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AMERICAN JOURNAL

SCIENCE AND ARTS. -

EDITORS AND PROPRIETORS,

JAMES D. DANA, B. SILLIMAN, ann E. S. DANA.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS,
Prorrssors ASA GRAY anp WOLCOTT GIBBS,
OF CAMBRIDGE,
Prorzssors H, A. NEWTON, 8S. W. JOHNSON,
GEO. J. BRUSH anp A. E. VERRILL,
OF NEW HAVEN,

Prorrssorn EDWARD C. PICKERING, or Boston.

THIRD SERIES,
VOL. X -[WHOLE NUMBER, CX.]
Nos. 55—60*.
JULY TO DECEMBER, 1875.

WITH A TEN-VOLUME INDEX AND TEN PLATES.

at Fee, '

NEW HAVEN: EDITORS.
1875.

Mis90UR! BOTANICAL
GARDEN LIBRARY

sence tp barat 3th ee

CONTENTS OF VOLUME X.

NUMBER LY.

Page
Art. I.—Results derived from an examination of the United
States Weather Maps for 1872, ’73 and ’74, with Plate I;
rane Loomisyece! 00. cowie &. iL Speed Saag

= --— = ~~ eee meee we wer rm wr eer re

IIL—On ot Re ‘of Chlorite after Garnet at the Spurr
pga Iron Mine, Lake Superior, with Plate II; oe
Rapaak. PumpEtty, __.-. 22.2... cuit d

ay. eA plication of the Horizontal Pendulum; by H _ Amory, 21

V.—Explosive Sel vider of Methyl Nitrate; by M. Carzy tea 22

VI.—On Zonochlorite and Chlorastrolite ; : by n0.W.Hawes, 24

VII.—On iiijeooesr and Glycocoll in the muscular tissue of

___Pecten irradians; by R: H. Currrenpen,._...--. - 20.

VIII. —Dr. Koch and the Missouri Mastodon; Pikoe Cain i 32

4

hae in 1874, with Plates III and IV; by. ke E. VeRRILL, 36

by Arruur W. Wricar. ._--.-
ae of two new Asteroids; by C. H. F. Perers, 49

XII.—Discovery of a method of obtaining Thermographs of
the Isothenizat. Lines of the Solar Disc; by A. M. Mayzr, 50

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemistry and Physics. —On the action of a weaker acid on the Salts of a stronger
one, HUsBNER and Wiesinger, 51.— end Chloride, BRENKEN: On the
Paraffin of Pennsylvania Petrol, Mor 52.—Action of vot hued

chloride on Methyl alcohol, WertH: n Glyceryl ether, Von Zorra, 53.—On
i ie Aci On a New Method of Testing

_ Quinidine Sulphate, pond — Mochuairal Equivalent of Feige = Me H. J.
- Puuus, 55.—Action of M on Goinsler Tubes, M. J. CHauTarp: Effect of
Electricity of high Siitabtar tn on igual 8, NTE, 56.
Geology and Natural paver ae ty ial : Subglacier rivers, 57.—
tin of the U.S. Geological Survey of the Rerslbories 58.—Second Geological

the period from Sept. 1 to Dec. 31, 1874, GEORGE th fits
popular sketches of the Topography, Climate and Ge ind of site,

A. WincHet: Analysis of Aigirite from Arkansas, J. LawRENcE Sm

Second ; EDWARD

Appe to Dana’s Mineralogy, S. Dana, 60.—Mine
Contributions, C. the presence of Vanadium in Rocks: Pseudo-
morph after crystals of Labradorite from Veresp

1; their Na a E@stivation in Adiniie, 63.—Sachs’s Text-
book of Botany: Morphological and Physiological, 64—Zur Abwehr der sehwen-
dener-bornet’ ntheorie, G. W. KoERBER, 65.— ve t
An Inquiry Respecting the Reversion of “T bred” Domestic mre
W. H. Brewer, 67.—Seventh Annual Report on the Noxious, Bene’
other Insects of the State of Mis C. V.: Rey,

onomy. —. Transit of Venus, Dec. 8, 1874, 70.—On the Solar Structure, —
Farman Secont, 71.—Observations on Magnetic Declination made at the Tre-
VYandrum and Angustia Observatories, J. A. Broun, 73.—Determination of — SS
Weights to be given to observations for erage: time with portable e transit o
instruments, C, A. Scuorr : On the Meteorite of Lancé, K. von DrascHs, 74. ae

Iv CONTENTS.

Miscellaneous
©. BROADHEAD: Swrodiah Arcti finales om Norwegian ode one iy 75.
British Arctic Expedition: American Association for the Advancement of
: van , HL

mce, Milligrade Thermome + Dr
Superintendent of the Coast Survey for the year 1871, 76.—The Life and
Growth of Language, W. D. WHITNEY: The Recent Origin of Man, J. C. Soutn-
Att: Note sur les Tremblements de Terre en 1871, M. ALEXIS PERREY, 77.—
Storms, WM. Buasius: Climate and Time “ their Geological Relations, ‘JAMES
Ououn: English Men of Science, F. Gatton: The Aerial World, G. Hartwig:
French Academy of Sciences, 78.— Chewy Baie Edward Gray, 78.— Admiral
: Samuel Heinrich re A. G. Findlay: M. Deshayes:
Joseph Winlock: Sir William Logan,

NUMBER LVL
P:
, &IV,—Historical Note on the Observation of the Cor- +
ona ase Red Prominences of the Sun; by Epwarp S
OU a ea hb bebe ee Ce 81
XV. Walk s Statistical Atlas of the United States,....-- 83

XV1—On the Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Tron Mine,

Brewster, New Yorks by Epwarp 8. Dana. With
anGes ¥, WS WO0. VEj. ox5 - cece bon ce- Fo - seni ce 9

-—On an eas method of producing D Di- and Trinitro-

netol ; y ETER TowNsEND AUSTEN,.--.--------- 04
—On a fetal Manatee and Catarhan, with remarks
upon the 1 afinities and igri d of the Sirenia ; by Burt
. WitpER. With sa a ee 105
—On Tidal Waves and pOurodie along rtions of the
Atlantic Coast of he United States ; by J BH Hirearp, 117
n some of the A pees Glacier, of the Sierra
gr net b na a LeConr kde naan ana tein 126
ertain Met a Senoyt ompounds containin
Selenium; by Co Lone J ACKSON, - oi pol eet Bowe : 39

XXI.—Description of the Nash County Meteorite, which ade
in May, 1874; by J, Lawrence Surru
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE
Chemistry and Physics.—Commercial Quinidine Sulphate, Hesse, 148.—On Chry-
ee f ye Ne of Chrysene. oo uction of Albumin from
bgt aig version of Brucine into i Stryhning Sommrenscusix:
rom

soy Combustion of Explosive Mixtures, M. NEYRENEDF, a Cinaee 8 in
i Observer, M

| Natt a dad oad oa tad

due to the motion of the luminous source or of
151,—New Source of Magnetism, M. Donato Tommast, 152.

Geology and Natural History.—The Geology of New Mexico, Copz, 153.—-Fost
| from ef Mexico, Copg: Coal beds in the Subcarboniferous 0!
LEY

Pon k, the Pla 157.—Small Planets recently discovered,
158.—! ont .

iltiam Logan: Joseph Winleck, 159.—Prof. Heinrich d’ Arrest, 160.

CONTENTS.

NUMBER LVIL

Page

Art, XXIL-—On the formation of Hail a my Spray of the
Yosemite Fall; by Wiztiam H. Brewer, ---- .-------

XXIIL—Walker’s Statistical Atlas of the , United States, .-. 1

XXIV,.—On Southern New England saring the melting of

the great Glacier; by James D. Dana, -----.-------- 16
XXV.—Me

echanical Work done = a Muscle before exhaustion,

and on the “ Law of Fatigue;” by Samuret Havenron, 1

XXVI.—Notes upon the Earthquake of Dicetnber 1874; by

61
64

amie, S, MARY. ooo oct hese 191

XXVIL—On some interesting Equine Caleuli; by R. H.
USETUBDEN, nici de odsnkis heb 4d Was seen dks fue
VIIL.—Results 0 f Dredging Expeditions off the New

aear Coast in 1874; by A... VEeRua, ...--..-.-- 1

TLL,
sage of two Bolides in 1872 and 1874,

over = Middle sims ; by J. Lawrence Situ, -.---- 2

XX. ae fare op the Gases Pst Trea Ss Meteorites; by J.

UO se ac ae ae bs oe eee ee
XXXIL_ Notive of the occurrence of another Gigantic Ceph-
alopod aap egy on the coast of Newfoundland, in

December, 1874; by A. E. Verrm1,

Chemistry and Physics.—Hypochlorie oxide and Euchlorin, PeBaL: Presence of
Sulphuric oxide i in the Gaseous products of combustion yrs Pyrite, S. KESTNER,
aca Hypochlorite from Bleaching Powder, Kinazerr: Occurrence of

Carbohy: , REICHARDT: Friction AR-
BURG, 218. ~Conductibility of Heat by os UNDT and WARBURG, 219.—Emis-
sive Power 220. Velocity of Magnetization, M. Dr-

ARDS : i E. L. . CHRISTY, 233.—Structure
of Stone Mountain, Georgia, ee Anomalodonta of 8. es Miller: ‘v0
yh

W. S. Chark: Forest Flora of N. W. and Central India: Flora

— ent effects of the same Pp up f plants un under
different latitudes, 237.—Dr. Jon E re} North American Oniscida, 239.
Scientific Intelligence.— Association for the Advancement
of Science : Cincinnati Society of Natural History: "Nevada: The’ Mese Ae
Reconnaissance Southeastern Nevada: Ac-
Collection of Dr. Krantz, 239.

ve CONTENTS.

NUMBER LVIIL.

. Page
Art. XX XIII.—Address of Dr. John L. LeConte, the retiring
snares . = American Association for the Advance-

enter Sdiones, oi. ic soe ek So adiccad 24]
XXXIV. —On the Tasperakere ana" by riage

and its Consequences; by Roperr Mauer, -._-------- 56
XXXV.—Sir Charles Lye ell, Peg auenaiinds: be Guede Post 269
XXXVI—On the Arithinetical Relations between the Atomic

Weights: by MoD, CO. Hovesayn We ocr t 277
XXXVII.-—On Southern New England oe Prag Melting

of the great Glacier; by Ja tise sD. Dana: Nowiboos 280
gee aeete tae s at the Canes Talands ; by ek.

PoGersihey. 2224 p0n0ul . muni 1a. abiseeein! 382

KXXIX.- Bp goer between the Ohio and West Virginia
sides of the Alleghany Coal-field; by E. B. AnpREws,.- 283
XL.—Instinct ? in Hermit Crabs; by "ALEXANDER AGASSIZ, _ 290

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry a sics.—On the Constitution of Ammonium Compounds, MEYE
and Lecco: eg Retene, EKSTRAND, 292.—On Paipkecione anew had harbon,
ynthesis cris a dextro-rota gt aa acid, BREMER, 293.—On
phoca

ani
GRETE, 294.—On the porno: of Ethyl Alcohol in Plants, Gutzeir: On Arbu-
tin, HLASIWETZ and HABERMANN, 295.—A new Base obtained in the Aniline

Ye ced Irradiation, Ce a a 296.—Conical se Senge fe Nopor, 297.—
pacity of Gases, M. L. Bottzmann: The h aanies rendered
rat send es g ee feeiote Hydrogen, Gro. MACLEAN, 298.
and sa _ wae 2 Pitre oer and Metamorphism, a
James D. Dan. tarthrus Bec. — 7 meg to have been veers in 3
soe in tie ‘cemeoaouk Valley, W. Dopee: Forms and Origin of the
Lead and Zinc te gen of palveunuine * acer tre ADOLF Scumrpt, 300.—Car-
pboniferous < ifers, J. W. Dawson, 301.—Fossil Trees of Craigleith Quarry,
tland: Volca ae ’ History of — E. J. ia ULL, 302.—Asphaltie Coal from
the shale of the ‘Huron 2 Ohio, A. R. Lesps: Eruption = Tridimitic Ashes,
Dr. ALTZER: Exploration of the Colorado River of the W i
taries, by J. W. PowEL pio 303. —Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol.

if
Il, Part 4 Geology, 304.—Sixth Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Indi-
ana made during Tag set 1874, 305.—Geological and Natural History Survey
of Minnesota, 18 WINCHELL, 306.—Note on Lignite e —— Ja

; in th
Minnesota, N. H. WINCHELL, 307.—Note on the Age of the Cretaceous
couver Island and Oregon, W. M. GABB: Sub-Wealden Exploration: sted ioe
gebirge in — Dr. GEINITZ, 308 Fe yg ay Cabinet of “pe James
Hall: On two new i CooKE and F. A. GoocH:

Dana’s rome of Mineralogy: Hematococcus icone ‘de, 309. —Catal
of Plants growing tee =" ation within thirty miles of Amherst College,
N, 310.— pindacearum Genus monograp
tum, LR LKOFER : Zar “Tse acon der Charen, A. pe B. : De-
fa new (‘rustacean from haar Water-lime group at Buffalo. A. R. 'GROTE
and W. H. Prrr, 311.—Bathybius,

at

Scientific In ear n Association, 313.—Foreign cemerae
A ious tish Scientific Expedition, 315,—Images Me
ightning. W. L. Brown, 317.—Anzual Report of rgentine Meteorologica
— for 1874: aise American Cyclopedia, 319.—Boston Socie’ ’ Nat-
ural History: Geographical Congress at — 320.— Obituary.—I. sn Lapham:

~ Carl Johanw August Theodor Sohacter,. 4

CONTENTS. Vii

NUMBER LIX.
Art. XLI.-—On the Variation in the sirens of a Muscle ;
Ancis EK. Nipuer, -
XLIT—Studies on age the Distribution; ; by. HA. Row.anp, 598
XLIIL—The Effect of the Glac Epoch upon the Distribu-
tion of Insects in North rece by Aue. R. Grore, 335
eee and its Terminology; b ¥, =: 839
XLV.—Abstract of a Memoir on the “ pines agg Relations
of the Jura win Ammonites ;” by A. Hyatt,_..-.------ 344

XLVI—Meteoric Iron, Dickson oy Veen ; by J. L. Smirn, 349

XLVIL—Specific Gr: ravity Balance; by Roswett PaRisH,-- 352

XLVIiI.—On Southern New England during the Melting of
mes D. Dana. No. III, 3

XLIX.—Iowa County Meteor; by N. R. Learns cee tes 357
L.—On the Rit pire fossils of Sankoty Head; by A. E.
VERRILL ; with a note on the Geology;by S. H. Scupper, 364
Appenpix.—LI,—On the Odontornithes, or Birds with Teeth;
we OO; 6 Magee, osu. 2 cee, bes be a eee 403

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
Chemistry and Pi Phasice- — Trimethyl-carbinol, FReunD, 375. — 98 Sip ae
of Epihisciytes, 2 vost: On Three new Pinacolins, Wise
—Salylie acid idontical with Benzo: nzoic, KouBpe: On the Pateeien eats ‘a
Chlordracylic acid, Hartmann: Use of Salicylic acid in Titrition, WEISKE, 377.

—Synthesis of Malonic acid, Pinner: Action of Chlorine on Pyrogall 1, STEN-
HOUSE: Constit of Emodin. aR TRS 78.—Coloring Matters Phlore
in, B: : Arithmetical relations between the A e

ti ‘
weights, IRa Remsen, 379. —Compressbiity of of aene oe REWS, 380.—
Magnets formed of Tron m Filings, J HARME, 382.

Geology and Natural History. ies as eh upon eats ache var Mt. Washington,
C. H. Hrrexcock, 383.—Report on the vicinity of the 49th Parallel from the
Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mcuntaina: by G. M. Dawson, 384.— rt
of a Reconnaissance of the — pag of Dakota i in of 1874; by | i term

i Ohio: Cretaceou

Mexico; by M. BaRcENa, Cf aa paths Sey iakine, 0. ro 387, —Sedi-

ts 0: b 395.—F fe

E. S. Morsz, 396.—The Bones, Ligaments, and Muscles of the Domestic Cat, by
H. S. Winurams: Leraata ys polyps of the Umbellularia group, 397.

Astronomy.—Observations de Poulkova; OTTo ee a

Scientific Tntelligence.—Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society,
398.—Voyages a la Cote Nord-Ouest de I’ Amérique, 1870-72, A. be PINART:
Index of Professional |in the 400.—

‘o Medical Jurisprudence and Medicine; by A. S. TAYLor: S Lion
mr a , by S. Haventon, 402.—Obituary.—W. J. Henwood: 8. D. Till-

vill CONTENTS,

NUMBER LX. “a
Arr. LIL—On Southern New England during the »« ‘ng of
‘the ibe " Qlacier; by Jamus D. Dana, -- 2c
LIIL—Ammonia a constant contaminant of Sulphu: io Acid ;

www ew ee ew www Be eee ee eH wt mee ee

by DWARD SUE
LV.—Studies on Seagnede Distribution; by H. A. Row1anp, 451
eee’ —Notes on a a Feature in the “Comstock Lode;

by G, P. Bzc 45
LVIL. —Notice of Ne ew and Interesting Coal Plants; by oa
Wa eh, ABD ORR se eeu wien it
LVI. clears i we Editors, from Dr. B. A. Goutn, --- - -- 466

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

Chemis yooh have dhe ghey —An Air Damper for Balances, ARZBERG ER: On a Con
enient method of Preparing Sulphuryl Chloride, BEnREND: Action of dilute
{ine ~ —- on Bleaching Powder ,Koprer, 471 Method for the Quantitative
epara of Ferric Oxide, FiigHt: On the Gases enclosed i in Pts THOMAS,
ee i thevscoheiis Acid, LIEBERMANN and Fiscuer: On the Quantitative
Jetermination of Vanillin in Vanilla, Tiemann and HAARMANY, “473. —On the

tion of Arsenic in the" Tissues: Cold Bands of Dark Spectra, Desaiss and
\GMONET, 474.—Luminosity of Flames, WIBEL, 475.—Rotatory Polarization of
—_ Soret ani i

POOPOOR PES
we =1

Gato and Natural Hr ee rdial fossils in pebbles of Newport Conglome-
te, W. B. Rogrrs: eres near + Batario, Genesee County, New York, 419.—
Ons a method of distinguish: ld F
perties, DesCLoizEaux, 480. —Contribuzoni Mineralogiche per servire servire alla Storia
dell’ Incendio Vesuviano del Mese di Aprile, 1872, memoria di eee
Scaccut: Materiali r Mineralogie

Astronomy.—Observations on the late Transit “of Venus at Beechworth, Victoria;
by Henry J. ‘ANDERSON, 484.

Miscellaneous Intelligence.— rson School, ALEXANDER AGASSIZ,
485.—Annual Report of the Board of taut of the Smithsonian Institution,
487.—Croll on Climate and Time: A Course in Descriptive Geometry for the use

of Colleges and Scientific See by Wituisam Watrer: American Natura

list: School of Geology in the University of Syracuse, 488.

NUMBER LX*.

Arr. LIX.—On the Solar Chromosphere; by S. P. Lanerey, £99
LX.—On See apres. of the — pity Sek Fn Glacial
flood; by James D. Dana,.....-..-_-- —

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Art. I_— Results derived from an examination AG the a States
Weather Maps for 1872, 73, and 74; by E L s, P
fessor * es atural Philosophy i in Yale Colinge Third 1 paper.
With Plate L

[Read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington, April 20, 1875.]

In this Journal for July, 1874, I gave the average direction
of storm paths and the velocity of progress for each month of

together be with the average results derived from combining all
the observations of the three years, making in the aggregate
485 cases.

Results for 1872 & a Results for 1874. Results for 3 years.

| Veloci -
ager a nl da niles Course. | Velocity. || Course, | Velocity.
January ----|N, 86° E. N.74°H.| 23°0 ||N.81°E.| 267%.
February - -.. 6 3°9 74 32°0
Marek 3... 79 86 29°8 81 30°65
seh eee 14 68 31-4 12 | QT
May ios 78 16 22°2 V7 23°5
ine 93 81 224 89 216
Rt) Berens 102 88 25°9 97
ugust 85 85 19°9 85 18-4
eptember 78 10 | 331 die ae
October _.... 69 28°5 14 2:
ovember 80 44 30°3 78 29°0
I went Sh 81 32°7 83 9°
Year, (N.82°E .78°E.| 269 ||N.81°E| 26-0

Am. Jour. Sc1.—TuiRp ones, Vou. X, No. 55.—JULY, 1875.

2 E.. Loomis-—Results from an examination of the

The average course of the storms in 1874 was four degrees
more northerly than for the two preceding years, and the
average velocity was 13 miles per hour greater; but the
change both in the direction and velocity depending upon
the season of the year was similar to that before noticed.
According to the combined results derived from the three
years observations, the course of storms is most southerly in
July, and most northerly in April and October, the mean
difference between the extreme months amounting to 25°
The velocity of progress is greatest in February, and least in
August, the former exceeding the latter by 74 per cent. In ~
only one instance was the course of a storm for an entire day
directed toward a point west of north. This occurred on the —
18th of April, in the case of a storm which originated in the
Gulf of Mexico, and whose course for one day was 13° west —
of north. The most southerly direction for the year occurred
in the case of the storm of Aug. 21st, whose course for one
day was N. ° E., or S. 17° E., a directional most exactly

per hour; and the least velocity occurred Aug. 2st, being
228 miles in 24 hours, or 9°5 miles per hour. ;
ese are the results derived from observations made at —
intervals of 24 hours. If. we make the comparison at intervals
of eight hours, we shall find much greater variations in respect
to both direction and velocity. According to the monthly —
maps, published under the direction of the Chief Signal Officer, -
from the 7th to the 11th of May, 1874, the path of a storm —
center situated about 300 miles west

Ww
those below 1, 2, 8, indicate respeck
| ively the 7.85 a. M., 4.35 P.M. and
ll P. M. observations It will &
erceived that the direction of th?
storm’s progress changed more than 180° in 24 hours, amt
on the morning of the 11th the center of the storm was distal!
less than 100 miles from its position on the morning of the 9th
If, then, we regard the actual motion of the storm’s center from
hour to hour, as remarked in my former article, we find that the
storm path may have any direction whatever, and the velocity
of progress may vary from 15 miles per hour toward the west

to 60 miles per hour toward the east.

United States Weather Maps for 1872-1874. 3

Diurnal inequality in the progress of storms.

In order to ascertain whether the progress of storms is uni-
form throughout the entire day, I availed myself of the
monthly maps issued by the Signal Service Bureau. These
maps show the position of the storm centers for three hours
of the day, viz: at 7.85 A. M., which is designated by (1); at
4.35 Pp. M., which is designated by (2); and at 11 P. M., which
is designated by (3). On each storm track, the distance from
1 to 2, from 2 to 8, and from 8 to 1 (of the next day), was

4.35 P. M. to 11 P. M.; and the numbers in column fourth
represent the velocity from 11 P. M. to 7.85 a. M. of the
following day.

ae Se | 1-2 | 2-3 3-1

Jan. | 26-6! 37:3) 28-2/'July | 25-2| 326) 28-2
Feb. | 28°6: 37-0 28°9|'Aug. | 24°2| 28°6) 20°8
March | 27-2! 33°6| 27-2) Sept. | 23°9| 30°2| 24°5
April | 22°56) 25-9) 22-9) Oct. 22°9| 29-6) 23°5
May | 19-2) 25-6 19-5) Nov. | 33-6) 40°6| 29°3
June | 22°5| 25-9| 22-2), Dec. | 33°3) 37-0) 29°9

‘Year, | 25-9 31-9| 25-4

From this table it appears that the average velocity of
storms from 4.85 P. M. to 11 P. M. is about 25 per cent greater
than it is for the remainder of the day. This excess varies
for the different months, ranging from 14 to 32 per cent, but
'n each month the most rapid progress occurs during the same
portion of the day. .
ee diurnal inequality is doubtless connected with a diurnal
'nequality in some one and perhaps several of the other
meteorological elements. Its maximum value apparently oc-
curs about 7 Pp. M. Now this is not the hour of the maximum
force of the wind, nor of the maximum or minimum tempera-
ture, and hence it may be presumed that the inequality does
not depend directly upon the velocity of the wind nor upon
the absolute temperature. This hour (7 P. ‘M.) is, however, the -
time when the temperature of the day is declining most rapidly, _

Pa E. Loomis— Results from an examination of the

and this condition must be favorable to a rapid extension of
the rain-area in front of a storm. When, at a given place in
front of a storm center, a system of causes is in operation
which is soon to result in a fall of rain, the ordinary change of
temperature at evening must accelerate the commencement of
the rainfall; that is, must extend the rain-area_more ra ier

This extension of the rain-area in front of a storm does not
perhaps necessarily imply an increase in the average rainfall
for that part of the day; nevertheless, I have endeavored to
determine whether there is a diurnal inequality in the fall
of rain. For this purpose I first examined the observations

reported to a been in good condition. In the iolowing

table, column second shows the aggregate amount of rain at
Philadelphia. for each hour of the day during these seven
months.

Rainfall at Philadelphia.

Hour. Posy Average. Hour. rare Average.
Midnight} 1°633 0-869 Noon 0-366 0914
1am] 0°748 917 PPC <-1s3 861
2 98 826 2 1488 1-036
3 666 "636 3 0-869 1°152
4 686 617 4 1727 1-265
5 84 “13k 5 1°234
6 949 “T16 6 1346 1-580
7 671 133 7 1-2: 1:310
8 588 822 8 27598 1°206
9 171 802 Oot SG 1°165
10 17133 “T41 10 “42 1-235
ll 0°848 780 1l 17140 0°865

As these numbers show considerable irregularities, I_ have
taken the average of each successive five numbers in column
second and set down the results in column third. ese
resulting numbers show a pretty steady progress from a mini-

mum at 3 A. M. to'a maximum about 6 P. M., and from thence
a steady decline to the ott minimum. The poeeae is
nearly 24 times the minimum, although the former is made too
small, and the latter too oreat b. the mode of reduction
employed. It seems probable, therefore, that the diurnal in-
equality in the rainfall, as indicated by these observations, is @
law of the Philadelphia climate, and we may presume, there-
fore, that it is a law for the immediate vicinity of Philadelphia.

I next examined the observations made at the signal service

a
me
a

<

United States Weather Maps for 1872-1874. 5

stations for Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1872, these being the only
months for which the observations have been fully published,
and I confined the comparison to those stations which are north
of lat. 35°. The total rainfall for a month at all the stations
north of the parallel of 35° was determined for each of the
three intervals into which the day is divided; these results were
divided by the number of days in the month, giving the aver-
age daily fall for each of these intervals; and these last results
were divided by the number of hours in the corresponding inter-
val, giving thus the average hourly rainfall for all the stations
for these three portions of the day. The following is the final
result :

Hourly rainfall at the 8. 8. Stations.

I—2 2—3 3—1
September 0°244 inch 0.308 inch 0°288 inch
October "174 "200 192
November "155 "143 ‘180
Mean 0°191 0°217 0°220

_ These numbers indicate that the average rainfall for the sta-
tions employed is nearly uniform throughout the day. If,
then, there is a decided diurnal inequality in the rainfall at
Philadelphia, it seems probable that for other parts o
country the maximum takes place at a different hour, so that
in taking the aggregate for a series of stations stretching across
the continent, the total rainfall is nearly uniform for all hours
of the day.

The British Government has published the hourly observa-

servations,
Influence of rainfall upon the course of storms.

In a former paper (this Jour., vol. viii, p. 4) I endeavored to
show the connexion between the velocity of a storm’s progress
and the extent of the rain-area on the eastern side of the storm.
T have made a similar comparison of the observations of 1874,
and now present the results. The number of cases suited to

6 E. Loomis— Results from an examination of the

this comparison in 1874 was 80; and I have divided them
into four equal classes, the first division embracing those cases
in which the progress of the storm in one ay was at least 855
miles; the second, those cases in which the progress was from
855 to 665 miles; the third, from 665 to 490; and the fourth
embracing the cases in which the progress was less than 490
miles in one day. In the following table, columns one and two
show the results heretofore published, derived from the obser-
vations of 1872 and ’73; columns three and four show the
results derived from the observations of 1874, while columns
five and six show the results derived from combining the
observations of the three years.

Obs. of 1872 and 73. | Obs. of 1874. 83 years obs.

Velocity — of
in Led area | Velocity. | Rain-area.| Velocity. | Rain-area.
per how Ga mile es.

38°8 590 42°F 740 40-1 640
28°5 548 30-7 609 29°2 568
21°6 503 23°% 611 22°3 539
14°5 365 17-0 535 15°3 422

Although the velocity of progress does not appear to be
strictly proportioned to the eastward extent of the rain-area
(for the observations are seldom sufficiently numerous to indi-
cate precisely the extent of this area, and it is plain that there
are other causes which contribute to influence the result), yet I
bia it is well established that an unusual extension of the

n-area is generally accompanied by a velocity of progress
greater than the mean. The result of the three years’ observa-
tions shows the avuade extent of the rain-area eastward from
the center of the storm to be 542 miles. When the eastern
extent of the rain-area is 100 miles greater than the mean, the
Hes 4 velocity of the storm’s progress is increased 13-7 miles ;
but when the eastern extent of the rain-area is 100 miles less
than the mean, the hourly velocity of the storm’s progress is
diminished 9°5 miles.

I have also determined the influence of the rain-area upon
the direction of the storm’s path, as shown by the observations
of 1874, in the same manner as described in my former paper
(this Jour., vol. viii, p. 5). The oo table shows: first,

from the observations of 1874; and shied, the results derived
from combining the. pbaeriatie of the three years.

United States Weather Maps for 1872-1874. 7

Obs. of 1872 and 78, Obs. of 1874. Obs. of three years.
Course o Axis of Course o Axis of Course of Axis of
Storm. Rain-area. Storm, Rain-area. Storm. Rain-area.

N. 40°H.|N. 53°H.)N. 53° HR.) N. 54°E.|N. 44°E.|N. 563° E.

N.116 E.|N.118 E.|N. 100 E.|N. 109 E.|N. 111 E.|N.115 E.

From the result of three years’ observations, it appears that
when the course of a storm is most northerly, the axis of the
rain-area is inclined to the storm’s path 9° toward the south ;
but when the course of a storm is most southerly, the axis of
the rain-area is inclined to the storm’s path only 4°. If, then,
in any case we can learn the precise limits of the rain-area
about a storm-center, we ought to be able to predict with con-
siderable confidence the direction and velocity of the storm’s
progress.

Influence of a neighboring area of high barometer upon the pro-
gress 0 orm.

into eight classes, according to the direction of the center of
high barometer from the center of low barometer. From the
center of low barometer I drew eight radii, making with each
other angles of 45°, and so situated that two of the octants
should be bisected by a meridian line. These octants are desig-
nated by the terms, north, northeast, east, ete. A large sheet
of paper was then ruled with appropriate divisions for each of
the octants, and when the area of high barometer was on the
north side of the storm center, the velocity and direction of the
storm’s path were entered in the column headed north. I pro-
ceeded in like manner with each of the cases in succession.
An average was then taken of the directions and velocities in
the several columns.

The following table shows the result of this comparison for
1872, ’73 and 74. Column Ist shows the direction of the area
of high barometer from the storm center; column 2d shows
the number of cases employed; column 3d shows the average
velocity of the storm’s progress; and column 4th shows the
direction in which thé storm advanced. —

8 E. Loomis—fesults from an examination of the

Direction No. of Velocity Direction
paromerer,| Cases. | of Storm. | OF StnT™
North 23 26:0 |N. 58° E.
N.E 39 26°4 64
Fast 90 2574 83
S.E 75 29°5 90
South 25 30°3 93
S.W. 20 2671 81
West 37 28°8 70
N.W. 19 28°7 62

The influence of a neighboring area of high barometer upon
the velocity of a storm’s progress is not very decided, neverthe-
less the observations indicate that when the high barometer is
on the east side of the storm, the velocity of the storm’s pro-

ress is diminished eight per cent; and that the velocity is
increased by about the same amount when a high barometer is
situated on the south side of the storm.

The effect of an area of
high barometer upon the di-
rection of a storm’s progress
seems to be more decided,
the course of the storm being
£0 most northerly when the high

barometer is on the northeast
Low }-— side, and most southerly

4
4
a
@
5
ot
| ye
ia)
=
mee
(FQ
So
g
2)
B
is?)
or
g
me
wm

side ; in each case the storm-
path is deflected toward the
center of high barometer.
By referring to my former
article (this Journal, vol. ix, p,

2) it will be seen that on which-
ever side of a storm center an

seems, therefore, that the imme-
diate effect of an area of high
barometer must be to extend
the area of the wind which be-
pe a to oes side of the storm,
robably also to Saheess
the veloc “Of the wind u
that side of the storm which is :
toward the high barometer. If, then, the high barometer is on
the southeast side of the storm's center, the south wind which

United States Weather Maps for 1872-1874. 9

belongs to that side of the storm should extend to a greater
distance, and probably blow with increased force, which would
cause increased rainfall upon that side, and the storm’s pe
would incline in that direction. In like manner, if the hi

1 s center, the
increased precipitation on that side should cause the storm’s
path to incline more to the northward.

t might be supposed that the same course of reasoning
would lead us to conclude that a storm’s progress should be
most rapid when there is an area of high barometer on its
eastern side. To this it may be answered, that although the
fall of the barometer in such a case should be more rapid than
usual, still, as the barometer starts from a point unusually
high, the fall must continue for a proportionally longer time
before the minimum is reached. The same consideration may
in part explain why the progress of a storm is not as much
accelerated by a high barometer on the northeast side as it is

y a high barometer on the southeast side. In the former case,
the high barometer is nearer to the track which the storm is to
pursue, and there must be a greater fall of the barometer before
the minimum is attained.

Form of the isobaric curves.

ne average form of the isobars about a storm center may be
said to be an irregular oval, whose length is nearly double its
breadth. In order to give a more distinct idea of the form of

length of the arrows: a length of 0-4 inch indicatin locit
: g a velocity
Md at least 20/niles per was a length of 0°3 inch a velocity of
rom 10 to 20 miles; and a length of 0-2 inch a velocity less
than 10 miles per hour. :

10 E. Loomis—Results from an examination of the

n inspection of this map will show that the centrifugal
force arising from the circulation of the wind around the storm
center cannot be the principal cause for the fall of the barom-
eter, for otherwise the form of the isobars would be more
nearly circular.

With regard to the direction of the major axis of the isobars,
there is but little tendency to uniformity ; nevertheless, the
most prevalent direction is about N. 35° E., which is almost
identical with the result derived re the observations of 1872

and ’73.

Great and — changes ow temperature.

to the great and sudden anges ‘of ‘temperature st
r f

will now present some additional facts bearing upon the same
question. In the Report of the Chief Signal “Officer for 1878
is given the maximum and minimum epee of each da
in 1873 at 40 stations in the United States and Canada.
have examined these tables to find all the sages in which the
difference between the maximum and minim of the same
day amounted to at least 40°. The Slicetae “table shows all
the stations at which so great a difference was observed, and
also the number of cases which occurred each month,

Diurnal Change of Temperature of 40° and upwards in 1873.

ws Blail. 3} e eyed?

Lat.| Lon. | 3/5) 3| 5) $i 8 |S) Pi Bis 18] 318

seg SS eZ 258 E18

Denver__..__- so a4lsBa 0 a} 5| of 2} al of al al af #| | aban
Fort Sully ....|44 39100 40) 3)-.| 2) 4}-.| 1}--| 1] 5} 9}--| 1126
Cheyenne... _. 41 y tees 1} 1/--| 1/..] 41 3|_-| 2] 3 3] 220
Virginia City __|45 2}..| *| #| *| 2] 1) #| *| 1] 2] 3iz1
Deeckanaldge “las Yel oe 8 Hea ES Bas
Fort Garry --- 2, 96 5 ee ees WE 7 8
San Antonio ..|29 25} 98 25)__|__|__ 2 8
La Crosse__... 43 48) 91 27) 3) 2] 1 Boats
Halifar 2.02. 44 40| 63 35|__| Li__[.-| Ti.t--t 1 1 # OM OF 4
Geneva .....- 53) a Tia Hd Gerd ee
sabes cabs 16, jo} Aje-) Uefa} pL} 8} 4) 8) 8
ee. 41 52| 87 38|__| 1-_|..[ 1 2
Leavenworth _'39 19 i a 1
ae 53 a 1
Morgantown ..|39 40 79 55/ *|__| 1 *| *) #1
| Oswego ...... 28) 76 35) 1 ing e!

An asterisk shows that observations for the month indicated
are wantin.

The number of stations at which a difference of 40° between
the maximum and minimum of the same day was observed in

7

United States Weather Maps for 1872-1874. ll

1878, is 16, which is 40 per cent of the whole number of sta-
tions; and among the stations at which so great a difference
was not observed, are Kingston, Toronto and Montreal, in
Canada, and the summit of Mount Washington in New Hamp-
shire.

In the Report of the Chief Signal Officer for 1874 is given
the maximum and minimum temperature of each day in 1874
at 107 stations in the United States and Canada. The follow-
ing table shows all the cases in which the difference between
oo maximum and minimum of the same day amounted to at
east 40°.

Diurnal Change of Temperature of 40° and upwards in 1874.

. | |
dl. «bg nae
Lat.| Lon. | §}< PEleigisisidive gs g
SPSS sislqidoaar
Fe _
Colorado Springs|38 55/164 58) 8| 3| 4 3/11).9| 8)..|..| * 2, 8 5¢
DSNVOr. 2 uk. 39 4) 21 1] 1] 4} 6] 6 4] 1] Si U7 4) 146
heyenne 41 12104 43 6} 5| 7 4| 6] 2| 3| 133
Fort Sully __.-_ 44 39'100 40, 5] 1] 2] 4! 1/-_| 1/_.| 5} 3} 2/--'24
Breckenridge __|46 11] 96 17} 1| 4! 1'..| 3| 1/--|_.| 4| 1) 1) 315
n 43 45] 97 30) 4) 1.2) 9.) }-.|..] 4) 8} 1-0
Geney; Ao 631 9) Bb Qi ah ibs sl oak pies Ole
s o ...|29 25] 98 25] 3] 1/__| 5 11¢
Pembina 2. O81 Bia.) Td) Bll) AE hic 4
Fort Garry 49 52| 96 58|_.| 2]--| a] 1/__}_.|_.|-_] 2) 1!-.|
Stayner __... 2. $6) 8015) Biosig Arde Sh do See a caer
Fort Gibson _.__/35 43] 95 16] 1 1 1 t
Chatham ______ 65 30/__| 2| 2 --| 4
lalifax 40] 63 36]__| 1] 1 li:
1a Crosse__..__ Ao 48: 91 Ssh) Gr tala
forgantown .../39 36) 79 52|_.|_.|__| 1 2)--|--|
Leavenworth 39 19! 94 5 ac:%
Mt. Washington 16; 71 16} 2 Se
Oawe 22550 45 22) %5 46 11 | 4
PONT so 4616160) Sool Hop Basha Mle
Vytheville.____ 36 56] 81 0} * * # * i | al al ee
en 42 40] 73 45) Hie 1 Sone Bee Sa esl A ea gl
Buta 42 53| 78 55\__| 1 |
urlington.____ 44 29] 73 1 | 1
Charleston _____ 32 45) 79 5 RAGES ee
Davenport 32) 90 38 5
ute 46 481 99 9] # ee el yl tt] ee
astport -_.___ 55) 66 54) 1 tg ed
PP csmew ex 43% 80-10) Bh tl
seh L 12) 76 4 is 1
lew London ._.'41 22) 72 9| *, #__/__| 1/__|__|_i__| #) # *
forfolk .___.__ 36 51) 76 1s eee Oe Maes ted PE
maha -.__._. 41 16) 96 0| 1). ac ere
Portland, Oreg._ 46 30/122 27| * *| * BE Ss
ort Stanley ___42 40, 81 13| # # *# *_.| 1 __\__|__| *) * #1]
jaugeen _...._/42 40| 81 16|..| bBoccht Mest
Squan Beach...40 8! 74 1) * * ae bed ade ee
Saint Louis ..__ 38 37| 90 15] 1. ]

12 E. Loomis— Results from an eramination of the

The number of stations at which a difference of 40° between
the maximum and minimum of the same day was observed in
1874, is 38, which is 35 per cent of the whole number of
stations; and among the stations at which so great a differ-
ence did wot oceur, are Kingston, Toronto and Montreal, in
Canada, and Pike’s Peak, at an elevation of 14,092 feet above

e sea

From the preceding tables it appears that throughout the
greater part of the United States there is occasionally observed
a difference of 40° between the maximum and minimum tem-
perature of the same day, and there are a few places where
such changes are remarkably frequent. This phenomenon
occurs most frequently at stations situated between the Missis-
sippi River and the Rocky Mountains, and at the head of the
list stand Colorado Springs and Denver. Colorado Springs is
situated on the eastern side of Pike’s Peak, at an elevation of
5,935 feet above the sea, and Denver is distant from it about
60 miles on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, at an

~

elevation of 5,135 feet.

descent of air from a great height. Colorado Springs an
Denver are situated where the upward and downward motion
of atmospheric currents must be uncommonly frequent, and
they surpass all the other stations of the signal service in the
magnitude and suddenness of the changes of temperature. An
instance of this kind has recently been reported which is the
most remarkable I have ever known. I have received a state-
ment of the facts from three different sources, all of which
agree in the main, but they show differences of several degrees
of temperature, which may be ascribed to a difference in the
exposure of the instruments. The most moderate statement is
that furnished by the observer at the U.S. signal service sta-
tion, and I will therefore adopt his numbers in preference to
either of the others.

Storm of Jan, 15, 1875, at Denver, Colorado.

On the 14th of January, 1875, the thermometer at Denver
had been below zero all day, with a variable northeast wind.
At 9 p.m. of that day the thermometer was one degree above
zero. The wind then veered suddenly to southwest ; and at
9.15 Pp. M. the thermometer stood at 20°; at 9.20 p. M. it s

United States Weather Maps for 1872-1874. 13

at 27°; at 9.80 Pp. m., 86°; and at 9.385 P.M. at 40°; after
which there was but little change till near noon of the next
day. The preceding observations show a rise of the thermom-
eter amounting to 39 degrees in 35 minutes.

On the 15th of January, the thermometer had been above 40°
all the morning, with a fresh southwest wind. About 11.80
A. M. the thermometer stood at 52°. The wind then suddenly
backed to northeast, and at 12.30 P.M. the thermometer stood
at 4°; being a change of 48° in one hour. Another observer,
who is pronounced perfectly reliable, says that between 11
A. M. noon a thermometer fell from 58° to 22° (that is,
thirty-six degrees) in five minutes. The annexed figure on

Thermometer.
Jan. 14. Jan. 15.
noon. 6 midn. 6 noon. 6 Ravenister.
50°F an. 1 a
— 6 noon. 6 midn. 6 noon. 6
40-7-—
24:8
30 aa
24-7
104+-—+—— LT | 245 N
0 ago 24°4
Peas

the left will perhaps give a better idea of the extent and sud
denness of these changes of temperature than would be derived
from a simple description. The entire curve shows the state
of the thermometer for nearly two days, from 5.43 A. M., Jan.
14th, to 9 Pp. M., Jan. 15th, according to the observations made at
the signal service station. The figure on the right shows the
changes in the pressure of the atmosphere during the same
Period. On the 14th the barometer fell from 24°88 to 24-40
inches, and on the 15th it rose again to 24°76 inches.

hese changes of temperature and pressure which were
hoticed at Denver, were the effects of a considerable storm
1p came from the northwest, and whose center passed on
the east side of Denver, within about 250 miles of that place.
cH storm was accompanied by high winds and gales in Colo-
Fe and Kansas. It probably did not differ materially from
the Winter storms frequently experienced in other portions of
he United States, except in the extreme suddenness of the

14 H. A, Rowland—Magnet’c Proof Plane.

changes of wind and temperature. I do not think that these
sudden changes can be fully explained by the supposition of a
polar current sweeping along the earth’s surface from a higher
to a lower latitude, but it seems necessary to admit a sudden
transfer of very cold air from a higher to a lower level.
The heat of Jan. 14th probably resulted from the sudden pre-
cipitation of vapor caused by the elevation of air from the
earth’s surface; and this warm air near the earth’s surface sud-
denly ascended on the 15th, being displaced by the colder air
of a greater elevation. :

n ied the materials for this article, I have been
assisted by Mr. Edward S. Cowles, a graduate of Yale College
of the class of 1878.

Art. 1].—Preliminary Note on a Magnetic Proof Plaue; by
Henry A. ROWLAND.

AxsouT four years ago I made a large number of experi-
ments on the distribution of magnetism on iron and steel bars
by means of a coil of wire sliding along the bar; the induced
current in the coil as measured by a galvanometer was a meas-
ure of the number of lines of force cut by the coil and can be
found in absolute measure by my method of using the earth
inductor. These researches have never yet been published
owing to cireumstances beyond my control, but are known to
quite a number of persons in this country, and will soon be
published. The method there used is the only correct one that
I know of for experimenting on magnetic distribution, and my
purpose in this note is to extend it to bodies of all shapes, so
that experiments on magnetic distribution may become as sim-
ple and easy to perform as those on electrical distribution. And
so well has my magnetic proof plane accomplished this that I
can illustrate the subject to my classes with the greatest ease.

The 5 eapoee required is merely a small coil of wire $ to 4
inch in diameter, containing from 10 to 50 turns, and a Thomson
galvanometer. When we require to reduce to absolute measure,
another coil about a foot in diameter and containing 20 or 30
turns is required. Having attached the small coil (or, as I call
it, the magnetic proof plane) to the galvanometer, we have
merely to lay it on the required spot, and when everything is
ready, to pull it away suddenly and carry it to a distance, and
the momentary deflection of the galvanometer needle will be
proportional to that component of the lines of force at that
point which is cccioteate: to the plane of the coil. And if
we apply it to the surface of a permanent magnet the so-called

H. A, Rowland—Magnetic Proof Plane. 15

surface density of the magnetism at that point will be nearly
proportional to the deflection. In the case of an electro-magnet
the surface density will be nearly proportional to the deflection
minus the deflection which would be produced by the helix
alone, though the last is generally pte et may be neglected.

use the words nearly in the above statement because they are
only exactly true in the cases where the lines of force proceed
from the surface in a perpendicular direction; otherwise the
deflections must be multiplied by the secant of the angle made
by the lines of force with the surface of the magnet. In the

Having obtained the distribution for any given magnet, the
distribution for any similar magnet of the same material but of
different size becomes known by a well known law of Sir
William Thomson.

As, in the present state of our knowledge, magnetic measure-
ments are of small value unless made on the absolute scale, we
require to reduce our results to this system. There are seve
methods of doing this, but the simplest is that which I have
used in my experiments on magnetic permeability, and consists
™m including an earth inductor in the circuit. A coil laid on a
perfectly level surface is sufficient for this: when this is turned

over, the induced current will be equal to C= st

is the number of turns in the coil, A its mean area, V the ver-
tical component of the earth’s magnetism, and R the resistance
of the circuit. When the small coil is pulled suddenly away

the current will be C’=™ aa and so we have Q=2V—
which when a Thomson galvanometer is used C’ and C can be

R an'C'
replaced by the corresponding deflections; hence Q=2V—;—

, where n

in

* On a new diamagnetic attachment to the lantern, &c., this Journal, May, 1875.

16. H. A. Rowland—Magnetie Proof Plane.

coil and Q is that component of the magnetic field we are
measuring in the direction of the axis of the small coil.

As an illustration of this method I will give a few experi-
ments made with the magnets of a Ruhmkorff diamagnetic
apparatus, which was altogether about 2 ft. long and had its.
magnets 2 in. in diameter, with a hole 4 in. in diameter through
them for experiments on the rotation of the plane of polariza-
tion of light, but which in these experiments were closed by
the solid poles which were screwed on. The first experiments
were with two dises of iron, 4°6 in. in diameter and 1@ in. thick,
screwed on to the poles. In the first place the poles were
turned away from one another, the current being sent through
only one magnet, and the values of the ee field obtained
at different points close to the surface of the These may
be numbered as follows: No. 1, at center of fate of disc; No.
2, on face of disc half an inch from the edge; No. 3, on cen-
ter of edge of disc. The measures are on the meter, gram,
second system.

lst. Strength of current, 44 farads per second.

1. 2220. 2. 3550. 3. 4440.
2nd. Strength of current 8°3 farads per second.
1. 3600. 2. 5300. 3. 7500.

Next the poles were turned toward each other and the cur-
rent sent through both magnets, so as to make the poles of the
same name. Current 4:6 farads per secon

1st. Distance of poles, 3 in.

1. 1800. 3 3800.
2nd. Distance of poles, 14 in.
1. 600. 4000.
Here we see an apoteath to one of Faraday’s places of no
magnetic action

After this the current in one of the magnets was reversed so
as to make the poles opposite. Current the same.

Ist. Distance of poles, 3 in.

1. 5800. 2. 8200. 3. 6700.
2nd. Pager of poles, oe in.
9800. 7500 3.

It is curious to note how she distribution changes with the dis-
tance of the discs; thus, on one disc free from the other, the
edge of the disc has the greatest magnetic surface density, but
when the two discs form opposite poles and are 8 in. apart,

tion 2 gives the greatest effect, while, when they are digs
apart, the field is greatest at the center. This entirely agrees
with theory.

R. Pumpelly— Pseudomorphs of Chlorite. 17

The conical poles for diamagnetic experiments were then
screwed on. ese were portions of cones with an angle at
vertex of about 60°, with the vertex considerably rounded off.
They were one inch apart and the poles were opposite. Cur-
rent 4°4 farads per second.

At center of field between the poles, 12500
On the axis near one pole, 32100
On cone one inch from vertex, 11000
On cylindrical portion of magnet 23 inches

from the vertex of the cone, 5800

These poles were now replaced by frustums of cones with
flat ends, the original diameter of the iron, 2 inches, being re-
duced at the end to 14 inches, and they were placed 4 inch
apart. The field in this case between them was 61000, or
nearly up to the maximum of magnetization of nickel at com-
mon temperatures, and above that at high temperatures.

Troy, April 1, 1875.

Art. IIl—On Pseudomorphs of Chlorite after Garnet at the
Spurr Mountain Iron Mine, Lake Superior; by RAPHAEL
PoMPELLy. With Plate IL

PsEUDOMORPHS of garnet occur in abundance in a bed of
chloritic schist, just oyerlying the great magnetite bed of the
Spurr-Michigamme iron range.*

This schist is of Archzean age and belongs in the upper beds
of the Huronian iron series. It is a very fine-grained, dark
Se chlorite, which gives a light green streak and ope

issolves in acids leaving a deposit of silica, and fuses B.B. on
the edge to a black magnetic enamel (fus. = 4.) It is impreg-
nated with octahedrons of magnetite, which rarely reach a diam-
eter of one-eighth inch. Throughout the rock are scattered the
pseudomorphs in very sharply defined rhombic-dodecahedrons of
all sizes below 14 inches in diameter. Often perfect crystals
can be easily detached from the matrix.
bacon the crystals and polishing the surface of fracture,
they are found to be changed more or less to chlorite, in some
Imstances specimens an inch in size containing not more than five
per cent of garnet, while in others 30-50 per cent of unaltered
Mineral is presen

The octahedral crystals of magnetite are scattered through
the pseudomorphs. “They are visible to the naked eye, half

*I am indebted to Dr. ne, and . No
Se ede yep eer

Am. Jour. Ser. Tarrp —_ > X, No. 55.—Jo.y, 1875.

18 R. Pumpelly— Pseudomorphs of Chlorite after

imbedded on the surface planes, and in the interior - the crys-
tals, both in the chlorite and in the unaltered garne

I have made several thin sections passing p alex the mid-
dle of crystals, about one inch in diameter, and have studied
them underthe microscope, making such examination of the
optical characteristics as the petupe cH the minerals and the
limitations of the method would p

nder a one-tenth inch eet (500 diameters) the garnet ap-
pears not to be strictly homogeneous in texture ; “it has a
eurdled structure, neg, of a transparent bluish-white fill-
ing the irregular meshes of a less clear, white net-work. Bot
of these portions of the garnet are isotrope, remaining dark
through a aa revolution between crossed nicols. Throughout
oth of t members are scattered exceedingly minute par-
ticles of a ete red substance (hematite ) and larger
opaque grains and discoidal plates.

A glance at a section under a low power shows that the
change has taken place by an attack on the garnet along the
countless fissures that traverse it in every direction (fig. 1),
progressing most rapidly in larger cracks, and ramifying
through the more minute on

Two substances, one sreenish yellow, the other clear green,
seem at first sight to be among the products now forming the

sie Soe though, as we shall - see, they both probably
rae to the same mineral.
he slightly greenish-yellow mineral (fig. 1) surcrounde the
oe ee garnet mane nts in bands which are in places clear
and transparent, and in others are marked with longitudinal
wavy lines, which Seekauls indicate the cleavage of the mineral.
From these broader bands, narrow ones branch off to form an
intricate net-work in the garnet fragments. The same mineral
occurs in isolated and grouped, long and slender crystals, which
often branch out from or intersect the b ands; while in other
places the bands are often made up of these ervstals, arrang
more or less parallel to each other.

These bands are generally ;,,;.to ;4, of an inch wide, and
under a low power (figs. 1 and 2) — edges are sharply defined.
Where a garnet fragment has been entirely destroyed, its place
is occupied by an interwoven mass of them, often associated
with irregular patches of the green substance described below.
Mader a high power, both the transparent red particles and the

ue grains and plates that were noticed in the garnet, are
ed in this aligmon-prodicts .

degree
and an tn app prcshle amount for color, changing from “very
antl (wit he

Garnet at the Spurr Mountain Iron Mine. 19

parallel to the undulation plane of the nicol, to very light
(with greenish-yellow tint) when perpendicular to that plane.

ssuming that the parallel sides of the bands are crys-
tallographic outlines and that they lie either in the basal
plane, or else parallel to the principal crystallographic axis,
I have attempted to determine optically the system to which
these crystals belong. The method followed is that recom-
mended by Tschermak in distinguishing pyroxene, hypers-
thene and biotite. Having carefully adjusted the microscope,*
so that the cross hairs in the ocular coincided exactly with the

stage till the nearest point of maximum darkness was reached,
when the principal sections of the crystal coincided each with
a principal section of a nicol’s prism. e number of degrees
of this revolution indicate the inclination of the principal sec-
tions of the crystal to the crystallographic feature chosen for
reference. :

Of course, if the mineral were either uniaxial or orthorhom-
bic, the maximum of darkness would occur when two of the
axes of the crystal were parallel to the undulation planes of
the nicols, and there would be no revolution required. But
this could occur in a monoclinic crystal only when one of the
principal sections happened to coincide with the plane of sym-
metry ; in every other position the axes of the erystal would
make with its principal sections an angle which would vary
between 0° and the number of degrees representing the
inclination of the bisectrices to the vertical and inclined lateral
axes; the full amount of this inclination could only be ob-
served when the principal sections of the crystal were perpen-
dicular to the plane of symmetry, but any inclination suffices
to determine that the crystal belongs to a clinobasic system.
Observations on a great number of the bands and isolated erys-
tals failed to show any inclination ; the mineral, therefore, does
not belong to a clinobasie system.

IL The clear green portions occur isolated in the garnet
fragments, and in places in the fissures with the mineral last
described, and more or less diffused through the larger bands,
but more Roweagl in irregularly-shaped spots, and with out-
lines which are not necessarily determined by those of the
garnet fragments. These larger areas exhibit lamellar aggre-
gate polarization both between crossed nicols and with the
Polarizer alone. Between crossed nicols portions remain

*One of Beck's first . : : . : ;
etl Mhuthbaa

20 R. Pumpelly— Pseudomorphs of Chlorite.

wholly dark during a revolution, some show only a faint
change, and others are not distinguishable from the substance
forming the bands, except that the cleavage lines are not so
distinct. So also with one nicol, the portions that remain
dark between crossed nicols show no absorption, while other
portions change from clear green to almost colorless faint
green-yellow, and still others show about the same changes as
the bands. |

Again, we find in places, on the same individual, all these
conditions, shading gradually one into the other in a manner
that, seems to indicate a bent crystal. I am inclined to look
upon the bands and the clear green as identical, and as belong-
ing to a hexagonal chlorite. The green portions would then
be those which were cut more or less parallel to the basal
plane, and the dichroitic bands those cut perpendicular to this.

ile the plane of contact between the chlorite bands an

garnet appears sharp under a low power, higher objectives (one-
tenth or one-sixteenth inch) show it to have a rough surface
caused by the projection of countless chlorite points into the
garnet substance, in a manner that leaves on the observer the
irapression that the attack is facilitated in some way by the
curdled structure of the garne

The chloritic schist which encloses the pseudomorphs con-
sists apparently of exactly the same chlorite, the only percep-
tible difference being that in the schist the individuals are very

If this view is correct, the paragenesis should be as follows:
I. Ortemvat Rock ( ?)

H. Amory—Application of the Horizontal Pendulum. 21

IL, Meramorpuic CHANGE with crystallization of
(a.) Octahedrons of magnetite and the discordai crystals.
(0.) Garnets.

Ill. PsevpoMorPHIC CHANGE. Chlorite after the original rock
and after garnet, but preserving the magnetite and dis-
coidal crystals intact. ;

Arr. IV.—Brief Contributions from the Physical Laboratory or
Harvard College. No.18.—An Application of’ the Horizontai
Pendulum ; by Harcourt Amory.

difficult to make. By the use of the horizontal pen ulum,
however, the mutual action of the currents can readily
shown. The apparatus is arranged as in the accompanying

figure. The wire which forms the upper support of the pendu-
lum is connected with one pole of a battery, and is then |
along the horizontal bar of the pendulum, best made of glass,
and is bent in the form of a parallelogram at the extremity of
the bar. The wire is then led back to form the lower support
of the pendulum, and is then connected with the other pole of
the battery through a fixed coil of wire placed in the neighbor-
hood of the end of the pendulum.

The current first passes to the upper suspending wire, around
the oe at the extremity of the pendulum, back
through the lower supporting wire, through the outside coil,
and returns to the battery. By turning the outside coil upon a
re —— axis, pane Jaws of attraction or repulsion a

“ents can be shown. The apparatus is peculiarly wel

adapted to show the action of solenoids upon cs aoe |

22°» =M.C. Lea—Explosive Properties of Methyl Nitrate.

Art. V.—LEeplosive Properties of Methyl Nitrate; by M.
CaRrEY Lea, Philadelphia.

sulting in the death of Mr. Chapman. This, and the remarks
recently published on the subject by M. Girard, the well-known
French chemist (an abstract of which lately appeared in the
pages of this Journal), leads me to make a few observations
on this subject.

When I first attempted to prepare this substance by the only
method published up to that time, I felt convinced that the
chances were greatly in favor of an accident, though no warn-
ing was given in the text books. I therefore wore a mask, and
operated cautiously with moderate quantities in a very large
flask. A tremendous explosion followed, in which the flask
entirely disappeared ; no fragment of the body could be found.
I then tried the use of urea in the same modified manner which
I had proposed in the case of ethyl nitrate. The operation
was entirely successful, and was many times repeated without
any trouble or difficulty. And it is, I presume, in this way
that it is now commercially manufactured on a large scale.

Within the last few days I have made the following experi-
ments on its explosive properties.

Contrary to what has been stated, I do not find it liable to
explode by percussion. Some extra thick filtering paper was
saturated with it, was placed on a piece of iron, and forcibly
struck with a hammer. This was repeated a dozen times, until
the paper was broken to pieces, without explosion.

Five or six drops were placed in a test tube; this was placed
in a deep cup, and a little aleohol poured into the cup and in-
fl . In this way the flames played chiefly on the surface
of the test tube above the liquid, thus preventing its —s
evaporation at low temperatures. A slight explosion followed,
which did not break the test tube.

When ethyl nitrate was similarly treated, it quickly evapo-
rated without explosion.

Twenty measured minims of methyl nitrate were then placed
in the tube, and the experiment repeated. A moderate explo-
sion followed, breaking the tube. ;

‘he same quantity as in the first experiment, five or sIx
drops, was placed in the test tube, and dry sand added more
than enough to absorb the liquid. The heat was applied in
the same way as before, but the explosion was not greater than
without the sand, except that the tube was broken.

When poured on filtering paper and inflamed, it burns
quietly with a peculiar livid flame.

M. C. Lea—FEixplosive Properties of Methyl Nitrate. © 23

These trials do not seem to indicate a very violent explosive
power. Nevertheless, the unfortunate experience which has
been already gained sufficiently indicates that it is not a sub-
stance to trifle with. Indeed, a liquid whose vapor explodes

tity. Having been the first person to prepare this substance

water resulting from its meltin recipi-
tates the ether. This last can nee, Ging bast erage
to time drawn off by the lower faucet, into
stoneware bottles already containing a proper quantity of strong
ammonia and alcohol. When one-third full of the ingredients
in the proper proportions, these bottles should be securely
closed, and placed for several days at a temperature of about
* F., until decomposition is complete.
The apne faucet shown in the cut is to draw off the mixed
va alcoholic distillate which accumulates in large quan-
tities over the ether, and which otherwise would impede the
operation.

¢ destroyed almost as soon as formed. soo ny con-
siderable quantity has passed over, it could be transferred into
vessels in which, by contact with am ecom position

Posing jar ; it would be converted into ammonium nitrate, and
as this salt is always formed to some extent by the action of

24 G. W. Hawes—Zonochlorite and Chlorastrolite.

methyl nitrate on ammonia, the presence of a fraction more or
less would be unimportant.

I am inclined to believe that in the manner described, the
danger in the preparation of this substance will be reduced to
a minimum, a matter of some importance, as the quantity con-
sumed in the manufacture of the methyl violet seems likely to
be increasingly large. A good cooling apparatus between the

methyl alcohol on sal prsceegente which at 285° C. was gun teers
converted into methyl ammonias. This method of methyliz-
ing ammonia may perhaps take the place of mine: it is, how-
ever, liable to two objections; first, that a sig view propor-
tion of the methylic alcohol is, according to Herr Weith, lost
by conversion into methyl ether; secondly, the high tempera-
ture and pressure rapemans I found ‘that methyl nitrate,
unlike ethyl nitrate, does not require pressure vessels, but
reacts at or near he ordinary temperature and pressure. My
own operations were performed in large stoppered vials set on
the cooler part of a sand bath, where the temperature did not
rise above 90°. The loss b sepia of methyl ether may
perhaps be conipenane by the fact that in the formation of
methyl nitrate there is always loss of both methylic alcohol
and nitric nid.
Philadelphia, May 17, 1875.

Art. VI.—Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale
College. No. XXXIV.—On Zonochlorite and Chlorastrolite ;
by GEorRGE W. HAwsEs.

At the meeting of the American Association for the Ad-
is ti: of Science which was held at Dubuque, Iowa, in
1872, Prof A. KE. Foote described “a new hydrous silicate

pest as pure were ot a pans, dark green color; a
* Bericht Deut. Chem. Ges., 26th Ap., 1875.
ssociation

Proceedings for the Advancement of Science,
2Ist meeting, August, 1872, p. 65. :

G. W. Hawes—Zonochlorite and Chlorastrolite. 25

those which were very plainly banded with white he considered
impure. But thin sections of some of the dark green stones,
received from Prof. Foote, and considered by him as the purest
zonochlorite, when examined under the microscope, show that
these, like the other specimens, are more or less banded and
consist of green earthy particles disseminated through a white

mineral, ark green specimen gave me, on analysis, the
following composition :

POD oo nk ob oh 5S FAREREAEEES ES Ce
OMNI we Poo ie cae dees candace ces 19°41
POI Use SS Ss eee ep eee 6°80
wreeroth daides: 056 us ec Poe ccecd iawe 4°54
bie Pep a PE ee 22°77
MaONElA ote Se 2°48
PEM hc See Fe ee Ve eee trace
Wit. cioh5, Nal a BS ee
100°34

The analysis indicates that the mineral is a very impure
variety of prehnite, a mineral which is common in the trap
of that region ; and its hardness and behavior before the blow-
pipe point to the same conclusion. The analytical results ob-
tained by Prof. Foote show that the material he examined was
not homogeneous, as he states that the percentage of water, the
average of which was 8-7, varied from 1-03 to 12°9. The pres-
— of magnesia shows that a portion of the impurity is chlo-
rite.

* Boston Journal of Natu 3
; ral History, vol. v, p. 488. Report on the Geology
acre Superior Land District, Part II, p. 97. Dana’s Mineralogy, 5th edi-

26 R. H. Chitlenden— Glycogen and Glycocoll in the

impurities are arranged along lines radiating from these clear
centers, till at some distance the mixture becomes so intimate as
to appear nearly homogeneous until more highly magnified.
An analysis of a very fine stone gave the following result:

I, i.
PUR os ak chs pee ee ee 37°41
Ae Sc oe ee 24°62
Ferric ox alec cee eS ees
fale oxide - ee Ee ee oS 1°81
Bos ss oe Pe Po eee
Mapiiceis Joeie lw tesuueee sauce 3°46

Teh at jou hraier Cui me gael Regan Sees ras tape 34 30
Weeterics 2c es eet 2
en

seen in No. II above. This great difference can be siabdintion
for in no way save by the evidence, which the microscopic ex-
amination affords, that the stones are mixtures of minerals
Nihon have been carried into the amygdaloidal cavities of the

. The stones that I have seen. appear to consist, like the
eau dchlonte largely of impure prehnite. The higher specific
gravity may be due to an enclosure of epidote, which is every-
where associated with the chlorastrolite in the rocks, and more-
over is often present in the same cavity.

sncsampnpeamnnats

awe VIL.—Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of Yale

College. No. XXXV.—On Glycogen and Glycocoll in the

Hiwuas Tissue of Pecten trradians ; by R. H. CHIrrENDEN,
Assistant in Physiological Chemistry.

THE genus Pecten is world-wide in its distribution. The
x ig wradians is entirely American, being found most abun-
ntly on the eastern shores of the United States. It is closely
allied to the ve abies and English species opercularis and
maximus. e large central muscle which closes the valves of
this aie es is highly valued as an article i food, although its
peculiar sweet taste is objectionable to som
oe this central muscle the ‘iliarta: experiments were
@t

Muscular Tissue of Pecten wrradians. 27

five per cent alcohol, a light floceulent precipitate is obtained
which dissolves by agitation, leaving the fluid unaltered in ap-
pearance ; but if three or four volumes of the alcohol are added,

copious, permanent precipitate settles, leaving the supernatant
fluid perfectly clear. This precipitate is of snowy whiteness,
except when previous to precipitation the fluid has been boiled
considerably, in which case both filtrate and precipitate assume
a yellow or brownish color, from which the latter can ree
by solution in cold water and reprecipitation by alcohol. The

recipitate, if allowed to dry in contact with air, after having

een washed with alcohol merely, soon becomes translucent on
the edges and finally is transformed completely into a gummy
mass, which is sticky when moistened ; but if after precipitation
it 1s washed with ether thoroughly, it loses this property of be-
coming gummy, which seems to the presence of
water and of albuminous matters in small quantity. This
gum-like mass when hard is brittle and yields on trituration a
white hygroscopic powder showing under the microscope no
distinct structure. A portion of the precipitate so prepared,
dried in the air, yielded by analysis :

; Sepa .
, 2. C,H, 00; +H?0 or Cg 1s \6¢
C 39°59 39°56 40°00
H 6°62 6°55 6°60
O 58°86 53°89 53°34

In this state it is not quite pure, giving with Millon’s reagent
4 strong reaction for albumin and containing some inorganic
matter, one specimen 1°57 per cent, another 1°38 per cent, con-
sisting in all cases, so far as were examined, of calcium phos-

cule of water. The substance is tasteless, gummy when
a and gives an opaque fluid with water, seemingly a

e solution, which passes unchanged through filter paper and
gg charcoal, and shows no particles antes the microscope
betas. half inch objective. When this aqueous solution is
fluid » thin films separate, forming a scum on the top of the

ud, which goes into solution again as the liquid becomes cool.

28 R. H. Chittenden— Glycogen and Glycocoll in the

The substance is insoluble in alcohol and ether, has no reduc-
ing action with cupric sulphate and sodium hydroxide, but when
boiled with a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid gives a clear
fluid which has strong reducing action. This same reaction takes
place also with nitric and sulphuric acids, but not so readily as
with the former. A portion of the substance was treated with -
a small quantity of saliva at the ordinary temperature, and at
40° C., and in both cases the ptyalin acted immediately upon it
and sugar was formed. Treated with a solution of iodine in
potassium iodide, a brownish red or maroon color was obtained.
These and other reactions pointed to glycogen. It was yet to
be ascertained whether the sugar oot by the action of acids
and ferments was aad also to examine the action of boiling
dilute nitric acid upon it, and to determine whether the different
formule of glycogen could be obtained by drying it at different

mperatures. A portion of the substance was then boiled
with hydrochloric acid not alcohol produced no precipitate in

a sample tested, the excess of acid removed by oxide of silver
and the sugar obtained oe evaporation. The product had all
the properties of glucose, was intensely sweet, reduced alkaline
solutions of copper rand silver and yielded Pettenkofer’s reaction.
Analyzed, it gave the following result:

Calculated.
2 C;H,.0;+H,0
C 3615 36°17 36°36
H 6°82 6°88 7:07
O 57°03 56°59 56°57

By the action of boiling dilute nitric acid, oxalic acid was
ott and separated. A different sample of the original sub-

stance, dried over sulphuric acid until a constant weight was
eamel, yielded :
1. 2.
C 43°81 43°90
H 6°43 6°46
O 49°76 49°64

A sample dried at 100° C. gave by analysis:

1. _ Analysis of starch dried at 100° C. by Mulder’
C 43°86 43°89 43°86
H 6°41 6°38 6°28
O 49°73 49°73

A sample dried at 140° C.:
2, Analysis of starch dried at 140° by Mulder
44°47

Cc aaa 44°40
H 6°38 6°41 6°28
O 49°30 49-19

On treating an aqueous solution of the substance at the ordi-
temperature with an excess of a saturated solution of

Muscular Tissue of Pecten irradians. 29

barium hydroxide, a heavy white precipitate was obtained, solu-
ble in water, insoluble in baryta water and alcohol. This precipi-
tate was dissolved in water, the baryta removed by a little
dilute sulphuric acid in the cold and then reprecipitated by an
excess of alcohol.

Prepared thus, it seemed to have lost the property of becom-
ing gummy so readily as before, and on examination was found
to be completely free from albuminous matters, giving no reac-
tion even with Millon’s reagent and also contained only 0°61 per
cent of ash. The substance dried at 100° C. gave by analysis
the following result, agreeing closely with that of the preced-
ing preparation dried at the same temperature :

es 3.
Cc 43°93 43°91
H 6°45 6°40
O 49°62 49°69

Another sample, prepared in the same way and dried be-
tween 110°-120° C., gave:

i 2.
C 43°56 43°63
H 6°71 6°71
0 49°73 49°66

_ Casting a backward glance, we see that the analysis of the
air-dried substance corresponds with the formula C,H,,0,,

1 0 dC,H,,0,. But there-
sults obtained by the analyses of the substance dried at 100°

36 62 :
and that after exposure to a temperature of 140 C., when the

i. 2
Cc 43°58 43-85
6°86 6°58
vere *ttrixe mur néheren Kenntniss der Stirke Gruppe. Dr. Walter Nageli.

30 R. H. Chittenden— Glycogen and Glycocoll in the

A sample of dextrin dried at the same temperature gave
Nigeli as a mean of two analyses, C. 43°52. H. 6°78, in both
cases agreeing closely with my analyses of glycogen ‘dried at
110?-120° C. Thus this substance, which is without doubt
glycogen, prea in this respect with its neighbors, dextrin,
amylo-dextrin, e

A sample of areeabi prepared by the preceding methods
and dissolved in water, on treatment with basic lead acetate,
with the application of a gentle heat, yielded a heavy gelati-
nous precipitate, which, when filtered off by the aid of a pump
and washed with water, was found to contain lead. Dried at
100° C, it gave by analysis tbe following result:

1.

2.
Cc 21°62 21°78
H 2°91 2°96
Pb 48°39 48°34
27°08 26°92

Since this result was obtained, I find that M. Bizio* has
already discovered glycogen in some invertebrates. Among
the Mollusks, he fotnd it in considerable quantity in the oyster.

With glycogen from these sources he prepared a lead com-
pound by means of tribasic acetate of lead, and says its —

has given me the formula €,,H, ,Pb®, ,,” which requires
C 27-22
3°40
Pb 39°13
O 30°24

It will be seen at once that my result does not agree with
this formula. I therefore made some further lead precipitates
from the same and other eos Seta of glycogen, and in these
simply determined the lead as follows

Pb. Ist Prep. 2d Prep. 3d Prep. 4th Prep.
No. 1. 48°39 53°63 51°45 50°27
No. 2. 48°34 53°58 51°45 50°28

Some glycogen was also prepared from the liver of an ox by
the usual method and dried at 100°. It yielded by analysis:

Calculated.
C, eH, 20, I
42°11

C 41°87 41°90
H 6°35 6°38 6°43
O 51°78 51°72 51°46

A lead preparation made from this gave:
2s 2.
Pb 61°99 61°94
* Comptes Rendus, xx, 175. far Chemie, 1867, 745.

Muscular Tissue of Pecten irradians. 31

These results indicate that the composition of the precipitate
is not constant.

The amount of glycogen occurring in this muscular portion
of the scollop is quite large; at one time, from three quarts
160 grams were obtained ; at another, two quarts yielded 70

rams.

charcoal. On further evaporation the fluid deposits white pris-
matic crystals. The crystals have a sweet taste, but upon
ignition with soda lime, ammonia is evolved, evincing the pres-
ence of nitrogen, which at once separates it from the saccharine
group. The crystals first obtained were not quite pure, but
after treatment with animal charcoal and recrystallization gave
by analysis a result corresponding to the composition of glyco-
coll. ‘T'wo more distinct preparations were made and gave by
analysis :

Ist Prep. 2d Prep. 3d Prep. Calculated.
; 2. C,H,0,NH,.
C 31°98 31°99 32-09 31:97
H 6°88 6°84 6°79 6°81 6°66
1957 18°58 18°49 18°45 18°66
O 42°57 42°59 42°63 42°67 42°66

The impurities which seemed to be the most difficult to re-
move were coloring and inorganic matters. The crystals were
soluble in water and weak alcohol, insoluble in ether and
absolute alcohol. An aqueous solution, when treated with sul-
phate of copper and sodium hydroxide, assumed an azure blue
color without separation of cuprous oxide on heating. The sub-
stance melted at about 180° U, then decomposed. With nitric
acid fine crystals corresponding to nitrate of glycocoll were ob-
tained. ese analyses and reactions identify the substance as
ey porn, which I believe has never before been found in
ature.

A preparation was now made in which the alcoholic filtrate

The amount of glyeocoll occurring in the tissue is small,
although where two or three quarts of material are used a fine
crop of crystals may be obtained.

* Lehrbuch der Physiologischen Chemie, Gorup-Sesanez, page 236. 1875.

82 E. Andrews—Dr. Koch and the Missouri Mastodon.

The quantitative analysis of the edible or ae we —
of the scollop, as obtained at the market, is as follow

lst ANALYSIS.

2.
Water,...---.. .--.-..------+ 7 9°60 79°66
Solids? - hie caliente eee ecmst ae ee 20°34
So ates a Oe a ee 1°26 1°26
Nitrogenous matters (—N X6 ‘4),15" a 15°68
Maney SXtENOG Se 28
Non-nitrog. by difference, - ..-~- $43 3°12

2D ANALYSIS

S 2.
ROUGE ri oe ee es 80°25 80°25

DOUORs 5o5 vii idnolnng+ panacea Ie 19°7
—_ Se 1°24 2
Nitrogenous matters, ee SER 15°04 15°04
BO eS ae “32 4
Non-nitrog. ey aus watsoe 3°15 3°25

Total amount of nitrogen in the substance dried at 100° C.:

1. 2.
N 11°35 11°37
The pores tage of glycogen was determined in two separate

quantitie
i. 2.

ie ce gt
k 2. 1. 2.
Glycogen, - . .2°43 2°40 1:98 2°19
The pereantage. of glycocoll was determined, but owing to
the inaccuracy of the method, can be considered only as an
approximation to the trut

1. 2. 3. 4.
Glycocoll,....-. .°46 68 me "39
The ash of the muscle consisted of re bases, soda,
magnesia and lime; acids, chlorine, sulphuric and phosp ore
n conclusion, I wish to express my obligations to Prof. S
Johnson for advice freely given.

Art. VIII.—Dr. Koch and the Missouri Mastodon ; by EDMU
pense M.D., Professor of Surgery in the Chicago Medical
llege.

THE recent article of Professor Dana on the credibility of Dr.
Koch’s statement res oy noe the occurrence of human remai
with those of the Mastodon in Missouri is a timely contribu-

E.. Andrews—Dr. Koch and the Missouri Mastodon. 33

and one whose honor and truth are above every shade of sus-
picion. .

Many years ayo, Professor Hoy visited the spot from which
Dr. Koch had exhumed the skeleton now in the British Museum.
He found the men who assisted him at the work and took
their account of it. He himself also excavated and recovered
some fragments of the skeleton missed by Dr. Koch.

It will be remembered (see Professor Dana’s article on Dr.
Koch’s pamphlets) that the discoverer of this skeleton claims
to have found it overlaid by one stratum of alluvium, one: of
marl, three of clay, and three of conglomerate, amounting to
some fourteen feet of deposits above the bones. Professor
Hoy states that this whole list of strata is a pure fiction. The
skeleton was found close to the surface, with nothing but the
surface muck over it. The men who assisted at the exhuma-
tion also informed Dr. Hoy that Dr. Koch did not drain the
spot, as might have been done without great difficulty, but that
he and they simply dug out the muck and earth, often work-
ing up to their waists in the water, and groping with their
hands at the bottom to find the bones. In these circumstances
it 1s obvious, aside from the question of veracity, that no ac-
curate determination could have been made between flint
weapons of later date and those which might be contempora-
neous with the animal.

hing,
i very dry seasons, for a ) Perna to be pecgea! set on
ases

asconade County may have been scorched in this way, and
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tumrp Serres, Vor. X, No. 55.—JULy, 1875.
3

34 J. LeConte— Rate of Growth of Corals.

stones and arrowheads of a later age mingled with = bones.
In examining the relics found in western swamps, it is always
necessary to ‘guard against the possibility of error colrwiseas
by the action of fires of this character.

No. 6, 16th street, Chicago.

a ms — Rate cs pied of Corals. From a letter to Pro-
r J. A, by Cian JOSEPH LeConte, dated
bares of ‘Galfer May I,

I OBSERVE in your work on Corals and Coral Reefs, while
discussing the rate of coral growth, you mention an interesting
observation of Weinland on the corals about Hayti, bearing on
this subject. This recalls to my mind a very similar observa-
tion on a much larger scale, made b myself during the winter
of 1851, while assisting Professor Agassiz in his examination
of the Florida reefs. Knowing your interest in the subject, I
send you an account of it

Professor Agassiz and his party were at Fort Jefferson, Tor-

ugas. Dr. Wm. L. Jones and myself had gone to examine a
little island about 8 or 10 miles to the northwest. On return-
ing to Fort Jefferson in a small boat, when about half way
between the two islands and in the still shoal water on the in-
rs of the line of reefs, to our great surprise the boat suddenly

rounded on the close-set prongs of an extensive grove of
bet meee ee (Madrepora cervicornis?). On examining closely
the trees of this grove, we found: 1, That the prongs were far
more thickly set than is usual in this species; 2. that all the
prongs not tg of the same tree, but of all the trees of the
whole grove, grow up to _— the same level, which at the
time examined was very near the surface; 3. that all the
prongs at that level were ere for a distance of one to three
inches from the point. The lower limit of death seemed to be
a perfectly horizontal plane. The dead points rose above it to
various distances not exceeding three inches. We rowed
around the margin of this grove fora dicate distance and
found everywhere the same phenomena. I satisfied mysel
that the whole grove, for hundreds of acres in extent, had been
clipped in a similar manner.
subsequent inquiry at Key West, I learned that the mean
level of the ocean, owing pie ly to the prevalence of certain

water the living per of the madrepores grow cca aint
e descending water level exposes and kills them down to a

J. LeConte—Rate of Growth of Corals. 35

certain level. With the rise of the mean level again, new points
start upward, to be again clipped at the same level by the de-
scending water. The levelness, the thick setting, and the dead-
ness of the points are all thus completely accounted for. It is
precisely the phenomena of a clipped hedge.

I have long been accustomed to estimate from these facts
the rate of madrepore growth. I have recently looked up the
data necessary to do so more accurately.

The following table, taken from the Coast Survey Report for
1853, p. 76, gives the mean sea level for the different months
of the vear.

Feet. Dit. Feet. Dif.

be bo. 10 0 OOF sovese cist “78 ‘68
‘ ‘ 15 5 OG: iis njiause Od. he

Margh ~..%- 26 °16 SOph.-su v= dee 93 °83
April a 26..:36 Oe 90 °80
ee ge a2 22 INST. oni cols dee is 00
June oe a ee Ties... a Be ee

From the differences I have roughly plotted a curve represent-
ing the annual variation of mean level.

It is seen that the mean level at Key West is lowest in Jan-
uary and highest in September, the difference being 0 83 feet or
about ten inches. Now starting with the lowest mean level in

January, / /, it is evident
Pie that living points a@ aa
sg 8S we dee ; g near that surface would

a a grow upward and con-
tinue to grow all the time
the water was rising from
litol'l’, i.e, from middle
of January to the middle
of September, and also while it was falling to three inches above
(i, i.e, until about the beginning of December. At this level

ig Pa : : - an i’

2 me OO ot

~

the growing points would be nipped. It is evident, therefore,
that the three inches were grown in 10 to 104 months, which
would make about 84 inches per annum.

36 A. E. Verrill—Results of recent Dredging

This table is taken from Key West; my observations were
at ee Tortugas) There may be differences in the amount and
the curve of variation in different places. But this would
idle but little difference in the result. I believe we ma
say with confidence that the annual growth of madrepore
points in the Gulf is not more than 34-4 inches per annum.

ArT. X.— Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum
Yale College. No, XXXIII.— Results of Dredging Rasedeons
off the New England Coast in 1874; by A. E. VeRRIbu.

In the last number of this Journal a penaral statement was
made of the operations in connection with t . Fish Com-
mission, located during the summer of 1874 at Noank, Con-
necticut, on Fisher’s Island Sound, and close to the eastern
end of Long Island Sound

In the following article only a brief summary of the results
can be given; the full details will eventually appear, however,
in the report of the Commissioner.

The total number of recorded stations, where dredgings
were made during the summer, is 180. but many others, not
re , were made by members of the party. A large
number of additional localities along the shores and in the
shallow waters of the harbors were explored by hand nets and
otherwise with excellent results. Temperatures were not taken
at all the dredging localities, and therefore, in the accompany-
ing table, such localities have been, for the most part, omitted.

The localities dredged may be conveniently grouped as
follows

a. Bisbee Tsland Sound, enone hard gravelly and ston
bottoms, often rocky, and occasionally with some sand or set
the depth varying from 4 to 15 fathoms. The tidal currents
were rather MTOR and the bottom temperatures were lo
— 61° to 65° F.).

Block Island Pace including a wide region from off
end Judith, R. I o Race Point, -at the western end of
Fisher's Island ; the topil varying from 5 fathoms or less to
upwards of 40 fathoms, near Race Point (No. 45). The cur-
rents are strong, especially toward Race Point, and the temper-
atures are low (56° to 64°). The bottom is generally gravelly,
stony, or sandy, occasionally rocky, and but seldom muddy.
An extensive “scollop-bank” (Pecten tenuicostatus) occurred in
18 to 22 fathoms, south of Watch Hill, where many interesting
species were found, among which was 8 CO

ome uae living, is of a beatifal vilteslor (rarely brownish)

there are six rays. 1 6 aiid wk totter Suaile epecien, Oe

Expeditions off the Coast of New England. 37

ce Off Block Island and south of Montauk Point, L. L, in-
cluding various fishing banks or “ledges,” among which is
Coxe’s Ledge, about 18 to 20 miles east-southeast from Block
Island. Among these localities there are both hard gravelly
and muddy bottoms, gs some that are sandy. The greatest
depths were 32 to 34 fathom ms, muddy, about 10 miies south-
east from Block Island (Nos. 161, 162) "and 95 fathoms, sandy,
about 11 miles southeast from Montauk Point (No.
Throughout this region the bottom temperatures were found
to be low (454° to 57° ), and the fauna correspondingly arctic.

d. The eastern part of Long Island ee from Fisher's
Island and Gardiner's Island to the mouth of the Connecticut
River, the depths varying from 8 or 4 to 50 fathoms, the
deepest water occurring a few miles west of Race Point (see
Nos. 35, 86, 45, 46), where the tidal currents are very strong
and the bottom rocky. The bottoms are variable, but mostly
stony or gravelly, and not unfrequently more or less muddy,
while the temperature in all the deeper localities was low
(58° to 62°) and the fauna arctic.

e. Shallow water localities in the harbors and rnsenpsi near
Woonk Stonington, ete. ottoms are general]
and mostly thickly covered with eel-grass (Zostera marin

J. Gardiner’s Bay, Long Island. The localities were mostly
sandy ; the depths 8 to 10 fa thoms; and the bottom tempera-
tures were higher (64° to an and the fauna more southern
than in the more open sou

g- Great Peconic and Little Peconic Bays, and Greenport
Harbor, L. I. In these localities the temperatures were much
higher (71° to 724°) than those of the other localities examined,

and the faana was very decidedly southern, including some
Species not before observed north of Florida and South Car-

olina. In Little Peconic Bay the bottoms were mostly sandy
and shelly (mainly Crepidula fornicata, both dead and living),
and the depths were 4 to 13 fathoms. In Great Peconic Bay
the water was shallow, 4 to 6 fathoms, and the bottoms muddy
and rather barren in all the localities examine

As the faunz of the various kinds of bottoms and shores.
both of the bays and harbors and of the outer cold waters, have
been fully described, and most of the species enume
me, in a recent work, * it will not be necessary to give, at this
time, more than a summary of those species not meluded.in
Trays easily Bisco.’ detached. Hundreds of | = = hitherto
Species were obtained at this locality. At this place two fishes (a species sof
areas a young hake, Phycis) were often found in the Saris of the Pectens

es
i port on Pe eae Invertebrates of Southern New gr cregptes ppendix of
1 Report of S. Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, 18 geese a separate

38 A. E. Verrill— Results of recent Dredging

that report, and now for the first time recorded from the
—— coast of New England.

y, however, be well to state sia the fauna of the locali-
ties isolacind under the groups a, b, ¢ , 1s nearly identical
with, though a little more arctic than, ‘that of the outer waters
” Martha’s Vineyard and Cuttyhunk Island, described in the

eport referred to: while that of the localities under e ,/ and g,
is essentially the same as that of Vineyard Sound and the
estuaries and harbors connected with it, as described in the

me work, though the fauna of the Peconic Bays is a little more
southern than that of Vineyard Sound or Wood’s Hole.

List of species new to the fauna of Southern New England.
In this list I have included, also, a few species added to the fauna during

excursions from New Haven, y and others, though not obtained during
the explorations by the Fish Commission. few species, marked (*), not new to
the fa have also been in in r to he local or to
rect the nomenclature. But numerous 5 ta ——— of Crustacea and Sponges,
added to th a last summer, are here omitted, because not yet s adhelennie
studied. Many of them are undescribe

Arachnida.
Pycnogonum littorale Miller=P. pelagicum Stimpson. West of Race Point, 50
fathoms (Nos. 35, 36).
Thalassarachna Verrillii Packard. ion water and just below, and in pools,
among eel-grass, ascidians, hydroids, e'
ee
The Crustacea have been identified by Mr. 8. I. Smith
*Hyas coarctatus Leach. Coxe’s Ledge, 2 tig Basing i Sa. (Nos. 85-90).
Dexamine Thea? Boeck. Noank Harbor, among ee
Melita dentata Boeck. Off Fisher's. Island, 9 yr off Watch Hill, 18
yoy thoms.

Melita, sp. southeast 10 miles from Block Island, 32 fathoms,
muddy; off isos of “ot Shoals, 5 N. H., 35 fathoms.
* Ampelisca hala = Ampelisea, sp., Smith in Report on Invert., p.
561, pl. Iv, 7 ie v1. Off Buzzard’s Bay, 29 fathoms, 1871.
Fisher’s I. Sd.,,17 fathoms; “Block I. Sd., 17 to 19 fathoms
(Nos. 74, 75); off Tete! ik, Conn. ; here among eel-grass.
A. limicola Bate (Stimpson sp.). Noank Harbor, among eel-grass and mud, com-
i ’s I. to

a
sca, sp. nov. Fisher's od, 7 fo 9 fathoms; Block I. Sd., 17 to 19
in x nae 74, 75); off Metha'e Vineyard, 23 fat’ ms, 1871.
Xeno clea megachir Smith. Trans. Conn. Acad., ive “OF Watch Hill, 18 fathoms.
*Hyperia medusarum. Off New Haven; Noank ; Vineyard Sound, and north-
ward 0 on n Oyanea and other jelly-fishes.

HI. spinipes A rd Sound.
Several other ey "any of Amphipods, not yet dete rae were obtained.

veral undetermined species drum-fish
(one in the gill-cavity and on on the skin and fins), orange file-fish, skate, etc.
Off Wa ; Long. 1. Sd., 24 to 50

Costa.
fathoms, off Race Point, (Nos. 35, 36, 47).

Expeditions off the Coast of New England. 39

Annelida.
Sthenelais, sp. nov. Various localities in — I, Sd.; Fisher’s I. Sd.; and
Long. I. Sound, 10 to 40 fa “asc + sandy bottom
Pholoe minuta Malmgren. Block I. Sou bes net fathoms, ope
Nephthys ceca Malmgren. Off Stonin ngton, 4—5 fathoms, Au
Phyllodoce Grenlandica (irsted. Fisher’s Island Sound, 12-14 pe
Harbor

Procerea gracilis Verrill. Noank Har

Eusyllis lucifera Verrill, sp. nov.* N oank, — piles, and ek July 11-31.
Syllis pallida Sebo wee are hems g. 6. Noank Harbor, Aug. 1 ad
Syllis, sp. A yello ies, en broad — a and mo

antennz and cirri 5 Bloc ieland Souict 17-21 fathom:
Lumbriconereis obtusa Verrill. Noank Harbor, 1-1} Faneia mud and dead eel-
grass, Jul '
L. 1, sp. nov.t Off rg arg 14 fathoms, Aug. 1
sina J grasa Verrill, sp. nov.§ Off Block Island, 14 ela Aug. 19.
marina eaaceiaas * sand at oe water on a beach about 3 miles
on of N Na oank, July 9.
Trophonia aspera Stimpso
Brada, ae Apes if —_ 17-24 fathoms.
Pol tydora, in de - shells of Pecten tenuicostatus; off Block
Island: Block L Pron ‘18-21 fatho
Pol: ydora, Noank Harbor, Lit fathoms, mud and dead eel-grass.
Prazilla, sp. Off Sea-flower Reef, 6- 9 fathoms, sand.
Ancistria capillaris Verrill. Off Block Island, 18-20 fathoms, m d.
Cistenides granulata Malmgren. Long I. Sound, = Race Point, 50 fathoms.
ton pel cincinnatus Malm, gren. Coxe’s Ledge, 2 ng gt 8 sand and gravel.
Polycirrus, sp. A bright r ed species, with brilliant blue phosphorescence. Off
abo teee i, 1 18-22 fathoms; Coxe’s Ledge, 20 fathoms; Bay of sate low-water
0 50 fath

* Eusyllis lucifera Verrill, sp.
Body rather slender, reas “18m m. long; head broader than long, emarginate
cag wider and br oadly we o Jin eyes rather large, the — pair a
little wider apart than the posterior; palpi broad zo hereivte oe one-third as
long as the head, blunt or obkaney: al emp in front; Sooriee:
considerably longer and larger than the lta aso Seal to twice
breadth of the head; tentacular cirri, like svt antennz and do rsal ci ap

he fourth lo
ts generally alternately longer and shorter, but mostly song than half the
acd or yellowish white, with a testinal line. Phos-
‘ht.

MA
és ight.
Syllis pallid Vere tp sp. tov. Platd m1, figure 6.
ys slender, | tapering to both ends, about rad long and °5 to ‘75mm. broad.
Head small, length a bout equal to bre adth, rounded behind, produced in front,
bone a slight antero-lateral angle on each side; palpi large, elongate d, erent
ips; eyes small, the anterior very wide apart. Antenne
rt, distinctly annulated or monili rn te median antenna lange
rsal cirri variable in length, or alternately longer and shorter. The longer ones
about one half longer than the breadth of the body, composed a 17 or 18 annula-
‘ons. Color white, with a yellowish intestinal line posteriorly. None of the
Sete have setiform tips.
eis acuta Verrill, nov. Plate m1, fi
This is tes Sarggonad species, phe 8 distinguished ie its very long acute head,
which is three times as long as broad. The lateral appendages are short,
with a Bote peta upper lobe.
helia denticulata

Bee lia ta Verrill, sp. nov.

Body long and round; 9 anterior segments with short sete; 18 with slender

tapering branchiz, denticulate on the front edge; 5 caudal segments with long

Sete; anal segment with 16 to 18 slender acute papill, and two larger lanceolate
tetrad 70mm. ; diameter, 6mm.

40 A. E. Verrili— Results of recent Dredging

Pista mgren. Long Island Sound, off New London, 8 fathoms, mud
and cand ( oe. — ND “fay a7.
Chon h of Block I., 18-24 fathoms, mud and sand, Aug. 6; Coxe’s
e 21 a res
Filigrana im sadn — Fisher’s I. Sound; Coxe’s Ledge, 21 fathoms.
Spirorbis nautiloides 0) Lamarck. Fisher’s I. Sound ; Coxe’s Ledge, 21 fathoms.
Spirorbis, sp. Shell Paainated. With last.
Bdellodea, Gephyrea,
gucpucndelin sp. Parasitic on sculpin ip ig sp. Be Thimble Islands, May,
; : rs : fees
pls nitidulum Loven. Off Block I., 32-34 fathoms, mud (loc. 161, 162.)

Tristoma leve Pe ard sp. nov. Block L, in mouth of bill-fish
T. cornutum Verrill.+ Block L, = gills of bill-fish (Tetrapturus albidus).

Nitzschia elegans Baer. On gills of turgeon (Acipenser oxyrhynchus Mitchel).
Turbelluria.
ie vs= ertes viridis Verrill, Rep. on Inyert., p. 628. Noank,

Lineus = Nem
low water npieny 1 specaE mu

Tetrastemma dorsalis M alaton: Noank harbor, on eel-grass and in 1-1} fath-
oms, mud, July 8; angrtea

T. elegans Verrill (= Scent irard). Fisher’ s Island Sound.
Bod aon t 14mm. long, ae en depressed, ta a . to tail; he: 7 Sigg than
neck, obtuse or emarginate; eyes conspicuous, ny in a squ are, anterior

gl

ones a little nearer together than the posterior. rie of body light ike. se

a broad band of deep brown on each side, leaving a wi orsal stripe. A

yellow variety (?), from Noank repaid 7% the ra bands rather fil-defined,
isti

T. candida (?) CErsted. Noank hence se —1} fathoms, mud; Case

Amphiporus bioculatus McIntosh. _Noank harbor, 1-1} fathoms, ye i “July Lt
Fisher’s I. Sd., 7 fathoms, mud and s

A. hastatus sir ser pt _ ock I. "3d, 18-45 fathoms, Aug. 6.

Cephalothr Noank harbor, tt fathoms, mud and eel-grass ;
Casco Bay, ee Sater

Bao and Lamellibranchiata.

*Scalaria Grenlandica. Block Island ae ae ef fathoms, Aug. 6.
Velutina levigata. Off Watch Hill, apes
oe rap hl Stimpsonii Verrill. og 1, Sound (Nos 85-90), 6-15 fathoms.

* Tonicella marmorea Carpen (On ton ma eus Gould.) oot

Phitine ruadrat Off Montauk Point, 20-25 Pier heos sand ( Nee) 5, 116).

Moi iensis (Cauthouy, sis South dv ‘Fishe r’s Island, x fathoms,
Aug. 11 (No. yr off M page Point, Aug. 13 { 14).

ia ; also var. remigata wan var. capers ae Occurs

of all shades of alae: from pale flesh*color to dusky bro at Noank,
common on hydroids.

sland.

* Tristoma leve Ve Sp. nov.
Length about 15mm., very thin, and broad elliptical; anterior end somew what
produced and broadly rounded; posterior end ni nate; dorsal surface smooth;
wer with min

lo th nte granule-like papillae. Color white, translucent. Posterior
sucker large, a a third of breadth of , campanulate, the central
area large, with angles, which seven lines radiate; the edge is divided

merous denticles; anterior suckers also large, a one- as

into
broad as the posterior, separated by a space less than their ay ses
oma, cornutum i

errill, sp. lal

p thin, broad elliptical, or oblong, emarginate posteriorly; anterior end

oduced, and with a short, tapering, tentacle-like process at each
nnted ‘ ;

ep erage ileen tera serene
species ; anterior suckers two-thirds as broad as the posterior, nearly two diam-
eters apart. Color light red or flesh-color.

Expeditions off the Coast of New England. 41

loto formosa Verrill, sp. nov.* Off Point es udith, 10-14 fathoms, Au

; No.
riolata Stimpson. Off Bloc i Ialand, 20-25 fathoms ‘ 1, ne
myopsis, West “of Fisher’s Island, 1-9 fa thoms, Aug

Tunicata.
Amarecium glabrum Verrill. Off Block Island.

Bryozoa.
* Discoporella verrucaria Sm cf i aragasihs patina Verrill, in Report on Invert.
S. N. E., 1873. Fisher’s Taland Soun
* Tubuli a A get saad U gs Neo’ varie a T. flabellaris Verrill, in Report on Inv.
Alcyonidi sp smooth red species, a _ os Off Watch Hill,
18-22 tafioam on ‘halls of Patten} Casco Bay; Bay of
llaria ciliata ine ad ee er’s Ft Pies d, 8-12 prea Bay of Fundy,
10 to 30 pra sal ff Gay , 19 fath
* Biflustra tenuis V ay Aa entranipra pian ‘Desor ; Verrill, in Report on Invert.,
Pp. Hz Lawcwates to 40 ome

anip and,var. Americana (D’Orb.). New ae on
algee, etc.; Fisher’s I. Sound; Block ia Sound; Casco er Bay of Fun
* Cribrilina puncturata Smitt. Plate at ipora punctats V., ‘in Rep.
on Invert., p. 71 laven, Noank,
orina ciliata Smitt. New Haven, on psn ye Pious Islands; Fisher’s I.
Sound; Vineyard Sound. 5-8 fathoms, on shells of Me
Escharella pertusa ?.t Fisher's I. re Block I. Bomnd: eastern end of Long
L — d, 8-40 fathoms; Bay of Fun

ippothoa biaperta rta Smitt. tt.§ New Haven, on red alge ; Thimble Islands, in pools;
off Watch Hill, 3-5 rene —— Sound, abundant.
: oe ae ee — ff Gay Hea
Ese Py ropinqua Smitt. Off Buzzard’s Bay, 25 fathoms;
Nantucket Shoals, “abuindaad Bay of Fundy, etc.

* Doto formosa Verrill, sp. nov. Plate m1, fig. 4.

Dorsal papilla about "8 on each side, stout, ovate, narrowed at base, covered ©
with numerous short, fotey or rounded, small, w. hite-tipped je domes Tentacles
slender, the shea’ unnel-shaped, — truncated, with s emarginations

and on the outer si nt white; tntacle-sheaths and dorsal
papillzs covered with Lape hite specks Lage about °5 of an i
Idalia trill, sp. nov. Plate m1

y oval, very wines Tentacles long, about equal to breadth of body, slightly

or wri ; obtuse; cirri at their bases about half as long, very slender,
with acute white tips. Branchie about 12, rather long, niguabe: ~~ slender
cirri close together, behind the bases of the gills on each side; four m

; ocecia
sinus, and small lateral denticles within ;
avicularia lateral, + rarely present, fone ort side of the aperture, broad, obtusely

_—

rved,
the sooetia the the coin most raised, and a directed outward and bac

42 A. E. Verrill—Results of recent Dredging

wicularis Hincks. Off New Haven; Fisher’s I. Sound; St. George’

Beak; Bay of Fundy, ete. Common on Sertularia

na Verrill. This Jou pee aT plate vu, figs. 4, 5,
me sdgenpare ‘6 Vers er as on twenre; p. 713, 1873. New Haven Harbor;
Noank, on eel-frass, e ineyard Sound; Be everly, Mass. ; Long I. Sound, low-
water to 40 fathoms oe. "2 e shells, stones, ete., with ovec ia.

s Journal, ix, p. 415, pl. ie fig. 3, appa wae

Thim S ised on len in oor at cateigeatan Fisher Soun
fai ant: ; Vineyard Sound, 5 to 10 fathoms, common ager

Echinodermata,
Lophothuria Fabricii Verrill. Off Block Island, 20-21 fathoms (157-9).

“wo
Bolina alata Agassiz. Newport, R. I (A. iz).
ypanularia verticillata Lamarck. Block ii a sd, 17-45 fathoms; Fisher’s I.

ms,
* hg se ‘Plate Iv, fig. 6. Noank, on bottom of scow; Wood’s
Hole, on piles, 1
Clytia lr (M eCready). Plate rv. fig. 2. New Haven, Sept., 1874.
Gonoth mations Hincks. Off Watch Hill, R. I., 18 fathoms, July 21.
boven & Noank, on piles of wharf.
G. gracilis To Fisher's L. Sd., 4-13 fathoms ; off Watch Hill, 18 fathoms;
off geen Pt., 6-20 fathoms
(clark is Clark, sp. nov.* New Haven, on piles of Long Wharf, a 1875
k

).
6 te or Clark. sp. nov.+ Greenport, L. I., on piles, Aug. 5
0. b ta Clark, sp. nov.t Off Thimble Islands, 4-5 yeaa rocks, Sept.,
18

Oper arella ites Hincks. New Haven, on erie ss Oh 1875 (Clark).

pumila Clark, sp. nov. 5 ctachenaghed Me., on piles; off M k Pt., 5-15 fathoms.

Bston jum artizcionmn. 0 ark, sp. nov.| lang: 2 ; oui ‘€13 fathoms ; Coxe’s

Ledge, 1721 fathoms; Ones ‘Bay; ee, of Fundy.

* Gonothyrea tenuis Clark, sp. nov. Closely allied to G. a but has nar-
row, elongated, obconic gonothecs, tapering pees to the
Obelia bidentata ace sp. 0 Plate tv, fig.

slender, translucent and very prs . By — very deeply campanulate with
9-12 Pans gwen lines, and the ornamen ~~ ee acutely bidentate teeth.
tO ‘a Clark, om ae Tate

Stem erect, slender, compound, sparingly ee: ’ branches short, slender,
ascending an irregularly arranged. Hydrothecze very deeply campanulate, nar
row, very ret , and with 8-10 longitudinal lines extending from the distal
extremity nearly to the base. The = is peo Baler acer Leena teeth.

ercularella pumila Clark, sp. ni v, figs. 7,

Stem a stout, erect or creeping sgh fexuots sant gly branched.
Hydrothece largest in the middle, ta very slightly toward the base and
rapidly converging toward the distal — acne composed of a few con-
vergent segments, not very deep. Gonoti hecw fusiform, about twice the length of

articulosum Clark, sp. nov.
tem stout, compound, sparingly branched, dark brown or black; branches
— and oe wenoeed on all sides of the stem; branchlets vas aa very
ets divided into short, stout feteenouse 27 y distinct
joints placed at t anges to the ems. Hydrothecz short a.
thee sessile, bo a ‘3 on the side of the pinne. The female are
chevain, ak wae Ok a i ca tae ae, eee te the distal end. The male

Expeditions off the Coast of New England. 43

Halecium halecinum Johnst. Off pre gress rl fathoms; Block I. Sound,

17-45 —s Fisher’s I. Sound, 4-11 fathom

H. Beanii Johnston. Off Sa serie = fathous Fisher’s I. Sd., 7-11 fath-
oms; Block I. 8d., = a homs. Casco Bay; Bay of

Lafoea c ee Lamx., 1812—L. dumosa Sars (Flem. sp.). Nantucket Shoals.

ide ‘la ta(?) ke gers s I. Sd., 9-11 f athom
Calycella Lemans Hincks. Plate Iv, figs. 3 a 5. Fisher’s TL Sd., 4-14 Damen
many localities; Block I. Sd. 74 “45 fathoms ; off — 6-8 fa thom
Do. var. pygmea ( (Hincks). Fisher’s I. Sd., 54-64 fathom
ny greta ae eed var. gigantea a Hincks = Cotulina tamarisca A. a
Catal. A New London, 6 fathoms; Gardiner’s Bay, 6-8 fathoms
Block L ak tie fathoms.
S. rugosa Gray. Noank, on gohe whart ; Ayes Watch _ 17-21 fathoms.
a Y iz. Off Watch Hill, 17-21 fathom
acea Agassiz. Fisher’s I. Sound, rit iathoms uly 14, with gonothece.
Sertularia gracilis Hincks. Hyann s, Mass., n Sargas.
Rhegmato idianus Agassiz. ‘Gre reenport rt Harbor L. = , Aug. 5; Florida.
Staurophora laciniata Agassiz. Fisher's I. Sound
Corynitis Agassizii McCr. Greenport Harbor, Aug. at Charleston, 5. U.
ammnocnid

ectabi ank H arbor, n bottom of vessel.
Tubularia indivisa Linn. Off Sayb ook, 4-9-22 Aahinaes Fisher's I. Sound,
4-1] attics Block I. Sound, 17-24 fat homs ; off Block Island, 14 fathoms.

Anthoz
syst borealis Verrill, (young sate Off Watch Hill, R. L., 18 fathoms,
.
enberg. Fisher’s I. Sound, 12-14 fathoms; Block I.
cae s 6-8 fathoms "N te ret: ; off Watch Hill, 18 fathoms
Several sponges, new to the fauna, were also obtained and
were studied by Prof. Hy att. Among them is a curious very

piles, both at Greenport and Noank. Numerous ciliated Proto-
zoa were also observed, but are mostly not accurately identified.
Among them is the curious Freia ampulla, on eel-grass, an

also on Sertularia from 50 fathoms. Some of the Rhizopods
were studied by Dr. E. Bessels, and others by Dr. Joseph Leidy.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate III.—Figure 1. Hippothoa reversa V., enlarged 32 diameters.

e Figure 2. tae — Smitt. Off Noank.
Figure 3. Ic modesta V., enlarged about 6 diameters.
“Figure 4. Dote) formosa v. "enlarged about 10 diameters.
wee 5. Lumbriconereis acuta V., much enlarged.
gure 6. ida V., h enlarged.
5 Bers | r 3; 3, 6. Sys pada V much 4, by J. H. Emerton; 5 and 6, by
Plate Clytia Johnstons, enlarged 1 18 diameters.
C. noliformis V.. 16 diam
Caleta cba. 32 wanes
Figures 4, showing peculiar variations.
< 6. pede calceoli, 6 diameters.
Figure 7. Opercularella pumila Areizg ict Pplland, Me.
The same, rth Be
Figure 9. The same, young stem w trot off Montsuk: Point.

