vecouee in that of the Tiche nes.

arrangement does not in all pee represent
later views, ‘The ca talogue undoubtedly “much pci most ex-

from the central position of No rth Carolina in the line we 3 ae At-
lantic States, and from its including the most developed ates of

the Alleghanies, it is very important to our botanists in the illustra-
tion of geographical distribution and stn species,
As regards the Fungi, that State ma sup to contain

nearly all the apeteh 5 of the Atlantic ‘wri t is much to be
wished that Dr. Curtis would now seriously devote himself to the
elaboration of a Manual of the pets of the United States. Other-
wise a vast amount of knowledge of these obscure plants pet be
one of these days lost to the world, and a great want long re
unsupplied. A. G
5. Genera Plantarum, by Benruam and Hooxer.—The third
part, completing the first volume of this most important work, and
the Polypetalous series, was published late last autumn, and_should
have been announced halon We expected, however, to have pre-
an extended notice of the volume, which we ‘have as yet
ek to do. The e work aera excellently a on eau
ar will at once be in t ientific botanists.
‘ustrations of ty case Carex; by Francis Boowr, Me
Ses IV, Tab. 412-600. 1867.—This posthumous volume, issued

5

272 Botany and Zoology.

by Mrs. Boott as a tribute to the memory _ her late a has
just come to hand, and will be received as reat boo n by the
lovers of Carex, Pe still feel the loss of their bi der and master.
A full notice of the work will find a place in the ensuing n ee

A.
7. Botanical Necrology for 1867, concluded.—The fellow ar-
ticles were excluded from the last number, for want of room.
Dr. C. H. Scuvurirz (Bipont ints a distinguished botanist who -
devoted his attention almost exclusively to Composite, and has
. brought together an extremely rich herbarium in that vast family,
died at his home in Deides oe Rhenish Bavaria, on the 17th of
December last, at the age of 62 years. He had brought together

llege, died, at Oxfo vi on the ‘12th of December last, in the
73d year of his is age. He was Professor of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity, from 1822 down to 1855, when upon the reorganization
and extension of scientific studies in the niversity—largely due
to his own efforts arid influe ert = ed that chair to the
present incum oa arses of Botany mm
1834, and Professor of Rural alee: in 1840, when by the com-
pletion of the publication of the Flora Graca Sibthorp’s endow-
ment became available. |
As chemist, geologist, one of the founders of the British Asso-
ciation, and an active Bete of natural and physical science in
various departments, i
memo

ble
g. His first paper upon such subjects years later than
his volume upon volcanoes, issued in 1826), “On the d gree 0
lection exercised by the Roots of Plants,” probably brought forward

scientific if. not'a botanical incum ent, a so sec g
ment of Dr. Dauben o qualif ‘hme for this ee he be-
came a wear - ee an = in

has quite sor a assum i physicists) of the so-
chiefly efficient in the I ition ygen
a from the the pies parts of plants, apd therefi in assimilation.

has been foll ollowed by many other papers oF leetures upon st

Scientific Intelligence. 998

ilar subjects, mainly upon the applications of vegetable physiology
and chemistry to agriculture, but none of such scientific import-
ance as this. In 1857 he published his Lectures on Roman Hus-

and printed for private circulation a brief account of his observa-
tions. His chair will be filled, we trust, by a better, because a
special, botanist, but it hardly can be by a more excellent man.

ia; by Lzo Lxseu
San Francisco, 1868:—As the title indicates,
logue ; but it contains descriptions of quite a number o new spe-
cies, The enumeration comprises 265 species, 215 of which are
from California. The most of these have been collected by Mr.

than they in species of this order. “It is an ;
of how much may be done by one man to correct the errors o too
hasty generalization. ESE: eee

8. ff pipers Semi-centennial.—On the 20th of December last

’ it
invitation, Prof. Gray, Col. Olney, Prof. Brewer, Prof. Eaton, Dr.
Plane a Thos. P. Tannen; Dai Grveh and Porter of Easton, Pa.,
Aw, Jour. Scr.—Szconp Serres, Vou. XLV, No. 134—Maxncu, 1868.0
18

t

274 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Mr. Parsons of Flushing, Mr. Buchanan of Astoria, and Mr, C. F,
Austin of Closter, N. J. Letters were read from many prominent
Botanists regretting their inability to come.
After the supper, Prof. Thurber called the meeting to order, and
proposing the health of Dr. Torrey, gave a detailed account of his
tani Dr. Torrey followed, first acknowledging his ap-
precintion of the unexpected lee ins of this supper in his

Eaton, Dr. Pickering, Prof. B
James Hogs responded to the other regular toasts of the evenings

shown by this eminent man be cherished by all who shall follow in
the path he has opened to American botanists.

IV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,

Nach eigenen mehr-

jahrigen Erfahrungen bearbeitet svon Dr. Epvarp Assmuss. Ber-

tion of alcohol. But if the charcoal-burner has desired infiemantion
respecting the utilization of the condensible va
ob to put up with the meager and ill-digested accounts

and superintendent of a manufactory in W
of the products obtained by the destructive distillation of wood,
7 ringing together i d

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 275

on general chemistry, and, in indeed, has confined himself to
narrow a range ; for much might have been added which ter

and at the same
interesting and profitable to his readers. Greater completeness

aR : ing
of mention, since this salt may, in many cases, well replace the more

istilled pyro aac s acid neutralized with witherite or
with sulphid of barium and evaporated almost to dryness, with
constant stirring, gives a dirty, granulated eer fa which may be
ve urified by washing it with pretty strong alcohol. The alcohol

dissolved in water and treated with a little bone eer we obtain
by filtration a colorless solution, which, on being dried down affords
a nice white salt. So eae “ei 6a acetate of baryta, that | but small
quantities of ‘Géibel 6 3 geri washings ; and it
is not unlikely that the elec rol might ed by wood spirit.
Of course the aleohol may be recovered by ' dintiliation, and used
again and again.

The manufacturer who would carry on his work intelligently
should know how to determine the strength of his products by some
way giving more certain indications than the mere hydrometer;
and the entire omission of everything relating to this matter seems
to us a defect in the book before us, A ready mode of testing pyro-

eous acid is a desideratum, for the acid itself assumes a very
deep color when neutralized, and the common acidimetric method
depending on the change of litmus, is therefore precluded. Litmus
is at best but an indefinite indicator of the neutralization of acetic

trying transparent and light colored it is a good
plan to add afew drope of of a solution of neutral sulphate of ———
and then proceed with the addition of a normal alkali. The least
excess of alkali gives rise to a B04 opacity in the liquid
under exubalsiiatban arte i una eon gag impervious to
light so that even this ailable. Perhaps the easiest
course would *

be to ascertain ie In
crease of specific gravity caused yf acid for some

scinelt easltata, og ccicipa’ Uf ad careeapoauee

to every increase of duniity ae no testing whatever should be

pierre i a. until he has been y in-

structed in r routine by some one well skilled in

pea cers Be = Wee were forcibly impressed with this thought by
an instance that came under our notice a few yearsago. A

maker having sold a large quantity of his vinegar, warranted to

*

4

276 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

be of such strength that each fluid ounce should require for re
neutralization fifty grains of carbonate of potash, was surpris
be told ei it was found to fall far short of the beara Not

many barrels, he measured out a fluid ounce. Then weighing fift
grains of the carbonate, he added it little by little, to the cold vin-
egar till the effervescent solution turned litmus paper blue, and
had two grains left. The chemist repeated the experiment, he eating
the vinegar, of course, and erin him that by oe manipulation
‘twenty-nine grains of carbonate were required. Moreover,

only -
the carbonate was in siepicioualy. large crystals aha turned out to |

@ pure pate an twenty-nine grains of which would be equiv-
alent to but twenty-five grains of the crystallized carbonate. ‘This
manufacturer is not the only one who has for years rested satisfied
with c8ld testing by — supposed to be carbonate of —
but really of unknown s h.

The author eae a shin full description of the wrought iron
retorts which he himself has used in charring wood; but in size
arrangement they do not seem to us to bes cially
thy of imitation. He also describes a judicious modification

of Reichenbach’s kiln, which he prefers for operating on the ae :

scale, because, as he says, the horizontal iron retorts soon burn

and they allow but small quantities of wood to be distilled-at ie
e first cost of iron is great, especially in regions where wood is

cheap, and those who have wood in abundance and wish to His

wood, but not when re acid is the chief <he of the ponte
Our makers of Pyro Zneous acid distil wood in iron retorts, and

seldom so large, so that it takes a great rae 0
work. Some of our gunpowder manufacturers char the 7”
an th wh which in som asure combines the advantages of
with those of the older form of retort. It consists of &
are e of quarter-inch boiler da
x ito heads of east iron. Through the lower part, about eight
inetd izontally a very thick cast 1rop
e consisting 0 of a a fire-place one foot in diameter,
long, bolted to the front and an extension six inches in

eter slipping loosely through ‘a hole in the back head. ‘There is 8

Se! ie EE oe ee ee, Sk RE eI RER RTS SL Pee TS pe poe Se ea

Miscellaneous prem : 277

inches i in diameter forming the entrance to the fire-pla ace, which is

and ne ap of the door and prevent it from warping in the on
or while in use. The door is _e on very stout , and during

pene forward under the lower half of the eevlinde, then . and
ackward around the upper half to a chimney at chee
corners of the brick work. far a hole twelve erent

the back head is attached a cast iron pipe which carries the volatile
90. agar of the distillation to a suitable condenser. Such a retort
ol

278 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

pensive process of converting it into acetic acid proper. The only
practical answer that we have hitherto been able to pasty is buta
partial one. If we distil the acid, treat the product with enough

a —_ of bleaching a er to five gallons of the distilla te,—add
to take be the lime, and then redistil,—we

own plans.

2. sown pl by Eug. W. Hi si tact ah (From a letter pv “the
editors, dated University of Mississippi, Oxford, January 8, 1868.)
—In Budge s Handbook of Pag Pein edition 1862, page 940,
where the: 4 distinction between cubed saad “flavors” is dis-

to wet pe of the gustatory nerves by the pressure of
unrelenting fingers which closed his — spite ca his i
a efforts to free th hem, to “ nervous consensus,

is text-books ca eo

in 01 sequence
cessively at Helder, Zirich ered on, and oh Sega “which, sogethens with
Schinner’s originality a little qeeticnshin ee? it

'

- ae bel 3 > 4 40 5 gee we

'

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 279

took thirteen years from the time these important distinctions were
established and divulged by Americans to the highest authorities
on the subject of Physiology, a cognized on the continent, to
make an impression on European physiologists so far as to lead
them to put it into a text-b This is not, surely, the — likely
to promote the progress of true knowledge, an and has too frequen tly
the effect as wellas the appearance of a suppressio veri
Eve. W. Hiearp,
University of Mississippi, Jan, 8, 1868.
3. On the spectra of the meteors of November 13-14, 1866; by
Joux Brownine, Esq.—To view the shower I chose the observa-

don.
I devoted Ar attention "as posible to attempting to obtain the
ato y meteors as

spectra o
After catching a few s in different directions, I at lergth
decided on ecg hs the di oe ial ome inted a little to the

F Pe the ra vid TF flight of meteors rendering the very dif
1 cannot pretend to speak with confidence of the ap-

pearance of the spectra shown by the prism; but I saw a great
between the spectra; I believe that I saw spectra of the

A. Conikiitaial spectra, or those in which the = of the colors
of the solar spectrum were 5 tinible sor ee the vi —
B. Spectra in which the yellow greatly preqibineeted: t tecag
in aoa. other res mbled those above described.
Hes of shansse pe — caage gare i peor an. ak but with
a faint continuous
side and ot ge on fpr ompeiles yen of ns rviliew portion of the

Se Spectra of purely homogeneous green light ; of this kind I
Ww
V observed through the Sage spectra of sev eral trains. The
light, which was mostly blue, green, or steel-grey, pelea ap-
peared homogeneous ; but this may have arisen from the light hav-
ing been too faint to en: . visible spectrum. Stars below the
second or third magnitude, al though visible through the prism,
fail from this cause to give ‘spectra in which blue and red are per-

om babl be remarked that I have not spoken of having
observed sny line inthe petra. All the nuclei to give

280 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

continuous spectra which contained the whole of the colors of the
spectrum; what I should term the tails, not the trains, of the nuclei
presented the appearance I have described, every instance I

i)
knife edges so as to define any lines. But I think it may be Aa
sible to use a prism in connection with a cylindrical lens. _ Su

Royal Astronomical Society, Jan. 11, .

4. National Academy of Sciences,—At the recent January
meeting of the Academy, held in Washington, the following pa-
pers were read,

On the practical character of the usual thermometer scales, and
& common substitute for them; by A. Guyot. ees

e use and interpretation of single and double linear associa-
tive Algebras ; by’ Benjamin Peirce.
n the existence of a great central zone of fracture of the sur-
face of the globe; by A. Guyot.
communication respecting the cosmical theory of the Novem-
ber meteors; by A. C. Twining.
.The history of a week in the life of a young Salmon; by L.

Agassiz,
. On the Fauna of the Gulf of Mexico at great depths; by L.

*

_ Kemarks on the Buffalo of North America; by L. Agassiz.

On the penetration of sound; by Joseph Henry. he
Some points in the geological development of the continent be-
tween the Rio Grande and Arkansas river; by John L, LeConte.
nk a reflector to be used as a signal in ne Pte operations; by

standard meter of the “Conservatoire des Arts et
aris, In the summer of 1867; by F, A, P. Barnard.

Se ee eee eT ~ Oe er

Miscellaneous Intelligence, 281

On observations of the zodiacal light; by Benjamin Peirce.

Notes on a treatise on topographical ‘drawing, by J. Enthoffer;
by J. E. Hilgard.

Remarks upon the condition of the skeleton of Mastodon found
at Rehecs, N. Y., and its relations to the geology of the surround-
ing co ; b James Hall.

Solution of a particular form of Algebraic equation; by Benj.

‘Not n the velocity of transmission of perceptions and voli-
ray re 3B. A, Gould.

'On the Miocene Flora, 0 of North Sees by Professor
ace Herr, (Translated by Bobert H. 5 tt.) —Amon g Prof.
Heer’s important results is the following. The ae of Atanekerd-
luk ernie weiaowt a doubt, that North Greenland, in the Miocene
Epoch, had a climate much warmer than its present one. The
eee: ae be at lea

of siblo then th wade him on a forrher occasion. It is —. impos

We cannot draw accurate conclusions as to the climatal conditions
in which they flourished. It pinacheitions quite certain that they
never could have borne a low mane ature.

ing living
the ‘highest nit atanable by them, even under artificial cult ture,
lies at least 12° to the southward. This, however, ante not give
a fair view of the circumstances of the case. The trees at Atane-

the firs and 3 rs which we meet at Atanekerdluk and at ee
Sound, Spitsbergen, must have reached up to the north pole, in so

282 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

far forth as there was wane there in the Tertiary B someted The hills
of fossilized wood foun M’Clure and his co ions in Banks
Land (lat. 74° 27’ N) 2 are nto damncinn which should not
astonish us; they only confirm the evidence as to the original veg-
etation of the polar regions which we have derived from o

ure

He then selects Sequoia Langsdorfii, the most abundant of the
trees at Atanekerdluk, and proceeds to investigate the conclusions
as to climate deducible from the fact of its existence in Greenland.

i t

existence it requires a summer temperature of 60° ve ts fruit re-
quires a temperature of 65° F, for ripening. The
ture must not fall below 31° F., and that of the halle year must
¥ at least 50° F, Acco ccordingly we may consider the isothermal
_ as its northern limit. we may then i as the n
ern temperature of the Sequoia Langsdorffii, and 50° F. a s the
absolute minimum of temperature — which vd vopetatiils of
uk could have existed the
The present annual temperature of t the locality is about 20° F.
Dove gives the normal temperature of the latitude (70° N.) at 16°F,

I think these facts are convincing and the more so as they are
not insulated, but confirmed by the evidence derivable from the
Miocene Flora of Iceland, Spitzbergen, and Northern Canada.
These conclusions, eg So ‘only a in the grand chain of evi-

«

the
phenomena in a satisfactory manner. We must only admit that
we are face to face with a problem, whose sabetioalt in all probability
must be attempted and, we doubt “hot, completed by the astron-
omer,

OBITU.
_ Creistran Gorrien F born at Magdeburg,
in Prussia on the 8th of Sf ey 1805, 9 Exon, on the sat nef July,
1866, at Tremont near New York. A’ om of singular beauty and
simplicity of sharacter, an artist and a scientist, he well brags

city. : The stern will of his father Med him to learn the
of a carpenter, but he devoted himse without his father’s knowl-

prize. no longer
epposed the youth wishes; he entered the the Royal School of Arts in
deburg, and at the conclusion of his studies, bore off the most

j
4
:

—~ oo ee

Miscellaneous Intelligence, 283

ee testimonials, He settled at first in Magdeburg
acher of drawing, removed thence to Hambur, urg, where he t taught

tive Setion to which, Prof. Sollbach contributed the text and
Engel the drawin: The work is one of extraordinary porcen! cols
value, but is, we believe but little known in this country.
eee optical studies soon led him to the a theory of light;
w and then calbener in wood a model of the wave sur
in biaxial crystals. Of these models Prof. Plicker in Bonn re-
ceived the first; the second ro sent to the great ag in
e afterward

more spe ary home inthis country. For nearly eighteen months

er his arrival misfortune seemed to pursue him; his scanty sav-
ings rapidly wasted, no means of support offered themselves, and he
had formed the siebiaien to go to England when he made the ac-
quaintance of a few men of scientific tastes and pursuits who ~

ge
Vibrations and back again to a plane vibration at right angles to
The attention of the late Prof. Bache having been di-

?

k the ts an
survey for the great work which Prof. Bache
and even engraved the outlines on copper his own h
ars of his life he was ¢ oa wae perestaly with the
uminati manner

soins Vy'ucnet be se bao ce as ease: and whisk say boon oy 91

Place, New York. ed

284 Miscellaneous sawed

s, in the work above referred to, and some
unpublished optical pre which we have had the ae > of

Sir Davip Brewster, K. H.—Sir David Brewster died a at “the
age of 86 on the 10th of February last

ys 3 V. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY.
eris and Nautical Almanac for the

e Am *
i 7” re Published = uthority of the Secretary of the Navy.
ashington, 1867. Large 8vo, pp. 516,

?
that object omg in Greenwich time. e Pegs portion
is ae , and is constructed for ipa on tim

nom Pp
tical Batam of navigators, exploring expeditions, boundary
commissions, coast and lake surveying parties, and astronomical

whe oldedt reer is = Connaissance des Temps, —— i

the Bureau des Longitudes of the French Government.

— Sogn in 1679, so that the volume for 1869 is the 191st of ‘the
The Nautical oe and Astr l Ephemeris ee

" among all the nations thus repre-
it was considered a discredit to a country to be
manac up on a foreign oecunen nt.
onably at the present the best known and most
, British M% A

ee pa he ene En

Sans

Miscellaneous Bibliography. 285

form of the tables the excellent arrangement of the British Alma-
nac, devised in 1830 by a committee of the Royal al Astronomical So-

ne similar publication i in the Bh
Support will surely a" Sadetataine a

286 Miscellaneous Bibliography.

to a country with such large maritime interests, such a territory to
survey, and we a add, one that is so honorably known for its
astronomical scie

2. Sound: ae course of eight lectures, ée.; by Joun TYNDALL
LL.D., F.R.S., &e. &e. London. Lo origman, Greens & Co. 1867.
—This work on sound by Dr. Tyndall, is a aac exposition
of the eres phenomena of — and especially of what may
be termed Opt-acoustics. It is a stenographic report of eight lec-
tures delivered at the Royal hiatstonion Such books have nearly
the life and freshness of the spoken ih while they have this
advantage over the latter, that the experiments mever misca
and “oy t all who are addressed have an equal opportunity of see-
ing an nore

in air (pp. pee “m one among Bsyer Bon instances ee a co
of felicitous expression scarcely ever seen outside of poetry, We
refer to his i of Wheatstone’ 8 Ftelephanie concert, i (pe —-
hi on heat, the author appe — more prominently
asa discoedtens in the present work, original labors are not rot watt
ing, but he is mainly an expositor of the nhosidees of others, and
most ere nema of A aera 1z,
e true source 0: mbre ” in musical sounds, the composition
of vowel samme’ se de e origin of resultant tones, as given int the

under which its constituents are united. Before Helmholz, men
= attri ibuted timbre to the union of subordinate sounds with

| “the orbit. Hel:
“rt ri

; * Die Lehre a. m. aS eS il 1865.

- a 2

a tee«

Miscellaneous Bibliography, 287

vasse, in which case the exclamation ‘ nows sommes Jinis’ was quite
natural, s.

3. Guyot’s Geographical Text Books; 1, Primary ; 2, Intermedi-
ate; 3, Common School. New York, C. Scribner & Co.—These three -
Volumes are likely to attract the attention of all who see them be-
cause of their beautiful engravings and maps, and because of their
clear and satisfactory typography; but these are minor merits,
The true value of the series consists in the fact that it is prepared
by one who is a master of the science which he treats and who is

so a skillful and experienced teacher, well acquainted with the
Tequirements of American schools, Such text-books are so rare in
the educational literature of this country, and the number of “ man-

actured ” text-books, pre by incompetent persons is so great,
especially in elementary science, that all who are interested in the
promotion of thorough education and the diffusion of true science
ould welcome the appearance of new manuals which can honestly

- Men would be much easier than it is t, whe
ni PEP gaa sy admitted to be dispro onately defective.
‘ % e Guyot books are the only ies which we know eta}

wit e aspects of Nature,
and he is soon led to discover that the physical peculiarities of the
hes mae; countries underlie, and to some extent control national and

288 Miscellaneous Bibliography.

\

mory by requiring the wh: res of long lists of names, at first
siebitownee the Guyot series strange and hard; but we are persua-
ded that if sae will by single class eEiGagh either book, the

as well as the memory ; and that the powers of judgi paring
and of image-forming has been very greatly enlarged.
ography is the one study involving an acquaintance with the

-world of nature, which has been gradually introduced into the
common schools, it ought to be taught on right principles, and now
for the first time among us this is possible.

The maps which illustrate the Guyot books are admirably pre
sete so as to exhibit at once, natural features and political divi-
They are om un nece ssary details and present impor-

en made still more sanseabic to “haueirshags instructors.
. e wall-maps, which = issued by the same publishers, and
. Guyot an i Land a

sions stood to the room for which they are designed. The lar-
ger sets are admirably adapted to pea lecture rooms and acad-
ace and the pre to ae

A Journey in Brazil ; by reine and Mrs, Louis AGa
540 pp. 8vo, eran several pices Boston, 1868. tog rts & Fields)

1865, has a double interest from its joint authorship. The Journa

. Agassiz i is full of interesting incident and déseription, writ-
ten in a graceful and attractive style. Prof. Agassiz has added to
the chapters the ee of many of his important scientific bee ee)

i Beeyey of California. Paleontology. Vol. II, Section I, Partl,
ae, Plates. (13 plates, from drawings by the. Paleon:

ne ao WM Ga
‘lan Preaeie wis nee Sal onitinee of Ontology: Eternal Forces, La
crab
ner & Co.) "aa eh Dor, -D. 456 i 8v0. ee 1867. (

:

-
os
4

a .

E

;.

Wee et ee See t De |

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[SECOND SERIES.] =

Art. XXX—On the Musical Ratios, and our Pleasure in
Harmonious Sounds; by Henry Warp Poote. Z

Urinrry, in a liberal sense, may be assumed to be the goal of
scientific et ct We should all rejoice if the ov-
erles in heat should lead to material results in making avail-
able those immense forces which are said to result from the
ie of a pound of hydrogen or of coal. It would be grat-

if the laws of light shall be so far understood, at we

ootifined to the musical de ent, genet Pies nee ee vibri-
tions and relations are eathiaek and only the simple and regu-
lar are admitted. And here, e to say, in all times, the

strange
practice has been in advance of the science.
Singers and players have used, and still are using, in
which please themselves and their auditors, while the Setkntiotn
nd have declared that

y soun

To illustrate this His 8 I take the last and most complete

work on Sound* that I have seen. The excellence of other _
of this work, and the high merits of the author, make it

hoteworthy { that after such minute experiment with metal and pes

wooden rods, disks, sin, flames, oe the higher — oe

should have Teeeived recline attentio

* Sound, A utior i

Britain, by J

Pi

Eu
It is pleasant for us to observe ‘means co-operant to an e€

290 H. W. Poole on the Musical Ratios.

But although every singer and musician may have his inner
revelation of what musical intervals really are, it is important
that they should be understood and acknowledged by the sci-
entific, and the teachers of music,

It is not difficult to find a pair of children, or a quartette of
friends, who will sing in perfect tune. But in nearly every
church and music room ‘is set up an organ with but twelve
pipes in each octave, which can not make a perfect chord, or
one which would be tolerated by the vocalists referred to, What
is the fault of these instruments ? Can instruments be made

show what I mean. Nothing is more common than to sing a

error. The efiect on a good singer is to deaden his sensibility

and consequently spoil him, It is remarkable that this inter-

val of 4:7 is not recognized by Professor Tyndall, who has,
wn

Euler gives a good theory, which Professor Tyndall quotes
as follows.

order.
But

t as to weary

oa

Ke
s
4

Se eee Rr ete oe ne eg, Se ee

HT, W. Poole on the Musical Ratios. 291

Next, the fifth, 2 : 3, is “very pleasing, but the consonance is
hardly so perfect as in the last instance; there is a barely per-
ceptible roughness here. Next to the octave, this is the most
pleasing combination.” The “roughness of the fourth, 3 : ;
is a little more pronounced.” The harmony of the major third
: 5, is declared “less perfect,” and that of the minor third,
5 : 6, “usually [?] less perfect still.” And he declares the law
that “the combination of two notes is the more pleasing to the
ear, the smaller the two numbers which express their vibrations.”
No ratio higher than 5 : 6 is mentioned, except 13 : 14, which
is declared “altogether discordant.” As a reason, it might be
stated that the prime 13 is far beyond the limit of musical
ratios. The ratios 6: 7,5: 7,7: 9, and all reference to the
chords derived from seven, are omitted by Professor Tyndall in
this course of lectures, But he says that musicians have chosen
the simple intervals “empirically, and in consequence of the
pleasure they gave, long before any thing was known regarding
eir numerical simplicity,”
If musicians have chosen the most simple intervals as most
pleasing, it is not true that they have considered fifths as in-
ferior to octaves, or the latter as less pleasing than unisons,

properly combined, are entirely perfect and equally pleasing,
one with the other. Beyond these limits, all are incomprehen-

ed fifths as “ perfect concords,” thirds, as
er and worst of all, the beautiful concord of the seventh,
73

1m; viz., “beats.” And, following Helmholtz, he says that

ve—

Here our rates of vibration, are

512—256; difference—256.
It is plain that in this case we can have no beats, the difference be-
ing too high to admit of the : ae |
et us now take the fifth, Here the ratios of vibration, are

?

292 H. W. Poole on the Musical Ratios.

This difference is barely under the number 1382, at which the beats
vanish ; consequently the ci anya must be very slight indeed.

Ta aking the fourth, the numbers

384—312; nye ae

Here we are clearly within the limit where the beats vanish, the
consequent roughness being quite sensible.

Taking the major third, “the numbers are

320—256; difference=64.
Here we are still further within the limit, and, accordingly, the
nets | is more percept
us we see that the seperti of our tuning forks is entirely

in accordance with oP seek aon which assigns the dissonances
to beats. pp. 299-30

There is an RAs error in the numbers assigned to the
Yourth. As four tuning forks are mentioned, they are probably
those of the key-note, its octave, fifth, and major thirds. The
interval of the fourth, then, would be obtained by sounding
the fifth with the octave; giving

512384: difference =128

sate would give to the fourth the same “ roughness ” as to the

If coincidences in the vibrations of simple chords be what
is meant by “beats,” it would be easy to show that 33 such
beats per second are not necessarily disagreeable. It is stated
that 33 vibrations give a “perfect musical tone.” If we sound
with this its octave with 66 vibrations, we shall have a still more
agreeable musical effect, as always results from such addition
toa very low note—and there will result just 33 coincidences,
or so called beats. But if we should add a fifth, with 49°5 vi-
brations, the effect would not be so good. A major third, with
41-25 vibrations would be strug yet the ‘ beats” would
be just 33 in each case. Why is this differen mce? Theanswer
is found re examining the harmonic series:

1:2:3:4:5:6:7:8:9: 10.

to the double octave, with five times
a with seven times 33 or 231. The rule

H.. W. Poole on the Musical Ratios. - 293

if so, the fifth must have at least three times its number of
vibrations, the third five times, and the seventh seven times.
At all events these different chords will always keep these rel-
ative positions, or a fifth can always be sounded lower than a
third, and both lower than a seventh; which accords with the
practice of musicians. For certain melodic movements, it
would seem as if all these intervals can be taken about an oc-
tave lower than the limiting note of 33 vibrations would per-
mit. Can not the vibrations of the octave below, or 164, be felt
in union with the octave and other harmonics above, and in
this way be considered as audible ? For the musical ear hears
only what is plain enough to be understood, and relations too
remote are often made clear and agreeable by the addition of
other sounds. So a note in combination may be audible, which
alone is not so.

distributions; but it is certain that the harmonic series shows
the best order and the proportion of each element admissible.
Thus, before the seventh is sounded, we have the fundamental
note in three octaves, the fifth in two, and the major third o
in one,
- Professor Tyndall says much about the harmonics, which he
"calls “overtones.” He says:

And be it remarked, that the overtones are indispensable to the
character of musical sounds. Pure sounds, without overtones,
would be like pure water, flat and dull. —

I believe that pure water is good, either to use in its purity,
or to mingle with other elements at pleasure, and that pu

inite knowledge concerning the qualities of tone, but it depends
unds.

the minor third, accompanying each note by its harmonic to the
tenth degree. The octave is as follows:

impossi ible to
han 264. Hence
32, dissonance

H. W. Poole on the Musical Ratios. 295

must be entirely _— from the combination which we have just ex-
amined, ave therefore is an absolutely perfect consonance.
There is eneetel strange in calling a combination harmo-
nious because the rapidity of the discordant beats is so t sa,
that they are inaudible. The fact is, that a chord is nearly in
tune and begins to give agreeable effects when its beats are very
slow. When the chord is more out of tune and the beats be-
come rapid, and mingle in a flutter, whether of 132 a second or
more, the ear ceases ‘to regard the sounds as a chord; but a
cannot be said that “dissonance must be entirely absent; “0
the contrary it is terribly present.
Whether the twenty sounds given above be harmonious or
not, it can be shown that this does not depend on the circum-
stances that there are no coincidences less than 132. For
twenty other sounds might be added at random utterly discor-
dant, but not beating owe) than 192. For example, 265 :
529, 266 : 530, etc., all having the difference of 264, And in
all the examples given, the addition of the overtones does not
effect the case, for if the fundamental tones have the desired
difference of 132, the first harmonic is sure to have twice this
difference, and the others still more. Buta point might have
een made, which has been overlooked by Tyndall, in es cir-
cumstance that these overtones make a “rough ” chor
harmonious, See the major third, 4 : 5, 330—264= difference
66, and the minor third, 5 : 6, 396 — 330=difference 66. These
are called rough, because their differences are less that 132.
But their first harm rmonics have a difference of 132, and all x
the following differences are far beyond the assumed limits of .
dissonance. But the whole thsory is untenable.
mrad the effect is good when each note is accompanied by har-
nics, the reason will be found in the simple relations Tehich
ase and in the circumstance that what would be oe
alone, may be clear when auxiliary sounds are pre

After as sserting the equality of the musical pare in compo-
sition, I admit the su Deaionity of the simpler ratios for modu-
lations. A cha key aS made to _ fifth above or

one. But modulations do re seem pac racticable by a third o or
seventh, or the primes 5 and a change would sound
e an abrupt gqandition.
In rhythm again, no other primes than 2 and 3 have been
found polable. A single composition has been ma de with jive —
beats, or d equal divisions, i in 2 bar, but at Ve esires

Be it
is more satis eur a

296 H, W. Poole on the Musical Ratios.

it is simpler. Yet the waltz movement is perfectly clear to
most lovers of music. The rhythm which results from joining
three doublets or two triplets in a single measure gives an
agreeable variety.

