THE V. & AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCEHK AND ARTS. EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS, : Rroressors JAMES D. DANA anv B. SILLIMAN. ASSOCIATE EDITORS, Prorrssors ASA GRAY anp WOLCOTT GIBBS, OF CAMBRIDGE, Prorrssors H. A. NEWTON, S. W. JOHNSON, GEO. J. BRUSH anv A. E. VERRILL, OF NEW HAVEN, Proressor EDWARD C. PICKERING, or Boston. THIRD SERIES. VOL. VIUII.—[WHOLE NUMBER, CVIIL] Nos. 43—4S. JULY TO DECEMBER, 1874. WITH SEVEN PLATES. NEW HAVEN: EDITORS. 1874. CONTENTS OF VOLUME VIII. NUMBER XLUL Arr. I.—Results derived from an examination of the United St a Rib ve Maps for 1872 and 1873; by Exias Loo With plates I and II, 1 1 ae aon of Photogr: aphic Dry-Plates by Daylight, by oe and re-sensitizing the silver compounds ; Page mee Te Sh as So ee 16 I1.—On a Moiccalas Change produced by the passage of Electrical Currents through Iron and Steel bars; by SOUN TROWPEINGR: 66k is 5 ee ee 8 Magnetism of Soft Iron; by Davip SEARS, Sg pers 21 IV. Sie ag Notes; Tellurium Ores of ‘Colorado ; by We PARE AR oss ica a we eee 5 V.—Notes on “Diffraction None ; by Joun M. Buaxkeg,... 33 VI—On the Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light ; by Ai RIeHT. With Pla ng t Seine cn arene meee ae ete 39 VII.—On the Age of the Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Supe- rior; and on the Westward continuation of the LakeSupe- rior Synclinal; by Rotanp Irvine. With platesIV andV, 4 VIII—On the Parallelism of Coal-Seams ; . ANDREWS, 56 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics.—. er and its sea hagrg ns Biocu Eucalyptol, Faust and Homeryer, 59.—Compounds of bage with Aleo radicals, Hartwie, 60.—Taurin not espace ‘ape Sem : Condensa ton ot Acetylene by the "Silent Electric Discharge, P. and A. peri ARD, 61.—Nitr compounds of the Allyl series, BRACKEBUSCH: Re fe claibts due to Heat, 62.—Double refraction of a Viscous Fluid in motion, 6 3,—Spectroscope with Fluorescent oy crepe M. Lovet, 64.—Polarization of Metallic Surfaces, M. G. QUINCKE, 65 Geology and Na tural History.—Small size of the Brain in Tertiary Mammals; by O. C. MarsH, 66.—Coal ee Lignite) in the “retaceous of Minnesota: Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, J. P. Lestey: Dana’s Manual of Geology, 67.—Report b ische, pe mn KD von MoJsvAR te, by E . On Atacamite, by E.S Dana: Changes in the character of Sy spree pall le by Sheep-grazii: rigyvium and XxI- MOWICZ, Diagnoses Plan m Japoniz, e tanical Con tibutions, by Asa Gray, 70. ce of Climate and To phy ees around San Fran- Bay, by I. G. Cooper: Catalogue of Plants growing ee ems in the State of New Jersey, 8) ae Meissner of Basle: Illustrated Catalogue of the icon: of ‘Caaaeee Zool- ogy, No. VIL Revision of th ini, b NDER AGassiz: I] t Catal f the Muse ‘om ative Z o. VII, Zoological Results of the Hassler Expedition; Echini, Crinoids, «nd Corals, os A. Agassiz and L. TALES, 72.—Habits of the California Wood-rat, by A. W. eke 13. —The Doctrine of Evolution, by ALEXANDER WINCHELL, TA. Astronomy.—On of some of the Nebule toward or from the Earth, by Wawa Hvaains, 75 —Astronomical Observatory in the Sierra Nevada Cordoba Observatory: Coggia’s Comet, 78. lv CONTENTS. Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—The American Museum of Natural History, N. Y., T8.—Note‘on the recent Botan of Bald Mountain, North Carolina, F. H. BRADLEY, 79.—Fluctuations in the Great Lakes: Chemical Centennial, Aug, 1, 1874: Topographical Atlas, to illustrate explorations of surveys west of the 100th meridian: Annual Record Science and Industry for 1873: Moun- tain Sculpture in the Sierra Nevada, 8 NUMBER LXIV. Page ART. Ix. —Researches in Acoustics; by Atrrep M. Mayer, 81 X.—On the so-called ee loam from the Ce Silurian of Ohio; ‘by J. 5. NewRenry,. 9 occ ceueice nance 110 XIL—A ee . apen the Consteaneaie Hypothesis ; by Ci. B. Duvron,... i. nslaxn moun eee ee ea 113 Geolozical time in the new edition of Daria’s Manual ‘a Genter fase the ATO 213 inged Fruits of rs reesei Spee Cardiocarpus: Coal o Carboniferous era not made of bark: The ash of the better Coals of the eae can Nosy arin it age often = tivated Gon the fei sir 53% plants of the Carboniferous age in Protogine of the e@ proposed genus Anomalodonta of Miller edontical with the a Maptor ae: Meek, 218.—On the Quaternary containing the New Brunswick fossil Cetacean; on Niagara agara fossils in tra oy D. HONEYMAN, 219.—Dese: tions of new species of Goniatide, with a list of gteged — ibed species, 9 3 3 & Bate g 45 =. i% ba 3 Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence.—Change of _ zs eee Great Salt Lake, 226. On the Ph Ocean Currents, b AMES CROLL, ip sag on | ® a a 2S: . $ c 2 & 28 : ing of the American Association at Hartford, 235. = Sibemicns U entennial. 239.— Elements of Nouhoes &e., by J. ARTHUR Purtiips: Volume of Collected Re- Searches of J. Lawrence Smith, 240. vi CONTENTS. NUMBER XLVL Art, XXI.—Researches in Acoustics; by Arrrep M, Mayer, 241 XXIL—On the Thermo electrical Properties of some Minerals ee _— varieties; by A. Scuraur and Epwarp §&. XXII. ae the Possible Periodic Changes of the Sun’s Apparent Diameter; by Smmon Newcoms and Epwarp Se EOLDMN Soe ee 268 XXIV.—A New Calculating Machine; by GzrorcE B. Grant, 277 XXV.—Researches on as Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt; ty WoLCOTT GIBHG, 665 coca soe oe ist 2 55S S 284 VI.—The M athesiatiant and sme ccii comer State of the Physical Sciences; by Josepn Loverine,.-------.--.- 297 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry and Physics. Pedi hoy Acid, nage y w, 309.—Ozone not produced by the oxidation of the essen al Oils, Kixzert, 3 ate op of the Copper-zine Couple on the chlorides of Ethylene and Ethylidens, GLADSTONE and TRIBE, 311. Geology ~ haga History.—Notes on the new edition of Mr. Darwin’s work on the Stru and Distribution of Coral Reefs (1874), by J. a a: tra ct Minaralosseal os carey “an er a of Dr. Gerard T: Contributions of G. vom Rath: Fifth Annu al gg a of the "Geological Survey of Indiana: Paleozoic Fo: er “ K. BILLINGS, 319.—Revision of the Gen and Species of the “Tuliper, by 5. G. BAKER, 320.—Asexual growth fro gic Prothallus of Pteris Cretica : some oo Botany of 8. Pacific Exploding Exp edition under ‘Adu Wilkes, 321. ila tifie Intelligence.— “aoe ial School of Mines, Colorado: Alex- ander Wilson: Sixth Annual Report . ae —— us, Beneficial other “f sects of the State of seni CY. —Half Hours with Insec british Association: Dana’s Manual or Bees 323 = Obelwary. Desh er Prof. Jeffries Wyman, 3 393, NUMBER XLVIL Arr. XXVIL—On the Number and Distribution of the Bright Fixed Stars; by B. A. GouLp, ....... 2 ga, 325 XXVIII.—The Deportment of Titanium with reagents in Iron Ores containing Phosphoric Acid; by E. H. Bocarpus,- 334 XXIX.— Experiments on the _— of Nitrogenous Si a Substances; by H. P. Arm 337 XXX. —On the Molecular Best “of Similar ‘Compounds ; ‘by Frank Wiceimsworrs CLEARER, 5. 2. - 340 XXXI1. ck elation between the Barometric Gradient and the Velocity of the Wind; by WM. Frrret, ---------.... 343 X XIL—Researches in Acoustics ; ; by Atrrep M. Mayer,. 362 XXXII. eR as of Primitive Undulation; by Puy ARLE: CRABB( 5 Soy ot ee eS 366 XXXIV.—On Sanpete Pseudomorphs, and other kinds, from the Tilly Foster Iron Mine, Putnam Co., New York; by James D. Dana. With plates VI and VI, - 371 CONTENTS. vil SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. Chemistry an —First Products - the aE ext Benzol, HELBING, 382, sd fo al of Active Amyl alcohol, LE New method of prepara- tion of Salicylic Acid, KoLBn, 383.—Vani lline _ Expansion of Hard Rubber, M. i i ts, W. 385.—Index of reg on . Liquids, MM. Eger vir and TRANNIN, 386.—Elec ical Phenomena, P. Dom. Martantnt: Note on the view of Mallet as to the Fusion of Metals, by ADOLF ? Soman 387. Geology and Natural History—Notes on the Geology of Costa Rica, by W. Gags, 388.—Note On the occurrence of Metamorphic Silurian Rocks in North Carolina, b F. H. Brapey: Abstract of a paper on the Trap Rocks of the Con- i d-Ti oirs e Geo Habits of some of our Brother-Organisms—Plants, 395.—Linnean don, 397 (diene Pickenianskie of Botany at ‘de Jardin des Plantes, 398. Astronomy.—On the Spectrum of Coggia’s — t, by Dr. Hueerns: — Tron of Iqui fannqne, in Pata, by GustaF Ross, 3 8.—Meteorite of Parkey Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—American Meteorology, L. bcos GETT, 399.— toe of Ceaieal pees oet Table au tee’ reer ains Sedimentaires, par E. RENEVIER, —Franz-Joseph Land: Observaciones Feo grr cas y Meteorologicas del Col- Hoe de Belen: Table for nage of soc ol, 401.—Tin-bearing country, New land, in New South s: Tortoises of Mauritius closely related to those the — msin Academy of a Arts, and Letters: Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of Tage nce, 404.— Obituary— M. Elie de Beaumont: Dr. Friedrich Hes- senberg, 404. , NUMBER XLVIIL Page . XXXV.—Review of von Seebach’s Earthquake of March 6th, 1872, in Central Germany; by Ben K. MGeRGON. os ds ee +S 405 —A Jet Laboratories ; by Roperr oo eee VIL.—On the Molecular Volume of eid of Crys tallization; by Frank Wega CLARKE. .... .-- VilL—Wa rwickite ; by J. Lawre Dati eee or XX XIX.—Curious association of Garnet, iseriea seo Dato- lite; by J. Lawrence Satu. ----------------------- 434 u—On a new method of investigating the fie Nature of the Electric Discharge; by ALF M. Maver. eae coe cae aa a ik aa me ee Oe eee ee a a ee ee ee ee eee eK vill CONTENTS. XLI-—On the Periodicity of the Rainfall in the United States in relation to the Periodicity of the Solar Spots ; a by Jonn Brockuessy. - aoe 439 XLII—On Serpentine Pseudomorphs, and other kinds, “from the Tilly Foster Iron Mine, Putnam Co., New York ; by James D. Dana. With plates VI and VIL_....._- 447 XLII —On the age of the Lignitic sais of the | Mountain region; by F. B. Merx.._._._-......2-.. 22. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. C and Physics—Magnetic Equivalent of Heat, M. Cazin, 463. Etcorg eral ocala A. Scuuster, 464.—Specific Heat of Gases , WIEDEMANN, 465. | Geology and Natural History.—Coral reefs is Hawaii: Drift in Kansas, ar 'v. = q Kwox, 466.—Note on the sarighrrect Volcanoes, T. Coan: Permian in e Nov e : Se Survey of the Territories for 1873, F. AYDEN, 467.—( berg: of Plants collected i st — years 1871, 1872 and 1873, 468 —On the Use of closi America, 469.—Notice of Pa apers on Embryology by A. Kowalevsky, a re AGASSIZ, Bee —Embryology of the Ouenephoee. by ALEXANDER Agassiz, 471.— Development of Marine Sponges, 476 mer sas —On the apparent connection between Sun-spot and Atmospheric Ozone, by T. Morrat, 477. e Miscellaneous Scientific Intelligence—Permanent Ice in a Mine in the Rocky Moun- ‘3 tains, by R. WEISER, 477.—Franz-Joseph Land: Physiology, ge fae FOSTER : The Transit of Venus, by GEORGE Forbes: Swedish Iron Ores, 4 ERRATA. Page 82, line 7 from bottom, Jor =“ aon times. i. at 88, sc : “ T3 ~ 8 eS: ee “t see * on next page. ¥ Mee do top, rs + on preceding page. : roe ee tbo sue tion sound, read direction of so o oa) ee —_— after assume, read (as I did when I aes mie *) 4 *- 100, lines 2 and 9 ete ae top, for ep ga — Johnston. _ 104, line : from top, for vertib po one tibuli. * 169 for UT, read UT;. - 173, e : = bottom, for Hs read tad fo or, bas 174, 5s for exi sting read exciting. ein, ~ 4 “ top, for (7.) reads 718, “ 1 © bottom, read RB oti curve; formed by combining the curve of a musical n te with that of its octave. hpepyed correction to te hen, to be applied to figs. 5 an at 180, “ ] “ aga (8.) yt : «136 61 tan. for reduced read reversed. “ 199, 101. from top, for nitroso-nitro-chloride read chloro-nitrate. : “ 200, 21 1. from top, read lost. | s 222) ae from om 06 for one ‘read tw # 367, -5 1. from gh fount ena Co read oc. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, [THIRD SERIES] Art. L—Results derived from an examination of the United States Weather Maps for 1872 and 1878; by Ex1as Loomis, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Yale College. With two es. (Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April 24, 1874.) THRovGH the kindness of Brigadier-General Albert J. Myer, Chief Signal Officer, U. S. A., I have received a weather map for 74 a. M. daily, since Jan., 1872. This series of maps for the years 1872 and 1873 I have undertaken to discuss, in order to determine what information can be derived from them oe the laws of storms. To prepare myself for this dis- th and also a variety of other circumstances which it was supposed Am. Jour. Scr.—Tuirp ‘ orgee: Vou. VIII, No, 48,—JuLy, 1874. 2 E.. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. iki. have some connection with the preceding, viz: the height of the barometer at the center of the storm; the amount of the fall of the barometer in the preceding 24 hours; ; the amount of the rise of the barometer in the succeeding 24 hours; the change of pressure at the center of the storm in 24 hours, ete. he following table shows the average direction and velocity of storms for each month of the year, as $ deduced from 814 cases. Velocity in Velocity in Months, Course of — "ee? Months. Course of miles per storm. » storm. hour. January, N. 85° E. 28-5 July, N.102° E.| 24-4 February, N. 76 &E. 31-0 August, i. LTT March, N. 179 E 30°8 September, N. 78 E. —22°8 April, N. 74 KE. 25°6 October, N. 69 BE. 24°4 May, N.178 E. 24°2 November, N. 80 E. 28°3 June, N. 93 E. 21:2 December, N. 84 E. 27°6 | Year, IN.82 E.| 25-6 The average serie foe of the storm = for two years was N. 82° E., or 8° to the north of east, and the average velocity was 26 6 railed per hour; but there i is a noticeable vari- ation both in the direction and velocity, depending upon the season of the year. The course of storms is most southerly in summer, and it is a little less northerly in winter than it is in spring or autumn. July is the month in which the course is most southerly, and October is the month in which it is most northerly, the mean difference between these two months amounting to 33°. The velocity of progress is greatest in win- ter and least in summer. February is the month of greatest velocity and August the month of least velocity, the former exceeding the latter by 75 per cent. The diversity in the direction and velocity of particular storms is much greater than this. In one instance, viz: Oct. 20, 1873, a ee traveled N. 44° W., and in another instance, Oct. 25, 1872, a storm traveled about due north. e e been ten cases in which the direction of the storm path was more than 60° north of east; and there have been three cases in which the direction was more than 60° south of east. In one case the direction of a storm path was 70° south of east, showing the entire range in the direction of storm paths to be over 180 degrees. The diventy in respect to the velocity of progress of partic- r storms is still ter. In some cases, a storm center remained sensibly stationary for 24 hours, and occasionally still longer, while in four cases a storm center has advanced over 1,200 miles in 24 hours, and in one case, ey ABs ae, the average velocity for 24 hours amounted to 575 hour. hve $8 So ee gress ranges from zero os y ‘5 miles Pe = E. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. 3 April, 1873, the path of a storm center near Chicago was such as is shown b the lower curve. In the latter case the direction of progress changed 860° in a little more that 24 hours, and in both cases the actual motion of the center was for several hours westward, at the rate of from 10 to 15 miles per hour. If then we take into account the actual motion of a storm’s center from hour to hour, we find that the storm path may have every possible direction, and the velocity of progress may vary from 15 miles per hour toward the west, to 60 miles per It thus appears that the inequality in the direction and velocity of storm paths is so great that a knowledge of their mean values affords but a very uncertain guide in predicting the progress of a storm from day to day. I have, therefore, sought to determine what are the most important disturbing causes which affect the velocity and direction of storm paths. For this pu I have tabulated nearly all the materials afforded by the weather maps, and compared them with the velocity and direction of the storm pa Influence of rain-fall upon the course of storms. near the Atlantic coast of the United States. The smallest oval 4 E. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. on the left represents the isobaric line of 29°60; the oval imme- diately surrounding it is the isobaric line of 29°70; and the center of the storm was near the center of these two ovals. eo ts4sane, qaaweesssee* Nie oe in, 1 see wl ' Be @ uae ~~ aessenssanee* oe, pe amt The third and largest oval represents the limits of the rain area as far as can be determined from the signal service observations. The storm center advanced in the direction of the long arrow It will be noticed that the rain area extended on all sides around the storm center, but spread out most upon the eastern ide. The same is generally true of storms which pass over the United States. : er to determine whether there exists any connection be- tween the extent of this rain area and the Aoi of the storm’s progress, the rain-fall at each station for the preceding eight hours was copied from each of the weather maps in every case in which the storm path could be exactly traced for the next 24 hours; and the distance to which the rain area extended to the east of the storm center was measured upon the map. The whole investigation could be derived from the maps. Velocity in Velocity in miles per (Extentof don age Bo Extent ofrain hour. area in miles, hour. area in miles, 38°8 590 | 21-6 503 548 || 145 365 aaa E. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. 5 These numbers clearly indicate that generally when a storm is advancing most rapidly, the rain area extends to an unusual distance on the eastern side of the storm, and the velocity of the storm’s center appears to increase more rapidly than the extension of the rain area. e average extent of the rain area on. the east side of the storm’s center is 500 miles. When the rain area extends more than 500 miles on the east, the storm advances with a velocity greater than the mean; but when the extent of the rain area is less than 500 miles, the storm advances with a velocity less than the mean. If we con- fine the comparison to the two divisions which correspond to the greatest and least velocity, they lead us to conclude that when the eastern extent of the rain area is 100 miles greater than the mean, the hourly velocity of the storm’s progress is increased 149 miles; but when the eastern extent of the rain area is 100 miles less than the mean, the hourly velocity of the storm’s progress is diminished 8-1 miles. ; In order to determine the influence of the rain area upon the direction of the storm’s path, I attempted to determine not sim- ply the limits of the ram area, but the direction in which the rain area was most extended. The rain area is usually of an oval form, as show in the preceding figure. For each rain area a line was drawn dividing the area symmetrically, so as to represent the longer axis of the oval, and the bearing of this ine was measured with a protractor. I then selected those cases in which the direction of the storm paths was most north- erly, and also those cases in which the direction was most southerly, and for each case the position of the axis of the rain area was determined. I then determined the average direction of the storm paths and the average direction of the axes of the rain areas for each class of cases, and obtained the following results. Course of storm. Axis of rain area. N. 40° E. N. 53° E. N.116 E. N.118 E. storm is most southerly, the inclination of these two lines is only two degrees. Considering that there is a difference of 76 in the mean direction of the storm paths for the two classes of cases, and a difference of 65° in the position of the axes of the rain areas, we may conclude that the average course of the storm paths for 24 hours coincides very closely with the posi- tion of the axis of the rain area for the preceding eight hours. If the comparison could have been made with the direction of the storm paths for the succeeding eight hours, instead of 24 6 E. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. hours, it is presumed that the correspondence would have been still closer. The connection here discovered between the progress of storms and the extent of the rain area cannot be regarded as accidental, and it is not difficult to discover, at least in part, the origin of this connection. The fall of rain, that is, the precipitation of the vapor of the atmosphere, is generally accompanied by a fall of the barometer. According to the theory advocated by the la r. Espy, when the vapor of the atmosphere is condensed, its latent heat is liberated, which raises the temperature of the surrounding air, causing it to expand and flow off laterally in all directions in the upper regions of the atmosphere, thus causing a diminished pressure over the region of precipitation, . and an increased pressure on all sides beyond the area of the rain. The progress of the storm eastward is not due wholly to a drifting, resulting from the influence of an upper current of the atmosphere from the west, but the storm works its own wa eastward in consequence of the greater precipitation on the eastern side of the storm. Thus. the barometer is continually falling on the east side of the storm and rising on the west side, in consequence of the flowing in of colder air upon that side, as will be more fully shown on a subsequent page. Influence of the wind’s velocity upon the progress of storms. In order to determine whether there is any connection be- tween the velocity of the storm’s progress and the velocity of the wind upon the different sides of a storm, I selected all those cases in which a storm center was so situated that the velocity of the wind was given ata considerable number of stations both upon the east and west sides of the center. I then took two knitting needles and soldered them together at right angles so as to form a Greek cross. Then placing this cross upon one of the weather maps over a storm center, with the wires point- ing northeast and southwest, the area surrounding the storm center was divided into four quadrants, which I designate as the north, south, east and west quadrants. The average veloc- ity of the wind for the stations of observation in the different quadrants was then determined, including all stations within the influence of this storm center. The isobar 29°90 was generally taken as the limit of the storm, but sometimes it was necessary to reject observations within this distance when they were clearly under the influence of another storm center. Only 79 cases were found suitable for this comparison. In each of these cases the average velocity of the wind was determined for the east and west quadrants, and generally also for the south quadrant; but in a majority of the cases no observations could i i il) ae FE. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. 7 be obtained in the north quadrant, or the number of observa- tions was too few to furnish a reliable mean. The following table shows the average velocity of the wind in the different quadrants, according to these observations. W. quadrant. §.quadrant. E.quadrant. WN. quadrant. 0-1 8°8 8-3 76 It will be noticed that the velocity is greatest in the west quadrant, and that the velocity diminishes in the successive quadrants as we pass round the circle from west by south to north. The observations were then divided into two classes, one containing those cases in which the rate of progress of the storm was greater than the mean, and the other containing the cases in which the rate was less than the mean, aud the aver- ages were taken both of the velocity of the storm’s progress and the velocity of the wind in ‘the east and west quadrants of the storm, when the following results were obtained. a ee ae 32-1 8 9-0 18° 78 113 ; These numbers indicate that the stronger the wind on the west side of the storm, the less is the velocity of the storm’s progress. The velocity of the wind in the west quadrant gen- erally exceeds the velocity in the east quadrant by 22 per cent. When the velocity in the east quadrant is equal to that in the west quadrant, the velocity of the storm’s progress is seven miles per hour greater than the mean; but when the velocity of the wind in the west quadrant exceeds that in the east quad- rant by 44 per cent, the velocity of the storm’s progress is seven miles per hour /ess than the mean. _ Some persons might have anticipated that an increase in the velocity of the wind in the western quadrant of a storm would have the effect of driving the storm eastward more rapidly ; that is, of increasing its velocity. But we shall see hereafter that upon each side of a storm’s center the wind blows obliquely in- ward, and hence we must infer that in the central region of the storm there is an upward motion of the air: and this is the cause of the precipitation of vapor; that is, the cause of the rain-fall, An increase in the velocity of the wind in the west- ern quadrant is accompanied by an increase in the velocity of the upward motion in this quadrant; that is, an increase of pre- cipitation. This increased precipitation of vapor tends to depress the barometer on the western side of the storm; that is, tends to retard the eastward motion of the storm’s center; and this cause may operate with sufficient force to eaniy the storm's ne : : 4 center westward, as actually happened in several instances in 8 E. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. the years 1872 and 1873. On the other hand, an increase in the velocity of the wind in the eastern quadrant tends to pro- duce a greater precipitation on the eastern side of the storm's center; that is, tends to push the storm’s center eastward, or increase the velocity of its progress. Does the velocity of a storm's progress depend upon the rate at which the barometer falls when the storm is approaching, or upon the rate at which the barometer rises when the storm has passed ? In order to answer these questions, I compared the height of the barometer at the center of each storm with its height at the same place 24 hours before, and also 24 hours afterward. I thus obtained the fall of the barometer for 24 hours before the middle of the storm, and its rise for 24 hours after the middle. These numbers were incorporated in the same table which showed the velocity of the storm’s progress for each month. The observations were then divided into two classes, one con- taining those cases in which the velocity of the storm’s pro- cases in which the velocity was less than the mean. It was found that the average fall of the barometer in front of the storm was nearly the same for both cases; but the average rise of the barometer for 24 hours in the rear of the storm was sen- sibly greatest in those cases when the velocity of progress was eatest. The averages for the two years indicated that when, after the center of the storm has passed, the barometer rises 20 per cent more rapidly than usual, the storm center advances seven miles per hour more rapidly than the mean; but when, after the storm, the barometer rises 20 per cent less rapidly than usual, the storm center advances seven miles per hour less rapidly than the mean. By the same method of comparison it was ascertained that the velocity with which a storm advances is independent of the amount of the barometric depression at the center of the storm ; and it is not sensibly affected by the circumstance whether the ir the center of the storm is increasing or diminishing. y the aid of the preceding principles, when we have given a weather map showing the position of a storm center for a cer- tain hour, it seems possible to predict with considerable confi- dence where the storm center will be at the end of 24 hours. hold true for the average of a e number of examples, numerous and striking exceptions will be found when we at- tempt to ap rules to particular cases. It is evident "pote variety of circumstances, and all of these circumstances ve not been considered in the preceding deductions. Sere ene "a E. Loomis—- United States Weather Maps. 9 Relation between the velocity of the wind and the velocity of a storm’s progress. In order to determine the relation between the velocity of a storm’s progress and the velocity of the wind in the different quadrants, it is important to know not simply the wind’s veloc- ity at the surface of the earth, but its velocity near the central region of the storm, which is presumed to be at an elevation of at least one or two miles. In order to form some estimate of this velocity, I took the observations at the signal service stations for Sept., 1872, which have been published complete in a sep- arate volume, and determined the average velocity of the wind on the summit of Mount Washington, and also the average at the three nearest stations near the level of the sea. These sta- tions were Burlington, Vt., Montreal, Can., and Portland, Me. The average velocity of the wind on Mount Washington was 29 miles per hour; the average at the three other stations was 53 miles ; hence we conclude that the ratio of the wind’s velocity near the level of the sea to its velocity on the summit of Mount Washington is as one to 55. Now the average velocity of the wind at stations on the earth’s surface, for the different quad- rants of the storm, has been found to be 10-1, 8°8, 8°3, an 76 miles per hour; hence the velocity at the height of 6,000 feet may be estimated to be 555, 48-4, 45°6, and 41°8 miles. e wish now to determine the average direction of the wind in the different quadrants. For this purpose, each weather ed a storm center was crossed by two diagonal S noseme Then, beginning with the west quadrant, T counted the number of stations at which the wind was reported from the north; also the number from the northwest, west, southwest, etc.; and in like manner for each of the four quadrants. The same was done with each of the weather maps, which furnished an example suited to this comparison. In determining the limits of each storm, the same rule was adopted as has been already stated in determining the velocities of the winds. I wind. The following table shows the resulting directions and also the velocities, as already stated, for an elevation of 6,000 feet. W.quadrant. 8.quadrant. E.quadrant. N. . Veloci ind, 5 48-4 45°6 | Direction pile N. 58° 48” W. 8. 40° 257W. 832° 6/E, N. 42°33’ E. In order to exhibit palpably to the eye the significance of these results, I have constructed the following igure, in which the four arrows show the average direction of the wind in the several quadrants, and the lengths of the arrows 10 E. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. are proportioned to the velocity of the different winds. It is at once perceived that there is a strong tendency of the winds inward toward the central area of the storm. The following table aes the inclination of the several winds to a tangent to the circle; that is, it shows how much the average direction fF the wind in each quadrant differs from what it would be if t wind revolved in a circle around the storm’s center. WW . §.quadrant. E.quadrant. N. quadrant. Inclination, pg 48’ 49° 35” 32° 6” AT° 27’ Ny The average departure of the winds from a a tangent line is thus seen to be more se forty-five degrees. h mbers show how rroneous was Mr. Red- field's theory of storms when applied to the ordin- ary storms of the United States, and it appears that & tion and entirely over- tion is an effect 1 ae from this inward motion. It requires no argument to prove that when the er is flowing from all uarters inward toward a central area, as shown in the last iagram, there is a rapid noctiinniation of air, which can only escape by an upward motion; that is, there must result a strong upward movement of the air near the center of the storm. As this air ascends, it comes into a region which is colder in conse- quence of its elevation, by which means its vapor is condensed, and thus by a direct comparison of observations we deduce a result which explains the cause of the rain But the average progress of storms is only 25°6 miles; that is, at the height of 6, 000 feet in the western quadrant of a storm, the velocity of the wind (estimated in the same direction as that of the storm’s progress) is 68 per cent greater than the velocity with which the storm advances. This excess of motion of the wind affords a measure of the force of the ei iahee movement in 2 the center of a sto’ Ei. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. 11 To determine whether a storm is increasing or diminishing in intensity. In order to determine by what indications it may be known whether a storm is increasing or diminishing in intensity, that is, whether the barometric pressure at the center is diminishing or increasing, I have made a comparison of ‘nearly all the con- comitant phenomena which could be supposed to have any influence upon the result, and find the following rulé to be well-nigh universal: when the barometer rises more rapidly than usual as the storm passes by, the pressure at the center of the storm is increasing; but when, in the rear of the storm, the barometer rises less rapidly than usual, the pressure at the center is diminishing, or the storm is increasing in intensity. A com- parison of all the observations of two years indicates that when the rise of the barometer is 22 per cent greater than usual, the pressure at the center of the storm increases one-tenth of an inch in 24 hours; and when the rise of the barometer is 22 per cent less than usual, the pressure at the center decreases one- tenth of an inch in 24 hours. e thus see that a sudden rise metimes one of these effects predominates, and sometimes the other; but generally, when the storm center is advancing with the greatest rapidity, the pressure of the center of the storm is decreasing, and when the storm’s center is nearly stationary, the pressure at the center remains nearly stationa The rate at which the barometer falls in front of a storm appears to have very little influence upon the question whether the pressure at the center is increasing or diminishing. The average of two years’ observations indicates that when the winds on the eastern side of the storm’s center are very muc stronger than those on the western side, the pressure at the center of the storm is increasing; but when the winds on the western side are very much stronger than those on the eastern side, the Shvetige at the center of the storm is decreasing. This rule is, - owever, subject to numerous exceptions. Form of the isobarie curves. Tn order to determine the average form of the isobaric curves, and the position of their longer axes, I selected all those cases in which the center of a storm was distinctly indicated upon one of the weather maps, and in which at least one isobaric curve was shown for not less than one-half of the circuit. The number of cases found suitable for this kind of comparison was 203. Of these, nearly one-half were so situated that only half of one of the axes could be measured. These were gener- 12 E. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. ally cases in which the center of the storm was near the north- ern boundary of the United States, and the isobaric curve was incomplete on the northern side for want of observations. In nearly half the cases, the isobaric curve selected for measurement was the lowest isobar shown on the maps; but whenever there was a larger curve traced for at least one-half of its circuit, the latter curve was taken in preference. A line was then drawn to represent the longer axis of this curve, and the length of this line was measured; or when the curve was incomplete the length of half of this line was measured. The length of the line drawn through the center of the isobaric oval at right angles to its longer axis was also measured, and the direction of the longer axis was determined by a protractor. The result of these comparisons was as follows: In 55 per cent of the whole number of cases, the major axis of the isobar exceeded the minor axis by one-half of its whole length. In 30 per cent of the cases, the major axis was more than double the minor axis; in nine per cent of the cases, the major axis was more than three times the minor axis: and in four per cent of the cases, the major axis was at least four times the minor axis. These results appear to me to prove that the centrifugal force arising from the circulation of the wind around the storm center cannot be the principal cause of the fall of the barome- ter, for otherwise the shape of the storm would be more nearly circular. With regard to the direction of the major axis of the isobars there is no uniformity. e major axis may have any position whatever; but the direction which is decidedly more frequent than any other is about N. 40° E. It will be readily perceived that this direction is almost identical with the general course of the Atlantic Coast, and also with the range of the Alleghany Mountains; and it might be supposed that one or both of these circumstances had some influence in determining the position of the isobaric curves. In order to decide this question, I divided the observations into two classes by a line drawn from Buffalo to Mobile; one class representing the storms of the Mississippi Valley, and the other representing the storms of the Atlantic Coast, and found the results in the two cases nearly identical. The easterly inclination of the storm axes is quite as decided in the Mississippi Valley as upon the Atlantic Coast. It may, therefore, be reasonably inferred that not only the elongated form of storms, but also the prevailing direction of their longer axes, is mainly dependent upon general, and not upo uses. sy as £. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. 13 Classification of Storms. The storms which pass over the United States seem to be naturally divided into two distinct classes; the first class in- cluding those storms which come from the far west and nort west, the center of whose paths is generally north of lat. 40°; and the second class including those storms which come from the south and south west, and Mae sshaeiklly appear to origi- nate in Texas or the Gu If of Mexico. Storms of the second class are comparatively ‘afrequiiat forming only about one- sixth of the whole number of poege lin are almost un- known in the summer months, and are most frequent in the winter and spring. The majority of i tees have their origin west of the mouth of the Mississippi River, and their average course is N. 60° E., being 22° more northerly than the general average of storms, which would show the average direction of storms of the first class to be nearl y dueeast. Theaverage velocity of these storms does not differ much from that of storms of the first class. The majority of storms of the second class reach the Atlantic Coast before arriving at lat. 40° ; and from thence their ogee generally appear to be nearly parallel to the coast. One of these storms (Sct. 25, 1872) was diverted inland, and ad- vanced northward nearly to Rochester, after which it turned eastward in the direction of nerags Another storm Sr over Punta Rassa, in Florida, Ont 6, 187, 3, where the barometer in 14 hours fell ga 29°96 to 28 “40, and afterward the storm continued its course with diminished ‘severity, traveling north- eastward nearly parallel to the Atlantic Coas — approach of storms of the first class is usually indicated n the’ weather maps by the word /ow, at some point west 0 ' the — i River north of lat. 40° generally i in Minnesota He uently we find the word low on the maps of 0 or oe successive days, occupying nearly the same posi- tion, indicating either that the center of a storm was nearly stationary for 24 hours, or that the precise position of the . 8 center was undetermined, and it ek only be located at me distance westward. When the storm has adva vanced so fai iced that the exact position of its center can be assign it generally manifests a ue reference for the region of the northern lakes, particularly Lakes Superior and Huron ; and 14 E. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. from this region. the average course of storms is almost exactly east Where do the storms which seem to come from the far west originate ? place of origin, I have taken the volume of signal service obser- vations for Sept., 1872, and projected all the barometric obser- vations in curves, arranging the stations in the order of longi- tude. From a comparison of these curves it appears that for the month of September, 1872, all the principal oscillations of the barometer at Portland, Oregon, can be traced at Fort Ben- ton, Virginia City, Fort Sully, and at each of the other stations extending eastward to Lake Superior and Lake Michigan. In was reported on that day from any of the signal service stations, but the weather was reported “threatening” at Fort Benton and Corinne, and “cloudy” at Virginia City, Cheyenne, etc. The first curve on the left shows the isobar 29°8 for 74 a. M., Sept. 19th. The second oval shows the isobar 29°8 for 7} a. M., Sept. 20th. On this day slight rain fell at Cheyenne; the weather was reported “threatening” at Denver, Omaha and Leavenworth; and “cloudy” at Breckenridge, Fort Sully, St. Paul, ete. The oval on the right shows the isobar 29°8 for 74 a. M., Sept. 21st. On this day, half an inch of rain was reported at Duluth, 2 inch at Marquette, and slight rain at a few other stations near Lake Michigan. In two days the center of these isobars traveled eastward about 980 miles, or at an average rate of 20 miles per hour. The next day the storm advanced toward the northeast, and passed beyond the range of our stations of observation. About three days later, another and more considerable de- pression of the barometer followed nearly in the track of the preceding. Plate 1 exhibits the isobar 29-7 for four successive fea On the 22d of Sept. a considerable fall of the barometer was observed from Oregon to Dacota. At 74 4. M. the isobar of 29°7 was an oval alge: westward nearly to the Pacific Ocean, and eastward to the Missouri River, a distance of ubout 1100 miles. On the same day “heavy rain” was re Portland, ported at Oregon ; at Fort Benton over a foot of snow fell on L. Loomis— United States Weather Maps. 15 the 22d and 23d; snow and rain fell at Virginia City; and it was cloudy at Corinne, Fort Sully, ete. The second oval on Plate 11 shows the isobar 29°7 at 74 a. M., Sept 23d. On this day rain or snow fell at Fort Benton, Virginia City, Cheyenne, Fort Sully, Breckenridge, and several places further east. The third oval shows the isobar of 29-7 at 74 A. M., Sept. 24th. The longer axis of this oval, instead of being turned east and west as on the two preceding days, was now turned nearly northeast toward Lake Superior. Near the center of this oval the bar- ometer stood at 29.36. On this day over half an inch of rain fell at St. Louis, Cairo, Davenport and Duluth, and a less amount at other places. the morning of Sept. 25th, the center of the isobar 29-7 was nearly over the middle of Lake Superior. On the north, this isobar extended beyond the range of our observations, so that only the southern portion of the curve could be definitely located. At Duluth the barometer stood at 29°33. On this day considerable rain fell at Duluth, Escanaba, Oswego, Kings- ton, ete. During the next 24 hours the center of this storm remained nearly stationary over Lake Superior, but on the fol- lowing day it advanced northeastward, and passed beyond the range of our observations. In three days the center of the storm traveled eastward about 1280 miles, being at an average rate of 18 miles per hour. It seems probable that this storm originated, or at least was first developed into a storm of considerable magnitude, through the collision of moist air from the Pacific Ocean with some of the high mountain peaks in Oregon, resulting in a heavy fall of rain orsnow. The fact which is of special interest is that this storm - when once organized, traveled over all the mountain ranges tween the Pacific Ocean and Lake Superior without sensible obstruction. The same fact is noticeable in the storm of Sept. 19-22d, and several other storms of the same month. We hence infer that those storms which come to us from Nebraska some- times originate in the mountains of Oregon, and probably some- times come from the Pacific Ocean, whence they travel east- ward, occasionally passing entirely across the continent to the Atlantic Ocean. The reductions described in the preceding article have all i i bor has been r paorned by Mr. Edward 8. Cowles, a graduate of Yale Col- ege of the class of 1873. 16 C F. Himes—Preparation of Photographic Dry-Plates. Arr II.—Preparation of Photographic Dry-Plates by Daylight, by desensitizing and re-sensitizing the silver compounds ; by Ui 7 Prof. C. F Himxs, Ph.D., Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa. HE inconveniences, and the unpleasant, prolonged confine- ment in the dark room, connected with the tion of dry-plates, more particularly by the tannin process, dageat in the commercial preparation embodying, in a measure, a similar principle proposed to be <7 in photographing the transit of Venus, render fur- ther a ] in the usual argentic nitrate bath, in bright se Aa and are then thoroughly rinsed, or washed, in a tray of distilled water tes, b: immersing them, in the dark, in a solution of tannin of 15 ltt ites a ee * CB; Himes— Preparation of Photographic Dry-Plates. 17 gallic acid developer, is about the same as that of ordinary tannin plates, whilst the results are perhaps more certain, and the negatives cleaner. The principal advantages of the preceding method lie in the complete division of the operations. The plates can be brought to the tanninizing stage leisurely, and comfortably, at any time, in an ordinary well-lighted and well-ventilated room; an the confinement to the dark room, with its damp and unhealthy them with ammonia, as in the ordinary paper | eens process, show that it possesses a decided sensitizing effect, but that the ness under development with the pyrogallic acid developer, after exposure in the camera; and those fumed for the longest time, as well as those for the shortest time, were less sensitive than those acted on for an intermediate length of time. In the process recently suggested. by Krone, the operations are also conducted in daylight, the effect of which is prevented in- of removed. This is accomplished by taking advantage of the well known fact, that argentic iodide, formed in the aie of excess of potassic iodide, is insensitive to aght, ut may be rendered sensitive. The plates are coated with a collodion containing argentic nitrate, and immersed in a bath of potassic iodide, or in some cases of potassic iodide and bromide, and are then washed, and dried, and subsequently sensitized with argentic nitrate solution. Organic matter is added to all the solutions, including the collodion, in the form Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tatrp VIII, No. 48.—Juty, 1874. 2 18 J. Trowbridge—Molecular Change produced by of an alcoholic solution of shellac and sandarach, and this may play a very important part in the process. ess, however, the results obtained are superior in rapidity, or quality, the in- convenience, involved in the preparation of special collodion and special baths, will prevent its replacing the former method, in which all the solutions employed are such as are in common : e employment of argentic iodide alone is suggested for photographing the transit of Venus, and it is also stated that with bromo-iodized films, it is necessary to protect them from the light, even before sensitizing them, on account of the effect of light on the argentic bromide. The writer in his first experiments also confined himself to the use of iodized col- lodion and potassic iodide, for a similar reason, but was subsequently convinced by numerous experiments, that this direct, or photo-chemical, action of light on argentic bromide, when a bromo-iodized collodion is employed, as shown in the bluish cast of the film, is also either entirely removed in the subsequent desensitizing, or plays no part in the subsequent development, and is too feeble of itself, if it is not entirely removed in fixing, to merit practical consideration. Neither was it found necessary to prolong the immersion of plates in the silver bath when coated with a collodion containing a bromide, as it seems it is necessary in ne’s process to prolong the immersion of plates coated with the silver col- lodion, when the bath contains potassic bromide with the iodide. Art. IIL—Brief Contributions from the Physical Laboratory of Harvard College. No. [X.—On a Molecular Change produced by the passage of Electrical Currents through Iron and Steel bars ; by JoHN TROWBRIDGE. coil, A, of fine copper wire was slipped upon the core to a dis- tance of 25 cm. from the face of tbe : set a helix B. This coil of fine wire was connected with a Thomson’s reflecting gal- vanometer. Thesecond magnetizing helix of coarse wire, C, was so arranged that its action neutralized the inducing effect of the Electrical Currents through Iron and Steel. 19 electric currrent circulating through the helix B. When the circuit, therefore, was made through B and C, an induced eur- rent — through the helix A and the galvanometer, which was due to the magnetism of the core at the distance of 25 cm. from the face of the helix B. The iron core was then made a portion of an independent electrical current. Thus it was pos- sible to magnetize the iron core by the helix B, and to send a current through it in the axial direction by the independent circuit. We shall call the magnetizing circuit circuit a, and the axial circuit circuit f. | The circuit a was first made and the deflection of the gal- vanometer noted; it was then broken. The following table shows the results obtained: 6, represents the deflection pro- duced by the magnetism of the bar, 6’, after the circuit # was made, 6’, after the breaking of the circuit 6. Two Grove cells were used upon the circuit f. TABLE I, é 0” é”” 110 150 155 110 145 150 110 150 155 110 150 155 This table shows that the instantaneous passage of the axial current through the iron bar gave rise to an increase in its magnetism. This phenomenon was apparent both at making d ng the axial circuit. e Increase of magnetism rent # was sufficient to produce the increase of magnetism. The following table shows the effects produced by allowing 20 J. Trowbridge—Molecular Change, ete. the axial current 6 to be made permanently. D and D’ repre- sent the deflections produced by repeatedly breaking the mag- netizing circuit @. TABLE II. 6 # jie 90 1208 90 90 90 120 90 90 90 120 90 90 90 120 90 90 It will be seen that the same effects were produced as on pe stantaneously making and breaking; there was no increase 0 iminution noticeable. ‘Table IIT shows the effect of eapidty reversing the current # through the iron bar. TaBLe ITI. é Current in one direction. Current in two directions. 120 190 120 180 230 120 190 240 120 190 240 + In all cases the rapid reversal of the current through the iron bar produced a momentary increase of magnetism, which dis through an iron bar. Observations were taken at periods of three hours after the passage of the current eine the iron. The results are embodied in Table IV. TABLE IV. é Cid 160 190 160 150 180 150 137 167 137 Allowance having been made for variations in the batteries used, it was found that the iron bar maintained the molecular state imparted to it by the nea current during the period of observation, viz: three hou Table V. shows the ect upon a steel bar of the same dimen- sions as the soft iron bar previously used. The conditions of sam: the experiments were the same. TABLE V. 6 Cie 160 180 160 160 185 160 160 180 160 ae ae D. Sears—Magnetism of Soft Iron. 21 The increased effect is less marked in steel than in iron, The following table shows the effect of rapid reversals of the current. TABLE VI é 0” D 160 180 190 160 180 190 160 185 189 160 180 190 _ It will be seen that the effects in this case are much less than in the case of soft iron. The current was passed through differ- the large size of the bar and the instantaneous duration of the current. : The conclusions from the foregoing experiments appear to be as follows: - Lhe passage of an electric current through an iron or steel bar produces a molecular change in it, which is apparent both at the closing and breaking of the circuit. 2. The rapid change of direction of a current through iron or steel bars produces a molecular disturbance which is greater than that imparted by a current sent in one direction alone. 3. Magnetization of the iron or steel bar is sufficient to restore it to the normal magnetic state which is imparted by the magnetizing helix. 4 The molecular action increases with the strength of the electric current. No. X.—Magnetism of Soft Iron; by DAVID Sears. Jamin’s experiments showed that the magnetization was ome a est when two north or two south poles were op nD least when a north and south pole were directed toward each other. T results seem to him to require a modification in 22 D. Sears—Magnetism of Soft Tron. In the following experiments the soft iron bar, instead of forming the core common to both magnetizing helices A and B, formed their arma- ture. A coil of fine g wire was slipped upon the iron bar, which was connected with a flecting galvanometer. : Bo | C being thus at right ~ The coils of the bobbin angles to those of the magnetizing helices A and B, the effects of the induction b the current circulating through A and B were obviated and the ’ induced current which arose in C on making the magnetizing circuit was due to the magnetism of the iron bar alone. This method has great advantages over that of the proof bar. - TaBue I. TABLE II. from A and B me pc sam SE Defiections. cee hak Popa a Deflections rae 14 8 860 2 13 9 328 3 10.5 10 308 4 9 11 278 7 Table IT. represents the results obtained when two north or two south poles were opposed. , In the latter case observations for the first four centimeters : former, at points remote from er, the magn int midway _B are denoted by «, and the 7 f 4 ii " \ Ft a \ | or fo silisa 4 ! \ / \ 4 i" OK \ 7 \ / \ / \ / \ og ¥ vA oll \ ; \ or 0 OIL O% oc oc Olle OlL atiiod aiod / s N / i Oft 0 / Z O% _ A 4 \ / 7 (8) | \ | | | v 24 D. Sears—Magnetism of Soft Iron. TABLE oe RGR Se Sse aa sg Ne egativ ye ’ Values of . — oy y. Values of z. ahs i y. Values of x.. values of y, 0 0 i 137 2 220 5 15 150 2 210 2 15 16 164 23. 197 Boe 22 17 180 24 185 a 30 18 190 25 170 Dalene 37 20 204 26 156 c= 46 21 720 27 142 : pee 55 28 130 So. 65 29 120 = 76 30 112 10-* 86 fi2* 87 72 0< 110 Bee 125 These results are expressed by the curve in fig. 1. The positions of the two nort. rth poles were x= +20 and r= —20. Table IV. represents the values obtained when a north pole was placed at z= +20 and a south pole at c= — 20. TABLE IV. Pos Negative Values of x values oy y. Values of x. Debra Values of x. values of y. 0 cm. 85 13 ecm 194 17 em. 230 1 90 fe * 205 18: 220 Seer 95 Se 220 9 * 205 Sab 100 16 “ 230 20°" 200 oe 105 sare 185 5 110 a7 Liz acs 120 os 160 To 126 24. # 145 led 136 ae 134 5 = 145 26 120 10..% 160 ig 105 it = 170 “4 « 180 ese values are expressed by the curves in fig. 2. The as ma ae" when the bar whose magnetism is tested forms The Bw nse ig appear to re the conclusions from the pre- aan experiments. ith poles of the same name opposed to each other the mnguetiatin o of an iron bar forming the armature of the two B. Silliman—Mineralogical Notes. 25 poles is greater on a part of the armature bey = the two poles than it is when poles of opposite signs are o n points of the armature between the two (pies the mag- netization is greatest when poles of the opposite names are oppose north and south pole attract an armature, there- fore, with much greater force than two north or two south — . M. Jamin’s conclusions from the experiments upon an ee bar forming a core to the enveloping helices are as follows: 3°. “If the theory of solenoids is admitted, the action of par- allel currents should be to increase the intensity of magnetiza tion; on the contrary, it is diminishe 4°. When the currents in the magnetizing helices run in site directions, they should act opposed to each other on the currents circulating around the particles of the iron, and should diminish each “other's action ; ; on the contrary, it is increase 5°. The action of - oe should be annulled at the mid- dle of the bar. It is When the bar to “ee ene ek on forms not the core, but the armature of two elec peor Ser the effects obtained are the reverse of those obtained by M. Jamin, and tend to confirm the theory of solenoids. Art. IV.—Mineralogical eg Tellurium Ores of Colorado ; by B. Stnuiman.* With a note by Arcu. P. MARVINE, on the Position and Geology of ‘the Gold Hill Mining Region. In May, 1873, I briefly announced the discovery of tellurium Se ores at the Red Cloud Mine in Colorado, and stated that Prof. N. P. Hill, of Blackhawk, had proposed to send me speci- mens of these ores.+ The specimens sent b Prof. Hill were long in reaching me, and it is only recently that I have ex- amined them. ‘The observations made in the summer of 1873 by the officers of Dr. Hayden’s Expedition have supplied the data needful to understand the mode of occurrence of these ores, for the details of which reference is made to Mr. Marvine’s notes and map, which form part of this paper. " r was communicated at the Apel session (1874) : the National Acadomy of Since at Washington. Since then, Mr. Marvine, of report, with a brief structure pce taal oe I am sees 1 be Cog \asdimara caprogn er Rae sin? detailed statement made orally by me to the Academy + This Journal, III, vol. v, 286. * 26 B. Sillinan—Mineralogical Notes. It appears from them, in general, that near the mining hamlet of Gold Hill, about twenty- -five miles northwest of Denver City, and at an elevation of almost 8,000 feet above tide, is a wide dike of prophyry cutting the metamorphic rocks, probably of Archean age, about six miles west of where the Triassic rocks die out at the base of the mountains. A ss of this dike, A furnished by Mr. Marvine, is annexed, showing the tel- lurium- -bearing veins B and con its sides. The porphy- ry of which it is composed has distinct crystals of feld- Se oe ed - spar implanted in a_pur- a. Porphyry dyke. 8, as Vein with gold — gray paste. These and tellurium stals- have a greenish- white color, and are mas oan Nocerncoatl, As seen in a microscopic section, it shows the usual obscurely crystalline ground-mass of felsite, with crystals of quartz, and sections of feldspar crystals showing the parallel bands of a triclinic species. A glance at the map shows the position and course of this dike, ee also the existence of ren dikes of porphyry in the same . The porphyry from “7-30” and “Central” Mines honed sciivendtie that from “Red Cloud,” while that from a dike (No. 136) between the “7:30” and the “ Americus” is dis- tinctly SS and that from the “‘ Niwot” Mine, at the west margin of the map (No. 181), is a quartz- porphyry, with dis- tinct crystals of biaxial mica. Those from the dikes at Jim Town (specimens No. cide on the north border of the district, are distinct sanadin-trachyte. The tellurium ores have been explored, so far, only in con- nection with the dike near Gold Hill, shown in the section, although they exist with the dike at wy 30” and the “Central.” These ores are found along the line of contact of the walls of the dike, in a quartz g: ae associated chiefly with pyrite in small, brilliant, highly - ified crystals, and rarely with chalco- pe and sphalerite. Prof. Hill speaks (loc. cit.) of lead; but I have a no salts re this etal in the specimens receiv quartz is chiefly hornstone and uncrystalline quartz, and, on the side of the country rock, it is mixed with feldspar. Native gold is not visible in any of the specimens IJ have seen of this ore from below the surface ; but where the surface is weathered, it exhibits free gold, arising from the decomposition of the tellurets. On the sides of the dike the line of division is clearly defined, but not so on the side adjacent to the metamo “4 rocks, it blending on this side with the granitic materials. thickness of the veins varies from four or six feet toa few B. Silliman—Mineralogical Notes. 27 not found in the body of the dike, but have (owing probably to the long continued high temperature of the dike) found lodge- ment in the granite outside of the walls, and not in immediate contact with them. he species at the Red Cloud Mine are native tellurium, sylvanite and hessite (which has been called petzite). The simplicity of the mineralogy of this locality is in strong contrast with what is found in the tellurium veins of Transylvania, which are mentioned more particularly farther on. Native Tellurium.—The occurence of this rare species in the United States, in California, was mentioned by Dr. Genth with a query, in his Contributions to Mineralogy, No. vii (this Journal IT, xlv, 318). Its existence in the Red Cloud Mine is unequivo- cal. It wassimultanteously, yet independently, detected by Dr. Endlich and myself, in a small specimen from the collection made at the mine last summer, and now forming part of the Smithsonian Collection in Washington. It did not exist in the collection of those ores sent to me by Prof. Hill. The hex- agonal cleavages are perfect, and one small and very perfect crystal was found, which has been measured by Mr. E. S. Dana. Its reactions before the blowpipe are perfectly in accordance with those of the species. It contains no selenium and only a trace of gold. Auriferous Hessite—This mineral has been spoken of as petzite; but it contains much too little gold for this latter species.* Its sp. gr. is 8°6; luster splendent metallic when freshly broken; fracture conchoidal, brittle, but somewhat malleable; under the pestle laminates into thin scales, and is with difficulty reduced to fine powder, leaving on the agate sur- faces metallic streaks of plumbago-like color. Color telluric, tarnishes blackish on exposure, sometimes iridescent. Cleavage one. Before the blowpipe in the closed tube, the pure mineral (with no trace of pyrite) decipitates, fuses to a globule adhering to the glass, and exhales a white sublimate, fusing into clear colorless globules. Alone on coal in both flames it gives a globule, coats the coal with the characteristic areola of tellurium and tellurous acid; it does not exhale any odor of selenium, nor show any trace of lead. The globule is non-magnetic if a is absent, and does not vegetate with silver as hessite does ; * Mr. A. Kilers, M.E., in a notice of the Red Cloud Mine, in the Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, vol. i, p. 315, considers it te. 28 B. Silliman—Mineralogical Notes. with soda it gives a large bead of silver, which dissolves in nitric acid, leaving gold in powder. Cupellation gave gold 6-40 per cent, and silver 50-90. By a partial analysis I found, in the wet way, gold 7-131; silver 51°061 per cent. Understanding from Dr. Genth that he is en- ed in the chemical investigation of this species, as well as of the other tellurium minerals of the Red Cloud Mine, with abun- dant material, I have willingly abandoned this work to him, satisfied that it cannot be in better hands. Sylvanite.— This species from the Red Cloud Mine yields in the open tube a faint odor of selenium, and the gray ring of deep yellow-brown vapor of the metal is clearly seen, but the selenium is not evident. Alone on the coal it fuses with exhalation of the odor of se- lenium and its well characterized blue flame. The first touch darkest colored—assayed here, was found to contain 1890 ounces of gold and 5300 ounces of silver to the ton of 2000 val recent than the Triassic rocks which flank the base of the moun- B. Silliman —Mineralogical Notes. 29 bole, which have broken through sandstones and argillaceous shales. In Offenbanya, the tellurium ores oceur under very pe- culiar geological conditions ; that is, in veins in igneous rocks, and in segregated masses in granular limestone. The veins occupy thin clefts, fifteen of which on one property are tolerably parallel to each other (E. and W., dip 80°-40° N.), with an aver- age width of about an inch, and they carry chiefly sylvanite and nagyagite sparingly distributed, and more rarely native gold. The chief matrix is quartz and diallogite, associated with pyrite, galenite, sphalerite, stibnite, native silver and pyrargyrite. The gangue of the Nagyag lodes is diallogite, or brown spar, or calcite, or hornstone and quartz, it varying in the different lodes and in different parts of the same lode. The gold-bear- ing tellurium ores are scattered through this gangue with man- ganblende and pyrite. The chief ores worked are nagyagite, sylvanite, gold, auriferous iron pyrites, argentiferous tetrahe- drite, native silver and galenite. Associated with these are hessite, bournonite, jamesonite, barite, sphalerite, stibnite, native arsenic, realgar, orpiment, silver glance, chalcopyrite, marcasite, native copper, malachite, pyrrhotite, sulphur, &., with va- rious epigene species. In all, over forty mineral species are enumerated as found in the veins of Nagyag. Compared with this abundance, we find at the Red Cloud Mine only native tellurium, sylvanite, hessite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and oly galenite and sphalerite, with native gold as an epigene species at s . The gangue stone is hornstone or chalcedonic quartz, with feldspar. Possibly explorations at greater depths may develop other species; but this result has not followed the deep workings of the silver mines in Nevada, where, at the depth of 1500 feet, the number of species found is not greater than it was at the sur- 2. 2: — v é \ { Y } pode ee SU GAR \ LORE a\4 4 . 730 Mire > ie viauiaiabsrhcre Central \ ~ 7 Golch Hill a ' B Eis Spring Mie € d fot : Mine ottrtlaelis . x x B. Silliman—Mineralogical Notes. 31 map. At the east (near the border of the map) the region abruptly ends along a nearly north-and-south line, the massive spurs falling to the zone of “Hog Backs,” or ridges of upturned sedimentary rocks, which lie all along the base of the range. The “red beds,” probably of Triassic age, form the inner- most ridge, lying directly on the Archean rocks of the moun- tains. These, in going eastward, are followed by the upturned edges of Jurassic shales, the Cretaceous groups, and the great Lignitic formation, of as yet disputed Cretaceous or Eocene age, which stretches eastward, and forms the beds directly under- lying the Great Plains. Boulder City is on the border bet Pp and is reached by railroad, Denver City being but twenty- five miles to the south and east. From Boulder City, wagon +1 Page . from fifteen to twenty miles, is Clear Creek, much like the occur ; the gneiss, with possibly granite, in the greater propor- tion. While large areas of structureless granite abound, ap- parently of so-called plutonic or eruptive origin, search seldom fails in finding spots or areas more or less large of gneissic or even distinct schistose structure. The fact that these usually merge imperceptibly into the surrounding granite, as well as conform in their strikes and dips to the general system of folds, as more plainly indicated perhaps in adjacent schistose regions, show that such granites have been metamorphosed in site and indigenous rocks. At the same time sharp lines of 32 B. Silliman— Mineralogical Notes. demarcation, and the occurrence of dikes and allied features, show that the conditions of extreme metamorphism have probably been accompanied by a great softening of the rock, allowing ready molecular rearrangement into structureless forms, and producing plutonic and other appearances indicative of an exotic character. The same granite mass, approached from opposite sides, might convey entirely different impressions as to Its origin; a metamorphic indigenous nature being indicated upon the one hand ; an eruptive, exotic origin upon the other. oubt if any of the large granite masses of the mountains are of true intrusive character, and even if those smaller ones which are clearly intrusive have come from great distances below, or are other than of the same series of rocks melted by the heat accompanying the metamorphism of the mass. Along the south side of the map, and exposed by the cafion of the Boulder Creek, are massive gray granites, with but few points where any structure was observed. All along this half of the map the general strike is approxi- mately east and west, with a northern dip. This is the case also along its west border. Near the north and east sides, however, the dip is south, indicating a synclinal structure running through the middle of the eastern portion of the map. A horizon in which a definite schistose structure tends to occur is indicated by the dotted area running through the center of the map. me of the rocks here are distinct schists, on the map. Usually these form hills or ridges, and while some are quite long, the prophyry has apparently often found vent through less extended openings, now showing as sugar- loaf formed hills, without the direction of the dike being clearly indicated. Such forms are shown by a cross. The porphyries vary considerably in character, but no careful com- parative examination of them has as yet been made. Some * ee eee + J. M. Blake—Notes on Diffraction Gratings. 33 contain remarkably handsome crystals of fieldspar, often of the orm of the Carlsbad twins. The tellurium ores of Gold Hill occur in connection with one of these dikes. See the section on page 26. This di varies from forty-five to thirty-five feet in width, trends about N. 30° E., and dips approximately 80° to the northwest. On the east side is the Red Cloud, on the west, the Cold Spring mines. The former, upon a casual examination, showed a well defined hanging wall or that on the side of the porphyry, a vein quartzose gangue of the vein; with it there is some Zine blende. I had no opportunity to examine into any paragenetic or other feature of the tellurium ores. Art. V.—Notes on Diffraction Gratings ; by JOHN M. BLAKE. ‘sent for the purpose a ruling on glass 6480 lines to the inch, by erfurd Mr. L. M. Ruth ‘ Bas In reproducing these lines by photography, it is necessary to employ contact printing; for no lens would give the required definition over so large a surface, either for copying a ruling, or for originating a grating, by reducing from a large drawing on paper. A ruling one inch square, containing 6480 lines, would be represented by a drawing 27 feet square, in which the lines would have a separation of one-twentieth of an inch. The sensitive plates used in these trials had a hard and — perfect albumen surface, which admitted of close contact with the ruled plate. The impression was made by a beam of sun- light. The resulting photographs were negatives, having white lines on a dark ground; the dark spaces being from once to twice the width of the lines. They gave more brilliant Spectra than the original ruling, and this was doubtless o to the greater intensity and contrast of the lines. But it was found, on examination, that the photographs had an unexpected _ defect; and in investigating the cause of this some interesting phenomena were noticed _ Am. Jour. Sc.—Turrp Serres, Vou. VII, No. 43.—Juxy, 1874. : 3 get 34 = do. M. Blake—WNotes on Diffraction Gratings. When a ruled plate is laid upon a film and lighted by a window, a series of rings or irregular bands can be seen on the grating, and similar ——— are reproduced in the photo- h. These were at first thought to be Newton’s rings. They varied on pressure, but could not be iad to disappear by this means in every case; as the slightest irregularity of . the film prevented Fasleae: contact. It was found that a separation of a thickness of paper between the surfaces did not cause these bands to disappear, but increased their number. They were nar aap not due to the “colors of thin plates.” It will readily occur that these bands are of the same character as the effect seen on viewing one picket fence through another or the shadow of a piece of wire cloth through the cloth itself. The two sets of lines coincide in the light spaces, while in the dark bands the lines of the two series alternate. In the case we have to deal with there are one or more reflections between the brilliant surface of the film and the ruling. The precaution was always taken to stop reflection from the back of the sensi- tive plate by backing in optical contact. It may be interesting to note in this connection that a series of spurious bands can be seen crossing the spectra of a lamp when looking in one oblique direction through a glass ruling, the ruled surface being next the eye. When this position is found, the bands can be made to cross the first and second spectra, either parallel to true spectral lines, or obliquely, by rotating the glass plate in its own plane. These bands are evidently of the same character as mee me have been described. we take a Ts h which was ate with imperfect contact, and hold it aie from the eye toward a eas so as e not the two colors combined, as would be the case in a perfect grating. In some photographs the contact has been so perfect that no dark bands appear until the third or fourth apeotrie is reached. The first spectrum is little impaired in any of the photographs of the 6480 line grating. The most brilliant spec- trum observed was through a ang which showed numerous dark bauds 4 in the second and third spectra. It is believed that, notwithstanding the defect causing these bands, there is or > gs Tee MR J. M. Blake—Notes on Diffraction Gratings. 35 not produced a radical change in the accuracy of position of the lines. As proof of this may be mentioned the constancy of obtaining certain results now to be described. The follow- ing appearances were produced without any visible connection with the accidental bands on the photographs themselves, - provided they were not viewed by light more oblique than only second secon spectrum observed by lamp-light was: ting. The bands develo by superposition were photographed. This was first a ieeeal by diffused light, and the best results, were obtained when the light was oblique. But it was found. 36 J. M. Blake— Notes on Diffraction Gratings. difficult to prevent the doubling and splitting up of the bands at one end, where the light that “entered the lens became more aa to the grating, “and the irregular bands of the indi- twenty it solar, was tried, ‘and then by using sun- light a much better result was secured. It was found altogether best with the 6480 line grating to move camera and grating at- tached, so as to make an angle with the direct beam, and into the proper direction to have the blue and violet of the first spectrum cover the image. Then the bands came out with a distinctness not before obtained, and the actinic effect was suf- ficiently uniform over the whole surface. The resulting photo- graph was transferred to the wood block for engraving, and the result is given in fig. 1 The same process was sso Aare with the 2 2000 8 ane ex- cepting that it was found best to bring the image into the given in fig. 3; but unfortunately the minute irregularities so well shown in the photograph could not be mee dueed in the wood cut. e first spectrum was impaired to some extent in these particular gratings, which were probably the third reproduction from the original. The splitting up actinic illumination at the two ends seemed unavoidable. Next inicro-photograpks were tried with the same illumination. The result with the Nobert grating did not possess sufficient interest to reproduce here. The original lines were shown. The Rutherfurd grating gave the result repre- * a aes: Pipe mie penta cst J. M. Blake—Notes on Diffraction Gratings. 37 _ If we place twq whole copies of a grating, as would occur In respect to parallelism if one was bent on itself, making a folded edge parallel to the ruled lines, the resulting bands with the irregularities will be symmetrical about the central line of the ruling. The same position will also give symmetry about a line at right angles to the original lines, provided these lines are ares of circles. This will be seen to be the case in fig. 8, and on counting the whole bands, above and below the point where the ares are in effect parallel for a short distance, we find nine which represent a curvature of two and with two gratings slightly overlapping, gave the curvature two ] es utherfurd’s ruling gave no evidence of curvature in the lines when the latter were brought parallel. A curvature of the bands occurs in both cases, which indicates a gradual increase in the distance of the lines in going from one side of the ruling to the other. The inference from fig. 1 above and below the center. If we consider the greater curv- ing of the bands in fig. 3 as compensated for by the width of the ruling, exceeding by one-third that represented in fig. i, we have yet to take into account that the lines in the former ruling are three times as far apart, and hence it follows that. 38 J. M. Blake—Notes on Diffraction Gratings. the error due to an increment in the distance of the lines, in passing from one side of the grating to the other, is three times as great in the Nobert ruling. In each case the ban come straight in general direction, when one of each biahe of gratings is rotated in the plane of the ruling 180 degrees. Since writing the above, with the exception of a revision of the part relating to the photographing of the bands developed by superposition, I find a paper on this same subject by Lord Rayleigh, in Phil. Mag. for Feb., 1874. He has es tip directions of the pert lines.” And suggests “the iregu- e bars, due to imperfection in the ruling when met ae is very closely approached, might be made useful as a test.” He speaks also of irregular bands seen on individ- ual photographs, and says that “the disappearance of the first spectrum is very unusual; but that it is common for bands to appear in the fourth and higher s spectra.” His explanation of the cause originating these bands is dif- ferent from mine. He says “when examined under the micro- scope, the opaque bar on the copy, which corresponds to the shadow of the groove (ruled line) of the original, is seen to be composite; being not unfrequently traversed along its length by several fine lines of transparency.” And again, “in the process of copying: the groove of the original is widened into a bar, whose width depends on closeness of contact, an element which necessarily varies in different parts of the plate.” In regard to the definition of a 3000 line grating by Nobert, he appears to show that the Nobert ruling which he examined also oe eurved lines, and that this curvature injured de:inition. e copies “not perceptibly inferior to — bok aan — with copies of the 3000 line grating, with a g power, could “make out nearly, but not crite; all that is at in Angstrém’s ma age later paper in the March number of the same journal, he speaks of the on of a 6000 line Nobert ruling to the one of 3000 lines by the same maker. It appears to me that an important point which is apparently pe should be borne in mind in the manufacture of gratings; since we have here an indication, thar with 6000 lines to the inch, the maximum of cai a abd has been — for me reason PeeWee SN Ss EAE a A. W. Wright—Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light. 39 in twist of the same, would, in the width of the grating, equal the distance between two individual lines. Take, for instance, the 2000 line Nobert, the errors of which are pointed out in fig. 8. It would seem that to treble the number of lines would, in this case, pretty much destroy the effect of the grat- ing ; since the two errors remain independent of the number of lines. lines of known value; as in Nobert’s microscopic test plate. Of course, it is to be expected that the higher powers would be dispensed with ; a much lower power being used than would be required to separate the lines themselves. New Haven, Conn., March, 1874. Art. VI.—On the Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light; by ARTHUR W. WRieHr. THE observations, of which an account is here given, were made at various times during the year past, wit _a@ view to determine the nature of the zodiacal light, so far as it could be effected by a study of its spectrum, and as supplementary to the investigations upon its polarization published in this ournal in May last. Certain of the statements there made were based upon evidence derived from these observations, which it is the purpose of this article to set forth more fully. As the object studied is one of the faintest among those upon which the spectroscope may be employed, some modifica- tions were found necessary. both in the instrument and in the mode of observation. A Duboscq spectroscope with a single visible would greatly weaken, if not obliterate, the faint spec- 40 A. W. Wright—-Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light. trum to be measured, it was necessary to employ some method of fixing scale-positions without recourse to the use of a light, and, in fact, it was found indispensable to exclude all artificial lights from the raiet bonvore of the instrument during the observations, and for some time previous, on account of “their effect in blunting the pcnsthilits of the retin e means employed in securing these ER peeves the principal modification introduced, and were as follow The short joint connecting the eye-piece wiged the sliding take of the telescope was removed, and another substituted it, which was pierced on each side with a narrow openin In this, and perpendicular to the axis of the. tube, was ae ed rectangular frame, in which are two slides, or dia- phragms, moved by fine screws passing through the ends of to traverse the entire field. The inner ends of the slides termi- nate in sharp, saps edges perpendicular to their line of in place, they are so adjusted as to be accu- rately in the ee of the eye-piece. They are thus seen pro- jected upon the scale, and sharply defined, when the latter is illuminated. By turning the tube the terminal edges are made accurately parallel with the lines of the spec ectrum. As these are somewhat curved in the passage of the rays through the prism, the scale was placed in the middle.of the field, and the measurements made from the middle point of the slides, or, in some instances, the ends of the slit were covered with its of paper, reducing the spectrum to such a breadth that the curva- ture was small enough to be neglected. Before making an observation, the instrument was carefully adjusted, and the scale so placed that the division-mark 5 coincided with the more refrangible edge of the sodium line, inasmuch as only one of the sides of the slit is pier ea and - opening it we mers widens toward the red end only. For e same reaso n fixing the limits of the spectrum, the eesti of the ‘slit must be added to the scale-number on the less refrangible side, in order to reduce the dimensions of the spectrum to what they would be with a linear slit, The situa- tion of any point in the spectrum, however faint, could be cod with a good degree of accuracy by moving the diaphragms up to it, and then, on illuminating the scale, read- ing its posee n by the scale-numbers. In the case of well- * like "that of the auroral spectrum, the error is not greater than half a division of the scale, and, with care- fully repeated determinations, may be made considerably less In making the observations upon the zodiacal light, the same method was pursiied as in the investigation upon its polariza- A, W. Wright—Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light. 