Figure 10. Chain Sidantade: Chai, 18 dismetere

* Figure 11. 0. bieuspidata Clark, 16 diamete’

Figure 2 was drawn by the author; on rest oy ike. S. F. Clark; all with

camera-lucida.

[To be continued. |

44. A. W. Wright— Gases from the Meteorite of Feb. 12, 1875.

Art. XI. a of Gases from the oe of Feb. 12,
; by ArTHUR W. Wat

THIs meteorite fell, on the date above mentioned, in Iowa
County. in the State of Iowa. By the agency of Professor N.
R. Leonard, of the Iowa State ee a pei amount of the
meteoric mass was collected, and from m, by the courtesy of
President Thacher of the same oaesin a number of frag-
ments were received by the writer, for an examination, of which

The meteorite is of the aieny faind, not greatly differing in
= general appearance from others of the same class. Numerous
mall grains of metallic iron and of the magnetic sulphide of
iron, or troilite, are eras through the mass, the iron grains

ranging in size from the finest particles, like mere powder, to
those of the size of a fig. yes with occasionally one as large as
a grape-see

Among the fragments received, there are some which show
distinct evidences of a sort of lamination or imperfect stratifi-
cation, the portions at which the ieee separated being
smoothed down, as if by pressure or frictio everal minute
veins are visible, which appear to be filled with material of
somewhat different constitution. Their relation to the general

again, perhaps by the still fluid matter from the interior.
ey seem to indicate that the mass of ig the meteorite
probably once formed a part was of great siz
The recent investigations of Prof. Saaaies Sehiaparelli,
tage and others, in respect to some of the great me-
teoric streams, have resulted, on the one hand, in establishing
the sdandies of their orbits with those of certain well-known
comets, and on the other, in showing that the bodies belonging
to these streams are probably of the same nature as the sporadic
or occasional meteorites. It seemed probable, therefore, that an
amination of the gases yielded by a freshly fallen meteorite
would be likely to furnish important information respecting the
tails of comets, and these anticipations were found to be not
unwarranted by the results.
e examination was made in the manner described in a pre-
vious article,* and with the same apparatus. The first trial,

* This Journal, III, ix, Apr., 1875, p. 294.

A. W. Wright—Gases from the Meteorite of Feb. 12,1875. 45

which was made with a quantity of the iron extracted from the
meteoric mass, showed that the gaseous contents differed in a
marked degree from those obtained from iron meteorites hith-
erto examined, inasmuch as they contained a very large per-
centage of carbon di-oxide, with a smaller proportion of car-

nic oxide, and a large residue of hydrogen, the two oxides
of carbon making about one half of the gaseous mixture. The
percentages obtained in the preliminary trial were, CO,, 35;

, 14; or 49 per cent of earbon compounds, the hydrogen not
having been estimated. This was merely a rude approxima-
tion, and the amount of CO is overstated, at the expense of the
CO,. These results were obtained with the particles of iron
separated from the powdered stone with a magnet. The residue,
however, contained a considerable amount of iron in particles
too small to enable them to lift the bits of the stony matrix in
which they were enclosed. As this was found to introduce
irregularities in the determinations, the portions of meteorite
employed in the experiments to be described were finely pul-
verized in a diamond mortar, and the whole immediately placed
in the glass tube to be attached to the Sprengel pump, the iron
not being separated from the rest. Larger volumes of the

ases were extracted than in the first trial, and the relative pro-
portions of the different constituents carefully determined by
analysis.

Powder formed from about four cubic centimeters of the
solid meteorite was placed in the tube upon the pump, and the
air very thoroughly exhausted. It was soon found that the
relative amounts of the different constituents driven off by
heating the tube varied with the temperature, and the experi-
ments were so conducted that the portions separated at different
temperatures could be examined separately.

On applying the heat of the hand to the tube for a short time,
a small amount of gas was liberated, too small for anything more
than a rude qualitative test as to its composition, which showed

- This separated a still greater quantity of the gases, in
. . = Co.

46 A. W. Wright— Gases from the Meteorite of Feb. 12, 1875.

ture, however, being kept below that of redness. About three
cubic centimeters of gas were given off, which was found to
consist of CO,, 42°27; CO, 511; H, 48:06; N. 4:56. The tube
with its contents oe now ‘brought to a low red heat, which was
maintained for half an hour or so, the effect being to a
nearly the same sae of gas as before, containing CO,, 35°82
CO, 0°49; H, 58°51; N, 518. Finally it was brought _ a fall
red heat, which caused the evolution = much more gas, yield-
ing, on analysis, CO,, 5:56: CO, 0°00: H, 8753; he
whole amount of gas given off was about two and one half
times the volume of the solid portion of the meteorite employed,
but this was not the whole, for the heat was discontinued
before its evolution had entirely ceased. If referred to the iron
alone, it would be about twenty times its volume.

The following table gives a comparative view of the relative
proportions of the gases obtained at eee temperatures, the
nitrogen being determined as a resi

© ° low low At full
At 100". At 250". an heat. en heat. heat.
co, 95°46 92°32 42907 35°82
co” 0°00? 1°82 5°11 0°49 0°00
H 4°54 5°86 48-06 58°51 87°53
N 0°00 9°00 4°56 5°18 6°91

100°00 100°00 100°00 100°00 100° ge

It will readily be seen, on revi iewing the above results, that
they show a marked distinction between the iron and the stony
meteorites, as to the gases which they contain. For, while hydro-
gen is the principal gas of the irons, in the arto specimen
amounting to 85°68 per cent,* in those of the stony kind, if
the one examined may represent the class, the characteristic

is carbon di-oxide, and this, with a small proportion of car-
os oxide, makes up more than nine-tenths of the gas given
off at the temperature of boiling water, and about half of that
evolved at a low red heat. It is probable that a portion of the
carbon di-oxide is merely condensed upon the finer particles of
the iron, while the hydrogen and carbonic oxide are absorbed

* Graham, Proc. Royal Soc., xv, 502.

A, W. Wright— Gases from the Meteorite of Feb. 12,1875. 47

_ within it, as it is a familiar characteristic of iron, platinum and
some other metals, that in the state of minute subdivision they
take up large portions of gas by condensation. The gas thus
fixed would be more easily liberated by heat than that really
absorbed. This would explain the fact that the amount of
earbon di-oxide given off was much greater at a low than ata
high temperature, and that the percentage of the hydrogen in-
creased, as was observed in all the trials, with an increase in the
temperature to which the material was subjected.

e spectrum of the gases was observed by means of a vac-
uum-tube, of the kind ordinarily used for spectroscopic work,
attached to the apparatus. As was to be expected, it consisted
of the hydrogen and carbon spectra together, bearing a general
resemblance to those of gases from iron meteorites, but differ-
ing from them in the greater relative intensity of the parts due
to carbon compounds. Ata few millimeters pressure, indeed,
the hydrogen spectrum was almost overpowered by them, and
was relatively weak. The three middle carbon bands, those in
the yellow and green, were very bright, that in the green being
most intense of all. In the broad part of the tube these con-
stituted nearly the whole of the spectrum visible, the green
hydrogen line being discernible with difficulty, and the others
not at all.

These are precisely the three bands observed in the spectrum

One cannot help regretting that a comet like Donati’s should
have departed into space just early enough to escape observa-
on with the spectroscope.
_The spectrum of bright lines or bands indicates that the gas
€s out some light directly, in addition to that which it re- .
cts. The most obvious, and also the most probable cause, for
this luminosity is electricity. Certainly a disturbance of the
electrical equilibrium would result from the heating effect of tlle

48 A. W. Wright—Gases from the Meteorite of Feb. 12, 1875.

solar rays, and a change of electrical potential, with consequent
discharges, would be produced by the motion of the gaeoas
molecules from the nucleus oes from each other, as also by t
change in the distance from the sun, provided either of the

ies possessed an electrical charge, as can hardly fail to be
the case.

There is another supposable cause for the light which sug-
gests itself, however, in the property of gaseous bodies, that
they emit light of the same pee as that which they absorb.
It is not altogether improbable that the solar radiations ay
sorbed by the apse matter, though for the most parte con

eras results have thus an important bearing upon the
theory of comets and their trains, and if this meteorite may be
taken as a representative of its class, they warrant the follow-
ing conclusions
e stony meteorites are distinguished from the iron ones
by having the oxides of carbon, chiefly the di-oxide, as their
characteristic em: instead of hydrogen
. The n of carbon di-oxide given off is much
greater. at ‘ah uy : high temperatures, and is sufficient to
mask the hydrogen in the spectrum
3. The amount of the gases contained in a large meteorite, or
a cluster of such bodies, serving as a cometary nucleus, is suf:
ser to form the train as ordinarily observed.
The a of the gases is closely identical with that
of fever of the comets.
may aie a comet, then, as merely a meteorite of con-
eAerakis magnitude, or a swarm of many of lesser size, con-
taining large quantities of carbon di-oxide, with some carbonic
oxide and hydrogen, and giving off these gases under the influ-
ence of solar heat. The gaseous substance in ane away
forms the train, which is visible, partly by reflected sunlight,
and partly by its own light due to some molecular or electrical
action, which causes it to give the spectrum of the carbon com-
pounds. The form of the train points to a repulsive influence
of some kind, as has been shown y Prof. Norton,* but whether
this is due to a specific action of the sun’s rays, as is held by Faye,
or is electrical in its nature, as maintained by Zdllner, must
still be regarded as a subject for investigation.

* This Journal, IJ, xxix, 79, 383.

O. H. F. Peters—Discovery of two New Asteroids. 49

The loss of the gaseous contents by the action of solar heat
readily explains the loss of the tail and diminution of bright-
ness observed in the case of several comets in their successive
revolutions, and their final disappearance from sight will follow
as an inevitable consequence, the number of revolutions neces-

sary rive them of their gaseous contents depending
principally upon their size and the nearness of their approach

to the sun at their perihelia.

The combustion of the hydrogen and carbonic oxide con-
tained in meteorites, when liberated by the heat caused by their
entrance into the atmosph ere, must contribute greatly to increase
the intensity of the heat, and both in this way, and by the con-
sequent sudden expansion of the imprisoned gases, may hay

much to do with the bursting of the masses, and the violent ie
tonations which attend their appearance.

Yale College, June 16, 1875.

Art. XII. —-Prscovery of two new Asteroids ; by Professor se HH.
F, Peters. (Letter to one of the Editors, dated Ashfield
cane of Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., June

1875.)

T'wo new asteroids were arate by me on the night of June
3, and observed as follow

Asteroid aaa Vibilia.

1875, June 3, 15" 3™ 9° m, t, aa1l7" 21™ 8°34
17 66 * 17-20 16°36

O==—23° 20’ 57/2

9S 21 $7 3

Asteroid (145) Adeona.

1875, June 3, 14" 41™ 75 m. t. a=17" 16" 6°85
* 4,11 Y eed 17 “36 14-10

d—— 23° 4! 18'"9

—23 6 41 ‘0°

bee of (144) is estimated as the 10th, that of
cs) as the 115th
Am. Jour. Scr. erate Serres, Vou. X, No. 55.—JuLr, 1875.
d

50 A. M. Mayer—Thermographs of Isothermal Lines.

Arr. XIT.—The Discovery of a method of obtaining Thermographs
a en —— Lines of the Solar Disc; by ALFRED M.

On June the 5th, 1875, I devised a method for obtaining the
isothermals on the solar disc. As this process may create an
entirely new branch of solar physics, I deem it proper that I
should give a short account of it in order to establish my claim
as ae

he American Journal, July, 1872, I first showed how
oe en with great precision, trace the progess and determine
the boundary’ of a wave of conducted heat in crystals, by coat-
ing sections of these bodies with Meusel’s double iodide of cop-
per and mercury, and observing the blackening of the iodide
where the wave of conducted heat reaches 70°C. If we cause
the image of the sun to fall upon the smoked surface of thin
paper, while the other side of the paper is coated with a film of
the iodide, we may work on the solar disc as we formerly did
on the crystal sections.

The method of proceeding is as follows: Beginning with an
aie of object-glass which does not give sufficient heat in

of the solar image to blacken the iodide, I gradually
increase athe aperture until I have obtained that area of black-
ened iodide which is the smallest that can be produced with a
well defined contour. This surface of blackened iodide I call
the area of maximum temperature. On exposing more aperture
of object-glass, the surface of blackened iodide extends and a
new area is formed bounded by a well defined isothermal line.
On again increasing the aperture another increase of blackened
surface is produced with another isothermal contour; and on
continuing this process I have obtained maps of the isothermals
of the solar image. By exposing for about 20 minutes the
surface of iodide to the action of the heat inclosed in an iso-
thermal, I have obtained thermographs of the above areas;
which are grap etd jeepers ad allow one to trace accurately
their isothermal contours. are other substances, how-
ever, which are ane Tatabie than the iodide for the produc-
tion of permanent thermographs.

The contours of the successively blackened areas on the iodide
are isothermals, whose successive thermometric values are iD-
versely as the successively i increasing areas of aperture of object
glass which eeenrely produced foes.

As far as w observations have any weight, the following
appear to be i. y Oeinsithe already made of this new met
(1) There exists on the solar image an area of sensibly uniform

temperature and of maximum intensity. (2) This area of maxi-

Chemistry and Phystes. 51

isothermals marking successive gradations of temperature. (5)
The general motions of translation and of rotation of these
isothermals appear to follow the motions of the area of maxi-
mum temperature which they inclose; but both central area
and isothermals have independent motions of their own.

On projecting the enlarged image of a sun-spot on the
blackened surface and then bringing a hot water box, coated
with lamp-black, near the other side of the paper, one may de-
velop the image of the spot in red on a dark ground. A simi-
lar method probably may serve to develop the athermic lines
in the ultra-red region of the solar and other spectra.

South Orange, N. J., June 11th, 1875.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

lL CHemistry AND PHysiIcs.

1. On the Action of a Weaker Acid on the Salts of a Stronger
one.— The importance in chemical dynamics of the question, what
is the condition in which several substances exist when in solution,
has been oftener recognized than experimentally investigated.
Bergmann advanced long ago the theory which is now generall

possible. Among the experiments made to settle this question,
those of Bettendorff* are perhaps the most satisfactory. By
studying the action of light on certain solutions, he was led to de-
cide for the view of Bergmann. UBNER and WIEsINGER, not

rec

‘hey differ only, apparently, in the streagth of their chemism. Ir
the qualitative experiments, barium nitrobenzoate and free ben-
zole acid were dissolved in a large excess of water, the solution
being heated to 80° ©. After cooling to 14-17° the solution con-
tained not only the substances originally dissolved, but also free ni-

* Zeitschr. Chem., 1866, 641.

52 Scientific Intelligence.

trobenzoic acid and barium benzoate. The nitrobenzoic acid set free
in the reaction, together with the benzoic acid also present, was
dissolved by agitation with chloroform or benzol, in which the
barium salt is insoluble. In the residue, after the solvent was dis-
tilled one the presence of nitrobenzoic acid was proved by means
of sodiu In a qualitative ar ad ire 1°6592 grams pure bar-
ium maitobedsoite was mixed with the theoretical quantity, 1°1815
grams, of pure benzoic acid ahd dissolved in an excess of hot

water. The cold solution was agitated with chloroform, the lat-
bh removed with a pipette, the solvent distilled off, and the

salt used. Additional experiments seemed to show that the quan-
tity of the stronger acid thus set free is dependent on the quan-
Chem

tity of the weaker acid present.— Ber. Berl. . Ges., vill, ae
April, 1875. G. F.
2. On Iodous Chloride.—BRENKEN has examined, in the Lbs

tory of Lothar Meyer, the formation and pr operties of iodous
ahioride, ICl,. It was prepared by passing dry chlorine over dry

trary to the statements of the text-books, it does not "hiae: even
in an atmosphere of chlorine ; but even at 25 C. it suffers dissocia-
tion into chlorine and hypoiodous chloride, which latter it is that
fuses. Under an atmosphere of increased — the dissociation
took place at 67°, the constituents reuniting as the tube cooled.
In a sealed tube, the ne biog, Prarie requires a dertedeiteiis of 86°.

iodous
walls of the tube. At a still higher deepal. the ICl, in the
unopened tube dissociates. Closing the opened tu again, a and
cooling both “_— the unopened ibe contains the yellow iodous, ©
the opened one the brown red hypoidous chloride ICl, which
remains for a atte time liquid. Experiments to produce a liquid
chloride resulted negatively.

In the following paper, Metikorr gives the results of his at-

em o determine the vapor density of iodous chloride. He
concludes that this vapor at the temperature of 77°, and under one
pepite 2 of ‘pressure, even in presence of an excess of chlorine,
decomposes completely into hypoiodous Se and ~~ rine. —-
Ber. Berl. — Ges., viii. 487, 490, April, 1 F.

3. On the Paraffins of Pennsylvania Pearclows Beads
under Saliorleiines s direction, has made an examination of the nor-
mal hexane and heptane from Penn nag Mer petr roleum, to test the
question of the a of isomers. ormal paraffins were chlo-

Chemistry and Physics. 53

acme and then converted into olefines by treatment with alcoholic
pota These olefines were treated with cold hydrochloric acid,
each of them being thereby separated into two fractions, one of
which dissolved in the acid, while the other did not. The latter
fractions “ssn secondary alcohols when suitably treated, that
from the ane being methyl-butyl carbinol and that from the
heptane ‘tren methyl-penty] carbinol. It hence appears that the
derivative olefines are normal, and _— ra ries sgh oe CH,=CH

2n+1. The former olefines ose soluble in hydro-
SWicrie: acid in the cold, yielded Sooheae which appeared to be
secondary, but which need further investigation.

In some remarks upon this ete: a says that the
above results do not necessarily prove the presence of a third iso-
meric heptane in petroleum. He sotiees when treated with chlorine
yields one primary, and may yield three secondary chloride

re
parafiin is necessary ; and the author proposes to make additional
experiments with hexane from mannite.—J. Chem. Soc., I, xiii,
301 ce se = so G. F. B.

ether ; remaining li td did not contain a trace 0

It was distilled with barium hydrate, the
distillate being collected in aleohol and examin trace of
methylamine or of dimethylamine could be detected. The residue
from the evaporation of the alcohol, treated with platinic chlor-
de, gave pure trimethylamine chloroplatinate. Pushing the

g ead
tillation still further, alkaline vapors were evolved, and the solu- ~
tion afforded on examination tetrmethytammonium chloride.

1875 <

5. On Glyceryl ether.—This ether, first discovered ie Roti
mann and von Zotta, is prepared by dehydrating glycerin by

means of calcium chloride. Von Zorra has re-investigated the

54 Scientific Intelligence.

conditions of its formation. To prepare it 300 grams of dry gly-
cerin were heated to 190° with 45 grams calcium chloride ina
balloon of 900 c.c. capacity, until it frothed nearly over. The
distillate, freed from the more volatile matters, was agitated with
ether, which was removed and evaporated. It left about 22 grams of
a product boiling between 150° and 240°, e glycerin was again
treated in the same way, so that finally i it yielded about + its weight
of a product boiling ea batee 160° and 210°. Thi
with potassium hydrat e solution to remove the phenol, and recti-
fied. Pure glyceryl ether was thus obtained boiling between 171°

and 173°. ‘Treated in this way 14°8 kilos. of glycerin yielded 250

grams 0

ceryl ether (C,H,),O,, is an oily a8 miscible with water, alco-
hol and ether. Specitic gravity at 16°1s 1°16. On boiling its sr cen
solution, it changes to glycerin. Veeatin ent with bromine con-
verts it into dibromhydrin. Solid potassium hydrate nets on it to
produce phenol.— Bull, Soc. Ch., U1, xxiii, 310, April, 1

ane
the fhe dees of Salicylic Acid.—The commercial im-

decomposition, alone, this method is impracticable ; but RauTERT
has succeeded in subliming it completely in a current of super-

eated steam, and ie this way readily obtaining it pure. Recrys-
tallization from hot distilled water gave the salicylic acid in
beautiful snow-white crystals.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., ee ~
April, 1875

: On a New Method of Testing Quinidine Sulphate. arene
proposes a new method of testing quinidine sulphate, founded
upon the action of ammonia and water upon its iodhydrate, as
compared with the iodhydrates of quinine, cinchonine and cincho-
nidine. Half a gram of = — to be tested is warmed to

60° C. with ten cubic cen of water, ngs a al gee of potas-
sium iodide is added, nee aed, allowed to cool and after an
hour, filtere If the pecimen was pure, the f one remains
clear upon the addition of a d m gevetplseke

less delicate test, but one commercially satisfactory, is as follows:
Half a gram of the singe shapah is cf eee at 60° _— pee min-
utes with 40 c.c. of water, and t mixed with g o
tassio-sodium tartrate (Rochelle salt). If the sicseuinets ooetsian
Car ke little or no quinine or cinchonidine, the solution remains ¢€ ~
if not, she Fen slat appears, when the ‘admixture amounts to s
per ¢ This precipitate, after standing an hour, is filtered off,
waked got a little cold thro and = filtrate after warming is
mixed with half a gram of potassium iodide. If quinidine be
present, a precipitate of quistiiee <odbpdsate is produc In

Chemistry and Physics. 55

this case, the liquid is —_— to ~ an hour, filtered off, and a
nia added to the filtrate. A precipitate dinates
the reais of ni ara in amount . least two per cent. e
presence of calcium and sodium salts in the quinidine sulphate is
readily detected by solution in coils when these are left be-
quinine or cinchonidine are also present, one gram of the
substance is to be treated with seven cubic centimeters of a mix-
_ture of two volumes chloroform and one volume 97 a cent

et —Liebigs Annalen, clxxvi, 322, May, aa G.

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.— M. H. J. Puwvs had de-
sore an apparatus of very simple Spvauniyai for as this
constant, suitable for use in the lecture-room, It consists of a

put
in motion and the inner cone fixed, heat is generated by the friction
of the surfaces,

n arrangement which is an inversion of Prony’s check serves
for the measurement of the work which is converted into heat. On
the wooden lid of the inner cone a light wooden beam is screwed
horizontally. A perforation rere through the beam and lid re-
ceives the thermometer, At some distance from the beam is a fixed
pulley, on a level with it, over which a thread, to which a scale is
suspended, is slung and is fastened to the end of one arm of the

eam ; the other arm serves as a counterpoise. When the machine
is set in motion, the interior face of the outer cone rubs against the
surface of the inner one and tends to turn the beam, which is fas-
tened to the latter, in the direction of the motion. With a certain

mechanica al bqatonlant of heat from 28 experiments. The mean of
the results, the 425-2, with the mean error +-5°4, is in qocllent
accordance with Joule’s result, 424°9, and may be regarded not

periment proper lasti ng bu t 30-60 seconds, on which account the
apparatus may be ae oe for lectare-experimenta— Loy.
Acad. Vien., April, 1875; Phil. Mag., xlix, 416

56 Scientific Intelligence.

9. Action of Magnets on Geissler Tubes.—M. J. Cuavrarp
has studied somewhat at length the effect of a magnet on rarefied
gases enclosed in capillary tubes, illuminated by an induced cur-
rent. ‘The gases or vapors employed were H, N, O, 105, CO,
C,H,, 8, Se, I, Br, Cl, SO,, Sif’,, SnCl,. Bodies of the chlorine

diately extinguished in the narrow tube. This experiment suc-
ceeds best with Cl, I,S and Se. The cessation of the light occurs

eye. An alteration in the color or in the spectrum is
sometimes thus produced. This effect is scarcely perceptible with
C

Geology and Natural History. 57

without sensible disengagement of gas; the other electrode set free
a little gas, and the wire was not heated to redness. After two or
three minutes, however, the sheath of light disappeared, gas
was set free abundantly at both electrodes, and the wire at the
same instant was heated to redness. To show these effects still
better, ten batteries were used, equivalent to 300 Bunsen cells, con-

charged by two Bunsen cells in the course of an hour. Repeatin
the above experiment with them, the wire, on touching the liquid,
. fused or volatilized with a flame variously colored, according to

an induction coil, and lasting sometimes several minutes.
most remarkable effect was obtained with a saturated solution of

a centimeter, and then, on lowering the wire, began to revolve
rapidly. After attaining a certain speed, it detached itself as if

liquid in a speroidal state, illuminated by the current it transmits.
If instead of immersing the wire it is brought near the glass sides

bab.
nomena known as globular lightning. The cloud and earth form
the electrodes, and the moist air replaces the liquid. Probably the
balls, in the case of lightning, are not liquid, but are formed of
ponderable matter charged with electricity. These experiments
Suggest the probability, if it is ever possible to try the experiment,
that balls of lightning are charged with positive electricity.—
omptes Rendus, \xxx, 1134. E.

II. Geotoagy anp NatTurAL HIsTory.

it,
feet in height In summer, the snow which covers the glacier
melts and rivers of ice-cold water flow over the surface and

58 Scientrfic Intelligence.

descend in the crevasses to unknown depths. These crevasses are
exceedingly numerous, and apparently increase in number on
passing toward the inte erior, where not a plant, or stone, or patch
of earth is seen over the oreat ocean of ice and snow, 1,200 miles
in extent from north to south and 400 in breadth. r. Rush
believes that the outpour of the Greenland oe of snow
and rain in the form of glacier ice amounts to only two inches,
while he estimates the fall at twelve inches; su Aliets as the evap-
oration must be very small, a large portion of the remaining ten
inches must be carried off by subglacier rivers.—‘‘ Nature” of April
8th, from which these notes are taken, has a geological — of the
Arctic region between the meridians ‘of longitude 20° 80°
het , prepared by Mr. C. E. De Rance, the author of a series of
papers on the Arctic regions, in the same Journ

2. Bulletin of the U. § . Geological and Geographical Survey
of the Territories: Nos. 2, 3 an nd 4, second series. 68 pp. 8vo, with
‘maps and plates. Washington, May 15th, 1875.—The papers con-
tained in number 2 are: Monograph of the Genus Leucosticte of
Swainson, or gray-crowned pu eels Finches, by Ropert Ripeway ;

Den ’
and yc i of the San Sean pare by F. M. Manaions on he
Topography of the San Juan Country, by F. Ruopa ; on some pecu-
liar forms of erosion in Eastern Colorado, with heliotype illustra-
tions, by F. V. Haypen. No. 4 contains ie ee on the features
of the Colorado or Front Range of the Rocky — by F.
AYDEN, with a number of plates; on the Tert

poda of Colorado, by 8. H. ScuppER; on a Natural Ati goel
of the Falconide, by R. Ripeway

Mr. Endlich, in his remarks on | the San Juan Country, states
that for more than 4500 square miles, the surface is covered continu-
ously with voleanic rocks. The following succession of strata was
observed: (1) 800 feet of trachyte, mostly light-colored ; (2) 1200
feet of red to brown trachyte, containing sanidite and some mica ;
(3) 2000 to 2250 feet red to brown trachyte; (4) 3000 to 4000 of
trachyte of various characters, ieee in all a thickness of 7000 to
8000 eve a follow doleritic bed

The of the region, affo poreigl angentiferous ennpee sphaler-
ite, tetrahedrte, brittle silver, ete. of them gold, occur

in the chyte, and are referre ng gore bdtiens or the begin-

of the Tertiary, the era of thé a achytic eruption

"one south and west the volcanic strata thin sale revealing
the rock they overlie. Near the head of Cunningham ‘Creek the
voleanic rocks form the crests of — while the valleys cut
through into metamorphic rocks, w are quartzyte, chloritic
rocks, mica schist, staurolitic neh ae and a coarse-grained
granite.

Geology and Natural History. 59

The plates illustrating the brief reports of Dr. Hayden are ex-
cellen
Among the results of the same expedition, under the Interior
Department, there have recently appeared also—(1.) A “ Prelim-
inary map of Central Colorado,” showing the region surveyed in
1873 and 1874; Primary triangulation by G. T . Gardner, topogra-
phy by G. R. Bechler , H. Gannett, A. O. Wilson and §. B. Ladd.
2.) A colored Geological map "ck the sources of the Snake River
with its tributaries, and of portions of the headwaters of the Yel-
lowstone, by G..R. ’ Bechler, topographer, and Frank H. Bradley,
geologist.
Ah) A colored Geological map of part of Montana and Wyo-
Territories, embracing most of the country drained by the
Seles: Gallatin and estar Yellowstone sian Geology by
Hayden, assisted by A. C. Peale; dra wn by H. Gannett
m notes and sketches by A. Burek, chief €* ety se of the
Talewitons division. It has contour lines.

“B.” On the ran of Pemnestiank GENTH.
With an Appendix on the Hydro-carbon Conipomas, ‘by S.
ADTLER; 206 vo Hartialnis , 1875.—Dr. Genth has in-

etail the description of the localities in the State. Dr. Genth
=a also a large number of new analyses recently executed
y
Report “J.” On the Petroleum of Pennsylvania, by Hunt

Wricrey. With a map and profile of a line of levels hieeal
Butler, Armstrong, and Clarion Counties, wt D. Ji: Lueas; also. a
similar profile along sag bat Rock Creek, by J. P. Lesley.
122 pp. 8vo. Harrisburg, 1875.—Mr. Wrigley treats of his sub-
ject in all its bearings, historical, geographical, geological and
economical; his report will be found of great value by all in-
terested in the subject.

eport upon the Reconnaissance of Northwestern ——
ineluiling Yellowstone National Park, ste in the er of
1873; by Wm. A, Jones, Captain of Engine rs U.S. A. 326 pp-
Ren Aye numerous maps.—This v ee me consists = a General

‘bat an Philelog al ‘he 0 coverin 200 pages, by Prof, T. B.
shale a oat Min rt ving. 2 P Ei
C. L. Herzmann ; a Botanical Report reed Dr. ©. C. Parry, and an

60 Scientific Intelligence.

Silurian of the Primordial and Canadian periods was observed,
and p Upper Silurian beds, but no Devonian, the next
strata obra being Carboniferous ; whether the Subcarbonifer-
ous is included he leaves doubtful. Above the Carboniferous
come the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary. A colored
oe map of the region accompanies the Report.

eport of Progress of the Mineralogical, Geological and Phys-
‘ead Survey of the State of Georgia for the period from Sept. 1 to
Dec. 31,1874; by Guorce Littte, State Geologist.—This Report
of progress gives brief notices of some of the mines and ores of the
State, with also accounts of valuable localities of marble, roofing
slate, mica for stove doors and other utensils of economical value,

notice of some of the localities “of _ a There are

n

6. Michigan, being condensed popular eames of the Topog-
raphy, ee and Geology of the State; by A. WrxcuEtt,
LL.D., rof. of Geology, Zoology and Botany i in the Univer-
sity of ‘Michigan, 122 pp. 8vo. 1873. Extract from Walling
Atlas of Michigan.—This is a valuable résumé of the results ob-
tained by Prof. Winchell in his investigations into the Topography,
Geology, and Climate of Michigan. The volume is accompani
by four maps—one a topogra hical map eons rome lines ; the
second a colored sper ton chart of Michigan prepared from
the latest observations; and the other two afnstoboptent charts,
giving the isothermal lines for spring, autumn, and the year.

7. Analysis of Atgirite sii Hot Springs, Arkansas; by J.
Lawrence Sira. — Th rence of wgirite at Hot Springs
sae Cove); Arkansas, so fis ninioad by C. U. Shepard in

vol. xxxvii (p. 407), for 1864. The following are
cae: results of my sens ipa of the mineral:
ili

Thea, 2 ee ier ws bee SF
‘Alaming,-2. 20569 Hoss FS2
Peroxide of i iron, --- 23°30
Serer Of Won, SUiresi Gl aol ea 9°45
Lim pctlecuers ais tly iS eee 08
Mayi civeesyes eo Oad
Soda "with trace of potash, - cuOsi sees 11°88
Titanic SOS a CE ‘18

100°33

The specifie gravity is 3°53.

8. Beto nd Appendix to Danas Mineralogy; by Epwarp 5.
Dana; 64 pp. 8vo. New York, March, 1875. (John Wiley &
“eR ae yy Bg ia: eae to Dana’s Mineralo ogy was preparec

rush. The present Appendix follows that
after 2 see of three years, and is intended to make the work
complete up to 1875. It includes full descriptions of 92 mineral
Species announced as new since March, 1872, with also explana-
tions of a considerable number of other names new to the science
but not properly helonging to distinct species. It also embraces
references to all mineralogical articles published in the many

Geology and Natural History. 61

_ Journals since the issue of the Mineralogy in 1868; these refer-
ences are placed under the name of each species, "to which the
article relates, the species pfs arranged alphabetically. This
Appendix is consequently an index to all the mineralogical litera-
ture of the past seven ani list of mineralogical books and

8,
, tions, V., by Prof. C. Kiem, in
Heidelberg.—Prof. Klein has investigated with great minuteness
the crystals of octahedrite (anatase) from the Binnenthal. He

¢Ds

10, On the presence of Vanadium in roeks,—Dr. A. A. pages in

a paper read before the American Academy of Sciences, Boston,
in January last, states that he had detected vanadium in many
rocks associated usually with — ounds of phosphorus and of
manganese. His mode of examination for the detection of vana-

rocks are presented. The author proposes in a future
give a tabulated list of the nse le also states the idee aie
Bost

= retained, though the luster of the planes is gone. They were
ound to be twins in all cases, the several laws of twinning being
ee a to those often observed in orthoclase. Sometimes the
crystals are very complex, rig made up of a number of individ-
uals. They have a snow white or sometimes yellowish color and
earthy fracture, sou though firm in the fingers are easily ground
in the mortar to a soft, white powder. An analysis gave Sipécz:
Si 55-96, 41 31-34, eg 116, a 1-73, a 0-65, Na 0-18, Ka 4-96, H 5-41=101-39

nder the peta ages mass is seen to consist of two kinds

ig some anbhan ed feldspar, eed wis. prese nt in anal quan-

tities, Professor Tschermak finds that the remainder corresponds to
the formals, 3Si, Al, H, which ‘ regards 8 as expressing the composi-
tion of the d to, it being thus a hydrous

alumina silicate differing from kaolinite. The change which has
place in the original material consists essentially in an
r sBip ; lo

Mitth., 1874, iv, p. 269. E. ge

62 Serentifie Intelligence.

2. Fungi ; their amy and Uses; by M. C. Cooxr, M.A,,
LLD. edited by Rev. M. J. Berk KELEY, IL A., F.L.S.—The Inter-
national Scientific ‘Seitea Appleton & Co., "New York. 1875.
pp. 299.—The earlier volumes of the International Series which
tie come under our notice were so excellent, that it may not be

we may add, is ina aa egree vaneng still. The depanatene
which the honored name of Mr. point upon the ap
inspired are diminished by his prefatory announcement, that,
although he had * dike to write the book, he had been obliged,
rae ill health and manifold engagemen nts, to turn over “the
to Mr. Cooke; but that he had editorially read the manu-
pear and the roofs, subjoining some notes. The volume is
therefore centr ‘that of Dr. C ooke, although we may con-
jecture that the chapters on the uses and notable phenomena of
ungi is sand to the veteran English mycologist’s store of

many technical terms are used without explanation; and some-
times, it would seem, from imperfect apprehension of German

“ As the work re intended for students, the author he had no
ery in repeating what has been stated in forme r chapters
where it has been thought to prove useful.” Our own "pide is
that aneias are specially to be deprecated in a text-book, and
may always be avoided by a good arrangement and methodi-
eal treatment. The author, moreover, “has had no hesitation” in
devoting more than half a dozen of the earliest pages of the

volume to a discussion of such a vexed and wholly subsidiary
qaestiod as that of the Schwendener hypothesis of the algo- o-fungal
nature of Lichenes; and he pronounces confidently against it.
This will hardly close the controversy, nor be of much use to the

Geology and Natural History. 63

student. More to the purpose would have been some account =

the methods of study adopted by modern investigators who hav

— given a new and deep interest tomycology. Useful as this

volume must be, and full as it is of interesting information about

~ shee @ it does not altogether supply the long-felt want of an
book.

elementary text- G.
13, stivation in Asimina.—The estivation was formerly
thought to be valvate in all py es In the Genera Am. Bor.

Or. Illustrata, vol. i, 1848, it is mentioned that the petals of each
set are more or less imbricated in Asiminu, as also in some other
genera. The petals enlarge so much before and during expansion
that the proper eestivation needs to be determined in young flower-
buds. A subsequent examination of these, in A. triloba, showed
that there was hardly any overlapping in an early state. Accord-
ingly, in the later editions of my Manual, no exception to the
ordinal character, “valvate in the bud,” i s alluded to. In the
Genera Plantarum, Bentham and Hooker distingaics their two

the appearance of the blossoms. The sepals appear to be truly

valvate. e outer petals are eee. imbricated, their tips

well overlapping in the order 1, 2, 3, in the early bud, and
h

Ndged This portion is iroqutanted by thrips, or such-like Insects,
as also is the mass of stamens as soon as the anthers open.
flowers are proterogynous, the stigmas being early in good condi-
tion, the anthers discharging pollen only when nearly ready to
shrivel and fall.

or less as the bud swells. exterior petals, a little distant at "6
their , very slightly overlap as they meet at the
while just below the margins become a little revolute. The oe

- less obscurely, yet very slightly, overla t the very tips.
As the deine in ae cee ightly as ap imbricated posi-
tion which becomes SS in the cate petals.

I conclude that the tribe Unonew cannot be distinguished from
the Uvariew, at least upon the characters a assigned, and that the
one kind of zstivation passes by gradations into the other.

64 Scientific Intelligence.

14. Text-book of ae si a Sam - Physiological:
by Junius Sacus, Professor in the University of Wiirzburg:
translated and annotated by A. W. Bennett, M.A., and W. J.
THisTLeETON DyEr, M.A. 858 pp. large 8vo. London. Macmillan.)
—The third and fourth editions of Sach’s German treatise, and
Van Tieghem’s French —— of the third, have been n noticed

which have received high praise. The oe mto
English is nes like Van Tieghem’s, on the third German edi-
tion, and one is therefore tempted to first compare English with
French editi ite Considered as a translation merely, the former
is superior. It is very close, idiomatic, and as clear as the original.
In some instances the selection of English words to convey the
expression involved in a compound German word is most felicitous.
Considered as an annotated revision, the English edition is inferior.
The solid pages, for instance those devoted to Tensio m, remain as
in the German, whereas in the French, skillful paragraphing has
rendered the whole far easier of reference. The use of signifi-
cant headings for the tugpee has enabled Van Teighem also
to give a synoptical table of contents of much value. It has been
shown in a previous notice that Van Tieghem’s table peda
clear and wubiaetiin outline of the whole work. Nothing more than
a list of sections replaces this in the present volume. This lack,

This conscientious translation is a valuable and timely gift to bo-
tanical students; that our American fellow students may be more
ready to welcome it, we present a sketch of the wor.

The Text-book is divided into three parts: General Morphology,
Special Morphology and Physiology. The first treats of the
nature and forms of cells, the formation of cells, the structure of

nts. Ti

defined as aggregates of cells which obey a common law
are next considered with reference to their formation and forms.
ree systems of tissues are fully described, epidermal, fibro-vas-
cular bundles, and fundamental. Here are presented comprehen-
sive studies of laliciferous and wetionlex — sap-conducting
aap ec spaces and glands. The primary meristem, the unt-
fo made up of cells, all of which are ¢ capable of dividing,
is next genstod of in connection with the terminal point of growt
Here a somewhat confused Bass wees (Hanstein’s) is introduced.
Frequent cross-references to illustrations further on would have
made this free from the poe iguity which now “ae it.
The fault lies, Saanich r,at the door of the German abstract of
anstein’s and Reinke’s work. The outward shapes of plants,
differences between structural members and working organs, and
metamorphosis, come next. Most of this chapter is a literal trans-
lation of the least satisfactory portion of the third edition. Much
of it has been rewritten in the fourth German, and for the better.

Geology and Natural History. 65

Book second is wholly devoted to special morphology and out-
lines of classification. The former is based on excellent abstracts
of monographs and is most serviceable. The “outlines” are of
little use to our botanists except as an illustration of what

bo

Book Secon wit . D. Hooker’s appendix to the ‘nglish
translation of De Mocnia and De Caisne’s work. The former is

y a physiologist, the latter by a morphologist. “Vegetable Phys-
iology is given in Book Third. The excellence of this digest is
apparent on a hasty perusal. It becomes more obeienis when the
book is used with advanced students as a hand-book in daily
work. From constant use of the German and French versions in

mented by the Experimental Physiology of the same author, the
laboratory is well equipped. Vegetable Physiology is treated of
under the following hcedes olecular forces in the plant ; Chemical
processes in the plant; General conditions of plant-life ; the Mechan-
ical laws of growth; Periodic movements of the mature parts of
coon, and movements dependent on irritation; the Phenomena
of sexual reproduction; the Origin of species. in addition to the

It is a gre
commend this volume, most iauehabes as a good i - oes
lap rege hand-book to advanced botanical students
15, Y Abwehr der Schwendener-Bornet schen ladies
(Contribution to a refutation of the Schwendener-Bornet Lichen
th ears _ Dr. G. W. Korrsrr. 30 PP. 8vo, Breslau, 1674.—In

me considerable currency, that Lichens are a compound of an
— (the gonidia) and a Fungus (the hyp os He maintains, first,
at th i imi 7 4

can be explained. Sasi: he Fang that he Scilla’ of
Lichens are not Alge, bevause: 1, in true Alge the gonidia never
produce hyphw, while this is of common occurrence in the spores
of Lichens; 2, that if the contrary were true, it is strange that in
every Lichen several types of Algz are necessary for the production
Am. Jour. Sct.—Tutrp Sertss, Vor. X, No. 55.—JuLy, 1875,
5

66 Scientific Intelligence.

of the peteaae and still more strange that in nature these various
Alge oc r without any further result; 3, because any a rms of

are, he thinks, not ie. , but free lichen -gonidia. Thirdly, he
maintains that Hichiiae are not evidences of parasitism, because the
onidia are in no way debilitated, diseased, or destroyed by their
contact with the hyphe, but on the contr rary ‘derive from it nourish-
ment and growth, and if this view were ‘beg ne there would re-
reo as om Fries had already observed, in Lichenographia Scandi-
, an incredible double and mutual atest of hyphe —

in aa a and of gonidia upon hyphx
In conclusion, Dr. Koerber gives his own views in regard to the
anatomy of Lichens. He agrees with Schwendener that the go-
nidia are not produced from the hyphe of the thallus, but regards
the connection of the two as a simple process of nourishment.

re rt
ment, to come in contact with the form of gonidia belonging to
their own species. He asserts that the spores of some Lichens, as
in the genus Sphoortin hale, which has muriform spores, do not
— hyphe, but gonidia of the kind called microgonidia or
stir cde ag and fin nally =a several different methods, ac-

cording to which, in his opinion, the lichen thallus may be pro
duced by ‘asvishualie gonidia (soredia

Dr. Krempelhiiber, in a notice of this essay in Flora for March
11, observes that Koerber’s hypothesis has not much better found-
ation than Schwendener’s, with tiger it has much in common.
If the observations in regard to the spores of species of Sphwrom-
phale are confirmed, he thinks sion against Schwendener; and
that, if Koerber’s arguments and observations are not conclusive
against Schwendener’s hypothesis, they tend to render it still more
9 ae able.

n the other a 2 Flora for March 21, 1875, “aa ve

from those of other ‘Ascomycetee tw, and that his observations go to
confirm Schwendener’s theory. His in investigations are to be con-
tinued. a Ww.

Geology and Natural History. 67

tion. His earliest papers were published in 1840; the most im-

S
The loss by M. Thuret’s unexpected decease is mos
serious, A. G.
17. An Inquiry Respecting the Reversion of “ Thoroughbred”
Domestic Animals ; by WiiriaM H. Brewer of New Haven,
Conn. (From the Proceedings of the American Association for
the Advancement of Science, Hartford meeting, 1874.)—* * *

improvement is often accompanied e d important
changes of form and str Now, as this improvement and
nge are unquestionably the results of man’s care, it is often

ch

stated that if the care be withdrawn, then the breed will retrace
down by the same road that it came up (only

vastly faster, the downhill road being the easier travelled), and

be i i use the more familiar

tures of eminent scientific men, and also in our scientific literature,
and in the papers read before our learned societies, and from th
high authorities it spreads and descends through various channels

At the last meeting of this association, this dogma of reversion
was strongly insisted on in one of the papers, and I find on p. B,
404, of the last volume of its “Proceedings,” this: “The hog has
been eter | changed by domestication, and yet, when left to him-
self, he soon returns to the original type. During the late war

68 Scientific Intelligence.

some of the most eoree breeds were turned loose and left to
shift for themselves. Three years after, I found them possessing
all the physical peak ah of the wild boar of Europe.” I have
italicized in the pane tation the special point to which I wish to call
attention. At the reading of we Depot = author verbally
stated that a similar fact had b with “ Durha
cattle.” About the same fake see aie sont was strongly and
publicly affirmed by ae gr aa mbit) who is even more
eminent. In both c the dogma was used as an argument
to sustain a certain soientific hyictboda or ‘lad to combat another
hypothesis.

= let us = to another meeting, held scarcely a month after
our last one. herd of short-horns was to be sold at New York
Mills, is Pty i Aa flocked from near ade far 4 attend this
other meeting. ey came from England, they came from ree
fornia, they came from half the States of the Uni ; they ev
came from the very regions where these scientific witboriticn had
but just told them that short-horns were so prone to return to

For the best five cows (belonging to a particularly excellent strain
called the “ Phircheak ”) they paid an average of $31,640 per r head.
These prices indicate the faith of those men in the future perma-
nence of the acquired characters of that herd.

some er Ihave been Aurel for the proof of the oft-

assertion, but [have not yet found the proof in scientific cases.
Until within the past year, however, my inquiries have been ver-
bal, as | had opportunity, and I kept no record of the answers re-
ceived, because I thought be among practical men (so-called) the
thing was settled. But the confident assertions within a year,
by eminent authorities, ae such reversions would always oe
place under certai n conditions, and then, Seta so closel
the heels of these actin. the rem arkable sa of which I ‘ve
spoken, have awakened a new interest in the cs t, and I have
resumed the inquiry, in the ho: ope that, if there be ay such great
law, we may somewhere find t i Pp .

T have therefore Rey the circular which follows, and I ask

Geology and Natural History. 69

short-horns—in other words, where from any cause thoroughbred
short-horns huve degenerated iuto animals of any other breed or
type ?

other breeds so changing or “reve

3d. Have you ever heard of such a thing taking place in the ex-
perience of other breeders, so well authenticated that you believed
it to be a fact ?

Now please let me explain why I trespass on your time and
good ‘ia with questions that may seem to you to be simply
absurd.

I think that the practical breeders of thoroughbred stock (of
whatever kind) commonly believe that so long as the breed is
kept pure and no other blood mingled, that although the animals
may vary greatly in excellence, all of them will have the essential
characters which distinguish that breed from all other breeds or

2d. Do you personally know of thoroughbred animals of any
verting ?”

but, moreover, that the animals will become of some other breed
or type which is said to be that of the early and cruder ancestors
from which the breed originally sprung, however long ago that
ma * * * * * *

18. Seventh Annual Report on th ious, Beneficial, and
other Insects of the State of Missouri, made to the State Board of
griculture ; by Caartes V. Rit ate Entom st.—This is

tum Dunal, of the Rocky Mountains, but had in 1859 reached a
ree i a; in 1861 invaded Iowa an
Southwest Wisconsin; in 1864, 1865 crossed the Mississippi to
estern Illinois; in 1866 occupied the region west of a line from
Chicago to St. Louis; in 1867 reached Southwest Michigan and

70 Scientific Intelligence.

West Indiana; in 1868 had entered Ohio, and in 1874 arrived on
the borders of the Atlantic at many points. Another insect treated
of is the Chinch-bug (Micropus leucopterus Say), which attacks
the grains and grasses, whose ravages among the wheat, and corn,
and oats of Missouri in 1874 caused a loss to the State, according
to the author, of nineteen millions of dollars. A third kind is the

been recently structive; and o are the Vhiloxera, the
enemy of the grape vine, the Chrysobothris femorata, an apple-tree
orer, and canker worms. ‘The articles are illustrated by excel-

lent figu res, and a — shows the path of the locust invasion of
1874 over Missou

Ill. Astronomy.

1. The Transit of Venus, Dec. 8,1874.—In vol. ix of this Jour-
nal, at pages 157 and 234, has been given a synopsis of the prin-
cipal stations at which successful observations of the late transit

hemisphere were quite incomplete. we now present a fuller report
from the principal stations of the Southern hemisphere. The sta-
tions are arranged in the order of latitude.

1. Observations of the Transit in the Southern Hemisphere.

(1.) Rodrigues, lat. 19° 4’, long. 45 14" E. English station.
Ingress and egress were well observed, and 441 photographie pic-
tures were obtain

(2.) Mauritius, lat. 20° 20’, long. 3" 51™ E. Lord Lindsay’s
station. All the oo were observed except the first, and 110
good photographs we

(3.) Reunion, lat. 20° ae Tat. 3" 42" E. Dutch station. Third
contact abaeeeat and a few poreenap taken,

4.) New Caledonia, lat. 21°, long. 1" E, French station. All

grapes were ta ken
5.) Windsor, lat, 33° 36', Peas 10° 4" KE. English observatory

The four contacts all observe

(6.) Sidney, lat. 33° 51’, lon ng. 1 5” E. English observatory.
Weather favorable. The four okt were all observed, and 180
photographs taken

(7.) Cape of Good Hope, lat. 33° 56’, long. 1" 14" E. English
observatory. Both contacts at egress observed, and photographs
taken

(8) Adelaide, lat. “ 40’, long. 9° 15" E. English observatory.
Last two contacts we e well observed.

(9.) Wiictirne, lat. 37° 49’, long. 9° 40" E. English observa-

- All the contacts were ’ observed except the first external,
and 200 photographs were taken

(10.) St. Paul Island, lat. 38° 43', long. 5" 10" E. French sta-
tion. Both the internal contacts were observed, and numerous
photographs were obtained.

Astronomy. 71

11.) mop ee Tasmania, lat. 41° 55’, long. 9" 50™ E.
American stat The second itbennal ot ie observed, and

12.) Hobart-town, Tasmania, lat. 43° 0! , long. 9°49" E. Ameri-
can station. ‘IT’ ose cad good photographs were obtained, but no
contacts were obse :

(13.) Christ Ghai New Zealand, lat. 43° 30’, long. 11° 31™ E.
English station, Observations failed from clouds.

(14.) Chatham Island, lat. 43° 48’, long. 12° 12™ EK. American
rane — contacts observed. Eight good photographs taken..

(15.) Queenstown, New Zealand, lat. 45° 0’, long. 11" 15™ E.
American station. First and second eaten contacts observed.
Fifty-nine good photographs ta

(16.) Kerguelen Islands, Iat. 49° nal, long. 5° 41" E. English,
German, and American station. The Germans got both contacts
at ingress and egress. The English and Americans observed the
ingress, but not - egress. Twenty-six good photographs were
taken by the American party.

(17.) ‘Audilantt Islands, lat. 50° 48, long. 11" 7" E. Germ;
station. The sun was obscured till ten minutes after the el
ning of the transit. From that time, the contacts were observed,
and heliometer observations and photographs sets obtained.

(18.) Campbell Island, lat. 52° 33/, long. 11" 17" E. Fre
station. Venus seen batiens ingress only. No a chelate
2. First results from the Transit.

M. Puiseux has given the first French results for the sun’s par-
allax, using the observations of Pekin and St. Paul, all made with

object elasses of 216 millimeters (8, English inches). The Bietiog
lax is g 879,

2. On the Solar structure ; by Farner Seccat.—Father Secchi

oa saat a very sy reply to ae article by Professor Langley,

n the comparison of theories of solar structure with observa-
iii = published in a: Haver “aaiihed of this bye ode a by
notes upon the communication as it appeared in the gli
Spectroscopisti of Palermo, and ina lecture chy bg to the T Tiberiae
Academy, which was published in the Voce della Verita, which
has been in part reproduced by him in a ete crtide number of

to an axpoRtion of his own. His yews snow presented, differ

from those he was understood to hold till lately, and in their

present form are of such interest that their outlines are here repro-
ety as nearly in his own terms as is possible in such an abridge-
ent.

Spots are due to eruptions of metallic vapors from the interior
of the sun.—Three phases in the life of a spot may be distin-

72 Scientific Intelligence.

guished: (1) That of its cae tye (2) That ofa eae period
of relative calm. (3.) of its closure and exti the
rst the metallic eruptions ocr their maximum vio iat orti-
cal motion on an e us scale is sae both in the ahbtoanhons
and in the chromosphere in the former (to borrow an architec-
tural term) iz plan, in the latter in mn elevation. These vortical
motions are a conse uence, not a cause—products of the eruption,
admittedly associated with the spot, but not pecaanie of it. (It
is this period which Mr. Langley has taken as the subject of his

sky of Rome, in the days preceding and following those em-
ployed in = study at ies ge

In the second phase the spot commonly presents a crater-like
formation, an a frit central mass being invaded by convergent
gaseous streams, which form the luminous bridges and filaments.

though new matter, still extruded, ¢ ecks the invasion of the sur-
rounding photosphere, and stegiiaiee with its insetting currents,
causes the radiate appearance of the penumbra. This s phase may be

being discharged without tumultuous outbursts, or the formation
of the pine of smoke.

In the third — — a ~ terrestrial and solar volcano, the
emission ceases all is

nid

—— matter, ere Mr. Langley mistakingly assumes Father
Secchi to suppose it to be in, generally. M. Faye and he have
attacked Father Seechi from fe sear ae not perceiving that

admitted to have carried. the palate ‘of photospheric detail
farther in some respects than he has been able to do, with the
smaller pooh of the Roman instrument.

s impression that the observations he brings do
not accord axl ] with Father Secchi’s views, is altogether owing to
she pie 8 of the true nature of these; on the contrary, “the
article and illustration bring gratifying and remarkable confirma-

Astronomy. , 73

tion of Father Secchi’s own observations, and on points where
they have been called in question.

On the whole, then, while he must insist that longer study will
modify the American observer’s interpretation of the facts, he
would rather be understood as admiring the Allegheny observa-
tions than as disputing them. x

3. Observations on Magnetic Declination made at the Trevan-
drum and Augustia Observatories, Vol. 1. Discussed and edited

Joun ALLEN Broun. London, 1874.—This volume is the first

although Mr. Broun departed from Trevandrum in April, 1865, yet
he was so fortunate as to obtain the continuation for six years 0
the series of observations made by his two best assistants. He has

74 Scientific Intelligence.

Cape Comorin were occupied for a few months only in 1858 and
1859.

both from the climate and the native assistants, one res us
wonder that he has ea so much, He certainly would
not have been able to have accomplished what a: has done had
not his previous a at the "Ma kerstoun a ieee
him in good stead.

4, ek Sopra of weights to be given to de Senietrcesi for
determining time with portable transit instruments, recorded
the chronograph ie method ; by Cuarues A. ScHort. pe

, U. 8. Coast Survey Report for 1872.—In this little pamphlet
Mr. Schott. collects together the results of the general experience
of the telegraph longitude parties of the Coast Survey for a num-
ber of years. He states: that the introduction of the chrono-
grapher registration of transit of stars has considerably increased
their precision, rendering it desirable to discuss the relative
weights of the equations of condition. In the Coast Survey
practice, two classes of portable instruments are employed for
longitude purposes, the largest size having reticules of 25
threads, the smaller size having glass diaphragms of 15 lines. It
appears from the probable errors deduced in Mr. Schott’s ser
that for the larger jnatatienie the gain in accuracy, between 17

quent change in his personal er rors; a dia aphragm of 17 threads is

recommended, which may be conveniently disposed in three tallies.
e probable error of a transit over a single thread is found to be

for large a — +/ (60°063)?+-(0°036)? tan? 0.

for small +/+ (0-080)? + (0°063)?tan?0.

In a reduction of the observations made during any one night

for longitude purposes, it is recommended not to assume a con-

i d

and after each reversal. The criterion for the correctness of the
entire work is found in the equality of the clock corrections as
PaeEres to the same moment of time. S.

the Meteorite of Laneé; by Dr. K. von Drascus;
ete Mineralogische Mitthetiuagen, 1875,—This meteorite

careful microscopic alan,

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 75

Ill. MisceLLANEouS SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1. On the eae of the St. Louis Directriz ; by G. C. Bro
HEAD, (From a letter to one of the Edi tors, I God that Mes
J. T. Gardner, in his determination of the height of the St. Louis
rsd bogie - has a i reference to the careful observations of

Eng el § given in vol, i, No. 4 of the Transactions of
the akbhAuitiy ‘of Beis of St. Louis (pp. 663-667), noe quoted in
the American Journal of Science, vol. xxx, p. 394 (1860). Hum-
phreys and Abbot, in their work, oe testimony to the correctness
of the observations of Dr. En ngeim r. Engelmann and Mr. E.

Barton, of New Orleans, eeiritealy adjusted two barometers,
compared them together, and then observed them for several

ys to be 404-9 feet above the Gulf. Mr. Gardner riakes it 428°29
feet, a difference of 23°39 feet. Mr. Gardner’s results are chiefly or
mirceliee based on railroad levels. Now, if these railroad levels

correct. The profile notes of the soreepie Kansas and Texas
Railroad, from Texas to Sedalia, makes out a different elevation
above the sea at Sedalia from those of the Missouri ae Rail-
ni There is not a railroad line in Missouri north of the Mis-
souri River whose elevations ean be relied on Gaokgbout
#ailebud, of 150 miles long, has three or four breaks of elevations
on it, each beginning at an assumed datu

. Swedish oie Explorations.—The Swedish Aretic Expedi-
tion to Novaya Z emlya, which will start at the beginning of next
month from Tromsée, will be occupied first with botanical, geo-
logical, and ethnological i inquiries in the southern part of Novaya
Zemlya, and then advance al ng the west coast to the northern

home NP ll bi hen d.— Nature, ky 20.
38. Norwegian Bepitension: —The hee Government has
sp a credit of £4, 600 for an exped sent out next

Hon of the sea between Teelasid the Pare ataiias, Spitzbergen,
and Jan Mayen. The commander of this expedition will be Capt.
Carr Wile, of tae Royal Norwegian Navy, who is now in England
go i Bi information as to the work done by the Challenger.—

* See this Journal, II, vol. ix, p. 309.

76 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

British Arctic Eepedition.—The ships Alert and Discovery,
of the British Arctic Expedition, sailed from Portsmouth on the
afternoon of the 29th of May. The Valorous accompanies them
to Disco,

5. American Association for the Advancement of Science.—
The next meeting of the American Association will be held at
Detroit, Michigan, in August, commencing on Wednesday, the
11th, at 10 o'clock, a. ». The headquarters of the associa-
tion will be at the Russell House on Monda ay and Tuesday, and
afterward at the City Hall and Court House, directly opposite.
That the circular of the Local Committee may be received with-
out fail by those intending to be present, word should be sent by
each to Frederick W oolfenden, Esq., Detroit, Secretary of the com-
mittee. It is expected that the Chemical Sub-sec tion, instituted at
the last meeting, will be largely represented; and also, that the
departments of Ethuology and Archeology will have a prominent
sub-section established, to be called the sub-section of Anthropol-
ogy. The president of the year is Mr. J. Hilgard, of the

as
tion B Prof. 8. W. pees of New Haven is es SS of the
Chemical Sub-section.

The new volume of the Proceedings of the Association—that
for 1874—has been issued. The volumes of the Proceedings, now
twenty-three in number, can be obtained from the Permanent Sec-
retary, F. W. Putuam, Salem, Mass., at the price of $1.50 eo
ar e; or, if ten or more v volumes are ordered, for $1. Of a volume.

6. Milligrade Thermometric Scale.—Mr. J. William ,in a paper
before the Chemical Society of London, proposes to mbes the
freezing and boiling point of mere ury for those of water, and to
divide the scale into a p enaneee par

7. Dr. —A i ‘statue to Dr. Horace Wells
of Hartford, ccmpetees “the discoverer of Anesthesia,’ who
died nearly a quarter of a century since, will soon be erected in

ciety, of whom of Hartford is chairman, and
r. G. W. Russell of the ace eu treasurer, Dr. Wells was
the world’s benefactor.

8. Report of the Sinperintendent of the Coast Survey for the
year 187 1. 220 pp. 4to, with many maps.—Besides ri ead
report on the progress "ot the ities this volume contains a
by G. erate nd C. A. Schott, Assistants, on a comparison of
the methods of ietecainiag heights by means of pale ag , vertical
angle and barometric measures from observations ali ornia ;
reports by Assistants G. W. Dean and C. H. F, Pin: of obser-

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 77

vations of the total solar eclipse of Dec. 22, 1870; a report by C.
A. Schott on the adaptation of triangulations to the various con-
ditions of configuration and character of the surface of country
and other causes ; ; nelle by J. Homer Lane, of a new form
of mercurial hori n which vibrations are speedily extinguished.
There is also a Genive Index of professional und scientific papers
contained in the Coast Survey Reports from 1851 to 1870. The
volume contains 36 large charts, and amoung these, under the head
of River and Harbor Charts, there are charts of yee
Burlington, New Haven, New "York Bay and Harbor, Nos. 1 a
2, Delaware River from "Navy Yard to Fort Mifflin Lapbbhouse,
Neuse River, Passes of the Pelee sta Puget Sound.
The eand Growth of Language: an Outline of Lin-
suri Bitende:: 3; by W. D. Wurrney, Professor of ee and
Anil geste ee Oe in ie College. 326 pp. 12mo. New

has full command of his ‘ubjea in all its ct erie

— of langu siae®

cent Origin of Man, illustrated by Geology and the
Mdorn Seience of prehistoric Archeology ; by Jamus C. Sourn-
ALL. 606 pp. 8vo, with many illustrations. hiladelphia, 1875.
(J. B. Biiethsore & Co. )—The author of this ie has gathered

into it a large amount of information on prehistoric man, and on
the sper bance cave deposits, and other peppubitonton of hu-
one relics, The mpts which have been made to measure

mean i of: the thickness of valley- tinsiptions: peat-beds
ind stalnyniitie deposits are discussed, and sources of error pointed
out; and the conclusion reached is that indicated in the title of
the pos The facts are given with much detail iset are lee

sion of the subject. In fact, oi whale hele exhibits a temper

twenty-ninth annual report presented to the Royal ar ae 4 of
elgium and is published in vol. xxiv of their abinoires

Seventy-two pages are occupied with the supplementary Att ned

the preceding years. In the remainder, vegringee 9 be report for

1871, the most noteworth items are: Earthquak n England,

March 17; in Chili, March 25; in the rien sleet Talend: ay 1;

and the eruption of Mauna Loa in August,

78 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

Etude du réseau pentagonal das ocean Pacifique, pp. 4, and
Sur les voleans de Vile de Juva, et leurs ss he avec le réseau
Sen pp- 3; par M. Atexis Perrey.—Two interesting and

uable papers presented to the Academie des Sciences a plover:
on August 17 and November 9, 1874. i

12. Storms: their Nature, Classification and Laws, with. the
meuns . = ieting — by their embodiments, the Clouds ;
by asus, formerly Prolessor of the N atural Sciences in
the a of aesves 342 8vo. Philadelphia, 1875.

Porter and Coates.)—The author observes in his Preface: “I am
a that the existin ng theories of the nature and: laws of
h s of weather are intrinsically erroneous, and that at least
a much shearer approximation to the truth will be found in this
_— me.”
Chim ateand Time in their Geological Relations : a theory
of outa Changes of the Eurth’s Climate ; by James CRo.t,

Geological Survey of Scotland. 578 pp. 8vo, with many illus-
trations. Loi 1 Daldy, Isbister & Co.)—This work
is a learned controversial discussion of s f the most difficult
questions in geology and terrestrial sics, viz: the source of

oceanic currents; the origin of changes of climate and the glacial
epochs in —— history ; ; the —e age and origin of the
sun; a method detopniane ~ mean thickness of the earth’s

the obliquity of the ecliptic ; ; —- of glacier-motion and ex-
planations of many glacial phenomena; nature of heat vibrations ;
e cause of regelation, and m sey other related topics. It is

Francis Garton, F.R.S., author of Siew reditary enon fat 206
pp 12mo, London, 1875. (New York, D. Appleton & Co.)—
is work, already well known, is a valuable contribution to the
— of heredity, as well as to that of the history of science.
e Aeriul World. A popular account of the phenomena and
life ee the dtincaphees ; by G. Harrwie, M. and P.D. 556 pp.
with numerous illustrations. New York, 1875. (D, Appleton &
Co, )—A popular and handsome work, full of i Interesting matter and
for the most part good in its science.
French Academy of Sciences.—General Sabine has been
elected a dorreapondig! member of the Academy of Sciences.

OBITUARY.
ey oun Epwarp Gray.—This veteran naturalist died on the 7th
of April, at the pesidense in the British Museum which he has

ship, he was about to vacate, Naturalists from all parts of the
world have pleasant penne? of the liberal but er
hospitality there dispensed by Dr. Gray and his surviving con-
sort, and will miss him at the Museum, whic he | served
most assiduously and ably for more than half a century. He was

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 79

Dr. Leach’s assistant almost in boyhood, was officially connected
with the Museum in 1824, when Mr. Children became keeper o

ment. The whole development of this noble collection has there-
fore taken place under Dr. Gray’s superintendence. ‘To it he

probably engaged in it. But it failed of suce ause
it was not very well thought of by the leading botanists of Jus-
sizan school, and partly on account of a pitiful osition
- f the Linnzans, who subjected the young reformer

to something very like persecution.” If was “over-

ven to controversy,” perhaps this early ill-treatment may have
fostered the disposition. When the Ro tanica: ty of

cri
Plants” (pp. 143, 8vo, Van Voorst), which, with other MSS. and
papers, was made over to him by Mr. Burchell’s executor, after
the death of the latter in 1864. Salisbury had bequeathed all his
papers to Burchell, who made no use of them. Dr. Gray’s in-

80 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

terest in reclaiming them, and in arranging for their preservation
in the British Museum, grew out of memory of assistance ren-
dered by Salisbury, who lent ie these manuscripts when he was
preparing the “ Natural Arrangement of British Plants,” and of
former propositions of Salisbury, that he should devote himself to
botany and edit any unpublished works that the latter might

leave In manuscript. Dr. Gray declined the proposition, and with
it tempting agassen offers. But, after forty years interval, he
printed a “fragment of the Genera Plantarum, exactly as it was

left by the author, for the purpose of showing’ the kind of work
that he intended to produce.”

r. Gray married, in 1826, the widow of his cousin, Francis
Edward Gray, “a fitting helpmate to share and encourage him in
all his undertakings,” an excellent senna and conchologist, a
are * —- ade ers and grace A. G.

L SHERARD OsporN died on or 6th of May, in his 54th
ear. Hes abaed ee Ro = navy in 1837, became lieutenant in
1846, and three years afterward ee selected as a volunteer for the
Arctic expedition sent in search of Sir John Franklin: again, in
1852, he took command of = Pioneer on a second extended Are-
tic expedition, having the same p se in vie He was a mem-
ber of the committee on ph eats of the expedition which has
just sailed.
Samurt Hernricu Scuwase, the astronomer, died on the 11th
of April, in his 86th year. To Schwabe’s observations on the sun’s
spots science owes the discovery of their periodicity, and that the
length of the Spanos was ten to eleven years.

INDLAY, the geographer, and member of the Council of
the Geographical Society of London, died at Dover on the 3d of
ag in his 64th y

1. DesHAaYEs, a in the Paris Museum of Natural His-
wry, died on the 9th of June

osEPH WINLOCK, Director of the Observatory of Harvard Col-
lege, died suddenly on the 11th of Jun

Sir Witir1am Logan, long at the hagd of the Begepen! wos
of Canada, died at Ontario, Canada, on the 28th of Jun

Memoirs of the Geological Survey of — Palzontologize In — Fauna of

the Indian Fluviatile Deposits, vol. i, ser: x; I, Rhinoceros Deecanensis, by R. B.
= 18 pp., ye bg eas plates.— —Also vol x, part 2, and vol. ba a 1 of the
moirs, and v of the “ Records” of the Surve.

ep rectival Hints on den ebb ts and use of the Microscope, by Johit Phin. 131
pp. 12mo. 1875. New ie Riese Industrial Publication Co.)—A small meager

work, ioe pee ek
A Brie Heat, light E Electricity and Magnetism, by — Skelton,
M.D. 7 on ay hg Trenton, New Jersey, 1875.—The author, to the
present theories, makes light the rapid wave motion of imponderable Seng
heat, matte: ex derable matter; electrici
le matter in flowing currents.
ie Idee der Entwickelung; eine sozial philosophische von

ol la ota a 1 ik at lk ae i a a a ae iia i
aha May beta ih ' 7

Author del. J Bien, lith

PSEUD oe. AFTER GARNET.

= By Renna of a eae ae Chlonite x Magnette & Discoidal Plates Chlerite

Plate Ill.

wok ete 4d Sgt eda Ww
~—— Kw Bt [tat Jas bys?
s
‘ V2 bed 304 a yd at vy
bw v4 we.
~ Vy

?

X

Vol.

*)

1875.

AM. JOUR. SC

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES.]

Art. XIV. -- Historical Note on the Observation of the Corona and
Red Prominences of the Sun; by Epwarp 8. HoLpeEn.

So much interest attaches to the phenomena of the corona
and red prominences, as observed during total solar eclipses,
and correct views of their nature and of the proper means o
observing them are so recent, that I feel it proper to give here
a brief account of what I believe to be the first attempt to see
these, under ordinary conditions, with an uneclipsed sun.*
This account is contained in the private diary of the late G. P.
Bond, formerly Director of the Observatory of Harvard Col-
lege, which has become known to me through the kindness of
his daughters.

Bond observed the total solar eclipse of July 28th, 1851, at
Lilla Edet in Sweden, and his report is published in the
Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. xxi, page 97.

rom Sweden, Bond went to Geneva, where he arrived in
September, 1851, and from this point I may transcribe from his
lary, making no changes except the occasional insertion or
omission of unimportant words.
‘Geneva, Sunday, Sept. 14, 1851.
I think I must go to Chamounix to try whether it may be
sible to discern the red flames on the sun’s disk by oceult-
mg all but the very edge, upon one of the lofty peaks. It

P Al , Nasm: len- Piazzi-Smith a others experime n! i is
direction ie wan eg en 3 lg Edinburgh renee ners
xi, p. 279; Mem. R. A. S., vol. xvi, p. 301, ete.

M. Jour. Ser. Tarp Serres— Vow. X, No. 56.—AvGust, 1875.

6

82 E. 8. Holden—Corona and Red Prominences of the Sun.

seems to me not altogether impossible. Certainly an experi-
ment worth trying and a new application of the ‘Azguiiles.’
*. 4.7% > be = = ee

Geneva, Sept. 15, 1851.

* %* * The weather looks dark and lowering with an
uncomfortable northeast wind, but M. Plantamour thinks it is
likely to be fine weather, and on this recommendation I took a
place in the diligence for Chamounix. * * .

Chamounix, Sept. 18, 1851.

Last evening the stars were shining through the opening
clouds, giving promise of improving weather, but a glance out
of the window, this morning, dispels all such anticipations.

* * * * * * * * * * *

Chamounix, Sept. 19, 1851.

I woke this morning at five and my first impulse was to go
to the window to see the signs of the weather. Last night I
had hopes of an improvement. But I was surprised to find a
clear sky ; some clouds were resting round the ‘avguiile,’ but
the summit of Mt. Blanc was clear. Started for Montanvert at
7.15 with a guide. fio Sop R oie a ae

Mer de Glace.

* * * Attempted two or three times to hide the sun’s
disk by projecting rocks to try to see the red prominences, but
could not get a station far enough off. * hae fe oe

hamounix, Sept. 20, 1851.
* Snowing fast in morning. Weather desperately
bad. But before going to bed it was quite clear. * *
amounix, Sept. 21, 1851.
* * * The fine prospects of last night were effectually put
aside by another snow storm. * * %* #* * = *
Chamounix, Sept. 22, 1851.
* * * * * *

*

The morning bad as usual.
Chamounix, Sept. 23, 1851.

This morning still cloudy, yet the prospect for an improve-
ment was encouraging. Soon after breakfast the sun oa
struggling in the clouds, and I hurried off with a spy-glass not
to lose the slightest chance of seeing the phenomena I wished
to; * * * T spent two or three hours in the wet fields to
no purpose. In the afternoon there was an effort at clearing
again.

2 Chamounix to Martigny, Sept. 24, 1801.

The clouds this morning still hung on the mountains, but
overhead there seemed some signs of clear sky. To make sure
of losing no chance I took an early breakfast and left for the
fields with the ordinary spy-glass belonging to the hotel under
my arm. Sometimes it would be almost clear, and then again
it to rain, and I was undecided whether to give up and

Watker’s Statistical Atlas of the United States. -83

start for Martigny or to stay another day. At last I saw the
sun’s disk and took up my station on the edge of the shadow
of the ‘Azgualle de Blettiére.’ It was still cloudy, but I was satis-
fied from the nature of the experiment :—-

1st. That a very clear air is necessary.

2d. Plenty of time to choose projections, affording views of
as large a portion of the cireumference of the disk as possible
while the rest is hidden.

And lastly, a good achromatic telescope easily moved.

I did not expect to find it so easy an experiment, nor to find
a mass so well-fitted for the purpose as the ‘Azguille de Blettiére’
which has a smooth edge, inclined, so as to allow the sun to dis-
appear slowly behind it.

he naked eye easily bears a small portion of the sunlight.

From 7 to 94 I followed the shadow over the valley. It was
nearly clear for a few moments before it reached the woods on
the side of the mountain, but there were still some light clouds
over the sun and nothing could be seen certainly of the corona ;
the clouds and mist would account for what I did see, and on
the other band, the color of the telescope supplied too much red
Just at the edge for one to be able to see any of the red flames,
if they existed there.

On the whole, I am more than ever sure that the experiment
5 eo and I think will be by some one more fortunate

an ”

Art. XV.— Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States.*

A CENSUS report consists essentially of statistical tables. In
these, certain results are stated numerically, and, like other
tables of abstract numbers, the generalizations, which often con-
stitute the most important features of their value, can be seen
only after long study and calculation, much of which must be
performed by each individual inquirer. Moreover, but few
persons have the peculiar mathematical and intellectual train-
Ing necessary to perceive other than the most obvious general-
izations when given in that form of detail. Consequently, in
the illustration of facts where numerical tables are involved,
much study has been expended in devising other methods of

* Statistical A: i results , Ninth Cen-
sus, 1870, with contributions fom maay eminent men of cience an sever
Francis’ A Welker ent. piled, under authority of Congress, by
tah cer, M.A., Superintendent of the 9th Census, Professor of Polit-
Bien, Lith asta. History, Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College. Julius

84 Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States,

presenting the facts to the mind. In various branches of sci-
ence, great gain has resulted by representing quantities in
other ways than by series of numerals, especially by the use of
oe areas, geometrical figures, curves, shades an
color

Uniil our last census, the results have been published in the
numerical form only. In these reports, the Superintendent
introduced a few plates by which certain generalizations were
shown by comparative shadings or geographical maps. _ Their

great favor. In fact, they made the desirability of more maps
devoted to further illustration so obvious that Congress directed
Professor Walker, the late Baperatehdent of the census, who
had prepared them, to prepare a “Statistical Atlas.” Several
portions of this work have alrea y been announced in this

the Geographical and the Geometrical ormer ein bree
maps, verona y shaded, colored or lined, fillmg 38 sheets

Six of these maps are double-page size (22x80 inches), 25 of
full single- pee and 84 of smaller size.

Sixteen full- page woes are occupied by the geometrical illus-
trations, on which a variety of devices are used and with most
excellent effect. Ses by comparative areas and colors
in squares and rectangles, sometimes by polygons of ingenious
but simple construction, sometimes by circles and circular
areas, and in a few cases by lineal curves, the whole disposed
in 1208 figure

The letter fei is of the same folio size, and besides the title,
index and explanatory preface, consists of eleven “memoirs an
discussions’ of two to nine pages each, prepared by nine
authors and mostly upon subjects ane in the plates. They
contain also a few cuts.

t is not too much to say that this is one of the most instruc-
tive publications ever issued by our government, and yet it is
impossible to satisfactorily treat it in any written article. Pre-
cisely as a painting cannot be described in words, so these sixty
plates cannot be. Any such description will bear about the
same relation to the original that a written description of &
person (on_his passport, for spate does to-his photogra e

rtrait. Sometimes these plates show an case of
in such a way that their significance may be € easily s
_ many, whereas if the same facts were merely stated in ie japan

tabular form they would be understood by but few. Some-

Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States. 85

times they exhibit facts that absolutely refuse to be shown by
mere numerical tables. In short, as already suggested, the very
reason of their being is because words and numbers cannot or
will not tell the whole truth.
The principles involved in the construction of the various
illustrations are fully discussed in the text or on the plates.
u

interest in such a work. The shadings of 55 maps and the
construction of more than 1,200 figures are based on computa-
tions from census data. Some of these computations were very
elaborate ; in other cases, where simple, the actual labor neces-
sary was very large. For instance, in the preparation of crop
maps it is not easy to show at the same time “ the importance

Now the rule adopted, arbitrary to be sure, but
i ws: ‘The number of

of the entire work. It is probable that over 200,000 computa-
tions were performed.

e work is divided into three parts. The first, relating to
the “Physical Features of the United States,” contains ten
maps, five of which are double page. The map of the River
Systems (by Gen. von Steinwehr) is the best yet published to
peer Rtg drainage areas. It has, moreover, combined with

dogmatic theorizing. A comparison of these maps shows that

86 Walker’s Statistical Atlas of the United States.

and upward. The magnificent forests found from Minnesota
aine are in regions of 28 to 40 inches, a raritell: recisely

same rainfall as large portions of southern Minnesota lying in
the same comggerss and nearly reece Interrupted prairies
extend across Mississippi and Alabam , where we have the
heaviest rainfall east of the Sierra Nevada

Again, compare the woodland map with that of “storm
centers” and prevailing wanes. The regions of numerous storm

heavily timbered ; the pile region of eastern Nebraska is al-
most treeless. A comparison of the regions of more or less
winds ee similarly diversified facts. While there is un-
doubtedly a very intimate relation between forests and rain-
fall sie the latter is less than 25 inches annually, where the

uantity is above that, certain relations which are zealously
claimed to exist, are shown y these maps either to not exist
at all, or else that the relative dependence has been vastly
overstated. The map of the Coal measures is especially impres-
sive, and we hope to see the excellent map of “Geological
formations” struck off in a separate edition for the use of stu-
dents and travelers

, rhe five memoirs of this pest are by as many anthors.

States” iby” Prof. J. D. Whitney) is a model of comprehensive
condensation. Further notice of this physical part is reserved
for another number.

Part 2d, devoted to “Social and Industrial Statistics,”

nine maps relate to wee six maps and three a to
the distribution of wealth, pubis pamerame taxation, illit-

tio
The memoir by Prof. Walker, on the “ ages of the Na-
tion,” is oe Sel ae in the vehi and is speciall y illustrated
by thi , eleven of which illustrate density and distri-
Bation oF re opm ation. In his discussion of the subject, a region
assumes the dignity of a settlement when the census-taker can
find a population of two per square mile. The white popula-

Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States. 87

tion of a region more sparsely inhabited than that are scarcely
permanent enough to be called settlers. He traces the line sur-
rounding such areas, and also of each of the adopted degrees
of density. The following table gives some of the more sim-
ple features of this calculation.

Total area of Average density of

Date. settlement, Population. settlement. Persons
in square miles. to i

1790 239,935 3,929,214 16°4
1800 305,708 5,308,483 17°3
1810 407,945 7,239,881 17°7
1820 508,717 9,633,822 18°9
1830 632,717 12,866,020 20°3
1840 807,292 17,069,453 Zt
1850 979,249 23,191,876 23°7
1860 1,194,754 31,443,521 26°5
1870 1,272,239 38,558,371 30°2

It is noticed here that in the 40 years following 1790, the
area of settlements increased 168 per cent, and the density 24
per cent, while in the next 40 years the area increased 101
per cent and the density 44 per cent. While this increased
ratio of density is in part due to the denser settlement of rura
districts, it is mostly due to an increase in the city and village
populations. We find that in 1800 there were but six cities of
over 8,000 inhabitants, and in 1840 but 44; the number had
icreased to 226 in 1870. He says: “Speaking roundly, it
may be said that in 1790 one-thirtieth of the population was
found in cities; in 1800 one twenty-fifth; in 1810 and also in
1820 one-twentieth ; in 1830 one-sixteenth ; in 1840 one-twelfth ;
prise one-eighth ; in 1860 one-sixth; in 1870 more than one-

That popular subject of so many writers, “the center of
population,” is also fully discussed. In 1790 it was “about 23
mules east of Baltimore.” It has traveled westward, keeping
curiously near the 39th degree of latitude, never getting more
than 20 miles north nor two miles south of it. In the 80 years
it has traveled only 400 miles and is still found nearly 50 miles
eastward of Cincinnati. :

The intimate and varied relations between the density and
spread of population as shown by the maps of the second part,
and the physical features of the country as shown by the maps
of the first part, are intensely interesting and varied, but the
subject is too fertile to be entered on here.

Part 3d consists of two memoirs and eighteen plates, six of
which are maps. They may be said to cover three classes of ©

.

subjects, one relating to age, sex and birth, the next to mortal-

ity, the third to the “ afflicted classes.” The relative distribution

88 Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States.

of the population by age and sex in each of the States is shown
by the geometrical method ; the geographical distribution of
the nang sex, and of the birth-rate is shown y maps.
The relations of the birth-rate map to various others of the atlas
are as interesting to the student in physical geography and an-
thropology as to the political economist. Considered as a whole,
the newer and agricultural regions very naturally have a
higher birth-rate than the older and denser population. There
are several curious areas where a low birth-rate accompanies a
high relative number of women, as, for example, a belt in

may be true in the country as a whole, but it is by no means
universal. While the chief controlling conditions of the birth-
rate are unquestionably social, some “interesting and curious
relations to Baebes causes are seen. ‘here is a belt of rather

memoirs. he Work closes with eight plait eee (by geo-
metrical methods) the distribution by age, sex, nationality, &c.,
of each of the ‘afflicted classes” (the blind, mute, insane an
idiotic) for each State and Territory. These (p repared by Mr.
F. ines) contain methods of illustration which have
some very desirable features

Any commendatory notice of this work which did not peas
of its mechanical execution would be most unjust. When
consider the intrinsic difficulties of the case, and sfonde
that it is the first work of the kind yet made in the United

tes, we must accord high praise to Mr. Julius Bien, who has

done the lithographic work.

It is to be hoped that Congress will allow this atlas to be
pained sed sold at as low a price as the cost of sao pean

will admit.

E. S. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly- Foster Iron Mine. 89

Art. XVI.—On the Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine,
Brewster, New York; by Epwarp S. Dana. With plates
V, VI and vi1.*

THE method of occurrence of the Chondrodite at the Tilly-
Foster iron mine, near Brewster, Dutchess Co., New York, has
been fully described by Professor Dana in a memoir on the
Serpentine and other pseudomorphs of the region.+ It may be
of interest, however, to review the subject again in this place.

e chondrodite forms the gangue of the magnetite, being
everywhere disseminated through it in varying proportions.
Tn the parts of the mine where the ore is purest and _ perfectly
firm and solid,- -the so-called ‘ blue ore ”—the associated chon-
drodite is sparsely sprinkled through it in small yellow grains,
showing no trace of crystalline form.

Tn the larger portion of the mine as now opened, however,
the soft “yellow ore” predominates: the chrondrodite is present
in it in much larger quantities, and, like the other associated

large number of these products of alteration have been
described by Prof. Dana in the memoir alluded to. The chon-
ite in this “yellow ore” is generally massive; but occa-

tion of them is seldom possible, but a few of the crystals found
allow of it, and the results are described beyond. The form is
usually very simple, and the color varies from a deep red to a
light yellow. : :

Material much better adapted for erystallographie study also
occurs, though this is rarely true. toe veins are some-
times met with, two or three inches across, which were origin-

ract of a memoi lished i i ions of the Connecticut
Academy of Sciences, vol ve ce 67 to 95, created ie ie place by the author.
¢ This Journal, ITT, viii, 371, 447, 1874.

90 H. S. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine.

ally lined with more or less perfectly crystallized chondrodite,
and also with dodecahedrons of magnetite, crystals of ripidolite,
and rarely apatite, and then subsequently filled in with dolo-
mite Where this has been the case and the dolomite has
remained intact the chondrodite has been protected and the
erystals have retained perfectly their brilliant luster and gar-
net-red color.

The species chondrodite is of especial interest because of its
relation to the Vesuvian humite. As shown by Scacchi, and
confirmed by vom Rath, the humite crystals are of three types,
alike in the ratio of their vertical axes but differing in the
length of the vertical axes. Chondrodite is identical with

the types.

1, Description of Crystals belonging to Type IT.

Some difficulty was found in obtaining the value of the fun-
damental angles from the fact that many crystals, though
faultless in luster, yet gave uncertain measurements. This
was due to the fractured condition of many of the planes,
which, though often not very apparent even under a magnifier,

i ey te 30 measurements of A(0=001) on r! gave: 185

E. 8. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine. 91

the a angles. Calculated from these angles the
parameters
a Sait cea yab6 . tao) < bi Oeeeu.
and the angle for the fundamental prism is
IA T(110 A 110)=58° 15! 46” or 94° 44’ 14”,

TasiE I.
Chondrodite. Humite.
og + (018) A=0 (001) A (v. Rath)
| K Calcul Measured, | Calculated | Gaiculated.
¢ | 14/011 )147° 32’ 39"| 122° 44" (ap,)}122° 27% 21°/122° 27° 49"
a
et) 54/205 | 90 *149 55 48 1149 58 48
2
él x7 | 203) 90 135 59 136 1 17 4135 62 15
é| 2.%/ 201) 90 109 4 109 3 24/108 57 650
Tt2
| 772 | 247/129 42 9 |#135 18 50/135 18 50/135 17% 40
4°
| g-2 | 245/137 25 45 | 125 52 125 50 6/125 49 0
eos ee
re)5 2) 243/146 27 42] 113 254 (113 25 36/113 24 45
m)4-2 19411154 9 9| 98 14 98 13 6/98 12 47
Ape Ste
im) 6-5 | 641|125 43 56| 95 22 95 19 40/95 17 59
ef.
m} 5 [223/127 1 31 125 3 49/125 2 47
jm] 2 [221/136 45 24] 103 11 103 10 4/103 9 35

The “ptteeeng table* (I) includes the 1 angl -
principal angles meas
ured on the e crystal, and also those cal Ieulated from the
above | patetisetorss ; mm addition, the corresponding angles for
The anal type IT, are also given, as ene ite by vom Rath.

+h te bis ie Soansusies the form used in Dana’s “ Mineralogy ”) and
also of hy ee Se omitted here, as the
relations of with sufficien' on the spherical pro-

92 EF. S Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine.

The fundamental form employed is the same as that adopted
in Dana’s Mineralogy ; for the reasons for retaining it, as also
its relation to those of other authors, reference must be made to
the complete memoir. The letters used are those of Scacchi,
with this change, that for the planes of the third type the cor-
responding Greek letters, and for the first type the correspond-
ing capital letters, are employed.

Taste I. Taste IIL
A= 0(001). , C = +7 (010).
Calcu- Calenu-
lated. I. WN Tita IL. IIL. IV.
) 11-4 1011/57° 33” ° gg7| .uatiet
@ |1-2lo1157° 337) 57° 28 BY 401150. os
2
e@ |= 20530 4 90
2
él zx 203/43 583 90
je? |2-% \201\70 57 90
4
= Sig 44 404) ,,. 50 «7 | {50° 13’%lnn0 yo
1 \--9\947 4” \44° 2
nie 46 41 |e go |e? B0’faa> an’|]50 1s |4 5) 4 15D 30 (oO 3
he
rm |e-2)245154 10 64 12 42 34| 42 39| 42 32 (42 36
4 si §66 39 33 31
vd 32|243|66 34 166 32 (66 26 66 35 | |33 32 133 3g |. 33 30 |88 20
rt |4-2i241/81 47 | 81 52 25 6 0
. 135 574
1 2 5
n 3 223/54 56 44 14} “ua Th
m | 2 |221/76 50 52 58
mi 6-5 641 84 40 54 16 54 18

In tables II and IT are given the angles on A and C as meas-
ured in a series of crystals here numbered II, III, 1V. (The
measured angles of other crystals are given in the memoir.)
They are important as showing how far the angles are constant.
Some considerable variations from calculated angles in a few

nes.
_ Of the planes which occur, according to bee and vom
Rath, on type II of humite, I have identified all but m of Scac-
chi ($-) and 3-e of vom Rath (¢-7). Of new planes I have found

EF. 8S. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tiliy- Foster Iron Mine. 98

the following which fall in the old vertical or horizontal zones,
and many others to be described later; 0 (7-2 = 210), 7? (27=
021), 27 (4-7=047), 2 =(2-1=025), e* (2-4=205), r* (8-2=489). Of
these the most interesting is the prism 7-2, as hitherto no verti-
cal prism has been found on either the 2d or 8d types.
Hemihedrism.—The crystals of chondrodite should show an
entire correspondence to humite in hemihedral characters.
Taking the same position for the crystals as vom Rath, r? and
r* appear uniformly in the positive (or upper) quadrants, r'
and r® always in the negative (or lower) and n? is both + and
—, but where occurring alone is generally negative ; n! is gen-
erally, and m? is always, negative. f the brachydomes it
may be said that they are often holohedral, but this is not
always the case. The various figures on the two plates will
show the true relation better than words. It is to be said,
however, that when the brachydomes are + they are still distin-
guished from each other physically. Thus the + series may
largely developed and rough, destitute of any semblance to
— , When the negative series is as lustrous as the pyramidal.
planes.
_ Habit,—With regard to the general habit of the crystals, it is
interesting to note the wide variation which is shown. Fig-
ures 1, 2, 6, 9, 10 are intended to give some idea of the crys-

tals might be mentioned. One crystal of a very prismatic

esence of minute planes.—The most remarkable feature of
the mineral from this locality is the multitude of minute planes
which modify many of the solid angles. One single case will

€ discussed in detail, as the planes admitted of more than

subject, A horizontal projection of a portion of the crystal is
shown in fig. 14. The crystal itself was small, and unfortun-
ately so imbedded in dolomite that it was for the most part rough

94 EH. 8S. Dana—Chondrodiie jrom the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine.

and beyond even alas measurements. The part avail-
able showed @ faultless, also r* good; and less satistactory *s;
r? andr. On the solid angle between C, r3, and r?, a large

number of minute planes were observed ; they were 80 eX:
tremely small sng covering a surface not ‘03 of an inch in

the attempt was made it was found that oli gave perfectly
distinct though faint reflections.

Taste IV.*
C = 7-1(010). 7? = 243, P=201.
Meas. Cale. Meas. Cale. Meas. (Cale.

| 2% 021 |/17° 377/17° 38}1123° 58’; 23° 497
12

+a) 7-8 SisT 22-9 Pal SS 8) 4 | BL 19°) 8 21" 7 8 BF
2

6
+a? |—"13/2°26°9 [112 55112 58 129 32/29 27 |) 6 36| 6 35

9
26

+23 “q 13/2°26-7 10 34/10 301/30 37 |30 42 |) 8 50] 8 54
34 17

+24 ray telat 9 42; 9 39/33 41/33 41 1/12 O/}11 53
b iy ea ANd

—a wy 24 L2414 20 21 |20 28 |/21 11/21 6)||3 25] 3 24

5-13-12 34 32/34 2% {1% 321) 7 #15 |l21 16/21 8

o|

“131-137 |18 60 }19 17 |119 40/19 47 |} 4 5] 4 38

6-24-13 |/22 24122 31 112 16/11 59 ||12 22112 22

mits ol S

2156 {16 5/|16 47/18 51/19 7117 39} 7 34

I |
% 8,

3/5 slo SI® =|5 le
te

4-13°7 ||24 22/23 5691/9 26) 9 47/115 25/15 3

25 25|_
—¥ ip 7 t2h9 {18 54/19 2 [4 45 [14 38 |/14 40 | 14 52
ap
—y'| 3/9248 [21 65/22 4/13 18/13 14/119 32/19 29
“oe |
—y'| 95} 21 | gi 13 |/23 31 }23 14
BIA ees
yP 24-9241 [118 4519 5 |/25 3425 27

The paper rt saat all taken with the greatest care; and
after the calculations had been made, they were repea ; and
ere in the Memoir.

E. §. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine. 95

rarely was a variation found greater than two minutes. The
preceding table contains the supplement angles for each of these
minute planes as measured on Cand r?, and also on 7?.

The calculated symbols are also given, with the angles which
belong to them. It will be noticed that 7? is itself one of the
minute planes, of the same character as those surrounding it;
and its presence gives a reality to them which they would not
otherwise have, and shows what degree of reliance is to be
placed on the angles.

impossible: thus, in type II, 1:4: 4:4; andin type III, 1, 4, 3,3,
4, ts ti an
should themselves have symbols totally at variance with the
accepted law of simplicity of the indices.

Tt will be noticed, however, that, lawless as they appear at
first, there is an attempt at system in the symbols given.
Sta in the ratio of the brachydiagonal to the vertical axis, we

ave:

aren © tie y® 24: 18 ot ee a ae 7
ee 18: 4 gt 24s "6 gi?" [gr 7 22 26: 9
y® 24: 1 ws 13: 12

and so on

Almost all of the twenty and more smaller crystals exam-

In the symbols given in the tables (i. e., those according to Naumann) the
mark over the second figure, or has been omitted (in order to simplify the
work of the : . This has also been done in all the following being
fa a Possible by the fact that all these planes, with one or two exceptions, belong

96 #. S. Dana—Chondrodite jrom the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine.

far as this half of the crystal goes, have the effect only of
making it holohedral, giving no re-entrant angles; but, in case

observed gave for m? Am?, 10° 88’ and 10° 40’ ; required 10° 39’.
A noteworthy fact in the crystal is the occurrence of the prism

8
certainly is, it expresses the exact position of the plane. :
n interesting crystal is shown in fig. 4. It is conspicu-

doubt that the planes as given have been determined correctly.

It is altogether probable that a revolution parallel to the basal

plane would form an ample explanation of what is observed.
Chemical composition.—I am glad to be able to add here the

Scientific School.

€ material analyzed by Mr. Hawes consisted of fragments
of crystals of the 2d type, selected with great care to avoid the
presence of any altered material. It had a deep garnet-red
color and a brilliant vitreous luster. Its specific gravity, as de-
termined by Mr. Hawes, was 3-22. Two analyses gave:

Analysis I Analysis II.
Silica 34°10 34°05
Magnesia 53°17 53°72
Ferrous oxide 717 7-28
Alumina . 48 “41
Fluorine 4°14 3°88

E. &. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine. 97

Following the view of Rammelsberg (that, in consequence
of the unavoidable loss in the course of the yar Sieg) the higher
value of each constituent comes nearest to the truth,) Mr.
Hawes’s analysis becomes as follows. For wcccaeaion the re-
sults obtained by vom — for 2d type crystals from Vesuvius
and from Sweden are a

CHONDRODITE. HUMITE.
Brewster, N. Y., Hawes. Sweden, v. Rath. Vesuvius, v. Rath.

44°10 33°96 34°02

Magnesia 53°72 53°51 59°23
errous oxide 7°28 6°83 1°78
Alumina 0°48 O72 0°99
Fluorine 4°14 4°24 2°44
99°72 99°26 98°76

Silicon 15°91 15°85 15°88
Magnesium 32°23 32°11 35°54
on 5°66 5°31 1°38
Aluminum 0°26 0°38 0°53
Fluorine 4°14 4°24 2°74
Oxygen 39°78 39°58 41°54
97°98 97°47 97°61

Transforming the iron into an equivalent of ap erate, as also
the alumina (2Al=8Mg), Mr. Hawes obtains further
Silicon 15:91, Magnesium 35-00, Fluorine 4°14, ae 39°78.
From these values a formula is deduced, which is essentially
that of the Swedish mineral according to v. Rath,
20(Mg ,Si,O,)+Mg,Si, Fl, ,.

It would have been extremely interesting to have added
analyses also of crystals of the ist and.3d types; but, as will be
apparent from what follows, the material was not to be 0 btained.

A cleavage such as exists in humite ‘(fatale to the basal plane),
and has been observed by Kokscharow on chondrodite from
peat could in no case be discovered. The fniotare i is always
conchoid

2. Description of Crystals of Type ILI.
The crystals of the 8d type are exceedingly rare, three or four
= Sian being all that have thus far been found, and from
ese only two individual crystals eal be obtained which
Am. Jour. Sor.—' ee L. X, No. 56.—Aveust, 1875.

98 #. 8. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine.

allowed of measurement. Fortunately these two crystals are
very satisfactory, being small and brilliant, and establish the fact
as well as hundreds could do. Figures 11 and 12 show one of

are for the most part hemihedral and situated in the same way.
No brachydomes are visible, the edge being rounded and rougb.
Tasie V.*
Chondrodite. Humite.

A= 0 (001). v. Rath.
Cale. Meas.(XX). Meas.(XXT)} Calculated.

“| 4-2| 041 [100° Vv 1%”

@)2-7| 021 [109 27 35 109° 27’ 54”

@li-7| 011 |125 14 49 125 15 18
2

uit) 023 [136 40 4 136 40 34
Bigs ;

are. 9811 131 25 57 | 131° 46’| 131° 941131 24 49
8. 125 37

p*|—-3] 289 [125 50 6 err ar 1125 48 [125 49 0
e. 119 35

Ph 987 (119 19 18 ‘> 15 |118 36 |119 18 19
8 lll] 44

Fale 285 j|111 51 38 ir 4g {112 0 |111 50 50
ee oe

pe" 32} 283 [103 32 4] 103 41/103 38 {103 31 33

p*| 8-3! 281 eatop

94 35 15 |} of j3| 94 48/94 35 4

4

yl = | 41 [132 17 48 132 16 |132 16 43
4

y? 3 |“ 3 1 8 122 32/123 0 8
4

a) 3 | 43 fl is 7 tii Bn

lv#} 4 | 441 197 24 20 97 299|97 24 3

The second erystal is of very different form, and was imbedded

mostly broken. When only the upper part of the crystal is
oa of the memoir. Other angles of these crystals are given in

E. 8. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine. 99

considered, it will be seen that the hemihedrism is like that in
the other case, except that p* is holohedral. For macrodomes
there are 2'(2-7=028), 1?(1-72=011), 23(2-7=021), 24(47=041) ;
the last has not been observed on humite. On measuring the
planes below, it was found that they were not distributed as was
expected in accordance with the monoclinic character of the
crystal; instead, either extremity of the brachydiagonal axis
was differently developed. There are present also at one ex-
tremity + ¢'(4-7=407), though the plane could be only approxi-
mately measured. This is probably also to be explained as
having resulted from a revolution parallel to the basal plane.
The crystal was very small and not at all adapted to ex-
periments having in view the discovery of any proper hemi-
morphic development. Some of the angles measured on both
these crystals are contained in the preceding table.

Unfortunately the inclination to Con no one of the pyrami-
dal planes could be measured with perfect accuracy ; the meas-
urements are good, yet not entirely trustworthy. These planes,
though brilliant, are uniformly fractured in the manner already
explained, and this made all the angles a little uncertain.
The caleulated angles as given have as their basis the prismatic
angle I, /=94° 44’ 14”" and the macrodome angle (A 12?=144°
45° 11”, following the analogy of humite in which the vertical
axes of types If and III have the ratio 10 to 9.

The corresponding parameters are:

a (vert.)=1°41512; B=1; c=1-08630.

Very little further can be said in regard to the crystals of the
3d type. Those observed had a somewhat different color from
those of type II; that is, the color was more yellowish, less o
a pure garnet-red—though this may be accidental. No analy-
sis was possible of course. The method of occurrence was
much like that of the brilliant crystals of the second type; and
the associated minerals were the same, with, probably as a later
formation, brucite.

8. Description of Crystals of Type I.

The occurrence of large coarse crystals of quite impure chon-
drodite, imbedded in the massive material, has already been de-
scribed. These belong, at least in part, to the first of Scacchi’s
types. As has been remarked, the crystals of this character do

game appearance and habit.

100 E. & Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine.

it was on this account that no attempt was made to make a
symmetrical drawing of either of them.

Fig. 22.
wy

R? on R? (behind) gave measurements varying, in a series of
trials, from 78° to 79°: required 79° 4’.

R* on R* (behind) gave 624°, required 63° 1’.

F* on R* (behind) gave 72, required 71 173.

R* on F* (behind) gave 72, required 71 1734.

These angles on both crystals were identical within the
allowed error of observation (say 30’). The above are the
best angles afforded by any of the planes.

These angles can be referred only to the ist type of humite.
Decisive proof that this is right is found in the fact that both
erystals are holohedral, the planes on both sides being identical,
with the exception of R'.

The measured angles of Con R®, right and left, were iden-
tical, though not obtainable with exactness; the measurements
gave 1524°-154°: this is also true for Con R?, right and left,
=1403°-1424°.

The following table includes the most important angles for
the occurring planes, calculated from the fundamental form of
the second type on the assumption that the lateral axes are
equal and the vertical axes have the ratio of 14:15. The
measured angles are also added, though only approximate ; 0
the form given they were obtained immediately from the meas-
urements over the top of the crystals (see above).

he two crystals described are the only ones which could be
positively identified. It is very probable, however, that of
those found others also belong here, as they have rauch the
crystals are all considera-

E. 8. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine. 101
bly altered, being generally soft enough to be cut with a knife,
and for this reason a chemical analysis would be of little value.

Tas_E VIL*
Chondrodite. Humite.

C=7-7(010).| A= 0 (001).
, Cale.

v. Rath.
Calculated. | Meas. Calculated.

J* |1-%| O11 [145° 43” 44” 124° 16’ 16”|124° 16’ 45”
3
Jt ripis 035 138 38 38

= 2/3610 [129 12 57 /135°/135 53 35 [135 52 23
ae
R? )7--2| 368 134 28 38 12931129 32 3/129 30 52
1

-2| 122 [140 30 10 (121Z/121 45 28 |121 44 23
“3| 364 1147 6 34 112 25 28 |112 24 37

2
R® | 3-2| 362 [152 49 49 |101 [101 39 30 101 39 2

The color of the crystals is gray to grayish-yellow, and the
material of which they are composed is never pure, and often
quite heterogeneous,

4. On the Optical Properties of Chondrodite.

In the preceding pages the question of the orthorhombic or
iheastton of the chondrodite has not been

the fragment of

what was originally a specimen of considerable size and beauty ;

had the d et-red color of ery: 0 nd type,
and with the exception of the universally present fractures was
perfectly clear Miele transparent.

* Table XIV of the Memoir.

102. EF. S. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine.

Guided by the observations on the optical properties of hu-
mite made by Descloizaux and given in his Mineralogy (p. 14),

to CO (i-7, 010); 2d, that this bisectrix is positive; 3d, that the
optic-axial angle is large, the axes being seen only when oil is
used ; but 4th, that the axes do not lie in the basal plane, but in
a plane making an angle of about 154° with it. This last point
Was so unexpected and anomalous that every effort was made
to explain the measurements in some other way, but with no
success. By means of a stauroscope, made by Fuess in Berlin
after the excellent pattern of Groth, the position of the two
axes of polarization, as referred to e', and also to e? in plane C,
were carefully determined. The measurements were repeated
twenty times, the error arising from an imperfect adjustment of
the Nicols being eliminated in the usual manner. ‘The result
was as follows:

Supplement angle made by the plane of the axes—

with e' (3-4—203), 18° 9’; hence with the basal plane, C, 25° 50’.

with e* (24=201), 45° 9’; « «“ «“ C, 25° 46’

T
?

In order to confirm these results, other crystals were sought,
which would admit of like determinations. None could be
found which would serve for measuring the axial angle; but
two small ones, on which the plane C was naturally developed,
proved to be clear enough to allow of measurements with the
stauroscope. The first alone gave accurate results; on it the
angle of the same plane with e*(2-7= 205) was determined with
equal care. The results were:

4° 55’ for the angle with e*; and hence 25°59’ with ©.

The agreement with the angles given above is as close as
could be desired. In the other case, the rather rare plane
B(i-i=100) was present; the crystal was minute, however, and
the determination only approximate. It was found that the
normal to the axial plane made with Ban angle of 65°-70°,

questioned, and it remains to reconcile it with the crystallo-
BaPhis properties of the species. It will be seen at once that
the position of the Optic axes is totally at variance with the

EL. 8. Dana—Chondrodite from the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine. 108

given in the various tables, show that the variation from the
rectangular type, if it really exist, must be very slight, as the
agreement between the angles measured and those calculated
on the assumed prismatic basis is very close—it being remarked
that some considerable variation in the angles given in the
tables are simply explained by the impertection of the crystals.
Note the angles measured for m? Am? on the twin crystals de-
scribed on page 96. It was not to be expected that the varia-
tion i2 the optical character of the crystals would be so decided
in view of the slight divergence which is possible in the erys-
talline form. I reserve for the future the careful revision of

The axes, as already mentioned, do not appear distinctly ex-
cept in oil; in the first mentioned section they admitted of
good measurements. The mean of thirty determinations of
the angle for red rays gave—

2 Ha=88° 48’: the extremes being 88° 36’ and 89° 0’.

With a yellow light (sodium) the angle was essentially the
same, but the mean was 10’ or 15’ smaller, which would indi-
cate that the dispersion is p>v, but the matter cannot be con-
sidered to be beyond doubt.

The index of refraction of the oil employed, as determined
by Professor Wright and myself, was 1°466.

In conclusion, I have to express my very great obligations
to Prof. Allen for his kindness in giving me free use of all the
Wr in his valuable cabinet. Both of the crystals of the
third type, as well as several others mentioned, came from hi
collection; in fact it was Prof. Allen who first made known
the special interest connected with the locality. To Mr. Cos-
griff, the superintendent of the Tilly-Foster Iron Mine, I am
also much indebted for his uniform kindness and courtesy to
me at the several occasions when I have visited the mine, and
also for the gift of several fine specimens.

104 P. T. Austen—Di- and Trinitrophenetol.

Art. XVla.— On an easy method of producing Di- and Trinttro-
phenetol ; by PETER TOWNSEND AUSTEN.

THE usual way of producing these nitrophenetols is either
by digestion of ethyl iodide with sodium di- or trinitro-
phenylate in a closed tube,* or by direct nitrizing of the
phenetol.t The following procedure will be found more satis-
tac

tory.