Although Professor Tyndall remarks that it is not his “vo-
cation to lead into the musical portion of Acoustics,” it is to
be wished that so able a man would do so. The physical por-
tion of musical acoustics, and the definition of musical inter-
vals have also been omitted by a late lecturer on Harmony at

pa

H. W. Poole on the Musical Ratios. 297

and practicing accordingly, can nevertheless overcome this pala caused by
our present method of tuning, and learn to sing correctly and pure

Dr. Feyjoé, who, in his time did most to’ enlighten Spain, was
‘learned in music, and explained a the armonic” meant,
In his convent’ at Oviedo, in 1734, he thus aeaies pure intonation,
which is the “ unknown charm” of singing, the “no sé qué,” which
one has and another nes not.

“Could I hear this ee says al te would tell a0 feng is the a ee

e whi

4 Sea or registers, a bcbg r notes oF 3 a g10 up S an

comma apart are istinguished by large and small letters as I have
done,—originally as

sical science; my lon ng neglect of the German language >and alte.
ness of time, have not yet allowed me to learn all uld wish
about the treatment of this favorite protégé of mine. “But there
are signs of i pate progress escent pure vocal music and its
auxiliary instrument al theory of Harm
I am o oid to script sion of anew “

ttable ;

= and minor, as aged

67); plays ve pies

ick an be smi for
eae

298 W. Gibbs on the measurement of wave-lengths.

Art. XXXI.—On the measurement of wave-lengths by the
method of comparison. Abstract of a paper read before the
National Academy of Sciences, Aug. 16, 1867 ;-by Wotcort
Gisss, M.D., Rumford Professor in Harvard University.

more convenient and expeditious than that of least squares.
The relation between the scale-numbers and wave-lengths 18
given by an expression of the form

A=a+t+bk+ck?+dk?, &.

g them, as before, so as to correspond wit
y Angstrom for Fraunhofer’s line D. As

each group,
venth eight,

th seven measu
| ae 5

te.

ae

W. Gibbs on the measurement of wave-lengths. 299
*

the ends of the different parabolic curves representing the
successive groups.

In Table I, the elements of the computation and the differ-
ences between the wave-lengths, as actually measured and as
computed by the formulas, are given. Column N gives the
number of each element, W the weight, K the scale-number,
4 the observed wave-length, and 4 the difference between the
observed values of the wave-lengths and the values calculated
by the constants given in Table II. It must be borne in mind
that the sign + or — refers to the excess or deficiency of the
observed over the calculated wave-lengths. e column é gives
the probable error in the case of each group; it may also be
considered as expressing the probable error in the determination
of any wave-length by the method of comparison, for a par-
ticular portion of the scale.

TABLE I.

K a A € N

K a A €
537°50

1421°5

wow! &

ow aomwnn | 4 |

so
“~ — =|
Ow olowouin on wrswolo acuere vw | |

6
6
ef
19
2
8
10 8
10 8
Il I
19 6
13 4
14 8
4
3

=

ed

vo

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CH DOAN

I
_

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fs

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&
oo
om Omwn vi
-_ $ :

WA ADKIADORDY MOwWaQna!l Awa

300 = WW. Gibbs on the measurement of wave-lengths.
TaBLE I—(Continued).
Niw| xk | a A | e« | nlwl x | a | A e
73| 9) 2067'1 | 487°53| -0-03 93} 1} 2547 2| 450°12| 40°44
74 |21| 2080°0| 486-49 06 9} 2566°3 | 448.45| ~0-05
75| 1| 2103-3| 484-62| +0°32 95| 7) 26066} 445-99) 40-05
76} 8| 2119.8| 482-80] -0-16 4| 2627°0| 444-63
77| 1} 2148.9| 480-54} +0:23 97| 7| 2638-6| 443:83| 0-05
78| 1) 2157.4| 479-53] -o0-03 98| 8) 2670°0! 441'87| _0'0
79| 3| 2160.6} 479-21] —0.19 99| 7} 2686°6| 440 86} +~o'o1 f
80} 6) 2187-1} 476:92] -0-18 100 | 12} 2721°6| 438°74| or00} hor
81} 3) 2201-9 a5% +0°09
82] 2/ 2291-7 4433 +0°22
83| 5) 2233-5] 473-35| +0°30
84} 2) 2250°0; 471°24| -0-38| +0-22
84) 2| 2250°0| 471°24| 40:02 100 |12! 2721°6 | 438-74| 40°15
85) 4 2264°3| 470-69} 40°05 101} 7| 2734°9| 437-79} +
86) 12) 2 467'06| _0:02 102} 8) 2775°7| 435-66| +014
87| 5| 2416'0| 460 41°06 103} 11] 2797°0| 434:32| 0°33
88! 5) 2436°5| 458.65 40°34 104 |11| 2822°8 | 433-80] +0.23
89| 3) 2457°5| 456°80| 40°18 105117} 2854:7| 431°34| —0°25
9°} 6) 2467°6! 455:70| _o20 100] 7) 2869°7| 430°36| 40°26] +-0°28
'91| 8) 2489°4/ 453-71| _o-66
92] 2| 2537.1 ‘541 0-46
93) 1) 2547°2| 450'12| 0 17| +0°66

Table II* gives the values of the constants a, b, c, d and é, r,
as deduced from the elements given in Table I. In this table is
column 1 gives the initial and column 2 the —— point :
upon Kirchoff’s scale for each curve. It wi
that, in one gna, the observations are rei aaa by

a straight
TABLE II.
1 2 a b c d é
65665) 26325) 41 ‘0490 403618}. .ee ee
614119) ~17°670) _5°5 : +46 sth -0 8910
571°47 . Sosra7l 4S fae:
550°82 _o° ae Spm ek
537°49 o| 4.0°7960| 6.0
523: ty 2403| «cee
510°30 ZOETSO}] sic ess
498°76 16630} ...-.-
487°4 eee = eis :
ai ns neers : :
9 H eines :
438°58) . sir ae _1°6350

mi ft iregulactex of ce ee
Th ‘is eae of notice that this :
: precisely in those portions

; d most

E. C. Pickering on different forms of the Spectroscope. 301

uniform ; it is, however, easily explained by the frequent
variations in the position o of the prisms in the s ectroscope
employed. It is not to be denied that the advantages of the

method of comparison in the determination of wave-lengths
will more fully appear when an extended spectrum shall have

een drawn with the data yielded by a spectroscope in which,
as in that of Mr. Rutherfurd, all the prisms are in the posi-
tion of least deviation for each ray in succession.

In my former paper, I have given a method of comparing a
given spectrum directly with Kirchoff’s chart, by means of a
particular arrangement of the scale telescope. I have. since
found that it is simpler and better to employ a camera
lucida attached to the eye piece of the observing teles-
cope. The chart is placed upon the table below and serves to
identify the lines. To find the gee ae of a single pe as for
instance the green thallium line, upon the chart by compari-
son, one-half of the slit of the Sottninaites must receive direct
sunlight while the other half receives the light of the flame
containing thallium, the camera lucida and chart being ad-
justed in the manner already described. A filar micrometer
may, also, be employed with great advantage whenever the
field of view contains, at the same time, the line the wave-
length of which is to be determined, and one or more other
lines of which the wave-lengths are known, or which can be
identified upon the chart by means of the camera lucida.

Cambridge, March 6, 1868.

Art. XXXII—On the Comparative Efficiency of different
nee of the cage 12 by Epwarp C, PICKERING.

vha aon to pro-
duce the seine di oo r ed: with the least loss of light. We
have then to consider : ie dispersion, the loss by as and
that by absorption. #

1. Dispersion.—The dispersion
of any part of the spectrum, is
proportional to the mre inter-
val be

302 E.C. Pickering on different forms of the Spectroscope.

r=5, siné=nsin>.....(1). If dn be the difference of the
indices of refraction of the two rays, di will be their angular
Fo fo,

divergence. Differentiating (1), di= —2 dn=- tani dn.. (2),
in which = tang 7% serves as a measure of the dispersion under
different angles of incidence. It differs essentially (when the
angle of incidence is large) from the deviation which is com-
monly, but incorrectly, assumed as the measure.

Comparative dispersion and deviation of a ray entering a medium in which n=1'5.

Angle of inci-
, 0°; 15°} 30° | 45° [5691971 60° | 75° | go0° | 85° | 90°

"0 | -179) -385 | -667 | 1-000 | 1-1565) 2-488 | 3-781 | 7-620 | ©

ae - m 0
Deviation ir, 0°'5° 4/110 94,10" 00 (24° 00' | £4" 44 | 04” 00/55 DO |43> 40 40 ll

as dispersion, |"0 ' -231| -465 | ‘746 | 1-000 | 1-093 | 1°543 | 1-720 | 1-917 | 2-121

The dispersion then increases much more rapidly than the
deviation ; hence in spectroscopes whose deviation is the same,
that one will disperse most, in which 7 and therefore « is the
greatest.

ut in reality the light so
in this state another la
the amount reflected. Fresnel showed that of a ray

z pees ae
aes ae while a ray polarized in a plane perpendicu-

£. C. Pickering on different forms of the Spectroscope. 308

dence, the amount transmitted would be 3[(1—A’)?+(1— B'}*]
and after passing m surfaces 3[((1—A’")+(1—B’)”).

This formula can be applied directly to the m surfaces of the

risms of a spectroscope, since in the position of minimum
deviation 7 and r are the same for all, and therefore the amount
transmitted is the same, whether the passage is from glass to
air, or from air to glass,

The formulas of Fresnel are used in preference to those of
Cauchy, although the latter have been proved, by Jamin and
others, to be more correct. But the coefficient of ellipticity
which they involve is neither so commonly, nor so easily found
as the index of refraction. Furthermore, for glass the difference
would probably be so small that it could be neglected.

3. Absorption—The average length of glass traversed by
the light is one half the base AB, multiplied by N the number
of prisms, and the amount escaping absorption is proportional
to the log. of this distance, or to log Nx BC sin3e, or in prisms

admitting the same amount of light (that is in which BD is the
ipo
same) to log BDxN = =, since BU= i but the dispersion
is proportional to N a
equally and composed of prisms of the same material, the Joss
y absorption will be the same in all, so that as far as the ab-
sorption is concerned, it makes no difference whether a spectro-
Scope is composed of a large number of very acute angled prisms,
or of a less number in which the angle is more obtuse.
hus we avoid a difficulty which seemed at first sight insur-
mountable, since the actual amount of light absorbed varies not
only with the material, but with the refrangibility of the rays,
and according to laws not yet discovered. : :
The following tables give the deviation, dispersion, and
amount of light escaping reflection, of spectroscopes compo
of from one to ten prisms of indices of refraction 1°5, 1-6 and 1°7.

ey TABLE I.—45° Prisms.

) hence in spectroscopes dispersing

surface.| 1 prism. | 2 p. 3p. 4p. 5D. 10 p.

20” 4° 150° 8/76? 12'/100° 16’}125° 20’ 250° 407
"30° 307619 0’| 91° 307/122° 07|152° 307305 07
36° 10” 72° 20’/108° 30’|144° 40’|180° 50/3614 40’

1870 | 2304 | 3.739 | 4-674
1-936 | 2-904 | 3 ;
2-016 | 3-023 | 4-031 | 5-039

"ta | -424 | 66
m99 | -719 | -651 | “692 |
53 | “578 | “51

304 ELC. Pickering on different forms of the Spectroscope.

TABLE II.—60° Prisms.

lsurface.| 1 prism. 2p. { 10 p.
15 |18° 35')37° 10’| 74° 207 ue ‘a0l1ase 40" 186° '50’|371° 40°
Deviation 1°6|23° 8'\46° 16’| 92° 32'/138° pe bee 4! |231° 20/1|462° 40!
1-7 |/28° 13'156° 2671112° 52/1699 24’\225° 447 re 10’|564° 20/
15 | °756 1512 | 3°023 4.535 6-046 7-558 |15°116
Dispersion 1°6| °833 1667 | 3°334 5-000 6°667 8°334 68
CLT] -949 1899... S797 5°696 7594 9-493 |18°986

15| 945 895 811 “jA2 686 “641 509
Transmitted + 1°6| -920 853 “148 “672 618 “578 “491
ey

"888 ‘801 “681 “608 B65 ‘538 *505
Taste IIl.—Angles of Prisms 67° 22’, 64° and 60° 56’.

1°5 122° 38//45° 16’ fe 32’ 135" 48'\181° 4’ [226° 20’ 452° 40!
Deviation 1°6 |26° 62° 156° 208° 260° 5

17 129° 4’ |68° 8’ ae 16/|174° 24’|232° 32'|290° 40’ bie 20’

15
Dispersion 16 1. 2 4 6 8 10 20

17

16 923 *863 "163 ‘691 "639 -600 520
Transmitted 4 1°6| -899 “818 “702 "629 “582 “552 505

Lt ‘874 “780 “657 *b88 *b49 *b23 -bO1

Table I applies to ase of 45°. Table II to those of 60°,
these being the forms in general use, and Table III. where the
angle is such that the reflected light would be totally pola

10 prisms of Deviation. Septic. Transmitted. Trans Xcos?-
ey 305° 0’ 9°680 “e011 308
60° 462° 40’ 16°668 "294
64° ° 20°000 "268
- Again, comparing cartes producing equal deviation,
Devia Dispersion. Transmi Trans. X cos #-
12 ier of 45° 366°." 11°616 "339 “268
“

ag” 370° 8 13°334 532 *319
64° 364° 14,

EF, A. Genth—OContributions to Mineralogy. 305 .

60° prisms, over those of 45°. A much greater angle is objec-

tionable from the increased distortion produced by the siisblest wf

imperfection i in the refracting faces.

risms admitting the same amount of light the more
acute the angle, the less is the quantity of glass and the less
the area of each face. The ground might be taken that a 45°
prism could be made larger than one o at the same ex-
pense, and thus the difference in light hedials In this case,
however, it would be necessary to enlarge the telescope, number
of prisms, and in fact the whole instrument. Even supposing
this change made, the prisms of larger angle preserve their
superiority, though not in so marked a degree. The calculation
is readily made by multiplying the transmitted light by cos 7,
as 1s done in the above examples,

The index of refraction varying with a Space! of the
rays, the oe loss of light, &c., would v: n different
parts of the spectrum. The change ound, hiseenee,. be small,
and could be determined, if necessary, = merely altering n.

Institute of Technology, Boston, Feb. 29th, 186

Art. XXXIII.—Contributions to Mineralogy.—No. VII; by
F, A. GEnrTHu.

Durine the last year or two, I have been engaged with the
investigation of several very rare minerals, the composition
of which was but little known, or doubtful, principally from
localities on the Pacific coast.

Tn some instances, the results which have been obtained, al-
though sufficient to establish with great probability the true
nature of the species, represented, on account of the great
Scarcity of material, the composition of mixtures of several
minerals. As for instance with the California tellurids, of

306 F. A, Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

Cerro Colorado mine, Southern Arizona, under the impression
that it contained a large amount of silver, and he was requested
to acre we value of the ore, To the great 2 oe ae

men, which he indly sae to m

In its crystalline structure and Anes it has exactly the ap-
pearance of specimens, furnished by the original merge! the
Pewabic mine, Michigan. It is somewhat intermixed wit
hornstone-like mineral. The analysis gave, after deducting
9°52 per cent of hornstone, ete. :

Copper, 88- s Aes! cent.
Silver, a tra
Arsenic, 11 46 ”

From La Lagoona, a rancho on the road to Libertad, about
35 miles from Saric, Sonora, where it is said to exist in con-
siderable quantities,

2. American Tellurium minerals.—The first rela of a
tellurid in — country is due to Dr. C. T. Jackson (this
Journ. [IT], vi, 188), who from some preliminary a
supposed that from the Whitehall mine, Spotsylvania Co.,
som had been mistaken for molydenite, to be foliated ae

ok short time afterward 2 mineral was discovered at @
gold mine in Fluvanna Co., Va., which much resembled that
from the Whitehall mine. ” It was analyzed by Mr. Coleman
Fisher, Jr. (this Journ. [IT], vii, 282), who recognized it as a
“ telluret of bismuth,” containing a large percentage of 8é-
lenium.

In a cerask aes poten ee Journ, a (TTL x, 78), Dr.
Jackson corrects his first statement and esult of an
analysis, cowie ne Whitehall caine ts Es Geiecilynitte and
not foliated telluri
__In his paper he ai observed the ‘occurrence of yellow oxyd
of bismuth, investing the nodules of the tellurium ore, which is
not carbonate of bismuth, for it does not effervesce with acids.
__In the year 1850, I discovered tetradymite in Davidson Co.,
N. Di. of which I published a description and analysis (this
Journ, u ourn. [II], |, xvi, 81). I mention as associated with it a mineral,

ey

esulting : ts oxydation, containing tellwric acid.
= ine my re ag to "Mineralogy (this Journ. it, a
15), I show that the mineral from Fluvanna Co., Va.

pase Pea Fisher, Jr., contains no appreciable quan
& pure tertellurid tof bismut

a

FA. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy. 307

As new localities of tetradymite I mention the Phoenix
mine and Boger mine, Cabarrus Co.,

Several localities at which tetradymite was found, were

ven by Prof. C. U. Shepard, one in the Chestatee river near
Dahlonega, Lumpkin Co., Ga., then the Pascoe mine, Cherokee
Co., and another near Van Wort in Polk Co., Ga. (this Journ,
[IL], XXvii, 39).

The discovery of bornite at Field’s gold mine, near Dahlo-
nega, Ga., was announced by Dr. Jackson (11), xxvii, 366).
This I proved subsequently to be erroneous (Mining Magazine,
Vad , i, 358), showing the mineral, like that from Fluvanna Co.,

a., to be tertellurid of bismuth, which opinion was fully
corroborated by a reéxamination of the same mineral by Mr.
David M. Balch, (this Journ, [II], xxxv, 99).

These are, as far as I can ascertain, all ‘the localities at which
tellurium minerals have been found in the Atlantic States,
and they represent only the one _Species, tetradymite, but in
its two well established varieties.*

The Pacific States have lately furnished a far greater variety
and in fact, with the exception of sylvanite, all the known tel-
urium minerals have been found there, together with several
new ones

Prof, W. P. Blake was the first who reported the occurrence
of tellurium ores in California (Geological Reconnoissance in
California, 302) (this Journ, [II], xxii, 270), stating that a
mineral containing tellurium and silver, probably hessite, had
been oat S out from a gold drift near Georgetown, Eldorado

uri is contained in a A a on ng “New Me-
lones Gold and Silver Mines,” in which appears a Report of
Mr. —— A. Stetefeldt on the Reduction of "Telluric Gold

recognizable by its tin-white color we great luster.”
Mr. Guido Kiistel describes in the Mining and Scientific

Press of San Francisco, of May 20th, 1865, the principal ore

of the Melones mine, << te Tlurite () of” silver-gold as a new spe-

cies, gives its specific gravity as from 9 to 9°4 and the cdémpo-

is men t
vii cin Sar a ar
bE ere probably ene ee examination, however, Botts them to

& =

amy
wk
See

BS tata

308 F, A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

sition, determined by peuripe analysis as follows: Au=24'80,
Ag=40- 60, Te=35'40 (?). In a communication dated San
Francisco, "Jan. 4, 1866 (Berg. und Hiittenminnische Zeitung,

1866, 128), he states that he has neither observed sylvanite x
tellurid of ‘lead, but besides the principal ore, of whic
gives his previous results (misprinted 21:80 instead of 24: 80),
fellurid of silver, native tellurium, copper-nickel (!? Genth)
pyrites and free gold.

r. Jas. Ross Siirenbs in his Report on the Mineral Resources
of the States and Territories West of the Rocky Mountains,
WwW ton, 1867, published W. P. Blake’s catalogue of March,
1866, in ‘which the latter states that at the Stanislaus and Me-
lones mines, “‘very beautiful specimens of gold associated with
tellurium were taken out of a vein from 6 to 18 inches thick,
and at a depth of 200 feet from the surface. This telluret has
a tin-white color and is not foliated like the tetradymite of the
Field vein in Georgia. Its exact specific character is not yet
determined.”

At the meeting of the Academy of Nat. Sciences in Phil-
adelphia, of August 6th, 1867, I have made some observations
referring to the } progress of my investigations, and announced
the occurrence of a new mineral, tellurid of nickel, at the
Melones mine.

In a private communication, dated Helena, Montana Terri-
tory, Nov. 25, 1867, Mr. J. L. Kleinschmidt ‘informs me, that

I Prof.

to its true na

Prof. B. Silliman mentioned at the session of Dec, 2, 1867,
of the California Acad of Sciences, the occurrence of tellurium
ores at three new localities—at the Golden Rule mine on the
separ lode near Poverty Hill, T nohimas Co., where ores sim-

, Tuolumne Co., where he discovered a very small crystal of
@. int one of the mines at Angel’s camp he observed foli-

ium.
the 5th of Dec. 1 1867, Mr. _ Kleinschmidt writes me from

*

4

F. A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy. 309

This brief review contains, I believe, all that has been com-
municated with reference to the occurrence and composition of
tellurium minerals in this country, and it will be seen from it

mineral, which may be native tellurium.
My analyses had to be made with the cleanest that could b

pieces, but they were at once, as far as possible, repeated, when
I received through the kindness of Dr. I. Adelberg and Messrs.
Louis Beckers and Jas. B. Hodgkin of New York, and E, Bal-
bach, Sr., of Newark, N. J., specimens from the Stanislaus
mine, which gave me minute quantities of perfectly pure alta-
ite, the highly auriferous hessite (petzite), and of the new and
interesting mineral calaverite. :

e tellurium ores of the Stanislaus mine occur in talcose
and chloritic slates, associated with quartz, dolomite, ? apatite,

anium mineral, titaniferous iron, pyrites, chalcopyrite,

perfectly pure “ae for analysis,
a. Petzite and Hessite—Of all the tellurium minerals, which
have been cuando California, that variety of tellurid of

310 F. A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

silver, in which a large portion of silver is replaced by gold,
the so-called petzite, appears to be the most common.

The specimens which I have examined, both from the Stan-
islaus mine and from the Golden Rule mine, were without crys-
talline structure, showed a distinct conchoidal fracture, metallic
luster and a color between dark steel gray and iron black, some-
times tarnished with pavonine colors. Brittle, soft, hardness
about 25, sp. gr. according to Kiistel 9—9-4. Streak, iron black.

B.B. with soda gives a bluish green flame and yields a silver
globule of a yellowish white color. Ifa fragment is place

e material for the analyses, highly magnified, was found
to be free from admixtures with the exception of a minute
quantity of quartz, which was deducted as follows: from analy-

I ‘60 p.c., from IT, 0-99 p. c., from IV, 0°48 p.c., and from
V, 0°59 p.e.

Stanislaus Mine. Golden Rule Mine.
I. II. Til. (Kiistel). IV. Vv.
Gold, 25°55 25°70 24°80 25°60 24:97
Silver, 41°93 . 42°36 40°60 41°86 40°87
Tellurium, 32°52" 31°94* 35-40? 32°68 34°16"
100700 100°00 ~=100°80 100°14 100°00

These analyses correspond closely with the composition, ex-
pressed by the formula: AuTe+3AgTe, which requires:

Au, 197 25°35
3Ag, 824 41°70
4Te, 256 32°95

777

_ This variety of auriferous tellurid of silver is closely allied
to that from Nagy-Ag, analyzed by Petz, but it contains a con-
siderably higher ol i

e analysis of Petz

ling this difference in composition, they should
: species, gold being capable of re-

F. A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy. 311

Not all the tellurid of silver from the Stanislaus mine, how-
ever, is petzite ; there occurs also the other variety, which does
not contain any, or only a very small percentage of gold, as

1

again, after having been thoroughly washed, but it was impos-
m8 to obtain it free from quartz, tellurid of nickel and free
0
It was necessary, therefore, for the purpose of ascertaining the
condition in which the gold was present, whether as tellurid
or free gold, to make a careful analysis of the free gold asso-
ciated with the Stanislaus mine tellurids, and from the amount
of silver remaining with the gold, after treating the mineral
with nitric acid, both the amount of free gold and that of tel-
lurid of gold was determined. The free gold contains:
Gold, 88°63 per cent.
Silver, 1°37 es

100°00
The purest hessite (I), after deducting 721 p. c. of admix-
tures, of which 4-22 p.c. were of free gold and the balance quartz,
and a less pure specimen (II), which contained 28°60 p. c. of
admixtures, of which 6 p.c. were of free gold, gave:
Requires Te. 16% Requires Te.
1°0 3°22 4

Gold, 3°28 05 for AuTe

Silver, 46°34 27°45 55°60 32°95 “ AgTe

Lead, 165 1°02 wae siae ce PDL

Nickel, 4°71 15°32 1°54 B01. .% NisTe,y

Tellurium, 44°45 39°64*

: 100° 44°85 10000 39°01

This would be equal to: :
Hassite, 2.62 cession chee 78°11 92°82
Altsite, ..... ..---ssa0¢ cee Oop 2°67 Bg
Melonite, =~. . -..--- ates 2-0 2 2008 PE ig

Ratio of Au: Ag in the hessite in I=1: 25; in W=1: 31. |

There certai ists also the variety of hessite, which is

nly exists hessite, W! Je
entirely free fees coll: that which was mixed with the impure .

312 F. A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

altaite, III, and with the melonite (see below), did not contain
any, and the material for analysis when dissolved in nitric acid,
did not separate any brown polis it contained, therefore, the
true hessite.

Altaite—This very rare mineral also occurs at the Sta
islaus mine as already observed by Charles A. Stetefeldt, on
it appears to be the mineral to which W. P. Blake refers in
his catalogue. I noticed it in eter quantities with the
petzite from the Golden Rule min

Itis easily distinguished from the other tellurids by its tin-
white color, which has a slight but distinct greenish yellow hue.
Tarnishes with a bronze yellow color. Cleavage distinctly, in
some pieces eminently cubical. angen brilliant metallic
luster. Hardness below 3. Streak gray.

Analysis I was made with an almost pure piece; after de-
ducting 1°03 p. c. . of quartz, and 1°96 p.c. for IT, which was less
pure, T obtaine

I Requires Te. IL. Requires Te.

Lead 60°71 87°54 47°84 29°58
ee be oF 0°69 11°30 6°70
Ea a as 0°26 0°08 3°8 1°25
Tellurium,.___- 87°31 37-00*

; 99°45 38°31 100-00 37°53
These oped would represent the composition of the two

specimens a
ae 99°25 77°42
Hessite, 2°20

two last analyses were eo Ta pe some from it Spree
ae iggins. It gave results which were,
eral points of view, of interest. After, from the est that
could be found, the carbonates had been removed by dilute chlor-
hydric acid and it had been completely washed, it was pulver-
ized and the liehter portion washed off. The heavier portion gave
after deducting 8:00 p. c. of free gold and 3°45 p.c. of quartz:
(Mixture of re and hessite) IIT.
4°49

Pe.
es
ay:
=F
Z
*E
3e
5?

Silver, requiring Te 26°36
oo og ae eamiaa sae ite 10°89
Jellamam, . ........ 37°14*
ee 37 87°25
e contains, therefore, 70°85 p.c. of true hessite and

This result was quite surprising, since the material appeared
ee ir pa ye ened to contain a far
percentage of altaite.

F. A, Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy. 313°

Future investigations will be necessary to ascertain whether
there really exists a tellurid of silver, or tellurid of silver and
lead, which has the white color and cubical cleavage of the
altaite.

c. ? Native tellurium.—I have above already mentioned, that
the specimen brought by Mr. Higgins contained minute specks
of a mineral which may be native tellurium. The quantity
which I have observed is microscopic. They have a grayish-
white color.

According to Kiistel, native tellurium occurs at the Stanis-
laus mine. That these greyish-white specks might be native

tellurium has been suggested by the results of the analysis of -

the light washings from the last mentioned analysis. They

contained 94:23 p.c..of quartz and other insoluble substances,

but no gold, and 5°77 p.c. of tellurium minerals, showing the

following composition:

Ag, 30°75 requiring Te 18°23—48°98 p. c. true hessite
26°94 16°66=43" = altaite.

56; 42°31 742 « tellurium.

100°00 34°89

leaving a h-green resi :
soda yolds: ga aan powder of metallic nickel. Dis-
Solves in nitric acid with a green color, yields on evapora-

__ hessite, altaite and possibly of native telluri
‘Ing 22-22 p. c. of quartz and 326 p.c. of

he | ee
see

314 F, A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

Requires Te.
RVers 4:08 2°42 6°50 p. c. of true hessite.
Se abana chars 0°72 0°45 117 “ altaite.
Mikel. 20°98 68°27 89°25 “ melonite
Tellurium .... 73°43 2°29 “ nat. tellurium.(?)
99°21 71°14

The nickel from all my analyses contained just enough cobalt
to color a borax bead very slightly blue.

From this analysis as well as from the two analyses of hessite
given above, the formula of the melonite appears to be Ni, Te,.
Although the hexagonal form would better agree with the for-
mula NiTe and bring the melonite into the same group with
millerite, pyrrhotine, greenockite, etc., it is not very probable
that it is a mixture of native tellurium and NiTe, because it
would have contained about one third of native tellurium, e
material for analysis, however, strongly magnified showed dis-
tinctly a small quantity of the dark colored hessite, and every
other particle showed the reddish hue, but not the slightest ad-
mixture of a greyish white mineral could be observed.

The composition of melonite, corresponding with Ni,Te,
would be:

2Ni oes 89 = 23°51
fi ee re 192 76°49
251 100-00

e. Calaverite, a new mineral, AuTe,.—I have only observed
it once, associated with petzite, on a specimen from the Stanis-

us Mine.
Massive, without crystalline structure. Soft. H. below 3.

_ Brittle. Luster metallic. Color bronze yellow. Streak yel-

lowish gray. Fracture uneven, inclining to subconchoidal.

-B. on charcoal burns with a bluish green flame and yields
globules of gold of a high yellow color. Nitric acid darkens it
and separates metallic gold ; aqua regia dissolves it with the

Separation of a minute quantity of chlorid of silver. ben
a3 )

material for the analyses when strongly PE
be perfectly pure. In II, 1-45 pr. ct. of quartz were deducted.

te IL;
40°70 40°92
eka sd weet. 3°52 3°08
“SS _ 55°89 56-00*
. 100°11 100-00

frequently mixed with the calaverite is
era 1 for em PP d perfectly

FE. A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

ure, from an ae of ateog nti rtain the greater

as petzite, both sade would give only about 97 pr. ct.
ratio between gold and tellurium (after deducting the silver as
petzite) is 1: 42 or nearly 1:
calaverite is therfore AuTe, high: in its pure state would

have the composition :
Au

4, the

4Te

suggestions. Under t

197
256

A comparison between the analyses of the calaverite and
those of the GE neh sylvanite leads t
name sylvanite, ¢wo distinct minerals

most probable formula for

44°47
55°53

are hci treated; one, the so-called “graphic tellurium,”

for which the name ‘ sylvanite” may remain, and the “ weiss-

tellur” and “gelberz.”