41 he room was not lighted, ex- cept by the diffuse illumination from the sky, and care was line, which is sometimes visible, is constantly present and be- longs to the zodiacal spectrum; third, to discover whether polar aurora. A record was kept of the circumstances of the different observations, and of the state of the sky at the time they were made. it cannot be regarded as belonging to the zodiacal light. In its general appearance the spectrum is not different from that of faint daylight or. of twilight. It extends from somewhat elow D to near G. In order to fix its dimensions more defi- nitely, an extended series of observations was ma e, and the limits in both directions were determined with great care, bility were afterward read off on the scale. These varied Somewhat with the state of the atmosphere, but the determina- tions made on the best nights agreed very well with each other. For the purpose of comparison, those were selected which were found on a few of the clearest nights. The width of the slit, in all these cases, was ten divisions of the scale, or 1°22™™- Adding ten to the readings at the lower or red end, as a correc- tion for the breadth of the slit, the numbers are as follows: Lower limit, 54, 52°5, 57°7, 57°5, 50; mean, 54°35. Upper limit, 123°5, 119°5, 120, 124, 120; mean, 121-4. Since the intensity near the limits declines by almost insen- sible gradations, and the circumstances of the observations at different times, as atmospheric conditions, sensibility of the ari a 42 A. W. Wright—Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light. duce a definite and constant visual impression. They may serve for comparison with those of other spectra measured in the same way. It could plainly be seen, on slowly moving the slides toward the end of the spectrum, and just before it ceased to be visible, that the light extended a considerable distance beyond them, as much perhaps as ten or fifteen divisions of the scale. The position of maximum brightness was merely estimated, and was not perceptibly different from that of the twilight spec- trum. The extent and general form of the spectrum are shown in the accompanying plate (Plate 11), where it is marked L The appearance of the spectrum, as seen when the slit had a breadth of only two scale-divisions, is represented in No. V, but the limits there indicated are less certain than those ob- tained in the other cases. number of measurements were made, in the same manner, t gradual variation of intensity, but was between 70 and 80, apparently somewhat nearer the former. It is placed at 74 on the plate, spectrum IV. Observations on light from the moon, and upon twilight, showed that their spectra correspond even more closely with that of the zodiacal hght. In the case of the former, the lunar rays were received upon a white unglazed card placed a few inches in front of the slit. The latter being narrowed to two scale-divisions, the limits were found to be 47 and 136-6, the A. W. Wright—Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light. 43 point of greatest intensity lying between 70 and 80, and evi- dently nearer the former. Similar results were obtained with twilight, the lower and upper limits, obtained with a slit cover- ing two divisions, being 50 and 184°6, respectively. The lower —e in each case were corrected by adding the breadth of the sit. The accompanying plate exhibits the general character of the zodiacal spectrum, and its relation to those with which com- parison was made. The corresponding portion of the solar spectrum, with a few of the principal Fraunhofer lines, is rep- resented at the bottom, as a standard of reference, and to show the position and value of the divisions of the scale used in the instrument, the numbers of which are placed above the lines. The band between 50 and 60, marked 6, is atmospheric, and its place is determined from Prof. Angstrém’s chart, and from Dr. Janssen’s diagram of the telluric lines. It is the band seen on several occasions when a very narrow slit was used, as mentioned below. The line marked ais the principal line of the auroral spectrum, sometimes referred to the zodiacal spectrum, as stated in a previous paragraph. ‘The wave-lengths, corresponding to points in the spectroscopic scale, for intervals of five divisions, are given in the following table. Scale Wave-length. Scale Wave-length. Scale Wave-length, No. No. No, 40 6255 75 5216 110 4606 45 6064 80 6111 115 4538 50 5889 85 5012 120 4472 55 5726 90 4919 125 4409 60 5583 95 4831 130 4352 65 5451 100 4751 135 4298 70 5329 105 4677 140 4246 was observed, that when diffused sunlight is directly observed with the spectroscope, and simply weakened by narrowing the slit, the maximum is near 50 of the scale. The apparent ex- * Monthly Notices of the Royal Ast. Soc., June, 1872, P. 277. 44 A. W. Wright—Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light. tent of the spectrum is not much lessened, and the different colors are still perfectly distinct. In the case previously men- tioned, where light from the sky was napa into a darkened room, and rendered extremely feeble, the result was different. The distinction of colors was nearly or quite impossible, and the extent of the spectrum much diminished. The red rays had become almost too faint to affect the eye sensibly, and the apparent point of greatest intensity had perceptibly moved up- ward, an effect, which is, of course, chiefly subjective. Its position was fou nd in various ways, as by moving the slides over the fuint spectrum till their edges were most distinctly seen, or by observing the highest point of the curve which is formed by the boundary of the spectrum, when produced with a wedge-shaped slit, or when a thin hollow wedge of glass filled with ink was placed before the slit. Repeated determinations of its place showed that it was between 70 and 80, but nearer the former, and in tlie plate it is placed at 74. This is perhaps a little too high, but it is the best approximation the difficulty of the determination allowed. Quite the same result was found with moonlight and twilight, and the maximum was sensibly at the same point as with light from the sky. In some even- ings during the early portion of the investigation, observations ect to the second point of the inquiry, evidence : was obtained which leaves little doubt that the bright line which has been occasionally seen, does not belong to the spec- trum of the zodiacal light. If the negative evidence of scores of observations in whiek it could not be detected is insufficient, there are facts which satisfactorily explain its presence on the few oceasions when it has appeared. Both Prof. Smyth * and M. Liais,+ who have made careful observations, deny that it belongs to the zodiacal s — and the former gives a con- clusive as platen of its supposed existence there. It is cient to recall the fact that the light which gives the uroral line is essentially monochromatic, and would be visible in the spectroscope even when with the naked eye it could not be detected in the general illumination of the sky, as it would not be weakened by dispersion like the latter, and would hence be relatively intensified. In the course of the many observa- tions made by the writer, the line was visible on three even- ings, but on each of these - occasions there was an aurora, which on one of the evenings had a considerable intensity. The * Monthly Notices of Royal Ast. Soc., loc. cit. + Comptes Rendus, Tom. 74, 1872, p. 262. a * ag tee fe eee ela a i Ee ae A. W. Wright—Spectrum of the Zodiacal Light. 45 was pointed, and its position was found to be exactly the same, whether the light was derived from the zodiacal region, or directly from the aurora. On the other hand, the bright line was never seen when there was no aurora. It remains to consider the question whether there is a con- nection of any kind between the zodiacal light and the polar aurora. The considerations mentioned above do not absolutely exclude the possibility that, simultaneously with the aurora, and with a certain dependence upon it, some luminific pro- cess may be going on in space, which would cause the bright line to appear in the zodiacal spectrum, however improbable such a supposition ma . But if there were no better reason, the general invariability of the zodiacal light from night to night, and the constancy of its presence through- out all the months of the year, sufficiently indicate for it a different cause. Moreover, on at least two of the evenings when only a continuous spectrum was seen, there was an aurora, moderately bright, though not extending to any great distance from the horizon. If the two were in an y way related, we should expect some variation in the zodiacal light coinci- dent with the appearance of remarkable auroral displays, but it does not appear that any such thing has ever been observed. There seems to be no evidence that they are not entirely inde- pendent phenomen. ne or two additional observations may be mentioned here as of interest. On several oceasions when the slit of the spec- troscope had a breadth of only two or three divisions, the spectrum at the first glance appeared to end suddenly at about 5+ of the seale. Further examination showed light beyond, and that the apparent abruptness of its termination was caused by a dark band of about the width of the slit, which was found to occupy, as nearly as could be estimated, the exact position of the band marked 6 in the plate. It is doubtless identical with it, and caused by aah absorption. eee 1€ spectrum on the most favorable nights was still visible when the slit was narrowed to one division of the scale, and on one occasion the opening was reduced to 0°6 of a division. that is, to an actual breadth of 0:073™ before the light became imperceptible. As the prneipal Fraunhofer lines are distinctly described, in lower latitudes, where the intensity of the light is known to be much greater. 46 R. Irving—Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Supervor. The statements made in the previous article, in reference to the zodiacal spectrum, are satisfactorily established by the re- sults of these observations, from which we may draw the following conclusion 1. The spectrum of the zodiacal light is oe and is sensibly the same as that of faint sunlight or twilig eae right line or band can be recognized as belonging to this spectrum. 3. There is no evidence of any connection between the zodi- acal light and the polar aurora. The deduction, me wn from the fact of its polarization, that the zodiacal light i is derived from the sun, and is reflected from solid matter, is thus strengthened and confirmed by the identity of its spectrum with that of solar light. A discussion of the distribution of the reflecting matter in space is reserved for another article. Yale College, June 5, 1874. Art. VIIL.—On the Age of the Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Su- perior ; and on the Westward Continuation of the Lake Superior Synelinal ; by RoLanp IrRvINe. Durine the summer and fall of 1878, I was in charge of a geological teh Gon of northern Wisconsin, including the three counties h border on Lake Superior, on behalf of the State Geological Gaiver This is a region but little known, it - being for the most part unbroken forest, and without inhabi- tants except in three or four small towns immediately on the lake shore, the whole coast line, exclusive of islands, having a length not far from one hundred and twenty miles. It has been very little examined geologically. Portions were visited pool “btn by members of the various corps under Dr. D. D. 1848-50; the easternmost of the three counties, that of aie. having received the most attention. Its general geo- logical and topographical features are very briefly described y Colonel Chas. Whittlesey, in the final report of Dr. Owen. 1860, Colonel Whittlesey again visited Ashland County on behalf of the sag Survey of Wisconsin, then organized under Mr. James Hall. The results of his investigations were never published by the State, although some of them have ap- red in pamphlet form and in transactions of scientific socie- ties. Since that time no further examinations of the region have been made. R. Irving—Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior. 47 I. Age of the Copper-bearing Series. . the conclusions toward which they seem to point. and slates of the Copper-bearing Series; and Lower Silurian sandstones. Besides these there are trap! thick deposits Dr ¥* This Journal, June, 1872. : _ + T. B. Brooks, “Geology of Upper Peninsula,” 1873. 48 R. Irving—Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior. Gogebie, where the rocks are lost sight of, being covered by 8g siliceous schists, black slates of undetermined composition, white quartz rocks, quartzites, magnetic and specular schists of various kinds, magnetic and specular iron ores, diorites, diorite slates and diorite schists, The be north, generally at a very high angle. The thickness never varies far from 4,000 feet, a figure obtained by actual measure- have—including all subdivisions—an apparent thickness of as much as four miles, and even more th east. These rocks form a broad belt in Ashland County, which is widest at its eastern end, narrowing toward the west, and at the same time receding from the lake shore. The most westerly known portion of the belt is at Long Lake, in the southern end 8S Ge aeRO a ae aeiaghce s See Ae R. Irving—Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior. 49 of Bayfield County. Eastward of the Montreal River, in Michigan, the belt separates into two: the main area, which continues without interruption to the end of Keweenaw Point; and the “South Mineral Range,” which lies to the southward of the main belt, and follows the Huronian rocks eastward. The latter belt runs out in its eastern extension. Between it and the main area lie horizontal Silurian sandstones. The southernmost (111 a) portion of the group in Ashland County covers the broadest area. It includes rocks always highly crystalline, generally very coarsely so, and of such varia- tion in mineral constituents, texture, ete, that I have not yet attempted to name all the varieties, nor.even a considerable por- tion of them. Nearly all of them can, however, be included in two or three general kinds; labradorite, orthoclase, feldspar, hornblende, and some varieties of pyroxene, seeming to be the chief ingredients. The indications of bedding in this portion of the series are seldom to be seen, but where they are appar- ent, are marked, and point toward entire conformability with the underlying Huronian. | ext north of, and immediately overlying, the rocks just described are the beds of that portion of the group which I have designated 111}, c, d, on the map. ese are a series of alternating beds of trap, mostly melaphyres, but of very varying ness of sandstone and shale (111 d). ‘These sandstone and con- glomerate beds do not altogether overlie the trappean beds, but are, near the junction, directly and unmistakably interstratified with them. There is a sort of gradation from the trap to the sandstones, the layers of the latter nearest the trap being made up of coarse trap-sand, whilst on receding from it they become more and more like the horizontal aluminous red sandstones of the Apostle Islands. The entire series, traps, conglomerates, sandstone and shales, have a very high dip to the northward, which is never less than 85°, and often reaches the perpendicular. he sandstone, conglomerate, and shale beds have not as yet been seen west of Bad River, in Ashland County, but the traps can be traced uninterraptedly westward as far as Long Lake in Bayfield County. The traps of this group are also largely developed in Douglas County, and there are sandstone beds believed to belong to the Copper-bearing Series in another part of Ashland County, as will be mentioned far- ther on. 4. Lower, Silurian Sandstones (Iv on the map and section).— North of the north line of that portion of the Copper-bearing Am. Jour. Scr.—Turrp — Vou. VIII, No. 43.—JuLy, 1874. 50 R. Irving—Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior. rounded boulders and pe of erratic rocks, and which appears to be overlaid by the regular boulder drift wherever the two come into contact. e rivers and their branches cut deep valleys into these clays, often showing banks as much as 100 feet high; but only in four places have any rocks in place been seen within this area in Ashland County. t A, ona small stream called Silver Creek, there is an exposure of hori- zontal red sandstone and shale, having the usual appearance of the sandstone and shale of the Apostle Islands. This locality of horizontal sandstone is only three-quarters of a mile north of the trap exposures on the same stream. e dipping sand- stones and shales do not show in this vicinity ; but four miles east they are apparent in great force, having a dip of ninety degrees, and a thickness of hundreds of feet in sight. No other exposure of horizontal sandstone has yet been seen on the mainland of Ashland County, either on its coast or inland. On the coast of Bayfield County, however, ee its entire length, expo- arated by rocks of the Copper-bearing Group.* That they are, however, the same, is extremely probably for the following reaso westward and soutl d to the St. Croix River in western Wis- * The distance between the western end ne eastern area, near the Montreal of the River, and the easternmost outcrop of the western, is about thirty-six miles. f iS rite treet, , Maal R. Irving—Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior. 51 consin, they appear to dip underneath* the lighter-colored Lower Silurian sandstones of the Mississippi Valley, of which they are probably merely the downward continuation ; thus showing the same relation to newer rocks as do the sandstones of east- ern Lake Superior. (3) Similar lithological characters, an ad- missible test, I suppose, for whi so close to one another, and for entirely undisturbed roc At the two points, aad ure, in Ashland County, are ex- posures of dark-red sandstone, and sandy shale dipping seen as shown on the section. At one of these points, easternmost, there is exposed a thickness of at least 2, 000 rae of sandsone, dipping southward, at an angle of 38°. This great thickness is actual and not due to faulting. The impres- sion that these sandstones, exposed at points more than ten miles apart, are portions of the northerly edge of a synclinal, of which the vertical sandstones to the south form the southerly, is almost irresistible, This opinion is strengthened by (1) the difficulty of accounting for so great a thickness with so uniform a disturbance, at points | more than ten miles apart, by ee this distur- bance to a mere dislocation of the Silurian sandstones, which oc- cur horizontal only a few miles off ; (2)the occurrence oof horizontal sandstones within the jaws of the su apposed: synelinal; (3) the very great thickness of these beds, which allies them closely to the vertical beds on the southward, whose total thickness can- not be less than 10,000 feet; (4) the occurrence of trap at the point marked 111 ¢, a little to the north of the line of the southward dipping sandstones ; and (5) the probability, alluded to farther on, that there is somewhere in this region of Wisconsin a synclinai, representing the westward continuation of that exist- ing between Keweenaw Point and Isle oyal Following the shore of Lake Superior westward from the Apostle Islands, the horizontal sandstones can be traced with- out break until Douglas County is reached, when they disap- pear from the coast—which is here altogether of red clay marls—. but appear constantly in the beds of the many streams flowing, northward into the lake. On ascending these streams to the. southward, the red sandstones can be traced to their junction: with the trappean beds of the Copper-bearing Series, which, here dip, wherever the dip is observable, at a comparatively low, angle to the south. The sandstone beds continue horizontal, or: with a very slight dip northward, to within a short distance of the trap, when, in most pcan they show a remarkable — change. In one case, however, they continue to within: ibagr J feet of the trap sions change, the exact. june-: tion being concealed by an eroded gulley. At Black River, for three hundred feet from the trap, the sandstone is broken up, * D. D. Owen, Report on the Geology of Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. . 52 R. Irving—Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior. in every a manner, ic misplaced layers dipping in all directions, and in its immediate vicinity making a sort of brecciated mass of fapeinents of trap aud sandstone. This ap- pearance is presented along the hes aged side of a gorge, whose depth is more than a hundred feet, and is said by my assistant Mr. Sweet, who made all the observations in Douglas County, to be caused, beyond question, by no mere surface dis- placement, but by the general disturbed condition of the sand- stone. On passing down the gorge to the westward, the sand- stone layers become gradually less irregular, taking a prevailing northerly dip, until, 300 feet from the trap, they grade imper- ceptibly into the ordinary horizontal beds. Passing up the gorge to where the river falls over the trap, with a fall in all over 160 feet in height, the beds of melaphyre are found dipping southward at a low angle. On all of the other streams examined, the horizontal — ved layers of sandstone were found com- ing much closer tc the trap, but in all except the one already cited, showing ~ same peculiar disturbance, although on a smaller scale. hake in appearance, texture, Ke., more similarity to “the rocks of Illa in abinad County than to the more northerly beds of II hey appear, on the whole, to be rather more similar to an on the ine of the Brulé River. It is described as swampy and wee abe level, without many rock-exposures. the stream a a point marked 11 2 on the map). Still rose south the horizontal red sandstones are ony found (at points marked tv), and can be traced southward until they dis- Tantey. beneath the lighter-colored layers of the Mississippi pin of the rier Series, to draw attention to the fol- lowing points. The t belt of rocks of this series, which extends southwestwar ‘from Keweenaw Point to Long Lake in hk. Irving—Oopper-beariny Rocks of Lake Superior. 53 t ontreal River; that they were disturbed by the same force, and received their present tilted positions at the same time, as evinced by the conformability of the two series throughout. 2d. That the horizontal sandstones of the Apostle Islands and the western end of Lake Superior were laid down subse- quently to this tilting, and also to an immense amount of erosion, and that the sandstones of eastern Lake Superior were form at the same time. ; _ As evinced by (1) the occurrence of horizontal sandstones in immediate proximity of tilted sandstone and traps, in Ashland County ; (2) the occurrence of the same on the Apostle Islands, within but a few miles of the tilted beds of the Montreal ; (3) the direct actual contact of the horizontal sandstones in Douglas County with the melaphyres of the Copper-bearing Series, here dipping southward, and (5) various other proofs cited by Brooks and Pumpelly in the article previously alluded to. 8d. That hence the Copper-bearing Series should rather be classed with the Archean than with the Silurian. *As already shown by Brooks and Pumpelly. 54 R. Irving—Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior. The only difficulty in the way of these conclusions lies in the re- markable phenomena presented at those points in Douglas County where the horizontal sandstones are found joinin the traps. The first explanation that offers itself is naturally that these remarkable. disturbances were caused by the protru- sion of the trappean beds through the already Foemed: sand- stones. In answer to this it may be said, (1) that it is exceed- ingly doubtful whether the protrusion of molten matter through horizontal layersof sandstone would produce any such effect,— at least I cannot conceive how it could ; (2) that this remarkable disturbance is unaccompanied by any hardening of the rock, ap- pearance of baking, or other evidence of great heat; (3) that if these trappean beds are of the same Copper-bearing Series as those in Ashland County, then the proof of unconformability there found is conclusive of the greater age of the traps as com- with the horizontal sandstones ; and (4) that hence we must nd some other explanation of these phenomena. e only one that appears at all acceptable to me is that the traps, being deep-seated and non-continuous with the comparatively superficial sandstones, would, if impelled to move by an force, tend to move, to some extent, independently of the sand- stones, and would, by an exceedingly slight motion northward against the latter, produce precisely the effect observed. IL. Westward continuation of the Lake Superior Synclinal. “Take Superior,” issued in 1850, I find a dotted line with a query made along the center of the peninsula of La Pointe, or Bayfield, indicating that possibly it has a trappean core and owes its projection into the lake to that core. I think there is reason to believe that this is true, and that the core of that peninsula, with the Douglas County traps, forms the westward continuation of the Isle Royale or northerly side of the syn- clinal just alluded to; that hence this synclinal trough, in its westward extension, does not hold the lake, but passes entirely on to its southerly shore, and that it is not improbable that the line of southward-dipping sandstones, in Ashland County, marks the southerly edge of the northern side of this synclinal. However, inasmuch as there is no direct proof that the trough between Keweenaw Point and Isle Royale is a simple synclinal without subordinate folds, these southward-dippmg sandstones may represent one of these subordinate bends rather than the northerly edge of the trough, and this seems the most likely supposition. — R. Irving—Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior. 55 The arguments in favor of these views are as follows: Ist. The belt of rocks forming the southerly side of this synclinal is known to continue far westward into Wisconsin. It is therefore to be suspected that the northerly side has a similar extent. 2nd. If this northerly side does continue westward, it must be entirely under the waters of the lake, or on the southern shore, since on the northern shore the rocks are altogether different. 3d. This westerly continuation of the northerly side would preserve some sort of parallelism to the southerly side. 4th. The peninsula of Bayfield, Isle Royale, and Keweenaw Point have the same general trend. 5th. The copper-bearing melaphyres, &c., of Douglas and Bayfield Counties dip, wherever the dip is observable, to the southward. 6th. The northerly dip of the beds of the Keweenaw Point belt gradually increases in degree as the rocks are traced westward from Keweenaw Point, where it is low, until the Wisconsin line is reached, where it is vertical. This being the case, it would be expected that the two sides of the synclinal would approach one another in their western extension, which is in accordance with the facts, whether the southward-dipping sandstones be regarded as marking the northerly edge or not. : 7th. If the supposition be true, then, on the northerly side where all the observed dips are from 25° to 38°, the area of country immediately underlaid by the pia pe edges would be much broader than on the southerly side where the * The low dips—25°—observed in some places, would go to confirm the first of 56 E. B. Andrews—Parallelism of Coal-seams. The greater similarity of the Douglas County traps to leone of Isle halal than to those of Ashland County, goes to confirm m The dotted ee then, on the accompanying section give my explanation of the structure of this region, in accordance with the foregoing facts and views. It should be said that the trappean beds of Douglas County have been traced for some miles into the Bayfield peninsula, and can without doubt be traced still farther, ci that they can mous, int they must pass beneath the horizontal Re BEEN of the Apostle Islands, age of the coast of the peninsula. It should also b the area south of the Copper Range in Douglas County, aes the explored region and the line A B, which marks the supposed southerly edge of the partes side of the great synclinal, or else the line of the axis of t subordinate fold—which area I have supposed to be ‘ounods ately iaps ae by beds of the Copper-bearing Series—may be found to show horizontal sandstones, since there is no telling how ag these may have nee aes down on the upturned beds of the former mentione One more point suggests ‘iteelf as affording strong proof of the greater age of the Copper-bearing Series as compared with the orizontal sandstones. I refer to the ferruginous and aluminous character of the Lower Silurian sandstones of Lake Superior, as compared with the light-colored, quartzose sandstones of the Mississippi Valley, which are either approximately or identi- cally of the same age. If the Copper-bearing traps are older than the horizontal red sandstones, then the latter derived their material from the wear of these traps, which are remark- able for their low amount of silica, considerable percentage of alumina (feldspar) oe prevailing content of iron (as mag- netic iron). Man ese sandstones are almost a trap sand. The beds of the Missies pi Valley, however, derived their material from the wear of the Huronian quartzites, and Lauren- tian quartzose granites. University of Wisconsin, March 21st, 1874. Art. VITL—On the Parallelism of Coal-Seams ; by HE. B. ANDREWS, In the April number of this Journal, Dr. Newberry calls in question my views of the general arallelism of coal-seams, deriv: fe See ee our Ohio Gata censs nd thinks fi. B. Andrews—Parallelism of Coal-seams. 57 opinion, while he strenuously maintains the latter. In my district, and in the portions of his district—i. e., the one under his special supervision—that I have examined, and also in the bor- dering States of West Virginia and Kentucky, I find a general useful in our Coal-measures. If, on the other hand, the subsi- ence were uneven and irregular, no coal-seam can have its proper and exact horizon, and all things are in confusion. If, for example—and I quote one of the cases given by Dr. New- berry in his article—coals No. 8 and No. 9 are, at one place, 150 feet apart, and have three coal seams, 8a, 82 and 8c, intercalated between them, and a few miles away they are only 50 feet apart, with no intercalated seams, the mind is left in confusion and perplexity, and the practical identification of coal-seams is well nigh impossible. The theory of unequal subsidences, of “ very local subsidences,” of “ warped and folded strata,” is itself very confusing, for it requires us to believe that the old shore-areas held themselves in statical equilibrium near the water’s edge during the long periods in which the vegetable matter of the face, with the coal-swamps filling its basins and winding hol- lows, subsided below the ocean, the introduction of the proper Coal-measure stratification began, and then occur horizon- tally arranged sediments, Hence, the next seam of coal 58 E. B. Andrews— Parallelism of Coal-seams. 4 as nm SS ° S — [oF re b4 oO © a mee | B ie) ef =a O a et (40) eR =) © = a pee ) 4 2 ay oo fan) ’ this: That all the subsequently formed seams of coal would be formed under the conditions of No. 2, and not after the manner of No. 1, whose conditions are entirely exceptional. The low- est seam of coal inJackson County, in my distriet is similarly uneven; but the next seam above—the Anthony seam—is per- thority of names, is one often used, but it has no place in sei- ence. I could adduce many and great names in favor of my theory of general parallelism. Of course, I do not claim parallelism in any absolute or mathematical sense, for no mars! would constitute a perfectly even plane; and in the subsequent compression of the sediments between seams of coal, the oozy mud in one place would be more compressed than the sands of Chemistry and Physics. 59 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics. _ 1. Acetylene and its Determination.—BuiocuMaNnn has sub- jected the metallic compounds of acetylene to exact analysis and derives the formula C,H,Cu,O for the copper salt, either on h>Cu, +H, 0; re (Cu, OH) or ie U, et! and the similar formula C,H,Ag,O for the silver compound. Its formation is thus given: Cu,Cl,(NH,),+H,0+C,H,=C,H,Cu,0+(NH,Cl),, and its decomposition by acids thus : C,H,Cu,0+(HCl),=C,H, +Cu,Cl,+H,0. The acetylene used for the preparation of these compounds was deta from ethylene bromide by treatment with alcoholic potash, way, ten liters being drawn through the solution, afforded in two parallel determinations :063 and -064 per cent of acetylene e production of acetylene by a Bunsen burner u at the bottom of its tube was noticed by Rieth. The author finds that a gas, which gave in its combustion-product Ww urned as usual in such a burner 0°120", or -08 per cent by volume of acetylene, afforded when b low, by ordinary f4sometric analysis 0°96, and by the copper method 0°80 per cent of eh ng by volume, twelve times the original quantity.— Ber. Berl. Chem, Ges., vii, 274, March, 1874. G. F. 2. On Eucalyptol.—Fausr and Homeryer have critically ex- amined thejhydrocarbon called eucalyptol by Cloez, which consti- tutes the principal portion of the ethereal oil of Eucalyptus glo- t was prepared by fractional distillation from this oil, three kilograms yielding 600 grams, boiling between 174° and 60 Scientific Intelligence. 180°. Fractionated over sodium, a liquid was obtained boilin constantly from 171° to 174°, entirely soluble in absolute alchohol, ether and chloroform in all proportions, and in fifteen er of 90 per cent alcohol. Its behavior generally is that of a terpene, which its odor resembles. It absorbs oxygen with avidity and resinities, which fact ne aes its variable boiling point. Sul- phuric c acid turns it brown a dissolves it; water sets it again fre converts it into paratoluic wid terephthalic acids. Elem mentary analysis gave 88°74 of carbon, and 11°48 of hydrogen, nearly cor- responding to the Rhee ula G,, ig: Suspecting an associated hydrocarbon poorer in hydrogen, the authors plane rized the A conjecture. Hence the neon gts ol of Cloez is a mixture of cymol with a terpene, which may be called eucalyptene. It is probable that not over 30 per cent of cym ated is apres nt. The significance of these facts, in view of the pro nee assigned to the leaves and ethereal oil of this shige in ee Sec one of the day, is ob- vious.— Ber. Berl. Ges., vii, 63, Jan., 1874. G. F. B, 3. Compounds of Th hallium with Se eee, aS ug the atomic weight of thallium has been fixed from its specific sisig as determined by Regnault, yet its analogy with lead on the ne hand and with potassium on the other, renders a determina- ae of the vapor-density of some of its organic compounds desira- ble. Hartwic has ore undertaken, in the laboratory of of thallium-diethy! is obtained, according to the following equa- tion : TIC1,+-Zn(C,H,),=Tl(C,H,),Cl+4ZnCl,. The chloride separates as a cream-like mass which is purified by =rirriomensorent7 from hot water. It forms beautiful satin-like Sk. S ecaaue uished clearly odin ioe ae ch tin, mer- “7 or lead forms with the alcohol radicals by the fact that they undergo no decomposition on treatment with silver oxide. By decomposing the sulphate with barium hydrate, thallium-diethyl hydrate was nis d. It is twice as soluble in = as in hot water, crystallizes in fine silky needles, and decomposes wit explosion at 211°, Its solution blues red litmus pee strongly, may be passed through it without the formation of a trace of car- , c | ' Loal Chemistry and Physics, 61 in excess, to 110° or 150°, gave any thallium-triethyl, the products being metallic thallium, zine chloride an gas (C,H, and 160°, afforded a colorless liquid about equal in volume to the mercury-ethyl used, which was butane. The reaction is: TI(C,H,),Cl4+-Hg(C,H,),=(C,H,.),+TICl+Heg. Metallic thallium heated with mercury-ethyl in sealed tubes to 160°-170° gave no more satisfactory results.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., vii, 298, 302, March, 1874. G. F Taurin not Isethionamide.—Sryeerru has sought to eral days, it underwent no perceptible change. The temperature 3 hol, the fusing point became constant at 190-193°. Potassium hydrate evolved ammonia from it, and it was readily soluble in water. Analysis gave the formula of isethionamide, C,H,NSO,. Since it differs entirely from taurin in its properties, it follows that taurin cannot be the amide of isethionic acid—Ber. Berl. . Ges., vii, 391, April, 1874. G F. B 5. Condensation of Acetylene by the Silent Electric Discharge. —P. and A. Tuenarp have succeeded in condensing acetylene gas to the liquid and even to the solid condition by submitting it to the silent electric discharge or “effluve,” in an apparatus contrived by the latter. In one experiment, the gas condensed at the rate of hich a polymer. It is not acted on by the most energetic solvents, m- Ing nitric-acid, in the cold, being without immediate effect on it. lene, benzol being only tri-acetylene. By means of zinc chloride he 62 Scientific Intelligence. obtained a solid product of condensation from benzol, not volatile at the temperature at which glass fuses. He had called it bitu- mene; Thenard’s product was undoubtedly of the same kind, per- haps more condensed.— C. #., Ixxviii, 219. Moniteur Scientifique, III, iv, 265, March, 1874. G. F. B. 6. Nitro-compounds of the Allyl series,—BRACKEBUSCH has con- tinued his researches on the production of nitro-derivatives b f : ; ° sodium-nitro-propylene, is produced ; in complete analogy with the nitro-derivatives of the fatty series. Potassium acts similarly. pump. Th spirit flame across the lower part, when the pith-ball descended slightly, and then rose to above its original position, as if there was first an attraction, instantly overcome by the air-current. The same effect was obtained with a glass bulb containing water at 70°, the pith- ball rising whether the heated body was a Ben or below it, though less rapidly in the latter case. e pump was now set to work, when the action became less and less, until with a pressure of 7 mms. it ceased entirely. It seemed evident that the effect was due to air currents, and that in a vacuum no action would ensue. bh incandescent by an electric current was next enclosed in the tube, an ‘ass balls were i seemed to be to bring the center of gravity of the brass ball as Chemistry and Physics. 63 near as possible to the source of heat, when air of ordinary den- sity, or even rarefied, surrounded the balance. Whenthe pressure was 5 mms., the attraction was still strong, With a pressure of uum formed so perfect that it would not transmit an electric current, when the repulsion was decided and energetic. Projecting ona pith- themselves with a variety of substances, as metals, ivory, char- coal, ete. stellar void. In the radiant molecular energy of cosmical masses may at last be found that “agent acting constantly according to known laws” which Newton held to be the cause of gravity.— Quart. Jour. Sci., xlii, 274. ROP, 8. Double refraction of a Viscous Fluid in motion.—Professor Maxwett, in a paper before the Royal Society, states that a viscous fluid, according to Poisson, behaves as an elastic solid periodically liquefied for an instant, and solidified again, so that at each fresh start, it becomes for an instant like an elastic solid ree from strain. The state of strain of certain transparent bodies may be investigated by this action on polarized light. This action, observed by Brenslet, was shown by Fresenel to be an instance of double refraction. : oe To ascertain whether the state of strain in a viscous fluid in motion could be detected by its action on polarized light, a cylin- drical box was made with a glass bottom. In this a solid cylinder could be made to rotate, and the fluid to be examined placed in the annular space between the cylinder and _the sides of the box. Polarized light was thrown up through the fiuid parallel to the axis, while the cylinder was made to rotate. No effect was, however, obtained with solution of gum or syrup. Canada balsam, which had been very thick and almost solid in a bottle, affected the light when compressed. 64 Scientific Intelligence. rate of relaxation of that strain which the light indicates. If the motion of the spatula in its own plane, instead of being the plane of polarization, is inclined 45° to it, no effect is observed, . : b the light, showing, as may be s nettle is not a true jelly, but consists of cells filled with fluid. time of relaxation.— Phil. Mag., xlvii, 390. with Fluorescent Eyepiece.—M angle. The fluorescent plate may be made of uranium glass, or of thin pieces of glass a short distance apart containing any fluores- cent liquid between them Two lines drawn at righ the glass take the place of cross-hairs. It is a good plan to inter- Chemistry and Physics. 65 pose a plate of cobalt blue glass to cut off the more brilliant portion of the spectrum. If the eyepiece is not inclined, the ent our observin ae be seen, but the fiuorescent ate! then 4% ars very clearly, of a uniform tint traversed ark lines. ‘These lines may be brought to coincide with the ies drawn on the glass and their deviation measured. With uranium glass the fluorescent spectrum is well seen from G ; it is very intense near H; the four rays © are also visible, but beyond that, little can be seen. With bisulphate of quinine, the spectrum is very beautiful ae bright. It extends but little into the visible part, about to A. We see very clearly the rays as far as JV, and even a little beyond. Esculine appears to give the most brilliant spectrum; we dis- tinguish very clearly the lines VV, and even 0. Re spectrum extends into the violet, a little bey rond that of quini een, ene (Magdala) gives good results for the sncrttdaee portion as far ; but the appearance of the ponies in oom is curious in the jess refrangible portions. From n to a No. ears all the rays with perfect clearness. = Bit, meee 0. 196, p. a date streak appears in the apekoe; which may be sade to fall on any desired Fraunhofer line — changing the angle of incidence and the azimuth of the analyzer. The differe nee of phase and ratio of the amplitudes of the components polarized parallel ian perpen- dicular to the plane of reflection, or the intensity of the compo- nents of the reflected light, can thence be calculated for any angle of incidence. The most perfect surfaces are possessed by nickel, silver, gold and selenium; the latter being melted iad press with a cold plate of glass. With the exception of gold, in the case of all the metals here mentioned, the prime angle of incidence ‘ion angle) diminishes wi ith the diminution of the wave- uR. Scr.— oe ERIES, Vou. VIL, No. 43.—JuLy, 1874. 66 Scientific Intelligence. length, the reverse of what takes place with transparent bodies. The diminution, however, is very different with different metals. The prime azimuths partly increase and partly diminish as the wave-lengths become less. Platinum shows a maximum value for the line D, cobalt and bismuth for the line Z#, and tin for the line # Observations were also made with thin transparent layers of gold, silver and platinum of thicknesses varying from 8 to 75 millionths of a millimeter. They show that the prime angle of in- cidence and the prime azimuths increase as the thickness increases, ut in different degrees for different colors, With silver the prime azimuth exhibits a maximum value for a certain Fraunhofer line, which maximum moves toward the red end of the spectrum as the IL GroLtoay AND NATURAL HIsToRY. 1. Small size of the Brain in Tertiary Mammals, by Prof. O. C. Marsu.—At the last meeting of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, June 17th, Prof. Marsh of Yale College made a com- munication on the size of the brain in Tertiary Mammals. His re- age size of that in existing Rhinoceroses. In the other genera 0 this order, Zinoceras Marsh and Uintatherium Leidy, the small- had small brain cavities, much smaller than their allies, the Mio- cene Rhinocerotide. The Pliocene representatives of the latter up had well developed brains, but proportionally smaller than ving species. similar progression in brain capacity seems to be well marked in the equine mammals, especially a the Eocene Orohippus, through Miohippus and Anchitherium of the Miocene, EEE Geology and Natural History. 67 Pliohippus and Hipparion of the Pliocene, to the recent Zyuus, In other groups of mammals, likewise, so far as observed, the size of the brain shows a corresponding increase in the succes- sive subdivisions of the Tertiary. These facts have a very im- portant bearing on the evolution of mammals, and open an inter- esting field for further investigation. . al (or Lignite) in the Cretaceous of Minnesota,—Prof. N. R 2. H. Winchell, in his Report for 1873, announces the existence of sometimes into good Cannel coal, or into a bituminous clay; the compact Cannel coal is in detached lumps, and occurs throughout a band about four feet in thickness. At another outcrop, the Lig- corps of Professor H. D, Rogers on the former surve the text, which the new facts and the progress in the principles of the science required, the author has introduced a c apter of water and the atmosphere, an E close, presenting a brief review of geological dynamics, under the title of “Effects referred to their causes.” The work is printed in excellent style; and although containing one-sixth more matter _ than the former edition, the volume, owing to its larger page of ual size. 68 Scientific Intelligence. i. RRS. By JosEPH Prestwicu, F.R. s. oo , Re porter. 100 pp. 4to.—This detailed mond well Tustratdal memoir bears evidence that no pains in the exploration of the cave was spared that could add to a exactness and complet aca ‘of the series of facts afforded b The principal sonelyeione are already in the last omen of Lyell’s Antiquity of Man, and need not be ae re ears Rocks in New Hampshire—A note one Pro- pote C. H. Hitchcock states that Mr. Huntington has ined specimens of Halysites or chain coral on Fitch Hill, in tiie 7. Das Gebirge um Hallstatt, eine eerie sche, paldontolo- Saaee iyark aus den Alpen; von EpmMunpD Mosstsovics VON Mos Theil. Die Mollisken Pannen der Zlambach- und- Hallstatter Sohichten, 1 Heft. From the Abhandlungen d. k. k. geol. Reichsanstalt, vol. 6, 4to. Vienna, 1873.—This is one of the most cei described, but the main merit. of the work consists which contains oe a few species that are Pp aay Jurassic, and Hill known 1 plates of datolite posta now numberin ng 71. of which 16 were added by Mr. Dana from the Bergen Hill crystals, and 10 from those of foreign localities. A table contains the principal angles of all the forms, for the most part rec: ot be the * This Jour., II, iv, 16. Geology and Natural History. 69 author, and a diagram presents a map-projection, after Miller’s method, of all known planes in their zones. “The crystals studied were from the Royal Mineralogical Museum of Vienna, of which Professor Tschermak is Director. 9. On Atacamite; by E. S. Dana, (Zschermak’s Min. Mit- theilungen, Vieuna, 1874,)—The results of a large number o measurements of crystals of Atacamite, from Wallarro, South Australia, are here presented. They prove that the species is, as hitherto supposed, orthorhombic, but show further some irregular- ities in the planes of the vertical series, which can be explained only by the assumption of a dome 40% taking the place of 7-4, and a corresponding pyramid, in place of the prism I. The crystals under examination were placed in the hands of the author by Dr. A. Schrauf of the Vienna Mineralogical Museum. 10. Changes in the character of Vegetation produced by Sheep- grazing.—Dr. Suaw, of the Cape of Good 0 ti innean Society an interesting communication (published in its om b curse to the wool-producers. In the Orange River Republic it has So affected the wool in some parts of the country as to make it nearly unremunerative as a staple product. : The principal changes, however, are not in the introduction of foreign plants, but in the alteration of the range and relative abundance of those that belong to the country. hen first intro- duced into the midland or pasturage region, the sheep fed mainly oe < ‘ the flocks, and the ground was left to them and to obnoxious and poisonous herbs, . . . and to the intoxicating Meliew, the ‘dronk’ grass of the Dutch colonists.” It used to be thought that alee were everywhere salubrious and bland; but it appears that in So 70 Scientific Intelligence. It may be said that this same region used to support millions of antelopes; but then, these were always on : e move, in their piprenon following the rains and the young fresh ‘herbage 3 ereas the sheep are kept upon the limited area, where they cause as ace destruction by their tread as by eating. The rain-fall is said to be affected, becoming more precarious and in thunder torrents, and so does not to the same extent soak into the ground, is which become weaker and less perennial year after year. More- over, the Chrysocoma and other disagreeable Composite, at first eschewed by the sheep, but upon which they have to feed from necessity, greatly injure the mutton, which tastes and smells of é them. Truly was it said by the veteran Fries, that the appointed lord of creation is apt to do his utmost to ruin ‘it; that thorns and thistles, ill-favored and poisonous plants, mark the track which man has traversed through the earth. The introduction of sheep into the foot-hills and higher po of the Sierra Nevada in California is beginning to make havo its proper flora; from which it is not botany only that will sue 11. The Perigynium and ee Setu in Carex have cae been studied in England by Professor McNas and Professor Dyer; and the results o an rereatipation of the early develop- e the seta is proved to be of axial nature; and the perigynium answers to a single bract, according to Professor MeNab—of pro- bably one or possibly two bracts, according to Professor Dyer. . G guis S. alpina develop their flowers from ge base of the aoe u only Palggeadng “ pages and S, obtusa us flowering proceeds including Calais (17 species), Ma ria ( including Macrorhynchus and Lygodesmia. Geology and Natural History. 71 The present pha gee of the Proceedings indicates an increased sacle of the American Academy, at least in the wa y of publica- tion. This ninth volume is filled with the work of the year, end- ing with the meeting in May, and is actually issued early in J une. The papers are separated “fr the notices of members deceased during the two past years, orm- olume i through the depression of the coast range between Petaluma and Tomales Bay. The character of the soil and elevation above the sea are of comparatively little consequence. “Since the general course of the mountain ranges is nearly northwest in this region, and the wind strikes their southwest slopes ett ath and the sun in its daily course shines most intensely and longest upon the same exposure, it follows that this slope is almost everywhere est rainfall and the mos pposite “A northeast slopes, therefore, sain have the greatest tree grow winds seem to ts in two ways. First, by thee drying ihe d as ure is abundant.” The grouping of the trees of the district at a distances around San Francisco is then given, in more AS Catalogue of Plants growing without Cultivation in the bee of New Jersey, etc.; by Oxrtver H. Wrtis, ctor of Natural Science in the Alexander oO New York Schemerhorn & Co.), 1874. Besides the 70 pages of Catalogue, r. Willis, having the needs of botanical 8 ns and collectors in view, has usefully filled several pages with practical suggestions to teachers, and bute: for ieee and scarce g plants. e 72 Scientific Intelligence. cone in a quart of the strongest alcohol, and it will be of the roper strength. The poison will thus romptly penetrate the interior of the specimen, and be left there, while the quick evapo- tetas of the alcohol avoids the injury which water or weak spirit may give rise to. Mr. Willis has — se gre e — pagar ds a lub. fall of details, popes accounts of the more remarkable plants being given, and of many that are not particularly so. One item is especially gratifying * to farmers, viz., that the author has never seen a Canada Thistle in the State, “except in the Presbyterian ee tera Freehold.” Among the wild plants omitted —* will mention the charming Linnea. A. cme C. F. Mrissyer of Basle, an excellent man Be distinguished botanist, who has long been infir rm, died on the sec- d of May, ult. His lar rge herbarium had become the property of Columbia College, New York, through the liberality of a gener- a lover of botany, "and is joined with that of the pariies Dr. rre 17, tstrated Catalogue ae the Museum of Comparative Zook ogy» N VIL. Revision of the Echini, Part ALE AND ny theses part completes the Revision of the Ebi ea Sehich Mr. Agassiz has been engaged for several years, and is evoted to their Anatomy and Em vbr ryology. Like the previous parts, it is accompanied by many excellent plates, done by the new photographic processes, increasing the total number of plates to eet t ith sixty-nine wood-cuts. N otwithstanding the ver also chapters on the habits, geological succession, and affinities of the Echini. Under the last head the author maintains the view, held quite generally by American naturalists, that the Echino- oe ms are close ly related to the Acalephs and Polyps, in opposition the opIMOns of many promot European zoologists, that they are allied to the worms, rm by themselves a separate bor f the Animal Kingdom > $6. Illustrated Catilopia e of the Museum of Com ne Zook ogy. No. VIII. Zoctogual Results of — Hassler Hxpeditio Eehini, a and Corals; by Avex. Acassiz and L. F ‘DE ». 4to, with 10 plates. Th e first part, relating to the Echini, i is by Mr, Agassiz, It contains description of, and notes species are the “ heliotype” process. the more important species were dredged in 100 pene a off Bar- badoes ; others are from Patagonia, the west coast of America, and the Ga rae Islands. Mr. Pourtales dust hes and figures a new species of Rhizocrinus oS Rawsonii) dredged in 80 to 120 Geology and Natural History. 73 fathoms, off Barbadoes. He also describes and figures a specimen of Holopus Rangiti D’Orb., from off Barbadoes, loaned to Professor Agassiz by Governor Rawson, and upon the study of which Pro- fessor Agassiz was engaged during his last ays at the Museum. In the part relating to the Corals, Mr. Ponrtales has described and figured many interesting deep-sea species, many of which are new, and has given additional localities for others previously described.* Most of them are from the rich locality off Barbadoes,, referred to above, but a few are from Brazil and the Pacific. Among the more interesting forms is a new genus (Duncania Barbadensis) which is referred to the Rugosa. V. 19. On the Habits of the California Wood-rat; by A. W. Cuasr, Assistant U. S. Coast Survey. (From a letter to B. Silliman, dated o> of large spikes; in the closets, knives, forks, spoons, etc. large f the room oO soug. : entered this house I was astonished to see an immense rat’s nest on the empty stove. On examining this nest, which was about e é y try so a nails outward. In the center of this mass was the nest, composed of finely divided fibers of the hemp packing. Interlaced with the * In a recent letter Mr. Pourtales desires us to make the following correction: He now considers the species described as Flabellum Braziliense (p. 38, pl. V1, figs. 16, 17) identical with the Euphyllia spinulosa Dana, and therefore proposes to call it Flabellum spinulosum. 74 Scientific Intelligence. spikes, we found the following: About three dozen knives, forks and spoons, all the butcher knives, three in number, a large carv- ing knife, fork and steel; several large plugs of tobacco; the out- side casing of a silver watch was disposed of in one part of the pile, the glass of the same watch in another, and the works in still apace an Bice urse containing some silver, matches and to- e coe some sire ses as they were originally stored in different parts of the hou e ingenuity sed skill displayed in the construction of this nest and the curious taste for articles of iron, many of them heavy, for component parts, struck me with surprise. The articles of value were I think stolen se the men who had broken into the house for temporary lodgi Ihave preserved a sketch of this iron-clad nest, which I think unique in natural bistory. Many curious facts have since been related me, concerning the habits of this little Shaner A miner told me the following : He once, during the ing excitement in Siskyiou County, became in California parlanoe “dead broke,” and applied for and obtained employment in a mining camp, where the owners, hands and all slept in the same cabin. Shortly after his arrival small articles commenced to erat gain : a whole plug of tobacco were left on the table, it would be gone in the morning. Finally a bag, containing one hnndved or more ee in gold dust, was taken from a small table at the head of a “ bunk,” in which one of the proprietors of the claim slept. Suspicion fell on the new comer, and he would perhaps have fared hardly; for, with those rough aici punishment is short and sharp; but, just in time, a large rat’s nest was discovered in the garret of the cabin, snd in The Doctrine of Evolution: its data, its principles, bon speculations, and its Theistic bearings. By ALE N- LL, LL.D., Chancellor of Syracuse University, &c. et pe 120, New York, 1874. (Harper & Brothers.)}—This volume is argument again nst the derivation of species by gradual variation The author sustains the idea of a system of evolution in the organ kingdoms, but with this qualification, that “the evolution, eile a real evolution in its main features,” has “many facts of a avougly disboedhart character” in its details. He observes that ution admitting of pro y considerable oe that make the progress gradual. In his concluding re- s, after a recapitulation of his deductions from known facts, the : bes says that there exists no “a@ priori ground for denying that some phase of the doctrine of filiative evolution i in the organic world may yet become proven and established,” and then rightly adds, cre if so established there will be in this | “no sd steth of dectg sence 0: Ss y fro Astronomy. 75 III. Astronomy. 1. On the Motions of some of the Ne Earth ; by Witt1am Hueeins.—The observations on the motions of the gaseous nebule to the stars and to our stellar system by observations of their motions of recession and approach. Since the date of the paper to which I have referred, I have availed myself of the nights sufficiently fine (unusually few even for our unfavorable climate) to make observations on this point. The inquiry was found to be one of great difficulty, from the faint- ness of the objects and the very minute alteration in position in the spectrum which had to be ob t that the brightest line in the nebular spectrum is not sufficiently This line appeared to meet é narrow, of width corresponding to the slit, defined at both edges, and in the position in the spectrum of the brightest of the lines of the nebule. ; * Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. xx, p. 392. + Ib., p. 380. 76 Scientific Intelligence. In December, 1872, I compared this line directly with the first line in the spectrum of the Great Nebule in Orion. I was de- lighted to find this line sufficiently coincident in position to serve as a fiducial line of comparison. not prepared to say that the coincidence is perfect ; on the contrary, I believe that if greater prism power could be brought to bear upon the nebula, the line in the lead spectrum would be found to be in a small degree more refrangible than the line in the nebule., as a fiducial line in the observations I had in view. In m map of the spectrum of lead this line is not given. In Thalén’s map (1868) this line is represented by a short line to show that, under the conditions of spark under which Thalén ob- served, this line was emitted by those portions only of the vapor of lead which are close to the electrodes. ; I find that by alterations of the character of the spark this line long and reaches from electrode to electrode. As some due not to the vapor of lead but to some combination of nitrogen under the presence of lead vapor. As, however, this line is bright imi i is taken in a current of need scarcely remark that the cireumstance of making use of this line for the purpose of a standard line of comparison is not to be taken as affording any evidence in favor of the existence of lead in the nebule, ne was observed on several nights, so that the whole observing time of the past year was devoted to this inquiry. In no instance was any change of relative position of the nebular line and the lead line detected. 3 aie td Astrenomy. 77 a I found several more in the same neighbor- hood, and afterward a considerable time passed before I came to another parcel.’””* Since the existence of real nebule has been established by the e Prof. D’Arrestt have called attention to the relation of position which the gaseous nebulz hold to the Milky Way and the sideral system. It was with the hope of adding to our information on this point a these observations of the motions of the nebule were under- aken. ‘In the following list the numbers are taken from Sir J. Herschel’s “ General Catalogue of Nebulw.” The earth’s motion given is the mean of the motions of the different days of observa- tion. N h. H. Others. Earth’s motion from Nebule. 1179 360 ae M. 42 7 miles per second. 4234 1970 ee) z.5 12 95 fe 4373 oe IV. 37 oe 1 “ “ 4390 2000 ce 2.6 2 a “ 4447 2023 ce M. 57 3 “ 4510 2047 IV. 51. ‘a 14 = a 4964 2241 TVs. ee es Zi 13 —Proc. Roy. Soc., March, 1874. * Philosophical Transactions, 1784, p. 448. “ Other Worlds than Ours,” pp. 280-290. ** Astronomische Nachrichten,” No. 1908, p. 190. 78 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Astronomical Observatory in the Sierra Nevada,—Mr., James Lick, of San Francisco, already renowned for his munificent gift to the California Academy of Sciences, has recently devoted to public purposes $2,000,000 ; and of this sum m $700,000 are set aside for the equipment of an Astronomical Observa atory on some elevated point in the Sierra Nevada. Land on the borders of Lake Tahoe has been given by him. But in case this site is not thought the best, the trustees, in conjunction with Messrs. Alvan Clark & Sons, the well-known opticians, are to appoint a person who shall determine on a site. The $700,000 are to be applied to the making of atelescope larger and better than any now in existence; and the surplus left, after paying for the telescope, is to be invested for the maintenance of the observatory, or, “ be made useful in pesmoune science.’ Cordo likely to exceed 65,000. He states 8 the middle of the tate year may see the zone need cate permple ted. 4. Coggias Comet.—Dr. TizrseEN gives the elements and a ephemeris of the Coggia comet in ie Astronomische Nachelobien, No. 1993. The following are the places Berlin Time. a 6 Light-factor. July 4. 7h 36-6" +63° 1! 40 ce 40°3 58 36 58 1] 42°9 51 25 84 15. 44°7 oT 27 128 19 46°3 +23 6 150 23 48°0 apatie i gis 149 ps & 50°1 —16 25 112 Aug. 4. * B52 —39 55 These oes bring the comet within about 25,000,000 miles of us in the fourth week in July, with a brilliamey ten-fold that which it has ts the middle of June. It will remain rsa Major till near the middle of July, when it will p abe rapidly south, a little west ay no sun. It will be almost directly between us and the sun Jul 5. New —A new planet was discovered by Mr. Perrotin . aes so ee 19th of May. It was then of the 11°5 mag- tude. TV. Misce.LAneous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. 1. The American Museum of Natural History, New The corner-stone of the first section of this institution, in ie ane - tral Park of the city of New York, was laid by the a of the United States, on the 2d of June, in the presence of a con- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79 course of distinguished people from various parts of the country. On behalf of the museum, Mr. Robert L. Stuart, the President of the Commission, briefly recounted its history, its incorporation in 1869 by the Legislature of New York, the award of Manhattan square, adjacent to the Park, for its use and that of the Metropoli- tan useum, with the donation of five hundred thousand dol- lars to each for the commencement of the buildings. The plans, of which the present portion form only the commencement, contem- plate an expenditure of $6,000,000. _ Addresses were made also b Messrs. Wales and Stebbins on behalf of the Park Commissioners, and by General Dix as Governor of the State, all fully adopting purposes of such a museum as a means of diffusing a knowledge of science, and, by proper instructors and endowments, fostering a spirit of scientific research and promoting the general advancement of science. Under a wise administration of its a irs, the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History will not fail, for the want of means, to carry out its proper purposes, and will thus become a source of delight and of advancement to the great communi t it, and an honor to American science in the eyes of the civilized world. B. 8. 21. Note on the Recent Earthquakes of Bald Mountain,in Ruth- erford County, North Carolina ; by Professor F. H. BRADLEY.— So far as direct observation upon the disturbances there in progress was concerned, my trip to the Bald Mountain region was a failure, for there was not the least disturbance during our visit. But from crevices and smoking pits. e phenomena actually observed seem the center of disturbance, and causing cracks in walls and chim- wing down loose articles, 1. ere W. nothing properly volcanic about them; and the region shows no 1 Bald M volcanic rock. of the easternmost range of the Blue Ridge proper, and consists 80 Miscellaneous Intelligence. 2. Fluctuations in the Great Lakes.—In the number - Nature for April 30th, Mr. G. M. Dawson endeavors to s a com- parison of observations, that -thotes is probably a conection be- tween the fluctuations of the American Lakes and t er of sun-spots. Mor eure observations are required "5 give probability to the conclusi hemical Gottenniok Augie Ist, 1874. sep eteheiaers 05%: lections.. The firs bof Aiiguat falling on Saturday, the meeting will be called for the aay previous. A programme will be soon issued by the committee in charge. 4. Topographical Atlas, projected to illustrate explorations of surveys = 6 the 100th meridian ; under the direction of Hon. m. W. B P, pocitary of War, by the Corps of Engineers, U. ‘S ee EAvatienGuscs A, A, Humrureys, Chief of Engi- neers: embracing results of the different expeditions under Ist Lieut. Geo. M. Wueecer, Corps of rageo, 1841; 188 expeditions a sub ivision of the region west éf the ee mex ian rs the resented with much detail and clearness. The ¢ setae Set atlas will be t contribution to American geography. Lieutenant bhai takes the field this season for the continua- tion of his surveys. 5. Annual Record of Science and Industry hos 1873. Edited by Spencer F, Barrp, with. the assistance of eminent men of science. 12mo, pp. 714. New York (Harper & Brothers), 1874. —This is the third volume of Prof. Baird’s Annual. A general ee of subjects from astronomy technology. The whole io rich in varied and useful fac Mou in ture in the ion Nevada.—The article on Mountain Sculpture, cited from in the preceding volume, at page 515, aes a copy of which we are barred to Prof. . Carr,) was as Prof. Carr has recently nreeres us. oe Mr. John Muir. ae Essays : ae Sew ork, 18 wwrence S. Benson. Vol. L_ Physics. ork, 1874. r Games s" Feriten. ) The omena! is mM , by James ames Andrews. 60 pp os 12mo. "ioe nes Masohor | CHAR T SHOWING T jz THE STORM OF -SEPT 19-21 1872 PLATE 1] 95 93 a4 89 B7 a5 7 97 v 124 1109 CHART SHOWING THE PROGRESS OF THE STORM OF SEPT.22-25 1872. prateon WAC HE ace? iar nage Raa eld Brine: Det AAO. re Po ae IMtAWAT wnr414a7d . c 100 a < 120 130 Ge 0 f Beker Waite,’ seks ‘ 100 — Arges Gs ce ts ea dats CELE EAT ETT rire sonata, » ieee 3H aE RUDY Me 4 i! i IlLa o U-” F ane lng H--zen sf te a dP ~--< dE ee \ iy | A S H Ny A ge : uf u —~ re” we SECTION, TO ILLUSTRATE ARTICLE VII, By R. IRvING, ALONG LINE DE or Map (Pirate IV). Full lined and dark portions from actual i A,B, ©, horizontal Silurian sandstone; D, Penokie Iron Range. 'eLGT ‘IITA “IOA ‘A GLY Td ‘IOS “UNOL ‘WY AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS. [THIRD SERIES] Apr. IX.— Researches in Leadien by ALFRED M. MAYER. Paper No. 5,* containing : i, An Experime mtal Confirmation of Fourier’s Theorem as applied to the decom- ea a the ie plage of a composite sonorous wave into its elementary pen- um-vi 2, An Expe seisia ital Illustration of Helmholtz’s Hypothesis of Audition. 3. Experiments on the su ag soa Seri! / mpae of ee ero Mosquito. +. Suggestions as to the of the ks al scalz of the Cochlea, leading to an 5. Seven Experimental Methods of Sonorous Aoakjais described and discussed. 6. The Curve of a Musical Note, formed by combining the sinusoids of its first six harmoni rmed -by combining the curves corresponding to nics; and the curves fo various consonant i etpoy 7. Experimen’ ee she See ek Sarees ok eee elementary vibrations forming a mu: pale note; or is set in motion by gm com- bined action of sonorous vibrations forming various consonant intervals. An Experimental Confirmation of Fourier’s Theorem as applied ee the decomposition of the vibrations As a | oo sonorous wave into its elementary pendulum-vibra A simple sound is a sound which has oe one pitch. Such @sound js produced when, with a bow, we gently vibrate the prongs of a tuning-fork and bring them near a cavity which re- sounds to the fork’s fundamental tone. An almost pure simple sound can be obtained by softly blowing a closed organ-pipe. On examining the nature of the geal motions of the * This paper is the fifth, in the series of those on Acoustics, already published in this Journal. The p' papers, however, ie not numbered. ions |, 2, 8, 5, Gand 1 of this paper we re read before cap haneoncrs Acad- emy of Sciences during the session of Somasben: 1873. Section 4 - the Academy on April 21, 1874. Am. Jour. Sc1.—Turp HIRD Serres, Vou. VIII, No. 44—Aue., 1874, 6 ¢ 82. A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. prongs of the fork* and of the molecules of air in the resound- ing cavityt and in the closed organ-pipe,t we find that each of these vibrations follows the same law of reciprocating motion as governs the vibrations of a freely-swinging pendulum. But other bodies, for instance, the free-reeds of organ-pipes and of melodeons,§ vibrate like the pendulum, yet we can decompose the vibrations they produce in the air into many separate pen- dulum-vibrations, each of which produces in the ear a simple sound of a definite pitch; thus, we see that a pendulum- vibrating body, when placed in certain relations to the air on which it acts, may give rise to highly composite sounds. It is, therefore, evident that we cannot always decide as to the simple or composite character of a vibration reaching the ear solely from the determination of the motion of the body originating the sound, but we are obliged to investigate the character of the molecular motions of the air near the ear, or of the motion of a point on the drum of the ear itself, in order to draw con- clusions as to the simple or composite character of the sensation which may be produced by any given vibratory motion. Al- though we cannot often detect in the ascertained form of an aerial vibration all the elementary pendulum-vibrations, and thus predetermine the composite sensation connected with it; yet, if we find that the aerial vibration is that of a simple pen- dulum, we may surely decide that we will receive from it only * In my course of lectures on Acoustics, I thus show to my students that the prong of a tuning-fork vibrates like a pendul I take two of Lissajous’ reflecting forks, giving, say, the major third interval, and with them I obtain on a screen the curve of this interval in electric light. Ona glass plate I have ph f rectangular otographed the above curve of the major third passing through a set o codrdinates formed - «Lh £. 4 2. 7 1 * £, : an ana + y equal parts. I now place this plate over the condensing-lens of a vertical lantern Ss. | is vered from the pipe, as th e swingi in the two planes of vibration, while the photographed curve on the lantern is pro- gressively covered with the sand if the tines of the two vibrations of the ‘ lum are to each other as Helmholtz, Tonempfindungen, 1857, p. 75. Crelle’s Jour. fir Math. Bad. lvii. , See Mach’s Optisch-Akustische Versuche, Prag., 1873, p. 91. Die Strobos- The Rev. S. B. Dod, one of the trustees of the Stevens Institute, has recently an experiment which neatly shows this. He silvered the tips of two me! deon reeds and then vibr planes at right angles to r, while a beam of light was reflected figure of their vibrations is the same as that obtained by two Lissajous’ forks placed in the same circull- a A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acousiics, 83 between a simple sound and the pendulum, or harmonic, vibra- - * The equation of this curve is y=a sin(= +2). The length on the axis of one recurring period of the curve is 4; the constant a is the maximum ordinate, or amplitude. The form of the curve is not affected by a, but any change in its value slides the whole curve along the axis of x. It is interesting to observe that this t See Helmholtz on the distinction between a sensation and a perception. Tonempfindungen, p. 101. 84 ' A, M. Mayer—Reseurches in Acoustics. We have seen that the harmonic curve is the curve which corresponds to the motion which causes the sensation of a sim- ple sound, but a molecule of vibrating air or a point on the reference to the curves projected by such motions; for he has shown that only one series of sinusoidal resolution is possible. Fourier’s theorem can be expressed as follows: The con- stants O, O,, C,, &., and a,,@,, &e., can be determined so that a period of the curve can be defined by the following equation hs . (27x : 27x ; y=C+C, sin (= +a,)+C, sin(2 $ag)}4.--: But Fourier’s theorem is the statement of a mathematical possibility, and it does not necessarily follow that it can be 1m- decomposition of crac forms, such as the the- of expression of this theorem, as well as for a demonstration of it, see pp. 52 and 60 of Donkin’s Acoustics—the most ad- irabl vay itton on the uiaihamalibel Cadody of pound A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 85 mathematical fiction, admirable because it renders computation facile, but not corresponding necessarily to anything in reality ? Why consider the pendulum-vibration as the irreducible ele- ment of all vibratory motion? We can imagine a whole, divided in a multitude of different ways; in a calculation we may find it convenient to replace the number 12 by 8+4, in order to bring 8 into view; but it does not necessarily follow that 12 should always and necessarily be considered as the sum o 8+4. In other cases it may be more advantageous to consider the number as the sum of 7+5.” The mathematical possibility, established by Fourier, of de- composing any sonorous motion into simple vibrations, cannot authorize us to conclude that this is the only admissible mode of decomposition, if we cannot prove that it has a signification essentially real. The fact, that the ear effects that decomposi- tion, induces one, nevertheless, to believe that this analysis has a signification, independent of all hypothesis, in the exterior world. This opinion is also confirmed precisely by the fact stated above, that this mode of decomposition is more advan- tageous than any other in mathematical researches. For the methods of demonstration which comport with the intimate na- ture of things, are naturally those which lead to theoretic results the most convenient and the most clear.” The theorem of Fourier translated into the language of no dy- namics would read as follows : “ Hvery periodic vibratory moti has the proper velocity, will cause the sensation of a musical note, a i s sponding to the elementary sounds of the given musical note. Heretofore we have called in the aid of the sensations,— assumed to be received through the motions of the co-vibrating * Professor Donkin, in his Acoustics, Oxford, 1870, p. 11, advises the use of tone to to distin; a sound designate a si d the word note guish % gry ping (Gr. ) real tension, and the effect of ten- Sion is to determine the pitch of the sound of a string ;” while a musical note is gen- Fang, & composite sound. Pro : i ; ~~ “ oe words klang and ton to signify compound and simple musical so ' followed him in adopting the la’ oo a sound as that of the human voice could hardly in English be a clang, ing too ~ . 86 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. parts of the ear,—to help us in our determination of the simple or composite character of a given vibratory motion; but Fou- rier’s theorem does not refer to the subjective effects on the organ of hearing,—the dynamic function of whose parts are yet very imperfectly understood. Ohm’s theorem, on the other hand, refers entirely to these subjective phenomena of the ear’s analysis of a complex sensation into its simple elements. As Fourier’s theorem refers only to the decomposition of a com- posite recurring vibration into its elementary pendulum-vibra- tions, it has nothing to do with the physiological fact of the co-relation of the pendulum-vibration and the simplest auditory sensation ; though this well ascertained relation gives us the privilege of using this sensation as an indicator of the existence of an aerial pendulum-vibration. Hence, as Fourier’s theorem is entirely independent of our sensations, we must endeavor to verify it directly by experiments, which must perform the actual decomposition of the composite periodic motion of a point into its elementary pendulum-yvibrations. ut many difficulties present themselves when we would bring to the test of experi- ment the dynamic signification of Fourier’s theorem. For example, the composite sound-vibration, on which we would experiment, emanates from a multitude of vibrating points; parts of the resultant wave surface differ in their amplitudes of vibration ; while points equally removed from one and the same point of the body originating the vibrations, may differ in their phases of vibration ; so that when such a wave falls upon co- vibrating bodies which present any surface, the effects produced are the results of extremely complex motions. The mind sees at once the difference between this complicated conception and the simple one embodied in the statement of the dynamic appli- eation of Fourier’s theorem. arrangement of apparatus. A loose inelastic membrane—(thin morocco-leather does well) —was mounted in a frame and placed near a reed-pipe ; or, as 10 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 87 other experiments, the membrane was placed over an opeteng in the front of the wooden chamber of a Grenié’s free-reed pipe. The ends of several fine fibers from a silk-worm’s cocoon were brought neatly together and cemented to one and the same point of the membrane, while the other ends of these fibers were attached to tuning-forks mounted on their resonant boxes, as shown in fig 1. In the experiment which I shall now describe, eight forks were thus connected with one point of the membrane. The fundamental tone of the pipe was Ut,, of 128 vibrations per second ; and the pipe was brought into accurate unison with a fork giving this sound.* The forks connected with the membrane were the harmonic series of Ut,, Ut,, Sol,, Ut,, Mi,, Sol,, B®-, Ut,. In the first stage of the experiment we will suppose that the fibers are but slightly stretched ; then, tral segments. On increasing the tension, the amplitudes of these single segments gradually diminish and at last dis- appear entirely, so far as the unaided eye can discern, and then we have reached the conditions required in our experimental confirmation. eke Since the number of beats per second given by any harmonic (of a pipe out of tune with its h ic series of forks) will be as the order of the harmonic, it is better to tune a reed to unison with a fork giving one of its er harmonics. I generally used the Sol, fork, or the 3d harmonic. 88 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. The point of the membrane to which the fibers are attached is actuated by a motion which is the resultant of all of the elementary pendulum-vibrations existing in the composite sonorous wave, and the composite vibrations of this point are sent through each of the fibers to its respective fork. Thus, essentially real,” any fork will select from the composite vibra- tory motion, which is transmitted to it, that motion which it has when it freely vibrates; but if its proper vibration does not _ exist as a component of the resultant motion of the membrane, it will not be in the least affected. Now this is exactly what happens in our experiment, for when the pipe is in tune with the harmonic series of forks, the latter sing out when the mem- brane is vibrated ; but if the forks be even slightly thrown out of tune with the membrane, either by loading them, or by alter- ing the length of the reed, they remain silent when the sound- ing pipe agitates the membrane and the connecting fibers.* Thus have I shown that the dynamic application of Fourier’s theorem has “an existence essentially real.” It is indeed very interesting and instructive thus to observe in one experiment the analysis and synthesis of a composite sound. On sounding the reed it sets in vibration all the forks of the harmonic series of its fundamental note, and after the reed has ceased to sound, the forks continue to vibrate and. their elementary simple sounds blend into a note which approx!- mately reproduces the timbre of the reed-pipe. If we could by them with their relative intensities correctly preserved, we should have an echo of the sound of the reed after the latter had forks, allow us but partially to accomplish this effect. 