Di- or trinitrochlorbenzol is dissolved in absolute alcohol
and about twice the calculated amount of sodium necessary for
the reaction,

C,H,(NO,),Cl+C,H,ONa=C,H,(NO,),00,H,+NaCl
gradually added insmall pieces. The liquid becomes deep red,
and under violent evolution of hydrogen finally boils from the
heat of the reaction, while a brown crystalline precipitate sep-
arates. After solution of the sodium, water is added and the
liquid then acidified with hydrochloric acid. After filtering and
washing with water, the nitrophenetol may be obtained per-
fectly pare by treatment with animal charcoal and recrystalli-
zation from boiling absolute alcohol. The purity of the di-
and trinitrophenetol thus obtained was established by fusing
point and analysis.

It is very striking in this case that the nitro-groups are not
reduced by the violent evolution of hydrogen, or that they are

benzol gave no pyrene: results, black slimy bodies, appar:
ently products of a partial reduction being al! that I obtained.
With benzylalcohol I obtained also no dinitrophenoll lester

GaicY LY

Royal Laboratory of Berlin, May 10th, 1875.

* Korner, unpublished research; Kekule’s Org. Chem., iii, 77.
+ Cahours, Ann. Chem. Pharm., Ixxiv, 299; lxix, 236.

} Hermann, Deutschen chem. Ges., 1872, 910.

B. G. Wilder on a foetal Manatee and Cetacean. 105

Art. XVIL—On a fetal Manatee and Cetacean, with remarks
upon the affinities and ancestry of the Sirenia ;* by Prof. Burt
G. WILDER, of Cornell University.

A jwtal Manatee—The foetal Manatee here described was
obtained by Professor James Ortont at Pebos,t Peru, upon the
Marafion, a tributary of the Amazonas.

etailed measurements are reserved for a more extended
article, but the following will be found useful.
Sree et 11-
Original weight (estimated by comparison with a fetal pig
pirit), 22°

Meter.
Present apparent length, vertex to root of tail, (2°3 inches) *055
ee apparent length (estimated as above), (2°6 inches) °059
e ear 02

OF mushie tO Pari ck oe a ee 0
Ear to point Opoetile Musi. ou a ea 037
olnt opposite anus to tip of tail_.__._...__.-..----- 90a8
Real length, as if extended, (3°7 inches) . - 085
Tip of muzzle to depression between eyes. .--.------- ‘O11
CC VeH TO VOrERk: co oe a eS eee ee 015
Total Magi if hed 0 See Ss ee, “026
Wettn width Of ial

It is not very easy to state the dimensions of this foetal
manatee so as to permit accurate comparison with other foetal or
adult individuals. This is owing less to the distortion of the

in the adult, nearly coincide. |

_ With adult animals a common measurement is from “ tip-to-
tip;” from the muzzle to the end of the tail. It is evidently
mappropriate to measure directly between these points in this
or any other young foetus ; and almost equally so to follow the

. Abstract of portions of a communication to the Boston Society of Natural His-
tory, April 7th, 1875,

wing me to be engaged in the dissection of a foetal dugong (24 feet long,

3% m ve erously

very gen
rred the little manatee to the Cornell University. :
+ Murray (3, 302) states that this species “ ascends the rivers Orinoko and Ama-
zon for great distances.” Upon Map 11 the coloring indicates a westward limit in
Brazil at about 65° west longitude. The locality above named is about 72° west
longitude and 3° south latitude.
number of references indicates the number of the work in the list at
the end of this paper; the last the number of the page; the middle one, when
it occurs. the volume,

| More desir: hh ere ile eer ‘ie “ ee Pa yst £ weights and

is the acceptance of a uniform method of weighing and measuring ani

— their organs. The aphorism that “figures do not lie” is nowhere less true

their
in

106 B. G. Wilder on a foetal Manatee and Cetacean.

outer curves of the head, trunk and tail. But while we may
fee] sure that the truth lies between these two extremes, it is
not easy to decide upon the points which should be traversed by
a straight line representing the total length. The measurements
here given may therefore be regarded as only approximately
true to nature,

described by the same author (1, 133). ;

e ubdomen is closed but the umbilicus is large, ‘004 in
diameter. The umbilical cord is not present, but there projects
a loop of intestine about ‘040 long, together with a delicate
membraueous tube which is apparently connected with the in-
testine and is probably the remains of the yolk sack. (This
will be fully described when the dissection is made).

_ The clitoris is large, 003,2 in length. By its caudal deflec-
tion it covers the genital and anal orifices.

The brain was softened and its parts hardly distinguishable.
It will be described hereafter. (‘The photograph was taken
after its removal by a longitudinal incision). The extent of the
cavity 1s approximately indicated by the dotted line.

There is no external ear, and the orifice of the auditory mea-
tus is a minute round hole* with wrinkled borders as in the.
adult. A pigmentary deposit in the surrounding skin is all
that can be seen by the unaided eye. The skull is prominent
at this point, as shown in fig. 4.

he upper and lower eyelids are separated by an elliptical
opening, the long axis of which is oblique to that of the head.
Its length is is -001,2. The third eyelid, if it exists, does not
appear. By blowing between the lids there is revealed a space
surroundings the orifice about ‘004 inch diameter; how far this
represents the size of the globe can only be known by dissec-
on.
The nostrils have the same form as in the adult, but owing
to the squareness of the muzzle, they do not appear upon a front
view.

anteve triangular pinna. t proves to exist upon only
bly been produced artificially. Its position is just behind that of the meatus, and
it closely resembles the early stage of the pinna in swine.

B. G. Wilder on a fetal Manatee and Cetacean. 107

A fetal Cetacean.—Fig. 6 represents, of natural size, a foetal
cetacean kindly loaned by Mr. Alex. Agassiz, Curator of the
Museum of Comparative Zodlogy.

The specimen is labelled 7alcahuano, Chili, and was given to
the late Prof. Agassiz upon the Hassler expedition. The donor,
an old whaler, said it was from the “ Hump-back whale,”
(Megaptera). But, aside from its small size, the blow-hole is a
single transverse aperture as in Delphinide ; so that unless we
assume that a transformation could occur so as to divide this
into two holes, longitudinally or obliquely placed, we must re-
gard it as the embryo of a porpoise or dolphin.

Meter.
Length from vertex to root of tail opposite anus, (2°3 inches) -055
Tip of muzzle to supposed location of auditory meatus... .- 015
Auditory meatus to Opposite ans 2). s Gee “042,
Srpusite Alito tip. of tail. fe -018
Real length as if extended (2:9 inches) ---- 075

The smallest cetacean foetus of which I have found record
(Gervais, 4,323, pl. XVII) was (102 (about four inches) long; it
18 assigned to the common dolphin, Delphinus delphis. The

upper and lower jaw of equal length, while in the specimen
here figured the lower projects about 001 beyond the upper.
The blow-hole is a transverse aperture 004 long. Its lips are
rounded and tumid, and the posterior has a distinct hinder
border. The eyelids are closed.
The tail is uarrow and lancet-shaped, with no trace of a
rminal notch No trace of dorsal fin is apparent, but as the
cuticle of the back is somewhat abraded by friction during

Cuvier’s arrangement of them as ‘“‘ Herbivorous Cetacea.

Yet the hiatus between the Ungulata and the adult manatee
and dugong is so great as to lead to the general recognition of
the latter as a distinct order, Sirenia (Brandt, 2 ere ; Murray,
8, 196; Owen, 12, ii, 281 ; Huxley, 13, 887); and three recent
authors, by a kind of taxonomic’ reversion, seem to be again
forcibly aa with the striking outward resemblances of
the adult Sirenia to the Cetacea. The late compiler of the
Catalogue of Seals and Whales in the British Museum includes
the manatee and dugong among the Cetacea; Gray, 15, 62.

Heckel (14, 5: , 556) recognizes their affinities with the
_ -Ungalata, but makes the Cetacea the descendants of the Sirenia.

108 B. G. Wilder on a foetal Manatee and Cetacean.

The most recent writer concludes an able anatomical descrip-
tion of the manatee with a diagram, in which equal weight
seems given to the cetacean and ungulate relations of the
Sirenia (Murie 1, 190

r. Murie continues as follows: “Is it (the manatee) a retro-

antedated swarms of mammals of intermediate organization
which would fill up the chasms of structural differentiation,

a further profound investigation into the principles of the doc-
trine of evolution.”

t will be noted that, although Dr. Murie uses the word retro-
grade in his general query respecting the affinities, the idea is
not distinctly enunciated. For while embryo Pachyderms and

etacea are mentioned as likely to throw light upon the
problem, those of Sirenia are not alluded to. This is not so
strange in view of the fact that the smallest foetus then known
(Daubenton, 22) was about ten inches long (-254) and already

unmistakably a manatee.
A fjinities of the Sirenva.—The likeness of the foetal manatee’s

limbs which, in the adult forms, seem to separate the Sirenia
from the Ungulata and to unite them with the Cetacea. “In

are
five ; the latter, relatively positive.

An the case of the manatee the large tail, the absence of
hinder limbs, the pinniform manus, the flexion of the head
upon the chest, and the absence of external ear; these charac-

B. G. Wilder on a fetal Manatee and Cetacean. 109

semblance.

It is admitted by nearly all that the anatomical resemblances
upon which affinities are recognized are much greater between
the Sirenia and certain Ungulata than between either of these
groups and the Cetacea.

There would seem to be reason, therefore, for attaching very
considerable taxonomic value to the fact that the head and face

g and horse. —
obable ancestors of the Sirenia.—In the discussion of this

m eg of a purely ideal signification. :

t is an almost universally accepted rule that the earlier
stages of animals resemble the permanent conditions of lower
forms. This is stated by Dana as follows: “As a species in
development passes through successive stages of i ae rela-
ive grade in inferior species may often be determined by com-

*I use these terms for conveni not because I them as
tng tiaiera : convenience and regard express-

110 B. G. Wilder on a foetal Manatee and Cetacean.

paring their structure with these embryonic stages. * * * As
the young of the frog (tadpole) has the tail and form of a sala-
mandrian, therefore the salamanders are higher than the frogs.”
(20, 592.

In accordance with the above rule, and upon the hypothesis
of evolution, we should expect the embryo hippopotamus to
resemble a manatee, and the embryo manatee to look “ very
like a whale.” But since the young manatee has a head like
an adult hippopotamus, we must either reverse the usual opin-
ion as to the relative rank of the aquatic and terrestrial Ungu-
lates, or qualify the rule above stated so as to meet the present
case.

This apparent discrepancy between generally accepted views
as to the coincidence between rank and stages of devel-
opment seems to be accounted for by the doctrine of Retro-
grade metamorphosis, alluded to by Darwin (24) and Hyatt
(26) and perbaps by other authors.

The following passages from the “Origin of Species” are
especially applicable.

“The embryo in the course of its development generally
rises in organization ; I use this expression, though I am aware
that it is hardly possible to define clearly what is meant by the
organization being higher or lower. But no one probably will
dispute that the butterfly is higher than the caterpillar. In
some cases, however, the maturer animal must be considered
as lower in the scale than the larva, as with certain parasitic
crustaceans,” (( 6.)

‘Recent forms are generally looked upon as being on the
whole higher in the scale of organization than ancient forms;
* * * this fact is compatible with some forms having retro-
graded in organization, by having become at the last stage of de-
scent better fitted for changed and degraded habits of life.”
(24, 426, also 402 and 397.)

“Slight variations generally appear at a not very early
period of life and are inherited at a corresponding not early
period.” (24, 399 and 316.

““ Whatever influence long-continued use or disuse may have
had in modifying the parts of animals will chiefly or solely
have affected them when mature * * * and the effect thus

roduced will be transmitted to the offspring at a correspond-
Ing mature age.” (24, 401.

“ This process, while it leaves the embryo almost unaltered,
continually adds, in the course of successive generations, more
and more difference to the adult. Thus the embryo comes to
be left as a sort of picture, preserved by nature, of the ancient
and less modified condition of the animals.” (24, 316 and 403.)

In other words, the idea of evolution, whether of individuals

B. G, Wilder on a fetal Manatee and Cetacean. 111

or groups, primarily involves an increase in complexity and an
advance in rank; but it is perfectly compatible with a sub-
sequent retrograde metamorphosis, more or less extensive ac-
cording to the rank already attained. Using the terms in their
literal rather than their usually accepted sense, evolution pri-
marily involves ascent, but it is perfectly compatible with de-
scent,

Upon the derivative hypothesis all evidences of a parallelism
or concomitancy between individual metamorphosis and the
evolution of types toward a more perfect condition are equally
cogent in favor of the conclusion that the retrograde metamor-
phosis of an individual indicates that the group to which it be-
longs is upon the downward rather than the upward path.

Upon the hypothesis of evolution we may regard exceptions
to the rule quoted from Dana as to the resemblance between
the earlier stages of higher forms and the permanent condition

ower, as strictly in accordance with the more universal
law that the earlier stages of animals resemble their more or less
remote ancestors ; if these are lower in rank, as is usually the
case, then the commonly accepted rule will hold good; but

if higher, as is here suggested of the Sireni:, then that rule would

. .

fail, while the more universal one would still be kept.

urges against the ordinary view of progressive development.
He says: “To the supposition that Halitherium has given rise
to the other and later genera are

Oppo . ,
For the Halitheria, in addition to the well-developed pelvis

f Deinotherium* be regarded as a Sirenian with limbs yet
more developed then in Halitherium, then the series is at least
provisionally intelligible.

Of course the above considerations in no way account for
the prior existence of the hypothetical stem-form of quadrupeds
.* By Owen (12, ii, 282); Huxley (13, 431); Haeckel (14, 560); Brandt (2, 190);
Gn (35, 9h De Dainucdae io oat aes iawig tien but it is in-
35 among the Sirenia by De Blainville and St. Hilaire (Murray, 3, 198), Dana,
Hu Murray, 3, 190, and L. Agassiz. According to the placental classification of
thowey and Haeckel, idia are in one great group Deciduata, w

Sirenia are in the other, but provisionally, since their placentation is not

Sg2,, Tt would seem that osteological comparisons are not as yet conclusive in

B. G. Wilder on a foetal Manatee and Cetacean. 112

tween the Cetacea a the other Mammals, upon which Murray
has so strongly insisted. 3, 55, 196 and 203.*

As to the zodlogical status of the Sirenia, if the views above
advanced are correct. there would seem to be no more ground
for their removal from the Ungulata than for the separation_of
the Pinnipedia as an order apart from the Carnivora. Nor
would the comparison be invalidated by the view that the seals
may be upon the upward rather than the downward path.

he limits of this preliminary paper will not allow the dis-
cussion of the relations of the Sirenia with special ungulate
families and genera, or of the relative position of the sirenian
genera.t

But there is one point of resemblance between the Sirenia and
the Proboscidia upon which, it seems to me, undue stress is lia-
ble to be placed, namely: that in both groups the mammary
glands are pectoral or axillary, while in the hippopotamus they
are inguinal.

The consideration of the variations as to number and
position of these organs in other groups shows, however, that
in recent times they have never been regarded as of sufficient
taxonomic value for the determination of ordinal or even
family affinities. (For instances, see Owen, 12, iii, 775-730.)

_ it may at first seem strange that there are no traces of hinder
limbs in this foetus, and that the front limbs are not more like
the legs of its supposed quadrupedal ancestors. ;

It is by no means impossible that an embryo just forming
would present rudimentary hinder limbs in accordance with the
usual vertebrate type.

s to the manus, it is to be borne in mind that the vast ma-
jority of existing vertebrates + have anterior limbs which vary
but slightly from the pad-like form which they present in the

* With the Cetacea it is said that “ the apex of indented,”
(Owen, 12, iii, 521). But we need further information upon this point and also
specting the statement of Gratiolet,(16,) that a like condition prevails in the
ene: : will be me
am inclined to think that a careful study of embryos and brains will be more
satisfactory than even such exhaustive osteological comparisons as those of

PE Fgh 4 fishes, many batrachians, some reptiles, all birds, and a very

B. G. Wilder on a jeetal Manatee and Cetacean. 113

regarded as in the line of sirenian descent, that we may regard
its influence as almost inappreciable as compared with the
other.

Further discussion of the subject is deferred until the fostal
manatee has been dissected,* and until the writer is able to pre-
pore a longer paper in which the various questions involved

may be more fully presented. It is to be hoped that no oppor-
tunity will be lost for peoering still earlier sirenian embryos and
or preserving the membrane

SUMMARY.

The specimens hea manic cea are aian the smallest
foe bi sirenian: and cetacean uring, if ex-
tended, ‘085 (3-7 inches), and 0: 0B (2: 9 chet, iepeateely.

The head of the manatee is strongly flexed upon the
chest, and the tail forms a right angle with the trunk.

e general aspect of the head and face of the manatee is
ungulate rather than cetacean
. To this extent the embryo of a lower form resembles the
a of a higher.

This, while contrary to the usually accepted rule, may be
ay an exemplification of a more comprehensive law; namely,
that the young of animals resemble their ancestors.

6. This retrograde metamorphosis of the manatee points to
a like retrograde evolution of the Sirenia from prior ungulate
orms,

7. This idea is confirmed by what is known of the geolonies
succession of sirenian forms

he determination of ‘the affinities of the Sirenia, is likely
to be accomplished by the study of brains and embryos rather
1an by minute osteological comparisons.

AUTHORS CITED.
1. phology ee On the form and structure of — Manatee | samgonebpspesk rag
1. Soc., Lo _ 3, 1872. (Read Nov.
Page 127-202; plates xvii — (
2. Brandt, J. : Symbol Sit Sirenologice. Fascic, iii, 1867-1868.

3. Murra rray, Andrew : The geographical distribution of Mammals. London, 1866;
quarto, pp. ee 2 2 plates, 101 ma

4. Gervais, Paul: Addition au Mémoire par W. Turner de la placentation des
1 sia, compare a celle des autres mammiféres. Journal de Zodlogie, 1872, Tom.
pl. xv:

5. Gray, J Eh: Notes on on the fostus of an elephant and of a hippopotamus in
the collection of the British Museum. Proc. Zool. Soc., June 25th, 1868, 491. 2

Wyman, ee: Remarks upon a foetal whale (Balena mysticetus) six

inches Tong, roc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1850, 355.

Rie ce t to throw light upon the development of the
Po se per and of the vita heart; ape may solve the neetion os
: F of cervical vertebrae, 0 which nt opinions are wholly contra-
dictory (Murie, 1, 137). fet

Am. Jour, Sox—Turp Ssnrtzs, Vou. X, No. 56.—AuGust, 1875,

g

114 B. G. Wiider on a fetal Manatee and Cetacean.

i Rondeletius : * Piscibus. 1554; folio, libr. xvi,
8. Agassiz, Louis: Essay on clas sification London, “si, pe pp. 381.
9. perm Eola: Remarks upon Manatus. . Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., iii,

10. De Blainville: Prodrome d'une classification. Bulletin de la Soc. Philo-
a veh Richard On the Anatomy of the Dugong. Proc. Zoél. Soc. Lon-
mer a Oe Ba Richard: Comparative anatomy of vertebrates. London, 8vo, 3 vols.
ee Narey, T. H.: Anatomy oi vertebrated animals. London and New York,

Heckel, Ernst: Natiirliche a hichte
. is. had J. E.; Catalogue of seals and whales in the British Museum. Lon-
on, 1866.
16. Caine : Recherches sur le systéme vase. sang. de |’ Hippopotamus.
Compas Rendus, 1860, 524-528. Also Ann. des sciences nat., xxii, 376-379.
Aa Charl the classification of mammalia. Proc. Am. Assoc. for
Adv. of a 1851. mB 6
Agassiz rence between Sirenidae and true Cetacea, and the
uta ¢ characters of ey former. Proc. Am. Assoc. for Adv. Science, 1849.
438, (By title nly.)
= Agenis: Ts zoological character of young mammalia. Proc. Am. Assoc.
for Ady of Science, 1849, 85~90.
0. Dana, J. D.: Manual of ok. —
tesa 5D Oe ce classification of animals based on the principle of
ization. No. III. Cision of Herbivores. Am. Journal of Science,
J5T-

22. Daubenton Bastiey saniane tes de Buffon, avec les doer anatomiques
de Daubenton, Mammiféres, texte, cig pret 2s: piawietien, mm , ol 402, fig.
. Gill, Theodore: Arran, of m als. Smithsonian

’ Fifth edition, 187
26. Hye tt, Alphi rissa domestication. 2 ae 1808, mit ed.
» tye lpheus: Fossil Copbulpeds of the Museum of Comparative
Embryology. Bull. of the M. C. S., iii, No. acs aa

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.*

Fig. 1. oo nag male Manatee, 7; of natural length. Reduced copy of
urie’s figure. The eye and ear appear as black spots; a, anus; 1, M, A, the
ae of —, index, medius, and annularis digits.
Fig. 2.—Foetal Manatee, natural size. n, nostril; a, ancon (elbow); ¢, carpus.
Fig. 3.— Needot tend Wteaciee once two diameters; the muzzle being raised
a little so as to expose the lower lip. The dotted line indicates the extent of
i The external meatus black spot.

7.—Head of foetal cetacean, natural size, from above; n, nostril.

The figures, exceptin; tf drawn from nature and from photographs,
sieacetea ake Philip Barua. As

AM. JOUR SCI., Vo

a

Plate Vill.

J. E. Hilgard—Tidal Waves and Currents. 117

Art. XVIIIL—On Tidal Waves and Currents along portions of
the Atlantic Coast of the United States ;* by J. HE. HinGarp,
Assistant in the Coast Survey, Washington, D. C.

1. Movement or Tipan WAVEs.

root of the depth of the sea, may serve as good illustrations of
the manner in which tides are propagated through sounds, bays
and rivers. The following table gives the rate of motion for
different depths :

Depth in feet___.._- 10 Miles per hour... .--- 12°2
“ce pA Ree re eens 60 cc ipa Uesieseacpeeigmen 30°0
“ce a iealubodhes acanaee 100 oe Oe ee 38°7
ee 1,000 Wee Fe 122°3
x4 . 6,000 e wo Seas s 299°5

The movement of the ocean designated by the name of tide-
wave, does not ebm of the nature of a wave in the common

will be produced. In the same way the transmission of the

movement through the incompressible water of the sea, is at-
tended with

PS cng from a lecture by Mr. Hilgard before the American Institute, January

118 J. E. Hilgard—Tidal Waves and Currents.

wave thus developed, and decreases in width from its entrance
toward its head, the tide rises higher from the mouth upward.
This is due to the concentration of the wave by the approach
of the shores, and to the gradual shoaling of the bottom.
is effect is strikingly illustrated by a generalization of the
heights of the tides on the Atlantic coast of the United States.
That coast presents, in its general outline, three large bays: the
Great Southern, from Cape Florida to Cape Hatteras; the Great
Middle, from Cape Hatteras to Nantucket: and the Great
Eastern, from Nantucket to Cape Sable, now known as the Gulf
of Maine. It will be seen that the tide-wave arrives at about
the same time at the headlands, Cape Florida, Cape Hatteras,
Nantucket and Cape Sable, and that at those points the height
is inconsiderable compared with the rise at the head of the sev-
eral bays. Thus, at Cape Florida the mean rise and fall is only
one and one-half of a foot; at Hatteras, but two feet; while at
the intermediate entrance to Savannah it reaches seven feet, de-
clining in height toward both capes. Again, at the head of the
Middle bay, in New York harbor, it reaches five feet, while
on the southeast side of Nantucket Island it is little over one
oot. The configuration of the Eastern bay is less regular, and
the correspondence of heights is not so obvious. The recess of
Massachusetts bay is well marked, the increase in height reach-
ing ten feet at Boston and Plymouth. Rolling on eastward

vances into a narrow channel, bay or river, its front slope be-
comes short and steep, and its rear slope becomes long and less
inclined. Hence arises the fact that at a station near the sea the
time occupied by the rise is equal to that occupied by the
descent; but at a station more removed from the sea the rise
occupies a shorter time than the descent. Thus, in Delaware
bay and river, we have the following relations of the duration
and height of rise and fall.

STATION, Mean rise| Luni-tida | MEAN DURATION OF

|_| Satall: | interval: lod tide. | Bbb tide.
Feet. h. m. hm h. m.
had held 3°5 8: 0 6 3
= al Bias 6 4 5°56 6°30
rm + 6S 11°53 5°24 ™ 2
orseuereraag 6° 13°44 4-52 134

J. EB. Hilgard—Tidal Waves and Currents. 119

An examination of this table will show, besides the marked
increase in the height of the tide due to the contraction of the
shores from the capes up to Newcastle, a subsequent loss from
friction in a narrow channel of nearly uniform character, and
correspondingly a rapid propagation of the tide-wave through

along the narrow channel of the river. At the mouth of the
bay the duration of the flood tide is equal to that of the ebb,
while at Philadelphia it is less by two hours forty-two minutes.
When the tide is very large compared with the depth of water,
this inequality becomes very great; thus, in the Severn river
at Newnham, above Bristol, England, the whole rise of eighteen
feet — place in one and a half hours, while the fall occupies
ten hours.

2. Trat CuRRENTS.

The agency of tidal currents in producing changes in the
entrances of bays and harbors, is a subject of the first import-
ance to commerce and navigation, and has received full atten-
tion in the prosecution of the American Coast Sarvey. The
laws according to which the changes takes place require to be
studied by long-continued observation, and when the change
is for the worse, the means of counteracting it must be pointed
out.

reached during the ebb between the basin and the ocean, which
determines the greatest velocity and transporting power reached
by the ebb stream.
On the bars of most of the sand-barred harbors on our south-
ern coast, the place and direction of the channel are frequently

120 J. BE. Hilgard—Tidal Waves and Currents.

changed§ during violent storms, when the direction of the
waves happens to be oblique to that of the channel; or, when
the sea runs directlyjupon the channel, the depth of water

¥
ae yh

Teter rst!
ee SF ON

spares viene?

Lele yan

was
tos Py

oe

Prods

dtl
ae

thy

EFFECT OF SINKING STONE-FLEET ON CHARLESTON BAR.

may be considerably diminished, for the time being, by_ the
sand rolled up by the waves. But in all these cases it 1s
found that the normal depth is speedily restored by the scour

J. E. Hilgard—Tidal Waves and Currents, 121

of the ebb tide, which depends upon the unchanged factors of
area and form of basin, height of tide, and character of the
material forming the bar.

Charleston bar.—An interesting instance of this maintenance
of the depth of channels from a determinate tidal basin is fur-
nished by the effects of the obstructions placed in the channel
over Charleston bar during the war of the rebellion. On the
accompanying diagram is seen the “stone fleet” sunk in the
main channel, which at that time had twelve feet of water at
low tide where the figure 7 indicates the present depth. There
was, moreover, another channel making out more to the south-
ward, with nine feet of water where the figure 3 indicates the
present depth. The vessels were placed checkerwise in such a
manner as to impede navigation while interfering least with the
discharge of the water. The effect, nevertheless, was the forma-
tion of a shoal in a short time, and the scouring out of two
channels, one on each side of the obstructions, through which
twelve and fourteen feet can now be carried at low water. The
increased water-way thus given to the ebb tide caused it to
abandon the old nine foot channel on the less direct course to
deep water. We have here the total obstruction of a channel,
which was of considerable importance to the southward trade,
by new conditions nan eh at a point four miles distant
from where the effect was produced; and we are warned how

hours after the transit of the moon high water has advanced
just within Block Island with an elevation of two feet, and, at
the same time, has passed Sandy Hook with an elevation of four
and a half feet. Traversing the sound at a rate indicated by
the Roman figures, with increasing heights indicated by the
Arabic numerals, it reaches Sands’ Point eleven and a half
hours after the transit of the moon with a height of seven and
Seven-tenths feet. The observed time of transmission from the

vace to Sands’ Point is two hours and one minute, and the
time computed from the depths, according to the law developed
by Airy, is two hours fourteen minutes; a very good approxi-
mation when we consider the irregularities in the configuration
of the Sound which could not be taken into account. Advane-

122 J. E. Hilgard—Tida!l Waves and Currents.

ing still farther, the height somewhat declines in consequence
of the changes of direction in the channel and its shallowness.

we ‘, A i
eo yee im Bub cK
» bY
Ye. : es
- ae ie
g as
Ty i 0 N
2
4
w (SANDY HOOK
BARNEGAT

At Hell Gate this tide-wave is met by that which had entered
at Sandy Hook, and had advanced more slowly owing to the
narrowness and intricacies of the channel, especially in the East

These two tides which meet and overlap each other at Hell
Gate, differing from each other in times and heights, cause con-
trasts of water elevations between the sound and harbor which
call into existence the violent currents that traverse the Hast
River. The conditions of the tidal circulation through Hell
Gate are such that if there were a partition across it, the water
would sometimes stand nearly five feet higher, and at other
Sues gts feet lower, on one side than on the other. In the

ase of the superposition or compounding of the two
tides the d difference of level existing at any time, is, of pisses

much less, but the difference of one foot is often ed
within the space of 100 feet in the = sonra go of
Hell Gate off Hallett’s Point. Referring, now, more particularly

to the diagram representing New York bay - fartics (p. 125),
it is important to pheerre that the entrance from Long Island
Sound is : natural depression or arm of the sea which is not
changed by the Sar ce now in operation. The tidal] currents

J. E. Hilgard—Tidal Waves and Currents. 123

extending from Sandy Hook to Coney Island, intersected by
channels, which are maintained against the action of the sea,
that tends to fill them up, by the scour of the ebbtide from the
tidal basin of New York harbor.

Unlike Hell Gate passage, where permanence is the leading
characteristic, the bar and channels of Sandy Hook have under-
gone continual changes within the brief period of our history.
The advance of Sandy Hook upon the main ship channel] is
among the notable and important instances of the effect of tidal
currents. Within a century it has increased a mile and a
quarter. In the place where the beacon on the end of the hook
now stands there were forty feet of water fifteen years before it
was built. The cause of this growth is a remarkable north-
wardly current along both shores of the Hook, running both
during the flood and the ebb tides with varying rates, and result-
ing from those tides directly and indirectly.

The best water over the bar is about two miles east of Sandy
Hook light, in a direct line with the Swash channel, which is
the second opening, shown on the sketch, above the Hook ; the
shoal lying between the main or Hook channel and the Swash
channel being known as Flynn’s knoll. The greatest depth
over the bar is twenty-two feet at mean low water; and very
nearly the same depth can now be carried through the Swash
channel, which formerly was three feet shallower, but has

eepened since the cross section between the Hook and Flynn’s
knoll has been diminished by one-third its area by the growth
of the Hook. This relative change in the capacity of the chan-
nels has not, however, affected the depth on the outer bar,
which, according to the principles above laid down, is depend-
ent mainly upon the area of the tidal basin within.

The depth of twenty-two feet at mean low water, which is
how maintained at the entrance, through the sands constantly
thrown up by the waves of the sea, may be considered as de-
oe Hila the following elements :

_ Ast. The large basin between Sandy Hook and Staten Island,
including Raritan bay, which furnishes more than one-half of
the whole ebb scour.

d. What is called the Upper bay, including the Jersey flats
and Newark bay.

3d. The North river, perhaps as far as Dobb’s Ferry, main-
taming the head of the ah current, although not directly tak-
ing part fs the outflow ; and, oe ene

: j S i i ows in throu.
Hell Bl a aus of the Sound tide, whic g

124 J. FE. Hilgard—Tidal Waves and Currents.

The proportion of the three first divisions in producing the
depth of channel, may be approximately estimated by a com-
parison of the areas and distances from the bar. In order to
maintain the depth which we now have, it is important that the
area of the tidal basin should not be encroached upon.
proportion as that is diminished the depth of the channels will
decrease.

The flats, just bare at low water, but covered at high tide,
form as important a part as any other portion, for it is obvious
that it is only the volume of water contained between the
planes of low and high water, the ‘tide prism,” that does the
work in scouring the channels. The water on the flats is
especially useful by retarding the outflow, thus allowing a
greater difference of level to be reached between the basin and
the ocean.

When we yield to the demands of commerce any portion of
the tidal territory, to be used for its wharves and docks, we
must do so with full cognizance of the sacrifice we are about to
make in the depth of water over the bar; and in order to form
any well-founded judgment in regard to the effect of such en-
croachments, it is necessary to be in possession of the fullest
knowledge of all the physical facts involved in the problem,
and no measure of encroachment should be determined upon
except in pursuance of the advice of scientific experts.

A proposition, frequently mooted by men of enterprise, and
resisted by those interested in the welfare of the city of New
York, is the occupation of the Jersey flats, from Paulus Hook
to Robbins Reef, for docks and wharves. Without expressing
any opinion as to the relative value of the gain of accommoda-
tion for shipping and the loss of depth in the channel, I ven-
ture to say that the withdrawal of that area from the domain
of the tide would occasion a loss of not less than one foot in
the depth of the bar off Sandy Hook, and certainly not more
than two feet.

e part which the fourth division in our classification of the
basin of New York, that of the East river and Hell Gate pas-
sage, plays in the outflow of the ebb-tide through the Sandy
Hook channels depends less upon the area involved than upon
the difference in point of time and height of tide in Hell Gate

ready adverted to. The westerly current, usually called the
ebb stream since it falls in with the ebb stream of New York
harbor, taking place when the sound tide is highest, starts from
a level of three and half feet higher than the easterly, and thus
a much larger amount of water flows out through the cane
Hook channels than through the narrows at Throg’s Neck. It
is apparent, then, that this portion of the ebb stream re-entore-
ing as it does the ebb stream of the harbor proper, at the most

J. EF. Hilgard—Tidal Waves and Currents. 125

favorable times, performs a most important part in maintaining

the channels through the Sandy Hook bar.

estimated that the closing of Hell Gate would cause the loss

of certainly not less than three feet in the depth of those
annels.

.
- “
oy
sie
sommes
exaeae hhh ~ ha
ieee” *

“no 2008 ae **

the removal of the ob-

gr
structions, in which work considerable progress has already been
made. The removal of the reef at Hallett’s Point, the work

€

126 J. LeConte—Ancient Glacivrs of the Sierra Nevada.

upon which is now in progress, will doubtless, in a great degree,
do away with the eddies and under-currents prcduced by the
sharp turn which the channel now takes at that point. It is
not improbable that the successful removal of those obstructions
will yet cause the sound entrance to be used in preference to the
other by the fleets plying between European ports and the
great commercial metropolis of America.

lecturer desires to express his indebtedness to the discussions of

Nore.—The lec
tides and currents by Prof. A. D. Bache and H. Mitchell, published in the reports
of the U. 8. Coast Survey.

RT. XIX. —On some of the Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra
Nevada ; by JosepH# LEConrxs, Professor of Geology. in the
University of California.

it filled the basin o e Tahoe, forming a great “mer de

one of the outlets of the great “‘mer de glace” was by the
Truckee River Cafion. The stage road to Lake Tahoe runs in
this cafion for fifteen miles. In most parts of the cafion the
rocks are voleanic and crumbling, and therefore ill adapted

to retain glacial, marks; yet in some places where the rock

is harder these marks are unmistakable. On my way to and
from Lake Tahoe, I observed that the Truckee Cafion glacier
was joined at the town of Truckee by a short but powerful

_ * This Journal, III, v, 125. Proc, Acad. Sci. Oalif, rv (part 5), 259.

J. LeConte—Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada. 127

tributary, which, taking its rise in an immense rocky amphi-
theatre surrounding the head of Donner Lake, flowed east-
ward. Donner Lake, which occupies the lower portion of this
amphitheatre, was evidently formed by the down-flowing of
the ice from the steep slopes of the upper portion near the
summit. The stage road from Truckee to the summit runs
along the base of a moruine close by the margin of the lake on
one side, while on the other side, along the apparently almost
perpendicular rocky face of the amphitheatre, 1,000 feet above
the surface of the lake, the Central Pacific Railroad winds its
fearful way to the same place. In the upper portion of this
amphitheatre large patches of snow still remain unmelte
during the summer.

My examination of these two glaciers, however, was very
cursory. I hasten on, therefore, to others which I traced more
carefully.

As already stated in my former paper, Lake Tahoe lies
countersunk on the very top of the Sierra. This great range
is here divided into two summit ridges, between which lies a
trough 50 miles long, 20 miles wide, and 3,000-3,500 feet deep.
This trough is Lake Valley. Its lower half is filled with the
waters of Lake Tahoe. The area of this lake is about 2
square miles, its depth 1,640 feet, and its altitude 6,200 feet.
It is certain that during the fullness of Glacial times this trough
Was a great “mer de glace,” receiving tributaries from all direc-

e great “mer de glace” dwindled and melted away, and the
luke basin became occupied by water instead, the tributaries

traced and their records more easily read, than are those of
the greater but more ancient ‘glacier of which they were once
ut the tributaries,
f _the two summit ridges mentioned above the western is
the higher, It bears the most snow now, and in glacial times
a

128 J. LeConte—Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada.

end and Sugar Pine Point, a distance of only eight or ten miles,
I saw distinctly the pathways of five or six. North of Sugar
Pine Point there are also several. They are all marked by

mountain lakes. I need only name Mt. Tallac, Fallen Leaf
Lake, Cascade Lake, and Emerald Bay, all within three or four
miles of each other and of the Tallac House. These three

termined on a closer acquaintance. While staying at the
Tallac House I repeatedly visited them and explored the
cajions down which their materials were brought. I proceed
to describe them. i

_ Kallen Leaf Lake Glacier.—Fallen Leaf Lake (see map, p- 130)

runs a cation bordered on either side by the highest 3
this region. The rocky walls of this cafion terminate on the
east side at the head of the lake, but on the west side, a hittle
farther down. The lake is bordered on each side by a0 ad-

J. LeConte—Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada. 129

mirably marked débris ridge (moraine) three hundred feet
high, four miles long, and one and one-half to two miles apart.
These moraines may be traced back to the termination of
the rocky ridges which bound the cafion. On one side the
moraine lies wholly on the plain; on the other side its upper
part lies against the slope of Mt. Tallac. Near the lower end
of the lake a somewhat obscure branch ridge comes off from
each main ridge, and curving around it forms an-imperfect
terminal moraine through which the outlet of the lake breaks

There can be no doubt, therefore, that a glacier once came
down this cafion filling it 1,000 feet deep, scooped out Fallen
Leaf Lake just where it struck the plain and changed its angle
of slope, and pushed its snout four miles out on the level lain,
nearly to the present shores of Lake Tahoe, dropping its débris
on either side and thus forming ‘a bed for itself. In its sub-
Sequent retreat it seems to have rested its snout some time at
the lower end of Fallen Leaf Lake, and accumulated there an
Imperfect terminal moraine. The outlines of this little lake
with its bordering moraines are shown in the diagram-map on
the nowt page

9 Cut

to the lake, and thence close along each side of the lake up to
the rocky points which terminate the true mountain cafion

180) J. LeConte—Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada.

for several miles, I found, everywhere, over the lip of the
precipice, over the whole floor of the cafion, and up the sides
1,000 feet or more, the most perfect glaciation.

There cannot, therefore, be the slightest doubt that this also

is the pathway of a glacier which once ran into Lake Tahoe.
After coming down its steep rocky bed, this glacier precipitated
itself over the cliff, scooped out the lake at its foot, and then
ran on until it bathed its snout in the waters of Lake Tahoe,

J. LeConte—Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada. 181

and probably formed icebergs there. In its subsequent retreat
it seems to have dropped more débris in its path and formed
a more perfect terminal moraine than did Fallen Leaf Lake
Glacier.

Emerald Bay Glacier—Al\ that I have said of Fallen Leaf
Lake and Caseade Lake apply, almost word for word, to
Emerald Bay. This beautiful bay, almost a lake, has also
been formed by a glacier. It also is bounded on either side
y moraines, which run down to and even project into Lake
Tahoe, and may be traced up to the rocky points which form
the mouth of the cafion at the head of the bay. Its eastern

true moraine matter, i. e., intermingled boulders and sand,
which may be examined through the exquisitely transparent
water almost as perfectly as if no water were present. Some
of the boulders are of large size.

All that I have described separately and in detail, and much

ttle lakes : on either side of these, embracing and protecti

them, stretch out the moraine arms, reaching toward and
directing the eye to the great lake, which lies, map-like, with
all Its sinuous outlines perfectly distinct, even to its extreme
northern end, twenty-five to thirty. miles away. As the eye

182 J. LeConte—Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada.

sweeps again up the cafion-beds, little lakes, glacier scooped
rock basins, filled with ice-cold water, flash in the sunlight on
every side. ‘T'welve or fifteen of these may be seen.

From appropriate positions on the surface of Lake Tahoe,
also, all the moraine ridges are beautifully seen at once, but

so
the general position of the rocky points, and the moraine
ridges, are tolerably correct. But, otherwise, the sketch is in-
tended as an illustrative diagram rather than a topographical
map. iew is supposed to be taken from an elevated
position above the lake surface, looking southward.

There are several questions of a general nature suggested by
my examination of these three glacial pathways, which I have
thought best to consider separately.

a. Hvidences of the existence of the Great Lake Valley Glacier.—
In my former paper I have already given some evidence of the
former existence of this glacier in the glacial forms detectable in
the upper part of this valley. I will now give some additional
evidence, gathered last summer.

n the south shore of Lake Tahoe, and especially at the
northern or lower end of Fallen Leaf Lake, I found many

rock of these aie and boulders. It is a powerful outcrop-
ping ledge of beautifully striped siliceous slate, full of fissures
and joints, and easily broken into blocks of all sizes, crossing
the cafion about a half mile above the lake. This rock is so
peculiar and so easily identified that its fragments become an
admirable index of the extent of the glacial transportation. I
have, myself, traced these pebbles only a little way along the
western shores of the great lake, as my observations were
pinay confined to this part; but I learn from my brother,
-rofessor John LeConte, and from Mr. John Muir, both o
whom have examined the pebbles I brought home, that pre-
cisely similar fragments are found in great abundance all —
the western shore from Sugar Pine Point northward, an
especially on the extreme northwestern shore nearly thirty
miles from their source. I have visited the eastern shore of
the lake somewhat more ‘extensively than the western, and

J, LeConte— Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada. 1338

nowhere did I see similar pebbles. Mr. Muir, who has walked
around the lake, tells me that they do not occur on the eastern
shore. We have, then, in the distribution of these pebbles,
demonstrative evidence of the fact that Fallen Leaf Lake
glacier was once a tributary of a much greater glacier which
filled Lake Tahoe.
he only other agency to which we could attribute this
transportation is that of shore ice and icebergs, which probably
id once exist on Lake Tahoe; but the limitation of the
pebbles to the western, and especially the northwestern shores,
is in exact accordance with the laws of glacial transporta-
tion, but contrary to those of floating ice transportation—for
lake ice is carried only by winds, and would, therefore, deposit
equally on all shores.
Again: I think I find additional evidence of a Lake Tahoe
“mer de glace” in the contrasted character of the northern and
southern shores of this lake. :

found in great abundance boulders of enormous size, May we
hot conclude that similar effects have been produced by similar

. f h
Principal flow of the ice-current was from the southwest, and in
the fullness of glacial times the principal exit was over the

by Lake alley glacier is perhaps more doubtful. All other
Sierra lakes which I have seen certainly owe their origin to
glacial agency. Neither do I think we should be staggered by
the size or enormous depth of this lake. Yet, from its posi-

184 J. LeConte—Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada.

formation of two parallel mountain ridges, and afterward
modified by glacial agency, instead of a pure glacial-scooped
rock-basin. In other words, Lake Valley, with its two summit
ridges, may well be regarded as a phenomenon belonging to the order
of mountain-formation and not to the order of mountain sculpture.
I believe an examination of the rocks of the two summit ridges
would probably settle this. In the absence of more light than
now have, I will not hazard an opinion.

c. Passage of slate into granite—From the commencement of
the rocky cafion at the head of Fallen Leaf Lake, and up for
about two miles, the cafion walls and bed are composed of slate.
The slate, however, becomes more and more metamorphic as we

ere diorite into granite may, I think, be best explained
y the increasing degree of metamorphism, and at the same

moraine matter, the water very deep close to shore, and the
bottom composed of precisely similar moraine matter. In
rowing along the shore, I found that the exquisite ultramarine

J. LeConte—Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada. 135

blue of the deep water extends to within 100 to 150 feet of the
shore-line. At this distance, me bottom could see be seen.

least 100 feet. The slope of the bottom is, therefore, seu y
or quite, 45°. It seems, in fact, a direct continuation beneath
the water of the moraine slope. he materials, also, which

may be examined with ease through the wonde rfully trans-
parent water, are exactly the same as that composing the
moraine, viz: earth, pebbles, and boulders of all sizes, some of
them of enormous dimensions. Tt seems almost certain that
the margin of the great Lake Valley glacier, and of the lake itself

when this glacier had melted and the tributaries first began lo run
into the lake, was the series of rocky points at the head of the three
little lakes, about three or four miles back from the present margin
of the main lake; and that all ap pele from these points has
been jilled in and made lan by the action of the three glaciers

tory, projecting: a into the lake, beyond which was another

e bay, which has been similarly filled in bas débris brought
down by a north of this point. The moraines of
these glaciers are plainly visible from the oe pace but
have not examined them. Thus, all the land, for three or four
miles back from the lake- SS pe pcos both north and south of
Rubicon Point, is composed of confluent glacial deltas, and on
these deltas the moraine ridges are the natural levées of these
ice-streams.

e. Parallel Moraines.—The moraines described above are
peculiar and almost unique. Nowhere, except about Lake Tahoe
and near Lake Mono, have I seen moraines in the form of parallel
ridges lying on a level plain and terminating abruptly without
any signs of transverse connection (terminal moraine) at the lower

Nor have I been able to find any description of similar
moraines in other countries. They are not terminal moraines,
for the glacial asp is open below. They are not lateral
moraines, for thes sit rne on the glacier itself, or else
stranded on the aa ‘call sides. Neither do I think mo-
raines of this kind a pe formed by a glacier emerging
from a steep narrow cafion and running out on a level plain;
for in such cases, as soon as the confinement of the bounding
walls is removed, the ice stream spreads out into an ice lake.

oes SO as naturally and a asi as does water under
similar circumstances. The deposit Goals be nearly transverse
to the direction of motion, and, therefore, more or less erescen-
tic. There must be something peculiar in the conditions under

136 J. LeConte— Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada.

which these parallel sey oe were formed. I believe the condi-
tions were as described b
We have already given: reason to think that the original
margin of the lake, in Glacial times, was three or four miles
back from the present margin, along the series of rocky points
against which the ridges abut; and that all the flat plain
thence to the present margin is ‘made land. If so, then it is
evident that at that time the three glaciers described ran far
out into the lake, until reaching deep water, where they formed
icebergs. Under these conditions, it is plain that the pressure
on this, the subaqueous portion of the glacial bed, would be
small, and become less and less until it becomes nothing at the
pon where the icebergs float awa e pressure on the bed
ing os not enough to overcome the cohesion of ice, there
would be no spreading. lacier running down a steep narrow
cation and out into deep water, and forming icebergs at its point,
would maintain tts slender, tongue-like form, and drop its débris
on each side, forming parallel ridges, and would not form a ter-
minal moraine because the materials not dropped previously would
be carried off by icebergs. In the subsequent retreat of such a
glacier, imperfect terminal moraines might be formed higher
up, where the water is not deep enough to form icebergs. It
is probable, too, that since the melting of the great “mer de
i and the fo ormation of the lake, the level of the water has

most remarkable are those formed oody Cafion Glacier,

in my former paper. These moraines are six
or seven miles long, 300 to 400 feet nigh, and the parallel
crests not more than a mile asunder. There, also, as at Lake

tran nsverse moraines, made duri = the oa

tinct terraces iad by Whitney* and observed ae don

sie in glacial times the water stood at feast six hundred feet

above the present level. In fact, there can be no doubt that at

that time the waters of Mono Lake (or a much greater body of

water of which Mono is the remnant) washed against the bold —
y points from which the débris ridges start. The glaciers

* Geological Survey of California, vol. i, 451.

J. LeConte—Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada. 137

in this vicinity, therefore, must have run out into the water six or
seven miles, and doubtless formed icebergs at their point, and,
therefore, formed there no terminal moraine.

That the glaciers described about Lake Tahoe and Lake
Mono ran out far into the water and formed icebergs I think
is quite certain, and that parallel moraines open below are
characteristic signs of such conditions I also think nearly
certain.

Ff. Glacial Erosionn—My observations on glacial pathways
in the high Sierra, and especially about Lake Tahoe, have
greatly modified my views as to the nature of glacial erosion.
Writers on this subject seem to regard glacial erosion as mostly,
if not wholly, a grinding and scoring ; the débris of this erosion
as rock-meal; the great boulders, ieee are found in such
immense quantities in the terminal deposit, as derived wholly
from the por a cliffs above the glacial surface ; the rounded
boulders, which are often the most numerous, as derived in
precisely the same sae only they have been engulfed by
crevasses, or between the sides of the glacier and the bounding
wall, and thus carried between the moving ice and its rocky

agenc

oN a if such be the true view of glacial erosion, evidently its
effect in mountain sculpture must be small indeed. Roches
moutonneés are recognized by all as the most universal and
characteristic sign of a ane bed. heerente these beds are

glacial agency. "But a as gqite satisfied, from my own obser-
vations, that this a not the only nor the principal mode of
glacial erosion. I am convinced that a glacier, B, by its ——
ressure and resistless onward movement, is constantly breaki:
off large blocks from its bed and bounding walls Tas reins is
not only a grinding and scoring, but also a crushing and break-
ing. It makes ee sed ihe not only rock-meal, but also
arge rock-chips a glacier is constantly breaking off
blocks and mates eprideat surfaces, and then grinding off
= angles both of the fragments and the bed, and thus forming
unded boulders and moutonneés surfaces. Its erosion is a

188 J. LeConte— Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra Nevada.

constant process of alternate rough hewing and planing. If the
rock be full of fissures, and the glacier deep and heavy, the
rough hewing so predominates that the plane has only time to
touch the corners a little before the rock is again broken and
new angles formed. This is the case high up on the cafton
walls, at: the head of vate dake and Emerald Bay, bat also
in the caton beds wherever the slate is approach : the
other hand, the sorts is very hard and solid, and the laces be
not very deep and heavy, the planing will predominate over
the rough hewing, and a smooth, gentle billowy surface is the
result. This is the case in the hard granite forming the beds
of all the cafions high up, but especially high up the cafion of
Fallen Leaf Lake, where the cafion spreads out, and extensive
but comparatively thin snow sheets have been at work. In
some cases on the cliffs, subsequent disintegration of a glacier-
olished surface may have given the appearance of angular
surfaces with beveled corners; but, in other cases, in the bed of
cafion, and on elevated level places, where large Lege
blocks could not be removed by water nor by gravity, I ob-
served the same appearances, under conditions anc forbid
this explanation. Mr. Muir, also, in his Studies in the Sierra,
gives many examples of Gulsuked rock-breaking by ancient
glaciers.

Angular blocks are mostly, therefore, the ruins of crumbling
cliffs, borne on the surface of the glacier and deposited at its
foot. Many rounded boulders also have a similar origin, having
found their way to the bed of the glacier through crevasses, or
along the sides of the glacier. But most of the rounded boulders
in the terminal deposit of great glaciers are fragments torn a by

The proportion of angular to rounded b
ers—of upper or air-formed to nether or glacier-formed oa.
ments, mg ge on the depth and extent of the ice-current. In
the case of the oe ice-sheet (ice-flood) there are, of
course, no upper formed or angular blocks at all—there is
nothing borne on heel surface. The moraine, therefore, consists
wholly of nether-formed and nether-borne severely triturated
materials (moraine profonde). The conga are, of course, all
rounded. ‘This is one extreme. In the case of the thin moving
ice-fields, the glacierets which still linger fimo the highest
and shadiest hollows of the Sierra, on the other hand, the mo-
raines are composed wholly of angular blocks. This is the
character of the terminal moraine of Mt. Lyell glacier, de-
scribed in my enter —_ These glacierets are too thin
and feeble and d to break off fragments—they can only
bear away what falls on them. This is the other extreme.
But in the case of ordinary glaciers—ice streams—the boulders
of the terminal deposit are mixed ; the angular or upper-formed

C. L. Jackson— Methyl and Benzyl Compounds. 139

predominating in the small existing glaciers of temperate
climates, but the rounded or nether-formed greatly predominat-
ing in the grand old glaciers of which we have been speaking.
In the terminal deposits of these, especially in the materials
pushed into the lake, it is somewhat difficult to find a boulder
which has not been subjected to severe attrition.

Art. XX.— Cer xa Methyl and Benzyl Compounds containing
Selenium; by C. LORING JACKSON.

Merayt Compounpns.

Methyl Monoselenide (CH ,),Se.—The only previous research
on this compound is one by Wohler and Dean,* but it is evi-
dent from the properties and oxidation product described by
them, that they obtained the ay d:selenide (CH,),Se,, ae
not the methyl monoselenide (CH,,),Se. In fact Rathke, so
years later,t showed that in the cae series their process yielded
principally ©: H,),Se,,and but a comparatively small quantity

of (C,H,),Se. Under the direction of Professor Hofmann, in

the Berlin Laboratory, I have prepared the methyl mono-

selenide according to the process by which Rathke succeeded
in obtaining aaye monoselenide, and find that it differs entirely
from the substance described under that name by WoOhler an
Dean, but is analogous to (C,H,),Se prepared “by Joyt and
Rathke. Further, I find that in the benzyl series this process
yields (C,H.,),Se, Mee that adopted by Wohler and Dean
yields principall y (Cc, Hi} Se..
Methyl Monoselewide (C, H,).Se was prepared by distilling a
mixture of strong _solutions of NaOH and CH,KSO, with
‘ The freed from water was purified by frac-
tional distillation.
Caleulated for eee § Observed.

CONVO as 5 SS 22°07
Hydrogen... _- as 5°51
It is a colorless liquid with a sa po luster and most offen-
sive odor. Boiling point 582° (uncorr.). It burns with a

blue selenium ame, is heavier pe psi na does 1 not mix

ree. :
5
affected by hydrochloric acid or sodic hydrate solution, but dis-
solves in strong nitric acid, forming
* Ann. Chem. Pharm., xevii, p. 1. + Ibid, clii, p. 208. Hi boreee feo p. 36.
atomic weight used for Se was 78, that giv y Lothar Meyer in
his Moderne Theorien der Chemie.

140 C. L. Jackson—Methyl and Benzyl Compounds.

Nitrate of Methyl Selenide.—This substance can be purified by
recrystallization from pure water or alcohol. Its formula is
either (CH ,),Se(NO,)OH or (CH,),Se(NO,).(CH,),SeO, but
the percentages from these two formule are so nearly the same,
that it was imposible to ah from the analysis which was the
right one. It crystallizes in long white prisms with a slight
odor, which melt at 90°5° (uncorr.), and are extremely soluble
in water, less so in alcohol, but freely soluble in hot, insoluble
in ether.

Chloride of Methyl Selenide nit ),SeCl, was formed by pre-

d.

cipitating the nitrate with rochloric acid. Tt can be puri-
fied by crystallization from xlcabok
Calculated for (CH3).SeCl.. Observed.
OnTOrmes 6650. 2 39°66 39°02 38°82

It forms large white very thin scales with a pearly luster and
disagreeable odor. Melting point59%5° (uncorr.). It is slightly
in water and ether, very soluble in alcohol and in
Ay spores acid.
omide of Methyl Selenide (CH,),SeBr, was prepared like
the sibs using hydrobromic instead of. hydrochloric acid.
The yellow precipitate was washed with cold water and re-
crystallized once out of hot alcohol.

Calculated #8 i ied Observed.

PONTE os se - 59°95
It forms very thin ee crystalline plates, with a
pearly luster and very disagreeable odor, melts under decom-

position at 82° (uncorr.); 1s less so fable in water than the

would seem that the compound was disassociated accordin ng to
the following reaction
(CH,),SeBr, =(CH,),Se+Br,,
and that on cooling it was regenerated, while the heat given off
by the combination volatilized a portion of the methylselenide,
and the bromine thus left free colored the alcohol brown.
This view is supported by the fact that — s)aseBr, can be
made by direct combination of (CH,),Se Br bromine, much
heat being evolved in the process. On unt of this prop-
erty, crystallization of the eben of soeibipionkehide from alco-
hol is always attended with loss. The substance is insoluble in
ether.

Iodide of Methyl Selenide (CH,),Sel, was formed when aque-

C. L. Jackson— Methyl aud Benzyl Compounds. 141

ous solutions of the nitrate and potassic iodide were mixed.
The red precipitate was washed with water and alcohol. Only
approximate results were obtained on analysis, as, owing to the
great instability of the substance it was impossible to obtain it
erfectly pure. It is a brick-red powder, which even in vacuo
gradually decomposes, iodine being set free. It is insoluble in
water, quite soluble in alcohol and. ether, but its solutions are
completely decomposed even by spontaneous evaporation, so
that no crystals could obtained. The substance breaks up,
in the same way as the bromide, into methylselenide and
iodine.

Various attempts to prepare the oxide (CH,),SeO by treat-
ing (CH,),SeCl, with Ag,O were unsuccessful, as the argentic
chloride formed blackened almost immediately. from formation
of argentic selenide. The cyanide (CH,),s Se(CN), seems to be
extremely unstable. I did not succeed in preparing a in a
form fit for examination, either by the action of KC the
nitrate or of AgCN on the chloride. A sulphate, sashabily
(CH,),SeSO,, was prepared by the action of argentic sulphate
on the chloride, but was not investigated.

Methyl Selenide Platinie ee (CH, ), Se], PtCl,.— When
methyl selenide is poured into an aqueous “solution of platinic
chloride a pale red precipitate is formed, which boiled ae
water becomes suddenly bright lemon ellow—the chan
color is very striking—and can then be crystallized from a “ia
quantity of hot alcohol by slow evaporation. e crystals
were washed with cold alcohol, and the platinum determined
by ignition; as with all other platinum compounds containing
‘selenium, very long-continued ignition over the blast-lamp was
necessary to drive off the last traces of selenium.

Caleulated for eta sleF iO Observed.
Platinum: 2)... 35°48 <u
Oar iiss cess ey bane 8°94
Hydrogen....... 2°16 +R 2°42

It crystallizes in minute yellow plates made up of pennate
roups of needles; when ignited below redness it gives off
methylselenide and turns black; is very slightly soluble in
water, sparingly soluble in hot alcohol, insoluble in ether.

Brenzyt Compounps.

Benzyl Monoselenide (C,H,CH,),Se—Sodic monoselenide
formed by the action of phosphoric pentaselenide on alcoholic
soda was a with: benzyl chloride in a flask with a return-
cooler. The liquid gave on cooling, white needles of benzyl
monoselenide, followed by yellow scales of benzyl diselenide,
the two substances were separated by recrystallization from

142 0. L. Jackson—Methyl and Benzyl Compounds.

alcohol. It saves time to make a first rough separation with
ether, in which the monoselenide is the most soluble.

Calculated for (CH;),Se. Observed.
Carbon - -_- | _..64°62 63°15 63
Hydrogen --_--. 5°38 5°54 5°56

If an excess of benzyl chloride is used, a yellow oily liquid
is obtained, which after some time deposits the benzyl mono-
selenide in large well-formed flat prisms apparently belonging
to the monoclinic system. These, as well as the white needles
deposited by the alcoholic solution, melt at 45-°5 (uncorr.) and
burn with a smoky flame, which shows the blue color charac-
teristic of selenium. It has very little odor, is insoluble in
water, freely soluble in alcohol and ether.

verted by heating gently with strong nitric acid into a white
mass, which formed on crystallization from hot alcohol well-
marked little rhombic crystals. Melting-point 88° (uncorr.).
It is almost insoluble in water and ether, freely soluble in hot
alcohol, less so in cold. Its solutions decompose very easily, so
that the greater part of the substance disappears on recrystal-
lization.

Chloride of Benzyl Selenide. An alcoholic solution of the
nitrate gave with hydrochloric acid a white precipitate which
yielded yellow or brown needles on recrystallization from.
alcohol. It consists of branching needles either yellow or
brown ; the color, however, is probably due to partial decomposi-
tion, as it is extremely unstable, being decomposed even below
the boiling point of alcohol into selenium and benzyl chloride.
It is slightly soluble in hot alcohol, and its solution is even
more unstable than that of the nitrate. :

An alcoholic solution of nitrate of benzyl] monoselenide
treated with hydrobromic acid gave selenium, and vapors which
attacked the eyes violently, and were probably benzyl bromide
C,H,CH,Br. It seems, therefore, that the chloride and
bromide of benzylselenide are decomposed according to the
following reaction :

(C.H,),SeBr, =2C,H,Br+Se,
while the bromide and iodide of methylselenide undergo an
entirely different decomposition :
(CH,),SeBr, =(CH ,),Se+Br,.
It is interesting that the replacement of one atom of hydrogen

0. L. Jackson—Methyl and Benzyl Compounds. 143

in methyl by phenyl (which converts it into benzyl, HCH,
into C,H,CH,), should produce such a complete change in its
attractions,

The nitrate of benzylselenide gave with potassic iodide a
very unstable yellow precipitate.

Benzyl Selenide Platinic Chloride [(C, nies ],PtCl,, was
prepared by mixing alcoholic peneyinon ochloride with aqueous
falatthis chloride. I could not obtain it crystallized, as its solu-
tions et a on evaporation. It was therefore purified by
washing with a

Caleulated for a H,),Se],PtCl,. Observed.
PIAunoni css ed ‘97 22°32

It is a yellow powder pee in water, slightly soluble in
alcohol ; on heating it turned black and gave off a combustible

hy Benzyl Diselenide (C,H,),Se,, was prepared by treating a
sodic selenide (from t the reduction of Na,SeO, with charcoa oal)
with benzyl chloride, this being the method by which Wéohler
and Dean obtained their so-called methyl monoselenide; but,
as l expected from Rathke’s researches in the ethyl series, 1
obtained eer ioe re with any a base of monoselenide.
The crude sodic selenide was boiled in a flask, with a return-
cooler owith aleohol and engl ahiibeides the liquid thus ob-

tained deposited light yellow scales which were purified by
crystallization from boiling alcoho

Calculated for (C,H, ie Observed.
OAPHON cs ae + = 49°70 48°75
Hydrogen .... 4.14 4°48

It forms straw-yellow scales which are superficially decom-
by direct sunlight, burning brilliant red. It has very
ittle ae melts at 90° mens and remains fluid a long time
after it has been melted, burns with a blue selenium flame, and
is insoluble in water, freely slate in hot alcohol, less so in
cold, soluble in ether, reacted on by hydrochloric acid, but
oxidized by nitri
Benzylselenious emery (C,H ,)SeOOH.—When benzyl disele-
nide was treated with strong nitric acid it dissolyed with
poe of nitrous fumes to a colorless poh which on
AY ed b

cooling crystallized in white needles hese were purifi y
recrystallization from aleohol or hot water.
Caloulated for (C,H,,)SeOOH Observed.
Carboti . 20 00: 41°58 41°61
Hydrogen ..... 39 4:25

It occurs in radiated groups of white needles with a weak
odor when pure; when slightly impure it smells like the

144 C. L. Jackson—Methy!l and Benzyl Compounds.

Mephitis americana. Melting-point 85° (uncorr.). But slightly
soluble in cold water, indefinitely so in hot, quite freely soluble
in cold alcohol, much more in hot, almost insoluble in ether.
Its solutions have an acid reaction and set free carbonic anhy-
dride from the carbonates.

Ammonic Benzylselenite was prepared by dissolving the acid
in ammonia and driving off the excess of ammonia by evapora-
tion on the water-bath. It is extremely soluble in water and
can be obtained with some difficulty in wart-like aggregations
of crystals.

Argentic Benzylselenite (C,H,)SeOOAg was prepared by mix-
ing aqueous solutions of ammonic benzylselenite and argentic

itrate. The white curdy precipitate was purified by crystal-
lization from a very large quantity of boiling water.
Calculated for (C;H;)SeOOAg Observed.
ag See ee 34°95 34:33

It forms long hair-like crystals which mat together into a
felt-like mass. en heated in the water-bath it turns black,

evaporation as an imperfectly crystalline white mass very
soluble in water.

ric Benzylselenite, prepared by dissolving baric carbonate
in an aqueous solution of the acid is white and very soluble.

Plumbic Benzylselenite, prepared by precipitating ammonic
benzylselenite with plumbic nitrate is white and imperfectly
crystalline, insoluble in cold water, and even less soluble in
boiling water than the silver salt.

Benzyl Selenocyanate (C,H ,)SeCN.— Alcoholic potassic selen-
ocyanate, prepared according to the method of Crookes* was
treated with benzyl chloride till its smell remained after shak-
ing. The liquid poured off from the potassic chloride formed,
deposited white needles which were purified by reerystalliza-
tion from alcohol or ether.

Calculated for (C;H,)SeON. Observed.
a eee 94:23 48°99
Hydrogen...... 3°59 ‘92 wees
Nitrogen....... 7-23 helen 7:39

It crystallizes with the utmost ease in long white needles or
prisms, with a most disagreeable smell like that of the Sym-
oigadge st sir-siee Melting-point 71° (uncorr.). It is insolu-
le in water,*soluble in ether and alcohol unattacked by hydro-
chloric acid, oxidized by fuming nitric acid.
_ * Annalen der Chemie und Phamacie, Ixxviii, p. 177.

C. L. Jackson— Methyl and Benzyl Compounds. 145

Nitrobenzyl Selenocyanate, C,H ,(NO,)SeCN, can be prepared
by ne benzyl- selenocyanate with fuming nitric acid at
—4°; 0 Hilution, white crystals mixed with an oil are depos-
ited ; these were purified by pressing between filter paper and
crystallizing from boiling alcoho nitric acid much above
0° was us sed, the amount of product was much smaller, and
was mixed with an acid of the formula C,H,(NO,)COOH,
probably a mixture of nitrodracylic acid and one of the other
isomeres. A more convenient way of preparing the substance
consists in treating potassic selenocyanate with nitrobenzyl
chloride, C,H (NO, )CH H,Cl, prepared according to Strakosch’s
metho d,* decolorizing with bon e-black, and reerystallizing from
boiling alcohol. The substances prepared by_these two methods
seem to be identical and not isomeric, as has been already ob-
served in the case of nitrobenzyl sulphoeyanate by Henry

Calculated for C;H,(NO,)SeON. pains)
Carbon: . 3226s). 40-00 40°87
Hydrogen... ----- 2°50 é 8°12

It forms globular masses of radiating needles resembling
wavellite, has but little odor, melts at 122° (uncorr.), is in-
soluble in vold water and alcohol, a sotihte? in both when
boiling, insoluble in ether. It disso Ives i in ammonia, but is of
tained unaltered from this solution by acidifying, or by eva
rating to dryness and recrystallizing. It is possible that the
substance prepared from benzylselenocyanate is a little more
easily soluble in ammonia than that prepared from nitrobenzyl-
¢
SELENINES.

These compounds correspond to the sulphines discovered by
Oefele. They should be called selenoniums and sulphoniums
instead of selenines and sulphines, as they correspond to the
salts of the compound ammoniums, and not to the tertiary
amines, ye is selves from the annexed comparison :

HS H,

(cH AN

(CH,), NI (OH): SI CH
Further, they resemble the compound ammoniums in all their
properties, especially in their tending to form iodine addition-
products — alkaline hydrates.

B elenide was moistened with an excess of methyl
iodide and aliowat to stand for several days; it turned black
and became pasty. On washing the mass with water and
evaporating the wash water, white prisms were obtained con-
sisting of trimethylselenonium iodide (CH,), Sel, already de-
scribed by Cahours,$ while the black residue consists of benzyl-
dimethylselenonium-triiodide and benzyl iodide.

* Berichte deutschen ch h schaft,

nd Chin Pata, — a! Gesell vi, 1056. + Ibid., ii, 637.

Av. Jorr, Sar, pap secmasarnt raha oe X. No, 56.—Anrener, 1875.
10

146 C. L. Jackson—Methyl and Benzyl Compounds.

(C,H,)Se,+5CH sl =(CH,),SeI + (C,H)(CHs)Sel,+C,HI
The aa of C,H.I was proved by obtaining tribenzyl-
amine, (C,H,),N, b ‘heating with alcoholic ammonia. The
white crystals ‘were converted into the chloride by treatment
with argentic chloride, and from this the platinum salt was
made and analyze

Calculated for see 3)38eCl],PtCl,. Observed.
07 29°27

COB es 28 ose eas otk 11°42
Hydrogen .....-... 2°74 aes 2°79
so ce pg oma tater Trivodide (C,H,)(CH,), Sel ,.—The
black residue already mentioned was s washed very thoroughly
with alcohol to free it from benzyl iodide and then recrystal-
lized from boiling alcoho

Calculated for C11 . HOH Observed.
BIRO. oa 19°34. 18°92 oe
Hydrogen .... ... ao 7 2°66 2°87 een

PS es, ea cea. 65°69 65°69 bc a

It forms very heavy black needles, with a metallic luster like
that of iodine, and a most offensive odor. It melts at 65°, but
softens a few degrees below its melting-point. Heated some-
what more it gives off vapors which attack the eyes violently,
is insoluble in water, slightly soluble in cold alcohol, quite so
in hot, slightly in ether. Its solutions are red, and are decolor-
ed by gentle heating with metallic mercury. Rathke ob-
served a similar action with a black oil which he obtained by
acting on triethylselenonium iodide with iodine. This was un-
doubtedly the triiodide, but he gives no analysis of it. I have
also obtained a black oil by treating trimethylselenonium iodide
with iodine, which must be (CH,),Se
Platino o-benzyldimethylselenonium ‘Chloride [(C,H,) (CHs}SeO
PtCl,, was prepared by precipitating the iodine out of t
Idimethylselenonium triiodide with argentic nitrate, esr
the filtrate with hydrochloric acid, and after filtering from argen-
tic chloride adding platinic chloride. A yellow crystalline pre-
cipitate was gradually formed which was washed with alcohol.
Calculated fo: ct) er eeseaeetenen Observed.
Platinum ..-.--- 24°03
It forms corn-colored anes oe scales, which appear square
with obtuse re-entering angles under the microscope, and is
insoluble in water and alcohol. On heating it turns brown
below , and at a somewhat higher temperature becomes
black and gives off a See Beis
e details of the e found in an article soon
to appear in Liebig’s Peaaten ao der Che mie und Pharmacie.

J. L. Smith—Nash County Meteorite. 147

T. A For Saar of the Nash County Meteorite, which fell
in ee 1874; by J. LAwRENcE SmitTH, of Louisvi lle, Ken-
tucky.

THE meteorite of Nash County, North Carolina, fell May
14th, 1874, at 24 o’clock P. M., near Castalia, in lat. 36° 11’, long.
a 50. Its = was accompanied with the successive explo-

ns common in such cases, and with rumbling noises that
insted about ie minutes, not unlike the discharge of firearms
in a battle a few miles off.

The stones that fell must have exceeded a dozen or more;

from which I am enabled to give the following description

hey are of the more common aspect. ey havea dull ex-
terior coating, which in some places does not entirely cover the
stones, there being a few spots of the fractured surface, less than
a centimeter in diameter, over which the fused matter forming
the coating is scattered in the form of pear-shaped beads. In
one or two crevices, below the surface, some of the fused matter
of the coating has penetrated five millimeters below the surface,
and here it is more brilliant than on the surface.

, The interior in many parts is of a sas gray color, and in
other parts quite light; the principal cause of the dark color is
doubtless owing to the larger amount of nickeliferous iron in
tuat part, and in the lighter portion there are some white spots
of a mineral that is doubtless enstatite.

_The specific gravity of the stone is =2°601. Its composi-
tion 1s

Nickeliferous iron --_.__-- 15°21 p. ¢.
Ston i 84°79
The nickeliferous iron consists of.
PON coos See ce tena ee 93°12
Niskel: 2205.52 oo 6°20
RIG os oo Ss es a ees “41
98°73

Copper and phosphorus not estimated.
he stony part, when treated with a mixture of chlorhydric
and nitric acid, gave—insoluble part, cpa acai part, 52°98.
e former was found to be composed as follows:

148 Scientific Intelligence.

OU es eS cc oc. ol a ls OO!
Ph i he a ee eee 4°80
Me RIE Te EI oe eg bs Ss at 13°21
OR oe ee nk 27°31
Alkalies (soda with traces potash and lithia). 1°38
99°31
and is essentially bronzite. The soluble portion gave—
Pee er ee Se 8°01
Provxide Of irons. o> 32: 17°51
Pea So ee 41°27
Alumina ..-. --- wide lesc ty 46
MUIOHO? 45 4 ewes bane cee. 1°01
98°26

This is evidently olivine, with a small amount of sulphide of
iron, which is so disseminated through the stone that it is not
easily separated completely by mechanical means. From the
mineralogical examination and the chemical results detailed
above, this meteoric stone consists essentially of nickeliferous
iron, bronzite and olivine, with small particles of anorthite and
enstatite. Its composition is, therefore, a usual one.

For particulars in regard to the fall of this meteomte I am
indebted to Prof. Kerr, State Geologist of North Carolina.

SOCLENTEFIC IN TRELIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics.

and 1°5 grams Rochelle salt is added, producing a crystalline pre-
cipitate. After standing an hour, the precipitate is filtered off;
the filtrate should not show the slightest turbidity on adding a
drop of ammonia. The production of a precipitate indicates the
presence of cinchonine or quinidine. These may be distinguished

monia is added. No precipitate is produced if cinchonine be ab-
sent.— Liebig’s Annalen, obrevi: $25, May, 1875. G. F. B.

Chemistry and Physics. 149

2. On Chry pair iae - Dioxyquinone of Chrysene.—In the
course of an exam on of certain specimens of commercial
alizarin, CLaus ser in one of these a special substance, the solu-
tion of hie +h in potassa gave a blood-red color, instead of the vio-
let tint of potassium alizarate. It is separated. from the alizarin

dry

om
ta
fa>)
4
et
ba]
iv)
QO
eae
=}
GQ
>
fer)
ks
=)
aa
i)
me
aS
Ss
B
mM
PY
a
e
=
mde
at
itie}
a
9
°
>

at 305°-310°, condensing ane in brilliant orange needles. Anal-
ysis gives as ‘its formula ,g,,0,, and that of its potassium salt
C,,(K,H,)O,. The author, hence, considers it the dioxyquinone
of chrysene, and gives it the name ‘chrysez zarin. One kilogram -
alizarin paste contains four or five Bt ms of chrysezarin. —HMon
teur Scientifique, IIT, v, 396, May, 1

3. Production of "Albumin Srom ¥ bri in.—GAUTIER paws that.
on dialysing a solution of fresh blood fibrin in sodium chloride,
the inorganic matters are separated, and there bili TS a liquid co-
agulated by heat, by mineral acids and by mercuric chloride, the
seg sen having the ee of those fect pure albumin, —

—— Rendus, \xxix, 227.

On the conversion of ‘Brucine into Strychnine. _The ‘close

Gara relation between the different va Se of the same
plant-species is a well observed fact. e two bases of the Sérych-

succeeded in showing that the paalpcis may be produced from the
latter at will. For tkis purpose the brucine is gently warmed

with four or five times its weight of dilute nitric acid. The liquid
ence red and evolves carbonic acid. It is treated with potas-
sium hydrate in excess, and agitated with ether. This on evapo-
ration leaves a red mass, from which, on solution and reerystalli-
zation, a crystallized Ditter substance was obtai ined, having all the
properties of strychnine. This result is of the greatest practical
impo

given a mixture containing lead nitrat d brucine, used the
Stas-Otto method for detecting alkaloids, and found a substance
iving the reactions of strychnine. Hence the use of nitric acid
in examinin ng for alkaloid poisons is to be avoided, since strych-
nine ma thus formed.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 212,
March, 1875. hes #f ae
Formation of Indol from Egg-albumin, — NEN an
earlier feet having ascertained the fact that indol bijocted into
the body produces indigo-blue in the urine, made experiments to
ascertain if indol was a normal product of pancreatic digestion, as
n asserted ; and though the results were suggestive, they
were not final. Kiihne having given it as his opinion that the
body thus obtained was not really indol, but some other body
lossy resembling it, Nencki returns to the charge and produces

150 Scientific Intelligence.

Lor actually obtained from albumin in this way, remarking that
may be much more readily prepared it this substance than
pote indigo-blue. For this purpose 300 sr ms commercial albu-

min was mixed with 44 liters spring water, and an ox-pancreas,
carefully freed from blood and fat, and ge — was ad “eo
es beaker, covered with a glass plate, was kept at 40°-50°

xty or seventy hours. The liquid was then sbdled, panties

pa A cloth, acidulated with acetic acid to retain the excess
albumin in solutio n, and distilled on a water bath to one-fourth
its volume, The filtered and acid distillate was rendered era
with dry slacked lime and extracted with an equal volume of
ether; the ether, on distillation, left having the characteristic odor
of indol. Mixed with water it became erystalline, and recrystal-
lized from water, : fused at 5 Elementary analysis confirmed
it as indol. The amount sia was about 0°3 per cent of the
albumin employed. — Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., vii, 1593; viii, sii
336, March, 1875

6. Collodion Films.—M. E. Griron states that if soleaide is
poured on a very clean plate of glass, the film may be separated

when dry and stretched on a frame. Its surface is polished, and
it reflects light like glass; it hiketes by reflection and by refrac-
tion, the angle of maximum polarization being 56° 25’, correspond-
ing to an index of refraction of 15 108, or a little less than crown

lass. From this index we can, by observing. the pee et
fringes, calculate the re with a result varying from *0081
‘0088 mms. So thin a film cuts off but little rate heat. With

tension when gh fenton: apecily to sunli cht. * Their diathermancy
is much greater than that of s of mica, and though more fragile,

sonata ~ chic repaired, Two sets, each consisting of six collodion
nsmitted when seeecd only 66 as much heat aye when
placed Satalteh A pile of nine films being placed before a Nicol’s

as found to polarize ‘6 to -7 of the heat .— Comptes + Rend,
oa 889,
7. €C eben ton OF Hxph osive Mixtures. —M. NEYR oles "bas

tube. First, i using tubes carefully dried, and ete by

covering the interior with ne. In the first case the steam
ensing on the colder portions leaves transparent the parts
Ne the flame in vibra has m ted. These

ea 7

rtions are, on the other hand, shown in the second case by

the melting of the paraffine. It is indispensable that the combus-
tion shall not be too rapid ; and further, to obtain the best effects

Chemistry and Phystes. 151

the proportions of the a should be varied with the dimen-
sions = the tube. With a tube 3 cms. in diameter and 20 cms.

long, containing one ere of hydrogen and one of air, lines
appear, pire fern-leaves. With tubes of less diameter the
effects are more regular, especially if a musical sound is produced
by the explosion. F ine strie are then observe perpendicular to

¢
defined. If the mixture is ignited by the eudiometric method,
these appearances are no longer produced, If the tubes are open
at both ends, the effect is the same as if one end is ee With
a long tube the appearance in the dark is the same as that of a
Geissler tube illuminated by a single motion of the Seong —
ana de Physique, iv, 138. its
Changes in Light due to the motion of the i is pete
or of the Observer.—M. Mascarr has examined this question both
experimentally and shaonctiagihs Arago announced that the
refraction of the light of two stars. toward one of which the
earth is approaching and from the other receding, was the same,
and Fresnel showed that this could be accounted for if part of the
ether was transported with the refracting medium, the change in
refraction in fact being compensated by the motion of the teles-
cope. Many efforts have been made to show optically the motion
of the earth. Babinet thought he found a solution in the diffrac-

does not take place. This experiment, repeated under the most
favorable conditions, both with solar and with artificial light, yields

from a mirror acts peat as if it came from a source on the pro-
longation of the ra But this is not correct if the mirror moves,
as is the case on she: earth, but the conditions are the same as if
the mirror was itself Juminous, or as if a terrestrial source of light
was employed. Accordingly, as experiment shows, negative
results only are obtained.

Suppose that we have two sources of light, one the soda flame,

0

time of vibration of the two sources are identical, but the wave-
lengths of the light emitted are different, owing to the motion of
the first. The —— of the two rays oug t, therefore, to be
different. To t
ee one fixed with the collimator turned to the west, and

Obs
that the desuains was who rolly Paracinhie although a displace-
ment of a twentieth of that given by Fresnel’s formula would have

152 Scientific Intelligence.

been aR ate But this formula contains two terms, of which
s proportional to the velocity of the medium, but is very
small, adi slight changes in it are quite inappreciable. The prin-
cipal term, on the other hand, seems to depend only on the apparent
period of the incident light, and is therefore laine of the
motion. By applying a modification of the method of the inter-
ference of plates it appears that there is not a ‘lacus of -000005,
or of *000002, using the method of Newton’s rings. The negative
ae of M. ‘Hock on the interference of light passing through a
refracting medium with or against the motion of the earth is
similarly sapiaiensl Again, by the double scare of Iceland
spar, fringes were o tained differi ring by 50, or even 100,000
wave lengths, sfithout a variation of canes in their apparent
position. With the rotary polarization of quartz with an imstru-
ment capable of detecting a change of plane of quarter re a pie ee
and a rotation of fifteen circumferences, not the least change was
Ps Om, Seieh due to the motion of the earth.—Jour. de ee ys

on New source of — —M. Donato Tommasi nei that
when a current of steam under a pressure of five or six’ atmos-
pheres is passed thro cag a tube of copper two or three millimeters
in diameter, and rolled in a helix around a cylinder of iron, the
latter is so ‘strongly magnetized that an iron needle place some

magnetized as long as the steam passes through the
Comptes Rendus, \xxx, 1007. E. ©. P.

II. GroLogy anp Naturat Hrsrory.
1. The Geology of New Mexico.—Prof. Corr stated that the
e
in New Mexico during 1874 in connection with the Wheeler U. 5.

topographical and geological survey, embraced the eastern slope
of the Rocky Mountains from Pueblo to the Sangre de Ch risto

sete for forty miles to the westward of it, from the latitude of
Sierr — as far south as the road from Santa Fé to Fort

‘Aasthier ies mportant di isdovery: is the lacustrine character of the Tri-
he beds which form a 1 se of the axis of the range ; _
f

Geology and Natural History. 153

It is believed that additional light has been thrown on the
of the age of the Galisteo sandstone; and that its ‘ialconccll

ogy has de cided a. that of the Sante Fé marls. The first
fossils discovered in “Trias” of the Rocky Mountains, have
enabled me to mee more definite conclusions as to its position
in the scale of periods. The remains of vertebrata — —
the latter formation are those of fishes and reptiles. The er
are rhomboganoid scales of small species which are numerous in
the coprolites of the reptiles; the latter represent the three orders
of Crocodiles, Dinosauria, and apparently of Sauropterygia.
The dinosaurian order is oa by a part of the crown of a

a ten and names it potho mae CoCcinaru

regularly fitted dermal bones distinguish this genus from Belodon.
He remarks that the evidence from this species is favorable to the
— of this horizon with that of the Trias, although it
cannot urse be regarded as conclusive, until more perfect
corms are obtained.

The thickness of the Eocene of the region is estimated at 3,000
feet, of the Cretaceous at about 5,000 feet, the Jurassic at 600 ‘feet

and the Trias at 1 ,000 feet or more.

2. Fossil Ungulates Jrom New Mexico. — Professor Core
(Proc. Philad. Acad. Sci., 1875) has described a species of camel,
about as large as the drom medary, from near Pojuaque, under the
— Srna vuleanorum. The dental formula is, molars

so the Hippotherium ealamarium Co ope, from near San
Tdefoneo, nid Aphelops Jemezanus Cope, a rhinoceros, from near
the town of Santa

3. Coal _ in the Subcarboniferous wy. Pennsylvania. ookatter

0. 2
reser or White Catskill, Rogers’ Vespertine. are i
by the tunnel of the East Broad Top Ra ilroad through Sideling

structing a a of all the measures from the Trenton up to the

Top, across the outcrops of the Clinton fossil ore-
beds, the teem hematites of the Hamilton, and the ores of IX
and XI, Catskill and Umbral (or Cuyahoga’ of Newberry), with

154 Scientific Intelligence.

heavy beds of Chemung fossils, close under the Catskill, and
coal-beds in X, (Berea Grit of Ne ewberry). This last discovery is
of the greatest importance to American geology. It explains the
presence of the two coal oat on the face of the Alleghany Moun-
tains, and the fourteen small coal beds which I counted years ago
behind Laue of) the Peak Motsiae in Wythe County, Southern
rer On the Devonian Trilobites and Mollusks of Eereré, Pro-
vince of Pard, Brazil ; by Prot. C. F.
28 pp. 8vo. From the Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., vol. xi, May,

=
ae
is
ies)
|
Zz

1875.—.
the Morgan coos gant 1870-71. The paper sage na ae

igh
branch and one Tentaculite. The Reet ear are e described by

Seine ve Dr. 0, W. C. _. Prof. Univ. Heidel berg.
Translated and edited by. T. W, pees —_ F.G.S., =
of Downing College, Cambridge, pp. 8vo Lond on,
1875. (London, Field and Tuer; Philadelphi Claxton, Remsen
& Naffeltinger). —Dr, Fuchs’s work on the Determination of Min-
erals, which is well known abroad, commences with a c
count of blow shat reagents ¢ a reactions. sar “ General table”

Poe Fie “380 12mo. Leipzig, 1874. (W. Engel-
mann.)—This work is an excellent treatise on Saxon Mineralogy.
The descriptions og drawn up with accuracy and precision, and
end with a full list of Saxon localities. Probably no region 80
small embraces vn its bounds a larger number of mineral
species-—about 300.

7. Commelynacee et CU 'ystan dracee Bengalenses ; by C.. B.
CLarkg, late acting Superintendent of the Caleutta Botanic Gar-
den. Caleutta: Thacher, Spink & Co, 1874, folio—This is an
imperial folio volume, of 135 printed pages and 93 lithographic
plates, illustrating the Be gales: species of the two orders abo
mentioned. Of the Vommelynucece Mr. Clarke had made a pre:
vious study, and published a good paper in the Linnean Society’s
Journal, in 1870, a little before Dr. Husskarl’s elaborate Commely-

Geology and Natural History. 155

inal, are from drawings by native artists, who were ignorant of

price ‘in Pee is most moderate. If the work were to be con-
tinued, a smaller form, like that of Wight’s Icones ioell “-
convenient, and more prac ‘ticable.
8. Th ry (Gaylussacia brachycera Gray) ts is one of
be rarest att North American plants. The elder Michaux’s habitat
sin Virginia, near Winchester, but the specimen in his herbarium
a“ the Jardin «es Plantes, is ticketed “Warm Sprin Pursh’s
is “ Western parts of Virginia, near eet and the Sweet
Springs”; and, if I rightly remember, some specimen of his col-
lecting was ticketed “ Cacapon Monuneiuic” Mublenberg’ 8 speci-
men, ‘from Matthew Kin, is ticketed “ hes eye) Anglice
Green-brier. All this relates to the A eghany Mountain region,
west of the Blue Ridge. I am not aware that any of these stations
have been rediscovered, or that _any living botanist has seen this
little evergreen shrub in Virginia. The only available habitat
known in our time, is the'e one which Prof. Baird discovered,
fully thirty years ago, in Perry County, near Bloomfield, Penn.
i ae in the Alleghany region, but more northward.
rom this station the Botanic Garden of Harvard Univ ersity .
fortunately still Leave } one or two thriving living plants The
locality was restricted, and, Prof. Baird informs me, is now prob-

unexpected district, ray a x Co., in the southern part of
Delaware. He found it “ while wiikinge along the banks of Indian
Riven on the edge of a pine forest which here skirts the shore,

growing under the shade of the Laurel (Kaimia latifolia) on a
dry sandy bank.” The plants were very sparingly in fruit. We
hope that this —- shrab will now become more familiar to
botanists, and that it may be brought anew into cultivation. It
resembles a dwarf Box. The flowers are rather pretty, but incon-
spicuous. A. @

9. On the preservation of Anatomical Preparations.* —
Sesemann of St. Petersburg, gives an account in the last number
of Reichert and DuBois Reymo ond’s “ Archiv fur Anatomie, Phy-
i etc., of his experience in the use of preserving solutions
for anatomical preparations, which may be of some interest to
zoologists, as well as anatomists.

* Abstract of an article entitled ‘ Ein wre if Conservirung anatomischen
oe, von me! E. Sesemann in St. Peters

iv. nat. Phys | etc., Reichert u. Dubois Danie: 1874, No. 6 (pub-

lished pos 1875), p. 679.

156 Scientific Intelligence.

The first — mentioned is compos sed of 6 parts carbolic
acid, and 1 arts olive oil (parts, “theilen,” refers probably to
measures by ru and not by weight). This solution he injected into
the main arteries of a human es ter exposure to the air for a

used in the same manner with a similar resu

Prof. La skew’ 8 metho is then given. The solution used by
him, is composed as follow

100 parts glycerine, pure ‘tg fame tl z of carbolic acid, and
of acetate of s

The part of the sbjet experimented upon is left to soak in this
solution for five to twenty days, according to its size. When
taken out the piven is quite hard, but after hanging sometime
in the open air, it becomes fresh (“ rein”) again and remains so a
long time unchan nged.

Dr. Sesemann tried this process with a prepared hand of a
human subject. He left the specimen in the solution 6 days;
u

become of a dull brown color, and grew darker with longer ae
sure. The “Van Vetter” process is ae ie ies ved. In t
place of the last solution, the following wa
7 parts glycerine (22°), 1 part sugar, a ie saltpetre.
This process was not found satisfactory, as the sugar oe
out upon vacua and the muscles became brown, as in Pro

Laskowsky’s proces:

After various ae ea Dr. Sesemann hit upon the ee ing
method as in all respects the best.

esemann’s method.—The blood is first pressed out of the
larger vessels as completely as in Then solution (No. !) is
injected.
100 parts water.
Sol. No. 1.4 50 “ glycerine
10 “ arsenate of soda.

(The arsenate of soda is a by adding arsenic to a hot
“bara solution of soda until no more of the former dis-

ves). e specimen is left then for 24 hours, when it is again
injected with solution, No. 2.

No. 2. <-Glygenne and water in equal parts.
After waiting another 24 hours, it is immersed in water heated to
70 or 88 degrees Cent. (about 160°-175° Fahr.) and left there 10—
12 minutes. When taken out, and while pn warm the vessels
des

ally. If wrap
moistened with water, glycerine and carbolic acid the specimen
will keep a Jotig time, and Gis Wimnoeatoal “iaructiires may be

Astronomy. 157

studied and exposed at the student’s leisure. After such ie area
tion is completed the skin should be put back in its place and fas-
— together with pins. It is then to be immersed in solaris
eo) consisting 0
ed parts pure glycerine, 20 of they 4 of arsenate soda, and
2 of carbolic ac

and left in this solution 5-30 days Less to the size of the
specimen. When taken out it is ready to expose to the air indefi-
nitely. The skin may turn a little brown after some time in the
atmosphere, but this may be remedied by covering it for a few
hours with a cloth which has been moistened with a * sonoortraese
solution of corrosive sublimate in water.

The author says further that though a rather long process, it is
recommended by the beauty and durability of the preparation.
He has

Keai will tend to seaming

IIL Astronomy.

1. Diameters of the Planets.—We give the following values of
the apparent diameters ot the planets reduced to the mean distance
of the earth from the sun and of their true diameters in English
miles, as being a as emote as any that can be assigned
from existing data. They a unded in every case upon the
measures whic foin petite circumstances appear to de-
serve the greatest weight, and in the reduction to true values the
solar parallax is taken 87-8 75, and C — s diameter of the earth’s
ane is —— It would of course be idle to attempt to offer
final num or where the difficulties indie observations and

e een the results of the most experienced and
fovriratily-chsbeuiaketner? observers are so considerable.

les.
qe ey 2,850
a Le a peceus a. ce »550
J se M cane
upiter, ong s el ri +200 1
og 82.500 ; Compression =e
Saturn, an mage - 74,500 oa 1
«" Polar.....148°50 66,300 t ee —..
‘Draia 52 oe: 68°57 30,600
Nephine 202-2. 67°26 . 30,050

In fixing upon the apparent diameters of the bright planets it has
been desired to adopt values which shall represent the actual are

158 Screntifie Intelligence.

values that are presented by the true diameters at the earth’s
mean distance. Many observations would assign larger values,
but undoubtedly less. trustworthy for computing real dimensions.
a is well known 2 ssrsnuneesae in such case is to be given to double-
mage over wire-mic mate measures, yet even if we confine our-
ae to the former ee nme ation we Gr no means secure
great consistency of resu ts —_
2. Smali — bepnsed Rasooatd. —Upon p. 474, vol. i, (IIT)

of this a rnal, was given a table of the aaa of the small
planets recently Uiscovered We continue that table below, down
to No, 143. A few of the later planets of the previous table are

repeated. The e Danica as far as No. 136 are from the Berliner
Astr. Juhrbuch for 1877.

1
54/11 33 318 -

No. Name. | begrode ot dis- | Discoverer. | Mean Spuleot Incl. paper a te
very. dist. | Eccent
| :
107|Camilla, s 17, 1868. Pogson. 35602| 7 318 4si1%5 f1/112 60
108) Hecub: pr. 2, 1869. — 32113) 5 46) 4 24/352 17/173 49
109|Felicitas, © ri 9, 26950 |17 28] 8 56] 56 1
110 Lydia, Apr. 19, 1870. doa 12571 3 61] 5 7 19/329 28°
111) Ate. Aug. 14, “ |Pe 59271 6 3/4 13/108 42
112 Iphigenia, Sept. 19, “ 4335] 7 23) 2 3/338 9
Mar. 12, 1871./L r3767| 5 2. 5 12/198 58
y . 6758; 8 3) 4 24/153 6
nee. * MST9G LT ALL 5b) 43 F
Sept. 8, 76611 8 17/3 26/152 53
pt. é 29907; 1 19\14 48 46
Mar. 15, 1872./Luther 43551 9 26] 7 13} 77 4
2, 6804/4 48) 5 0| 12 27
Arm, 10, * 312001 2 421 7 52/212 52
May 12, * 3-4606| 7 0| 7 0
y ai; * 32196; 2 si 1 55/208 38
July 31, “ 2-6931| 6 31] 6 40| 72 5
ug. 23, ‘* 26297 | 4 30) 2 26|245 42
Sept. 11, " 30352 |20 17) 6 16/251 17
ov.6, = 439916 6| 2 347
ats Gee 33211111 46} 8 23/101 24
v. 500| 7 13] 6 12
— 5, 1873. |Peters 8758 |11 57/12 1/240 57
Feb. 14, : 31298 |11 46/92 20
May 24, 4202 40| 4 10.258 26
June 13, * 60101 2 27/195 259 43/152 11
Aug. 16, $ 30648 51| 7 16\248 0
pt 27, * : 256731 6 44/11 30| 66 52
Feb. 18, 1874.| Peters. 2°4315 |11 45| 2 59/318 45
ia, es ee isa. 2:3035| 6 30] 9 307 12
137|Meliboea, |Apr. 21, “
lo May 19, * 9-4997| 8 2913 56/310 35
os 8141/2 57] 8 = 115 32
Oct. 13, “ 2°7069 |11 25) 3
12
3

2°7525 49/11 32/333 41

Obituary. 159

3. Diameter of the Sun.—F rom a discussion of the Greenwich
observations, 1836-1870, Dr. Fuhg obtains, Astron. Nach., 2040,
32' 2°"99 as the diameter of the sun deduced from 6827 measure-
ments. L

IV. OBITUARY.

Str Wii1iam Loean, the Geologist, died at London, in June,
in his eo year, having ‘been born in Montreal in n April, 1798. Sir
Willia ogan was head of the Geological Surveys of the Can-
adas res 1843 to 1871. After graduation at the University of

oS
London, and late me manager, for the house, of coal mining
nd copper eg operations in Swansea, where he studied so
eres ec eld hat region, anes is — and plans

Vv i commu icated cess valuable papers to the
Geological Society of London. eological Survey of the
vinces had its origin in his rese re-

me a mem
ber of t homer! Society o fTond on, and of many “oat lomiasedl
societies. The Wollaston medal of the Geological Society was
awarded to Mr. Logan in 1856, and he was knighted by Queen
Victoria in the same year.
JoserH Wintock was born Feb. 6, 1826, in Shelby County,

stitution until 1852, The remainder of his life was passed chiefly
at Cambridge, Mass , but he spent some months at the U.S. Naval
Observatory in Washington, and for more than a year was at the
head of the sinsliveaptieal department of the U.S. Naval Academy
at Annapolis. He was twice made Superintendent of the Ameri-
can Ephemeris, finally quitting this office in 1866 to take the post
of Phillips Professor of Astronomy at Harvard University, and in
that capacity to serve as Director of the Observatory. He held
- office at the time of his death, June 11, 1875. His last illness
as short, and did not appear dangerous until a few hours before

its termination.

Professor Winlock was an excellent a and astrono-
)

concerning those facts. The originality of his mind, however, was
iefly shown in his suggestions for the i “igh ent of astronom-

ical aR dn These —— were singularly simple and

effective. Four among them dese # special notice in this foe.
(1.) The monekie of large orale circles in such a manne

to allow the piers to be shortened, so that the graduated ciel

160 Obituary.

are wholly above the piers, and the steadiness of the whole instru-

ment is increased. a advantage of this arr angement
eatact hows be discussed ; s been tested by five years’ ex-

rience at Harvard ollars Oterreatory with very gratifying
results ; it has been adopted i in other observatories, and will proba-
bly come into gene

(2.) Thea épphoatich of a 1 diagonal eye-piece, moved by a rack and
pinion, to any large telesc ope, in such a manner as to 5
with the customary “ finder,” and to enable the principal object
glass to be used in finding faint objects which are to be examin ed
with the spectroscope or otherwise. This invention has also been

: e use of a lens of long focus and of a plane mirror in mak-
ing photographs of the sun. Apparatus of this kind was brought
nto mags use in July, 1870, = Harvard College Observatory:

Winlock first photographed the solar corona without enlarging the
image by an eye-picce
During his ¢ connection with the Observatory, Professor Winlock
acai Sagara: 2 instrumental equipment, and also its pecuniary
res y the of contributions from neighboring friends of
science. am particular, the system adopted for furnishing electric
signals from one of the clocks at the Observatory to various points
in Boston and elsewhere e, has been profitable alike to the Observa-
tory and to the public. = illustrates Professor Winlock’s prac-
tical good sense, that instead of introducing new clocks, con-

ception of the sidale every tw ds much beer
than the other, and in practice Ps srt satisfacto
In private life, Professor Wi oe though reser vers

fift;
The most important of the labors ‘of "the aistngriehed astron-
omer were the construction of two catalogues, the one of nebulz
ae tf him at Leipzig, the other of nearly 2,000 nebulx ob-

rved by him at Copenhagen. For these observations the Royal
Aecinaioal Society of London pat to him this year their
gold medal.

Am J.Set. I Ser Vol X PEA we

CHONDRODITE, BREWSTER. N.Y.

Am J. Sct, II Ser Vol X
A

underéon TIS. New Haven, Oc

CHONDRODITE, BREWSTER, NY.

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES]

Ar?r. XXIIl.—On the formation of Hail in the — of the
Yosemite Fall; by Witi1AM H. Brew

[Substance of a paper read before the x eet Academy of Natural Science,
April 19th, 1875.]

THE Yosemite Fall pours into ae valley from the north. It

is in an open niche or recess of so wide an angle oe the whole

series of cascades and falls, about ‘a thousand feet more to the
bed of the valley.

On the 14th of last April, in company with Mr. Galen Clark,
the official custodian of the Yosemite valley and well-known
mountaineer, I visited the foot of this Upper Yosemite Fall and
observed the phenomena to be described. During our visit of
four days to the valley, the sky was nearly cloud ch
morning perfectly so, a few cumuli onl appearing each day at
about 10 4. M. and disappearing at or before sunset. The air
was warm, the temperature rising to —_ 70° F. each day, and
sinking at night to perhaps 50° or | The streams were all
very high from the melting snow, w. se was abundant on all
the heights above the valley.

In the winter a great “ice-cone” forms at the foot of this fall,
the aqaieralation “of frozen spray. That form
was much reduced in size by thawing at the time of our visit.
I then thought it perhaps 100 feet thick. Messrs, Clark and

Am. Jour. Sct.—Tuirp Serres, Von, X, No. 57. BRET» 1875,

ll

*

162 W. H. Brewer—Hail in the Spray of the Yosemite Fall.

Conway, the two persons most familiar with it, gave their esti-
mates, pend as 60 to 100 feet” and “nearer 200 feet.”
This ice-cone rises like a wall in front of the sheet, and then
oe ‘fous its apex down stream for some hundreds of feet.
The water pours behind it, finds it way beneath and emerges
from an ice arch below, strongly reminding one, both in shape
and general appearance, of the ice-arch in the glacier at the
source * the Arveiron at Mt. Blane
n the season, as the stream decreases in volume, it

clings a ‘a wall for some distance near the top, but at this
time it left the rock at the very crest, shooting well out into the
air, falling the whole immense distance in one grand leap. As

a member of the State Geological Survey in former years I had
= the valley several times, always later in the season, and
never before saw the volume of water half so large. From ob-
servations made by Professor Whitney at other seasons, it is
— that at this time the amount of water passing over the
all was 250 or 300 cubic feet persecond. A heavy storm a week
or so before had swollen the stream, and mud and sand had
been carried out in the spray, tarnishing much of the surface of
this ice which had before been pure

As we stood. on the rocks near he above this ice—it was
half an hour past noon—certain appearances suggested to me
that the spray which drifted over it. was, in part at least, snow.
To reach the middle of the ice, without ropes to cling to, was
impossible, for no man could withstand the fierce blast. We
ventured, however, as far as we could go, and where, at times,
it seemed as if we would be biased into the chasm below

Between the wall of granite behind and the wall of jce in
front the stream fell with deafening sound. Great t volumes of

furiously — the ice-cone toward the valley below. In this
tempest, which stung our hands and faces like shot, we —

abundant hail or ice-pellets. Their structure could n
studied in the ee blast to which we were subjected; ine
like hail-stones, they were of hard ice, tolerably uniform in size,

and I estimated their diaantot at one-tenth of an inch. They
accumulated on our clothes and on the windward side of rocks
which came up through the ice-cone near its edge. They were
found also —_, sy! on the rocks wach the side of and
near the i Farther many depressions
in the dirty. ice were allel wit rk ah a Pa like new white
snow, but which we believed to be fresh accumulations of
this hail ; — their position it was impossible to reach and
examine

“We eeraaced from the ice and then pushed our way back to
the granite wall over — the fall pours, and went as near the

W. H. Brewer—Hail in the Spray of the Yosemite Fall. 168

sheet as it was possible to stand or breathe. No fresh light on
the matter was here gained. Having no protection for the eyes
but our hats, nothing could be seen distinctly, and if any hail
occurred there I could not feel it. At a little greater distance
from the fall, and where from time to time by the swaying of the
sheet we were left sufficiently outside the spray to look
upward, the near views were indescribably grand. More than
a quarter of a mile above us the clear stream leaped out into
the air and was soon torn into spray. It seemed as mobile as
smoke and assumed new varieties of outlines each instant, so
light and airy that it seemed as easily swayed by wind as lace,
yet it struck with deafening thunder; the concussion was per
ceptible through the granite for some distance ain _ was only
by this that the vast forces involved were apprecia

Although foreshortened from our position, by an :altuiniod its
height appeared greatly and abnormally increased
of spray increases downward so that the base of the sheet is
several times wider and thicker than the top, forming a sort of
curving truncated cone. The actual height is so vast and so
_— beyond ordinary experience that it excites the imagina-

n and deceives the judgment, and when thus seen from be-
eat in the intense illumination of the midday sun in that clear
climate, looking up and along this white, airy, changeable cone,
its tapering from the observer seems due mostly to its distance,

and by this false or imaginary perspective it seems to stretch
upward toward the intensely blue sky to an immense but vague
eight.

We had no thermometer with us to test temperatures at or
near the fall. At Leidig’s hotel in the valley, which is one and
five-eighths miles distant in an air lineand a thousand feet lower,
my ap opened showed the following Sy (pes) for that
day. At 6 a.m. 52° FL; at 2.30 p.m, 784°; at 3.15 P.M,
79°; at 9 P. ak 58° : and at 6 the iiext morning, ” 50°. These
were probably about the temperatures of the other days of our
visit. I had no wet-bulb to determine the dryness of the air,
but that the air was very dry was shown by the rapidity with
which our saturated clothes dried.

few will be noticed that at the time when this hail was ob-

rved, the sheet was in the full blaze of the sun from top to
boabeks and the heat further reflected toward it by the naked
walls of rock sloping toward it on either side, and that the air
near was of a temperature above 70°, perhaps, however, much
less near the top of the fall We were fully convinced while
there that the hail was then actually forming, and not that it
was merely portions of ice torn from the great ice-cone and
hurled along with the spray by the blast.

When I first visited this fall in June, 1863, we had intended

164 Walker’s Statistical Atlas of the United States.

to have tested the temperature of the water at the top and the
foot, to see if the entire fall of 2,550 feet sensibly heated the
water. We became convinced that the rapid evaporation then
taking place would vitiate any results obtained, so the experi-
ment was not tried as it involved too much labor to be expended
for so unsatisfactory a result. And on examining this hail, the
cause of its formation, which immediately suggested itself, was
evaporation.

The stream was then swollen by the melting snow which was
still deep on the heights, and was abundant in niches to the
very crest of the fall (which has an altitude of about 6,600 feet
above the sea). The volume of water each day was least in the

by its expansion, freezes a part of the spray.

Art, XXIII.— Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States.
(Second paper.)

In a former notice of this excellent work we sketched its
plan and scope, reserving for another article some further notice
of its first part. This relates to the “Physical Features of the
United States,” and is the part to which students in the physical
sciences naturally turn with most interest.

e first map relates to the ‘‘ River Systems,” and the first me-
moir to the “Physical Features.” The map was prepared by Gen.
A. von Steinwehr, and the memoir by Prof. J. D. Whitney, these
authors having worked independently of each other. About
seven-eighths of Professor Whitney's sketch is devoted to the
mountain frame-work or skeleton of the country, and that of the
River Systems supplements this. One may be said to describe
the anatomy of the country, the other its ae . This map

Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States. 165

is by far the best of its kind we have yet seen of the country.
Twenty-one drainage areas are denoted (each accompanied
with certain statistical information), the whole naturally thrown
into groups or systems, only one of which we will here notice.
According to this map, the Mississippi basin embraces about
1,258,000 square miles of our domain. A small portion of
the Missouri basin extends into British America, perhaps about
22,000 to 25,000 square miles. Ifthis be added, the area of the
whole basin will be about 1,270,000 to 1,278, 000 square miles.
This is somewhat larger than the area “usually given by the
authorities most often consulted. The figures from the Report
7 the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River, by
the U. S. Topographical Engineers some years ago. are 1 2 000
square miles, while the various works on geography and
physical geography usually give it from 1,200, 000 to 1 ,250,000.
This “Great Central Valley,” as a geogra phical feature of
the continent, is, however, much larger, including on its
southern borders portions which drain directly into the Gulf,
and northward aie insensibly into the great areas which
drain into Hudson's Bay and even into the Arctic Oce
The Mississippi basin, according to this map, eontained at the
last census, a population of about 16, 292,000, exclusive of
“Indians not taxed.” The whole basin is divided into six
parts,—the Lower Mississippi, Upper shame Ay Ohio, Mis-
souri, Arkansas and Red River basins. The basin of the Ohio
has naturally the greatest population. Bomewhae almond-
shaped in outline, or like a leaf, veined with large rivers, its
point reaching to New York, it was the natural channel down
which emigration flowed westward to the greater valleys be-
yond. Its genial sinaate fertile soil, its prairies here, and
wealth of timber-land there, have so attracted the settler that it
will probably long remain the most densely populated basin of
the system. The “center-of population” of the nation passed
into it about forty years ago. Another century will probably
find it still there. The area is given as 207,000 square miles
(the Report on Hydraulics, &c., already cited, stating it as
214,000), or about one-sixth of the whole Mississippi basin, and
= Cee 7,800,000, is nearly half of the population of the
whole basin.

mate already given for that part outside the United States, it
would give the entire Missouri basin an area of about 550,000
to 553, 000 square miles. The Engineers’ report previously
cited estimates it at 518,000.