The most recent and reliable analyses of these minerals were
made on ood who found in the graphic tellurium

Offenban

Tellurium
Antimon

Gold

Copper
ea

Of the varieties weisstellur and gelberz from Nagy

g, he
analyzed : I, long crystals of a white color; II, thick cin:
Ms short yellowish crystals; IV and V, massive bronze-yellow

ral :

Tellurium ___._. 55°39
Antimony ----- 2°50
Lt Se aie 24°89
miter 2 14°68

Sing ON ees eo 2°54

From these analyses it will be observ

tellurium the amount of silver varies ogg very ae and a
and | a trifle

the nike f Fete ve exactly, w
ages g had cae

car posible variati

p.c¢.

v.
51°52 4454 49°96
5°75 854 3°82
27°10 25°31 29°62
747 1040 = 2°78
wie 3i3t ieee
ed that in the graphi

315

very interesting

from

Sa Bee

316 F, A, Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

The most rational conclusion under these circumstances is to
consider these minerals mechanical mixtures of different species,
such as native antimony, altaite and hessite, with a peculiar
tellurid of gold,

Starting from this supposition, I found, after deducting the

admixtures, the ratio of gold and the remaining tellurium as
follows :

In L, = 1: 4:95
K II, « 1: 4°24
cas tees
a

The two last analyses, those of the massive bronze yellow min-
eral, seem to prove that “ gelberz” is nothing else than an im-
pure calaverite.

"he analyses of the graphic tellurium, for which the formula
AgTe,+AuTe, has been given, correspond better with the
formula AgTe,+AuTe,, especially, if the exact ratio between
gold and silver, which has been found, is taken as the basis of
the calculation. Ratio of Au: Ag in I=1: 0°84, in II=1: 08.
The latter would give the following composition, which agrees
very well with the analysis :

Au_. . 197°0 26°47
o-sAg 86°4 1161
7°2Te 460°8 61°92

744°2 100°00

wanger, contains minute quantities of a lead colored mineral,
which contains tellurium, silver and a small quantity of lead,
surrounding the gold. The quantity was too small for further

Letre -—I have examined two varieties of tetrady-
ute, one found in placer gold at Highland, Montana Terr.,
by Mr. Kleinschmidt (1), and the other from the Phenix
Mine, Cabarrus Co., N.G. (II). I. The Montana mineral

.
)

F. A, Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy. 317

occurs in scajes. The largest of those which I received was
about ! of an inch in diameter and about ;'; of an inch in
thickness. Some of the scales showed the lateral planes of a
six-sided prism. Color between lead and steel grey. It was
partly oxydized into a substance, which proved to be a new
mineral, a tellurate of bismuth, for which I propose the name
“ Montanite.”

For the analysis, both of the tetradymite and montanite,
a weighed quantity of the mixed minerals was treated wit
dilute warm chlorhydric acid, which leaves the tetradymite
unacted upon, whilst the montanite is easily dissolved by it.
The specimen was found to contain :

Tetradymite: i. (oe Seu 49°23
ins nite - 50°17
100. “700.00

II. The ead from the Pheenix mine, of which I
never have seen more than the one specimen in my collection,
occurs in very minute scales, the largest not being over ,'; of
an inch in width, of a color ‘between lead-grey and iron-black
implanted and cian are in quartz and associated wit
gold and pyrites. From the analysis was deducted 86°71 p. c.

ld.

The following results were obtained :

I (Montana.) II (Pheenix Mine).
Quartz, 0-78 Copper, 0°41 p.c.
Ferric oxyd, 0°90 Iron, 0°54 requires 0°61 sulphur.
Bismuth, 50°43 57°70
Tellurium, 47°90 36°28
Sulphur, none 5°01
100°01 99°94

The ratio between bismuth and tellurium in I. is dng ~
=1: 3, which places this tetradymite alongside of those fro
Fluvanna Co, , Va., and Field’s mine, Georgia.

In analysis IL. isa slight admixture of pyrites. The requi-
site quantity of sulphur for the amount of iron found, is=0°61,
leaving 4-40 p. c. of sulphur as a constituent of the ead
mite. The ratio between sulphur, tellurium and bismu
d':.2-08 +1, gi exactly the formula BiS,+2BiTe,.

Admitting with Gustav Rose that tellurium sometimes re-
laces bismuth, as in the native bismuth from the Sorato, the
bismuthine from Riddarhyttan, and the mineral = Cumber-
land, England, analyzed by Rammelsberg, which contains 6-43

“S

p. ¢. of sulph nal to 28°13 c. of BiS,, sowing ite
suiphur, eq Pp. remeyse :

a mixture of bismuthine and native bismuth,

=

Fie ck
£ Sekai»

318 Ff, A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

certainly should not be placed under native bismuth and con-
sidered as varieties of this mineral. It is far more rational to

The bornite from San José, Brazil, requires reéxamination,
before its true nature can be established.

g. Montanite, a new mineral, BiO,TeO,HO (or 2HO).—
Results from the oxydation of tetradymite. I first distin-
guished it as a new mineral in the examination of the Montana

Deeming a fuller investigation of much interest

t

It is very probable that the “ yellow owyd of bismuth” from
the Whiteha!l mine, Va., observed by Dr. Jackson (this Journ.,

[II], x, 78), is the same mineral.
ot crystallized, but some portions still retaining the scaly
structure of the origial tetradymite, and being in reality pseu-
domorphous after it (N. C.). Earthy incrustations, Color yel-
towish, greenish and reddish white ; luster waxy to dull. - H.

Brittle.

B.B. reactions of bismuth and tellurium. Yields water,
when heated ina tube. Gives off chlorine, when heated with
morn d chlorhydric acid, dissolves easily in dilute chlorhydric

oe

F, A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy. 319

Ei i II.
From Monfana. From Davidson Co., N. C.
0. 0. 0.

Ferric oxyd, OSG 2 a6 0°32) ae
Plum ~ Ole Ae ss oe yeu ae
Cupric “ Be pate! 104 cee ee
aR oxyd, 66°78 --6°85-- 68°78 - GBF Fee a7
ed acid. 26°83 4°30 25°45 7°05 23°90 6°51
Wat 5°94 3°47 2°80

100-00 100°00 100°00

The oxygen ratio between teroxyd of bismuth and telluric
acid is very near equal to1:1. Some doubt remains, however,
to the amount of water, and future investigations have to
ascertain whether it contains one or two equivalents. The
composition of the pure mineral would be either of the follow-
ing:

BiO;,TeO;+HO __ BiO;, TeO,;+2HO
BiO, 234 70°69 BiO, 234 68°82
TeO, 88 26°60 Teo; 88 25°88
HO 9 2°71 2HO 18 5°30
331 100-00 340 100-00

3. Barnhardtite from Arizona.—I have observed ~ pe oo
amongst the copper ores of Bill Williams Fork, Ariz o-
ciated with metallic copper, ce ahd , copper, glance, aikony.

tite

rite, pyrites, chrysocolla, malac nd broc
An analysis made by Mr. N. s. ign gave :
Copper 50°41 p. ¢
Tron 20°44
Sulphur 28°96
99°81

It showed a light admixture of copperglance ‘
4. Cosalite, anew mineral, 2PbS+ BiS,.—. A small specimen .
i this fr interesting mineral was pen & me by Dr.

with the eonalite was co cbaltine, as asc’

ascertain
and cobalt-determination of gee ieee In aume

320 F. A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy.

the requisite amount of arsenic was therefore calculated for the

cobalt found, and after deducting in analysis I, 2:09 p. c. of

pole] and in II, 26°83 p.c., the following results were ob-
ned:

Lead Se 72 33°99
Silver 2°4 2°81
Bismuth 39°06 37.48
Cobalt : 2°41 4°22
Arsenic 2 3°07 5°37
Sulphur. 15°59 15°64

100°33 99°51

The analysis I shows an admixture of 6°79 p. c. of cobaltine,
and II of 11°88 p.c. Deducting these quantities the compo-
sition is :

ead 40°32 38°79
Silver 2°65 e421
Bisumth 41°76 42°77
Sulphur 15°27 15°23

100°00 100°00
rresponding closely wit the formula 2Pb (Ag) S + BiS,,
eve the following per centage:
2Pb

emg tS 4 41°65
Bi 210 42°25

5S ‘ 80 16°10
| 497 100°00

= white quartz. "One of the crystals showed prismatic
es similar to those of aragonite. Longitudinally striated.

‘he =— gave:
Lead 54°82
Silver. _ trace
Tron, 0°42
i _ Antimony 26°85
_ Sulphur. 17°91
100-00

6. Tetrahedrite a Arizona.—An analysis of a “ fahlerz”-
like mineral from the —- mine near Prescott, me sp

F, A. Genth—Contributions to Mineralogy. 321

which I have made, gave, after deducting 4-22 p. c. of quartz,
the following result:

Copper, 38°16 requires § for Cu,S 9°63
Silver, 3°21 i er 0°48 | 1 3.791-9)
Zine, Ont oe a ens 3°07 os
Tron, 1°05 # “« .FeS 0°60 |
Arsenic, trace
Antimony, 24°67 Se 1 ae 9°84 =? |
. Sulphur, 26°97 ps oo
100°29 23°62

_. The material for analysis appeared to be free from other
impurities than quartz, and it is difficult to account for the
large excess (3°35 p.c.) of sulphur. The other constituents
agree very well with the tetrahedrite formula b

Want of material prevented a reéxamination.

7. Brochantite from Arizona—This mineral occurs in mi-

Bill Williams’ Fork, Arizona. I analyzed a foliated piece,
which, however, was somewhat mixed with chrysocolla and
cuprite, and found:

i IL.
Water 14°46 ee
Chlorine 0°31 0°33
Ferric oxyd 0°33 0°52
Cupric “ 67°75 67°69
Sulphuric acid 13°55 13°27
Silicic ee = ee 3°59
100°00

This would give:

Brochantite, Cu0O,SO,+3CuOHO 76:49p.c
i CuCl+ Aly gga 2°10
1 *

Chrysovclla, (?) Cu0,810 44 2°68
socolla, (?) CuO,Si 6
Tinonite, Ve ’0,+-3HO 0°38
Cuprite, Cu,0 "96
Water, 0-47

100-08

This is of course to be considered only as an approximation
to the composition of this mixture. A more correct caleula-
tion could only be made after the composition of the ataca-
mite and chrysocolla from Bill Williams’ Fork had been es-
tablished,

Philadelphia, March 1st, 1868.
Am, Jour. 8c1.—Seconp Ssrigs, Vou. XLV, No. 185.—Mar, 1868.
21

322 FF. V. Hayden on the Geological formations of

Art, XXXIV.—Remarks on the Geological Formations along
the Eastern margins of the Rocky Mountains ;* by F. V.
HAYDEN,

On several former occasions I have described the different

U. P.R. W. E. D., there are massive beds of this chalk which
18s sawed into building blocks with a common saw, and in many
instances it is nearly as white as our chalk of commerce and
__ * This article refers only to the eastern ranges of the Rocky Mountains, extend-
ing south to the Arkansas. The same seed may so may not apply to other

_+ The different divisions of the Cretaceous period, as shown on the Missouri
river, have received geographical names, as Fort Benton group, &c.. but I use the
old divisions by figures for brevity. oie,

4

at

the Eastern margins of the Rocky mountains, 323

might be used for the same purposes, The two characteristic
species of fossils of this division are found everywhere, Ostrea
y congesta and Inoceramus problematicus. All along the slope

of the mountains No, 3 still retains its chalky nature but
becomes quite shaly, none of the layers ever becoming more
: than one or two inches in thickness, Thisis the case at the
sources of the Missouri along the Big Horn and Wind river
mountains also, from the South Pass to Pike’s Peak, and on the
western slope wherever this bed is exposed. Near Denver, at
Marshall’s coal mine, No. 3 has been changed by heat into a
grayish compact limestone, quite hard and brittle in its frac-
ture, which makes an excellent flux in smelting ores, But this
change is local, for 16 miles north of this point it presents the
same laminated character. It seems that No. 3 loses its mas-
sive chalky character, by which it first attracted attention on the
Missouri river, in its westward extension, so that along the
margins of the mountains except in one locality it cannot prove
of any economical value, while between 98° and 100° longitude
it becomes very useful not only for lime but also for build-

any well defined paleontological proof of its existence. Near
ort Benton are a series of Cretaceous beds containing some
seams of impure lignite, and numerous species of fossils, not one
of which is identical with those so abundant in Nos. 4 and 5
lower down on the Missouri. These beds have been placed
provisionally in the general section as a portion of No. 1, but
the region about Fort Benton needs a more careful examination
before any positive conclusions can be arrived at. Around the
Black Hills isa bed of ive sili rocks, some layers form
ing a pudding stone which in some localities takes the name of
fortification rocks. These hold a position between No. 2 Cre-
taceous and the Jurassic marls. The same are seen along the
margin of the Big Horn mountains, in which I observed a
bed of impure lignite, an abundance of silicified wood, and
some uncharacteristic Saurian bones. From the Wind River
mountains to Pike’s Peak, these same siliceous and pebble ce-
mented rocks occur holding the same geological position, form- _
Ing, as it were, beds of transition between the Cretaceous and

a: ra 2 ie

324 F.V. Hayden on the Geological formations of

the Jurassic periods. I have carefully examined these rocks for
hundreds of miles and have never yet detected any organic re-
mains, animal or vegetable, in them
The Jurassic beds, as revaalea along the mountains, possess
peculiar and marked lithological characters, so
eughe them by the fossils in one locality we can trace them
: ¢ areas, They were first shown to exist in the west
in i the form. of azone engirdling the Black Hills, They here
attain a thickness from 200 to 300 feet at least, and from the
beds in this locality alone hae fossils enough been collected of
such unmistakable Jurassic types as to prove their existence
beyond a doubt. But these beds have also been shown, since
they were first made known in the Black Hills, to be exposed
along the margins of the Big Horn and Wind River mountains
near Red Buttes, on North Platte and in numerous localities in
the Laramie Plains, and westward to Fort Bridger ; so numerous
are the species now ‘known from the west and so close are the
affinities of most of them to well known Jurassic types that it
is not necessary for me in this place to detail the evidence in
support of that statement
t is sufficient to remark, that the Jurassic system is quite
plainly represented along t the margins of the different ranges of
mountains north of lat. 42°, but proceeding southward from Deer
creek on the North Platte, the Jurassic beds diminish in force
until near Cache la Poudre it becomes doubtful whether they
are es atall. At this point there is a thin bed, perhaps
20 to 50 feet in thickness, of greenish gray arenaceous mar.
ertying the red beds which seem to occupy the place of the
Jurassic. This seems to thin out more and more as we proceed
southward toward the Arkansas. From Deer creek 100 miles
north of Fort Laramie to Denver, a distance of 400 miles, I
have searched in vain for any organic remains in the rocks which
Aged to represent the Jurassic period of the Black Hills,
ig Horn and Wind River mountains. In the Red beds or
cA ioe Triassic, no organic remains have been found north
of the Arkansas and they do not differ much lithologically in
their southward extension except that they seem to be much
thicker and more gypsiferous northward. In the far neni the
niferous rocks are in many localities 500 to 1500 feet in
thickness, and even as far south as the Red Buttes the massive
—— imest one wit a with tri CO
to “ete rege and are ¢ quite distinct from the red or a)
s. But as we proceed southward from this point the Car-
us limestones seem to lose their usual lithological char-
stirs an there ds re prevail. At the headof Pole creek on the
eastern margin and in the Laramie Plains west, the Carbonifer-

the Eastern margins of the Rocky mountains. 325

ous rocks are mostly of a red arenaceous character, with a few
layers 2 to 10 feet in thickness of whitish or yellowish limestone.
rom these limestones I collected Productus Prattenianus,
Athyris subtilita and other well known Carboniferous forms.
Above these red beds which contain intercalated layers of lime-
stone is a considerable thickness of purely red arenaceous beds,
but in studying all these rocks with some care from Pole creek
nearly to Pike’s Peak, I could not separate the red beds from’

Black Hills, Big Horn and Wind River mountains. Near the
Red Buttes there is a bed of siliceous pudding stone resting
on the metamorphic rocks which may be the Potsdam in its
southern extension, but south of Fort Laramie to Pike’s Peak,
it is somewhat dou btful whether any trace of it exists. If it
occurs at all it is a very thin layer, for the most part concealed.
So far as I could determine, the Carboniferous rocks rest directly
(though not conforming) upon the pe nape na rocks. Shee

see true nite.
The above remarks, founded on observations that have been

big and hope: They me seem to reach their culmination a
far from the central portion of the ee area y
Missouri, and lose to a great extent their distinctive a
ters beyond its limits.
2nd. The Potsdam sandstone and the Jurassic beds Agar
more remarkable changes than any of the others.
ee 3 — formations are well marked, both Tithologically and
tologically ; in their southward extension they oak iE
dada: a so that south of Fort Laramie to Pike’s 7
_ becomes a matter of doubt whether they exist at ‘i | e
e inference therefore is that these groups of rocks are not \ lt :
_ defined, if they occur at all south of the Arkansas. In
Of this statement is the fact that although this southern region

326 F. V. Hayden on Coal in Nebraska.

has been traversed in every direction by multitudes of explorers
for thirty years past, among whom have been geologists of high
reputation, yet south of lat. 40° not a single animal fossil
has ever been detected with Jurassic afiinities, and it is quite
doubtful whether any have been found with Triassic or Permian
relations,* even the few plants that have been found are doubt-
ful in their affinities and are regarded as probably Cretaceous
or Permian. I have made these remarks from the fact that all
the observations that have been made by explorers in the west
during the past will, ere many years, be put to the rigid test
of a most careful scrutiny, and an error by whomsoever made,
though sustained by the highest authority in the land, will fall
to the ground before the light of true science as the dead bark
from a tree. The ease with which the Rocky mountain region
can soon be reached in a few years, when our great national
highways are completed to the Pacific, will induce the best geol-
ogists in this country and in Europe to visit them, and the many
intricate problems of Rocky mountain geology must be solved.

The great School of Mines which will no doubt be soon es-
tablished in the heart of the mining districts of the Rocky
mountains, must gather around it able men who will either

sustain or reject the observations of other investigators who
have examined the country under less favorable auspices.

\

Art. XXX V.—Remarks on the possibility cs a Brges3i bed
of Coal in Nebraska ;+ by F. V. H

SUPPLEMENTARY to my article on the lignites of the West,
in the March No. of this Journal, I wish to make a few re-
marks in regard to the existence of workable beds of coal in
Nebraska, During the geological wate, last season, the

ae a og of moderate thickness, at a eabath
depth, would be a: inestimable value, and ths solution of this

* I do not wish to be understood as saying that the Jurassic rocks do not occur,

south of the Arkansas, as rmian and Triassic, for there is anple

room for their fullest eens

its. ) existence, al peek ae cont i Ase ~~ — traversed by ct

re. T a ga agai occurrence at all.

: Care of pee US 8. "Geological 8 ees of 3 a con Meek has
5 the Carboniferous rocks of N ebraska,

FV. Hayden on Coal in Nebraska. 327

problem seemed to be the most important one of the survey.
iE It is now known that all the Carboniferous rocks of Nebraska

area occupied by them widens southward ; but it forms only a
nairow strip, hardly two counties wide, even at the south

th

whole bed of black shale and ¢oal is about 12 inches thick. At

spinwall, in Nemaha county, two seams of coal were met
with. One of them high up in the hills, is probably the same
as that just mentioned as occurring at Brownsville, while near
the water’s edge another seam 1s disclosed about 22 inches
in thickness, (Coal commands a ready sale here at 40 to 80
cents per bushel. Some English miners have commenced

a the outcrop, but

328 F. V. Hayden on Coal in Nebraska.

after a drift had been carried into the bank 100 feet or more,
it increased to 11 inches, and then nearly disappeared again.
About 200 bushels of rather inferior coal have been taken out
of this mine; but it does not promise well. On the Iowa
Indian reservation, this same bed has been worked, and several
hundred bushels of coal taken out, but the mine was soon
abandoned.

The seam on the reservation and the one at Rulo is probably
identical with the 22 inch seam, revealed 16 feet above the

Co., though here the coal seems to be more impure, being
made up largely of masses of sulphuret of iron.
I will here quote a paragraph from my preliminary field
ona of the progress of the Geological Survey of Nebraska,
dressed to the Hon. J. 8. Wilson, Commissioner General
Land Office and printed in his annual report for 1867-8.* __
“At Prsrcaisich a thin seam of coal has been opened, and is
now worked with some success by Mr. Beaty. The drift is
very similar to that before described in my report of Pawnee
Co., and extends into the bank about 100 yards. Mr. Beaty
has taken out about 1,000 bushels of coal, which he sells
readily at the mine for 25 cents per bushel. It is undoubtedly
the same bed that is opened on Turner’s branch and at Friez’s
, in Pawnee county ; but is not quite as thick or as good ;

it contains large masses of the sulphuret of iron and other
urit The coal seam here varies in thickness from ten

een Th
than two or three feet in thickness. A well was sunk in

1867, pages 124-177.

F.. V. Hayden on Coal in Nebraska. 329

through what the workmen thought to be three feet of good
coal, This discovery created much excitement at the time and
increased the demand for the public lands in Johnson county.
It afterward turned out to be the same seam of coal worked
by Mr. Beaty on the Nemaha and was only 11 inches in thick-
ness. The prospects, therefore, for workable beds of coal in
Johnson county are no better than in the neighboring coun-
ties, already examined. ‘he evidence against any important
bed of coal being found within the limits of Nebraska dimin-
ishes in force continually. I have already presented a portion
of the evidence in former reports. The fact that all efforts in
searching for coal in neighboring districts have resulted in fail-
ures, renders the prospect very doubtful.”

All the rocks at St. Joseph, Missouri, Leavenworth and
Atchison, Kansas, hold a lower position geologically, yet

rings have been made about 300 to 500 feet at Atchison

ting the past season. It has been accurately determined

that rocks of the Carboniferous period occupy onl

portion of South Eastern Nebraska, and that these rocks are

of the age of the upper Coal-measures, Permo-Carboniferous
lan,*

*'The true Permian may not occur in Nebraska. If it does, it is found only in

330 F. V. Hayden on Coal in Nebraska,

At Atchison and Leavenworth, Kansas, and at St. J oseph,
Mo., where the upper Coal-measures are several hundred feet
lower than at Nebraska City or Omaha, borings were made
about 400 feet with no better success,

Mr. Brodhead, a geologist attached to the Missouri State
Geological Survey, studied with a great deal of care a series of
beds of the upper Coal-measures in northern Missouri which he
regarded as 2000 feet in thickness without finding a seam of
coal more than 2 or 23 feet in thickness.

. In the valley of the Desmoines river, Iowa, 75 to 100 miles

east of the Missouri river, coal beds have been found by Dr.
White, State Geologist, varying from 1 to 7 feet in thickness ;
but the rocks including these beds are regarded by him as the
age of the lower Coal-measures. Indeed the upper Coal-meas-
ures of the west are regarded as the barren coal-measures,

are simply the western extension of them, thinning out and
eradicate losing all the thin seams of coal and shale and
nearly all the beds of clay and loose sands, leaving for the most
; a massive beds of limestone,

than probable that coal in paying quantities will never be found
ithin the limits of the state of Nebraska. If this statement

_ exist in Dakota territory at all, so that along the Missouri river -
there is a very large district of wonderful fertility, almost tree-
less and destitute of mineral fuel. This fact at once directs our
attention to the lignite formations in the region of the Rocky
mountains. It is to be hoped that the general government

| see the impor of making appropriations for their
nation at an early day.

C. A. White on the Iowa Coal-measures. 331

Art. XXXVI.—Character of the ct crc <= im
Iowa Coal-measures upon the Older Rocks; by C,
Wairer, M.D.*

Tue paleozoic rocks of Iowa, with the exception of those
- one period, all rest conformably upon each other, and show
regular recession to the southwestward in the Brebiio’ of
thei general dip, the trend of their outcrops being quite uni-
ormly in a southeasterly and northwesterly direction.
exceptional unconformability referred to is that of the lower
oal-measures upon the Subcarboniferous rocks, and in connec-
tion with the same, the unconformability of some “of the members
of the Subcarboniferous group upon the others. Succeeding
this unconformability, the sub-epochal divisions of the coal
measures again show the same gradual recession to the south-
westward, together with a similar general direction of trend
that the older rocks do.

Thus in the Iowa coal field, we always find the lower Coal-
measures at the border ; next in order comes the middle when
that discrimination has been made,} and then the upper, still
farther within the field.

- For the purpose of being more clearly understood, the fol-
lowing names and numbers are given in the asce cending order,
of the. numbers of the Subcarboniferous period as at presen esent
a by the writer to be developed in the Mississippi
valley.

a
®

V. Cuesrer LimesTone,{ with its sandstones above and
below. (Kaskaskia limestone of Prof. Hall

IV. St. Louis Limestone (Concretionary limestone of Dr.
Owen, and in part Warsaw limestone of Prof. Hall.)

III. Keokuk Limestone.

II. Lower and Upper Burlington Limestone.

I. Kinderhook beds of Meek and Worthen. (Referred to
Chemung gronp by Hall and others.)

No rocks referable to the Chester limestone epoch wars oh
been found in Iowa, and wherever the base of the lower

* In advance of his final report upon the Geology of

Pe = the writer’s communication to this Journal, published July, 1867, the
further investigations by Mr. St. a and ooo the Iowa coal f ‘field

382 C. A, White on the Iowa Coal-measures,

beds as far north as Marshall county.

It will be seen then that these two members occupy a very
limited area within the State, but the St. Louis limestone and
Kinderhook beds—the upper and lower members of the group
in Iowa—occupy a much larger area than any of the others.

the Devonian rocks, and reaching from Muscatine nearly to
Davenport. a3

Almost all the coal of Iowa is found in the lower and middle
Coal t i

hes, the valleys are often found to have been ero
‘Coal-measures, exposing the Subcarboniferous lime-
h in this region is invariably the St. Louis division.
: that prominent angle of the coal field in seas and
_*ardin counties is found to rest directly upon the equivalent
(Of the Kinderhook beds, the St. Louis limestone and all other

C. A. White on the Iowa Coal-measures. 333

members being absent. Leaving the Iowa, and going west-
ward to the Boone and Des Moines rivers along the northern
border of the coal field, we find at Webster City in Hamilton
county, and at Fort Dodge in Webster county, the Coal-meas-
ures resting again immediately upon the St. Louis limestone,
while the equivalents of the Kinderhook beds are found coming
up to the surface northward of those localities in Pocahontas,
Humboldt and Franklin counties. Thus it will be seen that if
we except the absence of all the rocks of the Chester lime-
stone epoch, the only real unconformability of the Coal-meas-
ures, so far as we now know, consists of the overlapping of the
northeastern corner of the coal field from the St. Louis lime-
stone upon the Kinderhook rocks. We also see that there is
still greater unconformability among the members of the Sub-
carboniferous period themselves.

The characters, both paleontological and lithclogical, of the
St. Louis limestone, remain almost unchanged from the
northern to the southern limits of its extension in the State, a
distance of two hundred miles. The trend of its eastern and
northern border evidently does not partake of the angle whic
the outline of the coal field forms in Hardin and Marshall
counties, but conforms more nearly with the older formations
in that respect.

The characters of the Kinderhook beds are more changed as

which is referred almost without hesitation to the oolitic mem-
ber as seen at Burlington. The limestone of its most northern
extension is also principally ooliti

Li tic.
n view of the foregoing facts the following conclusions are
dL

-and grad
southwestward. At the close of that e

of Johnson county.
until the close of the

334 W. B. Clarke on the Sedimentary

the St. Louis limestone sea re-occupied nearly the whole area
peed occupied by that in which the Kinderhook beds were
deposited. At the close of the St. Louis limestone epoch
there re so extensive a recedence of the sea that the Chester
limestone did not probably reach within two hundred miles of
the southern limit of Iowa. At the close of this last Subcar-
boniferous epoch there was another remarkable re-occupancy
of shallow seas, so that the Coal-measures received their first
deposits, not only upon the surface of the St. Louis limestone,
but also overlapped upon the Kinderhook rocks, and doubtless
others besides ; for we have no assurance that the outliers
before referred to were not at one time connected parts of the
great coal formation.
Iowa State University, March 2d, 1868.

Arr. XXXVII.— Remarks on the Sedimentary Formations
of New South tment illustrated by references to other Pro-
vinces of Australasia; by the Rev. W. B. Cuarxs, M.A.,
FG.S8., F.R.G.S8., ete.

Ir we inspect the map of Australia, we observe that the
coasts of Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, follow
the general directions (with some irregularity) of the Cordillera,
or elevated land separating the waters flowing directly to the
pot ae those which, draining the interior, ee to

e

The Murray river receives some part of its tributaries from

the highlands of Victoria, and others from New South Wales;

whilst the Darling and its tributaries collect the remainder of
the supply, from as far north as 25° §.

‘The Cordillera thus sweeps round in an irregular curve from
W. to E. to the head of the Murray—and thence, northerly
and northeasterly, to the head of the Condamine ; trending
eg bt — that point’ to 21° S., whence it strikes to
the north, terminating its course at Ca ape Melville, in 14° 8.,
about the Ss tatian of 144° 30’, which is that of Mount Alex-
= ander i in Victoria.

2 more westerly and southerly trend of drainage is repre-
d by te son and Barcoo rivers, whic tet He off the

ern if F ustra stvalis,
he € lera tele dastitoak by Strzelecki in 1845, was tra-
am ehh a considerable = of its diversified course

1 tha anthar

a

Formations of New South Wales. 335

(as understood by him), from the southern point of Tasmania
to the agen of 28°, in longitude 152°; but not further west-
d than 146° on the parallel of Mount Alexander. It i is,

however, doubtful whether the ranges between this furthest
western point and Wilson’s Promontory, where he considers
the Chain to be cut off by the sea, is anything more than a
spur in that direction.

ut the extent of the Cordillera westerly, to its termination
on the border of South Australia is so well defined, that there
can be no question that the 8. W. and W. extension has as
true a character as any part of the Northern prolongation.
This may be geologically deduced from researches of the Geo-
logical Survey of Victoria. That province is limited, at its
eastern corner, by a line joining Cape Howe and the head of
the Murray, so that the boundary crosses very near the highest
point of all Australia, which Strzelecki made 6,500 feet —
the sea, but which subsequent observations have shown to
7,175 feet, This correction rests on observations made by Lyne
in 1852, and a re-discussion of them, in comparison with results
obtained by Professor Neumayer in "1862. On 8th May, 1852,
I made the highest point of Kosciusco, 4,077 feet above my
then base, at 3,098 feet above the sea, which therefore came out
7,175 feet; and in February, 1863, Professor Neumayer wrote
me word that he made the highest peak in November, 1862,
7,175 feet. This makes Kosciusco’s summit above the crossing
place of the Indi or Hume river, at Groggan’s, 5,42 +;

The 144th meridian to the northward limits very nearly all
the high land of the East Coast to Cape Melville, whilst ie
142nd meridian limits to the westward the basin of the Dar-
ling, including part of the drainage along the Thomson and
Barcoo from the head of the oe bad where it passes into
South Australia, on the 141st meri

us, all this enormous quislipe or western New South
Wales and southwestern Queensland is, as it were, bounded
by ranges of high geological a ee the Grey and Barrier
groups being of undoubted similar age to the mass of the East-
ern Cordillera.

It has long been known that the strike of the older sedi-
mentary rocks all through the Cordillera, in Victoria, as well as
in New South Wales, it is generally meridional; so that in the
ormer province the beds strike across the Cordillera, whilst i in
the latter they form various angles s from parallelism with it to
a transverse direction, as the Chain doubles and winds rregu-
larly in its course.

This is the experience of the Victoria Survey, | and bn .

traverses across various points of the Cordillera in New

pein Ras

336 W. B. Clarke on the Sedimentary

Wales and Victoria, establish the fact of a normal meridional
strike of the older strata. So distinct, indeed, is this character-
istic, that the settlers in various parts of the country have been
accustomed to trace the direction of north and south by the
strike of the slates.