2. An Experimental Illustration of Helmholtz’s Hypothesis of Audition. The experiment, which we have just described, beautifully illustrates the hypothesis of audition framed by Helmholtz to - account for this—among other facts,—that the ear can decom- pose a composite sound into its sonorous elements. Helmholtz * See section 4 of this paper for an account of the degree of precision of this method of sonorous analysis. ; * A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 89 founds his hypothesis on the supposition that the rods of Corti, in the ductus cochlearis, are bodies which co-vibrate to simple vibrations of the composite wave fall upon the membrane placed near the reed as they fall upon the membrane of the tympa- num; and these vibrations are sent through the stretched fibers, (or delicate splints of rye-straw, which I have sometimes used,) rom the membrane to the tuned forks, as they are sent from the membrana tympani through the ossicles and fluids of the ear to the rods of Corti. The composite vibration is decomposed into its vibratory elements by the co-vibration of those forks whose vibratory periods exist as elements of the composite wave motion; so the composite sound is decomposed into its sonorous elements by the co-vibrations of the rods of Corti, which are placing the forks in line and in order of ascending pitch, and attaching to each fork a sharply-pointed steel filament. If the arm be now stretched near the forks, so that the points of the filaments nearly touch it at points along its length, then any fork will indicate its co-vibration by the fact of its pricking the skin of the arm, and the localization of this pricking will tell us which of the series of forks entered into vibration. e rods of Corti shake the nerve filaments attached to them, and thus specialize the position in the musical scale of the elements of a composite sonorous vibration. Thus a complete analogy is brought into view between our experiment and Helmholtz’s comprehensive hypothesis of the mode of audition. 3. Experiments on the supposed Auditory Apparatus of the Culex Mosquito. * For discussions of the vibratory phenomena of loaded strings, see Donkin’s cousties, p. 139; and Helmholtz’s Tonempfindungen, p. 267. me tha a4: ‘ ae } v . ry dissonance rests solely on a minute analysis of the sensations of the ear. This analysis could have ects made by any cultivated ear, without the aid of 90 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. to Helmholtz that these were suitable bodies to effect the ducted alate to the discoveries contained in his renowned work, “Die Lehre von den Tonem Radangen.. * In this poral bone, is necessarily difficult to dissect, and even when a view is obtained of the o rgan of Corti, its parts are rarely im situ ; and, moreover, they have already had their natural structure altered by the acid with which the bone has been saturated to render it soft enough for dissection and for the cutting of sections for the microscope. s we descend in the scale of seep ey, from the higher vertebrates, we observe the parts of the outer and middle ear disappearing, while at the same time we see the inner ear gradually seins toward the surface of the head. T external ear, the auditory canal, the tympanic membrane, and with the ioe the now useless ossicles, have disappeared in the a. —— and there remains but a rudimentary receives the pees Merete will be more ex than in higher organisms. Indee very minuteness of the crear art of the articulates ae fdicate this, for a tympanic mem- rane placed in vibratory communication with a modi theory, but the leading-thread of theory, and th + sporent ‘of aa means of observation, have facilitated it in an Saceere e “ Above all things I beg the reader to remark that the hypothesis on the co- vibration of the organs of Corti has no immediate Scots with the explanation of consonance and which rests solely on the facts of penn 1% on the beats of harmonics and of resultant sounds.”—Helmholtz, Tonempfindungen, Ps Acoraing Waldeyer, there are 6,500 inner and 4,500 outer pillars in the A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 91 secondly, the minuteness of such a membrane would render it impossible to co-vibrate with those sounds which generally occur in nature, and which the insects themselves can produce ; condition. Finally, the hard test, characteristic of the articu- lates, sets aside the idea that they receive the aerial vibrations a } = ie le} SS et oe ia?) © 2) = @ RS =| og ce) Loma] co oo @ -~ op 4) fA foes a ia) Eh n oS a") a 4 si o ® 2) Qu — 7 the organ of hearing in insects, have rarely kept in view the anatomist of former years could be satisfied with his artistic ment of nature; for the perusal of those long and labor precise descriptions of forms of organs without the slightest * See section 4 of this paper. 92 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. attempt, or even suggestion, as to their uses, affects a physicist with feelings analogous to those experienced by one who peruses a well classified catalogue descriptive of physical instru- ments, while of the uses of these instruments he is utterly ignorant. The following views, taken from the ‘“ Anatomy of the In- vertebrata by G. Th. v Siebold,” will show how various are the opinions of naturalists as to the pee and form of the organs of hearing in the Insecta. “There is the same uncer- olfactory organs). Experience having long shown that most insects perceive sounds, this sense has been located sometimes in this and sometimes in that organ. But in their Sites it often seems S ate been forgotten, or unthought of, that there convex spots at the base of the antennz of Blatta orientalis, and which Treviranus has described as auditory organs, are, as Burmeister has correctly stated, only rudimentary resect! eyes. Newport and Goureau think that the antennz serve both as tactile and as auditory organs. But this view is inadmissible, as Erichson has already stated, except in the sense that the antenne, like all solid bodies, may conduct sonorous vibrations of the air; but, even admitting this view, where is the auditory nerve? for it is not at all supposable that the antennal nerve can serve at the same time the function of two distinct senses.) “Certain Orthoptera are the only Insecta with which there has been discovered, in these later times, a single organ having the conditions essential to an auditory apparatus. This ih F an apes with the Acridide, of two fossse or conchs, surroun ed thoracic ganglion, forms a anne on the ty pen ae and terminates in the immediate n a: of the la shiae by a collection of cuneiform, staff: taff like with very finely- pointed extremities ae Gee peer ?), which are sur- s ’ A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 93 placed it beyond all doubt by careful researches made on anterior side of the trachean vesicle. Upon this band is situ- ated a row of transparent vesicles containing the same kind 0 cuneiform, staff-like bodies, mentioned as occurring with the crididz, The two large trachean trunks of the fore-legs open by two wide, infundibuliform orifices on the posterior er of the prothorax, so that here, as with the Acrididz, a part of this trachean apparatus may be compared to a ustachit, With the Achetide, there is, on the external side of the tibia of the fore-legs, an orifice closed by a white, silvery membrane (tympanum), behind which is an auditory organ like that just described. (With Acheta achatina and tala, there is a tympa- num of the same size, on the internal surface of the legs in question ; but it is scarcely observable with Acheta sylvestris, : A. domestica and A. campestris.)” : Other naturalists have placed the auditory apparatus of diurnal lepidoptera in their club-shaped antenne ; of bees at the root of their maxille; of Melolontha in their antennal plates; of Locusta viridissima in the membranes which unite the antenna with the head. 94 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. receptors of aerial vibrations, as I will soon show by conclusive experiments. Neither can I agree with him in supposing that the antenne are only tactile organs, for very often their position and limited motion would exclude them from this function ;* and, moreover, it has never been proved that the antennz, which differ so much in their forms in different insects, are always tactile organs. ‘They may be used as such in some insects; in others, they may be organs of audition; while in other insects they may, as Newport and Goureau surmise, have both functions ; for, even granting that Miiller’slaw of the specific energy of the senses ex- tends to the insects, yet the anatomy of their nervous system is not sufficiently known to prevent the supposition that there may be two distinct sets of nerve fibers in the antennz or in connection known that when one of them vibrates, the other will be set into vibration by the impacts sent to it through the intervening air. Thus, if the fibrille on the antennz of an insect should be tuned to the different notes of the sound emitted by the same insect, then when these sounds fell upon the antennal fibrils, the latter would enter into vibration with those notes of the sound to which they were severally tuned ; and so it is evident - that not only could a properly constructed antenna serve as @ receptor of sound, but it would also have a function not possi- ble in a membrane ; that is, it would have the power of analyz- ing a composite sound by the co-vibration of its various fibrille to the elementary tones of the soun The fact that the existence of such an antenna is not only supposable but even highly probable, taken in connection with an observation I have often made in looking over entomological collections; viz: that fibrille on the antenne of noct insects are highly developed, while on the antenne of diurnal insects they are either entirely absent or reduced to mere rudi- ‘mentary filaments, caused me to entertain the hope that I should A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. 95 be able to confirm my surmises by actual experiments on the effects of sonorous vibrations on the antennal fibrille ; also, the well known observations of Hensen encouraged me to seek in whose functions are the counterpart of those of the apparatus - theorem, and similar to the supposed functions of the rods of the organ of Corti. The beautiful structure of the plumose antennz of the male Culex Musquito is well known to all microscopists; and these organs at once recurred to meas suitable objects on which to be- in my experiments. The antenne of these insects are twelve- jointed and from éach joint radiates a whorl of fibrils, and the latter gradually decrease in their lengths as we proceed from those of the second joint from the base of the antenna to those of the second joint from the tip. These fibrils are highly elas- tic and so slender that their lengths are over three hundred times their diameters. They taper slightly, so that their diam- eter at the base is to the diameter near the tip as 3 to 2. I cemented a live male mosquito with shellac to a glass slide and brought to bear on various fibrils a 1th objective. I then sounded successively, near the stage of the microscope, a series of tuning-forks with the openings of their resonant boxes turned toward the fibrils. On my first trials with an Ut, fork, of 512 v. per sec., I was delighted with the results of the experiments, for I saw certain of the fibrils enter into vigorous vibration, while others remained comparatively at rest. he table of experiments which I have given is characteris- tic of all of the many series which I have made. In the first column (A) I have given the notes of the forks in the French notation, which Kénig stamps upon his forks. In the second (B) are the amplitudes of the vibrations of the end of the fibril in divisions of the micrometer scale; and in column (C) are the values of these divisions in fractions of a millimeter. A. B. C. Ut, ‘5 div. ‘0042 mm. Ut, 2°5 0200 Mi, 1°75 0147 Sol, 2°0 ‘0168 Ut, 6°0 0504 Mi, 15 0126 Sol, 1°5 0126 B- 15 “0126 Ut, 2-0 0168 The superior effect of the vibrations of the Ut, fork on the fibril is marked, but thinking that the differences in the ob- 96 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics, on ee of the caesar might be owing to differ- nces in the intensities of the various sounds, 1 repeated the Soe aie but vibrated the iocks which gave the greater ampli- tudes of co-vibration with the lowest intensities ; and although I observed an approach toward as os of amplitude, yet the fibre gave the maximum swings when Ut, was sounded, and I was persuaded that this special Sel was tuned to unison with Ut, or to some other note within a semitone of it. The differ- ences of amplitude given by Ut, and Sol, and Mi, are ~~ siderable, and the table also brings out the interesting obse tion that the lower (Ut,) and the higher (Ut, hore of Ut, cause greater amplitudes of vibration than any intermedi- ate notes, As long as a universal method for the determination of the relative intensities of sounds of different pitch remains undiscovered, so long will the science of “soon remain in its present vague qualitative condition ow, not having the means of equalizing the intensities ‘of the eat issuing from the various resonant boxes, I adopted the plan of sound- ing, with a bow, each fork with the greatest intensity I could Se I think that it is to be regretted that Kénig did not adhere to the form of fork, Nie inclined prongs, as formerly while its amplitude o of vibration was a 3 div. when Ur, was sounded. Other fibrils responded to other notes, so that I ‘infer froni my experiments on about a dozen mosquitos that their fibrils are tuned to sounds extending through the middle and next ict octave of the piano. made some experiments in this on which show the pos- sibility of eventually beste. ‘able to express he intensity of an aerial vibration directly in fraction of Joule’s Dynamical Unit, by measuring ‘the heat developed in a slip of sheet rubber stretched between the prongs of a fork and enclosed in bai duced i Soe the oS dag engaged in heating the rubber and when the rubber is red nA the method I described in the Amer. Jour. Sci. veo Feb., 1873. Of gute “ ean determine the amount of heat produced per seco nd by a known fraction of the apteenrri we have the amount signers by the vibration with its entire intensity. Then means par be devised by whic! al vibra- repr is intensity, expressed in fraction of Tonle? 8 unit, is stamped upon the which ever afterward serves as a _— —_— ure for 0 ger the intensities of rr vibrations of all simple sounds having e pitch as The same opera- tion can be performed on other forks of P different pitch, may 80 a series sp intensi- ties of di t f vibration is obtained expre in a nding fractions of Joule’s unit. Recent experiments have ett Cul uth OF of roxi ynami ivalent of ten A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. 97 To subject to a severe test the supposition I now entertained, that the fibrils were tuned to various periods of vibration, I measured with great care the lengths and diameters of two fibrils, one of which vibrated strongly to Ut,, the other as powerfully to Ut,; and from these measures | constructed in homogeneous pine wood two gigantic models of the fibrils; the ril, and hence the direction of the pulses in the wave are in the direction of the fibril’s length, the latter cannot be set in vibration ; but if the vibrations in the wave are brought more and more to bear athwart the fibril it will vibrate with ampli- them to an auditory capsule, or rudimentary labyrinth, then these insects must cr ! direction sound more highly developed than in any other class of animals : 98 A, M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. this statement and at the same time illustrate the manner in which these insects determine the direction of a sonorous sound of a tuning-fork, which an assistant placed in unknown positions around the microscope. I then rotated the stage of the —— until the fibril ceased to vibrate, and then drew ine a piece of paper, under the erie in the direc- tion of. the fibril. On extending this line, 1 found that it always cut within 5° of the position of the source of the sound. The antennz of the male mosquito have a range of motion in a horizontal direction, so that the angle included between them can vary considerably inside and outside of 40°,* and I con- ceive that this is the manner in which these insects during night direct their flight toward the female. The song of the female vibrates the fibrille of one of the antennz more forci- bly than those of the other, The insect spreads the angle be- tween his antenne, and thus, as I have observed, brings the fibrillz, situate within the angle formed uy the antenn, in a direction approximately parallel to the axis of the body. The mosquito now turns his body in the direction of that antenna has thus ake the vibrations of the antenns ne equality of matey he has placed his body in the direction of the radia- * the sound, and he directs his flight accordingly ; and experiments it would appear that he can thus guide himself to within 5° of the chrection of the female. of —— so that instead of indicating a heh order of auditory development it is really the lowest, except in its power of determining the direction of a sonorous center, in which respect it surpasses by far our own ear.t+ * The shafts of the coop include an angle of about 40°. The basal fibrils of the antennz form en f about 90°, and the terminal fibrils an angle of about 30°, with the axis of the 1 nals assume, becai ne ae aoe Sr ples ogi sgh teach ohn a they serve to fix in space a sonorous center, just as the his three i i position of a point in space. But thi is fanciful and entirely devoid of reason ; Be re coals aie alwnye in ie a ie A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. 99 The auditory apparatus we have just described does not in the least confirm Helmholtz’s hypothesis of the functions of the organ of Corti; for the supposed power of that organ to decompose a so- norous sensation depends upon the existence of an auditory nerve differentiated as highly as the co-vibrating apparatus, and in the case of the mosquito there is no known anatomical basis for such an opinion. In other words, my researches show exter- nal co-vibrating organs whose functions replace those of the tympanic membrane and chain of ossicles in receiving and trans- mitting vibrations; while Helmholtz’s discoveries point to the existence of internal co-vibrating organs which have no anal- ogy to those of the mosquito, because the functions of the for- mer are not to receive and transmit vibrations to the senso (assumed by Helmholtz to confirm his hypothesis), nor mine on the mosquito, can be adduced in support of Helmholtz’s hypo- thesis of audition.* The above described experiments were made with care, and bes: the tympai which : tion to be transmitted always in one way through the ossicles to the inner ear. determine irection of form of the outer ear and by the fact that man can turn his tical axis. Other ‘nasinat however, have the power of facilitating the deter- mination of motion by moving the axis of their outer ears in n' ons. a the appreciation of those composite sounds, whose signification mammals are con- stantly called upon to interpret. 100 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. scopical Society, entitled “ Auditory Apparatus of the Culex Mos- guito, by Christopher Johnson, M.D., Baltimore, U. S.” In this excellent paper I found clear statements showing that its talented author had surmised the existence of some o the physical facts uae y experiments and observations have confirmed. o show that — facts conform to the hy- pothesis that the snieaiad e the auditory organs of the mosquito,* I cannot do besser” “sha quote the following from Dr. Johnson’s paper * While bearing i in mind the difference between feeling a noise and perceiving a vibration, we may safely assume with Carus—for a great number of insects, at least,—that whenever true auditory organs are developed in them, their seat is to be found in the neighborhood of the sacri That these parts themselves are, in some instances, concerned in collecting and transmitting sonorous vibrations, we hold as catablisht by the observations we have made, particularly upon the Culex mosquito ; while we believe, as Newport has asserted in general terms, that they serve also as tactile organs. “The male mosquito differs considerably, as is well known, from the female; his body being smaller and of a darker color, A short time before on death of my friend, Prof. Aaaesin, he wrote me these words: “I can ha ee yaagar! By! deli ight at reading your letter. I feel you have hit u phan one of the most fertile mines for the Gr tieion of a Bn ne somes to ee day is a > ae to naturalists, the seat of the organ of h in culate A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 101 and his head furnished with antenne and palpi in a state of greater development. (Fig. 2.) Notwithstanding the fitness of his organs for predatory purposes, he is timid, seldom enterin dwellings or annoying man, but restricts himself to damp an foul places, especially sinks and privies. The female, on the other hand, gives greater extension to her flight, and eee our race, is the occasion of no inconsiderable disturbance an — during the summer and autumn months. ‘ the female. “Tn the male, the antenna is about 1°75 mm. in length, and consists of fourteen joints, twelve short and nearly equal, and two long and equal terminal ones, the latter measurin (together) 0°70 mm. Each of the shorter joints has a fenestra skeleton with an external investment, and terminates simply posteriorly, but is encircled anteriorly with about forty papulle, upon which are implanted long and stiff hairs, the proximal sets being about 0°79 mm. and the distal ones 0°70 mm. in length ; and it is beset with minute bristles in front of each whor “The two last joints have each a whorl of about twenty short hairs near the base. “Tn the female the joints are nearly equal, number but thirteen, and have each a whorl of about a dozen small hairs around the base. Here, as well as in the male, the parts of the antenne enjoy a limited motion upon each other, except the basal joint, which, being fixed, moves with the capsule upon which it is implanted. “Th between the inner and outer walls of the i gor i with * See fig. 2, 102 A. M. Mayer — Researches in Acoustics. the pedicle of the capsule in company with the large trachea, which sends its ramifications throughout the entire apparatus, and, penetrating the pedicle, its filaments divide into two por- tions. The central threads continue forward into the antenna, and are lost there; the peripheral ones, on the contrary, radiate outward in every direction, enter the capsular space, and are lodged there for more than half their length in sule? wrought in the inner wall or cup of the capsule. ‘In the female the disposition of parts is observed to be nearly the same, excepting that the capsule is smaller, and that the last distal antennal joint is rudimental. “The proboscis does not differ materially in the two sexes; according to their lengths; and of the direction in which the undulations travel, by the manner in which they strike upon the antennz, or may be made to meet either antenna in conse- quence of an opposite movement of that part. “That the male should be endowed with superior acuteness of the sense of hearing, appears from the fact, that he must seek the female for sexual union either in the dim twilight orin the dark night, when nothing but her sharp humming noise can serve him as a guide. The necessity for an equal perfection of hearing does not exist in the female; and, accordingly, we find that the organs of the one attain a development which the others never reach. In these views we believe ourselves to be borne out by direct experiment, in connection with which we may allude to the greater difficulty of catching the male mosquito. etn the course of our observations we have arrived at the conclusion, that the antennz serve to a considerable extent as organs of touch in the female; for the palpi are extremely short, while the antenne are very moveable, and nearly equ * A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 103 the proboscis in length. In the male, however, the length and perfect development of the palpi would lead us to look for the seat of the tactile sense elsewhere, and, in fact, we find the two apical antennal joints to be long, moveable, and comparatively rom hairs; and the relative motion of the remaining joints very much more limited.” y experiments on the mosquito began late in the fall, and therefore I was not able to extend them to other insects. This spring I purpose to resume the research, and will ex riment especially on those orthoptera and hemiptera which voluntarily emit distinct and characteristic sounds, 4. Suggestions as to the function of the Spiral Scale of the Cochlew, leading to an Hypothesis of the Mechanism of Audition. As the auditory nerve has by far its highest development in the cochlea, it is a natural inference that this part of t e ear is chiefly concerned in audition, and that the very peculiar form of the cochlea fulfills some important function; yet the rela- tions of this form to the mode of audition has occupied but destroy the wave after it has once done its work?” Dr. Draper then reasons that this reverberation is prevented by the scale being of different lengths and by the fact of their junction in the helicotrema. These two circumstances give rise to inter- 4 104 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. ‘as a sug- gestion, and with the hope that I may thereby call the atten- tion of students of physiological acoustics to the consideration of the uses of these peculiar forms. Recent studies in embry- ology and comparative anatomy have shown that the ductus Nerve and Cochlea ; in Stricker’s Histolo -) The fact that the ductus controls the form of the scalze, and not vice versa, shows traverses the scale. All know that the organ of Corti is enclosed in the ductus cochlearis, a canal of triangular section bounded on two of its sides by the scalz, and on its third by the membranes lining the outer wall of the cochlea. The upper wall of this canal is . A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. 105 a fine duct. The arch of Corti rests upon the membrana basilaris, which extends beyond the base of the arch to the membranous outer wall of the cochlea, and over the arch ‘7000 F. OPQ showing excess of temperature above that of the surface. rd. A P’R showing rate of augmentation downwa: establish an increase of ;',.;° F per foot of descent would also * The identical curve here given might still be used with a slight modification in the axis of abscissas. If instead of equal divisions of that axis, we were to take C. EB. Dutton on the Contractional Hypothesis. 119 questioned, and it has been argued that rocks, porous and saturated with water, are much worse conductors of heat than b determined by the value ofthe surface rate of increase, and to extend the duration of the cooling. 5 : Another serious quantitative modification will appear possible when we inquire as to the value of for places near the sur- . otic masses, are therefore accidental and should be excluded from arenes would is here expressed for the smaller rates, it is yet immaterial, so far as the present argument is concerned, which of the extremes be taken. perature, 7,000° F, now exhibiting an increase of tts 0 gree per foot of descent near the surface. What is the present very gradual at first, but becoming more and more rapid, till it reaches the present mean temperature at the surface. 120 C. EB. Dutton on the Contractional Hypothesis.. 2. Or take the present surface rate at ;3., of a degree per foot, the other conditions being unchanged. The epoch would be about 160 millions of years, and below 140 miles the rate of increase would be inconsiderable. 3. Taking Sir W. Thomson’s valuation of x at 400, instead of 250, and of the surface rate at ;4.,, the epoch becomes about 98 million years, and below 150 miles the rate of increase would be less than 37'5;. 4. Take x at 250, and rs at =i, at the surface: the epoch would be 2,500 millions of years, and below 600 miles the cool- ing may be disregarded. That Fourier’s theorem, under the general conditions given, unless indeed new evidence can be. brought up to show that this ratio is much less than ;4,, and that the present accepted mean of ;', to ;’; is the result of unknown perturbations, tend- ing to exaggerate its value many times. At present, however, the unavoidable deduction from this theorem is that the great- possible contraction due to secular cooling is insufficient in amount to account for the phenomena attributed to it by the contractional hypothesis. _ So far the discussion has taken no account of such inequal- ities in the process of cooling as have occurred in the form of Plutonic action. Our knowledge of this subject, er pie of oo most necessary inferences from it could be ; 1s, in most cases, potentials developing new affinities. _ ular mobility is possible, these changes may give rise to new _C. &. Dutton on the Contractional Hypothesis. 121 compounds of higher average density. But it is not clear how such changes could take place at depths greater than those assigned as the limits of sensible cooling, and such an assump- tion must appear gratuitous until suppo: y evidence. The want of such evidence compels us to confine possible changes of density (so far as strict reasoning is concerned) to horizons not lower than two or three hundred miles. Although no esti- mate can be made of the contraction of this portion, it is prob- ably safe to say that its volume cannot have diminished so much as one-tenth; and if we were to assign thirty miles as the diminution of the earth’s mean radius since the first formation residue must have occurred before the beginning of the Ter- tary ; and yet the whole of this contraction would not be suffi- client to account for the disturbances which have occurred since the close of the Cretaceous. In all mountain regions the dis- Wherever found, their excessively disturbed condition must utterly prohibit the belief that it is the result of secular con- — traction of the interior. Bearing in mind that a shrinkage of one-fifth of linear dimensions implies an increase of 95 per cent im mean density, and that according to this hypothesis such in- crease is zero at the surface, it puzzles the imagination to con- ceive what must have been the condition of the eart while the Laurentian sediments were accumulating, if we are to assume that their present distortion is due merely to secular contraction. - g he determination of plications to particular localities pre- sents difficulties in the way of the contractional hypothesis which have been underrated. It has been assumed that if a 122, = @ E. Dutton on the Contractional Hypothesis. had been confined to portions underlying the disturbed regions: yet if the contraction was general, there must have been a large ponents by weakening the supports from which it thrusts would have the effect of increasing the intensity of the other set of components at right angles to the weakened set. No relief could take place unless it be a relief in all directions. he case in question is not that of the cylindric arch, but nearly that of the dome; and if a collapse is to occur, every row for most of the distance, but extremely disturbed through- out. If the parallels of latitude perpendicular to this mighty G. B. Goode—New species of Fishes from the Bermudas. 128 diversity of details is so great that only the most prominent and persistent ones could be properly selected ; and as it is in- tended to-bring these into relation with other propositions, their discussion will be omitted here. Art. XII.—Descriptions of two new Species of Fishes from the Bermuda Islands; by G. BRowN GOODE. In a collection of fishes, including some seventy species, made at the Bermudas in the spring of 1872, I find two forms apparently undescribed, descriptions of which are given below. s the marine life of the Bermuda group is essentially West Indian in its character, these species may be regarded as addi- tions to the icthyological fauna of the West Indies. 1. Diapterus Lefroyi, sp. nov. This species belongs to the genus Gerres as defined by Dr. Giinther. It is distinguished from all other members of the alge and family by its relatively greatly elongated form. he body is fusiform, compressed, its greatest height, at the thoracic region, béing a little less than one-fourth (23) of the total length and a little more than one-fourth (27) of the length without caudal (89): in Diapterus aprion, the most elongated of the species hitherto described, the greatest height is but one- third of the length. The height of the body is uniform under the spinous portion of the dorsal, sloping gently and at a nearly uniform angle above and below to the middle of the caudal peduncle. The height of the body behind the dorsal (-10) is less than one-half, that of the least height of the tail (06) 1s one- fourth of the greatest height of the body. The scales are large, measuring 03 and ‘04 in height and 02 and -03 in length: they form about forty-five oblique trans- verse rows between the head and the caudal, four and one-half longitudinal rows between the back and the lateral line and ten ween the lateral line and the belly. 124 G. B. Goode—New species of Fishes from the Bermudas. The length of the head (‘22) equals the greatest height of the ody and is double the greatest width of the head (‘11): the height at the we a (14) is s double the width of the interorbital ity of the ie os ie is circular, its diameter (-08) one-third the length of the head. The origin of the dorsal is slightly behind that of the ventrals, its distance from the snout (31) twice the length of its base (° 16). me dorsal spines are graduated nearly in the proportion (I=-02; II=12; I=11; IV=10; V= 09; VI=°085; VII= 0725 : Vil= 05; IX= 04). The notch be- tween the spinous and so portions is very deep and the con- necting membrane barely perceptible. In the soft dorsal the fifth ray is the longest (°09) and pet the fifth spine, the suc- ceeding rays diminishing regularly to the last, which equals the -—— spine (04); the va of its base (-20) i is greater than the spinous dorsal. anal begins behind the center of ne body (56) ; the first ean is very short (01), one-fifth the length (05) of the second, which is slender; the first ray is the longest (-08), the succeeding rays regularl diminishing in length = the last (03). The lobes of the caudal are equal, the outer rays in length (21) five times the inner ones (04). The extremity of the pectoral reaches the vertical from the last dor- spine: its distance from the snout at the axilla (-25) is nearly equal to the height of the body. The ventral spine re- sembles the fifth dorsal spine in ape and size; the length of the longest ray (‘11) slightly = one-third of the distance from the snout to the ventral axilla (80); the axillary append- age consists of four lanceolate cain the first and longest as long as the last ventral ray. Color: silvery, with a bluish tint above ; axils of the pectorals and extremity of snout brownish. Radial formula, D. IX, 10. A. I, & P. 12. V. I, 5. ©. 8, 9, 9, 8. The unit of measurement used above is one-hundredth of the — length, which in an average specimen is 7-29 inches M. O. 185). The species is common in the protected inlets about the islands in company with the “shad” fh ear gula), from which it is distinguished by the name “long-boned shad :” they are in demand for bait and are easily seized in large quan- tities. I take pleasure in dedicating the species to his Excel- lency, Maj.-Gen. J. H. Lefroy, F.R.S., Governor of the Ber- G. B. Goode—New species of Fishes from the Bermudas. 125 mudas, who while doing so much for the social and political welfare of the islands, is taking an active part in adding to our knowledge of their natural history. 2. Hngraulis cheerostomus, sp. nov. This species closely resembles Hngraulis surinamensis (Blkr.) Gthr. differing from it, however, in several respects. The height of the body (16) is a little more than two-thirds of the length of the head and is contained six times in the total length and a little more than four times in the length to end of middle caudal rays (‘90): the height at the ventrals is less (-18). The scales are large, in thirty-eight oblique rows between the head and the caudal. The length of the head (22) is less than one-fourth of the total and is double its height at the pupil (11): its greatest width (‘08) is about one-third of its length. The orbit is nearly circular and its diameter (‘05) equals the length of the snout (05) and the width of the interorbital area (05). The snout projects far beyond the lower jaw, whose extremity just passes the vertical from the anterior margin of the orbit. The maxillary is dilated above the mandibular joint, rather tapering behind, and extends to the gill opening. The gill-rakers are fine, setiform, not longer than the eye (05), about 25 on the lower branch of the outer branchial arch. The origin of the dorsal fin is in front of the middle of the body (:45 from snout), and directly above the extremities of the ventrals: the length of the first ray (06) is half that of the second (12), which nearly equals the length of the base (11). The origin of the anal is at the middle of the body (51 from _ Snout) and below the posterior dorsal rays: its greatest height (11) nearly equals that of the dorsal. he length of the middle caudal rays (:08) is two-fifths of the outer rays (20). The length of the pectorals (-11) equals the length of base of dorsal (11), the extremities reaching to the origin of the ventrals. Length of ventrals (-09): distance from snout (- ' Color: back and sides brownish, belly white; a broad, clearly defined lateral band of silyer as wide as the diameter of the orbit (05 Radial formula D. 13-14. A. 23-24. Length 2°68 inches (M. O -068). Se Common in schools in Hamilton Harbor, where it is taken for bait in cast nets. Its enormous mouth has given it the name of “hog-mouth fry.” : The types of these descriptions are preserved in the U. S. National Sata in Washington and the University Museum in Middletown, Conn. 126 O. N. Rood—Optical method of studying the ART. X01 on an optical method, of studying the Vibrations of Solid Bodies ; by OaDEN N. Roop, Professor of Physics in Columbia College. of standard forks executing a known number of vibrations in is asecond. This me of Lissajous in point of exactitude, is, on the other hand, more easy of execution and more generally applicable to the study of the vibrations of solid bodies of very different forms. The nature of the method referred to will’ best be illustrated by a few examples. in the number of vibrations executed y them. in a second. For this purpose a short piece of fine steel wire is attached to each of the forks and they are supported in positions so that their vibrations shall be at right angles i to each other, as indicated in fig. 1. The : wires may have a diameter of one or two- tenths of a millimeter, or even less, and are to be attached with the least possible amount of soft wax or varnish. The bration and the intersection of the wires viewed against a bright background with a small telescope, it will be seen that an optical figure is developed, which is partly due to the same well known conditions that give rise to the figures of Lissajous, and partly to the circumstance that the wires move with less velocity when near their maximum deviation from the line of h rest. Hence, if the difference in phase - 3 Is 0, an appearance like fic. 2 is pro- duced, which changes into fig. 3 when i Dy the difference in phase has increased to py Y indications of the same figures are shown in all cases, except __ when the difference in phase is one-fourth, three-fourths, &e., _ Of a vibration, or nearly so. This figure, then, is characteristic Vebrations of Solid Bodies. 127 stancy will then, on the other hand, be the evidence .of perfect unison. If the forks are not exactly in unison, fig. 1 will, as stated, after some time change into fig. 2, and the number of seconds necessary for this change will measure the interval re- quired by one of the forks in gaining or losing half of a com- plete vibration. dee without rising. With this limited aperture, the light from a white cloud answered quite well. If the forks differ by an interval of an octave, an almost equally distinct and well marked figure will be produced, such as is seen in figs. 4 and 5, which represent the characteristic appearances in this case. This fig- 5: ure is quite as useful for purposes ; Dd A complicated figures are given by 4 q i t double octave. It is a little more difficult to distinguish a Tuning-forks and vibrating cords.—From the foregoing it evi- dently is easy with this method to bring a vibrating string into unison with a given tuning-fork, or to adjust it so that the in- terval shall be a quint, octave, twelfth or double octave, above 128 O. N. Rood—Optical method of studying the or below. It is also easy to ascertain the number of vibrations made by a string in a given case, by the aid of a bridge and a properly selected fork making a known number of vibrations, the string being shortened till it furnishes one of the above mentioned figures, and executes hence a known number of vibrations, after which the number of vibrations made by its whole length can readily be calculated by a well known law. Vibrating cords.—To bring two cords into unison, or to pro- duce one of the above mentioned intervals, it is not at all nec- known for his excellent workmanship, merely adding a —— to one of the bridges for the purpose of holding down the co But this instrument, although admirable when the ear is used + some modification of the older arrangements of Weber or Fischer would be found to answer better. Vibrations of rods, bars and plates.—It is evident that rods or bars supported at one extremity or at two nodes, and provided with fine terminal wires, can by this method be brought into unison, or have one of the above mentioned intervals estab- RE ek ON sr RE POP Ae an aE ee ‘ee Vibrations of Solid Bodies. 129 the bar or plate. As an example, I give the result of two rough experiments, which would have been rendered more accurate by the aid of an assistant. e cord, one meter in length, was brought into unison with an Ut, fork, and hence executed 64 double vibrations per sec- ond. It was afterward combined with a plate of glass 330 millimeters long and supported at the two nodes. Five deter- minations with the bridge were made, and after bringing the cord a second time into unison with the fork, repeated. 847° 843 846°9 846°5 847°7 846°9 847°1 845°7 847°7 843 847°28 845°02 The result then in the first case was 75'535, in the second 75-738 vibrations per second. n experiment with another piece of glass cut from the same plate and of nearly the same length gave, with two deter- minations, 77°811 and 77-717 vibrations per second. tions per second. The bridge was adjusted till the string was an octave lower than the bell-glass when sounding its funda- mental note. The results are given below: 802° 803 802°7 803°5 804°5 804 804°2 801°7 803°5 802°2 803°38 802°88 ' The number of vibrations obtained in first case then was 23899, in the second 239:14, with a difference of ‘15 of a single vibration. In experiments of this kind it is plain that the pasar attainable depends to a great extent on the time during whic the vibration of the two bodies can be maintained; still it is not admissible to maintain the cord in vibration by the help of the bow, as the slightest variation in the pressure causes the Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serres, Vou. VIII, No. 44.—Aue., 1874. 9 130 C. A. Morey—Phonautograph. figure at once to change. On the other hand, the bow is useful in bringing a short string into unison with a fork, &c., merely for the purpose of assuring -the experimenter that the figure actually to be used, and furnished by a greater length of the string, is really that of the lower octave, twelfth or double octave. In the experiments with the monochord the string was simply drawn aside with the feather-end of a quill, and then Finally, I may add that the more important of these figures may easily be rendered visible to a large audience. Wires placed in front of a magic lantern; an image is formed on the screen with the aid of a lens of about eighty millimeters focal length ; the figures are then well shown, along with certain of their details not particularly mentioned in this article. New York, May 21st, 1874. Art. XIV.—The Phonautograph ; by CHas. A. Morey. ALMOST every collection of acoustical apparatus includes one of Leon Scott’s phonautographs, but I think I am right in saying that very little use is ever made of them, other than for their explanation. The curves being drawn upon blackened paper cannot be projected, and in most cases they are of so small an amplitude that they require very close inspection for their analysis. As was found at the time of its invention, the great difficulty lies in the fact that the principal motion of the style is a longitudinal one instead of a lateral one. th jections are obviated, and the instrument rendered extremely useful, by the following simple device, which may be readily applied to any one of them. Instead of attaching the style di- rectly to the membrane, it is attached to the end of the long C. A, Morey—Phonautograph. 131 lever. This may be of any length (the one used was about twelve inches) and is made very slender and light, either of deal or of a stiff straw. This is attached at the end to the brass ring which holds the membrane by a simple hinge of goldbeater’s skin, and also to the membrane itself by a short, flexible bristle, or piece of broom-corn. This is inserted into the lever, and is fixed with a drop of glue; the other end is fixed to the membrane as the style usually is, either by a drop of glue, or sealing wax, the former being preferable. Now it is evident that the former longitudinal motion of the style will impart a lateral motion to the lever, and thus to the ityle at the free end of it; and also that this motion will be greatly magnified. The curve can now be drawn upon a plate of smoked glass, as in the well known experiments with tuning forks, the plate be- ing drawn under the style in the direction of the length of the lever. The whole attachment can readily be made so light as to encumber the membrane but very little. The following curves will serve to show the advantage gained over the usual attachment, as well as to suggest the 1 Wyrm ri HANK AMMA cr RT PR LDL II EE numerous uses to which the instrument can be put. The first one is the toungue trill, or the German r prolonged; the sec- is the 00 in mood. The fact that a difference in the intensity of the sound shows itself so very plainly in the curves (2), seems to suggest something in the way of quantitative work in that direction, but it is yet a question as to the delicacy of the instru- ent In each of the cases above, the sound was made in front of the parabolic condenser, but at some little distance from it— two or three feet. ‘Mass. Inst. Technology, Boston, May 24, 1874 132 Scientific Intelligence. SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE, I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs. 1. The so-called Antimony blue—A year or more ago, a new coloring matter was introduced into commerce under the above ce) ed the blue compound. In further proof of this assumption, he found that the antimony could be satisfactorily replaced by mercury. The use of antimony accel- 8 ducing ferric chloride. Water abla, restores the color. It is not soluble in water, is at once decomposed by caustic alkalies, and in powder has the coppery reflection of prussian blue. It is there- fore only another of the blue compounds of iron and cyanogen, and the name “antimony blue,” given to it is a misnomer.— Woniteur Scientifique, III, iii, 1095, Dec., 1873. G. F. B. 2. On the Alloys of Hydrogenium with Palladium, Potassium tube of glass, connected at one end with a manometer, and at the other with a Sprengel pump. Operating at the temperature 0 00° ©., with palladium charged in different degrees, the results show: Ist, that when the volume of the absorbed hydrogen is * Since palladium thus saturated loses hydrogen at the ordinary temperature, and since on to the air, it heats, i authors adopted the plan of placing it at once in water free from air, and heating this to boiling, the gas evolved being measured. It was then treated as above. Chemistry and Physies. 133 compound, capable of true dissociation, the gaseous tension hence- forth depending alone on the tempera rs have prepared a table of the tensions of dissociation at different under pressure. capable of dissolving hydrogen, the quantity depending on its physical state. : In a second paper, Troost and Hautefeuille eerie results of gen.” This tube could be heated to any desired tempera- ture and kept there for any length of time. The authors found that no absorption took place when the potassium was melted, nor 9 . while at 350° to 400°, the absorption goes on much more rapidly. Potassium-hydrogenium thus prepared, is a brittle substance, hav- at 300° and 760 mm. it dissolves 40 volumes of this gas. On oat pelling the excess of gas, a point determined by the agreement o gen to one of potassi the formula Ky requiring 124°6. So absorbs hydrogen actively between 300° and 421°, the tension at 1384 Screntifie Intelligence. 500° in merc under 760 mm., absorbs 17 times its ee of In a thir cape: Troost and Hautefeuille give has results of their Ragin ape of the density of os solidified hydrogen. Re- pects ile raham, these co as alloys of metallic ing 0°970. This il 0-630 as the density of hydrogenium, a remarkably close accordance. The mean is 0°625, a density but a — be deduced from the above data, is the paresis rahe being 1°6.—C. R., lxxviii, 686, 807, 968, March, April, 1 G. F. B. On a Lactic acid of the Allyl series.—In the hope of reducing Sid lordeati acid—obtained by heating chloral-cyan-hydrate with hydrochloric aci tO monochlor-lactie acid, and of effecting in Sbtiochiowne pat not aie the pens chlorine atoms bei ing re- placed wh hydrogen but a molecule of water abstracted in addi- , thus CH ,CLCHOH.COOC, H, —H,O=CHCI--CH-.-COOC,H;. Ethyl “monoehloracrylate is a mobile colorless Pa eer boiling at 146°, having the odor of the allyl series, hgh irritating the mucous surfa aces, ign ed ites barium 9 Sg b ditenives arcing: (FE ex- OOH) ; thus differing from lactic acid by H, less. The free acid was prepared from the barium salt, but for want of material was Chemistry and Physics. 135 ‘ a. _ Occurrence of Leucin in the fresh juice of the Vetch. leucin and tyrosin stand in very i n during the sprouting of the papilionacee and disappears later . ; : ; tration, deposited a granular substance, which formed crusts on all the asparagin. The filtrate on concentration deposited first in, then tl of the albuminate. Althea roots and the roots of Scorzonera his- pan., were examined for leucin, but without result.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., vii, 146, 569, Feb., April, 1874. | G. F. B. 5. On Protamine, a new Base from the Spermatozoids of the Rhine salmon.—Mixscuer has examined the chemical character of the spermatozoids of the Rhine salmon, which at the time of . maturity, in November, may be obtained pure in considerable 136 Scientific Intelligence. seennty. either from the milt itself or from the glands secreting it. he composition of these spermatozoids, noun peculiar, is quan- titatively quite constant P aeyacaass. of lecithin 7°5 per cent, choles- terin 2°2 per cent, fat 3°5 per cent, albuminates 10°3 ag cent, Sere rincipal fn es putes ng 9°6 per cent of phosphorus—48°7 per cent. This ‘latter Hes Se porab now for the first time "shined pure, is not free in the sperm; it exists there as an insoluble compound of an organic base, protamine. To prepare this, the spermatozoids are extracted with hot alcohol to remove fat, ‘lecithin, etc. The residue may then be treated with hydro- chloric acid and 1 DeeMntiates with platinic chloride; or with nitric acid and thrown down by mercuric nitrate. On decom osing the precipitate with ees sulphide, the hydrochlorate or nitrate of the base is obtained. Both these salts er ystallize with difficulty on slow evaporation in prisms probably rhombic. They are easily soluble in water, difficulty so in alcohol, insoluble in ether. They have a peculiar taste, which is astringent, faintly sweet and at the same time bitter. Evaporated with nitric acid a yellow spot is left, which on adding sodium hydrate, becomes a beautiful red, passing into violet ou warming. ‘The free base reacts alka- ine. Analysis fixes its formula as "Ce H,,N,0,(OH). It consti- tutes 26°8 per cent of the dry spermatoz zoids. "From the testicles of a single large salmon in October, 20-30 grams of prosemniie may be obtained.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., vii, 376, Apel, iSite 6. On the Aqueous lines in the Solar Spectrum at as ailti- tudes.—Crocr-SPInEtii and ih eb during their balloon-ascent 0 March 22d, were furnished by Jan with a small spectroscope for the purpose of observing the saat epecerain at high altitudes. They ascended from Villette in a balloon of 2800 cubic meters so ange § at 11" 34™ in the forenoon, a8 reached their highest 1" 30", the barometer standing at 30 aus indicating a eight of 7300 meters. The tem mperature, which at starting was 13°, fell to— 22°. The descent was safely ace se at 2° 12™, The s spectroscopic observations were to be directed specially to the two dark bands on either side of the D lines, produced, as is well known, by the vapor of water. Janssen attributed them to ter- retrial absorption, and hence joe egg that pe ought 4 de band on the right of the D line disappeared, and at 7000 meters, that on the left become invisible. he lines E and F were more decided than at the sea rains The red of the spectrum became darker, so Does Band C were Se a with difficulty. Atmos- herie g¢ was so much reduced that at 6000 meters, at 180° m tie ese a the yellow of the spectrum could be seen and ele a out e observations given were made at an to 7° Foot the sun.— C. R., Ixxviii, 946, April, he Chemistry and Physics. 1387 by any force whatever; only the time in which the distance of the plates is changed a measurable quantity by the action of such a force is the greater the smaller the force. pull of 1 gram, 0°01 mm. in 1} minutes, 0°71 mm. in 7 minutes. 7. ° bd be = . . ‘ . . . hd From this it is intelligible how, limiting the observation to a a not exactly, inversely pro rtional to the squares of the nitial distance; for plates of different sizes, they are to one another as the fourth powers of the radii of the plates; for different liquids, as the times in which, under equal pressure, equal volumes of the exterior fluid acts in apposition to the separating toree- theless, equilibrium does not ensue, because the t hydrostatic pressure between the plates has for its result a nese! mm of the exterior fluid and thereby, agai, a diminution of t es differe e pressures. The distance of the plates can again increased by the separating force, and the same process re- peats itself in a continuous manner. ; ae The author gives also an approximate theoretical solution é e problem, starting from the following consideration. The ves vtv 138 Scientific Intelligence. acquired by the plates through the separating force is, on account of the great slowness of the motion, vanishingly small in compar- ison with the work of that force. is work must consequently e equation deduced from this assumption gives again all the different laws to which the experiments have conducted. It per- for the unit of length, the mass of one gram as the unit of mass, and the second as time-unit, it follows that for water of the tem- perature of 19° C. this coefficient = -0108, for air = 00183, which values almost exactly coincide with those deduced from the exper- iments of Poiseuille, Maxwell and O. E. Meyer.— Royal Acad. of Vienna, April, 1874; Phil. Mag., xlvii, 465. BOB, 8. Hifect of Magnetism on an Electric discharge in rarefied gvses.—MM. Dr La Rive and Sarasry have in a former memoir (Archiv. des Sci., xli, 5) studied the action of.a magnet on a dis- of the tube, beyond a long dark interval, and thence to the posi- tive electrode streaks wide apart. is appearance is completely changed as soon as the magnet is excited. When the negative electrode is acted on by the magnet, the negative aureola, which or 32m trode, presenting an appearance similar to the narrow positive jet observed at about 8 or 10 mm. pressure. e same effect was obtained with a large bell, in which a cen- . . placed by a narrow blue jet of vivid splendor, having sometimes the appearance of a brilliant blue flame escaping from the positive electrode. The effect of the magnet on the resistance of the gas was also very Chemistry and Physics. 139 for nitrogen. When it is the positive electrode that is acted on there is scarcely any appreciable effect. But the kind of magne- tism makes no difference. en the circuit contains several consecutive Geissler tubes, all placed in the same way, each having its negative electrode the magnetic tube, remains the same. 1s Special and peculiarly intense resistance, having its seat at the dimensions of the aureola and the resistance to the passage of the power, A very great quantity of electricity is thus produced, ca- pable of giving long brushes and sparks, of deviating a galvanom- eter needle, of decomposing water, and in Geissler tubes of showing the stratification of the light. A new method of measuring elec- tric tension has been employed, dependent on the greatest a8 140 Scientific Intelligence. The observations of Reusch do not appear to have received that notice which their importance deserved; and, by exhibiting the same results from a different point of view, I hope I have been able to bring them into greater prominence, and to show their important mineralogical bearing. Cambridge, July 1, 1874. 11. Will’s Tables for Qualitative Chemical Analysis. (2d American, from the 9th German Edition.) Edited by Professor C. F, Hives, Ph.D. 8vo. Philadelphia, 1874. (H. Carey Baird.) — of Metallic Oxides. 12. Milk Analyses ; by J. Aurrep Wanxtyn, M.R.C.S., &e. New York (Van Nostrand), 1874. 12mo, p- 73.—This is a practical treatise on the examination of milk and its derivatives, cream, butter and cheese, giving simple and exact methods of anal- ysis, together with the results of the author’s own researches in 1871, especially into the milk and butter supplied to the London metropolitan work-houses and hospitals. It is a valuable and timely contribution to an important department of sanitary science. The author has greatly simplified and improved the methods of milk analysis. plement to Will’s Tables.—This translation of Bunsen’s Memoir was originally published in the Journal of the Franklin Institute in 1868, Il. Grotocy anp Natura Hisrory. develop its true Origin and Cosmical Relations ;”* by Ropert Matter. (Abstract.)—Referring to his original paper (Phil. * Read June 20, 1872; Phil. Trans. for 1873, p. 147, Geology and Natural History. 141 following down after the more rapidly contracting nucleus. This calculation he now makes upon the basis of certain allowable sup- positions, where the want of data requires such to be made, and tor assumed thicknesses of solid shell of 100, 200, 400, and 800 miles respectively. about 500° for the entire scale, between a temperature somewhat exceeding that of the blast-furnace and that of the atmosphere, or 53° Fahr. And applying the higher of these coefficients to the the volume of matter that must be crushed and extruded from the 2. Metamorphic products from the burning of coai-heds of the Lignitie Tertiary in Dakota and Montana.—In this paper, pub- , in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Jan., 1874 (vol. xvi), Mr. J. A. Allen describes metamorphosed 142 Scientific Intelligence. um left in coal grates from the combustion of ordinary mineral coal, The region of the Bad Lands, on the Little Missouri, is one of the fire to the action of decomposing pyrites on lignites and other material of a combustible nature _ metamorphism The baked rocks, besides giving their red tints to the co or greatly retard the erosion of the buttes ridges consisting of them. Over areas of thousands of square miles t us in a sure determine the surface contours and protect the hills from rapid denudation. Fragments of pum- ice have been found on the Missouri as far south as Port Pierre, and the early explorers supposed them to be the products of un- Geology and Natural History. 143 since it is of rare occurrence in the coal. To the west the beds occur on the upper parts of the northwestern tributaries of the Missouri, 345 miles west of Red River and beyond; at 400 miles from led River, near Porcupine Creek, there are many plants in the beds, as leaves of Thuja, Sequoia, Taxus, Populus, Salix, very abundant. The best of the brown coal afforded Mr. Dawson 42 to 474 per cent of fixed carbon, 12 to 17 per cent of water, 32 to 40 per cent of volatile matter, and 2} to 5 per cent of ash. None of those examined afforded a coherent coke. ocks. 4, Marine Champlain Deposits on lands north of Lake Superior.—Dr. Dawson, in his annual address before the Natural History Society of Montreal, May 18th, says that Prof. Bell, in the deposits in the vicinity of Montreal, at a height of 547 feet above the sea. Dr. Dawson also remarks that in the hills behind Mur- ray Bay and Les Eboulements, he has observed these shells at a height of at least 600 feet; and also that Mr. serge. has re- present level—‘“ that which immediately preceded our own modern age”—was cold. The evidence to which he appeals proves the existence of a cold climate as regards the waters, that 1s, of cold currents on the coast, but no facts are mentioned which tell any- thing with regard to the climate over the land. 6. Fossil Cockroaches from the Carboniferous of Cape Breton. (Canadian Naturalist, vol. vii, .\—Mr. Scudder here d scribes two new species from two wings discovered by R. Brown, _ He names them Blattina Bretonensis and B. Heeri. The specimens are on dark shale, and are associated with leaves of Sphenophyllum and ferns. 7. Fossil Elephan wife toa letter from Dr. L. G. Yates, of Centreville, Alameda etd Le h Sciences of Philadelphia, (and published in the Proceedings for 1874, pp. 18-26), remains of Elephants have been found in Alameda, Calaveras, Los Angelos, Placer and Solano Counties; and the Mastodon in Alameda, Amador, Calaveras, Contra Costa, El 144 Scientific Intelligence. Dorado, eg ana — a Barbara, Stanislaus, Solano, Sonoma and Tuolumne Counties. The special localities in each county ae aiinee in the “sors ; and s adds that the Bulletin of the Cornell University. (Sotcoee -) ar me i, number 1 and 2. 64 8vo, with 9 plates. Ithaca, shoot eC Amazon in 1870, 1871; by Cu. Frep. Harrr; the other, descrip- tions and figures of the Carboniferous Brashicneda of ‘Ttaituba, on the Rio Tapajos, Province of Para, . A. Derpy. e latter paper shows, as stated in its conclusions, that the Carbonifer- species described, 12 are also North American (these including the common kinds Athyris subtilita, Spirifer sah ei Chonetes glabra, Productus cora and others) ; that several Brazilian and orth American species are included among those described by D’Orbigny from Lake Titicaca and Yarbichambi, Bolivia; and among those from the province of Arque a degree. or more south- east of Lake Titicaca, by Col. Lloyd; and others from Cocha- bamba and Santa Cruz. Mr. Der erby’s paper = pa are be worked a with great care. It is illustrated by nine photographic plates. 9, Memoire _ servire alla oe della Carta Geologica @ Italtia.—The first volume of the series, in illustration of the ge- ology and ae a map of Italy, was a cehinheds at Flore ce, in 1871, and the first part of the second in 1873. They are quarto volumes, beautiful in ‘be of execution, and admirable in the geograph . Ais eee of the St. etienk to i tunneled for the Italico Hel- vetic railway, by F. Giordano; on the Tertiary formations of the Iphur- bearing zone of Sicily, by S. Mottura; Malacologia Plio- cenica Italiana, by Dr. C. d’Ancona. Fasc. I, enera Pisania, Ranella, Triton, Fasciolaria, Turbinella, Cancellaria, Fusus 10. Note Prof. J. Lawrence Smith’s collection of his Memoirs ; by BS if J. Brusu: addressed to the Editors.—My attention oe called to a volume entitled “ Mineralogy and Chenistes, Origin 1 Researches as Professor a rags Smith,” in which there appears, on page in connection with an article — the “Reéxamination of fn ’ Minerals, ade noes foot- - in eee rst half of this reéxamination I was assisted b y my friend, Geo J. Brush,” As this statement may lead to misap- Geology and Natural History. 145 with Professor Smith. This cl reference to the original papers in this Journal, and by other evidence if necessary. ave no doubt Professor Smith will be glad to have this cor- rection made, and presume it was only an accidental inadvertence which led him to publish the foot-note without further explanation. I should not offer this correction had I not learned that Professor Smith’s volume has had a wide circulation, both in this country and in Europe. New Haven, July 8th, 1874. men Alto, fourteen leagues from Antofagasta, the old localities being in the desert of Atacama in Peru, and at Ascotan in Bolivia. thirty leagues to the east of the mines of copper of Chafiaral de las Animas, northeast of the range of Dojia Ines; the place ap- amount at 14,000,000 tons. A memoir on the subject has pore e i named from the discoverer. 13. On Livingstonite, a new mineral ; by Mariano BarcEna. (El Minero Mexicano, May, 1874.)—Livingstonite much resembles Mm color and aspect stibnite or sulphid of antimony. It occurs in Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp sis , Vou, VII, No. 44—Aue., 1874. 1 146 Scientific Intelligence. sree apparently isomorphous with stibnite, and like it in thin columnar groups. Color, bright paid ; of powder red, pasty of black like stibnite. Hardness, 2 on Breithaupt’s scale. sity, at 16° C, 4°81. Fuses at the first touch of the blowpipe flame, and gives out abundant white fumes. Cold nitric acid does not sensibly attack it; but warm dissolves it and a white sulphid and another of a black color. Reactions show that it contains mercury as well as antimony. An wee has not yet been completed, but an assay proved the pre of 10 per cent cury an antimon It is from Huitzuco, in the State of Guerrero, Mexico. Mr. bac has named it in honor of the distinguished aa fs tra- veler, Mr. Livingstone; with reference to which, he well says, «Al hacer esta dedicatoria he tenido presente que los bicabesharse de la humanidad aoa : todas las naciones, y que la humani- dad entera debe honr oria.” 14. On the Piaponcenincs ia the pile hoe 4A of Utah ; by E. D. Corr. 14 pp. 8vo. 1874.—A part of the Report of the Geographical and Geological Explorations ana Surveys west of the 100th meridian ; sig Lieut. G. M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, U. 8. A., n charge. From the Proceedings of the ‘Amer. Phil. Soc. of Philadelphia 15. Annotated List of the Birds of Utah ; by H. W. Hensnaw. 16 pp. 8vo. (Reprinted from the Ann. N. "York Lye. Nat. Hist., vol. xi, 1874, at Salem, Mass.)—Mr. Henshaw’s personal observ a- tions were made in connection with the surv ey under Lieut. st. 16. Bulletin of the Buffalo Soviet y of Natural Sciences.—Vol. ii, No. 1 (104 pp. pa soared a ae of the Noctuide of North Americ a, by A. R. Grote; a catalogue of the a le ae from the ion “of Lake Park sbahivait, Louisiana, by 8S. V. Summers; and a catalogue of ng _ New England, with descriptions of new Fro species oe ‘An natomy of he Invertebrata ; by C. W. von Sresorp. ientaiatea from the German, with additions and notes, by Waldo I. Burnett, M.D. 470. pp. 8vo. Boston, 1874. (James Camp- bell. )—This is a reprint of Dr. Bu mett’s excellent translation of Von Siebold’s well known text-book on the Anatomy of the Invertebrata. It is a standard work, and, although not " present- ing the latest ag of — should be in the hands of all . zoological students. ici no f Dr. Burnett are an important addition to the origin aps of the * aig Basins, on Madison River, after a re- anes ce by G. R. Betcuer. U.S. Geological Survey of the Teoviaien, PF. V. Hayden‘ in charge——These two large maps give — exact positions and areas of the many mas springs, : lakes ge , of the Upper Madison. They are a most interesting aie r the geologist, Dr. Hayden has the satisfaction of seeing _— and valuable results flowing from the explorations under his Geology and Natural History. 147 19. Three Essays relating to Vegetable Paleontology are before 1.) Area. DeCanpDotte, on Physiological Groups in the Bh rid le Régne Veg de Groupes ble Kingdom: ( Constistution dans egn étal Physiologiques applicables a la poten te Botanigque ‘Aneta et Moderne}; par M. ee DeCanpo.ie.—An article of 38 pages in the Archives des Sciences de la Bibliothéque Universelle, Geneva, of May, 1874, and sient separately. M. DeCandolle here makes an attempt to mark out groups of plants according to the — which they affect. m the i of err asses, familie, to their botanical char- this want M. DeCandolle here itches to ou Lith ture, These terms Xero plants, lovers of dryness. They are pretty the sowing - say a mean anneal tempera rature of 59°-68° that of “0 wit h of ¢ a good su P ceawie In this group would be eothetry the ciel . It opens with a reference to the “wide-spread commotion in the scientific world” caused by “the allied doctrines of Darwin and Herbert Spencer in relation to the origin of species.” The popular ee of these names is natural enough, and Mr. Darwin has elf to some extent furthered it. But scientific men, it is to be ho et} keep up a dis- tinction Neato natural history pare eae pursued by evolu- t and tionary h eses the a priori deductive natural history developed by Mr. ncer. the ormer brings new aids research and —_— dane to be attempted: of the latter it is unnecessary n speak, and we could not well speak of it so highly as Pteoe Willia amson doés. On the other hand Professor Williamson alludes to “the advocates of the new views” as “ eipers! ipa ill- sir gaceaginy contempt any one a ong- some measure to trace its upward prog propositions which, , are open to serious doubt he extinct vege- table kingdom has been comparatively neglected in connexion with this subject” may be t es but a singular idea of what h been done and a is convey en Dr, Dawson’s name ig. meet Sak eS hee teal Geology and Natural History. 151 th boniferous formations, with which the author is thoroughly fami- liar, and to which he mainly restricts his attention in this essay. lution instances generic types appear to merge into each other in such a way as to make it difficult to define their boundaries.” The longer he studies any group and the mens obtained from different localities, the more utterly does he distinguishing the This, surely, is what . Darwi (3.) J. W. Dawson: Annual Address of the President of the Natural History Society of Montreal, May, 187 4,—A considerable related matters. Substantially Principal L ’s views and aims are not very unlike those rof. Williamson, although the this may explain the contrast between their conclusions as to the abrupt introduction of types and forms, and those of Count gt : Williamson probably thinks that evolutionary hypotheses in some form are not unlikely to prevail ; Dr. Dawson, that they are already well nigh exploded. The former seems inclined to accept at least the probability of evolution for species and genera. . Dawson restricts its sway “to varietal and race forms,” which “ constitute make out, the difference between his “ varietal forms or conven- tional species,” which have arisen from “descent with modifica- 152 Scientific Inielligence. lished, will dain as substantial results after these theories have been exploded. ” “Exploded” is hardly the proper term (except as suggestive of the “ engineer hoist with his own petard,”) for a process in which the doctrine of the derivation of species has all hod of confutation is more effec tual than original. It was oes gobi by Sir John Harrington in the 16th century; when he Pos “Treason doth never prosper, what’s 2d hime ? ” tale if it —— none dare call it t stra ae “Physically the change from the eecnes to the Tertiary was one of continental elevation—dryin the oceanic waters in which the ma arine animals of the Cretaceous lived, oy git must have happened that the marine Cretaceous aeheda aide red first from the high lands and lingered longest in the val- e tions of the land are mixed with more antique inhabitants of the sea; while on the contrary in times of subsidence older land creatures are i iable to be mixed with newer products of the sea. us in Vancouver's Island saa which Heer at first regarded as Miocene have been washed down into waters in which Cretace- ous Enel ahes still swarmed. _Thus Cope maintains that the _ Lesquereux regards as Eocene. At first these eee ronisms seem puzzling, and they interfere much with arbit itrary cliaoificatiguk Still they are perfectly natural, and to be expected where a true geological transition occurs. They affor d, moreover, an opportunity of settling the question whether the introduction Geology and Natural History. 153 of living things is a slow and gradual evolution of new types by descent with modification, or whether, according to the law so ably illustrated by Barrande in the case of the Cephalopods and Trilobites, pew forms are introduced abundantly and in perfection at once. The physical change was apparently of the most gradual character. Was it so with the organic change? That it was not is apparent from the fact that both Dr. Asa Gray and Mr. Cope, who try to press this transition into the service of evolution, are obliged in the last resort to admit that the new flora and fauna us. Neither seems to consider that if giant Sequoias and Dicoty- ledonous trees and large herbivorous Mammalia arose in the Cre- taceous or early Tertiary, and have continued substantially unim- proved ever since, they must have existed somewhere for period Species; 2. that the temperate-climate vegetation which once flourished beyond the trier! gene? was slowly driven southward by the cold. His moderate theoretical inference is, that the vegeta- tion among which we live has, as a bl escen ed orate! arctic Miocene vegetation, most of it with modification, sor It without, This ia what Dr. Dawson calls being “ obliged in the 156 Scientific Intelligence. ner, herbarium, we un eet is in part pecacaniad to ier pas eee and individuals, and in part will be so His library, said to be very rich in other branches of natural his- tire. This will afford an excellent opportunity for some of our diltepés or other institutions. No particulars have as yet been re- ceived; but any institution wishing to secure a valuable library, such as it takes a long and devoted life. 6 form and gto ge address Madame Shuttleworth, at Berne, Switzerland. Ill. Astronomy. 1, Polariscopie Observations oe Coggias Comet (1874, III).— During the greater portion of the time when the comet was favor- ably situated for observation, te was ddhfortuniataly hidden by clouds, or extinguished by t thick haze. On one or two occasions, however, I was able to obtain evidence that its light was polar- zed. The instrument e mployed was the very sensitive polariscope debe in the May number of this Journal. On the evening of July 6, although the sky was generally full of drifting clouds, clear intervals appeared now and then, which allowed a distinct view of the comet. The po ge showed twilight had begun to interfere with the observations. After waiting until this had disappeared, it was possible to see the ban ds, though with some difficulty, and the degree of the polarization appeared to be decidedly less than on the previous occasion. e circumstances were too unfavorable to admit of any deter- mination of the percentage of inal polarized, but it was certainly Ww of the sixth magnitude, except that the color at the extremities could not be distinguished. e spectrum of the coma consisted of the usual three bands of comet cere differing from them, Towever: in the fact that instead of bein rply terminated on the less refrangible side and fading cayeain as via toward the blue, they were Pca! bounded on both si the central _ band especially te ranting sharply o both eges it hy 4H , r et Astronomy. 157 while the other two were Pegs diffuse on both edges, thus approaching the ordinary type. They were less than half as bright as the central band. M. Raye et states that the three corresponded respectively with the yellow, g ate and blue parts of the spice without giving more definitely their exact positions and dim escope), so also in the spectroscope, the continuous spectrum spar led. as if many short, bright lines or bands were peed a upon it.” 3. Observations of the Aurora Porgs made by nebo rs ‘E. Wine, at West Charlotte, Vt., lat. 9’, long. 78° 15! rom Buea .—The following ahead ‘were communicated to the Smithsonian Institution and have been forwarded to this Jour- nal by Prof. Joseph Henry. 1872. Oct. 5 ge 6, Aurora first observed at midnight; agit ee daylight; = fined to belt from W. to E. across the rare Oct. 8, 8 P. M., auroral li low in oa north; brightest near midnig ct. 39, 8 . M., a low rim of Leas = on the north horizon, threw up a few beams a little E. of N. mal auroral 4iee during the remainder of night. Dec. 2% SP. M., Auroral lights lasted until midnight. Dec. 31, at times quite light 1873. Tin. 5, "Aurora at 2 a. M., brightest at 3 a. M., with a few streamers in J 1, 8b Pat, aurora in E, and W. s ending beams to zenith. a i P. M., aurora till 9 P. M., when it took the form of a low arch ont an. fia similar to Feb. 4, 8 p. m., Appearance of a white cloud through which the stars shone, re- tained night till ‘ unti sat 20 sim an. 26th. Feb. 22, 8 P. M., aur Bs & heap at midnight very bright. morning. March 1, Aurora from 7} P.M. to midnight. March 5, aurora from March 10, 8 P. m., a few beams of aurora visible. March 23, faint abet in north, at 9P.M. March 24, 8 P. M., bright auroral light in north. March 27, i ight in N. W., lasted all ni 8 P.M. April 8, 7 Pp. m., Crimson aurora. April 11, at t midnight red light - N. horizon. April 16, light on N. horizon. April 21, stn ong auroral light 10 P.M. April 29, fai pril 30, faint ai May 3, Faint allmeht. May 6 Bright aurora, lasted all night. May 8, au- 70 ora all night. May 20 aurora Br Ma 7m, bright aurora from dark bank in N. urora all nig: th t. June. 1 Bright display of: farice ‘Tights, Fans 22, sayin lights 2 — e a zeni Aug. 14, Aurora. A . 16, arch low on N. horizon. Aug. 17, aurora near hori- a og t. pe Se tw ae x. in N. a beams. Aug. 27, b ght aurora 1 A. i. ug. aurora 2 Sept. 3, Brig he anioes Tt ge rizon. Sep 20, bright arora ight oa. horizon. yp gine ra from midnight till morning. Sept. 30, bright but low aurora Oot 9. Aurora at midnight. 158 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ITV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Smithsonian Report for 1872. 456 pp. 8vo. 1873. (Govern- ment Printing Office.)—This is the twenty-seventh of the series of annual Reports of the Smithsonian Institution. The Report a raster is fully set forth, aiid: its essential wisdom shown by its good results. With an income of only about $45,000, by the use sent, and from whom returns reach its archives. e Sm A cre Ooneributions (quarto) have now reached seventeen ponderous volumes, _— lees original memoirs. nei Miscellaneous Contri- ra ‘story, fe ei bat an other de epartinents as science de- payment of = staff, require ed a wise aia frugal administration of its funds to avoid the shoals of Lee), Under the conduct of its distinguished Secretary, and his Assistant Secretary, Prot. Baird, the Smithsonian erupaee = selpeite a poe a com- manding i influence for good in ers of science. A Ih- dex of these annual Reports Ay ae close of the thirtieth wotahie (that for 1875) would add greatly to their value. 2. Seventh Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology a Ethnology. 42 pp. 8V0- Cambridge, 1874.—The Report opens with an account of the m An of capacity 33 cubic inches 8, or 44 per t of the average Peruvian cranium, and much smaller than the 6 crania of some Peruvian chil- dren soe over seven ters of age. Though probably idiotic, aor is stated that the bones were not deposited as in ordinary buri rderly erage secondly, they were broken, to asize suitable for t e vessels used in cooking 5 jictesala. 3. ‘Geological Survey of Hokkaido: Yesso Coals. A Report by Huyry 8. Mungoz, E.M. 39 pp. 12mo. Tokei. 1874. Pub- id i Miscellaneous Intelligence. 159 power, evaporative power, and temperature of combustion. The geological horizon of the Yesso coals is not gi i from the following remark by Mr. Munroe that they are probably of Tertiary age. “It will be seen on inspecting this table” (com- parative table of coals from different parts of the world) “ that these Japanese coals are widely removed by this composition from all coals of similar age, and can be compared with the best Carbon- iferous coals. They are therefore neither lignites nor brown coals, but true bituminous coals.” This statement the analyses given fully sustains. . Supplements aux Notes sur les Tremblements de Terre ressentis de 1840 a 1868; pp. 70, Bruxelles, 1873; and Note sur les Tremblements de Terre en 1870 avec Supplément pour 1869; par M PE raire a les Facultés des trembling reported at Pulkov , 1867, the author notices several observations of slight earthquakes made known only by the unusual oscillation of the levels of astronomical instruments. ducted in Peligot’s laboratory, at the Conservato et Metiers, and son examples ot ‘the blue frit were then made at the National Porcelain F actory at Sévres, under M état. The of chalk, 15 of oxide of copper, and 6 of dry carbonate of soda, yielded, when fritted together, a blue material said to be equal in Poet texture, and durability to the ancient examp es.— Atheneum, une 20. 6. Magnetic Observatory in China—A magnetic observatory has been established at Zi-ka-Wei, in China, under the superintend- 160 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ence of Father Dechevrens. A first Report of the diurnal varia- tion and of the magnetic intensity for part of March and April last, has been received in this country, from which we gather that the mean of the declination is 1° 53’ 59°8” W., of the inclination, 3 e authors are Ehrenberg (on the phosphorescence of the ocean), Rammelsberg (on the chemical nature of some minerals), Sadie of the Association. rench Association for the Advancement of Science.—The French Association for the Advancement of the Sciences is to hold its third meeting this year at Lille, the session commencing on the fe 27th, of August. A local aren age ne U - 10. Academy of Sciences, Paris. — A. DeCandolle has been elected Foreign Associate in place of Professor Agassiz. The tor- me be . . filled by the eonmnent of Mr. Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., F.G.S. 12. Half Hour Recreations in Popular Science. (Estes & Lau- riat, Boston.)—No. 11 of this series contains an article by Robert ‘unt, F.R.S., on Coal as a R Professor Clifford, on Atoms. 13. On the s8o-c AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, [THIRD SERIES] ArT. XV.—On the possible Variability of the Earth's Axial Rota- tion, as investigated by Mr. Glasenapp ; by Suwon NEWcoMB. h forces would be likely to produce either regular inequalities of short period, or progressive secular variations, instead of the very slow and irregular changes actually observed. If, then, the first hypothesis were excluded, we should have to fall back on the third as the most probable explanation. The investigation of the first hypothesis is a purely mathe- matical process, admitting in theory of being carried through with any degree of rigor. Since the publication of the paper in question I have been engaged in this investigation, and although the pressure of other engagements has prevented its completion, it is so far advanced as to make it quite improbable that there are any other inequalities of long period in the motion of the: Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Sertes, Vou. VIII, No. 45.