166 Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States.

The estimated average annual rain-fall is given for each of
the basins of the map. If now we continue our comparisons

the former and 43 for the latter. The first is probably too
high. Plate V. isa ‘Rain Chart of the United States,” pre-
pared, by Chas. A, Schott of the U. S. Coast er under “

of water falling in each entire basin, we find them very nearly
equal,—that in the Missouri basin to that in the Ohio basin as
about 1-1 to 1. Considering the vastly greater area for evapo-
ration in the former, 2°65 to 1, and the dryer atmosphere, we are
rather celine that the = excess of water dis-
charged by the Ohio is not greater than it is. According to
the report dees the mean dacaice of the Missouri River is
120,000 cubic feet per second, of the Ohio 158,000. On the
rain-chart, much or most of the basin lies inside of the line of
12 inches annual rain- -fall, and only op very smal] part that
lies below Atchison, Kansas, has 82 or more inches. On the
same chart the lowest rain-fall of the Obi Valley is 36 inches,
reaching 62 in its extreme southern part

Plate VIL, “ Temperature Chart of the United States” (of the
same authority as Plate V.) shows that the mean annual tem-
perature of the Missouri basin is about 10° F. less than that of
the Ohio. The isothermal line of 48° F. at lon. 110° W. is in
lat. 48°. It sweeps down near or a little above the center of
the Missouri basin, crossing the river at Fort Randall, sinking
to lat. 39° in southern Iowa (more than 600 miles south of our
starting point), then it rises again eastward so as to keep en-
tirely outside of the Ohio basin. Very ei all the Ohio
basin lies between the isothermals of 50° and 60°. The Mis-
souri basin has a much wider range.

ven more suggestive is a comparison of these two basins

with ages ies which is an “U.S. Signal Service Chart”
showing th an temperature at 4.35 P. M. of each day “of
the hottest ut of 1872” (by pe Tines), and of the 7.35 A. M.
observations “of the coldest week” of the winter following (by
blue lines). It will be seen that this chart does not t show the
act

rvat
a a comparison of the coldest “ spell” of the van with the hot-

this, we find the greatest difference near the eastern
hat of the Rocky Mountains, or on the plains eastward. At
Fort Benton this difference is upward of 102° Fahr. It di-

Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States. 167

minishes eastward to the eastern base of the Apallachian sys-
tem, amounting to 80° in northern New England, but south of
New York it is usually less than 70°. The hot line of 85° in
eastern Dakota is north of the cold line of —20, and passing
eastward, successively cuts every cold line to +20, which it
crosses in eastern Delaware. The hot line of 90°, which is
first traced above Fort Benton, crosses the Ohio River near

that of the Ohio. During the cold week, nearly all the Ohio
pores was between +5° and +20°, while in that of the Mis-
ri the average was rie zero to —20 and lower. Space
forbids a further comparison of these two — or any no-
tice of others we intended to have dwelt u
This last chart is of much interest to the studanid in biology.
In Dakota (beyond which the lines are not traced) we have a
difference of 105° F., and over large areas of the plains, a differ-
ence of 100° F. On the 91st meridian, the hot line of 90° is
330 miles north of the ~ line of +10°; they cross each other
near Cincinnati: and on the 83d meridian they are again 340
miles apart but in the reveal order. Again, the hot line of
85° and the line of +20° are together; in fact they cross in
southeastern Delaware. They separate westward, the cold
line crossing extreme southern Arkansas, the hot line pee
up to Dakota, more than 950 miles north. Again, in the lon-

or 1385 miles from the maximum line of 90°. Passing west-
ward, the former descends to lat. 27° in Texas, the latter rises
to lat. 48° in Montana, equivalent to a distance of about 1
miles on the meridian. These climatic peculiarities, taken in
connection with the nature of the ‘storms of winter and the
sudden changes of t occurring there, must
have much greater influence on the distribution of life than ao
annual means of temperature and rain-fall. It is, perhaps,
tically there the controlling condition. That a dry an hot
climate may have a flora and fauna rich in species is Ulustrated
by South Africa. But this “ middle region” is poor in species,
=a whole of it is without forests as shown in the ‘‘ Map of
, nds.”

The excellent geological map, compiled by Professors C. B.
Hitchcock and W. P. Blake, we have already noticed. On it,
the “ oo. and Permian” are shown as a single mem-

ber. That portion lying east of the 100th meridian forms a
broad doakly eos belt, like a huge inverted letter S, reach-
ing from aries York to Texas, with i wee outlying patches, the
which is in Michigan. e upper division of the
Cazhan fice series, “ the Coal acy is shown on a large

168 J. D. Dana—On Southern New England

Se Pro ent “Map of the Coal Fields of the United States,”
rof. C. H heock. We have heard several ee

slakelicey memoir, The following are the areas given of the
groups specially treated.

New England basin -----.-.---...-..--- 750 sq. miles.
Anthracite basins of Pennsylvania - -. ---- he peels
ashen Ree PG eS Be.105 °° *
ich = ea i ae aE pe pet a) eee Sr *
esata asin anor 47188" °*
Maks ee 84ae8”
a ‘Coal Field pees be ee es 6,000.55

203,808

In addition to this, there are a few small areas of Triassic
coal, amounting to a few hundred square miles at most. The

show the areas which the

hen we consider the adnbatiGual and statistical value of
the Atlas under consideration, it is greatly to be regretted that
a large edition was not ordered by Congress, to be sold at the
lowest cost of manufacture. As it is, the lithographer, Mr.
Bien, is allowed to issue an edition at his own risk, and this
will allow all who wish the work to purchase it at a cag which
under the circumstances is very reasonable. . H. B.

Art. XXIV.— On Southern New England aering the melting of
the great Glacier ; by JamES D. Dana. No. L

GLACIAL scratches, southeastward in direction,* on the
Taconic summit, Mt. Everett, in the southwest corner of Massa-
chusetts, at a height of 2, 600 feet above the sea, afford evidence
that the ice which covered New England in the Glacial period
overtopped this mountain, and had an elevation in that region
not shah under 3,000 feet. Similar facts in the White Moun-
tains place the height there at not less than 5,800 feet.t Calcu-
lating the slope of the upper surface of the ‘glacier over New
England from these data, it follows that the ‘height above the

of Mount acces alk sls ke widvicina & Shehar cotimaate

during the melting of the Great Glacier. 169

region of New Haven, in Southern Connecticut, may have ex-
ceeded 2000 feet, and could hardly have been less than 1500.
With such facts in view, we may have some appreciation of the
amount of material that was at hand, when the melting-time
began, for making or deepening under-glacier streams and lakes,
and, at last, swelling the waters to universal floods. The sink-
ing of the land that took place after the ice had reached its
height—placing the site of Montreal 500 feet below the sea
level, making Lake Champlain an arm of the great St. Law-
rence Gulf, and carrying other high-latitude lands much below
their present level, a movement favoring greatly the wide

Three prominent facts appear to be established by the Cham-
plain deposits of Southern New England.

. The occurrence of a vast flood during the closing part of
the melting of the glacier, in which other parts of New Eng-
land sens :

2. The absence of marine life from Long Island Sound
ee the Glacial period and the early part of the Champlain
period.

. A participation in the subsidence which affected the
regions farther north.

I. THE FLOOD FROM THE MELTING GLACIER.
1. New Haven Region.

Facts proving that a great flood closed the era of melting
were brought out by me in my memoir on New Haven Geology,
published, in 1870, in the Transactions of the Connecticut
Academy of Sciences. Since that paper appeared I have made
various additional observations which I think demonstrate its
occurrence still more positively, and afford also, some idea of
its extent and violence.

(100 to 400 feet above the sea) on the west, the Mt. Carmel range,

.

nine miles from the city of New Haven, on the north, and the hills

170 ‘J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier.

of East Haven, east of ote bay and of the valley of the Quinni-
piac, on the east. The rocks of Orange and Woodbridge, adjoin-
ch the region, are, ee, those farther west, ae bein

idge, commencing on the south at W, West Rock proper; P,
Pine R , or Mill Rock ridge, having Whitney peak as
its highest point; E, East Rock; Mt. Carmel to the north; Rt,

abbit or Peter’s Rock; and Saltonstall ridge, just west of Salton-
stall Lake. The other hills to the eastward, with a few exceptions,
are sandstone hills, or sandstone and trap, with a oat ee of drift ;

and between these hills south of Mill, Pine and West Rocks, ex-

three: (1) the ebay on the east, the largest; (2) Mill River,
or the Lapaleoe and (3) West River, on the west, with Wilmot

the cit iy) 43 er is of sim milar character down to West-

ville. “The ce: lake B ge Whitneyville (V), has been made by

a dam, 40 feet high, at V. Saltonstall Lake on the east, occupies

a natural depression. Height a prams mean high tide of West Rock

. Fae ee feet; of East Rock, 360; of Mt. Carmel, 736; of Rab-
it

The evidence pales by the deposits of the New Haven
region is of three kinds.

1. Structural: the flow, when it set in, having made its mark
in some places on the structure of the beds it deposite

2. Lithological: the flood, where the current was strongest,
having made gravel and cobble-stone deposits as a topping over
the finer beds balers laid down.

enudational ; the flood having Gsncaty a large amount

of denudation torus the drift formation

i. 2 Structural evidlence as to the flood. _The Quaternary de-

about 42 feet; eas ‘hs, serss sa slope seaward of 8 to 10

deposits consist of (1) sand; (2) sand and

gar i) rarely, of laminated clay; and in some large regions
(4) la f coarse pebbles and co ‘labs stones.

suse or hills that rise above the level of the plain ret is

only unstratified drift, except along the small water courses.

J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier. 171

Map oF THE NEw HAVEN REGION.

‘s cov eowenewre en’

RNS Heyer.
Y ing if, Sau rhe

2.

\

AAI
Maas
a -

nse ee
W

nin

ae

-

Zag

W773
oe

on nen tio. th. llage. B. Beacon Hill. Bh, Beaver. hills.
5 itt. OF wp Fo ig a res Sggay is per to the northwest,

E, East ridge, consistin
Tndisn te, ph ge ae oS see south, and then Sn ake ‘wood, the estate of Don
ald G. Mitchell. F, Fort Halé. F, Ferry Point, or rined Hoek, om the Quinnipiac. 3,
udges’ Vave ridge. t House. M, Mill Rock. M P, Maltby
hich are trac’ O, Oyster Point. P, Pin

Rock ge L, Ligh
Park, three of 8 tie | «bro badd lakes of “eonstracted. 'O, Oys
Rock. ll. Rt, Rabbit or Pesers Rank, Sm, Sachem’s ridge. T, Turnpike ;
also Toman one tn 5. across the head of New Haven bay. V, Whitneyville. W,
Rock, bons, psoas endo bade Ro ~ ridge. W C, Wi m
Whitni eak. tergreen Lake, just north of Wintergreen arner’s
Rock, aver Pond Meadows; m, Mineral Spring, southeast of North tices nl,
n2, n3, m4, m, caver notches in the Wost Rook rhs mi, n2, sa Upper and Lower Bethany
Notches; n3, the Hamden Notch; v4, the Wintergreen Note

Scale 4-10ths of an inch to the mile.

172 J. D. Dana—Melting of the Great Glacier.

This unstratified drift consists of sand and gravel, with numer-
ous scratched bowlders, without any underlying bowlder clay.
rge bowlders are rarely met with in the stratified drift ex-
cept near the rocky bottom on which it rests. The Triassic
sandstone underlying the New Haven plain in some places ap-
proaches within a few yards of the surface of the plain; and
when so, the opening of trenches for sewers or other purposes
brings to light a layer of gravel resting on the sandstone, which
is full of large scratched bowlders, many over a cubic foot in
size, and occasionally one over five hundred cubic feet. In the
regions of unstratified drift, that is, above the level of the
plain, bowlders are many and large, especially along the west-
ern margin of the region; and several of trap, are between 500
and 1000 tons in weight.
These facts teach, as I have elsewhere remarked, that, in
the melting of the glacier and the accompanying dropping of
e earth and stones, the part of the material which fell over
the dry land went down unstratified ; and that which fell into the
waters was stratified, excepting a bottom portion made of the
earth, gravel and great stones that were the first to drop from
the ice. There is no evidence that the stratified drift of the

2

plain is newer than the main part of the unstratitied drift over
the hills

The stratification of the stratified drift is in almost all parts,
except where too coarsely stony for it, of the flow-and-plunge
style, as represented in the cuts on pages 173, 174. One of the

arts of a layer having this structure is represented of the
1. more oman a. Db
the annexed cut, (fg. 1.
BZ Zz The oblique lamination
indicates a violent on-
Z ward movement in the
Sow waters; and the division
of the layers into parts proves that there was a heavy plung-
ing in connection with the rapid flow. A single obliquely
laminated layer is often one to two feet in thickness, and in
one case observed it was eight feet; and each must have been
formed ata single onward movement of the plunging waters.
This structure of the stratified drift hence shows that water and
earth were let loose at the time in immense quantities; that
there was a free flow of both which could have been well pro-
duced through the melting and discharge of a vast glacier; and
that, consequently there was a very rapid piling up of the
layers of gravel and sand. ;

Tn this oblique lamination which characterizes the deposits
of the plain, the little laminz rise, with only an occasional ex-
ception, to the northward ; that is, dip to the southward, and

J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier.* 178

hence prove that, throughout the New Haven estuary—then six
miles in depth if we reckon only to Pine and Mill Rocks, and
over half that in width and opening (as now) to the southward
—the deposition took place under the pushing and plungin
action of the incoming tide, the tidal waters having been forced
into heavier plunging than usual owing to the violent resisting
flood of fresh waters in front.

This rise to the northward in the oblique lamination (or dip
to the southward) prevails except at the mouths of the valleys.

he beds at the lower extremity of the Quinnipiac valley, just
southeast of Hast Rock (K), afford one of these exceptions.
At this place, along the cut of the Air-Line railroad between
Mill River and the Quinnipiac, the stratified drift-deposits, which
here have their full height or 42 feet above high tide level, are
exposed to view toa depth of about 25 feet. Through the
northeast half of the cut (near C) where it is within the range
of the Quinnipiac valley, the beds of the upper 20 feet have
the oblique lamination rising to the southward, that is, in a diree-
tion the opposite to that in the underlying beds, and the oppo-
site to that which characterizes the whole thickness of the
deposit over the New Haven region except at the mouths of
the valleys. The following cut represents a part, six feet in

—.

height, of a vertical section, and shows the race of junction
NS between the upper and lower portions; above NS oblique
lamination rises to the southward, and below NS t the northward.
In addition to this difference of direction, the beds below are
brownish-red, and those above rusty brownish-yellow.

The deposits present this difference above and below for half a
mile along the cut. But passing beyond this westward, or toward
Mill River, out of the Quinnipiac Valley, the upper stratum
gradually loses its distinctive ch rand becomes like that of
the plain deposits elsewhere. This change on passing out of
the range of the Quinnipiac proves that the existence of such
an upper stratum was re cee on the flow of the river and
not on any variation in level or depth, or on any subsequ
action of currents. The drift deposits have a uniform level

174. = J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier.

at top quite to the Mill River channel, and were all one in simul-
taneous origin.
ow the flow of the Quinnipiac waters must have undergone

some change before the last twenty feet of sand and gravel a
laid down, and it must have been a change in volume and v
lence. Owing to this change the current in the river ae so
powerful as to overcome the action of the i incoming tide and
take charge itself of the deposition of the earth and gravel. In
other words, an extraordinary flood set in, extraordinary even
at a time when a violent flood had been already long in prog-
ress; and the flood waters did the deposition even in the face’
of the tide.

Similar evidence of the flood should exist in the other_val-
leys of the region. I have observed it in the valley of Wil-

Section of stratified Drift up Wilmot Brook.

Owing to there being no good sections of the stratified drift
at the extremities of the Mill River and West River valleys,
I have not obtained any facts from these points.

2. Evidence as tv the flood in gravelly and stony formations. —The
material of the stratified drift-formation over a large part of the
ew Haven region is sand, with only small pebbles where any
occur. But adjoining the river courses through the plain, espe-
cially Mill River and West River, it consists to a great extent
of large pebbles or stones, and much of it of cobble-stones,
many of which are six to eight inches in diameter.
Quinnipiac Valley deposits are an exception, because
“s wide Moni was at the time an interior harbor nearly four
miles long and a mile in average width, with North Haven at
its head, and much of it was over 50 feet deep. It was hence

J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier. 175

a level surface —- - sage in their full force to its north-
ern limit. Hence the of the waters through it would
not have been rail aby ike that along the streams of rapi
descent. That this was the — — the region is proved
by the fact that the region is now one of wet peat meadows
flooded at high tides. “Further, ra height of the stratified
drift at North Haven, and at a point four miles below (near
E) is alike, being not over 45 feet above the level of the flats.
e West River region shows its stony character at

through the New Haven plain either side of the river flats ;
but the stones diminish in size, at first rapidly, and then grad-
ually, and two miles down the stream there are only pebbly
beds with _ thus showing the slower flow through the
estuary of the
The stony aes along the course of Mill River are much
more remarkable than those of West River, both in extent
nD

with a straight course to the head of the bay fas of V

6 to 10 inches in © diaenatin: The coarseness ai uiues both
to the east gre west. On the east side of the river at the State
street isp (which on the tahicks is near M in Mill = where
t

ow these ston he flood not only by their
resence, but more sot se te belonging mainly to the
* Just south of the Shore-Line railroad, the coarse beds are wanting for

nesihy ‘a Salle oa. sakas: siek od. WI Guts whe Wesel as I learn from Mr.
Chatfield.

176 J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier.

upper ‘ijten or twenty feet of the formation, and therefore by their
being the last work of the melting and discharging glacier.
coarse stony stratum above and fine below is found through
all the Mill River stony region.* Along the sections made
through the New Haven plain to the level of the river flats in
grading the streets, the lower part of the yee section is
mainly of sand, while the upper is gravel and stones. The
same has also been found to be true in the excavations for
sewers in that part of the New Haven region. At one of these
(at the corner of Orange and _— streets the ae sectiial
was 12 to 15 feet thick, and below e beds were mostly fine
sand, the lower stony layer rion on a bed of = quicksand.
The vicinity of West River presents similar fact

uch a transition in the drift deposits from the ‘production of
sand beds with but little fine gravel to that of beds of coarse
gravel and large stones— cobble stones—proves that
there was an equivalent change in the flow of the waters.
These waters were in rapid plunging flow when the lower stra-
tum was deposited ; for the beds are oo everywhere
by the flow-and- plunge structure, and a foot is acommon thick-
ness for the bed made by a single plunge. But, however great
the previous violence there was an increase afterward to a
vaster flood.

The partial decline of the flood is also marked in some portions
of the deposits by the return to sandy beds in the top portion
— Z narrowing of the stony region. On the western
margin of the Mill River stony area, in Grove street above its
ecean ‘ith Church, the stony beds reach the surface for
200 feet above Church street; but from that point westward,
the stony portion thins, and in place of its upper beds there
are sandy and fine pebbly beds; in 200 feet this upper sandy
part has bee six feet thick: "indicating thus the narrowing
of the more violent part of the Mill River flood, as its season
passed, or bee hein ps of the glacier became completed.

n the region of the Quinnipiac valley, three to six miles
north of sew Haven, on both the east and west sides of the
present lower flats, there are beds of fine clay, from a few feet to

irty-five or more in thickness. The upper surface is but little,
if at all, above high tide level. As this Quinnipiac region was

then (in the Champlain period) a t interior harbor or arm of
the bay, over fifty feet in depth, still water would have existed
on one or both sides of the main flow ; hese pd beds, all

itten I had not recognized
the distinction between the upper stratan and the beds below.

J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier. 177

half way to North Haven; and this is demonstration that their
existence depends not on the kind of deposits there let fall by
the glacier, but on the quiet condition of the waters. There is
also proof at Quinnipiac, as brought to my attention by Mr. S. P.
Crafts, that the depositions took place before the ice had all
melted ; for a large bowlder—four feet in diameter—has been
taken out of the clay from a depth of six feet, and some inter-
calations of gravel seem to have had a similar origin. At the
same place, fifty feet to the west of the clay pit, a very coarse,
stony stratum of stratified drift overlies the clayey stratum ;
the fact that the latter exists below the stony beds having been
ascertained by Mr. Crafts by means of a drill, which descended
through and brought up some of the underlying clay. This
overlying stony bed was made by violent currents that suc-
ceeded to the still waters of the place, and these violently flow-
ing waters were probably those of the great flood.

3. Evidence as to the flood in its denudation of the stratified drift
deposits.— Along the west side of Mill River, where the beds are
stony and of the coarsest kind, the plain is 10 feet below the
usual level, the height not exceeding 30 feet above the river
flats: while on the west side of the river near the State street
bridge, where the stony beds are less coarse, the height is 40 to
42 feet—the full height of the New Haven plain in that latitude.
The lower level on the west side continues south to the harbor,

valley, (on the map between BI and West River). The follow-
Am. Jour. Sc1.—Tuimp — Vou. X, No. 57.—Sept., 1875.

178 J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier.

ing cut exhibits at @ a portion of the previous deposit of fine
sand, projecting up and enveloped in the coarse gravel that the
tearing waters were bearing along down stream.

Thus the great flood left its mark not only in the structure
and degree of coarseness of the deposits along the water-
courses, but also in denudations of the drift-covered surface.

flowing waters often denuded the surface deeply and left the

else the broad bed of the flooded stream.

es, whe
only by such a flood. Both Mill River and West River val-

Saree ee en

geet

SNe eves Seer

J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier. 179

leys afford examples of this. Again, since the Champlain
deposits that lie beneath the stony beds are made of fine material,
there is full evidence, whether the latter were formed over the

deposition of sand and finer gravel, with clays in some places,
and occasional bowlders; then, finally, the upper coarse beds
were formed wherever the waters at the flood could carry off
the finer material or carry in coarse.

The beds of gravel and cobble stones along Mill River extend
for more than two miles through the New Haven plain, or
what was then the great estuary, where there was no cause for
rapid flow in the stream apart from a flood of enormous extent
sweeping down the valleys.

Depositions subsequent to the flood.—It may be questioned
whether the flood-made upper stratum in the vicinity of the river
courses, which has been above described, may not have been
deposited during some flood, or era of glacier melting, later
than that of the early Champlain period closing the era of the
great glacier. The evidence against such a supposition in the
localities which I have examined is decisive. For, as I have
shown, this upper stratum when followed laterally away from
the river courses, changes into the ordinary stratified drift ; or,
in other words, the very same stratum bears the flood-marks
near the river courses, and not so, or only sparingly, over other
regions. The stratified drift of the New Haven region is evi-
dently all one formation; it is one in structure, even to its to
layer. All of later origin ordinarily overlying it is about a
foot or less of blackish soil; and this is simply a portion of its
surface sands modified by the growth of vegetation.

ere are some portions where its upper surface was irregu-
larly eroded, as has been explained, and there the surface was
later built up to the old level by depositions of fine material,
easily distinguished in kind from those below, indicative of
changed conditions—but only a change from the flood condi-
tion to that of the more quiet subsequent part of the Cham-
plain period. The terrace plain near the junction of the Air
Line and Hartford railroads has been mentioned as one local-

the same railroad cut (that of the Air Line railroad).

180 J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier.

rs
e
ai
a
“
pol
=
Oo
ra
ct
o)
6
©
S
[or
oe
jm
ke
(a>)
pry
~
°
B
_
a]
Fey
(2)
wm
_
et
°
=}
oe
°
ct
i

ae
stratified drift, made up of fine sand beds (M) and pebbly
beds, some of them coarse pebbly drift, and AEF the subse-
quent deposit of white or sea-washed sand. The sands of the

D x er Se = —————— eSBe F
C
Section of stratified drift and later unconformable
Champlain deposit, Air Line Railroad cut.

2. OUTSIDE OF THE NEW HAVEN REGION.
Evidence of the great flood produced by the melting of the
glaciers is found along all of the rivers of Connecticut upon
which I have had an opportunity for making observations.

J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier. 181

Such opportunities are not often to be met with, since it re-
quires an exposed section of the stratified drift of a valley—an

one recently a since the surface soon becomes concealed
by slides down the slope. Moreover, in the narrower valleys
of rather rapid descent, the waters were so tumultuous at all
times that stony beds were thrown in at all levels. Ten miles
west of New Haven, in the upper terrace of the Housatonic river,
90 feet in height above the flood level in the river, the upper
stratum, for twenty to thirty feet in depth, is very coarse
stony, and mostly sandy with finer stony beds below; and the
top of a lower terrace is still coarser in its stones. I have ob-

hale of the formation, so far as in view, was of stones—that is
the upper three- fourths, the lower part being concealed by the
fallen gravel. Half way to the river along the section, irregu-
lar Ueeiny of sand beds, two or three yards i in length were in-
cluded among the irregular stony layers, after the she repre-
sented in fig. 4, (p. 178). Thus the flood-torn stony features of
the formation increase toward the river; and some of the sands
of the uprooted sand beds were left in patches among the stones.
To interpret the facts we have to note that the Thames is a wide
and deep tidal estuary, or rather fiord, fifteen miles long; that,
therefore, thereis no seaward slope to make rapid currents. The
earlier drift de — should hence have been of the finer kind,

a cataract, to have roduced, a along such an estuary, so extensive

erosions and cobble-stone deposits. Although I vag i no

other good section, I think it safe to say, judging from the

stones which had fallen from some of the ia ers, be = for-

mation, for at least half a dozen miles north of Groton (the
* “— section in this part showed cay ae feet of the underlying sand str

stratum.
Fifteen yards nearer the river these four feet consisted of i mes and gravel
instead of sand, being part of the sony roi alluded to abo

182 J. D. Dana—The flood from the melting Glacier.

part I examined), was very stony near the river, while mostly
free from stones on the side toward the hills.

On the opposite or western shore of the Thames, at Mont-
ville, six miles north of New London, where the terrace is one
half higher, the facts are even better testimony to the same con-
clusions. The stony beds occupy a large part of the formation
in a bluff close by the river between the shore and the railroad

an upper stony stratum along the valleys. West of Ludlow, the
upper stratum of the high terrace on the south side of the valley
was coarse stony, while below the beds were mainly of sand.
At Sutherland Falls, on the Otter Creek (or River, as it should
be called), where fine sand was the main constituent of the for-
mation—being fine enough for use in the marble mill—the
upper portion for 8 to 20 feet was very pebbly, the pebbles
mostly half to one inch in diameter. Just north of Pittsford,
on the high terrace of a branch of Otter Creek, there is a coarse
upper bed; and one still more coarsely stony on the terrace 50
feet or more below the highest, while the beds below were
comparatively fine; also south of Rutland, in the upper part of
the high eastern terrace of Otter Creek valley, especially near
the junction with the valley of Cold River, and also with that
of Mill River, west of the gap passed through by the railroad
to Cuttingsville.

Professor Hitchcock, in his Report on the Geology of Massa-
chusetts, makes the general statement that the material of the

that there were transitions from gentle to rapid movements 10
the waters] and then, above, the clay is absent, and “the sand
becomes coarser, until, at the top, frequently small pebbles are
found, and other evidences of agitation in the waters.’

rapid melting of the disappearing ice, it must have been thus
universal; for the rapid melting would have been general.

S. Haughton— Mechanical Work done by a Muscle. 188

The flood unquestionably preceded the ending of the ice;
for, as already stated, only a melting glacier could have af-
forded the vast quantities oe — required to fill and flood
the wide valleys, and have set loose, simultaneously, the im-
mense amount of sand, eonvels on stones, that were at the dis-

S.

The flood appears also to have risen rapidly to its height;
for (1) the transition from the finer deposits to es upper coarser
stratum is generally rather abrupt, and (2) at the lower extrem-
ity of the Quinnipiac valley, the change in the structure of
the beds, from tide-made to flood-made, marked in the reversal
of the oblique aac (page 173) took place along a wel
defined plane without any — and was visible also in
the color of the deposited san

Finally, the flood was a nastil termination of that winter of
winters: especially as the rigors of the Glacial climate had
passed, and a lower level of the high-latitude lands was bring-
ing ona time of warmer climate than the present—the era
when even Britain was occupied ks wild beasts of the warm
temperate zone.

Art. XXV.—On the Mechanical Work done by a Muscle before
exhaustion, and on the “Law of Fatigue ;” by the Rev. SAMUEL
Havauron, M.D., Trinity College, Dublin.

In the February number of this Journal, for the present
year, a paper is published by Professor F. EK. Nipher, contain-
ing experiments to illustrate the mechanical work done by a
muscle (or a group of prise before exhaustion. Tn Pa

the present paper:
1. That both series of experiments made by Professor ae peer
are a sainatie contribution to the facts of animal mec
at they not only consistent with the “ hing of
Fatigue” proposed by me, but sHuseate both that law and my
- —— of Refreshment.
hat Professor Nipher's discussion of his own valuable

*
184. = Haughton—Mechanical Work done by a Muscle.

experiments is worthless, as it is based on an empirical peak
which no meaning, and leads to no further consequenc

4. t the “Law of Fatigue,’ which explains not an
ote ‘Nipber s experiments, but so many other experiments
also, is entitled to be received provisionally as a law of
animal mechanies, and followed up by deduction to its legiti-
mate conclusions.

I shall commence by describing some experiments* of my
own, in which the muscles were kept in continued action, and
no interval of rest was allowed. This condition is supposed i in
the “Law of Fatigue,” and when it is departed from, a cor-
responding allowance must be made depending on the “ Re-
freshment” afforded to the muscles during the interval of re-

se.

The Sion pe law of muscular action, which I have
called the “ Law of Fatigue,” is thus expresse ed:

“When the same ack (or group of muscles) is kept in constant
action until fatigue sets in, the total work done multiplied by the rate
of work is constant.”

I instructed a number of medical students, chosen at random,
to raise dumb-bells of varying weight, one in each hand, in the
transverse plane with hands supinated, and raising and lowering
the weights in equal times regulated by the beat of a pendulum.
This process was continued until the distress of the fatigue
produced became intolerable, and the number of times each
weight was lifted was noted. The students were required to

experiment, which were—
1. To keep time with the pendulum.
2. To raise the weights in the transverse plane.
3. To supinate the hands.
a To abstain seeds all bending+ of the knees or spinal
column.
5. To lower the weights so as to come down without velocity.
The 2nd, 3d, and 4th conditions are essential in order to con-
fine the work done strictly to the same muscles of the shoulder,
arm, and forearm
ex perimenter must be carefully watched in order to
ure the observance of these conditions; for he is impelled,
petals and unconsciously, by pain, to bring in other
Iiihof June 816. were communicated by me to the Royal Society on the
_ + To this defect we gave the name of “slinging.”

S. Haughton—Mechanical Work done by a Muscle. 185

out, wid ers not; whereas the “ Law of Fatigue” Cam

: all cases there — nae all marked stages :

. The work done with ease.
2 Accompanied by pane distress.
3. Accompanied by pain in the muscles used.
ee the last stage, great care must be taken to prevent
chang the posture and mode of motion, by which ad-
ditional muscular fibers may come in aid of the fibers nearly
atigue

Let W denote the total work done, and T the time of doing
it; then, by the “ Law of Fatigue,”

ad
r= constant. (1)

If w be the weight held in the hand and a be half the weight
of the arm, and 2 the number of times the ee are lifted:

Since the ‘tine of raising and lowering the arms is constant, n
is proportional to T, and the “Law of Fatigue” ie us the
formul

(wa)in=A, (2)

where A is an unknown constant.

In the following table I give the values of w and the mean
value of n for 20 distinct persons.

The time of lift is in all cases one second,

TABLE I.—MEAN OF TWENTY EXPERIMENTERS.

No. w. n (obs.) n (cale.) Diff.
1 2°50 lbs. 131°80 128°0 8
4 4°25 87°55 783 +9°2
3 a7 47°35 §3°5 —6°2
4 gy grees 40°25 43°7 —3°5
5 Ce 34°60 37°71 —2°5
6 15.2 27°15 26°8 +0°3
7 14°00 “ 17°20 15°4 +1°8

The column containing the calculated atone of n was ob-
tained from equation (2) by using the value
a==3°50 Ibs.
A=4699 “

186 =. Haughton—Mechanical Work done by a Muscle.

These values were obtained by finding the value of a, which
renders A most near! y constant, or
6A eat
A = minimum.
This table gives 7 Ibs. for the mean weight of the arm of all
experimented on, a result which accords with known facts.

7) U 2 4 8 1U 26
DiacRaM I.—Dr. Haughton. Mean of 20 Experimenters.
A, Asymptote w+a’=0; B, Asymptote n=0.

(w-+a)’n—A. a==3°5 lbs. A=4699.

In the accompanying, diagram I, I have plotted the cubical
hyperbola represented by equation (2); and also the several
observations which lie sufficiently near the curve to justify me
in considering the Law of Fatigue to be a first approximation
to one of the fundamental laws of muscular action.

S. Haughton— Mechanical Work done by a Muscle. 187

I have elsewhere* shown that the Law of er corresponds
with other experiments based on different dat

If we consider the useful work only, we ave from equa-
tion (2),

Aw
Useful work=wn= ota)® (3)
- equation represents a cuspidal cubic whose ordinate
= as a maximum value, when w=a= half the weight of the

The foregoing observations are = accordance with this de-
duction, as may be seen from table

TaBLE IL.—UseruL Work.

No. w. wn (20 experimenters).
1 2°50 lbs, 338

2 5 372

3 Sl 277

4 6-S7- * 276

5 76. > 268

6 O75 264

7 14°00 * 241

Professor Nipher has published- two series of experiments,
based on the principle of lifting different weights at a constant
rate; and both series can be interpreted by means of equation
(2), as I shall now show.

He has published other experiments based on the principle
of raising the same weight at varying rates: these — ments
are not only abandoned by himself, but contain internal evi-
dence of error; for both these reasons I shall abandon them,
but I feel bound to pe rio: Professor Nipher’s first series at
constant rates against his own repudiation, and as being, on
Professor Hinrich’s oto at least quite as good as those
last made by him.

Professor Nipher’s experiments differ in two respects from
those made by me, tables I, IL.

1. Professor Nipher allowed a rest equal to the time of work,
whereas in my experiments, the work was incessant, as the
arm came down without velocity.

2. From the mode of lifting the weights, there was a —
- obability of other muscles assisting those intended to

atigued.

The first of these causes would refresh the muscles and ena-
ble them to do more work than if not rested at all; and the
second of these causes would bring in other muscles to their
aid, and appear to make them do more than their proper work.

* Principles of Animal Mechanics, London, 1873.

188 =. Haughton— Mechanical Work done by a Muscle.

t x represent the unknown weight held in the hand which
would represent the total effect, both of refreshment by rest, and
aid from other muscles.

DraGrRam IJ.—Prof. Nipher. First Series.

A, Asymptote w+a’=0; B, asymptote n=—0.
(w+a'lyfn=A. a'=1°05 kil. A=1018.
Equation (2), which suited the eas of my own experi-
ments, must now be modified as folloy

Sl Setar 8 n= A, (4)
or (wa ‘\Fn=A (5)
=r a’ a—x. (6)

‘is obviously less than a, and may even become negative,
aacedine to the quantity of refreshment and aid afforded to the
laboring “mauscles.

S. Haughton—Mechanical Work done by a Muscle. 189

Equation (5) accurately represents both Professor Nipher’s
series of experiments at constant rate, as is shown in the fol-
lowing tables:

TABLE III.—Prof. NipHer’s First SERIES.

No. w. n (obs.) —_ (calc.)

1 1 kil. 255 243 +12°0
2 7 ate 97 109 12°0
3 Sek 61 62 — 10
4 FR EY for é 39°7 — 2°0
5 ee 29°3 27°8 + 1°5
6 So 21°5 20°5 + 1:0
7 5, hy: 15°8 isi + 01
8 Sines 12°8 12°5 0°3

The calc ulated values of n were found from equation ©),
the values of a’ and A being found by the principle of leas
variation of A—

In diagram IT, I construct the cubical aoa and show
how closely the observations correspond wit
half the actual weight of Prof. Nipher's s arm is 1°50 kil.,
it follows that in these experiments 0°49 kil. was lifted, by the
Refreshment derived from rest, and from the occasional aid of
other muscles.
TaBLe IV. _—Prof. Nipuer’s SECOND SERIES.

No w. n (obs.) n (cale.) Diff.
1 3°0 kil. 152°5 145°5 +7°0
2 35 95°8 93°1 +2°7
3 40 “ 67:2 64°7 42:5
4 45 “© 51:2 47°7 +3°5
5 50 “ 36:9 364 +0°5
6 55 886 28°8 —0°2
7 60 * 227 23°3 —0°6
8 65 * 18:1 19°2 — 1}
9 70 © 145 16°1 —1°6

The calculated values of m were found from equation (5),
the values of a’ and A being found by the principle of least
variation of A.

a’=—1°00 kil.
A= 6582

In diagram IIT, I construct the cubical hyperbola, and show
how closely the observations correspond with it.

As half the actual weight of Prof. Nipher’ s arm is 1°50 kilos.
it follows that in this series of experiments, 2°50 kilos. were
lifted by the Refreshment derived from rest, and from the occa-
sional aid* of other muscles.

* Including, possibly, those of the assistant employed in the experiments,

190 S&S Haughton—Mechanical Work done by.a Muscle.

It is possible to calculate the coefficient of Refreshment from
Professor Nipher’s experiments by the difference between a
and a’. Thus, in his second series of experiments
a— o/=7=2'50 kil. 5°51 lbs.
This weight was lifted through 0°70 m=2:29 ft. in 125 seconds
—the muscles having previously rested for an equal time.

2
Diagram III.—Prof. Nipher. Second Series.
A, Asymptote w+a’=0; B, Asymptote n=0.
(wta(’n=A. a’= —1°0 kil. A=582.

Hence, in a cycle of rest and labor of 2°5 seconds duration,
half of the time being devoted to rest, the work done, per sec-
ond, is

5°51 XK 2°29
2°5
et. assuming 34°5 oz.* of muscle employed, so as to reduce
the coefficient to the units employed in my Animal Mechanics ;

we fae finally
5°51 XK 2°29

Coefficient of refreshment=—=— _———
34°5 K 2°5

=0°142 ft. lbs. per oz. of

muscle per second.
The coefficient of Refreshment* given, from totally different
experiments, by me, is
0°132 ft. lb. per oz. per second.

* Principles of Animal Mechanics, pp. 482, 484.

D. S. Martin—Karthquake of December, 1874. 191

ArT. XX VI.—WNotes upon the Earthquake of December, 1874;
by Professor DANIEL 8. Martin

Ow the night of press t the 10th of December, 1874,
there occurred, in and around the city of New York, a slight,
but very distinct, earthquake shock, which caused considerable
excitement at the tim me, and furnished material for a brief sen-
sation in the papers ‘of the metropolis. On the succeeding
Monday, the New York Lyceum of Natural History appointed
a committee to collect information from every attainable source
in regard to the shock and all attendant circumstances. Of
this committee the writer was chairman, and in that capacity
was engaged for the next three months in collecting, arranging
and pe ee the oo He ed.

motion felt; 5, the direction of the motion felt; 6, any other
facts observed.

This circular was first published in the principal daily papers
of the city, with an added request that it be copied by local
journals throughout the region affected. One thousand copies
were then printed, or these were sent wherever there was any
prospect of advanta

out a hundred respouses were received, varying of course

greatly in their character: in the main, however, they furnished
useful and excellent data, ‘hich were afterward carefully tab-
ulated. ough almost all written by unscientific observers,

with a care and clearness beyond what was anticipated, while
many of the letters were exceedingly vivid and detailed.

Of course the main objects aimed at were, the determination
of the geographical extent of the disturbance, of the rate and
the direction of its motion, and if possible, through these, of its
approximate depth.

he first end, as might have been expected, was prett
readily attained. The geographical range was determined wit
gor aate: accuracy, and found far (cree than at first supposed.
econd inquiry, however, was soon seen to be almost
hopeless: of result, from the andertainty in regard to accurate

pieces and errors of observation, complicated also with a differ-

192 D. S. Martin— Earthquake of December, 1874.

west points, to some four minutes of time, presented together a
mass of uncertainties that might defy the powers of an abler com-
mittee to unravel. It was hoped that astronomical time might
be obtained at some points, sufficient to fix a definite basis for
averages and calculations, but such was not the case. The
most that could be ascertained was that the shock occurred at
about 10.25 Pp. M., throughout the entire district affected. The
absence of any indication of a progress in time, together with
other facts to be referred to directly, speedily led to the idea
that the movement had its source at a very considerable depth,
and was by no means local or superficial.

The shock was felt from a little beyond Fishkill Landing,
Dutchess County, New York, southward to Sandy Hook light-
house, a distance of some 80 miles. In an east and west direc-

vation appears, until near the rear (or inner) edge of the great
Palisade range of trap, when numerous reports began to come

D. S. Martin—Earthquake of December, 1874. 193

in, along the line of the Northern Railroad of New Jersey.
Once over the Hudson, in the metamorphic region of New
York and Westchester Counties, the shock was felt pS

tween. Four points are reported in the heart of the city
of — within a circle of half a mile across ; seo this

not to admit of doubt. In a house fronting south on 113th
street, ‘the sound approached from the south with a crescendo
movement. As it struck the house the front windows rattled
violently. About the middle of the room the sound, or shock,
apparently reached its full volume, and then receded with a
diminuendo movement. ‘The rear windows rattled precisely as
those of the front.” (8) The direction of cracks in the ground.
This effect was reported only at Closter, New Jersey, by Mr.
J. L. Turnure, who kindly furnished a plan of the ground.
Two narrow cracks appeared, of considerable depth, each on a
distinct road, and both having a direction west-northwest and
east-southeast, or transverse to the supposed line of movement.
e duration of the shock was very variously estimated
by different observers. It is quite ible that it may have
varied with the nature of the ground ; bu but in general it would
seem to have averaged about ten seco
The general phenomena presented nothing peculiar. A loud
rumbling sound, a heavy jar, and in some cases a distinct
wave-motion, were the chief featinbes: In a few places bells
were rung, clocks stopped, and cracks opened in the ground,
as above. In only one case was the shock reported as felt on
the water,—on a schooner in the harbor of New Rochelle.
Very fortunately, the movement just stopped short of doing
Am. Jour. Sct.—THIRD 4 aac aoa VoL. X, No. 57.—Sxpr., 1875.

194 D. 8S. Martin—Earthquake of December, 1874.

any serious injury to buildings or property, though it caused
much alarm and excitement for a time in various places, both
to animals and men.

The night was calm, mild, and somewhat cloudy, with no
meteorological phenomena in any respect noteworthy. Several
persons who had experienced earthquakes in South and Cen-
tral America, referred to an intense and peculiar stillness of
the atmosphere, just prior to the shock, which they had godin
want to notice in a like connection in the tropics. This ¢

mstance is one frequently reported, and it may be aor
emi here.

It remains to speak briefly of certain ae circumstances,
which suggest some interesting conclusion

servers, few indeed, bat widely separated,
and too many to admit of. error, accounts were received of on
or more later shocks, at about two o'clock the same night.

Two remarkable letters were a to the committee, detailing
a marked disturbance of very similar character in eastern Mas-
sachusetts, on the same afternoon between 5.30 and 6. This
~— was ak at North Andover and at Salem, and in both

ral members of a household. _dnaquiries from
e

Hampshire, and notices in the local papers, Ssiigaiisertad by
the former, = to elicit any further information on this
interestin
In ‘ “Nature” Dee. 31st, 1874), a brief account is given of an
earthquake shock experienced by thre e travelers who. were
Pe the petks on the Pic du Midi, a lofty summit of the
eal at 4.45 on the morning of Dec. 11th;
and “ Nature” ks its simost ana coincidence in time
with the shock felt ir in : North Am
These several reports, scanty sboneh they are, made a strong
impression on the writer's mind, which was referred to in his
report to the New York Lyceum, —that the day was one of
very wide and very deep-seated disturbance over a consider-
able part of the Northern hemisphere. At that time the news
from Iceland had not arrived; but we have since learned that

beneath the crust, which found an outlet ere long in the great
Icelandic eruptions

R. H. Chittenden— Equine Caleult. 195

Art. XXVIL—Contributions from the Sheffield Laboratory of
Yale College. No. XXXVI.— On some interesting Equine
Calcult; by R. H. CHITTENDEN, Ph.B., Assistant in Physio-
logical Chemistry.

closing up the passage completely. In the stomach was found
another calculus of the same appearance, but a third larger.
A year previous to this the animal was taken sick in the same
manner, and as a result of treatment passed a calculus differing
from the others only in size, being somewhat smaller. Through
the kindness of Mr. Baldwin, I was able to obtain these calculi
for examination. The following is the result: The smallest
calculus was perfectly smooth, nearly round and of light-brown
color, its nucleus was a small pebble around which the material
was arranged in concentric layers, preserving the form of the
nucleus. A short distance from the center was a small, loose,

narrow ones of a darker shade; it was nearly round, its circum-
ference one way being 114 inches, the other 114 inches, its weight
was 679°6 grams, The calculus found in the intestine and which
caused the death of the animal, weighed 441°57 grams; its nu-
cleus was a thin and narrow piece of iron half an inch long.
A transverse section revealed the same internal structure as the
other, except that in this there was an extra spot of hair-like
matter in the compact layer about the nucleus. The surface of
the calculus, like that of the others, was perfectly smooth. On
fracturing half of this ealeulus it separated readily into four
distinct and regular layers, each of which was made up of smal-
ler ones which could not be separated. On dissolving the sub-
stance in cold dilute nitric acid, a pale yellow fluid was obtained
and a residue made up of organic matter, with a little silica.
Not a trace of urie acid was found in any of the layers. The
first or outer layer was nearly ¢ of an inch thick; its specific
gravity was 1°72. The second layer was ,% of an inch thick,
with a specific gravity of 1°69. The third layer was } of an inch

196 A. EF. Verrili— Results of Recent Dredging

thick, specific gravity 1°66. The nucleus portion measured
one way | 3 inches, the other way 12 inches; specific gravity
1:71. While the three outer layers were yellowish-brown the
nucleus portion was dark-brown, making a distinct contrast in
color. 'The following are the analyses of the different layers ;

Ist layer. 2d layer. 3d layer. Nucleus portion.
PO, 28°10 28°14 28°34 28°14
MgO 16°84 16°87 16°88 16°58
(NH,)OH 12°57 12°59 12°61 12°61
H,O 72 41°80 41°66 41°96
Residue insol. in HNO, *74 .58 58 "60
99°97 99°98 100°07 99°89

On igniting the substance at a red heat all the water and am-
monia was driven off, thus giving the amount of these two
substances. Then determining the ammonia directly by means
of magnesia and deducting from the total volatile matter the
amount of water was thus indirectly obtained.

These analyses show that this calculus is. composed princi-
pally of ammonio-magnesian phosphate, and that the different
ayers are essentially the same. By making thin and polished
sections of the different layers and examining them under the
microscope with a half inch objective, they were found to be
amorphous, but divided into layers by what seemed to be fine
black lines, and on examination with a fifth of an inch objective
these lines were resolved into fine black specks which may be
looked upon as impurities in the phosphate, with regular
arrangement, and which are insoluble in nitric acid. With
Sima light a fine arrangement and display of colors was
obtained.

The other two caleuli were not at my disposal for analysis,
but from their exact resemblance to this in external and in-
ternal structure and color, there is no doubt but that their

*)e .

composition is the same.

Art. XX VIIL.—Brief Contributions to Zoology jrom the Museum
of Yale College. No. XXXIV.—Results of Dredging Expedt-
tions off the New England Coast in 1874; by A. HK. VERRILL.

[Continued from p. 43.]

OuR investigations show conclusively that there is a very
decided flow of cold currents through Fisher’s Island Sound
ike pri Island pad into Long Salned Sound, and er
the deeper parts of the latter for a great distance, especially
toward the southern and deeper side. The influence of this

197

off the Coast of New England.

itions oO

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A. E. Verrill— Results of recent Dredging

198

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199

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A. E. Verrili—Resuits of recent Dredging

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_ Expeditions off the Coast of New England 201

cold current is very apparent as far west as New Haven, in the
deeper parts of the sound.* This cold water is doubtless de-
rived directly or indirectly from the arctic current that flows
southward along our Atlantic coast; but its flowing into Long
Island Sound may be due largely to the influence of the tidal
currents, modified by the local wind currents. On the other

and, the much higher temperatures of such enclosed localities
as the Peconic Bays may be safely attributed to the direct heat
of the sun over a broad expanse of shallow water, from which
the cold currents are excluded.

Improved methods of preserving specimens.—During the sum-
mer humerous experiments were made by members of the
party, but more especially by Prof. W. N. Rice and the writer,
to ascertain the effects of various chemical preparations upon
marine invertebrates. The special objects were: Ist, to improve
the methods of preserving specimens for museum purposes, or to
devise new methods; 2d, to ascertain the best means of killing
mm an expanded state species that ordinarily contract badly
when put directly into aleohol. Besides numerous negative
results, several of value were obtained. ume very per-
fect and beautiful preparations of Actinie (chiefly Metridium

expand. When fairly dead they were transferred to a pure

mens may usually be placed alive directly into the acid, o
ngth, E opsii

osmic acid we did not succeed so well, for the asec con-
tracted more, and finally became so darkly stained as to render
them useless. :

Hydro-chloral was also experimented with. It proved to be
useless as a permanent preservative of marine invertebrates, as
it apparently had a caustic or solvent action, and all the soft
parts gradually dissolved, but without putrefaction. It was,

*The followi per 17th, a short distance off the

of the’ Whitable lelanda’ Stow miles east of New Haven: surface 454°,
st 1 P. 4, wind southerly, tide 4 hours ebb, sky clear; bottom 434°, in 5 fathoms,
rocks and mud; surface 48°, at 5.30 P. M., tide two hours flood.

202 A. E. Verrilli—Results of Recent Dredging Expeditions.

however, found very useful for killing certain kinds of animals
in an extended condition. It succeeded well, in this respect,
with many nemerteans and some annelids, but did not affect
all the species alike. Our success with it, in this way, was so
great as to encourage us to make many additional trials of this
kind during the coming summer. Many experiments were
made last season, as in previous years, to find some poison that
will kill mollusks, especially Gastropods, in a fully extended
state. though numerous drugs have thus been tried, the
results = hitherto been mostly negative. At least, no
s been discovered that is more generally successfull
than by js soa them to suffocate in stale sea-water, throug
excess of carbonic acid and deficiency of oxygen. Many ex-
cellent preparations of the larger species (Fulgur, Buccinum,
Natea, &c.) were thus made last summer. In most cases when
the ani was found to be well extended, and at the same
time so stupified as to be nearly inactive, the soft parts were
forcibly held out by the hand while it was killed by immer-
sion in alcohol Sometimes it could be tied to the body of the

alcohol. The accompanying figure was made from a specimen
way.*

prepared in this w

* Figure 1. Sycotypus canaliculatus, two-thirds natural size; a, head; }, pro-
boscis extended, showing the odontophore at the end; c, male organ, bent forward,
(it is ordinarily bent back under the mantle; in Fulgur carica this is a quite differ-
ent, thin, flat, tapering, tongue-shaped organ); d, mantle; e, siphon; 2 lower side
of foot ; 8 he geewron ge aperture of shell; 4, canal; j, body whorl; &, inner lip;

J. L. Smith—Two Bolides in Middle Kentucky. 2038

Art. XXIX.— On the Pussage of two Bolides in 1872 and
1874, over Middle Kentucky ; by J. LAwRENcE Smiru, of
i ky.

Louisville, Kentucky

lsappearance of the meteorite. :

Not many miles from Louisville it is described as an electric
flash in a clear sky (with the moon shining and the brighter
stars visible), followed in two minutes, by a distant rolling noise
like thunder, the reverberation of which lasted for over a minute ;
and near the zenith, two indistinct clouds were seen, resembling
the smoke caused by the explosion of gunpowder.

Another observer, forty miles to the east of Louisville, fol-
lowed its passage for about twenty degrees. It appeared to
him to arise in the west, about ten degrees above the horizon,
in the form of a ball of fire, one-fourth the size of the moon,
followed by a trail of light which was visible for several seconds

id gradually gave place to a well defined line of bluish vapor,
which could be plainly seen for three or four minutes. Its

€ was accompanied by a distinct noise.

_ Ata place about eighty miles east of Louisville it was seen
m a direction almost due west, about 80° above the horizon,
resembling a large sky-rocket throwing off sparks, and i
fapidly southward inclined to the horizon; it
about 20° above the horizon, leaving a bright track of smoke,

&

204 J. L. Smith—Two Bolides in Middle Kentucky.

which was at first very luminous, from its being yet in the
light of the sun, that had just before sunk beneath the horizon ;
but its brilliancy faded as the sun descended lower, and then it
behaved like a film of smoke, that was wafted into zigzags by
a gentle breeze, curling up in folds and disappearing in about
fifteen minutes, going toward the north. After the lapse of
four and a half or five minutes, three or four loud detonations
were heard in the direction in which the meteor disappeared—
the sounds following each other in quick succession, and resem-
bling very closely a rolling of artillery fired very rapidly.
From the calculation of this observer, the explosion was located
as far west as Louisville, and some thirty or forty miles to the
south of this city.

escribe the cloud as remaining for several minutes,
slowly breaking up and gradually fading away.

An observer at Danville, seventy miles southeast of Louis-
ville, speaks of its motion as being very much slower than that
of the ordinary shooting stars. It left a line of light which
lasted but a short time, which had a beaded structure before it

minutes, and even then disappeared Re from the failing Be oak
: : e meteor was sudden,

J. L. Smith—Two Bolides in Middle Kentucky. 205

I have no comments to make in reference to the passage of

this body through the atmosphere, except in connection with the
blue or purplish cloud seen by all observers and lasting for no
inconsiderable length of time. These clouds are not unfre-

uently connected with the passage of these bodies through our
atmosphere, and are usually more striking in the day time, or, as
in this instance, just after sunset, when the sun was well situated
to light up the cloud and exhibit it to the observer who could no
longer see the sun. \What are these clouds? are they com-

ese,
however, are but speculations advanced to draw to the subject
the attention of other observers.

tion was the same, viz: Louisville. My own observation was
made during the last twenty degrees of. its course. It was
Oo

of its passage being from N.N.W. to SS.E. I did not hear

8 ee :

ranklin, 150 miles southwest of Louisville, it was
observed to have a course from north to southwest, and de-
scribed as being not less than a man’s head in size, with a light
bluish color, emitting sparks in its course, but no nuise was
heard until about three minutes after its explosion, when there
Was a noise like distant thunder. No fragments resulting from
the explosion were ever found.

206 J. W. Mallet—Gases accompanying Meteorites.

Art. XXX.—-Nole on the Gases accompanying Meteorites ; by
Prof. J. W. MAuuet, University of Virginia.

In the paper of Prof. A. W. Wright, in the American
Journal of Science for July, on the gases obtained from the
mixed iron and stony meteorite of Feb. 12, 1875, he rene
that his results “ warrant the following conclusions: 1st. The
stony meteorites are distinguished from.the tron ones by having the
oxides of carbon, Soe the dioxide, as their characteristic gases,
instead of hydro

The only sacs of meteoric iron from which, so far as I

ie the joraien hydrogen was the predominant gas | i
to 85°68 p. « of the gaseous educt, with but 446 p.
carbon monoxide and no carbon dioxide; but be the latter
1 obtained the proportion :

% Hydrogen _- oo oO ea Se
Carbon. inonexide Sa oe S833) 48°08
Carbon dioxidé .. 2.2. 222. ae toe ew

So that the oxides of carbon stand to the hydrogen in round
numbers in the the ratio 4:38,* and in the paper on the sub-
ject read before the Royal Society on May 30, 1872, I drew
attention to the fact that this result did not agree wit
Graham's supposition as to py dee being the characteristic
gaseous ee ient of meteoric i
As to the relative amounts of | the two oxides of carbon re-
ava I remarked in the same paper:
“ Although it might be assumed, especially in view of the
strong tendency of iron to take up and * occlude” caiea> oxide,
“ t this gas had been the oe form in which the gaseous car-
In the preliminary trial made by Prof. Wright (this igusedl, 3 June, 1875, p.
10 he oils of erin were found fo na mbig ie sn wigence gas,
above; in his account of the more complete investiga-
tion (this Journal, jl, is 1875, pp. 45 and 46) bh ne does not clearly pad the abso-
lute volumes o tained at different tempera

impossible to peer geri percentage of carbon compounds for the whole.
The arithmetic mean taken b ive a part

three analyses SS. the oxides of carbon than the first two, this num-

tI iohy uiskticn iat it dhe Sritidk Apgoolation meeting at Brighton, in 1872,
Mr. Ww. Chandler Roberts of the English Mint, formerly hg Pane assistant,

er 0.
sequently to the publication of Prof. Graham’s well known , had yi
sults similar to mine. at

G. F. Barker—New Vertical-lantern Galvanometer. 207

bon compounds obtained existed in the iron, and that it had in
part broken up at the temperature of the experiment into carbon
(remaining united with the iron) and carbonic anhydride (which
escaped as gas), yet, in view of the steady decrease in the quan-
tity of this latter gas collected as the experiment proceeded and the
temperature became higher, and bearing in mind the ready decom-
position it undergoes in contact with ignited iron, it seems imore
likely that a larger amount of carbon originally existed in the
iron in this higher state of oxidation than appears from the fig-
ures of the analysis.”

the end was not raised to as high a temperature. Both these
circumstances would of course facilitate the escape of the car-
bon dioxide and diminish the chance of its undergoing partial
reduction by prolonged contact with strongly heated iron.

whole I confess that I cannot look upon the above
quoted conclusion reached by Prof. Wright as sustained by
the scanty evidence as yet before us.

Art. XXXI.— Contributions from the Physical Laboratory of the
University of Pennsylvania. No. 1.—A New Vertical-lantern

Galvanometer; by Gzorcr F, Barker, M.D., Professor of
Physics.

[Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 7, 1875.]

ter was devised for the purpose, which has answered the object
80 well that it seems Pkt to make some permanent record

Various plans have already been proposed for ing visible

to an audience the oscillations of a galvanometer needle ; but
they all seem to have certain inherent wk poo which have

tance of the scale, and this without impairing the delicacy of,

2908 G.F. Barker—New Vertical-lantern Galvanomeler.

the instrument; and 2d, the angular deflection of the needle is

r
have made use, for the first time, of the excellent so-called
vertical lantern in galvanometry. Upon the horizontal plane
face of the condensing lens of this vertical lantern, Mayer places
each side of the

circle is drawn or photographed on the glass beneath the needle,
and the image of this, together with that of the needle itself, 1
projected on the screen, enlarged to any desirable extent. The
defect of this apparatus, so excellent in many respects, seems to
have been its want of delicacy ; for in the same paper the use
of a flat narrow coil wound lengthwise about the needle, 1s
recommended as better for thermal currents. Moreover, a year
later, in 1873,+ Mayer described another galvanometer improve
ment, entirely differént in its character. In this latter instru-
ment, the ordinary astatic galvanometer of Melloni was made
use of, an inverted scale being drawn on the inside of the shade,
in front of which traversed an index in the form of a small
acute rhomb, attached to a balanced arm transverse to the axis
of suspension of the needle, and moving with it. The scale
and index were placed in front of the condensing lenses of aD
ordinary lantern, and their images were projected on the screen
in the usual way by use of the objective. This instrument 1S

* This Journal, II, iii, 414, June, 1872; Jour. Frank. Inst., III, Lxiii, 421, June,

187
| 4 This Journal, II, v, 270, April, 1873.

G. F. Barker—New Vertical-lantern Galvanometer. 209

essentially the same in principle as the mirror-galvanometer ;

t it cannot be as sensitive as the latter, while it is open to
the same objection which we have brought against this—the
objection of unintelligibility. In the hands of so skillful an
experimenter as Mayer, it seems, however, to have worked
admirably. a

It was a tacit conviction, that none of the forms of apparatus
now described would satisfactorily answer all the requirements
of the lecture above referred to, that led to the devising of the
galvanometer now to be described, which was constructed in

an attachment to the ordinary lantern, is shown in the annexed

cut, fig. 1. Parallel rays of light, from the

lantern in front of which it is placed, are

received upon the mirror, which is inclined

45° to the horizon, and are thrown directly
)

water-tanks, ete., may be placed and many
beautiful experiments shown. To adapt this
vertical lantern to the purposes of a galvan-
ometer, a graduated circle, photographed on
glass, is placed upon the horizontal con-
densing lens. Above this, a magnetic needle,
of the shape of a very acute rhomb, is sus-

Inclined mirror, and which carries a second needle near
* This Journal, IU, ii, 71, 153, July, Aug. 1871; Jour. Frank. Inst., IIT, lxi, 300,
May, 1871; Quar. J’ Sci.,’Oct. 1871. In Duboseq’s vertical attachment, which
the bacttised in his catalogue in 1870, the arrangement is similar, except that
placed above the object
i ly illumi-
nated but not very bright field.
Am. Jour. Sct.—Turrp Serres, Vor. X, No. 57.—SEPt., 1875.
4;

210 G. F. Barker— New Vertical-lantern Galvanometer.

its lower end.* Surrounding this lower needle is a circular
coil of wire, having a cylindrical hollow core an inch in
diameter, in which the needle swings, and a smaller opening
transverse to this, through which the suspension wire passes.
In the apparatus already constructed (in which the upper needle
is five centimeters long) the coil is composed of 100 feet of No.
14 copper wire, and has a resistance of 0°235 ohm. The
accompanying cross section (fig. 2) of the
vertical-lantern galvanometer as at present
arranged, drawn on a scale of jz, will serve
to make the above description more clear.
A is the needle, suspended directly above
the seale-glass D, by a silk filament passing
through the loop B, close under the objec-
tive C. This needle is attached to the alu-
minum wire ab, which passes directly
through the scale-glass D, the condensing
E, and the inclined mirror F, at H, and
carries, near its lower end, the second nee-
dle I. This needle is shorter (its length 18
2°2.cm.) and heavier than the upper one,
and moves in the core of the circular coil J,
whose ends connect with the screw-cups at

This coil rests on the base of the laa-

enclosed in a suitable frame. It 1s

course determined by the distance of the galvanometer from
the screen; in class experiments, a circle eight feet in diameter
is sufficient; though in the lecture above referred to, the circle
was sixteen feet across, and the needle was fourteen feet long,
the field being brilliant. :
e method of construction which has now been described,
* After the new galvanometer was completed and had been in use for several
weeks, I observed, in re-reading Mayer's first paper, a note stating that the idea
had 1 to him of using an astatic combination consisting of two needles,
2 1 inclined mirror, two being conn
by a stiff wire passing through holes in the condenser and the mirror. The
at nilanine sha May Bart, eee “I ree | + tn hawn D |
to him. Indeed, it does not appear that the arrangement he mentions was ever
carried into practical effect. : ;

G. F. Barker—New Vertical-lantern Galvanometer. 211

is evidently capable of producing a galvanometer for demon-
stration, whose delicacy may be determined at will, depending
only on the kind of work to be done with it. In the first
place, the needles may be made more or less perfectly astatic
and so freed more or less completely from the action of the
earth’s magnetism, and consequently more or less sensitive.

Moreover, an astatic system seems to be preferable to one in

experiments, the considerable distance which separates the nee-
dles in this instrument, allows the use of a damping magnet
with either of them. In the galvanometer now in use, the
upper needle is the stronger, and gives sufficient directive ten-
dency to the system, to bring the deflected needle back to zero
quite promptly. In the experiments referred to below, the sys-
tem made 265 oscillations per minute.

Secondly, the space beneath the mirror is sufficiently large
to permit the use of a coil of any needed size. Since, there-
fore, the lower needle is entirely enclosed within the coil, the
field of force within which it moves, may be made sensibly
equal at all angles of deflection, as in the galvanometers of Sir
William Thomson. Hence the indication of the instrument
may be made quantitative, at least within certain limits. The
circular coil too, has decided advantages over the flat coil, since
the mass of wire being nearer to the needle, produces a more

astatic combination, could be placed below the mirror, the up-
per needle in that case serving only as an index. The instro-
ment above described has a coil three inches in diameter and
one inch thick ; the diameter of the core being one inch. Since
\ts resistance is only about a quarter of an ohm, it is intended
for use with circuits of small resistance, such as thermo-currents
and the like.

The results of a few experiments made with this new vertical-
lantern galvanometer will illustrate the working of the instru-
ment and will demonstrate its delicacy. The apparatus used
was not constructed especially for the purpose, but was a part
of the University collection. :

Anduction Ourrents.—1. The galyanometer was connected
With a coil of covered copper wire, No. 11 of the American
Wire gauge, about ten centimeters long and six in diameter, hav-
Ing a resistance of 0-323 ohm. A small bar magnet 5 centimeters
long and weighing six and a half grams, gave, when introduced
into the coil, a deflection of 40°. On withdrawing the magnet,
the needle moved 40° in the opposite direction.

2. A small coil, 20 centimeters long and 3% in diameter,
made of No. 16 wire and having a resistance of 0371 ohm,

912 G. F. Barker—New Vertical-lantern Galvanometer.

square inches of zinc surface, was passin
the center of a large wire coil, whose resistance was 0-295 ohm,

and of twenty centimeters, of 10°. <A rotation of 90° gave a
deflection of 12° and one of 180°, of 24°. These deflections

was connected to the instrument. The heat from the hand
placed at five centimeters distance caused a deflection of 3°.

Two cubes of boiling water acted differentially on the pile.
At the distance of five centimeters the deflection was 20°;
moving one to ten centimeters, the deflection was reduced to 5°.

oltaic current.—?%. A drop of water was placed on a zine
plate. While one of the connecting copper wires touched the
ra other was made to touch the water. The deflection
was 16°

The claim which is here made for the instrument, however, 1s
rather for the general principle of its construction, than for the
advantages peewee by the individual galvanometer above
described, which was constructed at short notice, to meet aD
emergency. The comparatively small cost for which it may be
fitted to the vertical lantern, the readiness with which it may
be brought into use, the brilliantly illuminated circle of light
which it gives upon the screen, with its graduated circle and

instrument by varying the coil and needles, so that all experi
mental requirements may be answered, and finally, the satis:

A. EF. Verrill— Gigantic Cephalopod. 213

Art. XXXII.— Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum
of Yale College. No. XXXV.—Notice of the oceurrence of
another Gigantic Cephalopod (Archit-uthis) on the coast of New-
Joundland, in December, 1874; by A. E. VERRILL.

_ Tam now able to add some important information concern-
ing an additional specimen which was cast ashore last winter at
Grand Bank, Fortune Bay, Newfoundland. As in the case of
several of the previous specimens, I am deeply indebted to the
Rev. M. Harvey for information concerning this one, and also
for the jaws and one of the large suckers of the tentacular arms,
these being the only parts preserved. Although this specimen
went ashore in December, Mr. Harvey did not hear of the event
until March, owing to the unusual interruption of travel by the
severity of the winter. He informs me that Mr. George
Simms, Magistrate of Grand Bank, has stated in a letter to him
that he examined the creature a few hours after it went ashore,
but not before it had been mutilated by the removal of the
tail by the fishermen, who finally cut it up as food for their
humerous dogs; and that the long tentacular arms were
26 feet long and 16 inches in circumference (probably meaning
at their broad terminal portion); the short arms were “‘ one-

cumference,” (evidently meaning the head, behind the bases of
the arms); the length of the body “from the junction to the
tail” was 10 feet, (apparently meaning from the anterior edge
of the mantle to the origin of the caudal fins). He thinks the
tail, which had been removed, was about one-third as long as
the body, but this is probably overestimated, judging from the
Logie Bay specimen (No. 5 of my former papers), in which it

* This Journal, vol. ix, pp. 123, 177, Plates II-V. See also the American Nat-

+In a eaeurait te pielenied wn aga eon 1875, M. Paul Gervais has

also given a s i ously kno
eat ea of the gigantic ce P vali : portib

ashore. He also quotes the brief notice of the animal by M. Vélain
rendus, t. xxx, p. 1002, Seance du April 19, 1875). It is stated that this ex-
ngs to the ith Ommastrephes. 80 f

214 A. E. Verrill—Gigantie Cephalopod.

was about eee but ioe may have been cut off above its

in my pos-
session, 1s one inch in diameter, across ae de cents rim,
and in form and structure agrees closely with those previeg
geanetye Pe figured by me from the tentacular arms of Nos
and 5 (vol. ix, Plate rv, figs. 11, 12,

* The | ibs are still attached together, in their natural poses
by the cartilages.* They agree very closely in form with t
large jaws of Architeuthis princeps V. (No. 10), figured on Plate
V, vol. ix, but they are about one-tenth smaller. The upper
jaw measures 111™ in height (front to back) ; 88™™ from tip of
beak to front edge of palatine laminz ; 20™" from tip of beak
to the base of the notch. The lower jaw measures 96™™ in
total length ; 80™™ from ep of beak to front edge of lamine ;
19™ from tip to base of note

From the close agreement of these j jaws with those of A, prin-
ceps, there can be very little doubt that they belong to that
species; and if so the measurements given will be of great im-
portance as affording additional knowledge of the approximate
form and proportions of this, the largest known species

Nore.—In “ The Boole,” London, 2d Series, No. 118, p. 4526, July, 1875,
there is an article entitled, ‘‘ Notice of a gigantic Daphadaod (Dinoteuth is pro-
boscideus), which was ee ciied . e Dingle, in Kerry, two hundred years ago B
A.G More, F.L.S.’ cle is chiefly a reprint of the rude popular accounts
written ai f the capture, and upon e Mr. More attempts to
foun ew genus and species. The one character Angers he relies upon as of
generic value, is the power of proj the e form of & proboscis.

But he apparently does not know that this is habitually done ete! the various ier

mon species of Ommastrephes, Loligo, etc., and perhaps by all ten-armed cephato

. There is no reason to suppose , from the a ——- that ‘his
achus. It

BES

arms

ngth, and were as thick as a man’s leg, and had two rows s of
serrated suckers; the proboscis (buccal mass with beak) was he a Ae of a man’s
fist ;” the Sag was “like an eagle’s but broader.” The whol Ba
to have large as a large horse e measurements giv vat indi
men seuintion: ideo several of the American examples, and but litile, if pk "Tanger
than our No. 5, from ie Bay.

In the August number of the “' Annals and Magazine of Natural History et

xvi, p. 123, the same writ briefly deaccibed the beak, and -
tentacles and arms of another specimen taken off pots “Taland; on the west coast
il. The tentacular arms are said to have feet long
: 9 inches; the central suckers nearly 1 inch in
diameter ; those of the outer rows ‘5 of an inch; one short arm id to
been 8 6) 15 inches in e€ + the ba:

parts of -

* These will be gard nn ail on he gg copblopat, now n
paration for ee rs cademy of

Chemistry and Physics. 215

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

I. CHEMISTRY AND Puysics.

action of dilute sulphuric acid upon a mixtur arts potas-
Slum chlorate and 48 s sodium chloride. The acid was con-
tained in a flask with a lateral tubulure, connected with a similar

weight of the known volume of the mixture. The
cludes: 1st, that the composition of hypochloric oxide, calculated

Proportions of the constituents varying with the mode of prepara-
tion; and 4th, that Millon’s statement of the existence of a com-
pound Cl,O,, rests on mistaken conclusions.—Liebig’s Annalen,
elxxvii, 1, May, 1875, FB.
n the presence of Sulphuric oxide in the Gaseous products
of combustion of Pyrite.—Scuurer Kestner finds that the abun-
t oh

SO, does not therefore come from dissociation of SO,. In
Second experiment, the sulphurous oxide was mixed with twice
its volume of air; but the issuing gases did not render turbid a

216 Seientifie Intelligence.

; fe ee

3. On Calcium Hypochlorite from Bleaching Powder.—\sixe-
Z own some light upon the chemical constitution of
bleaching powder, a subject upon which ver ch discussion

yielded needle-shaped crystals called his attention to the matter;
he repeated the experiment and isolated the crystals. They dis

4 Tequires 18°60 Ca and 33:02 Cl. The second crop of

1:2:2, which are those required by calcium hypochlorite.
Hence Kingzett regards Odling’s view of the constitution of

water, ANN observed that th result obtained was too low
nd that the liquid posse liar odor recalling that of
chlorofor Further investigation showed ine to be
ixed with at least 10 per a substance boiling between

80° and 165°, the principal part of which consists of bromofo
is readily detected by the influence it has in lessening the
ity of bromine in water as well as by its odor, which 18 —
ly perceived when the bromine is agitated with a solution :
otassium iodide, and the whole decolorized by sodium thiosul-
phate.— Ber, Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 792, June, 1875. &. F. ®

m Analysis in titrition.— net

has proposed to use his exceedingly ingenious quantitative metho
of spectrum analysis in titrition. In a word, this method measures
the intensity of any colored light by the quantity of white light

Chemistry and Physics. 217

necessary to extinguish it. To apply it to volumetric analysis, as
or example to the determination of dextrose by Fehling’s solu-
tion, he would proceed as follows: Add to a measured volume of

od are: Ist,
It does not depend for its accuracy upon a definite, p ermsaerpie’

i
mined at the time of use. 3d, The small volume of the liquid
(about two cubic centimeters) which is required. 4th, It admits

method, a long practice with it in order to obtain exact results.
Results of the use of the method are given which are closely *

accordant and quite satisfactory.—Liebig’s Annalen, clxxvil, 31,

May, 1875, G. F. B.
6. Fluorene and fluorene Alcohol.—Barzizr, having shown
— fluorene—a hydrocarbon first obtained by Berthelot from
|

m
de of the carbonyls as first pointed out by Berthelot.

from boiling benzol, appears as hard white hexagonal pies
coho

C,,H,(CO)4H,=0, ,H,(CH,0)=C,,H,(CHOH).
It melts at 153°, and is oxidized by chromic acid to diphenylene
carbonyl again. When heated for some time above its fusing

point, it loses water and yields fluorene ether, which melts at

n
(C,,H,, CH),O. When the alcohol is heated with acetic oxide
(c 100° for eight hours, an aceto-fluorene ether (0, H,,

Fluorene alcohol is the first alcohol discovered which loses water

218 Scientifie Intelligence.

by heat alone and forms an ether. It plays we part of an incom-

plete peo ol.— C. R., Ixxx, 1396, June, 1875. 4G. F. B.
7. rarabin, a@ new ‘Carbohydr rate. ea ee has pre-
ared both ‘from the tissue of beets and of carrots, a new w carbo-

ing with schol and drying, forms a friable white pe swell-
ing up in water and dissolving on the addition of an acid when
heated. Alkalies peepee it seen,» and it gives no oil

souiast with it, it is converted into arabinic acid. Quantitative
experiments showed that 38°5 per cent of the beet pulp
arabinic — 54:0 per me pararabin, and 7°5 per cent cellulose

er. 1. Chem. Ges., iy Sea 1875.

Pricti tion of Rurefied yee ’*a. Kunpr and E, Wars
have investigated some soe. ‘of the kinetic theory of gases
when the pressure is exceedingly small. This theory plage
that 1 the mean length of path of the molecules is a quantity t that
may be neglected in comparison with the linear dimensions of the
space filled with the gas. But as this path is saatar as the
density, this is equivalent to saying, that the density in a given
space must not be too little. It appears that the sliding coefficient
for a gas and a solid partition has sensibly a determined value

gas molecules ren reflected from the partition with its ae of
Seewation to 1:4 (42),—consequently for air, for which t 760

mms. pressure /=-000083 mms., according to Stefan, to to 000058 pe

p being the pressure in mms. of mercury. The present —
ment gives the coefficient about twice as great, or ‘0001. From

The presen du he
ing to Maxieott’s method. as logarithmic decrement of t 4
torsional vibrations — a glass disk between two fixe
disks near it was m Th
was 159 mms., its weight ¢ oe grms., and ae =. held he a bifilar
suspension of two fine silver wires 063 m amete .
made the disturbing damping movements so eet that they migh

Chemistry and Physics. 219

be neglected ; with the smallest decrements measured, they only
amounted to a little over one per cent, and with nearly all the
measurements employed for calculations much less than one per
cent, of the total value observed. A substantial simplification of
the apparatus employed was thus obtained, one vibrating disk
being sufficient. With pressures of the air varying from 750 to
380 mms., the absolute coefficient of friction of air was found to
be 000189. Maxwell found the value ‘000198, Meyer by Max-
well’s method -000197, Meyer from transpiration experiments
found -¢00182 and Puluj ‘000185. Calling the coefficient of air 1,
that of H was -488 and of CO, -806, while Graham’s transpiration
experiments gave °4855 and °807. Pure aqueous vapor at 21° C.
and {6 mms. pressure gave 526. To test the theory at low pres-
sures the chief difficulty consisted in filling the space with pure
gases. Nothing could be done with caoutchoue connections,

stand over night. With a pressure of 760 mms. the value of the

decrement was 0387.—Phil. Mag., \, 53; Proc. Roy. Pruss.

Acad., 1875, p. 160. BOF.
9. Conductibility of Heat by Gases—A. Kunpr and E. War-

ecom
Sponds to the difference in velocity in the case of friction. The
€xperiment consisted in the measurement of the rapidity of cooling
of thermometers of various forms in glass cases of different shapes
at 0°. At high pressures the effects are masked by air currents,
but with low pressures this disturbance disappears. Thus with
4 spherical thermometer the velocity was independent of the pres-
s.and 1m

ords an
heat conduction. Calling that of hydrogen 1, that of air was
found to be ‘137, and that of CO2, 082 against -141 and "103 cal-
eulated by Maxwell. The time of cooling of a thermometer in a
yacuum diminishes if left to itself, in one experiment rape

220 Scientific Intelligence.

due to exceedingly minute traces of aqueous vapor from the plug
of the stop-cock. The quantity of ponderable matter is so small,
and the ease of measuring$'the velocity of cooling such, that it
seems to offer an extremely good test for the quality of a vacuum.
In an experiment, under 760 mms. pressure, the time was 225
seconds, under 1°3 mms. 364, and continually increasing the ex-
haustion the times 664, 555, 602 and 712°5 seconds were obtained.
The last number was the result of drying the apparatus in an oil
bath at 200° C., and shutting it off at that temperature. To
prove that we thus obtain an actual vacuum with regard to heat
conduction, a thermometer was manufactured which by slips of
glass could be put into two different envelopes. With medium
pressures the times of cooling were nearly as one to two, but with

the last vacuum 576 and 576. Replacing the air by hydrogen,
gave 588 and 578, and with carbonic acid 586 and 578. In the

was 6, and in the other 2°5. eir experiments, therefore, cannot
be looked upon as rigorously demonstrating the law founded
: hich

- heat _of mercury on the temperature.—Phil. Vag., 1, 585
oe. Roy. Pruss. Acad., 1875, p. | pate

y a pluviometer the results are much too small. e leaves
condense far more than surrounding bodies, and their temperature
may fall six or eight degrees below the air, showing that ear
emissive power is much greater than that of the metal surfaces 0

ter.

cube was
ered with

the leaves, e deflections were measured by a mirror an ?
and a twentieth of a degree was easily observed. On trying 5° ;
eral kinds of leaves it appeared that their emissive poweT did no
differ greatly, was the same on both sides, and had an average
value of 94, that of lampblack being 100.

0
thin sheet of copper riveted to a steel wpring. One face wae
ered with lampblack, the other with the leaf to be examined.

c40)

Chemistry and Physics. 221

Exposing the two surfaces in turn to the radiation of a metallic

blackened box heated by steam, and waiting until the es

eter needle came to rest, the ratio of the deviations gave the
e leaf.

iL Velocity of Magnetization.—M. Deprez, in pursning othe re-
searches on electro-magnets and their application to the registration

pices: the iaffacn nce of t e tal of the cack

measure the duration of the ar he used the method indivated
in his communication on electric chronographs. The noe
portion of the elecro-ma agnets consisted of cores two mms. in diam-
eter and thirteen mms. in leneth. e coils contained fourteen

fi au
tried were the ordinary iron of commerce, the soft iron used
specially for telegraphs, peer cast iron, cast see cretched
and chilled, and gray cast iro e results were quite unex-
pected, for all but the last kind of i ir on gave nearly the cae
period ‘for magnetization and demagnetization. The first of these
Was about -0015, and the second "00025. The gray cast vein ph

transmissi
signals can be obtained ‘at aera of aio ae seco nd, or with

signals at regular intervals much greater pipet 3 is ‘titaahie
— ony of cast iron appears to depend on its molecular

emagnetization, the time of fall of the vt the magetintion,
and the return of = style to its initial position. These a

pata ie the num a only one cell is employed ; ge in-

reasing the paca he rapidity of — = also increased. —
Comptes Rendus, xxx, 1358; Phil. Mag., | BE. ©.

222 Scientific Intelligence.

pears to me utterly irreconcilable with the gravitation theory.
It is a condition absolutely essential to the gravitation theory
that the surface of the ocean should be highest in equatorial re-
ions and slope downward to either pole. Were water abso-

Atlantic to flow toward the arctic regions than it can compel the
waters of the Gulf of Mexico up the Mississippi into the Missouri.
The pong is equally great in both cases.
In order to prove what has Sion 2 stated, let us take a section of
= mid-Atlantio, sccith and south, across the equator; and, to
e the gravitation theory every advantage, let us select that
vetieulan section ble 10 by Dr. ce a as the we 0. -

¥v.
Soe
The hat the ae cold water comes so near the surface at
the ote is regarded — Dr. Carpenter en ce in favor of
the gravitation theory. On first looking at Dr. Carpenter 8 ae
wn €

tion it forcibly risk me that if it was accurate ely dra
ocean to be in equilibrium would require to stand at a higher level
in the North Atlantic than at the equator. In order, therefore, t0
determine whether this is the case or ci Tasked the hydrographer
of the Admiralty to favor me with the temperature soundings 1?
mae in the section, a favor which was most obligingly —
he following are the temperature soundings at the three stati
Proc. Soc., vol. 3 vantageous section might
Ripe itla« Sens, Aces So io, fi Tho a section referred tos abown in Pat
IIL. The peculiarity of this section, as will be observed, is the Sine oe
bsieyre eat as compared with that of the heated water

a

Chemistry and Physics. 223

A, B, and C. The temperature of C is the mean of six sound-
ings taken along near the equator :—

A B C
Mean of six
Depth | Lat. 37° 54’ N. | Lat. 23° 10’ N. || temperature sound-
in j|Long. 41° 44’ W. Long. 38° 42’ W.|| ings near equator.
Fathoms.
: Depth in Tempera-
Temperature. Temperature. pert deters, ie.
Surface 70°0 72-0 Surface.| 77°9
1 63°5 67-0 10 77-2
200 60°6 57°6 20 att
60°0 62°5 30 16-9
400 54°8 47°7 40 Ti4
500 46°7 43°7 50 64
600 41°6 41°7 60 60°4
700 40°6 40°6 70 59-4
800 38-1 39-4 80 58-0
37-8 39-2 58°0
1000 37-9 38°3 100 55-6
1100 SUL 38-0 150 51°0
1200 sr hl | 376 200 46°6
1300 ato 36°7 300 42°2
1400 Bil 36°9 40 40°3
1500 386° 500 38°9
2700 36:2 wus 600 39°2
2720 sete 85-4 700 39°0
800 ook
00 38°2
1000 36°9
1100 37-6
1200 36°7
1300 35°8
1400 36-4
1500 36-1
m. 34°7

On computing the extent to which the three columns A, B, and
C, are each expanded by heat according to Muncke’s table of the

Inches above that column, In short, it is evident that there must
4 gradual rise from the equator to latitude 38° N. of 34 feet.
Any one can verify the accuracy of these results by making the
necessary computations for himself.*
I may observe that, had column C extended to the same depth

* The tem i ction i hat less than
© temperature of column C in Dr. Carpenter's section is somew: ‘

that given in the foregoing table; so that, according to section, the differ-
estima Ve! between column C and columns A and B would be greater than my

224 Seientifie Intelligence.

form. It is impossible that this immense mass m water,
extending to such a depth in the North Atlantic, could have been
brought from equatorial regions by means of gravitation. And,

eater. . Ca
be aware of this difficulty besetting sha eae: and meets it by
stating that “the upper stratum of the North Atlantic is not
nearly as much cooled down by its limited polar underflow, as
that of the South Atlantic is by the vast movement of antarctic
water which is constantly taking place toward the equator.” But
this “ vast movement of antarctic water” necessarily implies a vast
counter-movement of warm surface-water. So that if there 18
more polar water in the South Atlantic to produce the cooling
effect, there should likewise be more warm water to be cooled.
According to the wind theory of oceanic circulation the explan-
ation of the whole phenomena is simple and obvious. It has

it receives from the sun. The reason why the warm ce strata
are so much thicker on the North Atlantic than on the equato

Chemistry and Physics. 225

regions is perfectly obvious. The surface-water at the equator is
swept into the Gulf of Mexico by the trade winds and the equato-
rial current, as rapidly as it is heated by the sun, so that it has
not time to gather to any great depth. But all this warm water
is carried by the Gulf-stream into the North Atlantic, where it
accumulates. That this great depth of warm water in the North
Atlantic, represented in the section, is derived from the Gulf-
stream, and not from a direct flow from the equator due to gravi-
tation, is further evident from the fact that temperature sounding
A in latitude 38° N. is made through that immense body of warm
water, upwards of 300 fathoms thick, extending from Bermuda to
near the Azores, discovered by the Challenger Expedition, and
justly regarded by Captain Nares as an offshoot of the Gulf
r

ermuda and the Azores; sounding 5 is No.
6 “temperature curve,” between Teneriffe aud St. Thomas.

There is an additional reason to the one already stated why the
surface temperature of the South Atlantic should be so much

rent. But, according to the gravitation theory, the colder water
should be adeeciak. ie ©

1 fact of a mass of water, 200 fathoms deep and ex-
tending over fifteen degrees of latitude, remaining above water of
or four degrees higher temperature, shows how little influ-

ence difference of temperature has in producing motion.
ad the potency which some attribute to it, one would suppose
isplace the warm

water underneath. If difference of density is sufficient to move
the water horizontally, surely it must be more than sufficient to
Te a sink vertically. Scie les
- On the artificial imitation of magnetipolar native platinum ;
by M. oe og a memoir read before the
* Captain Nares’s Report, July 30, 1874.
Am. Jour. Scr. Tarrp seers ae X, No. 57.—Supr., 1875.

226 Scientific Intelligence.

French Academy of Sciences in March, oe — published in
= Ixxx, 4 the oo Rendus, gives the s of a series of
experiments on platinum, in which he assiaied in imitating
entirely ie platinum hevinig magnetic polarity, by combining
iron with the metal in fusion.
Daubrée obec in his introductory remarks, that in wash-
ing the auriferous sands of the Ural, some gold is left in the
residue associated with ferruginous grains. To separate the lat-
e

made known i o
set quantity, as if it were a stronger magnet than the native
magnetite magnets. e presence of 12 t 0 19 per cent of iron
in this _ of platinum has long been Sigires it having been
first examined by Berzelius; and Breithaupt made the variety
a distines: species, calling it ‘es Eisen nplatin.” Gustaf Rose, think-
ing that the iron present was insufficient to account for the

magnetic property, supposed that iridium contributed to it.
n a piece of this iron-platinum weighing twelve grams, Tre-

ceived from the Ural, Daubrée found three axes and six poles.
fore proceeding with his experiments for reproducing ‘this
magnetipolar — pomep ae sought to ascertain what effect
fusion would have upon the On fusing it there were some

iron, and a dull surface film was formed. When cooled again,
r fusion for about one minute, the magnetic property W

somewhat weakened and polarity was lost, evidently owing to the
oss

In his experiments, 24 grams of platinum were fused with 6
grams of very soft iron wire, the iron being twisted into a cor rd
and added when the platinum was in full fusion. Immediately on
the introduction of the iron it was instantly dissolved, giving out,

making a surface

bar, each fragment was equally magnetipolar. A very small bar
was afterward cast; this had energetic poles of ey eee —
— remained after the sso of scoria ore -deisantne ved.
ese pol

apati
made at the per des Mines, gave iron 16°87, —— 83° set
99°92. Its ic gravity was 15°66. The specific gravity ©

the second oy 9 was 15°70, ages that in composition ape was

Others oe were sl with a “- 75 per cent of iron;
these had no polarity. An alloy with 21-6 per cent of iron, te

Chemistry and Physies. 227

14. How to teach Chemistry.—Dr. AND’S six
lectures delivered at the Royal College of Chemistry in June,
1872, have been summarised and edited E CHAL ‘

-C.S.; the Lectures on Chemistry at the Brisbeck Institution in
a small 12mo volume of only 83 pages, republished by Messrs.
Lindsay and Blakiston of Philadelphia in a neat form, and abun-
dantly illustrated, chiefly by engravings from Bloxam’s Text-

rT}
Examination of Water, with Experiments 1 to 12. (II) Hydro-

Examination of Hydrochloric Acid, Chlorine, study of Hydro-
i 38).

manual will be found an invaluable adjunct to the
lecture room and is of special importance to the teacher who

228 Scientific Intelligence.

Il GEoLocy anp Natura History.

1. Cotemporaneous formation, in the thermal waters at Bour-
bonne-les-Bains, of different Mineral Species. —M. Davsrée,
C. R. Feb. and March, 1875, t. lxxx) describes the following min-
erals as of recent formation from these thermal waters: tetrahedrite
( antimonial copper), chalcopyrite (copper pyrites), bornite
(variegated copper or phillipsite), chaleocite (sulphide of copper),
pyrite, galenite, anglesite, calcite and chabazite. By pumping, the
bottom of an old well, at Bourbonne-les-Bains, called the Roman
well, was laid bare. The material was a black argillaceous
earth containing bits of wood, nuts, etc., and then, at a lower level,

The temperature of the waters is near 60° C. The substances
the waters hold in solution are chiefly chlorides and sulphates of
the alkalies, and of lime and magnesia, as well as bromides an
carbonates of iron and lime, an alkaline silicate, and traces of
arsenic and manganese, with no sulphides. The total weight of
the residue on evaporation is 7 to 8 grams per litre. Daubrée ob-
serves that the sulphides would have been formed through ~~ a

markable, as he says, that sulphides so unlike should have =

a 2 same.
The antimony is referred by him to the coins, some of which

The chabazite was formed in connection with a cement of frag-
; sei paca

t

are sometimes lined with colorless rhombohedral crystals, nearly
cubic in form, which have the characters of chabazite. In the
lime, small crystals occur of a right rectangular form which est
not yet been determined with certainty, but which resemble muc
those of lime-harmotome found under similar circumstances at
Plombiéres.

Such facts teach us, says Daubrée, how important has been the
agency of the water imbibed by, or traversing, rocks, in all parts

Geology and Natural History. 229

of the earth’s crust, especially in regions where terrestrial heat isa
little elevated, giving the moisture special energy in effecting
mineral changes.

2

there can be no doubt. But though, from the evidence of the
deposits themselves, it,appears impossible to arrive at any abso-

geological position we might ascertain some ond which
a be carried, and thus be enabled to assign an
extreme limi eir antiquity. I believe that I am right in

interglacial period. I must confess that, wit e
do not regard this question as conclusively settled by

any such isolated piece of evidence; and t whatever further

testimony may eventually be adduced as to so

tion of this cou try by man, there are, in my opinion, possibilities,
rticular case, of the. clay being either to

reconstituted en accidentally redeposited, which make it

districts which were never overwhelmed by the confluent ice
masses, and in regions which were not submerged during the last

230 Scientific Intelligence.

that no paleolithic bed can be shown to belong to a more
recent date than the mild era which preceded the last great sub-

Searles V. Wood,
his upper glacial deposits, with the lower glacial beds and till of
Scotland and the northwestern districts of England. Even the
general submergence of the eastern districts he assigns to another
and a far earlier date than that of the Welsh area; and, indeed,

e finds room for the whole of the denudation of the glacial

no doubt pardon those who are not prepared at once to accept
them. In the mean time we must rest content with knowing that,
so far as the paleolithic deposits of the east of England are con-
c i i i i

aring beds repose on a trough cut out in the upper glacia
peas which itself rests on middle glacial sands and gravels.

_ Again, near Brandon, some of the higher gravels containing the
implements show a very large percentage of the quartzite pebbles

g beds were deposited, and to a time when the old "see
ttom had been long enough converted into dry land for it to

ee

Geology and Natural History. 231

become habitable by man and the numerous mammals of the

Quaternary fauna.
ft

preglacial or glacial date. the contrary, I am inclined to
think that many of our principal valleys were already marked out
in preglacial times, and that a large ortion of the whole

ker
hitherto discovered in Britain are concerned, we cannot safely
carry back their existence to preglacial times, it by no means
follows that the earliest traces of the occupation even of this part
of the world by man have as yet been discovered. e Abbe

by mammals as distinct from those of the present day as the

cerotherium is from the Rhinoceros, or the Mastodon trom the
Elephant, primeval man was fashioning implements indistin-
guishable from those of neolithic times; while it is not until we
come to the Sables de ’Orléannais, which are superimposed upon
the Caleaire de Beauce, that we find the earliest trace of an
anthropomorphous ape, in the shape of the Hylobates antiquus.
The Dryopitheeus, it will be remembered, belongs to the Upper
Miocene,

While speaking of the possible errors of observation, I may
mention that in Sweden the Sddertelje hut, which has often been

So ancient a period as was formerly assigned to it, but is con-
sidered as being of comparatively modern date.

ut, returning to the main question, though for the present we
Seem unable to find any satisfactory evidence of the existence of
man in western Europe ; i
follows that none such will eventually be found. It must, more-

shane is fi o be sought i
clime, and amidst a more luxurious vegetation, yielding through-
out the year some readily available means of subsistence both to
man and to animals that would serve him as food. In the earliest

232 Scientific Intelligence.
the ae sun.” Most remarkable it is that implements, which
i 0

in Southern Africa and in the so-called lateritic deposits of the
south of In dia
The

made about ten years ago b %. Bruce er of the Indian
i oe wear but at that “Aime the absence of organic re-

rindi: of India for the year 1873, Mr. Medlicott, however, give
an account of a quartzite implement of precisely the same class as
those found in Southern India, which was disc phat en n the
a Aleposits of the Narbadé poi These depos z, who h,

by the late Dr, Falconer, were regarded as Pliocene, Mr. "Medlicott
sees roi to place among those of Pleistocene icheve
view may eventually prove to be correct, we have in India, as in

temporaries. This cies discovery remains, ci ever, a soli-
tary instance, but anak surely lead to other and even more in-
teresting results from the si rset of those dhe in the
wide field = geologic my researches dia.

F rneo, W have =a to hope there are, at the
present mome nt, some cavern-investigations being carried on under
the og a of several Fellows of this eee ba who ha
aided me by their support, it is not, I think, unreasonable to
expect ‘that one light may be thrown on the antiquity of man in
the far East. When we look back upon all the large array of
facts while have been accumulated on this subject during the ee

ixteen years, we may find good ground for encouragement,

nt, et stro scientia

3. Protriton petrolei of the Upper Coal-Measures of Muse a nd

Millery, France, a naked-skinned Salamander.—M. A, GaupRY,

describes the specimens, to which he has given the ears name,

the Bulletin of the Geo mop Society of — 1875, p. 299, an
Remains 0

in length from 35 to 45 millimeters. The head is much larget
rr than in the Salamander, and the tail much —
orbits are very large. There are "29 vertebre, 3 cervical, }
dorsal, 8 lumbar and 8 very small caudal; the ribs are very short;
there are only traces of a pelvis, owing probably to its having

Geology and Natural History. 233

been incompletely ossified. The fore and hind limbs are about
equal in length and each Breet ered. M. Gaudry remarks that the
Pelion (Raniceps) Lyelli Wyman, of the Ohio Carboniferous, which
Wyman was disposed to refer to the Batrachians, was probably re-
lated to the Protriton; and that the Apateon pedestris of Miinster-
sine sad fae o be identical with the Protriton petrolet.
Mende aay Extinction of the ancient Fauna of the Island of
- Aves. Mitnu-Epwarps.—A m — entitled

0
tinct species named by A. Miln e-Edwards, Erythromachus >
Ardea m SA tees Athene murivora, and ecropsittacus Roderi-
canus. In 1761, when the astronomer Pingré was living there,
the Solitaires had become so rare that he knew of them only from

aving been seen by him. The extinction of the
a

in

Company in 1759 and 1760, enumerates the vessels sent nee the
land-tortoises, and shows that the ey took away in less than 18
months over 30 ge fect is not surprising, the author cme ‘that
these animals, on mall ot —— notwithstanding their fecun-
dity, could not Wietand means of destru
man was the agent of extermination both for the tontsiach and the
bi —— Hise cutee Rend., May, 18

se gigantic vr ie. * nile extinct on the Islands of
Mauritine Rodriguez, and Réunion, are living on that of Aldabra,
another of the Mixtaroas Group. But there is danger of its extine-
tion there. To prevent this, if possible, a memorial has been
addressed to the Governor and Commander-in-c hief of Mauritius

saltes that some means may be devised for “ saving the ast ex-
em ae vi a diene meels of the Dodo and Solitaire.” The memo-

5. Religuie Aquitanice ; being ———— to ane
and esse ensc of Périgord and the adjoining Provinces of
20 by Epovarp Larrer and Henry Curisty.
Edited by Pasuak tinea Seu ws. PRS, PGS, &c.,

— Roy. Mi. mo Staff Colleges, Sandhurst. Part XVI, May,
875. Pages 225-256 and 183-187. Plate C. 1x and x.—This
par of the Reliquie Aquitanice contains, among its interesting
acts and illustrations, a figure of a fish in outline, from a Reindeer

234 Seieniife Titelligence:

a referable probably to a species of Sqgualius, obtained at
augerie Basse. A chapter on the birds whose bones occur in
the caves, by Alphonse Mfilne-Raw ards, describes relics of three
ale, Falco Julvus, Aquila clanga, and Halictus albicilla ; the
ommon Buzzard, Buteo vulgaris; four Falcons, Falco com-
munis, FE. subbuteo, F. tinnuneulus, F. milvus ; two Vultures,
Vultur barbatus and V. monachus ; the Owls, Strix bubo,
8. brachyotus, 8. flammea, Noctua minor, Glaucideum pas-
serinum, oN yetea nivea; also, Corvus corax, C. coronatus
corniz (a — species), C. ‘monedule (the Jackdaw), Pyrrho-
corax alpinus, P. primigenius, oe 3 graculus, Nucifraga
caryocatactes echo Scandinavian variety), Pica caudate (Magpie),

, Alauda arvensis (Sky-lark), Turdus viscivorus,
Ampelis garrulus (Waxw ing, rarely now seen in France), Motacilla
phenicura, Hirundo rupestris (Crag-Martins, now common in_ the
Alps and Pyrenees), Alcedo ispida (Kingfisher), Columba livia
same with sb pi geo n), Lagopus — (Willow-Grouse,
ound at the north and not in temperate Europe), Lagopus mutus
oe Besar of the Alps and Heaton @ Tetrao urogallus,
tetrix, T. perdix (Gray Partridge), Gallus, the Cock, (found
along with bones — resus speleus, Rhinoceros, &¢.), GEdienemus
i now aquaticus, Gallinul ula hloropus, Grus primi-

with mange) their remains are oe Part: o them were
taken into the caves ia food, while others ipceened: to have been
washed in = ner

oe be ish di Basse, by E. T. Harvy, with two plates illustrating
the s

6. aueins of Stone Mountain, a granitic muss in Georgia.
—The well-known “ Stone Mountain” in DeKalb County, Georgia,
twenty miles southeast of Atlanta, on the railroad to Augusta, is
a solid = mass of ' granite, by estimate eee to 2000 feet in
height. nbroken. and smoot
the eee side is inclined so as to be ofe easy ascent; while the
west and southwest are so steep as to be barely accessible. On
the inclined surface, the rock breaks off in layers that are from
a few td ay several feet thick, which structure may be due

no "doaht that below the surface Inmination, a site could be
omg out a quarter of a mile in length if man could command
granite exists a a wide region of country and

Geology and Natural History. 235

is much used for building purposes.— Letter from Mr. FE. Hillyer
of ae Georgia.

F us Anomalodonta of S. A, Miller.—The peers te
Ace Ss the genus Anomalodonta and the use of the
Prof. C. A, White, published in this Journal, ix, 318 (April, ‘ar8)
is replied to by ‘Mr. Miller in the J uly number of the Cincinnati
Quarterly Journal of Science

8. HKxepansion of rocks a heat.—M. Pfaff (Z. S. Geol. Ges
xxviv, 401) has determined for the expansion of the ee. of
the Fichtelgebirge between the ordinary temperature and a
heat — ,180 C.), 0°0168; for a si porphyry of the Tyrol,
0°0127; for the basalt of Auvergne,

9. Coot logy of Eastern Mapnhace ie W. W. Dodge has
a paper entitled ‘* Notes on the Geology of Eastern Misaasioeckes
in the raptinpiny of ey Boston Society of Natural History,
F srg 3, vol. xvii, p. 388.

. South pa ie ‘Galeay. —Mr. A. Hyarr has described, in

in = of the Boston Society of oe oe aa

ich
genus Cindtiton: and which Quenstedt had shown to be not of
this genus, but Ammonites, Mr. Hyatt has instituted the new
genus Buchiceras—named in honor of Von Buch,
11. On the composition of Coal and on the methods of arriv
at it, with deductions and remarks on Coul in general ; illustrated
on a sample of Coal from the Lower Coal Series gs Missouri, and
on the Water Supply of Columbia, Missouri ; by P. Scuwxitz
Ph.D., Prof. Chem. State University of Missouri. Contributions
from a i inbacahcey of the University, pp. 156-193, pe in
the Catalogue of the University, Jefferson City, 1 —Prof.
Schweitzer gives the results of detailed analyses of Be wees in-
ing i urities. He con

3. Devonian post miee. emion é Australia. —The trachyte
of Gladstone, intersecting Devonian rocks, has the composition
nearly of th the Puy-de-Dome. intree obtained, _

14°67, sesquioxide of iron 5°35, potash 5°65,
4°60, water of constitution 0°70, do. hygroscopic 0°60=99°37.—
. ooh Geol. Soc., xxviii, 312.

osphate of Lime of Bamle, Norway.—Occurs in nearly
hoetadntk beds, two to six feet thick in crystalline schists, and is

236 Scientifie Intelligence.

whitish and crystalline. An article on the localities of Southern
Norway, by MM. Brégger and Reusch, is soon to appear. Among
the associated minerals to be des cribed i in it, are anorthite in

fidrd in Iceland and oe and is illustrated by most excel-
lent figures on the three plate
This valuable memoir, like "the preceding of the two series, is
published in the . Abhandlung en der Senkenbergischen Natur, -for-
schenden Gesellschaft in Frankfurt a. MM.
16. Tables for the Determination and Classification of Minerals
found in the United States ; by James C. Foye, A-M., Prof. Chem.

e
17. Observations on the Phenomena of Plant life: a Paper
Gres to the Massachusetts Board of A nage by W. S.

er the results of his new See ai on the phenomena of
r

Bias life, in pare vets of those in a former Report, agen
vol. is Journal on page 512, and sustaining the same
conclusions.

18. Forest Flora of N. W. and Central India, a Handbook
of the Indigenous Trees eed Pape of those Countries, Com-
menced by the late J. Linpsay Srewart, M.D. ; continued and
completed by Dretrricu ae se Ph.D., Inspector General of
Forests to the Government of India. London: Allen & oF. 187 4

prac cal,” and an excellent practical work it Tt was Coupon

the Forest Flora ‘of Brit ish Burma, now preparing by
There is a good quarto sais of 70 plates, drawn and Hehogrephed
by Fitch.

-

Geology and Natural History. 237

the figures, one is given of the striking 4. Brasiliensis, now rather
common in conservatories. It de Pag that, one of the kinds of
Guaco, famous antidotes to snake-bites, is furnished by an Aristo-
lochia, vi zima of Guiana and Venezuela. Fasc. 6 ,
ubli hre

to general a3 acters, by Hegelmaier. The affinity is still re-
arded as uncertain; the recent reclamation of Callitrichie to
the Tieegae is not ee to; still it is thought that the

C.
same ‘year a 867), we may, Hie, atte properly retain Engel-
ma

e' Onagraces are by M. Micheli of Geneva. The most im-
portant genus is Jussiwa, with 36 species, under three sections.
Our northern J. decurrens is one of the species, and is well
a So is the a8 oocarpa of C, Wright in in Grisebach’s Pi.
Tota on which a genius, Oocarpon is here established. va

bium shes) is only. LE. BORE y of Fuschia and ote her

rises in spring, it is thought yoke peer rhees PE pow y or
tag acted upon in higher than in lower tasitetes.. "To test

showing a decided advantage in precocity; while the uncertain or
varying result of the two other plants tried were attributed to the
va that being of somewhat variable species they probably repre-

e forms. It occurred to M. DeCandolle to test the
mace in a different tad an i
er ad branches sent him from Montpellier of Populus
alba, Carpinus Betulus, Liriodendron, C ©
paired with similar branches taken from trees at Geneva; and,
after 8 common sojourn in a cool room long enough to make sure
complete penetration by the same irs were
P in glasses of water, with some sand at bottom, and kept

in a warmed room under exactly the same conditions. The
Catalpa requiring a higher temperature to start it, and coming,
therefore, much later into leaf, was made the subject of a subse-

238 Scientific Intelligence.

quent experiment. That with the other three commenced on the
4th of February. The result was that the German trees leafed out
first. In the case of the Poplar there was a difference of about 23

days in favor of the individual of the colder locality; in that of
the Carpinus about 18 days; and in that of the Tulip-tree a nindine
result was obtained when the comparison was restricted to

m
of the same size and degree of donélopmen t. The Catulpa of the
northern eer) cad aa 20 days in ranges ont the other.

WwW the same temperature act more powerfully and
promptly oon the plant of the higher latitude ? sera
refers it to two oage: attributing, however, most importance to
the second. First, to a natural selection of the buds which has
induced the el ce i e buds of a tree are in a con-

e.:: The

- prevail, unless indeed they suffer from frost. In this 8 wa si com
selection and a successive i of the tree to the cltiated?