It sometimes happens that, owing to the high angle of dip,

Independently of this arrangement, the whole of the Central
area inside the Eastern Cordillera has a trend to the south and
west, so that the waters collected between 22° and 37° 8., on
the east of South Australia, find their way to the sea at the
eastern eorner of that province.

of deposits
ut there 1s @

finish 5 oie

)

e Y

Formations of New South Wales. 337

Relatively speaking, therefore, the Cordillera of the Eastern
Coast has not been subject to the changes which introduced the
relics of a Tertiary ocean, At any rate, no evidence is known
to me of marine Tertiaries on the lands north of Cape Howe.

Another fact worthy of notice, as showing the probable ancient
geological vicissitudes of Australia is, that the great Carbon-
iferous series which is so prominent in New South Wales and
in parts of Queensland, but which is less distributed in Victoria,
and there only partially and irregularly as to the portions still
remaining, has been broken up and carried away, so as to have
left the various members dislocated, ruined, and separated in
such a way as to allow no clear view to be taken of the whole
till all the separate portions have been separately examined ;
and to the want of this personal examination on the part of
certain Paleontologists and others, who have never yet seen
the Carboniferous formation of New South Wales, is to be
attributed the perseverance with which they so long disputed
facts as attested by geologists in New South Wales, who are
familiar with the latter and with Victoria also.

In consequence of the absence of marine tertiary deposits
in New South Wales, and the occurrence of a more complete
series of the strata in the sections of the Carboniferous forma-
tion, there has arisen a difficulty in collating the gold deposits
with those of Victoria; and, in this respect, at present
upper deposits in the former province cannot be assigned with
any precision to the epochs adapted by Mr. Selwyn for the latter.
And it also follows, that his view of the distinct ages of Plio-
cene auriferous and Miocene non-auriferous gravels cannot be
tested in New South Wales; if, indeed, it has not
been tested by the actual discovery of gold in the so-called
Miocene deposits themselves as they occur in Victoria.

far as is at present known, the gold is derived chiefly from

_ Tera, and not accumulate the deposits in such low-lying exten-

Sive regions as those of the Murray Districts. The same
objection would obtain, on the supposition of gradual waste
Vi i ‘

338 W. B. Clarke on the Sedimentary

and accumulation from less powerful agency than that of a
general rush of water. Itis not, however, to be doubted, that
there is an enormous amount of gold yet untouched in numer-
ous places in New South Wales, not only in the quartz lodes
(or reefs), but in gullies and plains where alluvial gold diggings
will yet be discovered.

The distinctive differences in material mineral wealth between
Victoria and New South Wales are not altogether confined
to gold, or tin, which latter metal is well represented in the
New South Wales Court ; but coal, iron and copper, and per-
haps lead, also exhibited, prove more than an equivalent of the
great amount of gold at present in Victoria.

At the Universal Exhibition of 1854 the present writer ex-
hibited a collection of rocks and fossils, illustrating the whole
of the geological formations of Australia, and these were
enumerated in their stratigraphical order in the published cata-
logue. On this occasion, it has not been possible to complete a

remarks on the various geological epochs as they represent
themselves in New South Wales, with a brief statement as to
their connection with other portions of Australasia.

Azoic anp “ Meramorpuic” Rocks.

tion,

nd, ‘as well as along the Cordillera, and in indepen-
s along the coast. In Western Australia, where an
region 1s occupied by granites, and the older forma-

anites th ves remain bare, these patches are found on the
ks of the granitic bosses, and at extremely wide intervals ;

are represented only by small patches of slates, whilst the ~

itere ine 5 Sgt) DoE ae ics

Formations of New South Wales, 339

nor have I been able to detect, among the numerous collections
which have passed through my hands, distinct evidence of
any but doubtful examples of those foliated rocks which belong
to the so-called Primary epoch. In Southern Australia, also,
there does not appear to be any considerable amount of strata
which could be referred to this epoch.

Lower Paeozoic Rooks,

Of these there are undoubted evidences in some limited dis-
tricts of Tasmania, whilst in New South Wales and Queensland
considerable areas are occupied by them.

e greater mass of them, in the two latter provinces,
appears to belong to Upper and Middle Silurian ; the mud-
Stones of Yarralumla, with Encrinurus and Calymene; the
Coralline and Pentamerus beds of Deleget and Colalamine ;
the Tentaculite and Halysites beds of Wellington and Cavan ;
and the beds with Calymene, Encrinurus, Beyrichia, and others
with Illoenus, Harpes, Bronteus ; Brachiopoda, including Stro-
phodonta and Radiata embracing Star-fishes, point to the exis-
tence of at least the Upper Silurian formation on both flanks of
the southern part of the Cordillera. There are also numerous
corals included in the list given by me in the Southern Gold
Fields (p. 285), which also confirm the same determination ;
and it may be added that the above, and other fossils of this

age mentioned by me elsewhere, have been examined by Pale-

ontologists of eminence in Europe. Such are the genera Fa-
vosites, Coenites, Ptychophyllum, Calamapora, Syringopora,
Emmonsia, Alveolites and Cystophyllum, &. These, perhaps,
might not alone satisfy a doubt, but with them occurs Recep-
taculites ; since 1858, when these were determined, I have
detected Halysites, which may settle the question as to Upper
Silurian. Wenlock beds seem to be well developed on the
Deleget,

In Victoria, numerous species of Grapolites have been found,

ing uth Wales I disco

e Deleget river, where bot
lower have a generally meridional strike, but

eensland, Mr. Daintree has confirmed the fact of the

Ee ae
Ppt sci gH i

340 W. B. Clarke on the Sedimentary

existence there of Silurian rocks identical with those of Victo-

researches have increased the expectation of valuable deposits
there, in addition to those which have already been opened on
the Burnet, Crocodile Creek, Mount Wyatt, the Burdekin,
al and. Star Creek ; about Peak Downs, and in other

The Gold Field of Fingal in Tasmania is also partly occupied
by rocks of Silurian age, the lithological structure s —— is
identical with rocks in New South Wales and Vict

Copper is abundant in strata which may be coferted: to the
same epoch ; but a peculiarity which I have observed in most
of the copper localities is, that the ores do not occur in lodes
of the usual character , but sometimes, as on Peak Downs in
Queensland, they follow the planes of the strata, and generally
in New South Wa ales assume a dome-like form, rising in bosses
at intervals wi surfa The Burra
Burra Cop ne _ — Australia has also something of

5 pet n my possession Pentamerus from
oe in which the shell are embedded in copper ore.

Wrivck Peixoeie Rocks.

Mr. Jukes has shown cause why the term Devonian should
be eliminated, referring the ie oathed beds to the bottom of the
Carboniferous formation,

It is probable that such will have to be the fate of certain
strata in Australia, the fossils of which have at once a Silurian
and a Carboniferous as aspect ; being connected with the former

by certain corals, and with the latte r by the occurrence of

— Nigillaria, and aes Lower Carboniferous
lants.

There is undoubtedly a regular passage downward from the
marine fossils of the acknowledged Lower Carboniferous beds
of New South Wales, to others which very much resemble the
bob of: & land ; and a series of shells,
‘&e., from the Murrumbidgee, which I submitted some
gC to Messrs. Sal ter & Lonsdale, through Sir BR. I. Mur-
* excited doubts as to their belonging to any but

a pare Among these were Pha-
nerotin, I Loxonema, A reticularis, Orthis 1 resupinata,

vgianccecaic 3d ed. p. 296.

_ Formations of New South Wales. 341

Murchisonia, Strophomena, and Spirifera of various species,
some like Devonian. Loxonema is known to me as occurring
in the lower marine beds of the Hunter river basin—certainly
below the upper coal beds,

here appears to be an intermixture, and such is the case
With certain strata to the westward of W ellington, in which

In Victoria, near Mount Tambo, in Gipps Land, and again
near the head of' the Murray, there are som e limestone beds
with fossils, which I visited in 1851, and shes believed to be
of the same age as the lowest Carboniferous rocks of New
South Wales. The Victorian geologists consider them Devonian.

In Queensland, the Burn at tase and tracts about the Bowen
Gold Feld and Burdekin er which river limestones with fossils

era Ci 2 abi at ed

with Trilobites which appear to be older than Carboniferous.
But, if Mr. Jukes’s arrangement holds good these will probably
be placed i in the latter formation, On the western flanks of the
. Cordillera, near Yass, and on the eastern, along the Shoalhaven
river, and again near the Hanging Bock, New South Wales
presents numerous bands of limestone full ‘of such fossils ; ; and
it may be doubtful at present whether these lie on the horizon
of the Devonian, or whether they belong to some portion fe the

ee
a
5 BS
E
re
> 5
2
nee
FEE
5
Pas.
a
ce
7

) -
the coal beds at the head of the river. Near iphrran ao ie
Lepidodendron has been found in ened rock
origin. At Canoona Gold Field, in _ oar Lepidodendon
occurs i shales ; and at noo noo, on the
Peel river, in cig South Wales, it occurs in fine grey als
stone, with Ferns and Sigillaria in close es a beds —
marine fossils which are certainly ower Unehomifeto si
Besides these fossiliferous pes os ‘of supposed

342 W. B. Clarke on the Sedimentary

age, there are beds of grit, sandstone, and conglomerate, oceu-
pying positions of extreme doubtfulness as to : age, not only in
Victoria, but also all along the coast ranges of New South
Wales, which, as described by me, and confirmed by Mr. Dain-
tree, are certain y older than some parts of the pete a ous
formation, They make a near approach to the “Old Red” of
Europe. In my Report to the Government of New South Wales
(6th March, 1852), I have mentioned that I had traced these
beds ‘“ from the head of the Shoalhaven to the head of the
Genoa ;” and Mr, Daintree, in his Report to Mr. Selwyn, Di-
rector of the Victorian Survey (26th May, 1863) , adopts my
description, word for word, as applicable to “the Gra mpian
sandstones, the conglomerates south of Mount Macedon, of the
von river and Tambo, Gipps’s Land ;” and he adds, “there
can be little doubt they are all members of one great formation.”
At Mount Tambo, according to Mr. Selwyn (1866), they
underlie the limestone of that locality, which he therefore con-
siders as probably Carboniferous ; and this, as stated above,
was my view in 18
About Eden. (Twotold Bay), and Panbula and Merrimbula,
go the north, there occur a series of beds which, in 1851, I also
: as Devonian ; but, on visiting the district in 1865, I
was inclined to think they ‘might be much older. N evertheless,
they are connected with Porphyries, with double-headed hexa-
hedral crystals of quartz, which are common in countries as-
sumed to be of the age of “Old Red. ” After all, there will
have to be an adjustment of this and other questions, which
may hereafter distribute very differently parts of formations
which at present are considered fix
In Western Australia, Mr. H. Gregory indicated on his map,
and in his Report, the existence of Devonian rocks near York,
and in other parts of that colony. Having examined the
rocks so indicated, I can only state my belief that they have no
a to any ‘sach antiquity, and are probably mere col-
lections of loose granitic matter and other drift cemented by
ferruginous paste, which has since become transmuted into
coneretionary nodules and hematite. There are also pebbles
- a much decomposed, in the so-called Devonian.

Baton ce. Uprrer Pa.nozoic.
i tis Aivision of rocks is fairly represented in New

iS be no dispute. It has been long deter-
logists, that ‘the ower Carboniferous
r beds a

Formations of New South Wales. 343

same age occur in a part of Western Australia, near the Irwin
river in Queensland ; in Tasmania, and in Victoria,
Associated with them, both above and below, in New South
Wales, Coal beds of various thickness roy 3 to 30 a: occur,
n the Newcastle basin alone there are at least 16 seams more
i 3 feet thick, sections of which ete gees published by
John Mackenzie and W. B. Clarke, and are exhibited. (See
No. 477.) Up to a comparatively recent period, it was not
known that under the marine beds below these coal seams,
other seams occur bearing the same genera of plants as in the
upper beds, of which Glossopteris and Phyllotheca are very
abundant. "When this fact was first published by me, it gare.
rise to controversy ; but the truth of my conclusions has
confirmed since by Mr. Daintree, who, visiting and Eopaniong
the spot in dispute, found four or five seams in the position to
which they had been assigned. Now, below these lower coal
measures there is an enormous thickness of fossiliferous strata,

bearing Glossopteris could not be Paleozoic, and therefore, that
the e upper coal measures of Newcastle had no right to be con=
sidered older than Oolitic. But whilst these upper measures
produced a fish ‘of undonbted Paleozoic character (Urosthenes
australis), Cleithrolepis granulatus, Myriolepis laa: and
other Ichthyolites, examined and determined by Sir P.

. Egerton, Bart., to be Paleozoic, have been found by a at
least 1 ,000 feet Bae and of which photographs are exhibited

No.

ort In

“ Le Piante co del? Oolite. ” Since then he has modified
his views, and, in a subsequent publication, in the “ Hivista
rie ae ae Padova, vol. xiii, 1863, admits that the Australian
rather Triassic than Oolitic. ae still, however,

does not aie comprehend the whole questi
sc ONONe the coal measures, including Urosthens and Glossop-
Tis, 7. e., in the Hawkesbury and in which
Gleithrolepin, Myriolepis and Palzoniscus occur BA Glos-
Sees, Baron De ae 3 eign ee s, from the way in which the

beds ; and the only fossils of the gen

344 W. B. Clarke on the Sedimentary

Queensland, full 600 miles distant. Professor M’Coy having
believed the coal of New South Wales to be Oolitic, and be-
lieving the Pentacrinites, &., to be Oolitic also, and Lepido-
dendron having been stated to be found in beds below the
coal in marine beds of assumed Devonian age, it was too hastily
inferred that eae M’Coy and myself were writing of two
distinct coal epochs.

That the coal measures of New South Wales are, cab: i
truly Carboniferous, has been since determined by - plant evi-
dence ; for in Queensland, where the Newcastle coal comes
can be identi tified, a plant very near to, if not the same as,
Alethopteris lonchitica, has been found, and there =e - the
present Exhibition several examples of it. (See No. 470.)
Moreover, near Stroud I long ago detected a inagsihadll fern,
in beds which belong to the Hunter river coal ag grains, which
Sir C. Bunbury has named Adiantites eximiu

Whether the masses of coal exhibited look more like a

Another ground on which the age of the New South Wales
coal isputed is, that in Victoria there are certain
beds which (me teste) resemble some of my Wianamatta beds,
and therefore, assuming them to be Oolitic, New South Wales
was involved in that dictum also. ss the true European
coal measures (according to Mr. Sel , “so far as is known
at present, do _ exist in Victoria ;” nor shi Glossopteris been
found there at all. Moreover, the Survey has sunk through
— feet of pb eters beds, without finding a profitable

seam anywhere ; and, though the limestones of | Gipps’s Land
are acknowle edged as Lower Carboniferous or Devonian, there
is not an atom of evidence to be obtained in Victoria as to the

ndary age of the New South Wales coal. Thus stands
the question at this moment. If now we turn to Tasmania, we
have clear evidence as to the occurrence there of true Paleo-
zoic coal, and if we pass on to Queensland we have equally
clear evidence ; and, what is more, there are sections on the
Bowen river (full 1,000 miles from Sydney), in which the
whole history of the coal beds may be read off without —

Mr, Daintree writes thus :— “The Bowen river Coal se
would afford more conclusive sections in the upper portion hae

Your own ; since, besides the seams of coal lying at the base of
the Bowen river river series, interstratified with beds containing @
arine fauna, which Professor oy

lar fauna, resting on beds with abundance of tube

Formations of New South Wales. 345

I learn also, from the examination of both Fauna and Flora,
specimens of which were in my possession before Mr. Daintree
had visited Queensland, that the former contains the identical

zoic on the Bowen riv
The coal seams on the Bowen river are of variable thiekness,
but a ten-foot seam has been notice
r, Gould, in his Report to the Government of Tasmania,
October, 1861, also states that the Mersey river worked coal
seam belongs to the formation with the same marine fossils as
in Queensland, and on the Hunter in New South Wales.
aving visited the Tasmanian locality for the purpose of
inspection, I can confirm all that has been stated respecting the
occurrence of the marine Paleozoic fossils, Orthonota, Spirifera,
Fenestella, Pachydomus, Theca, &c., in association with and
immediately above the coal.
So far, then, the question about the age of some of the
Australian coal must be considered as settled ; and if, as in
Illawarra, the coal beds overlie the marine beds, as they do
also in the Fingal district of Tasmania, it would appear that
all these separate occurrences belong to one thick series, in
which marine beds and fresh-water beds interpolate each other.
But, assuredly, in that case, the arrangement adopted must
express the order as follows :—
pper coal measures.
3. Upper marine beds.
2. Lower coal measures.
Lower marine
So far as I ktiow, the latter rest frequently on a conglomerate,
fail, in Tasmania I found to contain undoubted Carboniferous
OSS:
ince the Exhibition of 1862, on which occasion, in a —
on the Coal Fields, I noticed "the occurrence of Oil-

Cannel Coal at the foot of Mount York, and at Colley Creek
in a the Liverpool Ranges (not on eastern waters), t former
been in great request for the purpose of. prod ucing illun

ting oils ; and the produce has been feoaste into the market.

ie the former locality, and in Burragorang, I have made some
recent researches, sack have satisfied me that these can only
belong to the Upper coal measures, for they bear distinct evi-
dence in the fronds of Glossopteris, which are very clearly
iuapaeeed upon the beds at Mount York ; whilst at Burrago-

346 W. B. Clarke on the Sedimentary

rang the blocks of Cannel are found in an intermediate position,
between the top of the coal measures and the upper marine
beds, which, if not the overlying measures, bear the very
strongest resemblance to the Hunter river series.

awarta, also, there are shales which are above that
geological position, and which produce oil for illumination, but
are not of the peculiar character of the Cannel at Mount York,
which, in a great degree, resembles the Bog Head mineral of
Scotland, only it is more valuable. Specimens of all the pro-
ducts under the present heading will be found in the Exhibition.
It has been an object of inquiry whether Petroleum springs
exist in New South Wales, Such have been reported from the
Corong in South Australia, and from Taranaki in New Zealand,
and from Victoria. The former is, we learn, a mistake ; being
probably at a point where certain animal substances have

ities, known to me for many years, in which Petroleum exudes ;
and there are two or three in Western Australia, the products
from which I have examined. Nothing of value has as yet been
found. (See Mr. Keene’s collection exhibited in London, 1862,
and again exhibited, pp. 81-89.)

Seconpary Rocks.

I have previously made mention of the Hawkesbury and
Wianamatta beds ; anda collection of them, illustrated by a
catalogue, was exhibited at Melbourne. Some of these were
also shown in the Universal Exhibition of 1854, and therefore
have not now been repeated. ‘

Whether they be acknowledged hereafter as Paleozoic (which
the fishes determined by Sir P. M. de G. Egerton, Bart., would
justify), or whether, with Mr. Selwyn, we consider them (against
that evidence) to be Secondary—or whether we suppose, with
him, that the beds in Victoria called by him Secondary are @
persion of my Wianamatta beds—there is nothing to explain
the statement made by de Zigno, in his valuable paper before
the Academy of Science, in Padua, on 23rd April, 1863, in
which he says : :

_ Altri depositi pure d’ incerta classificazione ci si schierano innanzi
prendendo ad esaminare i terrenia combustibile fossile della Nuova
oe e della Tasmania, che il M’Coy aveva fino dal

0 di hi rire come aged?
posit collocati Eien crew distanza di quelli le cut
f seeBhe hs sig * egg :

Re

Formations of New South Wales. 347

una ae cate ser multo affine alla stn vittata del?
Oolite di Scarborough, e nota come presso Volumbilla abbia tro-
yato Belenniti, Pentacriniti e varie conchiglie che s’ ya ots eo
alle gepsete proprie dell’ Oolite inferiore, del Liase del Tria:
p. 148-9).

oe in this statement are three things to be reconsidered:—

1. It has not been said by me that the Lepidodendron, &c.,
were in the same beds with Glossopteris (though evidence
has come out recently to the effect that these plants have
been found together at Newcastle), but it has been held
that the Glossopteris Coal beds and the Lepidodendron
beds are part and parcel of one great formation.

2. In New South Wales no Cycadites and no Taniopteris
have been ever found, though they occur in Victoria in
the beds considered by the geologists there to belong to
the Wianamatta beds.

3, Neither in the Victoria beds, nor in the Wianamatta beds,
has ever been found a Belemnite, a cca ieee: or a
shell, save a fresh-water Unio in Victoria, and one shell
in New South Wales from the fish-bearing s shales

There is, however, a far more important matter to be rectified.

When I first reported the Ayre of Rasepeery fossils from

Cretaceous ; and therefore, certainly guided by Prof. M’Coy’s
determination, I adopted his view of an older period, and even
considered that some of the fossils indicated a Triassic age 5
there was certainly a brachiopod which looked older t
Triassic;) consenting to the possibility that the Wollumbilla
_ beds might prove really to be of the same age as the Wianamatta
beds. But I have learned two things since, first, that the
fishes of pk latter are Paleozoic, and secondly, that the Wollum-
illa fossils on ean rete and examination in ar w. ither

dare Rive pe with that of Wollumballa tthotgh otherwise
widely separate), there will be the in al ae

| Cretaceous epoch, first reat ty myself: Ae 2m rpc able to

348 W. B. Clarke on the Sedimentary

fossils in sitw, to be acknowledged as well developed in Queens-
land. But we shall then see how little is its relationship with
the Wianamatta, and how still less with the Victorian beds.

This reference to a very important circumstance leads me
to suggest, that whether the Wianamatta series is to maintain
a Paleozoic pretension or whether it is to ascend to the ‘Trias,
the arrangement which will be found most correct will proba-
bly be represented somewhat in this wise :—

4. Cretaceous. Wollumbilla, Flinders, &c., (Queensland)

and Western Australia.

3. Inferior, or Great Oolite. Deposits at Wizard Peak, &c.,

Western Australia.

2. Trias, Victoria.

1, Paleozoic. Wianamatta, Hawkesbury, and Coal beds of
New South Wales.
In which arrangement, I would place the Victorian “ carbon-
aceous” above my Wianamatta beds. Of course, subsequent
discoveries may modify such a view, and lead to a final settlement

of opinion, by enabling geologists to fill up the

proposed to collect in 1861. I have now been able to discover
that rocks of the above epochs range from the east of Wollum-
billa across the Maranoa and Warrego to the Nive and Barcoo ;
thence along the head of the Thomson to the Flinders, and so
round by Tower Hill and the Belyando back to the Amby and
aranoa Rivers ; not, of course, in one uninterrupted area

rocks ; and it will probably be found that various groups of
the Jurassic epoch are represented there. ;
_ It is certainly singular that some well-known species of
wuropean reputation, or their representatives, are found in the
Western Australia Oolite, such as the following of the Great
Oolite :—Trigonia costata; Ostrea Marshii; Ammonites Moo-
formis; Avicula Munsteri, &c.

_None of these have, however, been found in Queensland,
New South Wales, in Victoria, or Tasmania ; but in the latter
Wianamatta series, as well as of the Coal measures and lower

Formations of New South Wales. 349

In New Zealand the greater part of the Coal measures is
not Paleozoic, but some of it is said to be Secondary, to which
epoch also belong the Jurassic Plesiosaurus and Ammonites ;
and Triassic Avicule and Monotis.

In New Caledonia, there is also a distinct Triassic series, of
which some of the fossils are akin to those of New Zealand.
But, at present, neither has this nor the Belemnites of Queens-
la n found in New South Wales.

So far as the question of Coal is concerned, no Coal seams
(but only thin patches or very limited layers) have been found
in the Wianamatta or the Hawkesbury rocks, that can be com-
pared even with the alleged Secondary deposits of Victoria ;
and in Queensland, where workable seams do exist, the fossils
of New South Wales are also found. In the Secondary marine
beds of Wollumbilla and the Amby, gold in minute visible
particles was found by me in some of the quartz pebbles ce-
mented with the shells, and a small quantity was detected by
crushing the whole, shells, pebbles, and the calcareous cement

er.

TrRTIARY Rocks.

summit of the Cordillera, near Nundle, above the Peel River
iggings, occurs a ferruginous bed full of leaves. Both these

~18eings, a & he
localities are He by specimens in the Exhibition. On

impressions. From a depth of 60 feet in a shaft near Bungo-

. . * * . .

matter with black

No botanist is prepared to declare what is the exact age of
such deposits. But some of the leaves are supposed to represent
among others the foliage of Fagus ; yet, it was only in 1866
that a beech forest the Director of the

350 W. B. Clarke on the Sedimentary

Botanical Gardens, growing on the Clarence River. On com
paring the living leaves with the impressions in the various
deposits mentioned, I can see me identity. This is a point in
Geology not yet fully dealt wi

The most remarkable sentatace I have met with is on the
coast, about forty-two miles north of Cape Howe, where, at a
place’ called Chouta (between Tura and Boonda) a cliff about
100 feet high, formed of sand and white silicate of alumina,
contains beds of lignite charged with sulphid of iron, and
which are full of phytolites much allied to the living vegetation.
From the clays, some of which are nearly kaolin, articles of
pottery have been formed, which, with the clays and sands, are
exhibited. (See Nos. 269 & 371) It has been proved that,
by distillation, a fair proportion of lubricating oil may be pro-
duced from the lignitiferous clay, and other products are “ax
pected to result from these deposits. The cliffis about 60 fee
thick from the sea to the top of the clays, and borings te
the sea level have shown a still greater thickness.

These deposits lie between the horns of the little bay at Tura
and Boonda, resting at one end on the highly undulating
tan rocks, and at the other on a mass of Porphyry.

, formerly, no doubt, deposited in a depression among
the “ope of the hills , but the wearing away of the coast has
left a cliff of clay and sand instead of the srapitiid cliff of hard

rocks. It is remarkable that, at the south end the rocks as-

sume the character of a breccia of quartz, cemented by siliceous

matter (probably like a deposit mentioned by Mr. Gould as

occurring in Tasmania) and in it analysis has detected the

Syn of gu: though some quartz veins at the north end
tain

of the

Formations of New South Wales. 351

Gold drifts which are by Mr. Selwyn referred to Upper and
Middle Tertiary, yet there are parallels in New South Wales
to certain phenomena that have been observed in that province.
Thus, the gold alluvia of the Uralla resting chiefly on granite
are covered by a great thickness of basalt, as in various Victo-
rian fields, and at Lucknow, near Orange, as well as at Uralla,
under the basalt and with the gold alluvia are found stems and
branches of trees, as is the case at Daylesford, in Victoria,

These may be Miocene, or perhaps Pliocene, but the proof
must rest on evidence not yet attainable.

PLEISTOCENE AND RECENT ACCUMULATIONS.

In many parts of the existing region, all over the surface,
wherever the basal rock is not denuded, as near Sydney, there
are local deposits which might be called “till,” were any
tacea found in them; and in the interior there are widely-spread
accumulations of drift pebbles, which, as on the Hunter and
Wollondilly, are rounded by attrition in their long journey

om the mountains whence they have been derived. Sometimes,
— the breaking up of conglomerates has contributed to this

ift

and bivalve shells are found in some cases attached to the bones,
or deposited over them in a regular series of layers, at interval
of several feet; and of these shells some are yet living in the
water-holes of the creeks. These facts are generally known,
but it was not till recently that the osseous relics have been
found in different creeks throughout the whole of the slopes and
plains at the base of the Cordillera in Eastern Australia.

Similar to this are the accumulations of bones in caverns, as
at Wellington—at Boree, near the head of the Colo river—at
Yesseba on the Macleay river, and other places. |

In the Exhibition is a magnificent collection made by Mr.
Krefft. from the former locality, and several specimens of (See

Nos. 483e & 469.)

breccia from the latter place, discovered by Mr. Rudder. Bee

.

352 ~W. B. Clarke on the Sedimentary Formations, ce.

deposits, from which, as in Illawarra and Broken Bay, a con-
siderable profit is obtained by dredgers and shell-collectors, fo
the production of lime.

Mr. Rudder illustrates the case of the Macleay by collections
of the shells, and by a carefully-drawn map defining the limits
of the Pleistocene deposits. (See No. 469.) é

All along the coast, from Torres’ Straits to Bass’s Strait,
drift pumice may be found wherever there is a lodgment, gen-
erally in the north corner of the little shore bays. That this
1as gone on for ages is apparent, as in one part of the coast
south of Sydney there is an accumulation of water-worn pum-
ice, some distance from the shore, and beyond the reach of the
present waves. It is supposed to come in during easterly gales,
from the volcanic islands to the northeast. :

aised beaches occur also at various heights on rocky projec-
tions of the coast, indicating elevation of the land, of which
there is distinct evidence in the recent period, not only in
Moreton Bay, near Sydney, and thence to Bass’s Strait; but

George’s Sound. Mr. Selwyn gives data for assuming the ele-
vation of the land to have reached occasionally 4,000 feet in
Victoria, but he has no evidence of Tertiary marine fossils above
600 feet. Unfortunately, on the eastern coast, having no ma-
rine Tertiaries, we have to found our deductions, as respects New
South Wales, on less secure data. Yet we have here evidence
of another kind, and pot-holed surfaces of considerable extent
have been found by me at various heights from 300 to nearly
3,000 feet.

In a brief abstract like the present, it is impossible to quote
authorities, nor has time allowed a more satisfactory digest or
@ wider range of statements. Nor has opportunity permitted
the preparation of sections (save of the Newcastle Coal Field,
No. 477) or map to point out relative positions of the forma-
tions mentioned by me in this paper. The places named can,
however, be seen on such maps as are probably exhibited by
English D see. not, reference can be made to ae ae 8

2 — | ~ ia, in Stieler’s Hand Atlas, ee eo
- wave not named the occurrence of the ferruginous deposi
of the Cape York Penins

ula, (though I possess a map, and

A, S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Yesso. 353

St. Leonards, near Sydney, 17 January, 1867.

Art. XXXVIII—The Ainos, or Hairy men of Yesso; by
LBERT 8. BickMorE, A.M.

(From the Proceedings of the Boston Soe. of Nat. Hist., Dec. 4th, 1867.)

Tux islands that now form the empire of Japan are four in
number: Kiusiu, on the south, opposite Corea; Sikok, a
little to the northeast ; Niphon, the great island of Japan, to
the north ; and Yesso, another large island to the north of the
latter. In the most southern part of Yesso, on the wide strait,
which separates that island from Niphon, is situated Hakodadi,
its chief city, and its only port open to foreign trade

riving at this place on my way northward from Yedo to
Siberia, at the solicitation of our Consul, Col. E. E. Rice, the
apanese Governor gave me the privilege of going some miles
beyond the places usually visited by foreigners and seeing a real
village of the Ainos— the aborigines of these islands and the
least known of all the people of the east.