—Sept., 1874. il a Sky ra 162 S Newcomb— Variability of the Earth's axial rotation. of the invariability of the sidereal day. In the paper referred to it was remarked that observations of the interior planets, occurred to me that eclipses of the first satellite of Jupiter might afford a yet better and more decisive test. he definitive ence. There is, however, one circumstance which rendered the sat- isfactory application of the test very easy. Granting that the | inequalities were really to be accounted for by changes in the earth’s rotation, the most extraordinary and sudden change of which we have knowledge occurred about 1860. The velocity of rotation, which for the ten or twenty years previous had been rather slower than the average, was then suddenly accelerated, so as to cause a subsequent gain of perhaps a second per annum, which continued at least till 1872. Collecting all the accessible about half as great as that indicated by the moon, and no reater than its possible error; so that the result did not in any Year. s. Year. os Year, 8. 1850°5 + 2 1862°5 +11 1868-5 + 2 1855°5 + 5 1864°5 +10 1870°5 0 1860°5 +10 1866°5 +6 1872°5 — 2 j 5 BE S. Newcomb— Variability of the Earth's axial rotation. 163 Mr. Glasenapp has just published his paper in the Russian language, the concluding part of which is devoted to this in- vestigation. He has also sent me the following more exten account of his investigation, from which I omit the citation of the original observations. _ “A great many preparations for the expedition of the transit of Venus, and the publishing of a Russian memoir on the observations of Jupiter's first satellite, have not allowed me take up the question of the variability of the earth’s axial rotation, which you proposed to me some time ago. But now I have investigated this very interesting question, and the result seems to me to be satisfactory, so that your hypothesis is very probable. “Tn the investigation I have chosen the two following ways: (1) I have tried if the corrections of noon: Year 1845 4+ 15 1850 + 2 1855 + 5 1860 +10 1862 +11 (1) 1864 +10 1866 + 6 1868 2 1870 0 | 1872 — 2 you sent to me in your letter dated October 24, 1873, ap- plied to the observed times of the eclipses of Jupiter's first satellite, will bring them in better agreement with the tables of Damoiseau than the uncorrected observations. The result I obtained is favorable, that is, the observations corrected by the Stites (1) are represented better than the uncorrected ones: thus your corrections seem to be rea ke ae “(2.) I determined the corrections of Damoiseau’s ecliptic tables of the first satellite for 44 different epochs (22 epochs from pe ae disappearing and 22 from eclipse reappearing), and it was sidered as constant quantities) change in the same manner as the corrections (1) you obtained from the observations of the “ Allow me to communicate to you the whole investigation of this interesting problem. 1. First investigation. - ie “All the observations of the eclipses of the first satelite (as disappearing, as reappearing) from 1848 till 1873, which I 164 SS. Newcomb— Variability of the Harth’s axial rotation. could find in astronomical literature, have been reduced to a homogeneous form, that is, they were corrected for the influ- ence of the different ane of chines glasses, for the in- fluence of Jupiter's different zenith-distances at the time of observation, for the influence of different distances of J ni: from the earth, and for the influence of all other circumstance which may change the apparent brightness of the satellite, pie which can be taken into consideration. Each observation gives an pene of condition of the form: t+a.y+p.2+(C—O)=0, (2) where z is the prong of the ecliptic tables, 4 the distance of Jupiter from the earth, y the correction of the adopted veloc- ity of light (493°-2 ay Delambre), ahd p.z a correction to be applied to the observations for different distances of the satel- lite from the center of Jupiter. The member p.z must be intro- duced in the equation of condition, because all the reductions of the observations are made by Bailly’s formula * (plus a con- stant member C), which is probably imperfect. “The solution of the equations (2) gives: a. Eclipse disappearing. b. Eclipse reappearing. #,—=—60°°6+8°'0 ¢,==— 9°0-+8°°0 Y= +10°5241°74 Y j= —1°47E1°26 (3) 2) —1°974:3°54 Z,=+1°6042°56 VYort9*'89 Y,=+9°09 (vy, and y, are the probable errors of an observation whose sight is unity.) “Then the same observations were corrected by the quan- (1) represent better the observations of the eclipses. ‘Hach corrected observation gives us an equation of condi- tion of the same form as ( aaytp. 2+(C— O )=0, (4) in eeney only the last member O, raat another signification, because the observed times of the eclipses are ali correcte hae cat the table (1). The solution of these equations give the following results : a. Eclipse disappearing. 6. Eclipse reappearing. a’ >= — 42" 3+7°9 =o “7+6°°0 y "pe +6'83841°72 y — anh 24 (5) 2’ == —0°64+4:3°50 2’, +1°8242°52 iy peel VY =+8 Ag “Tf you compare the ong of the probable errors Yo, ¥1 ¥'oo ¥' 19D cases, you will see that by means of the correc- * Histoire de l’Académie, Paris, MpccLxxI, p. 580. S. Newcomb— Variability of the Earth’s axial rotation. 165 tions (1) the observations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s first satel- lite are represented somewhat better than the uncorrected tions may be real, and that your pees on the variability of the earth’s axial rotation may rue. 2. Second Re a 8 “The second way I choose for the decision of the same ques- tion is to determine the corrections of the calintion! tables of the first satellite for different epochs, and to deduce hese corrections the corresponding ones of mean noon er the same “The values of i. and x, z, (8), which were deduced from the ohasrttiins rere the quantities (1) give the following corrections of Damoiseau’s tables (1.) Correction of the tabular mean longi- ude of Jupiter’s first satellite... =—27°74°8 (2.) Correction of the tabular Ce of the coliple. 0-0). + <5 ee = —49°144°8 (3.) Correction of Dela mbre’s velocity ight (of the quantity of 4053)... Shp 644-102 (4.) Value o z, which is negative for dis- appe es of the satellite, and pos- itive for “his reappearance, . --- ----- ==1°*7384-2°°07 and with these values we correct the moments of eclipses as given in the Nautical Almanac (Damoiseau’ s tables) and ealcu- late the quantities (C—O)—that is: calculation—observation —for each eclipse observed since 184 “From these se quantities we derive. the following corrections of Damoiseau’s ssa tables of the first satellite. a. Eclipse disappeari b. Eclipse reappearing. Co est C—O Weight. 1848°86 + 69 47 184824 —167 77 922 + 67 3°4 49°27 — 45 8°5 50°00 +422°7 2°4 50°32 —15°4 76 51°10 9°2 5°3 53°50 —30°7 ee 52°70 +22°2 1°6 55°70 —17°2 7 Ae 55°50 = -+33°2 2°0 56°97 —11°5 vies 56°58 +20°9 4°7 58°10 —12°2 4°5 57°72 +163 23-7 5915: — 5°9 7 58°82 +11°5 v4 60°21 — 63 81 59°90 +22°9 2°0 61°30 + 4°4 0-9 61°22 +145 33 62°32 —127 4:4 62°17 +29°0 2°9 63°37. —283 36 63°15 +220 3°5 6460 —115 16 64°28 i! 75 65°70 ~—27°8 O-7 66-45 +22°6 1°8 66-72 —18°8 3 : 6763 +33°9 26 67°82 —16°9 166 S. Newcomb— Variability of the Earth’s axial rotation. a. Eclipse disappearing. 6. Eclipse reappearing. C Weight. Cc— Weight. 1868°65 +33°8 2°0 1868°83 —16°5 6°7 69°76 +152 12°5 69°45 —23°3 2°0 70°84 + 8-4 6°3 70°05 —24°2 1°8 71:90 — 26 9°6 71114 —20°6 8°0 7250 + 5:3 8°2 72°21 —17°4 21°9 73°25 +15°0 10-2 73°24 —16°5 26°4 ‘To discuss these corrections by the method of least squares, let us adopt the following form for the equations of condition : xe +k(t—t,)+m(t—t,)? +C—O=0, where ¢ is the year of observation, ¢, =1861-00, x the correction of the tables for 1861-00, & and m tle co-efficients to be deter- mined from the observations. “From these equations we obtain the following normal equa- tions : a. Eclipse disappearing. + 126°92+ 259°3% + 8227m + 1718=0 + 259°3a+ 8227 k ++ 35467m + 1706=0 +8227 2435467 k +923395m +85480—0 b. Eclipse reappearing. + 1402+ 455°6h + 12239m— 2111°8=0 + 455°62+12239 & + 55150m— 9823 =0 +1223°92+55150 k& +1558741m—196478 —0 which give for x, k, and m the values: Ecli i i 6. Eclipse reappearing. Co=—17°76 3841.25 x,==+12'69 +0°86 ko=+ 0°08317--0°1553 A,=+ 0°25118+-0°09172 (7) Mo=+ 0°06245+-0°02178 m,=+ 0°01753+-0°01356 probable errors allow it, so that pores we have no right to take the mean of the values &, an because we do not know the cause of this discordance, and cannot therefore make any other combination of the values /, with &,, and m, with m,. “The combined values of a, & and m are @=4+3"52 0-71 k= + 0°2076--0°0783 m=-+ 0°3006-+-0°01151 (8) S. Newcomb— Variability of the Earth's axial rotation. 167 the corrections of Damoiseau’s tables, you can easily see that very few observations are made during many years, and during some not at all. ‘By means of the quantities (8) we calculate the following corrections of the tables for the same epochs, for which you obtain the corrections (1): 1850°5 +) 55°5 434 60°5 4.374 62°5 , +3°9 64:5 +454 (9) 665 45°5 68°5 +6°8 70°5 +8:2 72°5 +9:9 And if the corrections of the tables may be considered as constant quantities, the values (9) with opposite signs will be the corrections of noon plus any constant quantity; thus when we change the signs in the quantities (9) and add to each of them the constant +7#9, so that at 1872 the correction of noon shall be the same as you have found (1), we obtain the following values for the correction of noon. Correction of noon. Correction by S. Newcomb. 3" 18505 + 555 2 4-4 aS 605 +5 +10 625 +4 +11 645 +3 +10 665 +2 + 6 685 +1 2 70°5 0 0 725 =¥ an ““The comparison of these series shows: : 1. That the change of the corrections is similar in both series. 2. That the periods are very near each other. 3. That the maxima coincide. f . “ Although the corrections themselves, in both series, differ much from each other, so that they alone cannot give us the right to make any conclusion on their reality, but as the disap- pearances of the first satellite, as the reappearances (a) give the corrections (g) is similar in both series, (c) that the peri of these changes are very near the same, in both cases, an 168 S. Newcomb— Variability of the Earth's axial rotation. that the maxima coincide,—it seems to me that we have the whole right to ascribe reality to your remarkable hypothesis on the variability of the earth’s axial rotation.” On this paper of Mr. Glasenapp I remark that the case does not seem to me so well made out as he considers it. The one doubtful term of lon riod in Hansen’s tables of the moon which I did not take out in making the comparison on which the above correction is founded. This term is that depending on the longitude of the moon’s node, which Hansen ound more than a second larger than Airy and others have from observations. I shall, therefore, determine the out- standing mean errors in the lunar theory when we take from Hansen’s tables; (1) the excess of his secular acceleration over theory, 5”’4T? ; (2) the empirical term depending on the action of Venus; and (8) the above mentioned excess of his value of the 19 year term, assuming it to be 1”. The following table, year, | Correction given bY | onctndea|EtTors of Hansen's Theory |Corrections of Barth reenwich.| Washington.| Correction a.) 2.) a) 1a te . a . a s 1850 | +03 | —1'3 00 =|+0°05|40-56 | +0°7 | +1°3 |—0-4 |_—0°8 51 +1°5 +01 +1°3 0°04} 0°45 | +14 | 4+2-8/414/+27 62 +0°9 aes +0°9 +0°03} 0°36 | +1°5 | +2°3/41°2/+2°3 56 +10 Saat +10 | 0°00/ 0°09 | +0.3 | +1-4/4+1°5)+2°8 57 +15 25 +1°5 ----| 0°02 | —O°l | 41°414+1°8 | +3°4 58 +2°0 +15 +18 ~---| 0°05 | —0°4 | +1:4/4+2:1|+40 62 +2°4 +2°4 +24 sou. | 0°05 | —1°0 | +.1°4/4+3°3 | +63 63 +32 +12 +1°7 0. 0 0-8 | +0°9/4+3°1|/4+5°9 64 +071 —10 —O0°4 +0°01| 0°09 | —0.6 |—0-9/+1°6 | +3°0 65 —11 —2-4 —1:7 0°01 014 | —O°3 | —1°5 |+1°3/}4+2°5 66 —2°2 —2°5 —2°4 0-0 0° 0-0 | —2°2}+0°9/+1°7 67 —3-9 —41 —4'0 0°03 | 0°28 | +0°3 |—3°4; 0°0 0 68 —44 —4:5 —45 0°0: 0°36 | +0°6 | —3°5 |+0°2 | +0°4 69 4-6 —5°5 —50 0°04) 0» +0°8 |—3°7 |+0°3 | +0°6 70 —50 —61 —5°5 0°05; 0°56} +0°9 0/+0°3)+0°6 1 —70 —7-2 —T1 0°06) 0°67 | +1°0 | —5-4/|—0°8 |—1°5 —T8 —78 |+0°07|+0°80 | +1°0 9 ( 9 S. Newcomb— Variability of the Earth's axial rotation. 169 ished b The ‘ference between the numbers in the last column and those formerly cited arises almost entirely from the change of 1” in the value of Hansen’s nineteen-year coefficient. Let us now treat Mr. Glasenapp’s residuals by a method intermediate between the two which he adopts. I have divi is re- siduals into ten groups, and in order to make the observations of ingress and egress comparable, have corrected them as fol- WS: The ingress residuals by —15*2+-0°08 (¢—1861°0) The egress residuals by +13°4 +0°25 (¢—1861°0) and have then taken the mean by weights of each group. The results are as follows: Excess of Theory over observation. Ingress. Egress. Combined. Pepieecer oe a a Date. | c—o. | we. | Date. | G-0: | We | Dete. linocrrect’al Corrected. | *™ 8. 1849-0 |— 9:4| 8 |1g48-8 |+ 01| 16 |18489| —31 —21 | 24 50°7 |— 26] 8 50°3 |— 4:7] 8 05| —3°6 —88 | 16 62 | + Ga] 8 535° |—392 | 2 53-1] —65 —9-0 56°3 1+ 90) 7 56-4 |— 6 563| +3°9 +09 | 13 585 |— 0-4] 30 58°8 |+ 49] 14 58°6| +13 —2T 61] |+ 67] 8 61°0 |+ 5°7| 13 61:1] +61 +01 | 21 63-7 |— 11] 16 63-7 |— 5 63°7| —3 —85 | 21 67°6 |4151] 6 67°38 |— 16 67'8| +2°3 OE Ly aa 70°5 |— 40] 9 70°7 |— 5°9| 12 10°6| —5°2 ae 21 72°6 |— 81] 28 72°38 |— 0°6| 48 72°7 3-4 —14 | 76 The columns C-O show the Finnie @) when the by of the day is supposed rhapeaieet (2) when the times are ¢ for hypoth ae ‘earth slow” from the last column of the last vagal! e. We have now to an which series can be best repre- an expression increasing uniformly with the time. Siti oe least squares we find the expressions to Uncorrected residuals = —0*80— ee 4 Corrected residuals =— 2°45 -+0°039(t—1860°0). ote the value of these —— we find the residuals 1 outstanding to be as follows 170 A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. Uncorrected. Corrected. Wt. —— 35°4 e8 24 —3°7 —0°8 16 —6 °4 —6°3 4 +4°3 +3°5 13 +2°0 —0 2 44 +70 +2°5 21 ——1°8 —6 °2 Zi +3°9 —3°8 oo —3°3 —3 ‘2 21 —1-°2 +0 °6 76 by the application of the hypothetical corrections. Although. the observations are too uncertain, and the residuals too irreg- ular, to regard this result as proving the hypothesis, yet it eems to me to render it worthy of reception as being, in the present state of our knowledge, the most probable explanation of the outstanding differences of long period between the theo- retical and observed longitude of the moon. Art. XVL—Researches in Acoustics; by ALFRED M. MAYER. Paper 5 ; (Continued from page 109.) 5. Six Experimental Methods of Sonorous Analysis described and discussed. Tr remarkable discoveries in sound made in these later times by Helmholtz were owing, in great part, to his having fertile theorem of Fourier. As Helmholtz distinctly_ states: “In letzter Instanz ist also der Grund der von P. oras aufgefundenen rationellen Verhiiltnisse in dem Satze von Fou- rier zu finden, und in gewissem Sinne ist diese Satz als die Urquelle des Generalbasses zu betrachten.” (Tonempfindungen, p- 346.) : : : The evident importance of the subject of sonorous analysis will probably render interesting the few remarks I here ven- ture to offer on this subject. I will describe in order six meth- A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 171 ods of sonorous analysis. Methods 1, 2 and 5 have been used by Helmholtz and Konig. Methods 8, 4 and 6, as far as I now, originated with me. To render comparable all of the experiments which I shall describe, I shall always use one com- posite sound of uniform intensity by sounding with a blast of constant pressure an Ut, Grenié free-reed pipe, from which has been removed its reinforcing pyramidal pipe. (1.) Analysis by means of Resonators applied directly to the ear. This method of Helmholtz is so well known that it need not here be described, but I will give some experiments which have made on its degree of precision under the head of the sixth method of analysis, to be described. (2.) Analysis by means of Resonators connected with Kénig’s manometric flames. of the flames became deeply serrated. (3.) Analysis by means of Resonators which are ly brought near the source of origin of a composite sound and thus successively reinforce all of its sonorous elements. If we take any two resonators separated by a known inter- sound, we shall hear them singing out clearly above the general chorus of the other harmonics. Thus I have often successfully shown to an audience the composition of a composite sound. 172 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. (4.) Analysis by means of Resonant boxes carrying solid bodies tuned in unison with the sounds to which the air in these boxes resounds, This method is an excellent one when the composite sound can be obtained with intensity, when the boxes are accurately in tune with the solid bodies (forks or strings) attached to them, the sound. This method of analysis is similar to the one previously de- scribed ; for the resonant box of a fork acts like a resonator and can be used to intensify any harmonic of a ead le sound ; but there is an important difference in the methods, for the fork or the string being in unison with the proper note of the mass of air in the box, is set in vibration by the latter, so that after the box has been removed from the vicinity of the origi of the composite sound, and the latter has ceased, we find that the fork sings out alone, and thus shows that it has selected from a chorus of harmonics that one which is in unison wit its own tone. I have thus been able, by placing one fork after another, of the series of the harmonics of the Ut, reed, to show the composition of its sound to a large audience with entire satisfaction. I have also succeeded with : ment. Forcibly sound the reed, and place around the opening Th to suc forks, and the harmonics of the reed to be in exquisite unison. (5.) Analysis by means of the beating of simple sounds of known pitch with the harmonies of the composite sound to be analyzed. If we use forks for the simple sounds, it will be better slightly to flatten or sharpen the note of the sound to be anal- yzed. en knowing the number of beats that the fundamen- tal of the note gives with its corresponding fork, we can desig- nate the number of any other harmonic by the number of beats it makes with a fork of known pitch; for the number of beats observed, when referred to the number of beats of the funda- mental as unity, will be directly as the number of the harmoni¢ é A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. 178 in the series. If we cannot well alter the pitch of the compo- on graduated prongs, or loaded strings accurately tuned and cale 2 . gently vibrated and resonators used to assist the ear. (6.) Analysis by means of a loose membrane which receives the composite sonorous wave and transmits its vibrations through Jjilaments or light rods to a series of forks mounted on their resonant cases, This method of analysis is the one we devised in our experi- mental confirmation of Fourier’s theorem and described in sec. the aerial vibrations produced by the reed. _ ; _ An experiment like the above is instructive as an analogical illustration of the manner in which we may imagine an etherial Vibration to produce chemical decomposition by causing such powerful synchronous vibrations in the molecules of compounds as to shake their atoms asunder; and we have already seen. how very feeble impulses sent through a medium of great ten- uity can, when rapidly recurring and of the proper period, pro- duce mechanical effects which at first sight appear incredible. Time is required in both cases to produce an appreciable action. The time required in the case of the sonorous vibrations de- 174 A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. creases as their number per second increases, and in the case of the etherial vibrations we have analogical phenomena. In the acoustical experiment, if the fork be much out of tune with the pulses transmitted by the fiber, no motion is produced in the fork ; likewise, we may imagine that when the period of vibration of one or more of the constituent atoms of a certain molecule is far removed from unison with any of the etherial vibrations falling upon it, no motion, or chemical decomposi- tion, will ensue. The analogy between the two classes of phenomena is yet more striking when we remember that the fork selects, from the composite vibratory motion which traverses the fiber, only that ence. The following experiments show that the method of analysis we are now discussing surpasses in delicacy and sharpness 0 definition any other method in which sympathetically vibrating bodies are employed. As already shown, the forks select from the composite vibratory motion which strikes them only those simple vibrations which are in unison with their own vibratory periods. This remark, however, requires some modification, though the qualification necessary is less than is required when other similar methods of analysis are used. In all cases of co- vibration there is a certain range of pitch, above and below the sound which is in unison with the existing vibration, through which the co-vibrating body responds. The farther the remove from unison the weaker the response.* But in some cases a to the membrane on the Ut, reed, and sounded the latter dur- ing a few seconds. After the reed was silent, I heard the fork A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 175 iece of wax, so that it gave five beats per second with the note of the fork when unloaded, I could not, by any variation in the tension of the fiber or of any other circumstances of the experiment, set in vibration the fork by means of the pulses sent from the reed through the fiber; yet, on placing the nipple of an Ut, resonator in my ear, I perceived that this flattened note of the fork produced a decided resonance, thus showing that although the fork could not respond to its own note flattened five beats per second, yet the resonator, under the same circumstances, did enter into sympathetic vibration. When the fork gave four beats per second it responded to the reed, but this response was only audible on placing the ear close to the mouth of the fork’s resonant box. With three beats per second the sound of the fork was readily perceptible, while the resona- tor reinforced it very decidedly. When the fork was out of unison two beats per second, its sound was slightly increased ; and with a departure of one beat per second, the response of the fork was yet stronger, but greatly inferior in intensity to that produced when the fork was in unison with its proper sound— the second harmonic of the reed; yet the resonator reinforces this flattened sound as forcibly as it does that which emanates m the unloaded fork. These facts concerning the want of sharpness in the detection of pitch by means of resonators are not in accordance with the statements made in recent popular works on sound, where the resonator is described as remaining dumb until the exact pitch to which it is tuned is reached, when it responds with a suddenness which has been com to an explosion unison with the second harmonic of the was evident in the difference in the intensities of the fork’s responses when thus oaded and when the wax was remov This fact I have repeatedly confirmed by testing the intensities of the two sounds ns different hearers, who ples placed so that they could not see when the fork was loaded or unloaded. Now E. H. Weber has found that only the most accomplished musical ears can distinguish between the pitch of two notes whose vibrations are as 1000 to 1001, but by the above method we can readily detect a departure from unison in the two notes amounting to the interval of 2000 to 2001, or to the ;},th of a semitone. 176 A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. the resonators to sounds not in accord with their proper notes. The results agreed with those previously obtained on placing the resonator to the ear. now mounted an Ut, fork on its resonant case, and sounding it strongly before all the resonators of the harmonic series of Ut,, I caused all of the manometric flames connected with these resonators to vibrate, each giving the same number of serrations as when the Ut, fork was brought near its own resonator. The same result was obtained when the fork was separated from its case, with this important difference, however, that when the face of fork Ut, was brought near the mouth of the Ut, resonator, the flame connected with produced no effect on : The following experiment was now made to show the want of precision in the Jetuiiduanion of the exact pitch of sonorous elements by means of resonators. We have just seen that the Ut, fork could not vibrate the Ut, fork when both forks were on their cases, and when Ut, was flattened by two beats per nd; and also that a departure of four beats per second prevented Ut, from setting Ut, in sympathetic vibration, when both forks were off their resonant cases, and with their pew accompanied by ork, although it developed the serrations belonging to its own A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 177 taneously developing in the flame the serrations of the: proper note of a resonator and those of its octave are only produced when the fundamental sound is intense. (7.) The Curve of a Musical Note, formed by combining the sinu- soids of its first six harmonics ; and the curves formed by com- bining the curves of musical notes corresponding to various consonant intervals. We have already seen that any composite vibration, which produces in us the sensation of a musical note, can always be reproduced by the simultaneous production of a certain number of the simple sounds of a harmonic series, provided these sim- ple sounds have the proper relative intensities. Therefore to obtain the resultant curve corresponding to a musical note, we draw on one axis its harmonic components with their proper wave-lengths and amplitudes, and the algebraic sums of their corresponding ordinates are the ordinates of the required resultant curve. 3. Curve of a Musical Note ; being the resultant of the simple vibrations of tts first six os : Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuirp Serres, VoL. VIII, No. 45.—Sepr., 1874. 12 178 A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. Fig. 3 is the curve of a musical note, being the resultant of the simple ar oe of its first six harmonics. The first six harmonics having been drawn on a common axis, I erected 500 equidistant oedinatess and extended these ordinates some dis- tance below the axis on which I desired to construct the result- ant. The algebraic sum of the ordinates, passing through the harmonic curves, were transferred to the corresponding ordinates of the lower axis, and by drawing a continuous line through these points, I formed the resultant curve. The first six har- monies are alone — in the combinations which I have given, because the 7th, 9th, 11th harmonics, and the major number of those above the pr form dissonant combinations with the lower and more powerful harmonics. Indeed, the harmonics above the 6th are purposely eliminated from the notes of the piano by striking the string in the neighborhood of its 7th nodal point. The amplitudes of the harmonics of fig. 3 are made to vary as the wave-length ; not that this variation represents the general relative intensities in such a composite sound, but they were so m ring out strongly the characteristic flexures of the resultant. To simplify the consideration of the curves, they are all represented with the same phase of initial vibration. Of course the resultants have an infinite variety of form, depend- ing on the difference in the initial phase, and on the amplitudes of the harmonic elements. Resultant curve of a musical note combined with tts octave. 4: 37:: 1: 4- A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. 179 figs. 4, 5 and 6, I have drawn the resultant curves formed by combining the curves of musical notes corresponding to the various consonant intervals indicated below the curves. these curves are the resultants formed by the combination of the composite vibrations of musical notes, it follows that the com- ponents of these curves are not simple harmonics, as in the case of fig. 8, but are derived from the resultant of fig. 38, by reduc- ing to one-fourth the amplitude of that curve and by taking wave-lengths corresponding to the intervals indicated below the figures. > m AA: Resultant curve of a musical note combined with tts major third. All of the curves which I have given in this paper a saving drawn on a large scale and then reduced by photograp ny toa size suitable to be transferred to the engravers block. 180 A, M. Mayer-~ Researches in Acoustics. 8.) Kaperiments in which are produced from the above curves (sec. 6) the Motions of a Molecule of Air when it is animated with the resultant action of the six elementary vibrations form- ing a musical note; or is set in motion by the combined action of sonorous vibrations forming various musical intervals, We may imagine the curve corresponding to a musical note, represented in fig. 3, as formed by the trace of a vibrating molecule of air, or of a point of the tympanic membrane, on a surface which moves near these points. Therefore if we slide this curve along its axis, under a slit in a screen which allows only one point of the curve to appear at once, we shall repro- duce in this slit the vibratory motion of the aerial molecule and va of the point on the tympanic membrane. I have exhibited this motion in a continuous, or rather, recurring manner, as follows: On a piece of Bristol board I drew a circle, and in one quadrant of this circle I drew 500 equidistant radii. On these radil, as recurring, as shown in fig. 7. I now cut this curved figure ou A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 181 sation of sound, and as the duration of the period is always plexity ge: the ratio of the times of vibration of the compo- 182. CW. Hinman—New Apparatus for Gas Analysis. nents; thus, the durations of the following combinations are placed after them in fractions of a second. Cyt Cu=s353 CstGs=si53 Cot B= 54; C3t+E3+G,—s25; ~ C,+E,+G,+C,=;',th of a second. - The above mentioned facts suggest a curious physiological inquiry, viz: Does it require a combination of sounds, simple or composite, to remain on the ear the duration of an entire period, in order that it shall give the same sensation as is pro- duced when the same combination is sounded continuously? In other words, will a portion of the recurring composite vibra- tion produce the same sensation as an entire period or several periods? The solution of this problem has been the object of a pong ed experimental research, but up to this time the re- sults have been so difficult of interpretation that I have not arrived at any certain knowledge on the subject. I shall, how- ever, return to this interesting but very difficult work. — Art. XVII.— Description of a new Apparatus for Gas Analysis ; by C. W. Hinman. Some time since, haying occasion to make some analyses of illuminating gas, I read descriptions of several forms of appa- ratus for that purpose, but failed to find one which appeared quite satisfactory. n apparatus was desired which should be as far as possible free from fragile or costly parts, and which, without being too complicated, should require no corrections to be made for varia- tions in the pressure, temperature, or aqueous vapor; reliable results rather than minute accuracy being desired. eos e apparatus finally adopted operates on the same princi- ples as Williamson & Russell’s,* except that in my apparatus the gas is not exploded in the measuring tube, but in a bulb for that special purpose. The trough is nearly the same as that of Doyére,t aid pipettes are also used. he apparatus as made consists of a measuring tube a, about 230 mm. long, about 20 mm. in diameter, divided into fortieths of an inch and calibrated with mercury as described by Bunsen. The tube is firmly held by a clamp on the end of the rod }, which rod slides up and down in ¢, and is clamped in any posl- tion by the screw d. A slow motion is given to c, and thus to the measuring tube, by means of the milled headed nut e, which works along a thread cut on the rod /, which is firmly secured iar Barrie eatin of Doyére’s Eudiomete: Ad. Wurtz Diction ides as Chere, I, p. 280, fig. 42.0” . C. W. Hinman —New Apparatus for Gas Analysis. 188 uring tube can thus be kept pragig oh? its well: or g can be The mercurial trough is of cast iron, and consists 0 which is about 130 mm. square, 15 mm. thick, and has a groove mm., bent so that when it is put into the side well m, the point sega pee ean be brought directly under the measuring tube, a of metal ¢, which ‘a tetened into the upper disc 7. of the tripod are screwed into a dise 7. This style of * e method of avoiding observations of nena honor nn net Ae IL, xlix, 376, 1869.—Eps. : : ( : C. W. Hinman—New Apparatus for Gas Analysis. 185 15 mm. above the top of 2. The measuring tube being thor- oughly cleansed, and a drop of water spread over the sides, is fixed in the clamp; a thin slice of cork being placed between each side of the clamp and the tube. The tube is then placed upright in a small, long-handled cup of mercury, like that used by Doyére, and is lowered through the water into the mercury well. The piece c is then put over 4, and fixes i i the rod f A clean pipette, full of mercury, is then lowered into the trough and the point brought directly under the meas- uring tube, which is then lowered so that the pipens touches the top of the measuring tube. The bottle p is p aced on the table, the screw clip g loosened and the air is forced over into the bulb o of the pipette. When the pipette tube has become i be is opening the clip g. If desirable, the gas can be bubbled di- rectly into the measuring tube by means of a properly bent tube. Vhen as much gas as is desired is in the measuring tube, the 186 ©. W. Hinman—New Apparatus for Gas Analysis. clip the liquid is forced within 1 or 2 mm. of the point of the pipette tube; the point of the pipette is then brought under the surface of the mercury, by raising the measuring tube, and much greater pressure, without fracture. I have found it easier to read the measuring tube, by having a piece of white paper on the glass back of it and about 3 mm. above the top of the glass u. The pipettes used permit the complete transfer of gases et 0. W. Hinman—New Apparatus for Gas Analysis. 187 The following analyses were made with this apparatus. They show the observations required and the manner of mak- ing the calculations. Illuminating gas manufactured by the Boston Gas Light Co., and of an illuminating power of about eighteen candles. The two analyses here given were made with the same sample. ist ANALYSIS. Divisions. VolumesinC.C. Divisions. Volumes in C.C. 3 i 147 22-90 149°7 23-26 Gas taken. M67 4 32°83 149-2 23°19 Carb. dioxide, absorbed by KOH. 146°5 22°79 149°0 93°16 Oxygen, absorbed by pyrogallate. 138-2 21-58 140°3 21°88 Hydrocarbons, “ SO, inH,SO,. 326°4 48°91 328°0 49°14 Oxygen adde 849 13°72 82°8 13°41 Exploded. 8-8 2°49 59 2:06 Carbon dioxide absorbed. 64-0 10°65 45°3 7-88 Hydrogen added. 23-0 4°59 14:2 3°28 Exploded. Volumes. Per cent. Ist. A) CH, +CO+H, =21'11 22°90 100°00 Gas taken. 06 H,O rmed (B} CH, +O —11.23 ‘08 °35 Carbon dioxide. 202 O, left (0) 20H, +300+4H,=25°31 03 “13 Oxygen. 27-33 “added 20—A=3CH, —29°51. 1°21 529 H bo: 2 —B=H, — 9-88 9°84 42°97 Methane (CH,) 11:23 CO, formed B—CH,=CO = 135 139 6 21-11 Combustible gas 9°88 43°15 Hydrogen. -47 2°05 Nitrogen. 2nd. Volumes. Per ‘63 N A) CH, +CO+H, =21'35 23-26 100.00 Gas taken. 4-60 HO formed oy CH : +C0 . 11°35 “07 ied Carbon dioxide. 53 gh: 153 0, left 2 +4H,=2573 03 ‘I 27-26 “ added som Pe tig * 30-11 1°28 5.50 Hydrocarbons. 25°73 “ used Aw Boo Kk, 10-00 10°04 43°16 Methane (CH,). 11:35 CO, formed B—CH,=CO — 1-31 1:31 5°63 Carb. monoxide. 21°35 Combustible gas 10°00 42-99 Hydrogen. -b3 -2°28 ‘Nitrogen. 188 CW. Hinman—New Apparatus for Gas Analysis. 5°85 per ct.; and for H, 42°93 per ct. ; and these numbers agree much better with the numbers of the second analysis. I have not been able to find any duplicate analyses of coal gas and not many of any kind, so I am not able to compare the accuracy of these analyses with that of analyses made with a different appa- ratus. Each of these analyses required from three to four hours for its execution. Analyses of common Air. Air collected April 25, 1874, freed from CO. 210°2 32°07 Air, H,O formed 20°15 317°2 ATS H, added, O, 6°716 178-2 27-42 Exploded, per cent of O, 20-94 Same Sample. 197-7 30°25 Air, H,O formed 19-00 304-7 45°15 H, added, 0, 6°333 173°6 26°75 Exploded, per cent of O, 20°93 Air collected April 26. 214:3 32°66 ir, H,O formed 20°52 3119 46°81 H, added, 0. 6°84 170°5 26°29 Exploded, per centof O, 20°94 Same Sample 207-7 31°70 Air, H,O formed 19°90 306'1 45°95 H, added, O, 6-633 168°8 26°05 Exploded, per cent of O, 20°92 Each of these air analyses required about half an hour for its execution. These analyses seem to have about the same de- gree of accuracy as the average of those made by Bunsen. Gas generated by action of KOH on Fe and Zn. .c Air 93°5 29°64 18-47 H,O formed Gas added 278°5 41°98 12°313 H, found 99°78 @ H,. Exploded 151-4 23.51 12°34 gas added Same Gas. Air 166°3 25°68 14-07 H,O formed Gas added 231-0 35°08 9°38 H, found 99°79 ¢ Hz Exploded 134°3 21°01 9°40 gas added These analyses show that the air was not quite expelled from the generating flask before the gas was coll W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. 189 This apparatus is especially useful where it is desired to ob- tain reliable results in a comparatively short time. As before mentioned, it was designed more especially for the analysis of illuminating gas. It will be noticed that the explosion pipette of this apparatus is nearly the same as the Cavendish eudiom- eter; the chief difference being in the manner of introducing and expelling the gas. Office of Gas Inspection, Boston, May 14, 1874. Arr. XVIII. — Researches on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt ; by Woxcorr Gisss, M.D. [Continued from vol. vi, p. 116, August, 187 3.] 5. THE salts described by Fremy* under the names of chlo- ride, nitrate and sulphate of fuscocobalt contain also eight atoms of ammonia, and may be regarded as belonging to the octamin series. These salts have, according to.Fremy, respectively the formulas : ‘ Co,(NH,),-0-Cl,+30H, Co,(NH,),-0.(NO,),+30H, : Co,(NH;), .0.(50,4)2+40H, in modern notation. They are brown resinous masses, are dif- ficult to obtain in a state of purity, and have as yet been but little studied. If we admit that the formulas are accurate, we may write them in accordance with the theoretic views which I have adopted, as follows :+ NH,—C (NH,—NO NH, SG a cn| NE =itvo ool MENS —NH po i Co, NH,—NH.>° Co, ¢ NH.—NH,-? Co NH.—NH,-? NH,—Cl NH,;—NO, NHws0, NH,—-Cl | NH,—NO, | NH; Jérgensent suggests that these salts may contain hydroxyl in place of ae : There is at present no method of deciding structural formula: Co, NH,—NH, * Ann. de Chimie et de Physique, [3,] tome xxxv, p. 257. ; + Blomstrand has given the sam Man with trifling variations. Chemie der 190 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomie compounds of Cobalt. doubtless yield an ample return. . Action of ammonic nitrite on salts of cobalt.—To obtain a clear view of the nature and mode of formation of the salts of xanthocobalt, I have carefully studied the relations of ammonic nitrite to salts of cobalt under different conditions. This sub- ject has already been examined by Erdmann, and in my laboratory by Sadtler. Erdmann found that when a neutral solution of cobaltic chloride is mixed with a neutral solution of ammonic nitrite no turbidity ensues, but after spontaneous evaporation in the air a salt crystallizes, with the formula, as Erdmann writes it (old style): Co,0,.2NH,, 3NO,+NH,0, NO,. This salt is isomorphous with the corresponding potassium salt, the crystals belonging to the rhombic system. Erdmann does not explain the reaction which takes place in the formation of this or the corresponding potassium salt, and regards the compounds in question as double salts) When slightly acid solutions were employed, Erdmann obtained, in addition to the above mentioned salt, an ammonic salt corresponding to Fis- cher’s salt, Co.(NOz)(NH,).+30H», as we should now write it. The existence of this salt was first remarked by Genth and myself.* Sadtler studied the action of ammonic nitrite on acid solutions of cobaltic chloride, and obtained two salts hav- ing respectively the formulas: Co,(NO,) ,)(NH,),+20H; Co, (NO) ,2(NH,),+20H,, but did not observe the formation of Erdmann’s ammonium salt. In repeating these experiments I always obtained Erdmann’s ammonium salt, CoNH,),(NO,)(NHy,),, in largest quantity. The crystals are uncommonly beautiful and well defined. Of these crystals 0°3390 gr. gave 0°1783 gr. SO,Co=20°02 per cent. The formula requires 20-00 per cent. In one experiment, in which a little free acetic acid was present, I obtained large dark sherry-wine colored prismatic erystals, which after solution and recrystallization gave only very thin lozenge-shaped tabular ' * This Journal, 2d Series, vol. xxiv, p. 86. W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. 191 erystals, the form and appearance of which are highly character- istic. These crystals gave no reactions with salts of luteo- cobalt, purpureocobalt and roseocobalt, and none with potassic chromate and dichromate, ammonic oxalate or argentic nitrate. The absence of the first mentioned reactions shows that they do not contain Co(NH,),(NO.)s or Co,{NO.)2, while the fact that they give no reactions with alkaline chromates and oxalates shows that they do not contain any known cobaltamin. Of ese crystals 0°1554 gr. gave 0:0974 gr. SO,Co=23°86 per cent cobalt. 0°3081 gr. gave 0°0635 gr. NH, =20°61 per cent ammonia. The formula Co,(NH;)(NO.), requires These analyses are sufficient to identify the salt in question with one which Erdmann has described in the paper referred to, as formed by the action of ammonia and potassic nitrite upon cobaltic chloride, unfortunately with but very scanty details. Co A ios t Z 2 7 * and consider it to be the nitrous representative of the hexamin H,). Ihave not succeeded in obtaining from it other members of the same series; but it is, to say the least, robable that the dichrocobalt-chloride of Fr. Rose,* Co,(N a)gClg) + 20H,, represents the corresponding chloride. Kiinzel + has described a sulphite to which he attributes the formula Co,(NH,),(80s)s+OH:; ‘but according to Geuthert this formula must be doubled, the — belonging to the dodekamin or luteocobalt series, with the ormula Co,(NH;)12 (SO;).+C02(803)¢ +20H,. Erdmann’s hexamin salt is of special interest because, as I shall show, it forms the first term in a remarkable series of metameric bodies; its formation under the circumstances may with great probability be expressed by the equation : 20001, +10NH, .NO,-+30=Coa(NH3)o(NOa)et 4NEACT wt * Untersuchungen iiber ammoniakalische Kobalt-Verbindungen. Heidelberg, 1871, + Journal fir prakt. Chemie, 72, p. 209. $ Ann. de Pharmacie, 128, p. 127. 192 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. as the salt is not formed immediately, but only after absorption of oxygen from the air. The formation o ; nium salt may in like manner be represented by the equation: 200Cl,-+8NH, .NO, +20=Co,(NH,),(NO,),+4NH,Cl+ 20H,, In another experiment I obtained no hexamin nitrite, but only Erdmann’s ammonium salt and the two salts described by Sadtler, and to which he gave respectively the formulas: Co2(NO2),.(NH,),+20H, Co,(NO,),.(NH,),.+20H,. These last salts were found in considerable quantity mixed together as a yellow sparingly soluble crystalline powder, when represented by the equations: 2C0Cl,+-10NH,. NO,+30=Co,(NO,) o(N Hy) s+ 6NH,+30H, 2CoCl,+12NH,.NO,+30=Co,(NO,),.(NH,),+-8NH,+ 30H: Professor Sadtler has shown that in these cases also an absorp- tion of oxygen from the air takes place. When a solution of ammonic nitrite is added to a strong alcoholic solution of cobaltic chloride, Erdmann’s ammonium salt, Co,(NH,)4(NOz)a(NH4)2, 18 chiefly formed, and only a small quantity of the four and six-atom , salts. The compound formed crystallizes from the alcoholic solution in very beautiful and well defined prismatic forms. From the above it will be seen that at least four distinct compounds are formed by the action of ammonic nitrite upon solutions of cobaltic chloride in presence of a weak acid and of the oxygen of the air. It is at least probable that all four are formed at the same time, though in varying proportions. I have already shown that, in the presence of free ammonia and of ammonic nitrate, cobaltic chloride and ammonic nitrite yield the nitrate of the octamin series. Of the action of ammonic nitrite upon cobaltic salts in the presence of free ammonia, I shall speak in treating of the formation of the salts of xantho- cobalt. 7. I have stated above that Erdmann obtained the hexamin have noticed. Small quantities of salts of the octamin series are also formed. The filtered solution obtained in this reaction W. Gibbs on the Hexatomie compounds of Cobalt. 193 was precipitated by potassic dichromate, and the orange-red needles obtained recrystallized for analysis; of these crystals 0°6145 gr. gave 0°7393 gr. CrO, Ba=51°40 per cent Cr,O,. 07712 gr. gave 0°9277 gr. CrO, Ba=51°40 per cent Cr,0O,. 0°5615 gr. gave 96°5 c.c. nitrogen (moist) at 15° C. and 763"™-1= 20°12 per cent nitrogen. 0°5028 gr. gave 86 c.c. nitrogen (moist) at 15° C. and 763™™1= 20°05 per cent nitrogen. The formula Co,(NH5)(NO,),Cr,0, requires 53°22 per cent Cr,0; and 20-67 per cent nitrogen, while the formula of the octamin salt, Co,(NH;)NO,),Cr,O;, requires 32°91 per cent Cr,O, and 19°30 per cent nitrogen, so that the analyses leave no reasonable doubt that the salt was a mixture of a salt of | xanthocobalt with a smaller proportion of the corresponding salt of the octamin series. | . * . as the compound Co.(NHs)x(NOz), combines with two atoms of ‘ chlorine. The structural formulas may be written respectively : ! ( NH,—NO, ‘ ( NH,—NO, | NH, —NO, ae a co Se 2 Eso oo eee | NH,—NO,; NH,—NO, With these formulas we may advantageously compare those of chloride of luteocobalt, of Fischer's salt considered as anhy- us, and of chloride of xanthocobalt: Am. Jour. Sete tarey + saa, Vor. VII, No. 45,—Sept., 1874. 194 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. [ N<0SN—0-0K 3 0 NH,-—NH, -Cl N<9>N-0-OK : N<)>N-0-0K NH,—NH,—Cl ce O Pie aay NN-0-0K N<@>N-—0—0K L Go, | NHs—NH,—Cl NH,—NH,-—Cl The manner in which these compounds may be derived from each other by replacement is rms obvious, and is best late. mann’s analyses leave no reasonable doubt as to the con- stitution of the ammonia-nitrites. I have thought it worth while, ee to make a few emai ‘analyses in support f his In the potassium : erp gr. gave 0°3397 gr. SO, Co wd so Kg 75 “54 per cent. “7338 gr. gave 0°5615 gr. = 76°52 per cent. o- 5937 gr. gave 127 c.c. tiga at 6°°5 C. and 7738™™-4—=26°45 per cent nitrogen. The formula Co,(NH;),(NO,),K, requires 76°58 per ¢ 2S0,Co+S0,K, and 26°58 per cent nitrogen. In the silver Bere 0°3580 gr. gave 0:2902 gr. SO,Co and SO, Ag,. : sae gr. gave 0°1675 gr. silver=28 ‘21 per cent. The t by difference amounts to 1533 percent. The for- mula Coan s)(NO1)sAgs requires 28°05 per cent silver and 15 . r cent co allium salt. aie a solution of the potassium salt is added to a of thallous nitrate, a beautiful sherry-wine-colored crys- talline precipitate is thrown down, which on recrystallization gives very well defined prismatic erystals, having apparently _ same form as the corresponding potassium and ammonium ts. Mercurous salt.—A solution of potassic ammonia-cobalt-nitrite gives immediately in Epienene of mercurous nitrate a beautiful W. Gibbs on the Hexatomie compounds of Cobalt. 195 orange-colored crystalline precipitate, which may be dissolved in boiling water, but not without partial decomposition. The crystals have made it of great service in my investigations, especially in distinguishing salts containing from those which contain Co,(NO,) Compounds of ammonia- cobalt-nitrite with barium, strontium, etc., are easily formed by ammonja, The formation of the salt Co.(NHs),(NO.)sK, may be expressed by the equation 2CoCl,-4NH,Cl4+-8KNO,+-0=Co, (NH,),(NO,)sK2+ 6KCl+2HCl+OH,, if we suppose oxygen to be absorbed from the air. Tn conse- quence, however, of the formation of free chlorhydric acid, N,O; is set free, and it is much more probable that this is reduced by the nascent-hydrogen; so that we have N,0,+2H=2N0+0H “ 196 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. The potassium salt is also formed, as I shall show, in various other cases; the similarity of some of its reactions to those of a solution of Co,(NO,),.Nag in sodic nitrite for a long time waietod me; but its relations to salts of silver, mercury and thallium enable us to recognize its presence with absolute certainty. The salt does not enter into combination with iodine. XANTHOCOBALT. 9. Genth and I have shown in our seis that the salts of xanthocobalt may be formed either directly by the action of nitrous acid vapors upon salts of cobalt, or by the action of the same acid upon salts of purpureocobalt and roseocobalt, in each case in the presence of free ammonia. I propose now to give the results of a more detailed study of the subject. With respect to the constitution of this class of salts, I may remark, in the first place, that Genth and I left it undecided whether the salts in question contain NO or NO,, pointing out the fact that the analyses do not decide in hock of either view, and adopting the former provisionally. Braun first prove snelsiliveky that ig salts of xanthocobalt contain NO,, an this view has since been generally adopted. I have hie shown (§ 1) that en cobaltic chloride, CoCl,, is mixed wi ammonia and ammonic nitrite and nitrate, the solution beers oxygen from the air, while the nitrate of the octamin series, Co,(N Hs),(N' O,),(NO,)a, i is formed. I have not observed in this reaction the formation of a salt of xanthocobalt. If present at all, such salts must be in very small relative quantity. Gent and I have shown, on the other hand, that when the red gases resulting from the action of nitric acid upon starch, sawdust or arsenous oxide are passed into solutions of cobaltic salts in presence of an excess of ammonia, salts of xanthocobalt are formed in a very short time, and in large quantity. we consider > red gas to consist of hyponitric oxide, N,O,, we may hav 16S, HONEA, O,= Cols) sol NOs)aNUolacs salts of this base among the products of the reaction. In one case, however, in which I employed cobaltic sulphate and added so large a quantity of ammonic sulphate that the solution gave no precipitate with ammonia, I obtained a very large relative. quantity of Erdmann’s salt Co,(NH,),NO.). In other cases in which cobaltic chloride was present I detected crystals of the chloronitrate Co(NHs)io(N Os)(NO, )zCl The solutions after the action of the red gases also contain small quantities of the ammonia-cobalt-nitrite of Gorge CoN (NE) UNONEN Hyg)s, as well as ammonic nitrite and n ¥ W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. 197 On the other hand, however, I have already shown (§ 3) that salts of this radical are formed in large quantity, together with _ a smaller proportion of the octamin nitrate, by the action of a mixture of potassic nitrite and ammonia upon cobaltic nitrate in presence of air; but that xanthocobalt is exclusively formed by the action of the same mixture upon a solution of ammonic and cobaltic sulphates. I am unable to offer any plausible ex- planation for the difference of the products in the two cases. When cobaltic nitrate, ammonic nitrite and ammonia are mixed and placed in a tightly-corked bottle, no action whatever appears to take place, even after the mixture has stood some 2Co(NO,),-+-10NH,4-2NO,. NH, + PbO.=Co,(NH;):(NO3)2 (NO,),+PbO+(N H,).0. Potassic hypermanganate may also be employed as an oxidizing agent, but is less convenient. The experiment just detailed appears to me to render it most probable that in the action of the red gases upon salts of cobalt in presence of ammonia, the resulting salts of xanthocobalt are not formed by the direct union of the cobaltic salt with ammonia and nitroxyl, but that ammonic nitrite is first formed, and that the oxygen necessary simple cases of double decomposition, a particular instance of which, covering in substance the whole ground, may ex- pressed by the equation: Co, (NH,), .(NO,)¢+2NH,-NO,=00,(NHs)10(NO2)s 910 NO MO, ), + 2NOg NA. Salts of xanthocobalt are always formed when salts of pur- pureocobalt and roseocobalt are heated or even digested in the cold with alkaline nitrites. I have made a special study of the action of potassic and sodie nitrites upon chloride of purpureo- cobalt, the details of which are as follows: Action of sodic and potassic nitrites upon chloride of pur- Ppureocobalt.— A quantity of chloride of purpureocobalt was dissolved in boiling water, with a little free acetic acid to prevent decomposition, and added to a hot solution of potassi¢ nitrite in excess. The dark brown-red solution was evaporated at a 193 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. gentle heat to half its volume. On cooling, a small quantity of Fischer’s salt Co.(NO.)2K,+2OH, separated ; afterward sherry- wine colored prismatic crystals were formed in abundance. After recrystallization these were analyzed. 0°2824 gr. gave 0°1519 gr. CoOSO,=20°47 per cent cobalt. 0°5557 gr. gave 0°2092 gr. silver=12°37 per cent chlorine. The same experiment was made with sodic nitrite, and with similar results. After two recrystallizations the salt formed zed. 04163 gr. gave 0°2235 gr. CoSO,—20°43 per cent cobalt. 0°2332 gr. gave 0°0876 gr. silver=12°38 per cent chlorine. 0°6625 gr. gave 192-12 ¢.c, nitrogen (moist) at 14° C. and 764°™°1 =34°29 per cent. 1°2310 gr. gave 0°5825 gr. water=5°24 per cent hydrogen. 16542 gr. gave 0°7996 gr. water==5°37 per cent hydrogen. The salt being found anhydrous, the analyses agree with the formula : Co,(NH;) ,.(NO2)2(NO5)2Cl., which requires Cobalt 20°52 20°47 20°43 Chlorine - 12°34 12°37 12°38 Hydrogen 5°26 5°24 89537 Nitrogen 34-09 34°29 and which is fully sustained by other considerations, as I shall show. As the solutions of the alkaline nitrites employed also contained nitrates, the formation of the new salt may be repre- sented by the equation: Co,(NH,), Clo-+2KNO,+2KNO,=4KCI+Co,(NH;);o (NOz)2(NO3)2Cl.. cobalt series, but crystallizes usually in prismatic forms, whic are moderately soluble in hot water, and separate readily from the solution. With neutral potassic chromate the salt gives the beautiful yellow crystalline chromate of xanthocobalt : Co,(NH,) ,4(NO;)9(Cr0,)+20H,. With potassic ferrocyanide it gives the characteristic red pris- matic crystals of _ Co,(NH;),,(NO,)2FeCy,+60H,, and with ammonic oxalate, oxalate of xanthocobalt, Co,(NH3)19(NO2)2(C294) 2, W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. 199 the reactions being too obvious to require explanation by equa- ions. c : beautiful prismatic forms. In this case we have Co,(NH;) 10 (NO,),Cl,+Co,(NH,) 1 o(NO,),(NO;),=2Co, (NH) 1 o(NO, )o(NO,)2Cl. Of the crystals so formed 0°6203 gr. gave 0°3310 gr. CoSO,=20°31 per cent cobalt. 0-9268 gr. gave 0°3450 gr. silver=12°24 per cent chlorine. The formula requires 20°51 per cent cobalt and 12°34 per cent chlorine. A portion of the crystallized salt was dissolved and precipitated by argentic nitrate. The filtrate from AgCl gave on evaporation crystals of nitrate of xanthocobalt, in which 0°2972 gr. gave 071469 gr. CoSO,—18°81 per cent cobalt. The formula of the nitrate requires 18°73 per cent. These re- sults leave no doubt as to the constitution and true relations of the chloro-nitrate. dat id salt—When the chloro-nitrate is dissolved and a solu- tion of aurochloride of sodium, AuCl,Na, is added in excess, ong prismatic wine-yellow crystals are formed. Of these crystals 0°8564 gr. decomposed by zine and sulphuric acid gave 0°6300 gr. silver=24°16 vas cent chlorine and 0°2858 gr. gold=33°36 per ce nt. F 0°4084 or. gave 0°1770 gr. Au+Co=43'34 per cent and by dif- ference 9°98 per cent cobalt. This formula, Co.(NHg)o(N Oz)(NOs)Cl,+2AuCls, requires : Found. Cobalt 9°98 9°98 G 0 . Chlorine 24°03 24°16 The salt is readily decomposed by boiling with reduction of metallic gol ol ie g Platinum salt.—Platinic chloride in solution precipitates the chloro-nitrate almost immediately in the form of wine- wai needles. After recrystallization this salt was analyzed wit the following results : ; 200 R. Mallet-—Mechanism of Stromboli. 0°6405 gr. fused with potassio-sodic carbonate gave 0°5564 gr. silver=28°55 per cent chlorine, 071986 gr. platinum=31-00 per cent, and 0°0597 gr. cobalt=9°33 per cent. The platinum and cobalt were weighed together as metals after reduction by hydrogen, and the cobalt was then dissolved by long boiling with nitric acid. This formula, Co,(N Hg)io(NO)o(NO3).C],4 2PtCl,, requires ound, Cobalt 9°40 9°33 Platinum 31°55 31°00 Chlorine 28°28 28°55 The salt had no water on heating to 140° C. (To be continued.) Art. XIX.—On the Mechanism of Stromboli; by RoBERT MALLET, M.A., F.R.S. [Abstract of a paper received by the Royal Society of London, May 17, 1874, and read June 25, 1874] STROMBOLI stands unique (omitting the as yet imperfectly known Masaya in Central America), amongst the volcanoes of © our globe as characterized by the rhythmical recurrence of its outbursts, which have continued with but little alteration for more than 2000 years. The phenomena of Stromboli have been more or less accurately described by several authors, from Spallanzani and Hoffman to Scrope and Daubenay. The last but one of these has proposed an explanation of the phenomena presented by the recurrent outbursts at short intervals of time, which within rather narrow limits are constant, and in the tradi- tional convictions are supposed to have some connection with ao the geysers of Iceland; to some of the circumstances, _ those experimentally — i R. Mallet-—Mechanism of Stromboli. + 201 able explanation of their rhythmical action given by Bunsen and Des Cloizeaux. He then points out that Stromboli presents more especially the statement that the bottom of the crater is about 2000 feet above the level of the sea, are corrected—the author's levels being derived from approximate barometric measurements, The author then refers to the old traditions still current as to connections in the way of cause and effect between the phenomena of the volcano and those of weather, ete. He points out that the explanation previously given of 202 W. A. Burnham—lIncrease of Magnetism im soft tron. the supposed mechanism of Stromboli fail as completely to account for any such connection as they do to explain the rhythmical action of the volcano itself. The only distinct relations that can be gathered from the inhabitants of the referable to acknowledged meteorological principles. Art. XX.—Brief Contributions from the Physical Laboratory of Harvard College. No. X1.—Increase of Magnetism in a bar of soft iron upon the reversal of the magnetizing current; by WitiiaM A. BURNHAM. In testing the intensity of the magnetism induced in a bar of soft iron which forms the armature common to two electro- state of the bar on the first passage of the current through the magnetizing helices, after a reversal of the poles of the battery. This increase disappears upon subsequent magnetizations of the bar. Various observations were taken by placing the 1n- duction coil C (see paper by Mr. Sears in the July number of this Journal) at different distances on the bar which was mag- netized. A bar of soft iron was experimented with in the first instance, the coil C being at a distance of five centimeters from TABLE I. Distances of C from the middle of the bar in centimeters. Constant deflections on making and) +|—} + ,—| + |—| + |-—| + |— — breaking circuit. 40/40) 50 |50| 60 |60! 70 |70| 80 80} 90 | 99 - + Deflection on the first passage of the|/—|+)— |}+| — |+| — |+|— current after changing the poles. PRatnrn ta PSR i TRY a ile . - 3: — — Bned aa eye nea Dae —|+ f tk t.'40/40! 56 |50! 60 60! 70 |70' 80 ‘80! 90 | 90 It will be seen by this table, that when the coil C stands at a distance of five centimeters from the zero point on the arma- _ ture upon making the cireuit, the galvanometer needle swings FE. L. Carney—LHffect of Vibrations upon Electro-magnets. 208 to the left 40°, and upon breaking the circuit it is deflected 40° to the right. The signs in our table denote this change of direction. When the poles are reversed and the circuit ing upon each second and succeeding passages of the current to constant deflections. The following are the results when a bar of steel was substituted for the soft iron. TasBLE II. Distances of C from the middle of the bar in imeters. Constant deflections on making and breaking) +|—|+|—)+)—|+ circuit. /20/ 20/30/30 40/40/50 50/60/60 70/70 Deflections on the first passage of the current after changing the poles. 7 Return to constant deflections on second and)/—}+ } + ol ie aad ak i sages of the current. 120120 30'30.40'40'50'50 60'60'70'70 In the case of steel, when the coil C stands at a distance of five centimeters from zero, the galvanometer needle swings +20° to —20°. No. XIL—On the Effect of Longitudinal Vibrations upon Electro- magnets; by HE. L. CARNEY. ; Ir a bar of iron or steel which is rendered magnetic by a magnetizing spiral receives a sharp blow or shot current is generated in a coil of fine wire, which is slipped upon the bar and is connected with a galvanometer. This current is opposite in direction to that of the magnetizing current. (Wiedemann, Galvanismus und Elektromagnensmus, 1863, pp. 375, 897. Also Dr. Emil Villari, Veber den transversalen Magne- tismus des Eisens und des Stahles, Pogg. Ann., exxxvii, 1869, pp. 569-591.) This investigation was.undertaken to ascertain the ~ 204 E. L. Carney—Effect of Vibrations wpon EHlectro-magnets. magnetizing helix. We shall term the currents which were stantly. On exciting longitudinal vibrations, it was found that With steel the results obtained were constant, while with iron they were variable. It was found impossible to excite more than one tertiary current. magnetizing circuit positive throughout these experiments. On the iron rod the magnetizing helix was forty centimeters from the center; on the steel rod only fifteen. Tass I, Tron rod. Steel rod. } db Current made. a by Current made. Slag ld a y om a . sila 55 35 30 10 50 45 30 10 70 45 30 10 55 44 oe 40 60 38 some cases there was more than one tertiary current, which was apparently due to the feebleness of the first vibration, as the such was the case. However, this could not have been the e tertiary current appeared when the vibration was all that could have been Suchet for. In the E. L. Carney—Liffect of Vibrations upon Electro-magnets. 205 case of the iron rod it will be noticed that the tertiary vibra- ions are greater than the secondary, while the reverse is true with the steel rod. The current was then broken and the amount of deflection noticed; and afterward a tertiary current obtained in the more than one tertiary being obtained, it was probably due to the feebleness of the first vibration. In all these experiments the tertiary currents were in the same direction as the secondary ones, differing in this respect from those of Table IL. The magnetizing helix in both cases was fifteen centimeters from the center of the rods. Tron rod. Current made. pred lira by Current broken. Figg rm by + + ves st 40 60-10-10 45 40-5 47 50-5-10-5 50 45 42 40-15 40 30 15 20 10 30 15 30 17 30 ti $2 16 32 Steel rod. db Current made. pride nase bY | Current broken. pags abi / -+- + a a 20 10 25 10 22 Qo7 15 23 5-3 29 15 20 10 20 "10 Table III.—Here the magnetizing coil was placed on the rods instead of at right angles to them, as In the previous cases, oe the experiment was performed as described in Table was broken the tertiary current was greater than the secondary, while in Table II. the tertiary current was greater when the current was made. : : On the iron rod the magnetizing helix was distant forty cen- timeters from the center; on the steel rod twenty-two. 206 EF. L. Carney—Hfect of Vibrations upon Electro-magnets. Iron rod. Current made. on ney *Y | Current broken. Cure dec by + + Bp 60 55 70 70 62 45 65 70 47 55 65 68 60 Steel rod. Current made. Were eevee OY Tu ont mada ee by 27 29 30 18 28 5 30 24 30 15 26 17 Table IV.—In all the previous cases the circuit was made while the rod was not vibrating. : Now the rod was first set in vibration, and the magnetizing circuit was made while it was vibrating, and the deflection noticed; when the rod came to rest, a tertiary current was ex- cited by setting it again in vibration. ; Here again more than one tertiary current was obtained, which could not have been due to the feebleness of the first vibration. : It will be noticed that the deflections obtained by the tertiary vibrations are opposite in direction to those obtained by the secondary ones, as was also the case in Table I On the iron rod the ma: netizing helix was distant forty cen- timeters from the center; on the steel one fifteen. Iron rod. Steel rod. Current made while | Current caused by ||Current made while | Current caused by vibrating. vibration only. || rod was vibrating. | vibrations only. - as - 95 80 60 10 70 80 48 18 80 95 50 102 65-20 60 28-10 100 55-20 68 22-2 100 105 50 7 90 125 122 105-25 | _ All the previous experiments were repeated with the rods at right angles to the meridian, but no noticeable difference in results was obtained. The conclusions are as follows: J. W. Fewkes—Dissipation of Electricity by Flames. 207 1. When the primary magnetizing circuit was made and in- stantly broken, a tertiary current was excited by the vibrations which was less in amount and opposite in ; ark to the secondary current arising from the magnetism of the bar. 2. When the primary magnetizing circuit was made perma- nently, or in other words, while the bar was a permanent elec- tro-magnet, the tertiary currents were in the same direction as the secondary ; and in the case of soft iron uniformly greater. : en the rod formed the core of the magnetizing helix the tertiary currents were in the same direction as the second- ary currents; and when the magnetizing circuit was broken they were, in the case of soft iron, greater than the secondary curren 4. When the magnetizing circuit was made while the rod was in a state of vibration the tertiary currents were opposite in direction to the primary, and in several instances more than one was obtained at each trial. No. XIIL—Experiments on the Dissipation of Electricity by Flames ; by J. W. FEWKEs. e experiments are given below. Experiment 1.—An alcohol lamp, carefully insulated, was connected with the electrometer. The sections of the quadrant to which it was attached were then charged by means of the vulcanite plate, the opposite sections being at the same time in connection with the earth. The lamp was then carefully spot of light, which had been deflected to the ge of the scale by the charge, quickly returned to the zero Saree indicating a quick dissipation of the electricity by the flame. Exp. 2.—The same conditions as those in Exp. 1 were ob- served, with the exception that a Bunsen burner was substi- tuted for the alcohol lamp. The dissipation of electricity was the same as before, and took place, as near as could be observed, at the same rate as before. , . 8.—I then substituted for the Bunsen flame a very fine _ jet of light, obtained by passing the gas through a finely poin ted glass tube. The results obtained from this experiment 208 A. S. Thayer—Polarization of the Plates of Condensers. indicate that the rate of dissipation is in no respect related to the size of the flame. . 4.—The end of the wire connected with the quadrant the gas turned on without being lighted. The spot of light ad no movement, and gave no sign of any loss of electricity by the quadrant. An artificial current of’ air across the wire point likewise had no effect in dissipating the charge. Exp. 5 i ciently electrify the quadrant so as to produce any deflection of the spot of light. _, Map. 2.—Place the wire point in the flame and then hold the electrified vuleanite plate up to the flame as before. The } spot of light immediately is violently deflected, indicating the presence of electricity in the quadrant. This change, however, | is soon dissipated by the flame, and the spot quickly returns to the zero point. These last experiments seem to indicate that the flame has a much greater attraction for the electricity of the vulcanite plate than the copper point of the wire. Hence the difficulty of charging the quadrant in the first experiment. hen, however, the wire is in direct communication with the flame, as in the second experiment, the flame and the quadrant are at the same potential, and the increase of electricity in the flame produces a corresponding deflection of the spot of light. No. XIV.—Polarization of the Plates of Condensers; by A. S. THAYER. . It is well known that in polarization batteries, of which Planté’s battery is a type, a combination of the ions, resulting from electrolysis, takes place when the plates of the battery are connected, and a current results which slowly diminishes 10 A. 8. Thayer—Polarization of the Plates of Condensers, 209 strength. In the case of condensers made with solid dielectrics the same diminishing current is observed, and the following experiments would seem to show that it might be due to an electrolysis or decomposition of the material separating the plates of tin-foile The experiments consisted in placing con- densers of various kinds in a circuit, through which a current was made to pass by two Bunsen’s cells, and noting their changes. The plates of the condensers were of tin-foil and had an area of about fifteen square inches. The experiments were as follows: — (1.) The dielectric used was a sheet of dry glazed paper. The condenser could not be charged so as to give a perceptible dis- charge. (2.) When a sheet of glazed paper, moistened with shellac, was substituted for the dry paper, the discharge was sufficient to send the light off the scale of the galvanometer, and con- tinued for some minutes. g (3.) Dry goldbeaters’ skin was used as a dielectric, and no deflection could be obtained. : (4.) The goldbeaters’ skin, when moistened with shellac, gave a slowly diminishing deflection. | (5.) The dielectric was made by flowing the surfaces of the plates with a solution of wax and gasoline, and a slowly di- minishing deflection was obtained. (6.) The condenser used in (4) was tried again after the shel- lac had dried and again gave a diminished deflection less than the first deflection. : ; (7.) The condenser used in (5), when tried again after a day or two, did not again give a deflection. (8.) Unglazed paper dry and oiled gave no deflection. (9.) Glazed paper oiled gave a very slight deflection, and the galvanometer needle immediately returned to zero. _ (10.) Glazed paper wet with water and covered with shellac gave the greatest deflection of all the dielectrics) The light Was sent completely off the scale and was only brought back by shunting the galvanometer. The discharge also continued a time tries was tested. The goldbeaters’ which had been covered send the light entirely off the scale. hat these alee directly go to show are, first, that condensers with moist dielectrics received a greater charge than Am, Jour. Sc1.—Turep Series, Vou. VIII, No. 45.—SePr., 1874. 14 : 7 210 Scientific Intelligence. those made with dry, and second, that the better the dielectric conducted, the greater the charge the condenser was capable o receiving. From these facts it would seem that the slow = tion. e best condensers, as shown by the experi iments, pos- all. Their conduction when moist must therefore have been mainly due to electrolysis, since liquids conduct electricity only in very small quantities without being decom The electrolyte was therefore decomposed, and the re-combination of the products of decomposition caused the return current. An exact analogy is thus determined between the case of the lead plates and these condensers. Whether it is an analogy that would hold in the case of all condensers which slowly dis- charge themselves, is an interesting question SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. I. Purysics. Dielectricity of pate Dn —M. L. ec aiaiputgs has presented to :o Vienna Academy of Sciences a paper n experimental determination of the constant of dielectricity of iulache bodies. Faraday first observed the property of insulating solid bodies of ng. dielectric, that is, of increasing the capacity of a condenser by their presence etween its two plates. Sew tty and later Gibson rs cence have studied the phenomeno ex perimen- sEevctioal conditions. Representing by Pat and ie the differ- ential ratios of the potential on the inner and outer faces of the dv eee ie Te he insulator, along the normal, the quotient Ne) ING will be t constant of dielectricity D. Neglecting the free singe | ac- omer bp at the borders of the plates of” the condense all- the distance of the two plates, or the thickness of ‘the S dinlee- tric dayer, the greg of the condenser will be inversely propor tional to m—n+—. The measurement sa = opae of pment was goon Pat a : athe? s charged by a bat- phur and aie | then as im insulators, stearine, ‘glass ee pa percha, The theoretic siiechenlente of Helmholtz Sec eee Physics, 21: on the relation between the capacity of the condenser and the thickness of the insulating layer and plates were verified even when there were several insulating plates instead of one. ese experiments were made both with a mom a continuous charge; both cases gave nearly equal capacities. rom this we produced quite rapidly. Th r found as probable values of the constant of dielec- tricity the numbers for sulphur, 3°86 ; hardened caoutchoue, 3°15; resin, 2°55 ; paraffine, 2°32. Maxwell arrived at the conclusion that the square root of the constant of dielectricity ought to equal the index of refraction. The following table shows that this law holds true quite within the limits of probable error: VD. Index of refraction. Sulphur, 1960 2°060 esin, 1597 1°563 523 1°536—1°516 202. Be OP: . Flow of Saline Solutions through Capillary Tubes.—M. T. Hisener finds that the velocity of flow of solutions in capillary sented two marks, and with a seconds-watch the time which was required for the level of the liquid to fall from one of these marks to the other, was accurately measured. eo e “ Operating in this way upon solutions of chloride, bromide and lodide of potassium, chloride of sodium and ammonium, with a “3 alloid, e variations presented by the velocity from one body to another are as much more mark i as the tube is more capillary and as the concentration of the solution is greate: ei r. comparing two solutions, of chloride of sodium and ts re} B g E i B g w 2 z 0B cS chlorides of the alkaline-carth metals barium, strontium, ma ) sium, M. Htibener thinks it nay be concluded generally, with a high degree of probability, that the velocities of flow of these. 16. Scientific Intelligence. be found in the circumstance that the molecules of substances to less fr with the solvent in which they are held, thus communicating greater mobility to the solution— Bib. Univ., 197, 75; Phil. E. show ficient, and that with iron and slag it is quite erroneous. A con- ing cooling. The second shell was employed to measure the After rmanent change of volume due to heating and cooling. rep t force. The amount of this force de- rel between the volume and the effective sur- Geology and Natural History. 218 face, or surface indented by the solid. It also depends on the difference of temperature of the solid and liquid. In the case of lead, solid pieces float on the liquid metal, although the contraction on solidifying is here marked and well known. In fact the solid at 70° has a specific gravity of 11°361, while when melted its specific gravity is only 11°07. Floating or sinking takes place according to the relation between the volume and effective surface ; thin pieces with large surface always float- ing, and vice versa.— Wature, 156. E. C. P, IL GroLtogy AND NatTurAL History. 1. Reasons for some of the changes in the subdivisions of Geo- logical time in the new edition of Dana’s Manual of Geology ; by the Auruor. © (1.) Arehawan time.—The first era in geological history is called, in the old edition of the Manual, Azozc time or age. The term Azoie was always objectionable, because it affirmed what was not ved. discovery of the supposed animal fossil called Hozoon, shortly after the first edition was issued, led soon to the proposed substitution of Hozoie for Azoic. Those who received the suggestion with favor did not consider that if the so-called Azoic included an Eozoic era, it included a true Azoic also, an era of rocks and seas without life; for while the rocks and seas of the globe were above the temperature of boiling water, the Eozoic era could hardly have begun. The assumption that all those early rocks were Eozoic has nothing to favor it. ; A general term. for the whole era, free from hypothesis, was -sedama needed. Murchison’s term, Bottom rocks, was ripened actory. Archean, signifying simply beginning-time, was there- fore aes . Und . A shins Re are the Azoic and the Eozoic ages, although their limits have not yet been marked out in the rocks of the world, and probably never will be, since the rocks are now crystalline, through metamorphism, and, with ew exceptions, it cannot be learned whether life existed during their formation or not. ae a I pass now to the Lower Silurian era, which, in the new edition, is divided into (1) the Primordial or Cambrian, (2) the Canadian, Primo: tion, (2.) Primordial or Cambrian Period.—This period in the = book has unchanged limits, except in the removal of the se - €rous sand-rock, the uppermost portion, whose fossils, as stated +f Billings and the Geological Reports of Canada, are more are related to those of the Tuawing part of the ota Silurian. e word Potsdam is dropped because the Po tone is the least characteristic cae of the formati term Cambria. 1s added, because period is identical essentially with the Cam- the pe: , “ brian of the British geologists. The trilobites and other species 214 Scientific Intelligence. found within a few years in the Cambrian rocks of Britain—till ll because of the position and the occurrence of fossils. The nian is not a formation of known age. e original Huronian have been so pronounced on lithological evidence; whic evidence at all, since the kinds of the Huronian are not confined to it. (3.) Canadian Period.—The fact of the existence of an impor- tant Lower Silurian formation in Canada, near Quebec, abounding in fossils, and of about the age of thé Calciferous sand-rock and the Chazy limestone, is mentioned, in the first edition of this The change has been made to “ Cincinnati” group in the recent geological reports on the surveys of States west of Set York, and this term was accordingly adopted in the Geology. Geology and Natural History. 215 erican n; and, moreover, remains of terrestrial plants exist in the Upper Silurian of Britain and Europe, but none had been found in North America. Professor Hall, in the third volume of his Paleontology (1859), presents reasons for transferring the Oriskany Pp from the Devonian to the r Silurian. He says, of tions 6.) D first edition of the Geology, it is stated that recent observations fi published. Moreover, while the new edition of the Geology was i i rom Professor James Hall, of mM prepara f Albany, and from J. Peter Lesley, of Philadelphia (who was with Stron these reasons, additional information gna making the Catskill beds Chemung. eC Pennsylvania has a thickness, according to Rogers, of 6,000 feet. Reference to the facts observed by Jewett and Way were inadver- Leni ene Me Thi in the new fe ! an.—This age in Say fe eee asian for this, and ions of statements introduced, are so fully given ere 216 Scientific Intelligence. the geological work of the era was so widely different in its most prominent features from that of the Tertiary and preceding ages, that an independent term, mung no special relation to the Ter- UArys was desirable; and such is Quaternary. eged Fruits of the Carboniferous genus Cardiocar- Th ardiocarpus was probably related to the modern Conifers of the Welwitschia type, as shown by the similarity of the fruit and also by the close relation of the leaves, if those called Cordaites belong, as both Geinitz and Ne ewberry ha have in- sepeneany remarked, to ag sguctoe apc a Welwitschia is an embryonic form of Co nifer, it produc o leaves except the eotyledonons; but, dines srobally unlike. Cordaites | in its embry- c features, it show what leaves and frait are consistent with aa aa of Conif a anas Manual of Geology, pp. 328, 330. l of the Carboniferous era not made of ba rk,—The e sug- gestio m has been made, in view of the many Sigillaria stumps hollowed out by decay and daticned stems of other trees, found in the Coal-measures, filled — shale or sandstone, that the Peak debris from which the coal has eye was largely Ss ie oO e. | ° et ee 2} o m er “S°) oF “e &, “wD j=) ry < (a) 299 oO S = pot & *§ e cortical re of Lepidodenaria (under which ete the ois made s als acta ving and Equi és. 5 Hae et that even looks like formations, changed, a the interior, completely to brown coal or lignite. — NaQ CaO MgO poe Mn*o* Al?0° po® so* siv? Cl 2°68 4°13 5°89 6-0 2 29°90. 7-30 $56 13-01. -s ie 1-96 651 : 30 2°53 26°65 5°36 4°9013°94 3°13 a eee 2 46 5-31. 18-74 8°28 oor ae 3°33 4-09 117 4:18. 1256 930 3-54 .. 15 1:7743°65 620 0°48 17°20 2°84 0°72 _. _. 2%910°1841°73 6°26 8°63 1°81 22 6 POE BBS IS 59 5°64 2°81 1°60 ft. ft. 2°60 1:6012°55 2°06 . Sphag. commune 8°02 12-40 3°17 4°92 6°35 5°89 1-06 4:33 41°69 12°09 6 0°85 0°44 95°35 0°99 0-67 - 1:22 O16 Geology and Natural History. 