And he goes on to show that what effectuates this result is, that
every peculiarity of a bud i is ordinarily reproduced year after year
in the succeeding growths. As a case in point he mentions a well

known Horse-chestnut tree in the environs of Ge eneva, upon whic

the owner, in the year of 1822 or 1823, detected a single branch

bearing double flowers ; this still continues, and has all along borne

double flowers, and shows no tendency to revert to the aig ged
i tree. G:

simple-flowered condition of the rest of th rafts

been taken from it, and it is thought to be abe original of all the

double-flowered Horse- oo in the wo Although this
may well illustrate how the ocity as me ~ pass; yet

DeCandolle doubts whether this ites of ht ranches produces
ray effect. Because, in the north precocity seems as likely
o be a disadvantage as an advantage, while at the south it ought

re heat for vegeta is yet to be proved that an
individual tree becomes eh better adapted to the climate as it
s in neral idea tha e does not

t
acclimatize. ‘The principal canis of this difference in the vegeta
tion of northern and southern individuals, in DeCandolle’s opinion,
is the complete hibernal repose of the former, rendering it some-
how more susceptible to the heat of spring; ‘tho ough in what way
is not stated. e would add that if the suggested —

Pcp bud-selection be not the true one in the case of trees,
to the general fixity is character in ae er ere sna
room for variation, yet the e anation =

api par vai precocious races better a ‘arly to the short
summer, the only difference being that a more time would be
required for a tree to fix a race than for an annual. An objection

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 239

to this view offers itself, however, in the fact that the precocious
vernal development was apparent, although less marked, in Zirio-
dendron and sie of which very few generations can have been
raised in Euro G.
R. JOHN Bowes Gray.—A “ List of Books, Memoir and
Mikosllagons eres ” commenced in Bite and added to up to
the close of 1873, is Dr. Gray’s own record of his A pub ineetinn
Mr. J. Sanders has ai paided those of still later date, and printed
it in an 8vo pamphlet of 58 pages. The total number of papers
is 1162! Some curious and characteristic notes are interspersed.
22. North American Oniscida; A. SruxBerG has a paper on
the North American Oniscida in the Ofver rsigt K. V.-Ak. For-
handlingar, 1875, No. 2, Stockholm, reviewing the described
species, oy adding descriptions of several new species.

Ill. MisceELLANEOUS ScIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

1, American Association for the Advancement of Science.—
The twenty-fourth annual meeting of the Association was opened
at - Detroit, = Wednesday, the 11th of August, under the fab
deney of J. E. Hi ilgard, Esq., of the Coast Survey. An address
of welcome to the city was delivered at the opening easiest by
Hon. C. J. Walker. The address of the retiring president, Dr.
John L, LeConte , Was delivered on ae - evening. hich will be

nomical observations . ‘determining Tongi s aad latitudes, 8
In latitude 38° 58’, “ Whe mgiteden ree limit of
segs was found +6 be at 11 a feet above pig da
Mosaic Account of Oreati tion, The Miracle of te es
a .

720 .12mo. New York, 1875. (J
Schatmerhors & Co.)—The author, who regards his method of
interpretation very literal, makes the third day of Genesis, the
day of t pearance of dry land and the creation of vegetation,
to include all of geological history up to the Glacial period of the
a hange in the obliquity of the ecliptic is e
the event of the fourth day, and the source of the Glacial cold.

bE me
hen, with regard to the fiat on the fifth day, “Let the waters
bring forth,” and that of the sixth, “ Let the earth bring forth,”
he says: “The waters, during the melting glaciers, were compar-

240 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

atively soon ready for animal life, but the land required a longer
time for preparation,”

6. Mineral Collection of Dr. Krantz.—This extensive collection
of minerals has been purchased for the Univer iets of Bonn, and is
now under the charge of Professor vom

G. P. Desuarzs, the distinguished paleontologist of Paris, died
on the 9th of June last, in his 79th year, at his residence in Boran
Oise).

nee ty: f the Semi-centennial Celebration of the Rensselaer ae
Institute, T N. Y., held June 14-18, 1874. 8 pp. 8vo. Troy, 1 The
Rensselaer School { is the ogee Scientific School in the e country, dating re 1824.

Pa so “2 read — the Pi Eta Society, 1875. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,
Troy, 4 pp. 12mo. oF. 1875. Printed by the Society. Among the papers
ind, one, ih Prof. H. A. Ro wland, treats of oma vibration, and a es
by W e of the in

a irennbes s magna,” by = Thomas, and some botanical notes, with the
u

Bulletin of the Bussy Institution (Jamaica Plains, Boston.) Harvard University.
— IV, 1875. Contains the results of much study and investigation of questions
with icultur

"Raper of the Commission of Engineers appointed to investigate and report a

tion 0 i i River

subject to inundation. 15 pp. 8vo, with maps. Washington, 1875. Contains
much valuable matter on the levees, . foods a alluvial basin of the a ie Wales

Western

R all the a gene inhabiti
on; by H. E. Dresser, FZS. Parts and 36, ‘coepaetiing the
3d volume. Office of the Zoological Society, London.

Report on the Hygiene of the U. S. Army, with ae of Milita
Posts. 568 pp. 8vo. Washington, 1875. Circular No. 8.: War Dapesniness,
Surgeon General’s Office, Washington, May 1, 1875.

Addition to the Paper on “ Volcanic Energy: an attempt to develop its true

Origin and Cosmical] Relations.” By ROBERT Mater, F. 7 8S. 9pp.4to. Read
before the Roy. Soc., May 7, 1874. Phil.

the borg, “rye attainable by rock-crushing an its asa onies by Ros-

13 Sr Phil. Mag. for July, 1875.
Supplement ia and of N. America; by E. D.
Co . 261-972 "of ian xv of the Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. Philadelphia.
ral Deposits in Essex Co., , especially in Newbury and Newburyport,

with a map and notes; by Charles cs ’ Brockway. 60 pp. 12mo. Newburyport.
1875. ~

Reports on the es Magnetic and other Observatories of the Do-
minion - Basser nae Ree the Annual Reports of the Meteorological
Office. 8 pp. 8 pa 875.

The Gold Fields of Yesso. Geological Survey of Hokkaido. Report by H. 8.

unroe. 80 pp. 8vo. soy J fee 1875.

Notes on the Geology of Virginia, No. II; by John J. Stevenson, Prof.
Geol. Univ. New York. atid er. Phil. Soc. for Feb., 1875.

icons Ligni ce Groups; by John J. Stevenson.

logical Relations of the Ligniti Proc.
Amer. Phil. Soc. for June, 1875. ges in favor of the Cretaceous age of the
Lignitic beds, but wi eee venere rward any more decisive facts than were
before published.
Abstracts and Results of Magnetical and Meteorological O

ons at the
Sagselic Ghens sinapy. sissies Caradac teas anasto ed taanbag ot 26, 56
and 108 pages.

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES]

Art. XXXIIL—Address of Dr. John L. LeConte, the retiring
President of the American Association for the Advancement 0 of
Science, at the meeting in August, 1875, at Detroit.

THe founders ip science in America, and the other great

students of nature, who have in previous years occupied the
elevated position in which I now stand, have addressed you
upon man, us subjects. In fulfilling the final apes

— of knowledge. Others again have given you the
istory of the developement of their respective branches of
study, and their present condition, and have, in eloquent dic-
tion, commended to your gratitude those who have established
on a firm foundation the basis of our modern systems of inves-
tigation.
ae recent changes in our constitution, by which you are led
ct from your two vice-presidents, and from the a
of the Ghenies! Sub-section, addresses on the
during the past year, restrain me from invading their sicliad
fields of labor, by alluding to scientific work which has been
ee since our last meeting. While delicacy forbids
me from so doing, I am equally debarred from repeating to you
the brief ee endeavored to give at a former meeting *
* Proceedings Am. Assoc. Ady. Sci., xxi, Portland.
Am, Jour. Sct.—Turrp —- Vou, X, No. 58—Ocr., 1875,

Y

242 Address of John L. LeConte.

of the coms and present condition of Entomology in the
United Sta

But it ae ; pated to me that a few thoughts, which have

cs a themselves upon my mind, touching the future re-
sults to be obtained from certain classes of facts not yet fully
developed on account of the great labor required for their
proper comparison, may not be without value. Even if the
facts be not new to you, I sok to be able, with your kind at-
tention, to present them in such way as to be suggestive of the
work yet to be done.

It has been perhaps said, or at least it has been often thought,
that the first mention of the doctrine of evolu ution, aS now
admitted to a eas: or less degree by every thinking man,
is found in Ecclesiastes, i, 9: ‘The thing that hath been is
that which shall be ; and that which is done is that which shall
be done; and there is no new thing under the sun. Is there
anything whereof it may be said, see, this is new? It hath
been already of old time, which was before us.

Other references to evolutionary views in one form or another
occur in the writings of several philosophers of classic times,
as you have had recent cause to reme mber.

shall not stop to inquire. e discussion would be profitless,
for modern science in no way depends for its magnificent
triumphs of fact and thought upon any utterances of the
ancients, It is the creation of patient, intelligent labor of the
last two centuries, and its results can be neither confuted nor
confirmed by anything that was said, thought or done, at an
earlier period. I have merely referred to these indications of
doctrines of evolution to recall to your minds that the two
reat schools of thought, which now divide philosophers, have
existed from very remote times. They are, therefore, in their
origin, Lean in a of correct scientific knowledge
You have from the geologists, and mostly from
those of the present century, that the strata of the earth have
been successively formed from fragments more or less com-
minuted by mechanical action, more or less altered by chemical
combination ee molecu ar irammngem ments. ‘These fragments

Address of John L, LeConte. 243

rock evidence of which is now buried at the bottom of the
ocean, or perhaps entirely distroyed by erosion and separation.
Of these changes, which involved connections of masses of
lands, no surmise could be made except through evidence to
be gained in the manner of which I am about to speak.

My illustrations will naturally be drawn from that branch of

zoology with which Iam most familiar; and it is indeed to

Pacific coast of the United States, is found in great abundance

244 Address of John L. LeConte.

emerged from the bed of the sea, and was in the early and
middle Tertiary converted into a series of fresh water lakes. As
this insect does not occur in the territory extending from the
Atlantic to beyond the western boundary of Missouri, nor in the
interior of Oregon and California, I think that we should infer
that it is an unchanged survivor of the species which lived on
the shores of the Cretaceous ocean, when the intercontinental gulf
was still open, and a passage existed, moreover, toward the
southwest, which connected with the Pacific

The example I have given you of the geographical distribu-
tion of Cicindela hirticollis would be of small value were it an

ork, and received by me from Kansas and Wisconsin; not,
however, found west of the Rocky Mountains. This species,
thus occurring in isolated and distant localities, is probably in
progress of extinction, and may or may not be older than

species of the genus by the I e wing covers, usually orna-
mented with a dark spot. This i

Atlantic coast from New York to Virginia, unchanged in the
interior parts of the Mississippi Valley, represented at Atlantic
City, New Jersey, by a large and quite distinct specific form,
D. sellatus, and on the Pacific coast by two or three species of
larger size and different shape, which, in my less experienced
‘sete I was disposed to regard as a separate genus, Akep/orus.
This form is, therefore, in a condition of evolution— how, I
know not—our descendants may. The Atlantic species are

Address of John L. LeConte. 245

winged, the Pacific one, like a large number of insects of that
region, are without wi nee.
ccompanying these are Coleoptera of other families, which

have been less acetals ‘ctadiod but I will not trespass upon

our patience by mentioning more than two. Bledius pallipen-
nis (Staphylinide) is found on salt marshes near New York, on
the Southern sea-coast and in Kansas—Ammodonus ‘fossor, a
wingless Tenebrionide, Trenton, sea-shore near New York, and
Valley of the Mississippi at St. Louis; thus nearly approxi-
mating Cicindela lepida in distribution.

e can thus obtain by a careful observation ~ the erage

of insects, especially such as affect sea-shore or marsh, a
those which being deprived of their favorite p AHR ware
shown, if | may so express myself, a patriotic clinging to their
native ‘soil, most valuable indications in regard to the time at
which their unmodified ancestors first appeared upon the earth.
For it is obvious that no tendency to change in different direc-
tions by ‘‘ numerous successive slight modifications ”* wou
produce a uniform result in such distant localities, and under
such varied conditions of life. Properly studied, these indica-
tions are quite as certain as though we found the well preserved
remains of these ancestors in the mud and sand strata upon
which they flitted or dug in quest of foo

Other illustrations of survivals from indefinitely more sestagete:
times I will give you, from the Coleopterous fauna o
canned though passing time admonishes me to oak their
num

To make my remarks intelligible, I must begin by saying
that ra are three great divisions of Coleoptera, which I will
name in the order of their complication 4 atnenee plan:
1. Rhynchophora; 2. Heteromera; 3. nary or normal
Coleoptera; the last two being more ‘nearly chia to each other
than either is to the first. I have in other places exposed the
riers of these divisions, and will not detain you by repeat-
ing t

ious paleontological evidence derived from other branches
of zoology we have a right to suppose, if this classification be
correct, that these great types have been “sass upon the

earth in the order in which I have named t

Now, it is precisely in the first one asd series that the

most anomalous instances of geographical distribution occur;
that is to say, the same or nearly i estival genera are repre-
sen Yy species in very widely sep: regions, without

* Origin of Sis 1869, 227.

246 Address of John L. LeConte.

Nyctoporis, a California genus, established many years before,
and in fact barely specifically distinct from NN. galeata. ‘I'wo
other examples are Othnius and Eupleurida, United States

Toposcopus, are represented by scarcely different forms in
Australia. All these belong to the second series (/eteromera),
and the number of examples might be greatly increased with
less labor on my part than patience on yours.

A single example from the Rhynocophora, and I will pass to
another subject.

On the sea-coast of California, extending to Alaska, is a very
anomalous insect whose affinities are difficult to discern, called
Emphyastes fucicola, from its occurrence under the sea-wee
east up by the waves. It is represented in Australia by several
species of a nearly allied genus Aphela, found in similar situa-

there are from 80,000 to 100.000 in collections. Under these
circumstances it is quite impossible for one person to command
either the time or the material to master the whole subject,
and, from the laudable zeal of collectors to make known

The two closely allied genera of Rhynchophora mentioned
above are separated by no less than 168 pages. It is, there-
fore, plain that, before much progress can be made in the line

apparent that descriptions of heterogeneous material are rather
ah wb :

Address of John L. LeConte. 247

approximation of allied forms, and the elimination of doubtful
ones, must be accumulated ; and in the case of such perishable
objects as those we are now dealing with, must be placed
where they can have the protecting influences both of climate
and personal care.

At the same time, for ae Leia 254 the study of insects

is peculiarly suitable; not only on account of the small size,
ease of collecting, and little cost of pacar, the specimens,
but because, from their varied mode of life in different stages

of development, and perhaps for ie reasons, the species are
less likely to be destroyed in the progress of geological
changes, (For a fuller ae of these causes and of sev-
eral other subjects which are briefly mentioned in this address,
the reader may consult an excellent memoir by my learned
friend, Mr. An \drew Murraye< ‘On the Genesaphical ‘Relations

rve and pupe to other neighboring lands. However that
may be, I have given you some grounds for believing as
many of the species of insects now ‘living existed in the
form before the ApRONERHOG of any living genera of mamm ei
and we may su e that their unchanged descendants will
probably survive he pone mammalian fauna, including our
own rac

I may add, moreover, that some poe tk RS in ns
Rhynchophora, which, as I have said ab
the earliest introduced of the Coleoptera, ashi with pees
and definite limits, and clearly defined specific characters, so
many generic modifications that I am compelled to think that
we have in them an example of long sought unbroken series
extending, in this instance, from early Mesozoic to the present
time, and of which very few forms have become extinct.

I have used the word species so often that yen will doubt-
less be inclined to ask, what, then, is understood by a species ?
Alas! I can tell you no more than has been told recently by
many others. It is an assemblage of eardaele which differ
from each other by very small or trifling and inconstant char-
acters, of much less value than those in which they differ from
any other asse assemblage of individuals. Who determines the
value of these characters? The experienced student of that

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which are ona a as such by ree _ from natural power

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248 Address of John L. LeConte.

entirely different kind of information from that which we gain
from the physical sciences; everything there depends on accu-
rate ag een with strict logical consequences derived there-
from. Here the basis of our knowledge depends equally on
accurate and trained observation, but the logic is not formal
but perceptiv

This has Mids already thoroughly recognized by Huxley*
and Helmholtz,t and others, but we may properly extend the
inquiry into the nature and powers of this sesthetic perception
somewhat further. For it is to this fundamental difference
between ena it physical sciences that I will especially
ons Pel attenti

John Lubbock, quoting from Oldfield,§ mentions that
ears Australians ‘“ were quite unable to realize the most
vivid artistic representations. On being shown a picture of

one of themselves, one said it was a ship, another a kangaroo,
not one ina im identifying the portrait as having any con-
nection with elf.

These fee ee being: therefore, with brains very similar to
our own, and, as is he some persons, potentially capable
of similar cultivation with ourselves, were unable to recognize
the outlines of even such familiar sr objets as the features of
their own race. Was there any fault in the drawing of the
artist? Probably not. Or in the eye of the savage? Cer-
tainly not, for that is an uptical instrument of tolerably simple
structure, ‘which cannot fail to form on the retina an accurate
image of ‘the object to which it is directed. Where then is the

— It is the want of Capacity: of the brain of the indi-

* Sates cancion is the smallest group to which tive and invariable char-
be assigned.”—Principles and Methods a o Plpobliny Smithsonian
Report 13 1869, 378.

5 aes I do not mean to deny that in many branches es of these sciences, an intuitive
perception of analogies and a certain artistic tact play a conspicu
natural history * * * it is left entirely to this tact, without a seers, pacsoarned
rule, to determine what characteristics of species are important or unimportan'
for purposes of classification, and Brie divisions of the animal or rectal
kingdom are more natural than others.”—-Relation of the Physical Sciences
Totenoe ta Ch Casta: Smiths. Report, 1871, 277,

ee Pitermgentrsnl Aa

On the Aborigines of Australia, Trans. Ethnological Soc., New series, vol. iii.

3

Address of John L. LeConte. 249

been given to man to produce, and gaze upon them with the
same difference that they would show to the conceptions of
mediocre artists exhibited in our shops. Perhaps they would

develops out of a rude block of ae or eer of ath mean

Vv
figures which surpass in beauty and in power of exciting emo-
tion the objects they profess to represent.

Yet these unzsthetic and nonappreciative persons are just as
highly educated, and in their respective positions as good and
usefu hashes s of the social organism, as any that may be
found. I Saisie only, they would never make good students
of biolo.

In like 1 manner, by way of illustrating the foregoing obser-
vations, there are some, who, in looking at the phenomena of
the external universe, may recognize only chance, or the ‘“ for-
tuitous concourse of atoms,” producing certain resultant motions.
Others, having studied —_ deeply the nature of things, will
perceive the existence of laws, binding and correlating the
events they — Others again, not superior to the latter
in intelligence, nor in power of investigation, may discern a
deeper relation aoa these phenomena, and the indications
of an intellectual or ewsthetic or moral plan, similar to that
which influences their own actions, Ame directed to the
attaining of a particular result. 5

These last will recognize in the operations of nature the
oo of a human intelligence, greatly enlarged, capable of

modifying at its will influences beyond our control; or they
will appreciate in themselves a resemblance to a superhuman
intelligence which enables them to be in sympathy with its
actions. Hither may be true in individual instances of this

class of minds; one or the other must true; I care not
which, for to me the propositions are in this argument identi-
eal, though in n picer eh mares Ss they ma r led

Re)

250 Address of John L. LeConte.

. . o . . . .
accord within reasonable limits, the picture is correct to that
extent; at least, however bad the artist, the human face could

nature to that of human contrivances evolved for definite
purposes.
If this kind of reasoning commends itself to you, and you
thus perceive resemblances in the actions of the Ruler of the
Universe to those of our own race, when prompted by the best
and highest intellectual motives, you will be willing to accept
the declaration of the ancient text, “He doeth not evil, and
abideth not with the evil inclined. Whatever he hath done 1s
good” ;* or that from our own canon of Scripture, “ With him
is wisdom and strength, he hath counsel and understanding.t

The esthetic character of natural history, therefore, prevents
the results of its cultivation from being worked out with the
precision of a logical machine, such as with correct data of
observation and calculation would be quite sufficient to form-
ulate the conclusions of physical investigation. According as
the perception of the relations of organic beings among them-
selves becomes more and more enlarged, the interpretation of
these relations will vary within limits: but we will be contin-
ually approximating higher mental or spiritual truth.

* Desatir, p. 2. Job, xii,

Address of John L. LeConte. 251

This kind of truth can never be revealed to us by the study
of inorganic aggregations of the universe. The molar, molecu-
lar and polar forces, by which they are formed, may be
expressed, so far as science has reduced them to order, by a
small number of simply formulated laws, indicative neither of
purpose nor intelligence, when confined within inorganic limits.
In fact, taking also the organic world into consideration, we as

ly no progress in animal
S

purely physical science is brought to a knowledge of any evi-

ences of intelligence in the arrangement of the universe.
The poet, inspired by meditating on the immeasurable abyss
of space, and the transcendent glories of the celestial orbs, has
declared,

“The undevout astronomer is mad.”

_And his saying had a certain amount of speciousness, 0

account of the magnitude of the bodies and distances with
which the student of the stars is concerned. is favorite
line is, however, only an example of what an excellent writer
has termed “the unconscious action of volition upon cre-
dence,” and it is properly in the correlations of the inorganic
world that we may hope to exhibit, with clearness, the adapta-
tions of plan prefigured and design executed.

In the wialode and results of investigation, the mathema-
tician differs from both the physicist and the biologist. Un-
confined, like the former, by the few simple relations by which
movements in the inorganic world are controlled, he may not
only vary the form of his analysis, almost at pleasure, making
it more or less transcendental in many directions, but he may
introduce factors or relations, apparently inconceivable in real
existence, and then interpret them into results quite as real as
those of the legitimate calculus with which he is working, but

lying outside of its domain.

252 Address of John L. Le Conte.

matics) quantities which must be introduced when changes of
form or structure take place. Such will be analytical mor-
phology, in its proper sense; but it is a science of the future,
and will require for its calculus a very complex algebra.

In the observation of the habits of interior animals we rec-

powers of a rather high order, but also distinct traces of moral
sentiments similar to those possessed by our own race. I will

will reply that these qualities have been developed by human
education ; but not so, there must have been a latent capacity
in the brain to receive the education and to manifest the re-
sults by the modification of the habits. Now it is because we

When we attempt to observe animals belonging to another
sub-kingdom, Articulata, for instance, such cases as bees, ants,
termites, ete., which are built upon a totally different plan of
structure, having no organ in common with ourselves, the
difficulty of interpreting their intellectual processes, if they
perform any, is sti ter. The purposes of their actions we
can divine only by their results. But anything more exact
than their knowledge of the objects within their scope, more
ingenious than their methods of using those objects, more com-
plex yet well devised than their social and political systems, 1t
is impossible to conceive.

Address of John L, LeConte. 253

are not warranted in assuming that these actions are in-

stinctive, site if performed by a vertebrate, we would call
ationa tead of concealing our ignorance under a word

which Gheaa acd comes to mean nothing, let us rather admit
the existence here of a rational power, not only inferior to
ours, bile also different.

, proceeding from the highest forms in each type of
‘iieal’ life to the lower, and even : down to the lowest, we ma
be prepared to advance the thesis that all animals are intelh-
gent in proportion to the ability of their organization to mani-
fest intelligence to us, or to each other; that wherever there is
voluntary motion there is intelligence, obscure, it may be, not
comprehended by us, but comprehended by the companions of
the same low grade of structure.

However this may be, ] do not intend to discuss the subject
at present, but only wish, in connection with this train of
thought, to offer two suggestion 8.

The first is that, by pursuing different courses of investiga-
tion in biology, we may be led to opposite results. Commenc-
ing with the simplest forms of animal life, or with the embryo
of the higher animals, it may be very difficult to say at what
point intelligence begins to manifest itself; our attention is

n
by external stimuli. The animal becomes to our perception
an automaton, and, in fact, by exercising some of the nervous
organs last developed in its growth, we can render an adult
animal an automaton, capable of performing only those habit-
ual actions to which its brain, when in perfect condition, ha
educated the muscles of voluntary motion. On the other hand,
commencing with the highest group in each type, and going
downward, either in structural complication, or in age of indi-
vidual, it is impossible to fix the limit at which intelligence
ceases to be apparen

I have in this subject, as in that of tracing the past history
of our insects, in the first part of this address, preferred the
latter mode of investigation: taking those things which are
nearest to us in time or structure, as a basis for the study of
those more remote.

The second consideration is, since it is so difficult for us to
understand the mental processes, whether eepireeh or instine-
tive (I care not by what name they are called) of beings more
or less similar, but inferior to — we yee a
great caution when we have occasion to speak of t
of One who is infinitely greater. Let us give no pce to the
men Binds gg of would-be teleologists, who are, indeed,

great part refuted already by the progress of ncaa etiah

254 | paldvesa of doh Li. Le Oonte.

continually exhibits to us higher and more beautiful relations
between ane phenomenon of nature “than it hath entered into
the mind of man to conceive.” Let not our vanity lead us to
believe that because God has deigned to guide our steps a few
paces on the road to truth, we are justified in speaking as if
He had taken us into intimate companionship, and informed us
of all His counsels.

If I have exposed my views on these subjects to you in an
ais sy manner, you will hae that in minds capable of

sate resemble our ot and controlling operations which we

What then is the strict relation of natural history or biology
to that great mass of learning and influence which is commonly
called theology ; — 8 that smaller mass of belief and action
which is called reli

ence and religion are marae i each other. Others again that

h answering "the query above eon oe it will be necessary
to separate the suencal truth of religion from the accessories
of tradition, usage, and mest of all, organizations and inter-
pretations, which have, in the lapse of time, gathered around
the primitive or revealed truth.

ith the latter the scientific man must deal exactly like
other men; he must take it, or reject it, according to his spirit-
ual gifts, but he must not, whatever be his personal views,
discuss it or assail it as a man of science, for within his domain
of investigation it does not belong.
With regard to the accessories of traditions, ogee
~ our answer may be clearer when we have yr reviewed
me recent events in what has been written iinet as the Con-
flict of Religion and Science. Some centuries ago, great theo-
logical repre ba (Rye bang by the announcement that the
sun and not was the = of the planetary system.

Address of John L. Le Conte. 255

A few decades ago profound dissatisfaction was shown that the
evidence of organic life on the planet was very ancient. Re-

remains have been found in situations where they ought not to
have been, according to popularly received interpretation; and
yet more recently much apprehension has been felt at the pos-
sible derivation of man f e inferior organism ;
hypothesis framed simply because in the present condition of
intellectual advancement no other can be suggested.

et all these facts, but the last, which still is an opinion,
have been accepted, after more or less bitter controversy on
both sides, and the fountain of spiritual truth remains un-
clouded and undiminished. New interpretations for the sacred
texts, supposed to be in conflict with the scientific facts, have
been sought and found without difficulty. These much feared
facts have, moreover, given some of the strongest and most
convincing illustrations to modern exhortation and religious
instruction.

hus, then, we see that the influence of science upon religion
has been beneficial. Scholastic interpretations, founded upon im-
perfect knowledge, or no knowledge, but mere guess, have been
replaced by sound criticisms of the texts, and their exegesis in
accordance with the times and circumstances for which they
were written.

formerly contended. : :
: Since then there is no occasion for strict science and pure re-

who believe less than we do, in the hope that they, by cultiva-
fon or inheritance of zsthetic perception, will be prepared to
accept something more than matter and energy in the universe,
and to believe that vitality is not altogether undirected colloid
chemistry.

256 R. Mallet—Temperuture attainable by Rock-crushing.

Toleration also toward those who, on what we think misun-
derstood or insufficient evidence demand more than we are pre-
pared to admit, in the hope that they will revise additional
texts which seem to conflict, or may hereafter conflict, with
facts deduced from actual study of nature, and thus prepare
their minds for the reception of such truths as may be dis-
covered, without embittered discussions.

Patience, too, must be counseled, for much delay will ensue
before this desired result is arrived at; patience under attack,
ere under misrepresentation, but never controversy.

Thus will be hastened the time when the glorious, all-sufh-
cient spiritual light, which though given through another race,
we have ado as our own, shall shine with its pristine purity,
tek: from the incrustations with which it has been obscured by
the vanity of partial knowledge and the temporary contriv-
ances = human polity.

y freely extended scientific culture, may we kaye

tions will be removed, which greater age and more despotic

netics precepts with which he is familiar. anner
alone may be realized the hope of the pilosa the dream
of the Ler and the expectation of the: theologian-—a universal

aiicinnregeaenasomereceat

Art. XXXIV —On the Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing,
and its Consequences ;* by Ropert MAuuzt, F.R.S.

IN developing the theory of volcanic heat and energy em-
braced in his paper “On the Nature and Origin of Volcanic
Heat and Energy ” (Phil Trans., Part I, 1878), the main object
of the author was to prove that the annual work of secular

contraction in our globe, when transformed into heat, was more
shai adequate for the supply of volcanic activity existing upon
our planet. While paieation generally the circumstances
which must attend as results of the descent of the exterior shell

* From the Philosophical Magazine for July, 1875.

R. Malle-— Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing. 257

upon the more rapidly contracting nucleus, it was not necessary
to his argument to follow into detail the mechanism of local
dislocation and crushing due to such descent. Nor would the
limits of his paper admit of his entering into much detail as to
the circumstances attending subterranean dislocation and crush-

annual supply of heat transformed from the w of secular
contraction were sufficient to meet the demands of existing
voleanic action, that he should not overrate th rk s

transformed ; and accordingly, in determining by experiment a
measure for the amount of that work, the author view e
work of crushing of unconfined or unsupported masses alone
as the source of heat, this method being that only which could
afford perfectly trustworthy experimental results. He paid no
regard to the additional work that must attend the collision

ho complete measure of the highest — that may
through its means be locally developed ; 2n
doubts which have been raised as to whether the temperature
to which subterranean rocky masses can become raised by the
heat evolved in their crushing and transportation of particles
can be sufficient to bring more or less of these at such foci -
of crushing and dislocation to the fusing-point of such mate-
rials, which the author in his original paper assumes to be
2000° Fabr,
Professor Hilgard, occupying the chair of geology in the
University of Michigan, U.S. in an able paper published in
A

M. Jour. Ser. Tarrp peed ‘cay X, No. 58.—Ocv.,, 1875.
1

- 958 RB. Mallet—Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing.

the American Journal of Science, vol. vii, June, 1874,* has, in
terms as clear as they are courteous, pointed out the /acune in
the author’s original paper in the following passage :—

inal memoir, viz: the preéminence given by Mallet to the
crushing of sold rock as the means of producing heat and

instantaneously, or under such circumstances that the heat
cannot be conducted away, and, further, that the resistance of
the rock has not been materially diminished by the downward
increase of hypogeal temperature. At the most moderate
depths at which volcanic phenomena can be supposed to
originate the last-mentioned factor must exert a very consider-
able influence, reducing materially the available heat-increment.
Hence the numerical results of Mallet’s laborious experiments
on rock-crushing, however interesting and useful as affording a
definite measure of the thermal effects producible by this
means, yet fail to carry conviction as to the efficacy of this
particular modus operandi in reducing large masses of solid
rock to fusion, unless essentially supplemented by friction, not
-so much of rock walls against each other, but more probably
by the heat produced within more or less | caninnied detrital

* Phil. Mag., July, 1874, p. 41.

R. Mallet-—Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing. 259

detrital masses under great pressure Mallet’s figures of course
offer no measure whatsoever; nor is this, or even the thermal
coefficients resulting from his rock-crushing experiments, a

all necessary to the establishment of the postulates of his
theory.”

Subsequently the Rev. O. Fisher, in a paper read before the
Geological Society of London, May 12, 1875, entitled “Re-
marks upon Mr. Mallet’s Theory of Volcanic Energy,” has
repeated the observations of Professor Hilgard, and extended
his objections to the author’s theory in general in a way which
appears not warranted. It will be sufficient here to quote the
following from Mr. Fisher's paper :—“ Indeed the form in which
the objection to Mr. Mallet’s reasoning suggested itself to my
mind on first reading his paper was simply this. If crushing
the rocks can induce fusion, then the cubes experimented upou
ought to have been fused in the crushing; and I still adhere
to this simple mode of expressing my objection.” Again :—
“He considers that the heat so developed may be localized,
and that the heat so developed by crushing, say 10 cubic miles of
rock, may fuse 1 cubic mile. But I ask why so} e work is
equally distributed throughout; why should not the least be
so also? Or if not, what determines the localization? For
example, suppose a horizontal column 10 miles in length and 1
in sectional area to be crushed by pressure applied at its ends,
which of the 10 cubic miles is the one to be fused? But if no
cause can assign one more than another, it is clear that they
will all be heated by 170° and none of them fused.”

If a cube of rock, which in free air is found to crush under a
certain pressure, be imagined situated deep within a mass of
similar rocks and there crushed, it does not admit of dispute
that the work necessary to effect crushing must be largely
increased ; the particles of the cube and the entire mass of sur-
rounding rocks are under the insistent pressure of the il ed
cumbent rock in a state of elastic equilibrium. It follows,
therefore, that the pressures of the surrounding rock produce
the same effect upon the cube as regards resistance to crushing
as if they were cohesive forces acting within the cube; and the
work necessary to erush the cube by its finally giving ray in

i i su t,

nearly in the ratio in which the imaginary cube is ex to
external pressure greater than that in air. Thus, if the cube of
Guernsey granite (No. 12, Table I, Phil. Trans. part 1, 1878,
p- 186) which required 4,336,712 lbs. per square foot to crush
It in air, equivalent to a superincumbent column of the same
rock of the mean specific gravity 2°858, or weighing 1783392
Ibs. per cubic foot, be supposed situated at a depth of ten to

260 R. Mallet—Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing.

twenty statute miles, it will require rather more than 2°14, or, at
twenty miles, 4:28 times as much pressure upon two opposite
faces to crush it that it did when in air; and if we assume the
displacement of the crushed particles after crushing to be the
same as in the case of the cube crushed in air, then the
work and the heat due to its transformation will be also 2°14,
or 4-28 times as great. And, as in the case of the cube crushed
in air the heat developed was sufficient to fuse at (at 2000°
Fahr.) 0-108 of its own volume, or, in other words, the crush-
ing of 10 eubic feet of the rock would be required to raise to
that point one cubic foot, then in the case of the imaginary
cube situated at the depth of ten miles enough heat would be
evolved by the work of crushing each cubic foot to fuse 0-231
cubic foot, or, at twenty miles, to fuse 0462 cubic foot of the
same rock, or nearly half the volume crushed,—and this assum-

to 20 miles depth. Therefore, under the pressure due to a
depth of 20 miles and an initial temperature of 1000° Fabr.,
the heat developed by the work of crushing each cubic foot of
rock will be sufficient to fuse its own volume. Thus also if we
assume the fusing-point of the rocks not to be 2000° Fahr., as
indicated by the author’s experiments on the cooling of slags,
but considerably higher, say 2500° or more, we have still a
sufficient supply of heat due to crushing alone to bring 08 0
the entire volume to the fusing-point.

These considerations, apart from all others yet to be adverted
to, appear fully sufficient to refute the Rev. O. Fisher's first ob-
jection above quoted; indeed the statement that if under any
circumstances and in the rock-masses of nature ‘‘crushing can
induce fusion, then the cubes experimented upon ought to have
been fused in the crushing,” seems as unsupportable as_it
would be to affirm that no heat is developed by the slow oxida-
tion (eremacausis) into water and carbonic acid of a pound 0
wood, which when burned develops a well-known amount of

heat.

The depths above assumed do not widely differ from those
at which the foci of earthquakes have been found by the author
(Report on Neapolitan Earthquake) in 1857, and by others
since that time, and which may be presumed to indicate 1n
some degree the possible depth of volcanic activity.

he writer now proceeds to reply to the second objection of

the Rev. O. Fisher as above quoted, which appears to him
based entirely on a misconception of the physical conditions
involved. Let us consider what will happen in the case of a
prism or column of rock crushed against the face of an unyield-

hk. Mallet-—Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing. 261

e e
buildings the material of which is overloaded, where crushing
or spalling off of the ashlar stones only occurs at and near the
joint.* In either case, whether the prism be homogeneous or
not, the crushing must be localized either to the end or ends of
the prism, or to the plane of weakness where it first yields, and
which then becomes the crushing surfaces of two opposed
prisms. It is these physical conditions which ‘determine the
localization” of crushing in the prism, and which conditions

ave been disregarded in the Rev. O. Fisher's objection. Let
us now consider the subsequent effects of the successive*crush-
ing of a column of prismatic mass of rock, one extremity of
which is continually urged against the face of a fixed mass of
rock which does not yield, a case which approximates to that
which most frequently occurs in nature, and which, to fix our
ideas, we may suppose presents a face for crushing one square
foot; and being continually urged forward, and the pressure
being greatest where the pressing column comes into contact
with the fixed mass of rock, the extremity of the column sup-
posed homogeneous, or the parts adjacent thereto, are continu-
ally crushed by a succession of per saltum movements. The
first cubic foot of the column that is crushed has its tempera-
ture raised, let us suppose, by the minimum of 217°. The
crushed fragments at this temperature are pushed aside by the

y the unerushed column from the hotter portions of

u
material surrounding it that have already been heated by
* See also E. Hodgkin son’s experiments on the directions of fracture of crushed
rial, Brit. Assoc. Report, vol. vi; and Tredgold on Cast Iron, by Hodgkinson,
Part 2. p. 319, and plate 1.

262 R. Mallet— Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing.

crushing; so that, if T be the temperature produced in the
first cubic foot crushed, and ¢ be the temperature of the crushed
material which communicates a portion of its heat to the next
cubic foot crushed, the temperatures of successive cubic feet
crushed may be illustrated by some such series as the follow-
ing :—

Cubic feet crushed.

Ne i 15. TL, No. Ii.
T wee Oe a. de
n nm ™m

then the temperature T would be 4°28 times 2:17°=928°, and

hich these statements are founded have been made
after various great conflagrations of stores or warehouses at London, Liverpool,
and Dublin, into the construction of which granite blocks and cast iron in columns,
girders, iron was either melted or softened to the

consistence of soap; the granite heated to like temperature, except being split in
various directions, was found unaltered, except more or less in color, after having

* The observations upon w

ft. Mallet-—Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing. 268

to, may give rise to motion and crushing with velocities eve
exceeding those with which aérolites traverse our atmosphere.
e well-known experiment of cutting a hard steel file in two
by the rapid rotation of a thin disk of soft sheet iron pressed
against it is anotherexample. The heat developed at the work-
ing-point, so far as it is communicated to the disk, is rapidly
carried off and dissipated by its rotation, and it thus remains
cool enough to be touched by the hand, although the heat de-
veloped by it and accumulated at and near the working-point
in the file is sufficient to raise that to the temperature at which
cast steel becomes softened and approaches fusion.
The cutting of steel railway bars across when at a very low
red heat by a rapidly revolving circular saw, which revolves
partially immersed in cold water, an se action a tor-

Od

i ro
rent of incandescent fragments of steel is discharged, is a like
cas

e.
Besides the heat transformed from the work of compression

and crushing, a large amount of heat must also be generally

produced by transformation of the work expended in friction

and oer No experiments have as yet, to the author's
)

pressure is transmitted through sand or like discontinuous mat-
ter. As in rigid solids exposed to unequal mechanical pressures

shape or size of the particles, provided these be small in relation
to the whole mass, and their mutual adhesion (if any) small also,
such planes must by unequal mechanical pressure be brought
into existence. Along any such plane we may imagine the

264 &. Mallet-—Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing.

sand or other pulverulent matter forced to move over itself in
opposite directions at opposite sides of the plane; that is to say.
we may suppose the sand forced along such a plane much in the
same way that a mass of sandstone or of granite would be forced
along such a shearing plane as had been produced in it previously
by mechanical pressure. If this reasoning be admitted, we must
suppose that heat would be developed along such a plane and
at short distances from it in a way more or less analogous to
that produced by forcing one rough surface of stone over another.

at the coefficient of friction in this case would be can only
be determined by experiment; but we may justifiably conclude
that the amount of friction per unit of surface would increase
proportionately to the pressure applied externally to the entire
mass—exposed to more or less of which, motion at any such
surface of friction must take place. Coulomb, Morin, and

no limit while the circumstances continue the same, except that
of the distance that one surface is forced over the other. And
great as is this evolution of heat under such enormous pressures,
1t woul urther increased in the event of the fragmentary
particles being heated so as to present incipient viscosity of
surface and more or less of mutual agglutination. ;
Temperature with respect to any given solid material is de-
pendent upon the units of heat present in a unit of mass or of
volume of the substance. If for the same total heat we dimin-
ish the mass or volume, the temperature is proportionately 1n-
creased. When the material is surrounded by matter capable
of carrying off heat by conduction, or evection, or radiation,
and the heat is evolved within the mass by work done upon it.
then another condition, that of time, has to be taken into ac-

count: for the shorter the time within which a given amount of

fi. Matlet-—Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing. 265

not time for the surrounding surfaces of the cold stone to carry
off the heat evolved by conduction, though the dissipation of

disappears. The temperature at the crushing-point is greater
as the work done in a unit of time and upon a given weight of
the material is greater. That the temperature capable of being
thus produced approaches that of the fusing-point of steel, is
of a gun-lock by the flint. In the case of small masses of rock,
evident from the phenomenon of a spark struck from the steel
such as the 13-inch cubes of the author’s experiments, crushed
between two opposite surfaces of steel, the actual temperature
of the crushed particles can never be found to reach that due
to the work of crushing; for the heat of relatively small mass
of the crushed cube in close contact with far larger masses of
cold steel of high conductivity is carried off almost as fast as
it is evolved ; and as the total amount of heat evolved from the
crushing of such a cube of the hardest rock experimented upon
by the author (namely, number 12, Table I, Phil. Trans., part 1,
1873, p. 186) could raise its own mass only through 217°, if the
temperature of fusion of the rock may be taken at 2000°, it is
obvious that such a cube could not be fused by the work of
crushing alone, even though all the heat due to the crushing
work remained in the cube, none being dissipated to surround-
ing objects. Brite

In the case of a cube such as this losing heat by dissipation,
the temperature of the crushed mass depends upon the time in
which the work of crushing is done. In the author's experi-
ments the crushing of each cube in column 12 occupied a mean
time somewhat greater than that in which a heavy body could
fall freely through a space of 0-09 foot (No. 12, Table L é c., col.
19)—that is, 0-075 of a second; for more rapidly than that the
crushing surfaces could not approach each other. If, however,

the conditions had been such that but 7th the above time were

expended in the crushing, then a proportionately less quantity

266 BR. Malle—Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing.

of the heat evolved would have been dissipated; and this, we
shall see further on, must be the case in nature. When two
rock-surfaces are urged against each other in the shell of our
globe by the gradual withdrawal of support by contraction of
the nucleus, the rocky masses for great distances from the op-
posed surfaces are brought into a state of elastic compression,
gradually increasing up to the crushing-point somewhere, when
a greater or less portion of rock suddenly gives way by crush-

or the

feet per second, and that would be less than ;,;';; of the velocity
with which the same would have been crushed if circumstance
as in the shell of our globe. And if we extend our view from
the crushing of a cubie foot or two to that of a cubic mile or
more, we see that there would be very little of the total heat
evolved lost by dissipation, there being scarcely any time in
which that could occur, the possible rate of crushing of a cubic
mile being less than half a second.

In the case of a very large mass of rock crushed simultane-
ously, or nearly so, as every portion of the rock evolves heat
proportionate to the crushing-work done upon it, so the heated
portions of crushed material situated near the exterior of the

fh. Mallet-—Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing. 267

smaller ones; much stress, however, cannot be laid upon this,
as we cannot assume with any certainty what are the precise

forced together, and the distribution of the crushing-pressure
may be indefinitely varied.

In the author's experiments the cubes crushed by pressure on
two opposite faces were free upon the other four; it cannot be
doubted that, had only two opposite faces been free and the
pressure applied simultaneously upon the four other faces, two

if none of the faces were free, and all those except the two
opposite faces to which the crushing pressure is supposed applied,
had the motion outwards of any of their particles opposed by

o
could calculate how much its temperature would be exalted
by the work of the assigned deformation.
amples, however, are not wanting which prove that a very
large exaltation of temperature can thus be produced— » for
example, in the old-fashioned method by which blacksmiths
were accustomed to light their fires. A thin square rod of ver

268 &. Mallet—Temperature attainable by Rock-crushing.

steel, heated to a brilliant yellow heat, is passed between the
rolls of the iron mill, and the massive lump is rapidly elongated
into a bar, its temperature, notwithstanding that it is rapidly
and constantly losing heat by radiation and evection, is observed
visibly to increase, so that the mass becomes at a certain stage
white or welding hot by the transformation into heat of the
work of deformation so rapidly and powerfully applied to it.
The action of the machine employed in the arsenal at Wool-
wich for making lead rods to be afterward pressed into bullets
affords another striking example. In this machine a cylindric
block of lead, maintained at a temperature of 400° Fahr., is by
a steady pressure upon the end, which is 8’"5 in diameter, of
16,700 lbs. per square inch of its surface, forced through an
aperture at the other extremity into a rod of 0525 diameter,
at such a rate that five inches in length of the cylindric block
becomes a rod of about 100 feet in length of the above diame-
ter per minute. We have thus 393,906 foot-pounds of work
done upon the lead per minute, dividing which by J we have
5102 British units of heat developed per minute from the
transformed work. In the actual machine the whole of this is

into the original block of 8’5x5", we should find
the lead in the latter not only liquid, but considerably above
its temperatue of fusion, or at nearly 700° Fahr. It is obvious,

The preceding remarks appear to the writer sufficient to
show that there is no physical difficulty in the conception 1n-

pe
crushing the materials of our earth’s crust are sufficient locally
to bring these into fusion.

Sir Charles Lyell. 269

ArT. XXX V.—SrrR CHARLES LYELL.

No European geologist was so well known, personally, in
the United States as Lyell. His two visits to this Sogn in
1841 and 1845, recorded in four volumes of travel character-
ized Aes great good judgment, large mindedness and catholicity,

is name familiar throughout the land, and gave a egree
of popalasity here to his philosophical and citeeeing: writings
which they would otherwise have hardly obta

Called by Mr. Lowell to Boston in 1841 to delves a course
of twelve Jectures on Geology before the ‘Lowell Institute,”
Lyell was the first European, of eminence in science, who

meena upon the platform as a lecturer before an American

audience. That his lectures were highly esteemed is well known,

and it was a sufficient evidence of this that he was again

invited to Boston on a like commission in 1845-6, and before

the same institution. The personal relations and fiat atid on
ed

commenced on these oceasions endured to the end, and we
rendered doubly interesting by the ‘aed shed over eve
social relation by L yell, who won universal esteem by

elder), gives a Vivid sketch of yall as he appeaie to
scient:fic associates at the time of his first visit to the United
States. As all the parties named in this letter are now
ne there can be no objection to its reproduction in hie con-
nection.

“Tonpon, June 14th, 1841.
“MY VERY DEAR FRIEND:

“T was about to write you to
inform you of Mr. Lyell’s intentions which he communicated
to me but a short time since. I dined with him last week—a
bible party. His charming little ve a daughter of Mr.

hi

nard Horner, accompanies him. ee so sees ch sd
you and yours to her that she is quite anxio
Haven; if she ‘ am sure you will be delighted with het

, had been attendin: Jameson's fechas at Edinburgh, aid
had visited his former Alma Mater, Midhurst Grammar School,
in the west of Sussex; and that, while rambling about the

* Mantell’s place of residence at that time.

270 Sir Charles Lyell.

neighborhood, he found some laborers quarrying in stone which
they called whin. As this term is Scoticé trap. the young
traveler was much puzzled to know how such a rock appeared
in the south of England, and upon inquiry of one of the laborers
why the stone was so called, the man referred him to ‘a mons-
trous clever mon as lived at Lewes, a doctor who knowed all
about them things and got curiosities out of the chalk pits to
make physic with.’ The man, in short, had been formerly a
Lewes quarryman, and one of my collectors. Mr. Lyell being

daughters. Mr. Lyell is the eldest, and at the death of the
father inherits the family estate, which, I believe, is moderate.

tatious manner in an unfashionable part of the city. A few
years ago he married Miss Horner, who is much younger than
himself (Lyell is 45 or 46), and a more suitable companion he
could not have found. He has no children. In person, Lyell
a nothing remarkable except a broad expanse of fore-

ead. He is of the middle size, a decided Scottish physiogno-
my, small eyes, fine chin and a rather proud or reserved ex-
pression of countenance. He is very absent, and a slow but ~
profound thinker. He was Professor in King’s College, London,
and gave lectures there and at the Royal Institution, but it so
happened that I never heard him lecture. He always takes
age in the discussions at the meetings of the Geological

ciety, but he has not facility in speaking; there is hesita-
tion in his manner, and his voice is neither powerful nor
melodious, nor is his action at all imposing. As a popular
lecturer he would stand no chance with Buckland or Sedgwick.
He is providing himself with very beautiful illustrations for his
lectures at Boston; and I should suppose the prestige of his
name and his European reputation will insure him a flatter-
ing reception. * * * * There is a hauteur or re-
serve about Mr. Lyell to strangers that prevents his being

Sir Charles Lyell. 271

so popular among our society as he deserves to be. I believe
im to have an excellent heart, and he is very kind and affec-
tionate when his better feelings are called upon.” * * * *

lecture. But despite all infelicities, so great was the value and
richness of his matter, that he commanded the most respectful
and interested attention from his auditors. T'he reader of his
“Principles” could not fail, however, to be struck with the fact
that the classic elegance of Lyell’s style, for which bis more
important productions are so justly celebrated, must have been
the result of much labor.

We cite from the Geological Magazine edited by Henry
Woodward, F.R.S., the following notice of his life and
labors. A more elaborate memoir may be expected in the
next annual address of the President of the Geological Society
of London.

“On Monday, the 22d of February, at his residence in Harley
Street, and in his seventy-eighth year, Sir Charles Lyell, after a
long life of scientific labor, passed peacefully from amongst
us, to his honored rest.

‘To the outside world it may seem strange that the death of
a man who was neither statesman, soldier, nor public orator,
should arouse our sympathies so strongly, or that he should be
so highly esteemed all over the world; but geologists know
well what Lyell has done for them since he published the first
volume of ‘ The Principles of Geology ’ in 1830.

“Tt is in the character of historian and philosophical expo-
nent of geological thought that Lyell has achieved so much for
our science: nor can we fail to remember that those clear and
advanced views, for which he became so justly celebrated,
were advocated by him forty-five years ago, at a time when
scientific thought was still greatly trammelled by a strong re-
ligious bias, and men did not dare to openly avow their belief
in geological discoveries nor accept the only deduction which
could be drawn from them. pd HANG tt,

“Born at Kinnordy, his father’s seat near Kerriemuir, in

272 Str Charles Lyell.

liest Fellows. On the opening of King’s College, London, a few
years later, he was appointed its first Professor of Geology.
He had already contributed some important papers to the
‘Transactions’ of the Geological Society, including one ‘On a
Recent Formation of Freshwater Limestone in Forfarshire, and
on some Recent Deposits of Freshwater Marl, with a comparison
of recent with ancient Freshwater Formations, and an Appendix
on Gyrogonites, or Seed-Vessels of Chara;’ also one ‘On the
Strata of the Plastic Clay Formation exhibited in the Cliffs be-
tween Christchurch Head, Hampshire, and Studland Bay,
Dorsetshire ; another *On the Freshwater Strata of Hordwell
Cliff, Beacon Cliff, and Barton Cliff, Hampshire ;’ and’ an

is magnum opus, ‘The Principles of Geology,’ appeared in
three successive instalments, published respectively in 18380,
1832, and 1888. The work, subsequently enlarged into two
volumes, has passed through numerous editions, and is still in
as much demand as ever among students of the science. The
work was subsequently divided into two parts, which have
been published as distinct books, viz. ‘The Principles of
Geology, or the Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabit-
ants, as illustrative of Geology,’ and secondly, ‘The Elements
of Geology, or the Ancient Changes of the Karth and its In-
habitants, as illustrated by its Geological Monuments.’ The
substance of the last-named work has also been published under
the title of ‘The Manual of Elementary Geology,’ a French
translation of which was issued under the auspices of the
famous Arago. ~ ;

‘“ Already, some time previous to the publication of this
work, Mr. Lyell had been chosen a Vice-President of the
Geological Society ; and in 1828 he had undertaken a journey
into the voleanic regions of Central France, visiting Auvergne,
Cantal, and Velay, and continuing his journey to Italy and
Sicily. He published the results of this expedition in the
‘Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions,’ and also in the ‘ An-
nales des Sciences Naturelles.’ :

“Tt was, however, the publication of his ‘Principles of
Geology’ that gave him that established reputation which he

Sir Charles Lyell. 273

ever since continued to enjoy. ‘Which of us,’ asked Prof.
Huxley, in his Anniversary Address to the > Geological Society
in 1869, ‘has not thumbed every page of the “ Principles of
Geology ?”? And he adds, ‘I think that he who writes fairly
the history of his own progress in geological thought will not
easily be able to separate his debt to Hutton from his obligations
to Lyell.’ This cordial testimony of a fellow-laborer in the
cause of scientific enlightenment exactly indicates Sir Charles
Lyell’s place in the history of that task. He was a man of
singularly open mind, one of those who stand above their
contemporaries and hail the dawn of new truths upon the
world, His own works mark the progress of his own as well
as of the public opinion on the great problems raised by scien-
tific discovery, and he remained to the end of his life always
ready for the prado; of new facts, and for the corresponding
modifications of opini

“Sir Charles ey had traveled and seen much. Thus in
early manhood he explored many parts of Norway, Sweden,
Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and Spain, rae ge the vol-
canic regions of Catalonia. In 1886 he vis the Danish

partly in order to deliver a course of lectures on his favorite
science at Boston, and partly in order to make observations on
the structure and formation of the Transatlantic Continent. He
remained in the United States for a year, traveling over the
Northern and Central States, and extending his journey as far

rence to the mouths of the Mississippi. On returning from this
journey, he published his ‘Travels mm North America,’ a wor

of considerable interest to other persons Liisiden geologists, and
showing that he could extend his observations to the stratifica-

of Mexico, and more especially the great sunken area of eee
Madrid, which had been devastated by an earthquake 30 or 40

years previously. Upon reaching England, he published his
Boon Visit to the United States,’ a companion to his former
work. For his other scientific apers we must refer our readers
to the ‘Proceedings’ of the Geological Society, 1846-49, and
its ‘Transactions.’

“Late in life, about ten or twelve years ago, Sir Charles Lyell

published another very important work, on ‘The Antiquity of

Am. Jour. Set., Tarrp Sertes—Vot. X, No. 58.—Oor., 1875.

18

274 Sir Charles Lyell.

Man,’ summarizing and discussing all the important facts accumu-
lated up to that time in favor “of the high antiquity of the
human race, viewed from the standpoints of the archzeologist,
the geologist, and the philologist.

a honors were conferred on Lyell in recognition
of his services to science. As far back as 1586 he was elected
to the Preulental Chair of the siege Society, to which
he was re-elected in 1850. He received from Her Majesty the
honor of knighthood in 1848, andin 1855 the honorary degree
of D.C.L. of the University of Oxford was conferred upon n him
He had been for many years a Fellow of the Royal Society,
and in 1888 received one of the Royal feted s Gold Medals
for his ‘Principles of Geology.’ In 1858 the Royal Society
conferred upon him the highest honor at eve disposal—the
Copley Medal; and in 1864-5 he filled the Presidential Chair
of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.
He received the Wollaston Gold Medal from the Geological
Society of London in 1865 (his continued official connection
with which had precluded his receiving it earlier). He was
raised in 1864, on the recommendation of thethen Prime Minister,
Lord Palmerston, to a Baronetcy, which now becomes extinct
by his decease. He was a Deputy-Lieutenant for his native
county of Forfarshire.

“Sir Charles Lyell has been so long and so honorably known
among the scientific teachers of the time, that though he had
arrived at his seventy-eighth year, and the period of his chief
intellectual and physical activity had long passed away, probably
even the younger men of the present generation will feel that
science is poorer by his loss

“ At the meeting of abe Geological Society of London, held
in the Society's room, Burlington House, Picadilly, on Wednes-
day last (February Qt 4th), the President, John’ Evans, Esq.,
F.R.S., before commencing the business of the meeting, allude
- ie _ loss which all present had sustained. “He ittle

had so cag desired ranlaie: In future times, wherever the
name of Lyell shall nown, it will be as that of the
greatest, the most philosophical, the most enlightened geologist
of Great Britain or Europe.

“In accordance with the wish of the Council of the Royal
Society, Sir Charles Lyell will rest beside his old friend and

Sir Charles Lyell. 275
fellow-laborer in science, Sir John Herschel, in Westminster
b e ”

We add the following appreciative remarks from Nature of
March 4th. :

‘“Lyell’s claim to fame lies in this, that he organized the
whole method of inquiry into the history of the formation of
the crust of the earth, and established on a sound footing the
true principles of geological science; his theory being that, by
the uniform action of forces such as are now in operation, the
visible crust of the earth has been evolved from previous states.

“Lyell was not only a keen investigator of natural phenom-
ena; he was also a shrewd observer of human nature, and his
four interesting volumes of travel in America are full of clever
criticism and sagacious forecasts. His mind, always fresh and
open to new impressions, by sympathy drew towards it and
quickened the enthusiasm of all who studied nature. Had he
done nothing himself, he would have helped science on by the
warmth with which he hailed each new discovery. How many
a young geologist has been braced up for new efforts by the
encouraging words he heard from Sir Charles, and how many
a one has felt exaggeration checked and the faculty of seeing
things as they are strengthened by a conversation with that
keen sifter of the true from the false

“Though by nature most sociable and genial, yet Sir Charles
often withdrew from society where the object of his life, the
pursuit of science, was not promoted; but when anything inter-
esting turned up he always tried to share his pleasure with all
around. Many of us will remember the cheerful and hearty
here’—‘ Have you shown it to so and so? ’—‘ Capital,
capital.’

“The little wayside flower, and, from early happy associations,
still more, the passing butterfly, for the moment seemed to en-
gross his every thought. But the grandeur of the sea impressed
him most; he never tired of wandering along the shore, now
speaking of the great problems of earth’s history, now of the
little weed the wave left at his feet. His mind was like the lens
that gathers the great sun into a speck and also magnifies the
little grain he could not see before. He loved all nature, great
and small.

“Much we owe to Leonard Horner, himself a good geologist,
for having inspired the young Charles Lyell. In after years,
when already well known, Charles Lyell chose as his wife the
eldest daughter of his teacher and friend. Many have felt the
charm of her presence—many have felt the influence of the
soul that shone out in her face; but few know how much science
directly owes to her. As the companion of his life, sharing his

276 Sir Charies Lyell.

labor, thinking his success her own, Sir Charles had an accom-
plished linguist who braved with him the dangers and difficul-
ties of travel, no matter how rough; the ever-ready prompter
when memory failed, the constant adviser in a. cases of difficulty.
Had she not been part of him she would herself have been better
known to fame. The word of encouragement that he wished

ive lost none of its warmth when conveyed by her; the
welcome to fellow-workers of foreign lands had a grace added
when offered through her. Shewas taken from him when the long
shadows began to cross his path ; but it was not then he needed
her most. When in the vigor of unimpaired strength he
struggled amongst the foremost in the fight for truth, then she
stood by and handed him his spear or threw forward his shield.
He had not her hand to smooth his pillow at the last, but the
loving wife was spared the pain of seeing him die

‘Tt doubtless occurred to many a one among the crowd who
saw him laid to rest among the great in thought and action,
= he might have been eminent in many a line besides that he
chose.

“hi a well-balanced judicial mind, which weighed care-
fully all iss dab before it. A large type e of intellect—too rare
not to be missed. But it was well that circumstances did not
combine to keep the young laird on his paternal lands among
the hills of Forfarshire: it was well for science that he was in-
duced to prefer the quieter study of nature to the subtle bandy-

ing of words or the excitement of forensic strife. Failing
health had for some time removed him from debates. Still to
the last his interest in all that was going on in this scientific
world never failed, and nothing pleased him more than an ac-
sag . ert =n diseussion at the Geological Society, or of any

As a man of science his Poo os be
auasly filled ; ” hile many ere lost a kind, good frie

The number of Nature for August 26, contains an i-amagallonit
. portrait of Sir Charles Lyell, accompanying a_ biographical
notice by Prof. Giekie.*

A list of Lyell’s memoirs to the close of 1863 will be found
in the Royal Society Catalogue, numbering, with his elaborate
works, no less than seventy-one separate communications in his
own name, and five more in connection with others.

* Artist's proofs of this portrait (engraved on steel by 0. H. Jeem) may be had
at the office of Nature, 29 Bedford Street, Strand, London, W. C. Price 5s. each.

Arithmetical Relations between the Atomic Weights. 277

ART. XXX VL—On the Arithmetical Relations between the Atomic
Weights ; by M. D. C. Hopess.

THE group of elements, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and
iodine, have, as their atomic weights, 19, 35, 5, 80 and 127
respectively. "These numbers form a series, in which the dif-
ference between the succeeding terms is at first 16° 5, then 44°,
and finally 47. The following groups of elements give similar
series,

Li=7
=—12 O—16 —14 Na=23 Mg=24
Si=28 S—32 P=31 K=39 Ca=40

Se—79°4 As=—75 Ru=—85°5) Ss Sr —=87°5
Te=128 Sb==122 Cs=2133 Ba=137

The grouping of some of the above elements may be objected
to, but there isno great change from that generally accepted.
Tha group of such elements as copper, silver, cadmium, mer-
cury, lead and bismuth is taken, the series of atomic weights
gives a similar, but somewhat different result; in this case
each term of the series is composed of several members.
Cu=63°4 (Zn==65'2) The new difference, 96+, for the
Ag=108 Cd=112 higher terms occurs.
Hg=200 Pb=207 Bi=210
Zine may be added to the first term, and corresponds to the
second member of the second term. The lower terms are here
wanting. Similar to these are the following:
Ru=104°4 Rh=104*4 Pd=107
Au=196°7 Pt=—197°4 N=197°4 Os=199°4
Many = the remaining elements may be placed in the follow-
ing seri

eeeaie Ti —50 In=75'8 Y=68 WV =61'3
Al=27°4 Nb=94 U=120 E112 Mo=96
Th=231 Ta—182 =204 W184

hromium,

Rete, cerium, Heese aid ium, hadi n and boron.

The position of these may be better seen in the pasexed table,
in which all the elements, with ae exception of hydrogen, are
arranged on lines, the succeeding elements in the same line dif-
fering in their atomic weights by a few units or parts of uni
and those in different lines from the corresponding elements i
the preceding or following line by one of the differences
mentioned.

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Arithmetical Relations between the Atomic Weights.

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Arithmetical Relations between the Atomic Weights. 279

In this table all of the above series are given, and the series,
consisting of several members for each term, also, find their
place. When we start from Be=9-4 and notice the following
elements in the same = we find that the atomic weights con-
tinually increase till =24 is reached; there are no more
elements in the same ae the next highest being Al(=27-4)
in the second line; the case is similar for this line, the atomic

weights saeg ae? to Ca(=40), the eC stegiee being in the
third lin e difference between the first and second lines
is about ietiesn units; it becomes forty- aa oes for the second
and third, and third and fourth; and is, finally, about ninety-
three for the last term of the series, from Ti, Nb, Ta to Be, Al,
Th. These three differences do not seem to be constant, but to
increase with the values of the atomic weights; this is most
apparent for ets largest ; vee smallest appears constant.

It eem probable hat the lower terms of the series
after iin gnceintis and as rahe as aluminum, should be wanting ;
as, otherwis se, there would be two elements of equal atomic
weights and differing largely in their chemical natures; whic
last would be shown by their having to be placed in different
parts of the table, which does not occur. From Ba(=187) to
the next highest, T'a(= 182) i is forty-five units, about the value
of the middle difference, If there were other elements be-
tween these, there would be a similar anomaly to that just
mentioned. The last serie of the series having the largest
difference for their last terms, are T'ia(=182) to > Th(= 231); the
increase in these is forty-nine units. It may be that Th(=281)
is the largest atomic weight.

One advantage of the table is its bringing elements of similar
chemical and physical characters together. The metals and
or a are separated almost completely.

e are certain objections to the classification of some of
the proche in the series in which they have been placed. It

correspond in the members of the same series; this is best -
shown in the case of the soluble oxides and sulphides; others
are those of thallium and lead, and perhaps silver. The boun-
daries in neither of these cases are to be considered sharp, and
in both are obli
here is a singular fact in regard to the specific gravities of
the elements, when thus arranged. The speci ific aravities of
the elements in the same line vary regularly and have one
maximum and minimum; the maximum is in each case in the
neighborhood of the members of the gold group, and the
minimum among the metalloids; the speora of these two
points are farther to the mens the lower the line; this is best
seen for the minimum. The numbers above the symbols give
the specific weights. Weak | is an exception.

280 J. D. Dana—Absence of marine life from

atomic weight after its determination by analysis. The specific
gravity being known, there could be two points equally dis-
tant from the maximum or minimum in each line, in which, in
general, the element could be placed; the value as found by
analysis, or one of its multiples, would satisfy one of these posl-
tions.

It is somewhat strange that there is no position for hydrogen
in the table.

Art. XXXVIL—On Southern New England during the melung
of the great Glacier ; by James D. Dana. No. IL*

II. ApsENcE OF MARINE LIFE FROM LoNnG IsLAND SOUND THROUGH
THE GLACIAL AND PART OF THE CHAMPLAIN PERIODS.

THE fact that the stratified estuary and seashore deposits of
the New Haven region, and of other parts of the Connecticut
coast bordering on the Sound, afforded me no trace of marin
life was a puzzle so long as I looked upon them as true beach-
made accumulations. I have continued my search at various
localities, up to the present time, and in no case have I met
with shells or other sea-relics, The evidence proves that the
deposits are not of beach origin, but drift deposits made by the
waters and gravel or sand of the melting glacier as they

The same absence of marine products appears to charac
the drift along the northern shore of Long Island, or southern side
of the Sound. The extended investigations of Professor m.
W. Mather, while geologist of the State of New York, brought
nothing of the kind to light; and my own recent examinations
of the drift on the Island have been as barren of discovery-
Moreover, [ could gather no evidence from persons living =

* For No. I. of this Memoir, see page 168.

Long Island Sound in the early Quaternary. 281

the sea-border towns that any shells had been found in the drift
deposits *

Long Island Sound—the strip of water, 100 miles long and
5 to 20 miles wide, separating Long Island from Connecticut—
is a very shallow trough. Its depth from its western limit to
the mouth of the Connecticut river nowhere exceeds (as the
Coast Survey charts show) 170 feet, and in general is between
75 and 100 feet; and through the small eastern portion, east of
the Connecticut, it is for the most part under 200 feet. The
depth was probably less than this in the Glacial era, since there
is strong evidence that the water line was then at least 100 feet

low its present level. However this be, so shallow a trough
should have been occupied throughout with ice, if the glacier
over Southern Connecticut were 1 500 feet in thickness, or even

und than now exists. But, with the melting going
forward, the great stream of the Sound would have been
swollen immensely in volume, and finally have borne icebergs
seaward

Such being the glacial conditions, the continuance of mollus-
can, articulate and verbetrate marine life in the Sound, like that
now existing there, would have been impossible, and an ex-

beaches to refer to as proof, the evidence of this, fails us. The
iene had probably exterminated the temperate-climate life
f €

bowlders, from one ton to two thousand tons in weignt, of New
Fngland origin, show that the ice stretched on from t

* Prof. Mather in his New York Geological Report (p. 262) gives, from the verbal
Teports of tliety, thetioastin rosbectitig: te discovery of shells on ——

Upper
depths varying f i more than a hundred feet, shells are

have been “obtained fas Guieeuuns Island, in New York Harbor, at a depth of
about 100 feet. None of the shells or localities have ever been

Reologist, so that the precise value of the evidence is still in doubt.

282 =. F. Pourtalés—Corals at the Galapagos Islands.

Atlantic border, if not along the southern shores of this island.
Under these cireumstances the old life, which might early have
repeopled the southern shores of Long Island and the seas on
the east, would have been slow in repossessing itself of Long
Island Sound.

Leeann aed

Art. XXXVIIL—Corals at the Galapagos Islands, by L. F.
POoURTALES.

THE Galapagos Islands are, as is well known, an important
point in the geographical distribution of corals, being almost
exactly on the boundary of the coral-producing part oo’

acific Ocean, and that portion which is destitute of them 0P
account of the low temperature of the water. All the writers

* Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. of New York, viii, 149, May, 1865.

E. B. Andrews—On the Alleghany Coal-field. 288

on the subject have placed this group of islands in this latter
portion. During the visit of the United States Coast Survey
steamer Hassler, a number of specimens of corals, of which -
the following is the list, were picked up on the beaches of sev-
eral of the islands :

Pavonia gigantea Verrill, James Island.

Pavonia clivosa Verrill, Indefatigable Island.

Pavonia, sp., James Island.

Astropsammia Pedersenii Verrill.

Pocillipora capitata Verrill, Jervis and Charles Islands.
Porites, sp.

lighter. The specimen is too much rolled for nearer determina-
tion, The Porites is massive. also, and in the same condition.

The species are all, or nearly all, identical with those found
at Panama. They are mostly reef-builders, but here live prob-
ably isolated sid at a certain depth, having never been ob-
served tn situ. In individual growth they are fully equal to
those from more favored localities, the rolled pieces of Pavonia
measuring six or seven inches in diameter, thus indicating
masses of considerable size originally. They are not confined
to the northernmost islands of the group, where we should
more naturally look for them, from the greater proximity to
the warm current, but as the list shows, a Pocillipora was foun
at Charles Island. one of the southernmost. The probabilit
of fragments drifting from one island to the other is very small,
owing to the considerable depth of water between them.

Art. XXXIX.—A Comparison between the Ohio and West Vir-
gina sides of the Alleghany Ooal-field; by E. B. ANDREWS.
[Read before the American Association, at the meeting at Detroit.]

In the study of the Alleghany coal-tield it is necessary to

have Some well defined geological horizon to serve as a datum
line with which to collate the various strata. Sometimes the

284 HE. B. Andrews—Comparison between the Ohio and

ides to take the horizon of the Pittsburgh seam of coal as the
ase of measurement.

This seam is of wide extent, being 225 miles long and about
100 miles wide, and is easily recognized by geologists. It has
been asserted that this seam was formed in a trough with the
Alleghany mountains forming a sloping side on the one hand
and the Cincinnati uplift on the other, and as the subsidence—
which is conceded to have been regularand uniform—continued,
the marsh, with its accumulated vegetable matter, crept up
either slope. In time the center or lowest part was buried by
sediments and new land surfaces were formed on which vegeta-
tion grew and other resulting seams of coal stretched across the
trough from side to side like the chords of an are, but all
coalescing with the great seam ever rising along the margins to
meet them. I know of no proof whatever that the price
mountains were uplifted just before the era of the upper coal-
measures, nor is there any that the slope on the side of the
Cincinnati uplift differed at the time the Pittsburgh seam was
formed from what it had been during the era of the lower coal-
measures. ‘There is, furthermore, no proof that the upper and

‘This seam occupies nearly the center of the northern and
wider part of the Alleghany coal-field and extends through
portions of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. It

Now, if we take this seam of coal and follow around its line
of outcrop and measure from it down to the base of the pro
ductive coal-measures, we find the intervals quite uniform
through the larger part of the circuit. In Ohio, according t0

rt. Newberry’s measurements and my own, it is from 700 >
800 feet. In Pennsylvania on the Alleghany river north ©
Pittsburgh it is reported by Prof, H. D. Rogers to be from 600
to 700 feet ; or 800 feet including the conglomerate underneath.
In the northern part of West Virginia, a little south of the
Pennsylvania line, it is reported to be 500 feet. But in West

West Virginia sides of the Alleghany Coal-field. 285

Virginia farther south, the interval is far greater, as will be
shown. If we make a section across the whole coal-field,
including the Ohio side of the synclinal axis, taking the general
line of the Kanawha river, we find the southeastern side of that
axis not only very much wider territorially, but also containing
a much greater thickness or depth of productive coal-measures.
The Pomeroy seam of coal, which I have shown in the Ohio
Geological Reports to be identical with the Pittsburgh seam,

ips to the southeast under the Kanawha river a little above its
mouth. A few miles higher up the river, it reappears on the
other side of the synclinal axis and has been identitied by Prof.
W. B. Rogers and others. From this point we descend the
geological series in going to Charleston, or perhaps to a point a
little above Charleston, through an interval estimated to be 700
feet. Professor Fontaine, who has contributed some valuable
articles to the American Journal of Science on the Geology of

est Virginia, writes me that he thinks it may be greater than
this. From Charleston to the Kanawha falls we descend in the
series from 1,100 to 1,200 feet. I measured the interval between
the coarse conglomeratic sandrock of the falls and one of the
Upper coal-seams on Cotton mountain, aseam which is believed
to dip below the river a little above Charleston, and found it
nearly 1,200 feet. Prof. Fontaine estimates 1,200 feet as the
thickness of the coal-measures between the top of the conglome-
Tatic sandrock of the falls and the southeastern outcrop of the
Measures up New river. A thousand feet have been measured

Guyandotte and of the Tug fork of Big Sandy lead me to the
lef ina corresponding thickness of coal-measures 1n all that

nee the most valuable range of bituminous coals in the
hited States is-that belt, which, beginning upon EIk river,

286 =. B, Andrews— Comparison between the Ohio and

passes the Kanawha between Charleston and Kanawha falls,
includes the Coal river field, and crosses the Guyandotte, the
upper Twelve Pole, and Tug and Louisa forks of Big Sandy.
This belt belongs geologically to a space in the vertical
series, which is below the horizon of the base of the coal-
measures in Obio and Western Pennsylvania. Yet below this
group comes in another, which Prof. Fontaine designates as the
Conglomerate series. If we replace the strata, now inclined on
either side of the synclinal axis, in their original horizontal
position, we find the proof of a vast depression of the surface
in this portion of West Virginia at the beginning of the series
of Productive coal-measures. It was doubtless a trough, a
geosynclinal, according to Prof. Dana’s nomenclature, and a
part of the great Appalachian system of the wrinkling and fold-
ing of the continent. To the southeast there were at the time
elevated lands of older formations, stretching along the same
Appalachian line of disturbance and upheaval.

On the northern and western side of this vast basin lay the

feet of accumulations, I have seen, in all my extended ex lora-
tions of the region, only a single limestone layer, and that 1m
Webster County, on the head of Elk river. I had no oppor
tunity to examine it for fossils.

When at last, in the subsidence, this basin was filled, the
waters came over the marginal P ateau to the north and west, 4

Western Pennsylvania. The continuity a
the sheet is often broken and large areas around the margin 0
our Ohio coal-field show no conglomerate whatever. The first

West Virginia sides of the Alleghany Coal-field. 287

coal marshes grew in the hollows and depressions of the
Waverly, depressions formed, it may be, wholly or in part, by
erosions from surface drainage during the long period in which
the formation had remained high and dry land. After the
whole plateau had been submerged the same process of fillin
up, and marsh-forming and coal-making, went on, as has already
been described, with the exception that the waters were more
habitable and the layers of fossiliferous limestone show the
remains of crinoid, mullusk and fish.

means the last in the upward series. er
West Virginia, probably 1,200 to 1,500 feet of coal-measure
rocks, with several seams of coal. This would give from 4,300
to 4,500 feet of productive coal-measures in that favored State.
No other State in the Union contains so great a vertical range.

This great Kanawha basin or trough originally extended to the
south or southwest so as to include the area in which the coals
of Montgomery county, Va., were formed, for these coals are
doubtless the equivalents of the lowest on New river, as are
also the remnants and outliers of coal in Tazewell, Russell, and
Scott counties.

hessee, w
along the line of the geosynclinal depression, was carried
i e

on entucky, on the northwestern side of the
synelinal axis, were not involved in the movement. In south-
ern Tennessee, Prof. Safford reports in one of his sections only

the upper 1,700 feet having doubtless been removed by denu-
dation. If not thus removed, the limestone was not carried

288 =F. B. Andrews— Comparison between the Ohio and

down in the geosynclinal, but remained on the higher margin
as in Ohio, and the original trough by which connection was
had with the sea lay probably to the east.

id the same geosynclinal trough extend in the opposite
direction from the Kanawha valley, i. e., to the northeast through
Pennsylvania? Ifthe equivalency of the Pittsburgh seam has
been rightly determined in the Cumberland and Broad Top
coal-fields, we have in the former, according to Mr. Tyson,
1,100 feet of productive measures below that seam, and in the
latter about 700, according to Prof. Lesley. .Prof. Lesley has
recently reported finding in the Broad Top field thin coals in
the lower Carboniferous, in strata which he regards as equiva-
lents of the Waverly Berea grit of Ohio. This is a discovery
of the highest interest, but it will not effect this discussion,
since I confine myself to what we term the Productive coal-
measures. The geological interval between the middle of the
Waverly, with the Chester limestone above, and these measures
is a very great one. It may be remarked in this connection

measures contain no register of themselves in seams of coal, the

they were formed. Prof. Lesquereux, in his chart of grouped
sections in the fourth volume of the Kentucky Survey, places
all the coal-seams of Wilkesbarre, Pittston, Scranton and Car-
bondale below the horizon of the Pittsburgh seam. In the
Pottsville region Mr. Daddow claims that seam G. of his series,
is the equivalent of the Pittsburgh seam. The seam G. 1s
feet above the lowest seam in the series, one imbedded in con-
glomerate. If we accept this equivalency we find no proof 0
the existence of the deep geosynclinal trough in that direction.
, again, the conglomerate under the anthracite basins 1s the
equivalent of the conglomerate of Western Pennsylvania and
Ohio, and they were once one and continuous as the Pennsy L-
-vania geologists affirm, then, since to the west, the ge ee?
ate was not deposited until after the great West Virginie
trough was filled and the waters in the general subsidence

E. B. Andrews— Comparison of the Alleghany Coal-field. 289

came over the great marginal plateau already described, we
may well infer that there could not have been an extension
through the anthracite region of the geosynclinal valley.
There was only enough of greater depth to include the in-
creased thickness of the conglomerate.

e comparison of the two sides of the Alleghany coal-
field suggests a very great difficulty in regard to the determina-
tion of the place of what is termed thé coal-measure Conglom-
erate. Is there an established horizon for such Conglomerate
in American geology? In Ohio we now are in the habit of
calling that rock the Conglomerate which, when found at all,
hes upon the Waverly (although formerly the Waverly con-
glomerate was also thus designated) and is approximately from
600 to 800 feet below the horizon of the Pittsburgh seam of
coal. The same Conglomerate extends under the bituminous
coal-field of Western Pennsylvania and holds the same rela-
tion to the Pittsburgh coal. This conglomerate horizon should
have the same relative distance below the Pittsburgh seam in
West Virginia, and I think I have probably found lithological
proof of it in a very coarse conglomerate on Elk River—a
branch of the Kanawha which enters the latter at Charleston.

t the Kanawha Falls is a conglomerate more than 1000 feet
lower in the series. This rock has been honored with a capital
C, and the coals in the 1200 feet below it are spoken of as the
Conglomerate series. Still below this series and below all the
coals, Prof. W. B. Rogers finds another conglomerate in the
New River valley as does Prof. Lesley under the lowest coals
im the faults and upthrows to the southwest. Now if the coal-
measure Conglomerate is a geological horizon and not merely
a rock, these various strata cannot all be the true Conglom-
erate. We find conglomerates everywhere in the vertical range
of the coal-measures. They are found even above the horizon
of the Pittsburgh seam. Heavy conglomerates abound along
the western side of the eastern Kentucky coal-field, at various
elevations above the lower Carboniferous limestone, and the
Same is true in Tennessee.

In the Indiana and Illinois coal-field, the coal seams of which
have never been synchronized with those of the Alleghany
coal-field, we have reported a conglomerate or millstone grit,
but no one knows its exact place in the great time scale, or
whether it is the equivalent of any of the half dozen well-
marked conglomerates of the Alleghany field. So far as we
how know it may have no equivalency any where. :

In Arkansas there is a conglomerate called in the Geological
Reports the Millstone gtit. The available coals of the State
are said to lie below it, and are therefore called the Sub-Con-
glomerate coals, although Prof. Lesquereux asserts that they

Am. Jour, 8cr.—Tump — Vor. X, No. 58 —Ocr., 1875.

290 A, Agassiz—Instinet? in Hermit Crabs.

belong to the true coal-formation and cannot be separated from
it. The conglomerate in this case can have nothing more than
a lithological significance.

In the South Joggins coal-field at the head of the Bay of
Fundy, Sir Wm. Logan reports 14,570 feet of coal-measures.
In this vast series of strata, and not very far from the middle
of it, Dr. Dawson, in his admirable work on Acadian Geology,
finds a group of coarse sandrocks which he denominates the
Millstone Grit series. Here the millstone grit is not known to

e the equivalent of the millstone grit of Great Britain, nor of
any of our conglomerates of the United States.

In view of this confusion, I think all will agree with me that
the terms millstone grit and coal-measure conglomerate should
either be used to designate a uniform horizon in the Carbonif-
erous system or be abandoned as geological terms and retained
only for their lithological meaning.

I close this paper with another remark by way of inference,
viz: that there is need of an entire revision of the classifica-
tion of the coal-seams of the great Alleghany coal-field. It
seems strange to begin in the middle of the vertical series und
call a seam of coal No. 1, or letter A, and enumerate upward,
while all the seams below are left without enumeration, But
the data for such revision are not yet sufficient.

Art, XL.—Instinct ? in Hermit Crabs ; by ALEXANDER
AGASSIZ.

captivity, commenced at once to tear out the animal, and hav-
ing eaten him, proceeded to take its place within the shell.

A. Agassiz—Instinct ? in Hermit Crabs. 291

It is of course very difficult to apply to Invertebrates many
of the laws of natural selection, and thus far we know so little

We can, therefore, only explain the faculty of performing this
act as inherited, or else as a simple mechanical act rendered
necessary by the conditions of the young hermit cra

latter seems the more probable case from the nature of the test

stage and the one preceding it is the curling of the abdomen;

in the anterior pa 1
seemed to satisfy him as well as a shell, there being several
empty shells at bi

taking the animal out and occupying his place; all acts which
seem to require considerable intell
able forethought ?.

Newport, Aug. 23, 1875.

292 Scientific Intelligence.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

“I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysICcs.

ution, by the identity of their decapateee
ahi a high temperatures, the equal solubility of their ie
num salts, which were identical in ery stalline form, and ede
exact similarity « fusing point of their picrates. To thes ie
ae they n add the oe domi ea eet identity of their
picrates as Aiba ed by Groth and Arzruni. Lossen having
eres that the Seen drawn from the above fact e.,
that nitrogen was a pentad in these compounds—was not war-
ranted unless it could be shown that no exchange of radicals took
place within the molecule, the seo have made a series of ex-
periments to test this question. By acting on tetra-methylammo-
nium iodide with ethyl iodide, there would See if an exchange
did actually take place, the following reactio
N(CH,),I+C,H I=N(CH, iA. tf JI+CH,l.
The two substances were heated together in a sealed tube, first to
100° and shen ¢ to 150° os original reaction having been com-

(the previous experiments having been conducted at ordinary
ur The authors hence reiterate their conclusion that
ammonium derivatives are not molecular but atomic com
ey! ee that in them, the ee is quinquivalent. saieict
Berl. € Ges., viii, 936, July, |
2 eg ne.—Among the reeiwiel obtained in the denen
tive distillation of wood, isa heavy oil often employed in lubrica-
tion. This oil is very rich in the hydrocarbon retene, and }K

an investigation, ne pressing the cooled oil, a grayish soapy

85°. After vaikiig? with ether, solution in boiling alcohol, de:

the composition Eas Crystallized retene has a density 7
1-13, and fused of 1°08. ' It is readily soluble in boiling alcohol an

Se acetic acid, aida in carbon disulphide, benzene, an
t unites directly with chlorine and bromine at ordinary tem

tures and is readily oxidized by nitric acid. The picrate crysta lines

* This Journal for June, 1875, p. 462.

Chemistry and Physics. . 293

in orange needles, Di- and tetra- bromo-retene, and a salphie-ue con-
jugated’ acid and its salts, are described. In acetic acid solution,
chromic acid oxidizes it to dioxyretistene C,,H,,O, and to two
other bodies, C,,H,,O, and C,, , both monobasic epi
forming well defined salts. Dioxyretistene reduced by zinc pow-
der, yields dibenzyl. Hence he regards the retistene of Wahl-
forss as probably only a mixture of retene and dibenzyl.— Bull.
Soe. oe II, xxiv, 55, July, 1875. G. F. B,
opargylene, a new hydrocar bon, C,H,.—By the ac-
tion ae strong bases on croton- ny dichlorallylene, 3H,Cl,
is obt ained. PInNeER has now obser that sodium is capab e of

composed by water, yields a gas having the composition C,H,,

hour, the sodium sinks to the bottom, having been converted into
a brown dull mass, “ a notable increase of volume. Finally,
when somewhat less than a molecule of sodium has been added
to one of diehloraliylene, the latter has entirely disappeared, the
dry mass being the sole product. Water, alcohol, and ether de-
compose it, selene tonnes of gas and forming sodium chloride,
It has not been obtained pure and its analyses are discordant ; Say
its mode of formation gives it the ihcbeciey formula C,H,C 2N a
If it be treated with water and the evolved gas be passed throu oh
bromine, this is absorbed, and a heavy oil is woes ii chi
formula C,H,Br,. By the action of potassium hydrate upon
this, ssiucotinliyiace C,HBr, is obtained sd ‘this unites directly
with Br, to give C HBr in white crystals. Propargylene gas

fine white needles, which rapidly blacken oe in the dark, and
have the probable sontiponitien (C,H,),Ag,O. Pinner regards
CNaH
the sodium compound as composed thus : e ‘ ,and
Cl, c_..\CNaH
CH
Propargylene thus: .%\‘, ; and the decomposition of the
O”...‘CH
former by water is represented as follows :
Na “CH

p32 eA \ CH y
O1/0-.0H ~ g/l“ cee

Cl. NA
Hence this dichlorallylene is not a derivative of allylene proper,
but is ae pargylene dichloride.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 898,
F. B,

July, 1 ra
+ ‘Synthani esis of a dextro-rotatory Malic acid.—Bremer has
Prolished a preliminar note on a new aalic acid which rotates

294 Scientific Intelligence.

tarie acid. Ordinary tartaric acid, iodine, phosphorus and a little
water, were enclosed in sealed tubes and heated in a water-bath
for several days. The mass was treated with water, the succinic
acid crystallized out, the mother liquor diluted and the phosphoric

of lime .

now engaged in the attempt to produce a left-handed malic acid
from levotartaric acid, in the hope that from the two an inactive
malic acid may result, as racemic comes from the two tartaric
acids.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 861, July, 1875. G, F. B.
5. On Ethyl and Amyl-sulphocarbonates as remedies for the

ate, when 2
carbon disulphide, recommended this substance for destroymg
that pest of the grape culture, the phylloxera, since it was well

pees being rapidly oxidized in the soil. Experiments made by

mpound, which, while at the same time evolving in the soil the
noxious carbon disulphide, does not set free the injurious hydrogen
sulphide. Moreover, while the former substance recommended by

earth, co od e above salt, wit
injurious effect other than the loss of a few leaves. Shrubs were
entirely unaffected when treated with from 3 to 5 gram y

France to be used practically, owing to the high price of alcohol,
supposing the Sabed pananaiion, hydrate out of the question. They

Chemistry and Physies. 295

would replace the ethyl by amyl, forming thus the amylsulpho-
carbonate. This they find by experiment is equally efficacious
with the other, me even less injurious action on ae and is far
cheaper. Moreo it may be made easier. If concentrated
potassium ne erie eae be agitated with crude hes alcohol,
and carbon disulphide be added, the whole mass becomes warm
ind deposits potassium amy sulphocarbonate, in a form best
suited for use. It may be caring ping in solution or better
mixed with superphosphate. As the authors estimate
at at the present cost of amyl Bore ‘Ctasel oil) in Vienna, it
n be made for $15 a hundred weight. It is not only usefial to
exterminate the phylloxera, but also 1 many other root parasites of
plants.— Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii, 802, 955, June, awa es

Separated by means of a syphon. The residue on distillation gave
12 to 15 grams of volatile liquids, which after rectification
boiled between 72° and 77°, and consisted of methyl and or 4
alcohols, the latter consituting two thirds. By examining the
fruit at various stages of growth, the author infers that as ripen-
ing approaches, the ethyl compounds | gradu ae diminish, being
converted into more condensed a while the methyl oer
pounds remain constant. The o =: pane mentioned A oe
Similar result. —Liebig’s ge 38 pee 344, June, 1
G. F. B.
7. On Arbutin.—Htastwerz and Hapermann have made a

u
authors find, however, that the body thus obtained is not pure
hydroquinone, but is a mixture of this and its methyl derivative,

methyl -hydroquinone ©,H, nee isomeric with saligenin

C,H, ae OH . Hence they assign to arbutin the formula
C, oH, 40,, and express its splitting by ferments, as follows:
C,,H,,0,, +(H,0), = C,H,» +0, HO, t(CyH 1206)
Arbatin: stort
One hundred of onan ia 19° 7 a he aieivindiis) 22:5 5

boi
a i Mri and 64°7 sugar.—Liebig’s —— _—

296 | Scientific Intelligence.

eA
has examined in Hofmann’s laboratory a new base obtained from
the last run of the still in the manufacture of aniline. This pro-
duct—a black tarry liquid with a disagreeable odor—was dissolved
in hydrochloric acid, diluted and filtered. Upon addition of
sodium hydrate, the bases were set free as a light oil swimming
rfa i

purified, was proved to have the composition C,,H,,N or
C,;H,,NH,, a primary amine. Its nitrate, sulphate, and
chloride crystallize well. Farther investigation showed it prob-
ably to be tolyl-phenyl-amine, (C,H,.C,H,.)NH,.—Ber. Berl.
Chem. _Ges., viii, 968, 1875. G. F. B.
9. Viscosity of Saline Solutions.--M. A. SpruNG has repeated
the experiments of Poiseuille to determine the relation of the
viscosity of liquids to their temperature and chemical composition.
volume of 21°15 ems.? of the liquid was forced through a capil-
lary tube 300 mms. long, and ‘46 mms, in diameter, under a pres-
sure of 158 cms. of water. Observations were made with solutions
of chloride of ammonium of five different strengths, at intervals of

that at low temperatures the viscosity is less, at high tempera-
tures greater, than that of water. The same result was shown by

H,SO,, HCl, HNO,, HC1O,, HB, and HL. In each of the three

the base is legs,

Univ., cex, 112. presi
10. Photographie Irradiation —Capt. Asnry states that the

le.
examined under a microscope, it will be seen that the film consists
parated -

. t
of minute particles se y considerable distances from ©

Chemistry and Physics. 297

another. Their diameter is several times the length of a wave of
light, and hence we may treat the question as a case of simple
geometrical reflection. Computing by Fresnel’s formula the amount
of light reflected by the collodion and glass at various angles, we
find the maximum amount of light would fall at a distance 2¢ cot v,
in which ¢ is the thickness of the glass, and v the critical angle.
On development, therefore, a ring might be formed around the
image with this distance as a radius, and shading off more abruptly
inside than outside. To test these results an image of the sun was
formed by a lens of 6” focus on a plate 12” thick. A well de-
fined annulus was formed shaded as described above. With a
plate of double thickness, the mean diameter of the annulus was
doubled. Two plates were then employed separated by a thin
A ring was formed on the first plate and a diffused image
on the second. A measurement of the intensities agreed closely
with the result of theory. Holes and slits were cut in platinum
foil, placed on a dry plate and exposed directly to sunlight. Rings .
were obtained in one case, and parallel lines joined by semi-circles
in the other, showing that the effect is not due to the lens of the
camera.
Three methods suggest themselves for diminishing irradiation :
first, to coat the back of the plate with some irerey color ;
p]

out, and is more effective than the first. With albumen preserva-

tive particularly, the amount of irradiation is reduced materially,

— though the film appears nearly transparent.—PAil. Wag., |,
; E. ©. P.

ll. Conical Refruction.—M. Novor has endeavored to find a
ec

indices of numerous biaxial crystals, arragonite will be
the most favorable mineral ; but chemical subst

_ three substances appear capable of replacing arragonite, sugar,
bichromate of potassium and tartaric acid. The method of age

> Seige ae face of the bichromate are normal to one of the optical
or tartaric acid it is not the same, and the direction of

298 Scientific Intelligence.

the faces through which we shall see one of the axes must be
found by trial. We succeed easily by employing an Amici’s mi-
croscope ad are recompensed by the result, as crystals of —
pane om cones twice as open as those of <r —
Phys., i

$2. ’Dieleo tric Capacity of Gases.—M. L. Seneeies a sie en-

of 300 small Daniel cells being employe

In the following table the first column 1 give s the name of the
gas, the second the — root of the ‘iciprerie constant, and the
third the a ie of refractio

Jk. n.
Air 35 F 000806 17000294
Carbonic nidi«. rt ee keg 1°000473 17000449
Hydrogen_..-.--..... .. 1000182 17000138
Carboni¢ oxide.< oi... 1°000345 1000340
Nytrowsoeidel.. (22. 22: 1:000497 17000503
Olefians eae. focus 5. 2: 1:000656 1000678
Marsh . Polya cuca . 19000472 a

BAL Annal.,

The smal hod y ieeiired luminous by Phosphuretted Thy:
drvigen —Dr. Gro. Maciean of Princeton, in a private communi-
cation to the editors, says:

sm veral years ago, after s Pay ie a portion of the day in ex

attributed to it, nor was my health apparently in any Way
fected by it.

Probably a repetition of the trial would reproduce the results
observed by Dr. Maclean, which have apparently escaped nolany
heretofore because unsought.

Il. Greotocy anp Natura HIsTory.

i, Pseudomorphism and Meta san eae a correction ; bY
James D. Dana.—In — notice of Mr, Hunt’s Essays in _
Journal, volume ix (the number for Feb., 1875), I say, on page
109: “ With the exception of the year 1858, I have never he

Geology and Natural History. 299

ue taught that “metamorphism is pseudomorphism on a broad

cale”” I would here correct the statement by dropping the ex-
ception, so as to make it read simply—

“T have never held that metamorphism is si SEL Phas on
a broad scale.”

hen the sentence on page 109 was written I had the strongest
a onal conviction that I had never entertained this view as a
r

an refer now to pated evidence that the broad principle
nd this evidence is ones by the book-

ent. er
= expressing my confidence in Bischo s views a nnne the
ten, a of alkaline silicates bs Bi saperee aero and metamor-

lates js statement on the subject. Only the case of a aces

- “Then mee of thes « decumice ‘fon ne is not to be
same proce

of the so-called Rensse rite [a variety of the magnesian mineral, talc] in
Northern am York are other pelt of the widely extended influence of the
Pseudomorp’ e

t The “extensive tal talcose formations” are now excepted, as they have been
Proved not to be magnesian or taleose. ;

300 Scientifie Intelligence.

“On page 92 of the same paper, metamorphism is spoken of as
sometimes pseudomorphism on a broad scale’”— fe
places it in ony with my knowledge of my own scientific
opinions and the statements in my various mineralogical and geo-
logical writings from the first to the last.

2. On Triarthrus Beckii, supposed to have been found in a
boulder in the Connecticut Valley; by W. W. Dones. ‘ (Letter
to J. D. Dana, dated Oct. 22, 1873.)—Having seen last evening,
in the October number of the American Journal of Science, the
statement of your views there presented as to the age of th
“Taconic” rocks, I communicate the following circumstance for
what it is worth.

[ saw recently in a friend’s collection a cast labelled “ Zriarthrus

ley.” e collector of the cabinet in which I

rous a
Western Massachusetts, I am inclined to think the cast is from
specimen owned by some friend
and if really found in the Connecticut Valley, probably an er-
ratic.
From what I have observed as to the distance at which boulders
are usually found from the place where the rock was én situ, the

Forms and Origin of the Lead and Zine Deposits of

western Missouri; by ApotF ScHMIDT i

South-
(Trans. St. Louis A

ead.

dolomite show that part at least of it was deposited in the rock
“while the latter was in a magmatic condition.”

In another kind of deposits called “ openings,” the ores panes!
spaces which extend from a chert bed downward, but not beaten
the limestone layer; they show no evidence of origin about hi
te fissures, but rather from horizontal openings below a ¢?®

Geology and Natural History. 301

Again fissured chert beds are impregnated with lead and zine
ores—mostly sulphides—in the vicinity of the runs and openings,
or else alone.

In still another variety of deposit, common in the Joplin dis-
trict, galena occurs in loose accumulations of broken chert; an
in part of Joplin creek valley the accumulations have a depth ex-
ceeding 70 feet. The ore appears to have been formed in the fis-
sures of the chert beds, and, afterward, the chert beds were
broken up through undermining by the removal of the limestone.
The galena extends into the masses of chert and sometimes also
is crystallized on their surfaces, as if its deposition had commenced
before the breaking up of the chert but was continued during its
progress,

There are also seams and crystals of galena and blende imbedded,
or occupying pockets, in quartzyte, a gray to brownish and often
bituminous variety. The quartzyte in such cases contains also
irregular crystals of dolomite ; and the cavities left by the removal
of this dolomite are often filled with carbonate of lead or silicate
of zinc

dolomization of the beds along vertical and horizontal fissures,
this making the spaces for the ores. There are no true veins.

States such remains seem to be frequent; but I have seen no de-
tailed account: of them, and the only well characterized specimens
which have come into my hands are portions of two trees from

Ohio kindly sent to me by Dr. Newberry, and a very finely ee
Be .

302 Scientifie Intelligence,

United States it has already afforded Dadoxylon Halli from New
York, and D. Newberryi from Ohio, besides the curious Ormoay-
on Erianium. No doubt other species remain to be discovered,
especially in the Upper and Middle Devonian.

‘he writer of this note would willingly correspond with any
one engaged in such researches, as he has now under examination
a number of specimens from different parts of British America, and
would be glad to have opportunities of comparison with those of
the United States. J. W. DAWSON,

ill College, Montreal.

carbon in varying proportions. The coaly exterior is attributed,
by Sir R. Christison, to bitumen passing to the surface as the de-
structive distillation of the wood was going on within.—/7o¢

oy. Soc., Edinburgh, Jan., 1874.
6. Volcanic History of Ireland ; by Prof. Epw. J. Hutt (Roy.
Soc., Ireland, vol. iv, part I).—Professor Hull describes as of Lower

?

and Cavan. They are the representatives of the felstones and por
phyries of North Wales, described by Sedgwick, Murchison am
Ramsay, and those of Cumberland |

_The Irish Upper Silurian contains igneous beds in the mount
ainous region of West Mayo and Galway ; felstones, etc., along the
western shores of Lough Mask; beds of ash, volcanic conglomer-
ate and some of trap on the Promontory of Dingle, the thickness,
according to Jukes, 2,500 feet, and interstratified with fossiliferous

8.

The Irish Devonian, in the Killarney Mountains south of Lough
Guitane, where a bold rock, 1490 feet high, a mass. of columnar
felstone, “indicates the position of an old ‘neck’ or voleanic throat,
from either side of which, for considerable distances, beds of
feldspathic ash and conglomerate, with large ‘balls’ of felstone,
often hollow in the center, which were probably bombs shot out
of the vent at various stages of the eruption.” Th
ash re-occur at Lough Garagarry, Lough g
Punchbowl, and rise into the summit of Crohane (2,162 feet) and
the southern slopes of Killeen Mountain. To the south, there
is another district containing cotemporaneous trap rocks at the

Geology and Natural History. 308

mouth of Kenmare River. The shores of Lough Kay and Valen-

tersecting the latter in dikes

In the Lower Carboniferous, occur the trap rocks of the Limer-
ick basin, cotemporaneous with the toad-stones of Derbyshire, the
trap and porphyrite ashes of the oe valley of Scotland forming
the Kilpatrick, Campsie and Dalry Hills. ‘These Limerick trap
= are of two times of eruption, the earlier being the most im-

rides
in Ireland is 2,200 to 2,300 square miles, These vie are briefly
described, from an article by Professor Hull, in the last seat beals of
this Journal, at page 147,
7. Asphalt sabia a the shale of the Huron River, Ohio ; by
of. A. —In the number of the Annals of the Lyce um

tic coal or albertite of New Brunswick. The seam ia ean two
hy and it is traversed by innumerable sheets of sulphate of
a

. 8. Newberry adds a note to the p gd —) a there
are many localities of similar material in ntucky ;
and that it occurs in fissures of the Huron shale a was ormed

He
observes that this shale, “which is the equivalent of the rag ee
group of the New York ge ologiata, contains throughout from 10
to 25 per cent of carbonaceous matter, and is the source whence
Most of the oil is derived both in Pennsylvania and Ohio.

ruption of Tridimitic Ashes.—Dr. A. Ba —— of Zurich,

€ with that species in specific gravity, degree of solubility in
i action vot ar ed light cient preiten His announce-
pdb tl ora fore the Society of Natural History of Zuric
on the 4th af ge , 1875.—R. Com. Geol. d Italia, 1875, 197.

"the Colorado River of the West, and its

Tributaries, kes in 1869 to 1872 under the direction of a

tary of the Smithsonian Ss ) by Prof. J. W. Power
292 pages, 4to, with many plates, 8 maps.—The Fa iahaanlan
Institution’ has sho own, by this volume of Professor Powell,

304 Screntifie Intelligence.

lied
volume also gives much inf dante nish the Indians of the
Colorado region. It closes with a chapter of 65 pages on the
ey Geomys and Thomomys by Dr. Elliott Coues, U. _ A.
There is al ddend

(Geomys tuza), by Prof. G. Brown Goode, the direct connection
of which with the subject of Professor Powell’s Report is not ap-
parent to us.
10. Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio. Vol. Il, Geol
art

Epwarp Orton, Assistant Geologists; F. G. Worry, Chemist;

: Po, :
F. B. Merx, Paleontologist. 702 pp. 8vo, with pa asa

ge. first was issued two years since and is noticed in this
ournal in vol. vi. The new volume ences with ch ee
ae title-pages of the two volumes are intended to 10

Geo
ogy,” and “volume II, Geology and Paleontology, Part —
Geology,” as they read—but Part I, Geology, vol. I, and Part. h
Geology, vol. Il.” A third volume, vol. III, will finish the Part *

Seology; and two volumes more will complete Part I, Paleo
_ tology, volume I having been published in 1873.

oe A eee ar ot NS ES eee

ities a Cee

Geology and Natural History. 305

The Reports, as we have before ee are’ very valuable contri-
butions ta geological science, and as important to the economical
interests of the Sta The pa leantolagiale volumes, if published

with all the aterdry prec’ to the plan proposed, ‘will redound
to the honor of the State, and contribute to the — of knowl-
edge pauered it, if bringing no return to its treasury.

e present volume commences with a chapter on the Quater-
nary, or, as it is here called, Surface Geology, by Dr. Newberry
—a chapter which has been noticed in the last volume of this

H a
Cridut ioe are oe me Winche 1; ‘those on the Surface Geology of
Southeastern Ohio, on Washin ngton No ble , Guernsey (southern
half), Belmont (southern half), Monroe, Pickawa ay and Fairfield
Counties, by E. B. Andrews, who has devoted much time to the
coal formation ; and those on Pi e, Heo and Greene Counties,
concluding the ‘volume, by Edward Orton.

The facts in these Reports have in part appeared i in the Annual
Reports published i n the course of the survey, and have been
the subjects of sare: in this Journal. Without further discussion

of their co ontents, we repeat that they are all worthy of thorough
stay. The geological maps of the counties, inserted in the vol-
~ are well colored.

Sixth Annual Report of the Geological — of Indiana
oT. during the year 1874; by E. T. Cox , State Geologist; as-
sisted by Prof. Joun Cour, Prof W. W. "BorpeE» N and Dr. G.

. Leverre, 288 0, ith maps and plates. This volume
contains a Report by the State Geologist, Mr. Cox, on the Qua-
ternary of Indiana, some of its economical products, its Indian

y
r. Cox gives the follo owing list of fossil ais found in the
less near + New Harmony : Macrocyclis concar sight $e Zonites in-

ous lim one, has afford jet Prof. sotto at Lexington in Seott
‘ae i Rou—Tarp a Vou. X, No. 58.—Ocr., 1875,

306 Scientific Intelligence.

Co., the following fossils—identified by R. P. Whitfield: Zeio-
rh ynehus a icostata Hall, Chonetes lepida Hall, 7% qntacuiites
Jissurela Hall, a fragment of a Cardiola near C. radia The
«RE a is a Genesee shale dee ak the Tentaculites is found
as well in the Marcellus and Hamilton beds; the Chonetes be-
longs to the Hamilton and possibly also to the Genesee ; while
z e

white porcelain cig cupying “ ae in the
Carboniferous rocks of Pope County, has been long known under
the n of rolconda clay. In Lawrence County the clay ae

is five to six feet thick fonethud pure white) and has a wide ex-

tent. It is underlaid by a bed of limonite five feet and less in
ad It lies beneath the Millstone grit and seems to corre-
spond to an epES member af the Archimedes cepa a

ag
unctuous feel. It is called Indianaite or Mr. The kaolin
contains masses of allophane of a Spa ae “emerald-green
color, one specimen of which afforded Dr. J. Lawrence Smith:

Silica 20 per cent, alumina 40, water 40. All degrees of grada-
tion exist between the allophane and kaolin.
Analysis of the ripe atforded—
Fe Mn Ca, Mg H

Var. A rs 90 40°34 en oe siete 13°26

— B 47°05 37°14 tr. 03 03 15°55

C 47°13 36°76 tr. —- “04 15°13

ce 42°28 43°05 — tr. 14°66
The several County Reports with ae — present much val-
uable matter on the Qua aternary, Devoni , Carboniferous and

Subcarboniferous rocks. Prof. Collett anes that the bo boulder
clay of Northern Illinois has its southern limit in the northerD
art of Brown Co., with little thickness, but in Northern Illinois
it ae _ to 250 feet thick; and he adds some facts re spect-
ing erosions by the waters from the melting glacier.
sections ihustestalie the relations of the Black Shale to the other
rocks are given by Professor Borden, whose discoveries in it are
eae above
e Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota:
The ‘Third Annual Report, for the year 1874; by N. H. Wince-
ELL, State Geologist. Submitted to the President of the Uni-
versity of Minnesota, Dec. 31, 1874.—Prof, Winchell, in this
OF Fre treats of the Geology of Freeborn and Mower Counties:
! ounty Mr. Winchell remarks, “There is not ®
ral exposure of the underlying rock” and \¢ hence the details
oye its geological structure are wholly unknown.” The field is

Geology and Natural History. 307

still not a barren one; for the surface is reinte with the drift,
and the material of which it consists affords some evidence of the
rocks below; and, besides, a shaft has struck the Cretaceous in the

orth
county, The average thickness of the drift in Freeborn Count
is stated to be not far from 100 feet. A figure is given illustrat-
ing the flow-and- -plunge structure of the sand and gravel at Al-
bert-Lea. Clay for brick-making is obtained near this site sb ut
five feet below the surface. Clay, from the drift formation, is
also found at Geneva.
ower County also is buried in drift, but not to the concealing
of all rock exposures. As elsewhere i in the northwest, the dritt-
made soils are of the very best kind. e drift material is a “‘ hard-
ee clay” light in color for 10 to 15 feet, and below this usually
It contains gravel and boulders, some of them of granite
and very large. At ‘Windom and LeRoy this drift overlies a peat

county ; how far it extends is unknown e Cretaceous
beds at Austin sae gi Pia fossil Racoreethet kind related to
Fieus primordialis Hr., and another a uot. Explorations

si coal in these counties have obtained nothing that eae
uccess, dite nite is found to encourage the search,

Winchell observes, “after the tests that have already He ‘ninde

it can be pretty ee stated that the lignites are at present

of no economical v

NCHEL

Minn., Sept. 2, 1875).— An ape resting disco covery of lignite in the

extreme northern portion of Minnesota has just been sa
: é

taken for coal were brought to Duluth from a point between
V ermilion and Rainy lakes.

ata number of other points in MV innesota, extending from 1 oa
the Iowa state ne to ees soled portion of 4 Mr. 08
us c of a “* Cretaceous basin rm Aauk See

an account a

’m this Journal, and Mr. Meek identifies it as the Fort Benton by
the few fossils that were gathered. Inferentially the Cretaceous
has been extended over the most of Minneseies and even into the

also ‘of a probable Cretaceous outcro hs te state - Winaonalt
from x Frank H. Bradley, but tit has not been identified
authentica cally,

308 Scientific Intelligence.

14. Note on the Age mike the — of Vancouver Island and
Oregon ; e W.M.G (From a letter to J. D. Dana, dated

“Manual of Geolouy” p. 456, top of page: The Cretaceous
formation is said to occur “ in Oregon, east of the Cascade Range
(Marsh),” thereby giving to Prof. Marsh the credit of the first
announcement.