From Hakodadi I travelled northward over a mountain ra
to the active voleano Ko-man-ga-ta-ki, and descending its north-
ern flanks came to the village of Mori on Volcano Bay. Here for
the first time I had the privilege of seeing a man and woman
of that strange people.

rom Mori we followed the shore for fifteen miles to Ya-ma

san 2g

and sometimes along the little paths that lead from one fishing

village to another, in a neighboring bay. Terraces extend
7 in. ;

ing bluffs one hundred or one undred and fifty feet in
height, but back of these was another series as much higher.
The fishermen near the head of the bay were taking fishes much
like our herring, in great quantities, for theiroil. The residue
in the boiling pots is pressed into square masses and exported
as manure for rice fields. There we saw many Ainos at work
maith Japanese, but usually they prefer to work in companies by
themselves,

From Ya-ma Koosh-nai we travelled five miles to Urope, a
_ Village of three or four Japanese, and about twenty Aino
___ AM. Jour. Sct.—Szconp Szrms, Vou. XLV, No. 135.—May, 1868. Be i

a2,

354 A, S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Yesso.

houses. The latter were scattered irregularly near the shore
over a broad belt of sand, that has been drifted back by the
easterly winds. They all have the same rectangular form, and

slightly sloping. The roof projects a few inches at the eaves
and rises from each side toa point inthe center. In the walls,

on stones or blocks of wood, where the occupants lounge and
sleep. They usually sit on the mats on the sand. In the

id a Japanese bellows. The woman was crouched near the
fire, twisting up thin strips of the inner layer of the bark of a
tree into a continuous line of the size of a mackerel line. It
is from such material, and in this way, that all the lines for

ee

A, S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Yesso. 355

his wife. She was demurely at work in one corner, making a
straw mat after the Japanese style. The other young woman
was weaving a piece of cloth about ten inches wide, from strings
made of bark as already described. These strings, which rep-
resented the warp, were fastened at one end to a post and at
the other end to a board which she kept leaning against while
she changed them and pushed through the filling and pressed
it down with a sharp edged board, This kind of cloth seems
to be the only one they have, and it is all made in this slow
and laborious manner. In front of this house, that is, on
the side toward the shore, there was a kind of rack filled with
sticks, each haying on its top the skull of a bear. In this
single place I counted twenty-nine skulls of this animal, a
umber that must make our old friend and his son rank high
Fs the estimation of his Aino companions. In another house
we entered, we found a man and his wife seated by the fire.
The woman was sewing, but the man was doing nothing, and
yet the bay was swarming with e showed us the bow
he used in hunting the bear, but would >a sell a model of it,
declaring that in their estimation it was most disgraceful for an
Aino to part with the bow he was accustomed to use. How-
ever I secured a real arrow. The after part of the shaft was of
reed, the fore part of solid wood to make it fly point foremost,
and the barbed part of bamboo. They carry short knives, but
they appear to rely on their bows and arrows when they east
a bear or kill a deer. I saw no lances, nor any implements of
8 or bronze. I also purchased of this man a pair of snow

ivory, rudely chased. It was the only piece of ornamented work
Isaw. As I was anxious to ascertain as height, the distance
round the chest, and the length of the “ei hand, and foot of
an Aino woman, my interpreter bri bribed the husband with a small
piece of silver to make the desired measurements, but om

356 A. S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Yesso.

was unfortunately lost, and now I can only state from memory,
that the peculiarity which struck me most was, that the regions
of the waist and chest did not appear as separate as in most
women; but it remains to be seen whether this is a permanent
character. The mamme were very largely developed, and

ion”—which is, perhaps, as good a reason as could be assigned
for a thousand foolish customs in the most civilized lands. At
all events it gives these Aino women the appearance of trying
to add to their charms by artificially making up for what they
seem to consider a defect in nature’s handiwork. The women
also tattoo the backs of their hands in narrow transverse bands,

On my return I found that eight Ainos had just arrived in @
couple of ee Som a place on the south coast, a short dis-

A. S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Yesso. 357

voungest on theirright. They could not tell, however, how old
they were, but said that the Japanese officials kept a record of
their ages. As soon as they were seated they began their sal-
utation, which consists in slightly inclining the body forward,
at the same time raising both hands as high as the eyes, with
the palms inward and the fingers extended and nearly touching
each other. The hands then pass down along the beard to the
| chest. This is repeated three times, and when they wish to
i show still greater respect they accompany these motions with
a low guttural muttering. Saki (Japanese rice-whiskey) being

panese fluently, and Mr. James J. Enslie, the Japanese inter-
preter at the British Consulate, and himself the author of two
interesting papers on the Ainos, kindly volunteered to ask them
a list of questions I had prepared. In this way the following
information was obtained directly from the Ainos themselves.
As some of the questions proved quite perplexing, they
became tired before the list was completed, and I failed there-

oo ee SE I et ~~

make no great rejoicing or = feed ead os is se

| beginning of the new year,

358 A, 8. Bickmore on the Ainos of : Yesso.

each of whom always lives in a separate house. At present
they have no king, but a great chief living at Saru. The In-
terpreter had met other A sons whom he could not understand
(that is to say, there are at least two different dialects in the
Aino language). They keep no cats but catch rats in traps.
They have “ only Japanese horses.” They keep fowls but no
ducks. They eat sever fowls and what wild birds they can

is she dead ?” such an act wo uld be considered the grosset
breach of good breeding. They say that they can make poi
refused to tell how, and further declared that they Pept. it
such a secret that even the J apanese officials knew nothing of
the process. They have sorcerers whose advice they are ac-

. No. 1. 0. 2. No. 3.
Height, 5 ft. 1gin. 56 ft. 2° in:
rizontally rosa the head

just mae the eyebrows, 1 30 ¢ 2 yp

Distance round ve — immediately ; ‘
eneath the 20.20 4... 28 19g 3S Ee

Sapo round ay cP at the
; 2 ee Te 3 “se 94 te

Len “th of the arm to the ate ire 2% 2 ogee gy es ee
Distance round the arm at the largest part, 10} “ 10} *
‘istance round for ‘the largest

10} tc 10% i
123 # 124 ¢
104 7s 10 ae
94 “ 95 ee

. men of medium size.
, ther that se alehcmerls the Ainos are stout and
7 are hariiy eget ae shen the Japanese, and not near
he average of the people in the north of China.

tive size of She hands a et oth rest of the body — a
_ I saw no lame persons and but

A. S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Yesso. 359

ment of their chests, with their full heavy beards, gives them
the appearance of noble and hardy men as compared with their
effeminate Japanese rulers. The m to be endowed with
great vitality, and the fact that dee so successfully resisted
the repeated attacks of a more enlightened race for eighteen
hundred years, sufficiently proves their daring and persever-
ance

The dress of the men consists of a strip of cloth covering
the loins in the same way as is customary among coolies in
ast. In summer this is their only clothing, “but in winter
they wear long, loose coats, or dressing gowns woven from
strings of bark. This is folded over from right to left* and
bound at the waist with a sash. Their heads, feet, and legs
are usually bare. The women have a shorter dre essing gown
— down to the hips, aoe beneath this a piece of cloth
wrapped around the waist and hanging d own nearly to the

- they have no written records, the earliest accounts of this
people have come down to us through oo a
According to a —— chronology com rom
sources and kindly translated for me by Father Nicholai, fot

the Russian Legation, Jin-mu the first Japanese e: p-
peared on Kiusiu at Hunga (or Hewng-nga) in B. C. 667. In
B.C, e first came to Niphon, but was defeated and driven

back by the aborigines. In B. C. 660 he returned and effected
@ permanent settlement on the southeast part of that island.
_ In most of the Japanese histories, at least, no mention appears
pf — arrival of any new people, and the Japanese all fain
= nen epi — nd Japanese females fold their dresses, é
Sot men fold theirs from left

360 A. §. Bickmore on the Ainos of Yesso.

that these aborigines were the ancestors of the present Ainos.
Thus, this people, although so little known to this day, are
mentioned half a century before the time of N ebuchadnezzar,
and siz hundred years before the northern and western parts of
Europe were first described by Ceesar in his Commentaries, and
more than two thousand one hundred years before the discovery
of the continent by Columbus. In A. D. 272 the Ainos, for
the first time, brought presents to the J apanese authorities
and acknowledged them as their rulers. . D. 352 they
rebelled, and in the year 366 they defeated the J apanese and
killed their general. During the next two centuries, however,
they appear to have been completely subjugated ; for an educa-
ted Japanese informs me that as early as A. D. 655, the Jap-
anese sovereign then reigning established a kind of government
over the Ainos in Yesso, which was located near Siribets, a
volcano on the north shore of Volcano Bay. In A. D. 1186,
Yoritomo usurped the ruling power in Niphon, and becoming
jealous of his brother Yosi Tsunay, had him put to death
according to history, at a headland on the east coast now
called Shendai. But according to tradition, Yosi T'sunai
escaped to Yesso, and treating the Ainos here with the greatest

and claims to possess some of the presents made by Yosi Tsunay
to his ancestors.

'Y> OF, as is

Ay
ro. ae

A, S&. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien. 361

same family pass on to the east until they finally reached the
islands now forming the Empire of Japan; and do their living
representatives now appear before us in the persons of this
isolated and ancient people, the Ainos ?

Art. XX XIX.—The Ainos, or Hairy Men, of Saghalien and
the Kurile Islands; by ALBERT 8. Bickmore, A.M,

[Read before the Boston Society of Natural History, March 4, 1868.]

Last spring, while at Hakodadi in the southern part of the
island of Yesso, I forwarded to the Society a short paper con-
taining some observations on the Ainos living on Voleano Bay.

t was my determination at that time to go north along the
whole western coast of Yesso to La Pérouse Strait, and cross-

on refe
to, June 1st, 1867, we steamed out of Tsugar Strait for the
Opposite coast of Manchuria. A pleasant passage over the
Japan Sea brought us to Vladi Vostock, the extremity of the
great empire of Russia toward the east. Thence, our course

2 38 :
ready been made between the two powers, to hold all the Ku-
rile Islands (or all but one of those Islands), and the southern
part of Saghalien, “in common.” : : ;

At Kusunai I had the privilege of seeing a few of the Ainos

of Saghalien. In their features, in their customs, and in every

‘Tespect, they appeared to agree perfectly with those I had seen”
the shores of Voleano Bay, and others who came to

Gert ae

i from the south coast of Yesso east of inde

362 A. &. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien.

Their huts were across the stream a short distance to the
south, and we remained so short a time I was unable to visit
them

Whittincham, * who landed north of Cape Lamanon, and
but a few miles from this place, thus describes the houses
he saw there: “‘As we came near the shore, four dark men,
with very long black hair flying in the wind, and clothed in
seal-skin jackets, kilts and boots, waved their arms and hands,
warning us to another landing-place, toward which they wad-
dled with a peculiar clumsy gait. With many demonstrations
of respect they led the way to their huts of rough logs, covere
and the interstices filled with birch bark and dry leaves ; ; they
were low on the ground, and could only be entered by stoop-
ing on the hands and knees. The larger eee were used as
sigan for their fishing apparatus. One of the men was

magnificent savage, tall, lithe, straight and strong, with
hair, beard and moustaches never desecrated by the touch of
the scissors ; with a high broad brow, dark eyes, straight nose
and oval face, he was a far nobler creature than the Red In-
dian, who I had always fancied was the pride of wild men,
His fellows were less manly in their bearing and smaller ; and
as far as dirt, mal-odor, and want of light permitted me to see,
_ the women were ugly and little.” The oval form of the face,
which is here noticed, is very correct; but he is mistaken,
however, about the stature of the women , which, in those i
aw, ges nearly equal to that of the men. I measured one
man and found his height to be 5 feet 3% inches, meaty two
aches | taller than thcse I measured in Yesso, The distance
round his chest was 3 feet 2 inches ; stretch of arms across
the chest, 5 feet 83 inches ; length of arm, 1 foot 2 inches ;
and oF fore-arm, } foot t 61 inches ; distance round _ arm at

Hg 0 he gin pint the eae in Eastern Siberia

1806.

A, 8. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien. 363

same manner as is the custom with the Japanese. Whether

During my stay at Nicholaifsk, at the mouth of the Amoor
river, I met a Cossack who had been sent down to this part of
Saghalien to live among this people in order to learn their cus-

oms and acquire their language. He gave me the following
information in regard to that part of them that live on that
island: The Aino name for Saghalien is Karapto They
have no written characters, but the old men can send intelli-
gence to each other by means of sticks notched in different

They are superstitiously afraid of the Japanese,
and believe that they have supernatural power to injure them,
and can at pleasure cause them to sicken and even die. When
aman dies they bury him clad, not necessarily in white, but
in the best suit he may happen to have, and usually in furs
when he possesses any. The bodies of persons of all ages are
placed at full length in boxes, with the face upward. At such
times they all cry and mourn very bitterly, even to the chil-
dren, The Cossack said that one time he wanted a little child
that was visiting her parents, and when he came to their house
he found her erying with the others over the loss of a friend.
When a widow laments, they do not beat her with sticks as a
Japanese doctor reported to me was the custom of the Ainos
on Volcano Bay. Every friend who comes to mourn with a
widow is very careful not to mention her husband’s name, not
from any superstitious fear of the dead, but for fear of remind-
ing her of her logs, and thus adding to her sorrow. When a
man dies, the next youngest brother takes the widow as his

for her father. A man may have two or three wives ; the Cos-
sack did not know any bis who had more than three. (The
Gilyaks, their immediate neighbors, usually have two.) If a
woman is unfaithful, the husband merely reproves her, and if
© one but he and the guilty parties knew of it, he would
robably not mention it to any one. When a woman is in la-
oo Se ake

r, sh |
Kept from her husband for one month afterward.

h the other members of the family, but is.

pr eae

the

_ Matter whatever. If the you pea

364 A. S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien.

They reckon time by twelve moons or months, and three
seasons : when the snow melts, when the flowers appear, and
when they fade. When any one is sick they sacrifice a dog
on the top of a mountain—the higher the mountain the more
they reverence it. The Cossack thinks that they believe in a
Supreme Being, and that they only pray to the mountain to
intercede for them with this exalted Deity. They are natu-
rally a very reverential people, and do worship the sun, the
moon, and the stars, but only as intercessors, according to the

_ Cossack. (Their religion may be regarded as a modified form

of Shamanism),

Vhat the Cossack has said in respect to their raising and
killing the bear is exactly true of the Gilyaks as they repre-
sented their customs and notions to me.

__™ The southern half of the peninsula of Kamtschatka is occupied by the Kamt-

Psi Koriaks. The very

als Itulms ; an e€ northern y ‘ :
i corner of Asia is the territory of the Tchuktchis. The following habits

of the Koriaks and Tchuktchis, compiled from Mr. Pauly’s great work, will show
he similarity of the customs of those peoples with th t f the Ainos given

ye:—

women tattoo themselves, because

rages of time.” When a Koriak

*

A. &. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien. 365

The number of this people on Saghalien was very carefully
ascertained in the year 1857 by Lieut. Rudanovsky, who was
sent here by the Russian government for that special purpose.
The locations of the villages and the number of houses or
“yurts,” and the population they contained, are given as fol-
lows in a newspaper published at Nicholaifsk at that time :—
On Aniwa Bay, east shore, in 25 villages, 91 yurts, and 535 persons.
oe 3 west “ “10 6 ee nee -

‘“ oe

“ the Ohkotsk shore, 22 64 Mey
“coast of the Gulf of Tartary, ‘‘ 35 ee eee ogs -
Tn the middle of the island along a

river, tog “ 10 ‘“ (33 60 te
Total on Saghalien, 95 villages, 350 yurts, and 2,479 persons.

As these people subsist almost solely by fishing, I judge that
there are not more than three or four times this number on
Yesso and the Kurile Islands. This would make their total

Saghalien is very interesting, because it indicates at once, that
the Ainos were the aboriginal inhabitants of the island, and
that the Orochi and the Gilyaks have come over from the con-
tinent at a later period, across ‘the Liman” or narrow strait
between 52° and 53° 30’ north, :

A line drawn along the high land from Cape Patience on
the east coast around the head of the gulf of that name, and
thence northwest to the village of Pilyavo on the Gulf of Tar-
tary in about 50° 10’ N., would be the northern limit of the
area these people usually occupy in the southern part of Sag-
halien. Occasionally, however, they go northward on trading
If the father does not fancy the proposer, he is dis and gets no recom-
pense for his long, tedious toil. When he receives his wife, one more Aa aghesta
1s made in the yurt, and his future parents and rs beat him | sticks.
If he endures this manfully, he proves his ability “to bear up against all the ills
of life,” and is then conducted without farther ceremony to the apartment of his
betrothed all of the foregoing formalities are not ob-
= gf ote
like that of the present. :

hi i but do not the kalym (a price for the
Se asap apeaeig ee malry, : , he a to the coe and gets his

the young lady consents. ih

fe ang and often without paying a kalym. lady chosen
Divorce is frequent, on account of disputes between the hus-
between the wife and ther-in-law. :

366 A. S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien.

or hunting excursions in winter to the Tymy river, which flows
eastward and empties into the Ohkotsk Sea in latitude 50° 50’

there is a single Aino now living on the continent. After-

years after the discovery of Japan by the Portuguese).
thus describes this people,* though he does not give us to un-
derstand that he had ever seen them: “In the north of J apan,
_ three hundred leucas (about 17 degrees), lies an extensive
_ ‘province inhabited by savage people. They are clothed with
_ skins, are hairy all over the body, have terribly long beards,
_ and very long moustaches, which they lift up with a sma
_ Stick when they wish to drink. They are fond of strong
drinks, are bold in war, and much feared by the Japanese.
If they are wounded in battle they wash their wounds with
salt water; this is their only remedy. It is said that they
carry @ mirror on the breast. They bind swords to the head
4n such a manner that the handle hangs down on the shoulder.
(4 hey now carry all bundles on their backs with a strap pass-
the forehead.) They have no religion; it seems

=

that they are used to pray to heaven.
__ * Elucidations of De Vries’ Voyage by Von Siebold, p. 98.

A. S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien, 367

The next account of this hairy people appears in a letter
from the Jesuit, Pcre Hieronymts de Angelis, written in
Japan in 1622, a year before he was burnt at Yedo.* In
the year 1620 he reached Saghalien, according to Krusen-
stern, and was probably the first European who had made his
way so far through the Japanese empire. As he not only saw
the Ainos, but lived among them, his descriptions are authori-
tative.

“* As for the appearance of the inhabitants, they are coarse
and of larger stature than men generally are: more inclining
in color to white than to brown. They wear long beards,
sometimes down to the middle. They shave the hair of the

small. Their stuffs are of silk, cotton or linen, For arms

separate and independent tribes.) “The lord of Matsmay as-
sured me that the inhabitants of Yesso went to three islands

.

not far distant from their country, the inhabitants of ©
from those

which had no beards and a very different language
of Yesso, to purchase fish-skins, which they call raccoon.
But he did not know whether those islands were to the south
or north of Yesso.” (These people who had “no beard” and
had “fish-skins” to sell, were without doubt some of the
Tungusic tribes, on the shores of the continent, or perhaps
the Gilyaks, who at that time certainly inhabited the islands
in Tugur Gulf north of the mouth of the Amoor, and who
chiefly dress themselves in fish-skins now. The Tungus on
the middle Amoor had probably been supplied with cotton
stuffs from China for centuries before that date, A. D, 1565.) _
*“ As to their knowledge of another world and of a future
* Witsen’s “‘Noord-oost Tartarye,” and Siebold’s De Vries, p. 99.

368 A, S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien.

life, it is little or nothing. They have some sort of worship
for the sun and moon as the two greatest lights ; as also some
mountain and sea devils (spirits) ; for as they mostly support
themselves in the sea with fishing, they hope by these means
to catch much, and never be in want of wood for fuel or build-
ing. They have neither bonzes, nor priests, nor temples, nor
any place where they can come together to do anything for
their salvation. None of them are able to read or write.
Each one has his own lawful wife, or as some suppose, even
two: though there are many who have concubines in the
Chinese manner. A woman taken in adultery has the hair of
her head shaved off, that she may thus be known; and the
adulterer, or he with whom she has committed the crime, is
deprived of his sword and of all his ornaments by the offended
husband, or by his friends as often as they meet him.”

t the present time no Aino carries a sword, and it is prob-
able that the Japanese compelled them to deliver up all such
weapons as tokens of their entire submission.

ohn Saris, who visited Yedo in 1613 as ambassador from
the English Company, heard of these people and gathered
some accounts of them from the Japanese. Also Francoys
Caron, chief of the Dutch trade in Japan during 1639 and

640, gives some notices of them.

- : ese people had their own forts, such as will proba-

_ bly be found hereafter among the independent tribes. They
are thus described :*

“These forts were made as follows: on the mountain on
which they were placed was a small road steep to climb, and
round on the four sides palisades were placed of the height and
length of 13 man’s length; within this stood two or three
houses. There were large fir doors in the palisades with
strong clamps; when they were closed, two stout bars were

assed through the clamps and thus fastened to them. At
two corners of these square placed palisades, a high scaffolding
_ is made of fir planks, for a lookout ; further, the palisades are
well fastened together with cross bars.”
| omparison to the present poor and wretched condition of
, under the severe rule of the Japanese, Capt. Vries
gives us this picture of the arms worn by the natives of Aniwa
Bay, while they were yet free. “Their arms are d
* Siebold’s Elucidations of Capt. Vries’ Voyage, p. 115.

-

A. &. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien. 369

arrows, together with a hanger, much like the Japanese, the
blade inlaid with a. thin silver border ; they bear it with a
girdle in the Persian manner ; the quiver, with a band round
He _ hanging on the right side.’

oth the Gulf of Patience and Aniwa Bay they were
very deerous of iron, giving in exchange feathers and fur,
<ontlor very ingeniously how to pack up the feathers of

es

“They offered me a fine otter-skin, for which I gave an old
ax with which they were very elad. How much silver we
might offer them they always preferred iron to silver. These
people are very fond of one oe for which they offered furs
and silverwork in abund

he only ornaments or + artibled of silver they have now are
their earrings, which are made of a piece of silver wire about
one-tenth of an inch in diameter. This is bent into a large
ring about an inch and a half or two inches in diameter, and
where the two ends are joined, a glass bead, generally of a "blue
ong is added. These they appear to prize very highly, for
e I was examining one at Volcano Bay, the owner seemed
greatly troubled for fear I should take it out and carry it
Occasionally these rings are made of brass.

we Their bows are four or five feet long, of ash or elm, and

the arrows about half a yard, very cleverly made with a small
reed harpoon at the end, rubbed with black poison, so that
whatever is wounded with it must immediately die.’

“ They have also traps which, being bent like a bow, there
isa round hole made in the wood of the bow, in which they
lay some bait; the birds, such as mews , eagles, snipes or —
ravens, coming to pick in it, or putting in their feet, the bow —
springs up and the bird is caught.”

heir dogs, taught to catch fish as naturally as can be
imagined, lie in wait on the shore of the sea or the banks of
the river, and release each other as if they were men, when
one has been a certain time on the lookout. The rest of the
dogs, in troops of ten or twelve, run — stream,
when t they see any movement of salmon, they rush into =
water, swimming in a half moon. The on,
jump ‘out of the water in al where there is little or no
water, where they are seize by the dogs on ad lookout, who
bite off their heads and bring the bodies to the masters, and

were accustomed to make fire: “ They had their instruments
for making fire with them ; these were square planks with a
Am. Jour. Sc.—Seconp SERIES, Yor. XLV, No. 135.—Mar, 1868. :

: 24

370 A. S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien.

hollow in them ; then they have reeds into which is inserted a
short stick ; when they want to make fire, they put the short
stick in the hollow and rub it between the hands, so that it
turns round, and so being dipped in sulphur, they hold that
to it and soon have burning fire

In 1698 Kamtschatka became known to the Europeans, and
fifteen years after a Cossack reached Kunashir, the twentieth
island in the chain from the continent. In 1736 S panberg
left Petropaulski and visited the Kurile Islands, paeaglien
from the Russian word kuril, “‘to smoke.” After Spanberg’s
voyage hee people w were known as “the Kuriles” or “the
Hai uriles,’” and as early as 1764, a book was written by
Krasheninicof® * which contained a more minute and complete
account of the appearance and habits of that part of this peo-
ple than any work I am able to find. Their religion and
character are thus described :

“They are as ignorant of a Deity as the ee

y this
protection shee think themselves safe in all their org 2

| account is given by Capt. Vries of the Ainos on the
eastern coast of Yesso and the southern part of Saghalien.
_ He says: “ When they sit round a pond and drink, they first
pour out a few drops in several places round about the pee
as if they sacrificed. They have some cut fir sticks with shav-
ings to them, which they stick into the earth in many
places, and hang them to the walls in the houses. When ce

one pan pag them is ill, they cut long shavings off these sticks
wind them round the head and arms of the patient”
Those sticks Siebold thinks agree with the Sinto of t Japa-
nd are symbols of divinities in their ancient religion.

y, bh
a respect vole, and. an
Bother, p ab cuer Shak oe ote It is a
| “with w hat hospitality they receive such as

A. &. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien. 371

come to visit them from other islands. They have an extra-
ordinary way of punishing adultery: the husband challenges
the adulterer to a combat, which is performed in the followin

manner: both the combatants are stripped quite naked, wad
the challenger gives the challenged a club, about three feet
long, and near as thick as one’s arm: then the challenger is
obliged to receive three strokes upon his back from the chal-

lenged, who then returns him the club and is visited in the

common with the Tchuktchi and Tungus. Their clothes are
made of the skins of sea fowls, foxes, sea otters, and other ani-
mals ; and are generally composed of the skins of very differ- Be
ent creatures, so that it is rare to see a whole suit made of th id
same sort of skins.”
apt. Golovnin, in the memoirs of his captivity, informs us

that he had a native with him from one of the northern of the
Kurile Islands, and the evidence he is thus able to give in re-
gard to the identity of the inhabitants of the Kurile Island
and those of Yesso, and to the similarity of their dialects, is
very conclusive. He says: “The language of the inhabitants’
of all the Kurile Islands, except some tribes on the south part =
of Matsmai, is alike, with the exception of such words and the
names of such things as the no: i. .
the Russians, and those of the south from the apanese,
Alexi (the Aino mentioned above), though he had difficulty
in understanding them, yet it never happened that he did not
comprehend them after some explanation ; in a word, the lan-

ages of the inhabitants of Matsmai (another name for

esso) and of the other Kurile Islands resemble each other
much more than the Russian and Polish. The Kuriles of all
the islands and Yesso call themselves Ainu (better Aino) ; but
to distinguish the inhabitants of the different islands, includ-
ing Matsmai, hey add to every ord the name of the island,

372 A, §. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien.

foreigners they call them Rusko, hea, or Niponno, Japa-
nese, as they know only these two natio The only differ-
ence ‘between the Ainos of Yesso and fhe Kivi is, that the
former are ‘‘ handsomer, stronger, and more active” ‘than the
latter, and this differents Golovnin thinks is due to the former

ading a more active life, and having a greater abundance of
good food. ‘The northern Kuriles live in indigence, feed on
roots, sea animals, and wild fowls, of which indeed they never
bent, but idleness often hinders them from collecting a proper
sto

To show how uniform are the customs of this people over
Yesso, we may pay the following description of the Ainos at
Romanazoff Bay, at the northern end of the island, near La
Pérouse Strait, Bat Krusenstern’s voyages: ‘“‘ We saw there
only two fur dresses, and the rest of the people were dressed in
a coarse yellow stuff made of the bark of a tree, which a few
bordered with blue cloth. (In the cloth I saw theta weaving
at Volcano Bay they occasionally placed a few threads of blue
cotton so as to give the whole a striped or checked appear-
ance.) ‘‘ Under this dress they had another of a fine cotton
stuff that they had probably purchased from the Japanese.
The Ainos of Yesso (which was at that time under the Japa-
nese) were much poorer than those of Saghalien (which, a
short time before, had become a part of the Japanese Empire).
The women wore no ornaments on their heads, but as I have
ae. mentioned, they invariably paint their lips blue. The
men wore earrings, which were commonly merely a brass ring.
At this ae we visited two abodes which consisted of a single

room, whi a small division at one end, occupied
the whole interior of the house. Their construction did not

seem to me very solid, and I cannot conceive how they ol
! a to bear the cold, which must be very intense here in wl

ter. In the middle of the room was a large hearth, etre

which the whole family, consisting of eight or ten persons, was
seated. The furniture consisted of a large bed, over which a
Japanese mat was spread, and several boxes and barrels. All
their utensils were of Japanese manufacture, and mostly lac-
quered : it appeared from the pie oe the house that the
Po poe possessed a degree of affluence, such as is not
nd among the ‘eGihatals, still je among the Aleuti

the unfortunate Gihahitante of Kodiack. Fish is proba-
y their only nourishment, their houses on this account being

chiefly se ong t : pe dee
toms of caferasien. not even any plantations of vegetables, nor
did we see any tame fowls or domestic abe except dogs,
which they had in great abundance.

A. 8. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien. 373

ogists, I give a translation in full. e natives described
were seen at the bay of Langle, on the west coast of Saghalien.
“These pegple are very intelligent, respect property, and com-
municate freely with strangers. They are of moderate height,
short, strongly built, have a léger embonpoint, and the forms
of the muscles very marked. The most common height is

portant characters, already noticed in my previous paper,
to wit: first, that their eyelids are horizontal and open
hea and are not oblique and open but partially, as in all
the

ongol family ; and secondly, that their cheek bones are oe. “

not prominent. These two great characters, a n=
stant except in the descendants of those Japanese officials who —
take concubines from the Aino women, in my opinion, sepa-
rate them from the whole Turanian family, where, so far as I
am aware, every ethnologist has placed them, without adding
even the slightest hint that their true position was in any
degree doubtful.
hese same characters show that hereafter they must be

rarded as a branch of our own Aryan family.* This view
is strengthened by the wonderful development of their hair,
which has generally been given as their most important char-

* Dr. Pickering, Curator in the Ethnological Po ama in the Society and

Ethnologist on the U.S. Expedition, fully with the view ex-
pressed above, and authorizes the addition of this note.

374 A, S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien.

European division of the Aryan fay Their nostrils are
somewhat thick, but the nose is much more prominent than in
any branch of the North Turanian family at least. This last
character is not fully shown in the accompanying photographs,
as they do not represent the head in profile.

atham, in the latest edition of his careful and extensive
work, ‘ Descriptive Ethnology,” published in 1858
the Ainos and Gilaks (Gilyaks) to one sub-group of the Tu-
ranian family, “the Kurilians.’” He further adds: ‘‘ Mongol
features are guna yet prominent | noses and comparatively
thick beards a re by no means rare.” The first character is
true of all the Glyeks, who are probably more nearly allied to
the Kamtschadales, the Koriaks, the Tchuktchis and the Yu-
kahiri, than they are to the neighboring Tungusic tribes on
the Amoor. All these peoples are of pure Mongolian stock.

amon all the Ainos, whether those living on the Kurile
on Yesso, or on Saghalien

Vous Siebold, who lived many years in Japan, and who en-

joyed the best of opportunities for studying this people, in one
of ast works, “ Elucidations to the discoveries of Vries.

London, 1859, speaks of this isolated and distinct people as
“the Aino tribe, ’ as if, instead of belonging to a different
grand division of the human family, they merely formed but
one of the many Turanian tribes in the northeastern parts of
Asia, though widely se arated fon them.*

Even Mr. Pauly, in his great work published at Moscow, in
celebration of the crowning of the present Czar of Russia, in
1855, refers them to a subdivision of the Turanian family, a

Pac — des in that subdivision the Gilyaks, the Kamtschadales,

we Not only do these people differ from all the Turanians in
their physique, but in all their mental characteristics. In-
of being rese

to their own country. Their mild and generous dis-
ns haye been especially noticed by every European who
r seen them. Capt. Krusenstern thus minutely and

y descr characteristics : ‘‘ Here (i. e. wit
allings) was no loud talking, no Se ot laughter,
b ch i ie vu wit had not seen this yiew of Von Sie- -

A. &. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien. 375

and still less any disputing. The satisfaction that appeared
in all their countenances as they spread their mats round the
hearth for us ; their readiness, when we were going away, to
launch their canoes and carry us across the shallows to our
boat, when they perceived our men stripping themselves for
this ose ; but still more than this, their modesty never to
demand anything, and even to accept with hesitation whatever
we offered them,—wherein they differ very much from the in-
habitants of the west of Saghalien (that is, from the Gil-
yaks),— these marks of their natural character make me con-
sider the Ainos as the best of all the people I have hitherto
been acquainted with.”