217 Analysis 1, is by Ritthausen; 2, Aderholt; 3, A. reper 4, Struckmann ; 5, 6, 9, Malaguti & Durocher; 7, 8, E. Wittig; 10, H. VohL.; 1, Schultz-Fleet. In the analyses that have been made of Ly copods , the amount of ash is 3°2 to per cent in weight of the dried plant; of Ferns 2°75 to 7°56 per cent; of Equi- setum arvense, 18°71 per cent; of Ea. Telmateia, 26°75 6 cent; of sori ow less than 2 per cent; of Chara fetida, 31°33 per cent; of Fungi, 3 "10 5 per cent; of Lichens, 1-14 to 17 per cent (the last Dba 9 but pind Soran 114 and 4°30 per cent. In Lycopodium dendr Sileule. wes, in y found 3°25 per cent of ash; in L. complanatum, 5°47 per apes and in Eguisetum hyemale, 11°82 per cen dium pergratacy: on ye gous Aderholt 51° - per cent of alumina; or, when without spores, 57°36 per while Ritthaus pericea ge 39°07 alumina for this species, Aig 37°87 for '. pot a In Taos e silica consti- tutes 10 to 14 per cent of the ash. In the ash of Mosses hued been foun 23°58 per cent of potash, 4 to 16 of silica, 1°06 to 6°56 of pad ceaied acid, 4°9 to 10-7 of ng gece — Ferns, the amount of ash, so far as determined, varies The ash of Fungi ‘affords 21 to 54 per cent of potash, 0°36 to 11°8 of soda, 1°27 to 8 of magnesia, 15 to 60 of phosphoric acid, and 0 to 15:4 of silica. Among Lichens, the ash of Cladonia arn shee contains 70°34 per cent of silica; of other xg less, down to 4 9 Trapa natans , of bogs, in eee “affords 1 3 to 25 Pa cent of ash; and 25 per cent of ‘this are oxide of iron ie 203), with a pre of manganese. Of the ash Ste fot poalon: 9 ee nt are oxide n. these two weectatte make up 2 per cent of a sake, oe amount 2 silica and alumina, in fe Siconsinsie coal made from such plants (supposing three fifths of the material of the wood lost in making the coal, as estimated on page 363), 4 per cent; and the whole amount of ash about 4°75 per cent. - : e same ‘time, the ratio of silica to alumina would be nearly 3 t Now ma ny — of the bituminous coal of on Interior basin have obtained n r 3 per cent of ash, « or impurity, although the general neyo gute ase obviously impure re kin 5" 4°5 to 6 per cent; being, for the coals of = hemi half o: Ohio, 5:1 2, and for the southern half 4°72 per ce es It hence follows that (1) the whole of the real: y in th : coals may have been derived from the plants; eee the amount 0 odern food a) S 2 Q 5 3 na an £ “ the same tribes; (3) the winds = waters for long periods con- tributed almost no dust or detritus to ; and (4) the ash, or else the detritus, was asias in amount toward ers of the Interior marsh-region. In that era of moist climate 218 Scientific Intelligence. Alps had been ; one geologist, pre-Silurian has been regarded by the supporter of the hypothesis as the best evidence in its favor: thoug d truth, it really proves nothing with ed by Prof. Schimper as Annu- laria sphenophylloides, a plant, perhaps aquatic, widely distributed in the coal strata of Mont Blane.” - The proposed genus Anomalodonta of Miller identical with the earlier Megaptera of Meek.—In the first issue of the Cincin- ati Journal of Science I observe that the editor, Mr, 8, A. Miller, proposes a new genus under the name of Anomalodonta, to include a group of shells allied to Ambonychia of Hall. These shells con- stitute a very interesting type, evidently belonging to the family Aviculide. Like Ambonychia, they are destitute of an anterior wing, but have, posteriorly, a very large one, which gives the shell i jiller’s type specimens show them to have a broad striated area, such as Myalina possesses, with, at Myalina, as for example in M. ampla of Meek: and Hayden, so that, although enerically distinct from Mr. Miller’s shell, there seems to be littl i ating costz, unless he is right in stating that his shell has a large impression of the anterior adductor muscle, which, in view of the with Ambonychia, the hinge of his shell differs materially in want- ing the two anterior well-defined teeth of that genus, and also its three elongated posterio-lateral teeth. his genus Anomalodonta was roposed for a group of shells identical with the one for whic Meck & Worthen proposed the subgeneric name of Megaptera in the Proceedings of the Chicago Academy of Science in 1866. Mr. Miller himself states that his ebdd posed genus will include chia legaptera (Ohio B aleontology, vol, i, p. 131), of which he says Mr. U. P. James ; ‘ | ; : Geology and Natural History. 219 that his proposed genus will include, among others, Casei of Meek & Worthen, which is the type species of Megaptera. ‘ ; a has unquestionable p , and must stand before Mr, Mil- ler’s n ll others also, unless, however, the name Megap- tera may be objected to on account of its previous use deed, I am informed by a friend that Mr. Meek in his work, now in manuscript, has decided to use the name Opisthoptera Casei and Further, upon comparing Mr, Miller’s description of his species gigantea with Meek’s alata, I am unable to find that the —- and the preservation of concentric strie of his shell to separate 1t from VM. alata. As Mr. Meek distinctly mentions the existence of the striw in his shell, Mr. Miller’s species seems to be reduced to Halifax, N. 8., Provincial Museum, Aug. 6.4 have just returned from the locality of the fossil Cetacean, in New Brunswick. found well-preserved shells, e. g., Balanus Hamer, Buceinum un- datum, Fusus tornatus, Natica Groenlandiea, N. helicoides, Leda vals for a distance of thirty miles. : : e Rev. Mr. Paisley described one of these cuttings in the We li . Tae” t thr il rth o Bath- Bilin Vv 220 Scientific Intelligence. urst at Somersetvale. It is the first cutting north of the river Titti- gouche, The fossils are here in the greatest variety and abundance. The following ts give the approximate height of the bed above the present sea level: The height of the iron bridge over the Tittigouche is 60 feet; the foundation is about ten feet above sea level; the height of the top of the clay in the cutting is about seven feet above the height of the bridge; total, 77 feet. I found is Belledune. On the shoreI found Niagara limestone strata, hav- ing an abundance of corals. I collected fine specimens of Favo- — ir anerees ge Halysites catenulata, species of Cyathophyllum, or allie At — Bon Ami, I unexpectedly came upon a fine exposure of Strata of the same age—great ancient coral reefs, replete with mens of Zaphrentis, sp. ?, Orthoceras, sp.?, Strophomena depressa, Atrypa reticularis, Athyris nitida, Rhynchonella, sp.? Orthis, ints. Associated, with this is a great dike of intrusive trap. It is both basaltiform and amygdaloidal; geodes and amygdules are abundant. The minerals are agates, zeolites, and calcite. In ex- amining the amygdules, a moniliform specimen attracted my atten- tion ; on detaching it and examining it with a magnifying glass, I conditions which some might be disposed to question. They show that the trap was soft fluid when the corals were imbedded. They phose the organism,—or that corals have a greater power of resist- ance than other organic remains, es tons of new species of Goniatide, with a list of _ ; d species ; by James Hatz. 4 pp. 8vo. Printed In advance of the 27th Report on t¢ useum of Nat- ural Histo: i he State : jo ived from the author in May last.) The spe- cies described are Goniatites complanatus Hall. Gefetred, from @ Geology and Natural History. . 221 Hamilton shales, Ca ayuga Lake ; mulator Ha il, from the Chemung, near Tthaca; G. ( cane 7 Wendel Hall, ‘same slonek- ity; G. Chem ungensis, var. eguicostatus, from the Chemung of inary Report on the First Season’s Work of the Geo- logical ai of Yesso ; B. 8. Lyman. 46 pp. 8vo. Tokei 874.—B Tle then n gives an outline of the manner in which the various alterations in a mine cies may take place, by replacement, Se and epigenesis, with examples for each, and dwells at more length upon the fallacy of considering the alterations of many minerals and rock masses as the r of an epigenic a cess ; a doctrine which has been embodied in the dictum of Pro- Sessor Dana: “ regional metamorphism is pseudomorphism on a broad scale.”* *Mr. Hunt knows that this “dictum of Prof. Dana,” as he calls it (which is a clause in a sentence of a -notice written by me in this Journal, xxv, 445, 1858), does not represent at all the views on metamorphism that I have held r the past twelve years ; for, err having given him a copy of my Geology in 1862, I took especial pains, in in my review. of his American Association Address, to refer him to the eae on Metamorphism in the work, that he might read and appreciate the grossness of oe p-sonesninascoasieant aot knows, i may be changed into grantte or its turn serpen- tine” (both of which he put forth in the same Address), have been shown by me to be . I assured him in the review and its cet tat tee of such transformatio: . above enumerated had never occurred to me until found in his que = egies st “Gustaf Rose, Haidinger, Blum, vuleee: 222 Scientific Intelligence. d b veinstones with apatite, pyroxene, phlogopite and graphite of the Laurentian rocks. may be permitted to say a few words in reply to Dr. Hunt’s assertion, than I had fallen into errors and had been led to wholly untenable conclusions. When I had the good fortune to obtain a few years ago the Jirst real pseudomorph after corundum—the spinel from India, alterations, showing from the same locality crystals of corundum ith from at any other conclusions, but that these extraordinary occurrences ch I have described were the result of epigenic pseudomor- s notions; but when he boldly charges me with having committed errors, I want better proofs than a repetition of his views, with which we were familiar long ago. He certainly has not a single fact which could show the fallacy of my conclusions, or he would have produced it. e corundum alterations have nothing in common with the Fontainebleau crystals, or with stanniferous orthoclase, or the green are contained page 1872, and v, page 312, 1873. _I state that the regional metamorphism in which that other hydrous magnesian rocks may come under the same category; and I still so believe with regard to most beds of serpentine. But this is no ground for views on pseudomorphism and defiant of facts, he shows, by his is Fortunately: rn cpinions on others, a dogree of desperation in argument that fortunately, very uncommon. way of carrying int is strongly in con- trast with Dr. Genth’s faithful work—y. p. ». — fh | | ; Geology and Natural History. 223 and red tourmalines from Paris, Me., or the beryls filled with orthoclase, or the zircon and gaent ‘filled with calcite, and can- not be explained rationally as examples of association and envelopment. To a strength to his statements, however, Dr. Hunt says that he had “examined” with me “ the extensive pon ree of sieacinatis upon which my conclusions were based.” Dr. Hunt favored me with a visit, I was in hope that he would sachin specimens, but his time was so short that he saw only about one-third of them, a nd the “examination” (/ ?) of these was €8. As to his last sentence, I must confess that I am unable to discover the least parallelism elie the Pt mR veins and the nitic veins, _ eryl and tourmaline, so common in untains, and the calcareous veinstones with apatite, fessor Dana would express it, “a psewdomorphism on a broa scale,” — of Pennsylvania, July 4th, 1874. - Note on the Enemies of Difflugia; by J. Luiwy. (Proce. jae ‘i Sci. Philad., p. 75, 1874. \ Prof ‘Tia remarked that in the st of Diffug ia and Ameba we would suppose that never with a Diflugia. Worms bral many of the latter, and I oan —— observed them within the intestine of JVais, hetogaster, and Asolosoma. 1 was surprised to find that ren polymorphus was also fond of Diflugia, and I have uently observed this animaleule containing them. On one on a gia The Stentor contracted, and suddenly elongated, and repeat these movements until it had split three-fourths the length of its body through, and had torn itself loose from the fastened Diffiu- ; Sid the Stentor suffer from this laceration of its body, for in the course of several hours each half became separated as a distinct individual. oe a on the Revivification of Rotifer euigaes ; ; by J. Ler (Ibi —Prof. Leidy remarked that during the search for Rhizopods, havin noticed among the aut sahesiog to the mosses in the crevices of our Yr udgari man observations relating to the assertion on moiatening them after they had re dried up. slides, containing beneath cover glasses som e dirt, exhibited each about a dozen active living Rotifers. The glass 224 Scientific Intelligence. of apparently dried Rotifers were observed. These imbibed water and expanded, and some of them in the course of half an hour revived and exhibited their usual movements, but others remained motionless to the last. The same slides were again submitted to drying, and from one of them the cover glass was removed. They were examined the I next prepared a slide on which there were upward of twenty actively moving Rotifers, and exposed it to the hot sun during he aft revivified. Moisture adheres tenaciously to earth, and Rotifers may rest in the earth, like the Lepidosiren, until returning waters Amoeba. Philadelphia, he had discovered what he suspected to be a new generic form. It has all the essential characters of Ameba, but in addition is provided with tufts of tail-like appendages or rays, on Several forms of the Ourameba were observed, but it is uncer- tain whether they pertain to one or to several species. One of the forms had an oblong ovoid body about Ath of a line long and 4th of a line broad. tail-like rays formed half a dozen tufts, measuring in length about the width of the body. The latter ee «see 2 oe Ray ee eo 0) REDE A ee eee ey ae Geology and Natural History. 225 was so gorged with large diatoms, such as Navieula viridis, together with desmids and conferve, that the existence of a nucleus could not be ascertained. The species may be distin- guished with the name of OURAM@BA VORAX. A Another Owrameba had two comparatively short tufts of rays, and a fourth, of smaller size than the others, had a single tuft of three moniliform rays. : : It is possible that Owramcba is the same as the Plagiophrys at Claparede, though the description of this does not apply to that, may be named D, crENULATA. In an old brick pond, on the grounds of Swarthmore College, Delaware County, among Difflugia pyriformis, D. spiralis, corona, D. acuminata, and others not yet determined, there occurs Sometimes the fourth of a line in th, and is comp: : form, but is quite variable in its relation of length to nice pm im the shape of the fundus of the she often trilobate, 226 Miscellaneous tniellegence. quent about agar sae stan The shell is beautifully reseliies in shape. It has an oval or sub-spherical body with a constricted neck, and a recurved lip te the mouth. onan — of the — opposite the mouth is acute and often acu The animal contains no chlorophyl. One aos “measured rg of a a line ane by $ of a line broad ; another measured 4 = a Tine sea by + of a line a A Diffiugian, found in a spring on Da ee C valk . ee ng, nim be seen in all its te tails. The investment is atten and Il. MiscenLangeovus Sctentiric INTELLIGENCE. | Change of level in the Great Salt Lake.—On Tuesday, July 21st, under the Bio asae of Dr. J. R. Park, of the Deseret Uni- eat wrote to ¥ sie ue on the subject, and requested that a fixed edubent Ss mi ht be placed in some convenient part of the lake, as = the past and present height of the water of the lake. common with all others who have given the subject any con- immense rain gauge, indi g from year to year the changes in the mean quantity of water that falls in the region constituting the basin of which it forms the botto The changes : n cated both by the depth of the water and the abr extent of ground over which it is spread. It is apparent to all persons sary ison with the meteorology of the reat geet that rainfall is a term of Ect, Sig aratively trivial import in this altitude. Except i in is Se autumn, when the waters are at low stage, no rains occur here etn uals affect the streams from which Salt L Lake derives its volume. The evapora- Miscellaneous Intelligence. 997 subsided, showing It is to be regretted that there are no means of definitely ascer- taining the variations of the lake since the settlement of the val- ley in 1847. It is generally conceded by old residents, however, sr the lake is now some twelve or fourteen feet higher than then : Until the Spring of 1852 there was no perceptible permanent rise; the increase from the high waters of the spring, and the sub- i he a : uced a nding increase in the volume and extent of the Q lake ; exhibiting, in the latter year, a rise of sume six feet above the lowest stage of 1852. From 1856 to 1861 a gradual se 1852; and more than half of this area was less than five feet in depth. Captain Stansbury, in 1850-51, reports its greatest depth as fifty-six feet. ae _ In the spring of 1862 the lake began to extend its area and con- tinued to rise until 1868, when it had reached a point twelve feet gher than the lowest stage of 1861, with an area estimated at One and a half times that of 1861. Since 1868, up to the present time, the rise and fall have been about equal, the lake holding its own, with a slight increase and an extreme variation of about two feet ; : e data we have presented above show conclusively an irre- Pressible determination of the waters to rise. The mountain 228 Miscellaneous Intelligence. of thousands of acres of farming, meadow and pasture lands have been submerged along the eastern and northern shores of the lake. Jany square miles of valuable lands as yet available and occu- pied by the farmer, skirting the lake, would be completely sub- merged should the waters rise but a few inches above the average level of the past five years. There is one fixed mark corroborative of the immense increase in the lake during the past decade. Prior to 1861, Black Rock was connected with the mainland by a roadway of black lime- stone, crushed and regularly turnpiked, as if by design. Over ported their saline products. That self-same roadway, yet plainly discernible, is now twelve feet under the surface of the Great Salt Lake. Essentially it is a submarine turnpike! i mere conjecture that the lowland farmers along the shores of the Great Salt Lake may some day find themselves in the predicament of the demure Hollander—compelled to resist, by earthworks, the encroachments of salt water, or submit to the re- tiring process of inundation.— Utah Mining Gazette, July 25. 2 the Physical Cause of Ocean-Ourrents ; by JAMES Cro, of the Geological Survey of Scotland—lIn a lecture at the Royal Institution, and also in the Atheneum, Nature, Philosoph- ical Magazine, and other quarters, Dr. Carpenter has been advanc- ence to under-curre 8 this objection be which in my last communication I omitted to consider, perhaps you will permit me, through your columns, briefl r to it in thickness and 3600 miles in breadth, the temperature of — hallenger’ sound- more obvious,” The objection seems to me to be based upon a series of misap- Beas a i ee a... PO ge Se ae eee Te eet ee ere ee eS, et ee een gS amy pe 5 STs | \ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 229 prehensions: (1) that the mass of cold water 1500 fathoms deep and 3600 miles in breadth is in a state of motion toward the a all consider these in their order. (1) That this immense mass of cold water came originally from the polar regions I, of course, admit, but that the whole is in a state of motion I certainly do not admit. There is no warrant whatever for any such assump- ati rs ) : : it follows equally as a necessary consequence that the entire mass . of the ocean below the stratum heated by the sun's rays must con- of = a & Lar | a=) ° Bs =) So =} a ot 4 .o é 2 i} a : Sy : =I & For example, a polar under-current one- stream ae ico ee to keep the entire water of the globe (below the stratum heated by the sun’s rays) at an ice-cold tem- 230 | Miscellaneous Intelligence. perature. Internal heat would not be sufficient under such cir- cumstances to maintain the mass 1° Fahr. above the temperature ( ing the great depths of the ocean were, as Dr. Carpenter assumes it e, in a state of constant motion toward the equator, and ing through a sectional area of the Gulfstream; for the quantity of water flowing through this large sectional area depends entirely otion ’ self, I am also wholly unable to comprehend how Dr. Carpenter should imagine, because the bottom-temperature of the South At- lantic happens to be lower, and the polar water to lie nearer to the surface in this ocean than in the North Atlantic, that there- fore this proves the truth of his theory. This condition of mat- ters is just as consistent with my theory as with his. When we compens: by readily understand how the polar water comes nearer to the sur face in the former ocean than in the latter. In fact, the whole stratum of heated water there would be no difference between the equatorial and polar columns, and consequently nothing to pro- uce motion. But the thinner this stratum is the less is the differ- ence, and the less there is to produce motion. I have been fav- ore constant SS omgtibons by the weight of, say, two feet of water, there would then remain only a slope of two and f feet between the equa- tor and poles.— Phil, -, June, 1874, . Pert SEER Sa ie oe Re ee ben Ce ROY SS ae Miscel.aneous Intelligence. — 3. On the Physical Geography of, and the Distribution of Terrestrial Mollusca in, the Bahama Islands ; by Tuomas Bianp. nn. Lyc. Nat. Hist., N. Y,x, Nos. 10, 11, March—June, 1873.) tion with the latter island.” After alluding to some observations in Dana’s Corals and Coral | Islands on the diminished size of the islands to the eastward, and the evidence of subsidence found in the fact, Mr. Bland continues his paper as follows: : “The facts regarding the diminution is size of the islands of Oo in size to the southeast, where are situated at its termination the submerged Mouchoir Carré, Silver and Navidad Banks. in a rth i Cleve, resembling the Bahamas), Sombrero and the Anguilla Bank, terminate the chain of the West Indies (parallel with the Baha- n the caves of Anguilla, the remains of large extinct mam- malia are found, which must have inhabited a far more extensive “ Packard (Amer. Nat., 1872) remarks, ° There is every proba- bility that the separation of these islands (of the eastern part of t “The same author (J. ¢. 18), referring to the ‘ Leeward Islands,’ states as follows: i. also Cope, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., 1868, and Bland, Proc. Amer. il. Soe., 1871. + Helicina convexa is common to Bermuda and Barbuda. « 232 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ‘The islands north of ew form two parallel chains, from northwest to southeast. The western chain commences with Saba, and consists of St. Hus- tatius, St. Kitis, Nevis, Redonda, a Montserrat. All of those islands are volca- nos; and, if the line were extended farther to the north, it would reach the island - Anegada, of oes me date, i sr the vo rarer seem to be of the same or nearly the same geological “st aeage ere Islan iso most pro nian. of Post-pliocene date g ve e direction, He seem to be the con- tinuation of the same or of a aon ij line of el ‘elevation. ong of the volcanic range is another completely different Tange 0. of islan They are not volcanic, and commence with Sombrero, comprising Angu ita, St. Martin, ‘St Bartholomew, Bar- ee and i hl All of these ikea a are of the Te rtiary age, Eocene, “Mache, a his ‘ Summary of the Geology of the West Indies’ (2. ¢. 47) Dr, Cleve says: m the facts exposed above, it may consequently be inferred that, Be the two prevailing lines of elevation in the West Indies, the one running from est to east originated be: i e oti an southeast, commencing with the Bahamas and co i in the same direction down to Trinidad, was formed in the Miocene tim “While considering the facts 38 geo joc grouping . the islands quoted above from Dr. Cleve’s paper, it should be remem- bered that the land-shell fauna of Saba 24 St. Eustatius, St. ‘Kitts, and Nevis (all three on one bank), and of Redonda and Montser- ? “This difference of the faunas, pn the i dete’ a of their separation, must be considered in connection with the past and a geological history of the islands. “The distribution of the species of the genera Macroceramus and Strophia illustrates in a marked _— the distinctness of the two faunas just mentioned. acroceramus has two species in the greeny: (one rhea to the Great Bank, reckon and Cuba, = apie has 16-18 species in the —_——- of which 1 is also in the Florida Keys, and at least 6 in Cuba; 17 in Cuba, —_* © Seb Rand Pree. Amer. Phil. Soe., 1. ¢. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 233 brero, and a fossil species in St. Croix. There is no representative of the genus on the Anguilla Bank or to the south of it. “The exceptions are curious. acroceramus Gosset and Stro- phia uva are found in Curagao ! ‘ he greatest depth in the Gulf of Florida, between Key est and Havana, is within five miles of the latter, 800 fathoms (4,800 feet), and I have already stated that there is a depth in the Nicholas Channel, between Salt Key Bank and Cuba, of 534 fathoms (3,204 feet). it the Pedro Bank, across the Carribean Sea to Aspinwall (a dis- tance of about 550 miles), shows the instructive fact that, with no Jamaica toward the coast of the Isthmus of Panama. About 60 miles from Manzanilla Point (N. E. of Aspinwall), the depth a8 1,215 fathoms (7,290 feet). The bottom then rises comparatively rapidly,—the depth at about forty miles from Aspinwall being 677 fathoms (4,062 feet), and at about twenty miles, 227 fathoms a at the greatest depth between the coast of Yucatan and Cape way be- eh 8 nd @® oO ro) : ee a ° =] Lax) er Pood *@® ry =} o Ps cs ot 4 ee a = Qu n =) o Qu + b oO Haiti has very little relation with that of Jamaica, it has mue alliance with that of Porto Rico.” 234 : Miscellaneous Intelligence. ¥. . 4. On the Ocean’s bed between Honolulu and Yi okohama, from soundings on board the United States s ip Tuscarora,—Sixty 172° 39’ W., a distance of 185 miles, there is a submarine moun- tain, with its summit in about lat. 20° 41’ N., long. 171° 33’ W. Its height is 5,160 feet. It has a slope of 40 feet to the mile on its eastern side, and 128 feet on its western. From the last station mentioned, where there was 3,045 fathoms of water, the bottom.was regular for 240 miles, until lat. 21° 29’ N., long. 178° 15’ W. was reached. Between this station and lat. 22° 1’ N., long. 173° 43 E., the second submarine mountain was passed, with its summit in lat. 21° 41’ N., long. 176° 54’ E.; its eastern slope averages 37 feet to the mile for about 127 miles om its base, and 51 feet the rest of the distance to the summit. Its western slope is 55 feet; its height is about 12,000 feet. Diagram of Ocean Bed Jrom Yokohama to Honolulu. From this last station the Over 470 miles, until lat. 23° hed. etween this point and lat, 24° 07’ N - long. 160° 09’ E., the third . ight is 9,600 feet. Ad- regular from its base to to the mile, and a rs on its etween the last position and lat. 23 Pe SRE OTT a oe ee Miscellaneous Intelligence. 235 * long. 156° 10’ E., was the ies elevation , having its sum- at. 23° 55’ N., long. 158° eas ‘rom its su mumit, for a rags 5° N., long. 153° 01' was a fifth mountain, extending to the surface in “sr island known as Marcus Island. A cast was taken in lat. 24° 20’ N., long. 154° 06’ E., a distance of about seven miles from this bud to the northward: 1,500 fathoms of water were found For 176 miles from the last ae the bottom was, compara- tively speaking, regular; then the next 180 miles w as occupied by the sixth mountain 1 ridge, its easter base in lat. 25° 11’ N., mi g. 149° 46’ E. ; its western in lat. 26° 09’ N., long. 146° 10 E., a its summit in lat. 25° 42’ N. ga 148 39" E Its height w was tance of the = was about that. fee the slopes computed are the minimum.— NV. Y. Tribune, Jun 5. Meeting of the American Beotiatton at Hartford.—The twenty-third meeting of the American Association, at Hartford, commenced on bthinne vi: the 12th of August, and closed on the fllowing Wednesday. John L. LeConte, of Philadelphia, was the President of the groom and Professor C. S. Lyman, of u ries, opposite Middletown, where, in the bottom of one q — nty-one consecutive tracks oa the huge oodii, a : g a line over Sty Jeet Bie Bes re é ving been rooms ly Opened to n Thr mae the day afer the close of the session, ig rail, to Balaleary, a region of extensive limonite exca- 236 Miscellaneous Intelligence. ; compa Professor Lovering, of ‘Camb idge, + was ivered on riday evening; it was an admirable review of the recent pro- gr cal sciene e next meeting will h at e8s si Detroit, Michigan, during the week commen cing with Wednesday, the 11th of August. J. E. a ar of the Coast Survey, was appointed President of the meetin The following is a list of the papers accepted for reading : Section A Diff of Velocity | of Primitive Undulations; P. E. Cu HASE. ae i : Exhibition of a Com bined Collimator 9 Personal enatied Machine, with a Notice of the Results obtained with it; . Roce ae Fluctuations of Levels in jae waters boRaoonts of Observations; C. ITTLESEY. ’ Relation between the Barometric Gradient and the Velocity of the Wind; W. New way of illustrating the vibrations of esl J LOvERine. On a rotating, terrestrial coe — 8. The P Phantascope or Zod means ‘ot te illustrating crystallography to @ * I class wate of Prof. A. K. Eaton’s new compound one-prism Spectroscope; R. E. a veri On the Harvard College Observa a Sys tem of Communicating Time for Civil . A. Roe scription of a new Mechanism for printing hourly the Directions and Veloc- since of the Winds; G. W. a method of transmitting Time Signals over Telegraph wires; G. W. Hi On the Influence that varying Atmospheric conditions eae Pot nge the perception of Sounds, especially those of the human ear, with a er a A A new denionstrition of an old theorem in Geology BS. baie i ; A. A. Bexmmist: an impr Bell; : : Simple Formulas for some of the. cal Curves; J. D. WARNER. : é icki Metallic Tron in Basaltie Rock ent es the dissociation of Oxide of Iron; J. L Curious us Association of homer or Garnet, and Idocrase; J, L. Surru. A Convenient Method f Making Absolute Alcohol ; J. iL, Sra. Exhibition of a new Salton tted Hydrogen Apparatus; H. CARMICHAEL. A new Method for the -isnionsa of Sone shail H. CARMICHAEL. Exhibition of a Platinum H. Carmica On the Phoephorescence | of ‘of Glass, produced by electricity; A. W. Wricat. On the use of N a win Crystals of Quartz in the construction of Polaris- copes; A. W. Wri On the nature of the eadiacal Light, and the distribution of the matter which the absolute method; 5. W arbonate of Soda and Ras ets of oe Polk for Miscellaneous Intelligence. 237 Report on a nage Beep roo of Phosphorus and Carbon, forming a new oe On the ‘Estimation of “Nitric ‘Acid 1%. the methods of Thorpe and Bunsen; 8. W. Jonny Tavestigation into the — nature of Petroleum; P. H. VAN DER WEY On the alleged formation of A _ um Nitrite from Welee epee: and Ni itro- gen, a a. on Price’s Test; S. The change of Pe = mre Cannel or or other sme by Heat and Pressure, practi- cally demonstrated ; WEY the Therm ae Be Peopectiee of ane Minerals and their Varieties; A. . D. mR eee trogen of the Soil ; H. P. Arms he wie prea of the Rainfall in the United States in relation to the Period- ‘tg of the Sol po An account a a Remarkable Phenomenon connected with the quarrying of V mt; raat On the molecular volume of Saece f Crystallization; F. W. CLARKE. On the molecular heat of similar compounds F. Action of Mechanical Vibration in retarding Chemical Combination ; 8. 8. atin Question chemically considered ; T. 8. Hunt. On Wet Processes of Copper Extraction; T. 8. Hut On ise pane of ernie — Artificial Stone; T. S. Huwr. On Lithium Glass ; On the use of a rinzed crougis 5 iron tube for Nitrogen Determinations; A. P. . STUART. The Chemistry of Steel; B. S. Hep Outlines of the a jPhoto-lithographic Processes; J. W. O On a Modification of Loewenthal’s Method for the Estimation oy Tannic Acid; W. MoMvurtrie. The Inner Satellites of Uranus; E. 8. H On a new form Steam Generator, linet: especially to very small powers ; utual Action of Elements of Wlootrie Currents; E. B, ELLIorTT. ee of Rates of Interest from anaes for the 25 years 1849 to 1874; E. Pipatesion of the United soe each year, from 1780 to 1880, with proof of estimate and interpolation; E. B, ELLIorr. itures of the United ai este re paint to population, by four year’s pene from the organization of the Government, to the 30th of June, 1874; Section B. On the Cave Fauna of the Middle States; A. 8. pre Jr. Change by Gradual Modification not the Universal Law; T. MEEHAN. Astragalus in Birds; E. 8. Morse. The Lobster; W. W. WHEILDO: 238 Miscellaneous Intelligence. Glacial Phenomena in the Sierra Nevada; J. Murr. Note on the gestation of = a ~— Bat; B. G. WILDER. Botanical Ob asn'ee sure H.8 n Organ 0. f Special jstheset in ‘a: Tapuiieanbaits genus Yoldia; W. A. pce The Wings of Pterodactyls ; erie — Small Si of the Brain in T . OOM Male and Female Ongans ‘of ape sharks — cad | patueions to the use of the * ‘Olaapees The Genera of esetiie-d on tudied Histo acca ore H. Scupper. he Recency of certain Volcanoes sn the-Western U. S. ; sre - GILBERT. Terri ; G. K. Grp The cya of the Colorado hteat Region as a field f for asec ere G. K. GILBERT. On the Disintegration of Rocks and Geological — T. 8. Hunt. ariolaris as a Catcher Darlingtonia Californca an insectivorous ins: Regenera' tion or Agente fogs lecular Conservation: a arabe to the doc- trine of evolution; L. On the Cotton Worm (4 (Aletia cone ogee Bs a ‘nirsg Physical History of New Hampshire ; C. Hiroe Geological Map 3 = United States and Teritores vith Critical and Explana- to eT f. C. H. Hrrencock and W. P. B Discovery of twelve skeletons of Dicotyles painlaioena in the Valley Drift in Columns, Ohio; J. H. Kipp. On th organic Change coded in the Bee by he ant conditions to which it is subjected in its larval state ; xg 8. B. Herr A list of the Vertebrate Animals o f Outagamie Oo. "Wisconsin, with notes, etc. ; Notes on some rare and interesting Carices of New a G. VasE Are there plants the — ~ which in the sce a defi- nite number of years Notice of a pair of “iap-door Spiders from South ay ae iy R. Dones. How do young ee f the shell; J. W. P. J: = Bl Inquiry concerni eeu of Macchia. Animals; W. H. = On the present Distribution of Woodlands within the United States; W. H. REWER. Notes on Tree Growth; A. Gra the Classification of the In fides Languages of Mexico; P. ©. Buiss — m the Anderson School of Natural History on Penikese Island; F. An as of Replacement of Injurious Insects by Human Agency; J. L. L# = the Equivalency of the Coal-measures of the United States and Europe; 0. . WHITE. ee poh localities of contact of Trap and Sandstone in the Connecticut Valley; ICE. Further Laney in on _ Geology of Northwestern Massachusetts, with special referen: BH eg “3 On the caenpousesan of the Pottery of the Mound-builders ; E. T. Cox. On the true character of the Eozoon 8. BuRBANK. On the Mechanical condition of the Pebbles i - sae Racca — and cs Monroe: W.B, Rooms South America ; 0. A. Drrey. ee en veets E. 8. Day Miscellaneous Intelligence. 239 The Physical and Geological Characteristics of the Great Dismal Swamp and the Eastern Counties of Virginia; N. B. Wr rigin of the Cascades of the Columbia River, Oregon; W. P. BLAKE. Observations in a visit to the Cave of Cacahuamilpa, in Mexico; P. C. Briss. ; P. C. Buiss. . Cremation among North American Indians ; J. L. LeConte. ; A Remarkable Ancient Stone Fortification in Clark County, Ind.; E. T. Cox. Remains of an Ancient Earth Work in Marblehead, Massachusetts; J. J. H. RY. 6. Chemical Centennial.—The first day of August, 1774, illus- trious as the date of Joseph Priestley’s discovery of oxygen, was commemorated on the first of August, 1874, by the gathering f . . e, on Susquehanna, at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, and by a like gathering of British chemists at Birmingham, England, for the calculated to awaken kindred sentiments. Am & ing was presided over by Professor Charles F. Chandler of the Columbia College School of Mines, who responded .to an of welcome from the citizens of Northumberland, delivered by Col. David Taggart of that place. ‘ The following addresses were also delivered on the occasion, by b> ry fae) = Oo 4 S et on ge oO o) oO a S nm eg ba | ° is i} a ies) m =i 5 g. io] = fe) ia oO B iv] ag = grave, w : absence the assembly, gathered at sunset at the grave of on Friday evening, hi u of Arrangements ; and another of the same degree of consanguin ity, the third generation, was among those whose hospitalities added to the pleasures of the occasion. The old Priestley man- sion, with its ample apartments, was thrown open to the guests, and in one of them was a collection of apparatus and other per- : sonal memorials of the eminent man whose name consecrated the : day and the place. 240 Miscellaneous Intelligence. The telegraphic dispatches above alluded to were as follows: ts assembled at Northumberland, Penn.: Our marble statue representing Priestley discovering oxygen will be unvai by the subscribers through Professor Huxley to the town, and accepted by the Mayor. We greet you as colleagues in honoring the memory of a great and good man. THE PRIESTLEY MEMORIAL COMMITTEE, Birmingham, Eng. NORTHUMBERLAND, Penn., July 31, 1874. The brother chemists at the grave to their brothers at the home of Priestley send greeting, on this centennial anniversary of the birth of chemistry. We understand that the addresses will appear in a Memorial number of the American Chemist, soon to be published, which will contain also a full account of the proceedings, B. S. Elements of Metallurgy, &e. ; by J. Arr M.Ins.C.E., F.G.8. 764 pp. 8vo, with 205 illustrations on wood. London, 1874. hi Mr. Phillips’s well known “Manual of Metallurgy” (1852, 1854 and 1858) bears date June, 1874, It is in fact a new boo brought within a moderate compass, The author’s own practical skill and experience, both in metallurgical operations and in per- sonal explorations of many of the metalliferous regions and work- i d ings de ed, a to the value of his wo It is especially interesting to American readers from its ft equent citations of American example ome omissions we note: for example, unde Phillips’s Metal lurgy. A letter received by us from Dr. Smith States that the apparent in- . his part, and desires us to request that those having the work should change the wording of the note (p. 109) by substituting ‘associated with” for “assisted by.”—Eps. On the Marine Mammals of the North Pacific, b 0 U. 8. genes _ y Capt. C. M. Scammon, U. coe yvice. 4to, with many plates. San’ Francisco, 1874. (John H. Car- My Visit to the Sun; or Critical Essays on Physi i i ; miles ysics, Metaphysics, and Ethics. a a <_ Vol. I. Physics. 158 pp. 8vo. ‘New You, 11d (James AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, [THIRD SERIES.] s + ArT. XXI.— Researches in Acoustics; by ALFRED M. MAYER. Paper No. 6,* containing : 1. The Determination of the Law connecting the Pitch of a Sound with the Dura- tion of its Residual Sensation. 2. The Determination of the numbers of Beats, throughout the musical scale, which produce the greatest dissonances. 3. Application of these Laws (1) and (2) in a New Method of Sonorous Analysis, by means of a perforai tating disc. TO 4. Deductions from these Laws leading to new facts in the Physiology of Audition. 5. Quantitative applications of these Laws to the fundamental facts of Musical Harmony. nConfonan; ift eine continuirlidhe Diffonang, eine intermittirende Tonempfindung.“— Haimholiz, wie tee 1. The Determination of the Law connecting the Pitch of a Sound with the Duration of tis Residual Sensation. *Read before the New York Opthalmological Society on March 9, 1874; and before the National Academy of Sciences, in Washington, on April 23, 1874. Am. Jour. Sot.—Turep Serres, Vou. VIII, No. 46.—Ocr., 1874. 16 242 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. in the study of the analogical phenomena of light. A simple sound was obtained by vibrating a fork before the mouth of its corresponding resonator, and this sound was broken up into flashes, or explosions, by alternately screening and unscreening TR aii the mouth of the eaaae b | f d di ee , Dy means of a perforated disc, which rota between the resonator and the fore ; as is shown = me tos oe figure (1). The mean diameter of the : open Sectors of the dise equalled the diameter of the mouth of Sl ili x Rot eee peas Scie gee a ae — A, M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. 243 the resonator, while the spaces of card-board between the open sectors was twice the width of these openings. Thus the res- their succession they blended into a continuous, smooth sensa- iP Nee Ne eee eee ae Ire Ree tg ay | Soh or ps) et S ree) m ra) Qu 29 RS a) ay = DB bed ob = ct oO = g = . ey ct fa") Qs i=) ° = ° Lear) oad oS B fas) ie] i} =} ° 3 =| R s < ig?) a2) some series of experiments all of the resonators were replaced by this funnel of gutta-percha and that the results were the same as those obtained by the use of the resonators. I now obtained the aid of a friend who has a trained musician's ear, and he and I arrived at the following results,—the mean of our Separate determinations. He always required a greater num- ber of beats per second to obtain the continuous sensation. 244 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. After the experiments were finished I found that his determi- nations were about 5 per cent higher than mine. in the separate impulses into which the sound had been divided in order to produce the continuous sensation. NS) N | D | L UT, 64 py= 0625 sec, 40 UT, 128 gpa 0384 “ 49 UT 256 gry="0212 “ 54 SOL, 384 = 0166 « 6-4 ' 512 te='0l28 “ 65 MI 640 gy=Olll “ 71 SOL, 768 | += 0091 “ 70 1024 ree='0074 76 E Although, at first sight, the apparatus which I have used in this research may appear coarse, yet experience showed that Cz Ui oro dise made 3? revolutions to one of the driving 82 revolutions in the same time. It is evident that the appa- ratus readily detects this difference, especially as I often ran it during thirty seconds to obtain the number of beats striking ond ‘Aich the imp i 8 en n intensity to cause discontinuity in the sensation. To obtain the ee the entire shone on We should have to know the ity of the sensation at the end of the al ve interval, and law giving the rate of diminution of € sensation. A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. 245 little effect on the number of beats required to produce a con- tinuous sensation. When a great increase in intensity was given to the pulses, their number had to be slightly increased, to produce the same continuous sensation as that ex perienced z= | | | ° &” Sek gett 1 ae sae | & Py & * & | g “ot 256 384 512 640 768 024 UT, UT, UT, soL, UT, MI, sol, UT, with feebler pulses; but the difference was barely measurable. It is also important to remark, that, after the blending of the pulses has been once attained, a further increase in the ve elocity of the disc does not change the character of the sensation. Hx- treme velocities, of course, produce such violent agitations at the mouth of the resonator as to render experimenting impossl I now projected the above determinations into a curve ohh ing on the axis of abscissas the numbers of vibrations of mi various sounds and on the ordinates their corresponding tions of residual sensations. ‘Thus was produced the full- lined 246 A. M. Mayer— Researches in Acoustics. 3 as the basis of the assumption. The curve given by the observa- tions does not coincide with the hyperbola. The formula* of the curve of the observations is 41600 The law connecting the pitch of a sound with the duration of its residual sensation is 53248 D= (3 “ap + 24) 0001, In which D=the duration of the residual sensation, and N= the number of vibrations corresponding to D. The ordinate of MI, is not quite embraced in the law; I have left it outside, for no matter how careful and many were the observations on this sound, I could not alfer its place in the curve of the ex- iments. According to observation, the duration of MI, is 01111 of a second; according to the law, it equals -00827; giving a difference of -00284 second. . 2. The Determination of the numbers of Beats, throughout the must- cal scale, which produce the greatest Dissonances. The determination of the law, which shows the connection just placed * To Mr. P. P. Poinier, one of the students of my labo he task of * ; c y laboratory, I gave the discussing this curve, and to him Iam indebted for the above forreula, : : ; i : : : : A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acousties. 247 can go from the law connecting the pitch of a sound with the duration of its residual sonorous sensation to the law giving the numbers of beats throughout the musical scale which produce the most dissonant sensations. 3. Application of the above laws in a new method of Sonorous Analysis, by means of a perforated rotating disc. It is an interesting deduction from the laws we have established that a composite sound can be analyzed by means of a rotatin dise with sectors cut out of it. Thus, on rotating a large perfo- rated disc with great velocity before a reed pipe, and placing the ear close to the disc,—or in connection with the gutta-percha funnel, by means of the rubber tube,—we shall have the com- posite sound reaching the ear in a series of impacts which suc- ceed each other so rapidly that even those of the highest har- monic of the reed blend into a continuous sensation; but, on velocity brings out the beats of the next lower harmonic, and so on, until the velocity has been so diminished that even the beats of the lowest, or fundamental, harmonic are perceived ; and then all of the component sounds of the reed are beating in unison ; but yet the effects they produce on the ear are ver, different, for the higher harmonics, notwithstanding their feebler intensities, must be heard more distinctly, because their inter- mittences are furthest removed from the numbers that cause their sensations to blend. In other words, the highest harmon- ies, in the phase of the experiment above described, app them to give their greatest dissonant effects. sonorous analysis was arrived at as a deduction from our laws, w for all colors, but the excitation takes See sooner for the red and the violet than for the green. “Silon fait tourner ce semblable disque, lentement d’abord, puis, graduellement, de 248 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. rouge s’étend en rose sur tout le blanc, tandis que le bleu-vert b teurs; on voit alors le champ finement jaspé de taches qui pa- illotent entre le rose-violet et le gris-vert. Enfin, si la rapl- ité de la rotation augmente encore, le papillotage diminue, la couleur grise résultant du blanc et du noir ressort de mieux en 4. Deductions from these laws leading to new facts in the Physiol- ogy of Audition. _ The immediate consideration of the laws we have established gives the most convincing confirmation of Helmholtz’s ideas of the high differentiation in the dynamic constitution, or mechan- ism of the ear. The very fact of the ear’s power to effect a ism, so differently affected in its different 7 by sounds of ivined this even ments, and as it is evidently altogether independent of the mode of production of sound on each instrument, we have to conclude that we have here to do with a difficulty which resides that the Here is a phenomenon which neatly proves that the vibrations of the mobile parts of the ear for bass sounds are not ‘damped’ sufficiently, or quickly enough, to saree two sounds to succeed each other so rapidly without “This fact proves, besides, that there should be in the ear dif- Jerent parts which are set in vibration by sounds of different height, > ee ee A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 249 and which give the sensations of these sounds. Some may imag- ine that the mass of the vibratile elements of the ear, compris- ing the tympanic membrane, the ossicles and the liquid of the internal ear, can vibrate, and that it is on this property of this mass that depends the impossibility of sonorous vibrations ceasing with the same rapidity in the ear. But this hypothe- sis does not suffice to explain the known facts. “When, in fact, an elastic body enters into vibration under the influence of an exterior sound, it takes the number of notes as among those of the bass, and, also, that the two sounds of the trill will blend, not with each other, but with a third sound belonging to the ear itself, We have already made known one of the sounds in the preceding chapter: it is the fa,.* In these circumstances, consequently, the result should be altogether different from that given us by the obser- vation of the facts.” *I here adopt, as I always do, the French notation, which is used by Those who use the French trans! n) e transla obse: low that used in} ves all of Helmholtz’s notes too low by an Th anslator’s Ut, should be: : The fact 'te elmholtz refers above is that the human ear is —_ by mance, to the fa, of 2730 complete vib: r ions —_ note, and of cause piercing in our ears. pre be adapted to the external auditory canal on : So wane pie 8 ro ve note; bu' same € canal can no longer resound to ar = ; = Lmaber Saget adelphia, has shown aah dee are peculiarly sensitive to the acute mi of the violin. 250 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. responding co-vibrating parts in the inner ear, differences of pitch should be difficult, even impossible, to distinguish, and this we find to be the case. The fact that the durations of the residual sensations dimin- ish, as the numbers of vibrati s tions, outside the ear, have ceased ; for from that instant the residual sensation becomes more and more simple in its char- acter, until at last only the simple sound of the fundamental oni¢ remains in the ear, oR soon after, this sensation also vanishes. Thus, after the vibrations of an UT, reed pipe con- taining twenty harmonies have ceased, the residual sensation of the twentieth harmonic, or that highest in pitch, disappears in the 53, of a second; but the sensation of the fundamental, or lowest onic, remains in the ear ;'s of a second after the sensation of the highest has vanished ; and the fundamental remains ;'; of a second after the cessation of the sensation of € successive rates of increase of the ordinates of the curve A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 251 (which expresses our law), as we go from that ordinate belong- ing to the highest note to that belonging to the lowest, repre- sent the rate of successive extinctions of these harmonics in s on the color; lasting longer for red than for violet and onger for violet than for green. Here an analogy with our sonorous sensations is presented, for those stherial vibrations producing red are fewer in number than either green or violet, and the sensation of red lasts longer than either green or violet, and, therefore, it follows that we should have the residual image of the sun go through these changes—white, greenish- blue, blue, violet, purple, red; and this is what really happens when the sun’s image is momentarily formed on the retina and the eye then kept in darkness. nes : The above analogy is, however, imperfect if it really is estab- lished that the residual sensation of violet lasts longer than that of green, when the vibrations, giving these two colors, have equality of energy. The analogy also is one of sensations, not one of the mechanisms existing between the agents and the sensations they produce ; for, in the case of the ear, anatomical facts give us bases for the explanation of the ear’s power 0 effecting a sonorous analysis, and for the understanding of the reason of our law of the duration of the residual sensation. prehend only ay and (2), but we know as yet nothing that gives us h ami structure of the human retina which point to the establish- ment of Young’s hypothesis of three distinct sets of retinal nerve terminations? The more we study the minute structure of the retinal rods and cones, the farther appears to remove an understanding of the mode of operation of the sensory apparatus of the eye. May not research in this direction be guided by the hypothesis that the molecular constitution of the retinal rods 252 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics, and cones is such that their molecules are severally tuned to the vibrations corresponding to the colors red, green and violet? This would lead us to look for effects of actinism on the retina as showing the link existing between the transmitting and sen- sory functions of the eye. Do not the facts of the known per- sistence of chemical action, after it has been once initiated, and the time which would be required for the retinal molecules to recombine, or rearrange themselves, after the setherial vibrations had ceased, comport with the known durations of the residual 5. Quantitative applications of the Laws to the Jundamental facts of Musical Harmony. To show the full value of these laws in introducing quanti- tative precision in the explanations of consonance and disso- u such application as will serve to show their importance in giv- ing clear and simple guides in reasonings in the physiological theory of musical cee é _We have seen that in the case of the simple sound C,, of vibrations per second, that 16 beats gave a continuous sensa- tion ; therefore, to determine the nearest consonant interval of this sound, we have 64: 64+16::C.:E 1.» Hence the nearest n sonance. In the following table we give the determinations of the nearest consonant intervals of the simple sounds of the Cs es.* C,of 64 vibrations, interval = major third. 128 “ “ ; C2 # ‘ = minor third. ' ce ete a = “ minus } + of a semitone. Ct « mae = = “minus 4 — of a semitone. Go « bid é = = one tone. “6 = one tone minus $+ of a semitone. We thus see that while in the neighborhood of C , the near- est consonant interval is the major third, that in the octave of C, the nearest co Sonant interval has contracted to a to This result shows why it is that the middle portion of the * We have, for simplicity of illustratio. determined the above intervals on the basis of the pitch of the lower note ; but as the iiktesee.auodocs e pple ph lao ik ener it would have been more accurate to have taken, = ee Reco on, the mean pitch of the two sounds. The _ determinations would be Somewhat changed for lower but not perceptibly for Bo , PAE Oe Re a fe Spee apenas Se) cere rahe eae Tat eee A. M. Mayer—FResearches in Acoustics. 253 musical scale is best adapted for expression, and is most used in musical composition; for, while in the lowest octaves the available consonant intervals are few on account of the spaces separating them, in the higher octaves the consonances are so contracted that these higher consonant intervals lose their sharpness of definition. t is here to be remarked that in our experiments we have obtained continuous and discontinuous sensations from beats produced by one sound of a constant pitch; but with musical intervals we obtain beats from two sounds differing in pitch. In the latter case DeMorgan, Guéroult and Mr. Sedley Taylor have shown that there exists a variation, or oscillation, in itch whenever the two sounds are not of the same intensity. ir. Taylor,* from this fact, advances the idea that these oscil- that, in the higher regions of the musical scale, thirty to forty eats per second give rise to the most disagreeable dissonance, but that if these beats follow so rapidly that about 132 fall experiences of musicians. On page 29 * On the Variations of Pitch in Beats. By Sedley Taylor, Esq., Phil. Mag., July, 1872. 254 A, M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. read: “ Does this theory accord with the facts that have been adduced? Let us, in the first place, examine our four tuning- forks, to ascertain whether their deportment harmonizes with this theory. And here let me remark that we have only to do with the fundamental tones of the forks. Care has been taken that their overtones should not come into play, and they have been sounded so feebly that no resultant tones mingled in an tones, 512—256 ; difference=256. “Tt is plain that in this case we can have no beats, the differ- ence being too high to admit of them.” But if Prof. Tyndall had taken, in place of the above forks, two forks giving 40 and 80 vibrations per second, he would, ac- cording to his premises, have made this octave a most disso- nant interval; for would he not have had (80—40=40) forty ts per second entering his ear? Similarly, if we assume that 33 beats per second always produce the maximum dissonance, then even the interval C &. which gives a difference of 64, is far removed from consonance, Prof. Tyndall then proceeds: “Let us now take the Jifth. Here the rates of vibration are 384—256 ; difference—128. “This difference is barely under the number 132, at which the beats vanish: consequently the roughness must be very slight. “Taking the fourth, the numbers are 384—312; difference=72. ‘Here we are clearly within the limit, when the beats vanish, e 1? the consequent roughness being quite sensible. “Taking the mayor third, the numbers are 320—256; difference—64, “Here we are still further within the limits, and, accordingly, the roughness is more perceptible. _ Lhus we see that the deportment of our four tuning-forks _ 4s entirely in accordance with the explanation which assigns dissonance to beats,” of beats fall “ within anish,” and “the consequent rough- A. Schrauf and E. S. Dana-~Thermo-electrical, etc. 255 ness” referred to does not exist. Thus, in the case of the jifth (884—256 ; difference=128), the blending would have been reached, according to our law, by fifty-six beats per second. Art. XXII.—On. the Thermo-electrical Properties of some Minerals and their varieties ;* by A. ScHRAUF and Epwarp S. Dawa. 1. All previously published investigations in thermo-elec- tricity have led to this result: that certain minerals are in part positive, and in part negative, in contact with copper, and that on this account, they hold different positions in the thermo-electrical series. If, for example, in the series given by Seebeck,t we number bismuth 1 and tellurium 34, we ha No. 5 Platinum (pure). | No. 7 Copper (pure, from CuO), Noo: & a No, 18S (commercial). No.8 ¢ (he “Nea These variations recall to mind the property which belongs to all metals, of suffering very great changes in cohesion, elasticity, etc., in consequence of a minute admixture of some foreign sub- stances, i vol. *From the Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Vienna, lxix, March 1874. Translated by E. S. Dana, and read before the American As- Sociation at the Hartford meeting. — +Seebeck, Gilb. Ann., vol. Ixxiii, 430; Pogg. Ann., vol. vi. 256 A. Schrauf and EF. 8. Dana—Thermo-electrical This important fact has been well established in the case of gold and iron. The variation from + to —, however, has been shown to characterize crystallized minerals as well as the amorphous metals. Hankel,* Marbach,+ Friedel ¢t and G. Rose|| have in- vestigated this subject in relation to the hemihedral crystals of pyrite and cobaltite. Friedel first suggested the connection between positive and negative thermo-electricity and right and left Tem i ses seem to be re for its support. or minerals which do not crystallize hemihedrally, this hypothesis of Rose is evi- dently inapplicable ; and, what is more, if accepted, no varia- lized galena positive. The thermo-electrical series, recently published by Flight,t also affords several such examples. His list embraces a large number of minerals. Making hematite 1 (at the negative ex- tremity of the series) and fused chalcocite (No. 3) 56 (at the positive end), we find, as below: Chaleopyrite 1} a No, 2 Fused ehalnosree ty 21 Galenite 4 Fused galenite 31 investigated, although this is a point of the highest interest. It is clear from the last observations that an explanation is often to be found in an altered condition of aggregation. ; Hankel, Pogg. Ann., vol. xii, 197. + Marbach, Compt. Rend., vol. xlv, 707. Friedel, Instit., 1860, 420; Ann. d. Chim., 1869, vol. xvi, 14.” G. Rose, Pogg. Ann., 1871, vol. cxlii, 13. : 5 In a recent paper (which reached us after the completion of our manuscript) Friedel (Comptes Rendus, xyi, Feb., 1874, p. 508) claims priority for his views over ime he explains that while his hypothesis is to be as- hically it of proof. Tschermak’s Min. Mittheil, 1872, p. 23. enna, 1865, vol. li, 260. vol. exxxvi. a (cael Se Properties of some Minerals and their varieties. 257 The view of Franz,* that the direction of the stream (+) in bismuth depends upon the cleavage lamella, offers a satisfac- tory explanation of some of the phenomena.t On the other hand, the right or left hemihedrism entirely fails to account for the change of + in holohedral or amorphous fused materials; and in such cases other causes must exist and must be sought for. was with great pleasure, consequently, that we availed ourselves of the kindness of Prof. Stefan in putting at our dis- which has been made use of and fully described by Prof. Stefan and G. Rose. We mention here merely that the homo- wire when warmed and brought in contact with the cold wire left the needle in complete rest,f so that no considerable error in consequence of subordinate currents 1s possibl cy A series of preliminary experiments was devoted to estab- : is . . * (c.) In tetrahedrite and chalcopyrite, which crystallize hemi- hedrally, and. wi e most complete opposition of right and left, no change of + could be discovered.| * Franz, Pogg. Ann., vol. Ixxxiii, 375; vol. Ixxxiv, 388; vol. xevii, 34. ; + Schrauf (Lehrbuch d. Phys. Min., 11 Ba, p. 386) has adopted this explans- tion. In accordance with the results of the present investigation, the electrical phenomena must be altered. : ae + We may inention in addition that a brass wire in contact with itself (cut 9m the same piece) caused a considerable deflection of the needle, in the directio | Rose (1. c.) found the same constancy in the sign in chalcopyrite. Am. Jour. Sc1.—THIRD iy Vou. VIII, No. 46,—Oct., 1874. 258 A. Schrauf and EF. S. Dana— Thermo-electrical (d.) On erystals of pyrite the + por- 1. tions are sometimes distributed very irregularly (fig. 1), and any explanation <= 7" — — of this by the supposition of a twin |-4 ~ structure is impossible. We should have to assume, in this case, a parallel- | -—~ i t wise interpenetration of the different 4. 2 individuals or lamelle. ee. + (e.) The majority of the pyrite crys- tals are negative in relation to copper; “ the positive portions appear often to be only thin layers, of a dif- ferent nature from the mass of the crystal. Homogeneous + pyrite crystals are exceedingly rare. These results show clearly that an investigation of the thermo-electrical properties of minerals is of value only when their chemical composition is known. It is well known how - =e at Ge il = + oh ot . the same composi quently upon their ac trey characters. On this account our ollowing investigations, was directed espe- certain minerals are especially well ada ted; and, in fact, out of a long series of sulphids, arsenids and tellurids of cobalt, iron, nickel and bismuth, we were successful in finding some examples capable of showing the relation between the thermo- electricity and the chemical nature of the minerals. It was nec- 3. O Its in regard to the thermo-electrical character of the minerals tested related throughout to their behaviour in contact with copper. € position of the wire employed was trical series as given by Seebeck (L. ¢.), but on the other hand It was to be expected, in conse- quence of this, that the larger number of substances would be negative in relation to copper wire ; and the observations were in r h this. A number of minerals which gave no rceptible str and are consequently marked 0 in the fol- owing list, might perhaps be + in contact with a different *The use made of pyrite in En (mo ight milli ; srry a Toye oh, in wt. Properties of some Minerals and their varieties, 259 with copper. Taking into consideration the position of the copper employed by us, as just explained, these minerals must stand nearer the positive end of the series (except so far as oan! non-conducting power was the occasion of the negative result). Argentite Ag,S isometric. Acanthite Ag,S orthorhombic. Sphalerite ZnS isomet, hemihedral. Alabandite Mns isometric, Hauerite MnS, zs Rutile TiO, orthorhombice. Brookite LiGy monoclinic, Antimonite Boulangerite Pb,Sb,8 ite Pb, Bi, Sb. 8, Sartorite Ss 2™4 This list of minerals investigated embraces unfortunately the majority of those substances from which we expected to throw great light upon our subject. : In the dimorphous group of the silver sulphids the change of form does not correspond to any variation in the thermo- electrical properties. Argentite and acanthite are in this re- spect similar, so also rutile and brookite. In sphalerite, also, the form seemed to have no influence, although right and left hemihedrism is distinguishable. Alabandite and hauerite were selected in order to show the influence of an increasing per- centage in sulphur. The group boulangerite, kobellite, sartor- ite and antimonite were investigated in order to ascertain their relation to galenite ; but no essential differences were observed. It is to be mentioned that (in consequence of their containing antimony) they stand nearer the positive end of the series, while galenite, on the other hand, is strongly negative. B. The following minerals* are positive (+), or negative (—), in contact with copper : 1. Bismuth compounds. [Bi—] Bismuthinite i,S — Sweden. : Tetradymite Bi,(TeS), | — Schubkau, Orawitza. *It is ed, in examining this table, that arsenic, antimony, and tel- lurium, os ue pers + in cx, Homie stotee while in composition they are generally negative. 260 A. Schrauf and EB. 8S. Dana—Thermo-electrical Tetradymite Bi,(TeS), Wehrlite Bi,(TeS), 2. Nickel compounds. Millerite NiS Gersdorffite i (AsS), Ullmannite Ni (Sb,AsS), Niccolite i, As, Rammelsbergite NiAs, rit (N iBiFeCu)S Pyrite (containing Ni) FeS,+-4¢Ni 3. Cobalt ees. Linnzite Smaltite (COREN) As Cobaltite Co(SAs), Glaucodot (CoFe) (SAs), Alloclasite Skutterudite “ 4, Lead compounds. Galenite PbS “ 6c + Hunga [wi-] + Georgia, England. gary. = — Schladming Karinthia. Pribram. Hesse. — Siegen. — Dramen, Norway. [Co — — Miisen. = Saxony, Hesse. — Sweden S — Hakinebs. Coas (SAs,), — Orawitza. + § kutterud, Kongsberg. odum, Tunabe erg. [Pb —] — Usual varieties, + Monte Poni. — Harz. — Harz. Harz. +-— Variable, mixture? [Cu 0] Sweden. — Variable, mixture, Harz. Fe +] Piedmont, Devonshire, Clausthalite PbSe Naumannite ( bAg)Se Lehrbachite (PbHg)Se rgite uPh)Se 5. Silver and Gold compound. La Au ae Sylvanite (Ag,Au)Te, 6. Copper compounds, Chalcopyrite Cu,Fe,S Bornite sFe,S. Tetrahedrite Cu,Sb,8, Chalcocite u,S Berzelianite ove Zorgite (PbCu)Se 7. Iron compounds, Marcasite FeS, Pyrite “ “ “cc ates ee Ni Ms ge ot4¢Ni eae: Pero urin — Most localities. — Drammen, Norway. + Sweden. razil onroe. — Andreasberg, Schlad- mi iss” Reiohenstein. Properties of some Minerals and their varieties, 261 Mispickel Fe(SAs), + England. € . — Freiberg “ (Weisserz) (FeAg)(SAs), — Freiber ite Dana (CoFe)(SAs), + Yianosie . = — Norway. Although tables A and B embrace a considerable number of minerals, they afford only a few general conclusions. (a.) In the compounds of the negative metals Bi, Co, Ni, Pb, the character of the metal outweighs that of the S. (6.) The addition of antimony has the result of weakening this negative character; that of tellurium strengthens it. (c.) In combination with iron the arsenides are negative, but the majority of the sulphides positive. more accurate understanding of the relations between chemical nature and thermo-electricity can be obtained only from those minerals which are sometimes +, sometimes —. _ In order to give the proof of this, it is necessary to introduce into the following tables, besides our observations on the thermo- * Tait has shown recently that iron changes its thermo-electrical sign at a red heat; and this same is es of nickel at a somewhat lower temperature. a is inclined to ascribe this phenomenon to a change in the arrangement of t Molecules. Our investigations, however, are based upon the character _ iy ot ee eee substance ing into an allotropic condition in . The molecular arrangement is, therefore, to be assumed as unchanged in these experiments. : + Analyses and specific gravity determinations, taken from other authors, are Printed in italics. os 262 A. Schrauf and E. 8S. Dana—Thermo-electrical endeavored to supply the want approximately by determining the specific gravity wherever this was possible.* A. Tetradymite. Schubkau Orawitza Georgia England babi ie + ~ - = Te 34°6 35°9 48°7 29°7 } 4°8 4°2 0° ? 2°3 Bi 60-0 59°38 51°5 61-1 Fe Ag 0% 2-0 Wehrlet | Frenzelt{| Balch | Wehrle § c= 7°30 7868 Wehrlet Balch & B. Danaite. Léllingite. Franconia. | Hakansbé. | Skutterud. | Modum. FegAss_ Reichenstein. eee bi ee oo sn as a 6°335 6°096 6°159 As 41°7 46°7 65°8 17°8 17°4 1°8 Fe 32°9 26°2 32°3 Co 674 971 Hayes.** Scheerer.++ Karsten. ff G= 6°207 6°08 6°059 Variety Ver- Variety montite from | Akontite from| Franconia. | Hakansbd.| * Each of our specific vity determinations is the mean of several trials. The ity mean error may be stated as + 0-002, Wehrle, Schweigg. J., 1830, vol. lix, 482. + Frenzel, Leonh, Jahrb., 1873, 800- Balch, Amer. Jour. Sci., I, vol. xxxv, p. 99. ‘{ Balch, Dana Min., 1870, p. 31. ** Hayes, Am. Jour. Sci., II, vol. xxiv, p. 386- f Scheerer, Pogg. . p. 546. Eien Dana Min., 1870, p. 78. [| Dana, Min., 1870, p. 79. Properties of some Minerals and their varieties. 268 Besides the Danaite, we have added, for the sake of compari- son, the chemical composition of léllingite. Taking into con- sideration the fact that, in the compounds, arsenic and cobalt play the part of negative elements, but iron and also most of the sulphids that of positive, a partial explanation of the change of + becomes possible. In the crystals from Franconia the per- centage of FeS is larger (=50°7) than that of AsCo (=48'1). The reverse is true in the danaite from Norway, where FeS =43°6 and CoAs=55°8. These varieties show a very marked difference in specific gravity. C. Skutterudite. Modum. Tunaberg. Skutterud. Kongsberg. = _ + G= 6934 6664 As 79°0 Co 19°5 Fe 14 Wohler* = Kongsberg could not be determined, as in the specimens at hand the mineral was in small imbedded portions. The varia- tion in the case of the varieties from Modum and Skutterud is especially remarkable. Complete crystals from the Skutterud locality were investigated, as well as massive specimens: they were all ++. Skutterudite is isometric, but no hemihedrism has been observed. D. Glaucodot. Hakansbé. Chili. Shell. Kernel. _ Total. ~ ? G= 6-011 5-905 As (Fused B.B.to| 440 (|(FusedB.B.to| 43°2 8 a pearl). 19°8 a pearl). 20°2 Co 161 24°7 Fe 19°3 110 es 5973 5-975—6°003 Ludwig.+ attner.t basal and prismatic, and may be observed not only in the outer layer of the crystal, but also in the central, although less perfectly. About twenty large crystals from Hakansb6 were vol. xliii, 591. Heenan Sitzungsberichte der k. Akad, Vienna, I, vol. ly, 445, 1867. Plattner, Pogg. Ann., vol. Lxvii, 127, 1849. 264 A. Schrauf and E. 8. Dana—Thermo-electrical investigated, all of which showed the same abnormal behavior. The outer shell, 2mm. in thickness, on all the planes, was neg- ative, while the kernel was always positive. If 2mm. of the exterior be filed away, the — shell passes gradually into the + sign. Such a case especially in the orthorhombic system does not allow of hemihedrism being assumed as an explanation. Taking into consideration the great variation in the specific example, gave approximately 195 per cent Co. The varia- tons are consequently, in all probability, caused by the ele- ments Fe, S, as in danaite. It was a matter of great regret to us that we were unable to obtain for investigation any of the glaucodot from Chili. The dent from the specific gravity that the analysis * of the glauco- dot from Hakansbé was made from a fragment containing both shell and kernel. n_ observation of Tschermak + adds plausibility to this hypothesis of a variation in the amount of Fe. He describes crystals of cobaltite imbedded in the outer portion of a crystal of glaucodot. In the transition from glaucodot to cobaltite, the elements Fe and Co are alone involved, and then only in their relative proportions, thus: As Co Fe Glaucodot 440 19°8 16:0 19°3 Ludwig 1. ¢. Cobaltite 43°4 20°8 33°1 3-2 Stromeyer f E. Galenite. Kobellite Sardinia | i: Pribram PbeBi.Sb28i2 granular. England. crystals, 0 Shetia 7-428 7575 ; An analysis by v. Kobell agrees completely with the former Tschermak, Sitzungsb, d.k. Akad. Wain i bv, 429: 1067 | Stromeyer Soke jt E Abed. Vis ae ee ; ‘ Properties of some Minerals and their varieties. 265 The + varieties are distinguished here, as in all other cases mentioned, by their specific gravity.* For the sake of com- arison, kobellite has been added; in it, the negative charac- ter of the lead and bismuth is neutralized by antimony. What part the admixture of Sb, As and Ag play in galenite is uncer- tain. We note here that we found bismuthinite to be — but boulangerite 0. F. Cobaltite. to the excess of the elements Co and As: only a quarter of them were positive. The crystals themselves are homogeneous and, unlike those of glaucodot, show no difference between h according to crystalline form. No. crystals investigated. 49 ube prominent + Octahedrons ‘“ 242 — Pyritohedrons “ 32 i a 5 “ “ aes _ 20 Cube, octahedron and 115 pyritohedron combined } 24 Rose regarded the + character in this species as dependent upon the right or left hemihedrism. A proof to the contrary, from the consideration of the crystalline form, 1s not possible, as the proof itself lies in the supposition, It is of more im- * In consideration of the high values of the specific gravity, it is perhaps desir- able for us to mention our method of determination. We had at our disposal two balances: a balance made by Kusche in Vienna (maximum _— — grams), in the Mineral Cabinet; and another ry maximum 50 grams), private property of Schrauf, We avoided the use of pygnometer, and adopted in preference the method i in air and water. mae 266 A. Schrauf and EB. 8. Dana—Thermo-electrical eal characters had been tested. We give the result in a number of individual cases. _ + Exceptions. G=6°375 Octahedron 67072 - 6°370 Oct. 5°93 6°411 Cube 6°356 Oct. Tunaberg 6°046 6°415 Cube, Pyr. 6°341 Pyr., Oct. 6°010 | Cube alone 6°442 Cube Pyr. 5°927 { from Tunaberg 6°387 Oct. Pyr. 5905 6151 6°160 6°215 ) Pyritohedrons from 6°263 a ecubs 6°208 | Pyr. from 6-265 thn aberg 5984 Pyr. from Skutterud. These figures agree essentially—to 80 or 90 per cent—with our preceding conclusions, that the crystals rich in cobalt are nega- iv e a higher specific gravity. e may, however, with more certainty conclude that the octahedrons are negative and have G>6°30, while the cubes are positive and have G<6'1; the pyritohedrons vary in sign +, and have G>611. We found also two exceptions in the density, which we place beside the others without attempting an explanation by the suggestion of a possible admixture of nickel. G. Sulphides of Iron. The important work of G. Rose has directed especial atten- tion to this species. On page 258 we have already given some results, which we obtained under the supposition of some eS sential connection between form and electrical character. A few observations are here added which relate especially to the chemical composition. Sulphid of Tron, | Marcasite. Pyrite. =A _—e — FPlight® \G@=4°83\G=5-019 Elba G=4°°°6 b Seeak 1 =5°020 Piedmont =4°941 { Devon | =5°195 polished =4'992 Cube erystals, Zephar+ | =4:998 Turinsk. | _ Among the very large number of crystals we were able to investizate, we found only a few which over the whole surface, as well as in the interior, were homogenous +.¢ This will ex- plain the small number of determinations of specific gravity. . * Flight, Ann. Properties of some Minerals and their varieties. 267 same cause, viz: the admixture of Cu, Ni, Ag, Au, which gives pyrite its metallurgical value. The + varieties of FeS, We simply mention this fact without wishing to establish any haa | 1n- composition by regular gradations, but rather by abrupt or: and consequently remains identical within certain | Before establishing relations between the form an erg electricity, it must first be shown that the material in hand is identical. Our observations have demonstrated that in some cases the change in thermo-electrical character corresponds to a change he the chemical composition, and always to an alteration in the density. * $i fie compare note 1, p. 261. It may be men- tioned in width teat a change in density must also accompany the change of + in the case of iron at 268 S. Newcomb and E. S. Holden on the Periodic Art. XXIIL.—On the Possible Periodic Changes of the Sun's Apparent Diameter ; by Simon Newcoms and Epwarp §. HOLDEN. THE question whether the sun’s apparent diameter is subject to any changes which can be detected by observation, is one which has frequently engaged the attention of investigators. In 1809, von Lindenau examined the Greenwich observa- periodicity in the observed values of the solar diameter, and since that time, the generally accepted conclusion has been, that the figure of the apparent solar disc was circular and its diameter constant. In Gould’s Astron. Journal, iii, p. 97, Winlock has given @ discussion of the Greenwich observations of Bradley, and in the course of the investigation the varied personal errors of various observers are obtained for the first time. : It is to be noted, moreover, as a point in the history of this question, that Bianchi (Astr. Nach., No. 218, bd. ix, col. 366) rediscussed this subject (1831), apparently without a knowledge of Lindenau’s research, and that he found the solar compres- sion to be z1,. By different combinations of his data, he, however, obtained values for this quantity varying from jy's5 O +10: Le Verrier (Annales de I’ Obs. de Paris, tome iv'’™, p. 69) also examined this question, and by a process, which he merely indicates, arrived at the conclusion that no real variation in the sun’s diameter so great as 08-02 was likely to exist. Since that time the question has not been directly discussed until it was raised by Secchi, whose observations and conclu- sions have lately received thorough and searching examination by Auwers (Monatsberichte der k. Akademie der Wissenschaflen zu Berlin, May, 1873). As the date of this is so recent we shall Changes in the Sun’s apparent Diameter. 269 That is, if with Wagner an observer assigns a weight to each observed transit of the sun, this weight expressing the goodness of the image as to steadiness and definition, it will be found that each class of observations so defined will give a diameter peculiar to itself, and differing in a constant way from the diameters deduced from the other classes. Dr. Gyldén has ound the same thing to be true of observations of the sun’s vertical diameter made with the Pulkowa vertical circle, and Dr. Becker of Neuchatel corroborates Wagner's results for hori- ner’s statement, and to show that the observations of both diameters made at Washington in the years 1866 to 1870 en- tirely confirm it. : e great importance of the conclusions drawn by Secchi from his observations has induced us to test them by a method different from those of Auwers and Wagner. The difficulty which besets this entire subject is to distinguish between actual variations of the sun’s diameter and errors of observations. at two different observatories, so that each observation of the ies is accompanied by a simultaneous one of the other ° i=] than the average, the probability of finding a positive correc: tion will be more than } at each observatory, and hence the probability of an agreement of sign will be greater than 4. - the probabilit in each case be $+4, it is easy to see that the probability ef an agreement will be $+2a?. 270 S. Newcomb and EF. S. Holden on the Periodic Our results should, however, depend, not on a simple enumera- tion and comparison of the signs of the residuals, but also on the magnitude of the latter, and we may secure this dependence by taking the algebraic product of each residual of the one series by the corresponding one of the other. If the residuals are purely accidental, the mean value of these products should approximate to zero as the number of observations is increased, while in the case of actual variability it will approximate to Aas limit. Let us investigate exactly what this limit will be. If we have two determinations of any quantity, each affected y @ common but unknown error s, and also by independent accidental errors r and r’, whose law of probability is that tions are made; it is required to find the mean value of the product (s + r) (s + 7’). If the measure of precision of the determinations is put equal to unity, the probability that any error of one observa- tion of a pair will fall between the limits s+r and s+r+dr is ee _oe — "dr ; the probability that the error of the other observation of the pair will fall between the limits s+7’ and s+7r’+dr"’ is See ae 7 The probability of the combination is therefore lo rp y's’ —.e .e . ar. dr’, This probability multiplied by the product of the errors is 1 ~- - oan (s+r)e (oe rye f. ov dr’. The mean value of the product required is the sum of all these products, as r and r’ each varies independently from + ® to — om, or the double integral e 1 cies ose t =f (str)e~ "Tepes! dr. dr’. -0 -o Integrating first with respect to r’ we find + CO a +00 # & (¢+r') e~ dal oH" ay mae ~ co age eat Te ee i. ?’)34 Changes in the Sun's apparent Diameter. 271 The double integral therefore becomes 8 ; + 00 Fe [etn 00 des Fa ag aot. - © £ during the years 1862-1870 inclusive. The difference of me- ridian, five hours, will prevent the detection of any inequality of which the period is less than a day, while one with a period of six months or a year will be confounded with errors of observa- tion having that same period, which probably arises from at- mospheric condition. But, an inequality, either regular or irregular, of which the period ranges between a day and a half year, will admit of complete detection by the proposed com- parison. All the Greenwich observations which we have used were made with the transit circle: from January, 1862, to January, 1866, the Washington observations were made with the Erte transit and the Troughton mural circle; after this date the Pistor and Martin’s meridian circle was alone used for this urpose. The method of observation at each place is well known, and it only remains to be said that all transits were registered by chronograph. The observations are distributed as follows: No. of Observations, H.D. V.D. Greenwich 1862-1870: 832 905 Washington 1862-1865: 491 430 te 1866-1870: 490 491 1813 1826 Many observers were employed in this work, and it was first necessary to make the observations homogeneous by subtract- ing from each separate “apparent error of Ephemeris diam- eter” the “personal error of the observer.” These last errors Were assumed to be constant throughout a year, and were deter- e given by his observations, which was called the “adopted per- sonal error” of that observer for that year. In some cases Some slight changes from this rule have been allowed, but the following tables are believed to represent each observer's habit as well as possible from the data. dic erv0 S. Newcomb and E. S. Holden on the P. 272 | | | | . | | | | | | | | \ | | 4 Ne | | 8-6 + |PL-0 ROR SRE Nr a RR Ga 8 em is GI + |80-0+ '0-€+ |F0-0+ |F-1+ |30-0— | | | z beers BT + |€L-0+ |9-0+ |FI-0+ Yy G-0+ |01-0+ |%-0— 60-0+ |9-0+ |¢0.0+ |%-1+ |60.0+ ri 1-0+ |10-0— ‘Y 9-1 + |80.0+ 0-0 |g0-0+ ‘7 83+ |F1-0+ |FT+ l9t'0+ |9°0+ [9T-0+ 9.0 +:)"""**" 25+ [oo *8- #-0+ [777 2°" lg.9+ [--2-=" 8H ¥-1+ |80-0+ |¢.