Without wishing to ee the excellent work done by that
paleontologist, you have inadvertently done me an injustice, to
which I cal! your attention. See Paleontology of California, vol.
2, - 181, foot-not

r,
but the latest fossils give some odious of a Paleozoic pere ot
aay oe — 29.
ice (Cea in Sachsen. I Theil, 8 bas and Sg
Fis

ert
Miss Eh ise Geinits, daughter of the author, extend to 67 4to plates
for the former and 46 for the latter, and are excellent; they im
clude rece of species of eg (103 pans Foraminifera,

under ‘Oyoletde Cladocyclus, Strehlensis Gein., ocep
iformis Harlan, S8.? di. Hébert, Enchodus haloeyon a
meroides Lewesiensis “Ma nt., O. divaricatus Gein., and Cy¢

Geology and Natural History. 309

lepis Agassizi Gein. ; and the Reptiles comprise the = ten Plesi-
osaurus Bernardi Owen, Polyptychodon interruptus Owen e-
lonia Carusiana Gei

he work is full in ite — = acca a ed many of
the species have been first made known by Dr. Gei

17. Pa Mdtontologioal Cabinet of me Junk Ha 7 peat at

Hall’s extensive collection of fossils has been purchased for the
Central Park Museum, New York. The price reported to have
been stipulated is $65,000.

. On two new varieties of — by Prof. J. P. Cooxs
and Mr, F. A. Goocs. (Proc. Amer. Acad. yr of May 11,
1875).—In this paper, which may be regarded a s supplementary

rmi es, one
-Lerni, Delaware Co., Pa., and another from Pelham, Massachusetts.
By means of careful experiments, the loss of water was —
after air-drying, and at 100° C., 300° C. and red heat. The
analyses obtained and those previously made of other ccocolieek
are discussed, and the following el reat conclusions reached.
- That all the vermiculites are unisilicates.

- That these minerals combine with ane in several definite
proportons—susaiing Prof. Cooke’s former — that the
water in the iculites is water of erystallizati

3. That ae? oar be reduced to the condition peach rh a
atomic ratio (oxygen-ratio) for the silica, — and water,
ons is therefore taken as the normal ra

4. That the only essential differenc spt tween the different
varieties of vermiculites is in the ratio bee the sesquioxide
and protoxide bases.

e atomic ratios obtained for the air-dried, dried at 100°, and
dried at 300°, specimens, are respectively, fo for

Halli

Pelhamite 4:4:4, 4: 4:2,
efferisite 4:4,4, mayen
The Lerni mineral gave, dried a pee 6 rae yatio 2 :23+1
(=4:4:2); and the analysis afforded sities of results)
Si 38-03, £1 12-93, Pe 7-02, Fe 0:50, Mg 29° ~ “i pani se
19. Dana’s System of Mineralogy.—A n
this work—the ope as been prougirt- out out rein the er
Messrs, Wiley & Son of New York; in other words, copies have
been struck off from the plates after making a number of corr
tions as in the case of the other “subeditions.” Moreover the
copies of this subedition contain the two Appendixes to the work
—the first by Professor Brush, and the second by Mr. E. S. Dana
Piecaepe | thus 28 pages to the 828 of the ——
ere gave lacustris, &e.—Som ount ome salaries
upon this _Microscopic plant, sail upon the "foundations of a nat-

Z “e <a il of DeBary—in the me rn oe —
Cc: em £ tom. xix, . a 0,
1875). re ns rear ot be a ( pp ee Pies wae

310 Serentific Intelligence.

coccus nivalis and pluvialis is made out ; at least it is shown that

of t A
aes name of Fan cacomcnies is preferred, on good grounds:
the 6 specific name adopted is dacustris, Girod-Chantrans having
well investigated the plant and ficured and described it, under
the name of Volvow lacustris, so long a
and the beginning of the present century sae 97, pte Heemato-
coceus propagates by two — of zoospores; i. e. sometimes by
large and ordinary ones, resulting from as thai division of the con-
tents of the cell or plant ‘site ras daughter-cells, each of which
is transformed into a zoospore of somewhat complicated struc-
ture ; while other individuals adits their contents into about
32 microzoospores The development of both kinds of zoospores
into the plant has been observed by Rostafinski. ‘he develop-.
ment is pe Velter’s supposed discovery of the copulation
of the large zoospores is discredited and explained away. Rosta-
finski concludes that Heematocoecus is devoid of sexual reproduc-

oree of DeBary ie caine. Satara ia, (ado oe
nium, ee ., to which Rostafinski adds Volvox and “Budorina)
here the fecundation is by antheroroids and ae And he 1s
disposed to take Hiematocoecus as the type of a fourth tribe,
Agamee, propagating Pctetagrenaee y spore a:*
Jatalogue of Plants growing iss cultivation within
thirty miles of Amherst College ; by Evwarp —_- A
and Cnartes Frosr, M.A. Amherst, 1875. pp. 98, 8vo—The
Ly wer Cryptogamia, exclusive of the Lichenes, are by Mr. ‘Frost.
They fill half the Cata logue. Prof. Tuckerman contributes an in-
teresting preface. The C Catalogue ‘bears marks of the scrupulous
accuracy and neatness of finish which characterize all of Pro f.
Tuckerman’s work, the simplest, no less than the more elaborate;
and the arrangement, typography, and paper, are of corresponding
excellence. We venture to correct a correction. We are told at
the close to “read Calystegia Sepiun”; but we prefer to read as

nor ar

detected in the district which would not have been ex}
are not before recorded. Blephiliu ciliata is the most noteworthy
of these. We are curious to know how many species this model
catalogue contains, and count it an oversight that the number 1

Geology and Natural History. 311

not reckoned, A rough and rapid enumeration gives 1066 Phenog-
amous species, 59 Acrogenous Cryptogamia, 216 Anophytes, 1361
Thallophytes, of which over eleven hundred are Fungi; so that
the Cryptogamia amount to 1839.

e may hope that the time is not far distant when we may
have Manuals of all our Lower Cryptogamia, beginning with the
Lichenes by Prof. Tuckerman. A. G.

22. Serjania Sapindacearwn Genus monographice descriptum.
Monographie der Sapindaceen-Gattung Serjania, Von L. R
KOFER. Munich, 1875. 392, 4to. Published by the Royal
Bavarian Academy.—To this memoir the quinquennial prize
founded by the will of the elder DeCandolle has been awarded,
and it well deserves it. It is one of the most elaborate, pains-
taking, and apparently thorough pieces of monographical work
in systematic botany that we have ever seen. Undertaken as it

botany in Germany. The subject is too technical to call for a de-
tailed review in this Journal, We merely note that 145 species of
Serjania are characterized, described, and their synonymy com-
hina exhibited. Nearly all extant materials appear to have
een under the author’s hands. A. G.

23. Zur Keimungsgeschichte der Charen, von A, pe Bary.—
In the present paper, extracted from the Botanische Zeitung, Prof.
Be Bary gives a detailed account of the manner in which the

;, who finds
that female plants isolated in closed glass vessels fruit abundantly.

WwW. G. F
24. Deseriptio: of a new Crustacean from the Water-lime
. Prrr, (Bul-

nr
oup at Buffalo ; ue. R. Grore i. ul
letin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Science, vol. iii, July,
1875.)—The specimen shown exhibits an impress: f the ven-
tral surface of a ne of Crustacean allied to ypterus

n Bur:
rygotus, for which the name Husarcus scorpionis is proposed.
The cephalothoracie portion appears to be separate from the body,

312 Scientific Intelligence.

and to be considerably narrower in proportion than in allied
forms. The legs are in the same number as in Lu rus. The
swimming feet appear to differ by the straighter, less rounded

argins. In the specimen the rhomboidal plates are not

b r
direction. The absence of chelate appendages to the posterior
i i The first sev

margin of the feet is particularly noticeable. en

road segments of the abdemen for large ellipse. There is an
evident and remarkable narrowing of the succeeding caudal seg-
ments. Of Six appear to be made ou the specimen

be: The interest which attaches to this remarkable Crustacean
arises from the discovery of a form which may be allowed to be

2 preserved. _ :
“The strange thing is, that this inorganic precipitate is. scarcely

.

r omson speaks very guardedly, and does not consider
the fate of Bathybius to be as yet absolutely decided. But since
Iam mainly responsible for the mistake, if it be one, of introduc-

Miscellaneous Intellagence. 313

ing this singular substance into the list of living things, I think I
shall err on the right side in attaching even ene weight than
he does to the view which he suggests.— Vat

III. MisceLLaAngeous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.

American Association.—The meeting of the phnisyaaieits at
mine. was ba walle ttended, and, as the list below show pa
is s of interest were presented, The address of hee retiring

esident, Dr. John L. LeConte, is republished in pages 241-256.
An excellent address was delivered by Prof. H. A. Newton, Vice

P
organized at the preceding meeting pe Hartford, re togethe er
ma ae sehen a 8.
meeting of the Association is to be held at Buffalo.
The following officers were appointed for that meeting: President,

Prof. Wa. B. I OGERS; General iapebsaeet a Bop ey
Vice cables of Section A, Cnartes A. Youne, of Hanover,
N. H.; of Section B, Epwarp S. Mor sk, of Seledil? faa FEW.

Purwam, of Salem, Mass., is Permanent Secret ary.

iol rig las is a list of the papers read either in full or by

a
I. Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy.

The Solar Atmosphere; §. P. LAN
Account of the Measurement of a ala Base Line in the U. 8. Coast Survey,
near Atlanta, Ga.;

ry oh LOVERING.
Acoustic Method of Measuring the the Velocity of Electricty; J.
_A Systematic Method for indicating the Localities of a County, and rapidly

ERREL.
Algebraic curves expressed in trigonometric equations; H. A. NEWTO
ceeemation of curves from shige ebraic to Transcendental; H. A. Ar Nuvo.

Geometrical representation of ce Diophantine Problems; H. A. Nawre
tsa of Towa County Hescoe ait with exhibition of fragments of the fac
; ARD.

A new Meteorological Instrument; J. W. OSBORNE.

The Relative ae of the broken lines of —_ = G. F. BARKER.

A New Vertical Lantern Galvanometer; G. F. B

On some Inequalities of ¢ Long Period in the Moon's s Motion; J. N. STOoKWELL.

Adjustment of the Gregorian pincers TB a3
‘fan Subsidiary Principle as applied to Coinage and Money account; E. B.

She huang of te appaaten for the automatic determination of Atmospheric

UGH.

ees, es exhibiting by Projection the difference in rapidity of transmission

of Sound through various Gases; T. C. MENDENHALL.
of two De Deep Borings in Indiana; E. T. Cox.

i ae Miscellaneous Intelligence.

IL. Chemistry.
On an ome ahieetee of Bunsen’s method for specific gravities of gases, ete.i
T. C. MENDENHALL.
Chem vmald ‘of three a F. ee
On cert: w Tungs andy RL
ey the peas mi sabe cies on Chemical Formule; H. F.

Carbo bon determinations in Iron and Steel; J.
mparative determinations oh nag solubilities of Alkaloids in Crystalline,

j SS Sot Ss Nascent soe oe

Note on Colorado Tellur is

On the ruta amount ‘of § simple friction of soft iron against cold steel to melt
it; B Hep
wot Otto's aera of estimating Phosphoric Acid in presence of Iron and Alu-

N.

; S. W. JoHNso
Apparat for fat extra ; S. W. JoHNson.
Composition of corn fodder a yield per als be W. JOHNSON.
Composition of the Sweet Potato . JOH
8 method beh ainusing Nitric Aci =r ‘W. Jou
a Convenient Seems nt for showing the peel of Bydieas Gas by Pal-
L, Sur

On Graphitie mayer as prepared from the Graphites of the Sevier Co. and
— Co. Meteorites ;
— of an undescribed Meteorite that fell in Wisconsin in 1865; J. L

“Exhibition ofa yeas quantity of Cesium Alum, with some remarks on its Prepa-
ration; J. L. Sur
On certain pinecivtiatos containing Chloride of Silver; F. W. CLARKE.

Ill. Geology and Paleontvlogy.

Geology of the —_— Counties of New York, and particularly of the Catskill
Mountain Region; J. Hat.

A comparison tobwecn the Northern ed i and the Southern (or W. V#)
side of the Alleghany Coal Field; E. B.

New and —— Coal-plants from es atotae Coal Measures of Ohio, and
their typical relations; E. B. ANDREW

ew specimen: of bibiile trim Ca ada; J. W.

Physical leoleny of the trap — of Lake s Sapa C. WHITTLESEY.

Physical Geology of the Ohio coal-field; C.

On Ancient Glaciation at Kelley’ 8 Island, Ohio ; a gg ener

Ancient —* t rift deposits of Minnesota N. . ——

Rectification of the Geological Map of Michigan; A. WINCH A

Evidence ar Glacial Action upon the summit of Mt. Washington, N. HL; ©.

K.

On the — steo Sandstone of i Saserrad E. D. CopPE.

Indianaite, a new form of — — ee E. T. Cox.

Kaoline Bods of Southern Illinois : FREEM

On some new Fossil Fishes aa gti Voclogital bal Batntions ; - J BN EWBERRY-

On some of the Results of the Geological Survey of Ohio; J. 8. NEWBERRY:
ix Ice Period in the Mississippi Valley; its phenomena and causes;
EWBERRY.

Parallelism of Devonian outcrops in egenan and Ohio; N. H. WIN oH H.

nteresting Insects from the Carboniferous + Cape Breton;
On the supposed Ancient Outlet of Great ce Lake; A. 8S. coe llow-
Formation of Geyserite Pebbles in pools adjacent to ie thats col ‘te? .
stone Park; T.

Exhibition of some Curious disks of Silica in Com ct Grom TH
nessee; J. L. SmirH.

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 315

IV. Zoology and Botany.

e effect of the Glacial Epoch upon the Distribution of Insects in North
America; A. R. G
Are Potato Bugs poisonous? A. R. Grote and A. Kay
Are Insects any pieehpeone aid to plants in fertilization? T. Abie
Locusts as Food fo n; Pe _¥

ee Place ce Ave : how to ‘avert it; ©. V. Riz

On the method of su ahaning eles TnjoHoris to ‘Agriculture ; t L. LeComrTe,
Symmetry and want of Symmetry of Leaves; W. J. BEAL.

Venation of Leaves of Dragon-Root and Martynia compared; W. J. BEAL.

Additional ee: on the Tarsus and Carpus of Birds; E. S. MORSE.
Distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia of North America; E. D. Cope.
Indications of Descent exhibited by North American Tertiary Mammalia; E. D.

Protozoan rooms W. &.
On leading divi in Re ake an nd F il Chitonide; P. P. Carp
A method of f Bleaching Wings of Tenidoeats to eh Nate the ade "of their
venation; G. Dimmock
servations on the De Development of Didelphys Virginiana ; W. $.
Membral Myo ology of Simia Sa: ty rus as compar ared with Man and seit Tigtiee

as
Locomotion i in ss Larvee of Oestride; O. S. WESTCOTT.

peers plant) ;

On hybernation as exhibited ix in in the Striped Gopher; P. R. Hoy.

py eae, hes True . G.

Affinitie: Ancestry of the E Existing Sirenia ; a oo Pf gee

Notes on ~aeheeeeet 9 and Menopoma; B. dine
ys on, on the American Ganoids (Amia, Eekena acta and Polyo

Girictee and Economy of Lamprey Eels (Petromyzon); B. G. W1LD

The rectal pouch of Sharks vi Skates, os. perhaps alos ie the na adlauiiie
of Air-breathing Vertebrates; B. G. Wi~p

V. Ethnography and Archeology.

¢ similes from farsa of Ancient Rock Sculptures in Ohio, with verbal
ES amp i a
Recent Mound iixplorations at Davenport, Iowa; I
Indian Mounds and Shell-heaps near lata oy§ Mlorida; *¢. GB. canis:
lifornia ;

otes iginal Mone any a;
The Ancient Men of the eat kes; H in
e hworks near And E. T. Cox.
of H Pr H
Arts of Subsistence; L. H.
ieal Periods :

; L. H. Morea
Mound Explorations i in Kent Coun ee ae E. ~ STRONG.
Archzological Notes from Wyoming; T. B. ComsToc
2. Foreign Scientific Associations.—The meeting of the British
Association at Bustel o opened on Wednesday, the 25th of August.
NM ature, in the number for the 26th, and besos saab ing num-
ne contains a tended report of the edi
The F neh ‘Kusoctation i n its session at Nantes on the 19th
of Au sis and th Tte _ at ‘Pants on the 2
8. The 3 Britis Scien edition.—A third Report of the
I oceedin ngs of H. M. 8. Challenger has been issued by the Ad-

316 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

soundings. A depth of 275 fathoms, with rocky bottom, was
found about 280 miles from New Zealand, with slightly deeper
water within it. On the 25th, Port Hardy was reached, and Port
Nichelson on the 27th. A seaman was unfortunately washed

On the 17th of July, in lat. 25° 5’ S, and long. 172° 56’ E., the
deepest cast since quitting the Atlantic was obtained—2,900

assing through between the islands of the last-named grr

the Challenger proceeded on her way toward Raine Island. ;
sounding of 2650 fathoms was had, and then four others, slightly
oali ed one
physical fact, viz: that the sea was cut off by a surrounding ridge,
hrough it

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 317

continuing the same to the bottom. Below the 1,300 fathoms in
the hollow between New Hebrides and Torres Strait the water is

reef. After anchoring for one night near Raine Island, the Expe-

they remained a week, and then proceeded through the
Banda Sea, carrying a continuous line of soundings, and touching

at Dobbo, Ki Doulan, and Banda. They arrived at Amboina on
the 6th of October, where they obtained coal, and then, passing
through the Molucca passage, reached Ilo Ilo on the 28th, Manila
on the 4th of November, and Hong Kong on the 19th.

rom the temperatures obtained in the Banda, Celebes, Sula,.
and China Seas, it is evident that their waters are cut off from the
general oceanic circulation by ridges conecting the islands which
surround them.

In each of the seas soundings of over 2,000 fathoms were ob-
tained, but in no instance did the temperature decrease regularly
om the surface to the bottom, as is usual in the ocean. In eve
case, after attaining a certain depth, the temperature below that
depth remained the same; thus, in the Banda and China seas, the
temperature remained the same from 900 fathoms to the bottom ;
in the Celebes Sea from 700 fathoms to the bottom; and in the

Sula Sea from 400 fathoms to the bottom.— Atheneum, Aug. 7.
Images produced by Lightning.—A letter of Professor W.
- DROWN, of the University of Georgia, to one of the editors,
calls attention to a remarkable instance of the formation of im-
Shenigee upon the human body by a lightning stroke, and encloses
etters of Messrs, E. G. Simmons and T’. N. Hawkes, of Americus,
Ga., where the occurrence took place, describing the circumstances

875, at a
States, a stroke of lightning fell upon a house in Americus, render-
Ing insensible for a time four persons who were seated in one of
the rooms. The two outer sides of this room, which was at a
corner of the house, had each one window, and nearly opposite
these on the two other sides were the chimney and the door
a

da youn lady were seated not far from the chimney, near
which, and elie to the wall, was another child. :

All these persons were rendered insensible for a time by the
Stroke which severed the tree, and on their recovery there were

nd impressed upon the bodies of them all more or less distinct

318 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

aoe
and had a fork, exactly like the locust limb. It looked as though
the blood was drawn to the skin along the marked part.” The
marks were not permament, as Prof. Brown, in his letter dated
Aug. 7, adds, “a recent letter informs me that the impressions
are no longer distinct.”

discharge, instead of producing a spark or brush sometimes con-
sists oO

’ shee
an image or shadow of the interposed object, which 18
often strikingly distinct and perfect.

In the case above described the phenomena are readily accounted
for, if we suppose the thunder-cloud to have been negative’y

A more particular account of the subject may be found in two
articles published in this Journal, May, 1870, page 381, and sora
A. W. W

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 319

5. Annual Report of the Argentine Meteorological Office, for
the year 1874. 18 pp. 8vo. Buenos Aires, 1875.—This Report, by
the Director of the office, Prof. B. A. Gould, gives details as to the

complete saturation of the atmosphere, and its minimum,
in Septe i

cent in S

ber 7th not
less than 74:5° C., and it reached 77°8° on the following January
8th. The minimum under a clear sky, 52°5° was observed on the
19th of June.

tributes the article Meteorology, which is illustrated by numerous
diagrams many his own or from original American sources. It is

or’s own views, in a clear and concise manner. ‘The arti-
cles Metal and Meteorites, Ore dressin , and extraction of metals
Tm:

from their ores by chemical means, are furnishe Thos. M.
Dro f Easton and D . W. Raymond; Mineral deposits, by
Dr. J. 8 Newberry; Microscope, by Prof. A. M. Mayer; Mediter-

Fanean Sea, by Count Pourtales; Meteor, Mars, Mercury, Moon,
by Richard A, Proctor, London; and the metal Mercury, and
Mine, by Dr, Raymond. : :

In volume XII, some of the leading scientific articles
Paleontology, y Prof. James Hall; Mountain, by Dr. T. 8.
“unt; the ‘Theory of Music, by Prof. eae te Nebular hypothesis

Nomenclature, by Prof. Frank H. Storer of Harvard College.
The botanical articles are by Prof. Geo. Thurber; those on

ogy by Dr. S. Kneeland of Boston; on Materia Medica by Dr. E.
H. Clark of Harvard Universi ; the medical and physiological
by Dr. John ©. Dalton; while Joy and Hogeboom furnish

820 Miscellaneous intelligence.

various chemical articles. From this list of well-known authors
and investigators, it is spe that the scientific character of the
new edition of Appletons’ Cyclopedia is worthy, as a whole, of
commendation. e miss —— a well-known name among
the biographical sketches; for example, Dr. Charles G. Page, whose
contributions to dyna mical electricity are second only, in this
pesados to those of Prof Henry; and the well-known paleontolo-
ist F. B. Meek. Other like omissions could easily be mentioned,
while some names have a prominence greater than penta ! wil
award them.
Boston Society of Natural History.—The Paleontologia
collections of the Boston Society of Natural History have bee

procured.
8. Geographical a at Paris.—The recent Geographical
prt, Se at Paris awarded Letters of Distinction (highest award)
o the Secretary of | tae Navy for the work of the Coast sae

) we Severa years since he pu ished a scale ical map of
Wisconsin, and also a map illustrating the influence of the t
Lakes on the climate of Wisconsin rly drew attention to

the Indian mounds of Wisconsin, and a work by him, ene ae
by numerous plates, entitled “ Ae acie, of Wisconsin,” was
published, in 1855, in the Smithsonian Saran eee to Knowle edge.

Cart Jowann Avcusr Tuzopor ScuzErer, the mineralogist,
metallurgist, and chemist, died at Pches. on the 20th of July
last, having been born in Berlin on the 28th of August, 1813.
He was the author of various works and memoirs of high merit;
among the former his Lehrbuch der Hisenhittenkunde and bis
well coe Léthrhorbuch (a treatise on the blowpipe), and among
the latter a aber on Haremorphie ism in its relations to chemistry,
mineralogy, and geology.

de 2

AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES]

eo
+

Art. XLL—On the Variation in the Strength of a Muscle ; by
Francis E. Nipuer, Professor of Physics in Washington
University, St. Louis, Mo. With plate VIIL

er. :

€ evidence which we shall now present of variation in

Muscular strength from day to day, is seen in the variation in
a

* Prof. Haughton has criticised this positi 1. xi, p. 488), his point
. position (Nature, vol. xi, p. ; poin
being that some muscles are called into play irregularly. He ts that the
pies should move in the transverse plane, with the palm of the hand upward. :
. arm wholl

: Ti int
— sie is position when its weight is
y: holding the arm in this tion whe ig’

jo ered by an Selena toes ‘Altho Prof. Haughton’s opinion on thi

18 worthy of grave consideration, yet I am not pt it in this

~ </€ manner of experiment is ined to some extent by the end
pin plished, and I am still of the opinion that I have rrors of ex

‘oa minimum. This point, however,

in
Am. Jour. Ser., Tarrp sacle” do X, No. 59.—Nov., 1875.

322 F. FE. Nipher—Variation in the Strength of a Muscle.

In this case, part of the work of the muscles consists in
moving the hook of the dynamometer over a certain space. 2,
under a constantly increasing strain P. The rest of the work
done consists in sustaining the strain P, and the fatigue caused
is due wholly to molecular motions in the muscle itself. Prof.
Haughton has proposed to call the former work “dynamical,”
the latter “ statical” work.

The dynamical work D is then

p=/1 P.de, or a8 Pc. 2

(where ¢ is the tension of the dynamometer spring when z=

2
Dee =f cxde= +c"
a i
or between the limits z—0 and c=

P2
— rr

In like manner the statical work S is

D (1)

S=—/Pdt oras P=c't

where ¢’ is the value of P when ¢is unity—

142
s= =f c tdt=—— +0".

or between the limits t—=0 and —s

p2
as th 2
s=z (2)

The value of D is measured in kilogram-meters; the value
of S is measured in kilogram-seconds. It will be admitted
that the statical work of holding a weight of w. kilos upon the
out-stretched arm, is equivalent to the dynamical work of liftin
w. kilos through a certain space. Calling the total work W;
we shall have—

W=D+4.8. (3)

I propose to call & the dynamical equivalent of statical a
No value has yet been obtained for it which can be deemed
more than approximate.

F. E. Nipher— Variation in the Strength of a Muscle. 328

off on the axis of abscissa. The values of (s) determined on
the same day are represented by the small circles which lie in
the same vertical.

a height of 0-7 meters in 1:25 seconds. The manner of experi-
ment has already been described in former papers. e re-
sults of these experiments are shown on the chart. The broken
line A B is the series of constant experiments given in the first
table, on page 188 of this Journal, for Feb., 1875. The dates
of the individual experiments are not known, but no two ex-
periments were separated from each other by an interval of
more than two days. Soon after this series was finished, the

e third series was made with a view of finding the rela-
i ta

Zontal arm, the position of the arm being the same as befo
The time (¢) of exhaustion from day to day (in seconds) is shown
kK the former being my own

ers.

. Vuring the time of these experiments the muscles were kept

in gentle training by daily exercises on the swinging rin and
Nel bars. Th

Avr
Je

* Ths, ‘
This Journal, Feh., 1975, pp. 129-187. Natare vel. xi, p. -
f The tiwe of the sunmer vacation excepted.

324. F. FE. Nipher— Variation in the Strength of a Muscle.

one may be capable of doing twice as much dynamical work as
the other with a moderately light weight. This makes it
necessary that such experiments should be made on trained
muscles.

It will be seen that Mr. Myers is considerably stronger than
I, and that variations in the amount of work done are greater
for him than for me. This means that variations in strength
cause greater variations in the work done by bim than in my
own case. This is entirely in harmony with the equation given
at the close of my paper in this Journal, February, .

uring the whole of this series of experiments the size of the

muscles did not perceptibly change, while in Myers’ experi-
ments the number of lifts with a5 ker. weight varied, in two
successive experiments (Dec. “0 and 28) from 420 to 1,300.

On the 29th of April, 1878, after a month of exceedingly
severe mental work, I was present at a terrible accident, occa-
sioned by the burning of a building. For a quarter of an hour

was under severe mental strain and was for a week completely

J.
a-b on diagrams F, F and B, C. It will be observed that here,
also, the observations with the dynamometer are most affected,

ing the dynamical work of exhaustion. On days when from
any cause the muscles are temporarily weak, the strength as

or in other words, the work which a muscle can_ perform,
depends not only upon its size, but also upon its quality.

H, A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetie Distribution. 325

This helps to explain the different results arrived at in the
determination of the coefficient of contraction of different mus-
i have

cles. Thus, the following values in kers. per sq. cm.
been found by various experimenters.*

1. Flexors of arm, 8°99 (Henke.)
7 “ “ Bhat 1 ais) 8d 8-1 “
; bs ee WES 6°67 (Haughton.)
4, Extensors of foot, ----- 5°90 (Henke.)
‘ * 6 Bas ee y 11°60 (Koster.)
&. Mexors of legs... 223.6 7°78 (Haughton.)

Haughton has pointed out other reasons for such differences,
but one of the most important reasons is found in the amount
of training which the muscle has received. Hence, muscles
which are seldom called into action, have not the same con-
tracting power as those which are daily used.

_The experiments here described, as well as those before
given in this Journal, were performed while I was an assistant
in the laboratory of Prof. Gustavus Hinrichs, to whose kind-
ness I am under many obligations. I also take pleasure in
acknowledging experimental aid from Prof. W. C. Preston and
Mr. D. A. Myers

St. Louis, June 15th, 1875.

—__

Arr. XLIL.—<Situdies on Magnetic Distribution; by Henry A.
Row ann, of the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.t
Part L.—Linear Distribution.

ConTents.—I, Preliminary Remarks; II. Mathematical theory; III. Expe: i-
Peutal methods for linear distribution; IV. Iron rods magnetized by induction ;
V. Straight electromagnets and permanent steel magnets; VI. Miscellaneous
applications.

L

to some
the distribution of magnetism. It is with diffidence that I
- coe this subject, being aware of the great mathematical

T thought it would be well to publish them, particularly as it is
Qo fault of mine that they did not appear some years ago.§

‘ Haughton’s “Animal Mechanics.” London, 1873, p. 70.
D, Pp. .
gem icated by the author. t Particularly M. Jamin. stunt
All the experiments referred to in this paper were made in the win

1870.71,

326 =H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution.

conducted electricity or heat, it now being well established from
the researches of Professor Maxwell and others that this
method gives exactly the same results as the other method of
considering the action to take place at a distance. :

In arranging this paper I have thought best to give the
theory of the distribution first, and then afterward to see how

exact; so that although they are only approximate, yet We
know just where they should differ from experiment.

Il.

If we take an iron bar and magnetize one end of it either by
a magnet or helix, we cause lines of magnetic induction” %
enter that end of the bar, and after passing down it to a certain
distance to pass out into the air and so around to the bar agale
to complete their circuit. At every part of their circuit they
encounter some resistance, and always tend to pass 10 tha
direction where it is the least; throughout their whole course
they obey a law similar to Ohm’s law, and the number of lines
passing in any direction between two points is equal to the dif

# For difference Velwceon & nee . magnetic induction
See Maxwell’s “ Treatise cu Mecetno cen Anatolien* orta 406; 592, and 604.

.

H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution. 327

ference of magnetic potential of those points divided by the
resistance to the lines,

The complete solution of the problem before us being impos-
sible, let us limit it by two hypotheses. First, let us assume
that the permeability of the bar is a constant quantity; and
secondly, that the resistance of the lines of induction 1s com-
posed of two parts, the first being that of the bar, and the
second that of escaping from the bar into the medium, and that
the latter is the same at every part of the bar. The first of
these assumptions is the one usually made in the mathematical
theory of magnetic induction; but, as has been shown by the
experiments of Miiller, and more recently by those of Dr.
Stoletow and myself, this is not true, and we shall see this when
we come to compare the formula with experiment. The second
assumption is more exact than the first for all portions of the
bar except the ends.

first take the case of a rod of iron with a short
helix placed on any portion of it, through which a current of
electricity is sent. The lines of magnetic induction stream
down the bar on either side; at every point of the bar two
paths are open to them, either to pass further down the rod, or
to pass out into the air. We can then apply the ordinary
equations for a derived circuit in electricity to this case.

Let yu be the magnetic permeability of the iron,

: R be the resistance of unit of length of the rod,

R’ be the resistance of medium along unit of length of

rod,
Pp be the resistance at a given point to passing down the
T 3

?
s be the resistance at the end of the rod,
Q’* be the number of lines of induction passing along
the rod at a given poin P
’.*+ be the number of lines of induction passing from
SS rod into the medium along a small length of the

A
L be the distance from the end of the rod to a given
point,

f= :
R
A=“ RR’ +s
“RRs
are the surface-integrals of magnetic induction (see Maxwell’s “‘ Elec-
tricity,” art, 402); the first across the section of the bar, and the second along a
length AL of the surface of

828 =H. A. Rowland—=Studies on Magnetic Distribution.

To find p, the ordinary equation for the resistance of a
derived circuit gives

R’
a (e+RdL)
p+RdL+—-
whence oP — 5 (RR! —p?),
ge? by
= Asta 1
and _ f= RRA at] (1)
To find Q’, we have dQ Pan,
whence "=a S (dette) py nie aS a
Q’psL CAL ate
yl we ees rg rh Per ae P1
and Sacra = gee er Wie Seat © (3)

When L is very large, or s= / RR’, we have
Q’=C 2, and Q’,=C,raLe%,
in which L, is reckoned from an origin at any point of the rod.
These equations give the distribution on the part ouside the
helix, and we have now to consider the part covered by the
helix. Let us limit ourselves to the case where the helix 18
long and thin, so that the field in its interior is nearly uniform.

1
G
eas
s_| Ae
Ai = ow Dv Bb

As we pass along the helix, the change of magnetic potential
due to the helix is equal to the product of the intensity of the
field multiplied by the distance passed over; so that in passing
over an elementary distance dy the difference of potential .
be §dy. The number of lines of force which this difference *
potential causes in the rod will be equal to $dy divided by
the sum of the resistances of the rod in both directions from
the given point. These lines of force stream down the rod oP

a?
_ * This could have been obtained directly from the equation T=, and Ve

HI, A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution. 329

either side of the point, creating everywhere a nana poten-
tial which can be calculated by equation (2), and which is rep-
resented by the curves in fig. 1. In that figure AB is the rod,
CD the helix, and E the element of length dy. Now if we
take all the elements of the rod in the same way and consider
the effect at HF, the total magnetic potential at this point will,
by hypothesis No. 1, be equal to the sum of the potentials due
to all the elements dy.

Let 4Q’ be the number of lines of force produced in the bar
at the point E due to the elementary difference of
potential at that point, Hdy

AQ” b mber of ae _ force arriving at the
point F due to the same element,

Q’. be the number of lines passing from bar along
length aL,

f, be the sum of the resistances of the bar in both direc-
tions from K,

p, be resistance at F in direction of D,

°

s’ and s’ be the resistance of the bar, &c., respectively
_ C in the direction of A, and at t D in direction
f B.

H ie the magnetizing-force of helix in its interior,

Let
Re RY satis ene:
~A/RR 8” VW RRs” RB
pe ee fe
* (As? 41) (Nae)
aga,
reer Osten a
: Anette,
- “2 Ray Arb ends,

Cron un _ HAL i, Airs JE tp 2rb ry
ne : a AQ"). oh A’A" "1S, (Ae ee”) dy,
ae — SAL AL A t ‘ re :
WRT Aa Weert epee].
This gives the positive part of Q’,. To find the negative
change x into b—a, A’ into A” and A” into A’, and then
change the sign of the whole. :

330 H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution.

When the helix is symmetrically placed on the bar, we have
s’=s’, A’=A”; whence, adding the positive and negative parts
together, we have

jag DOR AeA ky a 6

Oar Fei)

which gives the number of lines of induction passing out from

the rod along the length AL when the helix is symmetrically
placed on the rod.

To get the number of lines of induction passing along the
rod at a given point, we

ve '" Lf. és
Q= [Orden ® Ca ler ti-et— e400", (6)
H fe ant
~F(Ae = RR=8)

When the bar extends a distance L’ out of both ends of the
helix, so that

; a ee
F _fpomnant ,
WRR ep

where | Oe

+1
—1

. ie. ) (e? —1)(""'—1) Z
we have Cc =F (FRU L I) ON RB
It may be well, before proceeding, to define what is meant
by magnetic resistance, and the units in which it is measure
If « is the magnetic permeability of the rod, we can get an idea
of the meaning of magnetic resistance in the following manner
Suppose we have a rod infinitely long placed in a magnetic
field of intensity § parallel to the lines of force. Let Q’ be the
number of lines of inductive force passing through the rod =
the surface-integral of the magnetic induction across its section;

and A’=—eé*"""

also let a be the area of the rod. Then by definition “= aS

If L is the length of the rod, the difference of potential at the
ends will be L§; hence

a LO a LO ae L
W=_RomMR=G=s>
and R in the formulsz becomes
CR ge ee
R=; =

_ It is almost impossible to estimate R’ theoretically, seems
that it will vary with the circumstances. We can get some
idea of its nature, however, by considering that the principal
"part of it is due to the cylindric envelope of medium imme

H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution. 3381

diately surrounding the rod. The resistance of such an en-
velope per unit of length of rod is
1 en D
Qn fl, TP ee
where D is the diameter of the envelope, d of the rod, and pz,
the permeability of the medium. We are not, however, able to
estimate D. If, however, we have two magnetic systems similar
in all their parts, it is evident that beyond a certain point simi-
larly situated in each system we may neglect the resistance of

the medium, and — will be the same for the two systems.

Hence R’ is approximately constant for rods of all diameters in
the same medium, and r takes the form

2 1
| rome Se Oe ae eee ee ee © 2
av sae (7)

It is evident that the reasoning would apply to rods of any sec-
tion as well as circular.
Green’s splendid essay (reprint, p. 111, or Maxwell’s
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism,’ art. 489) we find a
formula similar to equation (5), but obtained in an entirely dif-
ferent manner, and applying only to rods not extending beyond
the helix. e ‘Reprint’ 6 corresponds to my r, and its
value, using my notation, is obtained from the equation

'231863—2 hyp. log p+2p= (8)

rd

<

If we make u a constant in this formula, we must have

4
(u—1)p?”
where p =

me j
p= > = constant, hence roc—,

IIL.
_Among the various methods of measuring linear magnetic
distribution, we find few up to the present time that are satis-
tory. Coulomb used the method of counting the number of
vibrations made by a magnetic needle when near various points
of the magnet. Thus in the curve of distribution most often
reproduced from his work, he used a magnetized steel bar 27

332 H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution.

Hence this method will give the best results when the contact-
piece is small and in the shape of a sphere and not in contact
with the magnet, and when the method is applied to steel mag-
nets. But after taking all these precautions, the question next
arises as to how to obtain the magnetic surface-density from

Hl. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution. 388

necessary at present to consider the cause of this apparent dis-
crepancy between theory and experiment; suffice it to say that
the explanation of the phenomenon is without doubt to be
sought for in the variable character of the magnetizing function
of iron. All I wish to show is that the attraction of iron to a
magnet, especially when the two are in contact, is a very com-
plicated phenomenon, whose laws in general are unknown,
and hence is entirely unsuitable for experiments on magnetic
distribution.

found = for short magnets, where the method suggested is
very good.

The similarity of this method to that used by Gauss in deter-
mining the distribution on the earth is apparent.

_A fourth method is similar to the above, except that the
direction of the lines of force around the magnet are meas
and calculated instead of the force.

_ the last two methods are very exact, but are also very labo-
ous, and therefore only adapted to special investigations.

us, by the change in direction of the lines of foree around

the magnet, we have a delicate means of showing the change
In distribution, as, for instance, when the current around an

tro-magnet varies,

The fifth method is that used lately in some experiments of
Mr. Sears (this Journal, July, 1874), but only adapted to tem-
porary’ magnetization. At a given point on the bar a small
coil of wire is placed, and the current induced in it measured
by the swing of the galvanometer-needle when the bar is

3384 H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution.

demagnetized. It does not seem to have been noticed that
what we ordinarily consider as the magnetic distribution is not
directly measured in this way; and indeed, to get correct
results, the magnetization should have been reversed, seeing
that a large portion of the magnetization will not disappear on
taking away the magnetizing-force where the bar is long. The
quantity which is directly measured is the surface-integral of
the temporary magnetic induction across the section of the bar,
while the magnetic surface-density is proportional to the sur-
face-integral of magnetic induction along a given portion of the
bar. In other words, the quantity measured is Q instead of
aL We can, however, derive one from the other very easily.

The sixth and last method is that which I used first in 1870,
and by which most of my experiments have been performed.
This consists in sliding a small coil of wire, which just fits the
bar and is also very narrow, along the bar inch by inch, and
noting the induced current over each inch by the deflection
o vanometer-needle. This measures Qe, except for some
corrections which I now wish to note. In the first case, to
give exact results, the lines of force should pass out perpendic-
ular to the bar, or the coil must be very small. But even

rent, so that the distribution remains unchanged. Hence 1t
seems to me that this method is the only one capable of giving
exact results directly.

The coils of wire which I used consisted of from twenty t?
one hundred turns of fine wire wound on thin paper tubes
which just fitted the bar and extended considerably beyond the
coils. ‘The width of the coils was mostly from ‘1 to ‘25 of an
inch wide and from ‘1 to 2 inch thick, A moasnrs heing Inid
by the side of tae given bir an ler exneriinent, the coil was
moved from one divisiva of the rule tv tue next very quickly.

A. R. Grote—LEffect of the Glacial Epoch, etc. 335

and the deflection produced on an ordinary astatic galvanome-
ter noted. After experience this could be done with great
accuracy. It might be better in some cases to have the coil
slide over a limited distance on the tube, though, for the use I
intend to put the results to, the other is best.

p to 85° Qe is nearly proportional to the deflection ; and
when any larger value is put down on the Tables, it is the sum
of two or more deflections. I have not the data in most cases
to reduce my results to absolute measure, but took to
insure that certain series of experiments should be comparable
among themselves.

Having measured Q at all points of a rod, we may find Q by
adding up the values of Qe from the end of the rod.
€ magnetizing-force to which the bar was subjected was in

taken to represent Q most nearly, and then the corresponding
formule for Q- taken with the same constants.
or ease in calculating by ordinary logarithmic Tables, we
May put el—] (SSL
[To be continued. ]

Art. XLIIL—The Hfect of the Glacial Epoch upon the Distribu-
hon of Insects in North America; by AuG. R. Grote, A.M.

(Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at
Detroit, Oth.)

From the condition of an hypothesis the Glacial period
has been elevated into that of a theory by the explanations it
afforded of a certain class of geological phenomena. The
resent paper endeavors to show that certain zoological facts
are consistent with the presence, during past time, of a vast
pro; ive field of ice, which. in its movement from norh to
south, gradually extended over lurge portions of the North

>

336 = A. «RB. Grote—LHffect of the Glacial Epoch upon the

American continent. These facts, in the present instance, are
furnished by a study of our Lepidoptera, or certain kinds of
butterflies and moths now inhabiting the United States and
adjacent territories. Before proceeding with the subject, a
brief statement of the phenomena assumed to have attended
the advent of the Glacial period is necessary.

At the close of the Tertiary, the temperature of the earth’s
surface underwent a gradual change by a continuous loss of
hea he winters became longer, the summers shorter. The
tops of granitic mountains in the east and west of the North
American continent, now in summer time bare of snow and
harboring a scanty flora and fauna, became, summer and winter,
covered with congealed deposits. In time the mountain snows

movement from north south, absorbed the local glacial
streams in their course, and extended over all physical barriers.
e Appalachians an ky Mountains are supposed to have

e

After this brief statement of the outlines of the opening of

the Glacial period, we turn to some facts offered by a study
of certain of our existing species of butterflies and moths.

The tops of the White Mountains and the ranges of mountain

elevations in Colorado offer us particular kinds of insects, living

in an isolated manner at the present day, and confined to their

respective localities. In order to find insects like them we
have to explore the plains of Labrador and the northern portion

Distribution of Insects in North America. 337

enjoys cannot be meaningless. The question comes up, with
regard to the White Mountain butterfly, as to the manner in
which this species of Oeneis attained its present restricted geo-
graphical area—How did the White Mountain butterfly get up
the White Mountains? And it is this question that I am dis-
posed to answer by the action attendant on the decline of the
Glacial period.

have before briefly outlined the phenomena attendant on
the advance of the ice-sheet, and I now dwell for a moment on
the action which must equally be presumed to have accompa-
nied its retirement. Many of the features of its advance were
repeated, in reverse order, on the subsidence of the main ice-
sheet or glacial sea. The local glaciers appeared again, separate
om the main body of ice, and filled the valleys and mountain

.

Tavines, thus running at variance with the main body of the

the temperature shortened the winters and Tereshaned the sum-
mers. ice-loving insects, such as our White Mountain butter-
fly, hung on the outskirts of the main ice-sheet, where they
found their fitting conditions of temperature and food. The

the continuance of the Glacial period, the geographical distribu-
on of the genus Oeneis had been changed from a high northern

back again after itself by easy stages; yet not all of them.
Some of these butterflies strayed by the way, detained by the’

*See Mr. Scudder’s article in the “ Geol of New Hampshire,” i, 342. Mr.
Scudder first pointed out the existence of Alpine and sub-Alpine faunal belts on
Mount Washington, and makes the ‘interesting remark, “that if the summit of
Mount Washington’ were somewhat less than two thousand feet higher, it would
a the limit of perpetual snow.”

Am. Jour. Scr.—Tatep Sunine, Vou. X, No. 59.—Nov., 1875.

338 A. R. Grote—Hffect of the Glacial Epoch, ete.

which latter journeyed northward, following the course of the
retirement of the main ice-sheet. They had found in elevation
their congenial climate, and they have followed this gradually
to the top of the mountain, which they have now attained and
from which they cannot now retreat. Far off in Labrador the
descendants of their ancestral companions fly over wide stretches
of country, while they appear to be in prison on the top of a
mountain. I conceive that in this way the mountains may
generally have secured their alpine animals) The Glacial
period cannot strictly be said to have expired. It exists even
now for high levels above the sea, while the Esquimaux finds
it yet enduring in the far north. Had other conditions been
favorable, we might now find Arctic man living on snow-
capped mountains within the Temperate zone.

At a height of from 5,600 to 6,200 feet above the level of the
sea, and a mean temperature of about 48 degrees during a short
summer, the White Mountain butterflies (Oeneis semidea) yet
enjoy a climate like that of Labrador within the limits of New
Hampshire. And in the case of moths an analogous state of
things exists. The species Anarta melanopa is found on Mount
Washington, the Rocky Mountains and Labrador. <Agrolis
Islandica is found in Iceland, Labrador, the White Mountains, .
and, perhaps in Colorado. As on islands in the air, these
insects have been left by the retiring ice-flood during the open
ing of the Quarternary. :

On inferior elevations, as on Mount Katahdin, in Maine,
where we now find no Oeneis butterflies, these may formerly have
existed, succumbing to a climate gradually increasing in warmth
from which they had no escape; while the original colonization.
in the several instances, must have always greatly depended
upon local topography. 1%

I have briefly endeavored to show, that the present distribu-
tion of certain insects may have been brought about by the
phenomena attendant on the Glacial period. The discussion

‘of matters connected with this theoretical period of the earth’
ane, as it now ap
act of its actuality. I hope that my present meer

matter, seeing that we have in our own country fields for its
full exploration.

A. Gray— Aistivation and its Terminology. 339
Art. XLIV.—stivation and its Terminology; by ASA
GRAY.

THE term estivation, to denote the arrangement of the parts
of the calyx, corolla, &c., in the bud, as well as that of vernation
for leaves in a leaf-bud, was introduced by Linneus. He did
not elaborate the former subject as he did the latter, and the

m

penroce to consider, 1, what the leading modes are, and 2,
ow they are to be designated.
. In the first place, the modes of estivation may be con-

veniently divided into two classes, those in which the parts
not.

Of teas Ha estivation, only two principal kinds need
i s

bodily plaited into folds, or otherwise di n which case

in which the parts being united into a tube or cup, swe is
i ae ch cas

oF cup of a calyx or corolla, or of the disposition of each piece

capes (whether revolute, involute, reflexed, inflexed, and the

Hon, there are left three types to deal with :

340 A. Gray— #stivation and its Terminology.

‘s With some pieces of the set wholly exterior in the bud to
others.

II. With each piece covered at one margin, and covering by
the other.

III. With each piece squarely abutting against its neighbors
on either side, without overlapping.

In modes II and III, the pieces are all on the same level and
are to be viewed as members of a whorl. In mode I, although
they may sometimes be members of a whorl, some parts of
which have become external to others in the course of growth,
they may, and in many cases must belong either to two or more
successive whorls (as in the corolla of Papaveracee, and even the
calyx of Crucifere, the upper or inner of course covered by the
lower or outer), or to the spiral phyllotaxy of alternate leaves.

The type of the latter, and the common disposition when the
parts are five, is with two pieces exterior, the third exterior by
one edge and interior by the other, and two wholly interior.
This is simply a cycle in 2 phyllotaxy, the third piece being
necessarily within and covered at one margin by the first, while
it is exterior to and with its other margin covers the fifth, this
and the fourth being of course wholly interior. So, likewise,
when the parts are three, one exterior, one half exterior, and
one interior or overlapped, the zestivation accords with 4 phyllo-
taxy. When of eight or higher numbers the spiral order 1s
usually all the more manifest. hen of four or six, the case
is one of whorls (opposite leaves representing the simplest
whorl), either of a pair of whorls (as in Epimedium, Berberis,
&e.), or a single whorl, the parts of which have overlapped 10
cyclic order. :

2. As to the terminology. lLinneus in the Philosophia
Botanica treats only of Vernation, there termed Foliatio. For
this the former term was substituted, and that of estivation
for the disposition of ~~ in a flower-bud, introduced, as I

781. e

defined only by reference to the section vernatio, and valvaia,
unhappily explained by a reference to the glumes of Grasses,
also “inequivalvis; si magnitudine discrepant.” IJmbricata 1s
the only term besides valvata which directly relates to the
arrangement of petals, &c., inter se; and the reference takes US
back to something “ tectus, ut nudus non appareat,” covered as
with tiles we may infer. In the Philosophia Botanica, under the

lele, superficie recta, sibi invicem incumbunt.” This would
apply either to mode I, or mode II, according as invicem 18

A. Gray—istivation and its Terminology. 341

relating a as it does to the arrangement of a acca of leaves in
e bud, and evidently quite as pppoe ie a whorl o
ie ger number of parts than two, i. e.—
“Obvoluta , quum margines eae posepeeeansietiy oppositi
folii marginem rectum.” Phil. Bot., 105. Or, in Term. Bot.,
‘pagina superiore peas approximatis ita at: Fo latus
distinguat alterum foliu
This, as the by Fete seg and the diagram in the Philosophia
Botanica show, answers in estivation to mode II It was
early taken up as such by Mirbel (Elem. Phys. Veg. et Bot.,
1815, li, 738, 739), where the polypetalous corolla of Hermannia
and ‘Oxalis, and the gamopetalous corolla of Apocynee are
cited as examples
alvate xstivation, our mode Ht, is oh ee defined by
Mirbel i in the same place, and still earlier by B
inngeus made no use of estivation as a oo racter. Nor

it was first accurately observed by Grew. In it Brown defines
Only the valvate mode, “ubi margines folioloruin vel lacini-
arum integumenti invicem applicati sunt, capsule valvularum
in modum.” In the body of the work, wherever it is impor-
hs the Sgigny ats is noted as valvate, imbricate, plicate, indu-
plicate, &c.; and the open zstivation (aperta) i is named by him
in ie paper.
Being the first to em ploy sea systematically, and to
develop its value, Brown's term nology for its modes may well
considered authoritative. and so indeed it is, as far as it
es. But he did not make one pig distinction viz., that

tween our [ and II. Imbrica n his use, comprises all
kinds of overlapping, that of the pet of Apocynete and of a
Gentian, as well as that of a Primrose. He must have not

Only noticed the “difference, but also appreciated its general

342 A. Gray— Aistivation and its Terminology.

importance, notwithstanding the occasional passage of the one
into the other. He must have also observed that in many
cases, as in Asclepias for instance, the mode II passes into

III. valvata. The first and the third are established beyond
question, although somewhat remains to be said about the first.

eanwhile another use has prevailed as respects the
second. In DeCandolle’s Prodromus, the first general or con-
siderable work after Brown in which terms of estivation are
employed, this mode is almost uniformly characterized as

convolution, that the term convolute is now and then assigt

in the romus; as in the character of Byttneriacee, and that

of Malvaviscus. The latter may perhaps be explained by the
thesis. But

.

mus. In the new Genera Plantarum by Bentham =

Hooker this mode is most commonly designated as contor4,

A. Gray—Histivation and it® Terminology. 343

giving two names to different degrees of the same thing.

It being conceded, I presume, that the mode II should be
specifically distinguished, what name, on the whole, ought it
to bear? If ollow prevalent usage, contorta will be the
term. But this term was unknown in this sense to the founders

name is the least appropriate. Convoluta is as go ame
as can be, and its use in the present sense is not unconformable
with the Linnean use in vernation. carried out,

mencelature,
the proper
tion, and taken up, as it was very early, by Mirbel for sestivation.
The only objections to it are, first, that it has never come into
systematic use, and second, that ob in the composition of botan-
leal terms, commonly stands for obversely or inversely. |

obvoluta is not burdened with this signification: it is classical
for “wrapped round,” as is convoluta for rolled together. I
conclude that one or the other of these two terms ought to be

used,

Finally, although there is little, if any, practical misuse,
there is some mis-definition, of the term imbricate as applied, to
estivation. Adrien de Jussieu defines it well (in Cours Elé-
mentaire, 308) in the phrase “La préfloraison spirale est aussi
hommé imbriquée ;” and in noting that when the number stops
at five, the pieces fall into two exterior, two interior, and one

led estivatio quincuncialis.t This is clear and to the point.
But other authors have had a fancy for distinguishing between

* I note with satisfaction that Bentham and Hooker use these terms to signify
from left to right, or from right to left, of a person, supposed to stand outside
of the closed bud, which is surely the natural position of the |
on 1 the name gui jal answers the purpose after definition, and has long been
im use; but this arrangement in diagram is wholly unlike the with its
‘our pieces or stars in the periphery, or at the angles of a square, and one in the

844 A. Hyati—Biologidil Relatians of the Jurassic Ammonites.

quincuncial and imbricate (as if the former were not the typical
case of the latter when the parts are five), and so have had to
devise something else to answer to imbricate. Alphonse De
Candolle (in his Introd. Bot., i, 154, written before phyllotaxy
was well understood), after relegating imbricative to the cate-
gory of a crowd of verticils, and remarking that the quin-
cuncial is sometimes confounded with the imbricate, adds:
some confound also under this latter name the case in which
there is one exterior piece, one interior, and three covered at
one margin but free at the other. I know not where this
_ began; but its latest reproduction is in Le Maout and De-
eaisne’s Traité Général, and in the English translation of it.
In the diagram the pieces are numbered directly round the
circle from 1 to 5, the fifth coming next the first: “so they
thus complete one turn of a spiral,”—which shows that Le
Maout had vague ideas of phyllotaxy, of which he seems to
have invented a new (3) order. Moreover this is essentially
identical with the cochlear estivation of the same work (not of
Lindley); and Eichler, in his Bliithendiagramme, adopts this
name (unsuitable though it be), for this particuliar arrangement,
whatever be the position of the enclosed or enclosing petal.
glance shows that this supposed “true imbricate sestivation” 1s
a slight and not very uncommon deviation (by the displace:
ment of what should be the interior margin of one of the petals
during growth) of the mode II, variously termed obvolute, con-
volute, or contorted wstivation. But it is so intermediate be-
tween this and the quincuncially imbricate as perhaps to justify
Brown in applying the name imbricate generically to all the

general.

Art. XLV.—Abstract of a Memoir on the “ Biological Relations
of the Jurassic Ammonites ;’ by Professor A. HYAtT.*

THE speaker traced the history of the evolution of the order
of Ammonoids, showing that the characteristics of the first three
stages of the embryo were inherited from a very early perio
These were first, the sac-like shell of the embryo containing the
equally sac-like beginning of the siphon,—prosiphon as It has
since been called by M. Munier-Chalmas; second, the begi-
S eR oe 5 : : vol. xvii,

: De aca eee Natural History,

A, Hyatt—Brological Relations of the #urassic Ammonites. 345

ning of the true shell or apex, with its nautilus-like septum, and
peculiar nautilus-like umbilicus ; third, the depressed and goni-
atite-like continuation of the form fo the shell with its accom-
panying goniatitic septa.

ese of course represent only their most advanced stage in
the Ammonites proper of the Jura and Trias; they are, when
first observed in the Silurian and Devonian, exceedingly vari-
able in the length of the periods and other important charac-
teristics even between the varieties of different species. They
become invariable in the young as embryonic characteristics

the lowest. They correspond to what naturalists are in the
habit of calling paralled forms, often also representative forms.

e
Single ancestral species of the discoidal or open-whorl forms

of the original inherited or stock form of the third stage a

846 A. Hyati—Biologicai Relations of the Jurassic Ammonites.

into being is practically unlimited except by the possibilities of
the typical discoidal form of the embryo and young,

quent development in each series becomes more and more limited
according to the size of the group. The same law of inherit-
ance which renders the embryonic form of the third stage fixed
or invariable in each individual of the trae Ammonites of the
Jura, subsequently accomplishes the same purpose, to a less
degree and with greater fluctuation, for the later developed
forms and characteristics of each separate series or group, oblig-
ing them to evolve, if they progress at all, a certain succession
of forms which have been described above. :

It will be noticed that I use the word progress in a special
sense as applicable to a certain class of paralled forms and not
to those with which we shall presently deal, the old-age forms,
which though equally perfect in the phenomena of parallelism,
cannot be attributable to growth. The former are the mecban-
ical results of the growth or increase in size of the shell of the
common embryonic form of the third and succeeding stages of
the young, while the latter result from the natural but inevit-
able loss of growth-force in the adult shell and its parts.

This growth seems to me to be due to the favorable nature
of the physical surroundings, primarily producing characteris-
tic changes which become perpetuated and increased by inher-
itance within the group. We can recognize this in the con-

are due toa healthy adult condition or to old age; whether
they precede or succeed the supposed period of reproduc-

series of senile parallel forms could have no existence.

_ This constant tendency to reproduce the ancestral character-

istics at earlier and earlier stages accounts for the reduction of
the principal characteristics of the Nautiloids and Goniatites to

A. Hyatt—Biological Relations of the Jurassic Ammonites. 847

an embryonic condition in the young of the Jurassic Am-
monites.

It also accounts for the inheritance of the more and more
involved form in each of the subordinate series. This becomes
apparent when the parallel forms of any series are traced from
the primary discoidal or open umbilicated through the inter-
mediate forms to the most completely involved.

We find in all cases the more discoidal or primary with all
its characteristics, whatever they may be, repeated at earlier
stages in each species, until at last in some of the most invol-
ved, all perceptible traces of its existence are lost. Then and
only then can the series be said to die a natural death. When
this form appears I have never found another. The rea-
son for this is that in all cases the disappearance of the pri-
mary or ancestral form and characteristics of the series is due

a greater or less period of time under the influence of physical
surroundings. :

The word surroundings is now used instead of environment,
for the reason that environment covers the whole ground of
physical causes which may have either a remote or immediate

&ct upon the life of the species. :
The environment, or the sum of the physical influences, how-
ever favorable it may seem to be, is, as is well known to all

ie. . surroundings, supply an

848 A. Hyatt—Biological Relations of the Jurassic Ammonites.

so far as they distinguish the groups from each other. These
may be often followed back to varieties of one species, showing
that certain varieties have given rise to the groups. j
varieties are few as compared with the whole number of varie-
ties traceable in these original ancestral species. :
Thus it seems clear, that these varieties must have haa cet-

into a group or series of genetically connected forms.
ke or the sur-

ifferences to the law of natural selection, but limit its action
strictly to the modification of the structural differences which
tend to appear first in the varieties and then by inheritance 1p
larger and larger groups and at earlier and earlier stages 10 at
life of the individual. oe
_It may also be shown by Cope’s law of the origination ©
differences by growth that the origin of these differences prob-
ably lies in some law of growth under the influence peed sical
dkind of food, climate, ete. us they

J. L. Smith—Dickson County Meteorite. 349

may be said to be due to growth modified and directed by the
Darwinian law of natural selection, both of these being directly
subject to the influence of environment, or the sum of all the
physical influences brought to bear upon the organization.

his conclusion, it will be noticed, is strictly in accordance
with the general tendency of zoological opinions at the present
time and almost identical with the results taught by Herbert
Spencer in his works on biology, although I was not aware of
this until after they were written. Many of the facts support-
Ing the position assumed have already been published in
various scattered papers, but those will be united and accom-
panied by others since discovered in the partially completed
memoir of which this is the abstract.

Art. XLVL—A Note in relation to the mass of Meteoric Iron
that fell in Dickson County, Tenn., in 1885; by J. LAWRENCE
SmitH, Louisville, Ky.

August, 1835, near Charlotte, Dickson County, Tenn., U. S. ;
lat. 36° 15’, long, 87° 29, s description was given by
Professor Troost of Nashville, and published in this Journal in
1845. Prof. Troost dying very shortly after that period, his

for making the present communication is to call attention to
the remarkable batanes of this most interesting meteorite,

350 J. L. Smith—Dickson County Meteorite.

which, although it is forty years since it fell, has not been seen
by a half dozen scientific men.

This meteorite fell during the day-time, in a field where
several persons were at work, fnghtening a horse attached to
a plough, who ran wildly about the field dragging the plough
after him. It struck the ground at the root of a large oak,
descending at rather an acute angle, and burying itself in the
roots of the tree. The sky was cloudlesy and a noise was
heard preceded by a vivid light. Other particulars connected
with its fall, as well as a description of its size and form, have
been already published by Prof. Troost. It is of an elongated

idney shape and remarkably symmetrical form, the metal
being bright and almost polished on many parts of the surface,
and it has remained in this condition ever since it was dis-

rated from each other by an ap-
parently semi-fused or slaggy
matter. These lamin running

octahedrons. The cebscie
nying cut will better exhibit
these lines very much mag-

ge eset nified. ;
Another noteworthy fact in connection with this iron (which
is soft and tough) is that when cut and polished, it will resist
the tarnishing effects of the ordinary vapors of the laboratory,
as I have pieces which have been thus exposed for several
months.

By the agency of heat or acid the Widmannstittian figures
are developed with exquisite beauty, not equalled except by
three or four known meteoric irons. In connection with these
figures I will call attention to the delicate — lines inside

J. L. Smith—Dickson County Meteorite. 351

This iron is not absolutely compact, for one can trace, even
with the eye, minute cavities which are distinctly visible with
a lens; but I have not yet been able to detect any schreibersite
either on the surface or in the interior of the mass.

Its specific gravity is 7-717.

On analysis it was found to consist of

08 Ge 91°15
OKO es ee ee 8°01
Cobalt 2 isi. SA 72
Coppers: ti ge 5 ls ee "06

No trace of sulphur was detected, and so minute a trace of
phosphorus, that only a few exceedingly small crystals of
- phosphate of magnesia and ammonia could be discovered in the
test made with a gram of the iron, representing only a small

tion of a milligram of phosphorus. In fact, I have never
yet analyzed a meteoric iron containing so little phosphorus.
n regard to the gaseous contents of this iron, the foilowing
_Wwere the results obtained by Prof. W. Wright, who made an

co, 13°03
There did not appear to be any appreciable quantity of
rex Si

: wo Pp : :
hegative; for if the surface ee been melted the delicate retic-
ulate structure, which is discoverable by the glass, woul

Masses of iron which have fallen. : :
.. The Braunau iron was not near the point of fusion ; otherwise
1t would have set fire to the rafters of the house in which a

352 R. Parish—Specific Gravity Balance.

part of it was imbedded at the time of its fall, and the surface
of that iron precludes the idea of its having been fused. If
this generalization of iron be correct, it has an important bear-
ing upon the hypothesis of the manner in which the Ovifak
iron (supposing it to be meteoric) penetrated the basalt in
scattered particles just at the time of the outflow of the basalt
in a plastic state; for if the iron was not melted in its passage
through the air, it could not have penetrated the basalt in such
a manner that the particles are completely surrounded by ter-
egg basalt. This fact in connection with many others lead
ore and more strongly to the sone in common wit

some ape that the Ovifak iron is terrestri

On the whole, the iron just described is the most interesting —
specimen of meteoric iron yet known.

Art. XLVIL—Specifie Gravity Balance; by RoSWELL PARISH.

THE specific gravity balance described below, is intended
for the determination of the specific gravities of minerals, and
of other solids heavier than water, without. ate use of exact
weights and without pe ara computati

The construction of this instrument is Owe in the follow-
ing figure. For use, the fine wire loop & with ae attachments
is removed, and the index m
is adjusted to the middle line
by means of the doa cylin-
der with screw

The mineral (or other solid)

sand (or fine copper punch-
ings), ihe age by the wire
loop & at the notch 6, as shown in the

The mineral is now transferred to the lowes basket ¢ (sus-

ded from the upper by fine wire, and immersed in water),

and the counterpoise kno is moved toward a until at some
point as p it restores the beam to a horizontal position

The specific gravity is then read off by means of the gradua-
tion upon the arm ad. This arm is graduated in accordance
with the flowing considerations :

J. D. Dana—Reindeers in Southern New England. 358

If the exact weight of the counterpoise kno be represented
by a, then

es = weight of mineral in air. (1)
Also —P weight of mineral in water. (2)

()a)="- Te = 0)? x weightol water digiaenl

as

(1)+(3)= _ 2D _ = =specific gravity of mineral.

bp
Hence the specific gravity is known if the ratio is known.

This ratio is indicated upon the arm ab for as many points as
possible.

Worcester, Mass., Aug. 30, 1875.

Art. XLVIIL—On Southern New England during the Melting
of the Great Glacier ; by JAMES D. Dana. No. IIL.

IIl.—Reinprers iv Sovurnern New Encuanp.
THE beds in the vicinity of New Haven pertaining to the

Champlain or Fluvial period of the Quaternary have recently
auorded remains of mammals. I am unable to prove posi

recently discovered I here briefly repeat the facts respecting its
Position and relations.
* Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, vol. ii, 1870, p. 84.
Am. Jour, Sc1.—Tuirp agate X, No. 59.—Nov., 1875.

354 J. D. Dana—Reindeers in Southern New England.

The Quinnipiac valley, south of North Haven village, is to a
great extent a region of wet meadows and marshes, nearly five
miles long and one broad, deep in peat, and mostly under
water at high tide. The clay depots occur for three and a
half miles on both the east and west margins, sometimes ex-
tending laterally to the peat region there to stop suddenly,

of 11 feet in the clay bed, and the tibia, subsequently, at 4
depth of 7 feet. Professor Marsh has given me the following
note on these bones for this place:

“The two bones from the clay pit of North Haven are the
right humerus and left tibia of a species of Reindeer, about the
size of Rangifer tarandus. The two bones did not belong ie
the same individual, the humerus indicating a younger an
somewhat larger animal. The tibia is the more characteristic

*Beneath North Haven village the bed thins to 4 or 5 feet and the clay 8
rather sandy—or what is called “weak clay.” In sinking a well about 80 rods

ug ;
fine quicksand, before reaching tide level. At another place, nearer the river,
bed of clay was 5 feet thick and the sand between ‘oul tide level but 3 a
south end iac basin, four a half miles south of Nort
Haven, the terrace has a height of 42 feet above high-tide level, there
layers of quicksand in the formation; but no clay has yet been found. It may,
ist 4 below the sands.

+Four miles from New Haven and two from North Haven.

J. D. Dana—Reindeers in Southern New England. 355

e European Reindeer (Rangijer tarandus) that it must have
belonged to the same or a very nearly related species. Its

ae a and agrees so closely with the corresponding bone of
t

caribou) is much Jess marked. The humerus also evidently
belonged to a Reindeer, but the proportions are somewhat simi-
lar to those of the Caribou.”

Both bones when found were without a trace of wear or frac-
ture. The tibia had lost much of its gelatine and has hence
become somewhat cracked from drying since it was exhumed.
The humerus has almost the freshness and firmness of a recent
bone. Both are of a light brownish color from their long
burial. The difference in the conditions of the two bones Mr.
Crafts explains by saying that the humerus was imbedded in the
laminated clay, and the tibia in a portion of the clay-bed con-
taining sandy seams an inch or so thick, and open therefore to
te waters. Besides relics of mammals, the clay beds

ave afforded no organic forms either vegetable or anim
The microscope reveals nothing.

The bones give us an insight into the life of New England in
the early part of the Quaternary, proving that Reindeers of
ates type were living here. From the facts we gather

bat :—

1. The bones are probably not of pre-Glacialage. They are
certainly not bones which the glacier had taken up from the soil
underneath it along with moraine material for transportation
and deposition : this being evinced by their freedom from all

ferent times, four feet in thickness of the clay wing haed be-
tween them. They therefore belonged to different individuals.
_ 8. The clay bed is of glacial origin. For it contains an occa-

onal bowlder of large size,* and is overlaid by sands and
Stavel of the stratified drift.

4. If the reindeer bones were not pre-Glacial they must have
Come from reindeers living in the nistipias valley after the
glacier had retreated to the north of the valley. And since the
© *y-bed is of glacial origin, its bowlders must have come
from lee-floes that floated down stream from the retreated
glacier,

*This volume, page 177; the bowlder there referred to is of trap.

856 J. D. Dana—Reindeers in Southern New England.

5. The clay beds of the Quinnipiac valley antedate the great
flood due to the final dissolution of the glacier; for at the vil-
lage of Quinnipiac the bed is overlaid on the west side by beds
of coarse gravel, and just south of North Haven the sand and
gravel overlying the clay bed has the flow-and-plunge structure
so common in the stratified drift.

In my Memoir on the Geology of the New Haven region, I
referred the clay-beds to the later or “Alluvian” part of the
Champlain or Fluvial period, supposing them to be the mud-
deposits made along the borders of the great Quinnipiac basin
or inner New Haven harbor, during the more quiet portion of
that era of submergence ; and the sand-beds overlying and under-
lying the clay beds at North Haven I referred to the same time.

ut the discovery since then of the large bowlders in the clay
beds,* and of evidence that the deposit of coarse stratified
gravel situated along side of the clay pits actually overlies the
clay in places, as proved by boring, appears to force us to
the conclusion that the clay beds were (1) completed after the
— had retreated from the valley, and (2) before the final

)

6. Whether this retreat of the glacier was a temporary Te
treat, produced by a warm interval in the era of ice, OF
whether it was the final retreat, marking the progress of its
final dissolution over New England, it is not easy positively to
decide. The formation of stratified drift over the New Haven
region has no break in the succession of its beds to mark such
a retreat and return of the ice; and the clayey stratum con
tains no layer of vegetable or animal debris as testimony to
warm interval. All that the few facts suggest as to climate 18
that it was such as reindeers liked, which means that 1t was
cold, and that the ice was still not far off to the north.

Remains of the Reindeer have been found in Northern New
York on Racket River, and in Southern, at Sing Sing; 12 New
Jersey, at Vincentown, Burlington County; and in Kentucky at
Big Bone Lick. The specimen from Vincentown describ
Dr. Leidy+ and that from Sing Sing, mentioned_by Mr.
Fishert were antlers. Dr. Leidy says that the Vincentown
“antler bears a nearer resemblance to those of the Barren
Ground [or Arctic] Reindeer than it does to those of the

Toodland Reindeer [or Caribou], but differs in some ropes
from both.” In my Geological Manual I have suggested ae
these remains may indicate the occurrence on the America)
Continent of the second glacial era so well marked in Hurope

*G v of the Ne i : i

tives heat. Nat, Bei, Philadelphia, 1858, p. 179, and Journ. Acad. Nat. &
lon vol. vii, 2d series, 1869, on the Extinct Mammalian Fauna, “

} Ibid., 1859, 194.

N. R. Leonard—Iowa County Meteor. 357

the antlers were those of the common species of deer. The
specimen went to the New Haven City “Museum.” The old
museum long since disappeared, so that the fact with regard
to the species cannot now be ascertained. The antlers may
have been those of another Quinnipiac Reindeer.

Art. XLIX.—Jowa County Meteor and its Meteorites ; by
N. R. LEONARD.

On the evening of February 12th, 1875, at about half past
ten i a _very large meteor was seen passing from S.W.

throughout a region extending at least 400 miles in length
from SW i i h

In their descriptions of the course it pursued the ac-

scribed it as moving toward the south or the southeast, and in
a few cases the statements of different observers 1n the same

I it pursued with a fair degree of accuracy.
will give, first, those descriptions which relate to its general
om as nearly as possible in the language of the ob-

Ai Keokuk, Iowa, it is described as “ Oblong in figure, with
* train ten to twelve times the length of the body, giving an

358 N. R. Leonard—lowa County Meteor.

intensely brilliant light, of crystalline whiteness at the center, fire
red on the border, and throwing out red sparks and purplish jets
of flame; train less luminous than body, exploded like a rocket.
Opinions were divided as to whether any detonation accom-
panied the explosion.” These observations were collected for
me by L. C. Ingersoll, M.D., from a number of persons in that
city who witnessed the flight.

At Washington, Iowa, Rev. E. B. Taggart in a letter to the
Free Press of that city, describes it as of a “ Horse-shoe shape,
greatly elongated. The outer edge very bright, then a narrow ©
dark space, with a core of intense brilliancy, so vivid as to
blind the eyes for a moment. It had not a comet-like tram,
but a sort of flowing jacket of flame. Detonations heard, so
violent as to shake the earth, and to jar the windows like the
shock of an earthquake.”

At lowa Agricultural College, Prof. Macomber writes:
“Tn form it was like an immense rocket with streamers flowing

At Sigourney, almost directly under the path of the meteor,
r. J. A. Donnell, writing to the “Sigourney News,” speaks of
it as “ A globe of fire with pale lines of light radiating from 1t
The light of the globe very vivid. It appeared to be falling
toward the earth from about 10° west of the zenith.” He says

came inside the shee above him, where it apparently stood
still for a moment and then passed over toward the northeast.
The detonation was compared to the discharge of a 40 gu”
battery which he had heard in the army. :

t Amana, about five miles northeast of the middle of the
region where the meteor fell, Mr. F. Christen writes that, Its
light was at first dazzling white, then changed to red. =
distinct shadows of objects on the street. Fragments sane
separate, not with violence, but simply as if falling apart; ae
separation was speedily followed by a disappearance of the
meteor.”

Mr. G. Holm of Marengo, gives an account similar to the _
and in addition says that the descending path was wave-like an
not a uniform curve. Mr. Frank McClintock of West Union
says that “at about the middle of its course it appeared to g've
a slight dart or bound toward the east.” Probably the same
wave-like motion spoken of by Mr. Holm, when viewed sats
station not far removed from the direction in which the meteo

Was moving. of
_ At Mt. Pleasant, Iowa, Prof. Mansfield writes that some

N. R. Leonard—lowa County Meteor. 359

the observers thought that the meteor attained its maximum
brightness when about due west of that place. Some of the
students who were familiar with the color of the flames of different
substances with which they had experimented in the Chemical
Laboratory called out at the time that the color of the meteor
showed iron and copper.

In computing the path pursued by the meteor I have relied

almost entirely upon observations which could be verified
afterward, by reason of its having passed near to, or behind
some recognized point on a building or other object whose
altitude and bearing from the station of the observer have since
been ascertained by instrumental measurement.
_ In giving the data I will denote the location of each observer
by mentioning the section, township, and range numbers,
which, as our lands are laid out on the rectangular method,
will be quite definite.

‘de following is a list of observations upon which I have
relied,

1. At Amana (northwest corner of 26-81-9). Mr. F. Chris-
ten first saw the meteor when at an altitude of 10 or 11 degrees
and at a bearing of S. 19° W. Soon after he saw it passing
near the top of a chimney whose bearing and altitude were
respectively S. 26° W., and 174° and finally saw it separate and
disappear at an altitude of 29° bearing S. 65° W.

2, At Mt. Pleasant (4-71-6), there is not a perfect agree-
ment as to the altitude of the meteor when due west of that
place. Some thought that it passed very near the moon, others

To
of about N. 60° W., at between 10° and 12°.
Another observer gave the altitude when near the same
poe at 10° 30’. Both observers saw the meteor disappear

orcaks B. rt, of Washington, Iowa (17-75-17),
thought that it passed 10° or 15° west of the moon. Ce

6. Prof. J. Macomber of the Iowa State Agricultural
College (4-83-24), first saw the meteor when at an altitude of
7 or 7° 30’ and bearing S. 55° E. This observation is almost
exactly accordant with one taken independently at the same

360 N. R. Leonard—lowa County Meteor.

en.
9. C. D. Leggett, Esq., of Fairfield (25-72-10), estimated its

however, be at variance with No. 7, and the only explanation I
can offer is by saying that it is very difficult for a man to fix,
at a glance, the point directly over head, so that we may
suspect this observation to be in error. No. 4 corresponds to a
point about sixty eight miles from the place where the largest
fragment was found, and gives for the altitude fifteen miles.
No. 6 indicates a point thirty-eight miles from the same place,
and gives for the altitude twelve miles. No. 1 indicates three
points in the meteor path, the first nearly accordant with that
given by No. 4, and gives about the same result as to height ;
the second point denoted is at a distance of about twenty-two
miles from the end of the path, and at an altitude of eight
miles; and the third point is two miles from the end of the
path, and at an altitude of two miles. :

igure 1 shows these results to the eye. The sides of the
squares are four miles. The points 1, 2, 38, and 4 are sixty-eight,
thirty-eight, twenty-two, and two miles from where the argest
stone fell. The heights at 1 and 4 of the figure I consider the
most reliable; those at 2 and 3 are somewhat uncertain, OwIng
to some uncertainty in the azimuth given by the observations.

Showing the path of the meteor through the atmosphere.

N. R. Leonard—Iowa County Meteor. 361

The product of this meteor-fall was a large number
Heel shaped stones, varying in weight Som a few ounces
up to 74 pounds, and aggregating, so far as found, 500 pounds
weight, of which I have secured more than 300.

Figure 2 shows the localities where the various fragments were
found, The region represented is part of four tow1 ships near
the northeast corner of Iowa County. The railroad is the Chi-

cago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad; the village in 36-81-10
is Bou th Amana ; that at northeast corner of 10- “BC —9 is Home-
stead; that in east line of 27-81-9 is Amana; and that in
28-81- 9 is Middle Amana.

81—10

: | t .
Showing the distribution of the stones that have been found.
The dots a oma oe where fragments have been picked
up. We specially n

. in 5-80-— 9, where oe first was found, weight, 7 ? 6 OZ.

a
a Rares 9, broken in striking the ground, “ 43 1b, 8 oz.
ae « 15 1b
d, “ gated ~B, lately found, oe8 ib
oX ~~ 48 Tb,

The pees quantity was probably found in 08 vicinity of

6-80-9, m any pieces in that region weighed 8 to 14 pounds ;

Below sections 7 and 8

hot many Pane stones in that locality
ated were all small. e length of rhe | field is about 7 miles,
and its extreme breadth e the southern end about 4 miles,

362 N. R. Leonard —Iowa County Meteor.

It is worthy of remark that the regions bordering close upon
the river are timbered land, and that especially in sections north
of the river and below the two larger stones found, the lands
are low and now overflowed, so that larger pieces, hidden by
forest or water, may yet be found.

These meteoric stones are many of them entirely covered
with the ordinary black coating, and they all present the
‘‘ pitted” appearance common to such bodies. In several in-
stances there is plain evidence of a fracture having taken place
while the stone was as yet some distance from the earth.

These surfaces of fracture are for the most part covered
with a secondary coating which sometimes appears to have
been partially formed by the pouring over of the-melted surface
matter from other parts of the surface. In some cases, however,
the overflow is only traceable to a short distance from the

Analysis of Prof. J. Lawrence Smith.—The Iowa ake

This meteorite has a hardness rather above the average of its
class. I have found it to be composed of

Stony Matter ae 81°64
Trothtte so ee ae ce 82
INICRONorOUs WOH oo oc oo eee ee. 12°54

Of the stony part there was
igbie ni Rei ee 54°15
Pusoluble <3. | pe es oc 46°80

Separate analyses of these gave for the

ili oe ee ee . 55°02.
Piste es 27°20 27°41
Ma ao 33°45 13°12
Soda with traces of potass. and lithia, _.____-- 1°45 ere

Sete ktns ole fe ee ee hs | “71 gk

Alumina,

N R. Leonard—Iowa County Meteor. 363

This plainly shows that the principal constituent of the
soluble portion is an olivine, rich in oxide of iron, approach-
ing hyalosiderite in composition, and that the insoluble part is
a pyroxene.

_The nickeliferous iron contained, besides traces of phospho-
rus, sulphur, and copper,

WO oe Peres Wea eee eee 89°04
ORC eS ee 10°34
Covalt, 2. 2 oa a ee 58

rom an examination of an entire stone sent me after the

completion of the above analysis, I have found the specific

gravity to be 3°57. J. LAWRENCE SMITH.
Louisville, Ky., April 15th, 1875.

The first stone from the meteor that was found was dis-
covered lying on the snow, on the afternoon of February 15th,
and was adherent to snow and ice underneath. s the weather
had been very cold from the time of the meteor-fall to the time
of finding this fragment it must have been warm enough when
it fell to melt slightly the underlying snow, to which it was
afterwards frozen. —

I visited the spot shortly afterward and found that it had
first struck the ground more than 80 feet to the southwest of

meteor appeared, a
when having passed the corner of a building that threatened to
obstruct his view, he stopped, and watched the meteor until it

Towa State University, Aug. 4th, 1875.

364 A. FE. Verrill—Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head.

Art. L.—- Brief Contributions to Zoology from the Museum of
Yale College. No. XXXVI.—On the Post-pliocene fossils of
Sankoty Head, Nantucket Island; by A. HE. VERRILL; with
a note on the Geology ; by S. H. ScuppEr.

curred on our coast. Accordingly one of our dredging
parties, consisting of Prof. A. Hyatt, Mr. Sanderson Smith, Mr.
C. H. i

were kept distinct. Some of our most interesting results have
been due wholly to the care with which he made and labelled this

the same species that are now found cast upon the outer
Nannie and Cape Cod by storms, and living 1m

the colder outer waters, off the same coasts. :
In the list published by Desor and Cabot seventeen species
were enumerated, and those from the different beds were not
kept separate. In our collections there are about sixty specles,
* Quarterly Journal of . c . 340, Feb.,
1849. An Bo of Beate te, bis tetesa se Pekand to wb Memoirs
_ of the Boston Soe. of Nat. History, vol. i, p. 252, 1866. See also Proc. Boston

Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. iii, p. 79, and this Journal, II, xiv, 50.

A. E. Verrill—Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head. 365

nearly all of which can now be assigned to their actual posi-
tions in the strata.

Mr. Scudder made a study of the stratification, and as his
observations do not agree perfectly with the account given by
Desor and Cabot, he has kindly furnished the following descrip-
tion of the locality. The most important point from which it
differs from the former one is his conclusion that the fossilifer-
ous beds are conformable to the strata of sandy clay, forming
the base of the cliff. Mr. Desor stated that they are uncon-
formable, and referred the clays to the Miocene Tertiary, like
those of Martha’s Vineyard.

Note on the Post-pliocene Strata of Sankoty Head; by 8. H.
CUDDER

“The sands and gravels forming the bluff at Sankoty Head,
Nantucket, rest at base upon a thick bed of light brown sandy
but extending upward to about
twenty feet above the sea-level. As the beds which rest upon it

1p to the southwest, and as the anchor brings up clay from
Sankoty Head eastward for half a mile, this clay bed is probably
of ee thickness,

impregnated with iron. T vel is followed by about four
feet of sands, subdivisible into separate | : at an
Inch or two of a very fin e white sand, followed by nearl

n between the fragments. : :
This bed is followed by about ten feet of fine white thinly
bedded sand, and this by the stratified drift of the island, to a

366 A. E. Verrill—Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head.

depth, as estimated by Desor and Cabot, of forty-two feet; the
foot of peat mentioned by them is wanting at this exact locality,
(though present a few hundred feet farther south,) leaving the drift
covered by five or six feet of dune-sand, more or less intermixed
with loam below.

and Cabot, nor of any unconformability between this bed and the
underlying clays; but, on the contrary, every appearance that the
latter belong to the same continuous series as the former.

It is worthy of note that the fossils of this locality lie above the
clays, instead of in the clays, as in most of the New England
localities of post-pliocene marine shells.”

Mr. Rathburn informs me that in the lower shell-bed the
shells are extremely abundant and mostly entire, but generally
break in pieces when the matrix is removed, and that when
first taken out they appear to be soft, but harden on exposure
to the air. The matrix is a coarse yellowish ferruginous sand
with small pebbles, and the shells have a rusty stain. None of
the specimens give any evidence of having been worn by the
waves, and many of the most delicate, like Oumingia tllinoides,
A: us tener, etc., are entire, and sometimes have the valves stl 1
united. This is the case, also, with some of the oysters. A
large proportion of the quohog-clams (Venus mercenaria) are
broken into angular fragments with sharp edges and angles. I

have ascertained by an examination of large numbers of spec!
mens, both entire and broken, that the breaking is due wholly
to lines of fracture developed in the shell by drying or weath-
Be * I must here e: indebtedne: iam J. , Esq. of New York,
| wotely gave mth ulimit sania of his wrkmen and nailed ©

ak

A. E. Verrill—Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head. 367

ering, just as similar shells often crack into angular fragments
in the dry heated air of our museums. Many of the entire
specimens of the fossil quohogs, etc., show such fractures ex-
tending in different directions across the shell, so that they are
ready to break up into several angular fragments under the
least strain, or even by a change in the moisture or tempera-
ture. This condition of fossil shells is a very frequent one in
other localities, and will account for very many cases where the
shells are found broken into angular fragments in rocks o
other periods. It is evident, both from the condition of the
shells in the lower bed and from the peculiar assemblage o
southern species, that it was deposited in the very quiet waters
ofa sandy sheltered bay, entirely, protected from the action of
the oceanic waves. re of species is similar to
that now living in the protected bays of Southern New England
at the depth of 8 to 5 fathoms The quohog-clam, oyster,
Modiola hamatus, Cumingia tellinoides, Arca transversa, Urosal-
pine cinerea, and the three species of Crepidula are the most
abundant and characteristic shells.

The Serpula bed consists mainly of convoluted masses of the
tubes of Serpula dianthus V., mixed more or less with sand, but
Without many other fossils. This Serpulc is still abundant all

water is not brackish, from low-water to 8 fathoms or more.

It is often particularly abundant on oyster-beds, and in such

localities often completely overgrows the shells, if neglected for
Ww:

have the appearance of those shells thrown on the outer beaches
by the Ha

storms. The abundance of northern forms, such as uccinum
undatum, Ceronia aretata,
Mya truncata, Balanus porcatus, ete., shows that the bed was

*That the depth could not have been less than 3 fathoms is probable because

those species that abundantly inhabit the eel-grass (Zostera), which grows in shel-

tered localities at all depths down to about 24 fathoms, are either rare or entirely

absent, viz. Bittivm nigrum, Astyri ijoris nigrocincta, ;

: rudis, Pecten irradians, ete. That the depth was probably not above 5

fous toms, I infer because the quohog and oyster, when adult, are seldom
‘™ any abundance below 5 fathoms.

368 A. E. Verrill—Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head.

deposited by the cold waters of the outer coast, and their water-
worn condition proves that the deposit was made in very shal-
low water near the shore, or near sand-shoals, swept by the
waves. Such deposits may be made at any depth less than
about 12 fathoms, but are more commouly made in 2 to 8
fathoms, on our coast.

time, the same contrast that now exists* between the coldness
of the waters on the outer shores and the heat of the sheltered

bays and harbors. The fossils of the lower bed indicate, for the

*The nature of the changes that caused the alteration of the temperature and

difference of the life indicated by these two beds of fossils will be discussed else

re It may be well, however, to state that my conclusion is that

when the lower shell-bed and serpula-bed were forming, a shallow bay existed at

is place, from which the outer waters were excluded, either by an island to the
P

Ww away th
(the latter most probably, to judge from the nature of the fossils), thus allowing
the cold outer waters to occupy the bay, and the Atlantic surf to fill it with broken

high enough to have been out of water even then, which have since di
by denudati The same reasoning will also apply to St. George’s Bank and the
ee ok ick nce. propalng Semin, which bees. TE

A. E. Verrill—Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head. 369

previously been found south of Cape Cod. Modiola hamatus,
which occurs in considerable numbers in the lower bed, is a
southern shell, common in the Gulf of Mexico, and on the
southern coast as far north as Virginia, but occurring on the
southern coast of New England, only locally, in harbors, etc.,
and generally on beds of oysters that have been transplanted
from farther south. For this reason it has been generally sup-
ee that it is not indigenous but has in all cases been intro-

uced with the oysters. However this may be now, it is evi-
dent that it was a native species in Post-pliocene times.

The only species that shows any noteworthy variation, when
compared with the modern shells from the same region, is the

List of Species JSrom the lower Shell-bed.

The names of the species are those used in the Report on the
Invertebrata of Southern New England, by the author and
Prof. S. L Smith, in 1st Report of the United States Com-
missioner of Fish and Fisheries, 1874.

AM. Jour. Sot.—Tutrp — Vor. X, No. 59.—Nov., 1875.

370 A. EB. Verrill—Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head.

In each case the relative abundance is indicated. I have
also added the present distribution on the American coast, in a
general way, as well as a few notes on the geological distribu-
tion of each species. Fuller information on the distribution of
the species has been given in the Report referred to.

Mo.uuvsca.

Tritia trivittata Adams. Common.

Florida to Gulf of St. Lawrence; low-water to 40 fathoms.
Fossil in the Post-pliocene of Point Shirley, Gardiner’s L, Vir-
ginia and southward ; in the Miocene of Maryland, South Caro-
-lina, ete.

Ilyanassa obsoleta Stimpson. Common. :

Florida and Gulf of Mexico to Southern Maine ; local in the
southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence; littoral to 2

athoms. Fossil in the Post-pliocene of Point Shirley, Virginia,
South Carolina, ete.

Urosalpinz cinerea Stimpson. Common.

Tampa Bay and Eastern Florida to Massachusetts Bay, and
local farther north to Gulf of St. Lawrence; littoral to 10
fathoms. Post-pliocene fossil at Point Shirley, Gardiner's L,
Virginia and southward ; in the Miocene of Maryland.

Kupleura caudata Adams. One fine specimen.

Gulf of Mexico and Eastern Florida to Cape Cod; low-
water to 8 fathoms. In the Post-pliocene from Virginia to
Florida ; Miocene of Maryland and South Carolina.

Astyris lunata Dall. One specimen.

Alabama and Florida to Massachusetts Bay ; low-water to
14 fathoms. Fossil in the Post-pliocene of Gardiner’s L and
South Carolina.

Cerithiopsis Greenit Verrill. Four specimens.

South Carolina to Massachusetts Bay; two to 10 fathoms.

Crepidula fornicata Lamarck. Abundant.

ulf of Mexico to Southern Maine, and local in the southera

art of the Gulf of St. Lawrence; low-water to 15 fathoms.

ost-pliocene fossil at Gardiner’s L, South Carolina, ete. ; and
Miocene in Maryland and South Carolina.

Crepidula plana Say. Common.

Distribution same as the preceding, from which, however, It
is very distinct.

Crepidula convera Say. Not common. er

Distribution like the two preceding, from both of which it 18
pertectly distinct (although confounded with @. fornicaia ee
Tryon and others). Fossil in the Post-pliocene of Virginia-a0
South Carolina.

Odostomia trifida Gould. Common.
_ New Jersey to Massachusetts Bay ; low-water to 5 fathoms.

A. E. Verrill—Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head. 371

Saxicavu arctica Deshayes. Rare and small.

Arctic Ocean to Georgia, local and rare south of Lon
Island; low-water to 50 fathoms. Fossil in the Post-pliocene
of Maine and everywhere northwar

Mya arenaria Linné. Abundant.

Arctic Ocean (lat. 78° N.) to South Carolina; low-water

Angulus tener Adams. Several specimens.

Florida to Gulf of St. Lawrence; low-water to 12 fathoms.

Cumingia tellinoides Conrad. Common.

Florida to Cape Cod; three to 12 fathoms. In the Post-
pliocene and Miocene of South Carolina, ete.

Petricola pholadiformis Lamarck. Rare.

Gulf of Mexico to Massachusetts Bay; local in Casco Bay

Venus mercenaria Linné. The variety abundant; a nearly
typical form not uncommon.
orida to Massachusetts Bay; local on the southwestern
coast of Maine and southern shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
and Bay of Chaleur; low-water to 8 fathoms. In the Post-

Var. antiqua Verrill.. By this name I propose to designate
the unusually massive and strongly sculptured variety to which
y

exed, appressed and more or less confluent over the middle
region, 4 the ordinary variety is nearly smooth (except

372 A. EF. Verrill—Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head.

when young). The violet color can still be traced in some
specimens entirely around the inner margin, as in many recent
Nantucket examples.

Tottenia gemma Perkins. Few specimens obtained.

South Carolina to Labrador; low-water to 4 fathoms.

Gouldia mactracea Gould. One specimen.

Florida to Cape Cod; 3 to 15 fathoms.

Scapharca transversa Adams. Very abundant and large.

Florida to Cape Cod ; low-water to 15 fathoms. In the Post-
eee of Cape Cod, Gardiner’s I., Virginia, South Carolina ;

iocene of Virginia and North Carolina.

Mytilus edulis Linné. Common.

Cireumpolar; Arctic Ocean to North Carolina; littoral to
50 fathoms. In the Post-pliocene from Florida to Greenland
and Northern Europe.

Modiola hamatus Verrill. Common.

Gulf of Mexico to Long Island Sound and Naragansett Bay;
littoral.

Crenella glandula Adams. Few specimens obtained.

Labrador to Long Island; 5 to 60 fathoms. In the Post-
pliocene of Montreal.

Anomia glabra Verrill.

Florida to Cape Cod; and locally farther north to Nova
Scotia ; littoral to 20 fathoms. In the Post-pliocene and Plio-
cene of South Carolina.

Ostrea Virginiana Lister. Abundant and well-grown.

Gulf of Mexico to Cape Cod, and locally farther north, at
Damariscotta, Me., and in the southern part of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence; low-water to 5 fathoms. In the Post-pliocene of
Point Shirley, Gardiner’s I., South Carolina, ete. h th
short, rounded specimens and the much elongated and narrow
forms occur, as well as all the intermediate states, Just as in
many modern oyster-beds, showing that in Post-pliocene times
the same kind of individual variations prevailed that have
perplexed many modern systematists, but they have not yet
become specific, nor even definite varietal characters.

Bryozoa.
Hippothoa variabilis V. (Escharella variabilis Verrill, in Report
on Invert.) Common on ula, ete.

, ete.
Florida to Massachusetts Bay ; low-water to twenty fathoms.
Biflustra tenuis V. (Membranipora tenuis (Desor) ; Verrill, 12

Report on Invert.) Common on shells.

«copies to Massachusetts Bay: low-water to 15 fathoms.
Membranipora catenularia Smitt. Common on shells. a

A. E. Verrill— Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head. 878

Crustacea; ANNELIDA; PorirERa.

Panopeus, sp. Several aww were fous

Bupagurus pollicaris Stimpson. A claw, probably from this
bed, is recorded by Desor

lorida to S cseshcumsiae: 2 to we —

Balanus eburneus Gould. Com

West Indies to Massachusetts Bay littoral to 3 fathoms.

Balanus crenatus Bruguiére. Com

West Indies to the Arctic Ocean ; 3 a - fathoms.

Serpula dianthus Verrill. Very abundan

North Carolina to Cape Cod ; low-water ‘ 15 fathoms.

Chona sulphurea Verrill. The excavations are abundant in
oyster shells,

Florida to Massachusetts Bay; 1 to 15 fathoms.

List of Species found only in the upper Shell-bed.*

Buccinum undatum Linné. Common
Arctic Ocean to New Je ersey ; northern coasts of Hurope;
low-water to 100 fathoms. In the Post- -pliocene, Maine to

e.

Veptunea curta Verrill. Several specimens, one of large size.

Labrador to Massachusetts Bay, and in deep water farther

south, to Long Islan
unatia heros Adams. Common, but badly broken.

eorgia to Gulf of St. Lawrence; low-water to 40 fathoms.

Post-pliocene, Canada, S. Carolina; Pliocene, S. Carolina ;
locene, a to < Carolina.

bulum ‘iain Alaa ey A large speci Ape

New Jersey to Bay of Fundy; low-water to 40 fa

Sealaria Grenlandica Perry. Recorded by iesox ‘ea ap doube-
less from this b

Arctic Seean to Block Island; 10 to 109 fathoms; Northern
Europe. Fossil in Post-pliocene of Northern boas

Diodora noachina Gray. Two good specim

Aretic Ocean to Cape Cod; 8 to 70 fathoms ; ‘ortherg Europe.

Mya truncata Linné. Several large specimen

Arctic Ocean to Nantucket Shoals; ecunier to 10 fathoms;
northern Kurope. In the Post-pliocene, Maine to rador

Thracia ee Mighels and Adams. <A few alec special
bed not i cated.

Greenland to Long Island; 10 to 60 fathoms. cane

valve Sacicay after this list was in

Arolis Ooten to Meanechuante tage

374. A. &. Verrilli—Post-pliocene fossils of Sankoty Head.

Chidiophora trilineata Carpenter. One valve

Florida to Gulf of St. Lawrence; low-water ‘to 80 se

Muacoma fragilis Adams, var. fusca (Say). A few valve

Greenland to Georgia ; littoral to 6 fathoms. In Pie
pliocene from S. Carolina to Greenland.

Ceronia arctata Adams. Abundant and large.

Gulf of St. Lawrence to Long Island.

Mactra solidissima Chemnitz. Common, fragmentary.

Florida to Labrador; low-water to 12 fathoms. Post. pliocene
of wri Shirley, Mass.

Cyclocardia borealis Conrad. Comm

Labrador to New Jersey; 3 to 80 - fethsotik In the Post-
pliocene of Gardiner’s L ; Point Shirley; Eten

Cyclocardia Novanglicee Morse. A few v

Gulf of St. Lawrence to Long age Sens 3 to 40 fathoms.

Astarte undata Gould. One worn valve.

— noe Sond to Nordiumbertaid Straits in Gulf of
St. Lawrence; low-water to 100 fathoms. In the Post-pliocene
of Gardiner s Island and Point —— ey.

Astarte castanea Say. Abundan

New Jersey to Nova Scotia; 5 ie 40 fathoms. In the Post-
pliocene at Point Shirley.

Modiola modioius Turton. Many worn valves

Circumpolar; Greenland to New Jersey; low-water to 80
fathoms. In - Post-pliocene of Point Shirley, Canada, and

Anenia idea Gmelin. Comm

— Ocean to Long Island Sounds low-water to 100
fathom

; BRY0zoA.

Eschara verrucosa Esper. On shells of Ceronia.

Arctic Ocean to Nantucket Shoals; 3 to 45 fathoms. Nort rth-
ern Kurope. In the fossil examples the surface of the cells is
covered with radiating ridges, often rising into an eminence in
the middle, and is perforated with numerous pores in the
shake Orifice somewhat See with a median avicu-

eee spine.
Crustacea AND EcHINODERMATA.

Balanus porcatus. Very abundant and large, but broken.
Arctic Ocean to Long Island Sound ; 2 to 90 fathoms.

Chemistry and Physics. 375

Strongylocentrotus Dribachiensis A. Agassiz. Spines only.
Arctic Ocean to New Jersey; cireumpolar; low-water to 430
fathoms. Post-pliocene of Maine and northward
List of Species found in both Shell-beds.
Lower Bed. Upper Bed.
One.

Urosalpinx cinerea Common. e
Tritia trivittata Few. Common.
Tlyanassa obsoleta ...........--- Few. Few.
Crepidula fornicata _...._._..__-_- Abundant. Few.
epi plana Common. Few.
Ensatella Americana...___. ..--- . Abundant. Few.
Mya arenaria Abundant. Few.
i arctic ‘ew. Common
mer Abundant ‘ew.
Scapharea transversa._......---- Abundant Few.
Mytilus edulis Ww Common.
Crenella glandula ew. Several, large.
Ostrea Virginiana Abundant Few.

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMIstry AND PHYSICS.

1. On Trimethyl-carbinol, and its supposed occurrence among
the Products of Fermentation.—In examining a crude fusel oil,
ed m

obtained fro a tory of potato-spirit, which contained
mes small quantity of amy] alcohol, Frevnp conve e
‘sobutyl alcohol, boiling between 107° and 110°, which was

Supposed, that as Butlerow has stated, this tertiary alcohol was con-

376 Scientific Intelligence.

this substance in a most ¢ nsfally fractionated product such as was
used in caesar the hile 3 en it had a boiling point lower
by 25°, led to the supposition that the trimethyl-carbinol was pro-
duced from the isobutyl alcohol itself, by the action of the hydro-
chloric acid. Pure isobutyl alcohol was taken and heated as above

periments showed that the quantity produced depends on the
relative amount of hydrochloric acid; and that ig hein and
hydriodic acids act similarly. The reaction is as follow

H OH BSE

| |

CH,- C= CH > +HI=—CH 0-08, +H O

CH, CH,

uthor recommends this reaction for the prepar ation of
ee a Isobutyl eee is saturated with HCl, five
parts fuming acid are added, and the whole is heated in a water-

bath for 24 Loan 7 be: Ch., tL xii, 25, July, 1875. G. F.
the Preparation of Epichlorhi drin.— PREVOST recom

mends, instead of treating dichlorhydrin by potassium or 80
hydrate in the cold, as in the usual method for the preparation of
receiver ata to warn the dichlorhydrin in a roomy retort with

gr
At the given aipanatans the epichlorhydrin
istills over with the vapor 0 of water. The process 1s more raph

« OR;
3. ‘On 7 ew: Pinacoline: - The name pinacolin sek ve ny
Fittig to a body obtained by dehydrating pinacone, and axuem
by Butlerow to a class of acetones which contained tertiary-aleohel

SKY, under this chemist’s direction, has prepared three new bodies
pelonging to this class, two of which are agape and contain
seven atoms of carbon. white the third contains eight. It nie
molecule ‘of goodie. chloride be added outa to two 0

a spe-
cific gravity of 0°831 at 0°. Analysis are it to be ethyl-bu as
H,)

The other bodies were obtained fy he et sthyl-dimethyl
acetyl chloride upon zinc-methyl and zinc-ethy] respectively. a
first is methy Lamylpinacolin, C(C,H,)(CH,),---CO---CBs»
isomeric or rather metameric with ethyl-butyl-pinacolin, and hav
ing a boiling point 65° higher. The second is ethyl-amyl-pinac®”

Chemistry and Physics. 377

lin, C(C,H)(CH,),.- -~-CO-.-C,H,, having a specific gravity of
0°845 at 0° and boiling at 150°5° to 157°5°. By the oxidation of
these pinacolins, they are split up, the CO group remaining with
i The author is continuing the investigation.—
Liebig’s Annalen, elxxviii, 103, Aug., 1875. a
4. Salylic acid identical with Benzoie—In 1860, Kolbe and
Lautemann reduced chlorsalylic acid with sodium amalgam and
obtained an acid which they called salylic acid, and which, though
the formula was identical with that of benzoic acid, the authors
believed, on account of the behavior of the acid and its salts, to be
only an isomer of this acid. This opinion having been called in
’
ater, Korpe has
for the reduction
a kilogram of chemically pure chlorsalylic acid. eavy sandy

exact neutralization, whereby the liquid becomes reddish-yellow.
how a few enbic centimeters be added to the liquid to be titered,

disap ars again when the soda is added in the slightest excess.
The nal reaction is sharp and the results are muc better than
with litmus.——-J. pr. Ch., Ul, xii, 157, July, 1875.

378 Scientific Intelligence.

7. On the Synthesis of Malonic acid.—P1nnzER some time ago

showed that when zinc and

lactic acid there was produced, not monochlorlactic acid, but,
y the loss of a molecule of water, chloracrylic acid. He now

yields salts identical with those of malonic acid. The aut
represents the reaction in three stages: 1st. The replacement of the
i ydroxyl producing acryl-lactie acid :—
CHCl=-=CH---COOH +HOH=CH(OH)--=CH-.-COOH+HClI
2d. The addition of a molecule of water and then by rearrange-
ment forming malonic aldehyde :—
CH(OH)=:=CH-.-COOH+HOH=CH(OH),=:--CH,-.-COOH
CH(OH),-.-CH,-.-COOH=COH-.--CH,-..-COOH+HOH.
3d. By oxidation giving COOH---CH,-—.-COOH, malonic acid.

Groves have investigated the action of chlorine on pyrogallol.
When an acetic acid solution of this substance is saturated with
chlorine in the cold, it becomes of a pale orange-red color. It is

d for an hour, and the whole

D

soluble freely in ether, and affording on analysis the empirica

after pres itation passed only slowly into alizarin on fusion with
potash. Treatment with acetic oxide gave two products: one!

Chemistry and Physics. 379

gold-yellow plates, the ot
bodies proved to be mono- and tri-acetyl-emodin and led to the

concludes that emodin is a tri-oxymethylanthraquinone of the
following formula:

- matter which shows a marked analogy with those of log-

Water, was precipitated in red-brown light flocks. It was puri-
fied by reduction, and was obtained as a dark green powder with a
Strong metallic luster, nearly insoluble in boiling water, but solu-
— ble in alcohol, ether, and acetic acid with a deep brown, and in

alkalies with an intense purple color. Owing to the difficulty of
ts combustion, its nitrogen was at first overlooked, ri-

z The empi
cal formula C,,H,,NO, is assigned to it, the rational formula

C,H, OH
founded on this, deriving it from ammonia N C,H, i a
C,H } OH
ror’ OF
© great similarity of phlorein to hematein and brazilein led the
author to repare these bodies and to analyze the e found that

Wise similarly constituted. He writes phlorein as 3(C,H,O,)N
~(H,0),, hematein as 3(C,,H,,0,)N and brazilein as
ue of 2H,,0,)N . Phlorein, however, yields a hydroderivative.—
Liebig’s Annalen, elxxviii, 92, Aug., 1875 .