The view herein expressed, that they form a member of our
own family of nations, renders their language perhaps the
most interesting of any that now remains uninvestigated, in
the whole world. All that is known at present regarding it
may be well summed up in these words of Von Siebold :

“The Japanese, who have had intercourse with the natives
of Yesso for centuries, carried on trade with them, and ruled
over them, have gradually made themselves thoroughly ac-
quainted with their language, and composed dictionaries in
which they sought to render as faithfully as possible, and to
fix the pronunciation of the words by means of their syllable
writing. In this manner they have endeavored, by means of
writing, to put a stop to the manifold sounds and variable ac-
cent to which the dialect of a far dispersed and ee
ple is so subject.” (This dictionary referred to was published
in Japan in 1804, by Mogami Yoknai.)

“ Although the Aino language has become ennobled by fa-
miliar intercourse with a civilized people (the Japanese), yet
it has preserved its original features, and is characterized as &
peculiar and independent language, having no connection with
that of any of the neighboring countries, as far as regards the

roots of the words. hat some — words have been intro-
duced ;

376 A. §. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien.

clined and conjugated, agree with those of their southern,
northern and western neighbors, who write their language syl-
labically (as the Manchus, Mongols, Tibetans, Yakuts, etc.)
and not jiguratively, that is to say, using signs for words (as
the Chinese).”

Here, then, we have an Aryan people speaking a non-
Aryan language, and that language peculiarly their own; not
learned from a people who have subjugated them, or from a
people whom they have subjugated, at least within two thou-
sand five hundred years !

At the close of the preceding paper I suggested, in the form
of a question, that these people had: migrated in the most an-
cient times from Central Asia. The fact that there is som

mountain brook. This view I now find has already been sug-
gested by Von Siebold.

Professor Max Miiller, judging from the evidence of gram-
matical structure, supposes there have been three great migra-
tions from Central Asia toward the northern and northeastern
parts of the continent, They are as follows: firstly, the an-
_ cestors of the present Tungus, along the Amoor and the Lena ;
secondly, the ancestors of the Mongols, in the region of the Al-
tai mountains ; and thirdly, the ancestors of the Turks, in-
cluding the Yakuts.

Ina similar manner, but perhaps centuries before the first
t these three migrations, we may suppose the Ainos to have
\ryan family and to ae

lan dynasty * (between 189 B. C. and 30
ao-mim, Shoes bodies were covered with

'* Von Siebold’s Elue. to Vries’ Voyage, p. 122.

A. S. Bickmore on the Ainos of Saghalien. 377

hair, are described as inhabiting the other side of the East
Sea.” is East Sea was probably the one we now call the
sea of Japan. During the Sui dynasty (A. D. 60 a
notice occurs of “the tribe Mo-zin, consisting of fifty hordes,
living in the northwest of the land, Woke (Japan).”

That none of these people lived in the territories immedi-
ately tyibutary to China, in those early times, is proved by the
fact, that in A. D. 659, the Japanese ‘on one of their embassies
to the court of that great empire took two Ainos with them to
exhibit as curiosities.

This people are undoubtedly passing away. Even during
the last century and a half that the northern of the Kurile
chain has been a part of the Russian empire, their numbers on
those islands have been ascertained to have greatly diminished,
though the Russians have unquestionably treated such obedi-
ent subjects with the greatest kindness. The causes of this
decrease are supposed to have been the ravages of the small
pox, and the considerable numbers lost while crossing from
island to island in their frail boats over those stormy seas.

On Yesso and Saghalien, where they have for several centu-
ries continued under the merciless tyranny of the Japanese
government, their numbers have probably diminished in still
greater proportion. At Kusyunai, on the latter island, I was
assured by a Russian officer that when some Ainos came there
to escape from the Japanese and place themselves under the
protection of the Russian government, and the official sta-
tioned there had refused to receive them for fear of complicat-
ing the two governments. and had sent them back, the Japa-
nese government “‘beheaded them to a man.” <A_ great

to believe that if the enlightened nations of the western world
had been a few centuries later in reaching that distant region
of gee east, these people would only have been known to us by

Though they were, lo mostly subjugated by the

mgtore 8 i ay ey of Yesso continue inde-
pendent down to the present time, and here, far removed from
any influence of the Gilyaks, Kamtschadales and Russians on

south, we may expect to find these people still retaining a
ideas of ‘heir ancasintt, and practicing all their ancient customs.

378 B. Silliman on the Mastodon in California.

Art. XL.—On the ewistence of the Mastodon in the deep-
lying gold placers of California; by B. Sruuman.

Durine several visits to the gold regions of Tuolumne coun-
ty, California, in the summer of 1867, I obtained evidence
leading to the conclusion that the Mastodon, and perhaps the
Elephant, existed prior to the great volcanic disturbances and
outpourings of lava which occurred throughout the Sierra Ne-
vada mountains pending or at the close of the epoch in which
the deep-lying placers were produced.*

is well known that this epoch of voleanic activity has
been regarded as marking the period of the Pliocene, dividing
it from the Post-Pliocene and existing epoch, by a well-marked
horizon. Among the animals whose remains have been found

The remains of mastodon and elephant are found abund-
antly in the superficial detritus of the gold region, over an eX-
tended area, but until now they have never been certainly iden-
fied as occurring under the basalt, which covers the ancient gold
drift and forms the highly characteristic ranges known as
“Table Mountains.”

B, Silliman on the Mastodon in California. 379

able stems and impressions of leaves, indicating deposition in
quiet water, while other portions are made up of coarse gray-
elly masses, compacted often into firm coherent ‘ cement,” as
the miners call it, From the ancient river bed to the top of
the basaltic capping of Table Mountain, is certainly not less
than three hundred feet, probably somewhat more.

It is beneath this mass of matter, partly aqueous and partly
voleanic in its origin, that the remains of mastodon herein
mentioned have been found. My attention was first called to
them by discovering the portion of an os d/iwm in the collection
of A. B. Preston, Esq., local Judge of Jamestown, which he
assured me had been found in driving the so-called Humbu

search serra ororind

me by letter a full notice of the facts as they should develop

hueieshens On the 24th of March I had the pleasure of re-
ceiving from him the following letter.

* For i ine Boy’s Tunnel see Geological survey of California,

Geology, vol 1, p.249, where also, pp. 243-263, may be found a fuller account

380 B. Silliman on the Mastodon in California.

Letter from D. T. Hughes to B. rr a dated Jeffersonville,
February 2 68.

“In compliance with your takes ae I should write to you
whenever I should reach the bones, I have now to state that I

large animal were found 1,650 feet in under the Table Mountain,
and four and a half feet above the ledge or bottom slate, imbedded
in a stratum of sand overlaying a deposit of gold-bearing gravel,
and scattered over a space twenty feet long by ten or twelve feet
wide. A large portion of these bones were so soft that I could
penetrate right into them with my fingers, while other pieces were

wishwursl ten feet. They were not exactly round, measuring
feet from the end that enters the socket six inches in one diameter
and five and a quarter inches in the other.

Th grinders, as before mentioned, are in a very good state 0

ta”)

fourths inches wide. The enamel on the posterior ones is Mee per-
fect, but the exterior grinders are very much worn, apparently.
found it > ecto] because of their softnieaa: to get the dimensions
of any of t r bones, which I regrett ted very much.

losed you will find a Prete sketch of three of the teeth bel
portions of the jaw attached.) The two grinders you see togther
are in the same position as when I dug them out. The sketches
are not drawn to an exact scale, but will convey an idea of the
p mae as nay are, une other drawing is the ‘side view of the

.

€ mastodon, and it appears probable that overed the
| of a full sized animal was entombed in the sands
y upon the ancient auriferous gravel beneath

M. C. Lea on Nitroglucose. 381

the Table Mountains, and of course anterior in age to the pe-
riod of volcanic activity and overflows of lava, which have hith-
erto been considered as marking the close of the Pliocene era,
a catastrophe which appears to have exterminated the other
members of the Pliocene fauna.

If the mastodon survived the catastrophe which extermina-
ted the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, tapir, &c., and continued
through the Post Pliocene, to the appearance of man, it yet re-
mains to be proved that man was his companion prior to the
dawn of the existing epoc

New Haven, March 25, 1868.

Art. XLI.—WNote upon the occurrence of fossil remains of the
Tapir in California; by Wau. P. Buaxz.

The remains of Tapir occur in the auriferous gravel of
Wood’s creek, near Sonora in Tuolumne county, California.
They were found by gold miners at a depth of about forty feet
below the surface, and were presented tome by Dr. Snell of
Sonora. A specimen submitted to Prof. Owen at the British
- Museum was recognized as the “ crown of the left lower molar
tooth of a tapir, and another specimen as the posterior epiphy-
sis of the cervical vertebra of a hoofed animal, probably a
young tapir.” Numerous teeth of the Mastodon have been
found in the same region, together with stone implements of
various forms. Some of the latter, according to the state-
ments of Dr. Snell, were taken from the deep placer deposits
which underlie the lava of Table Mountain.

ART. XLIL—Witroglucose ; by M. Carzy Lea.

first to disso ve, and then to separate out again, in the form of
a greyish paste, which, w thrown into water and freed from
the adhering acid, becomes nearly white

382 M. O. Lea on Nitroglucose,

of cellulose, failed almost wholly with sugar. Not more than
two or three per cent of the weight of the sugar was obtained.

ith sulphuric and strong nitric acids, allowed to cool thor-
oughly after mixing, the reaction takes place easily, and a con-
siderable quantity of nitroglucose is obtained. The nitric acid
should be as strong as possible, and as the acid of the requisite
strength is not easily obtained commercially, I have found an
advantage in using in part the fuming sulphuric acid. Two
fluid ounces of fuming sulphuric acid, two of common sulphuric,
two of strong nitric acid, as near to 1°5 sp. gr. as can be ob-
tained, give good results. The sugar is stirred in, in the form
of powder, to a thin paste. The stirring is kept up, and as
fast as the nitroglucose separates in doughy masses, it is re-
moved with a spatula and thrown into cold water. A further
addition of sugar will give more nitroglucose, but considerably
less in proportion than the first addition. As soon as possible,
the nitroglucose is to be kneaded up with cold water, to get
the acid out. In one case, when this was neglected for ten or
fifteen minutes, the nitroglucose passed to a greenish color and
ao shes was undergoing a commencing decomposition.

he removal of the adhering acid is much more difficult than
in the case of pyroxylin, and is an extremely disagreeable ope-
ration. The acid pervades the whole of the doughy mass so
fully, that the fingers are stained and burned by it, nor can the
whole of the acid be removed satisfactorily in this way. The
best means I found was to dissolve the crude nitroglucose in a
mixture of alcohol and ether, and then to pour this into @
large quantity of cold water with constant stirring, and violent
agitation afterward. The method is not altogether satisfac-
tory, and seems to be attended with some loss of material,
though why, it is not easy to see.

Prepared in this way, nitroglucose is a white lustrous body,
which may either assume the doughy amorphous condition or
the ine, and passes from one to the other with extreme
ease. When first formed by the mixed acids, it always has the
doughy form. That which I obtained by the use of nitric an
sulph uric acid, was crystalline from the first. When precipit-

preserving it ap ; to be under water.
‘it gradually hardens, and passes sometimes

_fard ar us mass, sometimes to
ine state. It appears to be wholly insoluble in
inute grains of the crystalline form diffused

Z es eee
2 atin, se aaa Tek
ia oe fear:

O. Leow on Ferocyanid of Potassium, 383

through 15 or 20 ounces of water, did not dissolve after many
hours standing. In a mixture of alcohol and ether it dissolves
as easily as-sugar in water, and in such quantity as to make
the liquid syrupy.

Its detonating properties are but slight. If it be well dried
and a match be applied, it deflagrates with a feeble flash.

It has been stated by Dr. V. Monckhover, that when dissolved
in alcohol and kept sometime in a warm place, it undergoes de-
composition, as evidenced by the fact that the solution then gives
an abundant precipitate with nitrate of silver, which at first it
did not do, An experiment made in this direction did not give
the result thus indicated. A solution of nitroglucose in alco-
hol, containing about 40 grains to the ounce, was placed in a
stoppered vial and was kept in the sand bath at a temperature
of about blood heat for nearly a month. But neither it nor a
fresh solution gave a precipitate with alcoholic solution of ni-
trate of silver. It would seem from this that certain condi-
tions of temperature or otherwise are necessary, in order that
this decomposition should take place.

Art. XLIII.—On the action of Ferrocyanid of Potassium on
Monochloracetic ether; by O. Lorw, assistant in the Labo-

ratory of the College of the City of New York.

solved in alcohol of 90 per cent, with powd ferrocyani
potassium for 4to6 hours. An action gradually took place, by
which chlorid of potassium was formed, together with another

ammonia was developed; after the latter ceased to be evolved,
the liquid was mixed with

converted into the lead salt by precipitation with acetate of
lead: 02997 grm. yielded 0:2904 grm. sulphate of lead =66°99
per cent Pb. Wea talenage of lead contains 66°99 per cent Pb.

384. s- C. 8S. Lyman’s new form of Wave apparatus.

The reaction is therefore not analogous to that above cited,
but the radical ferrocyanogen is broken up into cyanid of po-
tassium and cyanid of iron. The former yields, with chlora-
cetic ether, chlorid of potassium and cyanacetic ether, while
from the last named body malonic acid is produced.

New York, Nov. 26, 1867.

Art. XLIV.—On C. S. Lyman’s new form of Wave apparatus.

supplant

C. pea new form of Wave apparatus. 385

tions also that are at the same time taking ae below the
surface, in the whole mass of liquid ‘affected. This complete-
ness of. illustration is due to the circumstance, that in the ap-
paratus, the elementary motions: are the same, essentially, as
in actual waves; hence, the leading points, geometrical and
dynamical, of the theory of waves, are presented naturally,
and in their true relations.

he construction of the apparatus will be aif understood
from a brief description, and the accompanying cu

In front of a oe surface are two series of revolving arms
r cranks, the length of the lower ones = half that of the

upper. Two elastic wires connect the ¢ -pins of each se-
ries ; upright wires also connect each pair of ge and pass
Cone through a Soy into the base. The cranks paar sigs revolve

ative re pnt of the cranks of — higiehctad series is eg

their axes is of a whole wave — Thus, in the apparatus.
the wave length is upposed to be divided Jen a sie equal
parts, and hei ens a ties difference betw: re

Am. Jour. Scor.—Ssconp Series, Vou. ee snare dp

386 ©. 8. Lyman’s new form of Wave apparatus.

of adjacent crank arms is one eighth of a circle, as shown in
the figure. The cranks in each vertical set have their posi-
tions always alike. The number of cranks, whether taken hor-
izontally or vertically, is arbitrary—a matter of convenience in
construction. The synchronous revolution of the cranks is
effected by means of any suitable mechanism; such as, equal
toothed wheels on the several axes, with alternate idle wheels

equally represents a wave whose length is 36 feet and height 4
feet, with period 2*63; and similarly, for other proportional
ensions. :

Among the particular points, in wave phenomena, which are
elucidated by this apparatus, may be enumerated the following:

1. The undulating swrface-profile. This is shown in the
motion of the upper flexible wire, which presents a contintous
contour line, of the exact curvature, throughout, of a true nor-
mal wave; instead of a broken contour, of arbitrary form, by
means of rising and falling balls, as in the ordinary wave ap-

posed of particles in a state

Dae, | Mp

C. 8. Lyman’s new form of Wave apparatus. 387

3. The genesis of the undulatory — from the circular
motion of revolution. This is seen in the mode in which the
crank-pins, in each transverse series, or ma particles which they
represent, come in regular succession into a given position, as
they revolve synchronously in their orbits.

4. The equality of the height of a wave, from trough to
crest, with the diameter of the orbits of the surface particles.
This is obvious in the apparatus, and follows directly from the
‘Mode in which the wave surface is generated.

5. The direction of motion of particles of water in the diffe-
rent phases of a wave. A glance at the motion of the crank
pins, shows that a particle at the wave’s crest is moving forward,
or in the direction in which the wave is propagated, and a particle
at the trough in the reverse direction, or backward; that a 9
ticle on the forward slope is rising, and one on the back slope
descending. The same is true of particles in all the es gates]
or surfaces of ome pressure, down to still water.

6. The length of a pendulum keeping time with the wave. This
is equal to ie radius of a circle whose circumference is the
wave’s length. Such a circle is the we one drawn on the

particle’s orbit (or length of a crank sag as the particle’s
Weight is to its centrifugal force. Or, putting R and r for these
radii respectively, and ¢ for the time ‘of revolution, we make
4nty
bee ce ae

Whence | t=2n

ndent of the length, as a pears | in the apparatus, and as may
ay inferred Sak the nee given eg thek on. It depends
on the centrifugal force of the particle, and this, ultimately,
on the external forces rating it. -

8. The varying aerection and intensity of the resultant force
acting, at each instant, on a given en particle in a wave. The
pate forces are two—the particle’s Sante 2 and its cen-

he former is represent radius
of the laced Seiad latter by the iene

*

388 0.8. Lyman’s new form of Wave apparatus.

ing particle; their resultant, then, is represented by the third
side of the triangle of forces, or the side formed by the wire
pendulum. This resultant must be always normal to the wave
surface, as the wire pendulum is seen to be always at right an-
gles to the elastic wire representing that surface.

9. The condition of a wave’s rupture at the erest. When
the centrifugal force becomes equal to gravity (or the radius of
the orbit to that of the large circle), the resultant force, for a
particle at the highest point of its orbit, or crest of the wave,
must be zero, and the particle consequently fly from its orbit,
or the crest break in foam.

10. The trochoidal form of the wave curve. The point of
suspension of the pendulum, that is, the upper extremity of
the vertical radius of the large circle, may be regarded as the
instantaneous center about which an element of the wave curve
at the point of normalcy of the pendulum is described. Con-
sequently, if this circle be rolled under a horizontal straight
line, a point within it distant half the height of a wave from
the center, will trace the wave profile ; which therefore 1s &
trochoid. The rolling circle is the same for all wave profiles,
down to still water, the lengths of the tracing arm only dit

ering. The circumference of this circle equals, of course, the
wave’s |

11. The greater sharpness of the crests than of the troughs
of waves, This follows from the preceding, and is shown 1D
the relative positions of the crank-pins—nearer together at the
crests, farther apart in the troughs. The trochoids become,

ty.
13. The greater elevation of the crests above the level of still
water, than depression of the troughs below it. The difference
Sadie this elevation and depression is equal to twice =
twice the height from which
elocity; or, is a third proportional

acisiees i aetatart S

ee ee eee tee ae

C. 8. Lyman’s new form of Wave apparatus. 389

circle and that of the particle’s orbit ; that is, putting R andr
for these radii respectively, v for the orbital velocity, (= ="),
and D for the difference in question,
a got ae
EF
When r equals R, then D=r, or half the height of the wave.

represented by the transverse wires. ‘The elevation in question
is equal to the height due to the particle’s orbital velocity; or,
is a third proportional to the diameter of the rolling circle and
the radius of the orbit; or, is equal to the area of the orbit
divided by the length of the wave; that is, putting H for this
elevation, J for the wave’s length, and the other symbols as

y2 -y2 = mp?
When ¢ equals R, H = = or one-fourth the height of the

wave. To this elevation is due one half the mechanical
energy of a wave—the other half to the motion of its parti-
cles. That energy is, in other words, half potential, half actual.
_ 15. The decreasing diameter of the orbits with depth. This
is seen in the shorter crank-arms below, and the decreasing
amplitude of sway of the upright elastic wires, down to their
points of rest, which mark the depth of still water. The de-
crease of the orbits in diameter takes place in a geometrical
ratio, and is approximately one half for each increase of depth
equal to one ninth of a wave length; or, more exactly, putting
rand r' for the radii, respectively, of a surface orbit and of
kK

one whose middle depth ish, itis r’-=re*®,
radius of the rolling circle, and e the

nally rectangular, or rectangular ng at rest.

399 0.8. Lyman’s new form of Wave apparatus.

18. The fact of sensibly still water at half a wave’s length
below the surface. This is exhibited in the absence of lateral
motion at the lower extremities of the upright wires, and is a
necessary result of the law of diminution of orbits with depth,
as given above (13).

€ varying strain, in wave action, on floating vein
This is seen in the varying angle made by the upright wir
with the upper transverse wire; the latter shows the position
of a raft, for example, lying on the wave surface ; the for-
mer, that of a a long, thin body, as a board, floating end down;
hence, the varying relative direction of the wires shows the

“ness, a few formule are added, expressing other relations
among wave phenomena, not so directly exhibited by the instru-
ment, but important to be presented in connection with it.
Putting V for the velocity of propagation of a wave, and the
other symbols as before, the length of the wave is

2
I= %R =o Pe wets

its period nV ee sfich

the cad of a os in its orbit, oe at ihe crest of the wave,

fs ce av —~ seat 3 r ie i i

the ast of prea of the wave

to W
ppli » , and which the apparatus ittustrates, i is the wave
sore ep ~ ate = or water a wave’s length, at least, in depth. In
Water, the Ti no ees sy but he or nF

Chemistry and Physics. _ 391

ratus and its uses, to give more fully the leading points of the

that this outline of the theory, thus incidentally given, will
prove not unacceptable to such instructors as may not have at
hand the original works; and that this new piece of apparatus
may contribute somewhat toward imparting a clearer under-
standing of the phenomena of waves.

The apparatus has been patented, and is manufactured by
Messrs. E. S. Ritchie & Son, the well known philosophical in-
strument makers, of Boston, Mass. L.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

392 Scientific Intelligence.

liant. The spectrum of the light produced in this manner is more
complex than that resulting from the anid eG of small quanti-
ties of saline matter _ a oe us flame. The upton is va-

ing to the dark rays © and F of the solar spectrum. ith a
strong solution of chlorhydric acid in water the tint of the dis-
ge is slightly violet and the two red and blue rays are more
distinct th ater. ere are also an rt band and a

municate to the light of the aise ies the color due to the ele-
ments of the salt. Thus water containing one one-thousandth
part of its wank of chlorid of strontium gives very distinctly the
orange an ue rays epeteinaes of strontium. With concen-
trated solutions the effects are more marked and with the chlorids
in particular they are ey brilliant. Thus the chlorids of stron-
tium, calcium, sodium, meen, copper and zinc give fine effects.
: iin p

tassium, antimony, sue: ma be Pe silver, uranium, &c., give ef
fects which are more or less marked. In general the ‘lines are
more numerous than in the spectra of flames containing the same
saline elements, which: doubtless arises from the higher tempera-
ture, but in all cases the lines are ee: same as those given by Dun-
sen and Kirchhoff. Thus with a saturated solution of chlorid of
strontium, besides the ear and neh clear blue, we see two violet
rays, one more intense than the pe “tee green rays one of

ma SHotelumizions oe Combtes Rendus, ixvi, pi

2. on va ee a of cast iron to the gases pee in
ptig At the in of Gen. Morin, Messrs. - Sainte-

Chemistry and Physics. 393

covered by Graham. As the gases traverse the iron even at a dull
red heat the authors call attention to the poisonous effeet which
the oxyd of carbon must produce and attribute to its presence the
unpleasant sensations which are always experienced in rooms
heated by cast iron stoves or by air heated by contact sae des
iron plates.— Comptes Rendus, \xvi, 83.

3

ellar spectra.—Succut has communicated to t 5 hon

emy of Sciences in Paris some further rvations on iettins spec-

tra, of a new spectroscope with a cylindrical
achromatic eye- The author’s conclusions are as foll

Ist. Red stars have generally spectra of ero ae type (like «

rion, « Hercules, # Pe Ant eto 0 , &e, 3 ; when the

fifth or sixth magnitude have their spectra perfectly estlvabls
into columns which are afterward themselves resolvable into finer
lines; such are the following:

Right ascensions. Declinations Magnitudes
5° 24m -]s + 18° 29’
45 46m -58 + 2° 16’ 5°5
4h 44m 378 + 14° 1’ 5
225 59m 578 + 8° 39’ 5'5
235 11m 68 + 48° 15’

There are many others which cannot be resolved into secondary
lines on account of the faintness, ot - which the principal lines suf-

fice to indicate the type. 3d. The stars which cannot be referred

to the three established types are very rare. The author has ex-

amined several hundred stars below the seventh magnitude, o

which is very extraordina fo in Lalande’s Catalogue, («=

48 54m 108, cf + 0° 59’). In the aa of this star

is divided into two bands by a broad obscure line, the yellow is
reduced to a very clear and bei ight line, shi comes a b dark

band, then a broad green nigiellow ow band, then another dark space
and then a blue zo 8 1 curve ert this
t

spectrum. We ma loge
nee character to ae spectra hort y col colored: liquids.—
G.)—Sirius seen with the new spectroscope exhibits with great

dhettottag the beautiful dark band in the extreme red. Between
this and the sodium line D there a : very delicate nebulous ray.
The author hopes soon to furnish ct measurements of the rays,

after finishing a general survey oft ‘ti heavens with a
tecting the most neces stars.— Comptes Rendus, rig =

immediate object have resulted in the discovery of several
and ek compounds. Fluoniobate of poms is redi
ty by sodium i in a crucible

394 Scientific Intelligence.

product of the action is an alloy of sodium and niobium or niobid
of sodium which presents itself under the form of a black powder.
Water decomposes this body and transforms it into a niobid of
hydrogen containing about I per cent of hydrogen and having the
formula, NbH. The substance obtained by Rose was certainly a
protoxyd of niobium, Nb,O, The niobid of pyres is an ex-
tremely fine black powder of density 6—6°6. Itis not attacked
by chlorhydric, nitric or dilute sulphuric acid, but may be attacked
and dissolved oa -siguag one boiling sulphuric acid and by fused

umin cru
7 aaa acide is a highly
rey powder, with a strong metallic luster and

with a density of 4°45 to 4 bi Fluotantalate of presen yields
with aluminum an allo similar constitution and properties.
The density of this body is 7-02; it dissolves oacily't in fluohydric

H. Sainte-Claire Deville in presenting the above mentioned pa

of Marignac described two new compounds of niobium ob-

tained by himself fae not analyzed. When niobate of eee 18

heated to about 1200 degrees with a small excess ms car
ed by am

and carbon, very beautiful black cubes are obtained eee are con-
verted by chlorine into a mixture of chlorid and oxychlorid of ni-
When the calcination takes place in a crucible of graphite
heated to the highest tt temperature, but not surrounded by
rutile and carbon, prismatic crystals are obtained of a magnificent
ronze color which are doubtless the nitro-carbid of niobium
analogous to the well known titanium compound sro vie by
Wohler.— Comptes Rendus, \xvi, 180 and 183. w.
5. Researches on Vanadium.—The st tudy of the ‘apdnes ‘of
vanadium by Berzelius led to the c conclusion, since universally ac

ch

mula, VO,, and that the e ivalent - the metal, using the term
alent in its older aad ess sense, is 68°5. Roscoe has
presented to the Royal Society an p atinies memoir, in which set-
ting out from the well known isomorphism of vanadinite with ap-
atite, pyromorphite and —— he shows conclusively that
dium belongs to ngs up of elements and is tria-
and ak which these pee vo

1 are in the Sauce words as iews
a ae rd of vanadium oe having the atomic neers 67°2
e metal of Berzelius). Hence vanadic acid contains
were thas three atoms of oxygen.

2. The following vanadium Mivsiien: oxyds have been obieined beth: +
He dey and wet way aod tht composition determined :—

Chemistry and Physics. 395

VO vanadium monoxy4d, or van 72
V.O,, vanadium rr a (Eeeciigs suboxya) © « Boh “4
VO.,, vanadium dioxyd, 83°2
Ve adium pentoxyd 3 ange, acid), “ 182°4
e so called terchlorid of yaad ium, VCl,, (V=67°2), con-
i Ox

ree other solid oxychlorids exist, having he e composition
Ist. VOCI,, vanadyl dichlorid, or vanadium oxydichlorid,
2d. VOCI, vanadyl monochlorid, or vanadium oxy-mono-

orid,
es V,0,Cl, divanadyl monochlorid.
4th. All the native vanadates are tribasic.

5. Vanadium pentoxyd fused with sodium carbonate displaces
three molecules of carbonic dioxyd, showing that normal or ortho-
sodium vanadate is tribasic, the formula of this salt being Na,

6. The so-called mono-vanadates are salts corresponding to the
mono-basic phosphates, and may be termed meta-vanadates, thus,
NaVO,, NH, VO,, Ba 2V0 3: The so-called bivanadates are anhy-
dro-salts, similar in constitution to the anhydro-salts of chromic

and boric acids.

7. Vanadium nitrid has been prepared, which, on analysis, was

shown be contain 51:2 parts by weight of vanadium to 14 parts of

number calculated in the same way for V0, is 52°55. :
— dof vanadium, VO=67°2, is a gray powder ees
—— and i is ae Phe ed by passing the ed of vanadyl
gen

ne He agent. It Pol absorbs oxygen from
air and beco mes chocolate-bro

mx pode sesquio oxyd, ¥. 0,= 150-4, (Berzelius suboxyd) is ob-
tained as a a powder by reducing vanadic A cageng A in hydro-
heat. When exposed warm to the air it glows and
passes to the host oxyd. At the ordinary sian heric ecune
ature it slowly absorbs oxygen and gives the Hoard It is i
uble in acids but may be obtained in solution as a green liquid b by
the action on metallic inagnemsm upon a solution of vanadic in

SNanadie dhe VO,=83'2 seg vanadic i of Berzelius)

shining

may be pr he form of b. allowing
the sesquioxy soc chanicarion at ordinary temperatures. § So-

cores

396 Scientific Intelligence.

lutions of this oxyd having a bright blue color may be obtained
by the action of moderate reducing agents upon vanadic acid in
solution.

um
is 51:21 which the author adopts as the true atomic weight.
Vanadyl dichlorid, VOCI,—137°9, is a light green crystalline
. . . 5 4 os

tion of hy: at ared heat upon VOCI,. It is a heavy shin-
ing metallic powder resembling mosaic gold in a an-

a current of ammonia. The dinitrid, VN,, is the black : oaooe
obtained by Uhrlaub by heating the ammonium oxychlorid. The

author promises to describe the compounds of vanadium with the
halogens in another communication.— Proceedings of the Royal So-
ciety, xvi, 220. Ww. G
6. On the compounds of niobium and tantalum with chlorine
H. Sarte-Crarre De d L. Troosr have
communicated a few notes on niobium and tantalum which are of

Mineralogy and Geology. oe 397

talic acid. Its vapor density at 360° was found to be 12°8 and at
440° 13-0; for a condensation to 4 vols. the eee E: TaCl, (Ta=182)
facia give 12°5. The density of tantalic acid eig wee a
the chlorid by ammonia ond ignited to low rettnacs was

omptes Rendus, |xiv, 29 - =

II. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY,

1, On the Ade tf the ag ai gi ing Rocks, of California; b
W_. Eee ~Jn the last number of this Jour urnal (this gees
ume, p. 2 66), i in a note on the Carboniferous ges of the gold-
bearing rocks of California, by Prof. W. P. Blake, he complains
of a single sentence in a previous article of mine (this Jour., July,
1866, p. 116), beginning with “and in the ied pages of the same
work he paves the w. way for priority of disco

I beg here to say that I regret using the pixeoind imputation in
that sentence, and willingly retract it. It should not e bee
written, however great the rovocation, and I sateaially | regret

that article, and is now used to call attention bisa from the ques-
tion there discussed to the alleged personal griev
That article by me was written in defense of the Geological

the paragraph already 1 referred to, says, “ he controverts the wri
Sa stateme ae be * by partially citing vatanaee pam my
rt, ”

ge have no desire to misrepresent him nor his rae
Thasmuch as he commits the same yas he accuses = of, by but
artially citing paragra hs” from the same report, 0:
Pavers su Fa 52 ae paca, I would sheveloes respec ully
suggest that any parse curious in this matter should :
whole of those portions of his report which bear upon this
tion, and then form his own opinion as to what they really m mean
and what Shey are worth. (Geological Reconnoissance in Califor-
nia, p Vv, p. 276, 278 ae 279.) It will be more suggestive
if these end entire parses santa with his later pamphlet
oe are cited, other —

reserved for the Emad Survey to show that the gold- beat
ere not of these older periods. is an error, inas-
show” this very thing, and I brought forward
gee of the statement. I do not see the error —
of, inasmuch as he does no t moot a single item of
these se proofs, t bat instead offers some of his old surmises.