¢+ |Z1-0+ ‘H : O-E+ |8T'O+ |8E+ [9T-O+ |8-E+ |FLOF [n.G+ |PL-O+ lett [-77777 Bre [re “!8-0+ ‘N sg "3 ” "g " ‘g t “g " “g ” ‘9 o 9 ” ‘sg PAL A | “OH A OE A A ee ae ae A | ee } AS a Oe aa aH [aA | “OS a A a ee “‘SIOAI08q(Q) ‘OLST 6981 ‘8981 LOST ‘gost |S “g98T ‘POST ‘S981 ‘B98 ‘SUTAUASTQ NOLONIHSYM dO SUOUNY IVNOSURG aALaody 40 aTAVY, : MOTO WOAIS SI SIBAIOSGO UOJSUIYSe AA IOJ 9[Q¥} Sutpuodsea.s0o oul 81+ |F0-0+ [81+ |F9-0+ |8-I+ |F0-0+ {81+ |F0-0+ \Z-1+ |10-0— )&-1+ |L0-0— )&-T + |TO- O~ |&-T+ |10-0— |8-1+ |90-0+ | 0 60+ |12-0+ 0-6+ |61-0+ |0-6+ |61-0+ |0-2+ |6T-0+ | Z-T+ 108-0 + | | ‘d 0-T— |0T-0+ be L-T+ |€L-0+ |TT+ [et-o+ ‘'N €-6+ |60-0+ |€-3+ |60-0+ |§-G+ |90-0+ |Z-3+ |L0-0+ |F-3+ |F0-0+ |1-6+ |90-0+ |Fe+ |F0-0+ [32+ 190-04 |9-T+ |90.0+ ‘a 0-[— |40-0— 0-0 |¢0-0— |Z-1+ |¢0-0+ Ge) 8-0— |€0-0+ |€-0— |80-0+ |2-0+ leT-o+ Bp €1+ |gt-0+ 0'M g-0+ |Z0-0— |9-0+ |20-0— |9.0+ |Z0-0— |9-0+ |20-0— x F-0+ |9T.0+ IF-O+ |OL-O+ |F-0+ ST-0+ 0 €-0-— |01-0 + |&-0— |0L-0+ |€-0— |O1-0+ |€-0— |01-0+ |g-0— [01-0 + |¢-0— /01-0+ |¢.0— [0T-0+ |¢.0— |oT-0+ |¢.0— |ot-0+ ‘§ 8-6 + |03-0+ |T-+ |0%-0+ (9-1 + |0-0+ |0-E+ |02-0+ |z-0— |0Z-0+ 07H 0-T— |60-0 + |2-0— |O1-0+ |0-T— |80-0+ |z-0— |Z1-0+ |z-0— |1T-0+ |6-0— |60-0+ |o.0— |G0-0+ |z-0+ let-o+ |Z-0— eto + ‘a 6-E+ [06-04 |9-F+ 61-0+ |6-3+ |18-0+ |9.6+ [LT-0+ [03+ FL-O+ |L-2+ \6T-0+ |z-e+ ILLO+ \z-e+ |¢z-0+ o.¢+ igl'o+ cee « . 'g . ‘9 4 8 : ‘g . 3 . ‘8 : 8 , ‘8 a) A Oa | A ee a ee a [a ‘A | Oe OA Oe eA | Od a A Oe la ‘a | ‘dH “IOAIOSqO ‘oust =| Ss ‘eost)~=—s|S “9 98T ‘OBt =| SORT i Bone "POST ‘98 | ‘t98T ‘SUTAUISHQ HOIMNGTUY) MO SUOUMY IVNOSUAG ALAOCY #0 WIAVY, 273 Changes in the Sun’s apparent Diameter. parent on the x of that day, thus form- by each observat tract from the a re The next step in the, process is to sub f ephemeris diameter given d personal error of the observer Washington and Greenwich. The mean monthly residuals for each month of each year were then formed and these are given in the following table :— error oO adopte ing a series of residuals for observations both of horizontal and vertical diameter at both 88-0+| ZF-O+) 81-0—| F0-0+| 90-0—| ZF-0—| F2-0—| 88-0—| O1-0—) £0-0— EL-0 + | PP-0O+ jaBven O-T+} T-I+] 80+) 9-0+ £-0+)} 9:0-| 80—-| 80—| &0—| 9-0+] 0.0 £-0+ | OL8T LEt+| 0-0 6-0—| 6-0+ L0+ ] 0-0 0-0 €0—| ¥-0—| €I—| %0—| 9-0+)| 698T €0—| 40+] 1-04] T-0—| §0+ GO| BOF) 0-0 LO—-| 8O0—-| @O—| 9-0+] 898T 0-0 L-0+] 9-0—| 90+] ¥I—] ‘8qQ0T! TOo—| T-0—-]| 0-0 GO+|] 8I+] 80+] LO8T Got; 90+) 410+) 0-0 0-0 9-0—-| PI} 9I—-| 0-0 ¥I—| T-0—| 8-0+] 998T LO+) €0O+)] T-0—-| 40—| &0+!] O1—] 0-0 GO—| 6O+| GOtT| GIt+| ¥0O+)| Q98T G-O+! 30+] 60—| F-0—|] %20—| 40—| %0—| 80—| 0-0 TO—| PIt]. LO+]| F981 €0—| €0+| TO0—-| &0—-| LO+] #0—| 9-0—| £0—| 9-0+] 20+] TO0+] §-0—| G98T wT + Lo— 0-0 6-0— 0.0 L.o+ 0:0 60+ Ss Sead g.T+ 8.6 + 6.0 + GO8L 600-0 —|0€0-0 + |9€0-0 + |UBE, ns | emer ne | renner | ase | to sana | mieten | senna 100+] 10-0+}| €0-0+] T0-0+] 600+] 20-0+] 20-0+ | 90-0—| 20-0—| 10-0—| G0-0+| 0-0+] OL8T 00-0 T0-0+)| 200+] 20-0+] 60-0—| T0-0—| 20-0—| 10-0—| 00-0 £0-0+)] 10-0+) #0-0+) 698T £0-0+} 10-0+]| 00-0 10-0—| T0-0+ | ¥0-0—| 60-0+} 80-0—| 10-0—| 90-0+)| T0-0—| $0-0+] 898T 40-0—-| ¥0-0+)} 00-0 20-0+| 10-0+]| 849 T | €0-0—| 00-0 £0-0—| 10-0+} 00-0 00-0 | L98T OT-0+} F0-0+) 10-0—| €0-0—| 80-:0—| 10-0+]| 20-0—| ¥0-0—| €0-0—| 10-0—| €0-0+] O1-0+]| 998T 800+] 100+] 10-0—| S1-0—| 10-0+)| 20-0—| €0-0+]| #0-0+| 90-0—| 00-0 £0-0+)| 90-0+)| e98T 60-0+}] $0-0+] 90-0—| 10-0—| 00-0 0-0—| 90-0+| $0-0—| 00-0 £0-0—| 60-0+)| $0-0+)| P98T $0-0+] 90-0+} 10-0—| €0-0+}| 20-0—| 00-0 10-0—| O1-0—| €0-0—| 10-0+| ¥0-0+| 20-0—| €98T £0-0+} €0-0+] 90-0—| €0-0+| F0-0—| 100+] 10-0—| OT-0+| 90-0—| 90-0—| 90-0+! €0-0+)| Z98T ‘S ‘8 ‘s ‘s st ‘s ‘SB 8 ‘s ‘s 8 ‘Ss ‘00d AON "400 ‘qdog | ‘4ysntiny | ‘Ame ‘ounp “ABW ‘Tady | ‘qorveyy qoa ‘uve =| “1BOx ‘HOIMNSSYD) :YXLANVICE TVLNOZIHOTT n are given below. iod which is proba- ospheric influences. peat peri atm 1n Washi er has shown, by 18 eans show a d —T HIRD SERIES, VoL. Vill, No. 46.—Oct., 1874, as W. ponding data for ese monthly m caused, Am. Jour. Sct. The corres Th bly S. Newcomb and EB. S. Holden on the Periodie 274 Pe Te a # eee ere eet ee L0-0—| 08-0+| 99-0—| 9)-0—| £9-0—| 00-0 | €0-04+)}~~---7| OL8T iver db accent te ot | Sear saben ta nce L¥-0—| €2-0—| 08-0+) 91-0—} 16-0+)| 698T ¥9-0+F] 8€-0+| 9%I+] §2-0+)] o4-0—| 14-04) 900+] 8F-0+] 16-:0—| 02-0—| 80-0—| 08-T—| S98T 16-0+| 90-T—| 9T-0—-| G4-0—| 00-0 80-0+| €9-0+] 2-04] SF-0—| 6Z-I—| 62-04] 02-0—| LOST 96-0+] ¥§-0+) 70-0—| 8F-0+] 10-0+] 69-04) 00-0 FI-O—| 91-0—| 69-04] 2E-0+)/ 20-0+ | 998T 0-0 PI—| GO+! 60+] 60—-| §0—} G-O+] 90+] 10+] T-0—| 6I—| 8-0—/ e98T 0-1+| 0-0 90+] 91+] €O+} 90+) 80+) #0—|} €$0+] 40—-| 20+] 6-1—| F98T ¥O+| GOT! 8.0—| OI] 0-0 LI+] 0-0 US) dae ee Sa ae A ne E981 6-0 €.0— T+ 61+ 6.0 + oh $-0— L-0— 6-0— ¥T+ ¥.0+ Lot G98 ‘NOLONIHSVM ‘URLENVIG TVOILET A tig: od eran ee e Meeeee 090-0 + |600-0 —|¥0-0 —|800-0—|L10-0—|8¢0-0—|200-0—|"~~" ~~ | 0281 Wee Rites deed aan cole ee meee 990-0 + |0F0-0 + /420-0—|100-0—|¥00-0 + | 698T 6F0-0—|€0-0 + |GF0-0 —|, 10-0 —| [90-0 + |200-0—|Z00-0 + |410-0 + |$00-0 + |960-0—|000-0 |060-0—| 898T 480-0 + |9€0-0 + |200-0 —|6F0-0 + |8Z0-0 + |F00-0 + |ZZ0-0—|010-0 + |FZ20-0—|910-0—|000-0 [10-0 +] L98T 060-0— |6Z0-0 + |800-0 + |0F0-0 + |#20-0 + |20-0 —|800-0 + |980-0 —|€20-0 —|160-0 —|900-0 —|290-0 +| 998T OTT-0—|Z9T-0—|990-0 —|640-0 —|840-0 — |L80-0 — |Sh0-0 —|190-0 —| 12 1-0—|€ 10-0 + |SE1-0—|31,0-0—| e98T TAG ir A ieee spouses tese="~ 1§¢0-0—|0€0-0—|€90-0—|1,90-0 —|820-0 + 1890-0 —]020-0 + /81,0-0—| F98T FLO-0 —| 190-0 —}Z90-0 + |910-0 —|990-0 + |€eT-0 + |180-0 + |690-0 + |60-0 + |§00-0 —|1#0-0—|Z¢60-0 + | e981 9F0-0—|S1Z-0 + | LL0-0 —|920-0 —| 100-0 —|190-0 + |L0-0 + |920-0 + |S 10-0 + |090-0 + [080-0 + |¢9T-0-+ | Z98T "Ss ‘s ‘8 ‘s *s | ‘Ss ‘Ss ‘'s ‘s “s ‘Ss oq "AON 990 | ‘dog | sens | ‘Ato ‘oun | “AO "Tidy | worse | “doa | ‘uve =| ‘avo x ‘NOLONIHSVM +> USLANVIC, TVLNOZINO]T bad ‘5-8 ary SESESEU Ea aas EN gageot *68 ge WBeLoss 2 Sep Loy wo z ‘a & OD ar fe Souq ~ See a eae ~ Pas: MPS. S525 08 g5 ESSE 55 bak Aegss teeta a £8 Og EP EEE ae ogny SS ae Ue ee = nOOCTZSS sg Seg aw oa sa eR 3aE swe aap ef wessog es Feo sreeas oeog POU a 3 aeag "ap 8B re “Jt, Geen eigoby space. mM ae .2 ke bo ? — oe ae) x oat ’ Seg TS sgk awa Sa Eee boone ee Boees SESS E ebsaseles 8 Pons 2 wed at ad Be: 2 ee. 5 Md : Bg weg o! ket oH sof bos Sabo Hos ae 4 2 S5D 0. a be, oe SCORES S.05GH & Changes in the Sun’s apparent Diameter. 275 ephemeris, and the small figures below them show the number of observations upon which each number depends. In Wagner’s paper, above referred to, sufficient data are given to allow his work to be treated in a like way, and his observa- tions give when so treated the following results, which agree, in le. general, with the figures in the above table. 8 Pulkowa Class IV. 0055 Wash. Weight 2-3 -0-063 V-Il. 0°020 = IlI-IV. —0-002 as 3 +0°027 lL -+0-029 “ 3-4 +0180 Although the weights of Washington observations were as- signed by as many as six or seven different observers, each by a different standard, the agreement between the resulting errors of ephemeris diameter at Washington and Pulkowa is evident, in regard to sign at least. : : o show how rough a division of sun observations accordin to state of image will exhibit the effect of good definition upon the deduced values of diameter, we further divided the Wash- 2 comprises those made when the cloudiness ranged from 5 to 10. (O0=clear sky, 10=all overcast.) These numbers 0-10 Horizontal Diameter. Vi Diameter. Year. Cloud=0: Cloud 5-10. Cloud=0: Cloud 5-10. 8 8 s 1867 —0033 +0012 —0°45 +0°35 1868 —0°047 +0.03: —1°45 +0°45 1869 0°000 +0°039 +0°75 1 1870 —0093 +0014 —0°70 —0°44 The numbers in the various columns are again the mean ap- parent errors of ephemeris diameter (corrected). The cause of the periodicity in the monthly means being now understood, it remained to free the separate residuals from periodic error, Weights— 1. 2. 3. 4, 1-2. 2-3, 34, cee ine ae a ce SS ooo eee ees aE cea tar Year| H.D, | V.D. | H.D. | V.D.§ H.D. | V.D. | H.D. | V.D.§ H.D. | V.D. f H.D. | v.D. | H.D, | V.D, | 8 | “ 8. “ 8 4“ “ Ben 8. 4“ 8. 1866) -0°130| -1-064~-0-024| -0:06]+0-008 | +0391+0-045|+0'6s 0°120| -1°80}+-0-180 -6+20 RAY ae eoea Pe aie Fae 7 SO n 36 Oe ant Net pen Ln.An Pea nel Ne x I 20un Ty UlYy Vo VVILV Vv VUVUeil TV VIETU Vie Vv Ad baMeinted HS ilies | VA OY OUR one sel wnene 8 6 33 3 40 | 40 I I 4 12a. )-H20 f) -29) Hpe gy Li.202! Ln. O-fMiN 1+7-on nnie ray peel UUS. Uo UU U Vv VUay Ti OV VVviv TF CO a ante ee | an to 5 5 fay | 17 18 18 2 3 6 5 a 0°100|+0°1 2. 2 047|+0 POLS 0 C0ne eo lo 2 2 to | 9 12 Io | 6 7 276 S&S. Newcomb and E. S. Holden on the Periodic Changes, ete. which was done by the application of corrections derived from the following formule :— For Horizontal Diameter. : Greenwich 1862-70: —0*-023 cos 0—0**006 sin 6—0*-016 cos 20 ~+0*011 sin 2 6, Washington 1862-65: +-0°-008 cos 9—0*-010 sin 0, xi 1866-70 : +-0°-001 cos 6—0°-019 sin 4. For Vertical Diameter. Greenwich 1862-70: —0':47 cos 6—0'"13 sin 6—0'°07 cos 26— 0’°12 sin 2 6, Washington 1862-65: +0'°09 cos 6+40'"21 sin 4, . 1865-70: —0'09 cos 6-+-0'"02 sin 4. Kach residual error of ephemeris diameter (diminished by the corresponding personal error) was now further corrected by the application of a correction derived from the above formule, and a series of residuals formed. Whenever a Washington and a Greenwich observation were made on the same day, the corre- sponding corrected residuals were multiplied together, and the sums of these products were tabulated as below. | Sums or Propvots. N Vaca gh meen Year. Hor. Diam. | Vert. Diam. Hor. Diam. | Vert. Diam. 1862 —0°0492 — 19°69 33 24 +0°0007 — 2°10 40 25 64 —0°0185 — 12°55 44 24 65 +0:0094 + 13°87 49 41 66 | +0°0151 | + 7-20 48 54 67 —0°0364 — 841 31 28 68 | +0°0122 | + 267 37 39 6 — 0433 + 6°73 6 it 1870 — 0°0843 — 10°86 25 25 = | —0%1077 | —23/-14 313 271 We see by this table that there is a decided preponderance of negative products. This result seems conclusive against the to —— at Greenwich corresponded to the smaller ones at from a tendency to vibrations of short period, probably not differing much from 10 hours. We are, however, inclined to attribute this result to chance. The mean value of the prod Ceo ah eee ; - | ‘ 7 7 ; G. B. Grant—New Calculating Machine. 277 uct of two residuals is about *007 in horizontal diameter, and 1’5 in vertical diameter. In the number of products a up, the accidental accumulations of products of one sign might very well amount to 15 times this mean, while the sums for the individual years are not, on the whole, materially greater than would arise from chance accumulation. Were it not so, th more than 10 times in 512=2° trials. This, if not accidental, would indicate that during some years, 1864 and 1870, for instance, there was a tendency to a ten hour vibration of the solar diameter. From what has been said, we are not author- ized to attribute this correspondence to anything but chance. Art. XXIV.—A New Calculating Machine; by GEorcE B. GRANT. “Since the dawn of mathematical science in Europe, the attempt to construct a machine, capable of satisfactorily per- forming arithmetical operations, has occupied the attention of a great number of ingenious men, several of whom have been among the most celebrated of their time for originality of Sylvester II. He is credited with the introduction into Europe of the arabic numerals, and endeavored to construct a mechan- ism to facilitate their use. But of his results we have no pub- lished account. j Se The first successful device was the invention of John Napier, celebrated for his invention of logarithms. His err nes, 3 mechanism, and they are too well known to need which he had spent several years. * President Barnard of Columbia College, in the U.S. Reports of the Exposition of 1867, «The Industrial Arts and Exact Sciences.” Harper & Brothers. New ork. 1867. 278 G. B. Grant—New Calculating Machine. The diagram, fig. 1, will illustrate Pascal’s design sufficiently for the purposes of this article. A horizontal wheel having e traction, according as we read by 4 me row or the other. Carnage was accomplished by mechanism on the shaft of the cylinder, which bao forced the next cylinder forward one figure whenever its own passed from 9 to Pascal’s machine was not a success, for though correct in theory it was so complicated, delicate, uncertain, and limited in its operations, that it was practically useless. But the principles of its action, particularly the toothed wheel, fixed figured are and stop, and the complementary rows of figures, have appeared in most subsequent machines, and have been patented many PASCAL’S MACHINE, The next attempt resulted in a substantial success, and by 4 man otherwise entirely unknown. Charles Xavier Thomas de G. B. Grant—New Calculating Machine. 279 driver will depend on the number of teeth exposed. Colmar varied his number by placing nine rows of teeth side by side, Recording wheel. recording wheel over them. Calculating machines by the score may be found in the pat- ent records of the United States, England and France. ol- mar’s idea has been twisted into every conceivable position, but no improvement has been made on the disposition originally adopted by him. And his machine is the only one now in use, to any mentionable extent. Colmar’s machine, as the first solution of an old and well e New Mahia = the diagram fig. 3 all framing unessential parts are omitted, and the positions so to show the principle of action most clearly. 280 G. B. Grant—New Calculating Machine. Two parallel cylinders are geared to turn together. One cylinder is larger than the other, but the gears are equal, so that one turn of the handle on the larger revolves both once. The larger cylinder slides laterally on its arbor, and can be placed opposite any part of the smaller at pleasure. | On the small cylinder are a number of recording wheels, more or less according to the capacity desired. ach is pro- vided with thirty teeth, and a numeral is stamped at each tooth. A fixed point, R, is chosen as the reading point, and the number shown at any time at that point is the reading of the wheel. On the large cylinder are a number of driving wheels, each having an adding pin, P, which can be fixed in ten different positions by the pin at 7. a bar between the cylinders is a row of fixed spring claws, one for each recording wheel. If the claw be pushed slightly re > side, it will drop off its catching pin on to the wheel an old it. As the handle is turned, the recording wheel revolves with its cylinder, but when the adding pin strikes and lets down the claw, it will be held still till the lifter L is reached, by which the claw is returned to its pin and the wheel allowed to pass on. It has, by being held, been carried over a number of teeth from its original reading, more or less according to the position of the adding pin on its cylinder. If the adding pin is placed at its zero position, it will come to the claw simultaneously with the lifter, and the wheel will not be affected. But if it be placed at 7 for example, it will reach the claw seven teeth in advance of the lifter, and the number seven will be added to the wheel. 7 The action between each wheel claw and adding pin is the _ Same, and it is plain that the number represented by the setting G. B. Grant—New Calculating Machine. 281 mon to all the wheels, and is ordinarily up out of the way of the pins, but when pressed down will be in their path. If then the cylinder be turned backward, each pin will stop when it reaches the bar, and all the wheels will be brought to zero simultaneously. a8 The process by this machine is always an addition, never a subtraction. But subtraction of any number is accomplished y setting it up by the inner row of figures on Hsgraed wheel, they being so arranged that the complement of the num- ber set up will be used. oy 3 so _ The size of the machine varies with its capacity. The record- um 11 inches and the adding wheels 24 inches in diameter, and the. distance from wheel to wheel is sap are of h ten-wheel machine would occupy a box 6x 6x 282 G. B. Grant—-New Caleulating Machine. minute with perfect accuracy. The object of having one cylin- der nearly three times the size of the other is to secure this accuracy. e angular motions are equal, but the actual speed of the pin is nearly twice that of the wheel, ensuring that the claw shall strike the right tooth every time, even if of operations. Four or more fixed quantities, ABCD, etc., can be set up once for all, and either one be quickly brought to act whereas it usually takes from three to five minutes for each operation, 3 G. B. Grant—New Calculating Machine. 283 Addition and subtraction are of course worked directly, but By the tentative method we first set up our dividend 213525 on the wheels by hand, or better, by transferring it from the pins. We then set the pins to our divisor 0657, by means of the inner or negative rows of figures, taking care to leave one zero in advance of it. Then place it up opposite the 135 of the dividend, and turn the handle, stopping at every turn to observe the dividend. It will continually decrease, and when you per- ceive that it is less than the divisor, you must stop and set the pins down one place before proceeding to the next figure. In the above case, the dividend after three turns will read 16425, and that being less than 65700 the first quotient figure is 3. The wheels will then read 00003016425, the quotient figure being recorded automatically by the machine on the upper wheels left vacant by the retreating dividend. To explain the automatic method we need to follow the pro- As ini ce 657, is added, the divisor decreases, and after 147825 less than 65700, requiring us by the old method 9999343 —2 to stop and set down for the next figure. And 82125 it is necessary to 9999348 —g3 mechanism to 7 1 wepeeas 4 for that purpose. 9 5 But it may be oe sense from, 16495 once more, that a negative ———- _ number would result. And w ae achine, a negative number is exp . by its complement, its mechanical perception is an easy matter, since for such a case the upper wheels all read nine. | A snap, which will indicate when the last wheel stops on nine, will answer our purpose, and warn us that a mistake of one turn has been 284 W. Gibbs on the Heaxatomic compounds of Cobalt. t one, fe) Pascal, Leibnitz, Babbage and Scheutz will acknowledge. Pascal speaks of his invention as “a work of some years. Leibnitz, at the height of his fame, devoted four years to this object, and failed; Babbage worked from 1822 to 1842 on his to 1854 bringing his machine to the partially successful condi- tion it is now in. The machine described above for the first time is the result of nearly four years of study and labor. Cambridge, Mass. July 15, 1874, Art. XXV.— Researches on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt; by Woxcorr Gripss, M.D. [Continued from page 200.] Bromo-nitrate of xanthocobalt,—One molecule of bromide of xanthocobalt was mixed with one of the nitrate of the same base, both salts being in solution in hot water, A dark, sherry-wine- colored salt separated, after some hours, in well defined crystals. In this salt 0°8925 gr. gave 04190 gr. SO, Co=17'86 per cent cobalt. 0°7116 gr. gave 0-1244 or. silver —12-94 per cent bromine. The formula Co,(NH,) , o(NO,),(NO,), Br, requires 17°77 per cent cobalt, and 24:09 per cent bromine. The salt was re- dissolved and allowed to crystallize a second time. In the salt thus obtained 0°8538 gr. gave 0°3984 pr, S0,Co=17-76 per cent cobalt. 0°8474 gr. gave 0°2672 gr. silver —23-69 per cent bromine. These results leave no doubt that a definite bromo-nitrate, analogous to the chloro-nitrate, is formed by direct union of the nitrate and bromide. The salt appears to be, however, . po: and then gave 23°04 per encement ol a separation W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. 285 Co,(NH;), »Cle+Co, (NH) 10(NO,)2(NO;),= 2004 (NH); »(NO2)(NOg) Cl. 0°2125 gr. gave 0°1161 gr. SO,Co=20°80 per cent cobalt. 0°5933 gr. gave 0°2470 gr. silver =13°70 per cent chlorine. 0°7888 gr. gave 0°3308 gr. silver 13°78 per cent chlorine. These numbers approximate to those required by the formula, Co,(NH,), ,(NO,).(NO,),Cl,- I attempted in like manner to form salts synthetically by mixing other salts in the propor- tions indicated by the equations: Cog (NH,) ,,(NO,)g-+Co,(NH,) 1 (Clg=C02 (NH) 10(NO2) sls: Co, (NH,) ; o(NO4)¢+002(NHs3)10(NO2)2(NO3s= Co,(NH;)9(NO2)(NO5)s- The experiments led, however, to no definite results. The chloro-nitrate above described is the salt to which I, at nitroxyl, NO,, hav little in solubility, so that it is extremely difficult to oe i I believed to be thes should not exist, but Krok’s analyses do not appear to me sufficient, as the cobalt, ined, and not the whole : Its Kro with the formula Co,(NH,), ,CK(NO,), +30H,. There is no a compound e salt can be recrystallized without decomposition, or metallic chlorides. - * Acta Univers., Lund, 1870. 286 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. As the chloride and nitrate of xanthocobalt are capable of uniting directly to form the chloro-nitrate above described, it might be supposed that the two salts are isomorphous, and, therefore, crystallize together in all proportions. According to of Dana's measurements, cited in the first part of this memoir, nitrate of xanthocobalt crystallizes in forms belong- ing to the dimetric or square prismatic system. Prof. Cooke has kindly determined the form of the corresponding chloride, and finds that the crystals are either trimetric or monoclinic. The chloro-nitrate cannot, therefore, be regarded as a mixture of two isomorphous salts. Finally, salts of xanthocobalt are formed by the action of Fischer’s salt, Co,(NO,),,K,, upon salts of purpureocobalt and roseocobalt. hen, for instance, chloride of purpureocobalt is dissolved in boiling water, with a little free acetic or chlor- hydric acid, and Co,(NO,),,K, is added, in small portions at a time, the violet color of the salt gradually disappears as the boiling continues, and the solution finally assumes a fine orange- brown tint. The filtered solution gives on cooling fine crystals of chloride of xanthocubalt, the reaction being probably ex- pressed by the equation Co,(NO,),2K,+43Co,(NH,), oCl,= 3Co,(NH;),.(NO,)2Cl, + 6KC14+200(NO,),+2N0,. During the boiling red vapors are given off. In one experi- ment the chloride of xanthocobalt formed was analyzed, with the following results : 0°5027 gr. gave 0°2987 gr. SO,Co= 22°62 per cent cobalt. 0°7616 gr. gave 0°6351 gr. silver —27-35 per cent chlorine. The formula Co,(NH,), ,(NO,),Cl, requires 22°52 per cent cobalt and 27-09 per cent chlorine. The salt gave all the reac- tions of the chloride. . ecamin series. I have already mentioned its occurrence upon chloride of purpureocobalt. hen nitrate of xantho- cobalt is boiled with potassic nitrite and a little acetic acid, Fischer’s salt is formed in abundance, and the nitrate is gradu- ally decomposed, without formation of any other product which I could detect. Chromate-——When neutral potassic chromate is added to a solution of nitrate of xanthocobalt, a beautiful yellow crystal- line precipitate is thrown down, which may be washed with cold water, in which it is but slightly soluble. Hot water also : ves age salt in very small quantity. The chromate has ormul s , E io i W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. 287 Co,(NH,) 19(NO,),(CrO,).4+20H, as the following analyses show : 0°4340 gr. gave 0°3652 gr. CrO, Ba=35°96 per cent CrO,. 0°3472 gr. gave 0°2900 gr. CrO, Ba=35°70 per cent CrO,. 0°6954 gr. gave 0°3370 gr. water = 5°38 per cent hydrogen. The salt lost only 0°68 per cent water on drying up to 145° C. The formula requires 35°84 per cent CrO,, and 5:24 per cent hydrogen. It is remarkable that the salt should retain its water of crystallization at so high a temperature. The neutral chromate of xanthocobalt furnishes the most convenient method of ob- taining the chloride and sulphate of xanthocobalt in a state of purity. For this purpose the chromate is to be boiled with water and a little acetic acid, and a solution of baric chloride added until baric chromate is no longer formed. From the d directly by the action of the red gases upon cobaltic nitrate and ammonia may be employed. I am even disposed to con- the neutral chromate, it is available as a means of recognizing salts of xanthocobalt, and of obtaining them in a state of purity. Of this salt —53° ie 0°6570 gr. gave 0°8200 gr. CrO, Ba==53°33 per cent Cr,0, 0°3974 gr. gave 0:4950 gr. CrO, Ba=53°23 per cent era 0°4868 gr. gave 0°1830 gr. Cr,0, ==53'40 per cent Cr, 0. Iodosulphates.—A solution of potassic iodide gives no precipi- xanthocobal 288 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. eribed. Potassic iodide gives, with a solution of sulphate of Stebel brown yellow needles, which, after re-solution, gave larger prismatic crystals. Of these 0°5396 gr. gave 0°2207 gr. SO,Co=15'57 per cent cobalt. 0°8856 gr. gave 0°2689 gr. SO, ;Ba=12°51 per cent 0°4541 gr. gave 0°1288 gr. silver =33°37 per cent iodine. The formula Co,(NH,), ,(NO,),SO,I, +20H, requires Cobalt, 2 15°40 15°57 Iodine, 2 33°16 33°37 60. 2 12°58 12°51 When a solution of iodine in potassic iodide is added to one of sulphate of xanthocobalt, very itech ibe ruby-red, well defined crystals are formed, which are rea ily decomposed by hot water, with evolution of iodine vaeae and cannot be recrystallized for analysis. Of these crystals 0°6094 gr. gave 86°5 c.c. ee at 13° C. ~~ habe *6 mm, (h= 2°08 mm.)==16°63 per cent nitro 0° "2142 gr. gave 0687 gr. SO,Co=12 ‘21 ce pets cobalt. The formula Co oh ii (NO,),80,1 , requires Calculated. Found. s 2 Cobalt, 2 11°99 12°21 11°64 Iodine, 4 51°60 49°90 49°96 SO, n 9°75 9°77 10°80 Nitrogen, 12 17-07 16°63 Salts 1 and 2 were from different preparatio The analyses do not correspond as slau to the formula as might be wished, but it must be remembered that the salt can- not be recrystallized without decomposition, and is probably not quite free from the first described, or normal iodo-sulphate. The salt gives off iodine on heating. The structural formulas of the two salts may be written as follows (BES -NO, ‘NH, -NO, NH “NH, <2] NH, —NH,—-T. Coa} NHS ANI >SO, Cog: } NHOONIE =O>8 ing from chloride of purpureocobalt only by water of erystal- lization. This view has been adopted by some chemists, re- Co,(NH,),,. Reserving the discussion for the present, I pro- ceed to ue description of the salts which serve to throw hgit upon the question. 292 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. Auro-chloride of purpureocobalt_—When a solution of chloro- aurate of sodium is added to a hot solution of chloride of pur- pureocobalt, containing a little free chlorhydric acid, no pre- cipitate is formed at first, but after standing a few hours erystals of a new salt are depusited. The crystals in question present flat prismatic forms. They have a dark ruby-red color, with a dull violet luster, and after standing, exhibit a distinct superficial reduction of gold. Of these crystals 09028 gr. gave 0°3206 gr. gold, and 1°0560 gr. silver=35°50 per cent gold, and 38°45 per cent chlorine. 0°6840 gr. gave 0°1896 gr. SO,Co and 0°2425 gr. gold=10°55 per cent cobalt, and 35°45 per cent gold. Calculated. Found. Cobalt, 2 10°64 10°55 Gold, 2 35°55 35°50 85°45 Chlorine, 12 38°44 38°45 Co,(NH,),,Cl,+2AuCl,, or rationally From the formula it appears that the salt is unsaturated, simi- lar salts containing 4 or 6 molecules of auric chloride being also possible. water, especially in the presence of free chlorhydric acid, and —— crystallizing from the hot solution. This salt has the ormula : Co,(NH;,),,Cl, +6HgCl, as the following analyses show: 0°5884 gr. gave 0°3922 gr. Hg, Cl,—=56°60 per cent mercury. 0°4409 gr. gave 0°4025 gr. silver *=30-00 oe cent chlorine. ‘< ; gone Found. ercury, 56°4 56°60 Chlorine, 18 30°04 30°00 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. 298 When the chloride of purpureocobalt is in excess, or when the two chlorides are mixed in the proper atomic proportions, another double salt separates in very beautiful violet-colored prismatic crystals, which, like the last mentioned salt, are but slightly soluble in cold water, but are much more soluble in boiling water, and crystallize from the solution on cooling. This salt has the formula Co,(NH,),,Cl,+4HgCl, as the following analyses show: 0°7938 gr. gave 04735 gr. Hg,Cl,=50°65 per cent mercury. 0°3970 gr. gave 0°3771 gr. silver =31'23 per cent chlorine. 0°9752 gr. gave 0°9356 gr. silver —=31°42 per cent chlorine, 1°3600 gr. gave 0°1024 gr. cobalt = 7°52 per cent cobalt. alculated. Found. reury, 4 50°4 50° Chlorine, 14 31°35 81°23 9 3:1°42 Cobalt. 2 be 4 * On Blomstrand’s view the formulas of the two mercury salts may be written : gCl, [ NH,—Cl | NH,—NH,-Cl=HgCl, | | NH,—NH,- Cl=HgCl, G,, | NH; -NH,—Cl=HgCl, gi | NH,—-NH,-Cl=HgCl, °21 NH? _N =Hecl, 2 NH,—NH,-Cl=HgCl, | NH,—-NH.—Cl=HgCl, —« | NH, -NH, —-Cl=HgCl, | NH,—Cl solution of HgCl,Na is added to one of the soluble sulphate _ ri 294 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. sodie hypophosphite, the solution of mercuric salt having the temperature of 40° C. The mercurous chloride was then Antimonio-chloride of purpureocobalt.—A solution of anti- monious chloride added to one of chloride of purpureocobalt gives a precipitate of small, granular, dull violet red crystals. These may be washed with strong chlorhydric acid and’ dried by pressure between folds of porous paper, and afterward at 100° C. ater decomposes it readily, with precipitation of SbOCI. The formula of this salt is Co,(NH,),,Cl,+SbCl,, as appears from the following analyses : 0°8100 gr. gave 0°3402 gr. SO,Co=15-99 per cent cobalt. 0°6500 gr. gave 0°1370 gr SbhO, =16°64 per cent antimony. The formula requires 16-22 per cent cobalt, and 16 49 per cent antimony. Bismuthous chloride gives a lilac-red precipitate in solutions of chloride of purpureocobalt, insoluble in strong chlorhydric aa readily decomposed by water, with precipitation of i “ge Ji Reena moisture, and partly from slight decomposition, _ and believe that the salt is seal auhiydvous: The formula : Co,(NH,),9.0.(CrO,). ; | ; W. Gibbs on the Hexatomie compounds of Cobalt. 295 requires cobalt, 21-99 per cent, and CrO,, 48°32 percent. The formation of the neutral chromate is expressed by the equation : Co,(NH,),5(NOs),+20r0,K,+OH,=Co, (NH) 9-0. (CrO,), 44KNO,+2NO,H. The nitric acid set free dissolves a portion of the chromate forming the dichromate, which remains in solution. When a solution of neutral potassic tungstate, WO,K,, is digested with dry neutral nitrate of purpureocobalt, a pink tungstate of pur- pureocobalt is formed, and the liquid then gives a strong aci reaction with litmus. The reaction is probably the same as that given above for the chromate. Potassic iodide gives a dull red crystalline precipitate with neutral chromate of purpureocobalt in solution. The analyses of this salt led to no definite formula, and the precipitate ap- peared to be a mixture of the chromate described, Co, s)ie O.(CrO,),, and the iodo-chromate, Co, (NH,), o1,(CrO,),- By digesting powdered chloride of purpureocobalt with neutral potassic chromate, Braun obtained a dark brown-red powder, to which he gives the formula Co,(NH,), .(CrO,);- According to the same writer, when powdered chloride of purpureocobalt is added, in small portions at a time, toa concentrated solution of potassic dichromate, a beautiful crystalline powder is formed, which has also the formula Co,(NH,), ,(CrO,)>- In this case chromic acid, CrO,H,, must be set free. When a solution of potassic chromate is added to one of chloride of purpureo- cobalt, the crystalline precipitate formed, according to my obser- vations, always contains chlorine. My analyses led, however, in this case also, to no definite formula, but pointed to a mix- ture of the chromate, Co,(NH,), ,-0.(CrO,)., and the chloro- chromate, Co,(NH,), ,Cl.(CrO,)2- Braun has also described. a salt, to which he gives the formula 9NH,.Co,0,.3CrO, + 2NH,Cl, which I should write Co,(NH, ,(CrO,);+2NH,Cl, but the analyses are incomplete without a determination either of ammonia or of nitrogen rates in small, indistinct erystals of a dark brick red color, = bronze reflections. It is somewhat soluble in cold, and dis- solves readily in boiling, water. Of this salt 0°6031 gr, gave 0°0747 gr. cobalt=12°38 per cent. ee 0°7101 a ies 11252 gr. CrO, Ba=67°71 per cent. (Chromiam= 52°2,) = t: at 0°6295 or. lost. at 105° C., 0°0077 gr. water=1'22 per cen'; 120° C., 0-0118 gr.=1°87 per cent; and at 133° C., 0 0166 gr.=2°64 per cent. 296 W. Gibbs on the Hexatomic compounds of Cobalt. At 183° C. the salt was slightly decomposed. Between 133° and 145° C. it lost 4:46 per cent with partial decomposition. These analyses correspond to the formula Co,(NH,), ,(Cr,0;); +0OH,. Calculated. Found. Cobalt, 2 12°35 12°38 Or50,; 3 6707 2 STF Waiter, 1 1°88 1°87 The salt was dried for two weeks in pleno over sulphuric acid. In preparing nitrate of purpureocobalt by Mr. Mills’ process, a by potassic dichromate, I obtained, besides the nitrate, a large quantity of beautiful orange-red crystalline scales, with g reflections. The crystals were easily purified by recrystalliza- tion. ey are readily soluble in hot water, and crystallize from the solution almost completely on cooling. The formula of this salt is Co,(NH,), ,(Cr,0,),+50H,, as the following analyses show : 0°6366 gr. gave 0°0735 gr. cobalt=11°54 per cent. 0°6447 gr. gave 0°2888 gr. CrO, 63°31 per cent Cr,O,. 071740 gr. gave, up to 139° C., 0°0125 gr. water=7°19 per cent. t 0°0800 gr. gave, up to 145° C., 0°0082 gr. water—=10°25 per cent. ean, 8°72 per cent, In the last water determination the salt was slightly decom- posed. The formula requires Found. Cobalt, 2 11°48 11°54 r,0,, 38 68°20 63°31 Water, 6 8°76 8°72 (mean.) The difference in appearance and in the number of atoms of water of the dichromate of purpureocobalt may possibly arise from the fact that, in one case, a solution of the nitrate of pur- pureocobalt was poured into one of potassic dichromate in ex- cess; in the other, the nitrate was presented to the dichromate as fast as formed—in some sense in the nascent state. But it is singular that the two hydrates are not the same after recrys- tallization. A solution of potassic dichromate gives, with one of chloride of ool ganar adark red crystalline precip! of which pointed to a mixture of Co,(NH;,),o and Co,(NH,), ,.Cl,.(Cr,O,),. I did not succeed in (To be continued.) es J. Lovering—Mathematical and Philosophical State, etc. 297 VI—The Mathematical and Philosophical State of the hysical Sciences; by Prof. Joserpn LovErrne. Presidential Address of Prof. Lovering before the American Association at Hartford, August, 1874. tion to each pened the eye observation to see what might never have been discovered = 9) i i that o: and that dulatory theory of light has shown a wonderful facility of adapta- ‘ 2 i march and obliged to show their credentials. After Fresnel and Young had secured a firm foothold for Huyghens’ theory of light in mechanics and experiment, questions arose which have per- ical sensible difSionse in the prismatic refraction of light, whether tt e earth was nent physicists and mathematicians might be enumerated w have taken part in it. Fresnel’s e lanation has encountered 298 J. Lovering—Mathematical and Philosophical difficulties and objections. Still, it is consistent not only with Arago’s negative result, but with the experiments on diffraction Next we ask, if it is certain that even the motion of the lumi- : € origin; or is the conservation of these elements a0 essential attribute of the luminiferous medium. It has been said Evidently, there is an obscurity in the minds of i and an uncertainty in all, when they reason upon the mechanical _ Constitution of the ether, and the fundamental ae of light. The oe Ss State of the Physical Sciences. 299 cP ence during ten or a hundred vibrations, before it is withdrawn by the motion of translation. his theoretical exposition of the subject should be generally adopted by mathematicians, the spec- troscopic observations on the supposed motion of th must direct vision spectroscope, the two edges of the sun’s equator, one ich was rotating toward him and the other from him, and Vogel has repeated the observation with a reversion-spectroscope. This would have the force of a crucial experiment were it not that an equal displacement was seen on other parallels of latitude, and that the bright bands of the chromosphere were moved, but not the dark lines of the solar atmosphere. hen Voltaire visited England in 1727 he saw at the univer- Sities the effect of Newton’s revolutionary ideas in astronomy. The mechanism of gravitation had exiled the fanciful vortices of Descartes, which were still circulating on the continent. So he wrote: “ A Frenchman who comes to London finds many changes in philosophy as in other things: he left the world full, he finds t empty.” The e comparison might be made now, not so much between nationalities as between successive stages of scien- be was as empty as an exhausted receiver: now it has fi up again. rrence of a vacuum has been resuscitated, though for other reasons than these which satisfied the Aristotelians. It discussing the relative merits of the plenum and the vacuum. Newton, A his third letter to Bentley, wrote in this wise: “ That gravity should be innate, inherent and essential to matter, so that ne body may act upon another at a distance, through a anaes me so great an absurdity, that I believe no man, who has in philo- Sophical matters a competent faculty of thinking, can ever fall 300 J. Lovering—Mathematical and Philosophical All our knowledge of mechanical forces is derived from the con- scious effort we ourselves make in producing motion. As this planets, that the mathematics are neither long-sighted nor short- sighted, and that an explanation which suits other forces is good enough for gravitation. the same direction: he degrades the Newtonian law of attraction into an empirical fact, and exalts the laws of Kepler into neces sary results of our ideas, . Meanwhile, the Newtonian theory of attraction, under the skill- ful generalship of the geometers, went forth on its triumphal march through space, conquering great and small, far and near, until its empire me as universal as its name. The whirlpools of Descartes offered but a feeble resistance, and were finally Se ee rr en aes eT State of the Physical Sciences. 301 was secure in the hands of gravitation, if only space should be kept open, and the dust and cobwebs which Newton had swept from the skies should not reappear. Prophetic eyes contemplated the possibility of an untimely end to the revolution of planets, if their ever-expanding atmospheres should rush in to fill the room vacated by the maelstroms of Descartes. When it was stated that the medium would be too attenuated to produce a sensible check in the headway of planets, and when, in more recent times, splendors of analysis dimmed the eyes of science to the intrinsic difficulties of Newton’s theory, and familiarity with the language of attraction concealed the mystery that was lurking beneath it. the force of gravitation, were sown by a contemporary o ew- great stir in science at the time. The world did not awake to its full significance until the perplexing problem of ocean telegraphs . id e P tific advisers of the cable companies were the first to do justice to Faraday. This is one of the many returns made to theoretical electricity for the support it gave to the most magnificent com- ial enterprise. 302 J. Lovering—Mathematical and Philosophical ] terly work on electricity and magnetism, which appeared in 1873, has built a monument to Faraday, and unconsciously to himself edition of his works. Maxwell objects to the formula of Gauss ¥ because it violates the law of the conservation of energy. Weber's : m as made known in 1846; but it has not escaped the crit- ‘ icism of Helmholtz. It represents faithfully the laws of Amp? | reality and not a mere ratio Of the two volumes of Mr. Max-' well, ga vem with the richest and heaviest cargo, the reviewer says: “Their author has, as it were, flown at everything: and, with immense spread of wing and power of beak, he has hunted down his victims in all quarters, and from each has extracted State of the Physical Sciences. 803 something new and interesting for the intellectual nourishment of his readers.” Clear phys sical views must precede the application ral in their acknowledgments to Faraday. Mr. omson says: “ Faraday, without mathematics, onto the result of the math- ematical investigation; and, w at s proved of infinite value to the mathematicians themselves, he ‘as given them an articulate language in which to express ‘their results, Indeed, the whole language of the magnetic field an es of force is Faraday’ s. It must be said for the or cepa dag hes they greedily accepted it, and — ever since been most zealous in using it to the best advanta It is ace expected that the new views of physics will be gen- erally seis ted without vigorous opposition. A large von of intellectual capital has been honestly invested in the fortunes of the other side. The change is recommended by powerful phaaieal ar ents, and s disenthralls the theories of science ese oe new mathematics will outweigh the superiority of the new physics. e old question, in regard to the nature of gravitation, was never settled: it was simply dropped. Now it is revived with as much earnestness as ever, and with more intelligence. Astronomy ies ical an - tion, that the velocity of the force of gravitation could not be less than eight million times the velocity of light; in fact, that it was infinite. Those who believe in action at a ‘Gatance eannot proper ly speak of the transmission of geavi tation. Simcha can be sant = no other mnicoues, uauee or analysis. It is not that Fai sis and others, who had lost rae faith in 304 J. Lovering—Mathematical and Philosophical Probably Rumford had never seen the paper of Le Sage, published by the Berlin Academy in 1782, in which he expounded hi mechanical theory of gravitation, to which he had devoted sixty- other being mutually screened from this bombardment. It was republished it. He has fitted it out in a fashionable dress, made out of elastic molecules instead of hard atoms, and has satisfied himself that it is consistent with modern thermo-dynamics and a perennial gravitation. us action at a distance a reality, or is gravitation to be explained, as we now believe magnetic and electric forces must be, by action of intervening matter? State of the Physical Sciences. 305 They embody Seas ce reflections of a mathematical al pee at the advanced age of three score years and ten, Cha that there is sufficient evidence for the existence of ether and regarding gravity, or any other force varying ene distance, as an essential quality of matter, because, according to that principle, we must, in seeking for the simplest idea of hese force, have itself, in its quiescent ‘state, must have uniform densit y. t must be coextensive with the vast regions in which material force is displayed. Challis had prepared himself for the elucidation and defence of his pleat age theory by a profound study of the a of motion in e flui Suen the mathematical form which he has poet these laws 3 has attempted to jakin the principal experimental results in light, heat, aida electricity and magnetism. Some may think that Mr. Challis has done ether ps the atom. What e has written is the guide-post pointing the — in which othe is next to travel: but the end of the journey is yet a great way off. The repeated protests of Mr. Challis against the popular physics of the day, and his bold proc roclamation of the native, independent motion of the ether, prevents the free ether, asks the late Sir J ohn Herschel, from onpeneng into Petes space? Mr. ence can follow it, is a riya wi age e ‘source of the mo- Am. Jour. Sci1.—Tuirp slaty Vou. VIII, ee 46,—OcT., 1874. 20 % 306 J. Lovering—Mathematicai and Philosophical our attention: “The explanation of any action between distant bodies by means of a clearly conceivable process, going on in the intervening medium, is an achievement of the highest scientific value. Of all such actions that of gravitation is the most univer- sal and the most mysterious. Whatever theory of the constitu- tion of bodies holds out a prospect of the ultimate explanation of the process by which gravitation is effected, men of science will be found ready to devote the whole remainder of their lives to the development of that theory.” : e hypotheses of Challis and Le Sage have one thing in com- mon; the motion of the ether and the driving storm of atoms must come from outside the world of stars. “On either os 2 is in the sun, When we qualify the conservation of energy by of energy, or of matter itself, would be. rom the earliest dawn of intellectual life, a general theory of the constitution of matter has been a fruitful subject of debate, n i i yond the scope of human intelligence as a creation or annihila- be no t+, Was i around the question, whether matter was not infinitely divisible, and the atomic philosoph oa every new decision on single point there was an appeal, and ————— State of the Physical Sciences. 307 foe seg ing. Of a sudden, the atomic seory be has gained a new ew drama 18 the mnolbatd In all the hal ee sciences, Lopate astronomy, the war r has been carried home to the molecules: the intelleec- foundation of theory and experiment of the so-called conservation of energy, the _ of the correlation of physical forces, is one of the first fruits of molecular mechanics. It is no Qiapuredongan of this discovery, on which was con- centrated the power of severa minds, to call it an sitenntin; tho : in astronomy, wher ae resistance and collision do not inter- fe re. _ The Sonssevintions nergy, in its extended signification, Lagrange accepts them all as results of the known laws of me- chanics and no ot as the essence of the laws of nature. The most that phy sical science can sage is that it possesses no evidence of roved. : be prove is the life of hich = : hess have abandoned it. Its. impo ortance is s lost i in that of the molecular — And what ~ 308 J. Lovering—=State of the Physical Sciences. cule of any substance as the smallest mass of that substance which retains all its chemical properties, we can start with the extensive generalization of Avogadro and Ampére, that the same volume of e as old as Lue s. He saw the magnified ae a of his — esis in the aicees which chase one another in the sunbeam, On of the Bernouillis thought that the pressure of gases might be caused by the incessant impact of these little masses on the vessel which held them. e discovery that heat was a motion and not a substance, foreshadowed by Bacon, made probable by Rumford d Davy, and ri idly y Mayer and Joule when they ob- not compete with it Cla ausius bea the ‘netis cheary of gases by his powerful mathematics, and derived from it the ex- perimental laws of Mariotte, ass ais ac and Charles. By the assumption of data, more or less p ausible, several mathematicians eM succeeded in computing the sizes and the masses of the mole- and some of the elements of their motion, It. should not ers + eae s in relation se the molecules fast certainty which fluid. Helmholtz has demonstrated that such vortices possess 4 perpetuity and - inviolability once thought to be realized only by the eternal atoms. e ring-vortices may hustle one another, and pass Seana endless niger matey “but they cannot broken or stopped. Thomson seized u them as the ge Sage ation of the indestructible but laaiee molecule w ich as looking seh to a u a condition of P deyeleak science. The element of the new physics is not an atom or a congeries of atoms, y but a whirling ¥ vapor. The sulacotes of the same abet one standard pitch and, when in andeseent. emit the same kind 0 The music of the sea re left the heavens and conde- scended to the rhythmic molecules. There is here no birth oF —) or variation of species. other masses than the precige one ch represents the elements have been eliminated, where, asks Maxwell, goer gps gone? The spectroscope does not show them t ros Chemistry and Physics. 309 the phraseology of our mechanics we define matter and force as if they had an independent existence. But we have no con- ception of inert matter or of disembodied force. ot we know shud matter is its pressure and its motion. The old atom had o partly potenti: pt partly kinetic. If it could be aes n that all the phenomena displayed in the physie val vate were simply trans- mutations of the original energy existing in the molecules, phys- ical science would he satisfied. Where physical science ends, sabtiral arama A which is not wholly a aeapee ies our vocab- ulary, begins. Natur bs philosophy can give no ut of energy when disconnected v ith an ever present ‘aialliceane and Will. In Herschel’s bonstet dialogue on nigh ms, after one of the speak- ers had explai all the wonderful exhibition of nature as the work of natural forces, Hermione replies: “ Wonderful, indeed ! Anyhow, they must have not only good memories but astonishing presence of mind, to be always ready to act, and always to act, without mistake, according to the i y laws of their being, in every complication that occurs.’ nd elsewhere, “ Action, with- out will or effort, is to us, peer eee 9 as we are, unrealizable, unknowable, inconceivable. *» ‘The monads of Leibnitz and t e de- mons of Maxwell e express in words the personality implied in every manifestation of force, SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. L CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 1. woxy bori: . the sop gieee 4 8 Professor carte the sch discovered by Cay num retort a mixture of calcium fluoride and boric oxide with sul- submitting it to fractional distillation, however, in a platinum retort, nothing but boron fluoride was evolv ed at 140° and below, and between 160° and 170°, there came over a ing liquid, thick is poin 310 Scventifie Intelligence. nous mass, and in the former the acid remains in solution. From the equation (HBO,.(HE) ,),=HBO,+(HF.BF;),+(H,0), the relation of the old formula to Basarow’s view is shown. repeated distillation from boric oxide, an acid of density 1°712 was obtained from the above mentioned distillates, and analyzed. These results confirm the above suspicion and prove that the flu- oxyboric acid of Gay Lussac and Pieter has no existence. In the course of his research Basarow observed that one c.c. water ab- sorbed at 0° and 762 mm. 1057 ¢.c. boron fluoride.— Bull. Soe. Ch., Il, xxii, 8, July, 1874. G. F. B obtain more definite knowledge upon the subject, Kinezert has studied the question very thoroughly, and has been entirely unable to prove the production of ozone, as asserted. His first ex- . er in lead acetate or manganese sulphate. ‘¢ Chemistry and Physics. 311 The oil itself, even after washing, gave both the starch and the chromic acid tests. On repeating these tests in vacuo, no differ- ence was observed. Hence it appears that oxidized oil of turpen- tine contains, even after washing, a body with the reaetions of hydrogen dioxide. To test this hypothesis, the oil was treated with lead peroxide, manganese peroxide and sodium hyposulphite. All these substances appeared to destroy the active agent, but in a decreasing order. If attached oxygen be the active agent, it . x ust be more stable than ordinary ozone, which is at once fe stroyed by the hyposulphite. Noticing that heat, so far fron destroying the active agent, noone increased it, equal volumes of turpentine oil and water were either reagent. The active principle present can therefore be The author mentions in addition, two ar reactions of thi active turpentine. In the one, the oil converted yellow mercuric oxide into a black powder, losing at the same time its activity. In the other, a mixture of the oil and acidulated water being 8 : G. F. B. 8. Acti the Copper-zine Couple on the Chlorides of Ethy- t Bhaditen TONE a RIBE have continued their the ; tion on ety fons and ethylidene chlorides, which are isomers >. The former had a specific gravity of 1-272 at 14°, and its refractive index for A was 174448, — The latter—prepared from ethyl chloride by the action of chlorine— 1 fo the ethylidene chloride was aay rele < 34°6, that of the ethylene chloride 34°5; theory gives 35. e ] : the boiling temperature. presence of water a z in presence of alcohol the action was more BF 312 Scientific Intelligence. energetic, especially on the ethylidene compound. Five cc. of this substance mixed with twice its volume of absolute alcohol was added to twice the usual quantity of the couple, and the whole heated to 60°-62° for ten hours and then to 80° for three hours more. The volume of gas evolved was 932 ¢.c., the theo- retical yield being 989 c.c. There remained in the flask a viscid liquid, readily soluble in absolute alcohol. From this solution, "water precipitated zinc oxide. The atomic ratio between the Z orme was 1:1°08. This fact, together with the de- portment of the substance to heat, leave little room to doubt that the body is zine chloroethylate a Zn. The evolved gas, except five per cent absorbable by fuming sulphuric acid, was ethyl hydride. The reaction appears, therefore, to be as follows: Re than the production of a second molecule of the chlorethylate. robably, therefore, ethyl chloride is intermediately formed. d stitution of the former to be fixed. It has also completed the list “ ta zine haloid derivatives.—J. Chem. Soc., IL, xii, 615, July, 4, Gre Il GroLtogy anp Natura History. 1. Notes on the new edition of Mr. Darwin’s work on the Struc- ture and Distribution of Coral Reefs (1874); by Jamus D. Daya.* on Coral Reefs. still finds reason to differ from the writer, I think that with i" they deserve. A review of some statements in his work may, therefore, be profitable. I follow the order of his criticisms a8 briefly stated in the first half of his preface. * The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs by Cuartes Darwin, M.A., PRS, F.G.S. Second edition, revised. 263 py ’ tae ith three plates. London, 1874. (Smith, Elder & Co.) Sep Geology and Natural History. 313 I.) The second sentence of the Preface is as follows: “In this work [Dana’s Corals and Coral Islands] he [the author] justly says that I have not laid sufficient weight on the mean tem- perature of the sea in determining the distribution of coral reefs ; but neither a low temperature nor the presence of mud ban accounts, as it appears to me, for the absence of coral reefs through- out certain areas; and we must look to some more recondite cause.” h distribution of coral reefs. In his discussions on the distribution a to the coldness of the currents from the south, but th e ; region referred to. Thus the cause is set aside even for the seas along the Peruvian coast, although the mean winter temperature causes limiting growth and the distribution of reef-making corals and coral reefs, which I have discussed and applied in my work, are seven in number. (1.) Marine temperature. ; (2.) Fresh and impure waters from the entrance of large rivers ; and muddy bottoms. hl (3.) Deposition of sediment borne by rapid tidal currents. s may grow—a commo condition along bold coasts, and often explaining, as I have found, the contrasts between the reef-bordered and open coasts of the Same island. : : (5.) Exposure to the heat of submarine voleanic eruptions (pp. 299-317 ; i i i id for the (6.) The progressing coral-island subsidence too rapid for t polyps to ep the reef well at the surface, if at all (p. 270): which a * 314 _ Seientifie Intelligence. (7.) The direction and temperature of oceanic currents (p. 112): this cause accounting for the non-distribution of central-Pacific species of corals to the Panama coast, and the paucity of species there, with the absence of the large Astrea group and the Madre- ores. On this last point I say in explanation, on page 112: “ Owing to the cold oceanic currents of the eastern border of the Pacific—one of which, that up the South American coast, is so strong and of Panama, is narrowed to 20°, which is 36° less of width than it has in mid-ocean; and this suggests that these currents, by their temperature, as well as by their usual westward direction, have proved an obstacle to the transfer of mid-ocean species to the warm-water species—from the West Indies or Bermudas, east- ward, to western Africa, is impossible. The width of the coral . I did not think to include among the causes a too rapid ei whic account, narrower than it would have been had the land been stationary. But the cause does not appear to me to have very many examples. (IL) The third sentence of the Preface reads thus established, falsify my generalization that voleanos in a state of action are not found within the area of subsidence, whilst they ” sc at a Geology and Natural History. 315 (Sandwich Islands), about which recent eruptions, and partly sub- marine, have taken place on the east, southeast, south and west slopes of the island, or through more than half of its circumference ; Savaii, the largest of the Samoan or Navigator Islands, and the last of the group to become extinct, as its lava streams show; the eastern half of Maui, whose great crater must have been recently in action, while the western half bears the fullest evidence of long extinction; and the northern extremity of the Ladrones. I state reef of even su i islands, as they well might if submarine eruptions were the cause, and I mention examples; thus agreeing with Mr. Darwin’s criti- cism that “the existence of reefs, though scantily developed, and, one part of Hawaii, shows that features, and therefore that which would not have been reache end; the is l coral reefs, while large at the other and with broad reefs. y e their ity of the range ;” and no observations yet made suggest the contrary view. iti ive voleanos are absent from me ; received. As regards the Pacific Ocean, I have found nothing to sustain it. The subsidence of the coral island area of the ocean was one of so vast extent—the breadth 4000 miles, according to 316 Scientific Intelligence. than a stationary condition.. en my work passes to a second edition, I shall make the needed correction. : But | still hold that, while barrier reefs, as Mr. Darwin urges, descriptions of others from a good observer, J. D. Hague, w resided on them several months “for the purpose of studying the character and formation of the deposits” of guano. I found the Vi . . trary, since the coral-islands of the south Pacific diminish in size toward the region of these small islands, and since the region st north an , is free from islands, and since all the features are such as would come to them from a coD- tinuation of the coral island subsj ence to its nearly fatal end, Sage ee Geology and Natural History. 317 I believe still that I was right in considering the ocean bottom in i ave undergone a general subsidence greater than that to the south, southwest and west, where the atolls and barrier reefs are large. Again, if submarine eruptions are destructive, narrow reefs may exist about volcanic islands that are undergoing a subsidence. Making a reef is slow work; and, judging from the eruptions of the present century about Hawaii, reefs would have had a poor chance in the past to form, except along the coasts that were out of reach of the submarine action. ith so many causes for the existence of narrow or fringing reefs, or of small patches of corals, it is assuredly unsafe to make them, without other corroborating testimony, evidence of a sta- tionary condition of a region, or of an elevating movement rather than a subsiding. (iV.) The next point in the Preface is stated as follows: ‘Profesor Dana further believes that many of the lagoon f slightly elevated.” And, in the body of the work, where the sub- e catalogue of such elevations which ive—after a dozen pages devoted to a discussion of the evidence respecting each—is as 1ollows: Paumotu Archipelago, --.--- Honden, 2 or 3 - RE Se a Cleemont Tonnerre, 2. SS -- ae ee 2or3 . Be ae Nairsa or Dean’s, 6 - We kame Elizabe 80 vier cole aoe tS: Metia or Aurora, 250 chee ee ee oe Ducie’s, - 1 or 2? Tahitian Group, .....-...--. Tahiti, “ OR oe oe ie eet labola, ge eee ee Se ; Hervey and R Atiu, — 12 eo — Wank icc aa ea uaa somewhat elevated = we ‘“ Miter, 00 aes “ “% “ ii3 “cs “ angaia, paUB a eae 300 “i “ “ “ Rurutu, 2 as 150 is “ “ fot Tele 5 605s Tongan Grou ac Dice 300? : EES u, 50 to 60 : i cawnnees Namuka and the Hapaii, --..------- 25 Li3 é : me 100 Island, 100 Samoan or Navigator Islands, --.-- 0 North of Samoa, _.__..._.- Swain’s, 2or3 Og 6 , or Bowditch, .....-..----- OM @ os cc, Oxbate, or Dube of York's, 2.4.1. 2or3 318 . Scientific Intelligence. Scattered Equatorial Islands, Washington, 2 or 3? a3 “ ‘“c Christm Liaoys ? “ “ “ J: is’s, = 8 or 10 5 “bd bie Malden’s - 25 or 30 = ck ts Starbuck’s “i “ J “ Penr ’s, 35 i -: q Flint’s i Staver's, Daipess Pano aed peter ate 4“ “c “ - aker’s. 5 or 6 ts uc “ Howlar 1d’s. ? “ 2 . Phoenix and McKean’s, 0 “ “ sc sopra 8, 2 or 3? iT “ “ Newmar ket, 6 or 8? a - ¢ Gardner’s, Hull’s, Sydney, Birnie’ see = 0? Feejee Islands, ......._.__. Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, Oval 5 or 6? Eastern Islan 0? North of Feejees, --.._..... Horne, Wallis, Ellice, Depeyster, -__- 0? Sandwi ich Islan PAR CLs eS Kauai, - lor LD aan Dae Gel, 25 or 30 a ee are 1 a Ag 3 acne ay oS Loe i Gilbert Eo | A coats r OO NES i a Ne ook Kuria, Maiana and Tarawa, 3 or more. ‘“ Oi ets Kaliae 2, Apamam ama, ___. 5 « Rie Seu apenas as Apaiang or Charlotte 6 or7 = peat ie eae Reo Yai Mar. pase 3 or more “ pas Eee Nig ahaa a M Sg), Maas stom Carolineg. i re as McAskill’s, __ 60 Pigment eeLe Goan; =. ccc), 600 a ea a arene 600 Hho Iu eeoneedeskh hw ewes ac 3. 90 EOWA cecccas 0? New 1 Hebrides. New Caledonia, Salomon Islands, ____ ascertained the cases of elevation here included, in only two are shells of Tridacnas alluded to; these are Honden Island and Clermont Tonnerre, in the Paumotus. It is not necessary to go over the evidence for the several cases, as it is stated at length in my work, Mr. n p. 176, and. discus the facts as regards the Samoa ibsideaes a a iter mibedonne like the elevations under ¢ sideration. But in fact my statement is in a chapter on the eneral coral-island wsuatarapes and, on the page there referred to . 326), I cite Mr. Darwin’s conclusions as to the Gambier Island subsidence, and put with it ay own from the width of the reefs In conchsion, if I differ widely, for the reasons cae stated, Mr, 1 » 48 to the limits of the areas of subsidence and elevation in the Pacific, and believe that the new edition of his. work _— little appreciation of some of the most ip aes causes that have limited the distribution of coral reefs, I have, as Be te 0 ae bs ee Geology and Natural History. 319 I say in my work, the fullest satisfaction in his theory for the origin of atoll and barrier forms of reefs, and in the array of facts of his own observation which illustrate the growth of coral for- mations. 2. The Mi ennatosbeal and Geological COneree of the late Dr. Gerard Troost, formerly of Nashville, Tenn., have been pashan’ for the sum of $20,000 by the Trustees of ‘the Public Library in the city of Louisv “ile, Ky. Dr. Troost’s well known cabinets, the fruits of more than forty years of industriows Pega eee 13,582 specimens in m ogy, 2 8, bet 2 000 and 3,000 rock specimens, hoses a Srnitanaele: vollection of modern shells and some archeological specimens. € miner- alogical collection is catalogued gee: minutely described in two large manuscript volumes, 3. Mineralojical Co tian: of G. vom Rath, of ee No. xiii. (Pogg. Ann., clii, 1874.)—This new num umber of V Rath’s mineralogical papers "contains notes on the crystallization of Tridymite; on a crystal of calcite from the amygdaloid of the Lake Superior region; a peculiar twinning of rutile and hematite ; represent remarkable twins of the s cies trid nite The new zeolite , Foresite, is orthorhombic, and — stilbite in form, with. a very” distinct, pearly cleavage para o +i, ctahe dral faces on the summit make an oo of about reg with 7% and 132° with 0. a 4, ae Annual bart of the » Ga tegion: Survey of Indiana, made during the year 1873; by E. T. Co ed State Geologist ; assisted by Professor Joun CouLETT, Profe ‘ ORD and Dr. G. M. Leverre. 494 pp. Svo, ae four maps.—Thi Volume opens with a Report on the Vienna Exposition of 1873, to which Mr. Cox was Commissioner from Indiana and a chapter on Spiegeleisen Manufacturing by artmann. After these follows the Geological Report, in which the es of several of the counties of the State is described, and information is Leaven a various mineral produ cts of economical importance, — anal te 28 of iron ores, ae nas and hydraulic cement rocks. ic Fossils. Vol. Ul, Parti. By E. Brirrnes, F.G.S., ees of the ree Survey of Lesedn under ALFRED C. Setwyn, Director. 4 pp. 8vo, with 9 eheoemphtc plates of figures of fossils. —Mr. Billings continues in this volume the pub- lication of his very valuable paleontological labors connected with the Geological Survey of Canada. It treats of fossils of the Gaspé Series of rocks (which are Upper Silurian and Devonian in age) ; 820 Scientific Intelligence. 6. Kevision of the Genera and Species of the Tulipee ; by J. G. Baxer, F.L.S. Jour. Linn. Society, 14, no. 76, July, 1874.—This spect recedes from the typical Liliacea, as I intend to explain more ro et we find it nowhere explained how there can be any more typical Liliaceew than Lilium itself and its nearest allies. As might be expected, he is “now quite satisfied” that Liliacee and Colchicacew are not to be ordinally separated, by considerations drawn from the Liliaceous side,—a conclusion which study of the Melanthaceous and other genera will be likely to confirm. with three appended varieties, one of which, Bourgei, from Lake Winnipeg, needs further looking to, being far out of range; Kellogg’s Bloomerianum is referred. Of the ten subgenera of Fritillaria, six have tunicated bulbs and belong to the Old World—with one exception, if we follow Mr. Baker. For he refers to his third subgenus our Ame Ff. ica (Lilium? pudicu nd Amblirion pudicum Raf.), and accordingly gives to that coated-bulb subgenus esque’s name, Amblirion. as really verified this ‘ h character in our pretty little species, all is well; but the bulb certainly appears to have the same structure as the other Ameri- ; : i : : : ES et Se ee ee Seeley hy re Geology and Natural — 321 its small flowers as well as for the remoteness of the ne fe Sane After what has been done for Calochortus by Mr aa in this country and Mr. Baker in England, we may soon hope to under- stand this attractive but still difficult genus. The section Cyclo- bothra, ak aed es uf wine species, with fibrose-tunicated ulbs and n w pods, northern ones before referred to it constitute Hake 8 Se ction “Mason: ; and he distributes Calo- elaboration of Lilia A. G. 7. Asexual Groth ge the Prothallus of Pteris Cretica.—D Farlow’s Pe Nani eta last spring in the 10th volume of the een reprin eons (14th) volume of the Jo nal of Microscopical Science, with a few additions “at pi author. The are neatly reproduced in two plate The correction ceedings vol. 10, is not _. The author of the e paper has now promise. Other secre have been more or less used; - we were not aware of the employment of Zizania. The British market is to be supplied sete ma Ue Canada (Ontario), oy a company organized ye the p 9. Botany of S. Pacific Beploring Expedition under Admiral Witkes.—More than a dozen years ago, the Library Committee of Congress began the printing - of the 17th volume of the results of the Am. Jour. Sc1.—THiRrpD —* ‘ou. VIII, No. 46.—Oct., 1874. A 322 Miscellaneous Intelligence. rtlo next to be mentioned, and distributed them so as to make them generally known among botanists. A year and a half ago, shortly before the lamented death of Dr. Torrey, the MSS. of his report on the Phenogamous plants of our Pacific coast was called for As it 4 ° 5 et sd ® mM pS) B = be | = a oO ° ao ct be) ~ =) oO foe <<) << fe) oO = io) =) o if 71 =) ct a las) P s Boe © same volume, but of which the letter-press was made up in double he government copies of the volume, only one hundred in number, are not to be had having been all pre- sented to foreign co A, G. > urts and State authorities. Ill. MiscenLaNneous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE. Colorado, one of the best places in the country for practical in- . struc ; ALLETT, JR., is Dean of the Faculty and 1- | structs in Theoretical Engineering; E. BERTHOUD 1 g and Geology ; k, in Theoretical and Practt | | : numerous woodcuts are unusually good, and, with few exceptions, are from drawings by the author. ; eich <— Pniied Miscellaneous Intelligence. 323 4. Half Hours with Insects.—Prof. A. 8. Packard, Jr., is con- tinuing his chapters on Insects, in the ae Recreations in Natural History of Estes & Lauriat. The third part (out of the twelve to be issued) treats of the Relations - Insects to Man. the meeting will be found in Na uing, commencin with No. 251, August 20th, — cjulans Prof. Tyndall’s aden: ands Manual of Geo ogy.—An engraver’s mistake which In the map of England on page should be 9, and 9 shou be 8. It will be made right eee ote again OBITUARY. . Death of Prof. Jarrrizs Wyman.—This most estimable man and most excellent Giativalat-fantle princeps of American com- parative pirgtmg 0 peg uddenly at Bethlehem, N. H., on the the age. He was graduate ed at Harvard University in 1833, Anok his medical degree in 1837, pursued his medical, and especially anatomical and ON ‘studies at Paris for two ears, when returning to Boston, he was for a few years curator of the ‘Lowell Tastitute. Hens re delivered two courses of lectures on compara- medical school in Boston. an’s position secured to him a good opportunity for prosecuting his arches, and for uilding u e museum omparative anatomy—the objects which he had most but only a slender salary. After citizen of Boston, who recognized Prof. Wyman’s great value to the university and to science, and who stipulated that the income of his endowment should be paid to Prof. Wyman throughout his — whether he held the professorial chair or not. e lled ts du ties most acceptably, down to a recent sated: when his state d of work. When the Peabody Museum of he aaa Arche- ology and Ethnology was established, the founder made Prof. Wyman one of his trustees, and the board committed the incipient 324 Miscellaneous Intelligence. . Arranged by his own unaided hands, it bears throughout the impress of his untiring and conscientious labor, scrupulous accuracy, and orderly and sagacious mind. We cannot here undertake to recount his written contributions to science. ey are mainly contained in the Journal and Pro- than they are must be attributed, partly to the insidious disease nated his most use and honorable career. He leaves two . daughters, children of his first wife, and a youthful son by his ‘ second wife, who did not long survive the birth. A. G : Third Report of the Meteorological Office of the Dominion of Canada, for the 2 fiscal year ending June 30th, 1873; by G. T. Kin ton, M. A., Superintendent. ae for the determinatio Astronomical Coordinates of t Sta- tions at Cheyenne, Wyoming Territory, and Colorado Springs, Colorado Territory, made during the years 1872 and 1873: Geographical and Geological Explorations and Surveys west of the Hundredth Meridi n; First Lieut. G. M. WHEELER, Corps of Engineers, in charge. Dr. J. Kampr and J. H. CLARK, civilian, astronomical i 1874 pp. 4te. Wai gton, : Psyche. Organ of the Cambridge Entomological Club. Vol. i, No.1. 4 pages 8vo. Cambridge, Mass., May, 1874. B. Pickmann Mann, Editor.—This first num- ber of Psyche contains a prospectus, a list of the English names of butterflies, the titles of a few recent works, a brief note on the discovery of a specimen of Herti, and another announcing that Hentz’s papers on spiders are to See rome by the Boston Society of Natural History, and AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, [THIRD SERIES] Art. XXVIL—On the Number and Distribution of the Bright Fixed Stars ; by B. A. GOULD. ' (Read before the American Association for the Adv. of Science, Aug. 17, 1874.) THE magnificent work of Argelander entitled “ Durchmus- terung des nordlichen Himmels,” is w own to lovers of astronomy. His problem was no less than the formation of a complete list of all the stars of the northern hemisphere to the ninth magnitude inclusive, together with as many as possi- ble of the 9-10 magnitude. The undertaking was successfully carried out, affording not only an exhaustive series of charts, but likewise a “ working-list,” which an association of northern observatories is now employing for the determination of the accurate positions of the 815,000 stars which it contains. It furthermore records the aspect of the visible heavens, at the time, with an accuracy amply sufficient for all purposes whic do not require minute precision. : In this work, the magnitude of each star was estimated to the nearest half unit as it passed through the field of view; and since all the stars were observed more than once, and most of them several times, the mean of the several estimates was taken and is given in the published catalogue to the nearest tenth of a unit. In 1869 Professor Littrow of Vienna made a careful enumeration of the number thus given for each degree of magnitude, in order to ascertain’ how far the results would Indicate an approximate uniformity of distribution for the stars — lying within the portion of space under consideration. Am. Jour. Scr.—Tutrp Series, Vou. VIII, No. 47.—Nov., 1874. 21 826 B. A. Gould—Number and Distribution Could we assume, Ist, that, in general, the apparent bright- ness of a star depends upon its distance from us, all being of the same order of intrinsic brilliancy, and 2dly, that stars are dis- tributed through space with approximate uniformity, the total number visible, down to any given magnitude, would be pro- portional to the contents of the sphere within which stars of this magnitude are contained. Thus the degree of approxima- tion to the truth, which is fairly attributable to the hypothesis mentioned, may be inferred from the degree of accordance which can be obtained between two series of numbers, the one the same ratio for different degrees of brightness, and other ing from this inquiry, to regions outside of the distance of 9th magnitude stars. H'rdm a discussion of the numbers given by the Durchmusterung as far as the 8th magnitude, assorte according to whole units, he obtains the value 0423 as the b comprising all stars to the 8th magnitude inclusive, he obtains ] 1. Each of these computations gives, for the _ average distance of a star of the 9th magnitude, about 26 times that of the most distant first magnitude star. :) of the bright Fixed Stars, 327 _ The discordances between the numbers obtained by enumera- tion from the Durchmusterung and the empirical values deduced from Professor Littrow’s formula, vary satisfactorily in sign ; Zm=0°6098 (8:5295)™. To these I add the values corresponding to another formula, which I have deduced for the purpose of giving a somewhat better representation to the stars brighter than the 3} magni- tude. In this the light-ratio for each magnitude is 0-4523 and the number of stars comprised in the half-magnitude m is Zm=1:0691 (3:2878)". The residuals appended to each of the empirical series repre- sent the excess of the computed numbers over the observed ones, expressed in hundredths of the former. Stars OF THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE. According to the Durchmusterung. Mag. | Counted, yg orahar ty Difference. Pen A Difference. 6 3 54 — 14 4 4 64 | +38 2 22 12 —90 24 12 14 +14 21 +43 3 5 27 —89 38 — 3¢ 60 50 | —20 69 | +413 4 128 _ 125 +2 44 140 178 | +21 232 | +40 5 379 —13 411 tf 54 463 628 +26 745 +37 6 1242 1179 — 5 1350 — 8 64 2231 2215 —1 2 +9 7 4608 4161 —Il 1 — 3 "4 7817 +12 52 | +14 8 14525 14686 1 14600 cs sae | 84 28486 27590 —2 26474 — 8 9 78185 51830 The marked defect of the computed numbers for stars of the %th magnitude has led me to include the several values for this magnitude in the table, although they were intentionally Omitted in deducing the formulas. I do not think that any . 328 B. A. Gould—Number and Distribution expressions of the form ab” can be found which will represent all the values to the 8! magnitude inclusive, with an essentially better accordance. The numerical values of the residuals 18 times, that of a star of the first magnitude. he Uranometria Nova of Argelander, which gives the care- fully observed magnitudes of all the stars which he could dis- tinguish with the naked eye, afforded the standard for the magnitudes of the Durchmusterung ; yet the first glance makes manifest large discrepancies between the rapidly made estimates in the latter work and the sharp determinations of the former. The recently published revision and extension of the Uranome- tria by Professor Heis of Aachen, assigns the magnitude to the nearest third of a unit for every star which he could discern, the lowest being 64, or one-third of a magnitude fainter than Argelander’s inferior limit. The far greater precision of these determinations would give a more trustworthy basis for our inquiries than the Durchmusterung affords, were the numbers large enough to eliminate such irregularities as may justly be treated as accidental ; but this seems not to be the case. The completion of our Argentine Uranometry now augments the number of accurately determined stars, and renders it possl- ble to assign the actual magnitudes for all stars throughout the heavens which are easily visible to the naked eye. I have taken much pains to secure an accordance between the adopte scale of magnitudes and that employed by Argelander in his Uranometry, and regard it as unlikely that the probable error of our individual magnitudes exceeds one-tenth of a unit. 50 does Heis seem to have omitted no efforts for securing a0 accordance of his work with the same standard, and it is im- probable that any essential error can exist in these estimates, : aoe as they are by an astronomer of exceptional keenness 0 of the bright Fixed Stars. 329 It is thus easy to ascertain the total number of stars in the firmament for each grade of magnitude within Heis’s limits. The results are especially trustworthy, since every individual magnitude has been determined by careful and repeated com- parisons with established standards and the same scale; an there now arises the interesting question, how far the accurate numbers given by the two Uranometries, for stars as bright as the 6th magnitude throughout the entire heavens, would agree with the rougher estimates of a number of stars eleven times greater, but ‘Situated in the northern hemisphere only and including the 81 magnitude have therefore devoted some labor to the independent determination of a formula which should represent as well as possible the results derived from the Uranometries alone, upon the hypothesis already stated. The best value which I have been able to deduce for the constant ratio of the light of stars of successive magnitudes is 0°4988, the degree of accordance of which with observation upon our fundamental assumptions may be inferred from the appended table, which gives the number of stars for each half unit of magnitude, as deduced from the Uranometries, and from the formula Zim=8'2384 (80184), together with the peer oh coda tarot as in the preceding table. Those stars of r Heis’s Uranometry which are oie for the fractional shins ¢ of. a magnitude, are combined to form the numbers for the fractional halves in our table; a eee procedure, but the only practical one under the circum- s NuMBER OF STaRs IN THE HEAVENS. Uranometries. ' Mag. Formula. Difference. N 8 Total 1 . 6 14 153 | +10 14 7 4 cB LT +35 2 25 20 45 395 —53 24 35 33 68 51 SS 3 55 41 96 9 — 8 34 103 87 190 155 — 33 4 133 108 240 269 +18 44 254 154 408 467 4-17 5 392 240 632 811 +22 5} 563 | 1259 || 1409 +16 6 1374 1075 449 ' 0 64 fee 2022 ener e566} cS 7 ease 3317 pe een 7392 Sona The formula Various — 8 suggested by this table. corresponding to ou theses differs greatly from the former ones, both in the fo} es and the ratio. The degree of 830 B. A. Gould—Number and Distribution accordance is not such as to warrant any great faith in the correctness of our assumptions, yet a certain approximation in the numbers cannot be denied, extending apparently as far as the 8th magnitude, if we assume the numbers of the Durch- for any of those rough estimates which are needed in cosmo- logical inquiries regarding these numbers. As soon as We have extended our researches to that distance at which the agglomeration of stars in the Milky Way begins to be appecia- ble, all further inquiries of this character are futile, and it star-gauges in the poorest regions of the sky, he fixes upon a magnitude not far from 11! as indicating the outer limit of this equable distribution, and thus assigns 4: millions as the proba- ble number of stars within this limit. To me neither premise appears very tenable. If the influence of the Milky Way is not appreciable even for stars of the 9th magnitude, then the num- ber of stars at a less distance than the limit of galactic agglome- ration Is not even approximately conformable to geometric pro- gression ; so that these inferences from the star-gauges must be illusory. The rapid increase in the number of stars after pass- ing the 9th magnitude may be partially accounted for by the difficulty of estimating magnitudes correctly, near the inferior of the bright Fixed Stars. 331 we fail to obtain an adequate value for the stars beyond 9 and 9:. We may reproduce the numbers which the Uranometries give for the 6th magnitude and the Durchmusterung for the 9th, by means of a series which doubles the number of stars for each successive half-magnitude; yet even this, when ex- tended to stars of the 94 magnitude, would assign to the entire heavens a less number than the Durchmusterung gives for the northern hemisphere alone. I attribute, however, to this last consideration comparatively little weight, for the reason already indicated. In the second column of the annexed table, the number of northern stars corresponding to each half-magnitude is repro- duced, being taken from Heis’s Uranometry for magnitudes up to the 6th inclusive, and from the Durchmusterung for higher ones. The last line, however, is not for the full half-magni- i e y-7, not being contained in Argelander’s work. The third column contains the numbers from the Uranometria Argentina, and the fourth the corresponding ones for the entire heavens, being the sum of the two preceding as as result from the simple hypothesis that the number of stars doubles for each successive half-magnitude appien to the observed number of the 6th magnitude. Simple as it is, this series presents less violent discordances than any of the others which I have deduced, for magnitudes above the 4th. For stars Tota NUMBER OF STARS. Mag. WN. 8. Total. Formula. 1 8 6 14 4 1} 5 4 11 5 2 35 20 10 24 25 33 19 3 41 96 38 34 103 87 190 76 4 132 108 240 153 4t 54 54 408 306 5 392 240 632 612 5} 696 563 1259 1224 6 1374 1075 2449 64 2231 2022 4253 4898 4" 3317 7 9796 ves 6878 ee 137 19592 8 14525 eats 29050 39184 8} 28486 tes 56972 78368 9 78185 ae 156370 156736 | 177505 PORE 355010 161660 332 | B. A. Gould—Number and Distribution brighter than these, the discordances, although relatively enor- . mous, are intrinsically small. The total number of all stars to bright as the 9th inclusive thus appears less improbable, if we may suppose some 360 additional stars to be situated in our immediate vicinity. Tn this connection I desire to mention a fact which early at- Way approaches most nearly to the poles. The inclination of to the Milky Way is about 25°, the Pleiades occu- ying a position midway between the nodes, : _ A considerable portion of the bright stars of our firmament 1s this zone or stream, or in its immediate vicinity- of the bright Fixed Stars. 