3 >
Ul. Arithmetical relations betwee

380 Scientific Intelligence.

The subject of Mendelejeff’s paper is: “The periodical law of
the Chemical elements.” Under this head he discusses the follow-
ing subjects :

(1.) The nature of the periodical law.

(2.) On the application of the periodical law for the purpose of
systematizing the elements.

(3.) Application of the periodical law for the purpose of deter-
mining the atomic weights of elements which have not been
studied exhaustively.

(4.) Application of the periodical law for the purpose of deter-
mining the properties of undiscovered elements.

(5.) On the application of the periodical law for the purpose of
correcting atomic weights determined by other means.

( n the application of the periodical law for the purpose of
enlarging our knowledge of chemical structural forms.

The same subject, further, has also been fully discussed from

1 both in the Annalen der
Chemie und Pharmacie (VII Supplement, 8. 354), and in his work
entitled: ‘ Die modernen Theorien der Chemie.” i

In a work by H. Baumhauer (“ Die Beziehungen zwischen dem
Atomgewichte und der Natur der chemischen Elemente”) another
exhaustive discussion of the e subject ma foun pee

Mr. Hodges appears to have overlooked the above-mention
memo :

12. Compressibility of Carbonic Acid.—Dr. ANDREWS, ID 4

Society, gives a continuation
his well known paper published in 1869, “On the Continnity 0
the Liquid and Gaseous States of Matter.” A series of accurate
m

easurements have been made of the correspon temperat ?
pressure and volume of carbonic acid; to test the epee he
the laws of Boyle, Gay Lussac and to The appara

before compression. The lower

ing the gases dip into small mercurial reservoirs formed o! ¢ =
lass tubes, which rest on ledges within the apparatus. ea

leather washers used in packing the fine screws are now onic

with grease by heating them im vacuo under melted lard. ze

air enclosed in the pores of the leather was thus removed witho

the aid of water. This packing has never been known to fail m 4

Chemistry and Physics. 381

vessel filled with water. But with mercury it always yields after
a few days, even under a pressure of 40 atmospheres, Unfor-

et
reducing to absolute pressures woul y cury column,
which, for the highest pressure would have to be over 1,200 feet
igh. Recently, ho as suggested itself by

T
temperatures between 0° and 30° C., and agrees well with the
results of the earlier measurements. The pressures are somewhat
less than those given by Regnault, which were probably effected
y the unavoidable pressure of air.

he compressibility was carefully measured at temperatures of
6°7°, 63°7° and 100°, the two latter temperatures being obtained
by surrounding the apparatus with the vapor of methyl alcohol
and water, and the pressure being carried to over 200 atmos-
pheres. The results fully confirm those previously attained to
the effect that its volume at high pressures and temperatures
above the critical point is much less than that it should have if a

A very large number of experiments were made on mixtures of
carbonic acid and nitrogen, and the most important result was
that the critical point is lowered by admixture with a non-
Condensable gas, Thus a mixture of 3 parts by volume nl =

. before

and when mixed with air, which are not accounted for as has
been alleged by the hygroscopic action of the containing vessel.
—Vature, xii, 300. : RC. ch ;
3. Magnets formed of Iron Filings.—M. Jamin has repeate
the experiment + De Haldat, in which a brass tube was filled with
‘ron filings and magnetized. The polarity was slight, not sensi-

382 Scientific Intelligence.

and diminished slowly when sand was mixed with the filings.

rubbing it, we obtain, after a few days, a subchloride continuous
in appearance, capable of being filed and polished like pure 1ron,
but hardly magnetiza ;

Iron reduced by hydrogen, and scales of oxide of iron, bee
like iron filings; but magnetic and diamagnetic substances mixe
with the filings alter notably the faculty they possess of being

et

magn . e study of all these circumstances promises any
d

owders

increase to a maximum, and afterward diminish when the approx”
imation of the fragments has restored a sufficient degree of
tinuity to the mass. —Comptes Rendus, \xxxi, 205; pesou rage

255. E. © P.

14. Sounding Flames.—M. C. Decuarme finds that persistent
and varied sounds may be obtained by allowing a current of alr
to impinge on a jet of common illuminating peel on from ®
tube 3 to 5 mms. in diameter, and forming a e 30 to 50 cms.

Geology and Natural History. 383

high. The air is conveyed in a similar tube, and the character of
the sound will vary according to the part of the flame struck, the
pressure of the air and the ratio of the diameter of the tubes.

hen the jet of air, striking the flame near the top, gradually
descends to within about a decimeter of the orifice, we see the
column of flame first divide, lower itself, then twist under the jet,
envelop it and let it pass, surrounding it with a blue veiag ite

The experiment also succeeds well with a Bunsen burner, after
closing the air holes. It is needless to add that no sound is pro-

the chemical action of the air.— Comptes Rendus, Ixxx, 1602.
mm 0.

IL GroLtoey anp Narurau Hisrory.
_ l. Evidence of glacial action upon the summit of Mt. Wash-
ington, N. H—Prof. C. H. Hr :
details of the discovery of transported bowlders upon the summit of

oF
i.
=6
GQ
or
°
¥
fr)
co
@
@
oe
es]
Ss
°
<
o
:
5
®
=
=
oO
es |
_
5
2
Ss

the ledges, has been transported by the glacial hot Ma
: s

e

rface. her-
1 e

Which cannot be distinguished lithologically from those that may

ve been transported a considerable distance. Most of this
angular debris is so far removed from existing ledges that frost

384 Scientifie Intelligence.

and gravity alone cannot have placed them where they now are
sic many of the piles are thus explicable. The ledges have
their northwestern sides rounded and the southeast angular just
like dis striated bosses near the Lake of the Clouds.
arlier observers have failed to discover these facts because the
far transported stones have been brought to light by recent exca-
vations in the earth beneath the almost sented carpet of frost-
cleft fragments.
. Report on the Geology and Resourses of the Region in the
vicinity of the 49th Parallel from the Lake of the Woods to the
Rocky Mountains ; by G. M. Dawson, Geologist and Botanist to

he Commission. 3 8vo, with a colored geological ir
views and sections. Montreal, 1875. Addressed to Maj
Cameron, R q undary Commissioner.—This volume by

gation of the Rocky Mountain formations north of and near the
northern boundary of the United States, and is well illustrated by
sketches, sections and maps. e author speaks first of the Gen-

e for and a
beds. a Vili is Seu to this on subject, “ the age of the
Lignite-bearing formation and position of the line separating the
Cretaceous and Tertiary,” and the aap is one of value as it
comes from a careful wor over a new part of the Lignitic

ul worker
te ipo! results of assays of the see are contained in a
s} valu cocco-

Fol
Cae ‘of ees poi s by Dr. Dawson, ete.
The facts collected are numerous and of wide im-

e of the Woods
show that the movement of the ice there was in general to-
thacest. d
= We t68. St Wit paar the larger part are between he
20° W. oe S. 40° W. The author arrives aadapend at the
era. 2 Pang: :

glac iers and icebergs were the chief agents. He s ys that en
eight of the highest terraces at the South Kootanie Pani is 4,

Geology and Natural History. 385

feet, and I have little doubt but that these are of marine origin.”

Mr, Dawson appreciates the objection to this view from the ab-
sence of all marine remains and of other results of marine action

navia and Greenland. J.D. D.
3. Report of a Reconnaissance of the Black Hills of Dakota
made in the summer of’ 1874; by Wrtt1am Luptow, Captain of
Engineers, Lieutenant-Colonel U.S. A., Chief Engineer Depart-
ment of Dakota. 122 pp. 4to, with several maps. Washington,
875. Engineer Department, U.S. fins aa volume consists
ofa General Report of the Expedition "
i i ees an rubs, a “s H. Win-
chell; a Paleontological Report, by G. B. Grinnell; descriptions
d fi ¥ pee. B. Whitfield (including Obolus
on French Cree
kota, Zerebrutula Helena Whitf., from the Cretaceous on the
time and latitude. Of the maps in the volume one is a Geo-
logical map, by Professor Winchell, of the Black Hills on a
inch. The rocks described by Prof. Winchell
Am. Jour. Scr.—Tarep Serres, Vou. X, No. 59.—Nov., 187.
25

*

+

386 Scientific Intelligence.

are the Cretaceous, the Jurassic and Triassic or Red beds, about
325 eat une at the northern base of the Black Hills, a limestone
formation lying wneonformably beneath the Red beds, which is
Sirtcnitevous at top and may include other formations, and the
Potsdam sandstone. Beneath the last are metamo orphic schists
oa slate with high angle of dip, and granite. We understand
fro + G: 5, Grinnell, that the credit of identifying the fossils
paentioned 3 in Prof. Winchell’s s Report should have been given =
. latter to Mr. R. P. Whitfield, instead of to hims elf. J.D. D

Creek, Adams County, O., preparatory to eae fonricaetont for
the abutments of a brid e, discovered a pair of enormous horns
about eighteen feet below the surface. On examination it was
found that they were only the cores of the original horns, the ex-
terior portion having perished. They measure nearly six feet

; A
ine

the core of the horns of the ox is about one-third of the entire
m vA

hem.
On the Mesozoic pation of Mexico and its character-
istic Jee by Marrano Barcena. 37 pp. 8vo. Mexico, 1875.
—In this Memoir (in Spanish) Mr. Barcena treats of the distribu-
tion of the Cretaceous rocks of Mexico, their kinds and their fos-
e rocks include ils stones, art of them metamorphic,

and the author consequently proposes that the map of Nort
America in the Cretaceous period, which is given in Dana’s Man-
ual of Geology should be changed, by making the area of Cre-
taceous seas to extend from ‘Texas westward to the Pac
Ocean—the facts serving to prove that the Gulf of Mexico —
h ific were actually connected in the Cretaceous per
The Cretaceous area thus added, as shown on a ma 1
ing the Memoir, lies between a "line from the Pacific to the Gu
northeast in n course, running tt through Chihuahua, —
other parallel thro accel Vera Its extension northwest
ciate fatite determinati

tion.

Geology and Natural History. 387

boring from beds that are probably Tertiary. No other fossils
have been found at the place to fix the age; a figure of the species

accompanies the paper. J-D. D.
. Mountain Making: The inequalities of the Earth's Sur-
Jace viewed in connection with Secular Cooling.—Mr. O. Fisazr

Phil. Trans., vol. xii, part ii, with the following remarks:
Can we then attribute the intense corrugations which meet our

1 >
deavored to explain, how the deposition of thick beds upon the
sea-bottom could affect it by their weight, and I have elsewhere,
I think proved, that they could not do so by causing a new dis-
tribution of heat within the crust.* There is likewise much
reason to believe that consolidation and metamorphism are accom-

Melting temperature. But Mr. Mallet has shown, in th
already more than once referred to,f that the difference between

high temperature for a great length of time after its emission,
d

* Geographical Magazine, vol. x, p.248. _¢ Phil. Trans. 1873, p. 160, § 50.
$ Volcanoes, 2nd edition, p. 84, § 8.

388 Scientific Intelligence.

Sir W. Thomson clearly contemplates the _— of ree
tion from without inwards as not impossible, for he says “If e
erimenters will find the latent heat of fusion and the variation of

than we have at present, and a ve pane of that nucleus may
at

it i paces that but a small part of the water contained in n any
magma would become confined in the interior of the crystals.
Here, however, the question arises whether it would be possi sible
for a crust to form over a layer of molten rock in a condition of
igneo-aqueous fusion. Would not the escape of the water cause 4

to a certain depth ebullition would cease, and a crust be formed ;
but that more water woul ready to separate to a greater depth
when its affinity for rock became lessencd through the abstraction
of heat, or diminution of — owing to the crust being par
tially supported by corrugation.
* The following remarks lee the above —— were received from a quarter
disposes me to reliance on the
ae It is probable, or paket sar that water substance, if it exists at great
epths under great algae and at high temperature, is n ees a gas nor & "guid

being above its critical ch on
In this state 3 ca are oe dissolved in it, not however so mu
account of a tendency to combine with water, as on a i apr

rier of their own to dissipation. At still hi: water eo
becomes i dissoci into oxygen ydrogen. But ‘t does

follow that the dissolved substances will be precipitated. The affin-

the more complet higher the temperature, , though the bonds of

ity have fallen away, the prison-walls prevent. the elements from esca’ that

of all the known regions of the Universe the to reason about is

which is under

Geology and Natural History. 389

If such was the condition of the interior in the early stages of
the cosmogony, a large portion of the oceans now above the crust
may once have been beneath it, and thus we gain a novel concep-
tion of a sense in which the fountains of the abyss may once have
been broken up.

A somewhat analogous escape of elastic vapor from beneath a
— envelope is I believe considered to be now taking place in
the Sun.

of its history; while the tests of the tides, and of precession, are
confined in their application to the present. Nevertheless I am
disposed to think that, at any rate, what may be termed a super-
heated condition of the mass still exists at no very great depth
below the surface. By which I mean that if it be solid the solid-

Wales Cc
62 pp. with geological sections. Sydney, New South Wales, 1875.
—This memoir is a review of the geology of Australia by one who
has worked long in geological investigations over New South
Vales. The question of the age of the coal formation 1s fully
discussed; and between the extreme limits adopted by different
Writers, the Jurassic period and the Lower Carboniferous, Mr.
Clarke holds to his old opinion that they are of the latter age.

fF aseels Phys Geography, 2nd edit., p. 7.

can Journal i . 264. : :

; Front fiemies o Probes ot Bomar Motion,” Smithsonian Contribu-
tions, No. 240,

§ Nature, vol. iv, p. 344.

890 Scientific Intelligence.

The writer in his Exploring man goer hacen (1849), on New
South Wales, sustained the view that their age was half way be-
tween those extreme Ss, or # Pantie n, and thie is adopted by him in
the last edition of his Manual of Geckigy (1874, p. 370). The ab-
sence of Tertiary rocks from all of Eastern Australia is ace counted

e 2 De Ds
8. Geological Survey of Brazil. see C. F. Hartt, “hosauly

of the Cornell Daven. has been placed in charge of the
Geological Survey of Brazil by the Emperor, It is reported
that the survey is to be continued four years. Professor Hartt’s
previous explorations in Brazil, first in connection with the Thayer

=e dition, have eminently fitted him for the work.

Geologische Raleoter mast auf Reisen im Kavkusse. von H.
oe 138 pp. 8vo, with one chart. Moscow, 1875.—Prof. Abich,
who has long been investigating the country of the Caucasus, here

North Caucasus Jurassic Coal formation; the rah a
Riaation of Tschegem ; and the Glaciers of the northern side 0

and 53 feet at its nottbeent teri contains numerous mari
shells, the most of which are ‘ew of the ae seas, = a
few belong some degrees farther north. The ised beach 18

antiquus and £, pr emi, pis ot per species of Hgwu 3, Cervu
Bos. Prof. Prestwich closes his paper with a Seoheiibe ee aie
geographical oe foes which the mevcnite were ma .
. Geol. Soc., Febr. 1875, p. 2 i.
11. Another New York oe —A skeleton of a eee +
has been found at Lisle, near Binghamton, New York, and is el
exhumed a the Museum of the Cornell Universi ity. Roca
12. Microscopical Structure of Rocks, with plates 7, 85 a Laie
itic and oe ve Ingenite Rocks of Yar- ce: be alien
From the Proceedings of the Roy. Lrish Acad., an v ee il, —
ese

croscopic structure of the rocks referred to in the title.

pres, searing a iste, bred, or created within or below,”

paper, on the Microscope in Geology, by Mr.

published in a eee Science poke w for Untoken 1867.
Petr

ente der aphie, v rr A. ¥
: Prof Min. Univ. ei oe pp- a ae. 187 5. ‘(Emil rail Strass).—

Geology and Natural History. 391

The descriptions in this work by Dr. Lasaulx are clear and con-
cise, and generally include one or more chemical analyses, The
classification is based first on (1) the fact of one mineral constitu.
ent, or (Il) many; and, under these heads, on texture, as non-

14. Minerals of Bourbonne-les-Bains.—In addition to the min-
eral species of these hot w ters serge d on page 228 of this

(chloride of lead), covered with a crust of mixed galenite and
gypsum ; and, from the interior of a tube of bronze, a coating con-
Paine of ihacamile, —L Institut, Aug. 4.

. Miner alogische Mittheibungen ; von V, Rirrer v. ZEPuARo-

Say VI, 1875.—This sixth number of the mineralogical contribu-
tions by ‘Professor Zepharovich conta descriptions of crystals of
aragonite from Eisenerz and. Hiittenberg, of native arsenic from

Joachimsthal, and a discussion of the crystalline form of cronsted-
number of planes, mostly in the prismatic zone, with abnormal

Pp
fractional indices, oi Segue to those long since saree hed
W ebs sky.

a recent vainahis memoir on the coomduaden of anatase (octah

drite) has shown that the wiserine (xenotime) from the Binnenshal,

eared ae Ke Sh is epee identical with octahedrite, He
tha

B.
17. mesa 287 anew mineral ; by GiwEon E, Moors, Ph. D.
—Oceurs in druses of lu istrous crytals, and in foliated aggregates,

gave for R~ R 114° 80, and OA & 104° 13’ (required 103° 48’),

laminze slightly flexible. H.=2: = 5 Taster mnotallic.
Color Dinish-blask to iron-black, Streak chocolate-brown, dull.
que. Before the blow-pipe turns to a yellowis wish-bronze or cop-

per-red ; exfoliates slightly, and on continued heating darkens in
color, and fuses slightly on thin edges. With the fluxes gives
strong uo agi aes Be and on ¢ arcoal rae — gives a coat-
ide of zinc. Soluble $s ydroakiod!

nalyses: 1, of distinct ils 2, of sealannitie agg
Possessing a radia eh ata In the latter case the materi ms

392 Screntific Intelligence.

Mn Mn Zn Fe H
i. $ 59°94 6°58 21°70 25 bi aes: (5
2. 2 61°57 4-41 20°80 ae 12°6
Analysis 1 _ for the oxygen ratio of peroxide, oe
and water 4:1 and the same is obtained from 2 after making
deductions for i impurities present. This ratio gives for the for-
mula 2 + Hs, or more exactly (¢Mn, 2Zu), Mn.+2H. In this case

lated to wad and psilomelane.

Chaleophanite is a result of the decomposition of franklinite and
associated minerals. Found at the calamine locality at Stirling
Hill, Ogdensburg, N

Named from yaadnos brass and mairva to appear, in allusion to
the change of at pies the mineral undergoes 7. ign ern

—Am. Chem., July, 1875.

18. Statistics of ‘Mines and Mining (Sixth Annual “R port);
by Rosstrer W. Raymonp, U. 8. Commissioner of Min ing Sta-
tistics. 8vo, pp. 585. Washington, 1874.—Dr. Ray monn’s Re-
ports on see Mines and Mining in the States and Territories west
of the Mountains now form a most valuable repository of
scientific a technical literature on all topics germane to t is

: e

and Silver Smelting in Chicago; the Wyandotte Smelting and
Refining Works; the Smelting W ‘orks of the Harz; the desilveri-
zation of Lead by Zinc; avoidable Wastes of American Smelting
Seems: Russel 9 Roastin ing-furnace; Brickner’s Cylinders; 4
ae Laboratory; Sinking Shafts with the Diamond
, &e
reports have become an acknowledged authority on ~
subjects which they treat, and are remarkable for fairness aD
accuracy of atte ‘Phew have for years been quoted an
discussed, and i a large part translated in Germany, where t the

ormation oF “Starch i in chlorophyll-grains se the “reed

sake of pikats), under the action o’ , was made out by _—_
ten or twelve years ago, and been confirmed, and the con ad
tions recently stu in various ay by Famintzin, Kraus, 2%

starch is directly f ormed from carbonic acid under the action of

light, i e., is a primary product of orcas Bohm, oh
‘jenna, who contested this, but whose view according to 5 20%

“has already been sufficiently refuted,” has aeaied to the su

Geology and Natural History. 393

ject, with new observations and experiments, now asserts, upon
reasons stated, that
“The starch appearing in the seed-leaves of plantlets of Cress

Radish and Flax, is not a direct assimilation-product, formed by
the immediate decomposition of carbonic acid, but a transforma-
tion-product from a reserve of nutriment already present.”

that starch in chlorophyll-grains is “a product of assimilation,
d

ently originated from one in a potato, except that the former is
constructed of new-formed material. A. @

0. A Report on the Trees and Shrubs growing naturally in
the Forests of Massachusetts y by Gzuorcse B. Emerson. Second
e& .

ted, forming two volumes, which reflect great credit upon

those fr

ews of many foreign, mainly ree ere trees, copied from
hose W

the many more who ought to be planting them, will value :
Attractive pictures the more, since they mainly represent well-

to thrive in this part of the country. them, from
Figuier’s Vegetable World, border a little on the sensational or
factitious, The only one we are dis to find much fault with

Stands in the place of honor, fronting the title-pa e, “Sequoia
ry tea, or Giant Pine of California.” Why should it es
x ? Cypress would be nearer the mark if any of the o

394 Scientific Intelligence.

this attractive book calls forth. If space permitted we woul
call a attention to the new part of the Preface, with its
remark that, in the author’s own experience upon our sea coast,
European Oaks, B Beech, Linden, Maple, Elm, Ash, Mountain-Ash,
and Pine, are “more hardy than the corresponding American
trees,” and its warning close from Bryant’s early poem, as well
the important chapter on the uses, continuation ee: improvement
of our forests.

21. On the Classification and Sexual Reproduction of vi ‘hallo
phytes ; by W. T. Tutsetron Dyer. An article of 33 pages 5V0,

revised and reprinted from the Quarterly Journal of the Micro-
eas Society, London, July, 1875.—A timely and good resume
of all the important recent ents midis to our knowledge of this
subject, based upon the fourth edition of Sachs’ Lehrbuch, with
historical and critical discussion. ‘The eeeag is the provisional
adoption of Sachs’ classification, in which Algw, Fungi, and
Lichens, are relegated to the past, all T hallophytes are arrange
in two parallel series, one with chlorophyll (Algw and Charace®
of old) and one without, the latter being to the former nearly
what Monotropee, Orobanchee, Cuscuta, and the ro ola
orchids are to the orders they respectively pertain to,or are para
sitic representatives of; and the classes they are arranged under

2

rising

dived above. The green series begins below with the a

ophycece, followed hd ve Palmellacee, and ends with F lort Ke

followed by Characee. The ppv! ” Fungi-series begins wit
by

) e rs of
degra not with any strict saa meniicalso. As to t
the Lich henes, if is remarked t hat the. ate

Geology and Natural History. 395

a , occupies two or f the earlier page re)
Thwaites is attributed the origination of the view that conjugation
Is sexual reproduction in m eneralized é

tion of the spore in the cells of one of the wholly similar parents,
instead of between the two as in Desmidiew and Diatomacee,
but such adumbration is rather “apparent” than real. It was
Thwaites who, in 1847, discovered conjugation in Diatomacee.
Morren had long before discovered it in Desmidiece ( Closterium).
The cilia of antherozoids were discovered in 1840, by Thuret,
whose recent death, in the midst of important work, i

may well deplore. In 1852 Thuret first obtained actual fertiliza-

22. Monographie der Juncaceen vom Cap, bearbeitet vom
BucuEna en, 1875. 8vo.—This monograph of
the Juncacee of the Cape of Good Hope, by Dr. Buchenau, is a
Separate issue from the Abhandlungen des naturwissenschafilichen
ereins zu Bremen, Band iv, Heft 4, pp. 393-512, and is illus-
trated by 7 quarto plates, filled with details, devoted to the
illustration of 32 species, chiefly of the genus fg aoe At the
close is g
Juncacee, from the Supplementum Plantarum of the younger

Linnzeus down to Steudel’s Synopsis of Giunacec. _ Also name
are given to the numbers in Drége’s distributed collection. A. 6.
“ENNEY,

396 Scientific Intelligence.

24.° Kirst Book of Zoology ; by Epwarp 8S. Morse. _
. 158 cuts. New York (D. Appleton & Co.) 1875.—
this little volume Prof. Morse has put, in a very simple and attrac-

good and well chosen, and most of them are new and drawn from
native animals by the auth

animals or their parts it would be still better. The book yee
voted wholly to the Mollusca, Insects, Crustacea and Annelias,
with a short but useful chapter on Vertebrates. The ieee
Radiata, Polyzoa, Brachiopoda, Tunicata, Cephalopoda, and m¢

e

?

s” are not mentioned, the design being to describe

although to many this may appear to be an advantage, W®
imagine that some indication of the name of each species fig ie
even in a list of figures at the end of the volume, would — pe
siderably increased the value and usefulness of the book, bot “pe
pupils and teachers, for however little value we may attach ™®

Geology and Natural History. 397

names of most of the figured species, which the author could so
easily have supplied.

The style is clear and simple, and the descriptions are generally
peta though brief. e have noticed but few errors worth
of no e, and these will doubtless disappear in a second edition.
In the figure of the mouth-parts of a craw-fish, on page 136, a
pas alge se poe eke is given to the i inner side of the mandible,

on page 147 the “cervical sutwre” of the carapax is errone-
sat said to toon aoa “the dividing line between the head and
na zy tps would be an absurdity, ponmdents that the

it really applies to but two of the four orders, The same may
said of the definition of @ Vermes” both on pages 185 and 160.
But there is much in the book that will be of interest and useful,
even to advanced students, The chapter on the bones of the leg
se wing of birds is particularly valuable.
The Bones, Ligaments, and Muscles of the Domestic Cat ;
vy i S. Wittrams. With an atias of igagee iat hy plates,
ew

ilar }
Ing the anatomy of the viscera and other organs. It is a a
oS that he pon soon accomplish this, for in most cases I

sag mport or even more so, that students cheat
thoroughly study the digestive, cork egg spiratory, and
207 Paina! as the bone: ae nuse v.

fat oms (2) 300 indians to the ee a
He 24° 26’ bed in 1,850 fathoms; (3) off Brazil, 10° 11'S.,
35 29) W. , in 1,6

398 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

In the Antarctic by the Challenger cp fae (1) between
Prince Edwards’ and the Crozet Islands, 46° 46’ S., 45° 31’ E.,in
1,375 fathoms; (2) 84 miles to the restart of How tolna one
of the Crozets, 46° 16’ 8. “s 48° 27’ E., in 1,600 fathoms; (3), near
the ice barrier, 62° 26'S, , 95° 44’ E., in 1,975 fathoms; (4) north of the
ice barrier, 53° 55’ ee 108° 35’ E., in 1,950 fathoms; (5) south of
Australia, 42° 42’ §., 34° 10’ Es in 2 600 feet ; (6) — in the
Pacific, southwest of the Louisinde group, in 2 440

The Umbellularie are beets associated with su nes deep sea
animals as Ophiéglyphe, Brisinge, Pourtalesie, Be
Munopsids, Petalophthalmi, Ganthiphisten —— ete.—R.
V. Willemoes-Suhm in Ann. Mag. N. H., 1V, v,

III. Astronomy.

1. Observations de Poulkova ; publiées par a Srruve, Diree-
teur de Observatoire Central Nicolas, volume vi. Observations
Jaites au Cercle Meridian, 8’ Petersbourg, 1873, folio, pp. V
545.—Among the most important astronomical publications of the
past few years, must be Absigehigt the magnificent series of vol-
umes published at Poulkova of the beautiful suburbs of St.
Petersburg, by the Imperial Central Astronomical Observatory.
The sixth volume of thi ich contains the observations
aie trom 1840 to 1855 by iets of the Repsold meridian circle, has
recently been received in this country. The number of observ: prs
contained in this single volume amount to 21,000, and appertain to
the stars from the first to the sixth magnitudes, situated hetween
the north pole and 15° of southern declination. The whole series of
meridian circle observations will require still another vai the
seventh, and have been amassed through the labors of Sabler,
1840 to 1854, Déllen, 1844 to 1849, Lindhagan, 1854 to 1855,
Winnecke, 1858 to 1864 4, and Gromadski, 1866 to 1869, Throug
the whole of this long ‘period, no important changes have been

made in nes construction of the instrument, and but few yaee2
in the methods of observation. The computations have
Bey within the past few years under the successful treto
of tides She and Von Asten

IV. MiscentaNngous Screntiric INTELLIGENCE.
with Tables
i December r, 1874. Publ shed Seg
poet ae London.)—This number of the Scottish 1, Sons, a
i y important m memoir 02

t
the in sete of weather on e oreey from diferent pea -
: a
Mitchell, extending t pages. The dagniby in embraces the
; decades from 1648 to 1874 inclusive; and the Rees the
ide dle weekly reports of deaths in London are the basis of

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 899

curves in the diagrams, the reports being full and the deaths all
i ima To construct a curve for

period,

It appears that in London the deaths from all causes for the 30

ears, had their extreme maximum in December anuary 3
that with the beginning of April there commenced a long decline
in number to the extreme minimum in June; then began a rise to
a second lower maximum in the latter half of July, continued
through the first half of August; und then a decline to another
minimum in October, after which the rise toward the December
maximum bega

ber and October ; for typhoid fever, low for May, June and early

in temperature and dryness; then the influence of weather on
deaths at different ages, showing one maximum for children under

oO fs
January, and the ‘latter part of March, a minimum for both 1n
June, a second maximum in the latter half of July and first half

by all other diseases, but instead a continued minimum which is
Steatest in July and August. The diseases which are like bowel

ent diseases for each year, together with
Population of London . Table TL, givted the mean weekly death rate

400 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

ages a ote Nord-OQuest de 0? Amérique exécuté du-
rant les Années, 1870-72; par Apu. L. Pinart. Vol. I, Partie
I, Histoire Naturelle. Paris, 1875. pp. 51, with plates A

c
observations on them; M.
scopical and Chemical analyses of some of the rocks of Alaska ;

and the Zoology is by Fischer, E. Perrier and P. Gervais. The
author proposes to issue three volumes of this series, each to con-
tain six parts similar to the one now issued. He has favored us
with a sight of the plates illustrating the ethnology of his voyage,
which he has enriched by researches during three winters 1n St.
Petersburgh, where the extended collection made by the mission
aries of the Greek Church, during a century or more, were liber-

object the study of the ethnology and languages of the southern
both North

encouraged him by giving him a commission which requir ae
to report specially upon certain points with reference to the we
tral American States, with which his former voyages have already
made him familiar. >
3. General Index of Professional and Scientific paper erg
tained in the United States Coast Survey Reports from 189
1870. Constituting Appendix 17 in the Report for 1871.— 4.
Coast Survey Reports issued under the late eminent Superinten™

‘a large number of original memoirs of high scientific character,

_ Miscellaneous Intelligence. 401

and consequently this Index has great importance. The volumes
contain many papers discussing tides in general, and the tides of

and G. P. Bond, A. D, Bache, C. A. Schott ; on telegraphic deter-
minations of longitude, b Id W.

ennsylvania and the adjoining States in 1834 to 1862), Mr. Schott
(whose papers are very numerous), W. P. Trowbridge, J. E. Hil-
ard, G. W. Dean; on deep sea dredgings, by J.
ourtalés, Prof. Agassiz; on the Florida coral reef, by Prof.
=n also by E. B. Hunt; on earthquake waves in the Pacific,

papers bearing on other topics arising out of the survey. The
papers on physical subjects are among the most important that

ve been anywhere publishe

4, a Discovery of Meteoric Iron in Missouri ; by G. C
Broapurap (Mines, Metals and Arts, St. Louis, for Sept. 20).—
: rly six months ago I obtained knowledge of a mass of meteoric
'ron in Bates County, but only recently found out just where it
Was, and last week I went to Butler and obtained it. It was

mailes southwest of Butler. For a long time it remained scarce
noticed by him, but at last, thinking it rather heavy, he brought
: : co and left it at a blacksmith’s. When I heard of its
8 there, | requested a fragment. A piece was cut off; the
re, first heating it, was occupied nearly two hours in the cut-

Mi is is the first meteorite that we know of having been found in
“sourl Its total weight is a little less than 90 pounds, and it is
rough-looking, rather irregular mass, somewhat pitted over the
be n
iron with undoubtedly some nickel in its composition.

, Mo., 13
Am. Jour, Sc1.—Tarrp Series, Vor. X , No. 59 —Nov., 1875,

26

402 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

5. On Poisons in relation to mepaigg Jurisprudence and Med-
icine. By Atrrep Swartne Taytor, M.D., F.R.S., &e. Third

American, from the third English. tian Philadelphia, H.G
Lea. 18 pp. 788, with 104 illustrations in the text.—

AYLOR’s manual on poisons long ag: e a standard au-
thority, and the appearance of a and pane Be rev es edi-

cological science, to meet the wants of students in law se med-

6. On the Strength of the Lion and the Tiger; by. Rey. Sine
uEL Haveuton.—In Nature, vol. xii, p. 474, in a review of Dr.
Fayer’s book on the tiger, doubts are thrown by the reviewer on
the statement that the tiger is stronger than the lion. Dr. Fayer’s
statement cannot be contradicted by any person well acquainted

m l

with

lished in 1873, I have proved, p. 392, that the strength of the lion
in the fore limbs is only 69°9 per "cent of that of the tiger, and
one the ee of his hind limbs is only 65-9 per cent of that of
the tiger.

I may add cg eee men can easily hold down a lion, while it
requires nine men ontrol a tiger. Martial also states that the
tigers always killed. the lions in the amphitheatre. The lion is, in
truth, a pretentious humbug, and owes his reputation to his impos-
ing mane, and he will run away like a whipped cur, under cireum-
stances in which the tiger will boldly attack and kill.— ra
Oct. 7, in a letter dated Trinity College, Dublin, Oct. 1

OBITUARY.

WiuuiaM Jory Henwoop, F.R.S., F.G.S., died on the 5th of
August, in his 71st year. He was the author of papers on Miner-
alogy, and of elaborate memoirs on the metalliferous deposits ©
Cornwall and Devon, and various other topics connecte ed with
mines i mining.

Samuet D. Tintman, ee D., LL.D., died September 4th, at the
age of 62 years. Prof. Tillman’s contributions to chemical litera-
ture have been mainly in the departments of chemical philosophy
and nomenclature.

Unsere orm und das iat hegre gage ihrer Entstehung. Briefe
Lei soa Pau es nF oe His. Mit 104 nS alan

, Verlag von Oo 1875. Aas ‘ ues
Ghotsra Epidemi cs of 1873 Sn bs Uni ted States. 1026 pp. ao hadaage =f:

1875. 43d {cn 2d session, House of Representatives. ee
Besides the long detailed Report on the Cholera persed a ae in NN
America by John M. volume contains

oodworth, M.D., this by
., on that of 1832, 1833, 1834, of 1848, of 1854, aunts Fist, 1855
in North ‘America ; and also a a history ‘of the — of Asiatic Cholera or
Europe, by John C. P M.D. The volume is illustrated by sik
closes with a very extended bibliography.

; APPENDIX.

Art. LI.—On the Odontornithes, or Birds with Teeth; by Prof.
O. C. MarsH. With plates IX and X.

which have already been described by the writer. @ most
mportant of these remains, so far as now known, are the
Odontornithes, or birds with teeth, and it is the object of the
present communication to give some of the more marked
characters of this group, reserving the full description for a
memoir now in course of preparation.

The first species of birds in which teeth were detected was
Ichthyornis dispar Marsh, described in 1872.* Fortunately the
type specimen of this remarkable species was in excellent

and pointed, and all are directed more or less backward.
€ crowns are covered with nearly smooth enamel. The
maxillary. teeth appear to have been numerous, and essentially
the same as those in the mandible. Whether the premaxillary
bones Supported teeth, or were covered with a horny beak can-
hot be determined from the present specimen.
* This Journal, vol. iv, p. 344, and vol. v, p. 74.

404 O. C. Marsh—Odontornithes, or Birds with Teeth.

The scapular arch and the bones of the wings and legs all
conform closely to the true avian type. The sternum has a
prominent keel, and elongated grooves for the expanded cora-
eoids. The wings were very large in proportion to the legs,
and the humerus had an extended radial crest. The metacar-
pals are coéssified, as in recent birds, thus differing widely from
those of Archeopteryx. The bones of the posterior extremities
are slender, and resemble those of some aquatic birds. The
centra of the vertebrae are all biconcave, the concavities at
each end being distinct, and nearly equal. (Plate IX, figures
3 and 4.) The sacrum is elongated, and made up of a large
number of codssified vertebre. Whether the tail was elongated
or not cannot at present be decided.

The jaws and teeth of this species show it to have been
carnivorous, and it was probably aquatic. Its powerful wings
indicate that it was capable of prolonged flight. :

Another Cretaceous bird, (Apatornis celer Marsh,) belonging
apparently to the same order as [chthyornis, was found by the
writer in 1872 in the same geological horizon in Kansas.
The remains preserved indicate an individual about the same
size as Ichthyornis dispar, but of more slender proportions. The
vertebre are biconcave, and thére were probably teeth. _

The most interesting bird with teeth yet discovered is per
haps Hesperornis regalis, a gigantic diver, also from the Creta-
ceous of Kansas, and discovered by the writer in 1870. The
type specimen, which was found by the writer in 1871, and
described soon after, consisted mainly of vertebra and the
nearly complete posterior limbs, all in excellent preservation.t

A nearly perfect skeleton of this species was obtained

estern Kansas by Mr. T. H. Russell and the writer in Novem-
ber, 1872, during the explorations of the Yale College party,
and several other less perfect specimens have since been secured,
and are now in the Yale Museum. These various remains
apparently all belong to one species.

The skull of Hesperornis has the same general form as. that
in Colymbus torquatus Briin., but there is a more prominent
median crest between the orbits, and the beak is less pointed.

slight projections from the sides of the grooves. (Plate x,
figure 2.) The teeth have pointed crowns, covered

: * This Journal, v, 74, Jan., 1873. + This Journal, iii, 360, May, 1872.

O. C. Marsh—Odontornithes, or Birds with Teeth. 405

the same, as some of the teeth preserved have the crowns of
the successional teeth implanted in cavities in their fangs.

modern birds. (Plate X, figures 3 and4.) The sacrum is elon-
gated, and resembles that in recent diving birds The last
sacral vertebra is quite small. The caudal vertebra, which are
about twelve in number, are very peculiar, and indicate a struc-
ture not before seen in birds. The anterior caudals are short,
with high neural spines and moderate tranverse processes. The
middle and posterior caudals have very long and horizontally
expanded tranverse processes, which restrict lateral motion, but
Clearly indicate that the tail was moved vertically, probably
'n diving. The last three or four caudal yertebre are firmly
coossified, forming a flat terminal mass, analogous to, but quite
unlike, the “ ploughshare” bone of modern birds. The
anterior two at least of these caudals have expanded transverse
processes,

The pelvic bones, although avian in type, are peculiar, and
present some well marked reptilian features. resemblance

have their posterior extremities separate. The two latter are
) Spon free back of their union with the ilium at the
acetabulum. The ischium is spatulate at its distal end, and the
as rodlike. The acetabulum differs from that in all known
irds, in being closed internally by bone, except a foramen,
that perforates the inner wall.

406 0. CG. Marsh—Odontornithes, or Birds with Teeth.

The tibia is straight and elongated. Its proximal end has a
moderately developed cnemial process, with an obtuse apex.
The epi-enemial ridge is prominent, and continued distally
about one-half the length of the shaft. The distal end of the
tibia has on its anterior face no ossified supratendinal bridge,
differing in this respect from nearly all known aquatic birds.
The fibula is well developed, and resembles that of the Divers.
The patella is large, as in Podiceps, and in position extends far
above the elevated rotular process of the tibia.

e tarso-metatarsal bone is much compressed transversely,
and resembles in its main features that of Colymbus ts

the third or fourth, and its trochlear end resembles in shape
and size that of the fo The existence of a hallux 3s
indicated by an elongated oval indentation on the inner margin
above the articular face of the second metatarsal. The free
extremities of the metatarsals have the same oblique arrange
ment as in the Colymbide, to facilitate the forward stroke of

On the outer, inferior margin, they are all deeply excavated.
The first, second, and third have, at their distal ends, a cing
oblique, articular face on the inner half of the extremity, 0

which fits into a corresponding cavity in the adjoining phalanx.
This peculiar articulation prevents flexion except in one
irecti reatly increases the strength of the joints. The

of this toe was much comp ae mee
_ or middle, toe was greatly inferior to the fourth in size, and ba

0. C. Marsh—Odontornithes, or Birds with Teeth. 407

slender, compressed phalanges, which correspond essentially in
their main features with those of modern Divers.

The remains preserved of Hesperornis regalis show that this
species was larger than any known aquatic bird. All the
specimens discovered are in the Yale College Museum. and
agree essentially in size, the length from the apex of the bill to
the end of the toes being between five and six feet. The hab-
its of this gigantic bird are clearly indicated in the skeleton,
almost every part of which has now i

The two orders of birds with teeth would then be distin-
guished as follows :—

Sub-Class, ODONTORNITHES (or AVES DENTAT#).

A. Teeth in sockets. Vertebre biconcave. Sternum with keel.
Wings well developed.

Order, IcHTHYORNITHES.

B, Teeth in grooves. Vertebre as in recent birds. Sternum
without keel. Wings rudimentary.

Order, ODONTOLOZ.

In comparing Ichthyornis and Hesperornis, it will be noticed
that the Batbiasion of charaseess oh aack is very remarkable,
and quite the reverse of what would naturally be expected.
The former has teeth in distinct sockets, with biconcave verte-
bre; while the latter has teeth in grooves, and yet vertebrae
similar to those of modern birds. In point of size, and means
of locomotion, the two present the most marked contrast. The
fact that two birds, so entirely different, living together during
the Cretaceous, should have been poorer in such perfect
Preservation, suggests what we may yet hope to learn of life in
that period.

408 O. C. Marsh—Odontornithes, or Birds with Teeth.

The geological horizon of all the Odontornithes now known is.
the Upper Cretaceous. The associated vertebrate fossils are
mainly Mosasauroid reptiles and Pterodactyls.

A full description with plates of all the known Odontornithes
is now being prepared by the writer.

Yale College, New Haven, Oct. 18th, 1875.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate IX.—Ichthyornis dispar Marsh. Twice natural size.
igure 1. Left lower jaw; side view.

Figure 2. Left lower jaw; top view.
Figure 3. Cervical vertebra; side view:
Figure 4, Same vertebra ; ait x

Plate — regalis Mar:
Figure 1. Left ‘gata jaw; side view; half natural size.
Figure - Tooth; four times natural size.
Figure 2. Left lower jaw; top view; half natural size.
Figure 3. Dorsal vertebra; side view; natural size.
Figure 4. Same vertebra; front view.

Plate IX.

AM. JOUR. SCI., Vol. X, 1875.

—-~+- rman tnnnetnaataseaneeisnnestessna

2
1

ICHTHYORNIS DISPAR Marsh,

Plate X.

AM. JOUR. SCIi., Vol. X, 1875.

HESPERORNIS REGALIS Marsh.

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AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.
[THIRD SERIES]

+

Art. LIL—On Southern New England during the melting of the
Great Glacier ; by James D. Dana. No. IV.*

IV. Depression oF THE LAND, OR AMOUNT OF SUBSEQUENT
ELEVATION,

THE higher of the terraces of stratified drift, especially of
those along the shores of estuaries and tidal inlets, or within
the lower tidal part of the river valleys, are rightly regarded as
evidence, after making the necessary deductions, of the amount of
upward change of level which the region containing them has
undergone. he following are some heights above high-water
or flood level observed in Southern New England :

1. The terrace plain, or upper level of the stratified drift, in
the northeast corner of the New Haven plain, near Whitneyville
~—50 feet; and in the northwest corner, at Westville—47 feet.

2. On the Housatonic River near Birmingham, ten miles
from the Sound and nine miles west of New Haven—95 feet.

In the Connecticut valley, in the vicinity of Middletown,
about thirty miles from the Sound and twenty-three miles
northeast of New Haven—150 feet.

4. At the head of the fiord called the River Thames, at Nor-
Wich, sixteen miles from the Sound and nearly fifty miles north
of east of New Haven—110 feet.

5. At the head of Narragansett Bay, about Providence, a
mile above the mouth of Providence River, and about 100
miles north of east of New Haven—80 feet.

Here we have terraces at five places in Southern New. Eng-
land, thirty miles or less from the Sound, and within reach of
* For the preceding parts of this memoir see pp. 168, 280, 353, of this volume.

Am. Jour. 8c1.—Turrp Serres, Vou. X, No. 60,—Dec., 1875.

27

410 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

the tides, having the following heights above flood-level : near
New Haven, 47 to 50 feet; at Birmingham, 95 feet; near Mid-
dletown, 150 feet; at Norwich, 110 feet; and at Providence,
80 feet. What are the necessary deductions to be made from
these numbers in order to obtain for each place the amount of
that change of level (the depression of the land when the
deposits were made, and the subsequent elevation) which led
to the present elevated position of these plains of stratified
drift, making them into river-valley and estuary terraces? If
any elevated shell-bearing sea-beaches existed on the shores of
the Sound, the question as to the amount of elevation since
the Champlain period would be easily answered. But such
evidence as already explained, is wanting; and wanting also
outside of the limits of the Sound, even to Cape Cod.

In order to make correct observations on this subject and ar-
rive at right conclusions, several points have to be noted, a
brief review of which is here given by way of introduction.

1. The height to be measured should be that of the highest
terrace plain above the level of the highest modern flood-plain or
lower flats. For the terrace-plain, where of full height, marks
approximately the flood-level of the Champlain era, just as the
flood-plain of a stream in these modern times marks the level
nearly of modern floods. This point has been considered in
obtaining the numbers for the heights above given, each beg

d not of any

sing in addition,
the height of the
ht, would have t

during the melting of the Glacier. 411

fed drift of a valley or estuary and the unstratified of the ad-
joining hills must be carefully determined, for only the former
is the terrace or flood-made formation. o be sure of correct-

depositions. The material of these later beds along the river

412 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

region may be only one or more of the lower terraces instead of
the highest; that is, in other words, the A7ghest normal to the
region may be wanting, either (1) because there the flood-waters
made no depositions up to flood-level, owing to its fierce rate
of flow, or some other cause, but built up only to lower levels;
or (2) because the highest part of the formation, after its depo-
sition, was swept off and so reduced to a lower level by the flood
when in its period of greatest violence, leaving only a lower
terrace in its place, with perhaps traces of the higher, or often,
not even these.

6. A careful study of the kind of stratification in the de-
posits is needed in order to determine whether the beds were
deposited (1) under the action of the incoming tide on the sands
and gravel from the dissolving glacier or drift-covered hills;
or (2) under the action’ of the outflowing river. This study
requires that the cuttings for all road-gradings, wells, sewers,
and cellars, in the stratified drift of an estuary, should be care-
fully examined. When the facts as to structure are fully under-
stood, the question whether sea-made or river-made may 10 this
way receive a positive answer even along shores having 20
raised shell-bearing sea-beaches. ;

. An examination should be made for stratified deposits of
the later or “ Alluvian” part of the Champlain period, and @
comparison of the heights of such beds with that of the early
Champlain beds or true “ Diluvian” stratified drift ; for suc
beds may show at what level the waters of an estuary or inlet
stood after the Glacial flood had for the most part or wholly
subsided.

The mere statement of these points is sufficient to fe
that the problem before us—that of determining the amount 0
depression of Southern New England during the Champlain
pared or, of elevation since then—is beset with difficulties
‘These difficulties I have not been able in all respects to co
_ mount; and my present purpose is to state the facts which

have observed, and not to announce positive results. The o

during the melting of the Glacier. 413

servations needed to settle all doubtful points demand long-
continued investigation in each estuary region of the coast, such
a study as can be satisfactorily carried forward only by one
who is living in the region and is thus always at hand to take
advantage of every excavation that may be made in the deposits
for cellars or other purposes. And to this should be added
an accurate topographical and hydrographic survey of the estu-
_ ary regions, and of the river valleys within thirty miles of the
oast

st.

After these preliminary considerations I proceed to the dis-
cussion of the facts bearing on the level of Southern New Eng-
land in the Champlain period, or, its equivalent, the amount of
elevation which may be proved, from existing conditions, to
have taken place since that period.

I. New Haven REeion.

The evidence with regird to the amount of depression over
the New Haven region which has been obtained is from the fol-
lowing sources :

_1. From the height of the upper or highest terrace of a re-
gion above mean high tide.

2. From the depth of the valley-excavations along the rivers
and estuaries, or the height of the upper terrace above the flood-
plain of the present streams,

3. From the structure of the beds

414. J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

passage is every where abrupt from the even plain to the rising
hill-side, that is, from the terrace of stratified drift to the un-
stratified drift of higher levels, and this is true quite to Savin
Rock on the Sound. On the east side of this bay the same 1s
true; but the terrace on that side is mostly wanting, and the
cape is rocky, so that the fact is less significant. é

_ The following are the elevations of the plain at different
points between the Sound and Mt. Carmel village.

Feet.
Near Savin Rock beach, on the Sound, __-------------- 5 A
0°5 mile north of Sound, highest near foot of hills, - -- --- 10-1
15 mi . “ §.W. of bridge over West R.,-- 18
ee Ss « _¢. Kimberly and Greenwich sts.,- 23
eee a Ab OF PF UAAIO- OL, 5 ao oe ee oe 31
eee iy “ _¢. of Congress av. and Cedar st., 35
ee ee « e. of Elm and York sts.,-------. 4
oF “ ¢. of Dixwell av. and Henry st.,- 49
ok ee eas “ ¢. of Dixwell av. and Division st., 52
oT “ _¢, of Dixwell av. and Dudley st., 61
ie ene aS “ Dixwell, near house of H. Munson, 68
si aaa eal “ Hamden church on Dixwell av.,- 76
tae SS “ Dixwell av., near J. E. Bassett’s, 82
re “ — N.Centreville, at meeting of roads, 103
ick ee ees * near Mt. Carmel village, ---- --- 115
An even slope is not to be expected since (1) the shore eet
or flood-grounds of a river or lake are never ev ae

__ of the various parts of the plain along streets wi its of the
and to levelings by Mr. G. B. Chittenden and D. H. Pierpont, carried oD ote
agg son - of Mr. R. M. Bache of the Coast Survey, for heights throug!

* Tam indebted to Mr. C. E. Fowler, New Haven City Surveyor, for poten
the ithin the limi .

during the melting of the Glacier.

Map or THE NEw HAVEN REGION.

Ns A is ? r
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Pxplanations of the map.—A. plttegte
Ch, erry Hill. C, Air Line Railroa: t.
Becton ol es ok pro
¥ od, the ° .
Lint or Red K, the Quinnipiac. J, Ju ave, t Rock ridge.
whic, House. M, Mill kk, tby Park, three of a oe es of
z cere constructed. O, Oyster Point. p, Pine Roc d, Round Hill. Rt, Rabbit or
Bite Rock. Sm, Sachem’s ridge. T nike; also Tomlinson’s bri ige. across the
lex New Haven bay. V, Whitn yyille. West Rock, the south end of the West
ridge. W C, West Cape, or West Hayen Point. Wh, ey Peak. W ter-
| btat Lake, just north of Wintergreen Falls. Wn, Warner’s Rock. bm, Beaver Pond
eadows; m, Mineral Spring, southeast of North Haven ; 71, n2, n3, n4, different notches
Notch Bock ridge ; 1, n2, the upper and lower Bethany otches ; 73, the Hamden
; 74, the vp antergreen Noteh, —
10ths of an inch to the mile.

416 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

The part of the plain stretching northward through Hamden
to Mount Carmel village, reaching there a height of about 115
feet above the sea, owes its slope to the pitch of the flooded
stream, which there flowed over a sandstone region with no deep
channel to confine its waters and direct their course. at it
was not due to marine submergence to a depth of 115 feet is
proved by the facts in the adjoining Quinnipiac valley, a mile
and a half to the eastward. For at North Haven, six miles
north of New Haven, the stratified drift or terrace has a height
above flood level not exceeding 45 feet; and this is but two
feet above its level five miles to the south, just north of west
of New Haven city ; facts which show that there was a nearly
level surface over the great Quinnipiac basin or harbor between
these distant points, and that the greatest height of the marie
submergence, if there was one, could not have exceeded 46 feet.

If then the upper part of the sloping plain from Mount Car-
mel southward was made by fresh waters from the melting
glacier, shall we conclude that this was true also of the lower
part, nearly to the West Haven shore? The slope of this
lower part is no greater than that more to the northward ; and
hence there is little objection to the conclusion from this source.
The bay is small and throughout shallow, being but 8 to 18
feet deep at low tide, and little of it over 12 feet; so that it
did not afford a capacious channel for the escape of the flood

course of a mile, and to 6 to 8 feet in the next half a mile;
this is due to the rapid descent in the stream, which is 224 fee
in the first mile, and 50 feet in the following half a mile, 724
feet in all.

the height of the terrace .
the head of New Haven

) consequence of the denudation by the Glacial flood, as | ok
_explained.* But at Whitneyville, near the dam, the pee the

during the melting of the Glacier. 417

depth up stream for the next mile and a half; and for the next
three-fourths of a mile, or up to Augurville, the height is 45
feet. Toward Mt. Carmel village the height diminishes to 36
feet above flood level; and then in the next half mile above to
25 feet.*

C. Quinnipiac River.—The terrace plain along the Quinni-
piac near where it leaves its valley, or at the Air Line Railroad
cut, is 48 feet. North of this lie the wide marshy flats, which
continue for five miles to North Haven; and at the latter place
the height of the terrace on the west of the river is but 45

On the other hand, if the Glacial flood were vast enough to
raise the waters to that level and: so to build up (out of the
sands and gravel within its disposal) the drift formation there
existing, without any aid from an elevation of the land, or of one
of sg 5 to 10 feet, then, when the flood had passed, the streams
would have sunk their beds to their present level, and so have
left the terrace-plain, where not more or less washed away, at its
present height above them.

_ Thus either hypothesis, (1) that of an elevation of 45 feet
since the Champlain period, or (2) that of the accumulation of
stratified drift in the valleys to its present height by the Glacial

ood, with little or no subsequent elevation of the land, will
explain the facts. If the former were the actual condition, then
the waters would have continued their work, about the estu-

later or “ Alluvian” part of the Champlain period, beyond’ a
height of 5 to 10 feet above high tide level, should be looked
Tr. :

For further evidence we proceed now to facts from the struc-
ture of the beds of arathed drift, and from the occurrence of

* This diminution in the depth of the cut, or in the height of the terrace-plain, to
only AE Seok Girlie ty eee Tot Saseh crones th bed of the stream in a line
with the trap ridge at Mt. Carmel; this ledge prevented excavation.

418 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

deposits of the later or “ Alluvian” part of the Champlain’

drift-deposits of the New Haven region for four an
miles north of Savin Rock on the West Haven coast, the finer
beds of the stratified drift are characterized by the flow-and-
plunge structure; and the oblique lamination in it—certain
river valley regions excepted—rises to the northward (that 1s,
dips to the southward). This rising to the northward I have at-
tributed, in a former part of this memoir, to movement from
the southward in the waters, that is, to plunging waves accom-
panying the inflowing tides—supposing that ordinary inflowing
tidal waters may push up the sands of the bottom before them
and so make ordinary obliquely-laminated layers dipping sea-
ward or rising landward: and that, by the addition of plunging
waves, the flow-and-plunge structure produced would also have
the layers dipping seaward. That in such a case the dip of the
little layer would be seaward I inferred, perhaps without due
consideration, from the direction of movement in the water, and
from observations long since made by me on the sandstones 10
the vicinity of Sydney, New South Wales.* If, as assumed in
art I of this memoir, the above conclusion is correct, the sea-
ward dip of the oblique lamine beneath the New Haven
plain, up to a height of at least 45 feet, is proof that the sea
was the agent, and that therefore the land at the time was at
least 45 feet below its present level.
Further, the deposits through the long Air-Line Railroad cut
at the mouth of the Quinnipiac valley, have, as described on
page 175 of this volume, the oblique lamination in the upper
stratum of 20 feet reversed ; that is, dipping landward instead of
seaward ; and this difference in the lower and upper strata nei
urally suggests that there was a change in the direction 0
movement of the depositing waters; a change from that of the

period.
3. Structure of the beds formed.—Throughout the stratified
four

from the outflowing flood to the inflowing tide. Hither way
we reach the conclusion that, at some time in the early —
ae period, if not through all of it, the land was at least
eet below its present level, and that a rise to this extent has
since taken place. :

Still certain facts dispose me now to question the inferences
that oblique lamination made by the inflowing tide would 8
the dip in general seaward, and that the reversion of the dip

* See the writer’s Exploring Expedition Report, 4to, 1849, pp. 465, 623. The
Pate Geo ik i Rileiolk + Hira boa unable to study the character

of the lamination over the Hamden Plains, where the height of the surface rises

during the melting of the Glacier. 419

in the upper twenty-foot stratum on the Quinnipiac has no
other explanation than a change in the direction of the current.
Among them, I here mention only that I have observed seve-
ral cases along river-valleys, out of the reach of the sea, of di
in both directions; and, in some of them, obliquely laminat
layers dipping down stream had a thickness of several feet.
Such facts bear against the view.*

4, Alluvian Deposits —Another fact favorable seemingly to
the conclusion that the land remained 40 feet or more below its
present level for some time after the Glacial flood had passed, is
alforded by the existence of the deposit of horizontally-bedded
white sands against the northward slope of the terrace of strat-
ified drift at the northeast extremity of the Air Line Railroad
cut, near south of East Rock. The figure is here reproduced

Dp == —— x 3 ms
- Section of stratified drift, A C D, and later unconformable
Champlain deposits, A C F E, Air Line Railroad cut.
that the relation of the deposit to the stratified drift may be ap-
preciated. The conclusion, explained on p. 180, that the white
sands were washed and accumulated on the south shore of a
great “Interior basin” occupying the Quinnipiac valley, ap-
. to be the only reasonable one; and if so, this “ Interior
in” continued to exist for a while after the flood and flood-
depositions had reached their height, as an area of high water.
Yet, as the bed is of very limited extent and the terrace forma-
tion is generally free from Alluvian deposits, the time may
have been only that of the latter part of the flood, prolonged after
flood-deposition had ceased by the melting still going on to the
north ; and the region of melting may have been north of the
ead of the New Haven streams, since it is possible, as I show
beyond, that the flood waters of the Connecticut and Farming-
2 rivers overflowed into the New Haven region and bay.
5. Conclusion.— While the height of the terrace-plain above
the sea and its height above the flood-plain of the river, fail of
monstrating that the New Haven region was below its pres-
hi t d ippl ks, 0 ations
having a s rd and ¢ ard slope. now is whether, in the hea
ating producing the oslnjue laneation the inminw would conform to the for
mer or the latter of these slopes.

* The cant] £41 1,

420 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

ent level in the Champlain period, the evidence from the struc-
ture of the beds and from the Alluvian deposits suggests that
the region was submerged to a depth of at least 45 feet.

But if so deeply submerged, why should the terrace plain
slope off gradually toward the coast and have no line of old
beaches across it? And why is there no 45-foot sea-shore for-
mation or terrace along some part of the bases of the hills

ways in which such a slope in the plain may be sup-
posed to have resulted are the following:—(1) By a subsidence
causing a bending downward of the coast-region after the ele-
vation of 45 feet had taken place.—(2) By an elevation of the
land which should be 45 feet four miles from the coast, but
10 to 12 feet near the coast.—(8) By the sweeping action of the
flood giving a slope to the deposits toward the Sound an
neath its waters, and preventing the formation of seashore flats
at the water’s level.—(4) By the denuding action of the waves
and tidal currents as the land rose to its present level.—{(5) By
the deposits, because of a diminution in the amount of material
southward or increase in the depth of the waters, conforming In
slope to the pitch of the surface on which they were spread out.

The first and second of these ways have little probability 1n
their favor. The others I make the chief source of the result
in my memoir on the New Haven region, saying (p. 99) after re-
marks on each method: “That part of the rapidity of slope in
the lower portion of the plain below 40 feet in height 1s due
to tidal, wave and river action over the region of the bay; and
part to increasing depth over the borders of the bay southward
and a decrease southward in the amount of transported sand.
How far these methods are sufficient may be better considered
after a survey of the facts from other parts of Southern New
England.

on the opposite side of the river.* These places are situatt

. * For this altitude I am indebted to eooapiar empire So roms ma agg
irmi surveyor. The leveling was made at ton, and ga
pat raeg toce- Mr. Brinsmade states that

height of the plain above low-water 106-64 feet. um
some points wi to eight feet above this. ave taken as the maxim
height of the terrace 112 feet. The height of flood-level above low water aoe
17 feet ; is su 112 gives 95 fi the height a
or . flood, in 1857, when
Fiver rose to 22 feet 3 inches.

during the melting of the Glacier. 421

lies Birmingham, with Shelton opposite on the west (or south-
west) bank of the Housatonic, and the village of Derby on the
east bank of the Naugatuck. The streams rise in the high re-
gions of Western Massachusetts and Connecticut, in part over
1000 feet above the sea, and flow in rapids through much of
their course down to their confluence, where they reach tide-
level, ten miles from the Sound.

As Birmingham is but nine miles to the westward of New
Haven, it is improbable that the amount of elevation which the
two places have undergone since the Champlain or Fluvial pe-
riod should differ much; and hence there must be a special
cause for the great height of the Housatonic terrace. For this
cause we have only to look to the topographical conditions of
the region.

Besides the fact of (1) the junction there of two rapid
streams, whose united drainage area is about 1800 square miles,
there are the following additional facts bearing on the subject :

(2) Both streams at that place have narrow terrace regions, the
valleys between the hills having little width—(3) On the east
side of the Naugatuck the high bordering hills leave almost no
1 iy at their foot for the one-street village of Derby, so that

e flooded waters cannot spread in that direction, and are nat-
urally forced over against Birmingham and Shelton.—(4) The
hills that lie back of Shelton, embaying its terrace region, reach
to the river just below the village, and so do those on the
Derby side, making thus, below Derby, a comparatively con-
fined verny for the united waters, which has long been called
the * erby Narrows.”—(5) The river channel below Derby,
through its ten miles to the Sound is very shallow, being navi-
gable for vessels drawing four feet of water only at high tide ;

‘nder such circumstances it is natural that the waters of the
Glacial flood plunging down the two valleys should have en-
tered the region of Birmingham and Shelton faster than they
could have escaped. The fact that a cataract of great volume
, the region of Birmingham and dashed violently against
the Shelton shore is abundantly manifested by the multitudes
of large water-worn rocks and thick coarse cobble-stone de-
Posits in the upper portion of the lower as well as high upper .
ot and in the imperfect stratification of portions of the

ven modern floods in the region bring down waters faster
than ee are discharged Rin the Derby Narrows and the
channel eyond. The Housatonic river below the confluence

422 JS. D. Dana—Depression of Southern - England

has almost no slope at high tide, the tide reached that point.
Yet a spring flood often produces a rise of 17 feet at Shelton,
and causes an average pitch in the river’s surface for the ten
miles to the Sound of nearly 1$ feet per mile ; and there is oc-
casionally a flood causing a rise of 22 feet, and connea eet an
average pitch of more than 2 feet a mile.

o ascertain the oe pitch below Birmingham or Derby
for the Glacial flood we have important data in the height of
the upper terrace between these places and the Sound.

The Shelton and Birmingham level of 95 feet ee below
Derby to the “ Derby Narrows.” Below the Narrows—about 1}
miles from Shelton and 1 mile from Derby—the valley on its
east side expands rather abruptly about the mouth of T'wo-mile
Creek ; it then contracts again on that side, through the rising
of “Turke Hill,” but regains . i ey below through
the retreat of the hills on the west s

ow the terrace below the Nar aoe just north of Two-mile
Creek, has a height of 75 feet above high-water mark; and a
mile below this, on the west side, of 70 feet. Hence, in pass-
ing the Derby Narr OWS, a distance of three-fourths of a mile,
the level appears to have fallen 20 feet, which would indicate
a tremendous rush of waters between the rocky hills

The following table contains the heights of the terraces rd
measured along the valiey to the Sound, the above included:

Feet.
At Shelton, opposite Derby -- Dap ao Oa
, m. below, Derby, east side, below the Narrows. ---- -------- be
2m. WOSt SG). 2.002) eo eee <aan
4m. . Onset dG. . ccd, yes sid
5 m . ONSE MING i ce ec eee ee 46
6 m be WOME GGG... enc dpe ee conn ee 48
6°8 m. - west side, near a stream..----.------- -- i
7°5 m. i? 4m. above Railroad crossing. - oven eee ee ee
825m. near Stratford b 4: Se ET Tay ae
9°75 m. a 4m, from the Sound ...._-.-..-.--- 1232

The average decline in the height of the terrace from pane
, where, being 95 feet above flood-level, it is 100 above “ e-
igiak to the Sound i is over 10 feet a mile.+ The rate of decline

should not be uniform because it would “ with the oh
i

* The 5: Retiite given in this memoir, where attributed to others,
obtained by the writer, and all of them with al hand eve, excepting four, above
120 feet, hich were measured

wih = § tributary;
_+ Five miles below Derby, west of the pervarng mh one mile up its tribute
Fermill River, I found the height of the terrace 60 feet. This height was,
hue vooked the tributary, and not properly that of the Hon satonic.

*

during the melting of the Glacier. 423

is, however, proved, and the general amount of pitch seaward
educed cannot be far from the truth.

For determining the actual amount of elevation along the
lower Housatonic since the Champlain period no satisfactory
data have been obtained. It is plain that the height of the ter-
race at Birmingham is a measure chiefly of the vastness of the
flood, and that the “necessary deductions” for reducing it
to a measure of elevation are very large. The evidence with
reference to the elevation derivable from the structure of
the beds could not be studied for want of sections. The wide
extent of the thirty-foot terrace-plain suggests that it may
mark the Champlain water-level; but of this other proof is
needed. The formation of the seashore terrace would not
require an elevation of more than 12 or 15 feet.

3. THe Lower Part orf THE CONNECTICUT RIVER VALLEY.

its would have been in the condition of a lake one to four
miles wide, and over part of the area, 100 to 150 feet deep.
This Connecticut valley lake would have extended northward,
harrowing and having shallow borders between Cromwell and

Ellis, recently in charge of the Government Survey of the Con-
necticut River, that the stream at low-water at Hartford (15
miles north of Middletown) is on a level with mean low water
Mm the ocean. Passing Hartford, it would have continued to
Springfield and beyond; but it was probably in this part a
, rapid stream, with shallow borders most of the way on
either side of its main channel, and having part of the pitch
of the present stream, about 384 feet in its course between

424 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

Springtield and Hartford, a distance of 24 miles. The whole
width of the waters at Springfield was probably greater than at
Hartford, although averaging much ge the height of the
terrace near the river shows—in depth. The Springfield level
extended 10 miles to Holyoke, where are the South Hadley
a of 60 feet.*
he evidence as to the reality of this height and of the great
breadth of the waters is as follows:
Three-and-a-half miles north of Middletown, east of the
river, a broad terrace rises boldly from the river to a height
above flood-level of 144 eae and the wide plain er bel

for the most of the way, is on the terrace. In addition to
its level features, there is other proof that the formation be-
neath is the true stratified drift in its consisting, as shown
in sections, of stratified sands and gra avel. A terrace at very

earth and sas
Prof. Hitchcock, in his “ Surface Geology,” ee the height
of the South Glastenbury “terraces” as 175 feet above the
river, which would be about 152 feet above flood chee ai
In the city of Middletown, the corresponding terrace is dis

‘uy — 32 ie out of the iit of descent between Springfield and Hartford ©
made al ong - Enfield Falls, begi 8 miles below Springfield and continuing
5 miles over ar bottom. mut
The height of the Holyoke dam at gms end is 97°60 feet above low-wate:
at Hartford, or mean low water in the Win dsor
The tide up the Connecticut River Sages paces etimes noticeable as far as
i F

at the lower limit of Enfield 10 miles north of Hartford.
in summer miles from the mouth of the river, ia a range of pats
10 inches; and that Middiahown, of 1-93 feet.—Gen. T.G. Reports

: A > Mr. G e
wing persons connected with ie Eneffield Scent School
_ a * in the Mineralogical department, and H. A. Miller, H. Hum, wi
ore

Prof. Hitchcock suggests in “Surface Geolo; oy. that the terrace sf ta
Hadley of “292 feet” above stor ocean, and that at Willimantic of
: y, and corresponds with that of “ 200 “feet” at Springfield and pr ‘tal
Meadow (136 feet babes the river), that of East Windsor of “96 feet,” , and fu
of Hartford of “61 feet” above the ocean. Such a slope is impons
ther, the wi sale casaeotks: torres which he here leaves out of co
Fe 1 eee Deen's feat:

during the melting of the Glacier. 425

tinct between High street and the next street west, north of the
grounds of the Wesleyan University, and has a maximum height
of about 150 feet ; and these proinde excluding a portion in the
southwest corner, are part of it. A terrace two miles east and
southeast of Middletown, above where the river narrows, I
found to have the same height—1650 feet.

Immediately around the city of Hartford the plain is mostly
40 to 60 feet above high flood-level in the river (70 to 90 above
low-water); and in many places it consists of clay to the top.
But beyond three or more miles there is a rise to higher levels.

Northwest of Hartford, along the Connecticut Western Rail-
road, the plain is extensive 6 to 7 miles out at a height near 180
feet, and between 9 and 94 miles, at a height of about 160 feet.*

Kast of Hartford, the terrace has a maximum height near
Manchester, 7 miles out, of 155 to 160 feet.

_ South-southwest of Hartford, the extended New Britain plain
is 142 feet in height above the same base—high flood-level in
Hartford.+

*I learn from Mr. W. H. Yeomans, the Superintendent of the Connecticut
Western Railroad, that the height of the track 9} miles out, near Scotland, is 190
€et above mean tide level, which is equivalent to about 160 feet above highest
er as Hartford.

+ Mr. 8. ©. Pierson, of Meriden, has informed me that the height of the New
Britain plain is about 172-25 orton agencies Pome ce ne dh

of Main street and the railroad in gave Mr. 8. ©. Pierson 43°

i Pig eight above mean high tide, and 20 feet for the

terrace, gives for the height of the divide above high tide, about 186 feet; or 168
Hartford flood-level. A i

pe gt - ic meas eri-
. E. 8. Dana, the hei by iden depot
spore high tide, 127°3 feet: which would give 191 feet for the whole height of the
Vide above high tide, feet for ve Hartford -
§ The evidence favoring the view Farmington River poured
down the Quinnipiac during

waters.
H i i flood is even more usive.
“itcheock has suggested (Rep. Geol. Mass., 329) that the Connecticut may have
armi along aroute west of Mt. Tom and over Westfield.

Am. Jour. Scr., Tarap SeRtes—Vou. X, No. 60.—Dzc., 1875.
28

426 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

At Springfield, within a mile or less from the river, there
commences the great terrace of the region—a plain several miles
wide—having a height, as I am informed by Mr. G. A. Ellis, city
engineer, in general between 140 and 145 feet above flood-leve
in the river (the higher floods raising the river about 22 feet), or
about 200 feet above high tide. But this wide terrace shows, by
the fact that the material of it is mostly fine sand and clay, that
it was made in comparatively quiet waters before the flood was
at its height, and that it is probably not the highest. Beyond
three miles southeast, east, and northeast of Springfield there are
hills of stratified sand and gravel, rising to a height of 180 feet
above flood-level, which belong to the upper terrace, and mar
more nearly the flood’s height. I learn from Mr. Ellis, to whom
I am indebted for a map of Springfield and its vicinity for ten
miles around giving the amount of elevation for a large part of
the surface, that this 180-foot level (or 170 to 190) occurs in
hills made of hardpan near the Boston and Albany Railroad,
8 miles from the Springfield depot; and south of this, near the
“Old Bay Road.” A level of 180 feet occurs along the same
railroad between 6 and 9 miles from the depot, or for 3 miles
east of Jenksville. Traversing the region with Mr. Ellis, he has
shown me that the 180-foot level extends from Jenksville north-
ward, with little variation, toward the Granby line, over four
miles, if not beyond, and westward five to six miles to the

and is properly the terrace of the Chicopee river, which is but
three-fourths of a mile distant. From Mr. Ellis I learn further
that in Westfield, 10 or 11 miles west of the Connecticut, the
land rises into a plain of great extent, being two miles broad,

ae But this Westfield plain is in the Westfield valley, and 18
___ properly a Westfield river terrace. Yet if these higher flood-

grounds, extending to a distance of 10 miles on the east and
_ west, were outside of the limits of the Connecticut flood, they

during the melting of the Glacier. 427

indicate that the waters were pouring into the central trunk
in vast volumes from the regions either side, and also that the
same flooded condition characterized all New England valleys.

The depth of the flood-waters and their great width along
the Connecticut valley cannot therefore be questioned. Now
what does this great height of the upper terrace indicate with
regard to the depression of the land when the deposits were
made, or the elevation since that time? What arg the “ neces-
sary deductions ?”

. wo miles below Middletown, the Connecticut river passes
between high and steep rocky slopes, and has a width of but 400
yards; and when the old flood was at its height, the width
was even then not over 500 or 550 yards, not a tenth of that at
Middletown. These “ Straits” or Narrows extend for two-thirds
ofa mile; there is then some widening on the east, and a mile
below, as much on the west, giving room for the terraces of
Middle Haddam and Maromas. Thence the valley continues
southward with more or less room for a terrace on the west side
and little or none on the east, the valley, reckoning to the
ise of the terrace, seldom much exceeding half a mile in
Width.

The Narrows below Middletown, like the Narrows on the
Housatonic below Derby, had evidently much to do with de-
termining the great height of the flood-waters above. The
waters could not pass off by the contracted outlet as fast as
supplied by the melting glacier, although this outlet was over
4 fourth of a mile wide; and hence the waters were pi 4

creasing its average pitch thence to the Sound by five-sixths of
a foot per mile.*

There is evidence that a very large part of the 150 feet was
actually due to the flood. This is found in the descending
* The height of the floods at Hartford is 4 to 5 feet above that at Middletown.
owe to Ge i

i

1801, Hartford, 27 ft. 6 in. Middletown, 23 ft. 8} in.
1848, - “ “97% gs i eee

“Apri 1852 te 93“ J4e “ 19% 5
. mi 1853, “c 20 * “A “ wit 9 «&
‘“ May, 1854, “ 299 “19 * “ 25 gy «
“ Aug, 1856. © 93 ¢ 4% “ ig} «
“March, 1859, * 6%: 5 * ” a 26 %
ud April, 1862, ag on 78: ie 23.¢ . o4.%
he March, 1865, “ 24 « ‘ “ 0“o0 «

He remarks further that the average difference of the heights of the nine freshets
aia leet 34 inches, and the slope of the surface would be 1°3 feet more than the
difference of the heights, :

428 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

height of the uppermost terrace of stratified drift along the
river to the Sound. The heights, on the west side of the Con-
necticut, going southward, are as follows :*

2 m. below the Narrows, the Maromas plain---------- 1334 ft.
anny - near Higganum ----.-.- 00-105 “
er zi near Haddam station.... 82- 85 “
10jm “ i near Goodspeed’s station - 762"
1m, = & - near Chester station. - - -- 60- 62 “
nm * " 1} m. below Essex ---.- -- 42-45 “
223m. “ . ear ferry and railroad .. 30- 31 “
244m “ 3 Saybrook Plain ----. ---- 20-21: 8
26:i ani: “ i Seashore House, on Sound. 133"

The plains, the heights of which are here given, were well
displayed, leaving no doubt that they corresponded to the true
terrace ; and they were the highest in each region. They show
that, from the Narrows, the river waters plunged along with a
pitch of several feet a mile.

t m almost incredible that waters so violent should

at top the material thus contributed. Moreover, we can follow

he rise of the flood in the succession of the deposits ; in clays,

in some places, near the bottom—one bed supplying a i
y

making large depositions,—except in ice-floes, and these certain
ly did little of the transportation in the case here referred to.
inally, how far was the height of the terraces described due

to an elevation of the land since the beds were deposited ? ‘

Judging from the seashore terrace, on Saybrook point, the
elevation of the land did not exceed 15 feet. I have not suc
ceeded in finding other evidence on this point.

* height of Maromas plai determined by levelling, by Messrs
Pillsbury rig fie ge Waseven, Wotvenity. They obtained 1334 feet
above flood-level. The extended terrace on the opposite (east) side of the river

during the melting of the Glacier. 429

4. THE RIVER THAMES.

The conditions of the stratified drift deposits of Norwich are
similar in several respects to those about Birmingham. Two
rivers from the northward, the Quinebaug and the Yantic, pass
either side of the city and unite below it to make the Thames.
They rise in Massachusetts, and have nearly the same drainage-
area as the two that join at Birmingham. They descend from
high land and most of the way in rapids. Immediately below
Norwich the valley is so narrowed by hills over 150 feet high
that the width of the river, were the water 100 feet above
its present level, would be hardly halfa mile. But below these
Narrows the valley expands, though still closely bounded
by high land. The points in which the two cases differ are
these :

(1.) The Narrows have greater width, and the modern
stream below has much greater depth as well as breadth: the
channel being one of the tidal, navigable fiords of the coast, the
tides at Norwich having a range of more than three feet. Con-
sequently it offered the flood-waters a less contracted way to

(2.) The distance from the Narrows to the Sound is greater,
being 144 miles,

(3.) Although this distance is so much greater, the highest
spring floods cause a rise above high tide of but 74 feet—much
less than half that in the Housatonic at Birmingham.

Again, (4,) the terrace plain of upper Norwich—the site of
Broadway and its many fine residences—has over its northern
part (at the foot of the little triangular Green) a height above
tide level of 117 feet ;* and, since the spring floods raise the
water but 74 feet above high tide, about 110 feet above

ood level, against 95 feet at Birmingham. a

The height of the Norwich plain above flood level diminishes
from 110 in its northern part to 101 feet in its southern, a dis-
tance of about a mile; and this is very nearly the level of the
terrace to the eastward of the latter at the Old Cemetery.

tetery, for example,—are mai
gravel, the waters were the hurrying waters of a great torrent.

That this was the actual condition is proved further by the
heights and nature of the terraces below Norwich. For they

ue. hare these numbers from the Water Commissioner of the city of Norwich,
the wy inship. I have been much aided in the study of this region by a map of
a. giving contour lines for 50, 100 and 200 feet, which was furnished

by the Superintendent of the Coast Survey.

430 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

declined southward, precisely as in the Housatonic and Con-
necticut River valleys. The heights are as follows :*

Highest part of Norwich Plain, --...-.-- 2-22-22... 110 feet.
1 m. th, on Norwith Plain. 2.5 .22--- 2. Y. 1012}
t Thamesville, below the Narrows,. 88
5¢m. “ near Mohegan R.R. Station,....-.. 75
8 m “ 4m. W. of Montville R. R. Station, 61 “
10}m. “ inSmith’s cove, 250 yds. W.of R.R., 50 “
133m. “ at New London, northeastern part,.24-25 “
14tol6m. “ between New London and the Lighthouse, none
distinct.

“
““

In passing the Narrows to Thamesyville the Geet be
mi

ew

there 35 feet instead of 25 feet. The terrace is equally low on
the east side of the Thames in Groton ; but it is also very Dar
row there, little room existing at the base of the hills fora

let averaging over half a mile in width was not wide enough
to discharge the waters coming from the hills and valleys
within a range of forty miles.

Ad ops aoe i the Montville Station, I am indebted to
ee by Mr. C. P. linia, Bairseyoc of Gan ley cf ew Lieu

during the melting of the Glacier. 431

Direct evidence as to the actual level of the coast about the
mouth of the Thames during the era is wanting; both because
of the absence of a seashore terrace, and because no sections
were exposed along the Thames that afforded a chance for
studying satisfactorily the character of the bedding. But if
the New London Lighthouse Point is without terraces, I have
seen several examples of them at the head of broad bays
between New London and Stonington, and in no case have I
found the height over 15 feet, and generally it is but 10 or 12
feet. Again, Fisher's Island—about seven miles in length—lies
off this same coast, and within five miles of it; and at the head
of West Harbor, there is a well defined shore terrace of 15 feet ;
and, at Hast Harbor, one of less certain nature nearly 25 feet.
25 feet is therefore the greatest height inferable from this kind
of evidence, and 15 may meet the facts.

5. NARRAGANSETT Bay.

Providence is situated on Providence River within a mile of
the head of Narragansett Bay. Its terrace, averaging 80 feet in
height above high water, is extensive, and part of the city is
built upon it. The river opens into the broad northern arm of
the Bay, and affords 14 feet of water for shipping to the city.
The Bay has passages one to three miles in width among its
islands, and enters the Sound about 26 miles south of Provi-
dence. With so open a passage for the waters we might infer
that certainly the Providence terrace must mark a sea level of the
Champlain period. But in view of the facts detailed in the
preceding pages it is evident that something of this height is
attributable to the flood descending the river valleys.

T have not been able to study carefully all the shores of the
great bay with reference to its terraces. Ten and a half miles
south of Providence, east of Hast Greenwich, there is a very wide
terrace-plain, which extends south toward Wickford. Near the
railroad in East Greenwich, the height is 56 feet, showing a loss
of 24 feet of elevation in the 10} miles from Providence. At
Wickford, 7 miles farther south, the height is much less, little
exceeding 80 feet.

‘There is a terrace at Fall River, on the west shore, about 17
miles from the Sound, and between this place and Tiverton.
The height, just below the depot at Fall River, is 35 feet above
high water; but the beds are very stony toward the top, and
hence it is that the terrace is 30 feet below the normal height ;
Some of the stones are a foot in diameter. The terrace south
of Fall River has no greater height. About Newport there
ap to be no well defined terrace.

ut direct evidence bearing on the height of the region in
the Champlain period is afforded by the coast region between

432 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

ill (the cape south of Stonington). Along much of this
shore, as stated on page 411, there are wide flat meadows be-
tween the hills and the sea, having a height of about 11 feet
above high tide. The road passes between these flat meadows
on the south, and the bowlder-covered hills on the north, and
the contrast is very striking: the former sandy or gravelly and
thinly grassy among the great bowlders, the latter having an
even dense turf over a rich black soil. Above the level of the
meadows no trace exists of sea-shore flats or beaches; the
stony hill-sides rise gradually, with nothing about them to sug-
gest a Champlain submergence.

Off this shore, one to two miles, there is a sandy barrier;
rising into hills to the westward, and it may be questioned,
therefore, whether the meadows may not owe a part of their
height to the flood waters. But the black soil appears to be
evidence that they long lay with the surface at the sea-level,

erhaps as a salt marsh of the Champlain period. Large por-
tions are thickly strewn with broken oyster shells, left by the
Indians, and this may be one source of the fertility. :

o marine relics have yet been found in Champlain deposits
about any part of Narragansett Bay to mark the sea-level. Such
fossils should be looked for with more care than has hitherto

een used ; but much looking will probably end in finding none.
The great glacier must have filled the channels among the
islands; and as the ice disappeared, the floods, having a strong
pitch owing to the height at Providence, would have made @
profound sweep through them. Absence of marine fossils 1s
therefore what should reasonably be expected.

n 80-foot terrace at Providence, a 56-foot terrace at Hast
Greenwich, and an 11-foot plain on the sea-coast with no trace
of any other terrace-level on the coast hills, are the positive
facts gathered from the vicinity of Narragansett Bay.

Point Judith (the west cape of Narragansett Bay) and Watch
Hill

6. PRE-GLACIAL SAND-HILLS.

To define more clearly what are true deposits of stratified
drift of the era of the melting in Southern New England, 1
add a few remarks on certain sea-shore sand-hills, that are easily
mistaken for drift formations. I refer to ridges and hills of
stratified material along the shores between Watch Hill and
Point Judith. . :

It has long been known that Martha’s Vineyard consists
largely of Tertiary sands interstratified with clays, unconsoli-
dated—except in some places through limonitie depositions
making a limonitie or iron conglomerate. Block Island, Long
Island, and Fisher’s Island, just off the New England coast,

are also made up to a great extent of such unconsolidated

during the melting of the Glacier. 433

pre-glacial beds,—as I shall more particularly explain in an-
other memoir.

The New England coast region, from Watch Hill eastward,
is but a continuation of Fisher’s Island, in its features, an
also, as there is reason to believe, in its Tertiary deposits.
hills or ridges are of various heights, up to 180 feet; and noth-
ing besides unconsolidated, though bedded, sand, gravel and
clay, occurs in their constitution. Clay-beds are not in sight.
But near the Ocean House, one of the large Watch Hill hotels,
a pond, near the sea-level, is called Clay pond, because of the
clay beneath the water; and I am informed by a resident in
the region, that masses of clay are sometimes thrown up by
the sea on the beach, showing that it exists at the base of the
sand hills.

Over the stratified material of the hills lies the unstratified
drift, with multitudes of large bowlders .

ese hills show that they do not consist of Champlain or
later deposits by the following characteristics.

n the first place, the hills are, as stated above, covered
throughout with bowlders, down to within 10 or 12 feet of the
sea level, and this demonstrates that the hills were there before
=e etic of the bowlders and the associated gravel and
sa

_ Further, the features as to the bowlders and the hills are
Just those of Fisher's Island, which lies in their line at a dis-
tance of only three miles to the west ;—and not that distance,
since there are intermediate islets and reefs connecting the two;
and on Fisher's island the clay beds and sand beds which
underlie the top-dressing of unstratified bowlder drift are in

some places upturned and folded—proving thus their anterior
origin

We may hence set aside those sea-border ridges as not of the
Champlain period, and regard them as prior in elevation even
to the Glacial period. Only the low grassy plain at their foot
along the shores is of the Champlain water-arranged drift
formation.

CONCLUSIONS.

The observations described in the preceding pages relate
only to five of the river valleys of Southern New England.
Although I have made no systematic measurements of terrace-
heights in other valleys, I have seen enough in many of them
to assure myself that all have the same class of facts to afford.

fhe conclusions which are here reached with regard to the
Tiver floods are therefore conclusions for all Southern New
England, and beyond this, I believe, for all New England, and
other regions covered by the great glacier.

434 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

modified by fluvial action varies between 5 feet and 26 feet,
and rarely exceeds 15 feet. Taken alone, this affords no
ground for believing that the elevation was less than 10 feet or
greater than 25 feet. I think that 15 feet is the most reason-
able inference, for the portion of the coast considered in the
preceding pages. “aee
The evidence derived from the structure of the bedding in
the New Haven region—that is, the direction of the dip in the
flow-and-plunge portion (p. 418) appears to be good ; but since
it is difficult to believe that the coast region of the Champlain
period should have had no flats at the water level, to be
Lae by an elevation of 40 feet, at a height of 40 feet, it 1s
ard, in the absence of such terraces, to set aside all doubt
with regard to that evidence. Hence, although at present
unable otherwise to explain those facts, I am led to hold the
conclusion in abeyance. This doubt is in opposition to my
former statements. But those statements were based mainly
on a study of the New Haven region, and the few facts from
Connecticut previously on record. A decline in the height of
the terrace-plain toward the Sound down to only 5 feet of ele-

know that such a seaward pitch in the terrace plains exists
along all the valleys of Southern New England, and that the

uses appear to be inadequate. It is difficult to believe that
they could have prevented so completely the existence of shore
plains above the ce height mentioned, through the whole line
of coast, even (1) where no rivers sent down their floods, a0
(2) where distant barriers protected the shores from the heavier

region wholly from violent seas; so that deposits at or near a
40-foot or 50-foot level might well have been formed. And

yet none such exist.

In the present state of the facts I therefore think that the

during the melting of the Glacter. 435

argument for an elevation of only 10 to 20 feet is the strongest,
although not yet decisive.

2. The river-valley formations not marine.—The ocean took no
part in the formation of the river terraces. The pitch in the
terrace plains of the lower Housatonic, lower Connecticut, and
the Thames, is alone sufficient evidence against marine action
in the matter.

—were not wholly, or for the greater part of their height,
formed when the land was at a much lower level than now ; but,
on the contrary, that they were formed when the river's waters

4,
valley formations above flood-level has been stated on preceding
ages.

pages
The following table contains these heights, and also the cor-
Tesponding heights above mean high-tide level.

Above flood Above high-

level. tide level.

On the Housatonic, at Birmingham, 95 feet. 110 feet.
On the Connecticut, at Middletown, 150 feet. 170 feet.
2 $ at Hartford 160 feet. 185 feet.

« « ot: Sanetieuiald 180 feet, 237 feet.
On the Thames, at ats eg ; 1
Head of Narragansett Bay, at Providence, 80 feet. 80 feet.
To obtain the actual height above high-tide level, these num-
bers should be reduced by whatever was the amount of depres-

by 15 feet, if that was the true amount.
Another reduction also is required.

436 J. D. Dana—Depression of Southern New England

At Middletown, 20 miles in an air-line, by 30 feet.
i “ by 524 f

At Hartford, 85 miles, y 52% feet.
At Springfield, 58 miles, - by 87 feet
At Norwich, 15 miles, Ms by 224 feet.
At Providence, 28 miles, a by 42 feet.

Providence, though 26 miles from the Sound, is 28 miles from
a line having the course of the shore meadows west of Point
Judith.

With an increase northward, in the depression, of only 1 foot
a mile, the depression derived from the source here considered,
would have been one-third less at each of the places.
_ 5. Pitch of the stream during the flood—Owing to this depres-
sion, the pitch of the streams seaward was diminished. From
the above numbers we obtained for the average pitch of the
rivers to the Sound approximately :

8 feet per mile below Birmingham.
. “6 “ce “

4°5 Middletown.
S28 és * Norwich.
1. foe = 6 Providence.

In the highest modern floods, the pitch is about two feet below
Birmin ham ; nine inches below Middletown ; six inches below
Norwich ; and not over one inch below Providence.

* This subsidence, so much greater to the north over New England than to the
south, must have occasioned, as i
cessation in the movement of the glacier; and in this condition the ice appeats
have melted away. One important consequence of this is the absence from

I have stated in other places, nearly or quite a

during the melting of the Glacier. 437

Or, supposing the rate of increase of depression northward
over Southern New England only one foot per mile, or less than
farther north, the pitch would have been approximately :

8°5 feet per mile below Birmingham.
oc “ “cc

5 Middletown.
5 "5 “ce “ “ce N orwie
16“ std - Providence.

crease of depression northward were oot per mile, the
height of the flood waters above high tide would have been

At Birmingham, 85 feet.

At Middletown, 135 “

At Hartford, 135 “

At Springfield, 164 “

At Norwich, 82; °

At Providence, 27

_ It hence appears that, with 1 foot a mile as the northward
increase of depression of the land, the waters would have been
at Hartford on the same level as at Middletown; and at Spring-
field, but 29 feet above the level at Hartford, instead of 384
eet, the present difference; and the pitch from Springfield to
Hartford would have been about a foot a mile. With 1} feet
a mile of increase of depression northward, the flood at Spring-
field would have been only 10 feet higher than at Middletown.

7. Glacial conditions.—Whatever the rate of increase north-
ward in the depression, and whatever the amount of actual de-
pression along the Sound, only a small part of the marvellous in
the glacial flood is removed. The rivers in the lower parts of
the Housatonic, Connecticut and Thames valleys were cata-
Tracts on a scale beyond all modern knowledge. The waters
from the melting glacier must have been poured down the
Streams in vast volume to have piled to so great heights before
outlets so wide and so deep. And such facts are but examples
: condition that prevailed generally over the glacier-covered

8.

6. The Champlain a Fluvial period.—It is to be remembered
that the glacier consisted of the precipitated waters of many
thousands of winters, each winter, too, a year in length.

ence, when the melting reached its height, some centuries of
Precipitated moisture were let loose at once. results from
the action of the great rivers of the era are registered in the
height and width of the valley formations. The Champlain
Was eminently the Fluvial period of the earth’s history, while

uvially, or as it respects rain, it may not have exceeded the
present time,

438 F. H. Storer—Ammonia a contaminant of Sulphuric Acid.

This last section of my Memoir, which purported at the out-
set to treat of the amount of depression of the land during the
melting of the glacier, has turned largely into a discussion of
the evidences and effects of the Glacial flood—the subject of
the first section. This is a consequence of the fact that the
extent of the upper valley-terraces afford stronger testimony to
the flood than the material of the beds, enabling us even to
deduce the depth and spread and pitch of the flowing waters
through the New England valleys, large and small.

In another paper I propose to present other facts on this and
connected topics derived from Long Island and the associated
lands off the Southern New England coast.

Art. LUI—Ammonia a constant contaminant of Sulphuric Acid s
ry F. H. Srorer, Professor of Agricultural Chemistry in
arvard University.

the ordinary process of making sulphuric acid, and that it
might remain as a contamination in the acid as used in the
chemical arts. Acting upon the idea I have myself tested and
have caused to be tested carefully and methodically a consider:
able number of samples of sulphuric acid obtained from dif-
ferent chemical works, and have found that every one of the
specimens examined contained appreciable quantities of ammo-
nia. nd, moreover, on looking the matter up, that the
observation is not new, inasmuch as Schcenbein* has stated, so
long ago as 1862, that he found traces of ammonia in all the
samples of oil of vitriol which he had tested for that substance.
My experiments would nevertheless seem to be worthy of pu
lication, both because they confirm Schcenbein’s statement and
because they go to show that ammonia is far more generally
distributed as an impurity of chemical substances than has been
commonly supposed hitherto. a
The following acids were examined quantitatively by distill-
ing a small portion of each of them wit ilk o lume, free
_ from ammonia, and applying Nessler’s reagent to the distillate,
in the manner described by Wanklyn, in his “ Water- Analysis,
lon, 1874. ‘
I Oil of vitriol from a carboy bought at Bay-Side Alkali
n.

2 th
IL Oil of vitriol from the Chemical Works at North Billerica, Mass.
: * Wagner's Jahresbericht Chem. Technologie, viii, 266.

F. H. Storer—Ammonia a contaminant of Sulphuric Acid. 489

III. Oil of vitriol from Eaton’s Chemical Works, South Wil-
mington, Mass.

IV. Oil of vitriol, “chemically pure,” from Trommsdorff of Erfurt.

VY. Pan acid from the Works at North Billerica.

VI. Pan acid from Eaton’s Works.

VII. Chamber acid from Eaton’s Works.

VII. Chamber acid from the Works at North Billerica.

IX. Chamber acid from the Merrimack Print Works at Lowell.

Five cubic centimeters* Gave grams
of the acid of ammonia (NH;).

o I che ee neta ae PO eee

ne Ae oe 0°000075

MS RAR teens Sank oo ee Coes aes 0°000245

pce | PN Sate 0°000095

VAY asauchasaee seu. eps a eee ee

at AM cares la ee ca 0°000140

yin, 6 | RRR vee ea 07000050

PS OV ELE 25 SG fo cc os geese us ee 0°000158

Me Ee Ls a ee eee

Care was taken to i aches the above samples of acids (ex-
cepting Nos. I and I
m

Einbrodt.+ So too when applied, for the sake of control, to
the distillate from acid No. 4 of the foregoing list, Einbrodt’s

t gave a very strong reaction for ammonia.

There are several ways in which sulphuric acid may be con-
taminated with ammonia. Some insignificant traces of this
substance are of course contained in the air which is used for
making the acid, and a still larger amount is often contained in
the water that plays so important a part in the process of
Manufacture. It is not impossible indeed that nitrogen com-
pounds in the water may sometimes be the cause of appreciable

of ammonia in the acid. It is easy to conceive moreover
that considerable quantities of ammonia may be formed in the
apparatus of the sulphuric acid maker through reduction of
nitric acid or other oxide of nitrogen that is necessarily present,

* The weight of 5 c. c. of the oil of vitriol was rather more than 9 grams in
each instance; that of the pan acid was about 8} grams, and that of the chamber
acid rather more than 7 grams.

FP Epc chloride in alkaline solutions. See Liebig & Kopp’s Jahresbericht,
» V, 723 and 1863, xvi, 167.

440 F. H. Storer—Ammonia a contaminant of Sulphuric Acid.

and I find, in fact, by direct experiment, that ammonia is
formed when warm dilute nitric acid is made to act upon lead
or upon sulphur.

Action of dilute Nitric Acid on Lead—A quantity of soft,
clean commercial lead that had just been remelted was placed
in a small glass flask and 50 c. ¢. of dilute nitric acid (sp. gr.
1°15) were poured upon it. The flask was closed against the
air with a gas delivery tube, and after the action of the acid had
ceased the solution was boiled with the milk of lime and the
distillate tested for ammonia. But the reaction with Nessler'’s
liquor was so strong that no estimation of the amount of
ammonia could be made. A quantity of the lead (30 grams)
boiled by itself in the milk of lime gave a distillate in which
no ammonia could be detected by the Nessler test. On the
other hand, 50 c. c. of the dilute nitric acid were found to con-
tain 0000025 gram of ammonia.

In a second trial 50 grams of the commercial lead were
warmed during three hours with 50 c. c. of the dilute nitric
acid. The solution was distilled with the milk of lime and the
ammonia in the distillate was estimated by titration with
standard oxalic acid :—0°002483 gram of ammonia was found.

In a third trial 25 grams of pure lead (from Marquart of
Bonn,) were warmed with 50. c. of the dilute nitric acid an
acon gram of ammonia was found in the solution of nitrate
of lead.

distilled with milk of lime, and the ammonia estimated by
Nessler’s test. 0°00004 gram of ammonia was found.

Action of dilute Nitric Acid on Sulphur.—20 grams of pow-
dered brimstone were added to 50 ¢. c. of the dilute nitric acid
and the mixture was maintained at or near the temperature of
boiling for three hours. On testing the liquid an abundance of
ammonia was found. .

In another trial, 20 grams of the powdered brimstone were
mixed with 100 ¢. c. of the dilute nitric acid. The mixture
was allowed to stand in the cold for 48 hours, and then boiled
gently during 8 hours. On testing the liquor by the Nessler
process 000225 gram of ammonia was found in it.

_ A small amount of nitrogen oxides may perhaps be reduced

to ammonia in the process of sulphuric acid making by oy

deoxidizing agents, such as the organic impurities of crt

sulphur,* or sulphuretted hydrogen,+ or even by sulphur
acid, though in a single experiment in which sulphurous act®;

* See Wagner’s Jahresberizht Chem. Technologi 149,

+ Compare Johnston, in melin’s Handbook, i 296.

F. H. Storer—Ammonia a contaminant of Sulphuric Acid. 441

evolved from copper clippings, was passed into dilute nitric
acid (sp. gr. 1°15) for a couple of hours no ammonia could be
detected in the liquid. The experiment of Schcenbein* more-
over is to be remembered, in which ammonia, as well as
sulphurous and sulphuric acids, was detected in water above
which sulphur had been burned in the air. It would seem to
be plain, however, that the substances previously mentioned
must usually be the most efficient agents for the production of
the ammonia.

Were received in graduated tubes and tested successively with
essler’s reagent until they ceased to show any coloration.
100 grams (or c.c.) of the
N

0°00035

i ) ro Seeger
Ditto from a carboy of pure acid from Bayside Alkalistm tess than
the agg

‘ _ UO,
iladelphia, 10 c. c. gave no reaction for ammonia, -_ 0-00000
pala, ar :

> from Trommsdorff, gave strong smell of am-

monia when heated with lime. The much

ammonia that it could not be estimated by the Nessler

test, when 10 grams of the alum were operated upon,_ much.
* Journ. prakt, Chemie, Ixxxyi, 145. + Gmelin’s Handbook, ii, 183.

Am, Jour. Sct.—Turrp — Vou. X, No. 60.—Dec., 1875,

442 F. H. Storer—Ammonia a contaminant of Sulphuric Acid.

100 grams (orc. c.) of the
rier Of Ng

Sulphate of alumina, pure from Marquart, 20 grams rave
too much ammonia to be measured by the Nessler pro-

cess (as used by us), and so did 5 arene, ‘nas ch.
Sulphate of iron (ferrous sulphate), 5 grams urified,

from Powers & Weightman of Philadelphia, gave

COQ0GS prim Of EmInGhiA, (22 2 oo Sos Se ee 0701240
Ditto, common copperas, the last of an apothecary’s barrel,

5 grams gave 0°00507 gram of ammonia, ----. - .----- 0710140

Ditto, copperas of unknown origin taken from a bottle in

store room of Bussey Laboratory, 100 grams gave only

000058. eran of ammonia: - 25 62 250. 3 oe 0°00053
Ditto, a sample of pure pctnlints of iron from Marquart

gave a — —— for ammonia when tested quali-

tatively, an eaction was obtained also from a sam-

ple of Bases sulphate (“ ie a3 alcohol,”) —....-+
Sulphate of lime, pure Sag p nts Som Marquart, 35

grams gave 0° 0002 gram .of ammonia,. -... «.~..-<+<4 0°00057
Other lan pied of sulphate of a tested in a shgavy

different way, gave the following results :

of ground gyps obtained originally at a a seed Os

but kept in a sean voi of the Bussey Institution for a

year or more, were percolated with pure water (two

0°00392 gram of ammonia was found in the distillate.
On adding lime a new portion of ammonia equal to
900008 wan piven offices | Sok econ ues das 0000784

0°00003 gram of ammonia on being boiled in pure
vga and no more ammonia came off on adding milk
ie ee 0°00015
150 ataiag of plaster of Paris, taken from a box in the
Bussey store-room, gave 0°0035 gram of ammonia on
ing boiled with water alone, and Bes gram more
of ammonia came off on boiling with lime,..--- ------ 0-00284
20 grams of plaster of “Paris taken fot ‘a keg found
standing in a recently built house, gave 0:000035 gram

of ammonia on being boiled with water ee eee 0°000175+
~~ of potash, chemically pure, from oe mmsdorff,
grams gave only a faint trace of ammonia, - - -- -- - alanis
Boeke, of soda, —, yey crystals pam Mar-
- , 20 grams gave no of ammonia.
result was verified by many dualitative “tale, eaneense 0-00000

Bisulphate of soda from Marquart, gave strong reaction
or ammonia when tested qualitatively,...---.------- ™
Sulphate of copper, pure es m Marquart, 10 grams gave oS
Asada red 5 Gram o AP AMMO Ss a aa onse w s= = 0001 ee

F. H. Storer—Ammonia a contaminant of Sulphuric Acid. 448
100 grams (or c. c.) of the

per contained
m of NH.

Nitrate of potash, pure crystals from Marquart, 20 grams
gave 0°000015 gram of ammonia,.-....---.....-.--- 0°000075
Nitrate of soda, taken from a bag of the crude nitrate

0:000022 gram of ammonia. Compare Vogel’s detec-
tion of . of ammonium in rock salt (Gmelin’s
sintid-book, 11416); sc 5202 Se sk A be 22 0°00011
Ditto, pure bene ee 20 grams gave 0°0000425
grain of ammoniay:. =. ois caress ee et ad 0°000213
Ditto, a sample prepared re dissolving ae crystals ~
carbonate of soda in pure chlorhydric gave
reaction when tested pear with N saa 8 acees - none.
Pho eepnais of soda, pure crystals from Marquart, 20
grams gave no reaction for ammonia, _.-..---.------ 0°00000
Acetate of soda, pr crystals, 20 grams gave no reac-
ou tor AingiGnis, ¢. 03. a ge 0°00000
Carbonate of soda, pure crystals from Marquart, gave no
reaction for ammonia when tested directly with
essler’s reagent, _ putes oy be OD0000
Carbonate of potash, pure from Marquart, gave no reac-
“on when tested -directly,: ... - scavcaic. -ceeds cen 0°00000
Hydrate of soda, pure fron wae 5 grams gave no
reaction for a mmonia, . ie ee er er a re 0700000

quicklime from "Brandon, Vt., 20 gram s of the whitest
portion of pear ave sic reaction for ammonia,
while 20 hAbscark oe the grayest merece gave 0°00001
of a --- 0°00005
lia “ potash ‘from “Marquart: gave 0-0001 gram of

i i

0°00050

grams gave 0-00015 gram of SYAMONIAG 4 coc ee ed 0°00150
FR lowers of sulphur from Ma xeuart, 10 grams gave

"00075 gram of ammonia, -.--------. 000750
Sulphide “of sod oe from Marquart, 5 grams gave 0°001
gram we -- 0°02000
Sulphide “¥ ‘potasiam from "Marquart, 5 grams gave
wie weliiumen tedas bee vide eolk. 0°01800
Supe of i iron from Marquart, 5 grams gave 0°0008 ae
Ditto, | from a “quantity of the foregoing that had just
been a Hessian crucible, 20 grams taken
= middle of as solid ke, gave 0°00025 gram of
mmonia, - 0°00125

444 F. H. Storer—Ammonia a contaminant of Sulphuric Acid.

Portions of the distillates from the sulphides of sodium,
potassium and iron, on being tested with Hinbrodt’s reagent,
for the sake of control, gave strong reactions for ammonia.

In order to avoid any confusion that might arise from colora-
. tion of the Nessler reagent by sulphuretted hydrogen, the
following modifications of the ordinary process were employe
in testing sulphur and the sulphides. In the case of sulphide
of potassium and sulphide of sodium, the weighed substance
was dissolved in about half a litre of pure water, free from
ammonia, the solution was distilled and a quarter litre of distil-

The distillate was acidified with a few drops of sulphuric acid,
boiled until sulphuretted hydrogen had ceased to come off an
then redistilled with milk of lime, the ammonia in the new dis-
tillate being determined with Nessler’s reagent in the usual way.
In the case of sulphur and sulphide of iron the finely pow-
dered, weighed substance was distilled with milk of lime, the
distillate was acidified and boiled to expel sulphuretted hydro-
gen and finally redistilled in the manner just described.
Oxalic acid, “tertium depuratum” from Marquart, 20
grams gave 0°0003 gram of ammonia,------- ---- ---- 0700150
Tartaric acid, from Marquart, 10 grams gave 0:0001
gra

0°00100

0°01200

AIEEE SEL TEE ON Se RT 0700055 ;
that is to say, rather less than might have been inferred from
the fact that ammonium compounds accompany boracic acid =
the Tuscan lagoons (see Gmelin’s Handbook, ii, pp. 97, 99)
Bechi, Wagner's Jahresbericht, ix, 855; Vohl, ibid. xu, 205,
and ibid. (N. 8.) i, 210.) 1

Though the figures in the foregoing table may seem smal
or even insignificant to persons unaccustomed to us Nee
test, they are really large in several instances and noteworthy

in all. It should be understood, moreover, that in working
from the
ed and to

avoid the ammonia of the air. It is hardly necessary t0 bei

scat 3 had been im-
ported and which had never been opened until the time of -
plying the test, but it is noteworthy that this precautl

F. H.. Storer—Ammonia a contaminant of Sulphuric Acid. 445

Those substances, such as sulphate of soda for example,
which contained no ammonia when taken from freshly opened
bottles, likewise contained none when taken from bottles that

general I have not observed that chemicals taken from their
bottles at the moment of reaching the laboratory are any more
hable to be free from ammonia than those which have been
long in store.
_ A good idea of the relative importance of the ammonia found
mm the chemicals above described may be got by contrasting the
figures given in the table with the amounts of ammonia that
occur in natural waters as given by Wanklyn and by man
other authorities, or by comparing the above results obtained
from chemicals with the following statement of results that
were obtained from rain water in this laboratory at the same
ume and by the same operator. ;
One litre of rain water taken from
south cistern of Bussey Inst.