398 Scientific Intelligence.

When I wrote those articles I was not ignorant that swrmises
had been recorded before, that “ possibly” the rocks in question
might be in part Carboniferous, but the articles in question dealt
rather with what the Geo ological Survey had proved than with
what — had guesse

admit that oaneaae had been copiously put forth in

Prof. Blake? $s report, and upon a variety of questions. rmi-

ses that the Sierra limestones are “ possibly” Carboniferous, (the
si

e Devonian,”—that they ma “ Silurian,’—that they were
“ probably impregnated hoe it [gold] after the Miocene period,”
—that the coast Ran anges had been covered with the sea until

“Post Tertiary times,’—and so on through a suggestive list of
surmises, a few of which have been sustified by later investigation,

pee the most of which however are now known to be unfoun

A paragraph in this recent article appears to indicate that he
as much underrates the value of facts as he overrates the value of
sibilities, Respecting the age of the very rocks in =
the surmise of which age “was a bold step in advance,”) he sa
{p. 266) “that as regards the portion of the gold-belt under con-
sideration it is as yeta matter of opinion, not of demonstration.”

it has not been rs at all, as the language implies, then
it is untrue, to illustrate that the last is his meaning,
and td make it ake probable ; e discovery of other

h
at Bass Rancho and STs srs has a additional evi-
dence, and yet Mr. Brewer very justly does not positively assert
the Carboniferous age of this belt pre ere &e. Here again
f. Blake values facts too lightly as compared with the surmises
which — the — and in but “partially citing para-
graphs from report,” he curiously omits to mention that I had
eited another -ioeality of Carboniferous fossils m any miles farther

“southward” where the fossils are found in at least two beds or

localities, bacorstar ea by auriferous ane and both enclosed in those
slates. ality is mentioned in the paragraph whic h he

arial ite be peotniecs to eall attention to some —— peculiari-
ties of this recent article. I have published some of the more
“importa ; ual discoveries bearing
on the question. I did not exhaust the list, it could have been
extended, but it was considered sufficient for the purposes

Mineralogy and Geology. : 399

facts and proofs are fairly brought forward to meet the 0 Sh
“ — recorded, I must decline further discussion upon this ques-

footing as to value with mere suggestions and va surmises,
then I have nothing more om shy: n that case, the fotne Geolo-
gical investigation changes its mode of operations the better, and
then let laborious exploration in the field give way to the richer
results of a fertile rey orig in the house

New cata Ave, 1

and myself
in his presence, at Nebr: ak City, respecting the recs cs eg of
finding workable beds of coal t As the
statement stands in his report, Ti am S ued t that ¢ without further
explanation some of the citizens of Western Iowa, who are inter-
ested in the subject of coal there, may be misled in regard to my
real views upon that subject.

On age 125 of that report Dr. H., after sell — fac

that eek and myself had examined the coun untry ac dae
the Des Moines valley to Nebraska City, says that “ the ‘Sone
sion they arrived at was, that the workable beds of coal occur in

the lower open geese - and that those beds would be found by
borin

at Ne raska Cit
In May, iat invited Mr. Meek, as an old and highly valued
scientific friend, to join my camp and cross the State ve lowa
me to Nebraska City, when on his way to Sb cccond T had,
, h om tl

to be found in the lower Coal-measures, and my object was to re-
wit pon our arrival in

Mr.
Nebraska we summed u ae errs of the Coal-measure we

unless the upper wiproductive member of
mm ‘g .

— ‘Neither of us, I am sure, had the slightest idea a :

nent
that ted to our friend woul d by any
- one eke ” that. hada of eal “would be reached at any —

400 Scientific puaenee

designated depth. The problem is far too difficult a one to be
disposed of in so summary a manner, especially as we had at that
time scarcely more than commenced examinations in Nebraska.
A few days after, we learned that borings had already been made
at Omaha and Nebra ska City to the depth of an hundred feet
without finding a workable bed of coal. From these facts, and
isso

‘decide i ‘. ‘regar rd to the actual depth at which the equivalents of

the lower Coal-measure strata would be reached there, and that
actual boring alone could decide whether coal existed there or not.

is conclusion was discussed by us in camp at the close of
ur examinations, in the presence of the whole party, Dr.

- cluded, and I supposed was understood b
My vi Cc

ews in regard to the Coal-measures of Io owa, so far as they
are yet formed, may be learned by rae: Ba articles in this
Journal, and my reports. See First and Second Annu al E188.

urnal,
given attention to fossil lamellibranchiates cannot fail to have
observed that whenever the shell-substance is preserved at all, it is
universally thin, even in large specimens; too thin indeed to have

ex of the inner, gr structureless layers. It is from half a

illim a to more than a millimeter in thicknese, the epidermis
resting directly upon it. “Except i in very old specimens, this layer
constitutes the whole thickness of the shell for the width of a
couple of millimeters from the margin, and in very young speci-
mens it agent prone about half the space between the mar-
gin and the pallial lin

The prismatic Re eA may be (pe bags st the naked eye and
can be well studied by the use of o lles’s $ inet Ball a3:

enses. Under this magnifier the fee pens of the marginal
border is seen to be fin ely granular, each granule being ‘the con-
vex end of one of the prisms which gain A layer. These

ruption, re reminding one in their Fae ee ayes of certain

species of Chetetes. But viewing the prisms upon their ends they

are seen to vary insize much more than the cells of Chetetes do,

and consequently to lack that uniformity in cross section, presented

by the coral.

Naiades were fossilized unter the same circumstances
an

as thin a shell as Myalina and Inoceramus now

Mr. ek’s abee aia s he scones that the prismatic
structure is a very ¢ nstant rages of the
fossil Aviculide, and ti is doubts “of is 2 as a famil
character; but since it is also seen in certain gloss of Mytilide
and the Naiades, it] is known that it is not the peculiar property
of any family.
Note on “ Cone in cone ;” by C. A. Waurrz, M.D. (Commu-

nicated for this Journal.)—The structure known as “cone in cone”
is quite common in the calcareo-carbonaceous
sua

somewhat concretionary layers, from four to ty incl
the apices of the cones pointing "downward. Being much interested
in the views advance

rin So
with the opinion that the peculiar structure in question was produ-
ssure upon the coneretionary mass while it was forming.
A. plcgle 3 of examples were found there which presented the cone-
like

structure radiating from a center, the apices of the cones all

ting to that center. The concretiofs were imbedded in the
common dark shales of the Coal-measures, the Pad one being
about two and a half feet in transverse diame

3:
:
fa
:
2

402 Scientific Intelligence.

portions, and of the same character throughout. Thus in the same
mass the apices of the cones were pointing in all directions.

Iowa City, Iowa, March 27th, 1

5. First and second Annual Reports of progress by the State martyr:
and the’ Assistant and Chemist, of the Geological survey of the
Lowa, together with the substance of popular letters Sebbar-teege to
the newspapers of the State during the years 1866 and 1867, in
accordance with law; also extracts ee tea isonet to gan
tific journals as a part e the wo _ of the

the survey is brin ringing out — of sah interest to science and
the State. We are happy to announce that the Legislature has
passed a bill appropriating $6,500 annually, for two years, for the

rosecution of the survey. > that tin have — a ek that the

Ill. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY.

Shortia, Torr. & Gray, and Schizocodon, Sieb. & Zuce., identi-
oe —At the end of th "Bunt, Ps herbarium of Michaux, in the
museum of the a ‘de

icket

me
oe
eg
3
5
a et)
S
5
—
4
=
me]
ee

Nort
name of ‘of Shortia pabicipose. Torr. & oy Contrary to my hopes
expectations, the nae. has not yet ~ecate up in its ated

eo Peps trond the Blac Mountain ates now to ann
a probably the very pee in

Botany and Zoology. 403
eae distant region, indeed, but just where, after all we have
been learning, it was not unnat tural to ex it.

ely
S. uniflorus. Of the — as well as of S. s deel Dr. Maxi-

ites or Ae lee and complete
o the affinities of the genus, I aes thought mostly of Galax,
itself of undetected relationship. The fringed, Soldan ella-like corolla
and the similar foliage are unaccompanied by any ake dannii
resemblances. Zucear ini simply refers the genus to sl acid
and I “ae add that its seacent known relative is Di
Ke

have ean noticed das bntoreating ae as a part of the Anat
of the es Botanical Museum. It remains to add th Horne

nor + t ’
works, and to enter upon the — of the most interesting
problems brought before us by the comparison of the Japanese
and North nape meay floras, and of these with the Arctic tertiary
flora recently illustrated by Heer, &e. In the preceding article we
have added one sees ie to the curious chapter of facts, and we

~ d a that the “ian ase Botanical Garden of St.
Peterburg, to foe Mas agi very desirous to obtain, for

——- and southern pee -—for which Dr. M. and Dr. ;
Garden, offer liberal returns m specimens of plants « of the wide. B

North American Saat, ad eepedals Soom ose of our :
the Director of bog =

404 Scientific Intelligence.

return to the subject upon a future occasion. There are now

very few peculiar Eastern North American types which are not di-
rectly represented (not rarely by identical species) in Japan or the
adjacent regions, and the connection of all this with the former ex-
tension of North American types into Europe is now manifest
rae 8 A. G
Genera Plantarum; auct. G. Bentoam et J. D. Hooxer.
Voli i, 1862-1867.— We have already announced the completion of
the first volume of this important work. It may be useful now to
take note of its pages merely as they affect North American
Botany.

Ranunculacee. The ambiguous Thalictrum anemonoides is
-aeccie back to — where Linneus placed it. Its tay 4

)

Grnashyaate of Nuttall, though quite peculiar, is most properly
referred to Ranunculus is Aphanostemma of Sout erica,—
which interests us on anaes of a new Californian species, with
white Anemone-like sepals and minute glandular pe petals.
Dilleniacec te this order Nuttall’s Crossosoma is appended,

as it technic ranges here rather than with :
ycanthacece following a view propounded long ago by
Hooker, stan xt to the following order jes 2” of

Maapeoliiation This sidaei made to include both the Winteree
and the Schizandree, according to views with which we are here
familiar. As in older works, the seeds of Magnolia are said to —o
upon a filiform funiculus —which i is — = earn the case.

faniculus there is to these nearly sessile seeds is thick; as sey
separate from the placenta, the copious aint ducts in their center
are stretched out and form the extensile thread. Our Schizandra

has its character enlarged, to take in Spherostemma, a Japanese

species collected in our N. Pacific Expedition connecting the two.

Berberidec, is made to include ardizabalew, which does se
meric:

to confirm this union. The flowers of Canto ophiylsitd were be

described by the word ridi than “ lutei,” and the discovery of ‘the

the pulpy arillus to the seeds of Podophyllum, attributed in the

oe A. Gray, — sto og Torrey, and was first published
: Flora of the Sta mbt Mew York.

The The genus Rioeietigenis takes in Nuttall’s Me.

, P. Oreganum and P. Californicum. Stylo-

awkiee close approximation to to Chelido-
and sane

Crucifere, Nuttall’s Phenicaulis is remanded to Cheiranthus,
hink most

8
proper, but is left in Cochlearia. Arabis includes Turritis, a view
already adopted with us. Cardamine takes Dentaria, which is
hardly necessary, while Draba is not allowed to swallow Hrophila,
Warea is said to have but one species, a of two. Pachypodium,

e
Lindley’s genus of Apocynee pre-occupies Pitas ame, The Califor-

?
imes occurs in the tetracarpellary state. Biscutella, ix ding
pe Bee of Harvey, gets two American species, B, Calptornian an
asli.
arenpines ee. The prim divisions are selltncd to the rank
of tribes, Silenea, Alsinee, the. atter including the stipulate Sper-
gula and. Spergularia, and Polycarpee, while the uniovulate Lilecebree
proper are to find a place next Amarantacee, and Mollugo and its
allies go to the Ficoidee further on,—the dist. tinction between hypo-
gynous and perigynous insertion bein ept up as far as possible.
As to genera, Saponaria and Lychnis are restored to their Liman
limits, and so on. The position of the styles in respect to t
sepals j is corrected in the addenda as to Sagina, but not as to Stel-
laria, There is nothing more to remark as to the related orders,
except that i
Elatinee, our anomalous Texan species is referred to Bergia on
account of the pentamerous flowers and the habit, notwiths
the dehiscence of the fruit. This seems proper, ’and so the plant
must take the name of Bergia Texana.
_Hypericacee. The typical genusis extended to include Ziodes, a
view which we are not inclined to adopt.
iia The order is arranged to include the Bombacee, but one
of the authors has already ihe that this is not a tenable : arrange-
ment, at least as r irodendron and our Californian 4re-
montia, ‘Otherwise e rat proposed in this country is
Our curious Thurberia is suspected to |

to differ from foepeoas in its trimerous gynecium ; in the ad.
uthors are reminded by Mr. ‘Wright that common Cotton gen-

i hyllee. Th Tribulus receives back Kallstramia.
wea * h - ge so ambiguous between —— and

exan plant whi
Bolen is here Ata nat y referred to both genera. It should,
as Ww pose, belong: to the
: i Nae ek Jussizan view of the order will

Scientific Intelligence.

doubtless prevail; but we cannot quite be persuaded that Tropeolum
is as near to Pelargonium as to Limnanthes. The cryptopetalous
or bud-fertilized flowers of Impatiens are not noticed; those of
Ozalis are, but not the dimorphism or trimorphism of the open
petaliferous blossoms.

Rutacee, enlarged more than ordinarily, to include the Aurantiee.
It may be incidentally remarked that Mr. Mann’s new Hawaian

saw more than one,

Simarubee, Here our authors happily place Suriana and Cneo-
ridium, Hook. f., a new genus founded on Pitavia dumosa of Califor-
nia, which Dr. Torrey had before indicated, but without completing

ship.

carried out with u

his earliest view, Bentham’s Microlotus section of Hosackia is re-
i eneral view, be insepa-
so from Hosackia, and

| hav
as suborders are reduced to tribes, and these extended to ten, the
Cary ! ing one. <Amygd ing merged in Pru-
nus, this tribe is called Prunee,—a needless change, as even the
order Onagraria is allowed to retain that name, although One-
gra has been merged in Gnothera ever since the days of Linneus.
On account of the evident albumen in the seed and the habit, Spi-

Fol ansferred to Weill
lange which we hesitate to adop'

x ine A
» Sa is absorbed in it
um is regarded as a digynous Amelanchier. —

Botany and Zoology. 407

aA ve again, the so-called suborders are reduced to

, and the family is made very comprehensive, including even

the Ribesiee iitiiek name there is hardly good reason for adopting
in p a of Gros — and is placed immediately after Rosacea.
By wri the original name Sazifragee, the authors fall into the
edie dificult of ee precisely the same name both for the
order and the tribe. We do not make out t the ground of their ob-

in the present instance. In the synopsis, Rodgersia has lost its d,
and Boykinia is credited with double its actual number of stamens
The sixth section, Jsomeria, of Sazifraga, is superfluous, and belongs
—_ inly to Boykinia, In the second line of the character of Astilbe,

“vel” should be supplied after “liber.” Lithophragma is, not

aturally, referred back to Tellima, but is perhaps better as a

stinct genus. A very interesting new genus from California,
Boland dra, ony = published, will find a place near Tolmiea,
Tiarella, "and Tellima, ‘Parnassia is incorporated into this tribe,
next to aaeneion and the position of the stigmas relative to
the placente is corrected in the adden

Crassulacee. Here we have only to remark that Echeveria is re-
duced to Cotyledon,

Droseracee, on account of a slight adnation in some species, are
brought into the neighborhood of Sazifragacee ; but in Dionea,
—— this is oo most pronounced, while the calyx-tube is
said to be ‘ ovarii adnatus,” the petals and stamens are de-
crib as ee ogynous,—statements which are not quite con-
gruow

A. Curtis, but the single species may as well be referred to Am-
mannia,

Onagrariee. In the seeds of some of Jussiea, an invest-
ment derived from the pericarp is contounded with the testa; and
Rothrock’ very distinct genus bonus Heterogaura

oree. ae: — assiflora are inadvertently said to
be iene: instead of wea. Our authors refer Papayacee di-
‘o this order.

*Seeroel The genus ee i ng rear oe oy in Tow _
from Bryonia, section Trianosperma ospermum -
re ak Cia Flora. The original, 7. Boykinii, is abundantly

i t from Bryonia, but is not altogether congruous with the
West Indian Cionandra of Grisebach. | really “ fifteen

always hexam Ore ganus is certainly Senehion anaes
we net dhapemed to follow Nandinin regarding as Echinocystis,

408 Scientific Intelligence.

and we fancy that all the species with several parietal and as-
cending ovules, which are referred to in the generic character, are
This t

also, may need reconstruction. Cyclanthera is in our view mono-
ellary, and its ovules horizontal. The second section of Sic-

e were prepared for the reduction of ria

ae to the os genus, where it becomes Datisca glo
oa. arranged according - — sereaione rie

being much re n

But Hulophus itself is likely to be merged in maser Deweya. so
merged in thi some

porno and Fa titra the species of which are yet to be re-
examined and re-settled ; but we have elsewhere assigned reasons

red Zizia aurea, with wingless fruit (the relations of which to Thas-
pium still require investigation), and Zdosmia, Nutt., a sort of
Bunium, <i which there:i is now a second Colifornian species Ps im-

Torr.

Botany and Zoology. 409
Gray, is given in the addenda; but we take it to be a long-fruited
pium.,

Under eran ani we bins only to note that Benthamia is re-
duced to a section of Cornus little different from that « i hich C.
Jjiorida belongs: inion that Garrya finds its resting place h

. Traité Général de Botanique descriptive et pe BR Bic me
Partie, Abrégé @ Organographie, @ Anatomie, vo de Physiologie.
Qme Partie, Iconographie, Description et Histoire des Familles.
Par Mm. LeMaovt and J. Drcaisne. Coane spemersnaes 5,500
tate dessinies par Mm, L. Srervuer et A. RrocrEvx. Paris.

irmin Didot et Fréres, Fils et Cie. 1868. pp. 745, small folio.—
rn copy of this work, ‘from one of the authors, has reached us
barely in time for this brief notice of it in the present place. It is
a most handsome and beautifully eat shoe ee. a fe tide ium 0:

its precursor, —— Atlas Elémentaire. 'To all teachers a
complete treasure, both for the text and the illustrations, is here

via
5. Gray’s Manual of the Botany % the Northern United. Beales.
re, fh Edition, Second Issue, pei —A prefatory note states that,

e present issue man and

ns,
—— — thronghou ibe volume, as | as sere

es , hav
cbhaidocabhedit 479, 480, 564; an omission

| nt for th the article on jum is sup-
on p. 481; and additio Bere’ es, with a few more extended
emendations, are given on pages 679-682.” The sheet containing
the addenda will be supplied by mail ri any who have the first is-
Sue, in 1867, upon er = a two-peuny stamp, —
to the publishers or to the auth A.
; te Boorr, M

Boott (in 1865 ted the whole of Dr. Boott’s

i gs ; oa and drawi he Royal Gardens of
Kew, din under the directorship of her Rachels earliest s
viving friend the late Sir W. J. Hooker.

What a noble tribute is this volume to the memory. of her hus-

band ; others may rear the stately monument or

410 Scientific Intelligence.

and dear friends, but here is a monument more enduring than

n
full siz h great beauty and spirit, with ample dis-
sections ‘oft the Arts, following whe “Explicatio Tabularium” as laid

own art E e 189 plates illustrate 124 species. Forty.
five of sas are found 3 in North America, viz :—

Carex Halleriana, Asso. Carex arcta, Boott.
iti Vahl

pedunculata, Muh. maritima, Vahl.

a, &. Br.
sean seg Presi.
rupestris, Adi. and var.

Gmelini, Hook. scabrata, Schw.
fulva, Good. Sitchensis, Prescott.

allescens, Z. viridula, Mic.

seudo-Cyperus, LZ. salina, Wahl. (ambusta, Boott,

d var. como: Til. 172).

stylosa, Meyer, var, minor Hennes Dew.)

reweri, Booit. var. Hoppneri, Boott.
leiocarpa, Meyer. besa, -All.,

irata, Dew. in Wood, not in vesicaria,
: i levigata, Smith.
gynocr a , Wormsk. aot 2 og
tenuiflor: , Wahi.
tertinseu, ood, i. dea var.

major (Ehrhartiana). vulgaris, ’ Frie

vat ramosa (prasina, Dew.). var. alpina (C. rigida, Good).
polytrichoides, Muhl, var. hyperborea (C. Bigelovil,
panicea, L. Schw. and Torr.
nigricans, Meyer. angustata, Boott,
Pyrenaica, Wahl. ~~ C, stricta, Dew.)
vaginata, Tausch. eta strictior, Dew.)
heleonastes, Zhrh. spicrostoehin; Wahl.
glareosa, Wahi. amesil, Torr.

var. - ursina, Dew. laciniata, Boott.

s, L.

. Hook. to Cc. Eat Src be 8, Boott, or a)
ses umbered, without dnastiptiods,
regret of American Botanists, are C. ampu

are simply num
the re

; Se viridula, Michx.

01-684 in the Herbarium at Kew, are
riptions ie sixty-nine
h American, viz

~

Botany and Zoology. 411
Carex cespitosa, Z. var. filifolia. Carex micropoda, Meyer.
apillaris, Z. muricat

capitata, Z. 8 gracilis. (C. Hookeriana.)
elongata, L. nigella, Boott,
feetida, Allioni, obtusata, Liljeblad,

lobosa, Boott. pauciflora, a
juncea Willd, podocarpa, &
lagopina, Wahl. remota, Z.
leiorhyncha, Meyer. stenophylla, Wahl.

L.

The descriptions 486-524, 39 species, have neither plates nor
See to illustrate them. Thirteen of these are North Ameri-
can, viz

Carex ohondnckine: Ehrh, Carex paludosa, Good.
extensa, Good. pedata, Wahl.
holostoma, Drej. petricosa, Dew.
incurva, Lightfoot, — Jacq
Mertensii, Prescott. triquetra, Boott,
nse os es, (C. Hepburnii, soap: 9 vou ies. ni),

ers
N Noregic, Wahl. 8. stienninches.

Under C. triquetra reference is made to plate 417. ae number
figures (. alligata, a very different species. C. triquetra, a Califor-
nian plant, resembles C. Halleriana, Tab, 415-416, Sete no figure of
it is given

Thee of the North American species, 45 are illustrated by -
plates, 18 by drawings in the Kew herbarium, and 13 have de-
scriptions oO making 76 species in al :

A small te of affection and gratitude American Botanists
might well pay Ms the memory of Dr. Boott by pushing the il-
lustrations now deposited in the et ae at We gr

anti a
. The Variation of of Bhi and Plants under Domestica ; by
‘f ARWIN, S., ete. 2 vols., with ‘ifustration®.
8vo. London, Murray, 1868.—At the present moment we can
only announce that an American Bog ns rint of this important w work i is

8.
0, Ye “ite Ce with Delivipiioas - new “Ge enera ;
Muricea.—This genus has been very ju judiciously re-
y Dr. Killiker* to species like ©. maaekables (spicifera
Tome). sires the cells covered with imbricated, fusiform spicula.
* Tcones Histiologice, ii, p. 135, 1866.

412 Scientific Intelligence.

For M. placomus and ve forms age ee established the genus
nomvenabaey and for M. cerea Dan ie species, the we.

characterized genus Hohinogorgia. 26 Prof Dana’s Zoéphytes the
first t ive species of Muricea alone belong to the restricted genus,

but his Gorgonia tuberculata Esper should be added. The first
four species in Milne Edwards’s Coralliaires are true Muricew. Dr.
Koélliker admits seven species. In - Museum of Yale apres

M. pendula Verrill, of 8. Carolina; MW. tuberculata Koll., M. va-
tricosa K., and MM. humosa K., to complete the whole number of
species now known.

Gonigoria clavata oe Proce. Zool. Soc. 1851, p. 124, is doubt-
less also a young Muri

Muricea muricata Ver rrill = Gorgonia muricata Pallas; Ellis
and agi, = Muricea spicifera Lamx. Exp. Meth., Tab. 71, f. 1 & 2,
182

to Ie indie V., in hie Nias n Soe. Nat. Hist., i, p. 45, July,
864,
M. lava Verrill, Bulletin M. C. Z., 1864, is a distinct Florida

sa
= albi a, This is peat terized tie 8 somewhat app
cells with an elongated and epee lower lip; ; its thick branches;
and long, acute, fusiform, very thorny spic

: sie hebes oe mle see

eed not only by its deep le aes
ies, but by its ab tape ecll,thic
. and short, blunt spel?
branches oe ee
Ippressa, Verrill, Bull ctin M. C C. Z., Jan} 1864, = = Eunicea
wich. and Mich., Supl Corall. I, Antilles, p. 171, Tab. iii,

tic t A cade: ee eee a , vol. i, part 2.

_ — the exact sae? of the latter work is s unknown, it could
not have been until ay, since, on page 7, there is a Sodk t
dated “Turin, 17 Mai” 7 te ose
| Muricea flexuosa Verrill, = Lissogorgia flexuosa V., Pree. Es-
sex Inst., iv, p. 187, 1865.

This sp species appears to be referable to Muricea, but, with other

This Soaase species is allied to the last ; but differs in the se

: purplish-red color, and larger size of the spicula, which com
; almost exclusively, the caenenchyma. ese are relatively very
large, lon ng fusiform, blant at the ends, often crooked, the surface
finely papillose and shining. Those of the polyps are bright yel-
ow. ‘The cells are small, verruciform, and covered by small fusi-
form spicula, branches slender, axis light yellowish brown, horn-like.
ce n Island, Central Pacific, on Stylaster apm Verrill,—(H.

Anthogorgia divaricata Verrill, = Muricea divarieata V., Proe.
x Inst., iv, p. 188, 1865, pl. 5, fig. 5 and 6.
The genus Anthogorgia 1s now proposed for this remarkable
form. iti is characterized by very prominent, tubular cells, eight-
tusi-

Paramuricea cancellata Verrill, = Gorgonia — Dana,
1846, = Villogorgia nigrese ns Duch. and
flabellum Verrill, 1864 (non estipnthiis dabellam "Pallas: ? AL
bellum Esper. Tab. i.), = Paramuricea nigrescens Kéll, 1866, =
Echinogorgia flabellum Verrill, this Jour. 1866, vol. xlii, p. 283

This is unquestionably Dana’s species, and identical with
muricea nigrescens tp Pate) has sent me spicula or an authen-
tie specimen. was erroneous, having been pre-occu-
pied in both ong ale wee Antipa thes, Therefore, if he his A. fla-
—— proves to be this species, Danas pr should still have pref-

The reference by Prof. Dana to Esper’s G. pseudo-anti-

pathes proves to be wrong, for Dr. Kélliker has found that the lat-
ter is a Gorgonella, but he has, by a similar error, referred Dana’s
Species to this as a bi founded on

whi
well i in the — of the spicul
h. an Mich., are. salieale erroneous, and the name has a
DdecsigniSuathia:

- Genus Boripvts oo daa This genus has been established
upon two curious species from Panama. It is coo bine

414 Scientific Intelligence.

horny axis; smooth ccenenchyma, with very small, spindle-shaped
spicula ; verruciform cells, armed at the summit with longer, slen-
der, projecting and arieoees, sharp spicula, which are often much
bent

i errucosa V., is a na species, with few clavate branches and
prominent verrucose ce

H. tortuosa V., has asian crooked, irregular branches ; smaller,
less prominent, and scattered cells ; and grows to the height of six
inches or more.

Psammogorgia arbuscula V errill, = Echinogorgia arbuscula Ver-
rill, Proc. Bost. Soc. N. Hist., 1866, p. 326.—The genus Psammo-

thick ce cenenchyma, with the surface granulated by the numerous
very small, rough spic ils These are of several forms, but mostly
pale thick, blunt spindles, very strongly ce a and thorny;
ad as long, very thorny; some are pret-
ty pomelet pes with five, six, or more, poaairgs rays. The cells are

Astrogorgia Sinensis Verrill, = Muricea Sinensis V., Proc. Essex
Inst. Saab p. 187, Pl. 5, f. 5, 5a.—This genus is allie d to the last,
and li sa granulated surface, and the cells scattered on
sides, anid usually verruciform. The spicula of the ccenenchyma

are, however, very different, being nearly all long, fusiform, sharp,
warty ¢s spindles’ of various siz In alcoholic specimens the ten-
tacles are not wholly sottpoted, an form a low cone, covered by
es.

Juncella extans Verrill, Bulletin M. C. Z., Jan., 1864, p. 37,
- ers pred Johnston, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 14, p. 142, 2

saws suffruticosa Edw. and Haime, = Gorgonia suffruticosa
Dana.—An —— of ae: spicula of this species proves it to
be a true Plexa

Plexaura a apliees Verrill, = nia spicifera Dana.—Com-
mon at Aspinwall, €. H. Bra radley, Moa Totten
Ple errill, Bulletin M. C. Z. , 1864, > a cras-
sa Ellis — =~ (non Dana).—This species is not the Plecaurella

erassa Kélliker, which appears to be th
CE &p-), ad whether = latter be really Ehrenberg’s species
ascertained wi examination of the original spe

icroscopic rutin’ it is a Doom Kall., but the

e @. oan has a been used, and is 4 Rael

gia) P na Ve is pa b 7

low rahi pol the branchlets saint pp
rminal ones subpinna

flat, sca

ttered. ee Se ;

orgonacere
with ho orny | axis t © Gongonta in which he forms three sections,
peacteniaed “ee the s ai—

3
2d. ages having spindles and crescen Piggies: or backer ahaped
sptcula (“ Klammern” is corresponds nearly with Pero
gia Ebr., Dy Cte Xiphigorgia, Prerog ile and Hymenogor-
ae of Edwards , and Rhipidogorgia flabel al.
d. Species having a peculiar external tape of elub-shaped Spie-
= This includes the typical species of Gorgonia, as restricted
ards,

yeaa he the 17 species which are in the Museum of Yale College
from the west coast of America, not a single one can be referred

iterranean and ye cto 80 ea as known. The Panamic species di-
vide naturally into two groups, containing about equal numbers.

Ist. Species having only warty “ double-spindles” in the ccenen-
chyma, which are of two sorts, longer an

2d. Species having “ double-spindles ” and “ double-wheels.”