333 _ These stars, or, more strictly speaking, this excess of stars, 1 in question, must be deducted from our total Tough ones of the Durchmusterung are by no means discord- ant, and that the distribution of the fixed stars, up to the 9th Magnitude inclusive, is not merely tolerably uniform but ap- proximately such that the number of stars doubles for each successive half-magnitude. The distance corresponding to the 9th magnitude is from thirty-two to forty times that of the faint- est firs itude star; and the light-ratio between stars differ- ing by a single magnitude becomes 0°3968. This is very close to the ratio 0-4, which photometric researches have seemed to Indicate as best expressing the actually existing scale, and which 1s the value usually ace . Did we adopt precisely this ratio, we should find 315 as the total number of stars as bright as the th magnitude, being only ten more than was given by the value just considered, while the computed numbers for all other magnitudes below the ninth would be brought somewhat nearer 334 FE. H. Bogardus—Deportment of Titanium to the observed ones, and for the 9th magnitude itself would be 151,260. The phenomena and numerical relations to which I have re- rerred in this paper seem of considerable importance in their bearing upon the position of our sun in its cluster, the form of that cluster, and the scale of distances between its constituent stars. Art. XXVITI.—The Deportment of Titanium with reagents in Iron Ores containing Phosphoric Acid; by E. H. Bocarpus. (Read before the Natural History Society of Rutger’s College, New Brunswick, N. J., April 9, 1874.) stances. Sulphur, of course, separated in proportion to the iron reduced, and was removed by filtration. e liquid was now boiled, and as it remained clear, even after long heating; the absence of titanium might have been reg: demon- strated. The examination, however, did not stop here: it was decided to test the sulphur remaining on the filter. On burn- ing this precipitate a residue was obtained amounting to nearly Six centigrams, although but a gram of ore s in Iron Ores containing Phosphoric acid. 335 taken for the examination. As sulphur would have been vaporized by the heat, the burning, of course, proved the pres- ence of some other body. As the absence of zinc and the members of the fifth and sixth groups had been proved, the only elements supposed to be precipitable by sulphuretted hydrogen under the existing conditions, the supposition was that a mistake had occurred. The experiment was, therefore, repeated and with identical results. As it now seemed certain that sulphuretted hydrogen had caused a precipitate, the next step base was to determine its character. The substance was white both before and after heating, and resembled closely sul- phide of zine. After burning, it held no sulphur. e absence of color and sulphur would alone have seemed sufficient proof of the absence of the fifth and sixth groups, without the con- curring evidence as afforded by the previous regular qualita- tive tests. But since it could not be denied that a substance 336 E.. H. Bogardus—Deportment of Titanium, ete. added in excess, and then acetic acid in large quantity. On passing sulphuretted hydrogen a white precipitate was again obtained. This experiment was repeated several times with identical results, proving that the substance would form ina solution holding free acetic acid. The precipitate was again subjected to a qualitative examination and this time with suc- cess. Previously no search had been made for acids: it was now decided to test for them. Phosphoric acid was soon potash and digested in water. . dissolved and was detected with molybdate of ammonia. The nearly white residue was proved to be a mixture of titanium and iron. ne-half yram of the ore was mixed with an kg weight of an ore holding a large quantity of titanium. Spe eae This experiment was followed by the regular tests or titanium, and its presence was soon demonstrated. Rutile ash and digestion in water, sulphuretted hydrogen gave a pre- cipitate as in the previous trials. As it now seemed proved tate was obtained in every instance with sulphuretted hyar gen. In one case the phosphate of soda was dissolved im water and added to the fused rutile and ore. Rutile was now in bisulphate of potash and digested in water ; after fil- phosphorie acid led to the thought that possibly it might be AM ois as an agent in the quantitative separation of he phosphorus in iron ores. No experiments were made with @ view to the settlement of this question. In all the co-precipita- tions of titanium and phosphoric acid, the latter was present 12 i tk | bri review over the ground we have traversed, and endeavor to see what light has been thrown upon the properties of titanium and whether the method of its detection, by fusion with bisul- phate of potash, as given in books, is all that could be desired, and whether it could not occasionally mislead the analyst. First, the properties of titanium. It was found that it would not precipitate readily in an acid solution on boiling. Phos- Arr. XXIX.— Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale College. No. XXXI.—Eaperiments on the Decay of Nitrogen- ous Organic Substances; by H. P. ARMSBY, Ph.B. It has been shown by the investigations of Mulder (Chemis- element. This increase has generally been attributed to the Oxidation of free nitrogen to nitrous or nitric aci 8388 H. P. Armsby—Decay of Nitrogenous organic substances, and carefully purified. It still contained traces of oxygen. ith the exception of the atmosphere, the conditions of cor- of dried and pulverized flesh. The mixture contained 2°11 per cent of sae The following were the materials and quanti- ties used : Org. matter. Gypsum. Potash(KOH) Water. Total Nitrogen. ed. 28 Or 6 c.c. 0°486 grms. ee See! ee 0°798 grms. 0-486“ Ly, & 15 “ 15 grms, 6c.c. 0486 “ ede 0°798 grms. 0-486 “ Be Re ae Bec. 0-453 “ LUD Be | OP eee 0°798 grms, 0-453“ oe. 46.%: pre Bcc. 0453 “ —s i ©. ip fe 0°798 grms. 0-453 “ The potash was from a standard solution, of which 7 ¢.c. were used in each experiment, equivalent to about 6 c.c. of water- The mixtures were made moist but not coherent. All the in- omnes materials used were free from combined nitrogen. _ The first set (I.) was begun March 9th, the second (II.) March _ Bist, the per cent of nitrogen in the organic matter having de . 3 ; : 4 a 4 : H. P. Armsby—Decay of Nitrogenous organic substances. 339 precautions, and analyzed for nitrogen and ammonia. The nitrogen was determined by combustion with soda-lime and titration, the ammonia by boiling with magnesia and titration of the distillate. No ammonia was found in the standard acid in the U-tubes. The following are the results calculated on the whole quantity used : Gain (+) or loss (—) of G’in of ammo- nitrogen * nia expressed Materials. Weight. Sed cent, | 48 nitrogen. . Organic matter alone, —0°054 |—11:11) 0°0118 ] 2. Organic matter and potash, +0°074 +415°22) 0°0301 3. i and gypsum, —0°0302/— 6°21) 0°1651 4, Org. matter, potash and gypsum, |—0°063 |—13°09) 0°0907 1, Organic matter, +0°0067-+ 1°48) 00614 2. Organic matter and potash, +0°0876'4+19°34) 0°0255 3.,Organic matter : ‘ —0°0052,— 1°14) 0°0784 4, Org. matter, potash, and gypsum, |—0°0088|\— 1°94, 0°0479 I T 13 By an inspection of this table we see: 1st. That with the exception of I 2 and IL 2, there is a loss of nitrogen in every case (the slight gain in II. 1 being within the errors of experiment. 2d. That this loss is very much less in the second set of ex- periments, where only traces of oxygen were presen his result agrees with those of Lawes, Gilbert, and Pugh (Phil. Trans., 1865, ii, p. 509), and goes to show that the loss of nitrogen is caused by a process of oxidation. The effect of the gypsum seems to be to hinder the action. There seems to be no obvious relation between the circumstances of the experi- ments and the amount of ammonia formed. absence of free oxygen, appears to show that nitrification is not the only means by which the nitrogen content of organic mat- ter may be increased, and this conclusion is supported by the results of Dehérain already referred to. * Including that of the ammonia. 340 FF. W. Clark—Molecular Heat of Similar Compounds. It has been proved by Will (Ann. Chem. Pharm., xlv, 106) that ammonia is not formed by the union of free nitrogen with nascent hydrogen; hence the gain of nitrogen in the experi- ments described above is not due to that reaction with the nas- cent hydrogen produced in decomposition. ; We must then conclude that decaying organic substances, in the presence of caustic alkali, are able to fix free nitrogen without the gain being manifest as nitric acid or ammonia, and probably without the formation of these bodies. In conclusion, I wish to express my obligations to Prof. 8. W- Johnson, at whose suggestion these experiments were under- taken, for the use of materials and apparatus, and for many valuable suggestions in regard to the conduct of the experl- ments. Art. XXX.—On the Molecular Heat of Similar Compounds ; y Frank WiaGLesworto Cuarkz, §.B., Professor of hemistry and Physics in the University of Cincinnati. It is commonly stated in the text-books of physics that sim! lar compounds byes ual molecular heats. Thus, for the chlorides of the general formula MCI, the product of the specific heat into the atomic weight gives approximately a single value. But the equality, under ordinary circumstances, is only ap- proximate, as a few examples will show. Taking the chlorides of the alkaline metals, we have the following good determinations of specific heat: LiCl, ‘28213; F. W. Clark—Molecular Heat of Similar Compounds. 841 NaCl, 21401; KCl, ‘17295—all by Regnault; RbCl, 112, Kopp. From these, multiplying by the atomic weights, we get the following molecular heats: LiCl, 11°99. NaCl, 12°52 Cl, 12°88. RbCl, 13°54 Here we have a gradual increase, accompanying an increase m the atomic weights. A similar increase is found in Kopp’s Avogadro’s and Neumann’s determinations for NaCl and Cl, KCl, 12°88, KBr, 13°47. KI 13°60. Again there is a slight increase accompanying the rise in atomic weight. The chloride, bromide, and iodide of silver, and the same series for lead, illustrate this still farther, although it is not worth while to cite the figures here. For sodium, starting with the fluoride, we have about the same thing, only the bromide proving, perhaps, an exception. But since only one determination of the specific heat of the bromide has ever been published, it is likely that even this compound may be brought into line Wo series of oxides are very perfect, as follows: As,O,, 12786; Sb,O,, 09009; Bi,O,, ‘06053; all by Regnault. SiO, (quartz), 186; TiO, (rutile), -157; SnO, (tinstone), 0894; all by K These determinations give us the follow- ing molecular heats: 3 : As,O,, 5°31. SiO, i Sb,0,, _ 26°31. U5: 12°37, Bi,O,,.. 28°3 SnO, 13°40. 3. If, instead of single determinations, we take the mean of all series of compounds. Exceptions (even seeming exceptions) Am. Jour, Sco1.—Tuirp Serres, VOL. VIII, No. 47.—Nov., 1874. 22 CaCO, 21°09 ae 21°34 BaCO,, 21°49 PbCO,, 21°91. The same regularity holds if, instead of taking an average of all, we take simply Regnault’s or Kopp’s determinations alone. The fact that the molecular heat increases with the atomic weight holds good for liquids as well as for solids, and is here even more striking. Three series will serve my purpose in this connection. For the specific heats themselves I will refer tables of specific heat soon to be published by the Smithsonian Institution, merely stating that I have used Reg- nault’s determinations for all the substances except CCl,, for which Hirn’s value has been employed. Cl,,; 31°91 SiCl,, 32°42 = 35°25 SnCl,, 87°15 rULs 9 Fee C,H,Br, 23°44. AsCl,, 31°95. C,H,I, 24°58. It may then be stated as a general rule, to which the present evidence offers only a few exceptions, that in any definite series of similar solid or liquid compounds the molecular heat increases with the atomic weight, although in a very different ratio. I have tried to establish a similar relation among the elements, but thus far without success. The results here are extremely dis- coraant. Now what is the meaning of this regularity? Is Dulong and Petit’s law set aside by it? Speaking for solid substances alone, I should answer, certainly not. ‘The divergencies from equality are easily explained. ‘The specific heat of a substance varies with the temperature, generally increasing as the te ure rises. But the rate of increase is very different for ifferent bodies. The specific heat of carbon increases veTy rapidly, that of platinum with extreme slowness. So, then, in a a i W. Ferrel—Relation between the Barometric Gradient, etc. 348 order to demonstrate Dulong and Petit’s law, we must compare specific heats taken not at the same temperature, but at corres- ponding temperatures. This gradual increase to whic have called attention seems, then, to indicate a regularity in these cor- responding temperatures, rather than an irregularity in Dulong and Petit’s law. Taking our series of alkaline chlorides as an example, we may fairly suppose that their melting points (which have not been measured) are related to each other as the melt- ing points of the metals contained in them. Of these, lithium has the highest melting point, potassium next, then sodium, and rubidium the lowest. If the melting points are the correspond- ing temperatures for solids, and we determine — heats at one temperature, say at 20°, we shall have a value for lithium taken at a great distance from its proper temperature, one for potassium at a less distance, one for sodium still closer, and that for rubidium nearest of all. Then we should find that the substance having the lowest melting point possessed the high- est molecular heat, a result very naturally to be expected. It seems probable, therefore, that a careful investigation side by side of specific heats and melting points would lead to the dis- covery of some direct relation between these two sets of con- stants. For specific heat much new material is needed. For melting points there are but few valuable determinations extant. Art. XXXI— Relation between the Barometric Gradient and the Velocity of the Wind; by WM. FERREL. (Read before the Philosophical Society of Washington in June, and also the Amer- panty yf ytilnsrr cas a the parental of Science in August, 1874.) 1. Let G= the barometric gradient in the direction in which it is the steepest, estimated by the amount of change in the mercurial column in the distance of 100 miles ; v= the velocity of the wind per hour; *= the radius of curvature of the isobar or line of equal barometric pressure ; z= the ipatination of the direction of the wind to the isobar on the side of lowest pressure ; ae n= the earth’s hourly angular velocity of rotation in t of the radius; l= the latitude of the place; P = the barometric pressure of the atmosphere; P’= the value of P at the earth’s surface. 3844 W. Ferrel—Relation between the Barometvcs Gradient The following equation then expresses very nearly the rela- tion in all cases between the barometric gradient and the velo- city of the wind: (1 q_ (2nsin/+u)v sect P_ (0524sin/+u)vseci P A soe 8300000 ue Je 8300000 Ee es in which (2) » COs Zt th ee Y waterspouts, all of which are cyclones contained within the larger cyclones and controled by their motions. It is likewise applicable to the resultant of any number of cyclones contained to 90° at the equator, where sin/=0, since there can be 00 gyrations there, and the motions must be either toward or from _acenter of rarefaction or condensation. eS EE LE oe and the Velocity of the Wind. 345 In a perfect cyclone the isobars are circular and 7 becomes the radius of the circle, and in this case the gradients are esti- mated in the direction of the radius from the center. In the two ! soma hemispherical cyclones the gradients are estimated in irection of the meridians, and the isobars, supposing the cyclones to be perfect and unaffected by local disturbing causes, correspond with the parallels of latitude. In this case rin (2) is the distance from the earth’s axis, and v cos? ex- presses the component of motion relative to the earth’s surface rise to considerable error. And if the distance from the center from carrying out more in detail principles which the writer has already had published at different times and places, but a complete demonstration of the law would be too complex and. 346 W. Ferrel—Relation between the Barometric Gradient require too much mathematical analysis to be given here. It may, however, be important to give the following explanation, rather than a complete demonstration, of this law so far as it applies to ordinary cyclones of not very great extent, especially as the method of presenting the matter here is different from sure of the fluid upon the bottom of the vessel. If we let 7 represent the distance from the center and wu the angular veloc- ity of gyration, the centrifugal force is expressed by rv? sim- ply. But if in addition to the gyratory motion of the water in the basin, the basin itself also has a gyration like a dish around its center, of which the angular velocity is represented by 7’, we then have for the whole centrifugal force r(n'+-u)?=r(n'?+2n'u+u?), +u)v for the centrifugal force upon which the gradient of the cyclone depends, for the term in this case depending upot n* sin? /, corresponding to n? in the case of the basin of water, must be neglected, as in that case, since the atmospheric gradi- ent is referred to the elliptic surface of the earth, and not to the surface in the case of no rotation around its axis. This aa ee NS and the Velocity of the Wind. 347 corresponds with the centrifugal force in (1), upon which the gradient depends in the case of no friction, in which the gyre: tions are circular, as supposed in the basin of water, and in which consequently sec :=1. 6. If we put h=the height of any stratum of the atmosphere of equal ressure ; p= the density of this stratum ; p’= the value of p at the earth’s surface ; we shall have D P (4) —=9D,h, oe putting a for 100 miles, we get, according to the definition of G, _aDh p “10500 p” (5) this constant should be increased ;3,; for each degree of tem- perature. With the value of D,A obtained from (5) we get from (4) oF, pl p p But the first member of this equation is the expression of the horizontal accelerating force arising from a difference of pres- sure, and this in the case of no motion either toward or from the center of the cyclone, as in the case of the basin of water, must be equal to the part of the centrifugal force causing the gradient, which, when the gradient is referred to the elliptic surface of the earth, we have seen, is (2nsin/+u)v. Hence we get in this case —105002G. a a =1050026 ; E=(2n sin [-+u)0. Where there is motion toward or from the center of the cyclone we must add a term, F, to the last member of this equation, to represent the frictional resistance to the motion, and likewise one to represent the inertia of the air where its motion is either accelerated or retarded. On account of the extreme mobility of the air this last term may be generally neglected without any sensible error, in any of the usual motions of the tmosphere, for it can be shown that only a very small part of ey rs 848 W. Ferrel—Relation between the Barometric Gradient the observed barometric gradients are necessary to overcome the inertia in accelerating and retarding the observed velocities. Neglecting, therefore, this effect, and adding F to the last mem- ber of the preceding equation, we get (6 GZ (2nsin/+u)vcosi+F p ) ea ie 105 pe Since the motion is now spiral and not circular, and the cen- trifugal force depends simply upon the component belonging to circular motion, we must use here vcos? instead of v simply in the preceding expression. . By the principle of the preservation of areas ‘in the ease of central forces only and no friction, we would have in all parts of the cyclone r? (n sin /-+-u)=constant. Hence we get by differentiation. <9 D,u=2( sin l+-u)D,r. The second member of this equation expresses the force which tends to produce a gyratory motion around the center of the cyclone. In the case of no friction this force is all spent in of air approach or recede from the center, but where there is iction, it is mostly spent in overcoming the frictional resist- ance. We shall, therefore, have very nearly (7) F’=2(n sin /+-u) D,r, putting F’ for the resistance to motion at right angles to the radius, or in the direction of the gyratory motion. direction of the motion of the atmosphere, and the component of this resistance, contrary to the direction of the gyratory = tion, of which the velocity is rucos7, is represented by Fr. SAS a ee se and the Velocity of the Wind. 349 The other component of the resistance, therefore, contrary to the direction of the radius, in which the velocity of motion is D,7, is represented by oan Dr __2(nsinl+-u) (D,r)? — One ru cost ; This expression is always positive, but it applies only to the part near the earth’s surface, where the one component of mo- tion is toward the center of the cyclone. _With this value of F (6) gives, neglecting 4u in comparison with nsin/ in the value of F’, ‘__@ (2nsinI+u)v cos t/ (Dr)? p 8 nrc reipenceernonn tase eperemennraae: uP lb «by area yt ped OB, (8) S g 10500 \"* @eos a) p”? _@ (2nsinl+u)v sect p Ais 10500 de since by the definition of 7 we have (9) tan im : Since the unit of time is one hour in the expression of G, we _ AER pat g=36002 X32°2 ft. 79040 miles, With this value of g, putting a2=100 miles, and with the value : fo] tion in terms of the radius, which is 0262, we get from (8) by the expression of Gin (1). At the earth’s sur- of n, the angular rotatory Mati per hour of the earth 3 p utting ——— ing face the factor - becomes unity. 8. If the internal and external parts of the cyclone had the same temperature, the strata of equal pressures would be par- allel, or equidistant, and D,A would be a constant for the same place at all altitudes, and G would be proportional toS. But m order to keep up the motive power of the cyclone there must be a difference of temperature between the interna] an external parts, and this causes an increase or decrease in the value of D,A with the altitude, and consequently by (5) an in- crease or decrease of G in a greater ratio than that of p, other things remaining the same. In an ordinary cyclone, in which the temperature is greatest, and consequently the density least, in the interior of the cyclone, the value of G increases in a less ratio than p, and hence in order to satisfy (8) v cos? must have a less value above than below; but the reverse of this is true where the density is greatest in the interior at the same pres- sure, as in the polar hemispherical cyclones, and hence the mean constant motions of the upper strata of the atmosphere relative to the lower ones is eastward in all latitudes. 350 W. Ferrel—Relation between the Barometric Gradient can only be determined from observation. If in (7) F’ vanishes, D, must vanish, and consequently by (9) 7 vanishes and the The g lue of F’ for th creases, in order to satisfy (7), and hence (9) in this case gives 7a constant for all velocities, so long as u can be neglected in com- parison with n sin / in (7), but near the center of the cyclone, face, as that of a prairie, this value is probably applicable to cyclones of all degrees of violence upon such surface, oe lowing mean values of 7, given in connection with the several stations in the following table, were deduced from a considerable number of observations taken indiscriminately by comparing the directions of the wind with that of the isobars, as given ne signal service of the several countries to which the stations ong: Scarborough, 4° 587 Thurso, 15° 4” Nottingham, 27° 44’ Brest, 1 25 ‘Holyhead, 18 4 Oxford, 29 12 Scilly, 10 1 ‘Aberdeen, 21 3 Brussels, 29 57 Yarmouth, 13 49 London, 21 7 Paris, 36 23 Pembroke, 14 47 Greencastle, 22 1 Skudnesnaes, 41 17 From these results Mr. Ley arrived at the following conclusions - I. The winds commonly incline from the districts of higher toward those of lower pressure. The collective mean for the 15 LW; etapa exactly confirm the theory of ordinary cyclones, which requires, where there is friction, that there should be @ otion of the air below toward the center of the cyclone, as ‘ - ¢ ‘ and the Velocity of the Wind. 351 well as a motion of gyration, and hence 7 must have a positive value. This, it is seen, is obtained from observation for each one of the 15 stations taken separately. Moreover, the inland stations, where the resistances are greater, give a greater value of 7 than the stations on the sea coast, where the resistances are smaller. This likewise accords with theory. From the small value of 7 obtained by Mr. Ley for the coast tations, we may infer that at sea, and likewise in the upper value of 7, therefore, in (8), except at internal stations where the resistances are great, may be regarded so small that its secant canbe taken as unity, and hence either the gradient or the velocity of the wind is known the one from the other. For inland stations near the surface, where the resistances are great, the value of 7 must be obtained from observation. 11. With regard to the inclinations of the winds to the iso- Ley obtained for the inclination of S.E. winds 35° 11’, of N.E. winds 17° 48’, of N.W. winds 9° 4’, of S.W. winds 20° 13. In these results S. winds were taken as S.W. winds, E. winds as S.E. winds, &. Hence E.S.E winds have the greatest, and W.N.W. winds the least inclinations to the isobars, which cor- respond very nearly to the . and S.W. sides of the cy- clones. Mr. Ley states that the average direction of the cylones was about N.E. Hence it appears that the inclination of the front part of the cyclone is greatest, and that of the rear the least, and this may perhaps be found to be a general law. It was also found that the differences in the inclinations of the and hence, in general, the strongest winds are found to have the least inclinations to the isobars. And as the tendency of the very rapid gyrations near the center is tv approximate to a circular gyration, it is evident that the inclinations must b more regular with such winds, which are oe gales, than with light winds; as found to be the case by Mr. Ley from observati : 12. If the water in a basin of water has an interchanging 352 W. Ferrel—Relation between the Barometric Gradient gyrations belonging to the basin. So if, by means of the rare- faction of some area of the atmosphere, so as to cause a differ- depends upon the latitude of the place, and vanishes at the equator. H by Mr. each method. The angle of inclination obtained from these and the Velocity of the Wind. 358 In the case of the trade winds, a part of the polar cyclones, the inclination of the direction of the wind to the isobars at sea is about 45°, and this being at about the latitude of 20°, the value of this angle, by theory, should be very much greater than its value at sea at the parallel of 50°, which from Mr. Ley’s small value obtained for the coast stations is perhaps less than 10°, so that this also confirms the preceding theo . Having now learned something from both observation and theory with regard to the value of the theoretically un- nown angle ¢ contained in the relation expressed by (1), we gradients and velocities belonging to the two polar hemispherical cyclones. Observation shows that the barometric pressure is a maximum, and that, consequently, G vanishes about the paral- lel of 35° in the northern hemisphere, and a little nearer the uator in the southern hemisphere, and that there are calm belts, called the tropical calm belts, at these latitudes, except so far as they are occasionally disturbed by local cyclones. By the relation expressed by (1), if we put G=0, we must also ave v=Q, unless cos7 vanishes, which, we have seen, does not, except at the equator. There must, therefore, be a calm where G==0, and hence we have the tropical calm belts. At the equator we also have G=0O, and with this value (1) is satisfied with v=0, that is, with a calm belt, as observed at the equator ; but it is likewise satisfied by (2nsin/+u) vanishing at the equator, and hence v is arbitra 15. The barometric pressures given by Professor Loomis (Meteorology, p. 18) indicates that at about the parallel of 64 in the northern hemisphere, and about the parallel of 74° in ore, for reasons which have already been given, we must have calm belts there. The observations from which these ressures have been deduced perhaps did not sufficiently em- race all longitudes and all seasons to give the mean con- Stant pressures, unaffected by local circumstances and the sea- 854 W. Ferrel—Relation between the Barometric Gradient sons. This we know is the case in the southern hemisphere, where the most southern observations, obtained mostly by the British Board of Trade, were neces sarily made during the summer season, when the barometric pressure is the greatest in those latitudes. If, however, it can be clearly shown by observation that the mean annual a egg is a minimum at ° ad j™ =] © = @ 2) oF 4 io) i?) 5S ot i i$") ™ fa) Ses eS ps) js @ — nm =] ou or og ia") “S ° fone ia) mn oo B eu real he bin ae and directions of the mean constant winds aos, been determined only very roughly from observa- tion on any part of the slebé and. hence no cagh accurate com- parisons of our law with observation can be made. Such com- parisons, however, all seem to establish the trath of the law within the limits of the errors of observation. The mean ed stant isobars in the British Islands, as determined by Glaisher, all effects of the seasons and of local disturbing causes eing eliminated, gives very nearly G=0-02 of an inch. = value in (1), supposing the direction of the wind to oF e east, or nearly so, or that the value of ¢ is small, we noe v=6 se nearly. This is a very little less than the mean eastward velocity of the wind here, as determined by the late is — anc given in his “ Winds of the Northern Hem- the usual velocity of the trade winds, so that the result seems to confirm our law with regard to velocities. From the table of barometric pressures given by Buchan, hich has been already referred to, we obtain for the parallel | d and the Velocity of the Wind. 355 of 52° in the southern hemisphere the value of G=0-07 of an inch, and the tabular results from which this is obtained are regarded as being pretty accurate, and it is poner very nearly sensible velocity of the wind within that distance. The area of almost a perfect calm in some cyclones is said to be as much as 30 miles in diameter. _ The gyrations of the external part of a cyclone are necessar- ily in the contrary direction, and hence the component of gy- ratory motion vcos? must be negative, and consequently sec v in (1), and the sign of G becomes reversed. At some distance, therefore, from the center of a perfect cyclone between the center and the outer limit, the barometric pressure must be a maximum and G vanish. At this distance, therefore, by our law we have v=0, that is,a calm. Hence areas of high barom- eter must generally be areas of calms. 18. If the isobars of a cyclone drawn to every tenth of an inch of the barometer reduced to sea level are 100 miles apart, we have G=0-1 of an inch. With this value of G, supposing the value of 7 to be so small that we can put seca=—1, we get from (1) at the distance of 400 miles from the center of the cy- clone, or center of curvature of the isobars, and on the parallel of 45°, v=29 miles for the velocity of the wind; and this would be very nearly the actual velocity at sea, where the * 4 rms = ae ca oe = by ce Wind na Cnrrenta n 47 Physical Ureveptapily =— 2 Weir ites 356 W. Ferrel—Relation between the Barometric Gradient value of zis small. But if the value of 7 is 45°, which is nearly the value obtained by Professor Loomis from the average of al the stations of the United States Signal Service, then we get for the velocity of the wind, under the same circumstances, v=21 miles. With a still much greater inclination than this circumstances being the same as above, we get v=22 miles in wholly contained within the receding theoretical and much more general law. Theoretically the direction of the wind can tion may be small in the higher latitudes at sea, and on level prairie or mostly cultivated countries, where the win bstructed by w b toward the equator, and accordingly we find that the trade : t 6 ; + tion of the i i: isobars about 45°. This la a general law applicable to all latitudes, is not even 4P- and the Velocity of the Wind. 357 shown (§17) by obtaining numerical results in special assum cases. It is, moreover, seen that in different latitudes the the violence of the wind in a cyclone corresponding to the same gradient is much greater within the tropics than in the higher latitudes. G’= G divided by 100 miles; D = the barometric depression in inches at the earth’s surface in the middle of a cyclone ; we shall have 10 _ far [0524 sin L-u)v sect ” p=/G af 830000000 , gist has accounted for these depressions. It has been attempted to account for them by means of the centrifugal force arising Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Sertes, Vou. VIII, No. 47.—Nov., 1874. 23 358 W. Ferrel—Relation between the Barometric Gradient ght be: no: was there a solitary instance in the pg 1830 in sa: bee an the 4-5 o’clock da larity of these oscillations in the torrid zone: “This regularity is such that, in day time especially, we may infer the hour from the height of the column of mercury without being in error, on an average, more than 15 or 17 minutes. In the tor- this ebb and flow of the aerial ocean undisturbed either by storm, tempest, rain, or earthquake, both on the coasts, and at elevations of nearly 13,000 English feet above the level of the * Phil. Trans., 1835, p. 167. ey vasa” = al See NR: ATRIA S jira ic pa aaemnummmrteie Sacra mm ith : and the Velocity of the Wind. 359 and both the inertia of the air and the friction belonging to this motion are overcome by the force arising from almost in- with the latitude, and should be somewhat in proportion to sin?/, This is shown to be the case from observation. In the 1 Mean monthly ranges.) 1°6 in. sin*Z. 0° 0°1 in, 0°0 in, 30 or4 0°40 45 1°0 0°80 65 1°33 1°30 78 12 1°36 Of course we cannot expect a vey nice agreement in the last two columns, since there are several circumstances besides lati- * Loomis’ Meteorology. 360 W. Ferrel—Relation between the Barometric Gradient tude which affect these oscillations. The rapidity of the gyra- tions in a cyclone, and consequently the amount of barometric depression in the center, depends very much upon the amount of aqueous vapor with which it is fed, and this diminishes from the equator to the pole. The great cyclones also, which move from lower to higher latitudes, continually increase in diameter, — and hence the amount of depression in the center, and the amount of barometric oscillation at any place caused by the passage of these cyclones over it, must increase toward the les. These two effects, however, tend in some measure to counteract each other. The monthly range of 0-1 of an inch expression of (10), upon which these results are based, is ob- tained directly from the former. ; 24. Wherever the atmosphere over any large area of the earth’s surface receives a gyratory motion from any cause, this motion gives a value to u and v in (1), and, hence, likewise to The term, however, depending upon u, in any such case, i deve eng upon * sin /, nD = Sf aptcenieacsci ti 6 gM eds and the Velocity of the Wind. 361 the United States, and the eastward motion in the North At- lantic is deflected south and north by the continent of Europe, while on the corresponding part of the coast of America the air is drawn away faster than it is supplied by the flow over the continent on account of the greater resistances on land than on sea, and the same occurs on the African coast in the torrid zone. Hence the deflected currents supply these deficiencies the middle of the former gyration, and of low barometer in the middle of the latter. The effect of these gyrations is indicated by the isobars drawn on the British Admiralty charts, on which several of these isobars, drawn to tenths of an inch of the bar- ometer, always return into themselves. If we suppose these isobars to be 500 miles apart at any place, on the parallel of 30°, the value of G would be 0-02 of an inch, and with this value of G, putting /=30°, we get from (1) v=8 miles nearly for the stead of 8,300,000, G expresses the gradient of sea-level due to he earth’s rotation. The southern part of the North Atlantic is supposed to make a gyration in about three years, on account of the more complete deflections of the continents in this case similar to those of the atmosphere. This, at the distance of 1,500 miles from the center of gyration, would give v=—0-35 of a mile, v being negative, since the gyra- tions are from left to right. With this value of v, putting seci=1, we get from (1) with the new denominator, G=—058 of a foot for the change of sea level in 100 miles on the parallel of 30°. The value of G being negative shows that the sea- 362 A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. Art. XXXIL—Researches in Acoustics ; by ALFRED M. MAYER. Paper No. 7, containing : Experiments on the Reflection of Sound from Flames and Heated Gases. THE reading of the recent interesting research of Prof. Tyn- dall on “Experimental Demonstrations of the Stoppae of Sound by partial Reflections ina non-homogeneous Atmosphere” (Proc. R. S., Jan., 1874; Nature, Jan. 29, Feb. 5), and of the subsequent paper by Mr. Cottrell “On the Division of a Sound- wave by a Layer of Flame or Heated Gas into a reflected and a transmitted Wave” (Proc. R. S., Feb. 12, 1874), caused me to turn my attention to the experimental illustration of the reflec- tion of sonorous vibrations from flames, heated gases, and from sheets of cold gases and vapors. (See the figure.)* By trial = the two planes of the fork are = placed at such distances from ete : the resonators that complete interference of the vibrations * The wood-cut illustrating this paper has been kindly given to me by Dr. Henry Wurtz, the editor of the American Gas-Light Journal, in which publication an account of these experiments first appeared—May 2, 1874. A. M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. 363 issuing from their mouths is obtained, and the only sound that reaches the ear is the faint sound given by the fork’s ac- tion on the air outside the angle included by the mouths of the resonators. If, in these circumstances, we close the balance of the tissue-paper against the hot gases and vapor re- mained unimpaired. Thus it appears that the reflecting power tracing- per. I have also found that the passage of a sheet of cold coal-gas across the mouth of the resonator, was sufficient to destroy the balance of the interference, and caused a faint sound to issue from the other resonator; a similar effect, and nearly equal in intensity, was obtained with a sheet of cold carbonic acid gas; 364 A, M. Mayer—Researches in Acoustics. ct eo S 77) oan 7 ° 4 =] ° Ss + ° bn) ot S =] oD 3 coc a =a fa) 4 a cr <4 9 o fom =) oF 2 ne 66 rical series : M wr? M, =2r,n* =473800 r, — org — =2r ni = O1SS*, 2r or 27x20 Or yn = ar, comer = Primary virtual fall corresponding to a single wave- length. Then w =42r, +n*=r,+1057700000000000, if n® = 4867. “a3 we — other estimated values of ni, the number of wave- 2 Se ee ee P. E. Chase— Velocity of Primitive Undulation. 369 ity, to undulations near the hottest portion of the solar spec- trum,* and indicate a possible complete identification of the sun’s attractive and thermo-dynamic energies. According to Struve’s constant of aberration, vy (the velocity : 497°85 : of light) =the =°4316r, per second. The corresponding value of n?=486-7, and the number of vibrations per second all the gravitating motions of the solar system, 7s almost, if not exactly, vdentical with the velocity of light, the several approxi- mate values be:ng, in units of light-velocity, According to Spérer, 969 ‘ “ Carrington, "983 . “ Faye, "987 . * Herschel, ‘997 Light, 1-000 These values exhibit a discrepancy, varying between 4 of one per cent (H.) and 3:1 per cent (8.). If this close accordance is significant of actual physical influence, there are various uncer- tainties of observation, in the e.ements of the calculation, which might account for a still greater discrepancy. Perhaps the most important is the uncertainty as to the proper allowance for the differences in the angular velocity of sun-spots in dif- ferent latitudes. If there were no resistance to the revolution of the spots, their velocity should be planetary, and therefore far greater than it actually is. On the other hand, if they were rigidly imbedded in a rotating mass, their angular velocity should be uniform. The differences are such as to meen the partly tion : The three following additional relationships may, perhaps, prove to be something more than merely curious. * If the identification is exact, the actual number of oscillations per second is 457 (10); the number in the extreme red ray being 440 (10) if we estimate Sun’s mean distance at 92,000,000 miles. 870 P. E. Chase— Velocity of Primitive Undulation. ia 1. The common ratio of the geometrical series, n?, is very . mass of sun ; nearly, if not exactly, v a of alec’ r/ ‘4 being the ra dius of spherical gyration. . The number of vibrations of the mean caloriferous rays, in ‘the unit of time which satisfies all the equations of the geometrical series, is nearly,.if not exactly, the cube of X Se =. Sg e ct oO 8 i] a: cq e ili ee Ns e solid iron expands, and becomes lighter and finally floats on the molten iron. The latter fact shows simply siting. solid iron, when 388 Scientific Intelligence. molten iron must undergo a rapid expansion in the moment of its solidification. The extent of this expansion is, however, less than that of the subsequent contraction in cooling, so that the cold iron is again denser than the molten iron. The error of Mr. Mallet and of many preceding observers con- sists in this: Their observation, that the solid metal floats on the molten metal refers to the former when heated, while their determi- ? does not float, and the heated metal which does float has undoubt- edly a smaller specific gravity. There is certainly nothing either incongruous or wonderful in all this, and nothing that would require or justify the assumption of a “repellent force.” None o Mr. Mallet’s experiments, as far as they are mentioned in the “Journal,” prove anything against the temporary expansion of tions I made on this point in foundries verify it. Washington University, St. Louis, Mo., September 21st, 1874, Il. GroLtoagy anp Natura History. ‘ GABB. Mey following letter was recently received from Mr. Gabb, who ports, maps, etc. ‘The close of the survey, in fact the last half, found me the only representative of the original corps. Not only first assistants, but in some cases two relays of substi- tutes, gave out and retired, with health seriously injured. cd man, now a year in a healthy climate and in the doctor’s hands, is not well yet. Fortunately, I lost no lives, and, so far as I my- self am concerned, neither my life nor my spleen is injured, and except being a little lighter in weight I am as good as new, and ready to go into the field again as soon as my report is finished and my money paid ! We were about four months away on my last journey, and while our hardships were neither few nor trivial, our scientific re- sults were satisfactory. reached the summit of Pico Blanco June 13, and spent three hours on the summit. ithout having at hand the tables for going into the calculations for corrections, etc., the barometric re- Sults are approximately 10,200 feet. This is 1,500 feet lower than Ee ser eae Geology and Natural History. 389 the formerly received opinion. Where this originated I cannot learn. From the flank of Pico Blanco I made a rude leveling across to the summit of the “ U-jum,” i had not seen, is 200 to 300 feet lower. I find that “U. i Summit Its geography has been misstated by some writers, who have placed it on a spur of the Cordillera. It is distinctly in the center line of the main chain, the waters falling rapidly from it toward the two oceans. is connection we have robbed Iraza, the Old Harbor, sea level, barometer, 39°042, att. therm. 80, det. therm. 81 of Peak, - Deg A « 635, 4 “69 ans. In thi ‘ ; d ; _ “show mountain” of Costa Rica, of one of its chief glories. Every- body who comes to the country rides up to the crater on mule back and then writes a book about his achievement, not omitting to state that this is the only point in the world where one can see th oceans at once. From even as low as 600 feet below the summit of Blanco we Saw at a glance thirty miles of the Atlantic, and all of forty of the Pacific. This is a little better than a glimpse of near Greytown on one side, and a suspicion of the Gulf of Nicoyo on the other, which the Iraza (or voleano of Cartago) people get. Geologically, Pico Blanco must henceforward be erased from the list of voleanos. It is the culminating point of a granite in- trusion from below Miocene rocks. say intrusion, after due Weighing of probabilities as to Azoic core, which I know will sug- gest itself to you. I have not space here to enter into details, Syenite has yet been found by me in our conglomerates! ile I say it is not a voleano, yet there is a a mass of true voleanic rock forming the apex. It is, however, only a dike, laid Am. Jour. Sot.—Tuirp Series, Vou. VIII, No. 47.—Nov., 1874. 25 390 Scientific Intelligence. he mountain visited this is replaced by a growth o sage, furze, heather, moss, fern, whortleberries of a light reddish brown color, etc. ‘Che fires, smoke, etc., reported at times may result from the burning of this vegetation, but they certainly do ook volcanic at a few miles distance. North Carolina ; by Prof. Frank H. Brapury. (From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Knoxville, Tenn., September 1>th, 187 4a In my recent trip into North Carolina, from which I have just returned, I determined the metamorphic rocks of the southwestern corner of that State and of the adjoining part of Georgia to unquestionably of Silurian age did not go east of Franklin; : ut, so far, they are all Zower Silurian. The talline marbles of M and vicinity—white, black and flesh-colored—w are partly siliceous and inclose a rich bed (?) of gold-bearing quartz, are the precise equivalent of our Knox limestones © & le) ie] ° 5B ~~ & =] I a iS & ys ; oe ° =| fae) D =a op) eS] —e S o wh < mK es iP op) r ° S + a fae] m ° =| ee So A ee Ru tae) 2, Be eae RA eae g ib obs awa the same age ; 3. Abstract of a paper on the Trap Rocks of’ the Connecticut Valley ; by E.S8. Dana. (Read before the American Association at the Hartford Meeting, Aug. 1874.)—This paper was a report of some preliminary results obtained in a series of investigations now being i 8. Dana and G. W. Hawes. Geology and Natural History. 391 nly i irregular masses, but sometimes shows curious and beautiful she. rescent crystallized forms, frequently observed elsewhere in similar rocks. It is interesting to observe that these peculiar dendritic forms are confined, as far as now observed, to the more hydrous of the trap rocks, although future study may not confirm this. nge older than the Tertiary. It is important to observe that the rock, as it Contains no hornblende, is not diorite, though that name has also been given to it. urning, however, from what may be called the normal rock, for example, that analyzed by Mr. Hawes just referred to, contain- ing almost no water, we find other varieties containing a consid- erable amount; and here the microscope comes to our assistance, making it possible to extend our observations over a wide range 8 the eastward, and of trap from other points south and west. we go from West Rock toward the eastern side of the Mesozoic t m a In addition to this massive, though generally chloritic trap, which makes up most of the great ridges laid down on Percival’s. 392 Scientific Intelligence. map, we find also another variety quite different ; this is light green in color, soft, very ydrous, and has its feldspar as well as pyrox- ene very much altered. It is most characterized by its amygda- the moisture in igneous rocks found access to them while they re in process of eruption, we may re all these as results of changes wrought in what originally was essentially the same ma- terial by local causes in introducing m re accordance with this view the trap intersecting the crystalline rocks is anhydrous, alone other localities, southwestward from Rutherfordton in North Caro- lina, without finding any traces of tin. The usual minerals of the 5. Beitrag zur exakten Geologie; A. von LASAULX. pp. 157, with several plates—During the autumn of 1873 the Geology and Natural History. 893 neighborhood of Aachen (Aix la Chapelle) was the center of a series of earthquake shocks, which continued from September 28th to December 2d; the most violent and extended of them, however, took place on the 22d of October. This earthquake has been the subject of minute and careful study by v. Lasaulx, and all directly or indirectly interested in such matters will find his pamphlet of great interest. After giving all the observations made at different he discusses the general character of the earthquake, that : : : nae Se Cpt sion upon t cond point is important and interesting, he says: the center of propagation (Ausgangspunkt der Erschiitterung) did not lie at h reat that the direct cause of the first must have been in the region of the older sedimentary rocks. He adds that it is not improbable that it was connected with the making of cracks and fissures in the earth’s crust. : e seismometer, or scismochronograph, is a little instrument . . moment of the shock. This is effected by means of a metal ball, which is dislodged from its delicate resting-place and sets free a spring, which in turn act on the lever. e direction of the , With some such apparatus in general use, our observations of the time of earthquake phenomena would be much more numerous and trustworthy. E. 8. D. 6. Mineralogische Mittheilungen, gesammelt von G. Tscher- mak. Heft u, 1874. Vienna. 77 pp.—Prof. Tschermak is per- forming a at service to all mineralogists in collecting and valuable contributions. This journal appears quarterly in con- it is also published independently. It is now in its fourth year, and as the only journal devoted exclusively to mineralogy, already holds a high place among scientific serials. The last number received is the second issued for 1874, and contains the followin TS: Siosle ceruale of Albite from the Schneeberg, by J. Rumpf; Morphological study on Atacamite, by Edward S. Dana (New 394 Scientific Intelligence. Haven); On the occurrence of native Tron in a dike of Basalt at ra rence of Meteorites at Ovifak, Greenland, by G. Tschermak; Analyses of Feldspar, Chinocblore (from aeaior county, Penn.), Magnesia-mica, Mispickel crystals, etc., from the laboretory of rof. Ludwig ;° also shines notices of Glauberite from Sicily, of Stalagmites from the Adelsberg Grotto, and of a new and inter- esting twin (drilling) of + entry t. rmation Cerbonifere de la Scanie; par EK. ExpmMann. —Stockholin, 1873. 84 pp. 4to.—This is an abridg ged edition, in French, o t Erdmann’s Swedish memoir. The car onif- erous formation described is supposed to be of the age of the Lias. Besides this and the Pre-Silurian formation, there are in Scania ore ine er and “tone Silurian overlaid confor mably by the sand- f Hér, which Erdmann inclines to make the base of the Soa. pret dees The Carboniferous has afforded plants and mollusks which render it probable that it is not older than the aias. Above, there are ees — probably over 150 meters in thickness, and then the Quater 8. a Studien oe aa Phonolithgesteinen Bohe- mens ; Dr. orIcKY. Prague, 1874. pp. 93, with two colored of Bohemia have already been noticed in this Journal. i pamphlet upon the gee de is of the same rege and is marked by the same care and minuteness of descriptio e beautiful colored plates will be of great help to those avon the ee: 9. criptions of the ae ee ue Tertiary of Pied and - bets: ; by LB rp1.— Volume xxvii of the Memoirs memoir. It occupies pages 33 to 294, and is illustrated by 15 beautiful and well crowded aaa phic, Peat The species in- clude the re gan Pteropods, and Heteropods, and d the Gas — of the families Muri alae nd Triton! dee 0. Beskrifning éfver Besier-ecksteins kromolitografé och lito- graft anvinda -— nL arama oath af geologisk Ofversigtskarta ipoer Skane, meddelad af Au nN Borrze.. Ws o geological country. a and all workers in chromolit ithography. 11. Das Elbthalgebirge in ignites von Dr. B, GEINITZ; I Theil, 7 Lieferung.—This mber contains aight new litho- graphic plates, 53 to 60 sate ‘of Gasteropods from the Lower ra i or Middle Cretaceous, representing more than a hundre specie _ 12. Geotogieat oe 2 of Georgia.—A survey of the State of _ Georgia is in progress under the direction of Professr Little, with _ Mersrs. AeCurchen and Schley as assistants, Geology and Natural History. 395 r . Gumeelius, M. J. Stolpe; assistant geologists, V. Karlsson, J. G. O. Linnarsson, L. J. Palmgren; actuary, J. E. Bortzell; chemist, G. H, Santesson. 14, Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Italy.—The second by B. Gas- part of volume ii of these memoirs contains a paper he A for 1873, by A. S. Packarp, Jr., is contained in the Sixth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Academy of Science at Salem, Mass.—The same report contains also descriptions of N. A. Noctiude by A. R. Grote, of N. A. Phalenide, by A. S, Pack- ard, Jr., besides others of N. A. Phyllopoda by A. 8. Packard, Jr., nd y A. E. Verrill. to possess on the other side of the Atlantic. Here the principal facts, as known up to a recent date, along with those relating to plant-climbing and insect-fertilization, are matters of school in- struction; and a narrative in The Nation recapitulated what is known, and what has been observed in this country especially, from the time of Macbride, and later, of Dr. Curtis, down to contri- butions of Mr. Canby and Mrs. Treat. Also the curious new dis- coveries made last summer by Dr. Mellichamp upon the most in- teresting of the Sarracenias, given in full in the New York Tri- bune, and in abstract in this Journal, were resented anew, and with further particulars, to the American Association, at the Hart- i i st; and Mr. Canby supplemented these with an account of the behavior of the California analogue of Sarracenia, viz., Darlingtonta. : : The report which has reached us of Dr. Hooker’s interesting dissertation is unofficial and evidently somewhat imperfect, rg . Bu presented and are full of interest. Passing by the resuscitation of Linneus’ forgotten suggestion that the Surracenia leaf may . which he claims Linnzeus as a Darwinian evolutionist !), and t 396 Seientijic Intelligence. no foothold to insects, and producing no secretion h ut comparatively very small quantity. . . o not find that placing inorganic substances in the ‘ cretion; but I have twice observed a considerable increase in pitchers after putting animal matter in the fluid.” 5. Thi evidently digests animal matters. Treated with ‘ white of egg, raw meat, fibrine, and cartilage,” in all cases the action is most of N. am e the ae from the pitcher of WV. ampullaria in the cold room o one of JV.. lana in t 4 upon.” From this it-is conjectured that something analogous to Geology and Natural History. 397 referring also to Van Tieghem’s experiments, in which an artifi- . . if this. The difference is that they feed upon vegetable, not upon animal matter; upon matter assimilated by the plant itself, not upon matter further assimilated by an animal. Nor is the real As these subjects become matters of popular interest, the gross- est misapprehensions and mis-statements must be ex ted. In England, the Graphic leads off with a well-executed page of wood- cuts, swarming with flies and hornets, some of which are busy about the mouth of a nondescript Sarracenia, having a curiously lobed or scolloped lid. The letter-press describes Vepenthes and Cephalotus as having “lids which shat down upon their victims,” while Darlingtonia “ curls its leaf around them,” and so on. cian y. One of t Fellows is now a pointed to take charge of the publication of the ma 2 aa Society, the editorial care of which had id reco mendation of the council, were yet contested in a manner which 398 Scientific Intelligence. caused the society to take legal advice upon the matter. The award of Lord Hatherley, now published, affirms the validity of satisfactorily, a controversy which, being wholly of a domestic ne had better not have been referred to in the scientific jour- ae Restored Professorship of Botany at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris.—One of the three chairs of Botany at the Jardin des Plantes, namely, the one long occupied by the Jussieus, was suppresse after the death of Adrien de Jussieu, in 1853, and a chair of pale- ontology established instead. Thanks to the gent of Count Jaubert, this botanical chair has rer reconstituted, and M. Bureau has been named to fill it. M. Maxime Cornu succeeds M, Bureau as aide-naturaliste. The saben laboratory of instruction at the arden, under the charge of these two active botanists, es ~ in most successful operation during the past season. III. Astronomy. . On thes Spectrum of Coggia’s Comet; by Dr. Huce ns. —The hew waa noticed in this communication was 1 Bid the bands of the omet were so far shifted as to ee ee there really was carbon in the comet—that tbe relative motion of the approach of the comet to the earth was fonvate miles per second. The comet really, however, approached the earth at the rate of twenty- it w as therefore uncertain whether the motion of matter within the comet. The brighter portion of the head of the comet was due evidently to a larger proportion of the - matter giving a continuous spectrum. It seeme probable, there- fore’ to the “autnor that the nucleus was solid, heated by the sun and throwing ont matter which formed the coma and tail; and part of this was in a gaseous form, giving the spectra of bright ilnes, The other portion existed probably in small incandescent eee the polariscope showing that certainly not more than e-fifth of the whole light was reflected solar light.—Proe. Bri it. odie Nature, nes a 10. 2. Mete e, in Peru; by Gusrar Rosz.— Miscellaneous Intelligence. 399 Tron Nickel Phosphorus Insol. in H?C be Yd 0°37 0°05 O07 == 2°66 The nickel and cobalt of the insoluble part was found to be 15°49 nickel and 0°19 cobalt. This left 81°66 for the iron. Raimondi found three pieces of it to contain 81°42, 85°61, 87°59 of iron, and 18°52, 14°37, 12°38 of nickel. 3. Meteorites—A meteorite which fell near Virba (?) in Turkey on the 20th of May last has been described before the Academy of Sciences of Paris by Daubrée. It has a grayish silicated ex- terior and contains numerous grains of nickeliferous iron and _sul- phide ofiron. It contains also some grains of chromic iron, Daubrée states also that he had obtained four ne gments of the meteorite which fell at Saint Amand (Loir-et-Cher) in 1872. —L’ Institut, Aug. 5. IV. MisceLLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. © oO 4 ct 4 5 = te ° a Rh o on < i] ae _ ° =| es) ° _ nn ay © om xy S Qa te —_ co TD i me eed gQ er =) & s Loe 1 5 humid belt, producing the extremes that so often appear to strike down om : = <¢ * “T venture to assume, therefore, a large measure of influence in causing extremes of cold in these latitudes to the descending vol- 400 Miscellaneous Intelligence. accession of heat gives a more free play of the forces, a frequent recurrence of heavy northwest dry winds poured from above, fro i i Preliminary Map of Central Colorado, showing the region i i by J. T. Garpner; Wison. waters of the Arkansas, near latitude 394° and the meridian of 106°, 14,176 feet high, Massive Mt. 14,368 feet, Mt. Elbert 14,326 feet, La | lata Mt. 14,302 feet, Grizzly Peak 13,315 feet, Mt. Harvard, | ; au des ent A Professor of Geology in the Academy of Lausanne; 36 Bai with © @ series of nine tables in as many folded sheets. 1874 (Bull. Soe. a AMiscel‘aneous Intelligence. 401 Vaud. Sci. Nat., Nos. 70, 71, 72).—The tables, which are the chief part of this important memoir, and must have cost the author next sheet, of an aaoedies color, ‘ait es the Pliocene and Miocene, under the head of the Neogen or Molassic period, for each of the seven subdivisions of which the names of a score or more of fossils are given, and in other columns, the localities and synonymy of different cans ies. ‘The third, of a bright yellow, comprises the ‘ Eocene or Nummulitic Period. he fourth, of a green color, the Cretaceous, under which fourteen subdivisions or Stages are given ; and so on through the series to the first of the Paleozoic. The tables will be found very convenient as a help toward eaeaincta yA yeah names of aay ont used in Europe, of 80° 15’ and 83°, the latter being the most northerly point ob- served. It is pale to be about as large as Spitzbergen, wit maeey fior ds and numerous islands off the coast. It is mountain- the ‘highest summit to the south, named ue Humboldt, is 5 ,000 feet above the sea. Glaciers were of great extent. The ridges are dolomitic. Elk, hares, and traces of Siok and bears were isto d, and myriads of bi rds. Observaciones eLearn: y Meteorologicas del Colegio de Belen de la Compa a de Jesus, en la Habana, Ano Meteoro- ssary to pro- duce alcohol of the percentage indicated at the top of any column. us, to obtain alcohol for 80° from that of 94°, the number 94 is sought for in Mt first ed and opposite to it, under the col- “Required Strength,” “80°,” the numbers 808 and 192 in- dicate sapere the quantities, by weight, of alcohol of 94°, and 402 Miscellaneous Intelligence. of distilled water necessary to produce 1,000 parts of alcohol at 80°. For the sake of convenience, sl specific gravities of each at are given in a separate colum le of the relative a nartings 7 pei of alcohol of different degrees of concentra- ~~ and of distilled water ary to produce 1,000 sa8 of alcohol of a desired aa. er degree of concentr So bo Required Strength. 523 g 2 ° ° 5 | 80° 60 56 ee 2 0°8228sp.gr.|0 er sp.gr|0°8483 sp.gr\0-8956 sp.gr/0-9047 sp.gr ase 3 53 2 Alcoh, Water Alcoh./ Water |Aleoh.| Water |Aleoh.| Water | Aleoh Water 100° | 07938 | 857 | 143 | 795 | 205 | 735 | 265 | 522 | 478 | 482 | 518 99 | 0-796 53 | 630 80 101 | 832 | 168 4 546 | 4 8 55 401 | 554 | 446 73 | 858 | 142 391 | 563 | 437 382 | 571 | 429 539 547 555 64 573 582 590 599 609 618 45 | 884-) 116 | 627 | 373 | 580 | 420 30 | 898 | 102 | 637 | 363 | 589 | 411 15 | 912} 88 | 646 | 304 | 598 | 402 _-. | 926 | 74 | 656} 344} 607 ; 393 ... | 940 | 60 | 667 | 333 | 616 | 384 : 955 | 45 | 677 | 323 | 626 | 374 _.. | 969 | 31 | 687 | 313 | 636 | 364 iS 94 | 16 | 698 | 302 | 646 | 354 nue 4 uke be: } 709: |- 291) 666 | Bae cet ob) Ta0 | 2801 eee | ae oT on 1 ee) 288 1 Tt tee ot ar 56 | 688 | 312 wot che Pe) hey OO Caer sche | ew 1968 988) Be ae js 42. 4. 481 oie sa ae Soo ce eg oe 266 ST Fs | eT Lies | 1 Oe ee ere eee a cee Excel gk 886 268 Lae ae ee ei ee aus Dace | Ok 1 ee | te Dt 1 Pas | a ee hee Pc PoRee yt 828 | 172 cob od ghd emt Bae Eee Sot wl oe pee EE Gee oe ee eo a 54 | 874 | 126 Re ee ee 37 | 891 | 109 ea oe 4 Bal) eT Oe ae te eee ee ee ee Bese Re Ree Pi he ee ee ht , ee cS at Cee A eee Miscellaneous In telligence. 403 Tin-bearing pay So New England, in New South Wales, Australia.—A re rt by the Licensed Surveyor, C. 8. Wilkinson, to the Surveyor General dated July 14, 1873, contains the follow- ing among its stat ments. The region described lies within a = of about swenty- -five miles from Inversell to the south and The principal tin mines are on Cope’s Creek, Middle Creek ey Macintyre Ri The rocks are granites, greenstone trap, Carboniferous beds, Miocene, Pliocene and Quaternar The Quaternary includes eposits. On the Macintyre val- ley the stratified drift is in ieee of various heights above the river. Rey. W. B. Clarke states that he has traced some of this “The Pliocene of the region includes extensive basaltic pele The Tertiary abounds in stems and leaves of —— s of the gene Laurus, Cinnamomum, Tiphscgens and others, which are re- ferred to the Lower Mi jocene, M’Coy finding some species closely like those of Oeningen and of the vicinity of Bonn. oa Carboniferous beds are of the same age with those of the unt Stream tin i found in the Drift, aye also o bea ety and valuable very! of tin ore occur in ah Gp e gr anite is stated to be osely like that of aie sey is pronounced of Upper vaboee pie age. Stanniferous country of New South Wales aa graves x pia 8. Tortoises - os closely related to those of the Gala- pagos, reg that are nearly antipodes to one another—Dr. A. Giinther, in a memo dir on “the api aa Extinct Races of ro only mack become extinct. They « differ from pedior Tor- toises of the region in having a flat cranium and truncated beak, and in this respect they have the greatest affinity with the bagged still inhabiting the Galapagos Archipelago. Dr. Giinther ob- Serves that the presence of these allied tortoises at plats so remote from one another can be accounted for only on the tice, that they are “ each case indigenous.—Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. > 311, Oct., 1874. . The Journal of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.—The pos ust number of this excellent journal contains a paper by Prof. yi sp able review of this whole subject, as viewed by an astronomer who 404 Miscellaneous Intelligence. had himself made original observations on the subject. It is illus- trated by a plate of one of the s sun-spots, which is as wonderfully well executed as the spot is marvelous in itself. This eens semester d devoted to physics and practical chem- try, as well as mechanical — is now edited by Prof. George F. Barker (Professor of Physics in the University of Pennsylva- dn sind: 10, paar of the Wisconsin Academy si —— — and Letters, Madison » Wisconsin ; vol. ii, 1873. P- fie C. Chamberlin, on some evide ences 3 upon the ea of - Hoyt, of Madison, is pe eon of the Academy. cinnati Quarterly Journ oe nce. —The number for OBITUARY. . Eure DE Beaumont.—On the 24th of September died Elie de Beaumont, the eminent geologist, and long the “ Secrétaire Perpetuel” of "the Academy of Sciences of Paris, Born on a 25th of September, 1795, he entered the Polytechnic ee in 1819, and leaving it with the’ highest honors, entered the Ecole des Mines in in e became Professor inthe Ecole des Mines in 1829, fessor in the Collége de France in 1832, Engineer in Chief of Mines in 1833, Ins vector-General of Mines and Member of the Academy of Sciences in 1835 5, its Perpetual Secretary in 1853 in place of aby 3 Senator in 1854, and Grand Officer of the Legion of Honor in see cu Hxssensere died in his native city of Frank- fort, on ie sth of last July. A jeweler by trade, he yet fou my Notizen,” published in 11 numbers, contain some of the most im- portant contributions ever made to the science Half-hour Recreations in Popular Science, I Dana Estes, Editor, No. 12. The Circulation of the Waters on the Surface of the Earth, by H. "HL. W. Dove. Boston, dSer Vol VL. c1.3 An JS tc Punderson & rwanda New Seven lt SERPENTINE PSEUDOMORPHS. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS, [THIRD SERIES] Art, XXXV.—Review of von Seebach’s Earthquake of March 6th, 1872, in Central Germany ;* by Ben K. Emerson, Prof. of Geology in Amherst College. uakes,§ and by William Hopkins in his celebrated Report on the Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes,| and although methods for finding analytically the depth of the center of disturbance from seismometric observations had been given in both these papers, and later in Mallet’s Earthquake Reports, yet the remark of Hopkins, that “the roughest 2 cM iat to the position of the focus from which such vibrations proceed would constitute a very important geological element,” re- mained as true in 1872 as in 1847, when it was written. the quarter century which intervened between these two dates, immense labor was bestowed upon earthquake-catalogues by Mallet, Perrey and others, and upon the discussion of these to determine geographical lines or areas of disturbance, periodicity im relation to the seasons, the phases of the moon, &c. ; * Das mitteldeutfje Erdbeben vom 6. Marj, 1872. Ein Beitrag yu der Lehre von ben Erdbeben von a von Seebach. , ia Proc. R. L. Acad., vol. xvi, 1846. ] Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1847. Am. Jour. Scr.—Tuirp — Vou. VIII, No. 48 —Dec., 1874. 406 B. K. Emerson on Seebach’s Earthquake in Germany. would seem that this source of information had been very nearly exhausted, and that resort must be had to a purely physical treatment of the subject. The Earthquake Reports of Robert Mallet* had done much to render this possible, es- pecially by perfecting the ere by the beautiful mathe- matical determination of t e of greatest intensity, the the- orem for finding the ares froin, the time of shock at three core at Holyhead, North Wales.{ It was eminently fitting wl wave aNigecn th of the = centrum,” or region ej the position of the “ epicentrum” now of no aac attempts to determine any of these ele- ments, except the early, very imperfect ones, by Milne, of the would intersect on the earth’s surface at the “ epicentrum,” or ge directly over the focus, the inclination of these two sets to each other giving the angle of emersion for each place of observation. Further, the angle of emersion thus own, the velocity of vibration of the wave was obtained by calculation from the distance to which bodies of known weight * Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1850, 51 oe Set 58. {Aceon Rep. o of Earthquake P omena, _ Brit. Assoc., 1851. Account of ——— made oe a Holyhead to ascertain the transit velocity of to earthquake waves through local rock formations, Phil. Trans., 1861, p. 655. Ed. Phil. Jour., vo! ] This Jour., rs xxv, p. 146. Das Erdbeben von en —e 1846, im Rheingebiet on Dr. Jakob Néggerath. ee Oe ae Erdbeben am 15 Jan. 1858, J. F. Schmidt, As- tronom. Athen.; Mit. d. K-k. Geograph. Gesell., zu Wien, 1858. : gre gy Neapolitan Earthquake, or the Principles of Observational Seis- OB a & B. K. Emerson on Seebach’s Earthquake in Germany. 407 were projected, or by the degree of resistance overcome in form- ing cracks, as determined by separate experiments. The results obtained by Schmidt and Mallet, together with the results of the latter's experiments on transit velocity in various rocks, are brought together below in comparison with the numbers ob- tained by the method we are reviewing, the whole including all the reliable numerical results for earthquake elements thus ae sted. Vibrations which reach the surface of the earth would form concentric widening circles, and all points on each circle would be shaken at the same instant. These are the isoseistic curves of the author (coseismic curves, Mallet). i | , then, a perpendicular be drawn from the middle of a chord connecting two such points (points shaken at the same absolute time, and thus lying in the same isoseistic circle), it would pass through the eigeiias ss and the intersection o ul 408 BK. Emerson on Seebach’s Earthquake in Germany. rate map these towns were united by a straight line, and a Maca each other near the village of Amt-Gehren (lat. 50° 38-6’ N.; long. 8° 41-25’ E. of Paris) and fix the place of the epicentrum. In order to establish this more firmly, the author proceeds to discuss the remaining observations, and to construct isoseistic each minute up to the limit, Breslau, 4h. 5m. 25s., are deter- mined (plate 11), each curve when fully established uniting three or more places which reported the same time, and all having a common center at Amt-Gehren. As a result of the observations which deserve any confidence, above 40 per cent point directly to the same spot, a degree of accuracy far greater than could have been expected. For the determination of the true transit velocity, the depth abscissas (miles) measured off by the curve in passing over one unit on the axis of ordinates (minutes). For the earthquake under discussion this equalled 24 nautical miles per minute, or 742 meters per second. The center of the hyperbola, or the point at which the asymptote prolonged cuts the axis of ordinates, - gives t°, i. e., the time of the initial shock at the centrum, and B. K. Emerson on Seebach’s Earthquake in Germany. 409 the distance of this point from the focus of the hyperbola gives the time occupied by the wave in passing vertically from the center or origin of the shock to the surface of the earth. The latter value multiplied by the mean transit velocity already obtained, gives the depth of the “centrum” in miles. The first of these constants (¢°)—the time of the initial shock— is, in this case, easily determined by drawing the hyperbola; the second, however—the distance of the center of the hyperbola _ from its focus—is not attainable from the lack of observations Depth of the Center.—The author compares the depth of cen- ter of the Neapolitan earthquake, as given by Mallet, with the result obtained above, draws in plate 11 the hyperbola for the Rhenish earthquake of 29th July, 1864, from numbers given by Julius Schmidt, and, in plate 1, that for the earthquake of Veterna hola, using data supplied by the same author. The e Ratek known for the depth of center of earthquakes. The epths are in nautical miles. Locality. Date. ulator. Mean. ‘aximum. um. Middle Germany, 6 Mar., "72, vy. Seebach, 9°68 11°68 1-76 Naples, ’ Mallet, 11-765 =: 8125 2-75 Rhin 64. vy. Seebach : 93 eo ela, 4 ekg far v. peer 17-(?) 14°16 (?) Intensity.—The intensity at the earthquake center of the shock or blow which caused the vibrations, is here sought. passing out from this center the intensity of vibration must grow less as the square of the distance from that center. And at the outer limit of the shaken region the intensity of the vibrations is approximately the same for every earthquake, because this outer limit is determined by the observations of a great number of individuals, and indicates only the point 410 BK. Emerson on Seebach’s Earthquake in Germany. Middle Gurus? 3305-2 aples, 1252°6 Rhinelan 1577°3 Veterna hola (Hungary), 1612°5 It follows that the intensity of an earthquake is, as a rule, pro- portional to its area, and that earthquakes of great intensity and limited area originate at a comparatively small distance below the surface. Transit Velocity—The true average transit velocity of the four earthquakes under discussion, as found by the author, are given in the table below, together with the results obtained ex- Patiinetially by Mallet, at Killiny Bay and Holyhead, for the 2 ol velocity in different rocks by the explosion of mines eee oaths Meters per second. Intensity. Middle Germany, 742°0 3505-2 Naples, 259°7 1252°6 Rhineland, 567°6 1577°3 Hungary, 206° (?) 1612°5 In wet sand, 25174 “ granite much jointed, 398°16 “ compact granite, 507°36 “ quartzite and schist, 37916 One of the results of Mallet’s experiments at Holyhead—that the transit velocity increases with an increase in the intensity of the initial shock—is brought out clearly by the comparison in the table above of the initial intensity with the transit ve- locities of the first three earthquakes discussed. The form of the Centrum.—One of the most interesting and, at first sight, most startling deductions of the author, relates to the form and position of the area in which the shock originated. If this area had been, as has been heretofore assumed, spherical and of small dimensions, the region of most violent action (in overturning buildings, &c.) would have been in a circle around the e epicen centrum whose radius would have been 8’8 nautical This is deduced from an interesting theorem given by Mallet* The vibrations reaching the earth at the epicentrum will have of course the deceit ae but the horizontal _ component will then be zero, and as one passes out from the : aaa although the intensity of if the vibrations diminishes, * Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1858, p. 101. B. K. Emerson on Seebach’s Earthquake in Germany. 411 the horizontal component increases more rapidly, and thus the zone of maximum disturbance will be in a circle at some dis- tance from the epicentrum, its position being expressed, for a homogeneous perfectly elastic medium, by the equation : a@:hir=l: 72 298. a=radius of circle of maximum disturbance, h=depth of centrum, r=distance from centrum to circle of maximum disturbance. valuable method, which is especially applicable where Mallet's could not be used—in regions visited by earthquakes of slight intensity and wide extent, as, possibly, for the regions whose centers lie near Montreal and Portsmouth, N. H., and certainly or California. For the latter region especially, the ease and rapidity with which, by this means, all the elements of an earthquake may be obtained, should enforce the important 412 R. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for a scribed in the work under review with important simplifica- tions, which would enable one to give for each station—with but moderate expense for erection, and none for maintenance of instruments—the exact time and intensity of each shock. It seems not too much to hope, with the author, “that here- after no earthquake will visit a civilized region without the attempt being made to discover, by the method here proposed, which would require for its application but a few hours’ time, its geologically important elements.” —The work of Professor v. Seebach is already bearing fruit in ee von Lasaulx’s admirable paper has already appeared, ‘at Bonn, and is noticed in this volume, at page 392.—Ens. ArT. XXXVL—A Jet Aspirator for Chemical and Physical Laboratories ; by Prof. Ropert H. RicHarps. this column, the greater = be the power of the aspirator. While working at Bunsen’s filter pump it occurred to me that the great force of asia ahi 3 is fed to the building from the hydrant (which was entirely lost in Bunsen’s pren- foked s rpc ought to be made available. Aveta 4 ; the subject in the winter oe 187011, to see what “eyes een in the way of jet pum Giffard’s injector was the most perfect and. accurately ea of anything that was found. oo * N. A. Review, vol. eviii, p. 518. Se ne oe ee — R. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. 413 In Ewbank’s Hydraulics I found quite a number of jet ar- rangements, none, however, which in any way touched the problem which was before me, i. e., to draw air by means of a pressure of water drawn from a hydrant. A jet pump was then made somewhat of the form presently to be described, but which received its water supply from the side tube 4, fig. 1, and w the air in through the central tube 1. With this form of aspirator the air was rarefied to about one- half its normal density, 880mm., but the instrument used an enormous quantity of water (and Boston water rates are high), and it was found to be a matter of the greatest nicety to adjust the tube 7 in order to obtain any aspiration at all. For these reasons, after a number of trials it was abandoned. ite a number of instruments were then made to ascertain duce the same result. The zig-zag bends now used were hit upon and proved entirely successful, and the form was so sim- eg that no further changes were sought. This form was per- ected during the winter of 1872-3 and was shown before the Society of Arts at Boston, in April, 1878. Since the middle of July, 1874, I have tried a number of ex- periments with a view to ascertain the best form of the aspira- tor'and also under what conditions it can be most successfully employed. : ere are several points which must be studied separately to produce a perfect instrument. If w=diameter of jet, fig. 3; a=diameter of the apex of the cone ao ; o=diameter of base of the cone and outlet tube; then the points for our considera- tion will be as follows: ae (1) The relative size of w and 0; (2) the relative proximity of a and w ; (8) the form and angle of the cone joining 4 and o ; (4) the relative sizes of a and w depending upon: (a) The amount of water column pressure; (6) the amount of rarefaction desired ; (c) the quantity of air d : - (1) The relative sizes of w and o.—As has been previously é Ss. » Laboratorie Jo v 2 2 8 ° TN hitdennincnal SP liti — S = 3 a = s sy a) & w red 0 U R. H. Richar 414 hk. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. 415 stated, a successful aspirator of this form must have true foam existing in its outlet tube o when it is at work, and it is evident that the larger this tube becomes relatively to w, beyond certain limits, the less will be the probability of our attaining a true foam. On the other hand, the smaller the tube o relatively to w the greater and more injurious will be the retarding force of friction. While keeping these two limits in sight the follow- mg experiments were made, the air being freely admitted. Aspirators of these sizes were tried. w? :07=1: 15 gave foam. : 20 ce eo w2:02=]1 w*:o%'=1:24 “ tube of water. . w2:o2=1:28 * tc “ = ee re eg (qe) a § pes) af < oO SS Le | ° mt B a cy aR i) | foe) § . is) (qo) B Qu oO =) ° followin eX) t made to ascertain, if the exact position of these lines of force. An aspirator 416 R. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. was cut off at a (see fig. 5), and its lower extremity a was dipped into a large beaker full of water and the water poet turned on to determine the form in which the foam naturally arrange itself, It assumed the form of a paren mee with no observable curve. The angle of this cone was determined under quite a number of different pressures, to see if it would vary with the pressure. of measuring the angle was rough (sighting by two rulers and transferring 4 Pape but the angle does not seem to vary with the pressur Taste | T pressure, i mm. of mercury whisk Angle of would balance it. foam outline. 2054 ¥ 2054 172° 2054 14 1521 16° 1275 16}° 1103 143° 892 pb es 425 13° The exact condition of things in this aspirator seems to be that the water jet, on arriving at a, fig. 3, is obliged to fill the whole cross section at a, thus forming a wad or diaphragm which, if we trace in its forward movement to o, we shall find that this elementary portion of the jet must do one of two things in order that it shall fill the cross section at 0: it must either lose momentum or.it must take air with it to help it to fill up the space. Practically both these things take place. Sufficient reason has already been given for having the angle of this cone as large as possible (i. e., the elimination of friction and the most rapid reduction of momentum). The following experiment, however, was tried with a view to prove a points. An aspirator (fig. 6) was made, having a=oand w:a = 056”: 080”. The distance from a to 0 was varied by Tualling jet successively off: the length ao is noted under each — in the table. Air tension. 5 2 inches. 