Coistanaad ms of 100 c. c. of the water
bumenoid contained
> Free NH4. ammonia. free 3.
April 20, 1875, 532 “08 070000532
April 20, 1875, 532 06 070000532
April 22, 1875, -480 07000048
May 4, 1875, 500 10 000005
June 7, 1875, “480 Pee 0°000048
June 7, 1875, 475 ame 0-0000475
One litre of rain water caught in
dish on roof of Bussey Inst.
July 23, 1875, 10 jeg 0-00001
July 29, 1875, 30 aa 000003
One litre of rain water from
SHOW ca
April 20, 1875, "147 06 00000147

—such as sold hereabouts, as in all American towns, for
omestic use—is remarkably free from ammonia. Thus a litre
of water obtained by melting a block of Muddy Pond ice was
found to contain only 013 milligram of ammonia. In other
words, 100 cc. of the melted ice contained no more than

It is worthy of mention that water obtained by melting i

446 E. Suess— Origin of the Alps.

00000018 gram of ammonia. A litre of water obtained by
melting the clear portion of a block of Jamaica Pond ice, con-
tained ‘04 milligram of ammonia, and a litre of water obtained
by melting the cloudy porous portion of the same block yielded
precisely the same amount, viz: at the rate of 0-000004 gram
of ammonia in 100 ¢. ¢. of the water. By distilling off from a

water of deep wells in this neighborhood, that had been slowly
boiled down in a copper still to four-fifths of its original volume
for the express purpose of expelling ammonia. Both the
melted ice and the purified well waters had to be distilled anew
in glass vessels in order to obtain water that was completely
free from ammonia, but the proportion of impure distillate to
be thrown aside was no larger, in the one case than in the other.

I am indebted to my assistant, Mr. D. S. Lewis. for his
skillful codperation in this research, and to my friend Mr. F. P.
Pearson, chemist of the Merrimack Print Works, for a number
of samples of acids.

Bussey Institution, Jamaica Plain, Mass., September, 1875.

Art. LIV.—Abstract of a Memoir on the Origin of the Alps ;
y Prof. Epwarp Susss, of Vienna.

AccoRDING to the views of the early geologists, still widely
accepted, the origin of mountains is to be ascribed to the eleva-
tion of a molten or semi-molten mass which has thrown up the

this it has been customary to speak of a middle zone, erabracing

the isolated central masses, with parallel subordinate zones to
e north and south. The folding and banded arrangement rs

the outer chains has been ascribed to a mighty pressure WIC

* Die Entstehung der Alpen, 168 pp. 8vo. Wien, 1875.

Li. Suess— Origin of the Alps. 447

older than the Molasse of Lucerne, so that they can have had
no influence in the dynamic changes in which it has been
involved; moreover, with the exception of one or two unim-
portant cases, no example can be shown in which eruptive rocks
have been the cause of change of position in the older sedimen-
tary strata. Another argument against this view is found in the
irregular, shattered condition of the central masses as contrasted
with the even trend in the folds of the outer-lying mountain
chains. A glance, for instance, at the position of the crystal-
line rocks of the Finsteraarhorn, overlying the younger strata,
shows that the folding-over must have originated, not in the
eruption or expansion of isolated central masses, but in some
Snel horizontal movement of the mountain-system as a
ole.

In the general consideration of this subject it is to be explained
that the term Alpine System is intended to include all the

constant predominance of certain trends or lines of directions.
he western and northern limits of this extended region are
formed by the older elevations of the Iles d’Hiéres, the eastern
edge of the Central-Plateau of France, the southern extremities
of the Vosges Mountains and the Black Forest, with the south-
ern border of Bohemia. Within this limit, the Alps are devel-
ip with wonderful regularity, stretching in great curves from
the end of one of these older mountain points to the next; and
against them the rocks have been pressed up and shoved on in
parallel lines, as against immovable barriers. An example of this
action is furnished by the island of gneiss and rothliegendes at
Déle, which forms the southeastern continuation of the osges
ountains, where the dependence of the folds and fractures in
the Jura on the distribution of the older rocks can be most clearly
Seen. The whole Jura Mountains have been here pressed up into
many parallel bands, while on the other side of the obstruction
he Jurassic deposits cover a wide area without showing any
trace of this tremendous horizontal movement. This same
principle is true of the Alps to the east, but it is to be noticed
that in the Juras the rocks in the northern border are continued
immediately beyond the limits of the mountains, while in the
eastern Alps the rocks, which on the northern side tower over
the airy have as a rule no distinct continuation on the other
Side of it.

448 EF. Suess— Origin of the Alps.

detailed description. To the north of Genoa the long lines of the
Molasse and Flysch rise gradually from the Piedmontese plain,
and extend southward in great curves. In the neighborhood

region oO ria, and it stretches on in an unbroken course
through the peninsula to the Gulf of Tarentum. Within this
limit the limestone mountains extend uninterrupted from
Spezia southward, embracing the Abruzzen, the Gran Sasso and
the elevations of the Basilicata. Still within the line, on the
western coast of Italy, are found the isolated fragments of the
older crystalline rocks. As traces of the action of the mighty
forces which caused this great horizontal shove, we may point to
the wide areas of depression of the Tyrrhenian and eastern part
of the Ligurian seas, while between the ruins of the ancient
rocks the fissures are to this day in part open, on which are sit-

uated a long series of volcanoes, and along which earthquake
differing essentially from each other—one the side of shoving
and folding, the other of fracture and voleanic phenomena; the
ormer is convex and continuous, the latter is interrupted by
areas of depression.

The western Alps repeat the same contrast of a folded onter
side, and an inner side of fracture, though here the volcanic
mountains are wanting. At no point on the southern side of
these western Alps can an equivalent of the long anticlinal ot
the Molasse be found; in no case can a profile be given whic
shall show an older middle zone flanked by symmetrical side
zones. The Juras, too, are a model of a true one-sided move-
ment, caused by pressure against an immovable foreign mass of
bia rocks. The fracture line is in this case turned toward the
3

he eastern Alps alone show a great series of Mesozoic and
Tertiary rocks on their southern side, which might be regarded
as belonging to the hypothetical southern zone. If we attempt,
however, to compare the long series of regular folds, which are s0
conspicuous in the northern zone, with the rocks on the other
side, we find that nowhere in the latter is there the slightest cor-
respondence. The careful consideration of the relations here
exhibited shows that the strata do not conform in strike with
those of the northern zone. On the contrary, we are justi
in concluding that this broad mountain girdle separates toward
the east into several one-sided chains. :
same one-sided structure belongs to the Carpathians and
the other branches of the Alpine system to the east and south
This — established, it becomes clear that we must aban
don the idea of a symmetrical structure—a middle zone with

FE. Suess—Origin of the Alps. 449

two equal and corresponding side zones, and grant that the
whole mountain-chain, from the Appenines to the Carpathians,
is the product of a common force, which has acted more or less
in a horizontal direction.

essentially the same as in later epochs.
. The consideration of all the subjects touched upon in the
preceding paragraphs lead to conclusions which to a very con-
siderable extent agree with those arrived at by Prof. Dana in
his discussion of mountain-making in general.

he force which acted to produce the results, which we see
to-day must have been a horizontal one, as is abundantly proved
bya survey of all the facts. The exertion of this horizontal
force was essentially influenced by resistance from four different
sources: 1, from the presence of foreign masses of older rocks ;
2, from the folding mass itself; 3, from the occasional introduc-
tion of older volcanic rocks, as granite and porphyry, in the
moving mass; 4, finally, it appears that single mountain masses,
like the Adamello or the red- rphyry, near Botzen, have
exerted an essential influence on the development of the sur-
rounding mountain region.

The examination of the various mountain regions of Europe
hot included in the Alpine system, gives confirmation of the
views thus far expressed in regard to the one-sided nature
Of mountains, and the horizontal shove which has been the
cause of their elevation. This is true of the Bohemian region,
_ as a whole; of the Riesengebirge, the Erzgebirge, and

on.

[For a detailed discussion of the subject, reference must be

€ to the complete memoir, of which this is an abstract.

The direction of the fracture lines varies from northeast to
northwest, and the motion was mostly to the northward, though
some isolated exceptions, in the case of a southerly movement,

450 E.. Suess— Origin of the Alps.

exist in central Kurope. If we look at the subject more broadly,
however, and pass out of Europe to America, and then further
study in as great detail as is now possible the great mountain-
chains of Asia, we arrive at this grand conclusion : throughout,
mountain-masses and mountain-movements are one-sided, and
the direction of the movement is in general northwest, north,
or northeast, in North America and Europe, but southerly, or
southeasterly, in central Asia. There is no regular geometrical
arrangement in the mountain chains.
Looking at the facts which have been stated, making only
the supposition that an unequal contraction of the surface of
the planet has taken place, we see that the simplest form of
mountain consists in a fracture, which runs at right angles
to the direction of the contraction ; the fractured part moves
forward in the direction of the force from contraction, while
volcanic phenomena may manifest themselves at the line of
breakage. The Erzgebirge forms an example of such a moun-

teep line, as a rule, on the inner side of the fracture, while the

H, A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution. 461

No influence of a radial contraction has been observed; nor
is there any effect in the direction of the waves of contraction
which can be attributed to the rotation of the earth.

In conclusion, it may be remarked that mountain-making as
a whole can be regarded as a stiffening of the earth’s surface,
which process has been determined by the distribution of
certain older rigid masses. These may be made up of mount-
ain lines pushed up together, and crossing each other, as in
Bohemia, or they may consist of wide extended surfaces whose
strata, even the oldest, have retained their horizontal position,
as in the great Russian plain. These primitive masses conform
to no geometrical law either in outline or distribution, though
they have determined the form and course of the folds which
contraction has produced in the more pliant portions of the
earth’s surface between them. E. 8. DANA.

Art. LV.—Studies on Magnetic Distribution; by Henry A.
Row .anp, of the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.

(Continued from page 335.)

Table I. is from a bar 174 inches long with a magnetizing
helix 13 inch long at one end, the zero-point being at the other.
Table IT. is from a bar 9 feet long with a helix 43 inches long
quite near one end, the zero-point being at 1 inch from the helix
toward the long end. ‘Table IIL is from a bar 2 feet long with
a helix 44 inches long near one end, so that its center was 193
Inches from the end on which the experiments were made, the
zero-point being at the end.

TaBLE 1. Bar ‘18 inch diameter. 0 at end of bar.

ve Qe. ag Y.
L. Ob- Calcu- Error of Ob- Calcu- gi of
served. | lated. Q’e- | served. | lated. 4
0 27 ee pene 0 0° 0
3 2 gies pasa age 8 35 +°8
5 2-0 2-0 0 59 66 +t
6 5 24 1 79 8.6 a
7 3-2 2°8 aa | 10°4 11°0 + °6
8 27 3°5 “ 13°6 13°8 +2
9 4°3 4:3 0 17°3 173 0
10 5:3 5-2 PO 21°6 216
ll 6°5 65 26°9 26°8 it
12 UT 8-0 +3 33-4 33°3 a
13 9°5 9:9 +4 Al‘l 41°3 + 2
14 50°6 51-2 +6

Q’ = 2°60(e28L-e— 2181),
Qe — 72°60(e 23h + eh) —_ “55 A(e 28h + iia *

452 H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution.

In adapting the formula to apply to the case of Table I,
we may assume that at the end of the bars = oo and C= 0,
which is equivalent to assuming that the number of lines of
induction which pass out at the end of the rod are too small
to be appreciated.

In Table IT. observations were not made over the whole length
of the rod, and the zero-point was not at the end of the bar.
It is evident, however, that by giving a proper value to s we
may suppose the bar to end at any point. As the rod is very
long, expressions of the form

Q’—C” = C'e-*—0" and Q’e = r0'e*

will apply.
TaBLE IT. Bar ‘39 inch diameter. 0 at 1 inch from helix.
v ee Q’e. Q’—o”. Q’—C”. Z F
L. Ob- Caleu- arate of Ob- cu "’. .
served. | lated. Q’:- served. | lated. i
0 2 toe a Pics 902°5
1 TET 70°8 — 9 825°2 825°9 +7
2 65°2 65°3 + ‘1 753°5 75571 +1°6
3 59°5 60°2 + 7 688°3 689°8 +15
4 53°5 65°5 +2°0 628°8 629°5 + 7
5 Si? 51°23 0 575°3 574°3 1:0
6 46-7 47°2 + 5 524°1 §23°1 —1°0
7 43°2 43°5 + °3 477-4 476°0 —]°4
8 “0 40°1 + *] 434°2 432°5 —iT
9 Ey i 37:0 — 2 394-2 392°5 Lt
10 34:7 34°] "6 357°0 3006 — 4
ii 31:7 3174 — °3 322°3 321°5 — ‘8
12 29°5 28°9 — 6 290°6 290°1 — ‘5
13 25° 26°6 + 9 261°1 261°2 4
rf 14 25°5 24°6 — 9 235°4 235°5 — 9
15 22°0 22°% + 7 210°9 209-0 + 1
16 215 20°9 — 6 187°9 187°3 — ‘6
17 20-0 19°3 — 7 166°4 166°4 0
18 19-1 17-8 1:3 146-4 147 +7
19 32°5 S15 —10 127°3 1294 +2°1
21 27-5 26°7 8 94-8 97° +3
23 23°0 22°8 — 2 67°3 pa ie 8
25 18°5 19°4 - s z 48°6 +43
ay 145 16°5 +2-0 25°8 29°0 +3°2
13 14:0 +2°7 bee, 12°6 +1°3
31 eres fe’! 1°2

Q’—C” = 983e—%81351 89-5 — 983(10)—™-—80°5.
Q’e = r983e—1H5L AT, — 80(10)—353LAL,

In Table II. the observations were near the end of the rod,
and were repeated several times. Neglecting the end of the rod,
we haves=o.

In these tables we see quite a good agreement between theory
and observation ; but on more careful examination we observe @
certain law in the distribution of errors. Thus in Table L the

H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution. 458

TABLE III. Bar °39 inch diameter. 0 at end of bar.

Q’e. e Q. Q
L b- | Caleu- | POF °F) Ob. | Calen- | BO of
served. 1 & served. | lated. :
0 0° 0- 0
it 19°7 16°2 —4°5 19°7 16°2 —4°5
2 16°3 15:3 —1°0 36°0 30°5 —5°5
3 16°0 15°5 — °5 52°0 46°0 —6'0
4 15°8 15°9 ae | 67°8 61°8 —6°0
5 16°5 16°3 — 2 84°3 18-1 —6°3
6 17:0 16°9 — ‘1 101°3 5-0 —6°3
vi 17°6 176 0 118°9 112°6 6°3
8 18°4 18-4 0 iora 130°9 —6°4
9 19°2 19°4 + +2 156°5 150°3 —6'2
10 20°3 20°5 + 2 176°8 170% 61
ll 21°8 21% — ‘1 198°6 192°2 —6'4
12 22°8 23°1 + 3 221°4 215°3 —6'1
13 24°8 24°7 — '] 246°2 239°9 —6'3
14 26°8 26°5 — 3 273°0 26674 6°6
15 28°38 28°4 — 5 301°8 294°6 Ee ey)
16 31°8 30°5 —13 333°6 325°1 8°5

Q’, = T-6(10-°RL 4 19—O87L). Q’ — BQ(10°L— 19—H7L),

errors of Q' are all positive between 0 and 8 inches; and this
has always been found to be the case at this part of the bar in
all my experiments

The explanation of this is very simple. In obtaining the
formule we assumed that the magnetic permeability of the bar
# was a constant quantity; but it has been shown by Dr.
Stoletow and myself, independently of each other, that in-
creases as the magnetism of the bar increases when the latter is
not great. Hence between 0 and 8 inches the resistance of the
bar R is greater than at succeeding points, and hence a less
number of lines of induction pass down the bar from 8 towards
0 than would be given by the formula which has been adapted
to the average value of R at from 9 to 14inches. In Table
IL. this same fact shows itself towards the last of the table,
and would probably be more prominent had the table been

carried her. However, in this table all things have com-
bined to satisfy the formula with great accuracy.
2.

-— 10
Distribution at end of bar.

In Table IIL we come across a fact of an entirely different
nature from the above. Fig. 2 is the plot of this table, and
gives the values of Q’« at different parts of the

454 H. A. Rowland—sStudies on Magnetic Distribution.

The horizontal line in the figure represents values of L,
and the vertical ordinates are values cf Q’e. e full line
gives the observed distribution, and the dotted line that accord-
ing to the formula.

The formula gives the distribution very nearly for all points
except those near the end. The formula indicates that Q’e de-
creases continully toward the end; but by experiment we see
that it increases near this point. On first seeing this, I thought
that it was due to some residual magnetism in the bar; but after
repeating the experiment several times with proper care, I soon
found that this was always the case. I give the following ex-
planation of it:—In the formule we have assumed R’, the re-
sistance of the medium, to be a constant; now this resistance

edium: and here we find that the “density” is greatest on
the projections of the body, showing that the resistance to the
lines of induction is less in such situations, and by analogy
showing that this must also be the case for lines of magnetic
force. But this effect is not very great in cylinders until quite
near the end; for Coulomb, in a long electrified cylinder, has
found the density at one diameter back from the end only 1:20
_times that at the center, and so there is probably a long distance
in the center where the density is sensibly constant. Hence we
may suppose that our second hypothesis that R’ is a constant
will be approximately correct for all parts of a bar except the
ends, though of course this will vary to some extent with the
distribution of the lines in the medium; at least the change
in R’ wil radual except near the end, and so may be par-

tially allowed for by giving a mean value to 7. :
ence we see that could the formula be so changed as to 10-
clude both the variation of R and of R’, it would probably agree

with the three tables given.

To study the effect of variation in the permeability more care
the formule

.

_ fully, we can proceed in another manner, an
only to get the value of r at different parts of the rods.
No matter how r may vary, equations (2) and (8) will apply
to a very small distance / slong the rod; and as the origin of
ordinates may be at any point on the rod, if Q’ and Q’e are

H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution. 455

taken at one point and Q and Q at another point whose dis-
tance from the first is /, we shall have the four equations

Q=C, Q=—© (Actes,

A+1
A~1l1 C
Q- = Aa 0% Ges mA (Aet+e),

Calling i oe H and “ = G, we shall find, on eliminating
Cand A and developing «” and €~,

2/GH+1
dome a GO
or to a greater degree of approximation,
1 GH+1
re = HW 10(oS 41) 6), wee > « Wa)

Before applying these formule to any series of observations,
the latter should be freed from most of the irregularities due to
accidental causes. For this purpose the following Tables have
been plotted and a regular curve drawn to represent as nearly
as possible the observations; in other cases a column of differ-
ences was formed and plotted. In either case the ordinates of
the curves were accepted as the true quantities. But for fear
that some may accuse me of tampering with my observations, [
have in all cases added these as they were obtaine

The correction is necessary, because small irregularities in
the observations will produce immense charges in r?.

Table IV. contains some of the best observations I have
obtained. It is from a bar 57 inches long with a helix 13
inch long in the center to magnetize it. Hach quantity is
the mean of six observations, these being made on both ends
of the bar and with the current in opposite directions. :

In this table a source of error was guarded against which
ave not seen mentioned elsewhere. When a bar of iron

to reach its permanent state. : :
On looking over column 6, which contains the values of
if :

7 Eo R’ay (equation 7), we observe that as Q’ increases,

the value of R’aw first increases and then decreases. Now itis
hot probable that R’ undergoes any sudden change of this sort,

456 H. A. Rowlund—Studies on Magnetic Distribution.

TaBLE IV. Bar ‘19 inch diameter. 0 at center of bar.

Q’e. Q’e- Q. ; R’
Ti Ob- Cor- or- jr==. >a =>:
served. | rected. | rected. R we R
i 151-7
2 24:0 24:0 127°7
3 17°0 17:0 110°7 041 24°4
4 Iu ist 97:0 0256 39°1
5 11°6 11°65 85°4 0192 52°]
6 10°2 10°15 76°2 0168 59°5
7 9-0 9: 66°2 "0150 667
8 8-0 8°0 58-2 0153 70°4
9 71 716 611 “0150 66°7
10 6-4 6°35 44°7 0142 62°9
a} 5:7 5°65 39°1 -0160 62°5
12 4:9 50 34-1 "0167 59°9
13 4-4 4°4 29°7 “0180 55°6
14 3°6 3°9 25°8 0184 54°3
15 3:3 3°4 22-4 ‘01 54:3
284 22°4 22°4

tron and not of the magnetizing force. Hence it is for this reason
that I have preferred in my papers on “ Magnetic Permeability
to consider it in this way in the formule and also in the plots,
while Dr. Stoletow in his paper (Phil. Mag., Jan., 1373) plots the
magnetizing-function as a function of the magnetizing-force.

When we plot the results in this table with reference to
Q’ and R’ay, the effect of the variation of R’ is apparent; an
we see, on comparing the curve with those given m my paper
above referred to, that R’ increases as L increases, at least
between L = 2 and L = 8, which is as we should suppose, from
the arrangement of the apparatus. For this table I happen to
have data for determining Qin absolute measure, and these show
that the maximum value of uw should be about where the table
shows it to be.

This method of finding the variation of « is analogous to that
of finding conductivity for heat by raising the temperature of
one end of a bar and noting the distribution of heat over the
bar: and indeed the curves of distribution are nearly the same
in the two cases.

If it were thought worth while, it would be very easy to ob-
tain a curve of magnetic distribution for a rod and then enclose
the whole rod in a helix and determine its curve of permeabillty-

* Phil. Mag., August, 1873.

H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution.

This would give data for determining R’ in absolute measure at
every point of the ro
o complete the argument that the variation of r? is in great

measure due to that
ona bar to vary. Tables V, VI, and VIL are from a

TaBLE V. Magnetizing current ‘176.

H, I have caused the magnetizing-force
bar 9

Q’e. Q’e. Q’. : Q'
L. Ob- Cor- Cor- Foe. ae a R’ Calcu-
served. | rected. | rected. | BR” |r?” R lated.
0 27 0
1 69 2°40
2 12°7 Bes Ce oe Sune 7-32
3 18-2 oe —- a? gage TAT bE
4 24°4 sone a a ae |
5 32°4 31°7 | 2205 Sin <2 eel
6 31°5 320 | 1885 0196 52-4 | 32°38
7 28-2 28-2 | 160-3 0212 47-2 2
8 249 24-7 | 135°6 | °0218 45°9 ~~
9 214 | 21-7 | 113-9 | 0236 | 42-4 I
10 18°6 19°0 94:9 | -0252 39°7 eb
ll 16°8 16°4 785 | 0298 36-0 rat
12 14-2 14°2 64:3 | °0311 32°2 2
13 12-0 12-0 52:3 | -0367 27-2 2
14 10°0 42°3 0404 24°8 i
15 17-7 8-2 34:1 0440 22°7 1
16 6°6 275 | °0445 22°5 i
17 11°6 51 22-4 | ‘0570 175 3
18 : 22-4 Ss
End. 22°4 :
TaBLe VI. Magnetizing current °31.
ce Q’. Q" r &
L. Ob- Cor- Cor- r, oll Caleu-
served. | rected. | rected. . lated.
0 16.3 0
2 22°0 17°3
3 32°4 see panes fee ey 22°3
4 43°8 Jet Se isve ee 32°28
5 559 a es ie se 43°34
6 552 cco See La ae 55°90
7 46°8 551 | 3368
8 4s-1 | 998-7 | 0204 | 490 | &
9 $/ 81:3 3 | 2464 | ‘0201 49°7 i
0 374 | 209-0 | 0202 49°5 =
1 61:8 33-0 | 1760 | 02 5 =
2 29:0 | 147-0 | -0243 41°2 ran
[3 46°4 253 121-7 | 0262 y 3
4 21 99°8 “0300 33°3 T
15 35°4 18°7 8l'l1 | 0352 28°4 $
16 15°6 65°5 | °0405 24°7 |
aT 41 990 12°7 52°38 | “0479 9 =
ce! 9°8 z
End. 43°0 ~

Am. Jour. Sc.—Tuirp Serres, Vou, X, No. 59.—Dzc., 1875.
30

458 H. A. Rowland—Studies on Magnetic Distribution.

feet long and 25 inch diameter. At the center a single layer
of fine wire was wound for a distance of 1 foot, and the current
for magnetizing the bar was sent through this. The zero-point
was at the center of this helix and at the center of the bar, so
that the observations on the first 6 inches include the part of
the bar covered by the helix.

The values of Q’e are the sum of four observations on each end
of the bar and with the current reversed. The three tables are
comparable with each other, the same arbitrary unit being used

TaBLE VII. Magnetizing current 1°12.

tA , "
€ € Q’. 1 €
L. Ob- Cor- Cor- 7? ee Calcu-
served. | recte rected is lated.
0 3.5 762-4 0
1 wf ee. We oy ae
2 we ils et ete eee ee
3 ea eee eg Ce, Cee
4 ye ae yoet || oc) ae
5 66°6 ss Me oe oe ae
6 m2 | wa | 5967] _.. oe 5
1 595 | 59-7 | 5245 | -o239 | 41°83
8 510 | 512 | 4648 | -0200 | 50-0
9 452 | 45:2 | 413°6| 0162 | 61°7
10 403 | 403 | 3684 | -0141 70-9 “
11 363 | 368 | 3281 -0120 | 83-3 sf
12 333 | 33:5 | 291-3 -0107 | 93:5 &
13 30°6 | 305 | 2578! -0110 | 909 3
14 28-1 | 28-0 | 22731] -o116 | 86-2 =
15 256 | 26-4 | 1993} 0118 | 84-7 J
16 93-4 | 99% | 173-9 40 | 14
17 200 | 203 | 151-2 | -0147 68-0 =
18 181 | 130°2| -0161 | 6271 ”
19 ' 340 | 160 | 1128] -0180 | 556 eo
20 6-8
End | 96:8

Here we see an excellent confirmation of the results deduced
from Table IV. In Table V, where the magnetizing-force is
very small, and where, consequently, no part of the iron has y et
R’
reached its minimum resistance, the value of Pr ase * =R’ap de-
creases continually as the value of Q’ decreases, as it should do.
In Table VI, with a higher magnetizing-power, which was suffi-
cient to bring a portion of the bar to about the minimum resist-

ance, we see that — remains nearly stationary for a short dis-

tance from the helix and then decreasesin value. In Table VII,
where the bar is highly magnetized and the portion — the

_ zero-point approaches the maximum of magnetization, ;3¥

G. P. Becker—New Feature in the ‘‘Comstock Lode.” 459

creases in value as we pass down the bar, and having reached
its maximum at L=112 nearly, it decreases. These tables, then,
show in the most striking manner the effect of the variation o
the magnetic permeability of iron upon the distribution of mag-
netism.

It is evident that these tables also give the data for obtaining
the relative values of R’ at different parts of the bar; but the
results thus obtained are conflicting, and will need further exper-
iment to obtain accurate results. Where such asmall magnet-
izing force is used as in Table V. it is almost impossible to
attain accuracy, and allowance shou e made for this in
deducing results from it. The greatest liability to error is of
course where the magnetization is small ; for any small residual
magnetism which the bar may contain will be more apparent
here, although. great care was taken to remove all residual
magnetism before use. Besides this there are many other dis-
turbances from which the higher magnetizing-powers are free.

If we accept Green’s formula as correct, these observations give
us data for determining the magnetizing-function of iron in a
unique manner, for nearly all other methods depend on absolute
measurements of some kind. Thus the least value of r? in
Table IV. for a rod 19 inch diameter is 0142, which gives
p= 011382, which in Green’s formula (equation 8) gives u=33>8
for the greatest permeability of this iron; and this is as nearly
right as we can judge for this kind of iron. It is to be noted
that Green’s formula has been found for the portion of the bar
covered by the helix, but as seen from my formule it will ap-
proximately apply to all portions, though it would be better to

a new formula for each case. :

We shall toward the last resume this subject again, and so
we will leave it for the present. :

e results which I have now given, and indeed all the
results of this paper, have been deduced not only from the ob-
servations which I publish, but from very many others; so
that my Tables may be considered to represent the average of a
very extended series of researches, though they are not really so.

[To be continued. ]

Art. LVL—WNotes on a New Feature in the “ Comstock Lode ;”
G. P. Becker. Ph.D., ete.

a

THERE is probably no metalliferous vein in the world which
excites a greater interest than the “Comstock Lode” of Ne-
vada, whether regarded from a scientific point of view, as the

argest and richest argentiferous vein yet discovered, or from an

460 G. P. Becker—New Feature in the ‘Comstock Lode.”

economical standpoint, as the source for many years past of an
immense proportion of the silver, and a considerable fraction of
the gold added to the circulation of the world; and the details
of its geological character as developed, therefore acquire an
importance not possessed by those of less prominent deposits.

The Virginia Range is a due north and south branch of the
Sierra Nevada system of mountains. On the eastern slope
of Mt. Davidson, the chief peak of the range, were found the
outcroppings of the vein which have been followed somewhat to
the north, and a long distance to the south of that mountain,
and shown to possess a total length of four miles in the general
direction of the Virginia Range. Decidedly the most important
portion of the Lode—that in which the celebrated “ Gould and
Curry,” “Hale and Norcross,” “ Ophir,” “ Consolidated Virginia”
and ‘ California” mines as well as others have been opened—ties
at the base of Mt. Davidson, and is included within the limits
of Virginia City.

It is well known to those who have had occasion to make
themselves familiar with the Comstock lode* that throughout
that portion of the vein which lies in Virginia City, the west or
foot wall is a continuation of Mount Davidson, and consists, like
the mass of that mountain, of syenite, while the east wall isa
porphyry, more nearly described as trachytic greenstone, or pro-
pylite, with which the country was overflowed during the Ter-
tiary period. The direction of the fissure subsequently filled by
the vein matter of the Comstock, was plainly determined by the
previously existing surface of contact between the syenite and
propylite, which naturally offered less resistance to rupture than
the solid mass of either adjoining rock. This is clear from
the fact that for over a thousand feet from the surface, only
insignificant masses of either rock were found on the side of the
vein opposite to that of which they are especially characteristic.
So strong was the influence of the direction, both in strike and
in dip, given to the fissure by the presence of this com aratively
weak surface of contact in he rocky mass, that the fissure ¢X
tending in both directions away from Mount Davidson into solid
propylite, unaccompanied by syenite, retained the strike, (nearly
north and south,) and the dip (from 35° to 50°,) of the Virginia

rtion, almost unaltered.

This very clearly defined influence of the contact surface, was
of itself good reason for supposing that the fissure in Virginia

von Richthofen, “The Comstock Lode, San Francisco, 1865,” and “ U. 8.
ical Exploration of the 40th Parallel,” Vol. III. ore

G. P. Becker— New Feature in the “Comstock Lode.” 461

syenite, (which in Virginia is plutonic,) the propylite, and the
vein matter emanated successively from a single fissure in the
earth’s crust, a lowest point in the contact between the underly-
ing syenite and the overlying propylite must eventually occur,
from which the fissure would naturally descend toward the seat
of the force by which it was caused. ‘From the most depressed
point in the contact surface, the fissure would pass into the un-
derlying, or syenite rock, and doubtless out of it farther below,
into whatever might underlie it in its turn.

From the point where the fissure leaves the contact between
the two species of rock, its dip would in all probability be con-
trolled by circumstances very different from those which de-
cided it in the position lying near the croppings; for from the
point at which the seismic shock impinged upon the lower sur-
face of the syenite, the fracture must have followed the direction
of least resistance, or presumably a straight line, and the shortest
line from the point in which the subterranean force encounter-
ed the syenite, to the upper surface of that formation; and a
moment's thought will serve to show that, apart from local and
altogether incalculable irregularities in the lower surface of the
tock, this line could continue in even approximately the diree-
tion of the present dip, only in case the syenite not only formed
4 cone above the general level of the country, but filled a vast
depression below it as well. The passage of the lode into the
syenite would therefore naturally be accompanied by a change

.

i dip, toward the perpendicular.
ty, have reached the point at which the fissure passes from

s

from 1500 feet, ,
_ The details of these observations would scarcely be of general
ae away from the Pacific Coast, while ae ogra i le
will pn : mply justified by the following
0 on egal meine = 4 2 ere eo ane

struck between the nort

end of the “ Ophir” and the south end of the “ Chollar Potosi,” a
of over a mile, is syenite; that in the three mines, of
the eight within these limits, in which for fear of water the East

462 E. B. Andrews—New and interesting Coal Plants.

Clay has not been pierced, good grounds (presence of included
syenite and absence of included propylite) exist for believing
that the hanging wall is syenite :—that although the east coun-
try syenite has been pierced in a number of places, both verti-
eally and horizontally, to a depth of several hundred feet, no
other formation has been reached, nor any indication that the
limits of this have been approached; on the contrary, this east-
ern syenite is apparently as solid as Mount Davidson itself:—
that wherever the relations between the walls of the fissure have
been most completely exposed, the occurrence of syenite on the
— wall is accompanied by a very decided increase in the angle
of dip.

The last point is most clearly shown in the Ophir, where on
the 1700 feet level the walls are almost exactly perpendicular,
as shown by the very complete prospecting on that level.

The Gold Hill mines seem nowhere to have reached the sy-
enite, as was to be expected, since from the conformation of the
country, the syenite, if it underlies the porphyry in Gold Hill
as well asin Virginia, will probably be met with only at a much
greater depth.

To establish the exact line of the passage of the vein from the
propylite into the syenite, would of course require a specially
authorized examination of the mines; since a-majority of points
in which the east wall has been struck are hidden from view,
either by the closure of drifts no longer essential to the working
of the mines, or by timbering in the shafts, ete.

Many important deductions might be based upon a change 12
the conditions of the Comstock lode, which must be fraught with
exceedingly imporiant consequences to the greatest mining 1D
terest of the Pacific coast; but I prefer to confine myself to sub-
mitting the fact of this remarkable, and at this time most unex:
pected, alteration in the character of the vein.

Berkley, California, October, 1875.

Art. LVIL—Notice of New and Interesting Coal Planis; by
KE. B. ANDREWS.

[Read at the Detroit Meeting of the American Association. ]

_ Two or three years ago, I noticed in a ditch by the roadside
in the western part of Perry county, Ohio, a thin layer of bitu
minous shale. Its stratigraphical position is near the base of ne
Ohio Coal-measures, perhaps thirty feet above the Maxvil if
limestone, the Ohio equivalent and representative of the Ches-
_ ter limestone of Illinois. A few strokes of the hammer et
vealed a fragment of a coal plant entirely new to me. This lee —
to subsequent visits to the locality and the discovery of a large

E. B. Andrews—New and interesting Coal Plants. 4638

number of new forms of ancient vegetation. At the bottom of
the layer is found less than an inch of a very peculiar substance
of vegetable origin of brown color, soft like rotten wood, with-
out lamination and filled with fragments of a minute form of
plant resembling an Asterophyliites. In it are fish scales
indicating, according to Dr. Newberry, a new genus and
species, and also a small Lingula, perhaps too indistinct for
specific determination. Above the half-solidified brown band
we find an inch of highly bituminous laminated cannel shale,
presenting a satin surface in its fracture. This shale contains
a few plants, the most numerous form being leaves of Lepido-
dendron. This shale passes upward into an ordinary bitumin-
ous shale, in the lower two inches of which nearly all the new
plants are found.

e have here the evidence of a marsh in which there was
acccumulated upon a micaceous sandy bottom the minute moss-

Square yards have been uncovered and examined.
In this little marsh grew plants of well-marked Devonian
types, and others of a type generally found in formations more
recent than the Coal-measures. Besides these, there are many
oal-measure forms, but with scarcely an exception, they are
of new species.
' Of the Devonian types, one is a new species of Archwopteris
Dawson, (Paleopteris Schimper.) The <A. Jacksoni Dawson,
from the Devonian of New Brunswick and Maine may be re-
garded as the typical form of this genus. The new Ohio spe-
cies I have called A. stricta. It is a fern of great beauty,
smaller and more delicate-than A. J/acksoni. The pinne are
alternate, somewhat closely set, growing out of the rachis at an
70° to 80° 5° innales are al-
angle of 70° to 80°, rarely assmallas45°. The pinnales a
ternate, oblanceolate, obtuse, decurring on the narrow rachis,
disconnected to the base, with a strong nerve, dividing near the
base into three to five branches, which themselves fork once or
twice before reaching the margin. Prof. Fontaine reports the
finding of A. Jacksoni (or possibly a closely-allied species), in
his conglomerate coal series on New River, W. Va., over a coal
Seam perhaps 500 feet above the base of the Coal-measures.
This is more than 1500 feet lower in the series of the Alleghany

464 #. B. Andrews—New and interesting Coal Planis.

Coal-measures than my Ohio form. He also finds the same
A. Jacksoni in Vespertine slate in Greenbrier Co., W. Va.

which is low in the original geosynclinal trough or depression
West Virginia (described by me in another paper read at Detroit
and published in this Journal for Oct.), it is a long way down to
the Devonian formation, which, in New Brunswick. yielded to
the hammer of Prof Hartt his Megalopteris Dawson. The new
species from Ohio are directly separated from any Ohio Devo-
nian rocks by, first, a few feet of Coal-measure strata, second, by
the lower Carboniferous Maxville limestone, the equivalent and
representative of the Chester limestone of Illinois, there 600 to
800 feet thick, and third, by the Waverly sandstone, over 600
feet thick. These facts are of no little interest as showing

and but one in the Devonian would determine this to
true Coal-measure form. Then the Devonian species becomes
the prophetic one.

Growing in our little marsh with the Archeoptleris and the
Megalopteris is a new and beautiful fern of a new genus of a

_ vittata Brongt., reported by Pres. Hitchcock, from the T
soins Bae ipa c

E. B. Andrews—New and interesting Ooal Plants. 465

have called Orthogoniopteris, from its rectangular nervation.
The following is a description o :

Frond simply pinnate. Pinne alternate, lanceolate or oblong,
linear, rounded or tapering to an acute point, entire or undulate, en-

rged and decurrent on lower side, rounded on the upper to the
median nerve, and joining it a little abuve the point of its attachment
to the rachis, Median nerve prominent, thick and ascending to the
apex. Nervules forking once very near the median nerve, extending
at right angles to it, and curving upward slightly at the margin,
very fine, numerous and uniform.

Two species have been found, 0. clara and O. Gilberti. This
genus is allied to Zeniopteris Brongt., to Angiopteridium Sch.,
and to Neriopteris Newb. The nervation is similar to Tteniop-
teris, but Toeniopteris has a simple frond, while this is pinnate.
In Angiopteridium the frond is pinnate and the pinne are cor-
date or rounded, with a marginal fructification. In Dr. New-
berry’s new genus, Neriopteris, the pinne are similarly cordate
_ With acute-angled nervation and with a supposed marginal fruc-
tification. In this new genus the pinne are decurrent below,
and free and rounded above, with a perfectly rectangular nerva-
tion. In the decurrent base of the leaflets it is allied to the

C genus which may he represented by A. Serlit,
and is doubtless allied to Dr. Newberry’s new species, A. mac-
rophylla. The essential characters which distinguish it are:
first, the great length of the frond, which measures at least fifty
centimeters; second, its lanceolate, or rather oblanceolate
form, the leaflets decreasing in length toward the base; third,
the linear taper-pointed form of the leaflets, comparatively long
and narrow; and fourth, the always simple division of the

nd. It is possible that we have in these various species of
lethopteris, and in closely allied forms, a group which should
be detached and formed into a new genus ‘This group passes,
in resemblance, into the type of the Tventopteridee on the
One hand and through the Megalopteris (the M. minima having
much the look of an Alethopteris) unto the distinct Newropteris
type on the other. These resemblances are of great interest

466 ' Letter from B. A. Gould.

and seem to bring the Devonian and Mesozoic flora into greater
apparent harmony.

Besides the forms already mentioned the bed affords two
new species of Aséerophyllites, a new and beautiful Hymenophyl-
lites, a new and pretty Hremopteris, two species of Lepidoden-
dron—one allied to L. tetragonum Steenb., found by Dr. Dawson
in the lower Carboniferous of Canada—two species of Cordaites,
one probably C Robbii Dawson, a Devonian form from New

runswick, a new and large Cardiocarpon, a large fine cone of
somewhat doubtful affinities, a curious jointed root and several

g
the Ohio Geological Reports.*

Art. LVIII.— Letter to the Editors, from Dr. B. A. Goutp, Direc-
tor of the Cérdoba Observatory, dated Cérdoba, Sept. 8, 1875.

Messrs. Dana & Srrtiman:—When I took leave of you last
November I did not intend that so long an interval should elapse
without the fulfillment of my promise to send you tidings of the
progress of my work. But what with the accumulation of mate-
rial during my absence, and the relentless pressure of the current
observations, I have been unable to do more than keep pace with

been observed 1872, Sept. 9, and the last 1875, Aug. 9, but as
there was an interruption of about a year during this interval, not

records is now completed ; and the copy of the observations upon

ably be completed before this letter can reach you. The secon
copy upon computation-blanks, is likewise well under way.
us the entire region from 23° to 80° of South declination has
been well scrutinized. The ten degrees around the pole have been
is thoroughly examined by Gillis in Santiago and Stone at the
a od i

and my northern limit overlaps Argelander’s southern zones by
i FY Maan os 1 uest of that
deeply lamented astronomer. | ee ae
The width of the zones has varied with their declination, am)
with the abundance of their stars; the maximum width being -
at the northern limit, and 4° for the zones immediately north oF
___ * Professor Andrews has sent ies of his and we can testify to
ait.

Letter from B. A. Gould. 467

75°, between which declination and 80° only one series was taken.
These widths were always halved within the limits of the Milky
Way, and still farther subdivided into quarters, and even eighths,
where the richness of the region required; so that some zones
have only comprised 20’ or 25’ of declination exclusive of their
marginal overlap. The maximum number of stars contained in a
Single zone is 293, the average is about 140. It is needless to say
that there are many repetitions, arising not only from the overlap,
(usually 10’ at each margin), and five or six minutes of time at the
beginning and end), but also from the re-observation of such zones
as had proved unsatisfactory, whether from unfavorableness of
weather, insufficient determining stars, or inadequate performance
of circle, chronograph or clock.

been my unfailing rule to make the determinations as

hometry, whose positions have not been independently deter-
mined in Cérdoba. I pu

forward, and have now extended the working list yet more, SO
that this catalogue will contain more than ten thousand stars, if all

oes
times, Up to the present time the total amount of different stars
observed for this catalogue exceeds 7,000, although not all of them
ave as yet the requisite number of observations.

Besides the data thus collected I have a considerable amount of

i from ted observation of clusters.
These observations, when properly reduced, will essentially aid
the study of the photographic plates. 2
_ Now [ must apply myself to the more laborious and difficult
Part of the work—the computation and preparation of the crude
Material obtained. This would be more difficult everywhere as
requiring a more unremitting diligence, and careful organization,

468 Letter from B. A. Gould.

cut down, those for scientific purposes have been maintained
intact, and all which I thought it right to ask for the Observatory
has been voted by the Congre

to the demands u t, the mechanical ingenuity and perse-
verance of the assistants has already done much, 1,1 ig
confident yet more toward remedying the defects. And the

, do yet mo ; ae
lathe and tools for working in metals, which I brought out with
st Dee i

more successful than his predecesso i

the telescope and the chemicals, and has already, in spite of re!

difficulties, obtained about seventy good plates, comprising twenty
on

are nearly or quite a hundred stars, in the cluster 4.323. We have
i i Mars, and the photographs —
of the surface quite clearly, but they are not as We
_ defined as could be wished. I have now sent home orders for since’

Letier from B. A. Gould. 469

the Minister of Public Instruction has placed a smali sum o
money at my disposal from the contingent fund of his department.
When I next write I think it will be possible to give you some
encouraging accounts, and description of results in detail. As yet
I have had no time to undertake any measurements of the plates,
but if my plans do not prove amiss, this will soon be possible.
I possess an exquisite micrometer for the purpose, the gift as well
as the construction of our friend, Mr. Rutherfurd. I have been
endeavoring to procure photographic impressions of Hurydice, and
its comparison stars, for Dr. Galle’s new investigations, but the
stars are too faint.

The geographical determinations of various points of South
America are going forward as opportunity permits. Since my
return I have obtained satisfactory exchanges of signals with San-
tiago de Chile on two nights, and am waiting an additional
exchange before deducing the final results.

i o gradu
Scale on the registers of both stations, while the observers telegraph
the beats of a mean-time chronometer, for which the determine

of the city of Parané was thus determined three days ago; to-da
We have accomplished the same for La Paz, which is about 100
miles farther up the river. The telegraphic communication only
extends as far as Corrientes in 274°, but with the aid of their chro-
hometer I trust they will be able to extend the longitude determi-
nations as far as Ascencion, the capital of Paraguay, latitude 25
16’. Thave also made arrangements for an early determination
of the positions of Tucuman, situated 260 miles north of Cérdoba,
and of San Juan at the base of the Andes, some 200 miles to the
westwa

In Dr.

published, the results of my previous observations are se :
; ef o

the National Engineers, in connection with whom my determina-

mercial or geographical importance, to which the te
extends,

nations all the capitals of provinces, and the chief points of com-
: P P ’ J ph

470 Letter from B. A. Gould.

The Meteorological office is quietly extending its influence and
activity throughout the country. It is not easy to secure the gra-
tuitous codperation of competent and conscientious observers,
nor to secure their reception of instruments in good condition ; yet
the success has thus far been all that I could have presumed to
hope; and I am already rapidly accumulating data, which will
disclose the heretofore unknown climatic and atmospheric rela-
tions of this vast country. ready some dozen or more stations

forei old coins to be det 1h digeoe
annually published by the Minister of Finance. That this unit 1s
not already law is due solely to disagreement between the tw
houses on other points contained in the same bill; but the delay
is only temporary.

Now that Japan and the Argentine Republic have adopted a
metric basis for their monetary unit,—the only basis on which we

can aa for any 2 apne to international mnibeston oe

e of less d
of mint tolerance), and it would seem as though by the unite
action of our men of science, this desirable change might

brations, as it would be a most efficient step toward what
French term “ the solidarity of nations.”

Chemistry and Physics. 471

SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
I. CHEMISTRY AND PHysIcs.

ir Damper for Balances. aia order to reduce the time
of bistilasion of a balance to a minimum when in use, ARZBERGER
has proposed the use of a damping ssosens containing air. To
the stirrup, immedi ied under the end of the beam, a circular

=:
+
So
(=)
S
°
at
co
a
Ri
°
5
Q
®
5

attached by a screw in the cente
has a hole on one side of this screw; so that by oe the cyl-
inder, the hole may be closed m ore or less completely by the
brass strip. When the balance swings, the plate moves up and
down in the cylinder, the oscillation being checked by the resist-
ance of the air in the box, which may be adjusted at pleasure.
The working of the attachment is said to be very eg ctory,
since the damping is a dynamic and not a static resistan

delicacy is not at all ‘techies with.——Liebig’s Annaten, elxavi,

382, Oct t., os
%. On a Convenient method of Preparing Sulphuryl ‘Chloride
ides fd in order to investigate the r — ot the carba-

ffin
ath to 170°-180°. A brilliant ‘tile liquid, toiling at 70°, and
with an exceedingly irritating odor, was obtained, which ad a
: aoc gravity of 1°661 and was the body in question. Its pro-
uction is thus represented :—
me cl OH
6] = 80.Cl, +80, | OF.
so, 10 “eo

—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., Napa 1004, ope 18 G
3. Action of diute Mine 1 Acids on Bleachin ng Pow

y Gay Lussac and recently denied by Gépner, and if so, in what
vigcon oes rene so Sorainad was Pyose from pure slaked

472 Scientific Intelligence.

filtered. Two hundred cubic centimeters of the filtrate were
taken and diluted to a liter, and the hypochlorite was determined
by Bunsen’s method in a portion of the solution. Other portions
were then distilled with nitric, with hydrochloric and with sul-
sr acids. The best result was obtained with the first of these

in the eee Sahome ee _ Hence the author concludes

Cl ?
chlorous oxide from bleaching powder by chlorine, is strongly
confirmatory of the latter view. Chlorine is not set free by the
action of hydrochloric acid upon bleaching powder. —_ —_
¢., If, xiii, 713, August, 1875.
4. Method for the “ Quantitative Separation of Ferrie “Oxide
Alumina, and Phosphoric Acid.—Having occasion to analyze &

tion caf? peer proposed by Odling. The liberation of hypo-

P

rious methods in use for the separation of these sree the
results of which are given in his paper. As a result, he
finally to adopt the following, which gave all deatvaltes accuracy?
The solution of the above named substances, which must not con-
tain much free acid, is boiled for ni or three hours with an ex-
cess of sodium hyposulphite (thiosulphate) sap filtered. All the
iron with some of the pho sphoric acid is in the filtrate; all the
alumina with some of the acid, is on the filter. The i iron in

d
so long as a precipitate is nee oduced. After standing a f
the con! is to i filtered. ‘The phosphoric acid remains
filter as barium phos phases ; the alumina is conta tained 1
filtrate, from which it may be precipitated in the ordinary way
and weighed. A little caustic soda added to the wash water pre-
vents the solution of the barium phosphate. The barium wee
phate is dissolved off the filter, the barium removed with sulphur
acid, the filtrate mixed with that from the iron sulphide thor
ic aci termined with magnesia mixture 2°
usual. The author also points out that the corrosive action ph
of dilute solution of sodium phosphate upon the glass. of reagel
bottles is considerable and may be a source of error in analysis. i
| is salt cannot be obtained pure by recrystallization in pee
____ Berlin porcelain from this cause.— Jour. Chem. Soc., ne Reena
July, 1875. bison
Sy On oe Gases enclosed in Coals.—Tuomas has “ea an mn elab-
orate in tion of the gases occluded in coal as well as

of

Chemistry and Physics. 473

those which are evolved from fissures in the mines. The experi-
ments were made upon the bituminous, or “house coals; the

Ww

“singe in a hard glass tube and connected with a Sprengel pump.
ery little gas—only 2 or 3 ec. per 100 grams of coal—was liberat-
ed on exhaustion. The tube was then immersed in boiling water and
kept there so long as gas was evolved. Additional quantities of
gas were obtained at 200° and even at 300°, Upon analysis, the

as well as from the coal itself by boring, consisted almost entirely
of marsh gas, rising in some cases to 97°65 per cent.—Jour. Chen,
Soc., II, xiii, Sept., 1875. G. F. B.

- On rysophanic Acid.—LinBERMANN and Fiscuer have
continued the researches made upon emodin by the first-named

a 0
tions of this hydrocarbon. Acetyl-chrysophanie acid was also pre-
d.

the amides of chrysophanic acid.—Ber. Berl. Chem. Ges., viii,
1102, Sept., 1675. G. F. B.

7. On the Quantitative Determination of Vanillin in Vanilla,
—The introduction into commerce of the synthetically prepared
vanillin renders some method desirable for its exact estimation.

IEMANN and HaaRmanwn have proposed a method founded on its
aldehydic nature and its consequent union with acid sulphites.
Thirty to 50 grams of the finely divided vanilla is repeatedly ex-

“ a ;

means of a Separating funnel. e lower, whicl

vanillin solution, is placed in a flask furnished with funnel and de-
Am. Jour, Sor,—Turrp SERIES, * bese X, No. 60.—Dec., 1875.

3

474 Scientific Intelligence.

‘livery tubes, through the former of which dilute ia i! acid is
poured, the evolved sulphurous oxide being conducted into a bot-
tle containing soda. er the reaction is over, the liquid is ex-
tracted with ‘ether, the ether distilled to a small bulk, the residue
were in a watch " glass and allowed to evaporate spontaneously

ure vanillin, fusing at 81°, crystallizes out; it is dried over sul-
phuric acid and weighed. After proving the exactness of the
method, the authors used it in analyzing the vanillas of commerce.
They found Mexican vanilla to yield 1°69 per cent, Bourbon va-

Chem aes viii, 15, Sept.,

8. On the Localization of pte in the Tissues. —Soot ab
BOFF has investigated in Gautier’s tileosate ory the distribution of
the metalloid arsenic in the tissues and has found, contrary to the
— belief, that it is specially condensed in the nervous tis-

es. The ere made with dogs, with rabbits, and
with frogs. Dogs bear large doses of arsenic readily, being able
to take without difficulty 15 to 18 times the quantity which
weight for weight would be fatal to man. The arsenic was ad-

tated a for backs aiphie A bull ere took for 34 days per
ally increasing quantities of arsenic from 5 milligrams to 150 mil-
ligrams per day. 100 grams of the muscle contained *00025 arse:

were quite Sead. A dog of il Klograms gk a
pabectaciens injection of sodium arsenite, in 17 Th 4
senic from the brain gave a decided reaction, that yi the cor
was less, while for ~ liver and the muscles, only traces one
detected. The toxical i of these facts is obvious — Bul
Soe. Uh., TH, xxiv, “124, Aug., 1875 é. F. B 4
Cold Bands of Dark’ Spectra. —MM. P. Dzsatss -
Agmoner have examined with a thermopile the spectrum of t :
flame of the lamp of Bourbouze and Wiesnegg; this source = hea’
is more convenient and trustworthy than the Drummond lamp
With a 60° prism and lenses of rock-salt, on passing the Ii ee
through a centimeter of water, four cold bands were distinctly
shown. Their distances from the Paiee ~ end of the sp
were 19/8, 30/6, 42’ and 52' respectively. These measurements ©" ”
not have the same precision as those of the cae lines of the te of
ao ctor ~~ sap show ree ca = — the pile must be placed oe

ectrun

Chemistry and Physics. 475

The pile was placed about 30 cms. from the axis of the p prism,
and the breadth of the admission slit was half a millimeter; its
pealer magnitude as seen from the prism was 5/7, conseqently

ach cold band made its effect sensible tural an angle equal
to its own angular width et eae bag 5-7. The illumination slit
also had a width of half a millime

same as those of the lines given above 04 the absorption of a
centimeter of water. This coincidence seems to prove that the

cold bands in the dark portion of the solar spectrom are ina great
measure due to the water of the pase: osphere

Another series of experiments were made to compare the action
exerted on dark spectra by different phonies formed by disolving
a solid capable of forming cold lines, in liquids nearly inactive in
this respect, The nee: substance emplo was iodine, whic

having the positions given below:

Chloride. Chloroform. Sulphide.

1° 28/ 1° 30’ aren

1 Sat ea 1° 35!

1° 55! 1° 57! tks 1° 56!
These eet show that the action of the iodine is the same in
the three In all the experiments observations were made

on that vane of the spectrum where the iodine solution produced a
line, so that the solvent and the whole refracting system had no
moptes

action in the —— of the phenomenon.— Vom Rendus,
Ixxxi, 432 ; ag., B. 0. P.
10. cel of Flames.—M. F. Wineu has examined the

causes of luminosity and non-luminosity of flames. Kna app 10 found
at the flame of a Bunsen’s burner became now-luminous if nitro-

ape hydrochloric acid, or — dioxide be passed into the air
oles instead of air. Bl lockm 1 fonnd that eck emerR and

hydrogen have the same action, lama the same effect is produ

as Landon has lately show n, by ste am. When, however, any su

mixture i are shel strongly heated pele et under wi by fs combiston,

two horizontal ek hee An iron tube may es he used instead of
the Platinum tube, but, on account of the higher specific heat of
“hese it must be more strongly heated. A rag burner cannot

used, because it colors the flame us flame
it eone as a cone between the inner tae and the outer blu-
This is not caused, as might be supposed, by the gases

476 Scientific Intelligence.

of combustion of the two siaaely i ha 8 a ae pe
and thus keeping the oxygen away, the
nosity is equally well ec when the: cscs o shies ases is

prevented by a large sheet o n having a hole in it, through
which the tube of the burner pase air-tight

rom these observations it may be Sonainded that the non-
luminosity of a gas-flame is not caused by a dilution of the a,

this dilution being in fact increased by heating the mixture.

only cause is a cooling of the interior of the flame. This is further
proved by the fact that it is most difficult to get a non-luminous
flame from a mixture of coal-gas and oxygen, showing that neither
rapid oxidation nor dilution produces the non-luminosity. — Deut.
Chem. Ges. Ber., viii, 226; Jour. Chem. Soc., xiii, 6038.

11. Rotatory Polarization of Quartz —MM. J. L. Sanne ne Ez
Sarazin have repeated the experiments of Broch and Stefan extend-
ing them to the more Hee poe sige of the diner? e light

gpa eg bt ith the fluorescent eye-piece of M. Soret. " For the rays
and a, a bie of cobalt glass was jiitetponsd to cut off the adja-
cent fright light.

@ A
A 760°0 12°68 +0°10
a 718°5 14°33 00
B 686°7 15°75 00
C 656°2 17°35 00
D 588°9 21°79 —"05
E 526°9 27°61 ~ °06
F 486°07 32°85 —°O7
G 430°72 49°63 +06
h 410°] 47°52 —"05
H 396°8 51°22 00
L 381°9 55°88 — 08
M 372°7 59°03 —°06
_— 372°0 59°24 0
N 358°5 64°41 +03

The formula p = A +73 wi in which gis the angle of rotation —

and A the wave-length ee well with observations betwee? tt
and 7, but is inexact if used between more extended limits. —

has eae the po Ga = + e + 2 + pe ae
two terms only, and computing B and ( for the lines @ io
710533, "151227 well with
ie — eee ha — ‘

Chemistry and Physics. 477

observation. In the annexed table, column I. gives the name of
the various lines, column IL their wave-lengths, column III. their
observed angle of rotation, each being the mean of from six to
forty-six observations; the last column gives the difference be-
tween column III. and the value computed by the formula given
610. E. C. P.

12. Researches on the Hexatomie Compounds of Cobalt ; by
Wotcorr Gizss, M.D. 51 pp. 8vo. From the Proceedings of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xi—The earlier

the title is given above; notwithstanding its great value, the
length is so considerable as to make the republication in this

nitude of this ‘blank, Dr. Tyndall indulges in one or two pre-
liminary references which, h s, ‘will suffice to show the state
of the question when this [his] investigation began.’ The first of
these references cites the opinion of Sir John Herschel to the effect

‘ason is clear on one point—to wit, than ‘fog is a powerful damper —
sound,’

a &

the strength of these historical references, Dr

* . .

On , Dr. Tynda
_ ventures the remark that, prior to the investigation conducted by

478 Scientific Intelligence.

him, the views enunciated under this head by Derham, Herschel,
and Robinson ‘were th rtained.’ was in
order to fill ‘the blank’ indicated by the universal prevalence of

been ‘not without influence’ on his pen when he was professing to
give a summ f the existing state of science on this subject

ing by the instruments and methods of that science in the —
conduct of his investigations. The reader will understand pe
‘orce of our remark that Prof, Tyndall was acquainted with the
] way, but also

And the force of our remark that he 3
ing ‘the blank s

a Te ee eh ee

Geology and Natural History. 479

here is nothing in the working hypothesis of Prof. Henry which
excludes any truth there may be in the working hypothesis of

14, A new Treatise on Elements of Mechanies, establishing strict

HN
W. Nysrrom, C.E. 352 pp- 8vo. Philadelphia, 1875. (Porter
& Coates. )—This volume contains a great number of problems in
practical mechanics, with concise and excellent solutions, and
Some useful tables. The author makes some innovations in the
technical language of the science, which are not likely to be con-
Sidered as in all respects improvements, and some of the topics
treated in the volume are rather irrelevant to the subject. A. Ww.

Il. Gooey anp Naturau Hisrory.
_ |: Primordial fossils in pebbles of the Newport (Rhode Island}
.—Prof. Wm. B. Roars, in the Proceedings of th

origin of the flattened form of the siliceous pebbles or stones of

*. Bowlder near Batavia, Genesee County, New York.—The
bowlder “on the road from Caledonia to Batavia,” figure

480 Scientific Intelligence.

“Onondaga Salt group,” has the following dimensions, according
to a recent letter to one of the editors received, along with an
excellent stereoscopic photograph, from Mr. J. G. Far argo of Bata-
via: height 12 feet; width of base 20 feet, of neck 8 feet, of top 14
feet. It is underlaid a about 40 feet of drift, beneath which is
the poate ater
3. O dof distinguiching the different Feldspars by
means of nibble an properties ; (Extract from a letter from M.
DesCtoizeavx, dated Villen-sur-mer, July, 3d, 1875 Fa
This method can be applied to all the feldspars, and gives a Be
easier means of distinguishing them than those de soribed in my
last memoir (this Journal, III, ix

easiest cleavage [ ab and smooth enough to be homogeneous in all
its parts. Similar sections obtained from crystals or lamellar
masses of albite, oligéclane, labradorite, and the majority of those
= damage show hemitropic bands, more or less close together,
anged along the plane parallel to the second cleavage [9*]3
for orthoclase and microcline in i ot crystals, two sections placed
in opposite directions serve to produce the same effect. These
sections are thus brought between ao crossed Nicols of a polari-
zation-microscope.
(1.) For orthoclase the maximum extinction takes place when
the two sections are parallel to their plane of —- the edge

of the same plate of the macle - n e), a ;
eign the two plates of the m (microcline in bands), or 4
9° 27' between the adjoining east s (microcline and ort

lane of com-

show at the same time an extinction oblique to the
A Fa to this

position, pie sx the microcline, and one par
plane for the orthoc ‘

(3.) For eae me ectinsGion between two bands takes place 4
an angle of 6°

(4.) For tsb: the extinction is simultaneous in bee
bands, and when the plane of composition coincides with the plan
of polarization of the polariscope, it shows that the structure 18
homogeneous. ’

65.) For labradorite, the extinction takes place at 10° 2

ge pig? the

axes cuts the base along a line making with the e
following angles

0° in orthoclase and microcline.
ae 27° in mi

° 16’ in albite
° 12’ in labradorite.

388. Dolomite, vol. vii, 1 ; barite, p. 253 ca
| ie 97.

Geology and Natural History. 481
I shall determine the same angle for anorthite when I apg to
aris.

4, she ee Mineralogiche per servire alla Storia dell?
Incendio —— del Mese di Aprile, 1872, memoria di Arcan-
GELO Scaccut. Parte seconda, 69 pp. quarto. Naples, 1874.—
The first nek of Scacchi’s valuable memoir on the eruption of

d

sylvite and "acs sal ammoni ite, chlorocaleite,
cotunnite and pseudocotunnite, er wy ih olisite, ene

magnesite, chloralluminite, aphthitalite, anh cupromag-
nesite, chlorothionite, microsommite, pyroxene, bystlite ae
worite, ee, chrysolite, apatite. of t

species are — n italics; their principal sbaxnotens are ites

changed from black to green. Its composition is spas en As
the formula 2Cn0, CuCl+3HOo.
ryp tohalite; a fees of oe <a entie with sal

"aaa kr ; composition Al? xHO, traaera with
molisite, and chloromaguesite ; ee on exposure to the air.
Chlorothionite , fou crusts of an Se color, an anal-

5 -y i ” p-
salar p- 307; gold, p- 321; pan P: —. perofskite, p.
cite, p. 59; _cracoite,
D.

Memoire sur la Famille des Pomacées ; par J. Decatssx.—
A Getaited analysis of Decaisne’s monograph of the genus
was given in this Journal (8rd ser., iv, 489, Dec., 1872). Some of
Views taken in that work are fully expounded in the present
Paper , which is separately issued from the Archives du Museum,

482 Scientific Intelligence.

x, pp. 115-192, tab. 8-15, imp. 4to. The results of a prolonged
study of an important group, by a botanist of great experience
and ability, is worthy of particular attention. As the veteran an-
thor states it :—

“My principal object is here to call the attention of botanists

to certain characters which have been neglected in systematic

a good method. Indeed, when a special organization is common
toa large number of different plants, it is evident that compara-
tively slight but constant modifications of this structure ought to be
particularly attended to; and this proposition seems to be especially
true of the Pumacew.” M. Decaisne puts foremost his strongest
point when he declares of the Quince, that “the nature of its bark
and wood, its prefoliation, inflorescence, the stivation of the co-
rolla, the structure of the ovary and of the fruit differ essentially
from that of the Pears, among which certain botanists still class it.

Rather than combine the Quince and the Japan Quince with Py-
rus, we are confident that botanists will generally accept his Do-

: d .

caisne has turned to account, that of the deformation of one of

; last Ly

; it is to be observed that M. diversifolia is held

_ to be distinct from M. rivwlaris ; and. that a subgenus, Chioro-

d for M. angustifolia, our narrow-leaved Crab-Ap-
separated from M. coronari (

_ stated of its reddish anthers and the structure of the disk. Pyr

x isthus brought down to the Pear; and this, as Decaisne

formerly announced, to a single collective species, of s1x FeO

forms. We continue to write Pyrus from 0!

d custom, not doubting, however, that Pirus is the cof

sia and Natural History. 483

and — are names “i oo more. Without baling? ase to clear
them up (and no wonder), Decaisne thinks that they may be dis
Radeidhos into at least three groups, characterized by the distinct
or united s styles, and the glabrous or downy ovaries. We are
continually impressed with the idea that there must be three or
four American species, and the seeds may aid in their definition,
But thus far Peraphylium N utt.,
seferred by Bentham and Hooker to Amelanchier, has not
been studied by Decaisne. When he examines the excellent speci-
mens in flower and in fruit, which Mr. Siler has supplied from
Southern Utah, he will conelude that the genus must certainly
= rig The likeness is only in the peculiar structure of
e€ t

As respects the remaining genera, the difference between this
monograph and the disposition in Bentham and Hooker’s Genera
Plantarum is mainly this: Hriobotrya, with its baccate fruit (what
is termed endoc carp reduced to a soft pellicle), large ies seeds
with a cotyledons, and cedslote pow is upheld as a
good gen Heteromeles is adopted fro Roemer for the

idrniar Photinta arbutifolia, and a Se aes not good)
rea #. a is added. The characters appear to be
the 10 instead of 2 0 stamens, in pairs opposite the calyx-lobes,
their filaments dilated at base and somewhat mona delphous,
Tn the tabular gerd Seiad the petals are said to have “ préfiloraison
tordue,” but in the generic character it is “ estivatione imbrica-
tiva vel panicbaes: ” the latter term with the French —

“tordue” or contorted (or, as we say, conyolute), and so we find
them in all the flower- buds now examined. But before caves
the genus it may be well to a the Photinie generally.
Photinia, of which P. serrulata is the type, is characterized as

four others successively overlapping in = “contorted” way ; and
a of Wallich’s specimens of ifolia the first flower-
Se apected showed the “con orted”’s atc complete.

is also the case in P. dubia (in one of Hooker’s and Thompson’s

h hasyia Specimens), and this Decaisne refers to Hriobotrya, pie
4s imbricative sstivation. Next is Pourthia, a new gen

of eleven J apanese and Indian species, the type being Photinia

arguia, v vis, &c., and the character, among others, “ 2s-

tivatione contorta.” "But we as commonly find one petal wholly

tr. So we think it evident that the estivation of the co-

rolla furnishes no characters for the division of she ac eee

Finally, as 5 Roe proper —— once * an a *

oemer, for Crat acantha and an alli
Indo-Chinese species, , and placed om s lomnanles and a character

484 Scientific Intelligence.

not before used is introduced, namely, the position of the cotyle-

dons, which, in this genus are, as regards the rhaphe, accumbent.
There are eight plates, six of them filled with admirable dissee-

apa neatly done upon stone by Riocreux from the author’s
tenes.

.¢
1. Elementary Lessons in Botanical Geography; by af G.
Baxer, F.L.S.—These tirst appeared as articles in the Gardeners’
Chronicle, where they attracted attention as interesting and very
readable sketches of the leading weed high are the geographical
distribution of plants, and the elements of climate which control
this distribution. It appears that dey were written by Mr. Baker,
of the Kew Herbarium, and Lecturer on eee at a: London
Hospital. Now collected , they form a neat 18mo volum
pages, a sort of “science primer,” ablished i ional ——
& Co., London, 1875.

TIL egoctbesls:

sche 30th, 1875. The telescope used has a clear aperture ©
7 millimeters and a gene length of 1125 meters. It was s made
by. Secretan of Pari
“The telescope is eighty for this purpose, to chosen tests
by Mr. Lewis Rutherfurd, then in Paris, and always so rea he to

= ?
ous circumstances interfered with my obtaining an type caer of
the exact moment of the first external contact. I see the

ig until at least twenty degrees of its limb was on the ne 8
dise is occurred at 11" 31™ 40°, Melbourne time, as sent y

_As the observation was made with a saga nal eye-piece, es —

gocu ni
- Mendation of Messrs, André and Wolf, and whatever may have
ore ce cause, nothing i in any way resemblin the “ black et
ule its appearance, either as the first internal contact drew

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 485

or at any other time. The cusps approached each other with a

motion geometrically, and to me surpri singly, precise; without
Ponuess, flickering or vibration. Such portions of the p sgh at
disc as were near or between the cusps, seemed visibly less da
than the main portions more remote; but this gradation of hue
was limited in extent and apparently without influence on the for-
mation of the luminous thread.

Just preceding the union of the cusps the approaching points
seemed to lose for a second or two the regular precision of their

fi e formed did

ongitude 146° 43’ 0” = 9" 46™ 52° KE, of Greenwich, latitude

* 21' 40" 'S.; height above sea level 1800 feet] at 11" 0™ 24°%6
Melbourne mean time ;.subject to any error, against which all
.. precautions were taken, either in the telegraph from Mel-

n the chronometer carried from the telegraph office to
the sines: of observation.

Not many minutes had elapsed after the first ples contact
when a sudden change of weather ensued. <A high w Pre
up and dense clouds, at intervals, quite obscured the sun. At tw
P. M. the planet ceased to be visible and n o phase of the pent

Columbia College Observatory, N. Y., Oct. 16th, 1875.

IV. MisceLLANEOUS ScreNTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.

The Anderson School ; letter to the Editors of the Evening
Post from Prof. ALEXANDER ‘Acassiz.—A letter signed “ E,” lately

0
Sop some of the director and trustees toward Mr. Anderson may

e briefly noticed,
t may or may not have oe se to Mr. Anderson that ony

and of the 8 rson was tally aware. It og always ned
between Pichoite Agassiz and myself e founding of a
Summe oli wise changed this situs —that as his

My special charge, and that toward its support alone whatever I
could contribute personally or command from others would be
applied.

held the Sh eceag as director of the Anderson School, left in
Writing by Professor Agassiz, in abeyance, until early in 1874 the
opportunity occurred to confer wi Mr. Anderson, when I ex-

486 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

plained to him my position with reference to the museum at Cam-
bridge. He, therefore, knew that, should this nomination be ac-
cepted, the duties of the director of the school must remain sub-
ordinate to those of the director of he museum, and that the
interests of the former would not be allowed to interfere with the
prospects of the latter. With this cuipevation and the condition
that Mr. Anderson would contribute the sum of $10,000 towards
the support of Penikese for the next three years, I agreed to serve.
This sum was considered as probably sufficient to carry on the
undertaking until the future of the museum was assured. Of this
$10,000 Mr. Anderson salaanioatiy forwarded $1,329.60 (the check
mentioned by your correspondent to the trustees), notifying them
the same time that for “ reasons satisfactory to his own mind”
. declined to make any further pecuniary sacrifices for the school.
Neither the rig nor the trustees could assume the responsi-
bility thus left to t
With this explanation I may now take up the charges of your
correspondent. He says it was “authoritatively stated” that
$10,000 of the Anderson Fund remained une xpended, and would
suffice for the sessions of 1874 and 1875. No such statement was
made, and no such sum existed. With the sanction of Mr. Ander-
son, the bulk of the “nucleus of an endowment fund” bad been
devoted by Professor Agassiz not only to buildings and equipment,
but also to the running expenses of 1873. It was found, before

not the $10,600 which figures so largely in the letter of “E,” but
about $1,100 available to the tru With this and $1,500
realized from the yacht Sprite, sold nk the consent of Mr. Gal-
ne the school reopened. As far as the interests of education

e concerned the second session was a decided success, thanks
to “the interest taken by the teachers ; but the institution remained
in debt, and Mr. Anderson, to whom an informal account was
sent, contributed, as above stated, $1,329. 60 to pay the “ actual
deficit.” This left the trustees to provide for existing —s

oe sie to signify to Mr. Anderson the eir intention of closing
all times been kept fully informed, partly by letters

‘ana pa ty in conversation, of its 5 eondeidols and prospects, as far as

they were known to the trustees themselve

__ They made eerery ot to save the shoo to put it on a safe
dation, to ranty fund of $3,000
‘was eksiaken, & ya 2 cneber at Professo Y Mieik ’s family, and a
‘igh : 2 potnoneat he oan from the publi would have ena-
they close with deep
ing sue sa b auppor wey. decided to wind up the

Miscellaneous Intelligence. 487

ave any control over the Teachers’ Fund. It was raised with the
tnderstanding, plainly stated in the circulars issued at the time,
that it would be devoted to carrying out the plans of Professor
Agassiz for the museum at Cambridge. That this will be done
with the full appreciation of the relations which existed between
him and those who have borne such affectionate testimony to his
memory, every teacher throughout the country may be sure. But
the use suggested by your correspondent would have been a strange
misappropriation of money contributed for a special purpose
As to the charge which seems directed against the trustees of
the museum, as well those of the Anderson School, that they have
trodden on the memory of their former director, the fact that these
boards include several of Professor Agassiz’s warmest friends, two
of his favorite pupils, his brother-in-law, his son-in-law and his son,
18 a sufficient refutation of this calumny.
inally, no insults have ever been offered to Mr. Anderson by
the trustees, unless their decision not to become indefinitely re-
sponsible for the expenses of the school, and to close an institution
which no one but themselves seemed inclined to support, can be
80 construed.

Cambridge, October 12, 1875.

the Swedish expedition of 1868 to the north pole, by Prof. Selim

Lemstrém of Helsingfors ; Ona dominant language for science, by

me ea de Candolle; On underground ay ny by ©. A.
é 5 -. ar

June, 1872, to June, 1873, by A. De La Rive; On warming and
ventilation, by A. Morin. :
nder the head of Eranoroey, has been collected a series of
valuable observations, comprising an account of ancient graves of
California, by Paul Schumacher; also descriptions of various

488 Miscellaneous Intelligence.

antiquities from Illinois, Ohio, Kentucky, Lake Superior, Missis-
sippi, Tennesse, New York, Indiana, Maryland, North Carolina,
and Florida.

3. Croli on Climate and Time. — Professor Croll’s work on
Climate and Time, noticed on page 222 of this volume, has been
se Gee a Messrs. Appleton & Co. of New Yor

A Course in Descriptive Geometry for the use “of Colleges
— Scientific dekoahe: 3 by Witt1am Watrer, Ph.D. (Boston, L.
Prang & hits —In this work the treatment is concise without

a table of contents of eleven pages, shows how little needless de-

scription is given. Doubtless much of the saving of space is due
the convenient and expressive notation —
The introduction of a series of stereoscopic vi wsof many of the

would have been pantie by the addition of one or two more

a understoo
an Naturalist. —The American cae ‘will ‘be
published the the coming year by Messrs H. O. Houghton & Co.,

ambridge, Mass., and will appear in new typographical d dress.

e Journ
Gia. and while popular in its aim, never popular at the sok
pense of its science. [t is announced that the Naturalist will be
improved rela its new Ve aap by fuller notices of current sci-

ence, and in other wa
6. School o © Geolo n the University of Syracuse. —Under
Professor Winchell a sei se of Geology has been organized in con-
nection with th cuse University. It includes a course 0
Elementary Study or Undergraduate C , and capers
ourses, one Lithological and tne other Paleontological, isa de
on together. There are also to be special studies in different de

partments of Zoology, as in that of Corals, Brachiopods,
bites, &c. The school is intended for special geological student
and also for those who desire a general sep nang meee ae Bs
= bject. The school will open on the 25th of next January. | he
rospectus announces that Prof. Winchell will be are g in 1
Eon by Prof. J. J. Brown in aeons f Prof. F, Smalley Ne :
Rey. 8. R. Calthrop in Geology, Profs. B. G. Wilder and Smalley
in Zoology, Profs. James Hall, R. P. tae field and E. D. wee
in Paleontology. The pos ition of the school in central New
York is ent epenlerty favorable for the geologien! and paleonto-

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS.

[THIRD SERIES]

Art. LIX.—The Solar Atmosphere, an introduction to an account
of researches made at the Allegheny Observatory; by S P.
Laney, Director of the Observatory.*

Ir has long been observed that the sun is not everywhere
equally bright, but that the edge is darker than the center, and
Since a self-luminous sphere should appear of sensibly uniform
brilliancy, so as to present to the eye the appearance of a flat
dise, this diminution of light must be due to some medium

- se biog as at present. Though this value is erroneous, being
deduced from imperfect data by processes which rest on a false
i pothesis, it may yet serve to call attention to the importance

ce.
Am. Jour. So1.—Tamp ane ee X, No. 60*.—Dzc., 1875.

490 S. P. Langley—The Solar Atmosphere.

case founded on an experimental comparison of the light or
heat of the sun observed at the center with that observed near
the edge.

This direct comparison of the two lights involves, of course,
no hypothesis, but is simply a photometric measurement, and
apparently aneasy one. Let usexamine the result of this com-
parison at different hands. Arago,* using the Rochon prism
and analyzer, announced, as the conclusion of a prolonged
research, that the light at the center of the solar disc must be
diminished by ,', part, or 2°4 per cent, to equal that of the edge.
Liais in a memoirt+ which is a model of conscientious care, an-
nounces, from comparisons carried on by the extinction of one
light by a stronger, that the central light should be diminished
by about 10 per cent, to equal that of the edge. His result is
then four times as great as Arago’s. Secchi with a wheel pho-
tometer, finds, for a nearly corresponding point, 78 per cent as
the amount by which the central light should be diminished.
This result is then seven times that of Liais and ¢hirty times
that of Arago. :

Secchi has made observations on radiant heat to be found in
Le Soleil,t the most important results of which are that the heat
diminishes from the center to the edge; that for a given point
there isa satisfactory agreement between the absorption of light
and heat ; and that the equatorial regions are hotter than the
polar. The present writer has made somewhat extended re-
searches in the same direction which are chiefly unpublished.
Vogel has made interesting researches in the relative actinic
absorption.

None of those who have attempted to compute the amount
of the solar absorption appear to Live drawn conclusions from
their results as to its effect on terrestrial temperatures, and yet
if the absorption be anything like what has been found by La
Place, and by Secchi using ie Place’s formule, the subject de-
serves attention.

this planet largely depend upon it. It will further appear
probable that Lang slight sates in the depth and absorptive —
power of this atmosphere, fluctuations in terrestrial tem ne
will ensue, very great in comparison with any actually observed =
_ within historic periods, and it will be shown that this atmos —
phere is not in a strictly stable condition. Though the subject — |

: * Oeuvres ro ye Tome i, p. 235 |

+ Mémoires de Académie de Uherbourg. :

_ Le Soleil, 2me edition, Paris. 1875.

S. P. Langley—The Solar Atmosphere. 491

then is a nearly neglected one, and the methods of investiga-
tion of less apparent interest than those of the spectroscopist,
the results are, if verified, of a peculiar interest, from their
bearing upon the possible changes in the mean temperature
and climatic conditions of our own planet.

The portion of this atmosphere chiefly concerned in absorp-
tion I have been led to believe from several considerations is
extremely thin, and I am inclined to think it is nearly identi-
cal with the “ reversing layer” at the base of the chromosphere
observed by Secchi and Young, though the other chromospheric
strata doubtless, have some share in the obscuration made,
and, in a still less degree, the other solar envelo

e methods used for heat measurements at Allegheny have
been partially described,* and need not be enlarged upon here.
Those for light are believed to be novel in their present appli-
cation, and may be given briefly.

e have seen that a photometric comparison of the center
and edge of the sun is for some reason attended with risk of
error which we should not anticipate, but which must be pce
from the enormous discrepancies existing oe co ob-

i , Liais’ is four
hundred a cent, and Secchi’s three thousand per cent greater.

stance, by the familiar methods of ordinary photometry, need
hot be expected, as common experience shows, to commit er-
rors which are in any way comparable to these.

If such familiar means as the Rumford and Bunsen hoto-

At first sight it a pears that these methods are not applica-
ble to the divect pics preci for the ordinary use of either we
supposes that the relative distances of the lights f c
the Screen can be altered, while we cannot chan the relative
, ces of the lights to be here compared, which are two por-
tions of the sun; and, if we attempt to enfeeble the stronger
lights by shades, or by diffusing it through a lens till it equals
that of ‘the other seen direct, we lose the peculiar advantages
of the methods which assume that the lights are viewed under
the same conditions and measured by the relative distances
. sends zed, im apparatus which to be
- . in June, 1874, an tus which appears to t
ae thee frcan’ these objections, and ‘chich is bere ribed in
, * Comptes Rendus, May 22, 1875.

492 S. P. Langley—The Solar Atmosphere.

___ * The diameter of the aperture is on the above scale about 0°10”.

S. P. Langley—The Solar Atmosphere. 493

from near the edge is juxtaposed with that from the center, the
shadow illuminated by the former is chocolate-red,* while that
from the latter is a peculiar bluish tint, nearly like that given
by the shade-glass called by English opticians ‘London
Smoke.” (I use these comparisons not being able readily to as-
similate these colorsto any of the pure spectrum.) It is worth
while to remark that this observation confirms others obtained

changes in apparent magnitude, would lead us away from the
present subject.

_ So clear an exhibition of color in the actual comparison is a
sign of the delicacy of the Rumford method, but it introduces a
disturbance in our estimation of the intensities of colored

strument ; and in practice corrections for every form of instru-
mental error are applied which are not here mentioned.

The methods above indicated are, with some slight modifi-
cations, evidently adapted to the comparison of the hght of the
Sun-spots, and the light adjacent to the limb, with that of the
center; to studying the rate of diminution of light without the
dise, and to like investigations ; and they are now being so used.

* This color appears to have passed unnoticed by all observers but Secchi, who
Temarks that the edge of the disc is smoky-red.

494 S. P,. Langley—The Solar Atmosphere.

there is within the umbra a sensibly black “ neucleus,” and
from the assumed blackness of this “ neucleus,” several astron-
omers have been led to suppose that the “neuclei” are not
openings into a dark gaseous interior.

The measurement of umbre, and of so-called “ neuclei” here
shows not only that neither are absolutely dark, but that the ab-
solute light of either is enormous, that of the average “ neucleus,”
so-called, being, as I find, at least jive thousand times that of the

n.

La Place, in assuming that the radiation in any direction is
constant, and is proportional to the radiating area (or that the
radiation is infinite at the edge of the disc), concludes that the
total absorption is represented by the integra

1 a
anf. @ 0088 sindd 6

o

where @ is the heliocentric angle between the earth and the
point of the solar surface under examination; and this assump-
tion has been adopted by Father Secchi, who, in his latest
edition of Le Soleil, gives results derived from the use of this
integral. I shall, however, assume, in accordance with what
seem to be the teachings of modern physics, that a globe as
large as the sun whose photosphere, though composed perba

of very light vaporous material, is yet opake at a limited depth,
(as observations on superposition of cloud-strata have shown)
that in such a globe radiation would be proportional to the co-

These expressions, if La Place’s assumptions are otherwise

correct, should give, for any comparison of the heat at a given

point of the dise to that of the center, a certain value of the

absorption which should be constant for any value of 4 In
The discre|

fact I find, however, that this is not the case.

S. P. Langley—The Solar Atmosphere. 495

tained since La Place wrote. These facts, as they seem to me,
demanding a changed formula I expect to point out in a defi-
nite form in a subsequent memoir. It seems fitter then to
defer an exact statement of the limits of the amount by which
solar radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, until it is accom-
panied by demonstration. I willonly here repeat that we may
feel certain that the estimates cited from La Place and Secehi,
and which make the sun’s atmosphere absorb from { to +4 of
the radiation we should receive in its absence, are in excess of
the truth. For the sake of indicating approximately the real
value, I may also state that from my computation of the so-
called “Juminous-heat” rays, not greatly less or more than one-
half the whole are absorbed by, turned back by, or converted
into work in, the sun’s atmosphere. The total thermal absorp-
tion is somewhat less than that of the luminous heat. If, how-
ever, we admit this value provisionally, certain results seem to
follow which deserve mention. :

The mean surface temperature of our globe is separated from
that of absolute zero by about 500° of the Fahrenheit scale. —
The internal heat supplied to the surface may be neglected.
"he temperature of interplanetary space is, according to Fou-
ner — 60°C., according to Pouillet —142, according to Liais — 97.
Liais, in a memoir whence we cite these estimates, admits, as a

not called upon here to adopt, further than to observe that
with this, as with either of the other estimates, the obscure

We shall perhaps be warranted in entertaining it then as a
reasonable assumption, that, in the complete absence of the sun,

e earth’s temperature would fall very nearly to —273 C. We
prefer as the basis of an estimate, confessedly but approximate,
to take the mean of this value and Pouillet’s, and, using the
Fahrenheit scale, we may state that of the 500° F., which on
the natural scale is the approximate mean temperature of our
globe, as much as four-fifths is derived from the sun.

496 S. P. Langley—The Solar Atmosphere.

If it be true then that the sun is surrounded by an atmos-
phere whose principal action in obscuring the heat radiation is
due to a thin stratum which cuts off one-half of the heat
which should reach us, and in whose absence this radiation
should be doubled,—an atmosphere not independent of the in-
terior of its globe in such a degree as our own, but one to and —
from which matter is constantly being added and withdrawn,
it follows that any change in the ratio of supply and with-

rawal, or other cause, which should increase its absorption by
so much as 25 per cent would diminish the mean surface tem-
perature of our globe by 100° F., whilst a like diminution in
the envelope would produce a corresponding change in the op-
posite direction.

I am unable to see that, if the Allegheny observations are
correct, whence I have derived the above given approximate
value of the absorption, any other result would follow, and in
any case the existence of life in its present forms on this planet
seems dependent, within certain limits, on the depth and absorp-
tive power of the solar atmosphere. The reader who may not
have closely observed how far the validity of this result 1s
dependent on, and how far independent of, the hypothesis just
made as to the mean terrestrial temperature, is invited to

pose were the temperatures of the glacial epochs. :
Father Secchi seems to think it probable that the difference

J. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut. 497

Finally, then, it appears that though we are justified, on
grounds established by Helmholtz and Ericsson, in believing
in the constancy of the heat-supply within the solar envelope
for periods to come which are with reference to our terrestrial
past almost infinite, we are not justified by our present investi-
gations in asserting that the solar radiation has been constant
during geologic periods, or is certain, or even likely to remain,
what we now see it during corresponding periods in the future.

If there be great cyclical changes of long period (and in our
present ignorance we can only say that such are not antecedently
improbable) there will be corresponding changes in terrestrial
temperature; and it is allowable to inquire whether we do not
find here matter for consideration in connection with those
great changes of temperature in past epochs which have in
them nothing hypothetical, which geology assures us have in-
deed existed, and for whose possible cause no satisfactory sug-
gestion has hitherto been made.

Art. LX.—On Southern New England during the melting of the
Great Glacier.—Supplement: The Overflows of the flooded Con-
necticut ; by JAMES D. DANA.

Ww e 356 of this volume, I have
Stated that the reindeers must fare been living in the Quinni-

onnecticut. It is evident that such overflows would have had
an important influence on the geology of Southern New Eng-

nd, and I therefore present here the evidence I have been
able to collect with regard to their positions and courses.

I. Tur Connecricur VaLLEY BEFORE THE GtactaL Froop.
It is well known that, in the Triassic period, and probably
also the J urassic, the Connecticut valley, from New Haven to
Northern Massachusetts, was occupied by a brackish-water es-
tuary—its length over 110 miles, its width for the most of the
Way 20 miles or more. Farther north, the ont for a long dis-
tance is narrow, and here the waters were probably those of a true

498 J. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut.

river. The sides and bottom of the estuary were of crystalline
rocks, similar to those outcropping over the bordering regions.
he sand-flats and mud-beds that were made in the great estu-
ary, out of the material contributed from either side by the
rivers of the era, constitute its Red-sandstone formation.
The red sandstone of the area is now 300 feet above the
sea-level near New Haven, and over 1300 in Massachusetts—a
fact showing that, since Jurassic times, New England has been
raised over its center at least a thousand feet more than along
its southern coast. :
ith the exception of the seaward slope thus occasioned,
and the erosion by denuding waters, the area of the Triassic
sand-beds might have remained till now a wide plain, with the
river of the valley flowing through it in a deep channel of its
own making, and emptying into the Sound at New Haven, had
it not been that the deposition of the beds was followed, over
the whole area, by subterranean movements that ended in tilt-
ing them, making numberless long fractures to unknown
depths, and filling the fissures so opened with melted rock.
The sandstone was by this means left intersected by dikes of
trap, along with adjoining hard-baked portions of its own beds
which could stand wear a hundred fold better than other fee
of the formation; and, as erosion went forward, the trap ikes
became the trap ridges of the country, standing, with some 0
the enclosing indurated sandstone, as high barriers between
different parts of the sandstone area.
A prominent line of these trap dikes divides the area, In 4
north-and-south direction, from Mount Tom (1214 feet high)
ear Northampton, Mass., to West Mountain (996 feet high
three miles northwest of Meriden; the valley is thus divided
into an eastern and a western section, the former three times re
widest. This range is called in the following pages, the Moun
om Range, and also Divide Range.* This range 1s continu
south of the Meriden hills in a low ridge of sandstone to Moun
Carmel (736 feet high); then, by another lower ridge of | i ‘
stone to East Rock (360 feet high) nearly abreast of New a
ven city. - : at
For the convenience of the reader of this and other eee
papers on New England geology, by the writer, a map of the

Mount"

w Haven to Northampton was called the a
wright in 1796 (Travels p. 8) ‘Looking ont

, he made oes rae reat the West

Cea
op i , i i Over 50 ¥
to stop its further circulation. it still survives.

h t ‘ournal. and Jj

J. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut. 499

MAP OF THE CONNECTICUT ee AND ne OF THE COAST OF SOUTHERN
EW ENGLAN

aaurd

KE
we
WS MLL !

yo Faye

The Triassic area on this
map is the part between the
dotted lines on the right,
and the line ve ete M, M,
M, on the

eanederss TIoNs.—In Mas-
a tts, WILLT., W illiman-
sett & R.R., Boston and

sates ai In Con-
necticut, west of the Connec-
~~ ki iver, rete Sims bu ury;

W est Rock: N.H.,
New ein. mee Rock.

Glastenbury ; 8.GL., South
Glastenbury ; MANCH., Man-
chester; PD., Portland: HIG.,
Higganum; HAD. Tegner
cu., Chester ; Ess., Essex ;
SK. ‘Saybrook. On the Thames
River, XS, Norwich; TH.,

sc. Smith’s Cove. ait-
Hartford: N.H.&N.R.R., New

Haven and x ah umpton,
Canal: su.1t,.R.R., Shore

500 J. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut.
Connecticut valley and part of Southern New England is here
exed.

These trap barriers naturally determined to a large extent
the drainage-lines of the area. Since the eastern section is
three times the widest, and the freest from dikes of the fire-
made rock (trap), it is not strange that it became the course
of the Connecticut River. But south of Hartford, between
that city and Meriden, a succession of trap ridges rises to the
east of this range, which crowd toward the river; and, conse-
quently, the Connecticut, after passing Hartford, loses its
westing; and then, at Middletown, where the metamorphic
rocks are near in high elevations, turns abruptly out of its old
valley through an opening heading southeast that then offered
no doubt an unobstructed way to the Sound. Thus the southern
part of the valley lost the Connecticut River. This event im
New England history occurred before the Cretaceous peri
After this, geology has no special facts from the valley until the
Glacial period. 3

The western section of the sandstone area, shows that it was
too contracted to become the course of the Connecticut by its
subdivision into many river basins. The Northampton region
is divided from the Westfield, and the Westfield from the Farm-

south and then north (as the map on p. 499 shows), _ ee |

prevent the river’s pushing southward instead of northwa

oe he eee he

end of the Farmington V, the Quinnipiac river becomes th
river of the valle Be after flowing on for ten miles, er
stream bends eastward out of it to the Meriden pcan 37
then goes again southward, taking the way toward New : oak
Bay that the Connecticut would have followed had 1 a
diverted southeastward at Middletown. Finally sed of

the Quinnipiac is deserting the valley, Mill River, the thire ©
the streams, commences within the low Quinnipiac plain; ® 2
this stream holds its place in the valley to New Haven. |
Th here stated should be reviewed on the i :
der ee the remarks beyond, on the drainage 1n the time a
reat flood, may be appreciated ‘ ae
or The Glagial 2 i aaa one of extensive denudation through: :
out the valley, the ice wor along with the sub ial w q sa oe
_ and the waters had unwonted denuding power, i the lan oO

es

J. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut. 501

ampton, we learn that not less than 1200 feet of rock in
depth has been removed from the sandstone formation of that
part of the valley since the Jurassic period, of which a large
part was probably the work of the Glacial era; and, on the
same kind of evidence, that the removal near New Haven has
exceeded 800 feet.

IL Tax Connecricur VatiEy purine THE GiactaL Froop.

Bay was restored in part to its old rights by overflows giving

3 | es are—

First, over the Meriden divide, as has been already ex-
plained.

Second, at Westfield, west of Springfield, whence the waters
descended along the western section of the valley, and finally
joined Quinnipiac and Mill Rivers—New Haven streams.

Third, from the Northampton region, by the valley west of
Mount Tom, over the Weatfeld divide to Westfield, there to
join the Westfield overflow.

As to other westward overflows to the north I do not speak,
as I have made there no special examinations.

The fact and the features of the western section of the val-

502. J. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut.

ley have been long appreciated. So early as 1822 it was
selected as the route for a canal from New Haven to Northamp-
ton, to be named the Farmington canal, which by 1885 was fin-
ished; and in 1847 the route of the unprofitable canal was

than the more eastern; and in his ‘Surface Geology” he de-
scribes that section from Northampton to New Haven as a
branch of his “ second basin” of the Connecticut valley.

of the ‘topogra hical basins into which the Connecticut Mey:
may be divided (p. 11): “The second basin extends from Hol

* The survey for the Canal found the greatest height two miles north of West-
tween Wi and Northampton, and made the height of the top of the
divide above the level at Northampton, 86 feet, and th
the Connecticut Ri 8 feet; and 86+48=—
+ Dr. Percival, in his Repo
fact that the trap ridges of the Triassic area are often made up of two or more

the height of the latter above

trap-ridges are not uncommon. The associated sandstone, while generally hard- a
baked, is imes cracked into small chips as a consequence apparently of

J. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut. 503

at to Mettawampe (Mt. Toby) in Sunderland and Sugarloaf in

e ide ye
Connecticut Valley, forming plate III, of the same volume. A
terrace-plain, numbered 2, is made to spread southward from
Northampton, or rather from Greenfield more than twenty miles

map, however, presents a suggestion of the author’s mind rather
than a fact at the time established: for terrace No. 2 of North-
ampton, the highest mentioned for that place, is according to the
text, only 97 feet above low water in the river instead of 134 feet,
which makes it nearly 40 feet too low to pass over the divide to
Westfield.*

he makes the terraces a result of river erosion. e terraces of
the Connecticut Valley, in the view 1 have presented, are wholly
of fluvial origin, and the highest terraces of the various’ valleys,
whether over the lower or higher parts of the country, are ap-
proximately measures of the flood-level in each.

The proof with regard to these westward overflows is derived
from the terraces of stratified drift over the regions. a

1. Overflow at the Meriden divide-—On this overflow it is
necessary here only to repeat in brief the facts from page 425

* i in his Surface

en eign sasged oa uy So siping lowest as No. 1 ye

are vos. 1, 2, 3, re vely 32, 46 and 92 feet in height, the last
206 feet above the Le as pa er ae Se Ne Yk Orne A
yet this No. 3 has a t color on colored Mihaetat

high led ae
levels over try—which I have been to Bs
mostly terrace-formations at high levels where there were water-courses during
the era of the melting glacier, if not so no

504. J. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut.

of this volume: that the divide 14 to 2 miles north of Meriden,
is on the borders of the Hartford river-region: that the highest
part of the divide is near the Hartford flood-level, about 160 feet
above modern high water in the river; and that over 20 feet of
terrace sands and gravel, that is, stratified drift, underlies the
summit plain. The red sandstone outcrops in some places over
the top and rises into ledges. The overflowing waters eroded the
sandstone surface, and descended to the Quinnipiac, just below
Meriden, to swell the stream and increase the height of its
terrace depositions.

2. Overflow from Westfleld, Mass., over the Southwick divide, into
the Farmington Valley.—The village of Westfield is situated
nine miles west of Springfield, on Westfield River, a large an
rapidly flowing stream tributary to the Connecticut. The river
emerges from its confined valley of metamorphic rocks, about
twelve miles west of the Connecticut River, at “Mt. Tekoa,”
and there enters the open Red-sandstone area in which Westfield
is situated. Five to six miles west of the Connecticut, it passes
through a gap in the Mt. Tom or Divide Range, and enters the
present Connecticut Valley. The Westfield region is hemmed
in on the north by the Westfield divide, between it and North-
ampton, and on the south by the Southwick divide, separating
it from the Farmington Valley—both made of red sandstone,
ae ne over the sandstone, levelled deposits of stratified

The pps terrace of the region extends from the city of
Westfield three miles westward.* The material is sand and

by Mr. LC one gton

New Haven to Northampton, was surveyed for the canal-route by Mr. H. Farnam,
i ineer, and in charge of the work. e secti

map engraved by Messrs. N.

lockage

e Pp.

bove the level of the Ponds, and thence about

t of the Westfield divide, about 10 feet above the level
s i levels I st er
, Gen. T. is, the height of the rail-
ds le Mr.
d, 0

place), 148°84 feet
in

J. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut. 505

gravel, as usual—with the gravel, at the section I examined in
the city, constituting the upper 25 feet, excepting 2 or 8 feet of
sand at top. According to a levelling by Mr. H. F. Dunham
(assistant to Mr. G. A. Ellis, of Springfield,) the height
near its eastern limit is about 289 feet above mean sea-level ;
and from this it gradually rises westward—or up stream—to
286} feet. The 239-foot level is very near that of the highest
flood about Springfield (240-245 feet); it is about 96 feet above
modern flood-level in Westfield River.

The proof that the waters of the flood passed the Southwick
divide into the Farmington Valley is as follows:

1. The upper terrace plain of the divide is not above the height
of the upper terrace plain of the Westfield region.

2. The Southwick Ponds, which lie along the lowest part of
the divide, where it was passed by the Farmington Canal, are
lower than the lower level of the upper Westfield plain.

3. The terrrace plain of the divide may be followed down
the Farmington Valley. ;

On the Ist and 2d of these points I observe that the height
of the Southwick Ponds is about 78 feet above high water in
Westfield River, or 220 feet above mean high tide—which is
nearly 20 feet below the lower part of the upper Westfield
terrace. A terrace bordering the ponds carries the height up
to about 240 feet. The level rises to the northwest over the
Southwick plain; but there, along the railroad track, the
height is hut 260 feet, which is 25 lower than the higher part
of the Westfield terrace. :

We may hence conclude that before the flood exceeded in
height 220 feet, the flow southward had begun; and that
as the waters rose the terrace deposits above that level were
laid down over the divide. Since 240 feet was also the
height of the highest terrace on the Connecticut east of West-

eld, the waters of the overflow may have been in part those
of the Connecticut; but it is probable that they were solely
from Westfield River—waters which the Connecticut was thus
deprived of; for the height of the flood over the middle of the
Westfield basin was at least 275 feet, as shown below, the
waters having been held up to this level (80 feet above their
height at Springfield) in consequence, probably, of the narrow
passage for them pelow Westfield through the Divide Range.

As to the third point, I give the following table of hei, hts of
the upper terrace along the valley south of the divide—t e ter-
race plain in each case, the first excepted, being extensive.

*T im first abrubtly, near the railroad station, and
es tn ak aoa : the deposits are of
_ fine earth, excepting the #0 feet whieh exe pobtiy. the top & vel: clenety
: defined, but appears to be inticated by the pebbly The Simsbury terrace
an elevated plain, directly west of the railroad. There is an extensive plain about
Am. Jour. Ser, Torey Ser a X, No. 60*.—Dec., 1875.

506 JS. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut.

Distance south Height above Height above

of the Divide. flood-leve mean sea-level.
Seve oo 84 miles. 115 feet. 275 feet.
prmisburys. i. y ees _ =
Farmington Station.22 “ ees 254“
Plainville 26 sas > cua”
Southington ___-___- 304 * 16. * ang

The facts show that the flood had a height over the South-
wick divide of at least 270 feet; that this level was kept up
as far south as Tarifville and Simsbury by the inflow of the
flooded Farmington; that south of Simsbury the decline in
height was very gradual; and that even at Plainville, where the
flat valley spreads to a great width, the terrace was made to a
height but little lower than the plain at the divide. At Tarif-
ville, the Farmington is reached and here the waters from
Westfield joined those of that river.

The high level at Tarifville and Simsbury is very remarkable,
considering the open cut through the Divide Range by which
the stream now enters the Connecticut valley, and the fact that
the terrace-plain east of the range is full 50 feet lower than
that west. But the cut is not 100 yards wide; and, besides, 1t
may have been filled with drift from the glacier (as was the
Niagara channel), and the removal of the obstruction have not
begun until the flood had reached its height. — :

eaching Plainville, the waters left the present Farmington
River area, to enter the Quinnipiac; for there was nothing to
. prevent, all being one plain below; and a Farmington valley
terrace 49 feet high continues southward as the terrace of the
Quinnipiac. Thence they went down the Quinnipiac Valley to
ew Haven Bay.

Where the Quinnipiac River, ten miles from its source, below
Southington, commences to bend out of the valley,
waters joined Mill River—no impediment existing there in hills
or ridges; and the upper terrace of the Quinnipiac continuing
on down Mill River.

Thus the flooded Farmington, swollen still farther by waters
from the Westfield overflow, occupied ( Sa
Valley from the Southwick divide to the Sound; and the flooc
discharged into New Haven Bay by two of its streams, Quinn
piae and Mill Rivers.

It is a misfortune to the State of Connecticut that the Farm-
ington River did not take advantage of the opportunity a

orded to dig a channel deep enough to ensure its permane?
flow to New Haven; since, with such a river, the
have made one of the best harbors on the New England coa

Station at about 210 feet above mean sea-level. The terrace corso
is on the east side of the i Vv oy ee rage

J.D, Dana—The overflows of the flooded Connecticut. 507

verflow from the region of Northampton, by the west side of
og Tom, to Westfield, to join the flow down the Farmington Val-
ley.—The obstacle here was the divide north of Westfield.

The upper terrace of the Northampton region is one of the
best defined terrace-plains of the Connecticut valley. It is
only two miles west of Northampton, and is known as the
Florence plain, part of it being the site of a village of that
name. Its height above mean sea-level, according to the sur-
vey for supplying the city with water, as I am informed by
Mr. E. C. Davis, Civil Engineer, is 260 to 285 feet. The terrace
which Prof, Hitchcock gives as the highest in northern North-
ampton occurs also just west of the city, though with the sur-
face rising westward; its height he gives as 97 feet above low
water, and 202 above tide level; and it is therefore 60 feet
below the level of the Florence plain.

The Florence-plain level, 260-265 feet, is evidently a north-
ward continuation of the upper Springfield level, that of 240-
245 feet. There is hence a difference of level of 20 feet in a
distance of 16 miles. But if the land were depressed, with
the depression increasing northward at the rate of a foot a
mile, the pitch would have been slight. How far the narrows
between Holyoke and Tom affected the height of flood-level
above and below, I have not investigated.

From the height of the upper terrace-plain at Northampton,
we know that the flood-height there was not below 265 feet;
and probably it was 10 or 15 feet above this, as Hitchcock men-
tions a terrace of 289 ie near Hadley. What then was the
level of the Westfield divide?

This divide at its pete part, where it was gps by the

armington canal, has a height of but 241 feet above mean
sea- level, which is more than 20 feet below thee ae level at
Northampton. We have good evidence, therefore, that the over-
flow took place, and that the stratified drift of the divide owes
to it its deposition. High terraces exist eng the sides of the
valley between the divide and Northampt

Passing the divide the waters join foe of the flooded
Westfield River; and if so, they became part of the overflow
which descended by the Farmington, at eae and Mill
River yarleys to New Haven and the Soun

Conclusions. —(1.) The Connecticut ne the Glacial flood
was at its ta height had a ‘depth of 150 feet, or more, all the way
from Middletown to Turner’s Falls at Springfield—and to an un-
determined distance beyond; and from Hartford to Turner's
Falls it averaged fifteen ‘miles in width. It was a great stream,

by numerous headlong torrents from either side; and, at

the same time, feeding other streams from its surplus waters,

Its depth and extent was in spite of great losses from overflows
eys.

‘Into other valle

508 J. D. Dana—The overflows of the flooded Conneciicui.

(2.) The violence of the flood in the Connecticut valley was
confined mostly to the time of its maximum height. At Hart-
ford, Springfield, Westfield, and elsewhere, the coarse deposits
have been found to be those of the u per portion of the ter-
races; not of the upper terrace alone, but often also of the
lower, and because the low may be of flood-origin as well as
the highest. (This volume, p. 178.) When the Connecticut
flood at Springfield was about 120 feet above modern flood-
level, or 180 feet above mean sea-level, and at corres-
ponding height northward to Northampton, the waters were
sluggish ; for clay beds, which could be formed only in sluggish
waters, are common through the region up to this level ; ‘and
with the clays, except at points remote from the river, there are
only fine sands—other evidence of the absence of all violence
of movement. For the next 20 feet the beds at Springfield
continue to be of sand. The cause of such an almost lake-like
condition over this region, when the waters were already so
high, can be explained only by assumptions, and for the present
I let them pass unconsidered. Above the 200-foot level at
Springfield, the deposits are generally coarse.

(3.) The facts show that the flood of the New Haven rivers
did not cease when the melting glacier had disappeared from
their valleys, even if so to their very sources. While the glacier

was continuing its retreat . the Massachusetts border, the

to giady Pahl the Quaternary petri of the country, or of
any Glacial land. he reindeer bones in the clay beds of the
Quinnipiac _ volume, p. 853) indicated, by their position
and freedom wear, that reindeers lived in the valley after
the retreat ie the glacier and before the glacial flood had
reached its height; and we may understand from the above
observations how and why this was possible. The conditions

of all the rivers of the ice-covered land when at flood height, -

their depths, widths and overflows, must be worked out and
mapped, before the events of the Fluvial or Champlain period
in the Earth’s ees ean be fully understood or appreciated.

Correction for page 427.—The narrows below Middletown are
650 feet wide at ig Are and 800 at extreme high, according to
Gen Ellis (Re i ae . S. Engineer othe for 1859), who thus explains

_ the height : modern floods above,

Li Ditonto, om t properties the Feldspa 480.—The following

0 melo Ws (ite hens ect eae oe 19° 27’ for 15
sein ton, tine, 7 es 6°17

ee ~The work noticed on page 488 is by Wm. Watson