In ich, of these groups the modes of branching are various, and
there are species with either flat or raised cells. These groups,
like the 2d and 3d of Killiker’s, seem sufficiently marked and dis-
tinct to merit. recognition either as genera or, ce a as sub-gen-

e ames

: Vs in
rill, G. pumila V., and other species with pinnate
oe for the 2d group. These species all have : a a distinctly
nulose

pg ons Fo virgate or
flabellifi liform ; = stenobrachie Val, with veciemesad branchlets ;
G. “hese Nes and G. Mexicana S with — ones, and
eRe

t ce
(Lit anal Adamsi Verrill, yorgia ventalin
Duck. a fich., Supl., (after May) are p- ae ab, ii, f. 3. fan
Gorgonia ventalina allas
r. (Litigorgia) levis errill, Proc. B. N. H., p. 327, 1866, —
a alba Duch. and Mich., op. eg p- 19, Tab. iv, fig. 2,
1864 (non Gage ie alba I
Ok ( iy Aaa ‘errill, = Lo ephogorgia aurantiaca
Horn, Proe. Phil ee ot hak Sci., 1860, p. 233; Gorgonia auran-
aca Verrill, Bull. M. C. Z., p. 33, (non Gorgonia aurantiaca Hes

a Cora, 1857).

re

416 Scientific Intelligence.

A fine, large specimen of this beautiful species, from La Paz,
Gulf of California, i is in the collection.

dM, Sup
eon dba pat 9 Verril lL, = “Sympodium Pacificum,
Verrill, Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H., 1866, p. 3
Telesto trichostemma Verril ill, = aa Geneanis trichostemma Dana,
Zosph. p. 665, Pl. 59, f. 3, 3a, 3b.—An examination of the original
specimen of this Species shows that it is a parasitic polyp (proba-
bly a Zelesto) allied to Cornularia, covering in the lower part the
dead axis of an Antipathes, but in the upper part rising up into
slender, hollow branches of its own.
Cyathopodium tenue Verrill, = or tenuis Dana, Zodph., p.
59, fig. 5, 1846.—This new genus is proposed for the re-
: : D

shaped tubes, nect ed by narrow calcareous Lado which
correspond to the ee varee plates of Zubipora, and from which
oes new bud

b EK. Ver
the eae Academy of ye and a vol. i. New Haven,
Feb. 1868).—In this paper 19 —- of corals and 16 of Echino-
s are enumerated as collected on the Brazilian coast by
Hartt. The Echinoderms are sacetly: West Indian species, yet
three are described as_new (Echinaster crasispn na, Asterias At-
_ lantica, and Thyone Braziliensis), and notes on the localities and
stations of most of the species are given b ce
rence of Oreaster gigas Lutk., so far south, is — Of co-

sa Harttii, Symphyllia Harttii, Porites slide: “Pie
gorgia teicille, Millepora nitida, M. Braziliensis, M. alcicornis,
var. cellulosa.
_ Mr. Hartt furnishes this monet of the Brazilian coral-reefs and
ne di tion of the speci
“The following general oceictigios may be added with reference
to the coral-fauna of Brazil.

«, “1st. The species are, as Prof. Verrill above remarks, almost with-
out ex ~oeherty Pee to the Brazilian coast, — which they have
a wide tion; the most of the from

Daan to 5 Cn Frio, which seems to be she southern limit
‘Inthe Bay of Rio de Janeiro, where the conditions
ve! —- for coral growth, I have tees able to

Hartt =< oe which is also ati tao Apel Mos.
with an description of the coral reefs.

-

Botany and Zoology. 417

find onty one Rs two species of madreporarian corals, and these
were Astran
2d. The. Beasitixn fauna bears a close resemblance to the West
Indian, and there are man y representative species. Thus the Side-
J vida

8
ida, are representatives of West Indian forms; and a ong the
Haleyon oids, ni ir SE do represents the RiSpidigbe pics of the
West Indian fau

“3d. The ableton’ in the Brazilian fee of the genera Madrepora,
Pile ein Diploria, Manicina, Cladocora, Oeutina, genera so char-
acteristic of the West Indian rtiia 3 is notewort

“4th. The Brazilian corals form extensive oe which occur

ee sas weak from the “ Roccas,” north of Cape St. Roque, to the

Abrolhos. The genera which contribute most to the reefs are Acan-

chor Favia, Heliastrea, Siderastrea, Porites, and Millepora, but
re,

patches occur Bk aie on the coast farther north, and the exten-
sive reef of the Roccas, in ai latitude of the island of Fernando

(sing. chapeirao). In they are only a few yards in
diameter, w while their jig ma rea 40-50 feet or more. ese cha-
veal wap sometimes coalesce to form

Notice “ a Collection. ‘ "Riles From La Lower
California, with a Description of a new Genus of Stores; hy A. E.
Verrit. From Transactions of the Conn. Academy of and
Sciences, vol. i, April, 1868.—This list Mondincs additional infor-
mation concerning the fauna of the Gulf of California, Several
rare species are enumerated and Tripneustes depressus A. Ag. is, for
the first time, described, and also a new genus and species of star-
fish, Ambi ef insignis Verrill.

‘The rants liye is allied to Oreaster, and still more so to
Nidoreilia Gray. Itis d epressed, five-rayed, covered on both sides,
with large, po: ygonal seal beste Wek all of those of the back bearin;
Am. Jour. Scr.—Ss. oL. XLV, No. 135.—Mar, 1868,

7

418 Miscellaneous Intelligence.
“ : Ss
On the Families of the Raniform Anura. From the Journal of
EK. D. Corx.

genera and species are described, and there are many useful criti-
cisms and important changes in Lasathy & The paper is supple-
eatures of Arci i

cosolenia botryoides Bowerbank. By H. James Crarx. Memoirs
Boston Society of Natural History. Vol. I, Part III, 4to, with
two fithographic plates, Boston, September, 1867.—In this me-
moir Prof. Clark has described in much detail and beautifully

Ipingeca (gen. nov.
All these are shown to be more or less closely related

to the siliceous spo

which is fully illustrated and described. This sponge is composed

of immense numbers of monad-like infusoria arranged side by side

in a layer that lines all the cavities. These sponge-monads have,

like all the other genera named above, except Monas, a sort

rrow

relation to the species of Salpingeca and other simple, monad-like
infusoria, similar to that which the compound corals bear to the

investigations not only prove the animality of sponges,
but show that, at least, those allied to Leucosolenia must be referred
he ciliated division of the Protozoa instead of Rhizopods, where

to the cil
they have been
ae, kes

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 419

the Hamilton formation and Genesee slate of the United States.
slates in some places give rise to brine springs and petro-
0

bab
identical, with species already described from the United States
and Canada. The new species, also, are mostly allied to Hamilton
fossils of the United States. It is thought probable that a con-
tinuous band of Devonian rocks, mostly Hamilton, extends in
a northwesterly direction — Rock Island, Ill., to the Arctic
Ocean, a distance of 2,5 eo hical miles in a ri i
Some species of fossils prea localities near the extreme ends of this _
belt, or separated by nearly 30° of latitude, are pronounced un-
doubte wipe: f identical, showing that in paleozoic times marine tem-

re

ag
z
.
E
5
=|
ee
Qu
a
S
[el
a
ot
5
©
ry
®
M
et
®
S
co

Ta
hicago Academy and the officers under whose superintendence
the first volume of Transactions is now being publi

b
Zoology, No. 5. 32 ages, 8vo. C pestigir ridge, without date (re-
th

of Ammonites contained in the snare of Coatuparative ology
from the Lower. , Middle, and Upper Lias. The Ammonoids are
aded._ in

us” Ammonit tes, but the work is evidentl the

result 0: re an careful study of og = the largest series of

these fossils to va Seas in any museum, and may therefore be re-

= as a y toa oa tru rue clasification as the state
of preservation cca the spebtiaiees: sell v.

IV. MISCELLANEOUS. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. On convenient forms of —. with ae aye by Prof.
Francis H. Surra (from_a communication to D, Dana, dated
University of Virginia, Feb. 29, 1868).—The % win,
tions of some serviceable forms of ee with flui jets may
be of interest to a few of your

To obtain the water- rjet, pomepolly mca to, a small glass fan-
nel was cemented to ng in the bottom of a bucket. A
valye was eens by wra
buckskin, aud suspending it over the ‘funnel from one end of a lever
mounted | upon the edge of the bucket. Placing the latter upon a
tall tripod, and filling it with water, the operator has control of
a a satishactory jet, which he can start and stop at pleasure. This
us leaves, <9 nothing further to be desired i in ‘the 4

“way sap vectually falling

cs

420 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

into rotation, the jet and screen were illuminated b a rapid succes-
sion of flashes of light.* Instantly the troubled section of the jet

a to be resolved
When the flashes followed each other as fast as the apm the
:

well known optical relation. It may be added, that by changing
the relative distances of the jet and screen from the illuminating
ocus, we may make the shadows of the drops so large as to

seen without difficulty from the remotest parts of the largest

formed on the screen, and suitably interrupted at short interv

: by the sound of a monochord, tuned to tension with it,

Exp. 2.—The jet was chastened into greater regularity of php id
or

cr . pon yenae ae A > ° . f the screen seems
Pinca the dise is spinning _ rapidly, the illumination o et in the light,

4
:
j
:
:
4
:
:
+
e
am

ICR et Ewer kere a: ©. Ae gtee, ten ae eee te ee eee ay

narrowly observed by this form of experimen
EKzp. 3 j

xp. 3.—
ished circular metallic plate, considerably wider than the jet, and
ten in in di

curved sheet of water, in the interrupted light, both with
without the aid of the neighboring so ; ;
Experiments with like results were made with oblique and
all

vertically ascending jets. In cases the intermittent light
am

reference to gaseous jets, allusion will at present be made only
to sonorous flames in tubes.

2. Kesolution of the Sounding flame; by Prof. F. H. Sarru,
(ib.)—By those who have no mirro lenses Pp

three feet long, and it was found possible to secure such a speed as to

light, and the disc
silvered ball should

“ 429, Miscellaneous Intelligence.

dise in 43 seconds; The third and last mem 2014-8 rotations in 56
seconds. Giving to each observation the same weight, we have
1822 vibrations of the sonorous flame per second.
The cant applied to the same problem, > gave 177-7 vibrations
ided,

ein iecencosling red aki = with those of a set of excellent
tuning forks made by Ritchie of Boston, was near

48° aa in extent. This bein the light of the sen a at
endured conspicuously at each plllantibn, 0500366 or x45 of asec ond.

It was noticed too that each are varied in brightness, the esi

maximum ‘temin ation being, not at the center of the arc, but
beyond it; so that it would appear that in each luminous interv
the flame lost its light more rapidly than it acquired it.

T have spoken of the luminous arcs as though they were abso- .
lutely detached from each _ So they appear to a careless
observer. A close scrutiny, however, revealed an extremely faint
oot fading thread of bluish light uniting them. Hence, in this

se at least, we cannot accept Dr. Tyndall’s Sue errs that ¢ there
oy = absolute bea some arama of the
ment . Smith’s paper ; er the author. —1 have
applied the ecives ilvered pall to the —— of the ssagneniat
problems. (1.) Yo adjust two sounding flames to exact unison, or to
test the perfection of accord between nti giaecsaits unisonant

“The revolving ball singe to the two flames, gives two inter-
secting which, in case <i — —— are eq

in number, an ene "identically the s tions, sta-
an g the variable sated "of the ba.
(2.) To determine the exact, or the approximate, value of the musical

ges (luminous

ares), the relative number of these images will express the interval

| required. Thus for one pair of flames, I found the interval to be
2:1; for another ob eres
7 mati when

7 resting wit ease pad Ss kalei
might be used forte ane purposes, though with some inconven-

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 423

ience. The mivered balls I have Siieico vary from 4 inch to 2
inches in diamete:

own.

PeIee he when the mirror, —_ or concave, is rapidly turned. I
am not aware that the significance of this fact has attracted atten-

tion. Does it not indicate that the flame both eet and loses
its light progressively from base to summit, the loss being more
rapid than the recovery; and that at no single instant of its ere.
is the soundin as such in size and form, as it snpeaes to
when steadily viewed? Moreover, if the flame, in an
rekindled from above as it must be, if it is ever absolutely extin-
guished while sounding, it would seem that its image on its first
Ppa at least should be tilted in a direction opposite to the motion of
t

I halle conclude these notices by stating a fact Dearing upon the
theory of these flames. I have found no difficulty in causing the
flame to sing when — quietly into a horizontal eee
leveled, f and diameters were used.
narrow horizontal Paro the vibrations are soon arrested by the
accumulating products of combustion. In a tube 13 inches in
diam. and 3 feet long, the flame sang for an indefinite time. While
it was sounding, no drifting of smoke previously sakatdesad into
the tube, or ee . column 3 smoke mm the past its t end,
pass from ; .

= "that the latter is in

position.
4. On a convenient form of Aspirator + by Prof. Arzerr R.
il co

these feet in — is connected to ¢ off the w cet
placed on the floor below. When the bucket is filled, the stop-
cock is turned off for a moment, and the water po ba
the pail, To the top of the stop-eock tube, whic shoulthe ——

* This Journal, vol. xxvi, p. 10.

424 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Writing on a Screen.—Every lecturer has felt how unsatisfac-

engraving.
B. Height of Mt. Washington.—The height of Mt. Washington,
attributed on p. 378 of last volume by this Journal to Prof. Bond,
was obtained by Prof. Guyot.

OBITUARY.

Dr. Samus Luraer Dana died at Lowell, Mass., March 11th,
1868. His death resulted from a fracture of the thigh bone caused
by falling on the ice some weeks before.

Dr. Dana was born at Amherst, N. H. in 1795. He fitted for
college at Phillips Academy, Exeter, and entered Harvard Univer-,
at the age of fourteen. Immediately after graduation he went

nto t y, and served as lieutenant of artillery till the close of
the war of 1812. Completing his medical course of studies in
1818, he practiced as a physician for a few years. But having @
ecial fondness for chemistry he relinquished his medical practice
2 manufacture hemicals and continued to super-

co

: mk to matters connected with calico printing, eeden
Belaw spe’ Success of the Company, by whom he was enplere
Being ofa progressive disp sii ion he conceived some pe culiar

”

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 425
respecting the bleaching of cotton, which were communicated to
the Société Industrielle de Mulhouse, and published in their Bulletin

.
.

in 1836. His plan, which is now very generally used, is commonly
ching.

By his investigations into the action of cow-dung in cleari
mordanted calico of the thickening, he was naturally led to inquire

ote an essay on Manures, for which he received a prize from the

: int
time, originality, and ability, Dr. Dana stood first among scientific

untry.
But the agricultural treatises by which he became so well and
favorably known, were but the secondary results of his research
into the nature of cow-dung. The original object was worked out
with full success. He found that the property of fixi

company, was not allowed to secure a pa
covery known to the world. It was, however, of too much value
and importance to remain long a secret; and when r person
went to England with a full knowledge of the experiments at the
Merrimac Print Works, and sought to derive a pecuniary benefit

American chemist independently origina
substitutes, but to Mercer belongs priority of time by a few months.
made a report to the Ci

In 1840 Dr. a City Government of
Lowell, on the various well-waters of the i ial -
ence to their action on lead pipes. for the sake of making
more generally kno e character

themselves, erin
ublication of Tanquerel on Lead Dis-
his

ufacture of rosin oil was brought to his notice

1851 the man :
and he contributed much to the improvement of that then important
ch of industry.
In later years his time was taken up by the d
and the cultivation of a farm which he had pure:

bad

426 Miscellaneous Bibliography.

V. MISCELLANEOUS BIBLIOGRAPHY.

by numerous examples: being the third edition of “

: DEN
Professor of Mathematics in Staff College. London, Longmans,

were published as a text book, for use especially in our schools of
science,

2. Berghaus’s Chart of the World (4th epee published by
Justus Perthes, Gotha. B. Westermann & Co., New York. Price
$10.—This beautiful chart exhibits in the neatest and most per-

pared is equal to them. This World-chart is drawn on the Merca-
tor Projection, the longitude starting from Greenwich. It shows

A fae

:

Miscellaneous Bibliography. 427

3. Organie Philosophy. Vol. IL. Outlines of Oniciagy Eter-
nal Forees, Laws and Princi tipd by Huan Donerry, MD. 455
pp- London, 1867. (Tribner & Co. )—The pathieattoag of the po
volume of this work was noticed in vol. xXxxvill, 1864, The author
cea ge his work into two parts; Ist, investigation of principles,

2nd, discussion of princi les. Under the first nage occur the
following pee of sections: Unity of science; Methodological sci-
ences, Astronomical sci ences ; Ontological sciences Tratncedental
philosophy ; : Perfe ctive philo sophy; Ev i
and elsewhere he opposes strongly t. ypothesis o:
sgt philosophy ; and part seco ad includes the three sec-
: Evolutive oad and eatibe. Philosophies, Theosophies and
Theol logies. The work is condensed in the statements of its views,
and i rips parts Sombania abstruse, but is one that may be read with
4 profit.
- Notes on the Volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands, with a oe
tig of their various eruptions ; by Wm.
a seme ses lates and ci From the Memoirs of the
on Soci His

; Climate of the count Saekeraa upon the great
Ne orth Anema Lakes,—page 58, —F. B, Mrrx; Remarks
on the Geology of the Valley of the pass ee with soon oe
and ace ay of Fossils from that region
Smithsonian Ins titution, chiefly collected re fae late Roserr
—page Wuire and O. H. Sr. iar

Tescriptiget of new Subcarboniferous and Coal-m
collected upon the Geological Survey of Iowa, together ie a
notice of new generic characters oe in two species of Brach-
iopods,—page 115. V.—W. ; Illustrations of North
American Birds in the Museum of Ge Chicago Academy of
Sciences,—page 128.

the Fallacy ing the changes of color in the Blood; and our want
Corina ore ene Brown, Prof. Experimental Physi-
&ec., New
n Elementary Chemistry, &c., for the
uso of mae ate Seren oe a Norwood, M.D. Columbia, Mo., 1868.

48. 4
oes oe Prof, Geo. H. Cook, for the year

o came © to the Rio Grande, by John
1 :

e extension of the Union Pacific ae

ae Proceedings of Societies, ete,

cape 3 — Soc. Nat. a Vol. XL— 5, Locality Cinnamon
ee , Warren, N. T. T. Bouvé.—p. 216, Sustafeldtite, E. N. Rio or
p. 2 ie, Podiion of the Slesistons of the Southern Slope of a portion of Kew
naw Point, Lake Superior; A. Agassiz.—p. 246, Symmetry and adioey J in
Limbs; J. "Wyman. —p. 286, Cephalization as exemplified in the Echinoderms; W.
A. Niles— —p. 288, Visi hg an Indian ‘‘shell heap” on an island in Frenchman’s
Bay, Maine;
OCEEDINGS ACAD. ‘Nar, Scr., PHILADELPHIA, No. 4, Oct., ee Dec., 1867.—
p. 125, Great Carboniferous Conglomerate in Sullivan Co., Pa. ; B.S. Lyman n.—pD.
127, On a collection of California Myriapods, with the descriptions of new East-
ern species; Z. Wood, Jr.—p. 130, Note on Geo otrygon sylvatica, Gosse; BR.
Hill.—p. 131, Four extinct species of Mammalia a; E. D. Cope.—p. 133, Collection
. Mamm als 1g aT 3 #. Coues.—p. 137 fp Ten Crania from the Morton Col-

é rtebra fo)
me with a neuen of ash extinct Cetacea of the United States; #. D. Cope.—
p- 156, . the genera of ee fishes, Hypsilepis Baird and Photogenis

ir species and distribution; #. D. Cope.—p. 166, Review of the species
of Aisbtystornicis : E. D. Gina 212, Fasti Ornithologie; J. Cassin.—p. 222,
eg of a Tipulideous larva; H#. D. Cope.—p. 226, Mechanical Theory of Solar
; J. Ennis.—p. re hye of five new species of ro Americ
Birds G. N. Lawrence ce.—p. 234, On the ee carpe H. Shimer.—On the ex-
tinet Aa soe approached oe Bird ‘ope.
F THE NSTITUTE, saiaei, Mass. Vol. V, No.

—p.1
Gbaervations or on Polyzoe, Suborder Phylactol semata ; A. Hyatt.—p. vet, Flora #
Haw waiian ian Islands;
SACTIONS OF THE Merens AN ENTOMOLOGICAL ny Vol. I, No. 3.--p. 281,

Description of a new species of Cecidomyia; H. a lt 283 , New genus of
Aphide; H. Shimer.—p. 286, Description of certa of Diurnal Lepidop-
pee tap eae ited Sta tates; W. H. Edwards.— os a8, List of Ichneumo:
erica, with descriptions be new species; EL. T. Cresson.—p. 313,

pots of Boreal America; ~ How:

Anwats Lyc. Nat. Hist. oF New York, April, May, 1867. Vol. pgs Nos.
15, 16, 17.—p. 406. Hew eerie of T: di nited
States; ae Matthews, —p. 414, On species of the Family Corbiculade, wi Prone

8, Classification of the rian tg 7 pa ; I. Prime.—p. ret Nes

p. 432, Lepidoptera of America, No. 1; A "R Gro ae —p. 46
tions ies of American Birds; G. N. Lawrence.——p. 483,

iptions of s of hilidze ; . Lawrence, —p. 486, Note on Natu-
ral History of the Scorpion; t

Memors AMER. votes ARTS , Part 1 aa ot : Embryology 0 of
Echinoderms; A. A @.—p. 31, Detalosment of Rais Batia; J.

d Cannon; D. ell.—p. 67, rvations * the ees

Comet of 1858; G. W. Hill—p. 101, Secular Peri the

—p. city of the Auro
_—p. 121, Process of Fractional Condensation: applicable tot the sepa-
ration of Bodies having small differences between their boiling points; C. If-

, the

distillation of Lime-Soap; ¢. M. Warren and F. H. Storer.—p. 208,
FB Sores of Naphth obtained from Petroleum; C. M, Warren and

collected by H. N. Bolander in the Stato Geo-

INDEX TO VOLUME XLV. ’

ince Uiisetageee
ustrations of Agrsee 271, 409,
rege atm nal bee 5th ed., ee
anu sate yer 409.
and Decaisne, T de botan.,

A
seciacgy |= Soeedinen an Memoirs, 428,
ss cara 267; Proceed.,

National, soe a 1868, 280. Lesqueren, Catalogue of Mosses, 273
hiladelphia, aes , 144, 428 wt.” Prolusio y tol Japoniee, etc.,
renege ele! of o one i sii Vilmorin-Andrieur & Cie, Fi ”
ssiz, Jo n abel s notie oe.
— of Yesso, eta. 353. HR oa terre, 269.

, We iZ., gold-bearing rocks of Cal.,

Brewster, D., obituary, 284,
B on Hawaiian voleanoes, noticed,

a
Bromids, test for, Bill, 224.
po brsaon nd, 4, specita of of oe 279.
rton, almesonit
tetrahedrite, mwas im

halien and Kurile on en 361.
Aldehya, methylic, Hofmann o 9.
Smads: test for
Almanac, Amer. Nautical for 1869, 284.
eri ae Association, Pro: ae
ss organic, dete iatnation of Oxy:

‘kuin of qr phys. geography of, 99.
um an antiquities at Ab

Cc
pie on violet Si aggre
suees s Physical oe Geaes ec caus a rd Elem. Physics, 142.
ini nate, sodic, Kessler’s 254.

Aspirator, form of, Leeds, 423.
Assmuss on products of distillation, Ord-
way, 274.

Barker, G. F., chemical abstracts, 251.
Barrande, "Ptéropodes Siluriens dé la Bo-

Ay : GEOLOGY. :
r 3 a’él — a * 2
tnd Hooker, Genera Plantarum, Carib BW mira analysts 173. oe :
vol. 1, noticed, » OL. roe = Wal reed formations <
Berghaus, Chart of the World, 426. pan ek Coreaes
Berthelot, a5 yea of oxalic acid, 240. I Gotoe oti | Seg 1865, 143, |
gyre Japan, oe) . oe mal of Geography
of Saghaliet 361. ops at Reratores BESS Oe
Bill, J. H., test for bro ‘[Gopper, dion of te 67,
. B, omas earthquake, 133. ae houeay cre gig x
Blake, T. age N. W. coast of Amer., 242. || urtis, Urvey, ~
Blake, Exposi-

oP , minerals of Paris
1
rocks a = te 264. |

Dewey, C., obituary, 122.
Diamylene, oxydation with chromic acid,

GEOLOGICAL WORKS noticed :—
poo Boag Siluria, 1
inkler, Musée Teyler Catalogue, 121,
Gide W., chem. and phys. abstracts, 249,

Dickerson, A. B.,

Distillation, Pri i on nae 2: on
ic Philosophy, vol. ii, 427.

Douglas, J., source of muscular force, 110.

Dynamo-magnetic machine, 115,

“obi ituary of Engel
measurement of a 298,
Glaciers, see GEOLOG

E
Earthquakes, Perrey on, noticed, 268.
in Kansas, te
in St. Thoma
re Vis ae Tteneds 135.

hortia galaci
Green Mts., taethl ax action on, gidiie

Hawards, 2 ., living forms in hot wa
ters of California, Guerin, T., delivery from eonduit pipe,
Elect rit mt, cost of, Farmer, 112. 191.

a F., obituary, 28' Guyot’s Geographies, 287.

etocmogesl Boe., Trans., 144 428.

ene oma Paria 1863 Wi les, 73 = f Santa
sition, Paris, 1867, ic. Hawley, C. E., sepa. mines 0
minerals of, Blake, 1 ae Si Per
Eye-piece, new binocular, Smith, 42. | mines 3 of Aliiaen, Spain, 9.
F Hayden, F. V., Rocky Mt. coal beds, 101.
lignite deposits of the West, 198,
Faraday, M., memoir of, de La Rive, 1 format of E. margins of Rocky

Farmer, M- @., cost of electric eee 112.

Ferrocyanid of potassium on monochlo-
er, Loew, 383.

Flame, sounding, Smith, 421, 422,

Fluorids, new, Vieklés, 66.

Fossils, see GEO:

workable coal in Fabinaio ay 326.
jo Mio pa polar flora, 269, 281.

S23
oe
4
=
:
i}
io)
a

——~ G., answer to aeees of, Dana,

Hoping on methylic aldehyd, 249.
How, H., Silicoborocalcite and natroboro-
ealcit cite, 1 117.
Aviculopecten, Meek, Hw rd, E., evidences of glacial ac-
China and Japan, or Sind in, Biekmore,|| tio on Green Mt ts., 1.

Hyatt, soot cephalopods, oe 419.
Coal in Seton Mts., Hayden, 101. Hy of Penns. pe
in Nebraska, Hayden, 198, 326.

, 399.
“Cone in cone,” Marsh, 218 ; eT
ots Boonie vada Silurian, 62.
coalin N. Mex., LeConte, ee
‘Ghaen is Green Mts., Hu ‘ord, 1.
Gold-bearing rocks of Cal, , 264,
Brewer,

%

I
Tge L. I, bituminous gneiss in
"awade n, 38.
Tron, on ’ permeable to gases, 392,
specific a Chase, 247.

gern i measures, Wfonlon 01 198.
- Lignites est ike
° Mastodon in California, Suliman, 3

Kokscharof’s Mininlogy, nose 121.
Kotschy, T., obituary,

L
Laboratory, The, noticed, 117.
Ladd, W., dynamo- etic machine, 115.
LaRive, A. de, memoir of Faraday, 145.
Laurent, Traité d
Lawrence Sci. School laboratory Con-
, No. V, F. W. Clarke, 173.
Len . Index: to Unionide, | noticed, 129.

iM of Emmons, a 217.
ts., formations along mar-
of, Hayden, 222.

_bitum mous gneiss and mica)
noticed

. R., form of aspirator, 423.
writin on screen,
Maout pe Decaisne, Traité de botan.,

Lewis, J., shells Pate ae |e 187.}|OBITUARY :~—

G. Gas

~ "ti
hy, 1
G. Mandon, ore G. H. Mettenius, 128.
Lord Rosse,

. Y., Annals,
Lyman, ©. 8., new Wave apparatus, 5 bok ms ¥- Sorvall ‘a1; D. F. L. v, Schlech-
endal, 124; H. tz, 272.

M
ct ag spp wm ee Se
Man, remains

Mandon, G., obituary, 124.
Marsh, O. a, perry & of Emmons,
and “cone in cone,” 217.
oe Akademieche Denkreden, 143.
C., real-image stereoscope, 116.
Meek, ok, Ht B., corals from Nevada, 62.
eouee Aviculopecten
of Mackenzie R. by, noticed

Mercury, ‘vapor of, effect on plants, 71.
Meteorite from Mex. At L. Smith, 77.
Mettenius, G. H., obituary, 123.

Me ee Sete ence et in savants en 1866,

Minera pelea rocess in, Clarke, 173.
ee ale oa e of Paris Exposi-

Barnhart, enth th,319; Boulangerite,
; Brochan ntite, Genth, 321.
Celeron? Genth, 314; coals Genth,
319; | Cryolite. glass from

e, argent ous, Burton, 36.
Mant, dou 313; : Montane, Genth,
Natroborocalcite, How, 120.

Silicoborocalcite, How, 11
ee Genth, 313;

; Nickids, Onan

’ Pima % on the le

Orava, A MM, Assmuss on distillation, ‘

,7., Andes of Quito, 99.
Oxali¢ acid synthesis, Berthelot, 249,

P
Paleont Ee see GEOLOG
Parker, J. earthquake . Kansas, 129,
Perrey on Earthquakes, noticed, 268,
we #. @., forms of 5 spectroscope,

g

e, 127,
Polarization, skylight, in Nebraska, 96.
Poole, H. f’ on nae ical ratios,
'Pumpelly, B. delta-plain of China, and
changes of Yellow R., 219.

Qa
Quicksilver mine, Santa Barbara, 5.
Almaden, Spain, 9.

Raupach, 0. F., tet at St. Thomas,
epecney poe of yolcanic rocks,
ve. W ow. ow e, 47.
es oe from Murchi-
ae. Amer. ‘estat Dall, 96.
geography,

well, H. P.,

nea oy 506, 316; A ea
Whinepiiar ” Genth, am: Wilsonite,
Miquel’s Prolusio flore Jap
Murchison, > Gxt meek «
Roy. Geogr. Soc., ae
Siluria, noticed, 121
Muscular fo — a of, Douglas, 110. —
lnaieal pa 08, Poole, 289
N
Neurine

Newton, mE A., shooting stars, Nov., 1867,)

Wie. ndence, 66.
Mioblen, aa of, 393, 396.
Nitroglu
0
O Boe, ; D. Brewster, 284.

J.B, Co wows r, 141.
oD Coe
oS

Bau C. Daubeny, 124, 272;

|\Siith, J Hd

Schlechiendal, De ye! v. obituary, 124.
8 obituary,
neield aia a Laboratory Contrib., No. XVI,

‘ov., 1866, spectra of, 279.
nor Ia BG, ewon, 7B,

relation between
peaperion mong 2 phim and am

ee, in California, 878.
, experiments with fluid jets,

419.
bn a4 of sounding flame, 421, 422,
new binocular ey rate ¥

3

INDEX, |

e, real-image, Maxwell, 116.
: es of Mass., noticed, 129. .
carbonylic, Than, 251.

sot ‘noticed, 286.

eg ts Haley ronoid sete 8 te ME Mu-
seum 4 Yale © oll., 41 es
on H: coral a echinoderms

os fies
on Lede ita ‘froma Lower Cal,

*

Washington sigh
Water fom dondalt Di dle Mia 191.

don oil -
_ en 331.

sg
s acid
ne and chin phor, 48.

White, oe

shell-stractare of Neldess 400.
“Cone in cone,” 401.
wrens rvey report, noticed, 402,
vn 6. ae of J ournal of Anat.
ysio.
Winkler’. Masse T Teyler Catalogue, 121.
i

ZOO;
Hoponsid pol, — Yale Coll. Mu-

417.
Vilmorin-Andrieux & Cie., Fleurs de
pleine terre, 269,
Volcanic e eruption, Leon, Nicaragua, 131.

hvdrocarbons of Pen

WwW
ee. oe cnydetion, of diamylene, 5.
ge 262,"

seum, .
Leporide, Pigeauz, 127.
Li forms in hot waters of Cal., 239.
Shells planted in Erie Canal, 137,
ZOOLOGICAL Wo: ticed :—

lark: H. J., Spongiz ciliate, 418,
Cope, Families o orm Anura, 418.
Journal of Anat. and Physiol., 124.
Lea, Index Unionide, 129,
Storer, Fishes of

Verrill, Echinoderms from Lower

Cal., 417.
Verrill, on Hartt’s corals and echino-

derms from Brazil, 416.