0 * “ 932 cc 3° oe Beko dg - s7E * This indicates that the shorter the constricted tube ao became, r was the result in exhaustion The experiment just described also distinctly shows that the me Aaptrtor must have a definite point assigned for the field of “2 eee nc ee tac R. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. 417 a) The amount of water column pressure. (6) The amount of rarefaction desired. (c) The quantity of air desired. . As ais the scene of contest between the pressure of the satisfy all the conditions (a and w being diameters): Pxw*=QxXa? 418 Rk. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. : Open 0; fill R, close it again. .; iH, 3 Let on ue water ae which causes the mercury in ring the mercury in ‘B opposite to and on a level with that in G. This is done by raising the mercury with cock C, or by lowering it with cock C,, as the case may be. No the reading: call it r, (5.) Shut the water off and bring B and G again on a level, while C, is open for free admission of the atmosphere. Ta ke the reading and call it (6.) A barometer by the side of the air manometer will tell the number of mm. supported by the atmosphere: call it » and let m = the number of mm. of exhaustion shown by the air manometer; then by the law of ee tension we have—when the aspirator has produced a perfect vacuum— —Xn=mm. of mercury, able to balance the pressure of water. When the aspirator is open to the free admission of air— 7 Xn n= mm. of mercury, as above. When the aspirator has produced a partial vacuum— = Xn— (am) = mm. of mercury, as above. These formule give the pressure of water which is actually called into use by the aspirator. In order to test the relative sizes of a and w as best suited for various columns of water, seven aspirators were made in glass, of varying dimensions, which are here shown Tas.e II. a. 0. Ratio’w*?:a?. Cone angle. Inches Inches. Inches. No. 1, 068 250 1:1 i? Wei 0612 075 240 1:14 “ aS 055 078 230 5 “ * 4, 052 090 "230 1:3 es ma OS "0425 085 250 1:4 °° 4 Ree 0 090 270 1:5 «“ oe * 0635 246 ‘254 1:15 The dimensions are all given in fractions of an inch, and [feel confident that the error does not exceed 002”. Thes e fine to measure a -and its exact point of pater ere bby the scratch of a file. The diameter of the cone at the pone Bi contact was Ron sett aie See ei Fs me oe rene, Mente ery summerantmnn inca i Ber erated 2% ‘ena R. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. 419 measured by the gauge. ‘To obtain the jet w, a having already been measured, let <== the ratio which we desire to fulfil, a? : ; then JF=ine diameter of w which we require. Another acute glass cone is cut off at the right diameter by means of the gauge and a file, and the apex half of this cone is dropped, downward, into the already formed jet (fig. 13), which is then cut off exactly at the base of the cone. The greatest source of error lies in the fact that the steadiest hand cannot always rely upon making the cross section of his jets true math- ematical circles. Explanation of letters, terms, etc., used in the following experiments. G, isthe column recording the gauge readings under the at- mospheric pressure alone. G, is ditto when the water has been turned on and the aspira- tor has attained its greatest vacuum. G, is the column recording gauge readings taken just after G, and with only one change in the apparatus, 1. e., the air is freely admitted to the aspirator, the water cock remaining untouched. H, A and H-A are the air manometer readings, the latter giv- ing the number of mm. sustained by the difference in ten- sion between the normal and the exhausted air. In each case below will be found a calculated statement of the actual water pressure which was used to sustain the (H-h) of the atmosphere, which is placed next to it on the same line. One pair of columns is marked “with vacuum,” the other “without vacuum ;” in the first of these the water pressure is calculated from G, and G B xn—(n—m)=E! xn— 4 n—(H—A) }. 2 Tn the second it is calculated from G, and G,. winds ui ies rs xn G, Gf mee ( The exact cause of the difference of readings G, and G, is worthy of note. The reading G, is taken when the water cock 1s in exactly the same position as when G, was read, but the atmosphere has been admitted to the chamber c and the addi- tional impelling force to the water which lowered G, is now Wanting and hence the gauge rises when G, is taken. The question may be asked, “ what right have we to charge to one experiment a different amount of pressure from what we do to another when the gauge in both cases reads the same, or, as some- 420 R. H. Richards— Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. when the atmosphere is admitted it fee the _atmospheric ressure on top of the feed reservoir, and when it is not admit- ted, the whole atmospheric pressure is added to that of the column of water which exerts the force, increasing its power by 15 lbs. on the square inch, and if there is need of further proof, it may be obtained from a set of perunene noted by the aster- isks below each set of trials. It will there be seen that more water came through the pepuaier when * was producing a vacu- um than when it was not, even though the pressure gauge read- ings were the same, which plainly indicates that with the vacuum, there is greater impelling force to the water than without it. ASPIRATOR No. 1. ae | hang ai oh a= ‘068” Barometer, 764 w= *068 Air, 74" F: oO =: *250 Water, IZ" F. Record of experiments. G. G.. . h. H— le G;. use h. H—A. 7a8 900. SE AR 8 41 tO 000 730 18 712 811 415 ath 0 Calculated results. With vacuum. With so-vadenin) Water P. Air tension. Water P. Air tension. 1448™™ 7414™™ 100077 0 137i 112 867 0 Asprator No. 2. w* -0*—1: 14. a— 075" Barometer, 7667" w= °0612 Air, 75° F, o = *240 Water, 78° F. Record of experiments. G,. Go. H; A. H—A: G,. ce h. H—A. 1740 900 744 1 743 727 415 415 0 1740 1000* 742 3 739 775+ = 415 415 0 1740 §=1050 689 71 +618 825 415 415 0 Calculated results. With vacuum. With no vacuum. Air tensio. Water P. Air tension 14572" 74g7™ 1057" 1305 739 954 0 1121 618 850 0 : “£10006. of water nese per nuts + 1708 ¢.c. of water passed per minute. | hk. H. Richards—dJet Aspirator for Laboratories. 421 ASPIRATOR No. 3. q* +495 = 2: 1. a= °078" Barometer, 7620" w= °055 ir, 74° F, o = °230 Water, 72° F. Record of experiments. a i; H. h. H—A. 3 h. H—A. 1732 500 744 1 743 493 415 415 0 a 810 “3743 eee aes OM “2.8 ee 010 4 3780 «“ ee 1752 914* 740 6 734 740 - sa 0 1782 940 785 114 7283 760 a a 0 Calculated results. With vacuum. With no vacuum. Water P tension. Wi yi Air tension. 2620°™ 713°" ToS" 0 1608 741 1164 0 1427 739 1045 0 1416 734 1021 0 1365 7234 997 0 ASPIRATOR No. 4. eer =32 1. a= °090” Barometer, 764™™ w= ‘052 ir, 75°F. © ==:380 Water, 73° F, Record of experiments. G,. Ge. H. HA Gs. H. hk. Hewk 2 1732 570 740 53 678440 = 5565 415 415 0 1732 600§ 736 11 726 585 415 415 0 600 Caleulated results. With vacuum. With no vacuum. Water P. Air tension. Water P. Air tension. 2292™™ 73450" 1673°" 0 2166 725 1498 0 ASPIRATOR No. 5. a oF —4: 1. a@ = *085” Barometer, 764™™ . w 0425 i ane ee © = ‘250 Water, 73° F. Record of experiments, G,. G,. H. hh. HAA G. H. hk H- 1731 550 742 34 7383 550 415 415 0O 1731 572°*.. 741 737 566+ * ig 0 1731 600 737 ll 726 582 “ e 0 57 2tt * ont cc. water passed per minute. 1800 c.c water passed per minute. +13 1540 “ ce “a “ re ter “ cc “ when @. or 1516 a“ u “ ac ‘i a gaol ce coe oer a see * te eg 953 Am. Jour. wsotateiice Series, Vou. VIII, No. 48.—Dec., 1874. 422 R. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. Calculated results. With vacuum. With no vacuum. Water P. Air tension. Water P, Air tension. 2378 73830" 1639™™ 0 2285 Tat 157 0 2176 726 1508 0 ASPIRATOR No. 6 a*:w? 5 +1, a= 090" Barometer, 762°" w— 040 75° F o == 70 Water, 72° F Record of experiments. G,. Gp. 1732™™ 471 —hA, G,: H. h. H—A. 0 734 A471 415 415 0 1782 600" 730" 74 791§ = 490F 3 0 500t Caleulated results. With vacuum. With no vacuum. Water P. Air tension, Water P. Air tension. 2T74= 7g4nm 303955 0 2609 7314 1931 0 ASPIRATOR No. 7. a? : w*=15:1. a= 246" Barometer, 764™™ w= *0635 Air, 7 oO = "254 Water, fe Record of experiments. G. Ge. EH Ah «609A. 1748 462 495 820 175 Air and water exactly bal- anced each other. neequeneuse results, 2301 : Air tension. Comparison of the amount of water column pressure re- quired by aspirators of different = in order that they may produce an approximate vacuum Taste IIL. Water pressure. Air tension. Ratio of sae 1448™™ 7414" 743 Rk. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. 423 From which we may obtain the following table: Taste IV. Actual ratio. Ratio of Difference between Air tension: Water pressure. w? : a? pressure and area ratios, 1°95 < 1°961 1°5 + 461 2°170 2° + ‘170 3°120 3° + ‘120 3°220 4° — °*780 3°793 5° —1°207 13°148 15° — 1°852 This table shows a distinct variation from the theory enun- ciated above, QXa?=P: w?, and so long as the actual pressure ratio is larger than the theoretical area ratio, it would seem to be accounted for by friction; but when, as in the last three cases, it becomes less, I confess I am at a loss to discover the law. The differences form a very nice series, growing less and less until they become negative quantities, but up to the time of writing I have failed to ascertain the cause. At the first glance it looks as if the water was doing more than its theoretical amount of work ; momentum surely cannot account for it. Experiments to determine the relative amounts of air and water used by the different aspirators under a constant air ten- sion, and in each case with that water pressure which is the minimum required to produce its best vacuum. Barometer 767, air 74° F., water 78° F. Record of experiments. Aspirator.G,. Gp. H. h. H—hA. Time. Amt. air. Amt. water. No.1 17384 906 450 374 76 Imin. 512cc 1837c.c. rae “ No 1000 450 374 76 « NG. a. = © 910 «450. -874: 96. © 578 1227 No.4 « 570 470 350120 * 900 1644 No5 « 550 460 362 98 * 634 1016 No.6 « 471 450 -374 76 “ 157 1110 nay. 8 900 600 186414 “* 332 2266 |e ee ee. “ «“ 182 1840 No. 3 c 910 “ “ “ “ 225 1469 No. 4 6c 570 “ “ “ “ 383 1754 mo. 5 s 550—Cts “ « & 470 1108 No. 6*1755 476 “ “ « «“ 520 1160 Calculated’ statement for comparison of relative air and water volumes of the different aspirators. * Tried at another time; bar. 764, air 77°, water 72°. 424 fi. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. Taste V. Ratio air Aspirator. Water pres. Air ten. water volume. Time. No, 1 EY bee 740% 5 1 min, No. 2 639 76 4°015 $ No. 3 771 76 2°123 * No. 4 1686 120 1°826 - No. 5 1749 98 1°602 he No. 6 2133 76 1°466 i No.1 1125 414 6°825 . No. 2 977 . 10°110 . No. 3 1109 - 6°524 ” No. 4 1980 = 4°551 - No. 5 2065 — 2°351 - No. 6 2467 ved 2°357 e C, is at the same instant opened. The manometer is pre- vented from rising and indeed held exactly on its desired read- ing by means of cock C,. At the instant the minute is up, ? 18 removed and C, closed; then 7 contains the whole of the water used, and the number of cubic centimeters of water required to | ain represents the amount of air drawn. ‘To be sure, there is a slight error from having the levels of water in K and F different, but this is entirely Insignificant when compared with the forces at issue. Experiment to ascertain the length of time required to pro- duce a vacuum ina vessel of given size. Aspirator a? : w?=5:1. Water pres. H—A. Time. Water pres. H—h. Time. 2774 714 1 min.* Q774 637 5 min. “ 1 14 cc 8 6* (74 662 6 “ “ "31 Q % * “ se R. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. 425 Another experiment to determine the amount of time needed to exhaust a vessel of known capacity. Aspirator a? :w?=5:1. Tr pre Water pres. approximately. H—h. Time. lapproximately. H—A. Time. 725 $4min.* | 2774 676 4 min. 437 Cc iz 403 5 “ “ 739 13 oon “ "12 54 “ 6 739 2 c“ 6% “c 725 64 66 “ 497 / 6s 0 0 “cc t “c 799 gs - 255 $ be ae 734 Lo: ¢ s 460 1 A ss 737 is: * = 549 :.. * bi 739 iz.* . 633 3 fe sts 739 TT dl In order to ascertain how long any vessel will require for exhaustion the law is directly as the volume. A flask of dou- ble capacity takes twice as long. e experiments below were made to ascertain the maximum exhaustion attainable by these four aspirators, the readings being taken much more closely than those given previously. Barometer 767-2™™, air 764° F. Aspirator. Water temp. G, G,. H. h. H—A No. 1 44° 1740 520 744 0 744 No. 2 734 1740 520 744 0 744 No. 3 74 1740 500 744 0 744 0. 4 73 1740 500 743 1} 7414 Table showing the amount of rarefaction attained by each oo gas when doing its best work by means of the pressure at an Tape VI. Aspi- H—A. Aq. vapor Water Water Bar. B+(H-A+V). Faor. — temperature. pressure. B. No.4 7414 ~— 2109 73 2644 767-2 4°61 No.5 738k ~— 2109 73 2378 764° 1 No.6 = 734 20°47 72 2774 7 8°5 No.7 145 20°47 72 2301 764" 5 68°53 The column B—(H—A+V) in this table shows us the error of the aspirator, i.e. the number of millimeters that its air exhaus- tion varies from the theoretical perfection to be aimed at. The pump will never be able to eliminate the tension of aqueous * Aspirator attached to manometer only ; cock Cs, fig. 14, was closed. a dine other figures record a series with C, open and the aspirator attached to flask without any water in it, of 1340 c.c. capacity. 426 R. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. vapor so long as water is used in it. I have made one attempt to produce a mercury pump to work upon the same principle, but the instrument was not a perfect success. It will need study to secure its best form, and to ascertain whether it can be made more available than Sprengel’s fall pump, which is now com- monly in use. n experiment was made to ascertain whether the form of the converging cone which connects the reservoir ¢, and the constricted point a, fig. 8, influences in any way the success of the aspirator. ‘The form of aspirator used was that represented in fig. 10., which removes the converging cone entirely. The data of the experiment were :—w= 056”, a= 080”, a?:w? =2:1. The barometer stood at 7784. Air tension. Water pressure. 745-400 2406-9™™ 742°4 1621°2 737° 1505°5 In the second experiment the aspirator was about at its limit, i. €., an increase of water pressure would not materially increase its power, while a slight decrease would seriously impair its power, which gives us an opportunity to compare this form of aspirator by means of Table [V with an aspirator of the ordin- form : Ratio Ratio Air ten. to water pres. w?®. a’. a a a iy! 12 The difference between these two numbers 2°09 and 2°17, is In aspirator fig. 10, oe oe “ 3, fluence the quantity of air carried by the instrument. I find ts. Prof. Mixter informs me that Fechner of Berlin uses a jet aspirator differing in form and principle from my Giffard’s 1n- jector experiment, only in the fact that he fills the cone ao with foam by placing o in a beaker of water. | . | R. H. Richards—Jet Aspirator for Laboratories. 427 From Prof. J. Lawrence Smith, I learned a few days since, that a metallic jet aspirator is used in France. e maker and the particulars of its form he did not recall at the moment. In the store of Messrs. Codman & Shurtleff of Boston I find an instrument called a saliva pump, made to be screwed to the hydrant at any point. This instrument, while it is essentially the same as mine, differs in obtaining its foam in the cone a 0, fig. 3, by an obstruction which is introduced at o. The cone ao is much too acute, according to my experience, but I should judge that it would do fair work, and for its present application is just as good as if it had the most economical form. This instrument was invented and is now made by Dr. J. K. Fis of Salem, Mass. Mass, Institute of Technology, Boston. Note.—Since writing this account, I have given dimensions and rules for the manufacture of these aspirators, to suit ap- proximately any head of water, to Mr. EK. B. Benjamin, 10 d—c a—b o(1 ei aa) : a(1+ —) = 1 atmosphere : atmospheres of water ressure, a+a ae "760 _ § atmospheres of d—c | water pressure. ae 428 F. W. Clarke— Volume of Water of Crystallization. I am aware that this formula gives one atmosphere more pressure than the water column yields; but if the reader will refer back to the experiments, he will find that the aspirator actually utilizes one atmospheric pressure more than is due to the water column, for high water pressures one or more atmos- phere, and for less powerful ones the aspirator utilizes a portion of an atmosphere more than is due to the column of water. - ART. XXXVIL—On the Molecular Volume of Water of Crystal- hization; by FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE, 8. B., Profes- sor of Chemistry and Physics in the University of Cincinnati. _ It is an important problem in theoretical chemistry to de- termine the nature of the difference between water of constitu- tion and water of crystallization. Some time since it occurred to me that perhaps a clue to the solution of this problem might be obtained from a careful comparison of the molecular vol- F. W. Clarke— Volume of Water of Crystallization. 429 and subsequently present my conclusions. The following spe- cific gravity determinations were employed. ws educe molecular volume is placed after each one, in bracket CaCl,, 2-240, Filhol (molec. vol. 49°6). CaCl, 6 aq., 1° ae Fil- hol (vol. 133 9). SrCl,, 28033, Karsten (56°5). SrCl,, 6 aq., 1921, Buignet (138-8). BaCl,, 3-886, Schroder (53-5). "BaCl,, 2 aq., 3°052, Schiff (79-9). FeCl,, 2 528, Filhol (50°2). FeCl,, oe i) fo) rd © bo oO = oak 3 ° ray r antiee _— Oo i) iv) — © i] © a ° Nm Si ye o Qu oy ° S ae Ow gCl,, 2°177, Playfair nd Joule (43°7). MgCl,, 6 aq., 1562 , Playfair and Joule (1 29°9). Li,SO,, 2-210, Kremers (46°6). Li,SO,,aq., 2°02, Troost (59° 9). Na,SO,, 2°59 97, Playfair and Joule (54:7). Na,80,, 10 aq., 9). Ca ZnSO, 0, Karsten, Filhol (47°4). Zn 080,. 7 aq., 1:9 Buignet ee 7). Al 3(SO,),, 2°171, Playfair and Joule abe ri Al, (SO,),, 18 aq., 1671 , Playfair a and Joule (39 CuK, (S0,),, 2°797, Playfair and Joule (119°). ‘CuK,(S0 pre 6 aq., 2716376, Playfair and Joule ey? K,(S0,)o, 2-816. Playfair and Joule et ZnK 2(SO,4)o, 6 aq., 2 3, Schiff, 2(SO,)., 6 aq., 1°891, Playfai and Joule (211 2), ZnAm, SO;)5, 2° or: Playfair and Joule (131°9). Sia (SO,)», 6 aq., 1897, Playfair and Joule (211-0). AIEGO). ; AlK(SO,),, Playfair and Joule (276). AlAm(SO,)., 2 039, Playhair an and J si (116°4). AlAC(SO,) 12 aq., 1°625, Playfair and Joule (27 Na.B.0, 2-367, Filhol (85°3). Na,B,O,, 10 aq., 1692, Filhol 8) SrN ae 857, Filhol (78°2). SrN,O,, 5 aq., 2-118, Filhol (148°3). ne an , 2240, Filhol (78° 5). CaN, O,, 4 aq., 1°90, Ordway 130 Naas ; Oy tas, CaCO,, 2°7000, porte ten (37°0). CaCO, ae 1-783, Pelouze (106 6). KN aCO,, 2°5289-2°5633, Stolba (48). KNaCo,, 12 aq., 1°6088-1°6334, Stolba (208 6). 302, 1421, Bédeker (59°3). NaC,H,O,, 6 aq., 140, er (137°8) 430 EF. W. Clarke— Volume of Water of Crystallization. In this list it will at once be noticed that there is a consider- able variety of salts, varying in hydration from one to eighteen molecules of water. Chlorides, sulphates, both simple and double, nitrates, carbonates, borates, and acetates, are represented, Now, if we calculate from these data, the molecular volume of the water of crystallization in the manner already described, we shall get the following series of values: In CaCl,, 6 aq. 14°0 In CuK,(SO,)o, 6 aq. 14°1 “ SrCl,, 6 aq. 13°7 “ ZnK,(SO,),, 6 aq. 14°5 “Balls, 2 ag 13.2 “ CuAm,(SO,),,6 aq. 13°1 “ FeCl,, 4 aq 13°3 “ ZnAm,(SO,),,6 aq. 13°2 “ CoCl,, 6 aq 14°1 “ AIK(SO,),, 12 aq. 13°3 * CuCl,, 2 aq. 12°5 “ AlAm(SO,),, 12 aq. 18° “Na, B,0,, 10 aq. 140 74 CaSO Qa 13°9 . CaN ,O,, 4 aq. 15% (74 MnSO,, 5 Si 13°3 ve SrN.O0,;, 5 aq. 14 0 * FeSO,, 7 aq. 14°1 * CoSO,, 7 aq. 14°6 “ “Na, CO,, 10 aq. 15°0 “ NiSO,, 7 aq. 14-7 “ CaCO,, 5 aq. 13°9 * CuSO,, 5 aq. 13°3 “ KNaCOQ,, 12 aq. 13°4 ** MgSO,, 7 aq. 14°3 “2080, 1% 14-2 “ NaC,H,Oz, 6 aq. 13°0 Z 4> / aq. ‘ Al,(SO,),, 18 aq. 13°4 The mean of all is 13°76. Here, now, we have practically one value for the molecular volume of water of crystallization, no clearly marked exception having yet appeared to me. When, instead of selected single determinations of specific gravity, the average of all the reliable published values for each salt is used in the work of calculation, the uniformity becomes, if anything, more striking. The dif- ference between the extremes in the above series of values 1s less than is frequently found between two determinations for one substance. When we consider the variety of salts with which we are dealing, and the great differences in the extent of their hydra- on, it seems certain that so remarkably uniform a series of — can be interpreted in only one way. ) : ag en water unites with an anhydrous salt to become water oF to a volume of 13°76. An idea of the amount of this conden- sation may be derived from the fact that the molecular volume sepia, | ¢ F. W. Clarke— Volume of Water of Crystallization. 481 tion, the salts themselves were to undergo a change olume, it Is evident that, in such a variety of compounds, we could the remainder. We might, indeed, get similar remainders for a series of salts of equal hydration, but we could certainly hope for nothing of the kind in ‘comparing compounds with one, two, our, five, six, seven, ten, twelve, and eighteen molecules of water of crystallization. 1,0,, 4-487, Ditte (74-4). 1,0,,H,O (HIO,), 4-269, Ditte (82-4), K,0, 2°656, Karsten (35:4). (548). CaO, 3-180, Filhol (17-6). CaO, HO, 2-078, Filhol ; , Filhol (22-4) SrO, H,O, 3625, Filhol (33°5). BaO, 5-456, Filhol (28-0). BaO, H,O, 4-495, Filhol (38). Mn,O, (braunite), 4°752, Rammelsberg (33-2). Mn, Og. H,0 (manganite), 4-335, Rammelsberg (40°6). Fe,0,, 5°037, H. Rose (31-7). O,, H,O (githite), 4°37, Yorke (40-7). 1,0, (sapphire), 4-0001, Schaffgotsch (25-7). eg Hy (diaspore), 3-45, J. L. Smith (35-0). B,O,, 1°803, Davy (38°8). B,0,, 3H, 0, 1-4347, Stolba (86-4). Arranging these serially and subtracting, we get the follow- h r _ Mg remainders to represent the wa In [,0,, H,0, 8°0 In Mn,0,, H,0, 74 ~ K,O0, HO, 19°4 H Gees Hass 9°0 “ CaO, H,0, 17% “"A),0,, 1,0. 9°3 “ SrO, H,0, Yes at, ets, 15°9 “ BaO, H,0, 10-0 It would be easy to carry this out still farther, but alread of uniformity is striking enough. One compound, however, is worth noting. The molecular volume of K,O, H,0, halved as it ought to be for KHO, is almost the exact mean between the values for ice, 19°6, and K,O, 354. This, of Course, is what we should expec we would naturally expect, viz., that when an oxide unites With water to form a hydrate, both undergo condensation. ondly, what supports the same idea, that the volumes thus bitrarily calculated for water average much lower than the values obtained from crystallized salt. 432 J. L. Smith on Warwickite. To sum up, the evidence presented in this paper renders the following statement highly probable. When water unites with an anhydrous substance to become water of crystallization, the water undergoes the entire con- densation. en it unites as water of constitution, the con- densation is distributed throughout the molecule. The law of this distribution remains to be ascertained. Art. XXXVIL— Warwickite; by J. LAWRENCE SMITH, Louisville, Ky. Iv is several years since Professor Brush and myself, while engaged in the re-examination of American minerals, pointed out the mineral warwickite as possessing a peculiar composition, altogether different from what it had been supposed to have. The mineral was first described as a new species by Pro- fessor Shepard in 1888 (Am. Journ. Sci., vol, xxxiv), and again more fully in 1889 (ibid, vol. xxxvi, p. 813). In both of these descriptions, however, he confounded two very dis- tinct substances, viz: the mineral proper and an impure variety of it, which, while possessing the general crystallographic form, contained but a small portion of the true warwickite; in fact, one of the crystals that furnished material for his examuna- tion was five centimeters long by one centimeter across, and had no metallic luster, which luster really marks the true war- wickite, especially on the cleavage surfaces. : The result of Professor Shepard’s analyses were so different from what I have found either in the pure or impure varieties that it is needless to give them here. Subsequently this mineral was taken up by Pro Hunt, and from his results he supposed that he se ro. ee J. L. Smith on Warwickite. 433 When pure warwickite was examined, it’ was found that One of its most important constituents had been overloo But so little of the pure mineral was then at our disposal, and so difficult was it to separate it from the associated min- érals, that all that could be arrived at, at that time, was the spinel. When the mineral is powdered in the mortar the small particles of spinel will be felt, and with a magnifyin ass can be discovered. Notwithstanding these simmalien am satisfied that I have made out its composition. Its physical characters have been pretty well described in works on Miner- alogy. Its specific gravity as made out by me is 3362; by Brush, 3-351 small crystals, 3-423 large crystals; and by Damour, 3°355. The luster of the cleavage surface is very bright and characteristic, being of a dark hair-brown or chocolate color. It is very readily cleaved in the direction of the prism. The results of my analysis are as follows: Ratio. Boracic acid 27°80 19°06 9 Titanic acid 23°82 10°37 5 ia 36°80 14°46 6 Oxide of roe Se: 10 1 434 J. L. Smith—Association of Garnet, Idocrase, ete. The silica and alumina were impurities, the alumina arising from spinel that it had been impossible to separate, and which was combined with a little of the magnesia; and these have been deducted in making out the oxygen ratio. Moreover, the titanic acid obtained in the analysis retained a minute quantity of oxide of iron. fter a most careful study of the compo- sition as made out by the above analysis, confirmed by sev- eral other partial analyses, I feel warranted in giving the follow- ing as the true composition of warwickite : 3B = 105 30°57 a. = 8 23°58 6Mg = 121-44 35°36 1Fe = 36 “49 343-44 100-00 The exact formula by which to express this mineral is not easily given, as we know nothing of compounds containing bora- cic and titanic acid associated together; the expression I am disposed to adopt is MgB? + (ig,Fe)T i. : I would remark that at the same locality from which the warwickite comes, there occurs a titaniferous spinel contain- ing about 15 per cent of magnesia, as analyzed by Rammelsberg, and would have for its formula MgTi + Fei. mg7g } im are: ; h'm=135° 40’; h'g? (over m) =109°, h'g'=90° 20’-90°30', mg =184°20'-184° 35’, g?g' (adjacent)=161° 20’-161° 25, gh? (over m)=108° 40’. From these, M. Des Cloiseaux calculates mm=91° 20’ and 88° 40’, h'h?=161° 58’, h'm=185° 40’, hig* =108° 80, hlg'==90°, mg'=134° 80’, g’g!=161° 10’, gh?= 108° 2’. Art. XXXIX.—Curious association of Garnet, Idocrase and Datolite; by J. Lawrence Smiru, Louisville, Ky. aes at ——ar J. L. Smith—Association of Garnet, Idocrase, ete. 435 is perfectly pure, as shown by the following analysis of a por- tion from which the calcite was carefully separated : Be ee ee ee a ee ee 38°02 Horacie acid 2. Sik eee eae 21°62 Re oS 33°87 WRG 56s 2 ks 5°61 99°12 The association of this mineral with garnet and idocrase is, I believe, now mentioned for the first time. The garnet is the variety cinnamon stone; the crystals are over the exterior, and are cinnamon-colored within or through the mass of the crystals; sp. grav. 3°59. An analysis of the Silica 42°01 Alumina. .-.... 17°76 Sesquioxide of iron 5°06 Oxide of manganese. > _..-..... 2-2. ---- 20 Taine BO i ee ee 35°01 Matinee eo ee 13 100°17 that it is impossible to say where the idocrase terminates and the garnet begins. A large crystal of garnet, when cut in two and polished, shows the idocrase penetrating it, like so many st green streamlets through the interior. Its specific gravity is 3445. A portion carefully separated from the garnet gave the following results : aoe oo awe SO OU Alena eee 17°04 Sesquioxide of iron a eee Oside’ oF ininssiens. 0 2 18 MB. SS Be 35°94 Magnesia ee ee 1°07 Woteeh 2S es ee 51 iis by bestictl i206. oe 2°00 99°23 I know of no locality where the above minerals are associated m the manner described. The fact respecting the garnet and 436 A. M. Mayer— Method of investigating the idocrase is especially interesting; for while we find these minerals frequently associated, we have nowhere else found the crystals of the two penetrating and interlacing each other, so as to form between them a uniform mass, yet each mineral retaining its identity. t can be readily understood how two such minerals as lime, garnet and idocrase may occur in the manner just mentioned, when we consider the formule of the two: arnet, (48°+38)*Si9 Idocrase, ($R°+-28)? Si3. ART. —On a new method of investigating the Composite Nature of the Electric Discharge ; by ALFRED M MAYER. rmed Henry’s discovery, on examining the nature of the discharge by means of a revolving mirror. Subsequently Rood (in a series of classical researches, published in this Journal in 1869-71-72) studied the multiple character of the _ discharge of the inductorium by means of rotating dises perfor- ated with narrow radial slits. In 1873 Cazint also investigated the discharge with the rotating disc. The method I have de- vised leads us directly, by the simplest means, to phenomena which cannot be revealed by either revolving mirror or rotating disc. The first method that occurred to me was to attach a- delicate metallic point to a vibrati tuning-fork, and to send the discharge from this point, through lamp-blackened paper, to a revolving metallic cylinder, on which the paper was stretc We can to some extent analyze the electric discharge, in these conditions, from the series of perforations left in the paper in the trail of the vibrating fork. This method, though beauti- ful as an illustration, is useless as a means of investigation ; _ for the metal cylinder, the paper and the fork form a species Leyden jar, which is always in the circuit of the particular ~ disch whose nature you would investigate. The above method, though original with me, cannot be claimed as MY | Weber die cletische Paschenentadung isp. 192 Jenteal Os Pippen sel pete Pogg. Ann., vol. cxvi, p- + Composite Nature of the Electric Discharge. 437 When one of these discs is revolved about 20 times per second, it is rendered very flat by centrifugal action. It can then be brought between points or balls, even when the latter are i rated by no more than mm. When in this position, the dis- charge between the points or balls perforates the disc and leaves a permanent record of its character, of the duration of the whole discharge, and of the intervals separating its constituent flashes and sparks. To obtain the time of rotation of the dise I use the method invented by Young in 1807 (see his Natural Philosophy, vol. i, p. 191). That is, I present momentarily to the rotating dise a delicate point which is attached to a vibrat- ing tuning-fork. The number of vibrations per second of this fork has been determined to the last degree of precision by means of a break-circuit clock, which sends at each second a spark from an inductorium through the fork’s sinuous trace on blackened paper, covering a revolving cylinder. The axis of the sinuous line on the disc is traced with a needle point, and reading-microscope, and the deviation of the whole discharge and the intervals separating its components can be determined ‘to the -51,, of a second. Many results have been obtained with this apparatus. I de- fer their publication until I have geaterd examined them, and have extended this research with the study, not only of the dis- charge of the inductorium, but also of the frictional machine, of he Leyden jar and of the Holtz machine, under every con- dition of charged surface and of striking distance, and when the current is flowing freely over a conductor and when it is doing work. I here present, merely as examples of the value of the method, the results I have obtained in three conditions of ex- riment. * Onderzoekingen gedaan in het Physiologisch Laboratorium der Utrechtsche Hoogeschool, 1868-69. + Archives Néerlandaises des Sci tes et naturelles, t. v, p. 292. Am. Jour. Sct.—Tarrp — Vou. VIII, No. 48.—Dec., 1874. 438 A. M. Mayer—Method of investigating, ete. 1. Discharge of large inductorium* between platinum points one mm. apart. No jar in the circuit. The platinum electrodes were neatly rounded and formed on wire ;°; mm. in diameter. After the discharge through the rotat- ing disc, nothing was visible on it, except a short curve formed of minute, thickly-set white dots; but, on holding the dise be- tween the eye and the light, it was found to be perforated with 33 clean round holes, with the carbon undisturbed around their edges. The portion of the discharge which makes these holes lasts ;'; second, and the holes are separated by intervals which gradually decrease in size toward the end of the discharge, so discharge. The average interval between the spark-holes is 735 laced in the circuit of the coil, and which is described below. he above numbers were determined as the average measures on six dises. It is here to be remarked that all of the dis- terminals of the secondary coil. After this discharge through the disc a very remarkable appearance is presented, the full description of which I reserve for a more extended paper. The discharge in its path around the dise dissipates little circles of carbon. ere are 91 of these circles, each perforated by 4,8, 2or1 holes. I shall here have to adopt a new nomenclature for the description of this complex phenomenon. I call the whole act of discharge of the coil, the discharge. Those separate actions which form the little circles by the dissipation of the carbon I denominate flashes, and the periorations in these circles I call sparks. The discharge in the above experiment lasts ,'; of a second. ‘The flashes at the beginning of the discharge are separated by intervals aver * The striking distance of this coil between brass points was 45 cm. en an Se eae y ae ee eee J. Brocklesby— Rainfall in the United States, ete. 489 aging ;1, second up to about the 10th flash ; after this the in- tervals of the flashes rapidly close up, so that during the fourth fifth of the discharge they follow at each ;;';5 of a second. During the last fifth of the discharge the intervals between the flashes gradually increase, and the last flash is separated from its predecessor by ,,'5, of a second. Discharge of large inductorium between brass balls; one em. in diameter, separated one mm., with a Leyden jar of 242 sq. cm. mner coating, connected with the terminals of the secondary coil. This discharge also lasts ;'; second, and is similar to the pre- ceding, except that larger circles are made on the dise by the dissipation of the carbon, and that there are fewer flashes, viz., 71. The total number of spark-holes in these flashes is 123. Thus, there are fewer flashes than in the experiments with the platinum points, but the total number of spark-holes is the same in each case. Hence there is, on an average, 1°34 spark to each flash with the points, and 1°78 spark-holes. to each flash with the balls. xperiments have also been made with rotating discs formed of “sensitized ” paper, and interesting results have been ob- tained. October 15, 1874. Art. XLI.— On the Periodicity of the Rainfull in the United States in relation to the Periodicity of the Solar Spots; by Pro- fessor JOHN BrocKLesBy, of Trinity College, Hartford, Ct. THE researches of scientists, especially of late, lead to the Conclusion that there is an intimate connection, more or less Meteorological Observatory at Mauritius, and it is claimed by Mr. Meldrum and others that the variation in the annual rain- cOmmotions. 440 J. Brocklesby— Rainfall in the United States European country which presents results opposed to the theory.” From the comparatively small number of the tables of rain- fall which Mr. Meldrum gives, and from his silencé upon the subject, we may, I think, safely conclude that he did not con- sult Mr. Charles A. Schott’s elaborate article on the “ Rainfall in the United States,” published by the Smithsonian Institu- tion, a work which embraces abstracts of records of aqueous precipitation from about twenty-two hundred stations. The Investigations, therefore, of Mr. Meldrum, so far as this country is concerned, may be regarded as incomplete. As the following discussion is based upon Mr. Schott’s tables, it may not be amiss to state briefly in what manner they have n so constructed and apvoatisd that the variations in the annual rainfall throughout the United States admit of ready comparison with the changés in the extent of the solar spots. From the whole number of stations whose mean annual rain- record of these stations extends, with greater or less intervals, — 1799 to 1867. ) hibit the nature of the fluctuations from year to year more dis- tinctly, the author unites them in groups, formed of stations where the annual rainfall appears subject to the same laws. in relation to the Solar Spots. 441 West Florida; group VII comprehends the sea-coast from Vir- ginia to Florida, and group VIII includes the sea-coast of Cali- ornia. In these groups the percentage of the mean amount of rain- fall is tabulated for each year of observation, the longest period of record extending from 1804 to 1867. From the data thus afforded curves are constructed which present to the eye the annual fluctuations of the rainfall over the vast region embraced by these groups. Mr. Schott speaks briefly of the connection between the solar disturbances and the rainfall, stating that the rain curve for 1837-8 shows a de- cided minimum in precipitation, when there was a marked maximum of solar activity; but that the two phenomena lead to an opposite conclusion about the epoch of 1855-6 ; a mini- mum of rainfall then occurring with a minimum extent of sun- spot area. He does not enter into any detailed investigation of this supposed connection. : Under these circumstances, it appears, therefore, desirable, in order to detect what connection, if any, exists between the fluc- tuations of the annual rainfall and the variations in the extent of the solar spots, that these phenomena should be compared either year by year, or by groups of years; and this it is now proposed to do. Taking Dr. Wolf’s table of the relative extent of sun-sp for each year, within the period from 1804 to 1867 inclusive, in which period the yearly percentage of the average rainfall is also given in Mr. Schott’s table of territorial groups, two methods of comparison can be employed if we wish to ascer- tain whether an annual excess of sun-spot area is attended by an excess of annual rainfall, and vice versa. The first mode is each side of the minimum year for a minimum set; or where this is not possible, a triennial group is formed. 449 J. Brocklesby—Rainfull in the United States Proceeding by the first method, it is found that the average sun-spot area for the period extending from 1804 to 1867 inclu- | sive is denoted by the number 38. Ta ing now each year of this period, the year is printed in heavy or light type, accord- ing as the number representing its sun-spot area is greater or less than 88; heavy type indicating an excess and light type a deficiency. ach year is then also marked plus or minus from Mr. Schott’s table of territorial groups, according as its rain- fall is above or below the mean. This being done, we have the following results. In group I, comprising the seaboard from Maine to Virginia, there are twenty-nine years in which the sun-spot area is above the aver- age. In seventeen of these the rainfall is in excess, in ten below the average, and in two equal to it. In this group there are also thirty-five years when the sun-spot area is below the enteen minima sun-spot years, and in these the rainfall is in excess seven times, below the mean eight times, and equal to it twice, one equal to it. There are also in this group twenty-five years when the extent of sun-spots is below the average, and in mne of these the rainfall is above the mean, in fourteen below the mean, and in two equal to it. _ The tables of precipitation belonging to these three grou are regarded by Mr. Schott as tolerably trustworthy, and the results of the comparison show a tendency on the whole toward an excess of rain when there is an excess of sun-spot area, and vice versa. Yet we meet here with marked anoma- lies; for in the period from 1818 to 1826 inclusive, which are which are years of excess in the sun-spot area, all the annu: rainfalls in the three groups are below the average, except in | ce. Moreover, as we see by the table, years of excess and deficiency of rainfall are found as well in the periods when oe area is above the mean as in those where it is : LOW 4 ’ os in relation to the Solar Spots. 443 Passing now to the other territorial groups, the results from which are to be regarded as only rough approximations toward the truth on account of the insufficiency of the stations, we obtain the following results from all these taken together. In the years when the extent of the spots is in excess, the annual rainfall is above the mean thirty-five times, below it thirty- seven times, and equal to it five times. In the years when the sun-spot area is below the mean the rainfall is below the aver- age thirty-two times, above it twenty times, and equal to it six s. Taking now all the groups which embrace so large a portion of the United States, we obtain the following results in refer- ence to the subject before us: Ratio of the excess of Sun-spot area. rainfall (above the mean) in deficiency. From 1804 to 1805 (inclusive),*| above the mean, ip * 1806 to 1815 Holow oS ace 6:4 “ 1816 to 1817 above “* * 0:2 “ 1818 to 1826 Doe. 7. 6. .12 ABZ? ta. 1881 shove". © 2-4 *" 1832 to 1834 below. %.7 © es “ 1835 to 1840 above °° 6: 29 “1841 to 1845 noe. 12:19 “ 1846 to 1852 above * 8 Sr. to “1853 to 1857 woe > * 8:28 “1858 to 1864 ine =o" * $1: 15 “1865 to 1867 Below 15:3 For the reasons already stated, namely, that groups I, IT and IV. are only to be regarded as trustworthy, and that the rest give but rough approximations, the above results must be taken with great allowance. As they stand they are full of anomalies, about half the results favoring and the rest contra- dicting the law which is supposed to exist between the rainfall and the extent of the sun-spot area. : The results obtained by this first method of comparison are exhibited in the annexed table. (TableI) _ : he second mode of investigating any relation which may exist between the annual fluctuations in the extent of the solar spots and the variations in the yearly rainfall, consists In form- * In 1804 the rainfall equals the mean also. viz, 38. Light type = when equal, ey ow. — when bel TABLE I. the sun-spot area is above the ave J. Brocklesby—Ra/infall in the United States T Maras Heavy typ when below. 444 | STEEP PRRESP a Ee eet ee eee Ss eae MONE Une eae Sri Wey fee es 1 te ie ee ee ba ye ee ee Sh se ‘eae ee ee ee i= a (Te) 2 ba 10 ia) a fe ee ee ei beaches ia POR RH LRA RRR ENN RRR JH HHH OOO HE OMHMAMOIMAMAN! 4 Pe | pete | pe Sa AON M MS | SRR fam te “eyuloy =| peebe sb e b a 24d aa ee te a et ee We Jo 48809 Bog | = ea ati ih Mia ae eel Mas es re, rae Pare, i Meee Sate Poy Rete See CT GS Pa ah ee Ae ge Poy ie pene: at eer A Bake hae Whe Bore Wane Wie Wea The Pel Sap ti wruysutaso iewoo wag | SPE EET Pe Pe af eed ed te fe ee cusnry mmo (Db | PEP iit tid big Pie Pea ees tg pee a Pe pus diosaseg, ope {BP EE eae 2 eed Be a ee pumpin om (PP Pitre rth ety ahaa bad] PEELE LET UL) EL a eee ‘oo AoueA omg | C8 aC ee A a Se a YOR : fe ta camearmm (HY ti Pit ebb ta ta ae Pe eae eo gd foe eee yo aed smomtpe JH Stee eee P b t ge pe pee eee) i | ee puv ‘Y10X “N Jo owig omm sowg (HTH i Ubte tl tet lid tt bid (1 deseo 011 ie ee ee E13 g c g ig ¢ fe g Oh na ot or ei moe & | S8essseranteshacsasaxsehagesae SEEEEPEEER! $3238 S82F2rezzuzeSeanssasTss3Essss 2ESQgggaz7723 — in relation to the Solar Spots. 445 2 sez |2 legis lala |. = 228 =. =" . $a a 8 .|#22 | 32 ("a | Ps lee] ba] sé of: | dE 1.) 22) 9e1/PS) ee S852 | 2 lets) 28) <2 | CE | Sa oo *42 6 Og Si bl Ea a: os a Be | Z84s| o¢ |SMe| oH | oe | Be | Se s> [3s | Sa iP S| 44/85 | ge| 6 ; |$ee3|/f> \gzz8 | 22/3 |3 eee es ee © GROUP 1 I | WL /IV.! V. | VI! VOL) Vil. | + | — |Total+} Total — 1851 + fo [ee ee eo eS y abe 1852 - + + feeb mp eed 4p 8 1 2 +81 | 18 1853 4+ — = — Pena — = + 213 “is sda we 1854 as sai Oa Petes eeiy ANS § ed WA A Ee sai Hee 1855 — a ae ee ee ee oe te pe aoe 1856 Min, | — = mt Cre a ere ae aed a ee | ie 857 ¢ } pel ie Pe a ed 8 ae 1858 “s + 2 eS ee ee ee oe mys 859 + + =f +i — eet i e168] 2 oa ‘aaa 1860 Max. + + ee Ne a ne a ef sere we a pe 1861 = < pom Se oh a —|+}]+)5)1 res wads 1862 + i: ee ee ae ee Bee ie. 1863 + - + Poet ee ae a nee 1864 + ye res ee ee ee ee ee) —15 1865 ses): ae pc ee ieee ai ie 1866 es a Bag faye nes eres We eae Crna BE Thee | eel | oe iesees 1867 Min. | + me i eae ey Deen ia +1512) +15 —3 Proceeding in this manner, maxima and minima sun-spot te and the adjacent parts of Canada, Massachusetts and New Hampshire, the results in the maxima years agree with the law twice and disagree twice, and in the minima years they accord with the law twice and are opposed to it once. The observations in this group extend over only four maxima # 446 J. Brocklesby-—Rainfall in the United States, ete. of years. The results in the maxima sets conform to the law twice and twice are unconformable, while i of years they are in accordance with it three times and are unfavorable once. Sum of ~ excess TABLE II. in the minima sets deficiency of the annual rainfalls of the groups as compared with he mean phone rainfall and expressed in the percentage of the latter. Quinguennial and I. Il. IV. Triennial groups of pean and max- State of New York Ohio Valley, Ohio, ToTAL. 7 yeah of sun-|Sea coast of Mainejand canada, eH Ind., Hl. nto” aooe area, to Virginia. H and par and Vt. Missouri pe one minimum —*02 ere Dow ss —'02 1811 1812 ir : 18 1816 maximum —'31 ae ide — 31 181 : tsa 1821 1822 SR minimum —°30 oe +°22 —08 182 ae J 1829 1830 maximum +°27 +°05 —'07 +°25 itd 183 188s minimum —-03 —‘Il —‘08 —"22 eed 1836 1837 maximum —03 —'60 — "55 — 118 18338 1839 1841 1842 1843 minimum +°08 —"08 —04 —"04 1844 1845 oe —'05 +°53 +54 +°02 —14 — 14 +27 +°21 +°89 J. D. Dana on Serpentine Pseudomorphs, ete. 447 If we now take the sum of the results, embracing all the three territorial groups, it is seen that in the five maxima sets of years there is an excess of rainfall three times and a defi- ciency twice, and that in the five minima sets of years there is a deficiency five times, the result being in entire conformity to the supposed law. Yet amid these results striking anomalies are found, for in the maximum set of years extending from 1814 to 1818, there is a deficiency of 31 per cent of the mean; and from 18385 to 1839, which are maxima years, the three territorial groups all present results below the mean, the first giving —°03, the second, — ‘60, and the last —-55. In view of the results obtained from these two modes of in- vestigation, I think we may venture to infer, that so far as trust- worthy observations have been made throughout the United States, they point to a connection existing between the variations in the sun-spot area and those of the annual rainfall, the rain- fall tending to rise above the mean when the sun-spot area is in excess, and to fall below when there is a deficiency of solar activity. Art. XLII.—On Serpentine Pseudomorphs, and other kinds, from the Tilly Foster Iron Mine, Putnam Co., New York ; by JAMES D. Dana. With plates VI and VIL [Continued from page 381.] 5. Pseudomorphs after Chondrodite. that it falls to pieces easily when struck with a hammer. n the change to serpentine the honey-yellow chondrodite some unaltered chondrodite grains being still present, and finally smoky blue to dark green. Much o Masses in the same rock are wholly serpentine. 448 J, D. Dana on Serpentine Pseudomorphs Among the specimens, one kind is a dark olive-green ser- pentine marked with pale bluish green spots a sixth to a fourth of an inch across. The spots have a darker green center, and hence look a little like concretions ; but some of them toward one side of the specimen are partly unaltered chondrodite, mineral which is now the dark green serpentine; and this other mineral may have been granular chlorite. The speci- = pM no) z naa a = ra ° aa er 2 oD nD fo) 4s ® BD Es =| a (ee) z ee iS) 4 _ = 09 et s © 3 S oO b=] 5 ° i=} S ot ° (a2) tion of the needle, a mirror, telescope and scale were used, an the delicacy of the galvanometer was such that an electro-motive of the seale. If now the wire to be tested was connected with the changed the effect. Repeating the experiment several general ishes the diminish deviation or causes it to disappea!, — —_ Chemistry and Physics. 465 but allowing the apparatus to rest for some hours or days brought it back. Inserting a wire which had never before been subjected to a current, drove the needle wildly to one side, although its resist- ance was but ‘1 of a unit. Suppose the circuit produces no deflec- tion, and a wire is introduced which deviates the needle; make remove the wire, when the deflection will reappear. If again made to disappear and the wire once more inserted, it will now @ wire terminating in a sphere and separated from another wire by a thin layer of air, would therefore show unilateral conductivity, the current passing in one direction more easily than in the other, Metals condense gases in great quantity at their surfaces, and it is quite conceivable that if two wires are screwed together, that par- ticles of air will separate the two surfaces and that a small voltaic are will be the result.— PAil. Mag., x|viii, 251. E. 0..P } Gases.—W1EDEMANN has succeeded in pelled from the bag by admitting water from the reservoir. 20 litres cooling from 100° to 20° raised the temperature 8°. To produce the same elevation Regnault required 200 litres, a serious 466 Scientific Intelligence. above apparatus. Air, R. :2377, W. 237; carbonic acid, R. 20438, W. -208; hydrogen, R. 3409, W. -3431; ethylene, R. gives -4147 sa ) ‘401. The agreemens is therefore very satisfactory.— Bib. Univ., ‘ BO BP: Il. GEoLoey snp Naturat History. ence of elevated beds of coral detritus “round several parts of Hawaii, about twenty feet above the level of the sea.” The writer, as Mr. Darwin states, saw hardly any reefs about the island, the only point mentioned in my report being the vicinity of Hilo. reply to an enquiry by me on the subject, the Rev. Mr. Coan, long a resident of Hilo, and, as missionary, a traveler over various parts of the island of Hawaii, makes the following statement in a letter dated Hilo, October 26th, 1874. Mr. Coan is a careful ob- server of natural objects and phenomena, aud has written much leanos. on the Hawaiian volea vated coral-reef rock, and there are large areas in the district of Waianae and other portions of the Oahu shores; but there is and all the good specimens we get are obtained by diving Small quantities of broken corals are washed ashore by the waves.” Oahu reefs are described by me in my Exploring Expedition briefly men- e Geological Report, pp. 251-256. The facts are more briefly tioned in my work on Corals and Coral Islands. J. D. DA 2. Drift in Kansas ; by Rev. M. . Knox. (From a lette to J. D. Dana, dated Sept. 24, Baldwin City.)—The drift in ; sas is confined mostly to the northern half of the State, little having been found any distance south of the great Kansas Valley. North of this river, especially in the region north an west of a. there are drift rocks of vast size. The prevalent kind np is | diameter; yet in the northeast fourth of the State, one may ride twenty miles over the prairies and not see one of 80 large | ders and pebbles are everywhere to be found conglomerate and trap; the mass is red quartzite, On the high — prairie, these boul Geology and Natural History. 467 course of the streams, and thr rown into ban ese forks do not reach near the Rocky Mountains, but are entirely made up in the prairies. South of the Kau there area few regions of drift. One in Wabamsu County, opposite Wamego, is the largest deposit I have seen in the State. Fifty or a hundred acres, on the top of high bluffs, are covered so thick as to take up all the space, and I judged that it mi might be 8-12 feet deep in places. None of the stones or boulders are more than gi or = feet in diameter. 3. Note on the Hawaiian Volcanoes; by Rev. T. Coan. (From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated Hilo, "Oct 6. , ieeuks has been very active for the greater part of the past year. The at South lake has been full and overflowing = of the time; and the caer central depression of 1868, in the crater, has been ‘filled up by de “ign ~~ 200 feet, while the sae around the great south lake (Halemaumau) is a ‘truncated mountain nearly as high as the outer Spd ie of the era pales: okuaweoweo, the summit crater of Mauna Loa, has been in action for eighteen months, For the most of the time the action has been violent. Of late it pe decreased, and there is the appearance that it will soon cea We have had few sat haestes at Hilo during the year, and these have been feeble. They are often felt near Kilauea in the district of Kau. - Permian in the Nova Scotia Coal Region.—Dr. Daw has a paper in the Quarterly Journal of the aia paisa vol. xxx, in which he points out reasons for suspecting the upper rbonife iod, veral of the plants of the beds are in ta both Carbon- iferous and Permian, as Calamites Suckovii istii, paint se , N longifolia, : fesd aig te ’. cordata . auriculata, ecopteris aborescens, P. oreo, cides, P. abbreviata ; Egos “ Ca- lamites gigas is a decidedly aad _ peculiarly Permian species.” a evidence is not positive. No marine shells occur in ng Be beds aid in arriving at a true conclusion. “ Seventh Annual Report of the heaps States Geological Survey of the Te pista Be. ly. Oe F. V. Haypsn, U. 8. Geologist in ey conducted under the authority of the Secre- tary of the In Washin — 1874.—Dr. Hayden’s Report 468 Scientific Intelligence. then the several geological formations in order. e Lignitic ike D 0 value relating to the character and distribution of the coal beds is ded. The granite and other granitic rocks of the mountain Pages 193 to 274 are occupied by the Report of Dr. A. C. Prax, Geologist of the South Park Division. The Report con- On Trout Creek, a few miles below Bergen Park, fossils of the Quebec group were collected, including species of Obvlus, Uono- Ww Next follows a report by Mr. F. M. Enpricn, on the mining districts of Colorado; another of 60 pages by Leo LusQquEeREUX, on the Lignitic formation and its fossil flora; one of more than 100 pages by Mr. E. D. Corr, on the Vertebrate Yetoontolg? of We learn that extended quarto Reports on the Fossil Plants by L. Lesquereux, and on the Invertebrate Fossils of the Rocky Mountain region by Mr. F. B. Mer, both to be illustrated by numerous plates, are soon to be issued. 6. Catalogue of Plants collected in the years 1871, 1872 and 1873, with descriptions of new species. 62 pp. 8vo. Report upon Ornithological specimens collected in the years 1871, 1872 and 1873. 148 pp. 8vo. Geographical and Geological explorations and surveys west of the one hundredth meridian. First Lieut. Geology and Natural History. 469 Department, U. 8. Army.—These catalogues of Plants and Birds, collected in connection with Lieut. Wheeler’s expeditions, contain, Ke 5 ° 4 P pe] 5 eu Qu fa) TM oO a =) mM So B ct 5 fas) 4 nm e © - La) 7) ar = ® =} i] =} me *O ld Catalogue has been prepared through the assistance of various botanists, namely: Prof. Asa Gray, Mr. Sereno Watson, Prof. D. _ ©. Eaton; Mr. Thomas P. James, Dr. George Vasey, Dr. George T e Use of “ Cyclosis” in America. (Read before the Sci e to the Paris Academy, and published in 1831 in the Ann. des Sciences Nat., 1st ser., vol. xxii. In this letter he defines rota- s perhaps true, as remarked in the Botany of Maout and Decaisne, that Schultz did not make a happy application of the word cyclosis, and if it were established that la ion di not exist, the transfer of use might be accomplished. ut many competent observers believe in an independent latex motion, the old meaning is still adhered to in England, and hence an unnecessary confusion of terms results from applying the name : cyclosis to the cell circulation properly called rotation. : It should be remembered that both these movements of plant S ween roots and ne say: “C’est 4 le mouvement intra-cellulaire qu’ on a our. Sc1.—Tuirp Serres, Vou. VIII, No. 48.—Dec., 1874. 30 470 Scientific Intel lagen ce. donné le nom de rotation, terme tout a-fait impropre, auquel il serait ehh pala hee substituer celui de cyclose, aboli par Hugo Mohl, et qui ex e plus exactment le mouvement circulaire du suc dans la cattle? (p. 117). And we learn that the term cyclosis is defined accordingly in England, in the last edition of the Micro- graphic Dictionary. So there is some good authority 2: the American use of the term in Europe. 8. Notice of Papers on Pabvvoiey by A. Kowalevsky ; % . Agassiz. (Communicated.)—A. Kowalevsky has published, unfor- tunately in Russian, two capital papers on Embryology. The one continues the investigations he had been carrying on regarding the existence rm and entoderm layer in the early embry- ~ oo of fuvetebriien In the present paper he has given mary of the early stages of a Campanulana, confirming the sneREY atic of Wright and A. Agassiz. For Rhizostoma and previous oe except Seer For Pen via he shows @ direct development from the egg remarkably similar to that of the Geryonidae as we know it t from Heckel, Fol and Metschnikoff. it — ~ assage rom Reishee to Edwarde ia. He has added a w observations on the earli = embryonic stages of . Geology and Natural History. 471 type of Seveloineat that of Thecidium Bs of Terebratula, in which the observations of Kowalevsky fully agree with the previ- ous well known memoir of Lacaze-Duthiers on Thecidium, and of Morse on Terebratulina. It is not out of place to ate the very ungenerous treatment which Morse received at the s of many Conchologists for the heresies of his papers on the systematic from the embryology of Thecidium. In fact, all begged Bry- 0zoa are only communities of Brachiopods, the valves of which are rinse and soldered together, the’ flat valve tories a united floor, while the convex valve does not cover the ventral valve, but leaves an opening more or less ornamented for the extension of the Lophophore. AG. 9. Embryology of the Ctenophore ; by ALEXANDER Agassiz. 4to, with five plates. From the Memoirs of the American Acad- emy of Arts and Sciences, vol. x, No. iii, August, 1874.—In this memoir we have a complete embryology of Tdyia roseola, and a nearly complete one of x eben rhododactyla, with observa- tions on other genera. The oir concludes with a discussion of the systematic position sak affinities of the Ctenophore, from which we make the following extracts e question of the fee boo sori position of the Ctenophore can now, thanks to the greater knowledge we have of their embryology, be ‘ceed | more intelligently. The position taken by Vogt who follows Quoy in removing them from the Acalephs altogether, and associatin em with the Mollusks on account of the apparent cemastony so strongly developed in some fam- ilies (Cestum, Bolina and Mertensia), seems not untenable. The nature of their relations to poh ms, Polyps and Acalephs, as well as the general relations of the Calenterata to Echino- derms, be discussed again, especially as having an impor- mary division of the animal kingdom, but also on the limits of Radiates, and the possible affinities of the Sponges and Celen- * Mr. B. P. Mann translated for me the explanation of the plates of the two Memoirs of Kowalevsky. 472 Scientific Intelligence. erata suggested by Heckel.* A still more important point developed i plant the Type theory, and give us in its new system sed upon the homology of the embryonic layers and of the primitive digestive cavit weckel attempts, in his Gastrea ectoderm and entoderm, has been distinctly proved for Acalephs, Echinoderms, Polyps, Worms, Arthropods, Tunicates, Mollusks, || and finally for Amphioxus, the papers of Johannes tiller, Krohn, Agassiz, Kowalevsky, Sars, Allman, Clapardde, Kupfer, Metsch- nikoff and others, are too well known to need citation in this con- his later name of gastrula. But let us follow his su sequent steps and separate what is known from what is stated as known by Heckel. It is known that the planula consists of an entoderm ) walls of this primitive cavity is, in their case at least, invariably formed by the ectoderm. It is known, on the other hand, that in Actiniz, in Worms, in Hydroids,§ this primitive digestive cavity is hollowed out of the inner yolk mass of the embryo, and has its * Heckel, E. Die Kalkschwamme, Berlin, 1872. | Heckel, E. Die Gastrea Theorie, Jenaische Zeitschrift, ix, 1874. Maclay, N. Mikulcho. Jen. Zeitschrift, iv, 1868. [ey E. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte d. Kalkschwiamme. Zeits. f. Wiss. Zool., xxiv, 1874. . © erage E. R. On the primitive cell layers of the Embryo. Ann. Mag. N. _ Fol, H. Die erste Entwickelung d. Geryonideneies. Jen. Zeitsch., vii, p. 471. Geology and Natural History. 473 theory of embryonic layers so strongly insisted upon by Heckel, they could have no possible relation, the one being a product of the entoderm, the other of the ectoderm, the two primitive embry- onic layers. . “Tt is not known, as is stated by Heckel, that the walls of the primitive digestive cavity are invariably formed of the entoderm, and when Heckel states the result (the gastrula) to be the same whether formed by the ectoderm or entoderm he states what is * Heckel and Lankester both seem to think that because the result is a sumilar form it must be homologous. ~ 474 Scientific Intelligence. ancestors of the Vertebrates must have passed through in the beginning of their development the gastrula form! Neither zckel nor any one else has seen this; it is a pretty hint which may or may not be proved. “ Considerable confixion arises in Heeckel’s classification from his adopting at one time as of primary importance the development of the cavity of the body nea making it the main point in his phylogenetic classification, while pen y. the relations of bes Protascus and Prothelmis (names he gives to the un- known ancestors of the radial and bilateral pe) formed the bon of his classification. This places him in the awkward predicament of having a phylum of the animal kingdom (the radial) which has it the capacity of forming a body cavity, and yet its descendants ve in some unaccountable manner (entirely against the rules of Heckel’ theory) managed to get one by some unexplained method. We do not see how it can be so confidently stated by Heckel that Echinoderms have lost their engine central nervous organ; there is no proof whatever of its aving existed There is, as yet, no proof whatever that the organs of sense (which, as had already been so often insisted upon by Agassiz, are not e the same phylogenetic origin. When Heckel says that the mouth of Echinoderms is not homologous to the primitive mouth, we can only refer him to the memoirs of Miiller, paisa and Le eggs for proof to the ¢ ag There seems no doubt, as Heckel insists, that . the majority to those which the sad categories of our systems have to one another. This change has pri incipally been brought about by a better knowledge of the embryology of a few well known types. “ But what Cag pune of all the Seon of Heckel which form the basis of his Gastrea theory? They are totally unsupported, and with their 60 must fall his theory; it can only take its place by the side of other physiophilosophical systems; they are in- genious arrangements laboriously built up in the interests of special theories, which fall to che ground the moment we test them by our actual knowledge. That the time has not yet come for maed hetgceag classifications, the attempts of Heckel plainly show, are in no ways in advance of the other embryological classifications which have preceded them; we get new names for somewhat differ - aeciestion based upon the value of embryonic la yers is at ovell oF disprov ed on the m Geology and Natural History. 475 “What Heckel substitutes in the place of the accepted types of the animal kingdom is simply another view of these same types, and nis Gastrea theory is in no danger of upsetting, at present at least, zodlogical classification as now understood. Indeed, if we cell? ‘There we have a definite starting point, a typical ae which underlies the whole of the animal ‘king om and which for the walls of Heckel’s gastrula. Then we shall all be agreed, sid when we frankly state that all organisms are eS — a prim- itive cell and from its subsequent increase come within the ange of positive knowledge, but we are sirireuuabaly as far as ever from having for that reason been able to trace a mechanical cause for the genetic pageemeeg: of the various branches of the animal kingdom meet the direct issue raised by eckel,—that such a eanetis connection either does or does not exist —by repeating what has so often been said by others, ree genetic connection may exist, but we have at present no proof t it does exist, and at any rate his gastrea theory does not seeing a any nearer to a cages explanation of aun . genetic ee tion however probable it “ Here we must call stienuin to a ee enue sede m Echinoderms and place them awk Polyps in a — subkingdom of the animal kingdom. No one questions the relati ship of Ctenophore to Acalephs, yet from embryological data it would be more natnral to associate Echinoderms and Ctenophore into one subkingdom characterized by the mode of formation of the water system as diverticula, forming svecitually chymiferous tubes in both classes, and to associate the other Acalephs with the Polyps* where the chymiferous tubes and cavities are formed by the liquefaction of the interior of the poco Any one who will compare the figures of the embryos of starfishes (A. Agassiz, ord bryol. Starfish, pl. 1, fig. 8) and Ctenophore tan m, figs. 6-10 pl. v, figs. 5, 11) at t the time _— the chymifero s tubes are re- duced to mere diverticula, cannot fail to feel satisfied of their complete identity of plan. Metschnikoff has made, in addition to hinblogies T have just recalled, a most interesting comparison * See Allman’s views on the position of the Ctenophore as contrasted to the Actinozoa. Trans. R. S. Edinb., xxvi, pl. m1, p. 466, 1871. - # 476 Scientific Intelligence. between an Echinoderm larva and a Ctenophore; he shows that e 8 to be the true anal opening, while according to Metschnikoff, i rt of an anal opening. He says it only acts to introduce water into the system, ations. may here recall former statements* concerning the affinities of the Ctenophorx, when describing some of the younger stages. It could only ke after a careful comparison of Ctenophorous and of | of plan might be obtained. The Ctenophore retain the perma- nently embryonic features of Echinoderm embryos, in which the s Pp ; : m sponges _ With regard to the development from the earliest recognizable ears boa _ * Agassiz, Alexander. Ill. Cat. M. C. Z., No. 2, p. 12, 1865. Miscellaneous Intelligence. 477 Til. Astronomy. 1. On the apparent Connection between Sun-spot and Atmos- : pheric Ozone ; by T. Morrat.—aAt the last meeting of the British | Association, Mr. Smith, of Cirming, gave me a record of new 4 groups of sun-spots which appeared in each year for a number of years, an me to compare the mean daily quantity of TV. MISCELLANEOUS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE. 1. Permanent Ice in a Mine in the Rocky Mountains; by R. Wetser of Georgetown, Colorado. (Communicated.)—Geolo- gists have been not a little perplexed with the frozen rocks found in some of our silver mines in Clear Creek Co., Colorado. I will first give a statement of the facts in the case, and then a theory for their explanation. ‘ There is a silver mine high up on McClellan Mountain, called the “Stevens Mine.” The altitude of this mine is 12,500 feet. rocks, is found to be in a soli frozen mass. McClellan Moun- tain is one of the highest eastern spurs 0 owy Range; it has the form of a horse-shoe, with a bold escarpment of feldspathic the frozen material, and in the morning take out the disintegrated ore. This has been the mode of mining for more than two years. 478 Miscellaneous Intelligence. far as we can see, no opening, or channel through which the frost sould possibly have reached a he s e There are other mines in the same vicinity in a like frozen state trates into the earth, it does not appear probable that it could have reached the depth of ara hundred feet through the solid rock in the tevens Mine, nor even through the crevice matter of the os se 2. Hranz-Joseph Land.—Two papers are published in the cur- rent volume of Petermann’s Geographical Journal (p. 381), on the Austrian Arctic discoveries, one by Petermann, and the other by Dr. Joseph Chavanne. The accompanying map represents the Francis-J oseph Land as a group of large and small islands, between pd ea of 79° 50’ and 83° 10’, and between the meridians of Stewart. 132 16iae. (D. Appleton & Co., New York.— — little work, simple in languate; clear in its explanations illustrations, and Re in its science, The Transit of Venus ; by Grorcr Forsss, B.A., Prof. Nat. Phil. in the Andersonian sr ersity, Glasgow. 100. pp. 12mo, with numerous illustrations. London and New York (Macmillan the diffe t gor ernments. The Canoes of the subject are made is aieniciaw as the case admits of, and are well illustrated _ by figures. 5. Swedish Iron Ores.—A collection of the Swedish ores has been received by Lafayette College, Easton, Pennsylvania, from the iron department under the Swedish government. Tidal Researches; by ‘ge ely etree Assistant U oast Survey. 268 pp. 4to, with 3 plates From the U. S. Gace Sareay oneet iv 1574 f#md Sci.3a Ser Val VIE PLATE Vil SERPENTINE PSEUDOMORPHS soar " gt Ny INDEX TO VOLUME Vitis oo G. R., maps of geyser basins, | _m Acetylene, Blochman Bet. “Za, preparation of active amyl alco- condensa disch harge, Sean, researches i in, Mayer, 81, 170, ation of, i ‘silent electric Adhesion, apparent, eo i's _ A., notice Age on embry-) wy by’ peat tes y, 470. l an Hi - el’s Gastrzea theory, 472, Revi of Echini, noticed, 7 isbiryology of Ctenophore, noticed Agassiz. and se Results of nak: ler Expedition. ced, pr psrrenel cs of dation of, “401. B.,p lism of coal-seams, | ae Je A. * secrerseertaga Lang rr from burning of coal-beds, n a 14 Allyl series, nitro-compoun Jape sociation, American, Hartford meet-|/ ing, 235. Am merican, es address, 297. Amy] alcohol, 3 timony sage Archeology a a “Béhnology, peed Museum of, ‘Report n noticed, 1 miger of 2 ate Aurora, in Vermont, Wing, 157. B Bahamas, =~ geography and mol- lusea, Baird, 8 8. r, Record of Science and In- tty, noticed, 8 allardi, L., on Wetioy mollusks, no- ve Baker, 7.G mn Tulipez, noticed, 320. Brockles: Barometric ogradient and velocity of wind, Ferrel, 343 gr te oe on livingstonite, noticed, Barker, G. F., chemical abstracts, 59, 132, a first p anez, an leucin in vetch, 1 roducts of disti silation, 382. ageabh c Fossils, noticed, Bae, J. M., diffraction gratings, 33. Blake, W. P. niin tin in Georgia, 39 | Bland, T., cal geography and tribution ct ‘ervestril mollusea of ike Bahamas, noticed, 23 Blockmann. ipeayies grt, i, year teonda no- ticed, Bogardus, E. +) OD poe ores contain- ing phosphoric acid, 3 eierwsrepnes M. L., eer five of insula- tors, 2 Boricky, t. on phonolytes, ti i 394, —- <, ., on geological charts, noticed, Boras Carex, perigynium and seta in, 70. Darainsenes habit of plants, 395. Cyclos Physiological grou ps, 1 Pteris, Farlow on ia ‘growth from pro sotbaline of, 321. Trees, infiuence of climate and topo- graphy on, 71. Vegetation, changes produced in by sheep-grazing, 69. _ Exploring Expedition, noticed, Zizania ie oe ee material, 321. See further Brackebusch, ies, 62. seri Bradley, F. H., recent earthquakes in North Caro 12. metamorphic Silurian rocks in North fraser of. allyl in — G. J., note on J. L. Smith’s Me. Panis fluoxyborie acid, 309. The Index contains the general heads sath tes ns ce ktaiee realorioa: hate A., magnetism in soft iron er nmeat o enon: 202. ——o- 480 INDEX. Cc Dawson, G. M., lignitie north of the Calculating machine, new, Grant, 277. parallel of = , noticed, 142. Gerla ans flow of saline solutions|/Daw: W., on a ‘Champlain through, 2 aera Fis ke Su uperior, and on climate Carney, E. effect of aE Ay of Champlain pene yeieee 143. vibrations ion electro-magnet ve ble ey paleontology, noticed, 151. Carter, H. J., on sponges, noti cok 6 Permian in Nova “Scot, noticed, 469. en magnetic a go of heat, yee 3.|, DeCando ile, ae on physiological groups Chas W., habits ood-rat, 73. in vegetable ki ingdom, rat Her 147. Chas a. P E., “velocity = erat undu-|| Decay se ee organic substances, lation, 3 Arm Chemica. 1 centennial, 80. a Heaters or insulators, pe Janae Journal of Scien Diffraction gratings, Blake Clarke, F. W., molecular heat a ‘shaiber Domeyko, Don L., Chilien. inate compound: 8, noticed, 278 mole cular eahune of water of crys-|| Dutton, C. criticism upon the con- tallization, 428. tractional Tvoeel s, 113. Coan, T., ata eefs of Hawaii, 466. Hawaiian : ees 467. E Cobalt. hexatomic compounds of, Gibbs, Fa rthquakes, recent in North Carolina, 89, : Colorado School of Mines, 322. . Bartha, von Seebach, 4 Comet, ca s, 78, 156, ok hacks p, Lasaulx 0 nee: Saakacurie, ‘inlldiorsl 4 Barth's aes rotation, variability of, Contractional al hypothesis, oe 113. rt Elec sone ‘curren nts hrough iron and eae Fs 13 oe na ciate sapien ae Sa ety ke change produced ? i Trow bridge, 18 2p aap peopled oe ane Ievirical phenomena, 387 Cope, E. D., fishes o: Utah, noticed, 146. ||Hlectric dis scharge, composite nature of, Darwin Mayer. oe on | (Fawkes, J. W., dissipation of wleotriclty 7 ea tin electri ws flame s, 207. and hrauf, cept. acest Fer pees hap barometric gradient and = perties of minerals, 255. Dana, J. D., changes in subdivisions of Ebeaent- na St oe 343. cal time in Manual of Geolo wid eri aci Ta sa vai Foste ML, Physiology, noticed, 47 este G., T ransit of Venus, re oe of Carboniferous age, 2 é nklin Institu me peg Pocue 403. 16. work on oral : pseudomorphs, Peane Ionooh pee 401 Tilly Foster oe Mine, 371 So — Fusion, egos of ray ss 212, fs of Hawaii. i \Fusion of metals, 387. Manual of Geology, noticed, 67. Gas analysis, Hinman, Gabb, W. M., geology bay ot ite Rica, 388. INDEX. pelo od a of central —— ced, 4 Das Pe else in eral pow Bee Geological eps pees noticed, 319. Hokkai ve Indian: Metitarien, West of Tooth meridian, 80, 468. esso, 2 Geological Survey, eeee: taly, 1 4,395. iieajiranik 67. den, 395. a, 394. pie ological ti me, changes in sub-divi- sions of, Dana, 213. EOLOGY Anomalodonta identical with Megap-| archees & in Putnam Co., New York, Dana Cardiocarpus, winged fruit of, 2 Champlain north of Lake Aaaviok and slinate Gl oe metamorphic products from burning of, in Cretaceou us 3 of ier? Gili 67. aS mot Andres 56. in Kansas, 466. Hinm Elephant and Mastodon in California, 43, Gold Hill mining region, -Marvine, 29. Bee’ rocks in New Hampshire, ., Mee ok, 4 rain in Terti af ety ew 66. Metemorgbic | Silurian rocks i n North Lignitie north te 49°, ee cee He 481 | Gould, A., number and distribution of Ni stars, 325. l'Grant, G . B., calculating machine, 277. Gray, A., botanical notices, 69, 147, 320, YT eoaiedl contributions, noticed, 7 Great Salt _ — of level in, 86. ‘Gun er, A., tortoises of Mauritius and Ga Canc noticed, 403. H Heeckel’s Gastreea theory, 472. Hall, fae “ y — op are noti 220 Hart Derby, QO. A. Bulletin of Ss Oo rll University noticed, 144. Hartwig, com of thallium with sarretyy tials, ¢ Hawes, G. H., see of serpentine sone omo examination of brucite, 453. eat, — equivalent “of 463. eer r, of similar compounds, Clar rke, 340. repulsion due to. oe specific, of gase epettis first scciols 9 distillation of x 82. Henshaw, H. W., birds of Utah. noticed, Hones C. F, preparation ¢ photographic dry- “ae by daylight, chemical work noticed 140 W. apparatus for gas , and S. Newcomb, periodi rei in sun’s apparent Ganeba Himeyman, Ds; ear eng containing tacean, N iagara coral reefs, wet wee solutions sir ongh cpg ir 211 ons of some of the ’s comet, 398. Newberry, 110, 160. Plants, Carboniferous, i . the Alps, 218.) bearin: Trap, fossils in, 219. Trap ope of Connecticut cae Genth, F. we ay oll unt, 221. Gibbs, WwW, hexatomic agen cra of cobalt, 189, 284. ronasageoart and Tribe, action of copper- on chlorides of ethylene at they tides; 311. G on variability of earth’s axial rotation, 161. Gade.) B., fishes from Bermuda, 123. spectrum unt, T. §., rep: nora Genth to, 221. parse um, alloys of, 1 I ce, permanent in Rocky Mts., ATT. ron ores containing phosphoric acid, on, Bega sa heegs Irving, R., copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior, 46. J Jene||Joulin, M. L., frictional electricity, 139. tion of essential oils, 310. 482 V. B., drift in Kansas, 466. Kohlrausch, expansion of har d rubber, Kolbe, ‘preparation of sires acid, oe Kowalevsk f papers b Krauss, antimony plue, 132. L Lactic acid of the allyl series, 134. Lakes, the ree fluctuations in 80. Lasaulx, A , on earthquake, noticed, - i — Soaseo. on revivifica- , 397. Loomis, E., hehiaged from examination of U. 8. weathe maps, Lovering J., mathematic eres sat pea ical nate of p i 297. pelsitiionc 4 wit er weeitan eyepiece, ios an, B. &., geological report, noticed, M Magnetic observatory in China, 1 ert oat — sto ~ electric ducoaneel de 7 on cae acti. 202; Sears, Mallet, &., volcanic ener INDEX. MINERALS, ETC.— Biotite, pseudomorphs after, 449. Calcite, pseudomorphs after, 37 Chlorite, pseudomorphs after, 3 sora pseudomorphs see “447, Datolite, Bind curious einer of, 4 Dolomite, pseudomorphs oe 149, 453, Enstatite, pseudomorphs after, 44 net, curious association of, Smith is Hora ble ees peer after, 448. Idocrase, cu ‘yaaieacs of, 434, Livingstonit ite, Magn tite ls seudomonp Dana, 454. morphs, Dana, 456. Tin, wood, in Georgia, a rocks of Connecticut valley, Dana, Vermioulives note to monograph on, ‘ooke, Veszel seta cinoblaer ite, ae th, 432 nerals, thermo-electri¢ "properties of, gos vA —* cate pot sai atmospheric bite Mojsvar, i ™M. yon, geological work, Mo. ecnlak heat of similar compounds, phenomena, 387. - ¢C., brain in Tertiary ssc oa. Marvin, A. P., Gold Hill SR lesional, Diagnoses Plantarum Jap- oniz, noticed, 70. Mazzcelt, double refraction of viscous fluid in motion, 63. layer, A. M., researches in acoustics, 81, oT. 0, 241, 362. pe Rat oT Sisaty “ee electric discharg Meek, Re age of Lignitie anti of Clarke, 3. Morey, 6. a aie’ Munroe, H. 8., geological report, ore: usical harmony, Mayer, 252. note, curve of, Mayer, 177. N Ni ng motions of, es S., lan a plants a the lo wer or Bilariog, 110, 160. New York, museum of natural history, Newcomb, S., and £. 8. Holden, periodic changes in sun’s apparent diameter, 268, eweomb, S., —— of the earth’s axial Pc ion, 1 slg ert organi substances, decay of, Armsby, 3 0 OBITUARY— Beaumont, Elie de, : 404. INDEX. 483 agreed Cordoba, 78. 'Rood, O. N., optical method = studying tra Ne Lio 78. | Pan vibrations solid bodies, 126. hama, Oxford, chair of geology at, 160. —. ans oat spot, ot produced by te lidion of essen- tial oils, ar} P Packard, A. S., Jr., work on insects, no- ti Record of Ent tomology, noticed, 395. desig Academy of Sciences, 160. yaa ont explor ates ‘of Brixham cave, n idl A on earthquakes, noticed, 159. Phillips, J. A., Met ory noticed, 240. Bogard, 334. phic S Sap aes, preparation of ap 8 aylight, Himes Physical sciences, iathemate and philosophical state of, Lov 297. "210, $4. 46 E. a physical a 62. 137, ent, blu bi, g ~ Egyptians, ; acid of allyl series, “ev Planet oe “y 8. ition of inetallic sag * Pic. Peatimonki, gone, etc., from Tilly Foster Iron mine, Dana, 371, 447. Q Quincke, M. G., polarization of metallic surfaces, 65. of, 228. ween ti tae and Yoko- 208. | Solar, Rose, G., iron from Per 398. Rubber, ose of hard, 3 Salicylic acid, 3 Schmidt, A., ears view of fusion of 38 £. 8S. Dana, thermo- Scudder, S. H., coc 7 es from boniferous, noticed, 1 Seaman, W. H., use “a eyclosis in America, Sears, D., 469. tism of soft iron, 21. Seebach’s, x von, — uake of March , 187 2, Emerson, 455 Seyberth taurin not isethionamide, 61. w, changes in vegetation produced by pee grazing, Siebold, Anatomy of the Invertebrata, noticed, Silliman, B., tellurium ores of Colorado, Smith, i fg! Oe warwickite, 432 n urious associa of garnet, ido- crase and datolite, — volume of collected researches, no- ticed, 144, : corepiege Report, noticed, 158. n. Sound, atin Mayer, 170, 247. reflection of, — flames and heated gases, Mayer, 3 Spectrocope sek fluorescent eyepiece, Spectrum of Coggia’s comet, 156, 398. r, nie ul acal light, Wi Stars, ee Pca and Gteibation of, id, 3 R Rainfali and solar spots, Brocklesby, 439. G. oe contribu- tions, noticed, 31 —— double, a viscous fluid in Rebeaetion of liquids, index of, 386. Renevier, E., Tableau des Terrains mentaires s, noticed, 400. Reynolds, O., pone oe by evapora- tion from a su Richards, R. H., jet nan mae for chemi- cal and physical laboratories, 412. erica C. V., Entomological report, no- Rive, De ee rts: Tong Neal? Terquem and Trav, i netism = electric disc! gases, | Roiti, M. Pi electrical phenomena, 387.') Sun, ap Stefan, apparent a adhesion, tb Stone, W. or red to sound gquirss rad nina Stromboli, mec Se < Mallet, 200. ie changes in, stam aa “Hollen, 268, and atmospheric sgrse ATT. spots and ra Brocklesby, 439. no-,/Taurin not isethionamide, 6 61. ellurium ores in Colo: — Silliman, 25. of refraction of liquids, 386 allium, compounds with alcohol-radi- cals, 60 484 Thayer. 8, aaa of plates o condensers 208 hena ondensation. of), acetylene ey aes actin discharge Teton Coggia’s comet, 78. Troost’ and Hautefeuil alloys of hydro- — Trowbridge, i iy ‘molecular change by elec- ik, G., Mineralogische Mittheil- 38 en, begga ke d, 393. Tuscarora soundings, 234. Undulation, velocity of primitive, Chase, 366. : ‘ Vanilline, Vibration, ontia method of studying, Voleanic energy, M Vol ond cae - “stronibol, Mallet, 200. Volcanoes, note on Hawaiian, 467. eels. J. A., milk analyses, noticed, Water of yi deere molecular vol- ume of, Clarke, 4 Weather mere, caine from examination ey ‘specific heat of — 465. Weiser, 2: permanent ice in mine in Roeky Mts., 477.: gio G. M., topographical atlas, no- White, C. A., be or eae identical with Megaptera, William 4 primera vegetation mson, W. C. and evolution, noticed, 15 trical currents through iron and steel|| Wing sea - DEX. Willis, : Hi; pore = plants, no- oe ., Statue of,. 322.” ,|| Wind instruments, ‘pressure required to soun Wind, velocity we and barometric gra- dient, Ferrel, Winchell, A, pacutie of Eyciation, 9- iced, 74. le i _ At E, Aurora at West Charlott:, ont, 157. Wisconéin Academy, Transactions, ice ight, = W., SE of the vodintal light, 39 Soper observations of Coggia’s comet. 10- Y Yates, L. G., gr dsp poe and mastodon in California, Zodiacal light, spectrum of, Wright, 39. ZOOLOGY— ~ ‘ Brain in Tertiary mammals, Marsh, 66 Coral ra notes on Darwin’s work, Dana, of Haw: aii, 466. Difflugia, enemies of, Leidy, 2 os notice of Pasbieky's pers at 471. — Goode, 123. Mollusca, aien of, in Bahamas, Rat, habits = Chase, 7 Rhizopods, new fr esh water, 224. sare saves iain y oe Torto of ara ‘pleted to those of Galapagos. ; See further ae ‘GroLoey.